THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
INDIA
BY
FANNIE ROPER FEUDGE
" The gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold
REVISED AND ENLARGED
WITH ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS
AKRON, OHIO
THE SAALFIELD PUBLISHING COMPANY
NEW YORK !9°3 CHICAGO
COPYRIGHT, 1895,
BY
THE WERNER COMPANY
History of India
GIFT
F+3
/
PREFACE.
The country treated in the volume now in the reader's hand
claims attention from all who speak the English tongue, not
only by reason of its great antiquity and the Oriental magnif-
icence and grandeur that adorns its history, but because it is
the home of those who used the language from which their
own is a descendant. The history of England had long been
intimately connected with that of India before the speech of
the Anglo-Saxon was suspected of having any affiliation with
that of the mysterious land of the Yedas, the home of
Guadama.
Now we recognize the truth that, as has been well said, Cen-
tral Asia was the cradle of the " noble and ever- progressive
Aryan race, the progenitor of Persian and Pelasgian, and Celt
and Teuton, the discoverer of well-nigh everything which is
great and beneficent in the arts of war and peace, the race from
whose bosom came Charlemagne and Alfred, Dante and Shak-
speare, Michael Angelo and Raphael, Newton and Descartes —
the parent in the modern world of the metaphysical subtlety of
Germany, and the vivid intelligence of France, and the imperi-
al energy of England; the parent in the ancient world of the
lofty spiritualism of India 'of the glory that was Greece and
the grandeur that was Rome.' "
The more intimate our acquaintance with the history of this
remarkable land, the more our astonishment at the marvellous
past, as forcibly exhibited in an architecture imposing in its
328
PREFACE.
ruins from which the fretting tooth of time has not even yet
taken the delicate touches which in other days gave them a
ravishing beauty. The literature and language of India have
been brought to the knowledge of the Western world within
our own century, and we know comparatively little of their
scope and relations, but we are sufficiently well informed to be
filled with amazement by that little. The latest of our great
poems is based upon the remarkable story of the self-abne-
gation of one of the religious heroes of India, and its exten-
sive circulation is an indication of the interest that is felt in
the land and its history.
The writer of the present volume was for a number of years
resident in India and had uncommon advantages for becom-
ing acquainted with the people of all ranks, and in the different
regions. Her experience enables her to present a view of the
physical traits of the country, its natural wonders and works
of art, its cities, towns, temples and palaces, its languages,
literature, laws, and religious and social customs, and her study
of authentic histories and books of travel have enabled her to
give a lively epitome of the history of the past and to add to
her own store of information with a freedom from error that
is only possible for one long personally familiar with the
country.
The volume purposely avoids details and statistics, which,
however valuable in themselves, are more appropriate in books
intended rather for the specialist and the student than .for the
use of the general reader at the fireside and in the home. The
many illustrations will make more real the descriptions of the
author, and it is hoped that the volume will prove profitable as
well as entertaining.
A. G.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.
Names — Geography of Hindustan — Situation — Ex-
treme Length —Width — Area — Population — Names
of Races — Great Mountain Ranges — Special Features
— Matheran and Khandalla — ''Dak-bungalows ' ' —
Railway over the Ghauts — Five Great Divisions of
India as separated by Mountains and Rivers— Dis-
tinctive Features of Each — The Desert — Coast Line
-Diversified Appearance of Coast, Bays, Harbors, 17
Rivers, and Islands.
CHAPTER II.
MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.
Highest Peaks of the Himalayas -Oriental Traditions -
Mountains, Table-lauds, Plains, and Valleys -Botan-
ical Garden at Mussoorri - Sikkim Hills -Dharjelin-
and its Sanitarium — Its History and Surroundings —
Mountain Vehicles -Pur Pundjal - Simla and its
Court — Kalka — Simoor Mountains — Mountain Scen-
ery a,nd People, Villages and Products, Climate and
vi CONTENTS.
Minerals — Bhadrinatli — Its Temple and Tank —
Cbirra Punjee — Ajmere and Terraghur — Magliar Pa-
har — Salt Plains — Tintoimi and the Thakours —
Black Mail — Kairwarra — Viudhyas and Ghauts —
Climate and Scenery — Geological Features — Banga-
lore and Mysore — Moimtain Shrines and Temples —
Neilgherry Hills — Smugglers and the Discovery —
Mount Kartery, Kaytee Pass and Kaytee House —
Influence of Mountains on Climate and Health. 65
CHAPTER III.
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
British India — Political Divisions — Area and Population
— Presidency of Bengal — Beginning and Growth of
Anglo-Indian Power — Battle of Plassey — Calcutta —
Its Origin and History — The Black Hole — Opium
Monopoly — Products and Trade of Bengal — Chan-
dernagore — Fort William — Government House —
European and Native Quarters of Calcutta — Presi-
dency of Madras — Its Components — The Carnatic —
Varieties of Climate — Bangalore and Hyder Ali —
The Fort and its History — Seringapatan and Tippoo,
the u Tiger " — Cochin — Arcot — Travaricore and
its Rajahs — Rulers of Vizianagram — History of the
Circars — Cananore — Vellore and its Tragedy — The
City of Madras — Its Origin and History — Fort and
"Black Town" — Mount Road — Government House
and its Belongings — Prince of Wales Liveries —
European Dwellings — Street Sights and Equipages —
Educational Institutions, etc. 115
CHAPTER IV.
PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY.
Presidency of Bombay — Its Constituents — Climate, Soil,
and Productions of several Sections — Regulation of
CONTENTS. vii
Land Tax — First Indian Kailway — Other Railways
— The Telegraph — Schools — The Island of Bombay
— Its Location and History — The "Fort" — Old and
New City — What the Fort contains — Routine of Life
in Indian Cities — Quarters for each Race — The Par-
sees — Their Dwellings and Habits — Colaba — Races
and Residences, Crafts and Wares — Arab Horse-market
— Jain Hospital for Dumb Animals — Kindness to
Brute Creatures — Depredations of Tigers — Cemeter-
ies — Malabar Hill — Its Trees and Shrubs — Govern-
ment House — Walkeshwar — Its Temple and Legend
— Tower of Silence — Bycullah — Mazagon and its
People — Flowers and Serpents — Palace Hospital of
Sir J. Jejeebhoy, — Population — Commercial Crisis
of 1863-65 — Surat — Broach, and its Silver Mosque
— Antiquity of Callian — Ils Ruins and Temple —
Poonah — Situation and History — Famous Temple —
Oriental Ideas of Death — Government House of
Poonah and What was Said of It. 162
CHAPTER Y.
PROVINCES AND PEOPLE.
Chittagong Tenasserirn Provinces — Aracan — Assam —
The Brahmaputra — Cultivation of Tea — Other Prod-
ucts of Assam — Climate — Kishengurh — Its History
and Capital — Cashmere — Its Valley, Climate and
Productions — Cashmere Shawls — History of Cash-
mere — Condition — Afghanistan — Bundelcund — Its
Location — History — Past and Recent — Hurdeo Singh
and his Exploits — The Bourdilas — Noted Events in
History of Bundelcund — Chief Towns — Duttiah —
Its Fortifications — Temples — Palace of Bursing Deo
— Its Size, Security and Design — The College of
Duttiah — Sonnaghur and its Temples — Dholepore —
Its History — Capital — Mosque — Maha Rajah and
H. I.— 2
vlii CONTENTS.
Prince of Wales — Hindu Bridge — Nourabad —Tomb
of Mohammedan — Lady Author of Last Century —
Bridge of Boats. 205
CHAPTER VI.
GWALIOR AND SCINDIA.
Ancient Gwalior — Its Fortress and History — Complica-
tions— Malia Rajah Scindia and the English — Scin-
dia's Character and Martial Proclivities — Sir Dinkur
Rao and the Administration — New Gwalior — Its
Palaces and Monuments — Origin and History of the
Scindias — The Peishwa and his Slipper-bearer — Ad-
ventures of Mahaji Scindia — Daolut's Successes and
Reverses — Territories of Scindia — Gwalioka Lashka,
the new Capital — Its Origin— > Old and New Palaces
— : Temples — " Attar and Pan " — Native Government
— Ceremonies — Prisons. 237
CHAPTER VII.
CLIMATE AND SOIL.
Climate — Monsoons — Seasons — Their Number and Char-
acter— Hot Winds at Jeypore and Madras — Sand
Showers — Precautions against Heat — Three Great
Causes of Famine — Enforced Cultivation of Opium
— Excessive Taxation — Lack of Irrigation — Lands
taken up by English Government and Army — Evic-
tions in Consequence of Heavy Taxes, and consequent
Famine in some Collectorates — Vegetable Products
— Grains — Fruits — Water-nut of Cashmere — Euro-
pean Vegetables — Native Fruits Excellent and Abund-
ant— Casheu-nut — Banian-tree and Fruit — Legend
— Tamarind-tree and Foliage — Famous Kabira Bar
on the Nerbudda — Ancient Poptil of Allahabad —
The Mohwah and Its Numerous Flowers. 202
CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER VEIL
CASTE SYSTEM.
Caste — Its Nature — Divisions — Grades — Require-
ments— Rules in regard to Marriage and Vocation —
Effects of the System — Brahmins — their offspring —
Investiture of a Son — the Sacred Cord — Breaking
Caste — Its Penalties — Involuntary Defilement — A
Hundred Thousand Dollars for Restitution of Caste
— Tippoo's tyranny and its results — Advantages of
Caste to the Traveller — Preponderance of Different
Castes — Purvus — Khayets — Buniahs — Parsees— Case
in regard to Sick and Dying — Incidents. 28?
CHAPTER IX.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.
Introduction of Christianity —St. Thomas of India — A
Christian king — Ecclesiastical war — Portuguese ef-
forts — A new Yeda — Romanism — Protestant mis-
sions— Danish missionaries — The immortal Schwartz
— English missions — American missions — Judson
and others — The American Board — Dates of estab-
lishment of various missions — Extent of missionary
work — Great progress. 300
CHAPTER X.
EARLIEST HISTORY.
Antiquity of the Hindus — Evidence of their Existence in
the Old Patriarchal Days — Researches of Prinsep and
others — Early Native Records and Poems — Decipher-
ing of Ancient Inscriptions — Rama, king of Oude, and
his Invasion of Ceylon — Who were the " Monkeys "
and "Demons" — Wars — Hastinapura a Dynasty —
Subsequent kings of Pandu Dynasty — Kingdom of
x CONTENTS.
Magada — Birth and History of Gaudama, fourth —
Buddh — Ancient Language of Magada — Chandra-
gumpta, the Soudra, and what he accomplished. 321
CHAPTER XL
DECLINE OF THE ARAB POWER.
Reign of Dhannasoka, the First Emperor of India — His
Wise and Virtuous Policy — Propagation of Buddh-
ism— Extent of his Dominion — Internal Improve-
ments— Decline of Magada — And Subjection to Can-
ouj — Ancient Domain of Canouj — Early History of
Scindie — Guzerat and the Rajputs — Malwar and king
Vicramaditya — The Deccan — Orissa — Successive
Conquerors and Marauders of India — The Mahrattas
— Alexander's Conquests — Wonderful Civilization of
India Compared with that of other Countries, in the
days before the Moslem Conquests — Arab Invasion
— Success of Casim — Sacking of Moulton — Capture
of Dewal — Rout of Rajputs — A Woman's Bravery —
Casim' s Death — Decline of Arab Power in India. 386
CHAPTER XII.
THE SUPREMACY OF MAHMOUD.
The death of Haroun-al-Raschid and its Results — The
Samanis and their Protege — Promotion of Alptegin,
and Subsequent Career — His Successor —Character
of Sibektegin — Incident indicative of Humanity —
Furious encounters with Rajahs of Lahore, Delhi and
others — Sibektegin always victorious — Extension of
Afghan Dominion — Sultan's Death — Accession of his
Son — Mahmoud's Victories — Triumphal Feast —
Annexation of Punjaub and Lahore — Foundation of
Ghaznivide Dynasty — Conquest of Persia — Death —
Character — Incidents. 349
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER XIII.
KHILIJI, THE SANGUINARY.
Short and troublous reigns of Mahmoud's Sons and
Grandsons — Revolt of Lahore — Accession of Farokh-
sad — Incursions of Seljuks — Wise and prosperous
reign of Ibrahim — Expedition to the Sutlej — Capture
of Cities — Prosperous Reign of Massand II. — Violent
death of his Son — Long Reign of Behrain and its con-
trasting Acts — Flight and Death — Accession of his
Sons and Character of their respective Reigns — Divi-
sion of Empire — Ghorian Dynasty — Glorious reign of
Gheias-u-diii — Sahib, his General and Successor —
Large Accessions of Territory — Mahmoud Ghori and
his Reign — India an Independent Kingdom — ''The
Slave Kings " — Kutb-u-din — His Origin and History
— Altamsh and His Successors — House of Khiliji,
and its Extinction. 361
CHAPTER XIV.
%
THE TOGHLAK DYNASTY.
Gheias-u-din — Military Governor of Punjaub — The first
King of the Toghlak Dynasty — Events of his Reign,
and violent Death A. D. 1325 — Accession of his Son,
Mohammed — Early Successors — Subsequent Tyranny
— Insurrections and Loss of Territory — Sudden Death
A. D. 1351 — Accession of Firuz — His Character and
Long Reign — Later Events in the Life of Firuz —
Short Reigns of his Successors — Accession of Mah-
moud — Early Events of his Reign — Revolt of States
— Invasion of Tamerlane — Enormities Committed by
Tartars — Devastation of Punjaub — Reduction of
Delhi — Tamerlane, Emperor of India — Atrocities at
Delhi — Departure of the Conqueror — His Policy and
Acts — Restoration of Mahmoud — Last of the Togh-
xii CONTENTS.
laks — Khizir Khan and His Successors — Three Kings
of the Lodi Dynasty — The Last of the Afghan Kings
— Invasion Invited — Conquest of the Capital by the
Tartan Baber. 373
CHAPTER XV.
EUROPEAN TRADE.
Trade of the Ancients with India — Benefits of Alexan-
der's Expedition — Former Routes and Nations en-
gaged in Indian trade — Romans and Saracens as Pio-
neers— Discoverers of the fifteenth century — First
Portuguese Expedition — Opposition of Moors — Prompt
Action of De Cabul — Results in Portuguese favor —
Second Portuguese Expedition — Vasco de Gama and
Albuquerque — Papal "Bull," Its Reception — Concilia-
tory Policy and Subsequent Death of Albuquerque —
Contrasting Administrations of De Souza and De
Castro, and their Results — Death of De Castro — Fran-
cis Xavier — His Character and Influence — The Inqui-
sition— Its, Doings and Results — Advent of Dutch
Power in India — Of the English — Formation of East
India Company, A. D. 1600. 386
CHAPTER XVI.
INDIAN RACES.
Races of India — Rajputs a Paramount Power— Their
Origin and History — Oudeypore and its People — The
Late and Present Maharanas — Their Wonderful Ped-
igree, — How a Maiden of the Souriavanses may be
Won — Dress of the Maharana — His Jewels — State
and Revenue — Honors and Perquisites — Past and
Present Travel in Central India — Testimony of Bishop
Heber in 1820 — Appearance and Dress of Rajputs —
Ladies of Rajputana — Bards — Pertal Singh and the
Moguls, in 1565 — Sixteen Omras — Heraldry among
CONTENTS. xiii
Rajputs — Maharajah Jeypore — Origin and History —
Dholac Rae and the Mynas — How the Kaschwas
lost Caste — History of the Mynas — Bheels — Their
Origin and History — Appearance and Attire — Reli-
gious Belief— Customs — A Legend — The Bheels 400
and Mutiny of 1858.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE MOGUL EMPIRE— FROM BABER TO AKBAR.
Accession of Baber, the first Tartan\Emperor — Insubordina-
tion of Rajahs — Baber' s Early Experiences and History
-Victory at Paniput, and Subsequent Successes —
Internal Improvements — Short Reign — His Death,
Character and Successor — Prosperous Condition of
the country on the Accession of Humayun — His Noble
traits — Treachery of his Family and Nobles — Escape
to Persia— Long Exile and Return to Delhi — His Sub-
sequent Death — Akbar, the " boy-king " — Long and
Prosperous Reign — The Minister Behram Khan — Sub-
jection of Rebellious Provinces — Chittore — Its History
Heroism — "Sacrifice of Johar" thrice repeated — "The
Holy City" deserted — Ondeypore founded by the
Rajah of Chittore — Cashmere reduced. 431
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE MOGUL EMPIRE — FROM AKBAR TO SHAH
JEHAN.
Expedition into the Deccan — Ahmednegar — Its History
and Fortress — Rebellion of Akbar's Son — Submission
and Restoration to favor — Akbar's Death — His Acts
Character, Abilities — Accession of Jehanghir — Revolt
of his son Khosru — Its Results — Lahore, the Old and
the New — Palace of Sehanghir — Nour Mahal —
Prince Koroun's attempt on Agra — His Junction
with Mohabet — Death of Jehaughir — Immense
xiv CONTENTS.
Wealth — Proclamation of Shall Jehan — Agra — Its
History and Wonderful Monuments — The Taj —
Palace and Throne of Akbar — A Legend — Gates of
Sornnath — Mausoleum of the Princess Jehanara —
Mumtaj Mahal — Building of the Taj — Its History
— What People say of it — The Elinaddowlah -
Promise of Agra. 451
CHAPTER XIX.
THE MOGUL EMPIRE. — AURUNGZEBE.
Splendor of Shah Jehan's Reign — Immense Wealth and
Lavish Expenditures — Peacock Throne — Wise Gov-
ernment — Military Exploits of his Reign — Troubles
with Mahrattas — Quarrels about the Succession —
Aurungzebe gains the day — Disposal of his opponents
— Shah Jehan deposed — Seven years in confinement
and Subsequent Death in 1665 — Ultimate Fate of the
rivals of Aurungzebe — Names of Emperor, Character
and abilities — Exploits in the Deccan — Towns of
Aurungabad and Hyderbad — Fortress of Daoulatabad
— Prominent Events in History of Ahmedabad —
Troubles with the- Mahrattas — Failure of Afghan
Campaign — Disaffection of His Subjects — Death of
the Emperor, 1707. 473
CHAPTER XX.
THE MAHRATTAS.
The Mahratta Power — Its Rise, History, and Wide-spread
Influence — Sevaji and his Successors — Intervening
History of European Nations in India — Growth of
English Indian Power — Its Obstacles aud Successes
through several Reigns — Union of Old and New East
India Companies — Increased Privileges granted by
New Charter — Inefficient Officers and Threatened
Dangers to the Colonies — Renewed Depredations of
CONTENTS. xv
the Mahrattas — Their Ultimate Fate — Sous and Suc-
cessors of Aurungzebe — Several brief Keigns usher-
ing in the Accession of Mohammed Shah in 1719. 491
CHAPTER XXI.
THE MOGUL DYNASTY — FROM MOHAMMED SHAH
TO THE END OF THE DYNASTY.
Inauspicious beginning of Mohammed Shah's Reign —
Troubles with his Vizier — Hosen All — Fate of the
Brothers — Asof Jah and his Acts — Invasion of India
by Nadir Shah — Plunder and Massacre at Delhi —
Spoils — Rise of Rohillas — Invasion of India by
Afghans — Death of Emperor — Accession of his Son,
Ahmed Shah — Fresh Invasions of Rohillas and
Afghans — Dissensions — Deposition of Emperor —
Violence to his Person — Alam-ghir II. on the Throne
— Treachery of Ghazni-u-din — Return of the Afghans
— Massacre and Plunder — Death of the Emperor —
Fate of Shah Alum — His Son — End of Tartar Dy-
nasty— Growth of English Power — Jealousy of Dutch
and French— Suraj-al-Daoulah and the "Black Hole,"
— Fleet from Batavia — Landing of Troops — Decline
of French and Dutch Power in India. 507
CHAPTER XXIL
THE ENGLISH POWER — LORDS CLIVE AND
HASTINGS.
Mr. Vansittart s Administration — Deposition of Mir Jaf-
fier and Appointment of Cassim Ali Khan — Disaffec-
tion toward Mr. Vansittart — Cassim' s Treachery —
Various Military Exploits — Fall of Mongheer and
Patna — Mutinous Indications among Native Troops
Restoration and Death of Mir Jaffier — Complaints
and Request of Stock-holders of the East India Com-
pany — Appointment of Lord Clive — His Absolute
xvi CONTENTS.
Authority — Correction of Abuses — " Batta," and
what came of it — Capture of Pondicherry and Nizam —
Ali's Opposition —Hyder AH— Subahdar of Oudh
and the Rokillas — New Constitution for Indian Prov-
inces— Impeachment of Warren Hastings — Rajah of
Nuncomar and his Sad Fate — Caprice of the Governor
— Reverses and Successes — Duel between Hastings and
Francis — Hyder — The Peishwa and the English —
French Settlement Captured — Hyder Ali defeated. 528
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE ENGLISH POWER — TIPPOO SAHIB AND HIS
TIMES.
Sir Eyre Coote as Governor of Madras — Wars of Hyder
Ali and Tippoo — Taking of Dutch Settlements — Gen.
Matthews and his Officers — Treaty, March, 1784 —
Supreme Court of Calcutta — Power Tested therein —
Provincial Councils — Civil Service — Consolidation of
British Power — Complicity of Gov. Hastings witli
Nabob of Oudh — General Prosperity of Colonies —
Passage of Acts by Home Government — Appointment
of Lord Cornwallis — Treachery of Tippoo — Civil and
Military Complications — Rajah of Benares — Nabob
of Oudh — Governor's Share of Plunder — Pitt's " India
Bill" — Renewal of Hostilities — Varying Results of
several Campaigns — Treaty of 1792 — Charter of East
India Company renewed — Affairs in Oudh — Tippoo
and the French — Taking of Seringapatam — Death of
Tippoo — His Family — Mysore dismembered — Charac-
ter and Peculiarities of Tippoo — Invasion of Afghan
King — Complications among Mahratta Princes, and
Continuation of Hostilities — Battle of Assaye, of Las-
warre, and others — Lord Wellesley's Policy — Napo-
leon's Influence and Aims in regard to India — Cap-
ture of French Islands — Java — The Ghoorkas — Sue-
CONTENTS. xvii.
PAGE
cesses — Close of Mahratta War — Last of the Peish-
was — Resignation of Gov. Hastings. 540
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE ENGLISH POWER — BURMESE AND PUNJAUB
WARS AND THE CONQUEST OF SCINDE.
Advent of Earl of Amherst as Governor-General — First
Burmese War — Its Causes and Results — Second Bur-
mese War — Causes — Duration and Results — Two
Noted Events of Mr. Adams' Administration — Adjust-
ment of Dutch and English Affairs — Singapore —
Queen of .the Indian Seas — Peaceful Administration
of Lord William Bentinck — Important Reforms — Edu-
cation and Religions Liberty — Initiatory Steps toward
Opening Communication between India and the Cas-
pian Sea, and Ultimate "Overland" Steam-route from
England to India — Important Changes in Charter —
Resignation of Governor — His Successor — Lord Auck-
land's Administration a Failure — The Afghan Cam-
paign and its Terrible Disasters — Recall of Lord Auck-
land — Administration of Lord Ellenborough — Annex-
ation of the Punjaub — Changes in Charter — Lord
Dalhousie's Retirement — Prosperity. 572
CHAPTER XXV.
THE SEAPOY REBELLION — INDIA OF THE PRESENT.
The Seapoy Service — Great Rebellion — Visit of Prince of
Wales — The Afghan War — India of the Present, under
the Successive Administrations of the following Vice-
roys: Lord Lytton, the Marquis of Ripon, the Marquis
of Dufferin, the Marquis of Lansdowne, and the Earl of
Elgin. 594
Explanation of Indian Terms ... 648
General Index ...... 653
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
MAP. PAGE
The Maharao Kajah of Ulwur ... 23
Sontal Village, Rajmahal .... 29
The Dakghari. Post Chaise ..... 37
Mountaineers in action ..... 43
Eailway travelling in India ..... 51
An Indigo Factory, Allahabad .... 57
Peasants of the Doab . . . . . 61
Hindus of Western Deccan .... 67
Inhabitants of the Island of Salsette, near Bombay . 73
A child committed to the river Junria by its mother . 79
Crossing an Indian River .... 87
Mohammedan School, Allahabad ... 91
Entrance of Caves, Elephanta .... 95
Interior of Great Cave, Elephanta ... 99
The Lion's Cave on the Island of Elephanta . . 102
Caves of Kenhari .... 105
Mosque on the Hooghly, near Calcutta . . 109
Travelling Wagons . 113
The Mail-cart ..... 121
The Chopaya, an Indian Carriage . . 131
Simla, Western Himalayas . .135
The Palace of the Seths, Ajmere . . .147
xviii.
List of Illustrations. xix.
PAGE
Cocoanut Trees ..... 155
Boating on the Ganges .... 163
A European House, Calcutta . . . 167
Esplanade, Calcutta ... 169
Palaquin 173
Bhistis or Water Carrier . . . .177
Hindoo Jewellers ..... 181
A Court of Justice in a Jungle . . . 185
Jugglers . , . . . . • 189
Native of Madras ..... 199
Young Hindoo Woman . . . 201
Serpent Charmers ...... 203
Carriage of Hindoo Lady .... 211
Hindoo Women of Bombay in Ceremonial Dress . 221
The Festival of the Serpents, Bombay . . .225
The Cotton Market: Merchants at Bombay . 227
Persians in Bombay ... 231
A Parsee Merchant at Bombay . . . 239
A Hindoo Temple in the Black Town, Bombay . 245
Religious Meeting of Jams, Bombay . . 251
Parsee Lady and Her Daughter ... 257
Travellers received on the Frontier of the State of
Punnah 263
Dancing Girls at Bombay ... 269
Hill Fortress of Pawangurh .... 277
Thugs, in the Prison of Aurungabad . . . 283
Meeting of Travellers with the Maharajah of Ch utter-
pore ...... 289
Facade of the Palace of Birsing-Deo . . 295
Palace of Birsing-Deo and the Lake, Duttiah . . 303
xx. List of Illustrations.
PACK
The Holy Hill of Sounaghur, seen from the village . 307
The Mohorum (New Year Festival) at Bhopai . 311
Cathacks, (Male Dancers) at Bhopai . . .317
A Rhinoceros Fight ..... 323
Colossi of Curwhai, Gwalior .... 327
Side View of the Pal Palace at Gwalior . . 331
Mausoleum of the Scindias, at Lashkar . 337
The Gopal Bhowan in the Palace of Digh . . 343
Pavilion of Devvani Khas (Great Audience Hall) at
Digh. 351
The Imperial Durbar — Dress Reception. . . 353
Temple of Juggernath . 357
Gentlemen of Behar 363
Great Chaitya or Tope of Sanchi . . . 375
Full Dress Reception of the Maharana of Oudeypore 383
Brahmins of Bengal ..... 391
Car of Juggernath . 401
Feast of Ganesa, Benares .... 407
Chandni Chowk — The Shopping Street, Delhi . 415
Ruins near Delhi ...... 421
Rajpoots, Warrior Caste ..... 433
The Bazaar of Khoja Syud, Ajmere ... 437
The Temple of Mahadeva, Kajraha . . . 453
Sambhoo Sing, the Maharana of Meywai . . 455
Durbar of the Maharah of Rewah, at Govindgurh . 465
The Start for the Hunt in India .... 475
Temples of the King, at Ulwur .... 481
The Royal Standard Bearer, in the Procession of the
Guicowar, at Baroda . . . 493
The Valley of Ambir 503
List of Illustrations, xxi.
PAGB
Principal Gate of the Palace of the Emperors, Delhi . 513
Zemindars and Jat Peasants .... 525
The Golden Kiosk, in the Valley of Anabir . . 533
The Tower of Koutub, Plain of Delhi . . . 541
The Princess Shah-Jehan .... 545
The Taj Mausoleum .... 551
Gardens of the Taj ..... 559
Mausoleum of Sheik Shisti, at Futtehpore-Sikri . 563
Soldiers of the Nizam of Hyderabad . . . 575
Royal Necropolis, Golconda . 579
Monument in the Royal Necropolis at Golconda . 585
Ruins of the Harem of the Emperor Ahmed, Sirkhej . 591
The King's Elephant, in the Great Procession at Baroda 595
Mosque of Aurungzebe, Benares . . . 599
Religious Beggar, Benares . 607
General View of Bhurtepore .... 613
The Broad Stair-case of Funerals on the Ganges, (Cawn-
pore) ..... 619
Imambara, Lucknow ..... 623
An Elephant Fight ..... 629
INDIA,
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.
INDIA, Hindustan, and British India, are names
often indiscriminately applied as belonging
to the same region. Properly, the first and
second include the third; India and Hindustan
being applied to the entire Peninsula, comprising
within its bounds, British India, or all that portion
under British control, and in addition, many
native Principalities, some of which are entirely
independent, and others partially tributary to the
British Provincial Government.
India lies between Thibet and Little Thibet on
II. I.— 2
18 Greographical Divisions.
the north, the Anglo-Burmese Provinces of Assam
and Aracan and the Bay of Bengal on the east,
the Indian Ocean on the south, and the sea of
Arabia, Leeloochistau UIA! Affghanistan 011 the
west. ' It extends over the immense region lying
between Cape Comorin in 8° of north latitude and
the Himalayan mountains in 35° of north latitude,
and from the Delta of the Brahmaputra on the
east, to that of the Indus on the west.
Its extreme' length is about eighteen hundred
miles, and its greatest breadth, along the parallel
of 25°, is a little more than fifteen hundred miles ;
comprising a total area of not less than fifteen
hundred thousand square miles.
The population of India is reckoned at one hun-
dred and forty-one millions, of whom, about
one million are Portuguese and their descendants ;
one hundred thousand are Anglo-Saxons ; and the
remainder are Monguls, Tartars, Moors, Arabs,
Parsees, Burmese, Aracanese, Assamese, Peguans,
Chinese, Jews and Gypsies ; besides the various
Indian races, viz. : Hindus, Bengalees, Rajputs,
Mahrattas, Seikhs, Ameers, Bheels, Afghans, Gen-
toos, Goorkas, Klings, Bhootians, Lopchas, Todars,
Gounds, Khounds, Badagas, and Erulars.
Mountain Ranges. 19
This great Peninsula is intersected by ranges of
lofty mountains, among which are the Himalayas
in the northern section ; the Vindhyas, Dounghers,
Aravalis, Kairmoor, and Rajmahal, in the central ;
and the several ranges of Ghauts in the southern
portion ; thus diversifying the whole country with
alternating mountains and valleys, extensive table-
lands, deltas, and fertile plains, that include within
their several bounds a very great diversity of
climate, soil and productions.
The great Himalayas, that form the northern
boundary of India, begin in Turkey, under the
name of the Taurus Mountains, continue their
course as the Elborze Mountains of Persia, and
the Hindoo Koorsh of Turkistan ; then, as the
Himalayas, after separating Thibet from India,
they pass entirely across Southern China, in about
25° north latitude, where they are known as the
Nan-ling range : thus traversing the entire conti-
nent of Asia, from the Black Sea to the borders of
the Pacific Ocean, a distance of more than six
thousand miles in a direct line, or about seven
thousand five hundred in their varying course.
Of the various mountain-ranges of India, the
Himalayas are the highest ; the Vindhyas have the
20 Geographical Divisions.
most marked results as a dividing range, between
different sections ; the Aravalis are richest in min-
erals, and have broader valleys more generally
furrowed by water-courses ; the Dounghers have
some of the wildest scenery, with narrow gorges
overhung with nearly black rocks, abrupt preci-
pices, huge blocks of white quartz gleaming in
the sunlight, and here and there, hidden in the
midst of these mountain heights, an oasis of won-
drous beauty ; the Kairrnoors, that cross Bogel-
cund between the Ganges and Nerbudda rivers,
divide the land into two slopes, and unite two
mountain ranges, i. e., the Vindhyas and the group
of Rajmahal ; while the Ghauts have a formation
altogether peculiar to themselves, and are, in many
respects, different from any other chain in Asia.
Being the edges of the great table-land of the
Deccan, each range of the Ghauts consists of only
one rugged side which faces the water, forming
all along the sea an unbroken wall. There are
here and there defiles, with steps descending to
the sea-shore ; many of the hills are covered with
dense jungle ; others have been partially cleared,
and are adorned with lovely, picturesque little
villas, and bungalows half hidden in shrubs and
" Dak-Bungalows" 21
flowers; while several prominent peaks are points
of great interest to the tourist. On one of the
Western Ghauts stands a Hindu temple, its slender
spire girt about with vapory clouds ; another,
Mount Bao Mallim, has its highest peak surmounted
by an ancient fortress that is entered from the out-
side by a flight of some three hundred steps cut out
of the solid rock; and at the foot of a third, is prettily
laid out the little village of Kampouli, which leads
to the defile of the Bhore Ghaut, whence an Eng-
lish railway goes direct to the celebrated Sanita-
rium of Matheran.
Upon the mountain, half a mile from the Sani-
tarium, is the u Dak-bungalow " of Khandalla.
These "Daks" are quite an institution in British
India, a god-send to the foreign tourist he soon
learns to appreciate, and an absolute necessity in
a country like this wholly destitute of hotels at all
suited to the accommodation of Europeans. The
" Daks " are bungalows (that is, one-story dwelling
houses shaded by long, covered verandas) con-
structed by the British Government, at regular
intervals, on the chief military roads throughout
the Peninsula ; and in these wayside dwellings any
traveller has a right to twenty-four hours' lodging,
22 G-eograpJiical Divisions.
with the use of furniture and servants, for the
small sum of one Rupee (forty-five cents). He
may continue for a longer period at the same rate,
provided his room is not needed for a new-comer ;
but after having occupied it for a day and night,
he must, perforce, yield his place to the first trav-
eller who arrives, if there is no other vacant room.
Provisions, including fresh fruits and excellent
tea or coffee, may usually be obtained at moderate
rates through the fc4 Dak " servants ; and on a
long journey, in that hot and unhealthy climate,
it is often a very great benefit to the weary trav-
eller to stop for a day and night where he may
obtain a good bed and several comfortable meals
before proceeding on his way.
The bungalow of the Khandalla is built on the
extreme edge of the table-land overlooking a deep
ravine, while on one side rises a mountain, and on
the other a magnificent cascade falls three hundred
feet into the valley below.
Excellent roads running all around the table-
land of Matheran extend along by the very edge
of the precipice, exhibiting a panorama rarely
beautiful and varied. It is only within a few
years past — little more than a single decade —
THE MAHARAO RAJAH OF ULWUR.
The Peninsular Railway. 25
that Matheran has been known to Europeans ;
and its reputation is already wide-spread, as having
saved many valuable lives afflicted with diseases
hitherto regarded as incurable in a tropical climate.
This is, indeed, one of the peculiarities of the
Ghauts table-lands, the wonderful efficacy of their
pure air and invigorating climate in the cure of
nearly all the ailments indigenous to the Indian
low-lands.
The works executed on the great " Indian Pe-
ninsular Railway," to make the passage across the
Ghauts Mountains, are among the most famous of
our day. The rugged, almost impassable moun-
tains, beset with thick jungles and deep ravines,
rendered every step of the vast enterprise full of
difficulty and danger, that only Anglo-Saxon
energy and perseverance could have success-
fully encountered. The total height surmounted
is eighteen hundred and thirty feet, on a line
of fifteen miles, with a mean inclination of one
in forty-eight. Eight viaducts were construct-
ed, of from thirty to fifty arches, and from fifty to
one hundred and forty feet high. Twenty-two
tunnels were cut, of a total length of nearly two
miles, and embankments were made, containing
26 Geographical Divisions.
upwards of six millions of cubic feet. The work
was completed in seven years, at a cost of £800,-
000, or about four millions of dollars. The entire
route of the road passes through regions of won-
drous beauty and grandeur ; alternately penetrating
gorges, traversing mountains, and skirting fright-
ful ravines dark and deep enough to turn the brain
giddy with a single glance into their fathomless
depths. This road at first only united Bombay
with the Deccari, but was afterwards lengthened
to Calcutta ; and British India is rapidly becoming
one vast system of railways, extending over all the
principal military routes, and connecting the larger
cities and chief places of resort. One of the latest
is "The Dhoud and Vingorla State Railway,"
through the rich Southern Marathi country, via
Belgaum, Kolapoor, and Satara.
Hindustan is divided into five great sections,
their lines marked by mountain ranges and rivers.
These divisions are as follows : First, the Delta
of the Indus, consisting of the north and north-
west portions of India. Second, the Delta of the
Ganges, or Eastern Hindustan. Third, Central
India, or all the region north of the Vindhya Moun-
tains between the Deltas of the Indus and Ganges.
Kyber Pass. 27
Fourth, the Deccan, embracing the section south of
the Vindhyas, to the river Kishna. Fifth, Southern
India, or the region south of the Kishna to Cape
Comorin.
The first division lies mainly to the east of the
river Indus, beginning in the vicinity of Attock,
and extending southward and westward to the
region where the Indus discharges its waters into
the Arabian sea. This section comprehends a vast
territory, including the Punjaub, Scinde, and sev-
eral smaller states, with the addition, by the recent
treaty, of several portions of Afghan territory,
among them the famous Kyber Pass, now a British
outpost, with the Khurum and Khost valleys as
British granaries. The Punjaub, or " country of
the five rivers," forms the southern portion of the
plain of the Indus, and extends from the base of
the Himalayas to the confluence of the Chenaub
with the Indus. " The five rivers " giving name to
this region, are the Sutlej, Beas, Ravee, Chenaub,
and Jhalum, known to the ancients under the names
of Zaradus, Hyphasis, Hydrastes Acesines, and Hy-
daspes. They all have their source in the Hima-
layas, all observe a nearly direct course to the
southwest for some six hundred miles, and pour
28 Geographical Divisions.
their united waters through the Chenab into the
Indus, at the northern point of the desert of
Scinde.
The Punjaub is inhabited mainly by Seikhs, a
bold, warlike race, who bravely withstood the
inroads of British power, and proved themselves
very formidable foes in some of the most hotly-
contested struggles of modern times. But it was
of no avail : the Punjaub and Scindia, king-
doms no longer, are now merely appendages of
Great Britain, with an English " Resident " gov-
erning ,it Lahore. The Punjaub is by far the most
fertile and populous portion of the Delta of the
Indus, numbering between three and four millions
of inhabitants. Umritsur, with a population of
one hundred thousand, is the sacred city of the
Seiklis; Lahore, their ancient capital, and now
the British seat of government, has eighty -five
thousand inhabitants; and Moulton, prettily sit-
uated on the Chenab, has sixty-five thousand.
South of the Punjaub, is Scinde, formerly a
powerful state, governed by Ameers. Its present
population is little more than a million : and of its
chief cities, Hydrabad, Patta, Sikkur, Shikarpore,
Kurrachee, not one has over twenty-five thousand
The Thor. 31
inhabitants, Except in the immediate vicinity of
the river, the soil is sandy, and of little value for
agricultural purposes. The Thor or Desert is ruled
by Rajput Princes, petty chiefs, who are in al-
liance with the British Government, and carry on
quite a thriving trade, under foreign surveil-
lance— a system far more tantalizing to the British
official, than effectual in controlling the irregulari-
ties of so unscrupulous a fraternity as these Rajput
rulers of the Thor.
The Second Division, the Plain of the Ganges,
includes the districts of Behar, Oudh, Pirhut,
Rohilcunde, Allahabad, and last, and most impor-
tant of all, Bengal, one of the three great Presi-
dencies of India. This Second Division, entirely
under British control, has a population of nearly
seventy-millions, and is by far the most fertile arid
populous portion of British India. Behar is noted
as the birth-place of Buddhism ; and Patna, its cap-
ital, is accepted now as the Palibothra of the
ancients, the capital of the Mauryas Emperors
who received the Greek embassadors of the suc-
cessors of Alexander. But the present insignifi-
cant town, with its dirty bazaars and tumble-
32 Geographical Divisions.
down houses does violence to everything like
classic memories.
The Kurruckpore Hills, an offshoot of the Vin-
dhyas, form the boundary between Behar and the
Terai jungle. These Hills abound in mineral
springs, and are inhabited by a race of Kolee
savages.
Oudh or Aoudh, familiar to every reader, from
the names of Cawnpore aud Lucknow, as associa-
ted with the terrible massacre of 1857, was a very
ancient kingdom, governed by Mahratta Princes
until it fell into the hands of the English. Con-
sisting of rich agricultural lands, watered by the
Ganges, and possessing several large and populous
cities, with considerable commercial importance,
it has proved to the English a rich and valuable
possession. The deposed king enjoys a large pen-
sion of $500,000 fiom the British Government, and
lives as a State prisoner in a magnificent palace
beautifully located at Garden Reach, near Cal-
cutta.
Allahabad is one of the richest provinces of
India. Watered by the Ganges and Jumna, as
well as by canals, it produces abundant crops of
maize, cotton, sugar, indigo and flax. Its popula-
Bengal. 33
tion is nearly four millions, with an area of eleven
thousand eight hundred and twenty-six square miles.
Bengal proper is the low, fertile, and densely-
populated region tying on the lower Ganges, in
the section round about Calcutta. The Ganges,
the most lawless of rivers, runs riot over nearly
every portion of Bengal, first inundating one sec-
tion, destroying everything in its course, and then
suddenly withdrawing, and forming for itself new
paths to the ocean. These flat, low, swampy lands
are good for nothing in the world but the cultiva-
tion of rice, and as the birth-place of a pestilential
miasma, created by the constant evaporation of
stagnant water that escapes in the form of a blu-
ish vapor, filling the air with poisonous exhala-
tions. The laborer needs only to turn the soil
with his pick or shovel to find pools beneath ; and,
in truth, this whole region is neither land nor wa-
ter, but mud, mud, mud ! which, in other than a
tropical clime, would be only unapproachable
swamp. Here cholera finds its natural home,
among the densely-populated villages lying half-
buried in the rice-fields, stifled under creeping-
plants, and shut out by the rank growth from the
life-giving rays of sunlight, while everything is
H. I.— 3
34 Geographical Divisions.
reeking with perpetual moisture mingled with the
noxious fumes of vegetable decay. Asiatic chok
era, born here, travels westward with the crowds
of Hindu devotees who go annually to the great
sanctuaries of the north and west; and thence
it is readily conveyed to Mecca and Constantino
pie by Moslem pilgrims and traders, to be scat
tered far and wide over both continents. Tin
terrible disease first appeared in the district a
Nuddah. in 1817, and since that period has sel-
dom disappeared from India.
Rice planters often disinter, from their moist
fields several leagues from the river, the frame-work
of boats, and even portions of larger vessels that
had been sunk in the deep waters that long ago,
in some unknown past, covered the rice-fields of
the present day.
Beyond these swamp-lands, the east of this prov
ince is made up of monotonous plains crowned
with emerald verdure, and thickly dotted with vil-
lages swarming with inhabitants.
Between the northern extremity of the Plain of
the Ganges and the Plain of the Indus is a flat,
sterile region, known as the Doab. It does not be-
long properly to either of the great Divisions of
Central India. 35
India, but is mentioned here, from its proximity to
those named above. It is ruled by several Seikh
Rajahs, who are in alliance with the British ; but
is of little importance either politically or other-
wise.
Central India, the third great Division of Hindus-
tan, embraces all that section of the peninsula
north of the Vindhya, between the Deltas of the
Indus and Ganges. Triangular in form, its base is
the mountains, and its apex the region south of
Delhi. It is composed mainly of elevated table-
lands, interspersed with mountain ranges, and
lovely fertile plains abounding in valuable pro-
ducts. Nearly the whole of this Division is occu-
pied by native Principalities, many of which are
not only wholly independent, their princes main-
taining the state of sovereigns, but they are pos-
sessed of immense wealth, and have vast resources
for peace and war.
The Fourth and Fifth Divisions of India are the
Deccan and Southern India, divided only by the
river Kishna, and the two extending from the
south side of the Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. The
distinguishing feature of these regions is the lofty
mountain ranges that girt them about on every
36 Geographical Divisions.
side, and are known respectively, as the Northern,
Southern, Eastern and Western Ghauts. The
Eastern and Wester n ranges skirt the sea at dis-
tances varying from ten to about eighty miles,
those on the western coast approaching nearest to
the sea-board. At the southern extremity of this
range, stretching out to the eastward, are the
famous Neilgherry mountains, so highly esteemed
for their fertile soil and salubrious atmosphere. At
the northern extremity of the same range, immedi-
ately opposite Bombay, are the Mahabalipura moun-
tains rising something more than five thousand feet
above the sea-level. The British territory in the
Deccan, divided between the Presidencies of Bom-
bay and Madras, does not exceed forty thousand
square miles. A portion of the table-lands is very
fertile and well cultivated ; but the mountains
themselves are generally sterile, though the valleys
between have extensive forests of lofty timber,
reaching down to the plains, often to the water's
edge. The belt or lowlands around the peninsula,
between the Ghauts and the seashore, is British
territory exclusively. It varies widely, not only
in breadth, but in fertility; the first few miles
nearest the sea being always flat and sandy. Where
Southern India. 39
the width of the slip does not exceed eight or ten
miles, there will be only this barren tract up to the
base of the mountains; but, where the mountains
are more remote from the sea, there is often inter-
vening between the sandy shore-land and the low-
est ledge of the mountains, ten, twenty, perhaps
fifty or more miles of extremely rich and produc-
tive soil ; the land gradually rising as it nears the
mountains, until it is merged in the jungle of teak
and satin-wood. The Malabar territory extends
from Cape Comorin to 12° north latitude ; Canara
from 12° to 15°, and the Concon from 15° to 22°.
The harbor of Bombay is one of the finest in the
world, formed by the peculiar position and close
proximity of a group of islands that shut in an
arm of the sea along the mainland, making a
superb bay, of which Bombay commands the
entrance. These islands, located in front of the
estuary of the Oolas, the chief river of the Concon,
appeal- to form a sort of Delta, often so called.
Callian, the ancient Cctpital of the Concon, long
one of the first, commercial ports of southern India,
is on this river. Viewed from whatever point, the
harbor of Bombay always unfolds a panorama of
surpassing beauty, its ever-changing scenes always
40 Geographical Divisions.
new, and each seemingly more lovely than the last.
In all the East, it has scarcely a counterpart, for
either safety and commodiousness, or for the ra-
diant beauty of its surroundings. The peculiarly-
favorable location of Bombay in regard to com-
merce seems to have been understood from remote
antiquity, there being little doubt that this group of
islands is the Archipelago of Heptanesia alluded
to by the geographer Arrian. The island of Sal-
sette, the largest of the group, was that first occu-
pied by the Portuguese colonists, and it WHS at a
much later period, after the fortification of Tanmi
and Bassein, that the port of Bombay was even
thought of.
The eastern or Madras coast-line is much ex-
posed to the fury of the southwest monsoon, dur-
ing the prevalence of which native vessels are un-
able to venture out, and terrible storms frequently
occur, endangering the safety of large ships all
along the coast. Coringa is the only harbor where
vessels of any considerable size may take refuge
during these violent "squalls/' There being no in-
dentation of this coast, nor any island to break off
the sea, a heavy, rolling swell prevails throughout
the year. To avoid danger, vessels anchor in the
The Eastern Coast. 41
open roads ; those of large size keeping a mile or
two from the shore, the swell causing them to
pitch and roll as though out on mid-ocean.
During the prevalence of the southwest mon-
soon the danger is so great that for several
months vessels are required to anchor still farther
out, and to have their cargoes loaded and unload-
ed by means of boats adapted for passing through
the surf. The anchorage looks deserted, and pas-
sengers to or from the ships have to be waited
on by catamarans — a sort of broad raft, riot unlike a
New England stone-sled. They are constructed by
tying together, horizontally, three flattened timbers
eight or ten feet long, then sharpening the point,
and, laying over all a slight floor or coarse mat
slitted where the timbers are joined. On this mat
the rowers sit cross-legged, with the toes bent in-
ward ; and in this position, which is the only one
the case admits, they often remain for many con-
secutive hours, propelling their rude crafts with
slender paddles sharpened at, both ends, and
dipped first on one side and then on the other.
The water of course rises between the timbers
and washes over the little raft, wetting the rowers
to their hips, and sometimes they may be washed
42 Geographical Divisions.
overboard ; but, in such cases, they leap nimbly
into their places, and row on again as nonchalantly
as before. The catamaran will float safely with a sea
so rough that an ordinary boat could not survive
for five minutes, and these boatmen do not mind a
good wetting. Their clothing is very slight in-
deed, consisting of but a single strip of muslin or
calico, with the addition of the water-proof cap, that
constitutes a very important part of the outfit
needed by a Madras boatman, in his particular vo-
cation. In this cap, containing more pockets than
a peddler's overcoat, the boatman will carry, and
keep them perfectly dry, letters, papers, and small
parcels of all sorts, to and from the shore. Larger
packages must be protected on all sides, by either
tin or oil-cloth covers, and lashed tightly to the
catamarans. In mild weather, large, deep boats
are used, made without ribs, of thin, wide planks
warped by fire to a proper shape, and tied together
by strong twine, which also serves to keep in place
the straw and mud used in calking the seams.
There is not a single nail in the entire craft, from'
stem to stern, for none could, by any possible con-
trivance, be kept in place, under the sort of usage
to which Madras boats are destined. The getting
MOUNTAINEERS IX ACTION.
The Ganges. 45
ashore without a very respectable drenching, is cer-
tainly an art in which one would seern to need
practice in order to be made perfect, and these
Madras men display a skill and energy scarcely to
be surpassed. Keeping time to a very peculiar
tune, they take first a long pull and then a short
one, according to the motion of the waves, till at
length they push the boat forward on a foaming
surf, and she is thrown upon the beach. As she
recedes, some jump out with the ropes, and at each
returning wave they get her a little higher up, till
she lies motionless upon the sands, like a great
fish thrown high and dry upon the beach at lo\v
tide.
The Ganges, the holy river of the Hindus., has
such a history as could be revealed by no other
stream in the wide world. Descending from a level
of fifteen thousand feet above the sea, and run-
ning a course of fifteen hundred miles, it receives at
every point the most devout adoration. " The
touch of its waters, nay, the very sight of them,
takes away all sin." So say the Hindu Shasters,
and to their fiat all yield unquestioning assent.
Drowning in the holy river is deemed an act of
merit ; and thousands of sick people endure the
46 Geographical Divisions.
fatigue of long journeys that they may die upon
its banks. The very name is derived from that of
the goddess Gunga, who, the Hindus say, was pro-
duced from the moisture cf Vishnu's foot, caught
by Brahma, and preserved in his alms-dish ; and
Gunga, coming down from heaven, divided herself
into one hundred streams, the mouths of the
Ganges. In Hindu courts of justice, the water of the
Ganges is sworn upon, as the Bible is in ours ; and
it has been estimated that from three to five hun-
dred thousand people assemble annually at certain
points of this river that they may, at the most
propitious moment, bathe in its sacred waters ; and
hundreds are crushed to death in their frantic at-
tempts to press through the croAvd. The Hooghly
is one of the many streams by which the Ganges
empties its waters into the Bay of Bengal, and
the most sacred of its numerous mouths.
The Indus, the great river of nortlrwestern
India, rises in the Himalayas, and with its tributa-
ries, waters the great regions of the Punjaub and
Scinde, entering the ocean at the western extrem-
ity of the Desert. The fertilizing effects of the
periodical inundations of this river are felt for full
forty miles, not only over other portions of Scinde,
The Jumna. 47
as far as the western extremity of the province,
but even on the Thorr itself, where occur occa-
sional oases of considerable fertility.
The Indus is crossed, near Attok, by a bridge of
boats ; and the scenery around is picturesque and
beautiful.
The Nerbudda, next to the Indus, is the most
important of the rivers that discharge their waters
into the sea of Oman. It waters Central India,
and marks the boundary between that division and
the Deccan ; and, to the Hindus, it is scarcely less
sacred than the Ganges. The Jumna is a magnifi-
cent tributary of the Ganges ; and the Bangunga,
/. 0., "Sister of the Ganges," is one of the tributa-
ries of the Jumna. It has its source in the Kali
Kho and Mewati Hills, and after a course of more
than two hundred miles, it discharges its waters
into the Jumna. The bed of the river, only a few
miles from its source, is full three hundred yards
wide, increasing to more than double this breadth
towards the mouth. During the rains, it rushes
down from the mountains in a foaming torrent,
not only filling this huge channel, but often over-
flowing its banks, and submerging the surround-
ing country. The entire course of this river is
48 Geographical Divisions.
through a fertile and beautiful region, especially
opposite Sheikoabad, where it empties.
The Chenaub is the largest of the five rivers
from which the Punjaub derives its name. Rising
among the Himalayas, on the borders of Cash-
mere, and holding a southwest course, it unites
first with the Jhalum ; fifty miles farther on, with
the Ravee ; then with the Ghara or Lower Sutlej ;
from which point, it loses its name, and the united
stream is called Punjund, which enters the Indus,
just beyond the southern boundary of the Punjaub.
One very singular feature of this river is, that the
red waters of the Chenaub and the pale waters of
the Ghara, each retain their distinct character for
many miles down the united stream, where may be
plainly seen the red on the western side, and the
pale on the eastern ; but, when weary of coquet-
ting, their union is finally consummated, and a
modified tint of paler-red or redder-pale is the
result.
The Chumbul is a large river of Central India
that rises on the northern slope of the Vindhyas
at a height of two thousand feet above the sea-
level. After a north and northeasterly course, it
unites with the Jumna, about ninety miles south-
The Betwa. 49
east of Agra, Its whole length is about five hun-
dred and seventy miles, and it has among its trib-
utaries the Scinde and Farbuttee rivers. During
a considerable portion of its course the Chumbul
forms the boundary between the Principality of
Gwalior and the Rajput Provinces.
The Scinde forms the boundary between the
wild region of Bundelcunde and the kingdom of
Duttiah. It is a river of importance, more than
half a mile broad, with high banks, and a current
so swift that it is very difficult to ferry across.
The Betwa is the most important river in Bundel-
cunde, has its source near Bhopal, and discharges
its waters into the Jumna, after a course of three
hundred and sixty miles. The people of Central
India regard it as their sacred stream ; and from
Oorcha to Raicia the waters are very pure. The
Ambramutty, in the Presidency of Madras, is a
branch of the Cavery, with which it unites nearly
forty miles northwest of Trichinopoly. On the
banks of the Ambramutty, near its junction with
the Cavery, is the little town of Cavoor, contain-
ing about a thousand houses, a fort, and a large
temple. This is one of the earliesf Indian posses-
H. I.— 4
50 Geographical Divisions.
sions of the English, having bean in their hands
since 1760.
The Cavery is one of the chief rivers of south-
ern India. It rises among the Coorg Hills near
the Malabar coast, four thousand feet above the
level of the sea, and flows in a circuitous course,
mainly southeast, traversing the whole breadth of
the peninsula ; arid discharges its waters into the
Bay of Bengal, on the Coromandel coast. In the
vicinity of Trichinopoly it separates into several
branches, which descend in distinct falls of two
and three hundred feet, and enter the sea by nu-
merous mouths, in the province of Tanjore.
Though the Cavery is four hundred and seventy
miles long it is navigable only for small boats.
The only boats used are queer-looking circular
baskets, from nine to fourteen feet in diameter,
and covered with buffalo leather. In these, prod-
uce is readily brought down stream; but, as the
force of the current renders upward navigation im-
possible, these strange little vessels are taken to
pieces, and the leather carried back on the heads
of the crew. The Falls of the Tons are situate
some few miles to the north of Rewah, near the
road to Allahabad. The river, on reaching the
The Bombay Islands. 53
confines of the plateau, dashes down from the
height of four hundred feet into the plain. A mag-
nificent landscape adds to the beauty of this superb
cataract — the only one of any importance in
Northern India.
Among the islands found 011 the coast of India,
the Bombay Group, as it is called, is in many re-
spects the most important. This group is com-
posed of about a dozen islands, of which Salsette is
the largest, and Bombay one of the smallest ;
though from its commercial rank the latter has
given name to the entire group. The derivation
of the name is from Bomla, one of the appella-
tives of the goddess Mamba Devi, to whom this
island is dedicated. The name of the next in im-
portance is Elephanta, famous for those wonderful
cave-temples, over the origin of which scholars of
two continents have been quarrelling for several
generations. The island is parted into two peaks,
rounded and completely covered with woods up to
their very summits. The water on the coast is so
very shallow that the boatmen have to wade ashore,
with the water waist-high, to land their passengers,
whom they carry in a sort of impromptu chair,
formed by the interweaving of two pairs of stal-
54 Geographical Divisions.
wart arms. Near the landing is a colossal stone
elephant which, though now much mutilated and
sunken by its own great weight, still stands con-
spicuous on the shore. It was from this huge
sculptured quadruped that the little island re-
ceived its name, bestowed by the early Portuguese
settlers. It is called by the natives, G-arapuri ;
and is just five miles from Bombay. The names
of several of these islands are Drave, Basse'in
Versova, and Trombay, besides some that are
smaller and of little importance. On the opposite
side from Bombay is Karanja, its mountains rising
in the form of a camel's back, in the midst of a
dense vegetation that runs riot over all the level
portions of the island down to the water's edge.
This island is famous for a Hindu temple which,
though only about two centuries old, lays claim to
extreme antiquity, and is an object of supreme
veneration on the ground of having been erected
on the site, and with the identical remains of an
ancient Jain temple that was thrown down by
some of the hordes of Hyder Ali. But beyond
these few leading facts, little seems to be really au-
thenticated concerning this wonderful island-tem-
ple so highly venerated by the credulous people.
Karanja Island. 55
On the opposite side of the island, the vegetation
is of a very peculiar character, being composed of
gigantic trees standing apart from each other, and
appearing to spring from stony ground, quite de-
void of brushwood — thus furnishing a cool sfyel-
tered retreat where the tired pilgrim may walk or
recline at pleasure. One of these trees, a beautiful
sal, of huge proportions, is noted throughout the
country, and regarded also with religious venera-
tion for its very peculiar growth. The numerous
branches grow straight outwards for a time, and
then, by reason of their great length, bend down-
wards to the very ground, thus forming a grand
circular dome, perfectly shaded, within which a
thousand persons may readily find shelter. Not
far off, is an equally-wonderful banian, said by the
priests to number its age by centuries, five or six
at least. The original trunk has entirely disap-
peared, and in its place has been erected a small
temple, thus wholly embowered in a tangled mass
of natural columns, that in turn support other
branches of the same parent stem from which their
own existence was derived ; and constituting a shrine
of weird but wondrous beauty.
The island of Salsette has for its chief town
56 G-eo graphical Divisions.
Tannah, situated about twenty miles from Bom-
bay. An excellent bridge, with both railway and
carriage road, spans the water at this point, con-
necting the island with the main land. Tannah
was one of the earliest settlements of the Portu-
guese, and the capital of their colony during their
palmy days in India. It was conquered in 1737 by
the Mahrattas, who devastated its fair precincts,
and left it almost in ruins. It came into possession
of the English about thirty ^ears later, and they
have since held it, but it has never regained its
former importance. The Bombay Prison is a well-
regulated penal institution located here ; and there
are confined in it criminals of so vast a number of
castes, creeds, languages and proclivities, as to re-
quire a very peculiar discipline, enabling the rulers
to preserve order, and yet avoid interfering with
the religions prejudices of the inmates. For the
rest, this island is rich in memorials of antiquity,
containing two groups of remarkable Buddhist
caves at Kenhari and Magatani, and several superb
Brahmin caves at Jygeysir and Monpezir. The
island is connected with Bombay by a long, wide
causeway across the little strait that separates the
two islands. Upon the bay thus formed, are
The Strait of Ghora-Banda. 59
located lovely country-seats amid groves of pict-
uresque palms. At the Portuguese village of
Mahim, there is a large convent and one or two
Romish churches. This was, in the days of Port-
uguese supremacy, an important shipping port, but
it has been deposed from its high position by the
rivalry of Bombay, as well as the very malarious
character of the climate. At the northern end of
the island a superb iron viaduct crosses the Strait
of Ghora-Bandar, that separates Salsette from
Basse'in, enclosing a lovely bay, on whose smooth
surface is dancing, at all hours, a fleet of native
boats, fragile and picturesque as a bevy of wild fowl
sporting on the summer lake. This point commands
an extensive prospect of grand and beautiful scen-
ery. On one side are wooded banks and massive
rocks enclosing the blue arms of the majestic sea,
and on the other rises a long, steep promontory
crowned with the walls of the old Portuguese city
of Bassei'n and its lovely bay. Bassem was one of
the most flourishing of the Lansitanian colonies ;
and the remains of the great Albuquerque * lie here
under a marble tomb that is half buried beneath
the encroachments of creeping plants and the rank
* " Albuquerque, the Great, called the Portuguese Mars, was born near Lis-
bon, in 1452, and died at Goa the Malabar coast, December 16, 1515.
60 Geographical Divisions.
tropic growth of this fertile soil. Within the
walled city there remains nothing of the old
grandeur, save the ruined spires of a few churches;
but most of the hills in the vicinity are marked
by the remains of castles, forts and convents, that
were once a beauty and a joy, but alas ! not for-
ever. Residing in the little villages around Bas-
se in, there are quite a number of Portuguese
staid, matter-of-fact villagers of the olden type,
who seem to have stood still all these years, while
the rest of the world was moving onward, and
who live here in their quiet nook, probably just a§
did their ancestors of the centuries agone.
At the mouth of the Hooghly, one of the
branches of the Ganges, is the great island of
Sangor, one of the most holy places of the Hindu.
The Hooghly being considered the true mouth of
the Gauges, and the junction of this sacred stream
with the ocean being at Sangor, great sanctity is
attached to the place. An annual festival is held
here in January, attended by thousands of Hindus,
some of whom come from a distance of five or six
hundred miles. Crowds of people, leaving their
boats, erect booths or tents on the adjacent sand-
banks, the oars of the boats being set up to sup-
port the tents and shops. Here, within a few
PEASANTS OF THE DOAB.
61
G-unga. 63
days, an uninhabited island will be transformed
into a large and populous city, full of streets, lanes
and bazaars ; where people are buying, selling, and
practising various handicrafts as in a city. But
the masses, men, women and children, are most of
the time busy bathing in the water, that to them
represents a God, worshipping Gunga by prostra-
tions and salaams, spreading out their offerings on
the shore, for the goddess to take when the tides
rise, and daubing their heads and breasts with the
mud that they regard as a panacea for sin and
suffering. Formerly, thousands used to throw
themselves and their children into the river from
this island, hoping thereby to gain the favor of
their gods ; but this is no longer permitted by the
British Government, and during the festival, an
English officer with fifty Seapoy soldiers is placed
here to prevent these cruel sacrifices. A few dev-
otees usually reside on the island, and contrive for
a while to avoid the tigers. The pilgrims are sup-
ported by the donations, of boatmen, who believe
their own safety is ensured by the presence of these
holy men. Besides these, the island is occupied
mainly by tigers.
