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PAPERS 

OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


Volume  X 


^}-\0 


INDIAN  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

BY 

WILLIAM  CURTIS  FARABEE 


LNTRODUCTIGN 

BT 

LOUIS  JOHN  DE  MILHAU 


TWENTY-EIGHT  PLATES  AND  TWENTY  ILLU8TRATI0N8 

IN  TEE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 
FUBUSEmD  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

1922 


H33 


COPTRIGHT,  1M< 

mr  THE  rXABOOT  MfJAEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGT 

AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNI^XRSITT 


TO 

LOUIS  JOHN  DB  MILHAU 

PATRON 

PARTNER  IN  HARDSHIPS 
ON  MANY  TRAILS 


INTRODUCTION 

By  good  fortune,  when  a  junior  in  Harvard  College,  I  became  a 
member  of  the  party  organized  by  Dr.  Farabee  to  explore  the  in- 
terior of  Iceland  during  the  smnmer  of  1905.  While  this  is  not  the 
place  to  tell  the  story  of  that  expedition,  I  refer  to  it  because  it  was 
due  to  my  association  in  the  field  with  Dr.  Farabee  at  that  time 
that  the  South  American  expedition  which  forms  the  subject  of  this 
volume  became  a  reality.  Both  my  companion,  John  Walter  Hast- 
ings, and  myself  became  intensely  interested  in  the  general  sub- 
ject of  anthropolog}',  and  particularly  in  the  field  work  connected 
with  it.  On  our  way  home  from  Iceland,  we  decided  that  there 
would  be  an  expedition  during  the  next  year  and  that  Dr.  Farabee 
would  be  the  leader  of  it.  The  details  were  worked  out  during  the 
following  winter.  The  interior  of  Peru,  east  of  the  Andes,  was  se- 
lected as  a  most  promising  and  virgin  field,  for  this  was  before  the 
dsLys  of  the  numerous  imiversity  expeditions  which  have  since 
followed  one  another  into  the  South  American  jungle. 

The  expedition  was  under  the  auspices  of  the  Peabody  Museum. 
Besides  Dr.  Farabee,  the  party  consisted  of  Hastings  and  myself 
as  ethnologists,  and  a  surgeon,  Dr.  Edward  Franklin  Horr,  who 
had  served  for  a  number  of  years  in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines 
as  an  ofiicer  in  the  Army  Medical  Corps.  President  Roosevelt 
found  time,  amidst  his  numerous  activities,  to  receive  Hastings 
and  myself  at  the  White  House,  when  he  wished  us  luck,  and  gave 
us  a  strong  personal  letter  to  all  our  diplomatic  ofiicials.  His 
Eminence,  the  late  Cardinal  Gibbons,  wrote  for  me  a  letter 
which  was  an  open  sesame  within  ecclesiastical  circles  at  the  Vati- 
can and  elsewhere.  Many  others,  too  many,  unfortimately,  to 
mention  individually,  in  a  limited  space,  gave  evidence  of  their 
interest  and  good  wishes  toward  us.  In  December,  1906,  Dr.  Fara- 
bee, Hastings,  and  I  sailed  from  New  York,  southward  bound,  fol- 
fowed  some  weeks  later  by  Dr.  Horr.  On  our  arrival  in  Lima,  we 
were  oflBcially  presented  to  the  President,  Senor  Pardo,  and  his 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

Minister  of  Finance,  Senor  Leguia,  now  President  of  the  Republic, 
and  were  the  recipients  of  many  courtesies  and  hospitalities  from 
both  Americans  and  Peruvians.  From  Lima  we  continued  to  Are- 
quipa,  where  is  situated  the  Harvard  Observatory,  which  city 
became  our  base  during  the  time  we  were  in  Peru.  A  short  period 
was  devoted  to  preparation  for  the  actual  field  work  and  to  short 
side  trips  to  La  Paz  and  other  nearby  places.  Little  could  be 
learned  of  conditions  in  the  interior  beyond  the  mountains,  and  so 
the  first  journey  was  somewhat  in  the  nature  of  a  preliminary  in- 
vestigation of  the  field. 