Another great island is Ceylon, three hundred
64 Geographical Divisions.
miles long and one hundred and fifty broad at the
widest part. It lies in the Indian Ocean, south-
east of Madras, with mountain ranges towering in
the centre, and beneath them spread out on all
sides, are plains of wondrous beauty and fertility.
The highest peaks on the island are Pedrotalla-
galla, eight thousand two hundred and eighty feet
above the sea, Adam's Peak, seven thousand four
hundred and twenty feet ; and the Sanitarium of
Newera Ellia, six thousand two hundred and ten
feet ; with others, which will be mentioned farther
on.
CHAPTER II.
MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.
MOUNT Dhawalageri, twenty-eight thousand
one hundred and seventy-nine feet above
the level of the sea, is one of the loftiest peaks of
the great Himalayas, and was for many years
accredited by geographers as the culminating point
of our earth. But, in the year 1854, the adjacent
peak of Mount Everest was ascertained to be
twenty-nine thousand two hundred and forty feet
above the sea, or nearly eleven hundred feet
higher than Mount Dhawalageri ; and Mount
Everest has enjoyed the honorable distinction of
being reckoned the highest known point on the
globe. It is doubtless upon the ancient, wide-
spread reputation of Mount Dhawalageri, and the
H.I.-5 *
66 Mountain Systems.
marvellous stories and traditions circulated by the
Hindus of its wondrous height that the Buddhists
have based their fiction of Mount Phrd-su-ma-ru-
rdt, honestly believed by them to be the grand
centre of our entire system of worlds. Of its
fabled wonders they- have written whole volumes ;
and at its base they locate their " seven hells," the
unfortunate occupants of which sink lower and
lower in sin and suffering, just in proportion to
their location. The " seven heavens " also, accord-
ing to the Buddhists, are located around the sides
of this " great central mountain," each rising
higher and higher, until Nigb&ri, the very summum
bonum is reached.
Upon the Mussoorri range of the Himalayas the
English have quite a famous botanic garden. The
climate here is not warmer than that of Central
Europe, and is quite as healthful and agreeable.
The average temperature during May and June,
the two hottest months, is about sixty-six degrees,
and on the very warmest day, the thermometer
does not rise above eighty in the shade. During
the cool season, which occurs in the months of
December, January and February, the average
range of the glass is about forty-three ; and at
Dharjeling, the Sanitarium. 69
night, for several consecutive months, it falls as
low as thirty-two.
On the Sik-kim Hills, near the Himalayas, is the
English Sanitarium of Dharjeling. It is seven
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and the
climate is charmingly salubrious, in contrast with
the sultry atmosphere of the plains, the thermome-
ter rarely rising above seventy, even in the warmest
months. From the summit, the snow-crowned
Himalayas are plainly visible ; and the scenery all
around the settlements is varied and beautiful,
uniting the delights of two zones, the lovely tropic
verdure, and the salubrious breezes of temperate
latitudes. The distance of Dharjeling from Cal-
cutta is nearly three hundred and fifty miles,
part of which, may be accomplished by means of
river-boats, and the remainder by palanquin over
good and safe roads, with the occasional help of
the palkeegharee.
Stretching along the lower chain of the Hima-
layas lies a region of peaty swamp-lands, known
as the Tarai. Various mountain springs, filtering
through the soil, keep it always moist ; while vast
masses of decaying vegetable matter, swept down
by the rains from the mountains, fill the air with
70 Mountain Systems.
pestilential vapors, rendering this locality wholly
unfit for human habitation. Yet there is a sparse
population of wretched, cadaverous-looking natives,
who earn a scanty living by felling and sawing
logs, though they suffer much from jungle and in-
termittent fevers, and there is a great mortality
among them. During the years 1875 and 1876
two English officers, accompanied by the wife of
one of them, paid a two years' visit to Dharjeling ;
and thence, when their sojourn at the Sanitarium
was concluded, they set forth, with numerous
attache's and attendants, about seventy in all, upon
an impromptu exploring tour, far into the interior
of this mountain region. This novel and interest-
ing trip occupied about three months' time, during
which they succeeded in gaining an elevation of
about eighteen thousand feet above the seaboard
before turning their faces homeward. A portion
of the trip was accomplished very comfortably on
horseback ; but as the way grew more rugged with
the upward march, the ponies became valueless,
and the gentlemen of the party had to continue
their route on foot, though for the lady a dandy-
bar eilly was improvised, and did effective service.
But after a while, as the ascent grew still more
Dharjeling. 71
steep, and the footing more uncertain, even the
" dandy " was no longer available ; and this enter-
prising lady tourist had no choice left her but to
be carried forward in an arm-chair strapped to the
back of the stoutest of her attendants.
At the beginning, when the three travellers left
Calcutta for Dharjeling, the first stage, of one
hundred and fifty miles, was made at night by a
railway running parallel with the Ganges, on its
left bank. At dawn, the rail-car was exchanged
for a steamboat ; and at sunset the little party had
reached the town of Caragola, on the right bank
of the river. The second night's travel was made
by the "government bullock train,*' at a rate of
one and a half miles per hour ; which, proving a
somewhat exhaustive process for the patience of
our travellers, the government conveyance was ex-
changed for a palkeegharee, a native vehicle with
closed sides, and about sufficient space to accommo-
date two passengers in a recumbent posture, while
the servants and luggage are bestowed upon the
roof, and the whole is drawn by two stout oxen.
In this manner they journe}red to the foot of the
Himalaya mountains, alighting at the Terai, which,
72 Mountain Systems.
though three hundred miles from Calcutta, is only
three hundred feet above the sea-level.
But, from this point the ascent grows more
abrupt. Punkabaree, the first station on the
mountain, is eighteen hundred feet above the sea ;
and Kursiong, only six miles further, is three
thousand feet higher. Tea of excellent quality is
very extensively cultivated in the region round
Kursiong ; and forest trees are rapidly disappear-
ing, to be replaced by tea-shrubs, thus utilizing,
but greatly diminishing the picturesque beauty of
these mountain regions. From Kursiong, after
twenty miles over a broad, smooth road winding
round the hill sides, the travellers halted before
the English cantonments, seven thousand feet
above the sea. Dharjeling occupies the summit of
a ridge, from which descend on either side deep,
fertile valleys, where oranges, bananas and cocoa-
nuts grow spontaneously, and sugar-cane is suc-
cessfully cultivated ; while on the " top," fires and
thick clothing are needed almost the year round.
Mount Everest, the highest peak of the Himalayas,
is not seen from Dharjeling, but Mount Dhawala-
ghiri, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and
seventy-nine feet in height; Mount Junno, twenty-
INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND OF SALSETTE NEAR BOMBAY. 73
Dharjeling. 75
five thousand three hundred and eleven feet;
Mount Kubra, twenty-four thousand and fifteen;
Donkia, twenty -three thousand one hundred and
seventy-six feet, and Pundeem, twenty-two thous-
and two hundred and seven feet, with some
seven or eight others, each of which rises more
than twenty-thousand feet above the sea, are all
plainly visible from the military sanitarium of
Dharjeling. It was in the year 1835 that the
English Government first projected this institution ;
and the Rajah of Sik-kim was induced, in consider-
ation of the annual payment by the English of
three hundred pounds, to cede to them a small tract
of land sufficient for the erection of extensive
hospitals, lodging-houses for invalids, and other
buildings needed by a Sanitary Commission. After
some fifteen years, difficulties arising between the
contracting parties, culminating at length into
open hostilities, the English being the stronger
side, from thenceforth refused to pay any portion
of the three hundred pounds ; at the same time,
laying violent hands upon a much larger tract of
land, for the erection of additional sanitariums,
barracks, churches, etc., for which no compensation
was even named. In this case, as in a thousand
76 Mountain Systems.
others, where the strong and the weak war against
each other, might was made to usurp the place of
light, and the Rajah had no alternative but to sub-
mit to the gross injustice practised on him by a
professedly Christian government. Besides the
public buildings owned by the government in
Dharjeling, there are many lovely cottages and
elegant villas owned by officers and citizens of
Calcutta and elsewhere. These are nearly always
occupied by the families or friends of the owners,
in constant rotation, one set going as ac other
comes, even during pleasant weather ; and in the
hot months, when everybody leaves Calcutta who
can get away, these mountain residences are filled
to repletion. The climate of Dharjeling has been
found so highly beneficial to invalids, when re-
sorted to in season, that the number of visitors is
generally limited only by the measure of accom-
modations. The natives have several very con-
venient arrangements for conveying the sick up
and down the mountains. First among these is
the dorlie, a covered litter, softly-cushioned, mus-
lin-curtained, and easy as a sick-room cot. It is
borne by " bearers," like a palanquin, without
jolting or fatigue to the invalid, who can sit or
The Bareilly-dandy. 77
recline as most agreeable ; and unless extremely
ill, derives both pleasure and benefit from this
gentle exercise. Another native invention is the
bareilly-dandy, which consists of a reclining cane-
chair suspended by straps from a strong, boat-
shaped wooden frame, that terminates in a pole at
each end. This is carried by four " bearers," who
are relieved at short intervals. The " dandy " is
specially suited for ascending or descending moun-
tains, in which case it is desirable for the " team "
each time to be composed of two tall and two
short men. In going up, the short ones, of course,
are " to the fore," and the arrangement is reversed
in going down.
There is yet another ingenious contrivance for
the invalid traveller, less used than the others, and
only brought into requisition on very steep accliv-
ities, 01 for ladies, in localities where it would be
impossible for them to maintain a foothold. Only
the strongest and most trusty bearers are employed
for this variety of ton-jon, and their wages are
more than double the amount paid to the ordinary
41 bearer," since both the fatigue and the responsi-
bility are proportionately augmented. The ton-
jon is merely a cane-chair placed on the back of a
78 Mountain Systems.
stout bearer and bound by means of strong leather
straps around his arms and forehead, while he
keeps his footing and plods patiently onward by
the aid of a trusty staff.
As the foreign residents at Dharjeling have in-
creased in number, native villages have sprung up
all around the settlement; and the population, that
twenty-five years ago was estimated at only five
thousand, now exceeds twenty thousand. Of
these some two thousand are Europeans and their
descendants ; and the remainder are mainly JShoo-
tias and Lopchas, with a very small admixture of
natives from other portions of India — chiefly
those in the employ of European residents, as
servants.
As the tourist nears Dharjeling, he begins to
imagine himself "certainly in the fashion," for
every part of the road is crowded with ppnies and
pedestrians, ox-carts and hackeries drawn by buffa-
loes, hauling passengers and their belongings,
lighter carriages with ladies in " full- dress " on the
evening drive, officers in uniform, with toilettes^
costumes and colors in every possible variety.
The Pur Pandjal is a lofty chain of glaciers,
forming a formidable though by no means impass-
A CHILD COMMITTED TO THE KIVER JUNNA BY ITS MOTHER. 79
Simla. 81
able barrier between the burning plains of the
Punjaub and the cool valleys of Cashmere. Dur-
ing the warm months, parties of native traders
often take this route between Serinaghur and
Lodiana, bringing from the former large quanti-
ties of the textile fibre from which the famous
Cashmere shawls are made, for the supply of the
Lodiana looms ; as well as large packages of the
shawls themselves, which find a ready market
among the native Indian Princes and Rajahs.
Almost buried in a ravine of the Himalayas, one
hundred and forty miles due north from Delhi, is
Simla, the fashionable resort during the hot
months of a very large proportion of the English
residents of Calcutta. In itself merely a large
village, Simla is, for about six months of every
year, invested with the important position of Capi-
tal of British India. Here the Governor-general
has an elegant villa, with offices and dwellings for
his staff and the chief functionaries of govern-
ment ; and witli the first oppressive days of the
hot season the hegira commences. The whole
concourse of the elite naturally follow the foot-
steps of the court; and thus, from April to
October, Calcutta, " City of Palaces," sinks to the
H. I -6
82 Mountain Systems.
insignificance of a provincial town. Meanwhile,
vice-regal decrees emanate only from Simla, the
Official Gazette displays the name of the new
favorite at the head of its columns, and newspaper
reporters must draw from this little moun-
tain town such items of " Court News," and
" Personals " of the beau-monde as may be needed
to meet the requirements of their readers. This
semi-annual removal of the seat of government is
both inconvenient and expensive, though of late
years a railroad over the larger portion of the
route has brought the two " capitals " nearer to-
gether. Simla has a first-class English hotel,
where rousing fires, a plentiful table, and good
beds, well provided with snowy sheets and thick
blankets, give the travellers a cheery welcome.
Kalka is a pretty village at the foot of the
mountain, one of the lower steps to the ascent ;
and here, before the railroad to the summit was
completed, tourists had of necessity to stop, in
order to obtain ponies or jampans for the comple-
tion of the journey to Simla. The jampan is
another Hindu contrivance belonging especially to
the Himalayas. It is almost identical with the
" dandy," except that the former is provided with
Simla. 83
a sort of oil-skin roof as a protection from the
sun.
The long line of the Sirmour mountains, all cov-
ered with glaciers and thick forests, is plainly visi-
ble before reaching Simla and the celebrated peak
of Jacko in the immediate vicinity of the little
town. Nevertheless, at this point are attained
only the lowest steps or first gradation of the
gigantic Himalayas, whose vast system of snow-
covered peaks extends so many thousands of feet
upwards and onwards. From here, climate, vege-
tation, all are changed ; even the features of the
people, whose small eyes, high cheek-bones, broad
noses, and wide mouths proclaim their Mongul
descent. In truth this is no longer India, though
of India. It is plainly annexed territory, and its
people are the same as those belonging to Thibet
and China — hardy mountaineers, called by the
Hindus Paharis, the term being applied indiscrimi-
nately to all mountaineers without regard to race.
The very cottages seem to have been transported
from a distance, and the villages are those of China
or the mountains of Europe, while the men wear
trousers and woollen waistcoats in lieu of their
flowing tropic robes, and some have felt hats in-
84 Mountain Systems.
stead of muslin turbans. Palms and mangoes dis-
appear altogether, and their places are usurped by
firs and plane-trees, while the lovely-tinted rho-
dodendrons lavish their wealth among rocks and
ravines.
Another noted mountain town is Bhadrinath*
in the district of Gurhwal on the right bank of
the river Vishnu-gunga. It lies in a valley of the
Himalaya mountains, ten thousand feet above the
sea-level, while the peaks in the immediate vicinity
of the town tower aloft from twenty-one thousand
to twenty-three thousand feet. Bhadrinath is
famous for a temple of Vishnu that is reputed to
be very ancient, though the building has quite a
modern look, possibly from recent improvements.
Below the temple is a tank thirty feet square, fed by
a thermal spring with which it is connected by a
subterranean passage. The chief object of wor-
ship in the temple is an idol of black marble
robed in gold and silver brocade ; and the ablu-
tions performed in the tank are supposed to be
efficacious in washing away all past sin.
For nearly six months of every year, from
November to April, the temple is closed on ac-
count of the excessive cold ; but, during the
Chirr a Punjee. 85
remaining portion of the time, it is the resort of
numerous pilgrims, the number reaching fifty
thousand at the celebration of the Kumbh Mela
festival, that takes place every twelfth year and is
attended with much splendor and most extrava-
gant outlay.
Chirm Punjee is a town in northeastern India,
situated on the Cossya Hills at a height of four
thousand two hundred feet above the sea. Its
temperature during the hot season is full twenty
degrees lower than the plains in the same latitude,
but for some unascertained reason the climate has
not been found favorable to the health of Euro-
peans. There are valuable mines of coal and iron in
this region, but little effort has been made to
develop their wealth.
The Aravalis range, separating from the great
net-work of mountains in Central India, runs in a
northerly direction through Rajputana as far as
Delhi. The peaks are composed mainly of granite
resting on massive beds of blue slate, while the
valleys are rich in many-tinted quartz, and in
laminated slates of various hues from gold to pur-
ple. This is one of the richest of all the mineral
fields of India. Besides its untold wealth of gold,
86 Mountain Systems.
silver, lead, tin, copper, carbuncles, amethysts,
chrysolites, garnets, emeralds and rock-crystal, it
contains also, black and colored marbles, gneiss
and sienite. The higher portions of the moun-
tains are inhabited by the Pal Bheels, a race who,
despite their present degradation, yet retain un-
questionable evidences of a former civilization far
above the people about them.
From Ajmere, some of the finest scenery of the
Aravalis is visible — piled-up rocks, ravines and
mountains, out of the midst of which rises the
town with its far-famed fortress of Teraghur sur-
rounded by a belt of verdure like an oasis in a
desert. Sharp peaks shoot upward on all sides ;
ravines that seem unfathomable make the head
grow dizzy to look into their dreary abyss ; giant
cacti are all aglow with their rich crimson blooms ;
and graceful ferns and parasites reflect the bright
tropic sun in rose-tinted halos. The rocky heights
of Teraghur are very abrupt and the ascent is dif-
ficult; but the summit commands a magnificent
view of the town, arid of all the surrounding
scenery. It is from this huge rock, on which is
built the fortress commanding the town, that
Ajmere (Aji-mer, " Invincible Mountain ") derives
Naga Pahar. 89
its name. Near Poshkur, about ten miles from
Ajmere is the equally famous Naga Pahar, " Rock
of the Serpent," likewise associated with the mem-
ory of Aja Pal, the builder of the fortress of Tera-
ghur ; and at Naga Pahar may still be seen the
ruins of his ill-fated castle.
These mountains abound in springs, and for this
reason they have from time immemorial been a
favorite resort of ascetics. The Brahmins say
that the great Bhirtrari, the brother of King
Vikramaditya, lived here as a hermit for many
years at the shrine of Naga Pahar ; and the marble
slab on which this noted anchorite used to sleep is
still shown to thousands of credulous pilgrims
who come annually to kiss the sacred stone. Just
beyond Peshkur, between the two parallel moun-
tain ranges, is a long, narrow valley almost filled
with sand which is piled up on either side nearly
to the mountain tops, leaving only a narrow uncer-
tain path in the middle with an aspect dreary as a
desert — the very reverse of the lovely valley
around Ajmere.
Between Doudon and Jeypore occur a series of
sandy plains with no sign of vegetation. This
sand is so strongly impregnated with salt that
90 Mountain Systems.
simply by washing and evaporation excellent salt
is obtained ; and so extensive are the plains and
so rich the yield, that nearly the entire community
derive their support from the manufacture and
sale of salt, to the total neglect of agricultural
pursuits.
Among the Doungher Mountains is Tintouni, a
town of note, as the entrance to the defiles of the
mountains ; and also as the abode of the chief of
the Thakours, a haughty race whose character and
habits take one back to the old feudal" times with
their tyranny, barbarisms and exactions of "black-
mail " tribute. It seems odd enough to find thus,
in the very heart of Asia, a reproduction of Euro-
pean customs of an age long gone by. The castle
of the Thakoura chief, strongly built and fortified,
stands on a commanding eminence with a quaint
medley of terraces, towers and pinnacles over-
looking the precipice. A very steep declivity
leads to the gate of the keep, which is well de-
fended by numerous small towers and iron-bound
stakes ; while the interior would seem a very
transcript of the old feudal fortress of half a
dozen centuries agone. These chiefs, despite their
rapacious propensities, are, as a rule, models of
Blackmail. 93
serenity, dignity and courtliness, receiving and en-
tertaining their guests with a princely air and self-
sustained consciousness of birth and blood, that
one not "to the manner born," would find it im-
possible to imitate. During some few years past
the English Government has attempted to com-
pel these fierce warriors to renounce their system
of brigandage ; but they have accomplished
merely a modification. " Blackmail " is levied on
every caravan as heretofore ; but now it is called
"tribute," not plunder. From being the robber
of travellers, the chief has become their u pro-
tector," furnishing guides and guards for a hand-
some " consideration ; " and instead of pillaging,
he " taxes " them. So the chief gets his bonus,
and every traveller and trader has to " pay tithes
of all," but the " Blackmail " bears a different
name under the new regime.
Much of the country among the Dounghers is
indescribably wild, and some of the passes are ex-
tremely difficult. The number of tigers and other
wild beasts found here greatly adds to the danger
of travel, and human thieves and depredators are
not wanting. But the scenery is so grand and pict-
uresque that one willingly incurs the risk to enjoy
94 Mountain Systems.
by a coup d'ceil, such a vision of superb moun-
tains and fertile valleys, myriads of the loveliest
flowers dotting every little oasis, and whole miles
of mountain declivities covered with grand old
forests that reckon their age by centuries.
At Kairwara, the English Government has
established an out-post for the purpose of keeping
the Bheels in check. The garrison is composed
entirely of native soldiers, commanded by some
half a dozen English officers.
The defiles here gradually become wider, and
the mountains are circular and less lofty; but the
summits are bare, seeming to be composed mainly
of laminated schist, with thick veins of milky
quartz, and are not at all adapted to vegetation.
The range of Indian mountains next in length
to the Himalayas, is the Vindhya, which crosses
the peninsula from east to west, between the
twenty-third and twenty-fifth parallels of north
latitude, and in length, extending from 74° to 84°
of east longitude, following very nearly the valley
of the river Nerbudda. The highest peaks of
this range are about twenty-five hundred feet
above the level of the sea ; while in some portions
they do not exceed seven hundred feet. The
The Vindhya Mountains. 97
greater part of the land south of the Vindhyas, as
far as the Gap of Coimbatore, consists of elevated
table-lands skirted by mountains, which toward
the coast terminate in plains. Here and there
little villages meet the eye, and at almost every
eligible point this shrine-loving people have erected
something or other to memorialize their gods and
invite the offerings and adoration of every passing
traveller. Zayats are numerous along the high-
ways. These are large, covered buildings with
open sides, where are always to be secured by the
weary traveller a cool resting-place, with plenty of
fresh water, and sometimes other conveniences for
as long a time as he may desire. But though the
peaks of the Vindhyas proper are none of them
very lofty, there are several offshoots that extend
through the district of Chittagong, from Assam to
Cape Negrais, the peaks of which vary in height
from three thousand to eight thousand feet above
the sea-level. These mountains are the abodes
of wild tribes whom no government has ever been
able to reduce to subjection, though Moguls,
Afghans, Tartars, and English have successively
claimed dominion over them.
The great river Chumbul has its rise on the
H. I.— 7
98 Mountain Systems.
northern slope of the Vindhyas, at an elevation of
two thousand feet above the sea-level, whence it
flows northward and north-eastward before unit-
ing with the Jumna.
It is in the vicinity of the Vindhyas, among the
hills adjacent to Cambay, that are obtained the
celebrated cornelians known as " Cambay stones."
They are found thickly embedded in the small
mounds between the Bowa Gore and Bowa Abbas,
where they are quarried by native miners.
The Deccan, south of the Vindhyas, is bounded
on all four sides by lofty mountain ranges known
as the Ghauts, and distinguished respectively as
the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western
Ghauts. This name is given only by Europeans
to the mountains themselves, being applied by
natives to the passes, the word Ghaut meaning
" an opening between mountains." The Ghautx,
or passes, are so very numerous on these moun-
tains, and are so frequently alluded to by the
natives, that those not very familiar with the ver-
nacular of the country have misunderstood the
meaning of the term and given this misnomer.
It is not unusual for a Hindu, on hearing a Euro-
pean express the desire or intention of " visiting
100 Mountain Systems,
the Ghauts," to reply : " It will be pleasanter to
ascend the mountains. The G-hauts (passes) are
not so cool and invigorating as the tops of the
hills."
The Eastern Ghauts, running parallel with the
coast and dividing the Carnatic into two parts,
are a range of highlands terminating in craggy
granite peaks. The road from the foot is hilly
and rough, and bullocks instead of horses are
used not only for the transportation of baggage,
but also for drawing the light dandy in which pas-
sengers in India usually travel over lengthy roads.
A journey of about two days over granite hills
and through steep passes amid masses of rock
rolled into ravines, and the stunted mountain
growth, brings the traveller to the elevated plateau
reaching from the Eastern to the Western Ghauts,
with a varying elevation of from two to three
thousand feet above the sea. This table-land is a
lovety, rolling country, clothed with meadows,
fields and villages, looking fair and fertile com-
pared with the burning plains below the moun-
tains. The difference of climate between the
elevated table-lands of India and the sea-board is
very marked. The sea-coast of the Carnatic, ex-
The Carnatic. 101
tending from latitude 16° to Cape Comorin, is the
hottest portion of India, the thermometer often
rising to 130° in the shade ; while 'on the "ra'plun-
taius, in the same latitude, the mornings and even-
ings are always cool; and- even-at11 tfobri, th§ -glass
rarely shows a greater elevation than 70° in
the shade. Fires and thick clothing are needed
for three or four months of the year, close-
fitting glass windows are a luxury, and the pallor
and weariness of the sultry plains are soon re-
placed by roseate cheeks and a bounding pulse.
The ancient Hindu kingdom of Carnata, of
which Mysore was the capital, occupies this beau-
tiful table-land, and here in our own day, is Ban-
galore, the most charming and healthful of all the
stations of Southern India occupied by the British
Government. Westward from Bangalore, the
road runs through a hilly country well adapted to
the cultivation of grain.
A little to the south of Mysore, a steep hill of a
thousand feet high rises abruptly from the plain.
Its summit supplies a magnificent natural observa-
tory, whence may be enjoyed a view of some of
the most beautiful scenery of Southern India, over
which the cloud-capped mountains in the distance
A Sacred Hill. 103
seem to be standing sentinel. This hill is noted
among the Hindus as the site of two very famous
temples, to which thousands of pilgrims annually
resort ; and also, as the spot whence a colossal bull,
an object of supreme reverence among the Hindu .-,
was cut from the solid rock. There is another of
these sacred mountains near Wandiwash — a tall,
rugged granite mountain peak, rising abruptly
from the plain, some two miles from the town.
The ascent is by steps cut into the solid rock, and
the summit is crowned by seven small temples
dedicated to the elephant-headed Ganesha. The
architecture of the shrines is beautiful and ingen-
ious, resting at different elevations, partly on pil-
lars of rock and partly on levelled portions of the
peak. In the rock have been hewn also large
hollow cavities for offerings, where are deposited
gifts of oil and fruits, brought by the thousands
of pilgrims who flock annually to the festival held
at this famous spot. These offerings are carried
off by the Brahmins, who dispose of them as prox-
ies for the idols.
Every morning a Brahmin ascends to this moun-
tain temple to perform the daily worship ; and at
evening a religious ascetic purchases a degree of
104 Mountain Systems.
merit, by mounting the steep ascent to light a
lamp before the shrine.
In the prospect from the summit the great
temples of Conjeveram, thirty miles away, are
plainly visible ; and all around the craggy hills,
scattered here and there over the plain, are towns
and villages ; the houses embowered in trees, and
their little gardens or fields spread out before
them, gleaming brightly in the tropic sunshine.
Forming a connecting link between the Eastern
and Western Ghauts, as they approach the lower
end of the peninsula, are the celebrated " Neil-
gherry Hills," with a base of two hundred miles
in circumference. A dense jungle, infested with
ferocious beasts of prey, and the home of noxious
reptiles, stretches out on every side of the " Hills,"
as if to guard the entrance to the Paradise above.
These " Hills," which are really mountains,
derive their name from two Hindustanee words,
nila, " blue," and girl, " mountain." Towering
above all the other mountains south of the Hima-
layas their summits are seen always clothed in the
azure of the clouds, and hence received their name,
Niligiri, (u Blue Mountains,") which the English
have gradually changed to " Neilgherry," affixing
CAVES OF KENIIART,
106 Mountain Systems.
" Hills " to the name. Ascending by the Seegoor
Pass, the delighted tourist finds himself not on a
mountain peak, barren and cheerless, but on an
elevated table-land, broken into ridges, hills and
valleys, at a varying altitude of from six to seven
thousand feet; whilst the highest peak, Mount
Dodabetta, loses itself in the clouds almost nine
thousand feet above the sea-level. The public
road to the summit commences at Seegoor, at the
base of the " Hills," and passing awhile along the
declivity, turns in zigzag route up the face of the
mountain till it reaches a ravine ; then, turning
aside, continues its upward course, and so on to
the top, where the queenly Ootacamund, this
beautiful English city of the mountains, sits
enthroned six thousand feet above the level of the
sea. Here, only four or five hours' ride from the
intense heat of the torrid zone, are found invigor-
ating breezes, mornings and evenings delightfully
cool, and many of the trees and plants of temper-
ate latitudes. The vertical sun still manifests its
power at noon-day, but in the shade the glass
seldom rises as high as seventy in the warmest
weather, and there is nearly always a refreshing
breeze. In the winter months a thin coat of ice is
Ootacamund. 107
often found upon the ponds at early morning,
glass windows, in lieu of Venetian blinds, are a
necessity ; and a bright wood-fire on the hearth,
with andirons, tongs and bellows — articles un-
heard of in Calcutta — are in great repute at
Ootacamund, where one sleeps under blankets, and
gladty resigns straw matting for woollen carpets
and Turkish rugs.
The English had been for years in possession of
Coimbatore and Mysore, without a suspicion of
the lovely, health-restoring retreat that lay upon
the tops of these " Blue Mountains ; " and the
discovery was at last the result of a fortunate acci-
dent. Sometime about the year 1830, it having
been ascertained that tobacco was smuggled from
the district of Coimbatore to the western coast,
the existence of a path across the mountains was
almost an assured fact ; and two revenue officers
set forth in pursuit of the smugglers, and suc-
ceeded in tracking them by a steep and rugged
path to the summit. Here, outspread before their
astonished gaze, lay a land of fairy beauty whose
invigorating atmosphere, fertile valleys, cultivated
fields, undulating pastures and rich woodlands
seemed to belong to a very Eden, compared with
108 Mountain Systems.
the burning plains they had so recently left. A
settlement was at once begun —the nucleus about
which has been gathered the present beautiful
town. This contains now about five hundred
English residences, several excellent roads for car-
riage drives, and numerous bridle-paths for eques-
trian exercises ; while cool breezes and the invigor-
ating atmosphere tempt the exiled Englishman to
the almost-forgotten walking-feats of his native
land. Some few European families reside here all
the year round ; but to the majority, it is merely a
summer resort.
Another peak of the Neilgherries is Mount
Kartery, six thousand feet high, which boasts of
that great rarity in India, a lovely little waterfall.
It is surrounded by picturesque scenery, and the
hill-sides are nearly covered with coffee planta-
tions.
Mount Sispara is the summit of the pass to the
western coast of India. Beyond its huge but-
tresses of granite it is clothed in deep, dense,
unbroken forest,. the home only of wild elephants
and buffaloes, ferocious tigers and leopards, jackals,
monkeys, and hosts of wild and beautiful birds
A German Mission. Ill
that rove here in pristine security, unawed by the
encroachments of human foes.
The Kay tee-House, four miles from Ootacamund,
was built by Lord Elphinstone when Governor-
general of India, as a place of elegant retirement,
entirely away from European society.
On his return to England, it passed into other
hands ; and of late years has become the seat of
the German Mission to the Badagas. The library
and ball-room, despoiled of their costly belong-
ings, have been converted into a neat and com-
modious chapel ; while other portions of the
stately mansion furnish homes for the missionaries,
school-rooms for natives, etc.
Distant twelve miles from Kaytee Pass, and at
an altitude of four thousand five hundred feet
above the sea, is Canoor with a climate milder by
several degrees than that of Ootacamund, and for
this reason preferred by those who desire a change
less sudden.
These mountains perform a most important part
in the physical economy of Southern India, con-
densing into rain the watery vapors borne upon
the two periodical winds, called " monsoons, " from
the seas of Arabia and Bengal ; and sending the
112 Mountain Systems.
genial streams to cool and refresh the thirsty
plains. Yet still more important is their loving
mission from the merciful Father of all, in provid-
ing a health-retreat, so near at hand, and so easily
available to the weary invalids who, far from their
native land, languish and faint beneath the sultry
heat of India's fervid plains.
H. I— 8
CHAPTER III.
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
SINCE August 2d, 1858, all the territories
heretofore under the control of the British
East India Company have been vested in the
Crown, in the name of which all authority is exer-
cised. The vast region known as British India,
includes all the British colonies in India ; and the
native states that are, to a greater or less degree,
controlled by the English Government. It is
divided into ten political districts, each under the
jurisdiction of a Lieutenant-governor or Commis-
sioner ; but subject to the authority vested in the
Governor-general, who acts under the orders of the
Secretary of State for India, and he also appoints
the various Lieutenant-governors and Commis-
sioners for the several Presidencies and Provinces.
115
116 Political Divisions.
The Provinces of Hyderabad, Mysore, and Coorg,
are under the direct administration of the Gover-
nor-general. These cover an area of forty-seven
thousand six hundred and sixty-one square miles,
with a population of six million three hundred and
eighty -nine thousand seven hundred and ninety-
two. The others are governed by the following
functionaries: Lieutenant-governor of Bengal, two
hundred and thirty-nine thousand five hundred
and ninety -one square miles, population thirty-five
million nine hundred and seventy-five thousand
two hundred and seventy four; Lieutenant-gover-
nor of Northwest Provinces, eighty -three thousand
eight hundred and seventy-five square miles, popu-
lation thirty million eighty- six thousand eight
hundred and ninety-eight; Lieutenant-governor of
the Punjaub, one hundred and two thousand and
one square miles, population seventeen million
five hundred and ninety-six thousand seven hun-
dred and two; Chief-commissioner of Oudh,
twenty-four thousand and sixty square miles, popu-
lation eleven million two hundred and twenty
thousand seven hundred and forty-seven; Chief-
commissioner of Central Provinces, eighty-four
thousand one hundred and sixty-two square, miles,
Area and Population. 117
population seven million nine hundred and eighty-
five thousand four hundred and eleven , Chief-
commissioner of British Burmah, ninety-eight
thousand eight hundred and eighty-nine square
miles, population two million four hundred and
sixty-three thousand four hundred and eighty-four ;
Governor of Madras, one hundred and forty-one
thousand seven hundred and forty-six square
miles, population twenty-six million five hundred
and thirty-nine thousand and fifty-two ; Governor
of Bombay, eighty-seven thousand six hundred
and thirty-nine square miles, population eleven
million ninety-three thousand five hundred and
twelve ; Commissioner of Scinde, fifty-four thous-
and four hundred and three square miles, popula-
tion one million seven hundred and ninety-five
thousand five hundred and ninety-four; making the
total of British possessions in India and Burmah
nine hundred and sixty-three thousand nine hun-
dred and twenty-nine square miles, population
one hundred and fifty-one million one hundred and
forty-six thousand four hundred and twenty-six ;
which, with the sixty or seventy native states
under the protection of Great Britain, will make
an area for all India of not less than one million
118 Political Divisions.
two hundred thousand square miles, with a total
population of fully one hundred and seventy-five
millions.
Of all these states and provinces the three Press
idencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay are best
known to Europeans, and really possess most in-
terest to the English-reading public. Bengal, the
largest of the three settled by the English, is
divided into regulation and non-regulation districts.
The regulation districts extend over the low, fer-
tile, densely-populated basin of the Ganges, and
are subject to a strict and systematic official admin-
istration. They include Bengal proper, the native
province of Behar, and the maritime districts of
Orissa. The wilder out-lying countries are com-
prised in the non-regulation districts ; which con-
sist of the hill region of Orissa, the territory south
of Behar, called the Southwest Frontier, and the
great country of Assam, through which flow the
Brahmapootra and its tributaries. Here civiliza-
tion is far less advanced than in the regulation
districts, and the government is comparatively in-
formal. The climate of Bengal is extremely warm,
and, to Europeans, unhealthy unless they, at the
occurrence of each hot season, resort to some of
Native Products. 119
the Sanitariums among the hills. The soil is allu-
vial and consists of a rich black mould resting
upon a sandy clay. There is no substance so
coarse as gravel to be found in the great delta, nor
within four hundred miles of the coast. The val-
ley of the Ganges is noted for its fertility ; and the
productive power of its lands is renewed, like
those of Egypt, without expense to the cultivator,
by the annual river deposits. The methods of
agriculture are extremely primitive, the natives
knowing almost nothing of husbandry, and their
implements being of the very simplest and rudest
sort. Each ryot or native cultivator of the soil,
occupies usually about six acres of laud, and sel-
dom more than twenty -four. Rice is the leading
cereal, and an important article of export. Wheat,
barley, millet, and maize are also raised on the
higher lands, with cotton, sugar, opium, indigo
and tobacco. The indigo produced in Bengal
alone, amounts to five-sixths of the entire quantity
made in the world. The growth of coffee has
been successfully introduced of late years, espec-
ially in Assam, where large tracts are devoted to
the cultivation of tea and coffee. The poppy is
grown chiefly in Behar, the opium being manu-
120 Political Divisions.
factured at Patna, and known in commerce as
Patna opium. No one is permitted to engage in
the opium business except on account of the
government, which makes advances to the cultiva-
tors, and purchases the whole crop from them at
an established price — usually at less than one
dollar per pound — and sells it for exportation
from Calcutta to China, at an enormous profit.
The chief sources of revenue to the government
are from the land-tax and the opium monopoly.
The commerce of Bengal is chiefly with Great
Britain ; and the exports consist of cotton, rice,
indigo, silk and saltpetre. Railways, which are
rapidly multiplying, have greatly facilitated inter-
nal trade, since their introduction in 1857. In
1859 there were, in the whole of Bengal, only
one hundred and forty-two miles of railway open
to the public, and there are now about two thous-
and miles. The East India line, the grand trunk
route to Delhi and the highlands of Northern
India, traverses the valley of the Ganges from
Calcutta upward. Calcutta, the seat of govern-
ment of the Anglo-Indian Empire, has a popula-
tion of about one million. The cities of Bengal
next in rank, are Patna, Moorshedabad, Dacca,
The East India Company. 123
and Burdwan. The population of the Bengal
District is composed mainly of native Hindus, and
the Mohammedan descendants of the Moguls, the
former being as four to one of the latter.
It was the latter part of the seventeenth century,
when the English East India Company estab-
lished their first trading factories in Bengal, then
governed by a Viceroy of the Mogul Emperor of
Hindustan. Their settlements were small, and
even this limited territory they held as tenants
under native rulers. In 1746, the war between
England and France extended to Southern India,
whence, for the succeeding ten years, England was
constantly making accessions of valuable territory,
as well as increasing her military force ; so that
when, in 1756, troubles with the native rulers arose
the English were prepared to cope with their
Indian foes. In the famous battle of Plassey, that
occurred on June 23, 1757, Lord Olive defeated
the Nawaub of Nazim, with great loss, compelling
the notorious Nawaub, who was no other than the
cruel Suraj-al-Dowlah, of " Black Hole " notoriety,
to fly from the field.
This victory established the ascendency of the
English in India, giving them a prestige that re-
124 Political Divisions.
mains to the present day. This was the tide that,
taken at the flood, led to fortune for the English.
How strangely the French have missed their
opportunity in India again and again. Chander-
nagore, beautifully situated on the right bank of
the Hooghly, only a few miles from Calcutta, in
1740, eclipsed that city, and governed the trade of
Bengal. To-day it is a miserable village, its streets
invaded by water and by rank weeds, its bazaars
without trade, and its harbor destitute of shipping
— a reproach to a great nation, and a grief to all
who venerate la belle France ! A last opportunity
of retrieving the fortunes of the desolated city
occurred about twenty-five years ago, when the
Delhi railway was being laid out, and it was pro-
posed to have it pass through Chandernagore, and
to convert the ancient French town into a sort of
out-post of the Indian capital. Vacillation and need-
less delays thwarted the plan ; and the opportunity
was lost, not to return, at least in this generation.
The river Hooghly is one of the many streams
by which the Ganges empties its waters into the
Bay of Bengal, and is esteemed the most sacred of
its mouths. Just where the Ganges meets the sea,
is the island of Sangor — G-unga-Sagor the Indians
The Island of Sangor. 125
call it ; and it is one of the most famous of all the
islands on the coast — famous for the human sacri-
fices that used to be there offered to the goddess
Gunga. But these are now prevented by the
action of the British Government, who, during the
annual festival, keep soldiers on guard to prevent
the perpetuation of such cruelties. Before reach-
ing Sangor, vessels bound for Calcutta are boarded
by pilots, who carefully guide the vessels by an un-
seen channel, through hidden shoals, toward the
mouth of the river, yet at a distance. These
shoals of sand and mud, known as the "Sand-
heads," and caused by the constant accumulations
of sand at the mouth, make the passage replete
with danger, which is increased by the total
absence of landmarks. But an efficient pilot ser-
vice, well sustained by the English Government,
prevents the occurrence of frequent accidents.
Calcutta lies a hundred miles from the mouth, and
between the city and the island of Sangor is a
low, jungly tract of land, intersected by creeks and
streams, and known as the " Sunderbunds." This
was once inhabited and cultivated by a rural popu-
lation, but was desolated, first by wars, and later
b}~ the incursions of the river, till now it is only
126 Political Divisions.
the home of wild beasts, and the abode of noxious^
reptiles.
When the " Sunderbunds " and floating lights
have been passed, the shores grow perceptibly
nearer, allowing both banks to be seen, but the
river is still more than two miles wide, and rolls
on with a wonderful volume and swiftness toward
the sea. a turbid yellow current, loaded with allu-
vial matter from the uplands. It has been said,
that were two thousand ships, each bearing fifteen
hundred tons of soil, to sail down every day in the
year, they could not carry as much solid matter
as is borne to the ocean in a single day by the
Ganges. The stream still narrowing, objects of
interest begin to multiply. The banks are no
longer jungly wastes, but scattered cottages, em-
bowered in palms, tamarinds, and other tropical
growth, with fishing villages here and there, give
life and beauty to the scene. The exquisite green-
ness of the rice-fields, the waving luxuriance of the
sugar-cane, and all the graceful beauty of vegeta-
ble life, so characteristic of " the lands of the
Sun," lend their charm to the view; and pres-
ently Gloucester, with its European residences,
comes in sight, and the familiar sounds of com-
Cheringhee. 127
merce and the hum of machinery fall on the ear.
A hundred miles above the island of Sangor, a
bend in the river, now but a mile wide, opens to
view " Garden Reach," a suburb of the great
" City of Palaces," with its superb array of villas
and country-seats, in which luxury and refinement
are everywhere displayed, combined with all the
wondrous floral wealth of that clime. As one ap-
proaches the city, at every step are seen splendid
European mansions adorned with oriental grandeur,
and surrounded by smooth lawns very English in
look, but dotted with clumps of the brightest and
gayest of tropical flowers ; native budgerows and
dingies ply on the smooth waters, and English steam-
boats puff up and down, bearing crowds of passen-
gers, of such diversified features, complexion and
attire, as fairly to bewilder the unaccustomed eye.
A little farther advance brings into view the Fort
and government buildings of the Cheringhee
suburb ; lofty chimneys of gas-works and factories
rise before the eye, and the increasing din of city
life, the hum of voices and the throng of vehicles,
proclaim the presence of a great and busy city.
Formerly, numerous corpses were to be seen
floating down the stream, followed by birds of
128 Political Divisions.
prey; but this ghastly and unwholesome sight is
no longer permitted by the English authorities,
who forbid the throwing of bodies into the stream,
and the laying of the sick upon its banks, within
the precincts of the city.
On the right bank of the river, a short distance
above the city, are the magnificent Botanical
Gardens, the gift of the famous Hooker to the
city of Calcutta. This is believed to be the
largest and finest botanical collection in existence,
embracing the most wonderful varieties from all
quarters of the world ; and all planted, not in
conservatories, under glass covers, but in the open
air, under the gorgeous sunlight of that unchanging
clime. Among the most remarkable specimens,
are a Baobab of Senegal, the trunk of which is
thirty feet in circumference ; and an Indian Banian
which, with its numerous branches, is sufficient to
shelter a thousand people.
The city of Calcutta stretches along the eastern
bank of the Hooghly, or Bagirathy, as it is called
by the natives, for a distance of six miles above
the fort ; a great, wealth}^ prosperous city, that
owes its greatness entirely to the supremacy and
enterprise of the English. When it was granted
Calcutta. 129
to them in 1717, it consisted of three small
villages of mud-huts, called Govindpore ; and in
1756 even these wretched grants were withdrawn,
and the English were expelled from Bengal by its
nizam ; now it is a " city of palaces," of which the
despised English are the lords paramount ; and
scores of the descendants of such petty tyrants as
Suraj-al-Dowlah, are glad to eat the bread from
the coffers of the English treasury. Fort William,
the most celebrated and extensive foreign fortress
in India, was begun in 1757, after the battle of
Plasse}*, and is deemed almost impregnable. The
works are low and octagonal in outline, three sides
facing the Hooghly. The citadel mounts six
hundred and nineteen guns ; and a garrison of one
thousand troops are needed to defend it. The
Government House, the palace of the Governor-
general or Viceroy, is a superb structure of mas-
sive proportions, consisting of a large central
building surrounded by four extensive wings and
crowned by a magnificent dome. This occupies a
conspicuous position in the esplanades fronting a
park called Eden Gardens ; and near by are the
town hall, post-office, and other government
buildings, a great many churches belonging to
H. I.-9
130 Political Divisions,
different nations and creeds, large costly stores,
and thousands of elegant private residences. The
latter are two storied with stuccoed fronts and
tall columns, spacious verandahs and close-fitting
Venetian blinds, and each occupies a separate
enclosure surrounded by a substantial wall, which
gives an air of grandeur and wealth. The style of
living is suited to the dwelling, combining the
luxuries of the East with the imported comforts
and elegancies of the West. The native portion
of the city, which is entirely distinct from the
Cheringhee or European quarter, consists of a dense
network of narrow, dirty streets, lined with houses
of small and mean appearance. Some of the
native residences are large and showy ; but the
majority of these people live in mud-huts, or in little
shanties formed of bamboo poles with coarse mats
tied over them. The bazaars are numerous and
extensive, consisting of whole long lines of shops
swarming with tradespeople, buyers and sellers,
and makers of various wares, who fill the shops,
and crowd every avenue, some exchanging pleas-
ant words, others clamoring for trade, and a few
uttering coarse jests or chaffing each other in
passing, but scarcely ever a profane word is spoken.
The Black Hole. 133
Drunkenness and profanity, when found among
the Hindus at all, are imported vices, acquired by
intercourse with Christian nations, and not indig-
enous to the soil. At these little cell-like bazaar
shops may be purchased every conceivable variety
of wares, native and foreign, almost every lan-
guage is heard, and every style of features, com-
plexion and attire may be studied. A little world
of itself is this great busy city, full of life and
beauty and activity, that makes one grow stronger,
and more hopeful of his race as he watches the
energy and buoyancy, and all the concentrated life
of a Calcutta bazaar.
One point of interest must not be omitted. On
the site where the post-office now stands, was
once the memorable u Black Hole " —a small close
dungeon in the old fort — the scene of that terrible
catastrophe that has made the name of Suraj-al-
Dowlah infamous wherever our language is spoken.
When Calcutta, on the 20th of June, 1756, was
captured by Suraj, the British garrison, consisting
of one hundred and forty-six men, under the
command of Mr. Holwell, were locked up for the
night in a strongly-barred room, only eighteen
feet square. The weather was intensely hot ; and
134 Political Divisions.
conflagrations raging in different parts of the fort,
rendered the atmosphere unusually oppressive.
The only window to the little room opened
toward the west, whence, under the best circum-
stances, but little air could enter, and this was
further obstructed by a projecting roof outside,
and thick iron bars within. In a short time the
sufferings of the poor prisoners became unendura-
ble ; every effort was made, and immense bribes
offered to touch the hearts of their jailers ; but in
vain, and when morning came, one hundred and
twenty-three had died of thirst and foul, stifling
air, some perhaps trampled to death in the dark-
ness by their tortured comrades. Only twenty-
three of the little company came out alive, and
were then released by their inhuman jailers. An
obelisk fifty feet high was afterwards erected near
the spot in memory of the victims of this terri-
ble tragedy.
On the eastern coast line of India, bordering on
the Bay of Bengal, is the Presidenc}r of Madras
— a long, narrow slip of territory, including
within its bounds the states of Arcot, Panjore,
Vizianagram, and Cochin. The ancient province
of British India, formerly known as the Carnatic,
The Carnatic. 137
extending from Cape Comorin to 16° north latitude,
with an average breadth of about ninety miles, was
almost synonymous with this Presidency, and
included all the chief cities, i. e , Madras, Pondi-
cherry, Arcot, Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly,
Nellore, and Vellore. The Carnatic formed origi-
nally the Hindu kingdom of Carmita, and after
various changes, was finally included in the domin-
ions of the nabob of Arcot ; then the contentions
arising from a disputed possession brought the
French and English into a collision, that ended in
the transfer of the Carnatic to the East India
Company, in 1801, the reigning nabob, Azim-al-
Omrah, receiving a pension equal to one-fifth of
the revenue ; and his chief officials being provided
for. The last titular nabob died in 1855, without
heirs, and the Carnatic has since been included in
the Presidency of Madras. The Eastern Ghauts
divide the Presidency of Madras into two parts, the
mountains running parallel with the coast, causing
a great difference in climate between the two sec-
tions. The seaboard, in dry weather, is the hottest
part of India, the thermometer sometimes reaching
130° in the shade ; while the table-lands are
delightfully cool and salubrious. At Bangalore,
138 Political Divisions.
which belongs to the Mysore country, included in
the Carnatic, the climate is sufficiently temperate
for the cultivation of grains, vegetables and fruits,
that could not endure the heat of the plains —
wheat, strawberries, and potatoes being readily
produced. Bangalore has connected with it many
associations of historic interest. While the
French and English were fighting in the Carnatic,
Hyder Ali had risen from a subordinate position to
the command of the army of Mysore ; and by
subjugating the Nairs of Malabar, and taking pos-
session of several small tracts of land in Southern
India, he had established a principality for him-
self. While at the head of the Mysorean arm)*,
Hyder had received from his sovereign the
jaghire or fief of Bangalore, from which to sup-
port himself while taking care of his master's
forces. This able and unscrupulous man, who
soon dethroned his sovereign to establish a dynasty
of his own, strongly fortified Bangalore, and made
it one of his chief strongholds. The fort is in
the shape of an oval, about a mile in circumference,
and surrounded by a deep ditch. By both Hyder
and his son Tippoo, it was deemed almost impreg-
nable, but did not prove strong enough to hold
Bangalore. 139
out against the cannonade of British artillerists ;
and in 1791, being stormed by the English troops,
under Lord Cornwallis, it was carried with terrible
slaughter. It has since been held by the English,
and is now the principal health-station for the
army belonging to the Madras Presidency, espec-
ially adapted to this purpose by the salubrious cli-
mate and accessible position. English regiments,
after being quartered for several years in Madras,
Tanjore, Trichinopoly or other stations on the
plains, are transferred to Bangalore, and after
remaining there a year or two, give place to others,
needing a similar change. The barracks at Banga-
lore are ample for the accommodation of many
regiments of cavalry and infantry ; and there are
pretty bungalows, surrounded by gardens, as
quarters for the officers. On the spacious parade-
ground the troops are daily exercised, and their
presence greatly enlivens the pretty town in its
serial elevation of three thousand feet above the
sea. The town of Bangalore is quite distinct
from the fort, and contains about a hundred
thousand inhabitants, some sixty thousand of
whom are Canarese, and live within the mud-
walls of the town, and about forty thousand are
140 Political Divisions.
Tamil people, living in a separate quarter, and
deriving their support mainly from the army. A
good road over a hilly country leads westward to
Seringapatam, which likewise is rife with scenes
that suggest to the student of Indian history
thoughts of armed hosts and bloody encounters
between Mussulman and British troops, of victory
and defeat, with all their train of horrors, engulf-
ing the innocent with the guilty, and flooding the
land with desolation and ruin. After the capture
of Bangalore, in 1791, Lord Cornwallis advanced
upon Seringapatam, and after capturing the hill-
forts between the two cities, he attacked Tippoo
Sahib by night, defeating him, with terrible
loss. Compelled to retire within his stronghold,
and threatened by a further advance of the Eng-
lish, the haughty Sultan was compelled to make
peace, with the surrender of half his territory.
But war was recommenced in 1799, and in May
an English force looked down from the neighbor-
ing heights on the water-girt fortress of Seringa-
patam. The English forces were led by General
Baird, who had himself been a prisoner within
the dungeons of " The city of Sri-Runga ; " and
here the blood-thirsty Tippoo met his fate. Sally-
Death of Tippoo Sahib 141
ing out, with his usual bravery, to meet the victors,
when the place had been carried by storm, Tippoo
fell, pierced by two musket balls. An English
soldier not knowing who he was, and desirous to
possess himself of the gleaming jewels that sur-
rounded the Sultan's waist, attempted to unclasp
the girdle ; but the prince still held his sword in
his stiffening hand, and with it, he struck a blow,
his last, that severely wounded the soldier. The
latter, frenzied with pain and indignation shot the
dying man through the head, and thus perished
one of the greatest tyrants that ever lived. His
very name is synonymous with " tiger ; " and he
is reported to. have said, that he would " rather
live two days as a tiger, than a hundred days as a
sheep." Possessed of a cruel, rapacious spirit, he
seems to have delighted in scenes of blood, and to
have found his supreme happiness in pursuing to
the death Christian and Pagan, Anglo-Saxon and
native Indian. Two magnificent tombs in the
beautiful Lai Bagh, " Red Garden," mark the last
resting-place of Hyder Ali and his son Tippoo
Sahib — names spoken only with abhorence, even
by their own people, whom they alienated by injus-
tice and cruelty.
142 Political Divisions.
The state of Cochin covers an area of one thous-
and three hundred and sixty square miles, with a
population of six hundred thousand. It is in a
subsidiary alliance with the British Government,
and pays a tribute of 1100,000 a year. The reign-
ing Rajah is of the Ks-chatrya caste, and is
descended from a Viceroy of the Chola Kings,
who ruled in the ninth century. He does not
speak English ; but is a thorough Sanscrit scholar,
and well acquainted with the native literature.
Arcot, as a state, has no longer any real existence,
though once of the greatest importance. The
present representatives of the former Nawabs,
reside in the city of Madras, fallen from their
high estate, in regard to power and wealth, but
highly exalted by their virtues and intellectual
graces in the esteem of both natives and Euro-
peans. A pamphlet was published a few years
ago in Madras, setting forth their claims to con-
sideration, and giving, besides their genealogy,
such matters as notes from former governors ask-
ing them to breakfast, or acknowledging a supply
of dishes from their table. The father of the
present Prince, sent to Queen Victoria, in 1860, a
poem written by himself, congratulating Her
Travancore. 143
Majesty on the accession of her new sovereignty
as " Empress of India ; " and closing with the
words : " Through the favor of the Most Holy
Jesus Christ, may this assumption of rule prove
auspicious to you ; and may your dominions last
till the resurrection.''
The Rajah of Travancore, despite his Observatory
and his attainments in science, is a Hindu of the
Hindus, and of the strictest sect regarding all
national observances.
His fair domain is said to be one of the few
states that have always been under Hindu rule,
and governed by Hindu laws ; but the laws
framed in 1490 were remodelled in 1811. The
succession is in the female line, that is, the Rajah
is succeeded by the son of his daughter. Various
conjectures have arisen as to the cause of so
strange a law, of which, however, very little is
really known ; for these Tambarettes, or Heredi-
tary Queens of Travancore are, to us at least,
" Purdah women " in the fullest sense, of whom
the bare mention is about all that has come down
to us ; except that single romance of the young
Englishman with whom the queen " fell in love,"
and who, declining to marry her, she sent away
144 Political Divisions.
in 1685, loaded with costly gifts ; and even this
solitary story is half unwritten, for as to whence
the hero came, why he so persistently declined
this royal alliance, how he left, and whither he
went, we have no information Orme, the histo-
rian of British India, is reported to have been
born in Anjenga, farther north on this coast ; as
was also Mrs. Elizabeth Draper, Sterne's u Eliza."
The Maharajahs of Vizianagram claim descent
from the Ranas of Oodej^pore, the most illustrious
Rajput family in India, whose ancestors conquered
Oudh, at a very remote period, and one of whose
more recent progenitors, at the modest date A. D.
519, conquered more than two-thirds of the
present Madras Presidency, and established a
dynasty that reigned over the land for nine
hundred and twenty years. A chief of Viziana-
gram built the present fort in 1712, and enjoyed
great power under Aurungzebe. In 1756, when
M. Bussy moved into the Circars, the Rajah joined
him with ten thousand men. There were five of
these Circars, that together constituted an old
division of the Presidency of Madras, but have, of
late years, been distributed among the British
districts of Guntoor, Masulipatan, and others.
Madras. 145
After various successes and disasters the French
were driven out, and overtures were made to the
English, who, as usual, were quite willing to step
into the possession of so goodly a land. In Sep-
tember, 1758, Lord Clive sent Colonel Ford with
a considerable force to aid the chief in a general
buccaneering expedition, in which it was stipulated
that the plunder should be equally divided, and
that conquered countries should be delivered to
the Rajah, who wpas to collect the revenues, and
pay fifty thousand rupees a month towards the
expenses of the troops. The following year, the
chief died without issue, and one of his wives
" performed suttee." Then followed trouble about
the succession, and the land was torn by civil dis-
cord ; but in 1765 the Emperor Shah Alum bestowed
four of these Circars upon the British East India
Company, as a free gift ; and Guntoor, the fifth,
came into possession of the Company in 1788.
They have since been held by the English, as con-
stituent portions of the Presidency of Madras.
Cananore, a seaport town in the province of
Malabar, is a town of great antiquity. It was
taken in 1501 by the Portuguese, who fortified it,
but were expelled by the Dutch in 1664. The
H. I.— 10
146 Political Divisions.
Dutch sold it to a native Mohammedan family, the
head of which, under the title of Beebee, professed
absolute authority over it, with a small adjacent
territory and the Laccadive Islands, till 1791,
when it became tributary to the English.
They have strengthened the fort and provided
accommodations for three or four regiments of
soldiers, and it is now the principal military
station in the province of Malabar.
Fifteen miles from Arcot is Vellore, a well-
fortified town, that \vas, for centuries, a stronghold
of the chieftains of Southern India. The ditch
that encircles the fort is filled with water from
the Palar River, and infested with swarms of
alligators, that serve as an invincible guard, none
daring to venture through the moat, lest these
scaly monsters should enfold them in too loving
an embrace. Vellore is famous for a fearful
tragedy enacted there in the year 1806. The
sons of Tippoo had been kept, after the fall of
their father's kingdom, in a sort of easy confine-
ment within this fort. The Mohammedans who,
with the overthrow of Tippoo's dynasty, lost their
own power and influence, felt aggrieved by the
imprisonment of the princes, and when to this
THE PALACE OF THE SETHS, AJMERE,
A Seapoy Butchery. 14&
source of trouble was added another, in respect to
some new regulations of the dress of Seapoy
soldiers, a general insurrection of the Seapo}'s
against the English troops was forthwith inaugu-
rated. In the still hour of the night, two battal-
ions of native soldiers surrounded the barracks of
the English, and poured in upon the sleeping
soldiers a plentiful discharge of musketry through
every door and window. Simultaneously with
this movement, the sentries, guard, and inmates
of the hospital were cruelly assassinated ; the
armed Seapoy s rushing in upon their defenceless
victims, shooting down every one who attempted
to escape, and committing all manner of atrocities,
till, as they supposed, not one of the garrison was
left. But one fugitive had in some way eluded
their vigilance, and making all speed to Arcot,
told the fearful tale of the butchery of his com-
rades. No time was lost in dispatching a regi-
ment of British dragoons to the scene of the
frightful massacre, who, eager to avenge the mur-
der of their compatriots, charged through the
unguarded gates of the fort, and cut down, with-
out mercy, the mutineers, who had been so
engrossed with their deeds of blood and rapine as
150 Political Divisions.
to have neglected all means of defence. Six
hundred were thus slain on the spot, and two
hundred more dragged from the concealments to
which they had fled and shot without mercy.
The sons of Tippoo were shortly after removed to
Calcutta, and placed in durance, at a distance from
their father's former rule and friends, where their
presence was less likely to incite revolt.
The city of Madras, the capital of the Presi-
dency, lies upon the eastern coast, thirteen degrees
north of the equator. It stretches for several
miles along the shore of the Bay of Bengal, upon
a flat, sandy plain, raised but a few feet above the
level of the sea. The old walled city is known as
the " Black Town," from its being densely popu-
lated by Hindus. On the southern side, the large,
strong fort of St. George is built into the wall,
and gives a very commanding appearance from the
sea-board. Around this central town and fort is
the esplanade — an unoccupied, beautifully level
space, seven hundred yards wide, and stretching
entirely around the fort. This esplanade prevents
the approach of an enemy under cover. The
rapidly increasing population of this portion of
the city, finding no room within the walls, has
Founding Madras. 151
spread in a continuous semi-circle of suburbs
beyond the esplanade and around the old town.
The residences of the English are without the
city, and almost entirely in the district south of
the fort. It was in the year 1639, just two hun-
dred and forty years ago, that the Rajah of
Chandgherry, a petty prince of the interior,
granted to a company of English merchants a
spot of ground upon which to build a fort, and
factories. This was Madras, then only a small
village inhabited by a few fishermen and their
families ; and this was the nucleus about which
has gathered, with the lapse of years, the present
city of more than eight hundred thousand inhabi-
tants — the great and growing metropolis of the
British possessions in Southern India. The
proud native princes who once held court here,
and looked with contempt upon the handful of
foreign merchants who had sought their shores for
purposes of trade, have passed away and been for-
gotten, and their descendants live upon pensions
granted them by the English rulers of the domains
of their ancestors ; while the little English colony,
with constantly increasing numbers, and wealth,
and influence, have turned their fort into a walled
152 Political Divisions.
town, the centre of widely-extended possessions,
and are able to dispense protection and favor,
where once they sought it.
Mount Road is the favorite evening drive of the
foreign residents of Madras. It leads from the
city to Mount St. Thome, the reputed burial-
place of the Apostle Thomas, and a holy place of
the Roman Catholics of India. It is an excellent
road, constructed at great expense by the British
Government, and leads past many objects of
interest. The old fort, with its historic memories,
where in the arsenal are stored the keys of
Pondicherry and Carnatic fortresses, cannon that
belonged to some of Hyder's batteries, the anus of
Tippoo and famous chiefs and poligars of the
ancient time — what echoes of the past they waken !