In  all,  three  journeys  were  made  across  the  Andes  and  down 
into  the  lowlands  running  eastward  from  the  Atlantic  slope  of  the 
mountains,  as  is  shown  in  the  map,  plate  28  of  this  volume.  On 
the  first  incursion,  which  lasted  about  six  months,  we  started  from 
the  station  of  Tirapata  on  the  then  imcompleted  railroad  to  Cuzco, 
and  w^ent  over  the  tableland  and  through  Aricoma  Pass,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  16,500  feet;  whence  the  trail  descended  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  mountains  to  the  rubber  camp  at  Astillero  on  the  Tambopata 
River.  There  we  waited,  short  of  food  and  tobacco,  for  six  weeks, 
until  the  flooded  river  could  subside  sufficiently  for  canoe  travel. 
From  this  little  settlement  we  proceeded,  with  many  halts,  down 
the  Tambopata  and  Madre  de  Dios  to  Rivera  Alta  on  the  Beni  and 
thence  overland  to  Guayamerin,  on  the  Marmor^.  Ascending  this 
last  river  and  its  tributary,  the  Chapar^,  we  found  ourselves  at  the 
trail  head  in  Bolivia,  whence  a  journey  on  mule-back  brought  us  to 
the  city  of  Cochabamba.  The  arrival  of  the  pack  train  with  its  party 
of  "Norte  Americanos"  which,  after  six  months  in  the  field  with 
limited  impedimenta,  was  a  pretty  rough  looking  crowd,  created 
somewhat  of  a  sensation  in  the  plaza.  It  was  with  great  difficulty, 
later,  that  the  Faculty  of  the  University  of  Cochabamba  could  be 
convinced  that  such  a  band  could  really  be  **scientificos"  from  a 
great  university.  A  stage  trip  to  Oruro  and  La  Paz  and  a  voyage 
across  Lake  Titicaca  brought  this  first  journey  to  a  close.  Hast- 
ings and  I  shortly  afterward  returned  to  the  United  States,  leav- 
ing Drs.  Farabee  and  Horr  to  continue  the  work  of  the  expedition. 
The  sudden  and  accidental  death  of  Hastings  not  long  after  his 
arrival  home  was  a  great  shock  to  all  of  us,  who  will  remember  him 
with  affection  as  a  good  comrade  and  true  friend. 


INTRODUCTION  vii 

The  experience  gained  in  the  first  journey  was  most  helpful  in 
planning  the  second,  during  which  the  party,  starting  from  Cuzco, 
descended  the  Urubamba  River,  past  the  ancient  fortress  OUantay- 
tambo,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Hernando  Pizarro  by  the  Inca, 
Manco  Capac,  to  Cahuidc  near  where  the  river  is  joined  by  the 
Paucartambo.  Here  the  expedition  spent  three  months  in  camp  with 
the  Macheyenga  Indians,  returning  to  Cuzco,  via  the  Yanatile 
River,  Lara,  and  the  ancient  sun  temple  at  Pisac. 

The  third  journey  was  the  longest  and  in  many  ways  the  most 
important.    The  Peruvian  Government,  which,  at  this  time,  was 


interested  in  the  ext«nsion  of  the  railroad  at  Cerro  de  Pasco  to 
aome  navigable  point  upon  the  Ucayali  River,  invited  the  mem- 
bers of  the  expedition  to  accompany  the  party  of  engineers 
engaged  in  making  a  preliminary  location  and  survey.  This  invita- 
tion was  particularly  attractive,  because  it  was  anticipated  that 
the  party  would  pass  for  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
through  an  unknown  territory  supposedly  inhabited  by  sav^e 
tribes,  where  opportimity  would  offer  itself  to  make  observations 
and  collectiona.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  anticipations  were  only 
partly  realized,  as  only  a  few  tribes  were  encountered  along  the 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