A little farther on, is the colossal equestrian statue
of Sir Thomas Munro, a former very distinguished
governor of Madras. It is a bronze figure upon a
lofty pedestal of stone, and an admirable work of
art. After crossing a bridge over the Coom — a
little river that passes through the city — the
Government House comes in view ; a large, half-
Oriental, half-European palace, with verandahs
and Venetian blinds protecting each story from
The Government House. 153
the glaring sun of this tropical clime, and sur-
rounded by a spacious park, where are herds of
beautiful, gentle antelopes grazing beneath the
trees. This is one of the larsje handsome establish-
O
ments provided for the governor of Madras. It
contains elegant reception-rooms, the great ban-
queting-hall where the Prince of Wales was
entertained in that State Banquet of fifty covers,
to which the chief personages of the city and
Presidency of Madras were invited, and given by
the Duke of Buckingham in honor of the Prince's
visit ; elegant library and private sitting-rooms,
boudoirs, etc., all fitted in exquisite style, but
very different from dwellings of the same grade
in England or America. The rooms, as in nearly
all Anglo-Indian residences, are larger, the ceilings
higher, the windows broader and more numerous,
and all shaded by Venetian blinds. Rich lace
hangings take the place of silk ; there is neither
mantle nor furnace-register, not even a chimney to
the house, and in every room there are great
hand-punkahs, that are kept in constant motion to
cool the heated atmosphere by their lateral sway-
ing to and fro. Then there are at the Govern-
ment House in Madras, and in all the othet
154 Political Divisions.
Indian capitals where the English have either a
Governor or a " Resident," sentries at the gates
and the doors, and liveried servants everywhere,
in great numbers, with costumes specially adapted
to the country — a sort of compromise between
India and England; tasteful in many respects, but
startling nevertheless to unaccustomed eyes. Take
as an example the liveries of the Prince of Wales'
personal attendants at Bombay. Mr. Russell says :
" Besides the Governor's servants in their fine
turbans and robes, there were in attendance a
small battalion of those engaged for the Prince,
in new liveries of the native fashion — a flat,
white head-dress, with a broad band of gold lace
running diagonally from the scarlet top to the
side, scarlet surcoats buttoned to the throat, richly
embroidered with gold lace, and the Prince's
plumes in silver on the breast, laced'on the sleeves,
edged with gold lace, and confined by rich cum-
mer-bunds ; but — ' desinit in piscem ' * — the glit-
tering personages, so fine above, wore thin white
trousers, and went barefooted."
After Government House is passed, then comes
the stores of jewellers, silk-mercers, milliners, con-
fectioners, and many other tradesmen. They are
*This is a reference to the words of Horace, in allusion to incongruity, or bad
taste, Desinit in piscem mulier formosa superna. A woman beautiful above,
ends in the tail of a fish.
COCOANUT TREES.
Street Sights in Madras. lf>7
usually large, handsome establishments, standing
in large " compounds," and are kept either by
Englishmen or Eurasians, (mixed breeds of Eng-
lish and Indian parentage) ; but men always.
Saleswomen are not in vogue in the East, except
among the lower class of native dealers in the
bazaars, and even there they are not numerous. The
dwellings of European residents are still farther
out. The}' are, for the most part, superb mansions,
stuccoed and pillared in elegant style, combining
the height and grandeur of the best class of Eng-
lish residences, with the porticos, terraces, and
Venetians of the Orient ; a fair index of Anglo-
Indian life, combining the luxuries of two hemi-
spheres, and grafting the furniture, equipage, dress,
table-fashions, meats and wines of Europe upon
the stock of Indian ease, sensuousness, and intense
love of the beautiful in nature and art.
All along the streets, in both the old and new
towns, strange sights, costumes and incidents are
everywhere visible. Women and girls with huge
baskets gather ordure to be mixed with straw, and
dried in round balls for fuel. Grass-cutters are
coming in from the country, each with a bundle of
grass on nis head, a day s supply for the one horse
158 Political Divisions.
each man or woman tends. Dhobies (washer-wen),
with enormous bundles of clothes that they are
taking to some of the numerous tanks on the sub-
urbs to wash by beating them against the rocks,
plod heavily along, almost reeling beneath their
ponderous loads. A couple of peons or native
policeman, tall, fine-looking men in red turbans and
wide, Moorish pantaloons, walk by with stately
step, and keen, watchful eyes, as if ever on the
alert. Countrymen and travellers from other
towns pass loiteringly along gazing at every new
sight, and Coolies with great boxes on their heads,
or three in company, pulling an awkward, lumber-
ing, two-wheeled cart, piled with fruits and provis-
ions, stop to deliver parcels at the various houses
on the road. But these are not the only vehicles
to be seen on the mountain road. At early morn-
ing, before the sun is up, nearly all Europeans
go out to inhale the pleasant morning breeze ; and
in the evening, just before dark, everybody goes
out for a drive along the esplanade or mountain
road. English officers of rank roll along in their
phaetons, with liveried coachman and footman, and
a syce (groom) running beside each horse. Ladies,
in full dress, recline among silken cushions in their
The English in Madras. 159
light pony palanquins, while a syce runs by the
pony's head, with an arm thrown over his neck,
and a footman runs before crying out to pedes-
trians to clear the way. Others, perhaps a lady
and gentleman, or a family of parents and children,
fair-haired, blue-eyed English children, looking
very lovely among the crowd of swarthy natives,
will be taking their airing in an elegant silver-
mounted barouche behind a pair of superb Eng-
lish " trotters," the entire turnout a genuine im-
portation, unmistakably English in its substantial
make, strikingly in contrast with the lighter
palanquins and small ponies generally seen in
Indian cities. Young men, clerks, and people of
modest pretensions are driven in buggies and
pony palanquins, but the groom does not sit by his
master's side, nor at all, but runs at the horse's
head, holding on to the animal's mane. Occasion-
ally a strange-looking vehicle with a pyramidal
top, drawn by a pair of bullocks, and known as a
" bandy " passes in the crowd, its Hindu occupant
seated a la oriental upon a cushion laid flat on the
floor, while the driver, sitting at his master's feet,
urges on the bullocks by cries and kicks, varied
by an occasional vigorous twist of the animals'
160 Political Divisions.
tails. Other bandies of more stylish construction
with gilded domes and silken curtains, and drawn
by pairs of pure white oxen, contain Hindu
ladies, only their bright eyes or jewelled noses vis-
ible from behind their silken screens, as they peer
wistfully out to catch a glimpse of the active
world, of which they know so little. There are
tiny little vehicles drawn by stunted red bullocks,
looking almost as diminutive as Newfoundland
dogs ; and perhaps only a few steps off a huge
elephant, loaded with camp equipage, or carrying a
howdah, in which a couple of sailors are enjoying
the novelty of their first elephant ride, as the huge
animal brings down his ponderous feet with a jolt,
that to our sailors is far more uneasy than their
ship's motions during a furious " nor'wester."
Madras is rich in educational institutions, among
which are a Medical College, School of Arts,
Engineering College, Harris School for Moham-
medans, Doveton College for Eurasians, Govern-
ment Normal School, Government Madrissa School
for Mohammedans, Military Female Orphan Asy-
lum, Hindu Schools for boys, Hindu Schools for
girls, Convent School, Free Church Schools, Scot-
tish Orphanage, Bishop's School, London Mission
Schools of Madras. 161
Schools, Church Mission Schools for boys, and
for girls, Wesleyan Schools, Three Schools main-
tained by the Rajah of Vizianagram, Female Nor-
mal Schools, Hindu Proprietary, and two other
schools under purely native management, and
perhaps some others.
The Madras Museum is a valuable institution, in
which the educated natives are said to take much
interest.
The Agri-Horticultural Gardens are delightful,
and abound in wonderful specimens of plants and
animals, with some gigantic and curious specimens
of forest growth.
In many respects Madras is esteemed the very
queen of the Indian capitals ; and the whole city
wears an aspect of refinement, intelligence, and
growing prosperity.
H. L— 11
CHAPTER IV.
PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY.
THE Presidency of Bombay comprises a strip
of territory about nine hundred miles in
length, extending from the northern limit of
Scinde to the kingdom of Mysore on the south,
along more than two-thirds of the west coast of
Hindustan. Its greatest breadth is two hundred
and fifty miles. The Presidency contains twenty-
two districts apportioned among three Commis-
sioners, i.e., Scinde on the north, and the northern
and southern divisions of Bombay proper, in
which are included Ahinedabad, Kaira, Surat,
Broach, Bombay Island, Darwar, Candeish, Tauna
or North Concon, Rutnagherry or South Concon.
Poonah, Ahmednuggur, and Canara. The large
feudatory states of Cntch and Guzerat, the chiefs
162
Climate and Products. 165
of which are subject merely to British supervision,
intervene between Scinde and the northern and
southern divisions. The coast-line is about a thous-
and and fifty miles in length. In regard to soil,
there is a great diversity in the several regions.
That of Scinde comprises the low, level basin of
the Indus, where strips of exceedingly fertile land
alternate with deserts ; the two Concons form a
hilly region lying between the Western Ghauts
and the Arabian Sea ; the eastward slope of the
Western Ghauts forming the lovely, elevated table-
lands, enjoy an almost perennial verdure ; while
around the Gulf of Cambay the land is flat and
alluvial. There exists an equal variation in regard
to climate — that of Scinde being sultty and dry,
with only a light rainfall ; in the Concons the heat
is as great as in Scinde, but the fall of rain is
much greater. The average annual temperature
of Bombay Island is about 80°, and the rainfall
averages eighty inches per annum, while on the
Ghauts table-lands the climate is temperate and
salubrious. The vegetable products are cotton
and rice on the coast; sugar and indigo in Can-
deish ; wheat, barley, hemp and tobacco in Scinde,
and opium in the native states of Malwa and
166 Presidency of Bombay.
Guzerat. Merchants who wish to send their opium
to the city of Bombay need to obtain permits
from the government, by whom it is purchased at
a certain price per chest ,• and the producers dare
not dispose of it elsewhere. Considerable quan-
tities of silk are raised, and there are silk manufac-
tories in some of the towns. The system of land
taxes in Bomba}^ was very carefully arranged
before being put into operation, about twenty
years ago. There has been a survey and assess-
ment of all the lands ; and the fields have been
mapped and marked by permanent objects, the re-
moval of which is a penal offence. They are
classified for assessment with reference to soil,
climate, and proximity to market, and with very
few exceptions the land is held directly from the
government. When the rate of taxation was
fixed, it was equal to one-half the yearly value of
the land ; but in consequence of the general im-
provement of the lands, the proportion now is said
to be somewhat less. The land revenue is reported
as yielding a larger sum per capita than in any
other section of India. There are now very
nearly two thousand miles of railway in this Pres-
idency; and the city of Bombay has the honor of
168 Presidency of Bombay.
having had the first railway in the East Indies.
It was opened between that city and Tanna, April
6, 1853. Bombay is now the terminus of the
" Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway,"
and of the great " Indian Peninsular Railway,'' as
well as of the steamship lines from England.
There is also telegraphic communication with Cal-
cutta, opened in 1854, and with Falmoutli, Eng-
land, opened 1870, by means of cables, via Aden,
Malta, and Gibraltar.
There are about three hundred schools in the
Presidency, with an attendance of about fourteen
thousand pupils ; five-sixths of whom are in-
structed in the native languages, and only one-
sixth in English. The Island of Bombay is one of
an important group that have planted themselves
before the estuary or wide mouth of the river
Oolas, seeming thereby to form a sort of delta.
The island, which was the first possession in India
ever acquired by the English, is eight miles long,
and about twenty miles in circumference. Shortly
before the marriage of Charles II. of England
with the Infanta Catharine of Portugal, this island
was conveyed to the crown of England, as part of
the dowry of that princess. About seven years
170 Presidency of Bombay.
later the king transferred it to the East India
Company, who held it at an annual rental of ten
pounds sterling, until 1858, when the home gov-
ernment assumed direct control of all the British
East India possessions. The old town is called the
Kila or " Fort," and occupies the southern extrem-
ity of the island, facing the wide beautiful harbor.
To call it a " fort " is, however, something of a
misnomer, for there is much beside the citadel
within those walls ; and one meets here, at least in
times of peace, much more of the din of trade
and the hurry and bustle of commercial life than
of the cannon's roar, or the murderous array of
battle. The visitor enters, it is true, by a fortified
gate, and there are veritable ramparts and a strong
fortress well manned by native troops with Euro-
pean officers; but there is a great deal else within
the walls of the so-called " Fort." There are
splendid docks, immense warehouses, a fine arse-
nal, and those famous cotton presses, with whole
mountains of the "raw material," waiting to be
baled and shipped to China or Europe. Higher
up toward the centre of the fort, and round an
immense square are the Banks, the Town Hall, the
Mint, and all the great commercial houses of the
Bombay. 171
city. In a word, all that represents the enormous
wealth and world- wide commerce of this- great,
busy city. But never a dwelling ! It is a stu-
pendous business mart : but neither native nor
European lives there. Going to the Fort at even
an hour after sunrise, one finds the long, narrow,
dirty streets without sign of life, save for the
measured tread of the peon (policeman) on duty.
But by half-past nine or ten o'clock the appearance
changes utterly ; doors are thrown open, the busy
hum of voices and the rumble of wheels are heard
everywhere, and the wide, beautiful esplanade is
lined with carriages from which step forth mer-
chants and their numerous employees, (every
clerk has his own palanquin, and no Europeans
walk in India) ; bank officers with their clerks, buy-
ers, sellers, jobbers, inspectors and idlers. Every-
body turns toward the Fort, the grand centre of
attraction during all the business hours of the
day ; but deserted again at 4 P. M., when every
carriage is re-occupied and rolls away as it came,
with its living freight ; white-robed natives, pro-
tected by huge umbrellas, file out with dignified
serenity, and again the grand business mart, lately
so full of life and activity, is left in silence and
172 Presidency of Bombay.
solitude as complete as that of a city of the dead5
until once more resurrected by the " ten bells '
of the morning hour that wake the sleeping citv
to new life and activity. For residence, each
nation has its separate "quarter," where national
habits and social proclivities maybe indulged with-
out danger of offending the prejudices of others.
Nearer than any other race to the business portion
of the city, reside the Parsees and Bhoras, two
eminently mercantile races, who live always at
their places of business, preferring to sacrifice the
pleasures and comforts of residence in other more
eligible sections in order to larger success in trade.
The Parsee Bazaar of Bombay is a long, winding-
street, lined with tall, handsome, capacious man-
sions. Their first floor composed of substantial,
but rather gloomy-looking stalls, is devoted to
business purposes, whilst the upper stories, witli
their broad wooden balconies painted in bright
colors, and numerous windows carved and orna-
mented, form dwelling-places of luxury and
elegance, despite their unfashionable location.
Many of these Parsee dwellings are furnished in
princely style, with gorgeous silk and lace hang-
ings, Persian carpets, exquisitely-inlaid satin-lined
174 Presidency of Bombay.
furniture, and incredible quantities of gold and
silver plate. The owners live like lords and enter-
tain in sumptuous style, though shrewd financiers
and indefatigable traders during business hours.
Some Europeans reside at Colaba, a long,
narrow promontory at the extreme end of the
island to the south of the Fort. Lying between
the port and Back Bay, it possesses one of the
most salubrious climates on the island. It has
also excellent roads and lovely gardens laid out
all around* the spacious, elegant bungalows that
form the favorite residences of wealthy merchants
and others in this section. These bungalows are
constructed on a plan specially suited to a tropical
climate. Being built on raised terraces of brick-
work, they are kept perfectly dry and free from
the deleterious miasma produced by the abundant
vegetation of the tropics ; the roof of very thick
attap-leaved thatch laid on double, secures cool-
ness far better than tiles or slate ; and the broad
verandahs on all sides protect the walls from the
heat of the sun, while the Venetian blinds from
floor to ceiling may be thrown wide open at night
to admit the refreshing breezes no longer freighted
with torrid heat. Other residents, preferring more
Bombay. 175
stately mansions occupy large stone-faced dwell-
ings with porticoes and marble columns, in Euro-
pean style, that serve to give variety to the land-
scape. On the extremity of the promontory are
built the English Barracks, so well spoken of for
their commodious arrangement and admirable
adaptation to a warm climate ; and still beyond is
the Colaba Light House that commands the en-
trance to the harbor, with her clear light plainly
visible for thirty miles from the shore. On the
northern side of the Fort and the beautiful Maidan
or esplanade that runs along the sea-beach in
front of the fort, is the " Black Town," so called
by Europeans, because only natives reside there.
All the streets that traverse this great, crowded
town are broad and long ; the bazaar streets are
bordered by small booths, the flooring of which
being raised several feet above the side-walk,
serves as a counter upon which to display the mul-
titudinous wares here offered for sale. The houses
that skirt the bazaars are of boards or brick, and
usually three or four stories high, with porticoes,
carved fronts, and pillars painted in bright colors,
giving a quaint appearance, not altogether un-
pleasing. The ground floor of many of the houses
176 Presidency of Bombay.
forms the workshops of artisans, where, in gloomy
little dens, multitudes of half-naked workmen
busily ply their respective crafts, producing by the
aid of only the most primitive tools those marvels
in ebony, silver and ivory of such world-wide
reputation, as well as arabesques and mosaics in
multitudinous forms, that sell in Europe for fabu-
lous prices. Among the most interesting features
of the bazaars, two especially attract the European
strangers. The first is the great number of races
found here, characterized by such infinite diversity
of form, feature and costume ; and the second is
the wonderful Arab horse-market, where probably
more first-class horses are offered for sale than in
any other single mart in the world. The great
number and variety of foreign races found here
is due first, to Bombaj^'s being the port of arrival
for emigrants from Persia, Arabia, and Africa, and
the point of departure for pilgrims bound to Mecca
and Karbala ; and second to the immense foreign
trade of this great shipping city, that supplies the
products of Europe, Arabia, and Northern Africa
to at least two-thirds of India. It is worth a trip
across the ocean to study some of these faces, so
full of majestic repose and serene dignity ; and
ITS Presidency of BotnSay.
even their varied costumes are worthy of inspec-
tion, as indices of national character and habits,
Here are Persians or " Parsees " in their tall cap?,
noting down every arrival, or discussing prices ;
Arabs, robed as their countrymen were in the days
when Joseph was carried a slave, into Egypt ;
stout specimens of humanity from Guzerat, each
with fine muslin enough to manufacture half a
dozen " suits," twisted in pyramidal form about
his shapely head, and dubbed a " turban ; " the
Bunniah of Cutch, whose keen black eyes gleam
nearly as brightly as the cornelians he is " sort-
ing" with evident pride; companies of blue-
turbaned men of Cabul, whose chief business in
life seems to be the perpetual munching of dates ;
Bedouins always, however otherwise employed,
solacing themselves with the long " hubble bub-
bles " that are at once their joy and pride ; stately
Gentoos, comely and graceful, in flowing robes of
pure white muslin; and the filthy Hindu fakir,
hideous in his nakedness and deformity ; the
lordly Rajputs from the North, sporting their jew-
elled weapons, and the busy Badagas of Southern
India, offering for sale the small crops cultivated
oa their hill-side farms ; the courteous Chinese,
Bombay. 179
always gentlemen, under whatever disguise of
poverty or provocation : the grave Burmese, the
cunning Malay, the stately Moor, with his insepa-
rable companion, the gold-mounted hookah, and
the smoke rising ever in graceful wreaths about
his turbaned head ; all these, and scores of others,
a busy multitude, gathered it would seem, from
ever}' point of the compass; and all eagerly intent
upon trading off his own wares at the highest
price, and putting down those of his neighbor to
the lowest. And their speech, what a veritable
Babel it is ! Who can be the listeners ? — for they
all seem talking at once, and each a different lan-
guage. Confused and confounded, the bewildered
tourist turns with a sense of relief to the horses,
upon whose magnificent proportions he may feast
his eyes, without imagining that they are all ad-
dressing him in some unknown tongue, to which it
is as impossible for him to reply, as it is clearly his
duty to do so. So he looks on, thankful that
horses do not talk.
There are pure-blooded Arabs from Djowfet and
Nedjed, lovely, graceful creatures, with long, silky
manes, and eyes tender as a gazelle's; Persian
breeds of the most approved standard, noble aui-
180 Presidency of Bombay.
mals with arched neck and fiery eye, and every
curve a line of symmetry and beauty ; superb
English trotters, and shaggy Shetlands. He must
be fastidious indeed whose equine desires cannot
be gratified in such an assortment as this, where
are obtained regularly all the magnificent horses
displayed daily on the esplanade, so noted for its
suberb " turnouts " on the fashionable drive.
Prices range from fifty dollars, to thousands ; but
all lower by at least a hundred per cent, than the
same horses would be in Europe or America;
many a horse being sold here for $1.500 that
would bring readily $3,000, in the home market.
In the " Black Town " of Bombay, are several
large Hindu Temples, and one noted Mohamme-
dan Mosque, the Jumma Musjid — all handsome
edifices, worthy of inspection ; but of far more
interest to strangers is the great Jain Hospital for
Animals, the largest and most complete establish-
ment of the sort in India. This hospital is located
in the centre of the most densely populated
quarter of the Black Town. It is supported by
contributions from the most wealthy members oi
the Jain Fraternity; and here are received and
comfortably maintained, all sick, helpless, and de-
182 Presidency of Bombay.
formed animals of every species, the nursing and
attendance being continued until they either die or
recover. Just inside the gate is a large court,
surrounded by sheds, where are kept only oxen
and cows, as these animals being regarded as sacred
by the Hindus, receive the first care, and a hall or
area exclusively their own. In the next court are
disabled horses, and in another, dogs, cats and
monkeys. Some sheep and goats also find an
asylum here ; and yet, farther on, are birds, fowls,
insects, and even reptiles; each class having a
quarter distinct from the others, where the peculiar
wants and habits of every individual inmate are,
as far as possible, provided for. Some of the
animals have bandages over their eyes ; others,
who are in a lame or helpless condition, are
frequently rubbed down by the attendants; and
both food and water are placed within reach of
the lame or paralyzed. All are constantly supplied
with clean straw, with water in abundance, and
with every facility for comfort and cleanliness,
and are fed, bathed, and dosed when necessary,
with the same gentle care and tenderness that are
bestowed upon human beings. Bald monkeys,
and superannuated crows and vultures are no
An Asylum for Beasts. 183
uncommon sights in this paradise of the brute
creation ; and occasionally is found there, even a
wooden leg supplying the place of the original
member.
Oriental nations are proverbially kind to dumb
animals, even beggars often sharing their scanty
meals with stranger brutes that happen to pass
them when eating. The religion of both Buddhists
and Brahminists especially enjoins this care for
the well-being of dumb animals; but the Jains,
even more than other sects, cherish for all animal
life this kindly regard ; not content with never
harming a dumb creature, but rigidly inculcating
the obligation to protect the lives, alleviate the
sufferings, and supply the needs, so far as possible,
of every living thing, large or small. There can
be no question that to this injunction in regard to
(the care of brute .creatures is due the very great
numbers of wild beasts .and noxious reptiles found
in every part, of India, .and ,the fearful .depredations
they are constantly .committing. Suffered for
ages to roam unharmed through these dense Indian
jungles, enjoying perfect immunity from danger,
they have gone on multiplying and increasing till,
in some regions, they seem likely to become the
184 Presidency of Bombay.
lords paramount of the country. Of late years,
the English Government in India have put forth
most energetic efforts for the destruction of tigers,
offering a reward of from fifty to one hundred
rupees for every one killed ; but so little impres-
sion has yet been made on the immense herds of
these ferocious animals, that hundreds of children
are annually carried off by them. In 1877, the
number reached, I think, nearly four hundred in
India alone.
The European and Mussulman Cemeteries, and
the Cremation Grounds of the Hindus, have all
their location outside the Black Town, reaching
toward the sea-beach, where the surging waves
sing a perpetual requiem well suited to the
solitary grandeur of this tropical city of the dead.
Farther on, toward Chowpatti, Malabar Hill,
the aristocratic quarter of Bombay is reached.
It is a hilly promontory, larger than Colaba, and
contains many princely dwellings, surrounded by
the choicest shrubbery and rare old forests of
venerable trees. Among the cultivated trees are
found the gigantic Baobab, several varieties of the
Chinese Pine, quaint, dwarfed and knotted in every
conceivable form ; and most beautiful of all, the
186 Presidency of Bombay.
" Gold of Mohur Acacia," with its gleaming
sprays and clusters of golden blooms glancing out
from among the emerald leaves.
The Governor's house is built on the summit
of a steep declivity at the extremity of the
island, and commands a noble view of the sea.
This is no longer the constant residence of the
Governor of Bombay ; but being regarded as the
most salubrious portion of the island, it is always
resorted to, in times of fever or other epidemics.
The ordinary residence is the Parell Government
House, where the Prince of Wales was entertained
on his recent tour.
On the western coast of the Malabar promon-
tory is the village of Walkeshwar, diminutive
enough in size, but withal one of the most sacred
places in India. The Brahmins relate a legend
that has for its hero the god Rama, who, while on
a warlike expedition to Lunka, used to receive
every night, through the good offices of a geni,
uan emblem,'" whereb}r he was able to continue
his devotions to Siva. But on one occasion, when
the emblem had. failed to appear, Rama, with his
hand, scooped up a little sand from the seashore,
and fashioned an idol. The spot whence the
Walkeshwar. 187
was dug at once became a deep pool, that is still
in existence ; and a village springing up around
this wonderful idol, was called Walkeshwar, i. e.,
" The god of the sands." The pool is situated in
the centre of a spacious square, completely sur-
rounded by temples ; while the water, fifty yards
below the level, is reached by flights of stone
steps, that are always thronged by crowds
of men and women, anxiously pressing for-
ward to reach the brink of the sacred pool.
Some kneel on the steps in contemplation ; others
plunge in, or sprinkle their bodies with the holy
water ; and all are repeating prayers and passages
of the sacred books. Brahmins, and devotees of
various orders, ask alms, and parade their religious
creeds, while some of the followers of Krishna,
under his most shameful form, elbow their way
through the crowd, clothed in characteristic garb,
ready for the perpetration of the most infamous
vices. The temples that surround the pool are of
great antiquity, and their columns are covered
with graceful sculptures. The spires, too, are of
wondrous beauty, but the effect is injured by their
diminutive size. Beyond Walkeshwar, on the
highest point of the road that passes along the
188 Presidency of Bombay.
crest of Malabar Hill, is the u Tower of Silence,"
where the Parsees deposit their dead ; * and beyond
the hill to the northward is Bycullah, another
great suburb of Bombay, marshy, gloomy and in-
salubrious, but densely populated lay Parsees, half-
castes, and the poorest class of Europeans.
In the rear of Bycullah rise the hills of Maza-
gon, a quaint sort of Portuguese settlement, where
many descendants of the old colonists have taken
up their abode, and intermarrying with the natives
of the country, their manners, religion, dress and
appearance have become largely modified thereby.
Yet they retain the name of Portuguese Christians.
Their very peculiar dress is of the European order,
with none of the Asiatic grace or adaptation to
climate. Their especial mania seems to be for the
black silk hat, a specimen of which, though in
ever so dilapidated a condition, often lacking both
nap and brim, must be worn by every man of
them.
The soil of this portion of the island is ex-
tremely fertile ; and trees, shrubs and every kind
of vegetation is of the rankest growth. The
climate is correspondingly unhealthy, and amid the
* As elsewhere explained under the head of "Ceremonies for the Dead."
JUGGLERS. (See page 156).
Bombay. 191
thick jungly growth, venomous serpents and
snakes of man}' varieties abound, often lying hid-
den within the petals of the brightest and most
beauteous flowers.
At the very extremity of Mazagon, is the
superb palace of Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, who
was the wealthiest Parsee merchant in Bombay,
and the first East Indian who ever received knight-
hood at the hands of a British Sovereign. The
palace is built in pure Gothic style, and was be-
queathed by Sir Jamsetjee, at his death, to the
city of Bombay, to be used as a hospital for the
sick of all nations without distinction of race or
creed. In front of this palace hospital the Eng-
lish have erected a handsome statue of the noble
donor, to perpetuate the memory of this munifi-
cent charity.
These various " quarters " and "suburbs" to-
gether constitute the noble city of Bombay, which
contains a population of eight hundred thousand,
of whom eight thousand are Europeans, thirty
thousand Parsees, one hundred and twenty thous-
and Mohammedans, and the residue of vari-
ous Hindu races. Prominent among the in-
stitutions of the city is the " Royal Asiatic
192 Presidency of Bombay.
Society," devoted to the promotion of Oriental
learning.
During the years 1863-1865, when the late
civil war in our country was at its height, events
occurred in Bombay that raised that city to the
very summit of commercial prosperity; but, only
to plunge her into the depths of a great commer-
cial crisis, from which she has even yet scarcety
recovered. By the disturbed state of affairs in the
United States, Europe was for the time deprived
of the cotton that was the one element most nec-
essary to her industrial existence ; and India had,
by most noteworthy efforts, been able to step into
the place thus made vacant. She was already pre-
pared to supply in good degree the means of
feeding the cotton manufactories of the world ;
and Bombay merchants, seizing upon the great
commercial advantages afforded by their city, had
attracted to it the entire trade in India cottons,
making themselves the sole arbiters of this impor-
tant branch of Indian trade. Even before this,
the trade of Bombay had been enormous; and
now that she had suddenly become the emporium
of all the cotton of India, the elation of her many
rich capitalists led them into the wildest specula-
Cotton Speculation. 193
tions. Deeming the reconstruction of the United
States an impossibility, they prophesied for their
city a future of commercial eclat that no combi-
nation of circumstances could possibly reverse.
All sorts of speculations were entered upon, all
available funds invested, and the entire com-
munity were drawn into the wild schemes, in
which each saw for himself untold wealth and
the most encouraging openings for future opera-
tions. Gigantic companies were formed to develop
resources that had already reached their utmost
capacity for development. Projects were set on
foot to enlarge the Bombay Island, by reclaiming
from the sea the region known as " Back Bay ; "
many new Banks were formed; and not only mer-
chants, but officers, public functionaries, even
ladies, and subordinates on small pay — all were
drawn into the vortex, expecting to realize fabu-
lous fortunes; when, with the news of General
Lee's surrender, and the establishment of peace,
a crash came, and wide-spread ruin fell upon all the
speculators. The strongest houses shared the fate
of the rest, and even the Bank of Bombay was
compelled temporarily to suspend. The exalta-
tion had been unprecedently rapid, and the fall
H. I.-13
194 Presidency of Bombay.
was sudden and terrible. But a lesson of pru-
dence was learned, and now, with firmer footing,
and broader and deeper foundations, the queenly
city of Bombay once again begins her onward
career as the commercial metropolis of India.
Surat, the name of which signifies "the good
city," is one of the most ancient ports of Western
India. The high, thick walls that form the ram-
parts of the city are still called Alampanah,
which means, " Protector of the Land," though
they look too dilapidated to be very much of a
safeguard. They are, however, strengthened by
numerous round towers, and form a circuit of
about six miles. It is a busy, enterprising town,
whose people seem not inclined to be idle. The
bazaars abound in beautiful and costly wares,
especially the various vessels and ornaments of
wrought iron, inlaid with gold and silver, for
which Surat is noted, the art having come down
to her from a remote antiquity. The city is
beautifully situated at the mouth of the majestic
Taptee, with every facility for a large trade.
Broach, about sixty miles north of Surat, has
long been famous for its Chandi Mmjid> " Silver
Mosque." It contains the mausoleums of the
Callian. 195
Nawabs ; and one of them, being covered with
plates of silver, has given name to the edifice.
Many of the other sarcophagi are of white marble,
beautifully carved, and are placed beneath superb
canopies of embroidered velvet.
Callian, the ancient capital of Concon, was long
one of the first commercial ports on the west of
India ; and tradition has brought down even to
our own day marvellous accounts of the wealth
and splendor it attained under the Solauki dynasty.
Its palaces and monuments furnished themes for
poets and novelists ; and a writer in the " Ratan
Mala," a famous Hindu poem of the seventh
century, thus immortalizes the grand old metropo-
lis : u The sun alternately passes six months of
the year in the north, and six months in the
south, for the sole purpose of being able to com-
pare the marvellous capital of Ceylon with the
superb city of Callian." It now, however, retains
little trace of the royal grandeur of its palmy
days, save in the ruins of ancient temples and
palaces ; its present position being that of an Eng-
lish provincial town, with the ordinarj- routine of
" reduced " greatness. But all around the sub^
urbs, half-hidden by sand and jungle-grass, lie
196 Presidency of Bombay.
fragments of columns of exquisite beauty, curi-
ously-carved lintels, bas-reliefs, and sculptures in
endless variety, where may be read the mournful
story of the past. These ruins, furnish material
enough to enrich half a dozen " collections " of
Hindu antiquities, or form the basis of a museum.
The grand old temple of Ambertuith — grand
and magnificent even in ruins — cannot fail to in-
terest with its minute and exquisitely-wrought
sculptures, all executed with a delicacy of touch
and a lavishness of adornment unknown among
other races.
Poonah, situated upon the banks of the Moota,
stands in the centre of a broad plain that stretches
out, almost treeless, to the blue mountains of Sattara.
It was once the capital of the Southern Mahratta
country, and the residence of the Peishwahs,
though it now belongs to the English, and is in-
cluded in the Bombay Presidency. The town is
still essentially native in its character and sur-
roundings, a very large proportion of the inhab-
itants being Hindus; and the streets swarming
with well-fed Brahmins, and half-naked religious
devotees who live by charity — the former, neatly-
clothed impersonations of self-satisfied ease ; and
Poonah. 197
the latter, filthy and repulsive to the last extreme.
Through the streets roam unmolested, as in every
native Indian town, multitudes of sacred oxen,
that, as representatives of deity, are permitted to
enter the bazaars and shops, eat at the stalls, and
even to block up the streets, if they feel so inclined.
The town is divided into seven quarters, called
after the seven days of the week ; and the houses,
standing in the midst of pretty gardens, are built
in the picturesque Hindu style, with tiled roofs,
wooden gables, and panels painted in bright colors,
representing flowers and animals, with various
mythological figures and scenes. Several palaces
still remain ; among them a summer residence of
the Peishwahs, in the immediate vicinity of the
celebrated Hira Baugh, " Garden of Diamonds."
In the Boudhwa, or Wednesday quarter, there are
many ancient houses, formerly occupied by nobles
of the Peish wall's court ; and castle-like abodes
with thick walls, loop-holed windows, and great
ponderous doors, that remind one of the feudal
castles of Europe of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. Very few of these ancient dwellings
are now occupied, for though many wealthy
Mahrattas return here to enjoy the riches accu-
198 Presidency of Bombay.
mulated elsewhere, they, as a rule, prefer the
more modern and cheerful-looking mansions with
which the town abounds. Among the celebrities
of Poonah, is the famous temple of Parvati, which
gives name to the lovely hill that overlooks the
Hira Baugh. A flight of handsome steps leads
from the Peishwah's summer pavilion up to the
front of this temple, on the very summit. The
temple contains several exquisite statuettes of
Parvati ; but that which attracts most admiration
is a massive silver image of Siva, holding on his
knees the statues of his wife and child, Parvati
and the young Ganesa, executed in pure gold.
Large, costly sapphires form the eyes of these
famous images, and their altars are piled perpetu-
ally with the richest oblations.
At the junction of the Moota and Moola rivers,
is the Sangam^ where the Hindus burn their dead.
There are also, on the banks of both rivers, numer-
ous small kiosks or pleasure-houses, and many
stately cenotaphs, designed to perpetuate the
memory of departed great ones, though their
ashes do not repose beneath the monuments.
These kiosks are, nearly every evening, the scenes
of mirth, music, and feasting ; inappropriate as to
NATIVE OF MADRAS.
200 Presidency of Bombay.
us seems the locality, under the very shadow of the
memorials of the dead. This is quite in accord
with the creed of the Hindu, who takes no gloomy
view of death, but regards this change of worlds not
as a cessation of being, but merely a passage from
one state of existence to another, one of the many,
perhaps thousands of the lives to be lived ere his
destiny is completed ; and as each successive turn
of the wheel opens before him the vista of another
change, whether for better or for worse, he knows
not, and does not trouble himself to inquire.
The English Government House at Poonah is
the stately palace of G-anesh Khind. It is an
imposing, marble structure, with a noble tower,
and is built on a commanding site, with a magnifi-
cent view of the varied Deccan scenery, and sur-
rounded by gardens and conservatories worthy of
an imperial palace. It was erected by Sir Bartle
Frere, while Governor of Bombay, at a cost of
$875,000. This was deemed by the English
Home Government an extravagant outlay, espe-
cially as Poonah is not the head-quarters of his
Excellency, but only an outside station which he
visits occasionally. The erection of this superb
marble palace was, at the time, quoted by Mr.
•$
/ ' ft -'
ffM
i %s*
im
YOUNG HINDOO WOMAN.
202 Presidency of Bombay.
Fawcett in the House, as " a typical instance of
the extravagance and insubordination of the gov-
ernors of Bombay." To which implied censure
Sir Bartle Frere replied, that he had built a very fine
dwelling for future governors, that would be more
regularly occupied than that at Bombay had ever
been ; that he acted within his legal powers, and
was not insubordinate, and that he had not, when
he retired from the Government of Bombay, ex-
pended all the money at his disposal ; and lastly,
that Poonah would be thenceforth, de facto the cap-
ital of the Bombay Presidency.
CHAPTER V.
PROVINCES AND PEOPLE.
CHITTAGONG is a district of British India
lying beyond the Ganges, but included in
the Presidency of Bengal. It is one hundred and
eight} -five miles long, and an average of sixty to
eighty in length. Its chief river, the Chittagong,
is formed by the junction of the Kurrumfoolee and
the Chingree, and discharges its waters into the
Bay of Bengal. A large portion of the surface is
covered by mountains, arid there are several sum-
mits that range from four thousand to eight thous-
and feet above the sea-level. The soil of the
plains and valleys is very fertile, yielding readily,
with little labor, rice, oats, hemp, sugar, tobacco,
coffee, indigo, betel-nut, mustard and ginger. The
aboriginal inhabitants resemble the Burmese and
205
206 Provinces and People.
Bengalese ; but at least two-thirds of them have
been proselyted to the Mohammedan faith.
Chittagong seems to have belonged originally to
Tiperah, and to have become a part of the king-
dom of Bengal early in the sixteenth century.
During the wars between the Monguls and
Afghans, Chittagong was held by Aracan ; but it
was captured by Aurungzebe about the close of
the seventeenth century. In 1760, it was ceded to
the East India Company by the nawab of Bengal,
and has since been under British control.
Chittagong or Islamabad, the capital, is situated
on and among a group of small and abrupt hills,
some of which form pleasant villa residences ;
and command fine sea-views. The natives live
along the valleys, in small cottages of bamboo,
embowered in groves of fruit trees, with neat veg-
etable gardens spread out in the rear. Chittagong
was once a place of some importance in commerce
and ship-building, but it has declined rapidly in
consequence of the unhealthiness of the climate,
and its ship-building interests have been trans-
ferred to Maulmein, of the Tenasserim Provinces.
These Provinces were formerly sections of the
Burmese Empire, but were annexed to the Anglo'
Aracan. 207
Indian possessions in 1826:, and are now governed
by a Commissioner, with the usual staff of Euro-
pean and native officers, anct they constitute one1
of the ten political districts of British India, ex-
tending from the Bay of Bengali on the west, to»
the Mountains of Siam on the east HI length'
about five hundred miles, with an average breadth1
of fifty miles. The country is divided into three'
provinces, Amherst, Tavoy and Mergui, with their
capital at Maulmein.
Aracan is a division of British India, including
the districts of Akyab, Sandoway, and Ramree.
It has an area of twenty-three thousand five hun-
dred square miles, and a population of about five
hundred thousand. The country abounds in hills,
with numerous intervening plains and valleys of
great fertility, counterbalanced by dense jungles,
and pestilential marshes that render most portions
of the country extremely unhealthy for Euro-
peans. Aracan is rich in salt, timber, coal, and
petroleum, and produces fine crops of rice and
tobacco. Rudimentary education is very generally
diffused, nearly all the people being able to read
and write. This country was conquered by the
Burmese in 1783, and by the British in 1824. Its
208 Provinces and People.
capital is Akyab, pleasantly located, but with an
unhealthy climate that repels immigration ; and
the coast has few harbors to invite commerce.
Assam is a province of the Bengal Presidency,
lying between two mountain ranges, offshoots of
the Himalayas, in the north-eastern extremity of
Hindustan. It was once governed by a series
of kings, concerning whom little is known until
the seventeenth century, when the Mogul Em-
perors endeavored to annex this country to their
dominions. The Assamese bravely and successfully
repelled the invasion ; but from about that period
internal dissensions arose, and the country became
a prey to civil war, declining gradually in power
until 1770, when the British troops interfered in a
conspiracy against the Rajah, and annexed a por-
tion of the province as compensation for having
acted as umpires between the Rajah and his rebel-
lious subjects. During the war with Burmah, in
1826, the British took full possession and annexed
the whole of Assam to their Indian possessions,
for reasons that to themselves at least were fully
satisfactory. This entire country, between the
mountain ranges that enclose it on three sides, con-
sists of a long, level plain, studded occasionally
Assam. 209
with small hills. It is watered by the Brahma-
putra and sixty smaller streams, so that Assam is
supposed to contain more rivers than any other
equal extent of territory in the world. The name
of the Brahmaputra is derived from two Sanscrit
words that mean " The Creator " and " The Son,"
and these Assamese claim not only that their great
river is the special favorite of their gods, but also,
that they are themselves the chief people of the
earth, having derived their origin from the Hindu
god Indra, who presides over the atmosphere, and
to whom the other gods are subordinate. The soil
of Assam is fertile, and the climate one of the
pleasantest and most salubrious in India. The
country is rich in mineral products, consisting of
coal, iron, gold dust, and petroleum. The tea-
plant is indigenous here, and is extensively culti-
vated under the auspices of the English " Assam
Tea Company." The country has about eighteen
thousand acres of land under cultivation, planted
with tea-shrubs, that produce an excellent article,
very favorably known in commerce. Sugar,
tobacco and wheat are also grown ; and silk is
produced to a limited extent. The people are
small in stature, though lithe and active, and in
H. 1-14
210 Provinces and People.
person resemble the Bengalese. They live in huts
made of mats and bamboo-poles, are rather indo-
lent in disposition, and lack energy, but are gener-
ally kind in their families and hospitable to
strangers. The prevailing religion is Brahminism,
but there are also many Mohammedans.
The Principality of Kishengurh is one of the
smallest independent states in Rajputana, and was
for a long time, part of the kingdom of Marwar.
In 1613, King Oudey Singh gave it as an appanage
to his son, Kishan Singh, who established himself
in the town that he called by his own name, and
which retains this cognomen still. When the
English began to interfere with the affairs of Raj-
putana, this little State at once acknowledged
their supremacy, and has since continued under
British protection. Kishengurh is enclosed by the
kingdoms of Marwar, Mey war, and Jeypore, and the
province of Ajmere. The sand from the neighbor-
ing desert has continued its encroachments, till it
now covers the entire surface to the depth of
several feet, rendering the land barren and worth-
less, except for a short period immediately after
the rains. But the country has valuable salt-
works and mines, that /yield the Rajah an annual
• •
Kuhengurh. 213
revenue of about $300,000, and also afford ample
employment to his subjects. The capital, a city
of about sixteen thousand inhabitants, is built on
a high hill, and overlooks the pretty, picturesque
Lake Gondola. It has a citadel on the very sum-
mit of the hill, with a double line of ramparts ;
and all the approaches to the town, even the
streets, are steep and precipitous enough to serve
as fortifications. Some portions of the ramparts
are one hundred and fifty feet high, and overlook
the country around. On one side is the town,
with its temples, palaces, arid gardens radiant in
their ripe, floral beauty ; and on the other, is seen
the Lake dotted with tiny islands, from which
arise pretty, picturesque kiosks and pavilions of
ever varying forms.
The present Rajah Adhiraj Purtwee Singh, is a
noble specimen of the Rajput race, fine-looking,
dignified and self-contained, with fierce black eyes,
and the air of an emperor to the purple born.
Cashmere, lying in the extreme north-western
section of India, is almost enclosed by the ranges
of the Karakorum and Himalaya mountains that
separate it from Tartary, Thibet, and the British
districts of Lahoul and Spiti. Its area is estimated
214 Provinces and People.
at seven hundred and fifty thousand square miles,
and includes within its limits the celebrated vale
of Cashmere, the provinces of Jamoo, Balti,
Ladakh, Chamba, and some other portions of ter-
ritory. The " Valley of Cashmere," so often the
theme of poets and novelists, is of an irregular
oval form, shut in by lofty mountains that securely
shelter it from adverse breezes ; and though some
of the summits are crowned with perpetual snow,
the temperature of the valley is mild and equable,
and the climate salubrious. This valley is nearly
six thousand feet above the sea-level ; and the
alluvial plain that forms its bottom is seventy
miles long and forty broad. It may be entered by
many passes, eleven of which are practicable for
equestrians, and several for wheeled vehicles. The
highest, including the Pir Panjal, have an elevation
of twelve thousand feet. The Jhylum, a tributary
of the Indus, is the principal river, and flows
through the Baramula Pass, receiving many tribu-
taries from the mountains before reaching the
Punjaub. Scattered through the valley are sev-
eral small lakes, which serve abundantly to irrigate
the land, which is thus rendered fertile, and pro-
duces often from thirty to sixty fold. Rice is the
The Vale of Cashmere. 215
great staple, and the common food of the country ;
but wheat, barley, maize, buckwheat and tobacco
are also cultivated, and esculent vegetables are
good and abundant. Among the fruits are those
common in temperate latitudes : apples, pears,
peaches, apricots, cherries, plums, grapes and pom-
egranates. Flowers of rare beauty and fragrance
abound, especially several varieties of Cashmerian
rose, the " Mohur," " Cloth of Gold," " Empress,"
and others, unsurpassed in the whole world for
delicacy of tint and rare perfume. The groves
of chunars, poplars and cedars, with which the
villages are adorned, were planted in the times of
the Mogul Emperors, by imperial edict, and still
flourish luxuriantly in this favored spot. The
Cashmerians stand preeminent among Indian races
for physical beauty. The men are tall, robust and
athletic, and the women of wondrous beauty of
form, and surpassing brilliancy of complexion.
They are an intelligent, educated people, fond of
poetry, and full of life and spirit ; but have the
reputation of being addicted to cunning and un-
truthfulness. The capital is Scrinaghur or Cash-
mere, and the other towns Islamabad, Shupeyon,
Pampur, and Sopur. The principal manufactures
216 Provinces and People.
in addition to the famous Cashmere shawls, are
lacquered ware in great variety, paper, gun and
pistol barrels, and attar of rose. The wool for
the shawls comes originally from Tartary and
Thibet, but is bleached, spun and dyed in Cash-
mere. The weaving is done mainly in the houses
of the workmen, after patterns furnished them
with the material. Each loom produces four or
five shawls a year, of the medium grade ; but i,
single shawl of the best quality and most intricate
pattern sometimes keeps four or five workmen
constantly busy for one or two years. The num-
ber of looms employed is estimated at about six-
teen thousand. The weavers are brought up to
the trade from infancy, and spend their whole lives
at the work, becoming constantly more expert.
Besides this, there have been in families certain se-
crets of skill in the weaving that are transmitted as
heirlooms, and not communicated to others. But it
is said that the brilliant tints, and some of the pecul
iar shades, are due to the water and atmosphere a
the country, and cannot be produced elsewhere
Handsome as are the French Cashmere shawl
manufactured in Paris, Lyons and other cities, the
very best are easily distinguished by experts, from
Cashmere. 217
the genuine India article The Maharajah of
Cashmere has full control of the exports of
shawls, sending through his own agents to various
European and Asiatic markets.
Cashmere was conquered by the Mogul Emperor,
Akbar, in 1587 ; by the Afghans in 1752 , and by
the Seikhs in 1819. It was, in 1846, included in
the territory transferred by the Seikhs to the Eng-
lish, under the treaty of Lahore, and was immedi-
ately sold by its new owners to Gholab Singh, for
the sum of 13,750,000 ; but, by the compact
between the Maharajah and the British Govern-
ment, the Rajah is to be assisted in defending his
territory against his enemies, and British supremacy
is to be acknowledged. Cashmere suffered from
an earthquake in 1828 that destroyed twelve hun-
dred of her people ; only two months later Asiatic
cholera carried off one hundred thousand in forty
days ; and in 1833, famine and pestilence com-
mitted still more frightful ravages. Famines that
have occurred during the past five years have
again made terrible havoc among the Cashmer-
ians until her population which, at the beginning
of the present century numbered eight hundred
vhousand, has been reduced to less than half that
218 Provinces and People.
number by these various casualties of pestilence,
famine and earthquake.
Afghanistan possesses almost every variety of
soil and climate ; upon the summits of the Hindu
Koorsh snow lies unbroken all the year round ;
European fruits and vegetables are grown on the
hill-side terraces seven hundred feet above the
sea-level, while on the sandy plains, dates and
other palms flourish luxuriantly ; and sugar, cotton
and rice are grown in the valleys. The country
abounds in mineral wealth. Its mines of iron,
copper, lead, salt, sulphur, saltpetre and alum
being especially rich. The two chief rivers are
the Helmund and Cabul ; and the four most im-
portant cities, Cabul the capital, Herat, Guzin and
Candahar. The Afghans are a brave, hardy race ;
in religion Sunnite Mohammedans, but very toler-
ant towards both Christians and Pagans.
It is only since the recent war with Afghanis-
tan that any portion of this great country could
be properly reckoned as a constituent of British
India. But since the English are to " control the
foreign relations of Afghanistan," and to " have as
granaries the great Kurrum and Khost Vallies,"
besides holding other important territory, formerly
Bundelcund. 219
belonging to the Afghans, some description of the
country comes properly within the scope of the
present work.*
Bundelcund is the mountainous region between
the Vindhyah table-land and the Jumna, and from the
river Scinde on the northwest to the Tousa 011
the east. The whole country is intersected with
small chains of mountains, and through the val-
leys flow small rivers, all of which fall into the
Jumna. The principal of these streams are the
Betowah, Dhesan arid Cane. The northern por-
tion of Bundelcund contains well-watered and
thickly-populated plains, but the remainder is
almost unbroken forests, said to be the finest in
India. High above the sea-level, well-watered and
near the tropics, they produce the best woods of
both Northern and Southern India ; the mhowa,
catechu, bur, tulip-wood, tamarind, teak, cedar,
and many others. Such is Bundelcund of the
present ; but the past, with its ruins of cities and
palaces, its vast dykes and templed hills, has also
a history.
Three centuries before our era this mountain
principality was a component of the Empire of
"Brief details of the history of Afghanistan will be found in chapter XXIV.
220 Provinces and People.
Bindousara, and was nearly associated with Mag-
adda. Huang Tcheng, the great Chinese traveller
of the seventh century, describes a journey through
Bundelcund, then known as Janjavati, and a " pow-
erful and prosperous kingdom." During the
eighth century it was invaded by the Rajput tribes
of the Ohandelaclan, who were in turn displaced
by the Chohans of Delhi, in the tenth century.
Then overrun by the Mussulman invasion, Bundel-
cund ceased to have a political existence, and
became a place of refuge for all the princes dispos-
sessed by the Tartars. Later, it was split up into
various small principalities, governed by bandit
chiefs, who lived by pillage and plunged the
country into ruin. In the fourteenth century,
Hurdeo Singh, a Rajput prince of the Gurwha
tribe, was expelled from the Kshatriya caste for
marrying a Bourdi slave-girl, and left the Rajputs
to go arid reside at the court of one of the smaller
sovereigns of Central India, where a young family
grew up around him. In process of time the
king's son became enamoured of Hurdeo's beauti-
ful daughter, and asked her in marriage of her
father. Hurdeo gave his consent, on condition
that the king and his whole court would be present
HINDOO WOMEN OF BOMBAY IN CKREMONIAL DBESS. 221
Assassination. 223
at a banquet to be prepared by Hurdeo's own
hand, thus forfeiting, as he himself had done, the
right to the rank Kshatriya. From affection for
his son the aged King consented to set aside his
scruples, and on the nuptial day all the court
were seated at the banquet around Hurdeo's
princely board. There, in magnificent goblets of
silver and gold, drinks containing opium were
served to the guests who, being thus deprived of
the power of resistance, fell an easy prey to
Hurdeo's hired assassins, who stood concealed,
each man armed with his weapon, behind the tap-
estry at the upper end of the hall. The Gurwha
having thus gained possession of this throne, soon
made himself master of all the surrounding
country ; and, with his sons and the numerous ad-
herents he had enlisted in his cause, he formed a
new clan known thenceforward as the Bourdilas,
or " Sons of the Slave ; " thus giving the country
its present name of Boundilakund or Bundelcund.
The Bourdilas still claim to be Rajputs ; but the
other tribes of Rajesthan refuse to recognize them ;
and regarding them as outcasts, even on their own
showing, will have no association with them.
They seem to have retained the physical traits of
224 Provinces and People.
their Rajput ancestor, and to have fallen heir to
the courage of his race ; but they inherit also the
cruelty and treachery of the founder of the Bour-
dilas clan, and " False as a Bourdila " has come to
be a proverb among the Rajputs. The other
Hindu races regard all the Bundelcund tribes as
of impure blood ; and this savage country lias
gradually become the refuge of criminals and out-
casts. Even the Brahmin of Bundelcund eats
mutton and drinks intoxicating liquors, and the
land has become noted for its brigandism. It was
in these sombre forests that the horrible religion
of the Thugs was born ; upon its lofty tabh--lands,
formidable insurgents waged a terrible warfare
against the English troops, during the mutiny of
1857. The shocking butchery of Jhansie took place
within its borders ; and there Nena Sahib took
refuge after the massacre of Cawnpore. There,
too, for years flourished the Dacoits, a horde of
highway robbers and assassins, who readily affiliate
with the barbarism that isolates the mountain re-
gion of this wild country from the other portions
of India. This ancient principality has of late
years ,been divided by the English into the dis-
tricts of Bandah, Hummerpore, Culpee, Jaloon,
THE FESTIVAL OF THE SERPENTS, BOMBAY. a»s
H. I.—15
226 Provinces and People.
Jaitpore, Churgaon and Gurota, besides a number
of native states and jaghires under petty Bourdilas
chiefs. The chief towns are Culpee, Bandah,
Jhansie, Chutturpore, Jaloon, Callinger. Into its
mountainous regions, and the portions under
native control, few travellers attempt to penetrate ;
and they are among the least known sections of
the Indian Empire.
Duttiah is the capital of a small kingdom of the
same name in the district of Bundelcund, nearly
midway on the route from Agra to Sangor. The
State is under the protection of the English, has a
territory of about eight hundred and fifty square
miles, and a population of rather more than two
hundred thousand. The town occupies a lovely,
picturesque position among a whole belt of lakes,
hills and forests. Above the red-tiled roofs of its
residences rise the spires of many temples ; and
standing out conspicuously above all, are two huge
square buildings crowned with domes and towers,
and readily recognizable as the abode of ro)ralty.
The town is surrounded by a thick wall, thirty-
seven feet high, based upon rock, and strength-
ened by round towers built into the wall, access
being gained by fortified gates, each of which has
228 Provinces and People.
its guard -house — this barricade, in times of peace,
being rendered necessary by the wild country
around. The most noticeable features of the
internal arrangements are the extreme cleanliness
and excellent condition of the streets, and the
many little running streams through the town.
The temples are numerous, of simple construction,
and somewhat peculiar form, consisting usually of
a square chapel, surmounted by a high steeple
flanked by four clock towers. Inside, there is even
greater simplicity : merely painted walls, an altar
unadorned, and the lingam of Iswara — the mystic
emblem Siva.
The palace erected by Birsing Deo, is a square
of buildings, each side being three hundred feet
long, and nearly one hundred feet in height ; and
the pinnacle of the central dome towers one hun-
dred and fifty feet above the level of the terrace.
The facade, four stories high, lias magnificent bal-
conies of carved stone. The whole building is of
granite, and constructed upon a vaulted terrace,
the arches of which are forty feet high. The first
and second stories have no court-yard, but the
rooms of the third and fourth run around a ter-
race, while on a level with the second, in the
Birsing-Deo. 229
middle of this court-yard rises a square tower
divided into four stories. This tower supports the
central dome, and contains the rooms designed
especially for the private apartments of the
king.* One can see in all these details the con-
stant fear of assassination under which these
Indian Princes live, even in times of peace, and
the wonderful ingenuity displayed in constructing
the means of warding off danger. Everything is
massive and strong, displaying the great genius of
King Birsing Deo, and the guilty fears that beset
the notorious Bonrdilas, whose very name has
become legendary. The enormous proportions of
this feudal castle unfit it for ordinary occupancy,
especially for so small a court as that of Duttiah ;
but in case of a siege, quite a large garrison could
be accommodated here, and the king could remain
in his own special apartments with all his usual
belongings, and even his ordinary privacy, with
his own family about him, and surrounded on all
sides by his soldiers and guards, having thus the
security without the publicity of life in an ordi-
nary fort.
* See India and its Native Princes, p. 319, from which the above is con-
densed.
230 Provinces and People.
On the south of the city is the palace in present
use — a large, many-storied edifice, built in a
mixed style of architecture. In front of the pal-
ace is a reservoir, with u fine fountain, around
which eight sculptured elephants continually spout
forth copious streams of clear water.
The town has an excellent college, founded by
the present sovereign, giving instruction to a hun-
dred non-resident students in Persian, Oorchoo,
and English, besides the ordinary course in Hindus-
tanee. The Professors belong to the Benares
University ; and the college has the reputation of
being well-conducted, and the discipline excellent.
Six miles northwest of Duttiah, is Mount Son-
naghur, the " Golden Mount," a noted place of
pilgrimage for the Jains of Central India. Son-
•uaghur is the last of a small chain of hills, about
one hundred and fifty feet high, that rise out of a
vast plain. The hills form pyramids of huge
blocks of granite, some of which stand upright,
and are worshipped by the people as natural lin-
gams. A little village runs around the base of the
rock, but the sides and summits of every hill are
crowned with temples of picturesque beauty.
There are about eighty in all, some of which are
PERSIANS IN BOMBAY.
Dholepore. 233
supposed to date back to the thirteenth century,
and the most modern to the sixteenth.
From a distance the temples seem piled one
upon another, and some hanging, as it were, over
the precipice, while at other points the rocks seem
suspended above the temples and ready to fall and
crush them. The scene is all the more grand that
there is not a tree or shrub ai^where in the vicin-
ity — nothing to break the solemn grandeur of the
imposing view.
The precise date of the founding of the native
state of Dholepore is uncertain ; though it is
known that during the ninth century a Rajput
Prince, named Dhaula, established himself on the
banks of the Chumbul and built a fortress that
was surrendered to Baber in 1526.
By the treaty of 1806, between the Maharajah
of Dholepore and the English, it was agreed that
the king should retain absolute authority over his
own territory, free from all right of intervention
on the part of the English.
Dholepore, the capital, has about forty thousand
inhabitants ; though from frequent inundations of
the river, and from the casualties of war, the city
has somewhat declined during the past few years.
234 Provinces and People.
The city is about thirty-six miles from Agra. It
contains in addition to the Maharajah's palace, a
Mohammedan Mosque, and several temples that
are worthy of notice. The Mosque, erected by
Shah-Jehan in 1634, is built of red sandstone, and
of exquisite workmanship. It is surrounded by
an extensive Mussulman Cemetery, that contains
the Mausoleum, a ver}' marvel of beauty, erected
in memory of a Sayud missionary. The sacred
lake of Muchkounder lies hidden among the moun-
tains about two miles from the town. According
to the legend, it was created by the god Krishna
to reward the hero Morichou, who had saved the
god's life, and for this reason is held in great ven-
eration by the Krishnayas.
The present Maharajah, who received the Prince
of Wales with such empressement, is spoken of as
"a charming boy, who speaks English well, and
delights in manly sports ; and became at once the
friend of the Prince, who took to him greatly."
He furnished a grand Sowaree on the occasion of
the Prince's visit, and a handsome dejeuner to the
Europeans. This is the younj grandson of the
genial old prince, Maharajah Rana Bag wan Singh,
who entertained M. Rousselet ^nd his suite so
Rana Bagwan Singh. 235
kindly in 1866, and whom he describes as having a
gentle, manly expression of countenance, and as
wearing a steel helmet attached to a narrow circle
of gold, and covered with shining emeralds, while
from his breastplate depended " innumerable chains
composed of pearls and diamonds." * This much-
adorned prince was so highly esteemed by his
subjects, that they bestowed on him the appel-
lation of the " Friend of his people."
Leaving the town of Dholepore, before reaching
the extreme border of the state, Nourabad comes
in view, opposite to which an old Hindu bridge
spans the river Sauk. It is built of solid granite
supported by seven pointed arches, and is said to
have been erected in the sixteenth century by a
society of philanthropic beggars, who obtained the
money by selling consecrated oils from village to
village. Its name, Tali-ka-paul, "Bridge of Oil
merchants," seems to give confirmation to the
tradition.
Nourabad was, in the days of the Padishas, a
town of note and capital of one of the provinces
of North Malwar. The high walls, defended by
square towers and superb monumental gates, are
* Native Princes of India, page 297.
236 Provinces and People.
still standing ; and it contains a palace built by
Aurungzebe and the Mausoleum of the celebrated
Gonna Begum, who was the author of the famous
" Taza-bi-Taza," and other poems of the last cent-
ury.
The English high-road from Dholepore crosses
the Chumbul by a bridge of boats into Gwalior,
the territory of the powerful Maharajah Scindia.
CHAPTER VI.
GWALIOR AND SC INDIA.
ANCIENT Gwalior had its fortress on the
summit of an isolated rock, three hundred
and forty feet high, two miles long, and three hun-
dred yards at its greatest breadth. The great
citadel stands as a sentinel at the entrance of the
valley, and tradition places the founding at several
centuries before our era. In 773, Rajah Sourya
Sena strengthened the fortress by constructing the
ramparts. The Kachwas held the fortress till
967 ; the Chohans to 1196, when it fell into the
hands of Shahib-u-din, and in 1234, into those of
the Emperor Altamsh. The Touar Rajputs be-
came its masters in 1410 ; in 1519, it was annexed
to the crown of Delhi, by Ibrahim Lodi ; and at
the dismemberment of the Mogul Empire it fell
237
238 Grwalior and Scindia.
alternately into the hands of Jats and Mahrattas.
After 1779, it suffered various vicissitudes ; but
in 1805 it was restored to the Scindias by treaty.
Then followed half a century of comparative
peace, and the Fortress itself has remained in the
hands of its lawful owners. But in 1857, the
Maharajah Scindia refusing to aid in the Seapoy
mutiny, the fort was attacked by one of Nena
Sahib's detachments, and fell temporarily into
their hands ; but General Rose at once dislodged
the enemy by planting his batteries on the sur-
rounding heights. The attachment of Scindia to
the British came very near costing him his throne,
and he afterwards lost prestige among his own
people by the discovery and surrender of a sup-
positions Nena Sahib, heir in their eyes of the
Peishwa. Yet, under the pretext of protecting
the }7oung Prince from future outbreaks of his re-
bellious subjects, the English have ever since
retained possession of the plateau. By the admis-
sion of the English themselves, there is no ques-
tion that Lord Canning promised, in 1859, to
restore it to its rightful lord ; but the plea of to-
day for the non-fulfilment of the pledge, is that
"Lord Canning did not promise to restore it at
A PARSES MERCHANT AT BOMBAY.
Maharajah Scindia. 241
once, but only that the plateau should be
yielded up at some convenient season.'' This
seems but shallow reasoning, if those on the in-
terested side are to be the sole judges of the con-
veniency. But they overcome all scruples by
maintaining that " it is very useful to Scindia to
have a British garrison where he can be protected
against the revolt of his own army and subjects."
The real solution of the enigma is no doubt that
the Maharajah Scindia is one of the cases that
present formidable difficulties in the way of the
Anglo-Indian Empire. The Prince delights in
soldiering, and good judges in the English army
say they have few men in their own service, " who
could put a Division of the three arms through a
good field-day so well as Scindia does." His
" Review," before the Prince of Wales, when,
robed in scarlet and gold he rode at the head of
a " truly brilliant staff," was pronounced " a grand
success ; " and so powerful a ruler, with these
martial tendencies, and abundant leisure for brood-
ing and planning, must be, in his devotion to
" drilling and manceuvering," more or less cause oi
anxiety to the " Paramount Power." The admin-
istration of the government in this State is greatly
H. I.-16
242 Crwalior and Scindia.
superior to that of the majority of Indian States,
owing largely, no doubt, to the wise counsels of
Sir Dinkur Rao, a dignified, courteous, far-seeing
statesman, who was at the helm of state during
the minority of the Prince; and probably in an
equal degree to the noble character of the present
Maharajah himself. This nobleness may be in-
ferred from his answer, when the Bombay Gov-
ernment desired to buy the site for the Palace of
Gunnesh Khind. *• A man," was the lordly reply,
"does not sell his patrimony, but he can give it to
his friend"
The counsels of Sir Dinkur Rao may have had
an influence in Scindia's decision to withhold his
powerful aid from the rebels; and it is possible
that the Maharajah thus preserved the independ-
ence of his kingdom. It is almost certain that the
cause of the English was saved at a very critical
juncture by the course of Scindia and his Minister.
The English rewarded the service of the latter
by conferring on him the order of knighthood ; to
the former, it was repaid by the unjust retention
of his f( >rt, which he lost solely by refusing to join
hands with the foes of England in the hour of her
extremest need. Despite all this, the Maharajah
Town of G-walior. 243
Scindia maintains in his own realm a truly regal
sway, while he disports a genuine royalty that is of
himself and not of his surroundings.
The present town of Gwalior extends to the
north and east of the fortress between the Rock
and the river Sawunrika. It was a large and
handsome settlement with some thirty or forty
thousand inhabitants ; but the founding of a new
capital by the Scindias, two miles off, checked the
growth of Gwalior, and attracted not only the
nobility, but the higher classes of trade to the
court of Lashkar. The architecture of the houses
of Gwalior is good, but the streets are narrow,
and there is but one monument of an earlier date
than the sixteenth century. The two most noted
are the Jumma Musjid, a handsome mosque flanked
by two lofty minarets, and the Hatti Durwaza,
" Gate of Elephants," a carious, triumphal arch,
situated on a mound at the entrance of the town.
Hidden among the trees, at a short distance from
the fortress, is a large palace, the exterior of which
is adorned with bright blue enamel ; and its fine
monumental gates, still guarded with portcullis
and iron doors, defend the entrances to the fort-
ress. From one of these there is a superb tri-
244 G-walior and Scindia.
umphal arch; and there are monuments, bas-
reliefs, cisterns, and caverns, while the very rocks
contain chambers, altars, and statues innumerable.
Opposite the fourth gate there is a monolith, sup-
posed to date back to the fifteenth century, an
elegant temple cut out of a single block of stone,
and crowned with a superb pyramidal spire. The
k< King Pal " Palace, with its six massive towers,
all adorned with balconies and pilasters, its Jain
arches and sculptured bands, its blue and rose
enamels, and exquisite mosaics, is a very wonder
of beauty and strength ; and standing on the
utmost verge of the precipice, a gigantic union of
rampart and palace.
The Scindias are of a powerful Mahratta family
of husbandmen, of the Sudra caste, of the prov-
ince of Satara. The first who carried arms and
rescued their name from obscurity was Kanaji
Scindia who, about the year 1725, went to the
court of Poonah, and obtained the important post
of slipper-bearer to the Peishwa. One day, while
the Peishwa was detained longer than usual, his
slipper-bearer fell asleep from very weariness of
waiting, and when, at the conclusion of the audi-
ence, the Peishwa looked for his slippers, he found
A HINDOO TEMPLE IN THE BLACK TOWN, BOMBAY. 245
The Sleepy Slipper-bearer. 247
Ranaji fast asleep with the slippers clasped tightly
to his bosom. The Peishwa was so touched with
this proof of devotion that he at once raised
Scindia to the highest office in his gift. Ranaji
had the wisdom and tact to profit by his good
fortune, and so to make use of his daily increasing
influence that he became ere long one of the
most popular leaders of the Mahratta troops ; and
at his death, he left a vast kingdom in the heart of
Malwa to his son Mahaji. At the terrible battle
of Paniput, 1761, Mahaji fell, wounded by an axe,
and was left among the dead. Ultimately, he was
picked up by a water-carrier and taken to the
Deccan ; and later, on his return to the court of
Poonah, Scindia was again entrusted with the
administration of the government. With true
patriotism he devoted himself to the public ser-
vice, using all the power he acquired for the benefit
of the country, respecting its institutions, and re-
jecting all overtures from the English, by whom
he was accredited as sovereign of Maiwa and
Doab. His death occurring in 1794, he was suc-
ceeded by his nephew, Daolut Rao Scindia, an
energetic and promising youth of thirteen, who, with
consummate skill in the disposition of his forces,
248 Gwalior and Seindia.
extended his dominion to the Punjaub ; and
having obtained ' possession of the person of the
Padisha, kept him in retirement, on a comfort-
able pension, while he himself replaced the deposed
sovereign. He was the determined foe of the
Anglo-Indian rule, and he put forth diligent
effort to transform his undisciplined troopers into
an army capable of contesting the advances of the
English. His expeditions into the Deccan having
brought him in contact with several French adven-
turers, the remnants of General Lattry's army,
their services were secured, and through their aid,
the Mahratta troops were rapidly re-organized and
fitted for effective service. For a time the Eng-
lish were often defeated by these well-organized
battalions of Mahrattas, who were brave as lions,
and had only needed disciplined officers to guide
their movements to render them almost invincible.
But unfortunately for them, Perron, one of their
best officers, swayed by private interest, accepted
the overtures of Wellington (then Sir Arthur
Wellesley), and retired to private life with a
handsome fortune. Another, Bourquien, was
defeated at Delhi and made prisoner; and thus
deprived of the valuable aid of his officers, Daolut
Scindia Conquered. 249
Rao was completely overpowered at the battle of
Lasswari in November 1803, and compelled to
negotiate for peace with the promise to dismiss all
his French officers, and never again to reinstate
them in his army. Other defeats following, in
1818, Scindia agreed to a final treaty of peace with
the English, whereby he relinquished his possession
of Delhi and the Padisha, and agreed to retire
with his forces beyond the Chumbul, and to allow
the English to form two camps of occupation
within his territory. Dankhaji, Daolut's successor,
dying in 1843, without issue, quarrels concerning
the succession followed, but by the intervention
of the English, after two hard-fought battles, the
nephew of Dankhaji was seated on the throne,
and the succession established in this branch of
the family.
The territories of Scindia now extend from the
Chumbul to the Satpura Mountains, an area of
about thirty-three thousand miles, including West-
ern Malwa, part of Bundelcund, of Haracouti,
and of Omultwara. The population is estimated
variously at from five to seven millions, but in the
absence of a regular census it is difficult to deter-
mine precisely the real number. The present
250 G-walior and Scindia.
capital is Gwaliorka Lashkar, or the " Camp of
G vvali or " — its name agreeing well with the
origin of this new city. When Mahaji invaded
this portion of India he established his head-
quarters two miles from Gwalior, and wishing to
maintain his Mahrattas in active service, and to
prevent any intercourse between them and the
conquered people, he formed a permanent camp on
the spot where he himself lived under canvas
among his followers. This camp became his cap-
ital, whence his hordes of soldiers made plundering
tours over all the surrounding country, returning
occasionally to camp, where they remained during
the rains. Little by little the tents were replaced
by houses, where the soldiers lived surrounded by
their families, bazaars sprang up, the king's tent
was transformed into a royal palace, and the camp
became a town. Although still called " Lashkar,"
it is one of the most splendid cities in India, with
a population of full three hundred thousand.
The fort is separated from the new capital by a
plain, bounded by a picturesque range of hills
consecrated to the monkey-god Hunouman, and
the entrance to the suburb of the Satti Ghati or
" Broken Mountain." The name seems to indicate
A n Indian Elysium. 253
the deep cut through the mountain that forms the
road between the suburb and the town. This
suburb is composed of the loveliest of Indian
villas, the summer residences of the nobles of
Scindia's court — a perfect Elysium wreathed in
orange and myrtle, the air redolent with delicious
perfumes, and vocal with the sweet songs of a
thousand birds. The town contains the old palace
of the Scindias, a vast group of buildings in the
style of Digh; and the new palace built by the
present king, in a mixed style of Hindu and Ital-
ian architecture which is less pretty than the old ;
but within, everything is superbly beautiful, large,
airy, well-ventilated apartments, with sculptures,
frescoes and hangings, pictures, mirrors and furni-
ture faultless and exquisitely lovely. Upwards
of three hundred thousand leaves of gold were
used in decorating the reception-rooms ; and the
grand dining-room, said to be one of the finest
saloons in the world, has chandeliers of wondrous
beauty and most unique design, and the walls are
lined with immense mirrors of exquisite workman-
ship. The bedstead, washing service, and bath of
the prince are all of solid silver, as are also all the
lamps of the private apartments.
254 Gwalior and Scindia.
The old palace of the kings of Gwalior covers
an immense area on the east of the plateau. It is
not the work of any one prince or dynasty, but has
been added to by each from the time of the six-
teenth century.
The temple of Adinath is an unusually fine
specimen of the old Jain architecture of the six-
teenth century, similar to the ancient sanctuaries
of Mount Aboo ; and many of the superb ara-
besques that adorn the pillars are cut in the pol-
ished stone with wonderful effect.
The great Cihara temple, standing in the centre
of the plateau, must have been Buddhist at the
first, as there is still discernible against the wall
in the large apartment on the ground floor the
outline of a gigantic statue of Buddha, showing
where it stood against the wall. It is probable,
however, that the Ja'ins took possession of the
temple and devoted it to their own worship after
the expulsion of the Buddhists from India. From
this point extend the long line of English barracks
which, neat, orderly and well-kept as they unques-
tionably are, must be a terrible source of annoy-
ance to the Maharajah, and a perpetual reminder
of the broken faith of his allies. Possibly these
Attar of Eases. 255
associations and the foundation upon which they
rest may account for the sad, far-away look of the
eyes, and the almost melancholy expression about
the whole face of this noble prince, giving the
features when in repose an older look than their
forty years would warrant. But it is a noble,
princely face withal, and replete, as is every gest-
ure and attitude, with a dignity truly royal.
The ceremony of attar and pan, that always
concludes an Indian " Durbar," i. e., a full-dress
reception given by a sovereign or personage of
exalted rank — is, at this court performed with
more than the ordinary expenditure of royal mu-
nificence. Each guest receives a dainty handker-
chief of delicately embroidered India muslin,
which he places folded on the palm of his right
hand ; then the Maharajah rises, and going for-
ward to each in turn, pours attar of roses on the
handkerchief, and presents the visitor with betel-
nut, cerie*-leaves and cardamoms ; at the same time
throwing about the neck a garland of jessamine or
tube roses fastened with a string of small pearls.
It is only to European visitors and to natives of
the very highest rank that an Indian Maharajah
performs this ceremony in person, while others of
256 G-walior and Scindia.
less exalted position are waited on by one of the
ministers.
A single example will suffice to show the method
of governing adopted by the native princes of
India in the olden times, before the advent of
British rule. Meywar is one of the grandest of
the native states, having for its capital, Oudey-
pore, " City of the Rising Sun," and for its sover-
eign the Maharana, who is the recognized repre-
sentative of the famous Indian " Race of the
Sun," and acknowledged by all the Rajput Princes
as the head of their nation. Yet, in this very
kingdom of Meywar there has always existed a
Feudal Council composed of sixteen Raos or
Dukes, whose influence and authority is so power-
ful as almost to nullify the kingly prerogative, or to
render the power of the sovereign little more than
nominal. These Raos, who are usually descend-
ants of the Royal family, have the kingdom divided
among themselves into large fiefs entirely inde-
pendent of each other, and, to a great extent, of
the general government. Each governs in his own
capital after his own will, rarely visiting Oudey-
pore and still more rarely referring any decision to
the Maharana — not opposing his authority, but
H. I.— 17 PARSEE LADY AND HER DAUGHTER.
257
A Feudal Council. 259
almost ignoring it. The chief of these Dukes or
Feudal Lords is the Rao of Baidlah who, govern-
ing a large territory and having his capital near to
Oudej'pore, is a frequent visitor of the Maharana,
presenting himself at the court without previous
announcement, and without any humiliating cere-
mony, but always with dignity and deference to
the king. The present Rao, a fine-looking old
courtier, is both genial and politic, living on ex-
cellent terms with his Prince, and at the same
time maintaining kindly relations with the Eng-
lish Government. He very evidently favors the
introduction of European commerce and improve-
ments, but declines to abate one tittle of the
splendor or ancient routine of the court of Oudey-
pore, or one tittle of the deference due to his Sov-
ereign from the " outside world," or to the feudal
rights of the nobles. He is, nevertheless, in high
favor with Queen Victoria, who presented to him
a magnificent jewelled sword in return for the
protection and support he afforded to European
fugitives from Indore and Neemuch during the
mutiny of 1857. Tt was due mainly to his influ-
ence that they were protected in the little island
of Jugmunder, and for so many months were fur-
260 Grwalior and Scindia.
nished with all needed supplies at the expense of the
Oucleypore Government. He belongs to the tribe of
the Chohans, and enjoys several rather curious pre-
rogatives, the strangest of which is, that till the in-
signia of royalty are sent to him at Baidlah on the
third of the month of Samvatsiri, when, having
donned the regal paraphernalia, he goes in state,
attended with all the pomp and parade of a sover-
eign, to visit the Rana. who, in person receives the
illustrious guest at the door and conducts him
within. A few hours later, he comes forth, and
returns to his own feudal palace, personating no
longer the Rana, but once more occupying his own
position as Hao of Baidlah.
Most native prisons are clean, comfortable and
well-kept. The superintendent lives on the prem-
ises in a separate building; and the prisoners are
lodged under great sheds, where they sleep on the
floor in lines of fifty or more. Their chains are
fastened at night to long iron bars that run the
entire length of the halls; but the shackles are
riveted only to one ankle. The chain is seldom
heavy, except where the prisoner has attempted to
escape and been recaptured ; and the length is
sufficient to permit running and lying down with
Native Prisons. 261
ease. There is no special uniform for convicts,
but each man wears the clothes he happened to
have on when first brought to the prison. Scru-
ples of caste are carefully respected, every man re-
ceiving his food raw, and preparing it himself, for
which purpose he is permitted to light a fire and
draw water at option. Prisoners are generally
employed in making roads, and keeping them in
repair ; but they work only a few hours daily, and
are not under strict surveillance. Severe punish-
ments are seldom inflicted under native officers,
except in cases of extreme aggravation.
CHAPTER VII.
CLIMATE AND SOIL.
EXTENDING over so vast a region, there is
of course great diversity of climate and
productions in the different sections of India.
The Monsoons, or periodical Trade Winds, also
exert a decided influence on temperature, more
especially near the coast. The Northeast Monsoon
commences about the middle of November, and
the Southwest, towards the middle of May, though
the time varies somewhat in different latitudes,
and the change of the Monsoon is nearly always
attended by stormy weather, sometimes by fright-
ful hurricanes and destructive tornadoes. The
seasons are three in number ; hot, rainy, and cold.
The temperature of respective localities is mod-
ified, not only by latitude but by local surround-
262
Seasons. 265
ings; but after making due allowance for these
causes, the hottest months all through India will
be March, April, May and June. Then follow
the rains, from June 15th to October 15th, when
the showers fall heavy and fast for part, at least, of
every day, and sometimes for many days together,
without intermission, till the low lands are covered
with water, and the roads in some localities utterly
impassable. In other places, fields and meadows,
before parched and dry, are clothed in emerald-
green, shrubs and flowers assume brighter tints,
and all nature, vegetable and animal, looks re-
freshed and revivified by this welcome change from
the long, hot, sweltering days of the exhaust-
ing summer. About the middle of October the
rains subside, the atmosphere clears, and a pure,
cool (not cold), salubrious temperature succeeds.
This is, to Europeans, the pleasantest time of all
the year, and the most healthful. But orientals, as
a rule, prefer the hot months, and seem glad when
the " cold season," as they call it, is over. Thus
every year, for eight months, the sun shines stead-
ily, with rarely a shadow across his cheery face ;
and then for four months the rain falls without
" let or hindrance." Yet a beneficent Father has
266 Climate and Soil.
provided an antidote for what seems to us in tem-
perate latitudes a ruinous drought, during those
eight rainless months. The dews all over South-
ern Asia are very heavy, not only diminishing the
heat, but greatly refreshing vegetation and per-
fecting growth, that must otherwise have been
stunted and blasted by excessive heat.
In Jeypore, and some other portions of the Raj-
put territory where the lands are hilly and broken,
the seasons are more decided than in Southern
India. The winters are so cold that the thermom-
eter falls often to zero in the early morning hours,
during the month of January, while the summers
are dry and hot. In March, the hot winds, the
great scourge of Upper India, begin to blow, the
seavsoii being ushered in by storms of sand carried
along with sucli violence as to do great damage,
especially in the province of Malwa and the Jat
country. The heavens are overcast by pale yel-
low clouds, charged with sand and vapor, that in
falling are unpleasant beyond measure. These
storms are succeeded by hot winds from the west,
their heat being still more increased by their pass-
ing for hundreds of miles over the burning sands
of Persia and Beloochistan. Such is the intense
The Madras Climate. 267
heat of these winds, that during their prevalence
the ground becomes parched, trees cast their
leaves, and vegetation is completely at a stand.
At Madras, this hot wind prevails during the
months of April and May. Sweeping over the
Western Ghauts, it deposits there its moisture,
and crossing the burning plains of Mysore and the
Carnatic, it reaches the eastern shore of Southern
India so dry and heated as to be almost as unen-
durable as the air from an open furnace. Animal
and vegetable nature wilt beneath its influence,
and Europeans, or those who have come from
colder lands, shrink from this sirocco within the
shelter of their houses where every window and
door facing the west must be carefully closed, and
covered with thick mats. These are kept con-
stantly wet, day and night, by coolies who stand
with buckets of water, and every half-hour give
the mats a thorough drenching from ceiling to
floor. As the result of the wind being brought in
contact with the mass of wet matting, it loses a
portion of its heat, and the surrounding air is
renewed and freshened. Without these precau-
tions it would be impossible for foreigners to live
in an atmosphere, exposed to which, flowers in
268 Climate and Soil.
vases will turn black and crisp, as from the effects
of fire ; the covers of pamphlets curl up, and the
face of furniture becomes so heated that one can
scarcely bear his hand upon it. Happily, these
winds are intermittent, blowing only for a few
weeks at a time, and then there is a brief interval
of less exhaustive heat, after which the hot
winds again prevail, and so on until about the
middle of June, when the blessed rain begins
to descend, giving new life and vigor to every-
thing that lives and breathes. One or two heavy
storms change the whole aspect of nature — the
sand disappears beneath a luxuriant carpet of em-
erald grass, bright flowers dot the meadows where
shortly before they would have been parched with
heat, and trees are clothed in verdure that will
be quickly followed b}^ blossoms and ripe fruit.
But India is withal a good land to dwell in — fer-
tile, productive and healthful to those accustomed to
the heat, yielding freely, and with comparatively
little labor, an abundance of the good things
needed to sustain life and supply all the wants of
its teeming millions. This was eminently true,
with only very rare exceptions, in the former times,
before the advent of British power in India ; and
Famines. 271
that days of plenty have, so frequently of late
years been supplanted by frightful and oft-repeated
famines, seems due, not to the country itself, nor
to its native inhabitants, but to three items of
mismanagement on the part of its foreign custo-
dians. The first of these is the enforced culture
of opium, taking up extensive tracts of the best
lands that might otherwise be devoted to the
growth of breadstuffs, and supply food to thous-
ands of those who annually perish from famine.
Much additional land has been occupied by the
English in the construction of railways for their
own accommodation, in conveying troops from
point to point, erecting extensive military barracks,
forts and arsenals, and the building of palatial
Government Houses, Residences and Villas with
extensive Parks and Gardens, thus still more
diminishing the area of " bread-lands " and the
consequent resources of the people. The second
cause of destitution is found in the excessive tax-
ation, that keeps the laboring classes, cultivators
especially, so ground down by poverty, that they
can barely live in times of plenty, and, having
absolutely nothing laid by with which to purchase
redemption from death when the famine is upon
272 Climate and Soil
them, they have no alternative but to die of starva-
tion. The third cause is the lack of sufficient irri-
gation, which England might surely afford to
supply in return for all the territory and treasure
she has appropriated in that fair land. Despite
the injustice of the compulsory cultivation of
opium, and the large tracts of land thus perverted
from their legitimate use, it is believed by com-
petent judges that with such irrigation as could be
readily supplied, this broad land might still be
made to furnish abundant sustenance for all its
people. But impoverished as the masses are, this
great work of irrigation could never be done by
the tax-payers, and must, if accomplished at all, be
the work of those who appropriate the immense
revenues of the Indian Empire. One who was
upon the ground at the time, states that " The en-
hancement of the land-tax in 1874 and 1875
resulted, in the three Collectorals of Sholopore,
Poonah, and Satara alone, in more than forty
thousand evictions in a single year ! What wonder
that the famine of 1876 and 1877 raged with
most severity in the Sholopore Collectorate, where
most of these evictions took place."
Of the warmer portions of India, rice, which is
Productions. 273
the common food of the people, is the staple prod-
uct; but wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and
maize are all extensively cultivated in different
sections of the land. During the past few years,
India has become one of the largest wheat-growing
countries in the world, and it is believed, that with
the completion of the Indus Railway the price of
transportation will be sufficiently reduced to en-
courage a very extensive exportation of wheat
from the Punjaub. Cotton, sugar, indigo and
tobacco yield abundant returns in many parts ;
esculents and kitchen vegetables are varied and
abundant, and fruits of both tropic and temperate
latitudes flourish in the several sections. Among
the specialties of India, there is one found in the
Cashmere Valley not common elsewhere. This is
the Singhara or Water-nut (tra-pa-bis-pinosa) of
which more than sixty thousand tons are annually
gathered from the Wutter Lake. This nut, though
rather insipid, is considered very nutritious, and
thousands of Cashmerians subsist on it entirely.
The nut is usually ground and made either into
paste, or baked in leaves. It is also eaten boiled
or roasted. Experiments prove that very many of
the European vegetables will grow readily and
H. L— 18
274 Climate and Soil
well on Indian soil by irrigation. Thus far, how-
ever, they have been cultivated only by the native
nobles and by the English, and they can rarely be
purchased either in the bazaars or from the farmers.
The potato seems, of all that have been tried, the
most difficult to acclimate ; and except on the
Neilgherries, the Ghauts, and the abutments of the
Himalayas, the potato growth has proved a fail-
ure. The lack of accustomed vegetables, and of
the light-raised bread that constitutes so impor-
tant an article of diet at home, not only interferes
with the comfort of foreign travellers in India,
but is also a fruitful source of ill-health, especially
to the unacclimated stranger. There is, however,
considerable compensation found in the abundance,
variety and excellent quality of the fruits, of
which many varieties, ripe, luscious and freshly-
gathered may be placed on the board every day in
the year.
India has also its vegetable curiosities, both of
fruits and trees. The Cashew nut — anacardium
occidentale — is an out-branching tree, seldom more
than fifteen or sixteen feet high, and in appearance
somewhat resembling the walnut tree, with large,
oval, blunt, alternate leaves, and a fragrant, rose-
Trees and Fruits. 275
colored flower. The fruit is pear-shaped, and its
curious feature is a crescent or kidney-shaped nut
growing on the end, outside of the fruit where it
looks odd enough in its grave coat of russet-brown.
The fruit itself has a pretty, pinkish tinge, and an
acid, though rather agreeable taste. The nuts,
roasted, are both palatable and nutritious.
The Banian, ficus Jndica. is the king of the
Indian forests, a stately, royal-looking patriarch,
that stands in hoary grandeur, surrounded by his
descendants of three and four centuries old. It
lias the faculty of throwing off from its branches
supplementary roots that grow very rapidly up-
ward and soon become in their turn stems for the
support of the parent branches, thus extending
wider and wider their domain. The Indians have
a legend that it was from a Banian in the garden
of Eden that our first parents " gathered fig-leaves
and made themselves aprons," and that it was also
a Banian that gave them their first idea of con-
structing houses for habitation.
This tree produces small figs that grow in
bunches on the stems and branches. Small fruit
for so huge a tree. But this seems one of the
peculiarities of the trees of the tropics. The
276 Climate and Soil.
lovely tamarind tree that grows to fully a hundred
feet in height, and fifteen feet in circumference,
with branches widely extended, has a dense foliage
of bright green, composite leaves, in form and
size nearly resembling the little sensitive plant.
The flowers also are small, hanging in golden-hued
clusters, veined with scarlet, and the fruit is in
pods, like beans, three or four inches in length.
Near the village of Rataupee, on the banks of the
Nerbudda, is the famous Kabirabar, the oldest and
largest Banian in India. The Hindu tradition is,
that it was planted by the sage Kabira before the
Christian era. By the continual increase of its
branches, shooting downwards and sending forth
new stems, it had grown to cover an area of more
than a thousand yards i:~ circumference. Dur-
ing the first decade of the present century this
great tree was seriously injured by a hurricane,
and though gradually recovering, it does not yet
cover more than a circuit of seven hundred yards.
The central trunk has long ago disappeared, and
the vacancy is filled by a picturesque little temple.
Miss Britain, of Calcutta, while on a recent visit
to an ancient temple in Allahabad, saw, in a dark
corner of a grotto under ground, a pepul tree
A Useful Tree. 279
which has been growing for hundreds of years in
utter darkness. The leaves of this pepul are per-
fectly white, frosted with the centuries, and rising
as an imperial crown above its hoary head.
The Mhowah or Mahwah, cassia-latifolia, is
one of the most important trees of the Indian
forest. It has a straight trunk of immense diam-
eter, its branches are raised gracefully like the
sconces of a candelabra, and its dark green foliage
is spread out in successive stories, casting a thick
shade all about the tree. Towards the end of
February its leaves fall quite suddenly, leaving
the tree completely bare. These leaves are gath-
ered, and used for bedding, roofing, and caps or
hats. A few days after the shedding of the leaves
the candelabras fill rapidly with masses of flowers,
looking like small, round fruit, and arranged in
clusters. The petals, which are pale yellow, form
a berry about as large as an ordinary grape, which
leaves room for the stamen to pass through a
small aperture, and when fully ripe these petals
fall naturally. The Indians only remove the
brush-wood from around the tree, and every
evening the fallen flowers form a thick bed which
is carefully collected. This shower continues for
280 Climate and Soil.
several days, a single tree yielding an average
weight of one hundred and twenty-five pounds of
flowers each year. These flowers are the manna
of the jungle, and their greater or less abundance
decides the famine or plenty of the region. When
fresh they have rather a pleasant taste, and the
natives consume great quantities in this state.
They also make them into cakes, and into quite a
variety of dishes. But the larger portion is dried
and laid by for use during the year till the coming of
the next crop ; and after having been cured, the blos-
soms are ground into flour, that is baked in loaves
or cakes. By fermentation the Mhowah flowers
produce a pleasant wine ; by distillation a strong
brandy, and of the residue, good vinegar is made.
When the flowers have disappeared the leaves re-
turn, and rapidly cover the tree again ; and in
April the fruit comes to replace the flowers. The
fruit is almond-shaped, with a violet-colored shell
covering a smooth, hard envelope, that contains a
delicate almond, pure white and very luscious.
These nuts are used for cakes, and eaten also in
form of paste; and by pressure they make an ex-
cellent oil, after which, the refuse serves for fatten-
ing buffaloes. The bark of the tree yields woody
The Mhowah. 281
fibre, used for making ropes ; and the wood is val-
uable for building, as it is one of the few species
of timber that will resist the attacks of the white
ant. The Ghounds, Bheels, Mhairs, and Minas
regard this tree as equal to the gods ; they hold
their solemn assemblies beneath its shade, where
also, contracts, betrothals and marriages are ar-
ranged ; on its branches they suspend offerings
and sacrifices ; and around its roots they spread
those mysterious circles of stones that represent
their objects of worship. They will fight desper-
ately in defence of their Mhowahs ; and where
these trees disappeared the Bheel and the Ghound
are seen no more. This much-esteemed tree is
occasionally cultivated in the plain, but it is indig-
enous to the mountain regions.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CASTE SYSTEM.
CASTE, is a Portuguese word that is used by
the English to express the meaning of the
Hindu word Jathi, the term applied by them to
the distinction of classes or tribes among the
Hindus, though they apply the same word to for-
eigners, to distinguish between nations ; as the
English Jathi, the Portuguese Jathi, and so on.
The term Hindu, as applied by the natives,
means not so much the people of Hindustan as it
does the members of all the various sects who
have adopted the sj'stem of castes, and yield to
the supremacy of the Brahmins. Caste may be
called the cement that binds together all these
numerous sects and classes ; not merely separating
each one from all others, but compacting the
The Four Castes. 285
whole, forming of dissimilar and uncongenial
units an almost impregnable wall that closely
binds together the whole Hindu people, but equally
divides them from all the rest of the world. Prop-
erly speaking, there are but four castes ; and ac-
cording to the Hindu Vedas> these were ordained
of the gods, while all outside of these are casteless
or outcasts. The four divinely-instituted ca,stes
are, the Brahmin, the Kschatrya, the Vaishya, and
the Sudra. On the same authority it is asserted
that the Brahmins sprang from the head of the
Creator Brahma, and having thus proceeded from
his noblest part, they are by birth pre-eminent in
dignity and holiness, and by right the priests and
law-givers of the nation.
The KschatryaS) having sprung from the shoul-
ders of the god, are predestined to the kingly and
military offices — to govern the nation and to do
their fighting.
The Vaishyas, who proceeded from the god's
body, are to provide for the pecuniary support of
the State, doing duty as merchants, and filling all
the departments of trade.
The Sudras sprang from the feet of Brahma,
and being thus the lowest of all they must per-
286 The Caste System.
form all mechanical and servile labor for the
higher castes, especially the Brahmins.
Such was the divine decree, as promulgated by
the Brahmins, who took care to appropriate to
themselves the highest place ; and such was prob-
ably the original system as practised at first. But
the passing years have made great changes, the
military and mercantile castes have almost disap-
peared as distinct organizations, and the great
division is now between the Brahmins and Soudras.
But these have been divided and subdivided into
a great many others, until it is commonly said,
that there are eighteen high castes, and one hun-
dred and eight low castes, each trade and calling
having one of its own ; while a very large class,
known as Pariahs, or outcasts, have no caste at
all. But even Pariahs have grades and distinc-
tions of rank among themselves, of which they are
just as tenacious as those recognized as their supe-
riors can possibly be of their own. Among the
many subdivisions still maintained, at least in the
letter, if not in the spirit of this wonderful sys-
tem, the Brahmins have four sects, the Kschatryas
three, the Vaishyas three, and the Soudras eighty-
five, some of the last being again subdivided, as
Division of Castes. 287
the class of Soudras who cultivate the soil have
no less than twenty distinct castes. So very rig-
orous are these exactions of caste, that the chil-
dren of a carpenter can marry only the offspring
of other carpenters : the sons of a washerman may
seek wives only in. the families of others of the
same craft ; boatmen must marry boatmen's daugh-
ters; and so on through every vocation or busi-
ness, high or low. Neither may a man change his
calling, nor enter any other than that to which his
ancestors belonged. If the father and grand-
father have been syces or dhobis, or grass-cutters,
so perforce must be the sons to the latest genera-
tion ; and there is no possibility of any rise in
rank, or of bettering of the condition in life, except
by losing caste ; and this system gives the death-
blow to everything like " progress," and ambition
to attain to higher wisdom or excellence than their
forefathers.
The Brahmins are the most powerful, as they
are the most domineering and insolent of all the
castes. Assuming to themselves the rights of
gods, they relentlessly trample under foot those of
all others. They dress altogether in white attire
with marks of clay on their foreheads, arms, and
288 The Caste System.
bodies, and the poita or sacred cord over the shoul-
der. They observe a strictly vegetable diet, and
abstain not only from intoxicating drinks, but even
from tobacco in every form. When the son of a
Brahmin is twelve days old, a festival is held in
honor of his naming; when six months of age,
another feast marks the giving of his first meal of
solid food, and a third season of rejoicing occurs
when he is two years old, at which time his head
is shaved, his ears bored, his nails pared, and he is
robed in a new style of garments. But the most
important epoch in the life of a Brahmin, is when
he is nine years of age. Then, amid feasting and
revelry, songs, shouts and rejoicings, he is invested
with " the sacred cord," consisting of a hundred
and eight threads, made of cotton, gathered and
spun by Brahmins. The cord is worn over the
left shoulder, and passes across the breast to the
right hip. At the time of the investiture, the
novice is taught the gayatri or Brahminical prayer,
that no lips but those of a Brahmin may pro-
nounce ; and the young heir being thereby in-
stated in his legal rights, is thenceforth regarded
as " twice born/'
For the other castes no special ceremonies are
MEETING OF TRAVELLERS WITH THE MAHARAJAH Ol-
jj I 19 CHUTTEEPOEE.
289
Caste Organization. 291
prescribed, as they are deemed so far inferior to
the lordly Brahmins. But each caste has its sepa-
rate legal organization, and administers its own
laws, no other daring to interfere. None of those
belonging to one caste may enter the abode or eat
in the presence of the members of another.
Should he presume to do so the penalty is fearful.
All his worldly possessions, of whatever sort, are
confiscated to the caste he has disgraced ; and
worse than all, his wife is absolved from her vows,
and his children no longer acknowledge him as
father. It is only on the most humiliating terms,
and by making the fullest reparation that he can
be restored to favor. Each caste bounds its duties
and hospitality by the extent of its own circle ;
for to give or receive favors beyond this limit
renders both parties to the profanation accursed.
Nor is it only high-castes that are thus profaned
by contact with others. Even the outcast Pariah,
who feeds on carrion, finds some one beneath him,
on whom he may look down ; and the very lowest
Soudra would deem it defilement to receive a cup
of tea from the hands of any king in Europe.
For a high-caste pauper is regarded as the supe-
rior of a low-caste (or no-caste) sovereign ; and
292 The Caste System.
many a poor woman has, during the famines, died
of starvation rather than receive food from the
hands of benevolent foreigners. The breaking of
the rules of caste is punished by fines, beating, or
burning with red-hot irons, according to the nat-
ure of the offence ; besides which, if the offence be
serious the offender is driven out from parents, wife
and children, who refuse to eat with him, or give
him a drop of water, and his society is thencefor-
ward shunned by all. He not only sinks to a
lower caste : he becomes a Pariah, an outcast, a
dog, and a vagabond upon the face of the earth.
Though the offence should be involuntary, or acci-
dental, the penalty is just the same ; for it is the
defilement, not the sin, that makes the crime. Mr.
Dulles mentions a wealthy Brahmin who, from
pure spite, was seized by a European, and beef and
wine forced down his throat* He resisted to the
utmost of his strength, but his foe was the stronger
of the two, and the Brahmin became an outcast.
After three years, his friends spent forty thousand
dollars in endeavoring to have his caste restored,
but in vain. Later, another attempt at a cost of
one hundred thousand dollars was made, and the
Losing Caste. 293
Brahmin was reinstated, after having to submit to
the most humiliating and revolting penalties.
During the reign of the cruel Tippoo Sahib, he
endeavored to force the Hindus to adopt the Mos-
lem faith, and compelled a number of them to eat
beef as an evidence that they had forsaken their
national religion. After the overthrow and death
of the tyrant, these men prayed earnestly, but
without avail, to be reinstated in their old caste
privileges, and to the day of their death they had
to endure all the penalties of outcasts, for the
fault of another. No penalty was deemed suffi-
cient to atone for the horrible crime of sacrilege
in eating the flesh of the "sacred cow.'' For theft,
fraud, lying, perjury or adultery, they might have
atoned ; but the stain of beef-eating could neither
be forgiven nor washed away !
It is quite impossible at the present day for the
Hindus, after centuries of subjection to foreign
rule, Mohammedan and English, and all the
changes thereby induced, to conform to and en-
force the rules of caste, as in the old Hindu days.
But there is still the old clinging to the system,
and a stubborn determination, as far as practica-
ble, to carry out the teachings of the Shasters.
294 The Caste System.
With all the wrong it engenders, caste, it must be
admitted, offers-some advantages ; and these are of
just the nature to find favor in the eyes of the
calm, contemplative, unambitious Hindu of the
middle and upper classes. He does not care to
rise above his easy, tranquil life, or to go out of
the stereotyped habits that have become his second
nature ; and he has no fear of falling out of the
position lie has inherited, since the bounds are
fixed and immovable. If he travel in other sec-
tions of his country, however far from home, he
finds always a shelter and a welcome with those of
his own fraternity ; while no one, in his absence,
though it should be prolonged to years, would ever
risk loss of caste by interfering with his homestead
or rights, while the owner was away.
Different castes preponderate in different local-
ities ; as, for example, in Bombay, the largest depot
for trade and the commercial metropolis of India,
Kschatryas number but few, while the two wealth-
ier castes, Brahmins and Vaishyas (merchants)
greatly exceed all others. The former merely in-
vest capital, and reap large profits, while seeming
to take no part in such worldly affairs ; while the
Vaishyas, some classes of them especially, give all
Various Castes. 297
their time and energies to trade. The Purvus, a
caste or class immediately below the Brahmins,
are a civil, upright, active set of men, filling for
the most part, places in the Custom House, and
other government establishments, and acting in
mercantile houses, as cashiers and shipping clerks.
Many of this class have filled places of responsi-
bility, and amassed fortunes in the European ser-
vice, public and private ; sometimes even rising
to the position of members of the Governor's
Council. The Purvus wear gay-colored turbans
of an enormous size, by which they are readily
recognized as far as they can be seen, and hence
are easily found when their services are in requisi-
tion.
Another class are the Khayats or Scribes, who
are generally good linguists, and often fill the
office of interpreter to ships, in courts, and else-
where. The Buniahs are a large and influential
class of merchants, and they are the most noted
speculators in India cottons and English linens,
from which Bombay derives such an immense rev-
enue. They are also noted as bankers and
brokers. The dress of the Buniahs is peculiar.
It consists of a Sdrong or waist-cloth, adorned
298 The Caste System.
with a broad red band, and folded tight about the
limbs ; a long, tight-fitting calico tunic, descend-
ing almost to the feet, and a round turban coiled
like a snake about the head. These quaint tur-
bans are quite in contrast with the high, stiff hats
of the Parsees, another merchant caste of Bom-
bay, very numerous and noted for wealth, energy,
and uprightness. The Parsees and Buniahs are
often partners in business, but not in society.
Perhaps one of the very strangest things in re^
gard to caste, is its rules in respect to the sick and
dying. If a person supposed to be dying has
been taken down to the Ganges to breathe his last
near that holy river, and he should afterwards re-
cover, it is deemed by all his friends the greatest
misfortune that could possibly befall him and
them. For he thus becomes an outcast, and un-
clean, so that even his nearest relatives dare not
speak to him or permit him to enter their houses,
on pain of loss of caste, — the great terror of the
Hindu. His own wife and children, however
dearly they may love him, can never eat with him
again or offer him the least attention ; and if by
any chance they should happen to touch him, they
must wash their bodies, and purify themselves by
The Loss of Caste. 299
various ceremonies and offerings, to be cleansed
from the pollution. A gentleman travelling in
the East, some years ago, had with him several
servants and a dog ; and one day they stopped
near the banks of the Ganges to rest and look
about them. All of a sudden the dog disappeared,
and after considerable search he was found licking
A human body that was lying near the river bank.
On examination, Mr. N— - found that the man
who had been left here to die was still alive, and, he
judged from appearances, might possibly recover.
So he directed his servants to wash off the mud
from the poor fellow's face, roll him carefully in a
blanket and take care of him. The invalid was in
a few days entirely restored, but he manifested
such terror at the outcast life that awaited him
that he preferred to go with this strange gentle-
man to a country he knew nothing of than to be left
in his old home, where he was looked at as utterly
unclean and worse than dead. About fifty miles
north of Calcutta are two villages inhabited en-
tirely by poor creatures who have become outcasts
in consequence of their recover)-, after having
been taken down to the Ganges to die.
CHAPTER IX.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.
OF the first introduction of Christianity in-
to India we have no trustworthy record.
Though Eusebius speaks of St. Bartholomew's go-
ing to India, and Socrates, speaking of the divis-
ion of the Gentile world by the Apostles, says:
" India was assigned to St. Bartholomew," it is by
no means certain what part of the world was
alluded to under the general term of India as
then used. The Syrian Christians of Travancore
and Malabar have a tradition that St. Thomas
preached the Gospel in many portions of the
Indian Peninsula , and an original manuscript is
said to be in existence among the Malabar Chris-
tians containing the record of a visit of the
Apostle Thomas to that region, A. D. 52 ; of many
300
St. Thomas of India. 301
converts being made by him; and of his being
subsequently put to death on the Mount outside
the town of Meliapore, now called by Europeans,
St. Thome*, and not far from the city of Madras.
Other writers place the date of the first introduc-
tion of Christianity into India, in the fourth
century, during the reign of Constantine ; while
the Nestorians claim to have been the pioneers in
this work, during the early part of the sixth cent-
ury. Amid these conflicting statements, it is now
impossible to determine the correctness of either ;
but it is certain that the early Portuguese settlers,
who arrived on the Malabar coast about A.D. 1504,
found there a Christian king, with numerous
churches, and a large body of professing Chris-
tians. Their worship is described as pure and
simple — wholly unlike the forms and ceremonies
used by the new-comers, who vainly sought to
subjugate the Malabar Christians to the authority
of the Pope — they persistently ignoring his right
to interfere with their religion, and questioning
the very existence of any such personage as a
papal head to the Christian church. They claimed
for themselves an existence of nearly thirteen
centuries, and for their bishops a regular succes-
302 Christian Missions.
eion from the patriarch of Antioch, "where," said
they triumphantly, the " disciples were first called
Christians ; but where was no Pope." For more
than a century this ecclesiastical war was waged :
but the oriental Christians were the weaker side,
and corruptions, too, had gradually crept in among
this simple-hearted folk, until at last, worn out
by opposition, they laid down their arms, as it
were, under protest, and were compelled to submit
to the dogmas of the Church of Rome ; and
farther, to the decree passed by the Pope, that
"All Syrian books on ecclesiastical subjects shall
be burned in order that no pretended apostolical
monuments may remain." The records of the
Syrian Christians still extant, declare that "while
their books were burning the bishops went
round in procession, chanting a song of triumph."
But it was only among the churches on the sea-
coast that these violent measures achieved even a
partial success ; those of the interior avowed theii
opposition, concealed their Bibles and religious
books, fled to the mountains, and when pursued,
appealed to the native princes for protection. The
establishment of the Inquisition at Goa, about
1560, put the finishing touch to the enormities of
The Portuguese. 305
the Romish priests, and drove thousands of the
nominal Christians, baptized by the excellent
Xavier, back into the Hindu and Moslem churches
before he had been for a single decade in his
peaceful tomb.
For more than two centuries the Portuguese
were untiring in their efforts to proselyte the
Hindus ; resorting, when force and severity had
failed, to all manner of deceptions, disguises and
concessions — professing the warmest attachment
to native institutions, adopting the Hindu garb,
and abstaining, like the Brahmins, from all animal
food and stimulating drinks ; while the priests de-
clared themselves the immediate descendants of
the Hindu god Brahma ! Among those who thus
added perjury to hypocris}', was the famous Robert
de Nobili, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmine, and
a near relative of the Pope. In the furtherance of
his infamous plans, Nobili caused to be written in
Hindustanee, a new Veda, as he called the forgery
he attempted to palm off on the unsuspecting
Brahmins as a genuine native production, in which
the doctrines and dogmas of the Romish church
were artfully interwoven with Hindu fables, and
Brahminical lore.
H. I —20
306 Christian Missions.
With the passing years, this amalgamation in-
creased till, as conceded by the Abbe* Dubois :
" The Hindu pageantry is chiefly seen in the festi-
vals celebrated by the native Christians ; " and in
many places the same car was used on Hindu fes-
tival days for idol-deities, and on Romish high-days
for images of the saints.
Such is Romanism in India at the present day.
Its adherents are composed mainly of the descend-
ants of the mixed marriages of Portuguese and
natives, and nominal converts who, but for their
form of baptism, differ in no respect from their
heathen neighbors, with a very small sprinkling of
foreign priests or bishops, generally Italians. The
majority of the clergy are natives of the country,
educated at Goa, frequently of intemperate habits,
and nearly always of debased moral character;
while the mass of the people are the most ignorant,
unpromising, and degraded class in India. The
Bible has always been withheld from them, no
portion of the Scriptures being ever translated by
popish missionaries into any of the languages of
the East ; and only the most garbled versions of
the inspired record communicated to the people in
the oral instructions of the priests.
Protestant Missions. 309
The first Protestant mission in India was com-
menced by the Danish Government at Tranque-
bar, on the Coromandel coast, in the early part of
the eighteenth century, at the instigation of Dr.
Lutkins, one of the chaplains of the King of Den-
mark. The first missionaries were Messrs. Ziegen-
balg and Plutschau, who arrived at Tranquebar in
1705. Though opposed and persecuted — oftener
by Europeans than Hindus — their work pro-
gressed ; another missionary joined the first, a
printing-press, printer, and physician were soon
added, the New Testament was translated and
printed in Tamil, and other works, including a dic-
tionary of the language, were prepared and
printed. When "Ziegenbalg died in 1719, after
thirteen years of most faithful and self-denying
labors, a noble band of three hundred and fifty-
five native converts attested his success in laboring
for their salvation. Seven years later, the number
had been nearly doubled ; and despite the counter-
acting influence of almost incessant wars between
the several European nations and the natives, and
the immoral lives led by the majority of the for-
eign residents, " the little one became a thousand,
and the small one mighty."
310 Christian Missions.
In 1738, the first native pastor was ordained ; in
1727 the Madras Mission, under the auspices of
the Christian Knowledge Society, was founded by
Dr. Schultze, Avho had previously completed the
Tamil Old Testament, begun by Ziegenbalg ; and
in 1737 a third mission was established at Cudda-
lore, on the same coast. In 1750, the immortal
Schwartz began his great work in India, which was
continued for forty-eight years with such unflinch-
ing zeal and fidelity as to evoke the highest en-
comiums of both Christians and pagans ; while
such was his reputation among Moslems that
the haughty Hyder Ali, when refusing to receive
the English Embassy, said : " Send me the Chris-
tian (Schwartz) ; he will not deceive me." The
same man, on his death-bed, sent for Schwartz,
and entreated him to become the guardian and
educator of his adopted son Serfogee, the future
Rajah of Tanjore, and the same who, at the demise
of Schwartz, sixteen years afterwards, delayed the
funeral " that he might look once more upon the
face of his friend, that he bedewed with tears, and
covered with cloth of gold, ere the coffin hid it
from his sight." The church in Tanjore, where
this great apostle preached, and the chapel where
THE MOHORUM (NEW-YEAR FESTIVAL), AT BHOPAL. 3"
English Missions. 313
his remains are interred, are both still used for
Christian worship; and in the wall opposite the
pulpit of the former, is a beautiful monument of
white marble, by Flaxman, erected at the expense
of the Rajah. The design is the closing scene of
the missionary's life, whence, surrounded by weep-
ing pupils and friends, the Rajah himself among
them, and the dying eyes fixed upon the cross
held aloft by a descending angel, the good man
passes to his rest. Beneath is an elaborate and
most interesting inscription.
The first English missionaries to India were
Rev. Messrs. Carey and Thomas, who landed in
Calcutta, November, 1793. Their project, from
the very outset, received only ridicule from friends
at home, and persistent opposition and persecution
from their countrymen in India, until at last, they
were driven from Calcutta to Serampore, and found
under the shelter of the Danish flag the protec-
tion denied them by their own. Here, warmly
welcomed by the Danish Governor, a former friend
and parishioner of Schwartz, Ward, Carey, Marsh-
man and Thomas set themselves diligently to
work in studying the languages, and in the print-
ing and distribution of Christian tracts, as well as
314 Christian Missions.
to the oral instruction of all within their reach.
Frederick VI., of Denmark, assured them of his
especial favor and protection ; multitudes flocked
to hear the missionaries preach, the translation of
the New Testament into Bengali was completed
and printed in February, 1801, and about the same
time, the first native convert was baptized in the
presence of the governor, and a large concourse of
Hindus, Mohammedans, Portuguese and English.
In 1816, seven hundred natives had been baptized,
and ten thousand children had been instructed in
the truths of the Christian religion. Two years
later, a college was founded, in which, besides San-
scrit, Arabic, and many Indian languages, English,
Greek and Hebrew were also taught. The witty
Sydney Smith satirized and ridiculed Carey and
his associates, as " consecrated cobblers " and
" maniacs," and, in an article for the Edinburgh
Review, in 1808, held up their work to derision ;
yet to-day their names are honored as India's best
and truest benefactors ; and their work, then but
the beginning of a tiny rivulet, has gone on wid-
ening and deepening, receiving in its onward course
many tributaries, till it has become a great and
mighty river enriching and beautifying that broad
American Missions. 315
land, and scattering joy and blessing everywhere
in its course.
Other lands and other societies have, as the
years passed on, taken part in this great work of
carrying the gospel to India ; but the work has
been easier to their successors, that these brave pio-
neers so effectually opened the door that world-
liness and bigotry would have closed.
The first missionaries to India from the United
States were Judson, Newell, Rice, Hall and Nott,
who were sent out by the " American Board " of
Foreign Missions, in 1812. The same arbitrary
power that had opposed the work of Carey and his
associates, for a time effectually hindered the
establishment of stations by the American mis-
sionaries anywhere within the dominions of the
British East India Company ; and these new-com-
ers were subjected to even greater annoyances and
persecutions than those visited upon their English
brethren. But, by the renewed charter of the
East India Company, in 1813, all restrictions to
missionary labor were removed ; and from that
period to the present, the course of this great
cause has been steadily onward.
The # "§st mission in Burmah was established by
316 Christian Missions.
Dr. Judson, in 1813, at Rangoon ; the first Ameri-
can mission in Ceylon, by Messrs. Poor, Meigs,
Warren, and Richards, in 1816, at Jaffna ; and the
first American mission at Madras, in 1836, by
Messrs. Winslow and Scudder. American Luth-
erans began their first work in India, in 1842 ;
the American Presbyterian Foreign Board, in
1834; the United Presbyterians, in 1855; the
Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1857 ; the Ameri-
can Baptist Missionary Union, in 1840 ; and the
Freewill Baptists, in 1836. The London Mission-
ary Society began its work in India, in 1798 ; the
Wesleyans, in 1816 ; the Church Missionary Soci-
ety, in 1815 ; the General Baptist Missionary
Society, in 1822 ; the Church of Scotland, in 1829;
the Basle Missionary Society, in 1834 ; the Gossner
Missionary Society, in 1846; the Moravians, in
1855. The Liepzig Lutherans, Irish Presbyterians,
Presbyterians of Canada, the Welsh Calvinists,
and several other societies are also engaged in
active efforts for the Chris tianization of India,
all vieing with each other in zeal, activity, and
devotion to this noble work. In a document pre-
pared and printed by order of the British House of
Commons, in 1873, some of the benefits accruing
from these labors are detailed, as follows :
CATHACKS (MALE DANCERS), AT BHOPAL.
Effects of Missions. 319
" The Protestant Missions of India, Burmah,
and Ceylon are carried on by thirty-five societies,
in addition to local agencies ; and now employ the
services of six hundred and six foreign mission-
aries, of whom five hundred and fifty are ordained.
They occupy five hundred and twenty-two princi-
pal stations, and two thousand five hundred subor-
dinate stations. Apart from their special duty as
public preachers and pastors, the foreign mission-
aries constitute a valuable body of educators ; they
contribute greatly to the cultivation of the native
languages and literature ; and all who are resident
in rural districts are appealed to for medical help.
They have prepared hundreds of works suited both
for schools and for general circulation in the fifteen
most prominent languages of India, and in several
other districts ; they are the compilers of several
dictionaries and grammars ; they have written im-
portant works on the native classics and the system
of philosophy ; and they have largely stimulated
the great increase of the native literature prepared
in recent years by educated native gentlemen.
A great increase has taken place in the number
of converts the last twenty years. They are
now at least five hundred thousand. The gov-
ernment of India cannot but acknowledge the
320 Christian Missions.
great obligation under which it is laid by the
benevolent exertions of these six hundred mis-
sionaries, whose blameless example and self-
denying labors are infusing new vigor into the
stereotyped life of the great populations placed
under English rule, and are preparing them to be
in every way better men and better citizens of the
great Empire in which they dwell."
To all this may be added the wide diffusion of
Christian knowledge ; the arousing of the Hindu
mind from its long torpor to the earnest discussion
of the merits and claims of Christianity ; the abo-
lition of the suttee, of female infanticide, and
hook-swinging, except in districts remote from
foreign influence ; the loosing of the bonds of
caste, the diminished influence of Brahminical
power, and the desire and earnect efforts put forth
for the education of woman during the present
decade. In view of all this, and much that can-
not here be detailed, it is evident that India's long
night of superstition and moral ignorance is pass-
ing away, and the dawn of a glorious day already
at hand.
* For many of these statistics, the writer acknowledges indebtedness to articles
of Rev. S. Hatchings in the Missionary Review.
CHAPTER X.
EARLIEST HISTORY.
THE early history of India, like that of all
oriental nations, is involved in much obscu-
rity. Their own records furnish nearly all the in-
formation now obtainable of that great country
during the first centuries of its existence ; and the
fact that these records must be drawn mainly from
their poetical works, render it no easy task to sep-
arate the real from the fabulous. The utmost
efforts of such indefatigable oriental scholars as
Sir William Jones, Prinsep and Wilson, have not
been sufficient to open to us all those sealed por-
tals of the past; but they do enable us to fix with
considerable accuracy the dates of many leading
events. Sir William Jones says that " India and
Persia, and all the South of Asia, were but parts
H. I.— 21 321
322 Earliest History.
of one great empire of antiquity, called Iran,
which was the earliest settled in the world."
Indian traditions preserve the name of Mera^ a
planter of vines and cultivator of the soil. This
probably is the account they had somehow received
of Noah's vine planted after the subsidence of the
flood. The Agni Purana sa,ys : " When the flood
was gathering, a fish fell into Meru's hand. It
quickly grew into an enormous size, and had a
horn on which to support an ark. Into this ark,
Meru, with his sons arid their women, and the seed
of every thing living entered, and were supported
on the horn of the great fish throughout the great
flood." This same Rfyru was called, like the
Egyptian Menes, the " Son of the Sun," the name
that till to-day the Rajputs lay claim to. Of late
years, Mr. Prinsep has discovered a key by which
may be read many inscriptions on the columns and
walls of rock-cut temples, which formerly set at
nought all attempts to decipher them. The lan-
guage has turned out to be Bali, the sacred lan-
guage of India, and indeed of all Southern Asia ; a
dialect which is now engaging the attention of
many oriental scholars, by the light of which,
many hitherto obscure portions of Hindu histor}r
The Ramayana. 325
may be, in a measure, comprehended. There can
be no question that while Joseph was ruling under
Pharoah, in Egypt, there were organized govern-
ments in India, and reigning princes who could
bring large armies into the field.
The " Ramayana," an epic poem detailing the
adventures of the god Rama, though containing,
without doubt, many fables and exaggerations, is
also a shadowing forth of events and exploits that
actually took place. The first mention made of this
nation, locates them in a tract of land between the
rivers Sersuti and Caggar, distant from Delhi not
more than one hundred miles to the northwest.
It then bore the name of Brahmaverti, and is
described as the abode of the gods, " the scene of
the adventures of princes, and the residence of
famous sages." Moses describes the precious
stones of India in the requisitions for making the
tabernacle ; and some writers have believed that
the term " shittim-wood," in our version of the
Bible, which the " Seventy " rendered " Incorrupt-
ible-wood," may have referred to the precious Aloe
wood found near Cape Comorin. This is the most
precious of all woods, obtainable only at a few
places in the world, and worth, even in our own
326 Earliest History.
day, its weight in gold. The Phoenicians and
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, successively re-
paired to the coasts of Malabar for their drugs,
indigo and gum-lac, for their ivory, mother-of-
pearl and precious stones. Herodotus, also with
Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy, confirm the accounts of
the great antiquity of India. According to the
"Vishnu Purana," their territory was, at the first,
only sixty-five miles long and forty broad ; but at
an early period from their first records the Hindus
appear to have enlarged the bounds of their king-
dom, making it include the present districts of
Oude, Agra, Allahabad, Lahore and Delhi.
The city of Oude was then called Aoudha, and
was the capital of the kingdom in the earl}7 days.
Hindu records state that there were born, as em-
anations from Brahma, two princes, whose descend-
ants were known as the "solar and lunar races."
Various fabulous and most extravagant accounts
of sixty races of these are given ; but it is only in
following the details of the Ramayana, or the
exploits of Rama, that any available facts are
reached. Rama, the hero of this oriental Epic,
seems to have been a real personage, one of the
earlier kings of Oude, who having, after the fash-
328 Earliest History.
ion of many oriental monarchs, resolved on a pro-
tracted period of penance, retired with his beauti-
ful wife Sita, to the seclusion of the forests of
Aoudha. The Island of Ceylon, which claims to
date back its historical records to the twenty-fourth
century before our era, was supposed in the former
days to have been a portion of the mainland, and
to have been inhabited by a race of demons who
made constant depredations into the surrounding
country. On one of these marauding expeditions
Havana, the king of Ceylon, chanced to meet the
beautiful queen Sita, and becoming desperately
enamored of her charms, carried her off to his
capital at Lanka. Rama, stung to desperation by
the loss of his beloved wife, and fearing to en-
counter this company of " demons," with only his
own small army, called to his aid Hanouman, the
king of a race of wonderful monkeys. Uniting
their powers, the allies marched with all possible
speed across the Deccan, and on reaching the ex-
tremity of the mainland found a miraculous bridge
had been thrown across the Pambero Passage for
their special accommodation. Upon this, they
crossed into Ceylon, surprised Ravana just as he
was entering Lanka with his valued prize, rescued
The Ramayana. 829
the queen after a terrible battle, and were about
setting out on their return, when Rama accident-
ally killed his brother Lachman. Overwhelmed
with despair he threw himself into the water, and
dying was reunited to the divinity. The powerful
monkey-king fell heir to the beautiful Sita, and
carried her off to his own realm, despite the deter-
mined resistance of Ravana and his " demons."
Amid this maze of the marvellous and the ro-
mantic, there is doubtless a broad vein of truth.
This invasion of Ceylon by the king of Oude, it
is believed, took place about the fourteenth cent-
ury before our Lord's advent, and that Rama did
not live to return from his unfortunate expedition,
while the queen Sita, the innocent cause of all the
trouble, was carried off an unwilling captive by
the ally of her former lord. The " monkeys "
were probably a race of wild mountaineers pressed
suddenly into service by king Rama to aid him in
his hurried pursuit ; and the " demons " may have
been so called by the infuriated husband either on
account of this lawless act of violence, or from
their dark complexions.
Little is recorded of the immediate successors of
Rama, or of the domain they ruled over, beyond
330 Earliest History.
the fact of the removal of the capital from Oude
to Canouj."
Another great Indian Epic, the " Maha Barat"
deals somewhat more in facts, with perhaps less
commingling of the marvellous and fictitious than
the Ramayana.
There are loosely-written records of a great war
between two rival branches of the house of Has-
tinapura, supposed to represent the country lying
on the Ganges, northeast of Delhi. Into this quar-
rel most of the princes of India seem to have
been drawn, and the war appears to have raged
with great fury for a considerable period, and to
have devastated some of the most flourishing dis-
tricts of Hindustan.* The Pandu branch were
the victors ; but they were so impoverished, both
in men and money, by this violent and protracted
contest that they did not for several generations re-
cover their former position. The precise date of this
war is not known ; but it may be safely placed
within the fourteenth century before our era. Of
the succeeding Pandu kings we know almost noth-
ing — the records, such as they are, not agreeing
even as to the number, some placing it at twenty-
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
SIDE VIEW OF THE PAL PALACE, AT GWALIOE.
G-audama. 333
nine, and others swelling the list to sixty-four.
Despite this paucity of details in regard to the
kings, there may be gleaned from the pages of the
" Maha Barai" many interesting facts concerning
the relative position of the several kingdoms and
independent states, their social condition, and
gradual development. Six distinct kingdoms are
mentioned in this part of India, most prominent
among which is the sovereignty of Magada, whose
king, at the time of the great war, was Maha-Deva ;
and from his reign down to A. D. 436, there is an
unbroken line of kings. Of most of them, how-
ever, little has come down to us besides their
names. In this kingdom of Magada, South Behar,
Gaudama,* the founder of the Buddhistic religion,
was bom, B.C. 656. He was the only son of the
reigning king; a prince of noble endowments,
physical, mental and moral, and well fitted for the
important part he was to perform in the affairs of
his country and the world. He was about forty
years of age when he began to preach his new
doctrines ; and from that time to the close of his
life, at the advanced age of eighty-four, he seems
to have been untiring in his efforts to reform the
* Regarding Gaudama, see " The Light of Asia," by Edwin Arnold.
334 Earliest History.
clergy, and to inculcate among the people honesty,
virtue, truth, temperance and kindness, his own
life furnishing the best commentary on his teach-
ings. There is no reason to believe that he ever
claimed to be more than a religious teacher, and it
was not until after his death that he was wor-
shipped as a god. His death occurred B. c. 572.
This portion of Hindu history is certainly no
fable, nor the hero a myth, but all the details of
his life are well authenticated facts. It is in the
Pali or Bali, the ancient language of Magada,
that the sacred books of the Buddhists are always
written.
Alexander's invasion of the Punjaub, by break-
ing the power of the Brahmins, tended to the
increase of Buddhism, at least for a time. The
Pandu dynasty of Magada, in South Behar, was
overthrown by Chandragumpta, a Soudra, or low-
caste, who murdered the reigning king, the four-
teenth of his line. Sir William Jones has shown
plainly that Chandragumpta is synonymous with
the Sandrakottus of the Greek historians : he who
freed the Punjaub from Macedonian rule, and re-
ceived Megasthenes at his court in Pataliputra.
About the year B. c. 310, he concluded a treaty
Sandrakottus 335
with Seleucus, one of Alexander's successors.
Through his origin, as a Soudra, the Brahmins
were greatly scandalized, and their power curtailed
during this reign and several succeeding ones.
CHAPTER XL
DECLINE OF THE ARAB POWER.
DHARMASOKA, the grandson of Chandra-
gumpta, was the greatest king of the Maurya
dynast3r, and the first who seems to have had
any real title to be called lord paramount, or
Emperor of India. The researches of Mr. Prinsep,
and the numberless old inscriptions he has un-
earthed from various remote sections of the
Empire, have settled beyond a doubt the mooted
question in regard to the extent of the dominion
of this famous king. These dominions, as shown
by indubitable proof, must have reached from far
northward of Delhi to the island of Ceylon (the
Taprobane of the ancients), and embraced a wide
extent of country from east to west. The same
inscriptions show that his government was far
I._22 MA^SOLEUM OF THE SCIXDIAS, AT LASHKAK. 337
338 Decline of the Arab Power.
advanced in civilization ; and many ancient edicts
were found for the establishment of hospitals and
dispensaries in distant portions of the realm, and
for the sinking of shafts and wells, and the plant-
ing of shade trees along the public highways, for
the benefit of travellers.*
Under the name of Piyadasi (love-gifted) this
great king published many humane edicts ad-
dressed to his people, and written so that they
could understand them in the ordinary dialects of
the country, instead of Sanscrit or Bali that would
have been intelligible only to the learned. Many
of these edicts have been found engraven on col-
umns at Delhi and Allahabad, and on rocks near
Peishwar, Guzerat and Orissa. Under the com-
mand of king Dharmasoka, a sort of church council
was again held at Pataliputra to endeavor to heal
divisions that had arisen between priests of dif-
ferent orders, and to harmonize the old and new
creeds ; and also to correct abuses among the
clergy. An earthquake occurring at the close of
the council, it was regarded as an approval of its
decrees.
None of the writings of Buddha dated prior to
* Malcolm in " Indian MuUnv "
G-audama. 339
this council are considered valid. It must be re-
membered that none of the teachings of the
Buddh Gaudama were written during his life-
time ; but after his death, by his disciples and
followers. And because of corruptions that had
crept in, by either accident or design, these writ-
ings were all carefully examined, and the decrees
of preceding councils modified by this. This king
seems to have very heartily approved of the doc-
trines of Buddhism, and by his express command
priests and teachers were sent far and wide, pro-
claiming the new faith. Siam, Burmali, China,
Ceylon, Cashmere, and even the wilds of Kafiris-
tan, were all instructed in the teachings of Gau-
dama ; and this mild, peace-loving system carried
the elements of Indian civilization to many a
savage tribe that had hitherto been noted for dark
and cruel practices.
After the death of Dharmasoka, the Magada
kingdom seems gradually to have declined ; and in
the fifth century of our era it was subjected to the
kings of Can ou j, and no longer regarded as a sep-
arate state. Canouj appears to have been not
only one of the most ancient states of India, but
also far advanced in civilization and the arts.
340 Decline of the Arab Power.
This is attested, even at the present day, by tjie
splendid ruins of its ancient capital on the banks
of the Ganges. In the former days, known as
Panchala, Canouj extended from Banar and Chum-
bul eastward as far as Nepal, which was also in-
cluded in its territory.
Scinde is spoken of at the date of the Maha
Barat as an independent kingdom. It was still so
when Alexander's invasion took place,* though
divided into several separate states. In the
seventh century it was reunited, in the eighth in-
vaded by the Arabs, in the ninth retaken by the
Rajputs, and A. D. 1015 it became subject to the
rulers of the Ghorian dynasty.
Guzerat, under a Rajput race of rulers, had its
capital, in the second century, at Balibi ; but in
A. D. 524 these rulers were expelled by the Irido-
Bactrians, for a brief period, recovering sway in
531. The Balibi princes having been succeeded
in the eighth century by the Chaura Rajputs, the
capital was removed to Patan. This race be-
coming extinct in A. D. 931, was succeeded by
* The conquest of India by Alexander III., of Macedon. was completed B.C.
327. An account of the Asiatic expedition of this conqueror is given by Arria-
nus, the friend of Epictetus, who wrote also a work entitled Indica, in which he
gave excellent descriptions of the interior of India and of portions of its coast.
Aboriginal Inhabitants. 341
the Rajput tribe of Salonka, who remained in
power for about three centuries. It was subju-
gated by the Mohammedans in 1297.
Vicramaditya, one of the kings of Mai war,
seems to have acquired vast dominions, extending
his rule over nearly the whole of India; but the
Mohammedan invasion, when it swept over Hin-
dustan, carried everything before its crushing
power.
The aboriginal inhabitants of the Deccan are
said to have been foresters, and wild mountain-
tribes, leading a lawless and marauding life. But
this was probably at a remote period, for the
Greeks mention only an advanced civilization in
their notices of Southern India. Of all the States
of the Deccan, Paudya and Chola are most
ancient, the latter including at one time a large
portion of the Carnata.
From the Maha Barat, we learn that the ancient
kingdom of Orissa was for a long period in a very
flourishing condition, and that it was occupied suc-
cessively by Salivahana and Vicramaditya. Later,
the government was in the hands of the Kesari
race, with constantly recurring wars, then it fell
into the hands of the Rajputs and Talingas, re-
342 Decline of the Arab Power.
spectively, and about the year 1590, it was annexed
by Akbar to the empire.
Thus it is evident that the whole history of India,
from very remote ages, has been one of almost
continuous war and bloodshed, foreign incursions
and domestic brawls — the decline of one empire
or dynasty and the rise of another. Its later his-
tory is but a repetition of the earlier. First
shaken by Persian invasions, then a prey to the in-
vincible Macedonians under Alexander ; next par-
alyzed by the Moslem zealots of Mahmoud of
Ghuzni ; and again trampled by the Tartan hosts
of Janghis Khan, till finally crushed beneath the
incubus of the great Mogul djaiasty of the re-
nowned Tamerlane.
The Moors, during their palmy days, fed upon
India, Venice grew rich on her wealth, the Portu-
guese opened the highway by a new route to the
same precious mine, the Dutch followed suit, and
England was not slow to enter the lists. The end
is not yet.
Powerful as the Mahrattas afterward became,
and extensively as their language is spoken, we
find less of them in the early times of India than
of almost any other race. Until mentioned by
Alexander in India. 345
Mohammedan writers after the conquest, there was
little to mark their existence save the bare men-
tion of their capital, T<igara, as a place of some
importance, and even of this the site has long
since been lost.
When Alexander first turned his attention to
India, the flourishing condition of the whole coun-
try was evidently a matter of surprise ; the im-
mense wealth of native princes, their settled
government, the advances made in the arts and
sciences, the forces Indian kings were capable of
bringing into the field, the excellence and variety
of their weapons, and the domestic and social
habits of the people, were all very much as found
in our own day, and very far in advance of the
majority of the nations of the earth. Alexander
evidently did no more than touch upon the out-
skirts of the great country. Having checked the
advance of his immense army on the banks of the
Hyphasis, with scarcely a glance at the broad land
outspread before him, his steps were bent toward
the southwest, and passing onward between the
desert and the Indus, he bade India a final adieu,
leaving only a few garrisons behind him, and one
or two kings and chiefs allied to his government.
846 Decline of the Arab Power.
Among the latter, was the celebrated Poms, whom
he first vanquished, severely wounding him in
battle, and then received as an ally.
Though as early as the reign of the Calif Omar
there were frequent incursions of Arabs into the
Scinde country, it was only as piratical parties
bent on plunder ; and it was not until the year
664 A. D. that there was any regularly organized
expedition of Arabs against India for purposes of
conquest. At this period the Arabs penetrated
into the Afghan country as far as Cabul, made its
ruler a tributary governor, and then with a por-
tion of their troops, under the command of the
celebrated Mohalib, they pushed on to Mooltan,
sacked the city, and carried off a large body of
prisoners. Shortly after this, a piratical vessel
putting into one of the seaports of Scinde, and
committing some depredations, was seized by the
inhabitants and destroyed. This excited the
vengeful ire of the Arabs, and led to the invasion
of the country by a large army under the com-
mand of Mohammed Casim, the younger son of the
Governor of Basra. The youthful warrior gained
a complete victory, captured the fortified city of
Dewal, made the Rajah's son prisoner, and devas-
A Heroine. 347
tated the whole country as far as the capital.
Here the Rajah of Daher, with fifty thousand men
and a large body of elephants opposed him ; but
met complete defeat, in consequence of a rout
caused by the wounding of the Rajput's elephant
under him, and the wild scene of confusion that
followed. Daher acted with distinguished valor,
but finding it impossible to retrieve his lost fort-
unes, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and
fell covered with wounds. His wife, with wonder-
ful bravery, endeavored to rally the discomfited
soldiers, and finding this impossible she took
refuge in Brahmanabad, and held the city for
some time, under great odds. Finding their
efforts vain, all the women and children were im-
molated on an immense funeral pile, and the brave
garrison of Rajputs rushed out and met death at
the points of the Arab swords. Some few who
had remained within the fort were slaughtered
without mercy, and several youths carried away
captives. Casim met with little opposition in his
onward progress, and was not only rapidly subdu-
ing the country he had invaded, but establishing a
good and wise administration over the conquered
territory, when his successes were terminated by
348 Decline of the Arab Power.
his sudden death. Though subsequent expeditions
were less successful, the Moslem rule in Scinde
continued until A. D. 750, when the united forces
of the Rajputs and Hindus expelled the invaders
from the country. The decline of the Arab power
in India began from this period, and was never
again firmly established.
CHAPTER XII.
THE SUPREMACY OF MAHMOUD.
THE demise of the Calif Haroun-al-Raschid
was followed by the secession of Khorassan
and other important provinces, thus still farther
weakening the already decaying power of the
Arabs in India.
Among the petty dynasties of the northern
provinces of the Arab dominions were the Samanis,
a family of Bokhara descent, established in Kho-
rassin, over which they had ruled for more than a
century. Abdulmelek, the fifth prince of the
house of Samani, hud in his family a Turkish slave
named Alptegin, who, by his natural abilities and
faithfulness, so won the esteem of his master as to
be promoted to the high office of governor of
Khorassan. This command he held till his master's
death, when, having in some way offended the new
349
350 The Supremacy of Malimoud.
ruler, he was obliged to seek safety in flight, and
took refuge among the Gazni hill tribes. These
mountaineers were a bold, hardy race, eager for
adventures, and never afraid to use their own
weapons or face those of their adversaries. So,
nothing loth to place themselves under a leader so
daring as Alptegin, they gave the adventurer a
hearty welcome, and enlisted themselves and their
swords in his service. To the day of his death,
which occurred fourteen years later, he maintained
his position in the Ghaznivide country as the bold
and always successful leader of an able and in-
trepid band of Afghans and Mamelukes. Among
his followers was an especial favorite, a soldier
who had been, like himself, a slave, and like him-
self had been for faithfulness and ability promoted
to the position next his master's. When the death
of Alptegin occurred in A. D. 976, the favorite
Sibektegin succeeded to the mountain throne of his
late master, and by marrying the dead chief's daugh-
ter, he rendered his position still more secure. Lord
Elphinstone relates a popular story of the young
Sibektegin, while yet a private soldier, that, if true,
speaks well for his humanity : " One day, in hunt-
ing, he succeeded in riding down a fawn, but
352 The Supremacy of Mahmoud.
when he was carrying off his prize in triumph he
observed the dam following his horse, and showing
such evident marks of distress, that he was touched
with compassion, and at last released his captive,
pleasing himself with the gratitude of the mother,
that several times turned back to gaze at him as
she went off to the forest with her fawn. That
night, the Prophet appeared to him in a dream,
and told him that God had given him a kingdom
as a reward for his humanity, and enjoined him
not to forget his feelings of mercy when he came
to the exercise of power."
Shortly after the accession of Sibektegin to the
throne of his mountain kingdom, his territory was
invaded by Jeipal, the Rajah of Lahore, at the
head of a large army. The Hindu Princes on the
east of the Indus had become restive of the estab-
lishment of Moslem power so contiguous to their
own country, and determining to drive out the in-
truders, the Rajah of Lahore had taken the initia-
tive, while others were to follow him to the field.
But just when the Indus had been crossed, and he
was approaching Gazni, a fierce storm of hail and
wind came on, in the midst of which he encoun-
tered Sibektegin and his hardy warriors. A fierce
£.T y 93 THE IMPERIAL DL'KBAK — JJiihlSS RECEPTION
Sibektegin Victorious. 355
encounter ensued, in which the Hindus, unused to
cold and to mountain tactics, got the worst of the
fray, and Jeipal was compelled to treat with his
adversary on the latter's own terms, which were
the payment on the spot of fifty elephants and
the forwarding on the Rajah's return of a large
sum of money. The elephants were handed over
as stipulated ; but the money the Rajah refused to
forward, when safe within his own lines. The
Tartar chief declining to pocket such an insult
crossed the Indus at the head of an immense
force ; but Jeipal met him with one much more
numerous, having summoned to the defence of
their common cause the Rajahs of Delhi, Ajmere,
Calingar, and Canon j, their united forces number-
ing a hundred thousand cavalry, and a vast army
of foot soldiers. But numbers availed nothing
against the determined valor and perfect discipline
of Sibektegin's splendid army. The Hindus suf-
fered a terrible defeat, and fled precipitately from
the field, pursued hotly by Sibektegin as far as the
Indus, where he at once established his authority,
leaving a governor and a numerous body of troops
in command of the Peishwar region.
Sibektegin might have carried his success farther,
356 The Supremacy of Mahmoud.
but he was summoned at this time to aid his
former masters, the Samanis, in subduing their re-
bellious subjects to obedience. This had scarcely
been accomplished ere Sibektegin's aggressive
measures were cut short by his sudden death.
His son, Mahmoud, a daring, ambitious spirit, suc-
ceeded him with the title of Sultan, and began at
once aggressions on his Indian neighbors. Four
expeditions across the Indus followed each other
in quick succession, in all of which, Mahmoud was
victorious, and in the last captured immense
amounts of treasure and precious stones. A tri-
umphal feast followed, during which the Indian
spoils were publicly exhibited on tables of pure
gold, thus adding to his prestige in the eyes of his
people, and increasing the influence he wielded
over his soldiers, whose admiration for their dar-
ling leader was such that they would have followed
him to the world's end. His next step was the
assembling of an immense force of one hundred
thousand cavalry and twenty thousand foot, with
which he was thundering at the gates of Canouj
before his approach was even suspected. The
whole of the Punjaub was soon annexed to the
kingdom of Ghuzni, and the conquest of Lahore
358 The Supremacy of Mahmoud.
followed, by which the foundation of the Ghuzni*
vide dynasty in India was securely laid, and the
Mohammedan conqueror brought within the limits
of India. This was in A. D. 1022, and two years
later he fitted out his twelfth and last expedition
into India. The object of this was the great
temple of Somnat, situated on the southern border
of Guzerat, and noted alike for the immense
wealth belonging to its shrine and for the very
great sanctity that attached to this famous temple.
The Hindus offered a gallant resistance ; but it
availed not, and their gorgeous temple, with its
vast treasures, fell into the hands of the Moslem.
His last conquest, that of Persia, followed quickly
after the taking of Somnat ; and then, ere these new
laurels had lost their first bloom, the founder of the
Afghan-Indo dynasty sank to his last repose, and
another reigned in his stead.
Mahmoud, uniting in himself the characteristics
of a great general and a great sovereign, was
assuredly one of the most remarkable men of his
times, having many noble and striking qualities
not very common in those days, with very few of
the faults and defects most prevalent among men
in power at the period in which he lived. Just,
FerdomL 359
Considerate, and kind to all, he was possessed of an
innate nobility that would never permit him to be
either unduly elated at his own good fortune, or
unmindful of the claims of those vanquished.
Among other noble acts, he founded in his capital
an excellent college, with a library and mu-
seum attached, and appropriated fully fifty thous-
and dollars a year to the payment of profes-
sors and the maintenance of poor students. Lord
Elphinstone mentions the case of a poor woman
who complained to this Sultan of the loss of her
only son, who had been slain by robbers in a
distant part of the empire. The Sultan answered
that it was impossible for him always to enforce
the laws in the border-provinces, so far removed
from his immediate control. " Wh}r, then," was
the spirited reply, "do you take more territory than
you can govern." Mahmoud, it is said, saw the
pertinence of the reproof and instituted more
effective measures for the protection of his sub-
jects at a distance from the capital.
It was in the reign of this monarch that the
eminent poet, Ferdousi, flourished. He was at-
tracted to the court of Mahmoud by the Sultan's
general patronage of literature, but for some
360 The Supremacy of Mahmoud.
reason, Ferdousi proved almost the solitary excep-
tion. He spent thirty whole years in compos-
ing a grand epic of sixty thousand couplets,
a work that has been deservedly admired alike by
oriental and occidental scholars; yet he received
no recompense, and it is said, actually died of
want, of which, however, the Sultan was not cog-
nizant, an over-sensitiveness restraining the poet
from any revelation of his needs.
CHAPTER XIII.
KHILIJI, THE SANGUINARY.
MOHAMMED, Mahmoud's second son, was
by his late father's express wish placed on
the throne ; but the popular will soon deposed the
new Sultan, and put in his stead the more warlike
and popular brother. Then followed five short
reigns, including those of the two sons and two
grandsons of Mahmoud. who successively suffered
violent deaths, and whose entire reigns were filled
with revolts, insurrections, and murders. The
last of the five, Abdul Rashid, was besieged in
Ghazni by a revolted chief, captured, and mur-
dered with all his family. The successful assassin
placed himself on the throne, but was deposed and
put to death within a month, and the army began
to search for some member of the rightful family
361
362 Khiliji, The Sanguinary.
to fill the vacant seat. After considerable delay,
the choice fell upon Farokhsad, a young prince
whose brief life had been spent mainly in prison,
in consequence of the civil wars and jealousies
that had rent the country from the time of
Mahinoud's death.
During these troublous years nearly all the ac-
quisitions of the great Mahmoud had been lost;
all the cities east of the Sutlej, Lahore, the Pun-
jaub, and Nargacot, the seat of the magnificent
temples of Sumnat destroyed by Mahmoud, had
successively passed into possession of their former
owners, and disaffection everywhere prevailed
among the Hindu subjects of the Afghan em-
peror, while the incursions of the Seljuks, a power-
ful tribe of Tartars on the north of the Oxus,
were constantly becoming more ominous and
harassing. Such was the condition of the country
over whose affairs the young Farokhsad was called
to preside : and though his brief six years' reign
was quiet, and even prosperous compared with sev-
eral that had preceded his accession, he fell at
last by the hands of an assassin. He was suc-
ceeded A. D. 1058, by his brother, the wise, peace-
loving Ibrahim, whose peaceful and prosperous
Ibrahim. 365
reign of forty-one years was fruitful of the best
results for his country and people, but leaves
slender material for the historian's pen. Only a
single militaiy expedition of any note is recorded
of all these years of Ibrahim's reign — an expe-
dition to the Sutlej, resulting in the capture of
several cities from the Hindus. The great desire
of this monarch seems to have been for peace,
coupled with the wise administration of the affairs
of his realm, the happiness of his people, and the
encouragement of learning. He died A. D. 1089,
and was succeeded by Majsaud II., whose quiet
reign of fifteen years was spent in legislating and
improving the condition of his subjects, and was
marked by no great military exploits. Arslan suc-
ceeded his father for a few months, beginning his
brief interval of power by imprisoning all his
brothers, and ending it by meeting himself a
bloody death. He was succeeded by his brother
Behram, who was placed by the Seljuk Sultan on
the throne. During a reign of rather more than
twenty years he gathered about his court philos-
ophers, poets, and learned men, by whose influence
on the character of the people they began to cul-
tivate the arts of peace, and no longer to regard
366 Khiliji, The Sanguinary.
conquest and an increase of territory as the
chief good to be attained. But this wise and
peaceful reign set under a cloud of treachery and
blood that forever obscured its early lustre. This
dire event was the murder by the king of his son-
in-law, Kutb-u-clin, the prince of Ghor, a crime
that provoked the vengeance of the Ghor princes,
and led ultimately to the murder of a second
prince, the brother of the first. As the conse-
quence of this double crime, Behram was driven
from Ghazni by Ala-u-din, younger brother of the
murdered Ghors, and obliged to take refuge in his
Indian possessions, where he shortly after died of
grief. He was succeeded by his son, Khosru, who
ruled over the Indian portion of the Empire from
1124 to 1130, while Ala-u-din reigned at Ghazni,
neither seeming to be molested by the other.
Khosru Malik succeeded his father Khosru, enjoy-
ing a quiet, tranquil reign of twent}r-seven years,
at the end of which be was attacked by the Ghor
kings, and subsequently defeated and slain. Froir
this period, A. D. 1157, the kingdom of Lahore was-
again annexed to the Ghaznivide territory, gor
erned by the new line of kings, beginning with
Gheias-u-din, the " Ghorian Sultan of Ghazni and
Gheias-u-din. 367
Lahore." This reign lasting forty-five years, was
productive of vast results, especially in the con-
quest of Indian territory. The Sultan had an
able assistant in his brother Shahib, to whose great
military ability is due the success that attended
the Afghan arms at this period. Delhi was the
first point attacked, and resisted bravely in the
outset, but fell at last with their Rajah a prisoner,
and a terrible rout of their troops. This victory
was followed by others in quick succession. First
Canouj, then Gwalior in Bundelcund, portions of
Rohilcund, and the next year the rich provinces of
Oudh, Behar and Bengal.
At the death of Gheias-u-din, his brother suc-
ceeded, in the year 1202, to the throne his great
military exploits had made so glorious during
Gheias-u-din's forty-five years of sovereignty. Sha-
hib was scarcely established in his kingly position
before difficulties in his western possessions in-
volved him in war with the Sultan of Kharism,
which terminated unfavorably for Shahib-u-diu ;
and while preparing for a new expedition he was
assassinated, having reigned only four years.
His nephew, Mahmoud Ghori, was at once pro-
claimed king, A. D. 120^ ; but his rule was con-
368 Kliiliji, The Sanguinary.
fined to the Ghor country, and he resigned his
claim to the possession of India by voluntarily re-
linquishing the insignia of royalty to Kutb-u-din,
the viceroy of India, then resident at Delhi. Thus
India became an independent power, and the line
of the " Slave Kings of Delhi," began in the per-
son of Kutb-u-din.
This monarch had, in his youth, been a slave of
the great general Shahib, who highly appreciating
the many noble qualities of his bondsman, had
promoted him from time to time, till he was ulti-
mately made viceroy of Delhi. This post he had
filled with honor and ability for twenty years,
when, by the voluntary relinquishment of Mah-
moud Ghori, he became king. A good and useful
reign of four years was terminated by the lamented
death of Kutb-u-din A. D. 1210, when he was suc-
ceeded by his son A ran. This prince was, how-
ever, shortly after deposed for inefficiency, and
Altamsh, the son-in-law of Kutb-u-din was put in
his place.
Altamsli, too, had been a slave, promoted for his
talents and courage; and the confidence of the
people, in placing him on the throne, seems to have
been warranted by his subsequent career, though
Jenghis Khan. 369
few details have come down to us beyond the re-
volts of Behar, Malwar and Gwalior, all of which
were successfully quelled by the decision and
firmness of the sovereign. It was during the
reign of Altamsh that the raids of Jenghis Khan
and his Mogul hordes over other portions of Asia
began to excite alarm for the safety of the Indian
monarchy. Altamsh died at Delhi, about A. D.
1234, and was succeeded by his son Ruku-u-din, a
weak, dissipated prince, who was shortly deposed
in favor of his sister Rezia. Prejudices against
her sex excited factions, followed by a civil war,
during which the Sultana was made prisoner, and
wantonly slain. Two short reigns of Behram and
Massaud followed, with no noteworthy events save
the attempted invasion of India, at several points,
by the Moguls, and their being repelled without
serious results.
Nasir-u-din, a grandson of Altamsh, was the
next sovereign, coming to the throne in 1246, and
reigning for about twenty years. His vizier, a
former Turkish slave of Altamsh, seems to have
been the real head of the government, and a man
fitted by his brilliant talents for the important
position. He promptly quelled revolt whenever it
H. I.— 24
370 Khiliji, The Sanguinary.
arose, and effectually checked the advances of the
Moguls at every point. In a word, he made him-
self so necessaiy to his country that at the death
of Nasir-u-din, A. 13. 1266, the vizier, Gheias-u-din
Bulbun stepped, without opposition, into the vacant
place. His reign, lasting twenty years, was full of
insurrections and wars within and without, but the
vizier-king seems always to have been equal to the
occasion, and his administration, though marked
with severity towards all he suspected of being
opposed to his interests, was nevertheless pro-
motive of the prosperity and aggrandizement of
the country.
His successor, Kai-Kobad, was the last of the
" Slave Kings," and reigning but a short time, was
followed by three monarchs of the house of Khiliji.
The reigns of these kings were a succession of
plots, intrigues and murders, but were marked
also by several great military exploits. During
the reign of the second of the Khiliji sovereigns,
Allah-u-din, several of the independent Rajahs
were reduced to subjection and compelled to pay
tribute ; and the Moguls of his army, to the
number of fifteen thousand, were dismissed from
his service and driven from the country. This
Conquest of Malabar. 371
measure, hailed at first as one promising only
good to the Indian people, was afterwards, no
doubt, the cause of more vengeful ire on the part
of the Moguls, leading them, as soon as they had
gained a footing on Indian soil, to greater cruelties
and excesses than they might otherwise have com-
mitted.
The death of Allah-u-din, which occurred in
A. D. 1316, was believed to have been occasioned
by poison administered by his favorite general,
who immediately had the infant son of Allah pro-
claimed king. This was, however, declared invalid
by the nobles and army of Delhi who c.iused
Mubarik, the eldest son of their late king, to be
crowned with all due honors ; the child, who had
been the puppet of the suspected general, was pri-
vately executed, and tranquillity was for the time
restored.
The conquest of the whole Malabar country
was the first act of the new king, covering his
name with glory ; but the next step, that of ap-
pointing as his chief officer a low Hindu named
Mallek Khosru, cost him first the confidence of his
people, and then his own life. Mallek conspired
against his royal master, and before his designs
372 Khiliji, The Sanguinary.
were even suspected, he had taken the lives of
King Mubarik and every member of the royal
family. The traitor was executed of course, and
his adherents disbanded and banished from the
countr}*. But the throne was vacant, the royal
house of Khiliji was extinct, and a new dynasty
was to be inaugurated — that of the House of
Toghlak.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE TOGHLAK DYNASTY.
AFTER the assassination of Mubarik and his
family, the extermination was so complete
that it became necessary to elect a king from
another famity : and the choice of the nobles fell
upon one of their own number, Gheias-u-din
Toghlak, then governor of the Punjaub. He had
already acquired a high reputation, not only for
his military skill, but his wise statesmanship as
governor had won for him a wide-spread confi-
dence that during his brief reign was well-sus-
tained. The Moguls, still threatening the north-
western border, were promptly repulsed, and
another line of ramparts thrown up by the new
sovereign all along the Afghan border. He also
annexed the territory of Dacca to his dominion ;
373
374 The Toghlak Dynasty.
and on his return from this expedition he was
welcomed by his eldest son, in a new bungalow
erected for the occasion, under the pretext of do-
ing honor to his father and sovereign. But there
were strong suspicions of premeditated treachery
on the part of the son who, by the death of his
father, secured a diadem for himself. Gheias-u-din
had reigned only four years ; and his son, Moham-
med Toghlak, succeeded him A. D. 1825. The first
acts of the new king evinced the great ability for
which he was noted ; and his patronage of men of
learning was quite in accordance with his fine lit-
erary tastes.
An army of Moguls, who had effected a landing
in the Punjaub, were bought off by the payment
of a large sum of money ; the subjugation of the
Deccan, begun by the father, was completed by
the son, and good order was instituted in every
part of the kingdom, even to the most remote
borders. But other steps followed less advan-
tageous to the interests of the country. The king
invaded Persia with a large army, and then at-
tempted the conquest of China, but returned from
both expeditions suffering from terrible defeats,
and the loss and disaffection of a large portion of
Death of Mohammed. 377
the splendid armies with which he had set out.
To meet the expenses of all these aggressive meas-
ures his people were excessively taxed, and cruelly
oppressed ; the currency was altered in a manner
that induced general discontent, and everywhere,
during the next dozen years, there were revolts
and outbreaks among his subjects that kept the
monarch busy and anxious. Many of the insur-
rections he succeeded in quelling ; but the people
of Bengal, the Carnatic, and Malabar country,
boldly defied the authority of the tyrant, and
maintained their independence. In the midst of
all this disaffection and discord, Mohammed died
suddenly, A. D. 1351, after a busy and troublous
reign of about twenty-six years, during which,
despite his undoubted ability both as general and
statesman, a large portion of the territory gained by
his father was lost to the crown. Mohammed's death
was said to have been caused by a surfeit of fish ; but
so embittered against him were his officers and the
mass of his people that there existed strong suspi-
cion of poison having been used to rid the country
of the hated tyrant. As he left no immediate
family, his nephew, Firuz Toghlak, was chosen to
succeed him. The character of Firuz seems to
378 The TogUak Dynasty.
have been different in every respect from that of
his uncle. With no ambition for conquest or mili-
tary glory, he devoted himself to the interests of
his people and country with untiring fidelity, re-
versing the oppressive acts of the last reign, and
seeking rather to add to the resources of the king-
dom than to its territorial extent. His long reign
of nearly forty years was fruitful of results in the
prosperity and happiness of all classes of his sub-
jects. From increasing years and infirmity, the
cares of sovereignty became at length burdensome,
and twice after Firuz had passed his eighty-sixth
year he resigned the reins of government to other
hands, but was compelled to resume them again.
First, his vizier, and then his son had been en-
trusted with the administration, but both proving
unfaithful, the minister was banished, and the son
had to flee for his life from the just indignation of
the nobles ; and the aged king, then lacking only
a year or two of ninety, once more placed himself
at the helm of $tate. When his death occurred,
about the year 1890. the succession of his son, who
had so disgraced his position previous to his
father's death, was opposed by the nobles ; and two
grandsons of Firuz, reigned successively, but each
Tamerlane. 379
only for a few months, after which, Nasir, the
reprobate son of Firuz, returning, was proclaimed
king. He reigned for three years, and was suc-
ceeded by his eldest son, Humayun, who lived only
forty-five days after his accession, and was followed
by his brother, Mahmoud, A. D 1394 ; four reigns
between the death of Firuz and the proclamation
of Mahmoud having filled little more than three
and a half years. 'The new king was yet a minor
when he ascended the throne, and the country was in
so unsettled a state that when the states of Malwar,
Guzerat, and Juanpoor revolted, the king had no
power to compel their allegiance, and the speedy
dissolution of the empire was feared. Before
order could be restored at home the danger from
without, that had been so long impending, was
fully realized. The great conqueror, Tamerlane or
Timur Bee, having already overrun Persia and
Mesopotamia, and some portions of Russia and
Siberia, with his immense hordes of Tartars, now
(A. D. 1398), turned his face toward India, and
sent forward his grandson, Fir Mohammed, to pre-
pare the way for the main body of the invaders.
The whole of the Punjaub was devastated by
these lawless Tartars, and the fortified city of
380 The Toyhlak Dynasty.
Moulton occupied by Mohammed, while Tamerlane,
after effecting a passage across the mountain defiles
and crossing the Indus at Attok, reached Samana,
having cruelly butchered the inhabitants in great
numbers in every town through which le passed.
He next united his forces with those of his grand-
son, and marched on Delhi, where Mahmoud was
waiting with a great army and a retinue of ele-
phants to receive him. But though the Indian
army fought bravely, they were utterly defeated,
and the slaughter was immense. Mahmoud fled to
Guzerat, where he was hospitably received, as
though the state had still been in fealty to the
crown ; but the shattered army submitted to the
conqueror, as emperor of India, and made terms to
remain in Delhi after his proclamation. The
plunder and butchery of the inhabitants by the
Tartars went on even after the city had capitu-
lated ; and historians say that " some streets were
rendered impassable by heaps of dead ; and the
gates being forced, the whole invading army gained
admittance, and a scene of the utmost horror en-
sued." Acquisition of territory seems to have
been no part of Tamerlane's programme, but
merely the fame of a conqueror, with such treasure
Lodi Dynasty. 381
as he was able to carry with him on his way to
meet other foes. Leaving Delhi, and taking with
him all the booty he could collect, and a long
train of captives of all ranks, he marched up the
banks of the Ganges, across Lahore into the
Ghazni country, by the same route he had followed
on entering India, which he "found a garden and
left a desert," with the additional bequests of fam-
ine and pestilence. When the conqueror was
gone, a new cause of dispute and even bloodshed
arose as to the occupancy of the vacant throne ;
but Mahmoud reasserted his claim, and assumed
the reins of government. His death followed in a
few years, and with him ended the Toghlak
dynasty. Several brief, unimportant reigns, those
of Khizer Khan and his sons and grandsons, fol-
lowed, and then the Lodi dynasty was ushered in
by the accession of Behlol Lodi, a governor of the
Punjaub, descended from an Afghan family of
rank, whose influence had been sufficient to cause
the deposing of Seyd Allah, the last king.
Behlol's reign of twenty-eight years was prosper-
ous and beneficial to the country, but not fruitful
of important events. He was succeeded by his
wise and prudent son, Secander, whose vigorous
382 The Toyhlak Dynasty.
policy not only retained intact the conquests of
his father, but added to them the territory of
Behar. The great fault of his administration was
his bitter persecution of the Brahmins, an evil
that was zealously prosecuted by his son and suc-
cessor, Ibrahim Lodi, who came to the throne at
the death of his father, A. D. 1516. His cruelty
and oppression soon drove the nobles into open re-
bellion, and induced them to invite the interfer-
ence of Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, then
reigning at Ghazni. Baber very willingly re-
sponded, and at the head of a well-appointed army
crossed the Indus. Advancing toward Delhi, he
was met by Ibrahim with an army in numbers far
superior to his own ; but by superior tactics, and
better disciplined troops, the Tartar chief gained
the day, and Ibrahim Lodi, the last of his dynasty
and the last of the Afghan race of Indian mon-
archs, fell on the battle-field, leaving Baber in quiet
possession of the throne and the empire. He at
once decided to fix his court at Delhi, arid to live
permanently among his Indian subjects, hoping
thereby not only to strengthen his position but to
add to his territory.
Baber, the " Tiger," of mixed Tartar and Mogul
Baber, the Tiger. 885
descent, the first resident emperor of Tartan blood
was descended in a direct line from Tamerlane on
his father's side, and from Jenghis Khan, the
Mogul conqueror, on his mother's, thus uniting in
his own person not only the claims, but many of
the talents, with the indomitable resolution and
untiring perseverance of both his famous ances-
tors
H. I— 25
CHAPTER XV.
EUROPEAN TRADE.
BEFORE entering on this new race of rulers,
the Tartan Emperors of India, let us pause
to look at the beginning of European intercourse
with the people of that great country. Though,
as before stated, India sent, even in the days of the
Patriarchs, of her gold, spices, and manufactures,
for the supply of the natiofll of Western Asia,
and though centuries before our era, there seems to
have existed an overland communication between
India and Arabia and Persia, yet, to the times of
Alexander the Great, and his eastern expedition,
India remained in the fullest sense a terra incog-
nita to the people of Europe. With his great
conquests, Alexander carried at least a measure
of civilization ; and almost our first glimpses of the
386
Alexander's Conquests. 387
rich, hoary lands of the sun were the reports that
floated westward with the return of the Mace-
donian army. But for the early death of Alex-
ander, an empire might have arisen and a pros-
perous trade been opened at once as the fruit of his
exploits. As it was, all this eastern trade remained
in the hands of Arab and Egyptian merchants for
several centuries longer ; and the route was mainly
by way of the Red Sea, the Nile, and the Mediter-
ranean, the chief ports being Berenice, Coptos,
and Alexandria.
There were, however, two other outlets for this
Indian trade, but both were difficult and danger-
ous routes, and the traffic limited. The first route
was through Persia and Arabia to the Syrian cities,
the only halting-place being " Tadmor of the
Desert " as called in Bible days, or Palmyra, as
known to us, and so named from the luxuriant
growth of its abundant palms. It was doubtless
its Indian trade that raised Palmyra to such im-
portance as to excite the jealousy of imperial
Rome, and provoked the destructive war that
ended in the capture of the noble queen, Zenobia,
the devastation of the grand old city, and the ex-
tinction of the trade begun in the days of the
388 European Trade.
Patriarchs. The other route, and one still used to
convey to Russian cities immense quantities of the
silks, shawls, muslins, and spices of India, was by
the rocky passes of the Hindu Koorsh Mountains
and Caspian Sea, and thence on by various land and
water routes to the points of destination. Trav-
ellers by both these routes suffered in those lawless
times from the ravages of banditti, and the con-
quests of the Roman emperors ; and for a time
the trade greatly declined, but it was revived
by the removal of the seat of government from
Rome to Constantinople, and later by the invasions
of the Saracens. These enterprising conquerors
were active in forming commercial depots, and open-
ing a trade where natural facilities existed ; but were
too much absorbed in military operations to follow up
such openings, that were left for the benefit of those
less shackled with conflicting enterprises. Turkish
rulers were content with the commercial greatness
of their capital as the centre of trade at that
period ; the bold and hardy Arabs had revived
their trade through Egypt, and by way of the Red
Sea on into India ; and the Venetians in Egypt
were beginning to share in the Indian trade, when
the great discoverers of the fifteenth century
Vasco de drama. 389
opened a new world for commerce as for other im-
portant enterprises.
Christopher Columbus, searching for the East,
found a new world in the West ; and Diaz found a
route to India by the " Cape of Storms." Eleven
years later, (A. D. 1498), while the Lodi dj-nasty
of Afghan kings were ruling in India, the first
Portuguese expedition for India, under the com-
mand of Vasco de Gama, sailed from Lisbon
around this same Cape of Storms. Diaz had given
this name in consequence of the terrible stormy
weather that had so nearly made shipwreck of his
little fleet ; but De Gama found favoring breezes
that he deemed good omens of future success, and
so conferred the new cognomen that has ever since
belonged to the " Cape of Good Hope." Ten long
months from the sailing of Vasco de Gama's fleet
elapsed before it anchored in the roads of Calicut
on the Malabar coast ; but the rich cargo of beauti-
ful India goods they were able to take back repaid
the navigators for all the dangers they had braved.
The king of Portugal was jubilant over the success
of his first venture upon the eastern seas ; but the
merchants of Egypt and Italy looked on with un-
disguised alarm.*
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
390 European Trade.
The monopoly of the eastern seas was plainly
at an end. Despite the complicity of Venetian
merchants with Egyptian Mamelukes, despite even
the opposition of the buccaneering Moorish traders
who had so long monopolized the commerce of the
Indian seas, this broad field for national and in-
dividual enterprise was now open to the competi-
tion of the world. King Emmanuel of Portugal,
whose subjects had been the first to enter the field,
was aware equally of the advantages and the
dangers of his new position ; and every fleet went
manned and armed for fighting, as well as for trad-
ing. The expedition commanded by Alvarez de
Cabral, that followed that of De Gama, numbered
thirteen sail, and carried upwards of a thousand
soldiers ; and De Cabral was empowered to nego-
tiate with the Zamorin of Calicut, " with the view
of obtaining permission to form a settlement for
trading purposes within his territories." This he
readily accomplished ; a treaty was arranged be-
tween the Portuguese settlers and the Zamorin, and
the former had already opened within the city a
factory for trade, when the native populace, incited
by the Moors, attacked the little colony of Portu-
guese, and cruelly murdered all the residents of the
Calicut Threatened. 393
factory. This treachery was promptly avenged by
De Cabral, who, turning his guns first upon the
Moorish vessels lying under the walls of Calicut,
arid then upon the defenceless city, nearly annihi-
lated both, until the Zamorin was glad to purchase
a cessation of hostilities by a new treaty far more
favorable to the Portuguese than the first had
been. Besides this, the promptitude and success of
this operation so impressed the neighboring princes
that they readily entered into friendly treaties with
the Portuguese sovereign, and permitted trading
factories to be established all along the Malabar
coast, giving to this pioneer nation the prestige
and supremacy they so long enjoyed.
The next Portuguese expedition was "a fleet of
twenty sail, all good ships, and royally found,"
under the command of Vasco de Gama, who
opened friendly relations with many native princes
and left the interests of his government in India
on a firmer basis of prosperity than they had be-
fore enjoyed. The inefficiency and maladministra-
tion of Loche, the officer left by De Gama in
charge of the settlements, soon brought trouble
upon the little colony ; but prosperity was restored
by the appointment of Albuquerque as Captain-
394 European Trade.
general, and his wise and prudent administration.
The promulgation of a papal " bull," couched in
most arrogant and offensive terms, and assigning
to the king of Portugal " the sovereignty of India
with all its people and possessions," so excited the
just indignation of those proud oriental potentates,
that they made common cause with each other and
determined on the utter extermination of the in-
terlopers : a resolve that, but for the wise and con-
ciliatory conduct of Albuquerque, would probably
have been carried into effect. Under the excellent
administration of this able superintendent, not
only were the name and reputation of the Portu-
guese restored to their old footing, but new acces-
sions of territory were made ; Goa was taken, and
stro'ngly fortified, and many powerful native princes
offered their friendly alliance, while the Portuguese
ports were filled with shipping and alive with
thrifty trade. The death of Albuquerque, a man
reverenced and esteemed by natives as well as by
foreigners, occurred after a brilliant rule of only
five years, and was followed by the advent of
officers less faithful and less efficient, greatly to
the detriment of the Portuguese interests. The
death of king Emmanuel, and the accession of his
The Portuguese. 395
successor, was succeeded by the appointment of
the veteran De Gam a, under the title of Count de
Vidigueyra, to the Captain-generalship of the
Indian colony, for which he sailed immediately on
his third and last Indian campaign. Though he
lived but three months after his arrival, his coming
was productive of the happiest results ; advantages
that were, however, soon lost by the misrule of
inefficient governors, till the once prosperous colony
was on the verge of dissolution. Corruption and
oppression ruled in high places, and the total lack
of integrity and good faith shown by the Portu-
guese toward their Indian allies had so widened
the breach between them that reconciliation seemed
impossible ; while the notorious cruelties and
oppressions of De Souza were remembered only
with threats of vengeance by both natives and
Europeans. War had already been declared
against the Portuguese settlers by the Rajahs of
Guzerat and the Deccan, who had also laid siege
to one of their towns, when the opportune arrival
of De Castro gave a new aspect to affairs in gen-
eral. The new viceroy at once raised the siege,
and defeated the besieging army with great slaugh-
ter, and then pushed the war so successfully into
396 European Trade.
the enemy's country as to compel the sovereigns
of Guzerat and the Deccan to sue for peace.
This decisive action towards the foes of his coun-
try was followed by a wise and conciliatory policy
that made the viceroy every day new friends, and
so reversed the state of anarchy in which he had
found the colony, that " never at any other period
of their Indian history could the Portuguese be
said to have attained an equal measure of pros-
perity as during the wise rule of De Castro.
Their ports were crowded with shipping, their
factories teemed with produce and merchandise,
and on all sides were heard the sounds of busy in-
dustry." De Castro seems to have united in a
wonderful degree the excellences of two rival
professions — those of a military chieftain and a
civil ruler — in both of which he was alike brill-
iant and exemplary. His famous victory over the
Moors, at Diu, was celebrated by the poet Camoens ;
and a beautiful statue to his memory was erected
at Goa. He died at Goa, A. D. 1547, during the
reign of Humayun, the father of Akbar the
Great.
It was about this period that the celebrated
monk, Francis Xavier, in the interests of Jesuit
St. Francis Xavier. 397
missions, established himself in Goa, and prose-
lyted large numbers to a nominal Christianity in
an incredibly short period of time. He exerted
also a wide influence in political matters, and
helped to carry out the plans of civil reform in-
augurated by De Castro. But after the death of
the viceroy, the- efforts of Xavier were not suffi-
cient to check the tide of corruption that again
overspread the land, and threatened to engulf its
very existence ; a calamity that was hastened by
two causes of very opposite character. The first
of these was the establishment of the Inquisition
at Goa — that engine of bigotry and evil passions
that inflicted upon this fair land tortures and suf-
fering far worse than those of heathenism ; and
that made the very name of Christian an offence
and a reproach to its friends, and a bitter taunt
upon the lips of its enemies. The Inquisition had
already become an Indo-Portuguese institution in
the days of Don Sebastian ; but by the accession
of the bigoted and sanguinary Philip it received
a terrible impulse, that deluged in tears of blood
one of earth's fairest domains, and caused the
native converts to turn with horror from the
bloody standard of this so-called Christian faith to
398 European Trade.
embrace that of the more merciful Moslem or
Hindu.
The other cause of the decay of Portuguese
power in India was the advent of Dutch oriental
enterprise, and the formation of an East India
Company, for the protection of its foreign trade.
The prudent, plodding Hollanders were just the
people to profit by the reports that soon spread
concerning the trade and possessions of the Portu-
guese in India ; and they at once fitted out and
dispatched a fleet of merchant ships to secure a
share of the costly spoils of the Orient. From
the arrival in India of this first armament from
Holland may be dated the decline of the Indo-
Portuguese Empire ; while the power of the
Dutch increased steadily, and waxed stronger wfth
the passing years, gaining continually in favor with
the native princes, especially those ruling on the
Malabar and Coromandel coasts.
In the very footsteps of the Dutch came the
English, the fame of " the lands of the sun " hav-
ing reached also across the British waters, and
gained eager credence among London merchants
and capitalists. The advantages of procuring
India goods by direct route in their own ships, in-
The East India Company. 399
stead of through the Venetians, or by Turkish
ports, were too apparent not to find ready advo-
cates. Accordingly, in A. D. 1600, five years before
the close of the reign of the great Akbar, a com-
pany of London merchants formed themselves into
an association for foreign trade, with a capital of
£369,891, or nearly $1,850,000, and obtained from
Queen Elizabeth, then Sovereign of Great Britian,
a charter, under the style of " The Governor and
Company of Merchants of London trading to the
East Indies." This was the basis of the " British
East India Company " that for two centuries and
a half controlled almost the entire foreign trade
of Great Britian, and grew at length into such a
mammoth concern, such a complication of enter-
prises, prerogatives and abuses, as to render its
dissolution a matter of necessity.
CHAPTER XVI.
INDIAN RACES.
PAUSING in our history to consider the origin,
character, and abodes of some of the numer-
ous races of India, who seem generally to have
filled the leading parts of the great drama, we find
the Rajputs stand out prominently as the ruling
race. Few nations have a history so replete with
heroic deeds and unflinching patriotism as the
Rajputs of Meywar. They alone of all the Indian
races refused to bow before Mohammedan des-
potism; and despite the most horrible persecutions,
they proudly maintained their independence ;
which was proof equally against the blandish-
ments of imperial favor, and the furious onslaught
of the armed foe.
Kashatrya is a name that belonged originally to
4QQ
CAR OF JUGGERNATH.
II. I. -26
The Rajputs. 403
the Aryan race of warriors, who, in company with
the Brahmins or priests, established themselves on
the lofty table-lands of Hindustan some two
thousand }rears before our era. This title of
Kashatrya is now claimed by the Rajputs, together
with a descent from the god Rama, the conqueror
of Lanka, who was the king of the " Race of the
Sun," at the date of the first colonization of India
by the Aryans. It is now believed that the inva-
sion of India occurred at a somewhat later period
than that claimed by its own records ; but
whether the ancient Kashatryas are the veritable
ancestors of the modern Rajputs, it is impossible
now to determine. In opposition to the Rajput
theory, the Brahmins contend that several centu-
ries before our era the Kashatryas were all
destroyed in a general up-rising of the other castes,
by a decree of Parasourama, an incarnation of
Vishnu. Yet another theory, advanced by several
historians, is, that these redoubtable Rajputs, who
have generally managed to gain the day in their
constantly-recurring disputes, are none other than
the descendants of the Scythian tribes who, com-
ing over in small parties, at different periods,
gained a footing and formed colonies along the
404 Indian Races.
western frontier of India. In favor of this last
theory, it is alleged that both in physique and
many of their national customs, as also in their
fairer complexion, the Rajputs more nearly re-
semble the Parthians and Scythians than they do
any of the Hindu races ; while their religious
creed inclines to the Jam type, and their older
traditions make frequent reference to Mount
Aboo. Though there are now no well-authorized
data upon which to base any positive decision of
these mooted points, it is certain that the Rajputs
did not make their d£but upon the political stage
of India prior to the sixth century, and that, if
not destroyed, they were at least supplanted by
the Mauryas, and other races of Soudras, who suc-
cessively occupied the imperial throne of Magadha.
Between the sixth and seventh centuries, however,
the Rajputs, who had remained for a long time
quietly settled on the banks of the Indus, began
to cast adrift and to make their power felt in the
struggle for position. The Chohans and Rahtores
took possession of Canouj and Delhi ; the Chan-
delas, of Malwar ; and the Ghelotes and Baghelas,
of Mey war and Guzerat ; and it was at about this
Oudeypore. 405
period that the Rajputs first began publicly to
claim the title of Kashatrya.
Oudeypore, the capital of Meywar, has an
elevated position on the water-shed between the
Bombay and Bengal Presidencies. Its surround-
ings of lofty hills, and its outlook upon a lovely
lake with island palaces, water gardens and tem-
ples, secure for it the reputation of being the
fairest sight in Rajputana. The city has a salubri-
ous climate, with a population of about thirty-
eight thousand inhabitants, who, in common with
all the people of this native state of Meywar, are
noted for their manliness and independence of
character. Mons. Rousselet, writing of his late
visit, says : u At length we passed around the last
hill, and Oudeypore, the capital of Meywar, lay
before us. My men shouted and danced for joy.
As for myself, I stood in ecstasy, gazing at the
sublime panorama spread out at my feet. Never
had I even hoped to see anything so beautiful. It
resembled one of the fairy cities of the ' Arabian
Nights.' In the foreground, a long line of forts,
pagodas, and palaces stood out from a background
of gardens, above which appeared the town, a
fantastic assemblage of bell-turrets, towers, and
406 Indian Races.
kiosks built up the side of a pyramidal hill, on the
summit of which was an immense palace of white
marble, in striking contrast with the dark blue tints
of the mountains behind it. This palace, with its
perfect proportions and great magnitude seems to
soar, like a New Jerusalem, above a terrestrial city"
Neither pen nor pencil can portray the marvellous
splendor of this superb town, so justly named
Oudeypore, "City of the Rising Sun."* At-
tractive as is the prospect, desolate ravines, that
guard the entrance, must first be crossed ere this
terrestrial paradise can be entered. But when
these have been left behind the visitor is richly re-
paid by the enchanting vision of temples, palaces,
arches, columns, and a thousand objects of interest
that everywhere challenge his admiration, not alone
for their intrinsic beauty, but as the surroundings
of a most remarkable race of truly regal princes.
The late Maharana Sambhoo Singh, who died
when scarcely in his prime, was among his country-
men a personage of note — a Rajput Ghelote, of
the clan Sesoudias, the recognized representative
of the Souriavanses, the famous Indian " Race of
the Sun." This was the noble prince who was in
* India and its Native Princes, page 145.
The Rajah of Rajputana. 409
power at the time of M. Rousselet's visit. The
present Rajah Maharana, who received the Prince
of Wales so handsomely, is a cousin of the last,
and his adopted heir. He is described by Russell,
as " tall, good-looking, and very fair — of fairer
hue than the average Europeans of the South, of
very dignified manners and carriage, with an air as
if he were conscious of his origin, and meant to
keep up the traditions of his house." Tod says
of this family, that they are the representatives of
the only dynasty which, with the exception of
Jaisalmir, "outlived eight centuries of foreign
domination in the same land where conquest
placed them ; and who now hold the territory
their ancestors held when the conqueror from
Ghazni first crossed the blue waters of the Indus
to invade India."
Such is the estimation in which this very aristo-
cratic sovereign is held by the other races of his
own country that marriage with a daughter of
his house can be had only at the cost of a prov-
ince. Sir Thomas Roe gravely asserts, that this
most royal house is descended from Porus; they
themselves, that they come of celestial origin ; and
everybody who looks into the pedigree of this
410 Indian Raves.
Maharana of Oudeypore concurs in the opinion
that it is the very oldest in the world, as he cer-
tainly belongs to the highest race in India. His
every motion is that of a king to the sceptre born ;
and though in the first years of young manhood,
he displays great energy and force of character.
His usual dress is pure white — turban, robe, and
pantaloons ; sometimes embroidered silk or satin,
and at others, the finest linen or India muslin ; but
there is always the golden belt set with magnifi-
cent diamonds, the aigrette of other diamonds still
more superb and costly on his head-dress, and
upon neck and arms strings of huge pearls, rubies
and other precious stones of priceless value. The
Sirdars of his suite wear green satin and brocade,
with white silk turbans, and jewels as handsome, if
not altogether so costly as those of their chief. The
state contains eleven thousand six hundred and four-
teen square miles, with a population of one million
one hundred and sixty-eight thousand inhabitants ;
and a revenue of 12,000,000, of which $100,000 is
paid in taxes to the British Government.
Besides the illustrious descent of this royal
house, their importance arises from yet another
The Head of Indian Nobility. 411
source. For this family not only opposed the
Mussulman invasion, but they preserved their
purity of caste at the cost of blood and treasure,
by sundering, during all the Mohammedan rule,
every form of connection with the imperial family,
which many other Indian princes eagerly accepted.
This has placed the Maharana of Oudeypore at
the very head of the Indian nobility, and given
him many additional honors and prerogatives. In
assemblies of the Rajput princes, he always occu-
pies the seat of honor, and takes precedence in
speaking. He is also the arbiter of disputes on
all national points, and from his decision there is
no appeal. Among the genealogical claims of the
Ranas, are two which, if well-founded, may justify
the name they have assumed, its signification being
" Sons of Kings." They claim connection with
the kings of Persia, through a daughter of the last
Chosroes, the great Noushirvan, who married one
of the Ranas ; and with the Roman emperors of
Constantinople in the same way, through the mar-
riage of an imperial maiden with another of the
Maharanas of Oudeypore. These claims are said
to be well authenticated ; and further, there is
probably " not another family in the world that
412 Indian Races.
possesses a pedigree so correctly traced from fabu-
lous times as that of the Ranas of Chittore and
Oudeypore." Here also are found the most per-
fect physical types of the noble Rajput race, and
the many loyal and chivalrous traits ascribed to
them by Tod, their appreciative historian.
Amid the present degree of civilization, and the
splendid receptions now given by native Princes
all over India to stranger visitors from every land,
one finds it difficult even to conceive of the obsta-
cles and dangers that beset the path of Bishop
Heber, the priest and poet-traveller of 1820, when
he attempted a tour of the Rajput states. He
says : " The journey was hardly less to be dreaded
than one into the centre of Africa — the whole
interior of India being overrun by bands of brig-
ands, and these scarcely more dangerous to for-
eigners than the inhabitants of villages and rural
districts." How different in our own day, when,
despite all the wrongs and oppressions of which
the people of Hindustan have been the recipients
at the hands of European races, strangers meet
everywhere only courtesy and kindness from her
people of every grade. It is at Oudeypore, above
every other city in India, that are to be found the
" Sons of Kings:' 413
high representatives of the chief Rajput tribes,
and of purest blood, till it has passed into a
proverb that " a courtier of the court of Oudey-
pore is the model of bon-ton for all India."
Neither Mogul nor English have in any way
been able to influence these princely Rajputs to
amalgamate with other races ; and despite inva-
sion and contact with foreigners they have pre-
served intact their purity of blood and caste.
And what grand, noble specimens of manhood
they are — these calm, silent, dignified " Sons of
Kings," every one of them, with their tall, well-
developed forms, expressive features, and princely
air. They wear the beard very long, divided into
two pointed whiskers, which is the ne plus ultra of
the barber's art in Oudeypore. The turbans of
the Rajputs are always of fine material, and always
tastefully folded, though not by any means of cor-
responding size or form. Very many are small
and tightly-fitting, with the edges turned up like a
cap ; others are more voluminous ; and some quite
fantastic as to form. Their usual attire consists
of a tight-fitting tunic, full trousers, or a waist-
cloth worn long and so arranged as to resemble
the aforesaid garment, and a jewelled girdle decked
414 Indian Races.
out with a complete armament of swords, daggers,
and dirks ; with the addition in times of active
service, of the traditional rhinoceros-skin shield,
circular, semi-transparent, and pendant from the
shoulders by a cord of the same material, the
shield itself fairly aglow with a super-abundance
of golden knobs. The women are tall and well-
formed, sprightly, graceful, and sometimes very
pretty. Only the very highest class are kept in
seclusion, the remainder going about ad libitum;
and vails are never worn. Nevertheless, a pretty,
graceful coyness is one of the attractions of the
Rajput fair, leading her, when too closely observed,
to draw the long, silken sarri, pendant always
from her head, over her features, until the inquisi-
tive gazer has passed. The costume of Rajput
ladies is pretty and graceful, consisting of a long,
full-plaited skirt, descending below the knee, a
tight bodice of some bright color, and the long
sarri or scarf of thin silk, fastened in a tasteful
knot upon the top of the head, and suffered to
float at will over the neck and shoulders. An
abundance of gold and silver ornaments, as in
every oriental costume, completes the attire.
Among Rajput families of distinction, the house-
The Household Bard. 417
hold bard holds an important place. Not only the
sovereign, courtiers, and chiefs, have each an
especial bard and poet, but even private families
of wealth and position have their own, each keep-
ing the pedigree of his master's house, preserving
intact the traditions that belong to the family, and,
on grand occasions, reciting the ancestral catalogue
with the deeds that have rendered each name illus-
trious. The very person of the bard is held
sacred ; and no undue familiarity, still less neglect
or injury, is ever permitted toward him ; and
among the desert tribes he is far more venerated
than even the Brahmin priests. He deals largely
in astrology also, professing to draw all his deduc-
tions, public and private, from the stars ; and from
their omens and decrees as promulgated by him,
there is never a doubt, or thought of appeal. He
is the bearer of all important messages in the
arranging of treaties and negotiations of every
sort, and when he dies, the whole clan mourn his
departure as a national calamity, second only to
that of their chief.
When, in 1565, Pertab Singh was deposed by
the Mogul emperor,' Akbar, and after a gallant re-
sistance was driven with his brave Rajputs from
H. I.— 27
418 Indian Races.
the domain of his ancestors, there remained to him
only the territory comprised within the semi-circle
of the Gurwa Mountains. But his brave spirit
was unconquered, and tradition says, that halting
before Chittore, the ancient city of the Ranas, he
vowed a terrible vengeance against the invaders
of his native soil ; and that thenceforward, refus-
ing all the honors offered by the Mogul emperor,
as the price of submission to his authority, Pertab,
to the very end of his life, waged implacable and
uncompromising war against the whole Mogul
race. His brave defence of the Dhobarri Pass is
well known. With a handful of nobles who had
remained faithful to him, and the help of the fierce
B heels he had enlisted as soldiers, he sustained the
shock of the imperial forces; and subsequently,
by dint of an unfaltering heroism, he recovered by
degrees, the whole of Meywar, (which in spite of
all odds, the Rajputs have retained), and at last,
the powerful Jehanghir was able to conclude a
treaty with them, only on their own terms. Tod,
in his " Annals of Rajesthan," styles the powerful
Jehanghir, "the Mogul emperor, a commentator,
like Caesar, on the history of the Sesoudias ; " and
quotes the language of Jehanghir, " the Supreme
The Sesoudias. 419
Head of the twenty-two Satrapies of India," as
exulting with pride on the treaty concluded with
the Rajput king, " he thanks Heaven for having
reserved to him the success which neither his im-
mortal ancestor, Baber, the founder of the Mogul
dynasty, nor Humayun had been able to attain ;
and which even his father, the illustrious Akbar,
had but partially achieved."
The sixteen Omras who surround the Rana at
his Durbars are the representatives of the little
band of heroes who, for an entire century, val-
iantly maintained the independence of their flag,
without once yielding the day, turning their backs
on the foe, or being seduced by the brilliant offers
of the emperors. It is said that the poorest Raj-
put Sesoudia of the present day can trace back
the genealogy of his tribe for a dozen centuries at
least, and may dwell with pride on the purity of
his lineage, unstained by any alliance with the
Tartars. Before even the beginning of our era
this " race of the sun " appear to have owned an
immense territory, and to have reigned over
wealthy cities, and luxuriated in gorgeous palaces
and superb monuments while many European
nations were yet in their infancy, and the very
420 Indian Races.
existence of our Western Continent had never been
thought of, by even the wisest heads.
Every Rajput noble has his own standard and
coat of arms, and many have names corresponding
with the devices emblazoned on their banners.
These possess the genuine stamp of antiquity,
showing that their heraldry could not have been
imported from Europe as some writers have sup-
posed. In the Mahabarata, and many others of
their sacred books, the heroes are represented as
carrying off the banners of their foes; while in
Hindu romances, the knights are nearly always
distinguished by the devices on their shields.
The Maharajah Ram Singh, of Jeypore, is the
chief of the Kachwas (Tortoises), one of the prin-
cipal Rajput clans. They, too, trace their descent
from the divine Rama of Aoudha, the ancestor of the
Souriavanses, through his second son, Gush, one of
whose descendants built the celebrated fortress of
Rhotasin Behar, and took the name of Kachwa. In
A. D. 295, Nal Pal, one of their kings, removed west-
ward to Nishida, now Narwar, and their third capi-
tal was Gwalior. In 967 Dhola Rae was driven
from the country b)^ a usurper, and forced to seek
refuge among the Mynas of Dhoundhar, by whom
RUINS NKAR DELHI.
The Kachwas. 423
he was very kindly received ; and whom, by a long
course of treachery, he dispossessed of their coun-
try. At the time of the Mussulman invasion the
Kachwa kings of Ambir were among the first to
seek their alliance ; and in the reign of Akbar,
Bhagwandas gave one of his daughters in mar-
riage to Prince Selim, afterwards the Emperor
Jehanghir. The name of this Rajah is conse-
quently held in reproach, for having been the first
to stain the pure, unmixed blood of a Rajput by a
union with the abhorred Moslems ; and for this
act, the clan of Kachwas are to this day regarded
as inferior to all other Rajputs.
The Mynas, the ancient owners of Je}rpore,
were one of the great aboriginal races of India,
who, like the Bheels, the Gounds, and Jats, peo-
pled the broad lands since occupied by the Rajputs.
The Mynas of Dhoundhar were divided into five
great tribes, called Panchwara, and inhabited the
whole region of the Kalikho Mountains from
Ajmere to Delhi. Their chief towns were Ambir,
Khogaum, and Mauch. This race was not entirely
subjugated until about the thirteenth century ;
and they had attained an advanced degree of civil-
ization, but driven back to the mountains, they
424 Indian Races.
have gradually relapsed almost into barbarism,
and their wild tribes now spread themselves nearly
to the mountains of Central India. All the
aboriginal races of Rajputana, the Mynas, as well
as the Bheels, and Mhairs, live in villages called
Pals, which circumstance has given them the
generic name of Palitas. The habits of the
Mynas resemble those of the Bheels. They live
by hunting and brigandage rather than agriculture ;
and they always carry their bows and lattis (bam-
boos, pointed with iron). They have dark, swarthy
skins, long, silky black hair, and their features are
more refined and intelligent than those of the Bheels.
Bheel is derived from the Sanscrit bhila, " sep-
arate," i. e., outcast, a name applied to one of the
aboriginal races alluded to above, who have from
remote ages been described as a distinct people.
According to their own traditions, they sprang
from the union of the god Mahadeo with a beauti-
ful woman he met in a forest, and whose descend-
ants becoming numerous settled the country of
West Candeish, Malwar, Rajputana, the Aravalis,
Vindhyas, and Salpura Mountains. They still
people the whole of Bagur, a part of the chain of
the Aravalis, and nearly all the Vindlryas.
The Bheels. 425
Along the Vindhya range, from Jain to West
Mandu, almost the entire population are Bheels,
though many of the chiefs are descended from
Rajput fathers and Bheel mothers, and are known
as Chomijahs. One of the most noted of these
was Nadir Singh, famous for his murderous ex-
ploits. They worship Mahadeo and his consort,
Devi, the goddess of small-pox. For other objects
of worship they select the several elements, and
special maladies ; and for the gigantic tree Mhowa,
from which they obtain both oil and spirits, they
have a supreme reverence. They rarely erect
regular temples, but heap up a mass of stones and
smear them with red ochre, then lay on a rudely-
sculptured flagstone upon which to deposit offer-
ings, and their sanctuary is complete. Equally
simple is their toilette. A single twist of their
long hair is wound around the temples to serve as
a turban, while the remainder hangs neglected
about the shoulders that are bare and bronzed. A
single waist-cloth forms usually the entire costume
for men, while the women have also their shoulders
partially covered, and a succession of bangles and
bracelets reaching, the former from knee to ankle,
and the latter from wrist to elbow. Denounced
426 Indian Races.
for centuries as thieves and outlaws, the Bheels,
in bitter sarcasm, style themselves " the thieves of
Mahadeo," and declare perpetual enmity against
the Hindus, who have banished them from their
legal rights. Withdrawing into inaccessible dis-
tricts, and sheltered in their fastnesses from the
strong arm of the law, they live apart from the
residue of mankind, pay tribute to none, make
terrible reprisals on those who injure or offend
them, and scatter terror among merchants and
travellers who pass their way. Their " pals " or
villages are always built on heights command-
ing the roads ; each house is a fortress of itself,
looking, as it stands perched on the very summit
of some abrupt cliff, like a gigantic aerie, and
every chief of a clan is the commander of a troop
of brigands. When danger threatens, the clans
make common cause — the women, children and
cattle are sent to the ravines for safety, while the
men either sally forth to meet their foes, or launch
their arrows at them from an mtrenchment of
cactus and boxwood. Sentinels are always on the
lookout for danger, and for " game ; " and not a
movement along the road escapes their observa-
tion.
A Legend. 427
Treated like wild beasts, hunted down, de-
nounced and defamed by the Brahmins, whom
they abhor and denounce in return, they seem in a
great measure to have forgotten their ancient
civilization, and have fallen into the state of
degradation, in which they are found at the present
day. In their legends and traditions, however,
they huve preserved many memorials of their days
of renown, when their rule extended over fertile
plains as well as rugged mountains. One of these
legends seems to explain the origin of the hatred
existing between the Bheels and Brahmins. The
legend says : " A Brahmin one day chanced to
meet in the jungle a natural son of Mahadeo,
wandering about in search of food. As he was
very black, and of giant strength, the Brahmin
sneeringly called him, ' NichadiJ or Bheel, i. e.,
4 outlaw,' and charged him with the murder of
Nandi, .the sacred ox of the god. This scion of
divinity, indignant at the wanton insult, slew the
offending Brahmin on the spot, and returning
home boasted of the exploit to his people, who
adopted thenceforward the name of 4 Bheel ' in
commemoration of his deed." The Brahmins
choose to aver that the ox was verily slain, and
428 Indian Races.
the crime of all most odious in the eyes of a
Hindu really committed by the son of the very
god the Bheels worship ; while the proud Bheel
scorns to disavow the base slander, but declines
nevertheless to submit to the yoke of the impe-
rious Brahmin ; and so the two are at perpetual
variance. Despite their outlawry, the Bheels have
noble traits. They are said to be very humane to
their prisoners taken from other races, showing
them the hospitality due to strangers and guests.
They are likewise excellent husbands ; and wives
exercise considerable influence in the domestic
menage. The Bheels are noted also for their
grateful remembrance of favors received ; and for
the faithful observance of promises. The point of
honor is carried so far that they have been known
repeatedly to allow richty-freighted caravans to
pass unmolested, solely because a safe conduct had
been innocently promised by some of their own
little children ; or their protection invoked by the
travellers themselves. They have no prejudices of
caste, nor any in regard to food, for their several
tribes intermarry with each other, and frequently
also with the Rajputs ; and they eat any food they
The Bheels. 429
find agreeable or convenient, irrespective of its
source.
The pure Bheels are said to number about two
millions in India, besides many thousands of
Bhilalas, a mixed race, the progeny of Rajputs
and Bheels who have intermarried. The Bheels
are of medium height, and more robust than the
average Hindu, though less graceful in carriage.
They are remarkably strong, athletic, and skilful
in the use of their bows and arrows, using them
even in tiger and panther hunting, and readily hit-
ting their mark at twenty or twenty-five yards
distance. The Bheel women, as a rule, are of a
handsome type, fairer than the men, more elegantly
formed, and extremely dignified and stately.
The B'heels joined in the Indian mutiny of 1857
and 1858 ; and Lieutenant Henry, Superintendent
of Police, was killed in endeavoring to dislodge
them from a strong position in Candeish. In
another engagement, fought January 20, 1858,
near the frontier of the Nizam's territory, where
the Bheels were strongly entrenched, the English
lost fifty European soldiers and officers. At other
points, however, when friendship and protection
had been shown them by the English, they evinced
430 Indian Races.
their appreciation of these favors By protecting their
allies when menaced by mutinous seapoys ; and
some of the Bheels who entered the British army
rendered faithful and effective service. The
British Government has, in return, endeavored
to put a stop to the Rajput raids that formerly
proved so destructive to the crops and villages of
the Bheels. The attacks of the Rajputs were nearly
always made when the mountaineers were away on
some distant expedition, from which they would re-
turn to find only a smouldering heap of ruins in lieu
of their growing crops and picturesque u pals."
Both of these turbulent races, the Bheels and the
Rajputs, though at first somewhat restive of con-
trol, from whatever source, are gradually, under
the influence of wise laws and the stringency of
military discipline, toning down from their preda-
tory habits into more peaceful and law-abiding
communities.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE MOGUL EMPIRE — FROM BABER TO AKBAR.
THE reign of Baber, the first Tartan Emperor
who attempted to reside among his Indian
subjects, was by no means a welcome one to the
Rajputs and chiefs of his new domain. Very
many of them were in open rebellion, and boldly
defied him ; and nearly all had availed themselves
of the recent disturbed state of the country to
act independently of any u Paramount Power,''
and were not disposed to resign to the new-made
emperor any of their recently acquired preroga-
tives. But Baber's early experiences had taught
him how to conquer rebellious princes ; and he
had reached the throne of Delhi through too many
victories to have any fear of future defeat. His
father, who had been Sultan of Khokan, dying
431
432 The Mogul Empire.
when Baber was a lad of twelve, his uncle, the
Sultan of Samercand, had seized the patrimony of
the youthful sovereign ; but Baber, with a spirit
and bravery beyond his years, asserted his rights,
and maintained them against his far more experi-
enced relative for several years. Becoming in-
volved in disputes with several of his neighbors,
at the same time, they united against him, and
Baber was compelled to seek safety in flight.
With only three hundred followers, he took refuge
in Khorasan, and was for several years involved in
dissensions concerning his paternal domain. After
enlisting in his service a large company of Moguls
in addition to his Afghan troops, Baber, in 1519,
crossed the Indus, and conquered several towns
in the Punjaub ; but no further attempt was made
on India for nearly five years. In 1524 he ad-
vanced to Lahore, which he captured ; but after-
wards formed an alliance with its Rajah, for the
subjugation of other provinces. His next advance
was to Paniput, the " battle-field of India," fifty
miles from Delhi, where he fought the great battle
that gave him an empire, and left Ibrahim Lodi,
the last of the Afghan monarchs of India, dead on
the battle-field. Baber's lieutenants occupied
H. I.-28
Saber's Success. 435
Delhi and Agra, while his son, Humayun, routed
another Afghan army, and Baber marched south-
ward and gained a decisive victory over Rana
Sanka, the most powerful of the Hindu princes.
From this time Baber busied himself in quelling
insurrections, and reducing his refractory Rajahs
and governors to obedience. The Afghan chiefs
and Hindu troops fought with great valor, and
disputed every battle with the energy of despera-
tion. Several times Baber, who was always in
the thickest of the fight, came near falling into
the hands of the enemy ; but his usual good fort-
une never forsook him ; and it was without even a
wound that, at the end of four years' hard con-
flicts, Baber set himself to the reconstruction of
his extensive dominions, with nearly every province
once more under the dominion of Delhi. He had
roads built and repaired, with way-stations for the
accommodation of travellers ; caused a new survey
of lands, with reference to equable taxation,
planted gardens and fruit trees, and established a
line of post-houses from Agra to Cabul. All these
improvements, in addition to the founding of an
empire that lasted nearly three centuries, was the
work of that brief reign of only five years, four
436 The Mogul Empire.
of which were spent in warfare. But now that
all his projects seemed fulfilled, and all the plans
he had formed brought to a happy conclusion,
Baber saw that he was not to live to enjoy his suc-
cesses. A life of many yicissitudes, with great
physical fatigues and the hardships of camp life.,
had made inroads upon his constitution not to be
shaken off; and conscious that his end was ap-
proaching, he made judicious arrangements for the
future government of the country, which he be-
queathed to his son Humayun, and expired in
December, 1530, in the forty-eighth year of his
age, having reigned over India years five only.
To great political and military abilities, Baber
joined literary tastes and accomplishments of no
mean order. He wrote a history of his own life
in the Mogul language, which has been translated
into English ; and so far as his busy life of warfare
permitted, he encouraged men of letters about his
court. Humayun inherited his father's talents
and virtues; and few nionarchs have ascended a
throne with more brilliant prospects of success.
The empire seemed firmly established ; the turbu-
lent nobles were once more at peace with each
other and the supreme government ; the revenues
THE
YUD, AJMEKK.
Humayun. 439
were in a flourishing condition ; and the young
king himself had so well profited by his father's
training and example, both as general and states-
man, that he seemed admirably adapted to fill with
credit to himself, and to the happiness of his peo-
ple, the exalted position to which he was called.
But his mild, peace-loving character was not suffi-
ciently in unison with the warlike age ; and his
literary and social tastes were too far in advance
of his restless, turbulent nobles, who could adapt
themselves only to an iron rule. It shortly be-
came necessary for him to undertake an expedition
into Guzerat, and another into his Afghan terri-
tories ; and though in both he was victorious, he
came near falling a victim to treachery. Then his
two brothers revolted, and making common cause
with several restless chiefs, they incited a formid-
able rebellion against him. After several unsuccess-
ful attempts to restore order, Humayun took refuge
at the court of Persia, where he was cordially wel-
comed, and assistance promised him against his
enemies. Sixteen years however elapsed before
he re-entered Delhi in triumph ; and then he lived
only a brief period to enjoy the restoration of his
kingdom. Walking on a terrace of his palace, his
440 The Mogul Empire.
foot slipped and he fell to the ground, so severely
injured that his death followed in a few days.
Akbar, his son and successor, was then only thir-
teen years of age, and as usual among those turbu-
lent chieftains on the death of a sovereign,
insurrections and revolts broke out in various
parts of the empire. The good order restored by
Baber had failed utterly under the less successful
administration of Humayun ; and especially dur-
ing his long absence, from the country, many states
threw off their allegiance entirely, and now re-
fused to submit to the sway of the boy-king,
whom they deemed wholly unequal to the enforce-
ment of his claims. But the youth and inexperi-
ence of Akbar found adequate compensation in
the ripe years and mature wisdom of his dis-
tinguished vizier, Behram Khan, the general and
prime minister of his late father ; while the bud-
ding genius of Akbar himself, that rendered him
afterwards so illustrious, soon began to be recog-
nized.
The ceremonial of coronation was scarcely over
when Behram, accompanied by the youthful sover-
eign, set forth with the utmost energy and deter-
mination to bring the refractory Rajahs to their
Akbar. 441
duty. Hemu a powerful Hindu prince, who had
assumed the title of emperor on the demise of
Humayun, was the first to be reckoned with.
Hemu, with a powerful army of the bitterest foes
of Mohammedan rule, was strongly entrenched at
Paniput, and they fought with the desperate en-
ergy of religious fanaticism ; but victory declared
in favor of Akbar ; and Hemu, wounded and a
prisoner, was brought to the royal tent, where
Behram requested the emperor to strike the first
blow at the usurper as a signal for his death.
But the brave young monarch refused to strike a,
wounded man and a prisoner, and this so enraged
the vizier, that he struck off the head of the cap-
tive with his own hand without waiting for the
formality of a regular execution. This victory
was followed by others in rapid succession, till
Delhi, Agra, the Punjaub, Guzerat, and Bengal
were all brought back to their fealty. The strong
fort, Chittore, in Meywar, was also besieged and
taken after a gallant defence. Its rich jewels and
royal treasures too, were carried off by the captors ;
but Oudey Singh, its brave defender and most
precious treasure was never taken, and the coun-
try continued to hold out against Akbar during his
442 The Mogul Empire.
entire reign. Chittore is a fortified town, built on
the summit of an isolated peak, about three miles
from the Pathar Mountains. It was the ancient
capital of Meywar, built by Chitrung Mori, the
Puar king ; and for several centuries it was the
only important town that was able to hold out
against the encroachments of Moslem power. The
plateau on which it is built lies southwest and
northeast, and is about three miles long, at a vary-
ing height of from two hundred and fifty to four
hundred feet above the plain. It is a naturally
strong position, surmounted by admirable works,
the sides of the mountain being perpendicular,
and a line of embattled ramparts, supported by
large round towers, running along the edge of the
precipice, render it almost invulnerable. Nor
could it be reduced by famine, being well supplier
with water from numerous reservoirs, and contain-
ing also immense store-houses and granaries. Yet,
despite all these advantages, Chittore has been
oftener reduced by siege than almost any other
town in India. Its weak point is a little plateau
on the south side of the mountain, and this has
in every instance been the successful point of re-
duction. Tradition says that this plateau was
Chittore. 443
erected by Sultan Ala-u-din, as the place from
which to make his assault in 1303, and that the
garrison succumbed to his forces after resisting a
siege of twelve years. It was also from this point
that the Maharajah Scindia bombarded the town,
in 1792. Dense forests, full of ferocious beasts of
prey, surround the base of the mountain, except
the small portion occupied by the town of Toulaiti,
about half-way up the western side. There is only
one entrance to Chittore, which is defended by
seven gates placed at intervals up the ascent.
Between the third and fourth is built a small
cenotaph of white marble, to mark the spot where
the two heroes, Jeimul and Puttore, fell during the
siege of the town by Akbar ; and near by is the
tomb of Ragonde, another martyr of the Rajput
cause, who is now worshipped as a demi-god.
Indeed, the whole history of Chittore, as recorded
by its bards, and handed down by tradition, is one
of touching devotion and almost unparalleled
heroism on the part of the Rajputs — even the
gentler sex vieing with their husbands and fathers
in love and zeal for the honor of their devoted
city. More than once the entire garrison has per-
ished to a man, kings and princes have calmly laid
444 The Mogul Empire.
down their lives for their country, and gentle
women, with their tender babes, have faced suffer-
ing and death by violence and by the still more
cruel " sacrifice of Johur," without a murmuring
word.
Among the numerous monuments of this once
famous city, perhaps the most noted is the Kherut
Khouinb, or " Tower of the Victory of Kho-
umbhou," erected by the Raua of that name to
commemorate the victory gained over the allied
armies of the Sultans of Mai war and Guzerat.
The Kherut is a square tower of singular beauty,
more than a hundred feet high, built in nine
stories, and once profusely adorned with superb
balconies, sculptures, * mouldings, and cornices,
some of which yet remain ; but man}' have been
destroyed by the vandalism of Moslem invaders.
The ninth story, which serves the purpose of lan-
tern tower, is surmounted by a modern dome, the
ancient one having been destroyed by lightning.
Here were also laid up the slabs of white marble
containing the records of the genealogy and chief
acts of all the Ranas. Of these, but one slab re-
mains, which records a fulsome tribute to the
builder of the tower, and the date of its erection,
Pudmanee's Sacrifice. 445
1307. According to the accounts of the time, the
ouilding of this superb tower cost ninety lacs of
rupees, or $4,500,000 ; and that at a period when
the proportionate value of money was so much
greater than in our own day.
Among other remarkable monuments, are the
palace of the Puar king, Chitrurig Mori, the
founder of Chittore, which is the oldest edifice in
the fortress ; the palace of the patriotic Bhimsi,
and his beautiful queen, Pudmanee ; and near the
sacred fountain of Graee Moukh or the " Cow's
Mouth," is an aperture in the rock that leads into
the immense subterranean galleries, called by the
Hindus, Rani-Bindar, " Queens' Chamber." It
was in this cavern that the peerless queen, Pud-
manee, and all the other women of Chittore,
amounting to several thousand in number, sacri-
ficed their lives rather than to fall into the hands
of the Moslem invaders of their country, at the
sacking of Chittore by Ala-u-din in 1290. After
the most gallant but unsuccessful defence, the
brave Rajputs filled the subterranean apartments
of the Rani-Bindar with inflammable materials,
and on these were heaped all the women and chil-
dren, the jewels, diamonds and treasure, all that
446 The Mogul Empire.
their Moslem foes would care to possess, and the
torch being applied, all perished together. This is
the " Sacrifice of Johur " — never resorted to but
in such desperate cases, to save women of rank
from being dishonored.
When their most precious possessions had been
thus provided for, the gates of the fortress were
thrown open, and its last defenders, with the Rana
at their head, rushing with drawn swords upon
Ala's army, perished to a man, though not without
inflicting a terrible vengeance on the Moslems,
whom they hacked and butchered without mercy,
probably ten for one. On entering Chittore, the
Sultan found only a silent and deserted town, over
which hung a cloud of foetid smoke, rising out of
the vaults where all that he had coveted lay in
smouldering ashes. His avowed object in laying
siege to Chittore, both in 1275, and again in 1290,
had been to possess himself of the beautiful queen
Pudmanee, whose wondrous graces of person and
character are still handed down by tradition.
Twice the Moslem conqueror had been foiled by
this lady fair : first, by a well executed ruse on her
part, and this time by her self-immolation ; and
his rage vented itself in the demolition of all the
Chittore. 447
buildings within the fortress, save only the palace
where the beautiful queen had perished.
When this grand, invincible people had again
rallied from their disaster, and Chittore phcenix-
like had risen from the ashes of desolation to a
higher prosperity under the glorious reign of
Khoumbhou, the builder of the tower that bears
his name, and of numerous other stately architect-
ural wonders, Chittore was again besieged in 1537,
by Sultan Bahadour Bajazet, king of Guzerat.
This time, the fortress of the devoted city was un-
dermined, taken and again sacked ; but not until
the brave garrison had fallen almost to a man, and
their wives and daughters, more than a thousand
in number, led by the queen Kurriaveti, had im-
molated themselves, by taking their position on a
rock that had been undermined, when firing the
train, they ail perished in an instant.
Twenty years later, in 1557, having once more
risen from its ruins, Chittore was again besieged,
this time by Akbar. He was at first repulsed
with heavy loss by Oudey Singh and his brave
Rajputs ; but the little garrison was finally over-
powered by numbers, fighting as they were against
the whole force of the Tartan emperor. The
448 The Mogul Empire,
flower of the Mey war chivalry were cut to pieces ;
the widow of one of the Omras, who, taking her
dead husband's place, went out to battle beside her
son, a youth of sixteen, and her young daughter-
in-law, fell fighting bravely while both lay dead
before her : two heads of tribes, Jeimul and Put-
tore, defended the sacred city with a bravery re-
membered even to this day by Moslems as well as
Rajputs ; and at last Jeimar, when he had been
mortally wounded by the hand of Akbar him-
self, gave the signal for the Johur, and nine
queens, five princesses, and more than a thousand
other women, together ascended the funeral pyre,
while their last defenders, satisfied that their honor
was preserved, rushed to meet death in the battle-
field. When the city fell into Akbar's hands, he
caused the immolation of every living thing found
within its borders, not sparing even its beautiful
monuments from desecration and defacement. But
the race that had proved such invincible opposers
of Moslem rule could not be extinguished. Be-
sides those scattered over the mountain villages,
the illustrious Rana Oudey Singh had escaped
with a band of brave adherents ; and he shortly
Chittore Deserted. 449
after laid the foundation of Oudeypore, " City of
the Rising Sun," to commemorate his name.
Chittore, the invincible, was deserted, and this
royal abode that for a thousand years had towered
above all the surrounding region, has become the
haunt of wild beasts, with its sacred places dese-
crated or in ruins. Formerly it was called the
" Holy Town," but now, though still considered a
sacred place of the former times, " it is given over
to evil spirits, and the Ranas are solemnly forbid-
den to enter its precincts." Not one of them has
set foot on the rock since Oudey Singh left its hor-
rors on that fatal day ; and " those who have at-
tempted to enter the desecrated town have felt
themselves repelled by an unseen hand."
The great conqueror returned from the reduc-
tion of Chittore with more than ordinary elation,
though nearly all his military expeditions were
crowned with success. But the cruel and jealous
spirit of his vizier, Behram, grew more and more
unbearable, till Akbar found it necessary to dis-
miss him, and, as the least objectionable method
of doing so, sent him on a pilgrimage to Mecca ;
and on the road thither he was assassinated by one
29
450 The Mogul Empire.
of the many enemies he had made by his imperious
and unjust despotism as vizier.
A war with the Afghans of the North-eastern
Provinces followed Akbar's other aggressive move-
ments ; and then one with Cashmere, both of
which were soon " compelled to accept the terms
offered them, namely, complete subjection to
Akbar's authority." His power was now firmly
established throughout the whole of Central India ;
and Cashmere seems from this time to have been
the summer residence of the emperors of Delhi, so
long as this monarchy lasted.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE MOGUL EMPIRE — FROM AKBAR TO SHAH
JEHAN.
IN 1596, the Deccan became the scene of Akbar's
military exploits. Several of his generals
were first dispatched to different fields in that
country ; and after about two years, he joined
them at the scene of operations before Ahmed-
negar.
This city was founded by Ahmed Nizam Shah,
in 1493. It was a part of the Tartan empire from
1634 to 1707, when it was captured by the Mah-
rattas. In 1797 it was taken by Scindia, and six
years later was wrested from him by General
Wellesley. Soon afterwards, it was restored to
the Peishwa, and did not revert to the English
until 1817. Its fortress is considered one of the
451
452 The Mogul Empire.
strongest in India, being surrounded by an impen-
etrable hedge of prickly-pear, in addition to its
stone walls of thirty feet high. Akbar's purpose was
not to destroy the city, but to compel the reigning
princes to submit to his authority ; and this end he
fully accomplished before quitting the Deccan,
which he left in the hands of his minister, Abul Fazl,
whilst he proceeded with all speed to Agra. " This
was rendered necessary by the rebellious conduct
of his oldest son, Selim, who, instigated by bad
advisers, and under the influence of opium and
wine, had seized upon Allahabad and declared him-
self king of Oudh and Behar. This rupture was,
however, healed shortly afterward ; Selim was de-
clared heir to the throne, admitted at court, and
permitted to wear royal ornaments." '
Akbar was now on the verge of sixty, and the
exposures and hardships of his military life were
beginning to affect his health and bring on pre-
mature infirmities. For several years he continued
to have frequent and severe attacks of illness, one
of which terminated his life, in the autumn of
1605, when he had just completed the sixty-third
year of his age, and had entered the fiftieth of his
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
THE TEMPLE OF MAHADEVA, KAJ* > ^A.
45.,
454 The Mogul Empire.
reign. Nearly his whole life had been passed in
warfare ; yet he found time for the exercise of the
arts of peace, and it was often said of him that
" he deemed no department of his government,
and no details of his vast and splendid establish-
ment too insignificant to deserve its special share
of regular attention." While possessed of great
military genius, he was also a lover of science and
literature, encouraged learning, instituted schools,
promoted commerce, improved the roads, reformed
the revenue laws, diminished the taxes of his peo-
ple, and gave the fullest liberty of conscience,
allowing no man to be persecuted for his religious
creed or practice. His eldest son, Selim, was with
him during his last days, and received from his
dying hands the royal scymeter. No opposition
was made to the succession of Selim, who, under
the title of Jehanghir or u Conqueror of the
World," ascended the throne rendered immortal
by Akbar's brilliant reign. The first trouble of
the new monarch was caused by the rebellion of
his own son, Khosru, who proceeded with a body
of troops he had levied to seize on the city of
Lahore ; but he was defeated in the very first en-
gagement with his father ; was taken back to the
Lahore in its Grlory. 457
Capital loaded with chains, and kept close pris-
oner for a year. Lahore was in its glory then, as
seen by Lalla Rookh, when " mausoleum and shrines,
magnificent and numberless, affected her heart and
imagination, and where death appeared to share
equal honors with heaven." Now many of the old
monuments have disappeared, and others have
been changed, as for example, the magnificent
tomb of a cousin of Akbar has been converted
into a very commodious residence for the lieuten-
ant-governor, and other mausoleums were used as
dwellings for Seikh officers before the English
came into possession. The flat roofs and carved
lattices give to Lahore of the present day an
aspect rather of Cairo than India ; and there is, all
over the city, with all its gayety and splendor, a
quaint admixture of Tartar dwellings and soft
oriental scenery, and of many nations, with cos-
tumes and linguals innumerable. This city is sup-
posed to have been founded sometime during the
fourth or fifth century of our era, but it was not
until the reign of Akbar that it attained any
supremacy. Jehanghir was fond of it as a resi-
dence, and fixed his court here in 1622, a court
graced by the peerless Nour Mahal, " Light of the
458 The Mogul Empire.
Harem," whom Jehanghir had wedded in 1611.
She was the widow of a late governor of Bengal,
and had won the emperor's regards by her great
beauty and accomplishments. She is said to have
exerted an extraordina^ influence over this proud
potentate ; but she was less a favorite with his
sons. Especially was she disliked, and her undue
influence suspected as being opposed to his inter-
ests, by the third son, Korrun, afterwards Shah
Jehan, the successor of Jehanghir. So restive
did the prince become under her influence and
plottings, that at length he left the court in indig-
nation, and raised the standard of revolt by laying
siege to Agra. In this daring attempt he was de-
feated with heavy loss, but he refused the proffered
reconciliation of his father and continued to absent
himself from court, awaiting opportunity for a new
outbreak. About this time a difficulty with
Mohabet Khan, the governor of the Punjaub,
occurred, of which, also Nour Mahal was the chief
cause, and which came very near proving fatal to
the emperor. Mohabet so far succeeded as to- get
possession of the person of Jehanghir. He was,
however, released by a well-directed ruse of Nour
Mahal ; and a reconciliation was then effected be-
Death of Jehanghir. 459
tween the emperor and the governor, who was
placed at the head of an army, and dispatched to
the South against Shah Jehan, who still continued
in open revolt. But Mohabet, instead of attack-
ing the young prince, united with him against their
common foe, Nour Mahal.
While affairs were in this posture, 1627, the
emperor, whose health had for some time been in
a precarious condition, set out for Cashmere, in-
tending to spend a month or two in resting and
recruiting among the mountains. But the change
proving unfavorable, his physicians directed an
immediate return to a warmer climate. As a last
hope he was conveyed toward Lahore, but expired
suddenly on the way to that city, in the sixtieth
year of his age, and the twenty-second of his
reign. It was during the reign of this monarch,
in 1615, that the English Embassy, under the guid-
ance of Sir Thomas Roe, visited Ajmere, the object
being to form a treaty of amity with the " Great
Mogul," as the emperor was then called. Sir
Thomas spent some three years in the country,
and wrote a most vivid description of the court of
Delhi, and the state of the country at that period.
This work contains frequent allusions to the
460 The Mogul Empire.
emperor Jehanghir, and his luxurious mode of
living, as well as many incidents of his private
life and character. The great wealth of this
monarch may be judged from several circumstances
mentioned by Sir Thomas Roe, among others, the
gifts presented by him to the bride of one of his
sons, namely : " A pearl necklace valued at
1300,000, a ruby worth $125,000, and a yearly
maintenance of $150,000."
As soon as tidings of the emperor's death
reached Shah Jehan, he repaired by forced marches
to Agra, taking Mohabet with him, and there
caused himself to be proclaimed. There was an
attempt at resistance made by Nour Mahal, with
the hope of securing the sceptre for her prote'ge',
Shah Riah, Jehanghir's second son, but without
effect. At the first encounter, Nour Mahal's forces
were defeated and her favorite slain, and she soon
after retired to private life ; while Shah Jehan was
left in quiet possession of his inheritance, an
empire and a throne, with the beautiful Agra for
his capital, A. D. 1627.
Agra was only an insignificant Jat town when
the emperor Secunder took possession of it in
1488 ; and it was more than a third of a century
Agra and the Taj. 461
later, when Shere Shah, who had been the rival of
Humayun, and succeeded in driving him into
exile, built the citadel around the palace. The
splendor of Agra dates back no farther than the
reign of Akbar, who, in 1556, made it his capital,
under the name of Akbarabad, and enriched it
with many monuments. By him the old Pathan
fortress was razed to the ground, and replaced
from the very foundations by a vast citadel, with
marble palaces and mosques ; while his successors,
Jehanghir and Shah Jehan, endowed Agra with
the Etmaddowlah and the wonderful Taj. But
when the beloved wife, the empress Mumtazi
Mahal, for whose mausoleum the Taj was erected,
had been laid away among its splendors, the sor-
rowing emperor forsook the royal abode her pres-
ence no longer graced, and took up his residence
at Delhi, which has since been the sole capital of
India, as it had long been one of the imperial
residences. In 1761, Agra was sacked by the
savage Jats of Souraj Mull ; about fifteen years
later the Mahrattas carried off what the Jats had
spared; and in 1803 the city was taken from
Scindia by General Lake, and has since remained
under the control of the British Government.
462 The Mogul Empire.
During the Seapoy rebellion of 1857, most of
the European houses were destroyed; but the
English and other foreign residents took refuge in
the fort, and maintained a gallant defence until
relieved by Colonel Greathed. Its population,
which had greatly diminished under its various
reverses, has rapidly increased of late years, and
now numbers about two hundred and fifty thous-
and.
Agra is held in high 'veneration by the Hindus,
as the city of the incarnation of Vishnu, under the
name of Parasu Rama. Agra, now the capital of
the northwest provinces, is noted throughout
India for its superb monuments. The city is sit-
uated on the right bank of the Jumna, and is con-
nected by various railways with Bengal, the Pun-
jaub and the Deccan, and holds commercial
intercourse also with Rajputana and the Doab.
It is a bright, clean, cheerful city, its dwellings
comparatively new, though built in the main from
debris of former buildings from the times of
Akbar, on to the conquest of the city by the English.
In the southwest section, almost a mile from the
city proper, are the English cantonments, contain-
ing besides the barracks, bazaars and churches for
Buildings of Agra. 463
the troops, many fine mansions surrounded by
gardens and green lawns. The great fortress of
Akbar is in the southern section. It is built
mainly of red sandstone, and looks imposing, but
is by no means formidable, and could not stand
against a sharp cannonade, as was proved by
General Lake's siege in 1803.
The Jummah Musjid or Cathedral Mosque of
Agra, is a superb structure of the time of Akbar,
and built of red sandstone arid white marble,
standing on a marble terrace, and the whole sur-
mounted by three Mogul domes of great height.
The Dewani Am or " Palace of Justice," was
once a grand palace built on the plan of the
Dewan Khas of Ambir ; but it is now the arsenal
of the citadel, and the " Court " is filled with can-
non and shot. Among the curiosities collected
there by the English, are the throne of Akbar, and
the celebrated gates of Somnath. The throne of
Akbar is a long seat of marble inlaid with pre-
cious stones, and surmounted by a graceful canopy
of white marble. " The gates of Somnath " are
two heavy doors of finely-carved wood, four yards
high. In the beginning of the Christian era, they
guarded the entrance to the temple of Krishna at
464 The Mogul Empire.
Soinnath in Guzerat ; but in the tenth century,
Sultan Mahmoud, the fierce iconoclast, after de-
stroying all the idols of Somnath, and pillaging
the town, carried off these gates to his capital at
Ghazni. The Brahmins offered immense bribes
for the redemption of the image of Krishna, but
the Sultan destroyed it with his own hands, and in
doing so, found within it, jewels of immense value.
So it is probable the pious Brahmins had other
motives besides a holy veneration for the image of
their god in wishing to rescue it from the hands
of the Moslems. After the conquest of Afghan-
istan, when Ghuzni fell into the hands of the
English, Lord Ellenborough removed these gates
to Agra, and made them the subject of a grand
proclamation. Behind the arsenal is the imperial
palace, in a perfect state of preservation, consist-
ing of numerous pavilions, with gilded domes, con-
nected by terraces, galleries and castellated walls,
all built of the pure white marble of Rajputana ;
and the courts are still planted with flowers, the
plats intersected by numerous small canals. The
interior of the spacious apartments is adorned with
exquisite mosaics, and the windows are half-closed
by curtains of marble, so finely carved as to repre-
H. I.— 30
A Marvellous Stone. 467
sent lace. The emperor's bath-room has panels of
lapis-lazuli inlaid with gold, silver mirrors and
fountains, and all the appointments that the most
sensuous taste could contrive.
On the terrace fronting tl^ Dewan Khas, is a
large slab of black marble, where Akbar the Great
used to sit to administer justice to his people.
The slab is broken in half, and in the centre are
two red spots. Tradition says that when Agra
was taken by the Jats, in 1761, Souraj Mull seated
himself on this slab, which immediately gaped
open and blood was seen to issue from the apper-
ture ; and years afterward, when Lord Ellenbor-
ough made the same attempt, the stone broke
quite in two. Near the imperial seat is a smaller
slab of white marble, designed for the court buf-
foon, who used to mimic every action of the
emperor.
The Taj was built by the emperor Shah Jehan,
as a mausoleum for the empress Mumtazi or Mum-
taj Mahal, his favorite wife, who died in giving
birth to her eighth child, the princess Jehanara.
In the great cemetery around the mausoleum of
Nizam-u-din, on the road to Delhi, not far from
468 The Mogul Empire.
the Kootub, is the tomb of this princess, the Begum
Jehanara, on which is inscribed the epitaph :
" Let no rich canopy cover my grave,
This grass is the best covering for the poor in Spirit,
The humble, transitory Jehanara, the disciple of the holy men
of Cheist,
The daughter of the Emperor Shah Jehan."
But despite this humble prayer, the dust of this
royal lady reposes in a regal sarcophagus, sur-
rounded by a screen of marble.
The Empress Mumtaj Mahal, famous alike .for
her beauty and her talents, inspired in her hus-
band such supreme love and admiration that he
resolved, after her death, to raise to her memory
the most beautiful monument that had ever been
built within the memory of man. After long con-
sultation with all the architects of the countries
around, the plan of Tsa Mohammed was adopted,
and the building was begun in the year 1630. Its
construction occupied twenty thousand men for
twenty-two years ; and nearly every part of the
empire was levied on for the various materials
used. Rajputana furnished the marble and pink
sandstone, one hundred and forty thousand cart
loads in all ; the jaspers came from the Punjaub,
cornelians from Broach, turquoises from Thibet
The Taj. 469
agates from Yeman, coral from Arabia, Onyx from
Persia, lapis-lazuli from Ceylon, garnets from
Bundelcund, diamonds from Punnah, chalcedonies
from Arabia, rock-crystals from Mai war, sapphires
from Columbo, and conglomerates from Jesulmore,
Gvvalior, and Sikri. Outside these gratuitous dona-
tions, and the forced labor of workmen, 'the cost
of the Taj was estimated at three millions of dol-
lars. Almo'st every visitor to the Taj essays a
description of what lie in the very outset admits
to be indescribable. Yet as there are thousands of
readers who are not travellers, and who cannot
therefore see the Taj for themselves, the following
statistics are given as a means of judging of the
size and proportions of this most wonderful monu-
ment.
The Taj, which is built near the banks of the
Jumna, about a mile east of the fort, stands on a
terrace of pink sandstone nine hundred and sixty
feet long, and three hundred and eighty feet wide,
one end being laved by the Jumna, and the other
rising a few feet above the level of the garden.
In the centre of this terrace stands a superb plat-
form of white marble which is fifteen feet high,
and two hundred and eighty-five feet on each side.
470 The Mogul Empire.
This forms a pedestal for the mausoleum itself, an
irregular octagon, its longest sides measuring one
hundred and twenty feet. It has a terraced roof,
with a pavilion at each corner, and a magnificent
dome in the centre, its golden crescent rising two
hundred and seventy feet above the level of the
river. Each fagade is pierced with a high Sara-
cenic gate, flanked on the outer side by two rows
of niches ; and every line and proportion has been
calculated with such consummate art, that not the
slightest defect can be. detected. One lady, while
gazing on this wonderful structure, said to her
husband : " I cannot criticise, but I can feel in
such a presence as this ; and I know I would will-
ingly die to-morrow to have such a tomb as this
Taj." Others have said, or written: "The Taj
was built by Titans and finished by goldsmiths."
" The inspiration was from heaven, and the execu-
tion worthy of the conception." " A poem in
marble ! " " The sigh of a broken heart ! " " Po-
etic marble arrayed in eternal glory ! " " Too pure
to be the work of human hands ! " The entire
edifice, from base to summit, is built of pure white
marble, inlaid in mosaics, forming inscriptions,
arabesques, and devices, all arranged with ex-
The Taj. 471
quisite taste, and perfect conception of tints and
shades ; every particle of inlaying done with the
patient care and unwearying assiduity of a Chinese
artist. The beauty of the interior surpasses, it'
possible, the outside ; ceiling, walls, and tomb-
stones being one mass of mosaics, representing
birds, flowers, and fruits. The tombs of the
empress and Shah Jehan are in the centre of the
hall enclosed by a marble screen of lace-work,
through which the subdued light is reflected in
mellow tints, and a tender, musical echo, as from
fairy-land, falls softly on the ear. This echo is
caused by the dome being completely closed by
the ceiling of the hall, thus forming a gigantic
whispering gallery. Among other decorations of
the interior, is the entire letter-press of the Koran
from beginning to end in exquisite mosaics of
costly gems-
The left bank of the Jumna is connected with
the town by a viaduct and railway, quite a little
village having sprung up on that side of the river.
Near by is the famous Etmaddowlali, the mauso-
leum erected in 1610, by the emperor Jehanghir,
over the tomb of his father-in-law, Kevaji Acias,
Akmet-oud-dowlah, (of which Etmaddowlah
472 The Mogul Empire.
is a corruption), a treasurer of the empire, and
father of the famous Nour Mahal, Jehanghir's
favorite wife.
The Province of Agra is one of the six north-
western provinces of British India, that together
constitute one of the ten administrations into
which India is divided. It contains an area of
nine thousand four hundred and seventy-nine
square miles, with a population of about four and
a half millions, mostly Hindus. The land, though
generally flat and arid, is well watered by the
Gauges, Jumna, and Chumbul, and by means of
irrigation produces good crops of grain, cotton,
indigo and pulse.
CHAPTER XIX,
THE MOGUL EMPIRE — AURTJNGZEBE.
THE reign of Shah Jehan was marked from its
very beginning by the greatest extrava-
gance and extreme love of display. Beautiful and
costly buildings were erected; and the anniversa-
ries of his accession were kept with a profusion of
outlay that was unusual even in those days of
oriental lavishness. The first of these celebrations
is said to have cost nearly ten millions of dollars.
The city of Delhi was rebuilt by him, in a style of
wondrous beauty and on an extensive scale. His
famous peacock throne, the wonder of his own
age, and of many succeeding ones, was one blaz-
ing mass of precious stones, diamonds, sapphires,
emeralds, rubies, opals and pearls, so arranged as to
represent the plumage of a peacock in its natural
473
474 The Mogul Empire.
state. This superb throne is said to have cost
thirty-two and a halt' millions of dollars. The
revenues of his kingdom must have been immense,
for with all his profuse expenditures, and costly
wars, there was at one time an accumulation in
his treasury of coined money not less than one
hundred and twenty millions of dollars, besides
fabulous quantities of costly jewels and massive
gold plate, and adornments of the state apart-
ments. Despite his undutiful conduct prior to his
father's death, he was as a sovereign most ex-
emplary in the performance of public and private
duties, in which he displayed uniformly a wise
consideration, united with a generous liberality.
Even the large sums expended on the throne and
the Taj, his two most costly works, gave employ-
ment and the means of living to thousands of his
subjects, to whom it was undoubtedly better to
pay wages than alms. As a ruler, a warrior and a
legislator, he has had few equals among oriental
monarchs; and despite his lavish outlays, un-
equalled by those of any of his race, his people
were subjected to no extra taxation for a single
time during his reign of thirty years, but were in
Reign of Shah Jehan. 477
the main more lightly burdened than any of their
ancestors had been.*
The chief military exploits of this reign were
the effectual repulse of the Uzbee invaders of
Cabul, who were driven back with frightful loss ;
the summary chastisement inflicted on the Afghan
general, Lodi, in his repeated invasions of the
Deccan ; and the quelling of various internal dis-
sensions and revolts. Less happily ended some
difficulties with the Mahratta chieftain, Sevaji ; and
several acts of insubordination on the part of
Aurungzebe, the emperor's third son, culminating
at last in a severe encounter between the three
princes : Dara, the eldest son on one side, with an
army of some fifty thousand horse, and the
younger princes, Morad and Aurungzebe, on the
other, with a somewhat smaller, but better-dis-
ciplined army, that gained a decisive victory, thus
closing the brilliant reign of Shah Jehan, and
ushering in that of Aurungzebe. Prince Dara's
defeat was so desperate that with about two thous-
and followers, he fled toward Delhi ; Shah Jehan
who was alarmingly ill at Agra, was imprisoned
there in his palace for the remaining seven years of
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
478 The Mogul Empire.
his life ; Prince Morad was confined in the strong
fort of Gwalior, where he was afterwards executed
by the order of Aurungzebe ; and the conqueror
was proclaimed emperor under the title of Alam-
ghir, the name by which he is always spoken of
by Indians. Dara, the eldest brother, wandered
as a fugitive for several years in the vicinity of
Delhi and Ahmed abad, when he was captured and
put to death at Delhi. Shan Jehan lived seven
years after his imprisonment, in indifferent health,
but comfortably provided for amid the scenes of
his early felicity ; perhaps not unwilling to resign
the cares of sovereignty for retirement and rest in
his declining years. He died in his own beautiful
citadel at Agra, A. D. 1666.
Among the varied endowments of the new
emperor, seems to have been a trio of names. His
proper name, and that by which he was long called,
was Mohammed ^ as a special favorite of his grand-
father, Jehanghir, he was called by him, Aurung-
zebe, i. e., " Ornament of the Throne," and when
about to be proclaimed, he himself selected the
cognomen, Alam-ghir, " Conqueror of the World ; "
and he was accustomed to have carried before him,
as his symbol, a golden globe. But to show that
Aurungzele. 479
he had not yet entered into full possession of his
dominions, lie used to tear off a corner of every
sheet of paper used in his correspondence.
In the year 1650, when about thirty years of
age, this prince had been appointed by his father
viceroy of the Deccan, where he had previously
commanded several military expeditions. Here,
while affecting great zeal for the Moslem faith,
and unqualified obedience to the commands of his
father and sovereign, the ambitious prince was
amassing for himself great wealth, and gathering
experience as a military leader, to be used against
his own parent ; his treasonable plottings resulting,
as we have seen, in the erection of his own fortune
upon the ruins of his entire family. Talents of a
brilliant order were the heritage of Aurungzebe ;
and he seems to have possessed withal the happy
tact of profiting by opportunities whenever they
presented. His reign was the period of greatest
prosperity in the history of his race in India, where
his empire included nearly the entire peninsula,
with Cabul on the west and Assam on the east.
For the first ten years of his administration, the
country enjoyed almost unbroken peace ; and his
wisdom was especially manifest in anticipating and
480 The Mogul Empire.
assuaging a famine ; and later in suppressing an
insurrection of Hindu devotees headed by a female
saint. A far greater misfortune lay in store for
Aurungzebe in the doings of the Mahrattas — a
race of men of whom little was known prior to
the reign of Shah Jehan, save their casual mention
by one of the Mohammedan historians ; and whose
influence has been scarcely recognized, until they
were brought into notice by an adventurer named
Sevaji. Against this almost invincible leader,
Aurungzebe sent in vain his most experienced
generals, and he determined to take the field in
person against this redoubtable foe. From this
period he resided over twenty years in the Deccan,
bringing the Carnatic into quiet submission and
ruling an empire, that in wealth and population,
has seldom been surpassed. India owes to Aurung-
zebe several of her finest bridges, hospitals and
mosques. Among the latter is one in the town of
Aurungabad, built in connection with the beauti-
ful mausoleum of Rahia Dourani, erected by
Aurungzebe in memory of his favorite daughter.
It was the design of this emperor to build as
gorgeous a tomb as the celebrated Taj, of which
this is an evident copy, but in no respect its equal.
H. L— 33
Aurungabad. 483
The town contains another mausoleum of even
greater notoriety than that of the Rahia — the
tomb of Shah Sonfi, the famous Moslem saint,
standing in the centre of a beautiful sheet of
water in the suburbs of the town. Aurungabad,
formerly the capital of a province of the same
name, was for a short time the residence of
Aurungzebe and his court; but it contains now
little besides its ruins to remind one of a royal
city. Scarcely enough remains of the emperor's
palace on the banks of the Doundhna, to judge of
its original appearance. Probably even in its
palmiest days, this now forsaken abode of royalty
was inferior in splendor to most of the monuments
left by the " Great Moguls ; " and the pillaging pro-
pensities of the Mahrattas doubtless found exer-
cise in dismantling it while in their possession.
The province, which contains about fifty thousand
square miles, was incorporated with the empire by
Shah Jehan in 1633 ; later it was taken by the
Mahrattas, then by the Nizam, and last of all it
passed under British rule.
About four leagues north of the city is the
celebrated fortress of Daoulatabad, built on a huge
conical block of granite, that stands isolated in
484 The Mogul Empire.
solitary grandeur, in the midst of a vast plain.
From its peculiar position, it is a very conspicuous
object seen from a great distance, and is one of the
most impregnable fortresses in India. Its name sig-
nifies, " Abode of Fortune." The road leading
to the summit is a long tunnel bored into the rock,
to which light and air are communicated through
dormer windows. The ascent is by an easy incline,
passing gratings, portcullises, and trap-doors, that
stand as checks to whoever may have eluded the
sentries. About midway, there is a very steep
staircase closed in by a horizontal plate of iron
pierced with holes. At the outcome of this road,
a handsome Saracen gate opens on the exterior
rampart, a wall some sixteen feet thick and fifty-
two feet high, with a circumference of more than
two and a half miles. The interior of the fortress
is divided into nine parts, by as many concentric
enclosures, rising one above another, up to the last,
which overlooks all the rest.*
At the base of the fort rises the town in which
some travellers and historians believe they recog-
nize the famous Tagara of the Greeks. Under
the name of Deogurh, " Dwelling of God," this
Rousselet's " India and its Native Princes." p. 75.
Daoulatabad. 485
town was long the capital of the Deccan, and
passed through strange vicissitudes. In 1294 it
was occupied by the emperor Ala-u-din ; and sub-
sequently, Mohammed Toghlak, one of Ala's suc-
cessors, desiring, on account of its impregnable
fortress, to make it the capital of the Indian
Empire, compelled the inhabitants of Delhi, sixty
thousand in number, to remove their effects to
Daoulatabad. Pipalghat, a neighboring acclivity,
was the work of a noble of the court of Aurung-
zebe. Two columns still standing on the road
testify to this fact, and that the sculptures and
decorations used eve^where, even for the flagging
of the pathway, were all taken from the remains
of Hindu temples that had been devastated during
the wars. This desecration of things macfe sacred
by religious worship, and so opposed to oriental
ideas of fitness, was in the case alluded to, a
special ovation to the fanatical zeal of Aurungzebe,
and was doubtless very pleasing to the royal bigot,
whose so-called religious zeal seems to have kept
pace with the violence and selfishness of his life-
long career. The plain spreading out from the
road is nearly covered with mausoleums, very
many of them in a ruinous condition, with their
486 The Mogul Empire.
domes and minarets half hidden behind the luxu-
riant tropic growth, and the over-hanging branches
of time-honored trees. Beyond the plain, is the
little village of Rauzah, " Paradise," surrounded
by a Moslem cemetery that is made famous as
containing the tomb of Aurungzebe, and also of
that of the noted saint Berham-u-din, a descendant
of the prophet.
The province of Aurungabad formed part of the
populous native state of Hyderabad, frequently
spoken of as the territory of the Nizam. The
famous fortress of Golconda is perched on the very
summit of a steep and rocky hill. This fortress is
also the treasury of the Nizam, where are kept the
state funds and jewels ; and it may be that from
this fact has arisen the custom of using Golconda
as the synonym for great wealth. The diamond
mines of Golconda are located several miles east
of the fortress. The city of Hyderabad, capital
of the Nizam, is three hundred miles east of
Poonah, and contains the Jumma Musjid, a superb
Mohammedan mosque, built of white stone, and
an exact copy of the Mosque at Mecca. It is alto-
gether a city of Moslems — population and pro-
Ahmedabad. 487
clivities, prince and palace, partaking of the same
character.
The town of Ahmedabad, where the fugitive
prince Dara concealed himself prior to his capture
and execution by Aurungzebe, was the ancient
capital of the Sultans, and is still one of the most
magnificent cities of India. It was founded in
1412, by Sultan Ahmed, whose name it bears, on
the site of a Hindu town of some notoriety.
Ahmed, having in his conquests sacked several im-
portant Rajput cities, applied the beautiful and
costly materials to the early building of the superb
mosques and palaces with which this city abounds.
His architects and builders, being of Hindu origin,
preserved in the temples of their adopted faith, the
style of architecture peculiar to the country, which
is quite distinct from the Saracen order introduced
into India with the Tartar dynasty.
About the year 1570, Ahmedabad came into the
possession of Akbar, and under his reign and that
of his successors, was the seat of one of the most
opulent viceroyalties of the empire. Among other
personages of note, the beautiful Nour Mahal,
wife of Jehanghir, held her court here at one
time ; and the emperor himself was fond of seek-
488 The Mogul Empire.
ing rest and relaxation in this beautiful city, away
from state cares. In 1737, it was annexed to the
kingdom of Baroda, and in 1818 it was given up
to the English, who have since held it. The
superb ramparts of the city make a circuit of
nearly eight miles, enclosing unquestionably the
richest city in India, as regards mosques, monu-
ments and mausoleums.
The mosques, full fifty in number, are all built
on high stone terraces, which gives them a pecul-
iarly commanding appearance, amid the other
architectural adornments of the city, as their
gilded domes and minarets stand out boldly, with
the azure of the clear Indian sky for a background.
Among the mausoleums, the most beautiful is
that of Shah Allum, two miles from the city.
The tomb is of porphyry, and the chamber where
it rests is inlaid with mother-of-pearl, on which
the light falls with prismatic radiance from a deli-
cate trellis-work of stone.
The great scourge of Aurungzebe was the
Mahratta power, rapidly on the increase, during
the last half of his reign. As Charlemagne wept
on beholding the Norman ships on the Seine, so
Aurungzebe foresaw in these incursions of hordes
Death of Aurungzebe. 489
he could neither conciliate nor conquer, the coming
ruin of his race. Repeatedly he opposed their
advances, often gaining a temporary advantage,
but he was never able fully to annihilate their
power — every attempt to do so seeming like fight-
ing the sands of the sea-shore, where a new cloud
always overwhelms the combatant, as he success-
fully puts aside the first.
This source of annoyance, together with the
utter failure and severe losses of several Afghan
campaigns, seems greatly to have soured the
temper of Aurungzebe, and led to sundry offen-
sive edicts, and oppressive taxation of his subjects
to meet the expenses of these lengthy military cam-
paigns. Murmurs arose on all sides, his troops
clamored for pay, and in^the midst of financial em-
barrassments, and general dissatisfaction, the weary
and troubled monarch saw that his end was ap-
proaching, and that his busy, anxious life had
failed to secure either peace for himself or the full
measure of appreciation he had desired from his
countrymen. Yet, in the main, success had at-
tended his expeditions during all his long reign ;
and except for the late troubles in the Deccan, the
empire was in a most prosperous condition, while
490 The Mogul Empire.
few monarchs ever devoted their whole lives more
assiduously to what they deemed the interests of
their people. The dying emperor declined having
his sons summoned to his bedside ; but he wrote a
letter to each, filled with wise counsels, and he
dictated a will dividing the empire between them
and assigning to each his particular domain.*
Then full of regrets for the past, and fears for
the future, Aurungzebe expired at Ahmednegur,
February 21, 1707, in the eightieth year of his age,
and the fiftieth of his reign.
* Elphinstone's India.
CHAPTER XX.
THE MAHRATTAS.
ONE of the most formidable powers opposed to
each of the successive invaders of India,
has been the Mahratta. Proud, brave, self-reliant,
and capable of enduring all manner of hardships,
they are a foe always formidable, and never to be
turned aside by bribery or threats. Every man
among them seems born to the saddle, and their
country abounds in small, strong, sure-footed
horses just suited to the sort of guerilla warfare
they carry on. Armed with lances, their mounted
hordes spread like locusts over the country during
the days of Moslem supremacy, making rapid ad-
vances over the worst roads, impeded by no obsta-
cles, and appearing just where they were least
expected, they committed all manner of depreda-
491
492 The Mahrattas.
tions on the camps and outposts of the invaders ;
and then loaded with plunder, disappeared as sud-
denly as they came. General Malcolm refers to
these harassing guerillas, against whom he had
constantly to contend ; of their flocking to the
Mahratta standard each year, immediately after
the rains ; and the whole immense army setting
forth on the campaign, with no other provision
than the food and forage each soldier carried at his
saddle-bow. Of course they had to levy on the
country for subsistence ; but there was no lawless-
ness in their plunder. They took only from their
armed foes, sparing the country people when it
was practicable ; and whatever booty they captured
was carried to camp and divided among all. Thus
the}r overran the richest provinces ; and not only
was their army constantly receiving recruits, by
the accession of Hindu adventurers and malecon-
tents, but it actually derived prestige from seem-
ing defeats, growing all the time stronger and
more powerful. The Mahrattas were the great
scourge of Aurungzebe ; the only opponents
against whom he seemed to make no headway ;
and after his death, they continued their en-
croachments, adding occasionally to their territo-
THE ROYAL STANDARD BEARER, IN THE PROCESSION OF
THE GUICOWAR, AT BARODA.
493
Europeans in Indict. 495
ries, sometimes suffering loss, but seldom was any
real advantage gained over them ; while the
empire daily grew weaker, and needed only some
sudden shock to cause its entire dismemberment.
Meanwhile, the possessions and influence of the
English in India had been constantly increasing ;
but the French also had appeared on the arena,
and their naval forces, under the command of
Labourdonnais, had for the time, put an effectual
check on the operations of the English. When,
however, peace had been restored between these
powers, they each opened hostilities on various
native princes, finding always some frivolous pre-
text by which to excuse their ambitious scheming
after the wealth and power of the Indies. The
first English fleet had been dispatched to India in
1601 ; and this was followed by others, which in
time so aroused the jealousy of the Dutch as well
as the Portuguese that the two made common
cause against the English, and frequently attacked
their ships on the high seas. This led the Eng-
lish Company to send out much larger ships,
well armed with heavy cannon. The result was
almost annihilation to the Portuguese fleet that in
1605 attacked the English off Surat, and other
496 The Mahratta*.
similar engagements following, in which both the
Dutch and Portuguese suffered severely, the Eng-
lish began to acquire prestige on the Indian seas,
not only in the e}res of these European nations,
but also with the native princes ; that led the lat-
ter to seek the alliance of the English, as they had
formerly that of the Portuguese. Then followed
the embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the court of
Delhi, in the reign of Akbar. that resulted so favor-
ably for British commerce. During the reigns of
James I. and Charles I. not much progress was
made ; and the rapidly-growing power of the
Dutch was gaining the ascendency, until the active
mind of Cromwell saw the importance of giving
to Anglo-Indian trade the prominence it merited.
After the war he so successfully waged with Hol-
land, Cromwell dictated his own terms in regard
to Indian affairs ; and in April 1654, a treaty was
concluded, in which " the rights and privileges of
the British India Company were fully and honor-
ably maintained." The marriage of Charles II.,
with the Infanta of Portugal, as before stated,
gave to the English, in 1669, full possession of the
island of Bombay, out of which has grown the
immense commerce between that port and Eng-
The East India Company. 497
land. The incapacity and unfaithfulness of their
own officers in India greatly retarded the growth
at this period of the Anglo-Indian colonies. The
conduct especially of Sir John Child, one of the
governors of Bombay, during the reign of James
II., became so violent and offensive, that the
emperor of Delhi openly declared war against the
English, when the timely death of the governor
prevented the sacking of Bombay, and restored
peace between the English and their Indian allies.
Then followed some years of bitter animosity be-
tween a new East India Company and the old one,
until in 1708 the two were united, and a new
charter was obtained which gave to the company
the right of holding courts of session and appeal,
and also a mayor's court, in each of the three
Presidencies then created at Madras, Bombay and
Calcutta. The Court of Directors was better con-
stituted, and new life and vigor began to appear in
every department of the service. This brings us
back to the troublous times that immediately pre-
ceded and followed the death of Aurungzebe, in
connection with the Mahrattas. Maha Rachtra^
" The Great Kingdom," is the name that for more
than two centuries has been applied to the country
H. I.— 32
498 The Mahrattas.
of the Mahrattas, a vast region of well-watered
and fertile valleys, intersected by mountain ranges,
and now divided into the Provinces of Poonah,
Candeish, Nagpore, Aurungabad, and Bejapore, be-
sides the later acquisitions of Gwalior, Baroda, and
Indore. We find no certain data as to the origin
of this race ; and it was not until the latter part
of the reign of Shah Jehan that they attracted
particular attention. Beginning then, under the
leadership of the noted Sevaji, to strengthen their
position in the Deccan, they ultimately acquired
sufficient importance not only to change the Mos-
lem destinies of India, but at one period to cause
serious trouble to the Anglo-Indian Government.
And it seems quite probable that, but for the in-
crease of British power in the country, India
would, through the Mahrattas, have been restored
to the Hindus. Even in our own day, despite the
stringency of British rule, the Mahrattas have, to
a great extent, preserved their ancient institutions,
their elective assembly, and the independence of
their communes governed by the mayors of their
villages.
Sevaji Bhousa, the founder of the Mahratta
dynasty in the Deccan, was born A. D. 1627, and
Sevaji Bhousa. 499
when scarcely eighteen years of age was admitted
by his father to the joint management of the
jaghire of Poonah. This afforded him opportu-
nity of indulging the wandering, romantic life of
which he seemed so fond ; and furthermore of col-
lecting around him a band of brave and trusty
followers, through whose help he secured several
hill forts, and then laid violent hands on the reve-
nues of his father's fief. His next step was revolt
against the king of Bijapore, the capture of other
forts, and the conquest of the whole Northern Con-
con. This threw into his hands immense treasure,
and enabled him with largely augmented forces to
enter the imperial territories, take the town of
Juner, and carry off considerable booty. These
atrocities seem to have been overlooked by Aurung-
zebe, who was just at that time occupied in secur-
ing the crown of Delhi for himself, and putting
his father and brothers out of the way. At a
later period, during the absence of the emperor in
Cashmere, Sevaji, after devastating several towns
in the Deccan, made a successful jaid into Surat,
sacked the town, assumed the title of Rajah, and
even commenced the coining of money with his
own effigy. These high-handed measures brought
500 The Mahrattas.
upon Sevaji the chastisement of the emperor, to
whom the bandit-chief made submission, and soon
after received a commission in the Delhi army,
where he served with such gallantry as to elicit
the warmest praises of Aurungzebe. But the
next year found Sevaji again in the field on his
o.wn account, as invincible a foe to his imperial
master as he had been useful as an ally.
Bijapore and Golconda both purchased immunity
at the hands of the Mahratta chief by the pay-
ment of immense sums of money, thus practically
acknowledging his supremacy. An attempt of
Aurungzebe to seize the person of Sevaji, proving
unsuccessful, afforded to the chief a pretext for
open war, whereby the Mahrattas recovered pos-
session of several important hill forts, and gained
firmer footing in Candeish and Surat.
The attention of Aurungzebe was at this period,
1680, diverted by the failure of his efforts to re-
duce his Rajput subjects to submission, by the
murmurs of the Hindu portion of his empire at
the offensive edicts whereby all but Moslems were
debarred from offices of trust under the govern-
ment, and the jezzia or " poll-tax on infidels " was
revived ; and more than all, by his own jealous
G-olconda Subdued. 501
dread of " coming events," that seemed to " cast
their shadows before." This combination of
troubles not only emboldened the Mahrattas, but
equally unfitted the emperor to cope with his per-
sistent adversaries ; and though the indomitable
chief, Sevaji, had died of a sudden illness just after
one of his raids for the annexation of Mysore to
his territories, the emperor found in Sambaji, the
son and successor of Sevaji, a foe equally harass-
ing and far more unscrupulous than the father.
Sambaji, with his hordes, ravaged Guzerat, and
though often unable to cope with the large forces
of the emperor, he continued by repeated sorties
from his hill forts, to cut off supplies, plunder the
envoys, and effectually to embarrass the move-
ments of the imperial army. Bijapore was, how-
ever, taken and dismantled by Aurungzebe, the
subjugation of Golconda followed, and soon after,
Sambaji fell into the hands of the imperialists, and
was beheaded in prison. But the Mahrattas were
not subdued. Sambaji's brother assumed com-
mand, the old tactics were continued, their foes
harassed in every conceivable way, and themselves
rarely exposed to danger. Aurungzebe, with all
his indomitable energy and perseverance, began to
502 The Mahrattas.
be discouraged after the more than ten years he
had spent with his immense army, in pursuing this
Hydra-headed foe from point to point, with no
perceptible progress made in subduing them.
Finding it impossible longer to maintain his large
army in the Deccan, under so many disadvantages,
and worn out with fatigue, he ordered a retreat,
and deemed himself fortunate in arriving at
Ahmednagur, with the loss of a considerable por-
tion of his once proud and invincible army.*
Here, shortly after, occurred the death of this
warrior king, the least happy of all the Tartan
monarchs — a man whose selfish and hollow nat-
ure did more to undermine his own happiness and
alienate the affections of his people than even acts
of cruelty or injustice could have done.
The bequests and injunctions of Aurungzebe to
his sons, concerning the succession, were wholly
unheeded by them, Moazzim, the elder causing
himself to be proclaimed emperor of all India, at
Cabul, under the title of Bahadur Shah, and
Azim, the second son taking the same step at
Agra. To settle the disputed point, the rivals
took the field, and in the first battle Azim and his
* Duff's History of the Mahrattas.
Mohammed Shah. 505
two sons were all killed, leaving Bahadur Shah in
possession of the field and the crown. This being
disputed by Prince Cambakhsh, the younger
brother, he was attacked near Hyderabad, his
army defeated, and himself mortally wounded.
Behadar Shah having thus waded to the throne as
his father had done, through the blood of all his
brothers, lived but five years to enjoy the dearly-
purchased sovereignty. These years were spent in
settling the existing troubles with the Rajputs;
arranging the succession that was being disputed
between the nephew of the late Mahratta Rajah
and the guardians of his infant son ; and lastly in
an expedition to the Punjaub against the Seikhs,
where he captured several forts and drove back
those rude warriors to their own territories. Re-
turning to Lahore, Bahader Shah died after a brief
illness, in the seventy-first year of his age, A. D.
1712. After his death followed disputes between
his four sons for the throne, the brief reign of the
eldest, his deposition by his relative, Tarokhsir,
and sundry plottings and murders by sovereigns
and viziers, with several brief, unimportant reigns
marked only by treachery and blood, till the acces-
sion of Mohammed Shah in 1719.
506 The Mahrattas.
Meanwhile the Mahrattas continued their depre-
dations, attacking the imperial forces at various
points, invading large portions of the country, and
pillaging its treasures. Several times Delhi was
threatened by them ; and nearly the whole coun-
try, from the Himalayas to the Krishna, felt the
influence of their incursions, which would have
proved still more destructive but for the constantly
recurring dissensions among themselves. The
English taking advantage of these internal troubles
pushed their own cause with such skill and energy
that ultimately nearly the whole Mahratta coun-
try was annexed to the possessions of the East
India Company, the sovereigns of the several prin-
cipalities governing under " English protection,"
i. e., English control. The last battle in which the
Mahrattas figure as a distinct people, was that of
Paniput against the Durani Shah of Afghanistan,
in 1761, when they suffered a terrible defeat, and
few escaped to tell the tale of their disasters ;
after which, years elapsed before the Mahrattas
were again in a position to exercise any influence
in Indian affairs. Most of the nobles and military
chiefs went into exile, finding refuge at the courts of
the reigning princes of Gwalior, Baroda and Indore.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE MOGUL DYNASTY — FROM MOHAMMED
SHAH TO THE END OF THE DYNASTY.
FEW monarchs ever ascended a throne under
more discouraging circumstances than sur-
rounded Mohammed Shah on his accession, in 1719.
The oppressive and presumptuous acts of the vizier
of Farokhsir, and the plottings of Hosen Ali, his
military commander-in-chief, together with the
secret murder of the late monarch, had so estranged
the affections of the people from the ruling powers,
that they looked with suspicion if not with an-
imosity, upon the new occupant of the throne.
The whole country was in disorder, the treasury
empty, and many of the nobles in revolt; while
insurrections seemed the rule, and a quiet, orderly
administration the evident exception. Among
other disturbances was the revolt of Asof Jah,
507
508 The Mogul Dynasty.
governor of Mai war, who raised a large army,
marched into the Deccan, and by the co-operation
of the Mahrattas established himself as an in-
dependent chief. To put down this daring at-
tempt, Hosen Ali, accompanied by the emperor
(whom the general compelled to accompany him),
set out for the Deccan. On the way Mohammed,
who was becoming disgusted with the persistent
arrogance of his general, caused him to be assassin-
ated ; and this led to the revolt and ultimate ruin
of the vizier, Abdallah, who was the brother of
Hosen Ali, the general, and to the recall and
appointment of Asof Jah to the viziership. A
single year's service resulted in the resignation of
the minister, and his return to the Deccan, where
lie again took up arms against the emperor. No
decisive action was taken, however, nor any im-
portant advantage gained on either side. In truth,
there seems little worthy of record in the history
of the times, till the year 1738, when Nadir Shah,
the ambitious king of Persia, having already con-
quered a large portion of the Afghan territories,
crossed the Indus, confident that an easy conquest
and a rich booty awaited him in India. Rousing
himself from the effeminate frivolity that had
Nadir Shah. 509
occupied the greater portion of his reign, Moham-
med went forth at the head of such troops as could
be hastily summoned to meet the invader. A de-
cisive battle took place at Carnal, resulting in the
defeat of Mohammed and his submission to the
Persian monarch. Nadir Shah permitted the em-
peror to remain unguarded in his own quarters,
till they set out for Delhi, where the two monarchs
resided under the same roof. The sojourn of Nadir
Shah in the Indian capital was only fifty-three
days ; but though so brief, in it was recorded such
a story of rapacity and bloodshed as long outlived
the perpetrators of those atrocities. An indis-
criminate massacre of the inhabitants of the city
lasted for a whole day, and the number of lives
sacrificed has been variously estimated at from
thirty thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand.
Then followed a general plunder of the capital
from the king's treasury down to the meanest
dwelling. The spoils appropriated by the Persian
monarch, as payment for this most unwelcome
visit, were about forty-five millions of dollars in
coin, more than that amount in jewels, and gold
and silver plate ; and whole droves of the finest
horses, elephants and camels the country afforded,
510 The Mogul Dynasty.
besides hundreds of artisans in gold and silver,
who were carried captive to the Persian capital.
Before leaving Delhi, Nadir Shah seated Moham-
med on his throne, and with his own hands re-
placed the regal diadem on his brow, at the same
time enjoining on the chiefs and nobles, the strict-
est obedience to the reinstated emperor. The
prospect was certainly desperate enough — an ex-
hausted treasury, devastated cities, and his people
without the means of living — these were the
inheritance upon which the restored monarch had
entered. More troubles in the Carnatic, the in-
terference of the Nizam, then of the French
commandant of Pondicherry, and the predatory
incursions of Chanda Sahib, the deposed nabob of
the Carnatic, were the events of the .next eight
years, when in 1748, the death of the Nizam at
the age of one hundred years, gave rise to conten-
tions as to the succession, in which both the French
and English took such part as might best subserve
their own interests.
The only events of historic importance occurring
at this period, were the rise of the Rohillas, an
Afghan tribe inhabiting a mountain region near
Oudh, and the invasion of India by the Afghan
The Rohillas. 511
chief, Ahmed Shah Durani. The former was
repelled by the emperor in person ; the latter, by
prince Ahmed, his son, with heavy loss. These
events had scarcely transpired when by the sudden
death of his father, the young prince succeeded to
the throne, under the title of Ahmed Shah. His
father had reigned just twenty-nine years, and ex-
pired 1748, leaving his son in undisputed possession
of a devastated empire and a discontented people.
To repel a fresh incursion of the Rohillas, the
new monarch dispatched his vizier, Safder Jang,
who, proving unequal to the task, was compelled
to call in the aid of Holkar and Scindia, two
Mahratta chiefs whose names, then almost un-
known, became afterwards so famous in Indian
warfare. These invincible chieftains not only
obtained a decisive advantage over the Rohillas,
but drove them back to the foot of the Himalayas,
where they were glad to sue for peace on any
terms.*
The next foe to be met, was the Afghan king,
who after marching into the Punjaub, and seizing
upon Lahore, demanded of the emperor the cession
of this entire region, to be held independently of
*Elphinstone's India.
The Mogul
the Indian Empire ; and Ahmed, conscious of his
ability to cope with his foe, was compelled to
yield to this unjust claim.
Dissensions between the sovereign and his vizier
followed, culminating in the deposition of Ahmed,
violence to the royal person, and the placing of a
new emperor on the throne, under the title of
Alam Gliir II. A. D. 1754. The violent conduct
of the vizier, Ghazi-u-din, toward the new sover-
eign, and his evident determination to govern
according to his own pleasure, while his royal
master looked on approvingly, rendered the office
of the emperor a mere sinecure, destitute of power
over himself and his subjects. This atrocity of
Ghazi-u-din, and his extreme severity toward the
people led to open mutiny ; and his violation of
the recent treaty with the Afghan king, brought
him again across the Indus, and resulted in the
plunder of Delhi, and the indiscriminate slaugh-
ter of the inhabitants. The devastated capital,
thus robbed of what had escaped the rapacity of
the Persians, was left by the Afghan king in the
hands of a Rohilla chief, while the conqueror re-
turned to his own country. Ghazi-u-din now
called in the aid of the Mahrattas, and by their
II. I.— 33
Ghazi-u-din. 515
help, he shortly took violent possession of Delhi,
assassinated the unfortunate Alamghir, and ulti-
mately wrested from the Afghans the whole of the
country ceded to them by Ahmed Shah. This
brought the irate Durani once more across the
Indus, and marching with a formidable army,
southward he met the Mahratta forces on the
plains of Paniput, near the Jumna, where in 1761,
occurred that last battle, before mentioned, in
which the Mahrattas figured as a distinct peo-
ple. The invading army having thus effect-
ually destroyed the last remnants of the Tartar
Empire of India, retired beyond the Indus, leaving
the desolated country to its fate. The fugitive
Shah Alum, the heir to the throne of Delhi, sub-
sequently obtained possession of the capital of his
ancestors ; but having no power to retain it he fell
into the hands of a Rohilla chief, who after put-
ting out his eyes, gave him over to Scindia, the
latter retaining him in close confinement at Delhi,
till that city was taken by the British forces, in
1803. Shah Alum and his son, Akbar Shah both
died pensioners on the bounty of the East India
Company ; and with these princes ended the race
of the Tartar kings of India.*
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
The Mogul Dynasty.
Meanwhile the growth of Anglo-Indian power
had been steady and sure : the dissensions that so
completely annihilated the Tartar Empire, turning
every way to the advantage of the British. The
rapid decay of Portuguese and Dutch power in
India, had left the French the chief rivals of the
English on the eastern waters ; and a cordial hatred
existed between these nations. The first expedi-
tion against Pondicherry having failed through the
superior valor and skill of the French admiral,
Labourdonnais, who, in 1747 had in turn attacked
and reduced the English settlement of Madras, the
British made a second attempt against Pondicherry
under the admiral, Boscawen. This also proved a
failure ; but the reputation of British arms was
more than vindicated by the brilliant victories
achieved at Arcot in 1751, by Lieutenant (after-
wards Lord) Clive, whose name just then, be-
gan to appear in the annals of Anglo-Indian
history. Not only did Clive obtain possession of
the town and citadel, but with only two hundred
English and three hundred Seapoys, he effectually
resisted a siege of nearly two months, against nine
thousand native, and nearly two hundred French
troops, and finally pursued the retreating foe, and
Lord Olive. 517
dispersed them with heavy loss. This terminated
hostilities between the French and English for a
short time ; and after some other less important
passages of arms, peace having in the meantime
been declared between these hostile powers in
Europe, an amicable arrangement was entered
into, whereby the French and English East India
Companies should thereafter act in concert. The
French meanwhile, had been losing favor with the
native princes, while the latter were becoming in-
creasingly friendly to the British. Suraj-al-Daoulah
who had succeeded his uncle, Alverdi Khan, as
viceroy of Bengal, was however, an exception,
seeming to cherish for these foreigners who had
found shelter in his domain, a most cordial hatred,
and to watch for opportunities to injure and annoy
them. It was during the administration of the
uncle, that the emperor Mohammed Shah had, in
gratitude for the valuable services of the medical
officer attached to the English embassy, conceded
all they desired in regard to Calcutta, giving them
many privileges of trade not before enjoyed,
though quite in opposition to the wishes of the
viceroy, who was likewise vizier to the emperor.
This enmity of Alverdi seems to have been trans-
518 The Mogul Dynasty.
mitted, with interest, to his successors who, not
satisfied with the accumulated treasures of his
uncle, determined to seize on the British factory at
Calcutta, which, from the extensive commerce
carried on, he supposed to be of great value.
Taking advantage of their defenceless condition,
Suraj inarched suddenly upon the little band who
garrisoned the British factory, and despite their
gallant resistance, he took possession of the place,
and gave up the town to the pillage of his lawless
troops. All the English residents who could do so
took refuge in the few English ships anchored in
the harbor ; but one hundred and forty-six, under
the command of Mr. Hoi well, fell into the hands of
the viceroy, who ordered them to be confined for
the night, in a small close room, known as the
"Black Hole." It was the 20th of June, (1756),
the weather was intensely hot, the cell miserably
ventilated, and only eighteen feet square, and the
sufferings of the unfortunate victims beggars
description. Many fell fainting to the ground and
were trampled to death, some fought desperately
to reach the small hole that served as a window,
and expired in raving madness while struggling
bravely for life ; and of the whole number thrust
The "Black Hole" 519
into that den of despair, only twenty-six remained
alive. To avenge their terrible tragedy, Clive,
with such forces as could be spared from Madras,
was despatched to Calcutta, and not only re-
captured the city, but compelled the viceroy to
sue for peace ; and the treacherous Suraj, proving
a dangerous foe, was shortly after deposed by
English authority. On the 22nd of June, 1757,
the battle of Plassy was fought, which ended not
only in a great victory to the English, but the
death of the late viceroy, Suraj, who, falling into
the hands of the son of Mir Jaffier, was assassin-
ated by his order. War having again been de-
clared between England and France, Major Coote
was sent to expel the French from Behar, which
was promptly effected, and an amicable treaty
arranged with the native governor. An unsuc-
cessful attempt to reduce Trichinopoly, and other
aggressive measures, were undertaken by the
French in retaliation ; but no advantage was
gained until the capture of Fort St. David on
the Carnatic coast, June 1, 1758, and the establish-
ment of French power in the Deccan at about the
same time. The severity of the French general,
Lally, had alienated not only the native nobles
520 The Mogul Dynasty.
but even his own troops ; and the former were
easily diverted from their allegiance, whilst the
latter were discouraged in the performance of their
duties ; so that his siege of Tanjore seemed fruit-
less mainly from want of co-operation. The siege
of Madras failed also, and shortly afterwards Lally
suffered a total defeat before Wandiwash, with
heavy losses of artillery and baggage ; while the
English arms, especially under Generals Coote,
Clive, and Forde, carried victory ah/d renown
everywhere in their course. Arcot, Timery, Devi-
cotah, Valdore, Carical, Cillambaram, Trincomalee,
Cuddalore, Pennacoil and Alamparva all were sur-
rendered to the English ; and Vizigapatam having
been captured from the French by Rajah Amun-
deraz, was by him made over to the Madras
Government, in return for aid rendered him in
subjugating the Circars. Forde's victory at Masul-
ipatam, in April 1759, was a most brilliant affair,
and the results great and lasting in establishing
the prestige of British arms over those of the
French, and awakening the confidence of the
native princes. Soon after, the governor of Ben-
gal was aided by Clive, in retaining possession of
his province, and in return made his benefactor an
Decadence of French POWC*-. 521
Omra of the empire, and bestowed on him a jag-
hire near Calcutta, worth $150,000 a year.*
In the Madras Presidency, the star of the Eng-
lish was still in the ascendency. The French
after various defeats fell back upon Pondicherry,
to find themselves completely at the mercy of the
English; and after sustaining a siege of eight
months, the fort and town capitulated. From this
period the decay of Franco-Indian power was
steady and sure ; though a feeble existence was
maintained for about a score of" years longer. In
1779, all their settlements fell into the hands of
the English, and as military posts, they were com-
pletely dismantled. Bussy was killed in battle ;
Lally, on his return to Europe, was tried for treason
and executed ; and though subsequently, some
spasmodic attempts have been made to revive their
oriental trade, the French as a nation have long
ceased to take any important part in Indian affairs.
But at the taking of Pondicherry in 1760, France
lost her prestige in India, and this was really the
beginning of the end.
Though peace was at this time existing between
England and Holland, the Dutch became so jealous
* Malcolm's "Indian Mutiny.'*
522 The Mogul Dynasty.
of the growth of British power and territory in
India, that they sent an expedition from Batavia,
consisting of seven ships, manned by seven hun-
dred Europeans and eight hundred Malays. The
ships entered the Hooghly and landed their forces
near Calcutta, intending to march to their settle-
ment at Chinsura. General Forde, acting under
the orders of the English governor, so effectually
interposed to prevent their progress, that of the
entire number, only fourteen men reached their
destination, all the others being killed or captured.
The ships surrendered, and the Dutch were re-
quired to pay the expenses of the whole affair, or
be driven from the Province of Bengal. They
chose the former, and seemingly convinced of their
inability to cope with the stronger power, they
retired from the field as the Portuguese and French
had done, leaving the victorious Britons masters of
the course.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE ENGLISH POWER — LORDS CLIVE AND
HASTINGS.
THE prospect of political calm that followed
the events of the last chapter, enabled Gen-
eral Clive once more to revisit his native land for
the purpose of recruiting his impaired health.
This step left Colonel Calliand acting commander-
in-chief ; and Mr. Yansittart was appointed by the
" Court of Directors " as the head of the execu-
tive during Clive's absence. This appointment
excited much dissension in the Calcutta Council,
as contrary to usage ; and Mr. Vansittart's conduct,
in arranging his plans with a secret committee,
without consulting the " Board," naturally tended
to the increase of unfriendly feeling. The treas-
ury too, was empty, Mir Jaffier, the viceroy of
623
524 The English Power.
Bengal was in arrears with his officers, and the
troops at Patna were clamoring for pay. Amidst
these complicated disputes and difficulties, arising
out of the absence of Clive, the viceroy, Jaffier
was deposed by Vansittart, and Cassim All Khan,
Jafficer's son-in-law, appointed in his stead. The new
viceroy, Cassim, proved himself equally treacher-
ous and grasping ; and to secure his own ends, he
by false accusations, compassed the death of Ram-
narain, the Hindu governor of Bezar, though this
governor had always been a faithful ally of the
English, and had committed no fault but that of
having a full treasury, that Cassim desired to ap-
propriate to his own use. Sundry outbreaks
occurred between the respective parties of the old
and new viceroys, Vansittart's administration be-
coming daily less popular, while it was generally
believed that his partiality for Cassim was the
effect of corruption. Mr. Ellis, one of Vansittart's
most determined opposers, was sent as resident to
Patna where he paid no deference to Mir Cassim,
and arrested his officers for interfering with the
transit of goods ; and Cassim, in retaliation, abol-
ished all transit duties in his domain, thus placing
native dealers on an equal footing with Europeans.
ZEMINDARS AND JAT PEASANTS.
Vamittart. 527
These dissensions culminated in several skirmishes,
and ultimately in more important engagements ;
the first, with the van of the viceroy's army near
Moorshedabad, on the 2nd of July, 1763, with the
view on the part of the Calcutta council, of re-
moving Cassim, and restoring Mir Jaffier to his
old position. This action resulted unfavorably for
Cassim who was again attacked on the 2nd of
August, and totally defeated, with the loss of all
his baggage and guns, besides a hundred and fifty
boats loaded with provisions. Falling back aftet
each defeat, Cassim was pursued by the victorious
army ; and on the 5th of September a sudden
assault was made compelling him to retreat within
his capital, Mongheer, which in a few days sur-
rendered to the English, with a garrison of two
thousand men. On the 6th of November, Patna
fell by storm, and Mir Cassim fled to Oudh, and
sought the protection of the nabob. A mutinous
spirit began to show itself among the native troops
in the English service; and prompt, even severe
discipline had to be used by the English higher
officers, in order to check this spirit of insubordi-
nation that seemed rapidly on the increase. One
entire battalion of Seapoys went over to the
528 The English Power.
Indian army, taking with them their arms and
accoutrements. These were pursued and taken,
and twenty-four of the chief offenders condemned
to be blown from cannon mouths — a sentence ex-
ecuted under protest from the native soldiers, and
not without considerable intimidation on their
part. The firmness of Major Hector Munro was
especially successful in reducing the mutinous
troops to submission, and in quelling the wide-
spread spirit of disaffection, as well as in destroy-
ing the forces of the nabob of Oiulli, who had
aided and abetted the deserters, and with whom
the treacherous Cassim found refuge after his ear-
lier defeats.
It was at this period, that the emperor, Shah
Alum, during his brief season of power, made
overtures to the English, and concluded a treaty
of alliance with them, giving to the East India
Company full control of the province of Bengal,
and other immunities of commerce. On the death
of Mir Jaffier, that occurred shortly after his rein-
statement as viceroy, the council appointed his
second son to succeed him, January 1765.
The stock-holders in the British East India
Company had thus far been allowed no voice in
The East India Company 529
the control of Indian affairs ; and they were be-
ginning to feel restive under the evident insubordi-
nation that prevailed among all ranks of their
employees so far removed from their observation
and direction. They consequently signed a peti-
tion to the directors, requesting the appointment
of the newly created peer, Lord Clive, to the post
of chief-director, as one most likely to compass the
difficulties arising out of a mutinous army and a
destitute treasury. The request was acceeded to,
and Lord Clive was appointed, though after con-
siderable show of opposition on the part of the
other directors with whom he had not been on
good terms, previous to his leaving India. He
accepted now, the position offered, on condition of
being made commander-in-chief of the army, pres-
ident of the Board of Directors, and governor of
Bengal ; and " being empowered to act without
consulting the council, or being subject to its con-
trol." Invested with this supreme power, Lord
Clive once more sailed for India. The first abuses
the new governor attempted to deal with, were the
private trade carried on by officials of the govern-
ment, and their habit of extorting presents from
native princes and rulers, in return for >ffices and
H. I.— 34
530 The English Power.
oher favors. Lord Clive compelled all the civil
and military servants of the company to sign a
document, whereby they pledged themselves not
to receive, under any pretext whatever, presents
from native princes or rulers. With the free trade
problem he found it more difficult to cope, as it
had been carried on from the first, to piece out in-
sufficient salaries. To meet this difficulty, he
created a monopoly in salt, betel-nut and tobacco,
for the benefit of the higher officers, to be appor-
tioned according to their respective grades. His
defence of this questionable proceeding was, that
the company was itself a monopoly, and that the
servants were merely adopting the practise of their
superiors. The extra allowance to officers engaged
in field service, known as " batta," was ordered to
cease from January, 1766, except where specially
ordered by the chief director. This created great
displeasure among the higher officers, who threat-
ened unless their batta was restored by a certain
day, to throw up their commissions simultane-
ously ; whereupon Clive ordered fresh officers
from Calcutta and Madras, and had the chief con-
spirators arrested. Many were tried and dismissed
the service, among them, General Sir R. Fletcher,
Hyder AIL 531
who was, however, afterwards reinstated by means
of family influence, and subsequently appointed
commander of the forces at Madras. At the
end of January, 1767, Lord Clive resigned and
returned to England, in consequence of failing
health ; and a " select committee," with Mr.
Verelst at the head was placed in charge, with
a revenue that was scarcely meeting the expenses
of the government. The capture of Pondicherry
had given the English the control of the Carnatic ;
but this was disputed by Nizam Ali, who having
assassinated his brother, Salabat Jing, Subahdah of
the Deccan in order to secure for himself the
ascendencjr, now invaded and laid the country
desolate; while he resisted all attempts of the
English to take possession of the country, until
they agreed to pay him an annual tribute, and to
assist him with troops whenever it should be nec-
essary. This arrangement however, brought them
into difficulties with Hyder Ali, the governor of
Mysore, who, rising from a subordinate position to
the command of the army, had, by various expedi-
ents gained possession of the domain of the Nairs
of Malabar, and other small tracts of land in
Southern India, of which he had constituted a
532 The English Power.
diminutive kingdom for himself. Of this, the
rapacious Nizam wished to gain the control, and
the English, as agreed in the recent treaty, joined
him in the invasion of Hyder's territory. But the
treacherous Nizam suddenly broke faith with his
English allies, made peace with Hyder, and offered
to deliver into his hands the whole body of Eng-
lish troops. Ultimately, after several skirmishes,
Colonel Wood commanding the English forces, was
drawn, by a ruse of Hyder, from Madras, when
Tippoo Sahib, Hyder 's son, by forced marches,
appeared suddenly before the city, at the head of
six thousand horse, compelling the English to sue
for peace on the conqueror's own terms. Next
arose troubles between the Subahdar of Oudh and
the Rohillas, the English furnishing troops to the
former, in compliance with the treaty entered into
by Warren Hastings, then governor of India ; and
the result, in which the English had a full share of
the shame, was not only a terrible defeat of the
innocent and peaceable Rohillas, but the annexa-
tion of their country to Oudh. In the meantime,
October, 1774, a new constitution had been framed
by the British parliament, for the Indian provinces,
and three commissioners from England were sent
THE GOLDEN KIOSK, IN THE VALLEY OF AMBIR.
-/a
533
Hastings Resigns. 535
out to act in concert with the governor(Hastings),
in enforcing its adoption. Disagreements in re-
gard to policy, arose also, between the home gov-
ernment and the Indian colonies, resulting in
jealousy and confusion. It was at this period that
the impeachment of Hastings occurred, the charges
being peculation and bribery, based upon the reve-
lations of Rajah Nuncomar, to the effect that his
son Goordas, and Munny Begum, had both paid the
governor for the offices they held. Nuncomar was,
at the instance of certain influential parties, cited
first for conspiracy and then for perjury, tried
before a jury consisting altogether of Englishmen,
convicted and hanged. Perjury was not a capital
offence, nor was there sufficient proof of the guilt
of the Rajah, to have convinced an unprejudiced
jury ; and as the circumstances have come down
to us, there can be little doubt that the law was
shamefully perverted in order to get rid of a
troublesome personage. Governor Hastings next
sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and
when his successor had been appointed, Hastings
saw fit, for some reason to reverse his own decision,
and insisted on retaining his office of governor.
On an appeal being made to the courts of Iaw7
536 The English Power.
they pronounced in his favor. Whilst this most
disgraceful policy, attended by constant bickerings
and recriminations on both sides, was being enacted
in the civil department, military affairs were not
progressing more favorably. Colonel Leslie's nego-
tiations with different native chiefs, and his hesita-
tion in acting with the Bombay army, caused him
to be suspected of dishonorable intentions, and led
to his being superseded in his command by
Colonel Goddard. The Mahrattas were still giving
trouble by their incursions and depredations ; but
in January, 1770, Colonel Goddard surprised both
Scindia and Holkar in their camps, and dispersed
them with heavy loss on their side ; and very soon
after, he gained possession of Dubhoy and Ahmed
abad ; and the Mahrattas were driven back into
their own country. The fort of Gwalior, believed
by the natives to be impregnable, was also taken,
sending terror to the hearts of the Mahrattas.
But even these successes were the occasion of re-
newed dissensions between the governor and his
council, culminating in a duel between Mr. Hast-
ings and Mr. Francis, in which the latter was
wounded, and finally returned to England, con-
vinced that any amicable arrangement between
French Losses. 537
himself and the governor would be impossible. In
July, 1770, Admiral Sir John Lindsay reached
Madras, as a commissioner from the home govern-
ment, but to little purpose, so far as the settlement
of the pending disputes was concerned. In 1769,
the English in their treaty with Hyder, had agreed
to assist him when necessary, against the Peishwa,
and twice failing to render this aid when sought,
in 1777 Hyder formed an alliance with the French
who gladly supplied him with arms, ammunition,
and stores to be used against their old enemies,
the English, while Sir R. Rumbold, then governor
of Madras, took no measures preparatory to any
approach of Hyder in that direction. Meanwhile,
intelligence being received in India of the renewal
of hostilities between France and England, steps
were immediately taken to capture the French
settlements, left in so precarious a condition.
Chandernagore, Carical, and Masulipatam sur-
rendered at once ; Pondicherry capitulated after
a vigorous defence, and the garrison marched out
with the honors of war. All the fortifications and
defenses were destroyed. The small fort and
settlement of Mahe was the sole representative of
French power in India ; and this was taken by
53£ TJie English Power.
Colonel Braithwaite, in March 1779. In the fol-
lowing November, the nabob of the Carnatic gave
the Madras Executive warning, that Hyder, the
Nizam and the Mahrattas, had formed a combina-
tion to expel the English from India.*
On the 21st of July, Hyder crossed the frontier,
with one hundred thousand men and more than a
hundred pieces of artillery. Then followed a
series of severe engagements that cannot, within
the limits of this work, be followed in detail.
Arcot was besieged by Hyder and captured; at
Perambaneam, Baillie's force was attacked by
Tippoo Sahib, and on the 9th of September a des-
perate engagement took place, in which, after a
most gallant resistance, Bailie's force, reduced to
four hundred, was compelled to yield the day.
On the 7th of November, Sir Eyre Coote took
his seat in the Madras council, after which, a more
vigorous policy was pursued. At Tanjore, Col-
onel Braithwaite's force fought bravely for twenty-
six hours gallantly defending themselves against
nearly four times their own number, but were
finally overpowered, and the survivors all made
prisoners, by Tippoo and his French auxiliaries-
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
Trichinopoly. 539
The arrival of a French fleet at Pondicherry, led
the French to attempt to retrieve their recent
losses ; and Sir Eyre Coote marched boldly on to
the city, disarmed the inhabitants, removed the
stores, and destroyed the boats ; and then he
marched on after Hyder in the direction of Trich-
inopoly. In this vicinity a battle occurred which,
after six hours' hard fighting, resulted in the com-
plete defeat of the army of Mysore.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE ENGLISH POWER — TIPPOO SAHIB AND
HIS TIMES.
FOR several years after the appointment of Sir
Eyre Coote, the whole Presidenc}r of Madras
and the region round about, was devastated by
fierce wars against the marauding forces of the
famous Hyder AH, and his son, Tippoo Sahib, the
most able native generals of the time. In the
main, the English, by dint of superior skill, and
better munitions of war, came off conquerors ; and
after the death of Hyder, as Tippoo, after re-
peated trials of his skill, became convinced of his
utter inability to cope with the English, he, on the
24th of February, 1792, signed a treaty which,
though ver}' favorable to the interests of the East
India Company, was alike discreditable to himself
540
THE TOWER OF KOUTUB, PLAIN OF DELHI. 54»
Treaty with Tippoo. 543
and unjust to his people ; and left moreover, two
of his sons in the hands of the English, as hostages,
for the performance of the stipulations of the
treaty. But before this peaceful ending of this
terrible war, thousands of England's brave sons
laid down their lives, tens of thousands of the
children of that sunny land came to bloody deaths,
and one of the fairest and most populous portions
of earth's domain was desolated by war, pestilence,
and famine.
England and Holland being now at war, Lord
Macartney, who had just arrived at Madras, as
governor, determined to attack at once, the Dutch
settlements in India. Palicat and Sadras both sur-
rendered on the first summons, and such energy
and ability were displayed at the siege of Naga-
patam, as compelled the governor in less than three
weeks to lay down their arms, and sue for peace.
The capture of Trincomalee in Ceylon followed
very soon after the others ; and in January 1782,
Tellicherry and Calicut were taken and garrisoned
with English troops. The following May, Scindia
signed a treaty of peace at Salbyc ; and the death
of Hyder Ali took place in December. Tippoo
found it necessary soon after his father's demise,
544 The English Power.
to visit Western India to repel an invasion of the
Seikhs ; and during his absence, the English army
separated, one division going to Tilliclierry and the
other to Merjee. The latter being joined by Gen-
eral Matthews with, a large force passed the
Ghauts, and took Bidnore and Ananpore, and com-
pelled Mangalore to capitulate. General Matthews
retained in his own possession the immense treas-
ures found in these cities, instead of using it to
pay off his troops ; and this produced such disaf-
fection, that three of the officers, Colonels McLeod
and Mackenzie and Major Shaw, left precipitately,
to complain of him at headquarters. Receiving
the redress they desired, they set out to return by
sea, and were overtaken by a Mahratta fleet.
Neither party knew of the treaty signed by Scindia,
and an engagement followed, in which Shaw was
killed, Mackenzie mortally wounded, and McLeod
wounded and made prisoner. Nor was this all the
harm done by this ill-omened treasure. Tippoo
returning, invested Bidnore, and forced it to capit-
ulate ; and General Matthews, before marching
out, distributed the treasure among his own sol-
diers. This, Tippoo deemed a violation of the
terms agreed on, and made it a pretext for the im-
THE PRINCESS SHAH JEHAN.
H. I— 35
Peace. 547
prisonment of Matthews, who was shortly after
assassinated, and his associates in arms were also
subjected to an exceedingly rigorous confinement.
The English and French fleets had an engagement
off Cuddalore, in which the English won a decided
victory ; and about the same time, peace being
declared between France and England, hostilities
in their colonies ceased.
At this juncture General Stuart was, for his
tardiness and inefficiency, dismissed from the com-
pany's service, and refusing to submit to the
sentence was arrested and sent to England, by
Lord Macartney. Meanwhile Colonel Fullerton
was achieving great victories in Southern India,
where he captured Palagatcherry and Coimbatore,
and would have pushed on to the relief of Man-
galore that was invested by Tippoo's troops, but
for counter orders.
A treaty of peace was signed between the com-
batants, March llth 1784, and ratified by the
Supreme Council of Calcutta during the absence
of Governor Hastings, who desired after his re-
turn, to introduce several modifications, but these,
Lord Macartney honorably rejected.
The Supreme Court of Calcutta consisted of
548 The English Power.
one chief and three puisne judges ; and its juris-
diction compassed all claims of the company
against British subjects, and of British subjects
against natives, presuming that the disputants
acquiesced in appealing to its decisions. In crimi-
nal cases, it extended to all British subjects and
servants of the company ; but the act did not
define what constituted a British subject, and the
judges were in the habit of regarding all over
whom the company exercised any influence, as
coming within its jurisdiction. Difficulties in con-
sequence of this vagueness often arose, especially
in collecting debts, revenues, etc. In collecting
the revenue, the power of exercising summary en-
forcement was vested in the provincial councils
called Deivani Adaulut ; but with these the power
of the Supreme Court often conflicted, the defend-
ant being able to take out a writ of habeas corpus
in the Supreme Court, when the judges took bail
for the appearance of the parties, and liberated
them. The company had also reserved to the
nabob of Bengal the administration of all civil
cases ; but the Supreme Court declined to recog-
nize this reservation ; and Mr. Hastings instituted
a new court, the Sudder Dewani Adaulut, and
Cheyt Singh. 549
committed the administration of it to Sir Elijah
Impey. As the office and emoluments were held
at the pleasure of the governor and council, it
was supposed that the presiding officer would not
admit the pretensions of the Supreme Court
against the Dewani Adaulut, but would rather
effect a reconciliation between them. These pro-
ceedings were however, censured by the House of
Commons, and Sir Elijah Impey was recalled to
answer criminal charges. The governor made also
important changes in the finance department ; and
afterwards attempted to replenish the depleted
treasury by very questionable measures. Extor-
tion and violence done to the person of Cheyt
Singh, the Rajah of Benares resulted in a popular
outbreak, and despite the Rajah's offers of submis-
sion, he was deposed from office, his treasure
seized, a new ruler appointed, and the laws placed
under the control of the company. Equally
reprehensible was the course of the governor in
regard to the nabob of Oudh, who being in arrears
to the government, a new President was appointed,
empowered to enforce payment, though the reve-
nues of the nabob had been exhausted in the sup-
port of the English troops forced upon him. By
550 The English Power.
the connivance of the governor, and the atrocious
complicity of the resident and nabob, two royal
ladies of Lucknow who had inherited immense
wealth, were seized and kept prisoners, until large
sums had been extorted from them, in payment of
the nabob's dues, and for the relief of the govern-
ment treasurjr. Hastings share in these proceed-
ings was rewarded by a gift from the nabob of a
hundred thousand pounds sterling which he asked
the company's permission to accept, in payment
for his services.
The money thus obtained, supplied the means of
prosecuting the war with renewed energy, and
probably saved England her valuable Eastern
Empire ; but such measures certainly did not win
for Great Britain a throne in the affections of her
Indian subjects, and probably paved the way for
the troubles of later years. The power of Great
Britain in India being now consolidated, and her
authorit}^ recognized, several years of peace fol-
lowed, during which Governor Hastings tendered
his resignation, and in 1785 returned to England.
Most unfavorable reports had from time to time
reached Parliament concerning the peculation and
oppression practised by the servants of the East
Lord Cornwallis. 553
India Company, and when a new governor had
been appointed, Pitt, then Prime Minister, intro-
duced and carried his " India Bill," which estab-
lished a Board of Control, composed of six privy
councilors chosen by the sovereign of Great Brit-
ain, and empowered to hold in check, the more
important functions of the company. Lord Corn-
wallis was the governor appointed to succeed Mr.
Hastings, and reached his post in September, 1786,
the government having been administered in the
interim, with great ability, by Mr. Macpherson,
the Senior Member of the Council. The peace
that smiled so propitiously on the advent of Lord
Cornwallis, was soon broken and the horrors of
civil war once more clouded the Indian atmos-
phere. The restless, ambitious Tippoo was the
first to begin trouble by an invasion of the territory
of the Rajah of Travancore, an English ally ; but
before they had time to interfere, the intrepidity of
a small body of Nairs, had achieved a complete
victory over the great army of Tippoo, who was
hotly pursued by the Nairs, and had difficulty in
escaping with his life. This treacherous foe next
renewed his attack more successfully, and on the
7th of May 1790, captured the city, and devastated
554 The English Power.
the surrounding country. This brought the forces
of General Meadows from Madras, and those of
General Abercrombie from Bombay, both of whom
penetrated far into the Mysore country ; but the
campaign terminated in Tippoo's favor. The sec-
ond campaign was conducted by Lord Cornwallis
in person, who gained some decided advantages,
but was compelled to suspend operations, by the
advance of the season, and the increasing sickness
among his troops. The third campaign opened by
the capture of the two celebrated fortresses of
Savendroog and Octadroog, followed by the reduc-
tion of a strongly fortified camp of the Mysorean
army of ten thousand men, with a large quantity
of guns and stores. The fortress of Lamaga fell
next in the hands of the English, and Tippoo sued
for peace ; but the victorious army pushed on to
lay siege to Seringapatam, which on the 7th of
February, 1792, fell before this valiant onslaught
of the English besiegers, Tippoo's loss amounting
to over four thousand, and that of the English to
five hundred and thirty-five. On the 24th, Tippoo
signed a treaty, giving up one half his territories
to the English, agreeing to pay all the expenses of
the war, and leaving in the hands of his conquer-
Wellington. 555
ors, two of his sons as hostages for the performance
of these stipulations.
The charter of the East India Company was
renewed in 1793 ; and Lord Cornwallis retiring,
was succeeded by Sir John Shore, as governor.
The terms of the treaty having been fulfilled, the
sons of Tippoo were delivered with due honors ;
but Tippoo received the officer who accompanied
them, with haughty reserve, and declined any
further advances of the governor.
Affairs in Oudh were again in an unsettled state,
and those in the Carnatic looked still more un-
promising, in the midst of which, Sir John Shore
having been elevated to tlie peerage as Lord
Teignmouth, sailed for England, and was suc-
ceeded by Lord Mornington, May, 1798. Tippoo
about this period sent officers to the Mauritius to
form an alliance with the French, and to solicit
aid to drive the English out of Southern India,
offering also to pay handsomely for volunteers.
War was accordingly declared against Tippoo, and
preparations begun for the immediate commence-
ment of aggressive movements. At Mallavely the
first engagement occurred, Colonel Wellesley, after-
ward the Great Duke of Wellington, commanding
556 The English Power.
the left wing. The English here achieved a great
victor}', and pushed forward to Serin gpatam, which
was laid siege to, and taken by assault on the 4th
of May. At one o'clock, Syed Goffhar, Tippoo's
best general, was killed by a cannon ball ; and late
in the evening, Tippoo's body was found where he
had fallen, in the thickest of the fight, pierced by
musket balls. The next day, his body was placed
in the tomb of Hyder Ali. attended by the highest
military honors ; and his family were taken under
the protection of the English, and treated with
the respect due to their exalted position.
Thus ended the career of one of the most implac-
able foes of the British race in India. His emblem,
the one lie liked best to emblazon on shields and
flags, was a tiger, an appropriate emblem of his
own savage disposition ; and he so delighted in
these ferocious animals, that he kept numbers of
them about his palace, and often made them the
ministers of his vengeance. It is said that a favor-
ite toy of his was the figure of a tiger in the act
of tearing a European to pieces; and that by
turning a crank, the machine was made to emit a
dual sound, resembling the mingled growls of a
tiger and the agonized groans of a dying man.
Tippoo's Death. 557
His love of war seems to have grown out of a
cruel delight in the miseries it occasions ; and he
seems to have taken especial pleasure in exercising
his ferocity upon such English prisoners as fell
into his hands. Death by the sword was the most
merciful fate that came to any so unfortunate as to
be left to his disposal ; and " terrible atrocities
were revealed when his death unloosed the tongues
of his oppressed people/'
The death of the Sultan gave his country into
the possession of the conquerors without any show
of opposition ; and all the Mysorean strongholds
were at once occupied by English troops. Colonel
Wellesley was appointed governor of Mysore, and
assumed the military charge of Seringapatam,
governing with a union of moderation and firm-
ness quite in contrast with the cruelty and capri-
ciousness of the tyrant Tippoo, and soon restoring
order throughout the province.
The next event of most importance to be
noticed in connection with Indian history, is the
invasion, in 1795, and again in 1797, of Punjaub
and Lahore, by Shah Zeman, the Afghan king who
in the second instance, had succeeded in the occu-
pation of Lahore, when he was prevented from
558 The English Power.
making farther advances by a rebellion in his own
capital. A similar attempt was made the follow-
ing year, when he again had to withdraw, to pro-
tect his territory from an attack of the Persians ;
and in 1801, he was deposed and imprisoned by
his brother.
At Benares, difficulties occurred in connection
,with the deposed Rajah of Oudh, whom it was
proposed to remove to Calcutta, for greater safety.
The resident and several other Englishmen were
murdered in cold blood, when Vizir Ali fled, seek-
ing protection from a Rajput chief, but he was
afterward surrendered to the English. The gov-
ernment of Oudh was shortly after, assumed by the
company, and the court and family of the nabob
provided for. After various difficulties with their
respective governments, Surat, Tanjore, and the
Carnatic were placed under British control ; and
negotiations were opened with the Peishwa, who
was nominally the Mahratta sovereign, though in
reality both Holkar and Scindia exerted far more
power and influence. Holkar's family had been
for nearly a century, the acknowledged head of
the northern states, but at this period, there arose
a disagreement about the succession, that gave to
G-uicowar of Baroda. 561
Scindia, the pretext for interference, who declared
Cashee Rao sovereign, and put Mulhar Rao to
death, but retained a posthumous son of the latter,
as a check on the uncle. But another claimant
arose in the person of Holkar's illegitimate son
whose first attempt was however, defeated near
Indore, on the 14th of October, 1801. The next
year, he again opposed the united forces of Scindia
and the Peishwa, near Poonah, where, after a
severe engagement, he obtained a decided victory.
The terrified Peishwa took no part in the battle,
and after its conclusion sent for the English resi-
dent and offered to maintain six battalions of
Seapoys, and yield twenty-five lacs of rupees out
of his revenues for their support, in return for aid
from the English ; and despite all that could be
said to reassure him, he fled in an English ship to
Bassein. Holkar also sent for the resident, and
expressed a desire for his mediation and for an am-
icable arrangement with Scindia and the Peishwa.
The death of the Guicowar of Baroda in 1800,
gave rise to disputes in that direction ; his son
being an imbecile, and therefore inelligible, the
choice lay between the prime minister, Nowjee
Apajee, and an illegitimate brother of the deceased
H, I.-36
562 The English Power.
sovereign. The English decided in favor of the
minister, who was accordingly invested as sover-
eign, and began his reign by dismissing a band of
Arabs who had been in the service of the late
Guicowar. These, however, refused to disband,
and mutinying seized and imprisoned the Guicowar.
The English immediately besieged Baroda which
in ten days succumbed, and the mutineers were
driven from Guzerat.
After Bajee Rao's flight to Bassein, and the
proclamation of Amrut Rao as Peishwa, the most
violent excesses were pepetrated, and the English
had again to interfere. The former Peishwa was
restored to govern under English protection ; all
Europeans hostile to the English were to be ban-
ished from the territory, and all points of dispute
between the Guicowar and Peishwa were to be
submitted to the English for decision. Amrut
Rao was also awarded a pension and a residence
at Benares. This arrangement resulted in a re-
newal of hostilities between the English and the
Mahrattas. General Lake was assigned command
in the north; and Colonel Wellesley in the Deccan,
where his first step was the redemption of the
strong fort of Ahmednagur, and his next to pursue
Battle of Assaye. 565
the Mahrattas and bring them to a decisive action.
The battle of Assaye, so famous in Indian history,
took place on the 23rd of September, 1803, and
was a most brilliant victor}- to the English, though
with fearful loss on both sides. The city of
Burhampore and the fort of Asseeghur were taken
on the 24th while the Baroach fell into the hands of
the Guzerat troops. At the north, General Lake
took Alijurh, and then advanced upon Delhi,
which was captured after great slaughter upon
both sides, and the emperor Shah Alum delivered
from the Mahratta captivity. Lake's next move was
upon Agra, which before the outbreak, had been
in the hands of Seapoy soldiers commanded by
English officers. These had been seized, when hos-
tilities began, and confined by their own men.
Seven battalions of Scindia were taken by Lake,
and then the garrison capitulated, allowing the
captive officers to retire with their private effects.
On the 1st of November occurred the battle of
Laswarre, that destroyed the power of Scindia in
Northern India ; and at the same time Bundel-
cund was brought under English power. In the
Deccaiii, the battles of Argoam, Nagpore, and
others, resulted in the same way, with large acces-
566 The English Power.
sions of territory to the English. New treachery
on the part of Holkar, and constant plunder of his
people, brought down the English again in that
direction. On the 17th of November, Lake, in an
engagement with Holkar, at Furruckabad, killed
three thousand of his men, and ten days later
Deeg was stormed and taken, leaving only Bhurt-
pore as a refuge for Holkar. This was invested in
January, 1805, but the Rajah suing for peace, it
was granted on favorable terms.
Col. Wellesley's policy from the first, had been
to strip the natives of military power, thus giving
the East India Company easy control of them.
This he had now nearly accomplished, a very large
portion of territory was either in the hands of the
English, or under their " protection ; " the power
of the Mahrattas, well named " The Great Power "
was broken, and though not yet quite overthrown,
was becoming rapidly under control. Still the in-
domitable Lake pushed on after the retreating foe,
nor paused till he had crossed the line of Alex-
ander's conquests, and pitched his tents on the
banks of the Hyphasis (the Beas) where in the
long ago, the " Conqueror of the World" had en-
camped. Yet he was not permitted to grasp the
A Disastrous Treaty. 567
boon for which he had toiled and risked so much.
When almost within sight of Holkar's retreat, he
was directed by the acting governor, Sir George
Barlow, to conclude a peace with the Mahratta
chief, and he had no alternative but to submit. '
This treaty restored all his lost territory to.
Holkar, broke off the English alliance with Jey-
pore, and sent the army back to Delhi.
This disgraceful treaty was destined to prove a
failure, and ere long all the sad lessons of the last
campaign with their losses and sufferings, were re-
peated. We cannot in our limited space, follow
all the details, but must touch on the leading
events. After some new atrocities Holkar became
insane, and remained so until his death in 1811,
thus removing one obstacle to the peace of India.
Meanwhile Lord Minto had succeeded to the office
of governor. A statesman of great ability and in-
dependence, he at once abandoned the non-interven-
tion policy of Sir George Barlow, and determined
upon protecting the innocent, but equally upon
punishing the guilty cause of turmoil and violence.
It was in the year 1808, that rumors began to
spread, of the efforts of the Great Napoleon to
568 The English Power.
injure or jeopardize the Anglo-Indian cause, and
of attempted complicity with the court of Persia.
During the same year a number of French frigates
sailed from various ports, to the great detriment
of trade in the Indian Seas ; and Lord Minto pro-
ceeded to deprive them of ports of refuge by at-
tacking the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and
Java. The reduction of the first two was readily
accomplished ; though in Java, garrison after garri-
had to be taken before Jansen, the Dutch governor,
would submit ; but on the 16th of September, the
island was given up to the English. The next
source of trouble was the incursions of the
Ghookas, a warlike race on the north-eastern
frontier. These were finally reduced, but at the
cost of much blood and treasure, as was also the
expedition into Nepaul, in which these Ghoorkas
bore a strong hand against the English. For,
whether in the entrenched fortress of their own
mountain ridges, or in their incursions into the
surrounding country, this was a brave and warlike
race, not easily intimidated. In February, 1816,
proposals for peace having been made, to which
the Nepaulese refused to accede, further aggressive
The Mahrattas. 569
measures were decided on, when they themselves
sued for peace, and gladly accepted terms they had
before refused.
The British reverses at the beginning of this
war, had given new impulse to their old enemies,
the Mahrattas. Mr. Elphinstone, the resident at
Poonah, made several attempts for an amicable
arrangement, but was as often foiled by the
Peishwa and his depraved minister Trimbuckjee,
and various complications, especially with the
Guicowar, until the English, forced them to ac-
cept either war or submission ; and Bajee Rao, the
last of the Peishwas, on the 18th of June, 1817,
reluctantly signed a treaty, renouncing his preten-
sions as head of the Mahratta chiefs, and giving
up to the English, besides the strong fortress of
Ahmednagur, a considerable portion of other terri-
tory. A supplementary treaty was arranged the
following November, with the Guicowar, in which
the Peishwa's claims were settled by the annual
payment of four lacs of rupees ($200,000) and
the English received as their share of the bargain,
the city of Ahmedabad, the capital of Guzerat,
and a place of large political importance.
570 The English Power.
Scindia failing in some stipulations he had made
to furnish a contingent to act with the British,
under a British officer, in the reduction of the
Pindarries, and to allow the use of his forts of
Assurghur and Scindia during the war, the Eng-
lish eventually besieged and captured the fort,
when evidences of Scindia's insincerity were found
in his own writing. As a penalty the English
demanded absolute cession of Assurghur, to be
retained permanently in their keeping. The battle
of Kirkee in November, 1817 was another brilliant
victory to the English, as was also that of Naffpore,
on the 26th of the same month. Chandore-Galna
and Unktunky were occupied by British troops
shortly after, and the war was virtually ended by
the capture of Bajee Rae and Trimbukcee, both of
whom remained prisoners for life, within the British
lines, the former with the handsome pension of
X 80,000 or $400,000 a year. Assurghur, after an
obstinate defence, yielded on the 9th of April, 1819,
and with its fall ended this famous Mahratta war.
Early in 1822, Governor Hastings resigned, having
filled this high office for nine years, during which
the power of the Mahrattas and Pindarries had
Hastings Reigns Again. 571
been successfully broken, Scindia alone remaining,
and he no longer a formidable foe ; while the name
and reputation of the East India Company had
been widely extended, and both trade and revenue
were rapidly on the increase.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE ENGLISH POWER — BURMESE AND PUNJAUB
WARS AND THE CONQUEST OF SCINDE.
WITH the close of the administration of Gov-
ernor Hastings ended the Mahratta war ;
but with the advent of his successor, the Earl of
Amherst, was ushered in another contest equally
tedious and annoying. The first Burmese war
lasted two years, from 1824, to 1826, and ended in
the cession of Assam and the Tenasserim Prov-
inces, to the East India Company. It is not our
purpose to trace the progress of this war, but
merely to glance at its causes and results, and pass
on to that which pertains strictly to the history of
India. An old source of dissatisfaction had ex-
isted between the governments of Burmah and
572
The Burmese War. 578
British India from the year 1798, when some
thirty thousand Mugs, a race inhabiting a section
of Arracan, fled from Burmese tyranny, and took
refuge in the British district of Chittagong, where
they settled down in villages and towns, in various
pursuits. Requisition had more than once been
made by His Burmese Majesty, for the return of
these " slaves " to their liege lord ; but as Eng-
land does not recognize slaver}*, she declined to
deliver up, nolens volens, these quiet, peaceable
subjects of her empire. This was the old grudge
entertained by " His golden-footed Majesty "
against his " Cousins of England ; " but the im-
mediate cause of hostilities was a dispute concern-
ing the island of Shaporee, an unimportant tract
at the entrance of Tek Nauf, the arm of the sea
that divides Chittagong from Arracan. This the
Burmese took forcible possession of, and pro-
claimed it a part of their empire, besides doing
violence to the small English garrison found on
the island. Other larger bodies of troops from
Assam and Munnipore shortly crossed the frontier,
and early in January 1824, Lord Amherst issued
a " manifesto," preparatory to a formal declaration
of war. This conflict lasted till February, 1826,
574 The English Power.
resulting in the annexation of the valuable prov-
inces before named.
The cause of the second breaking out of hostil-
ities between the English and Burmese, was the
maltreatment in the fort of Rangoon, of certain
British merchant-captains, who were, at the instiga-
tion of the native governor, subjected to spoliation
and insult. The demand for apology and restitu-
tion having been rejected, war was declared, hostil-
ities beginning April 2nd 1852, and ending in
December of the same year, by the annexation of
the Province of Pegu.
The temporary administration of Mr. Adams,
pending the arrival of the newly-appointed gov-
ernor, has been rendered somewhat notorious by
the exercise of a power, that though vested in the
government, had not hitherto been resorted to in
the whole history of the Anglo-Indian Colonies.
This was the " censorship of the press ; " and
added to it, was the discretionary power of " ban-
ishing from the company's territories any trouble-
some or refractory editor." This power was
exercised by Mr. Adams, against the editor of the
Calcutta Journal, who having published some
strictures upon the acts of the executive, was noti-
SOLDIERS OF THE NIZAM OP HYDERABAD.
575
A Financial Failure. 577
fied to quit the country within a few days. This
despotic proceeding called forth much censure in
England, but was sustained by the supreme gov-
ernment.
Another event of this period was the failure of
the commercial firm of Palmer and Company,
who, certainly with the cognizance, and probably
with the approval of Governor Hastings, had for a
series of years, contracted loans of money to the
Nizam of the Deccan, amounting in the aggregate,
to £700,000 or $3,500,000. Some difficulty having
arisen between the contracting parties, appeal was
made to the governor-general, who declared the
transaction illegal, and that the firm could recover
nothing from the Nizam, the company having re-
served to itself the sole right of entering upon
monetary transactions with native powers. The
result was the immediate insolvency of this large
and wealthy house, and with them, of very many
of the " Service," who had employed Palmer and
Company as their bankers, and with whom were
invested their entire fortunes. About this period,
negotiations among the several European powers
relative to Dutch settlements, captured during the
late wars, was brought to a final issue, by the
H. I.-37
578 The English Power.
British ceding to Holland, the islands of Sumatra
Bencoolen, and retaining possession of Malacca
and Singapore. The last, under the fostering care
of Sir Stamford Raffles, rose rapidly to a commer-
cial importance exceeding that of any other Anglo-
oriental colony ; and is at the present day, with
its salubrious climate, its wonderful development,
and enormous trade, the very Queen of the Indian
Seas.
In 1827, previous to his departure for England,
Lord Amherst made a tour of the upper provinces,
and visited Delhi, for the express purpose of set-
ting aside the merely nominal sovereignty of
Akbar Shah, the last of the oriental monarchs of
India.
The administration of the successor of Lord
Amherst began with the year 1828, and unlike
any that had proceeded it, Lord William Bentich's
term of office was marked by no great military ex-
ploits ; the inroads of some petty hill-tribes, the
deposition of the Rajah of Coorg, and some other
unimportant regulations in regard to territory,
being the only exceptions in this reign of peace.
The new governor's attention was therefore given
to internal improvements, and especially to needed
Progress. 581
reforms in the civil service. Many new privileges
to the natives, were also secured to them, and
among the most important, was an enactment
freeing seceders from the Hindu or Mohammedan
faith, within the Bengal Presidency, from all the
penalties that under the old native laws, attached
to such act, i. e. the forfeiture of all personal and
family property and rights. Education, too re-
ceived a fresh impulse ; and to this day, many of
the best educational enterprises of the country are
associated with the name of this excellent gov-
ernor.
To this administration belongs also the begin-
ning of steam communication to the Caspian Sea,
and the great " overland route " from England to
India. The former, having in view the extension
of British commerce, and the ascertaining of the
feasibility of Russian invasion from that quarter
was entrusted to Lieutenant, afterwards, Sir Alex-
ander Burnes. To Lieutenant Waghorn belongs
the fame of arranging and carrying to a successful
termination the plan of overland communication
between India and Great Britain, by way of the
Red Sea, Egypt, and the Mediterranean. The
navigation of the rivers, Ganges and Indus, by
582 The English Power.
steam-vessels was introduced about the same
time. Railroads came later — the first opened in
India, being that between Bombay and Tanna,
April 6th 1853.
The year 1833 was marked by several very im-
portant changes in the functions of the East India
Company, among which, were the following : That
the company should retain its political rights, and
give its entire attention to the government of
India ; that it should cease to be a commercial
body, and should resign its monopolies of China
and India, both being declared free to every
British subject ; with sundry other regulations re-
garding finance and dividends.
In 1835, Lord William Bentich resigned his
office of governor, on account of failing health,
and returned to England. Lord Auckland was
appointed his successor, and made his advent
under most auspicious circumstances, the political
horizon being without a cloud; but he left it wrapped
in gloom, with the horror of great darkness enshroud-
ing the entire community. Shah Shujah, the im-
becile ruler of Afghanistan had been recently
expelled from his domain by his turbulent subjects,
and had taken refuge in the British fortress of
Afghan War. 583
Ludiana. The Punjaub was under control of
Runjet Singh, a man who for his valor and energy
had been dubbed " The Lion of Lahore." His
territory formed the barrier between British India
and Afghanistan, and was nearly always involved
in turmoils with the turbulent Afghans. In 1837,
a mission to Cabul was undertaken by Captain
Burnes, but was fruitful of no results; arid a mis-
sion to the Punjaub, while courteously received,
accomplished nothing. Lord Auckland at once
decided to declare war against Dost Mohammed,
the Afghan usurper, restore the deposed monarch
to his rights, with the ultimatum of annexing both
Afghanistan and the Punjaub, to the company's
possessions, or helping their rulers to govern under
" British protection." In October, 1838, war was
declared, and by the end of the year, the Bengal
and Bombay troops were already massed at the
appointed rendezvous, Shikapore in Scinde. From
the very outset it was a campaign, rife with dis-
asters ; cholera, insufficient means of transport,
and lack of needed stores, but prepared the way
for other and far greater sufferings. When they
had only reached the foot of the Western moun-
tains, provisions were so short that the allowance
584 The English Power.
to the troops was reduced one half, and many of
the camp followers, of whom there are said to
have been one hundred thousand at the outset,
were compelled to subsist on roots and herbs. On
the 20th of May, when Candahar was reached the
hundred thousand had been reduced to twenty
thousand. Ghazrii and Cabul were stormed and
taken, and both occupied by British troops, who
though badly supplied with provisions and other
necessaries, they managed to live through the first
winter with comparatively little suffering. But
with the opening spring, marauding parties poured
in upon them from every quarter, shooting down
stragglers, cutting off supplies, and harrassing the
troops in every possible way. Dost Mohammed
had given himself up to the British envoy and
with his numerous family had been sent beyond
the frontier ; but Akbar Khan, his " fighting son "
went everywhere rousing the people to resistance
of the invaders, and leading large bodies against
them, continually diminishing their numbers, and
destroying all hope of success. Thus the months
wore away, till the 2nd of November, 1841, ush-
ered in a general uprising of the people of Cabul,
and from that fatal morning, all the horrors of that
Massacre at Cabul. 587
terrible storm burst upon the defenceless victims,
Burnes, with every officer, woman and child found
with him in the city, was massacred, the forces at
Jelialabad were closely besieged with their small
and ill-provided garrisons while Candahar and
Ghazni were threatened. At this point it was
arranged between the British envoy and Akbar
Khan, that the British army should evacuate
Afghanistan and be guaranteed safe passage to
India, and a supply of provisions. But at the last
conference, while conversing with the chief, the
British envoy was killed by a pistol shot, said to
have been fired by the treacherous Akbar. On
the 6th of January, 1842, the humiliating retreat
began, and no sooner had they cleared the city,
than parties of armed Afghans attacked them at
intervals all along the route, that was tracked day
and night by the dying and dead soldiers. Such
was the severity of the weather, and the horrible
suffering of the weary travellers, that " first their
wounded, and then their women and children were
given up to the Afghans as the only hope of saving
them, till finally giving up all hope of escape,
hundreds lay down to die on the snow, or fell in
the rear and were shot down by Afghan bullets.
588 The English Power.
Gradually the parties that attacked them became
larger, and the work of slaughter sped more
rapidly, until of all that host of twenty-six thous-
and who began the disastrous retreat, but one
Englishman, Dr. Brydon and a few Seapoys and
followers, escaped with the terrible tidings to
Jellalabad, where the gallant Sale still held his
position."*
Whilst this was occurring hundreds of other
officers, women and children were lingering out a
terrible captivity in Afghan dungeons, from which
few lived to escape. The troops of Akbar contin-
ued to harass every port where there were English
in possession. Candahar and Jellalabad held out
until relief came, but at Ghazni, Palmer had to
yield, and every man, woman and child was
butchered in cold blood. It was August before
any combined movement of English troops could
be made to rescue the captives ; and then the
Khoord and Kyber Passes had to be passed before
safety could be assured. When the last dangers
were over, and those who yet lived had been
rescued, a terrible vengeance was taken on the
Afghans, by the now victorious troops, sent to the
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
Vengeance and Peace. 589
help of their unfortunate countrymen ; thousands
of skeletons were gathered up from the roads liter-
ally strewed with these sad memorials; and the
citadel, forts and every building of any strength
in the capital were destroyed ere the army again
crossed the Indus, on their homeward march.
The winter of 1843, was marked by fresh re-
volts on the part of the Ameers of Scinde. An
expedition commanded by Sir Charles Napier was
sent against them, and after most desperate fight-
ing, they were subdued, and their territory annexed
to the company's territories.
Lord Auckland had meantime been recalled,
and Lord Ellenborough sent out in his place ; and
it was under his vigorous management that the
Afghan disasters were in a measure retrieved, and
subsequent victories gained, not the least of which
was the pacification of Gwalior, and the permanent
occupation of its grand old fortress.
In the Punjaub, new conquests awaited the
British arms, not achieved however, without
large expenditures of blood and treasure. A more
complete and effectual overthrow, it would be diffi-
cult to conceive, than that which, on the 21st of
February, 1849, was meted out to the Seikh force
590 The English Power.
before Guzerat. For three hours the deadly fire
of artillery did its work, and then the whole force
of the British infantry and cavalry being let loose
upon the enemy, the bayonet, lance, and sword
accomplished the rest of the bloody task. The
principal chiefs made an unconditional surrender,
the Afghans fled across the Indus, the Seikh forces
were disbanded, and the Punjaub was declared " an-
nexed to the British territories of India."
When, after the conclusion of the second Burmese
war before spoken of, peace was again established, in
1853 other changes were made in the company's
charter. The number of directors chosen by the
stock-holders was reduced to twelve, in addition to
whom six were to be appointed by the crown, who
must have resided at least ten years in India.
They were no longer to hold the civil patronage of
the court, and nominations to the Indian civil
service, were thrown open to competition. The
local government of Bengal was placed in the
hands of a lieutenant-governor ; and the Legis-
lative Council was separated from the Supreme
Council, greatly to the benefit of both.
In 1856, Lord Dalhousie retired from the guber-
natorial office. Among the benefits of Lord Dalhou-
Dalhousie's Administration.
sie's brilliant administration, should be mentioned
the introduction of the uniform, low-rate postage
throughout the vast empire, and the opening of
several new lines of railway • — one line of a hun-
dred and twenty miles, from Calcutta to Rane-
gunge*, a second line from Bombay to Wasindra, of
fifty -one miles, and a third of fifty miles in the
Madras Presidency, were all monuments of the
wise policy of an able administrator. But the
crowning glory that reflects most honor on a noble
name, was the opening, on the 8th of April, 1854,
of the main stream of the Ganges canal, for a
distance of five hundred and twenty miles, which
subsequently, when completed, reached a total
length, including the branches, of about nine hun-
dred miles, irrigating an area of one million four
hundred and seventy thousand acres ; and crown-
ing with the richest verdure, whole tracts of other-
wise barren and worthless land. After eight years
triumph in war, and the exercise of enlightened
statesmanship, he handed over to his successor,
Viscount Canning, an immense empire, in the en-
joyment of external peace, and internal prosperity.
H. I.-38
CHAPTER XXV.
THE SEAPOY REBELLION — INDIA OF THE
PRESENT.
IT was in the year 1746, that native troops were
first trained to European tactics, by the
French, at the siege of Cudalore. The English
Seapoy Service was begun in 1757, being just a
century old at the time of the great rebellion.
After the "Black .Hole" tragedy had beei\
avenged, and peace was again restored, the first
battalion of Bengal Seapoys was raised, their oifiv
cers being supplied from a detachment that had
accompanied Lord Clive from Madras. Upon the
foundation then laid, the vast superstructure ot
the existing native army of India, has been grad-
ually raised, and the system perfected by officers,
who have led these armies from triumph to triumph
594
The Seapoy Service. 597
until the British flag floats victoriously over the
strongholds of the most powerful native princes of
India. Thus England governs India with Hindu
soldiers; and subdues new provinces with levies
on those already united to the empire. And the
Hindu rights bravely beside the Briton, laying
down his life to increase the power of the flag
under which he has enlisted. On the military
parade grounds, the manoeuvres of the native
troops show great aptitude in learning the tactics
of the service ; and freshly-arrived cadets who are
hereafter to serve as officers in the army of India,
are often drilled by grave, dignified, and noble-
looking native Subahdars.
In the Seapoy Service, each battalion has one
European commanding officer, with lieutenants
and ensigns, who act as field officers, besides a
native commander and adjutant, one Subahdar and
three Jemidars to each company. A company is
composed of seventy Seapoys, under the direction
of five Havildars and four Naiks ; two drummers
and one trumpeter being supplied to each company,
who also carry colors bearing the device of the
Subahdar.
An unfortunate recognition of the privileges of
598 The Seapoy Rebellion.
caste, by the Anglo-Indian Government, in the
outset, gave rise at a later period, to many evils
and inconveniences. Instead of an equality of
wages and perquisites to all native officers and
soldiers of the same grade in the army, the
Brahmin Seapoy, because he belongs to a class
that claims superiority, and with whom the mili-
tary profession is second in honor only to that of a
priest, has from the beginning of the Seapoy ser-
vice, been allowed higher pay, and many more
comforts and immunities than the farmer or
mechanic. Both in field and cantonment, he has
been treated by his English employer, not only as
equal, but in many respects as the superior of the
European soldier in the same service. Frequent
furloughs on high days and festivals were allowed
them ; and the fear of interfering with their relig-
ious scruples, has led to concessions and indulgen-
ces that came to be looked upon as matters of
right, to the serious obstruction of military duty,
and the too lax enforcement of proper discipline.
Instead of being taught that prominence and pro-
motion were due to superior ability and soldierly
qualities, they were allowed to claim them by
seniority and the absurd distinctions of caste.
Caste the Cause of the Rebellion. 601
Thus they retained the power of dictation in their
own hands, and escaped many of the hardships of
the service. Officers in charge of companies had
little power to reward or punish their own men,
some caste regulation being always the outcry,
when a point was to be gained. In cases of mu-
tiny, though the cause might occasionally be a
question of pay or provisions ; by far the most
frequent and formidable ground of complaint has
been a suspicion of meditated interference with
the privileges of caste.
Among the immediate causes of the great rebell-
ion,* this stands forth as one of the most promi-
nent of all, especialh7 in the case of the cartridges,
where the Brahmins were informed by one who
professed to have heard it at headquarters, that
"presently, Brahmins as well as Soudras would
have to bite cartridges covered with the fat of
cows and pigs" — the former the most sacred of
all animals, the latter an object of hatred and
abhorrence to the Hindu, neither of which he
may taste or handle, without loss of caste. In
this case, intelligence of the facts, fortunately
*See British India, an article by Charles Creighton Hazwell in the Atlantic
Monthly for November, 1857, and The Indian Revolt, an article in the same
magazine Jfor December 1857 by Mr. Charles EUo.t Norton.
602 The Seapoy Rebellion.
came to the knowledge of the European officer in
command, who immediately had all the native
troops paraded before him, and asked if they had
any complaint to make. Promptly and respect-
fully, all the native officers, and many of the men
stepped to the front, and through one of their
number, stated their fears, arid begged that some
substitute should be used in making up the car-
tridges, by which their loss of caste would not be
hazarded. The matter was at once reported to
General Hearsey, and the desired concession made
by order of government. Unobjectionable ingredi-
ents for greasing the cartridges were obtained from
the bazaar, and the men were allowed to make
them up in their own quarters, that they might be
satisfied there was no desire on the part of their
officers to interfere with their faith or practice. It
is a note-worthy fact, that during the entire rebell-
ion, this regiment gave their officers no trouble,
but remained true to the end, to the flag under
which they had enlisted.
Another of the immediate causes of the mutiny,
was undoubtedly, the action taken with regard to
the titular dignity of the royal House of Delhi.
On the death of the heir-apparent in 1849, the
The Dynasty of Timour. 603
Court of Directors had authorized Lord Dalhonsie
to " terminate the dynasty of Timour, whenever
the reigning king should die." To alleviate the
unpleasantness of this, the Governor had ventured
on a compromise agreeing to recognize the king's
grandson, as heir-apparent, on condition that the
family should quit the fortress of Delhi, for the
royal palace of Kootub. The ro}'al household
were powerless to dispute the point ; but they felt
sorely humiliated ; and for many a day, the " in-
sult " was brooded over by the Delhi Moham-
medans, who were ready, at the first outbreak to
avenge their grievance by joining the malcontents.
Among the remote causes of the mutiny, was the
vague impression cherished alike by Hindus and
Mohammedans, that ultimately the system of
castes was to be abolished, and a foreign religion
to be forced upon all the races of the empire.
Coexistent with this, was the very natural aversion
the people of this ancient empire entertained to
being ruled over by a race of foreigners for whom
they had no special liking, and of whom they had
not even heard, until within a few hundred years.
On these several points, the races of India were
sufficiently of one mind to be mutual helpers
604 The Seapoy Rebellion.
when the day of trouble came, and to join shoulder
to shoulder in a mighty effort to expel the foreign
intruders from the entire peninsula.
The first positive outbreak began at Berhampore
in the district of Moorshedabad, about a hundred
miles from Calcutta, on the 25th of February,
1857, by a portion of the 19th native regiment
who refused to accept the objectionable cartridges,
and afterwards declined to lay down their arms
when ordered to do so, until certain conditions of
their own had been complied with.
The spirit of mutiny made its next appearance
in Vizianagram in the Madras Presidency, where
on the 28th of February, the 1st Madras Regiment
was under orders to march for Kurnool, without
their families. This, the men positively refused to
do ; and when their colonel ventured to remon-
strate, he was met by shouts of defiance and ridi-
cule. There being no force at hand to compel
obedience the point was yielded ; probably render-
ing it thereby, more difficult to subdue the next
revolt. On the morning of the 31st of March the
19th Regiment was disbanded, and the men
marched to Chinsura and there ordered to disperse
which they did with sullen and defiant air, to
Another Grievance. 605
scatter far and wide, the germs of treason and re-
volt. The disbanding of a regiment, is in India a
very weighty penalty, since every officer thereby
looses his position, and every Seapoy his pension ;
and as recruits for the Indian army are not re-
ceived after a certain age, those who have attained
it, or are Brahmins of high caste are deprived of
the means of earning a livelihood, as they have no
choice of labor but to remain soldiers. In April,
indications of revolt began to appear in Lucknow,
the capital of Oudh : where, in addition to the
cartridge trouble the Seapoys had a private griev-
ance of their own. An English physician, wishing
to be sure that the medicine he had prescribed for
a Brahmin patient, was properly prepared, put the
bottle to his own lips to taste the mixture before
handing it over to the sick man. This kindly-
meant action was construed into an attempt to
break down the distinctive barriers of caste, and
was repaid by the immediate burning down of the
doctor's bungalow, by the Seapoys of the regiment.
Nightly meetings took place, the men looked dark
and defiant, and conflagrations were becoming very
frequent. At this juncture, the British Resident,
Sir Henry Lawrence, telegraphed the governor'
606 The Seapoy Rebellion.
general, u I want unlimited powers ; I will not
abuse them ; " and in five minutes he received the
desired grant. This power he used in promptly
putting down such mutinous demonstrations as
had been made, and order was quickly restored
without violence on either side, after which, great
pains was taken by Sir Henry to remove all cause
of discontent, by explanations and conciliatory
treatment.
At Meerut in the Doab, the manifestations were
of the most threatening character. The Bombay
Times of the first week in May, represented the
whole country, from Calcutta to Lahore, as " either
in open mutiny, or upon the verge of it." A plan
was discovered for the simultaneous uprising of
Meerut, Lahore, and other cities of the Punjaub,
after which the rebels were to fall back upon
Delhi, and make it the base of operations in the
Hindu empire, which was to be there established,
by the utter extermination of the whole European
army and population throughout India. This
barbarous programme failed in part, from a lack
of reciprocity among the leaders ; but enough was
carried out to render one speechless with horror.
Infants were snatched from their mothers' arms
Butchery ' at Delhi. 609'
a'hd murdered before their eyes. Older children
were compelled to look on while one or both par-
ents were cruelly butchered, and in some instances
were made to 'drink their blood; neither age, sex
nor condition was spared, soldiers and civilians
shared the 'same 'fate ; and only When the curtains
of night closed ;around those scenes of terror and
of bk>od, did the fearful tragedy dease — to be
recommenced 'on the coming day, in the neighbor-
ing city of Delhi, where by a forced march of
more than thirty miles, the mutineers arrived by
8 A. M. Monday, May the llth.
Delhi being garrisoned only by native troops,
the mutineers from Meerut, found ready sympathy.
Several of the officers were killed while seeking
to restrain their men from taking part in the
scenes of blood ; and soon the whole native force
of the city was engaged in murdering the'
European residents. Some sought the citadel,
brought forth the king, and after representing to
him that the whole country was in revolt, and the
hated foreigners to be driven from the kingdom or
thrown into the sea, insisted on proclaiming
him emperor, and after firing a salute of twenty-
one guns, rushed from the palace gates, to
39
610 The Seapoy Rebellion.
carry out their plans of treachery and blood.
Captain Douglass, the commandant of the guard
of the titular king, was the first victim ; the Chap-
lain of the Residency arid his lovely young daugh-
ter of nineteen, the next, with such aggravation of
suffering as cannot here be detailed ; and others,
men, women and children were slaughtered by
wholesale. The whole city was now in arms ; and
every house in which it was thought a European
had resided, was ransacked from cellar to garret.
The purpose of the soldiers was murder, that of
the rabble, plunder; nor did the houses and shops
of wealthy natives escape, many of these being
sacrificed by the blood-thirsty mob, without appar-
ent reason, while they were glutting their fierce
hatred of the foreigners. They next plundered
the government treasuries, destroyed the English
church, arid utterly demolished the premises of
the Delhi Gazette, throwing the presses into the
river, and melting the type into slugs. The em-
ployees of the office, attempted to escape in the
disguise of natives, but being detected, they
were literally hacked to pieces. Next to
their thirst for blood, was the desire to possess
themselves of the treasure deposited in the Delhi
Pandemonium. 611
Bank. The manager in charge, Mr. Beresford,
with his wife and five children had their throats
severed and mangled with broken glass. No
mercy was shown to age or sex. Delicate women,
mothers and young daughters were stripped of
their clothing, wantonly abused, and turned naked
into the streets, beaten with canes, pelted with
filth, and abandoned to the beastly lusts of the
rabble, until death or madness ended their misery.
A party consisting of eight gentlemen, eight
ladies, and eleven children, had found a temporary
refuge in a mosque ; but being without food and
and water, they gave themselves up, and were
promised safety. But instead, they were placed in
a row, and all shot. One lady entreated a Seapoy
to give her child some water, though they killed
her. For answer to the poor mother's appeal,
the wretch snatched the child from her arms, and
dashed out its brains on the pavement, before her
face. Such was the demoniac fury of the excited
mob, that " before noon of Monday, the llth of
May, the interior of Delhi was a pandemonium
that fiends might have shuddered to contemplate."
Every eifort was made to save the magazine, but
* Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
612 The Seapoy Rebellion.
without avail. A little garrison of seven brave
men, commanded by Lieutenant Willoughby, made
a gallant defence, till finding that the enormous
quantities of ammunition and stores must inevita-
bly fall into the enemies' hands, the building was
blown up, by these magnanimous defenders, who
all, with the solitary exception of Lieutenant
Willoughby perished in the explosion ; while from
one thousand five hundred to two thousand of the
mutineers and rabble are believed to have been
blown up with the magazine, or crushed in the
fallings ruins. This so exasperated the great army
of mutineers, who had been eagerly hoping to get
possession of the stores and ammunition, that
several of the leaders, rushed to the palace, and
demanded of the king, the immediate surrender of all
the Europeans, who under his promise of protec-
tion, had taken refuge there. The timid and vas-
cillating monarch durst not refuse, and these un-
fortunate victims of royal perfidy, were murdered
in cold blood,
Similar scenes to those just described were en-
acted at various other points. From Ferozepore to
the Deccan, the country was ripe with revolt ; at
Baroach, the Parsees, a quiet, energetic, kindly
Wholesale Murder. 615
race, were the special objects of vengeance. Their
high priest was murdered at the altar, their fine
temple desecrated, their women insulted, and peo-
ple of all grades cruelly butchered ; at Allahabad,
the carnage was frightful, attended in many in-
stances by the most fiendish cruelty ; one family
consisting of three generations was burned to
death, not one being spared, from the hoary grand-
sire to the prattling infant ; noses, lips, ears, fingers
and toes of men and women were slowly chopped
off, and the bodies deliberately dashed to death ;
while little infants were torn from their mothers'
arms, and their tender limbs chopped off with
tulwars yet reeking with their father's blood. More
that fifty Europeans were murdered in the first
outbreak ; and a merciless death was the least of
the cruelties practiced on many of the female
victims.
At Jhansie, the wholesale murder was attended
by many scenes of frightful and most revolting
cruelty ; Lucknow, Agra, other cities shared a like
fate ; while at Cawnpore only the women and
children of all the garrison survived the frightful
massacre ; and these were all foully murdered by
the cruel tyrant, Nana Sahib, the day before General
616 The Seapoy Rebellion.
Havelock reached the city, and their bodies, the
dead and dying, flung into a well in the courtyard
of the assembly rooms. But enough has been
written of these horrible details of blood and
agony, and death. At fir^t, the uprising was so
sudden and general, and the horror felt at the enormi-
ties committed, so completely paralyzing, that little
could be done towards quelling the great revolt,
while each day added to the difficulties and dan-
gers of the position. Then from every place came
sympathy and aid for the sufferers, with vows of ter-
rible vengeance. The Governor General dispatched
a vessel to Ceylon to intercept the troops that had
been ordered to China, in support of Lord Elgin's
mission. At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence at-
tacked and defeated a large body of the mutineers ;
but was soon after besieged in the residency,
which he gallantly defended against overwhelming
numbers, until he was mortally wounded in a rally,
and the heroic little band had to retire to a smaller
•post. In iEngland, men and money and stores
were volunteered on ajl: sides, to meet this terrible
emergency. By the middle of October, £ 150,000
had been subscribed for the relief of the sufferers ,
and within three months after the news of the
England Alarmed. 617
Meerut revolt first reached England, more than
thirty thousand excellent troops had already left
the British shores ; and regiment after regiment
continued to be dispatched in the same direction.
Within forty-eight hours after the announcement
of General Anson's death, Sir Collin Campbell
was on his way to assume the chief command ; but
even before he had reached the field, victory was
already beginning to declare in favor of the Eng-
lish. General Havelock, taking command of sev-
eral regiments at Allahabad, set out with all speed
hoping to reach Cavvnpore, in time to rescue Sir
Hugh Wheeler, and his brave companions. But
after marching one hundred and twenty-six miles,
fighting four actions, and capturing many guns, in
eight days in the worst season of that Indian cli-
mate, he was yet too late to avert the terrible
catastrophe. On the banks of the Ganges, he for
the eighth time defeated the enemy, and captured
his guns ; and the 15th of August he marched out
from Cawnpore, and again drove them from Bhitoor.
On the 19th of September, he marched with a
large reinforcement, to the relief of Lucknow, and
on the 21st occurred the great battle of Mungarwar,
resulting in the total defeat of the rebels.
618 The Seapoy Rebellion.
Delhi was taken in September, and occupied,
this being regarded as a virtual closing of the re-
bellion ; but many a hard fought battle had yet to
be lost and won, ere permanent peace again spread
its balmy wings over this distracted country.
In November, a vigorous attack was made by
Sir Collin Campbell, on Lucknow, and after sev-
eral brilliant victories, by dint of a well executed
ruse on the night of the 22d he silently decamped,
taking with him his whole force, the relieved garri-
son, a thousand women and children, and all valua-
ble stores.
On the 3d of February 1858, Fort Sawyer on
the Nerbudda, was relieved by Sir Hugh Rose.
Here four hundred Europeans, of whom nearly
half were women and children, had been shut up
for seven months. On the 17th the almost impreg-
nable stronghold of Rhotosgur was captured ; on
the 19th of March the last post of the mutineers
in Lucknow fell before the English; the conquest
of Jhansie followed in April, and other victories
and successes soon after, and before the close of
the year, this terrible mutiny was over.
Quite in contrast with the scenes we have been
describing, was the brilliant reception of the Prince
The Prince of Wales. 621
of Wales in his recent tour over this same ground,
during the years of 1875-76 ; and the cordial
affection and loyalty every where manifested toward
him, throughout the Indian Empire.
Yet the same races, many of the same people,
were actors in both ; with the interval of only
about seventeen years between the two events.
But they have been years of growth to the rulers
and the ruled ; in which both have learned to un-
derstand each other better, and the relative position
and acquirements of the two countries, and their
respective inhabitants. Both probably learned wis-
dom by the sad experiences of those troublous
years of war and bloody reprisal, and the later
years of comparative tranquillity and prosperity, as
contrasted with the former, have surely inculcated
the lesson that peace is better than war.
Yet in the autumn of 1878, and during the early
months of the year 1880, another war cloud
darkened the Indian horizon. The English mind,
always keenly susceptible of alarm, in regard to
the invasion of her Indian Empire ; and subject to
what may be called periodic visitations of fear ;
has for years past been kept in a " chronic state of
unrest" by the occasional movements of Russia,
622 The Seapoy Rebellion.
tending apparently toward the Indian frontier.
Such was doubtless the origin of Lord Auckland's
unfortunate invasion of Afghanistan in 1838, that
ended so disastrously for the English colonies of
India. This same desire to secure possession of
the Afghan Passes, as a wall of security against
Russian invasion, led the " British Mission to the
Ameer's Court," during the year 1879. But the Mis-
sion met with a repulse — the Embassador be-
ing prevented by force from entering the coun-
try ; and this repulse occasioned intense excitement
throughout India. The Bombay Times of that
period, reports a special meeting of the Viceroy's
Council, held at Simla, and also that General Rob-
erts had started for Peshawur, with secret orders. A
large force was ordered to be in readiness on the
frontier, where twelve thousand men had been
already massed.
The Times of India of September 25th said:
" The Mission to Cabul has already become trans-
formed into an expedition, or, as it would seem,
into three expeditions, which will start from differ-
ent bases. One column, variously estimated at
six thousand to eight thousand men, is to assemble
at Moulton. All these except one regiment are
The Afghan Campaign. 625
Europeans. They assemble at Moultan, for the
purpose of marching right across to Quetta, and
consternating [sic] Shere AH, in the south. Another
column of six thousand is being assembled in the
Koorum Valley, and will be moved to Kohat,
General Roberts himself is in command of thu
column, which is obviously intended to march
through the Kohat Pass, and turn the flank of the
Khyber Pass, so as to facilitate the entrance,
through that dangerous channel, of a third column,
which appears to be in active preparation. In this*
way, in a few days — indeed we are told, the
troops are expected to march in three days time — -
the three important passes of Bolan, Kohat, and
Khyber will be occupied, and this summary measr
ure may not improbably, bring the Ameer to his
senses."
A proclamation of the Viceroy of India re-
counts the history of the relations between India
and Afghanistan, during these last ten years. It
says : " In return for the kindness of our acts
and intentions, as witnessed by the Ameer's recep-
tion at Uinballa, by the material aid we afforded
to him from time to time, and by the free commerce
with India, accorded to the Afghans, we gained
H. I.— 40
626 The Seapoy Rebellion.
only ill-will and discourtesy. The Ameer openly
and assiduously attempted, by words and deeds,
to stir up religious hatred, and bring about a war
upon the British Empire in India, and although he
had repelled all efforts for amicable intercourse by
the Indian Government, he formally received a
Russian Embassy, and finally, while the Russian
Mission was still at Cabul, he forcibly repulsed the
English envoy, whose coming had been duly noti-
fied to him, and met our attempts to promote
friendly relations, with open indignity and defiance.
It looks somewhat significant that the Russian
Czar, through General Kaufman, should, just at this
juncture, present the Ameer with a costly sword, on
the blade of which is the following inscription, in
the Persian tongue : " May God give the victory
over the infidels."
The advance of the British army in Afghanistan,
was steady and successful. Shere Ali, the Afghan
Ameer, fled from the country; leaving his son
Yakoob Khan, in control of the government. Pre-
vious to this, during the month of November, the
British ultimatum requiring the withdrawal of the
Russian Embassy, and that the Ameer enters into
no Russian alliance — was handed to the Afghan
Terms of Peace. 627
commander at All Musjid, and a copy was sent by
post, to the Ameer. In reply, the Ameer declared
himself bound by no Russian alliance, and that he
was at liberty to make any new treaty he might
find desirable.
The British victories were so dedided that
Yakoob Khan was obliged to sue for peace, and to
accept it on the Viceroy's own terms, i. e. Jellalabad
and Candahar were to be evacuated, and given
back to the Afghans ; the famous Khyber Pass to
become an Anglo-Indian out-post ; the Khurmur
and Khost Valleys to be converted into Indian-
graneries; and an intrenched camp to be estab-
lished within four days march of the Ameer's cap-
ital; while the main gateway in the mountains,
between Quettah and Candahar, was to be fortified
and garrisoned. These accessions of territory af-
ford satisfactory evidence that this well planned
and boldly executed campaign was not in vain ;
the conquerors having made peace on their own
terms, and accomplished all they sought to do.
The Russian intrigue at Cabul has been brought to
naught ; while Great Britain has acquired increased
prestige as an Oriental Power, besides having had
ascendency restored in the neutral zone, between
628 India of the Present.
India and Turkistan as a " scientific frontier," probably,
not unacceptable, even to Lord Beaconsfield.
The year 1880 saw the close of the war and the acces-
sion to power of a new liberal ministry, pledged to aban-
don the aggressive policy in Afghanistan, instituted by
Lord Ly tton. On hearing the results of the elections in
Great Britain, Lord Lytton sent in his resignation, leav-
ing behind him memories of an administration notable
for several measures not altogether satisfactory to the na-
tives, at least. In March, 1878, he had forced through
the Legislative Council an act which placed vernacular
papers under rigorous censorship, and he also incurred a
heavy debt for which there was no good reason. During
his rule, however, many beneficent measures were enacted.
One of the best was the act of 1879, by which the peas-
antry of Southern India was protected from the pitiless
oppression of money lenders, and the unjust decisions of
the civil courts. Thereafter all means of inquiry and ar-
bitration must fail before the peasant's holding could be
absolutely taken from him, even for a term of years, nor
could he be imprisoned for debt. In 1879, also the right
of natives to a share in the government of their country
was acknowledged by the creation of a civil service sys-
tem, the candidates for which were to be selected by the
local governments.
Lord Lytton was replaced by Lord Ripon, and under
Native Administration Restored. 631
his wise administration India's progress was brisk and
peaceful. Of the twenty millions which India had ex-
pended on the late war, one-fourth was repaid her from
the imperial treasury; a new impulse was imparted to
foreign trade, a succession of good seasons promoted ag-
riculture, and the government was thus enabled to re-
plenish the treasuries without levying new taxes. Public
works were prosecuted vigorously with every promise of
final success. The railway system was especially consid-
ered. New roads were projected, having special refer-
ence to the state lines recently decided on, and some of
the old roads began to yield substantial profit.
In March, 1881, the state of Mysore, which for fifty
years had been under British rule, was restored to native
administration, but the young Maharaja, who succeeded
to the sovereignty with the same powers as the rulers of
other native states, was surrounded by English counsel-
ors, and in matters of serious import was expected to
defer to their decisions. During this period the British
outposts, all the way from Burmah to Pishin, were being
constantly annoyed by border outbreaks, and it was at
last determined to send a large expedition against the
Mahsud section of the Waziri tribe, who were the lead-
ing cause of the disturbances, and who had plundered
Tank and other villages in 1879.
An engagement took place in May at Shahalum, but
632 India of the Present
as a skirmishing resistance only was offered the advanc-
ing columns, the chiefs were soon captured and easily
forced into submission.
A reduction of the salt duties in 1882 meant no cur-
tailment of the revenue, while it proved of immeasurable
good to millions of poor ryots. In the same year were
abolished the last of the duties on cotton imports, as were
also the import duties on all articles except arms, alco-
holic drinks and opium. Of exports, rice alone contin-
ued to pay duty.
At this time a commission was appointed to look into
the working of the educational system, first organized in
1854, and the result of the investigation was a scheme by
which the state outlay on the higher education was lim-
ited, thereby making possible the improvement of the
primary and middle schools, which were still in a very
imperfect condition. A radical change was introduced
in the municipal system of India, having for its aim the
training of the people for the management of their local
affairs. In nearly all the provinces the municipal coun-
cils were remodeled on a basis of popular election, and the
native press was restored to its former freedom. In his
desire to secure absolute justice for the people he gov-
erned, Lord Bipon met, at least once, with violent oppo-
sition from a majority of his own countrymen. Under
the Viceroy's supervision a bill was drawn up by Mr. II-
Lord Dufferin's Administration. 633
bert, law member of the viceregal council, which gave
to native rural magistrates jurisdiction in all criminal
cases that came before the district courts. The Euro-
peans in India became enraged at what they considered
an attempt to destroy their privileges as the dominant
race, and in order to dissipate the violence Lord Ripon
consented to several changes in the bill, which, thus mod-
ified, became a law.
In 1884, the Earl of Dufferin succeeded Lord Ripon
as Viceroy of India, and to his administration may be
credited the development and enforcement of the reform
inaugurated by the rent law of 1859. The Bengal ten-
ancy act of 1885, secured fixity of tenure and just rent
to every ryat who had possession for three years, and a
tenant of twelve years' standing was insured against
increase in his rent on any pretext whatever.
In 1885, a commission, composed of Russian and Eng-
lish officers, was appointed to clearly define the northern
frontiers of Afghanistan, and the misunderstandings and
discussions which arose in connection with this matter oc-
casioned the wildest excitement throughout Europe and
Asia, especially in India. Wise statesmanship, and the
Ameer's peaceful inclinations, however, averted serious
entanglements, and the Afghan frontier was decided on
without further trouble. The conquest and annexation
of Upper Burmah were inevitable. The British Govern-
634 India of the Present.
ment had long awaited an opportunity for making war
on this kingdom. Burmah's trade with France and It-
aly had never pleased the British, and on the accession
of Theebaw, a despotic and cruel prince, in 1 878, the
British consul at Mandalay was withdrawn on the
grounds of violence and insufferable eccentricity on the
part of the king. No further move was made by the
government in India until 1 885. In the fall of that year,
owing to French intrigue, it was said, Theebaw suddenly
and peremptorily imposed an additional burden on the
Bombay and British Trading company, which held the
concessions of the teak forests in Burmah. The addi-
tional fine amounted to twenty-three laks of rupees.
This radical step on the part of the Burmese king fur-
nished the pretext that Great Britain was seeking, and
led to an ultimatum couched in sharp, decisive terms an-
nulling the king's order. At the same time preparations
were made for war. Theebaw's reply was evasive in ef-
fect and defiant in tone, and determined the course of the
British. Had any cause for hastening the conquest been
wanting, it was found in the king's proclamation urging
his subjects to rise and repel the invaders.
In the early part of November, 1885, a force of fifteen
thousand men marched up the Irrawaddy and attacked
Mandalay. They had met but feeble resistance and en-
tered the town with little fighting. On November 28,
The Burmese War. 635
Theebaw was taken prisoner, and sent to Rangoon. A
mqnth of unquiet in the kingdom was followed on Janu-
ary 1, 1886, by the annexation of Burmah to the British
Empire. This was done by the Viceroy's proclamation;
and was followed by a publication of all the Burmese
correspondence since the accession of Theebaw to the date
of the publication. The annexation was confirmed by
vote of Parliament, and on March 31, Mr. Barnard
arrived and assumed the reins of government at Man-
dalay.
The overthrow of the king and the transition in state
affairs left the country unsettled. After a month of more
or less quiet the Burmese, although broken, attempted to
harass their new rulers, and it was only after a severe
campaign that they were completely subjugated. In
many parts of the country arose various pretenders to the
throne, who, by unsystematic attacks, tried to force the
British to recognize their respective claims. These were
the Alaungpra princes whose small armies were a source
of infinite annoyances to the conquerors. The English
civil commissioners were at first successful in maintaining
peace, but on the appearance of the pretenders the na-
tive officials gave the latter allegiance, and soon the Brit-
ish found that the conquest had been only nominal. On
April 15, bands of men led by the Nyinzaing prince, one
of the pretenders and a brother of Theebaw, fired Man-
636 India of the Present.
dalay in four places, destroying the treasury and post
office and threatening the palace. In August, the river
embankment at Mandalay was cut by the Dakoitan reb-
els and what had not burned of the town was swamped.
In October, the army of occupation counted one thousand
three hundred and twenty-eight British infantry ; fifteen
thousand six hundred and eighty-four native infantry ;
two thousand two hundred and seventy-three native cav-
alry, and nine hundred and ninety-one artillery.
Boshway, a robber chief in the valley of the Irrawaddy,
was the strongest of the insurgents, next to the Nyinzaing
prince, to whom numerous of the minor leaders gave
sympathy. Boshway attacked the naval launches on
the Sittang river and killed Englishmen without pity.
Theebaw's brother, the Pretender, burned villages
friendly to the English, and in many ways made his
power felt. Such was the condition of affairs when Gen-
eral Frederick Roberts took command at Rangoon, re-
placing General MacPherson, who had just died of fever
Reinforcements were sent from India. Columns moved
on Boshway, dissipated his forces, and drove him and
the remnant of his army to the Arakan hills. In the
north a detachment was sent against the Hla-oo as soon
as the forces arrived, and his strength was broken and
his forces scattered after numerous engagements. The
Limbin prince was the last to succumb. His cqnfeder-
The Jubilee Celebrations. 637
acy was already breaking when he was taken prisoner
and sent to Rangoon.
The affairs of Burmah were now quiet. In two subse-
quent skirmishes with Boshway, the robber was utterly
routed and withdrew from the field even as a marauder.
British supremacy was now fixed in Burmah, so to re-
main. On his return to India, General Roberts was re-
ceived with every expression of satisfaction from his gov-
eminent. 1887, the Jubilee year, was celebrated with
extraordinary manifestations of loyalty. Magnificent
ceremonials were held at Calcutta, presided over by the
Viceroy, and governors and lieutenant-governors in their
several administrations held receptions at which repre-
sentatives from public institutions and cities were enter-
tained, and chiefs offered addresses assuring the govern-
ing power of their unwavering loyalty. Illuminations
and fireworks, on a vast scale, delighted the multitudes,
public feasts for the poor were inaugurated, and twenty-
five thousand prisoners were released as a mark of royal
clemency. Throughout the empire there appeared per-
fect unanimity and undeniable effort of the people to
make the occasion one of unusual splendor. At the close
of the ceremonials in India many of the most eminent
princes and chiefs went to England to be present at the
celebrations there, and were received in a manner that
accorded with their exalted rank and historical position.
638 India of the Present.
In the midst of all this extravagant, if loya^, display,
the government of India was confronted with a grave fi-
nancial dilemma. Notwithstanding the expansion of for-
eign trade and the exercise of the strictest economy in
the ordinary public expenditures, and the steady increase
of revenues, the annually compounding deficit was rolling
up the national debt to enormous proportions. In 1886,
though the ordinary revenues amounted to seventy-four
million four hundred and seventy-six thousand pounds,
there was a deficit of two million eight hundred and one
thousand seven hundred and twenty-six pounds. The
British garrison, in 1886, consequent upon the war with
Burmah, had been increased to five thousand one hundred
and ninety-two officers and one hundred and eighty-three
thousand five hundred and ninety-four men, including
native troops, the maintenance of which alone taxed the
treasury to the extent of twenty million ninety-seven thou-
sand seven hundred and seventy-nine pounds. In addi-
tion to this, the outlay in connection with public works —
notably for the construction and maintenance of military
railways — reached the sum of nearly twenty-one million
pounds additional, rendering it impossible to appropri-
ate more than one million five hundred thousand pounds
for the protection of the famine sufferers out of the spe-
cial insurance fund. At the expiration of 1887, six
million pounds had been borrowed from this government
Financial Embarrassment. 639
trust fund to meet the cost of this imperative military-
railway construction. The public debt, in 1886,
amounted to one hundred and seventy-four million five
hundred and twenty-four thousand one hundred and one
pounds, the yearly interest on which was over four mil-
lion three hundred thousand pounds. The fall in the
rate of the exchange value of the rupee further tended
to the existing financial embarrassment, and necessitated
either " fresh taxation, withdrawal of railway appropria-
tions, or the diversion of the available famine insurance
fund," to meet the shortage. The government accepted
the latter alternative.
Up to 1887, seventeen hundred million rupees had been
expended on the construction of fourteen thousand three
hundred and eighty-three miles of railway. During the
fiscal year of 1886-7, the net loss on the construction and
operating of these lines of road exceeded ten million
rupees.
In 1857, the public debt of India was fifty-nine million
nine hundred and forty-three thousand eight hundred
and fourteen pounds, and though at an intervening period
it had been reduced by about four million five hundred
thousand pounds, at the close of the year 1883 eighty-
nine million pounds sterling had been added to the
national indebtedness.
The following year the strength of the army, however,
640 India of the Present.
was reduced to two thousand five hundred and fifty-one
officers and sixty-nine thousand two hundred and forty
men.
This crisis served to show the loyalty of the Indians,
as many of the native princes offered free gifts of money
or loans on liberal terms to the government.
The supreme power in India had never regarded Thi-
bet with anything but conciliatory and pacific intentions,
but when, in 1888, it was proposed to send thither a
mission, having for its object the establishment of benefi-
cial relations of trade and commerce, the Thibetans not
only refused to respond, but occupied Lingtu, and pro-
ceeded to build a fortified wall across the Jalapla pass,
the most important inlet to Thibet. This action was
undeniable invasion of the rights of the government ; the
Jalapla pass is in Sikkim, a dependency of the govern-
ment, and warlike demonstrations on that ground could
not be tolerated. Complications were multiplied by the
position assumed by the Raja, whose possessions were
partly in Thibet, and partly in India, and from whom,
therefore, was due a double allegiance. The occupied
town was on the Indian side, but the Raja ignored the
fact and encouraged the influx of Thibetans into his
Indian territory.
The Chinese emperor was appealed to as the acknowl-
edged suzerain of the Lamas, and his influence requested
War with the Raja of Sikkim. 641
to secure an amicable adjustment. But all endeavor in
this direction failing to have the desired effect, the Dalai
Lama was officially notified that while the government
of India had no hostile intentions toward Thibet or de-
sire to meddle with his rights in Sikkim, the position at
Lingtu could not be allowed, and a limit was placed on
the time which he was given to withdraw his forces. This
decision was received with silence and inaction, and
the British troops advanced, took the stockade at Jeluk
by storm, forced the Thibetans to retreat with apparent
loss and demoralization, and advancing on Lingtu found
it deserted.
The Raja, however, had no intention of giving up the
fight. His army took up a position at Jalapla pass and
sent for reinforcements. The English entrenched at
Gnatong, became aware of the determination of the Raja
to overcome Sikkim in India, and notwithstanding a
reduction in their own numbers, and a knowledge of
strong reinforcements of the enemy's ranks, an attack
was made which resulted in absolute rout of the recalci-
trants with a loss of one thousand men. The Raja's
papers were captured, but he fled precipitately, and see-
ing no further possibility of resistance, the English
retired within their borders.
During this period, the turbulent tribes of the Black
Mountains gave the government considerable trouble.
H. I.— 41
642 India of the Present.
For many years murders and robberies had been of con-
stant occurrence, the perpetrators afterwards retiring
across the borders to absolute security. In June, 1888,
two British officers, in command of a reconnoitering
party, were set upon and murdered, and this brought
matters to a crisis. A heavy fine was imposed, and on
failure to pay, the government sent a force of eight
thousand men into the fastnesses occupied by the offend-
ers. The unruly tribes fought with desperation and
courage, but being beaten in all parts, and awed by the
superior tactics of the British, hastened to make submis-
sion and paid the fines which were imposed, before the
troops were withdrawn.
In the beginning of 1890, the government resolved to
completely subjugate the troublesome tribes on the bor-
ders of Burmah and India, and with this object in view,
two expeditions advanced from opposite sides of the
mountains. From Yokma, which is the chief village of
the southern Baungshe Chins, a large detachment of
troops was sent against the Tashons, or northern branch
of the tribe ; but they were not easily induced to submit.
After they had paid their fine, the English returned to
their fortified camps, whence small columns were sent
out to punish the Seyin and Kanhow Chins for cutting
telegraph wires. One of the chief objects of the expedi-
tion was to find a route for a railroad between Upper
Demolition of the Temple of Benares. 643
Burmah and Lower Bengal. The troops, with the ex-
ception of small garrisons, were withdrawn in a short
time.
In addition to the trouble that is certain to occur when
Hindus and Mohammedans mob each other, on the occa-
sion of their religious festivals, the British authorities
had to contend with a serious riot that they provoked
themselves, by destroying a Hindu temple in the sacred
city of Benares, for the purpose of using the site for a
water works. Indignation was intense, and the whole
population gathered in the streets. Soldiers were posted
throughout the district and around the principal build-
ings, yet, when the workmen began to raze the shrine,
the violence of the mob could not be restrained and
wholesale arrests followed. The Hindus and Buddhists
throughout India shared in the anger against the destruc-
tion of the ancient temple.
Lord Lansdowne's administration, which covered
the period from 1888 to 1893, was marked by
many reforms and legislative measures, which, although
seemingly of minor importance were of incalculable bene-
fit to the population of India, both native and European.
Special attention, with a view to amendment and im-
provement, was directed to the ancient custom of child
marriage, and the ruinous cost of funeral and marriage
rites, and many of the princes and chiefs of the native
644 India of the Present.
states joined hands with the controlling power in this
attempt at reform.
In 1891, the attention of the government was directed
to Kelat, on the extreme southern frontier of India,
where, for years, the Khan, a brutal and pitiless ruler,
had been guilty of the most horrible atrocities and wan-
ton murders, under the guise of legal executions. For
some trivial cause and without a shadow of justifiable
excuse, the prime minister had lately suffered death at
the order of the tyrant, and the government of India in-
structed Sir James Brown, the British agent at Kelat,
to force the abdication of the despot in the interest of his
subjects. This move was accomplished and Mir Mah-
mud Khan was placed in control toward the last of the
year. The deposed Khan admitted that he had put to
death three thousand men and women during the thirty-
six years of his despotic rule.
In June, 1893, the Indian Government, with the con-
sent of the English cabinet, decided on a suspension of
the free coinage of silver, with a view to the introduc-
tion of a gold standard, and a measure was also passed
finally fixing the value of the rupee at one shilling and
four pence, which did not prevent the marketable value
of the much abused coin from subsequently falling to
one shilling and three pence, and even a fraction less.
The closing of the mints, however, did not stop the im-
A National Congress. 645
portation of silver bullion, and an import tax on un-
coined silver was advocated. According to the latest
official returns the present national debt of the Indian
Empire is over twenty -one hundred million rupees. In
1894, the Earl of Elgin was appointed to succeed
Lord Lansdowne, and under his rule the country contin-
ues peaceful and prosperous. It has already been
marked by the abolition of the Presidential Army sys-
tem, by the imposition of import duties on all articles
except cotton yarns and goods, and by the conversion of
the Indian rupee debt from four to three and one-half
per cent. A convention with China regarding the north-
eastern frontier of Burmah has also been concluded and
negotiations for the division of British, Kussian and
Chinese spheres of influence on the Pamirs are now in
progress. The manners and institutions of India of to-
day evince, in a marked degree, the elevating influence
of English example.
A national congress, composed of several hundred del-
egates from all parts of the country, meets once a year in
one of the great cities to discuss important questions.
This congress was inaugurated under the indulgent rule
of Lord Ripon, for the purpose of making known to the
government, in an orderly, but forcible, manner, the
wishes and views of the native population in political
affairs, and to secure a larger share in the administrative
646 India of the Present.
power of their own country. Although the government
has persistently striven to check its onward movement,
the national congress has steadily gained strength and is
rapidly becoming a fact which the supreme power cannot
afford to ignore.
Since the transfer in 1858, of the powers of the British
East India Company, to the Crown, there has been a
steady increase of territory, prosperity, and commercial
influence; and to-day, the Anglo-Indian empire has
"lengthened its cords and extended its stakes," beyond
the bounds of any former period of its existence. The
more thorough knowledge the governed and governing
races now seek and acquire of each other, is an omen for
good, as is also the higher education, and increased social
influence of woman. But the most cheering symptom of
the future good government of India, is the increased dis-
position of British rulers to associate natives of character
and ability with themselves, in high offices of administra-
tion. Parliament, so long ago as 1833, laid down the
principal that " no native shall, by reason of his religion,
place of birth, or color, be disabled from holding office."
The Queen of England also, in 1858, proclaimed her will,
that "so far as may be, our subjects of whatever race or
creed, be impartially admitted to offices in our service, the
duties of which they may be qualified by their education,
ability, and integrity, duly to discharge." That there are
Growth and Progress. 647
abuses and defects, things to be deplored, and some hard
to be borne, cannot be denied ; but there is growth, real,
unquestionable progress, despite these defects; and the
former serf is gradually being developed into a freeman,
with such aspirations, and aims, and longings as past gen-
erations never dreamed of, even in that grand old empire.
But India is a land of vicissitudes, a land of which
Lord Lansdowne said it is impossible to predict the fu-
ture. " From the poor ryot, who sees his scanty crop
swept off the face of the earth in a few hours by a swarm
of locusts, to the financial member of the council who
sees his hopes of a surplus suddenly wrecked by agencies
which he cannot control — all are liable to see their cloud-
built castles and golden dreams shattered and dissipated
by visitations as unlooked for as they are overwhelming.
India never ceases to be conscious that the gaunt spec-
ters of war, famine, and insolvency, are hovering in the
distance, ready to descend upon her at any moment."
NOTE :— The population of British India, according to the official
census taken by Jervois Baines in 1891, was two hundred and twenty-
one million one hundred and seventy-two thousand nine hundred
and fifty-two, showing an increase of over thirty million, within a
decade. The population of the Feudatory States was sixty-six mil-
lion fifty thousand four hundred and seventy-nine. The territorial
area of continental India now comprises one million five hundred
and sixty thousand one hundred and sixty square miles, about sixty-
two per cent, of which constitutes the British possessions. The pov-
erty of the people which the growth of population— 11 per cent,
in the last ten years— tends perhaps to enhance, is, according to
Whitaker, the most permanent difficulty which the government is
called upon to meet.
EXPLANATION OF INDIAN TERMS.
Abad. An abiding place. It is used in composition as the
terminal appellation of many cities : All<tli«l><nl, Ilie abode
of G-od; Ahmedabad, the -city of Ahmed. It also means
fertile.
Anna. Copper money, representing the eighth part of an Eng-
lish shilling, or of a half-rupee.
Ayah. Nurse, lady's maid, female servant.
Barjh. A garden.
Bahadour. Brave, a title of nobility
Jiang. A compound of opium and hemp-seed.
Baoli. A well, or cistern of cut stone.
Begum. A Mahomedan princess.
Biggaree. Porter or guide.
Bheestee, Water-carrier.
Bin. A kind of cigarette.
Brahmins. Hindoos of the priestly caste.
BulbuL The Indian nightingale.
Bund. A dyke or dam.
Bungalow. European residence.
Bungalow (Travellers') Establishments kept up by the gov-
ernment for the accommodation of travellers on postal
routes.
Bungheeas. Sweepers, the lowest caste.
Burr a. Great; a term usually applied to the principal Eng-
lish resident at a place.
Cha'itya. A sacred place, containing objects dedicated to the
divinity — Buddhist.
Chaoree. The adit to a temple, also a fan of yak tails used in
ceremonies.
648
Explanation of Terms. 649
Chatri. Pavilion on four columns.
Cheetah. An animal trained for deer-hunting. It has semi-
retractile claws, and is the connecting link between dog
and cat.
Chiboutra. Kiosk, frequently the principal place in a square.
Chobdar. Bearer of stick of office, ceremonial messenger.
Choor. Robber.
Chopaya. Carriage on four or six wheels
Chota. Small.
Choutri. Pavilion raised on numerous columns.
Chowkeydar. Night-watchman.
Crore. One hundred lakhs of rupees. A lakh is equal to ten
thousand pounds.
Daghoba. Buddhist altar; also a depostory for relics.
Ddk. The post; administration of relays.
Deva. God; the term Mahadeva, or Great God, is specially
applied to Siva.
De-wan. Principal minister of State.
Dhobee. Washerman.
Dhotee. Hindoo clothing for the lower limbs.
Durbar. A court reception, in full dress.
Durwaza. A door.
Fakeer. Religious mendicant, usually Mohammedan.
Gadi. Throne. Raised seat reserved for princes.
Gaum. A village,
Ghari. A carriage. Ddk-ghari, post-chaise; Ag-ghari, loco-
motive.
Ghir, Ghiri, Ghur. A mountain or fortress.
Ghaut. A quay, a flight of steps going down to water, also a
mountain pass. English, Gate.
Gossains. Religious beggars.
Ghur. House or residence.
Guri-ha. Water-vessel of earthenware.
Hamal. Domestic servant, bearer.
Howdah. A seat used for riding elephants.
Hulkara. A messenger, generally in livery.
650 Explanation of Terms.
Jains. A sect of Hindoos.
Jemadar. Native military officer, or chief of servants.
Jhageer. Hereditary estate.
Jheel. A swamp.
Jungle. Uncultivated ground, forest.
Khansamah. Major-domo, purveyor.
Kshtruyas. Hindoos of the warrior caste.
Kutcherry. Office.
Lakh. Equal to ten thousand pounds.
Langouti. Loin-cloth.
Lascar. Servant in charge of tents.
Lat. Monolithic column.
Lingam. Mystic emblem of Siva.
Maha, Used in composition, signifying "great."
Mahal. A palace.
Mahout. Elephant driver.
Mahunt. Chief priest.
Mohr. Gold coin, worth about thirty-five English shillings, but
rarely in circulation.
Moollah. Mohammedan priest.
Moonshee. Interpreter, teacher of languages.
Mukkdm. Halting-place.
Mundil. Turban.
Mundir. Temple.
Musjid. Mosque.
Musnud. Throne.
Nautch. A dance performed by girls.
NautchnL Female dancer.
Nawdb. Mohammedan chief ti an.
Nuddee. A river.
Nullah. A small stream, often dry in summer, and becoming
a torrent in the rains.
Nuzzur. A tribute or offering.
Palki. Palanquin.
Peer. Mohammedan saint.
Pehlwdn. Athlete, wrestler.
Explanation of Terms. 651
Pe'isa. Copper money ; four pice make one anna.
Peshwah. Head of the Mahratta dynasty.
Pie. The smallest copper coin.
Poor. Used in combination with other words as a terminal,
signifying town: Oodeypoor, Jeypoor, and many hun-
dreds of others.
Pundit. A learned man.
Purwdna. Firman, imperative order.
Rdis. Prince.
Raj. Kingdom, territory. Rajah. King or sovereign.
Rana. The same; hut this title is not equivalent to that of
rajah in all cases.
Ranee. Queen.
Rao. Usually a title pertaining to royalty.
Rupee. The Government coinage, value about two shillings;
there are however, rupees from native mints also of va-
rious values.
Butt A covered carriage, drawn by a pair of bullocks, com-
monly used by women.
Sahib. Sir, gentleman.
Sdivas. Worshippers of Siva,
Salaam. Salutation, ceremonial bow.
Sdni. Riding dromedary.
Sdpwalla. Snake-charmer.
Sarree. Women's garment universally worn in civilized parts
of India.
Shiyram. An oblong close carriage to carry four persons.
Sincj. Lion — a title frequently added to the names of Raj-
poots and Sikhs.
Sirdar. Noble.
Sirkar. The state. Sirkaree. Belonging to the state.
Soubah. Governor of a province.
Soudraa. Hindoos of the artisan class, agriculturists.
Sowar. Horseman, usually a soldier.
Sowarree. A procession, chiefly mounte
Syud. Mohammedan, descended from the prophets.
652 Explanation of Terms.
Tal, taloa. Lake.
Thakoor. Rajpoot chief.
Thannadar. Chief of a fortified place.
Tirthankar. Jain philosopher.
Tope. Sacred building, also a piece of ordnance,
Vihara. Buddhist religious establishment.
Zemindar. Hereditary occupier of the soil.
Zenana. Apartments of ladies of rank.
GENERAL INDEX.
PAGE.
Adinath, temple of 254
Afganistan 218
Afganistan evacuated . . 587
Afganistan in 1878 and 1879 622
Afgans, defeated 477
Afghans invade the Pubjaub 557
Afghans, war with 450
Agra 460
Ahmedabad 487
Ahmednegar 451
Ajmere 86
Allahabad 32
Ala-u-din 366
Albuquerque 59, 394
Alexander in India 334
Altamsh 368
Alum, Shah 528
Animals, hospitals for 180
Arab power lost 348
Aracan 207
Aravalis range, The 85
Arcot and its Nawabs 142
653
PAGE.
Arcot captured by Hyder Ali 538
Assam 118,208
Assaye, battle of 565
Attar and Pan 255
Aurungzebe 144, 477> 5°°
Baber, the Tiger 382, 431
Bangalore 101, 138
Banian, The 275
Behram Khan 44°
Bengal 33i «8
Bentich, Lord William 578
Bhadrinath 84
Bheels, The 424
Birsing Deo 228
Black Hole, The 133, 5*8
Blackmail 93
Bombay 36, 161
Bombay Islands 53
Botanic garden on the Mussoori
mountains 66
Bourdillas 223
654
General Index.
PAGE.
Brahmins 285
Brahmaputra 209
Bundelcund 219
Bungalows 21
Buniahs . . 297
Burmah, missions in 3*9
Burmese war 571
Cabul 218
Cabul, mission to 583
Cabul stormed 584
Calcutta 127
Callian 195
Cambay stones 98
Cananore 145
Candahar 218
Canouj 339
Carnatic, The 138
Cashew nut, The 274
Cashmere 213
Caste 598
Caste system, The 282
Catamarans 41
Ca very , The 50
Cawnpore, the mutiny at. 615
Ceylon 63
Chenaub, The 48
Chittagong 205
Chittore 442
Chumbul, The 48
Climate of Dharjeling 76
Clive, Lord 145, 516, 530
Cochin 142
Columbus 389
Commercial troubles 577
Coote, Sir Eyre 538
Cornwallis, Lord 140
Cotton famine 192
palhousie, Lord, his brilliant ad-
ministration 593
PACK.
" Dandy," The 77
Daoulatabad 483"
Deccan, The 35, 98
Deccan, early inhabitants of 341
Delhi, scenes at 609
Dewani Am, the, at Agra 463
Dharjeling 70
Dharmasoka 336
Dhobarri Pass, the defence of 418
Dholepore 233
Diamond mines .1 436
Dutch in India 398
Dutch jealous of England 522
Duttiah 226
Dying, The 298
East India Company, The 115,528,555
Elephanta 53
Elphinstone, Lord 569
English ascendency established ... 124
English in India , 495
English power in India 516
Esplanade, the, at Bombay 175
Everest, Mount 65
Fakirs 178
Farokhsad 362
Ferdousi 359
Frere, Sir Bartle 202
Ganesha 103
Ganges, The 19, 98
Gheias-u-din 367, 373
Ghuzni, fall of 464
Golconda 486
Gunga, the goddess 63
Guzerat 340
Gwalior 237
Hastings, Warren 534
Ilayelock 616
General Index.
655
PAGE.
Heber, Bishop 412
Herdeo Singh 220
Himalayas, The 19
Holkar 566
Hooghly, The 60, 124
Horse-market at Bombay 1 76
Huang Tcheng 220
Humayum 435, 439
Hyderabad 486
Hyder AH 138, 531, 539
Ibrahim 362
Indus, The 46
Inquisition, the, at Goa 302
Irrigation 272
Jains 404
Jampna, The 82
Janghis Khan 342
Jehan, Shah 473
Jeejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetje 191
Jahanghir 418
Jeypore 420
Jones, Sir William 321
Jumna, The 47
Kay tee-house in
Khandalla 21
Khayats or Scribes 297
Kherut Khoumb 446
Khiliji, house of 370
Kyber Pass 588, 627
Krishna, image of 464
Kschatrya caste 142, 223, 285, 399
Kutb-u-din 368
Lashkar 250
Lingam, The .• 226
Lucknow, the, mutiny at 618
Madras 40, 134, 150, 157
Maha Barat, The 330
PAGE.
Mahmoud, of Ghuzni 342, 358
Mahrattas, The 342, 491
Mahrattas defeated by Aurungzebe 479
Mahrattas, incursions of 536
Makwah, the tree 279
Malabar hill 184
Malabar territory 29
Matheran, The 22
Maurya dynasty, The 336
Missions 300
Mohammed Shah ... 506
Monsoons 262
Moors, the, in India 342
Mountains 74
Munro, Sir Thomas 152
Mysore 101, 138
Napoleon 568
Neilgherry mountains 36, 105
Nena Sahib 224
Nerbudda, The 47
Nour Mahal 458
Oudeypore 405
Oudh 32
Outlaws 427
Palmer and Company, failure of .. 577
Paniput, battle of 247
Parsee Bazaar in Bombay 172
Parsees 178
Patna, fall of 527
Peace 547
Piassy, battle of 519
Pondicherry 539
Pondicherry capitulates 52 1
Poonah 194
Portuguese, the, in India 392
Potato, The 274
Presidencies, the three 118
Provinces 1 16
Pudmauee 446
656
General Index.
PAGE.
Punjaub. The 27
Punjaub, victories in 589
Purvus 297
Races of India 400
Railways 1 20, 166
Rain 265
Rajputs, The 413
Rajputana 210
Rama, legend of 186
Ramayana, The 325
Rao, Sir Dinkur 242
Raos, the, of Mey war 256
Rebellion, the Sepoy 601
Rice 272
Rohillas, rise of 510
Rousselet 234
Sacrifices, human 125
Salsette 55
Samanis, The 349
Sangam 198
Sangor, on the Hooghly 60
Sanitarium 69
Sanitarium, A 107
Schools 160,168
Schwartz 310
Scinde 28, 240, 340
Scindia conquered 544
Scindias The 244, 249
Sepoys 565, 593
Sepoys, an insurrection of 149
Seasons 265
Seikhs, the race of 28
Sehm, Jehanghir 454
Seringapatam 140
Seringapatam besieged 554
Sevaji Bhousa 493
Shah Alum 528
PAGE.
Shah Jehan 473
Shawls 216
Simla 81
Sirmour mountains, The 83
Sik-kim hills 69
Sonaghur 230
Sudras 285
Sunderbunds, The 125
Surat 193
Taj, The 467
Tanjore 538
Teraghur 86
Thakours, The 90
Thomas, St., of India 152, 300
Tippoo Sahib 138, 532, 543> 553
Toghlak dynasty 373
Ton-jon, The 77
Trade with Europe 386
Travancore, the Rajah of 143
Vaishyas 285
Vansittart 523
Vasco de Gama 389
Vegetables in India 274
Vellore 146
Vikramaditya 89
Vindhyas, The 19, 94, 425
Vishnu, temple of 84
Vizianagram *44
Wales, Prince of 153,234, 241
Walkeshwar, the god of the sands. . 187
Xavier, St. Francis 305. 3Q6
YakoobKhan 626
Zayats 97
Supplementary Index.
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX.
PAGE
Afghanistan, war with 628, 633
Army, strength of 638, 640
Benares, destruction of Temple . 643
Bosh way 636
Burmah, war with 634
conquest of 635
Coinage 644
Congress 645
Dacoits, fight with 636,637
Debt, national 638, 639
Dufferin, Marquis of 633
Education, commissioners of. ... 632
Elgin, Earl of 645
Finances 638
India, of to-day 646, 647
Jalapla Pass, battle of , . . . 640
PAGE
Jubilee, year of 637
Kelat, deposition of Khan of 644
Lansdowne, Marquis of 643
Lytton, Lord 628
Mandalay, capture of 634
Municipal Bill, changes in 633
Mysore, native administration
restored 631
Population
647
Ripon, Lord 628, 631
Roberts, General Sir Fred 637
Salt, reduction of duties on.... 632
Shahalum, battle of 631
Tashons, war with 642
Theebaw, King 634
Thibet, war with 640
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