rivers,  the  great  interior  showing  no  traces  of  inhabitants,  either 
past  or  present.  The  route  of  the  party  was  from  Cerro  de  Pasco 
via  the  Pichis  road  through  Tarma  to  the  Pachitea  River.  De- 
scending this  river  to  the  Ucayali,  the  party  then  embarked  upon 
a  government  launch  for  Iquitos,  at  which  port  Dr.  Farabee 
shipped  to  New  York  by  Atlantic  steamer  the  collections  which 
had  been  made  en  route.  From  Iquitos,  which  is  just  below  the 
point  where  the  UcayaU  and  the  Maraiion  form  the  Amazon,  the 
party  followed  the  latter  river  to  Tabatinga  upon  the  border  of 
Brazil  and  then,  retracing  in  part  its  steps,  returned  to  the  West 
Coast.  The  homeward  route  was  along  the  Amazon,  Ucayali, 
Urubamba  and  Mishagua  Rivers  to  the  divide  at  Varadero  Vargas, 
whence  a  portage  was  made  to  the  Manu  River,  which  was  followed 
to  the  Madre  de  Dios.  From  this  river  the  party  came  to  the 
Andean  plateau  over  the  route  by  which  it  had  descended  into  the 
interior  upon  its  first  journey,  namely  by  the  Tambopata  River  to 
Astillero  and  over  the  moimtain  trail  to  Tirapata.  During  the 
eleven  months  spent  in  the  headwaters  the  expedition  was  able  to 
do  much  work  among  the  tribes  of  the  Panoan,  Arawakan,  Tupian, 
and  other  stocks,  the  results  of  which  are  set  forth  in  this  treatise. 
In  addition  a  great  deal  of  geographical  work  was  done,  including 
the  taking  of  observations  and  the  mapping  of  a  hitherto  unknown 
region,  a  full  report  of  which  was  made  to  the  Peruvian  authorities. 
The  work  of  the  expedition  was  done  under  varying  and  trying 
conditions,  sometimes  in  the  cold  high  altitude  of  the  Andean 
plateau,  at  other  times  in  the  torrid  jungle  of  the  Amazon  head- 
waters, in  dry  season  and  in  rainy,  under  a  blazing  sun,  or  in  the 
chill  of  a  ** temporal"  from  the  mountains.  Transportation  was 
by  almost  every  conceivable  method;  by  steam  train,  hand-car, 
stage  coach  and  horseback  in  the  mountains  (to  say  nothing  of  one 
well  remembered  nightmare  of  a  ride  up  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes  from  the  Chapar^  to  Cochabamba  upon  the  pack  saddles 
of  a  mule  train  returning  from  the  delivery  of  its  cargo  at  the  trail's 
end),  by  river  steamer,  by  rowboat  or  native  bark  canoe,  or  on 
foot.  The  food,  too,  varied  from  the  garUc  impregnated  dishes  of 
the  Spanish  hotel  to  the  roast  monkey  and  parrot  of  the  hospitable 
savage.  Malarial  fever  was  a  constant  and  unavoidable  companion, 
but  aside  from  this  affliction,  and  the  pests  of  small  and  biting 
things  that  flew  or  crawled,  we  remained  in  good  health  without 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

serious  illness  or  accident.  The  success  of  the  expedition  is  pri- 
marily due  to  the  leadership,  tireless  energy,  tact,  and  ability  of 
Dr.  Farabee;  while  Dr.  Horr,  the  surgeon,  was  responsible  in  great 
part  for  the  good  health  of  its  members,  and  also  for  the  prestige 
which  it  acquired  by  the  presence  of  an  untiring  and  unselfish 
physician,  whose  services  were  caUed  upon  frequently  by  Whites 
and  Indians  wherever  he  went.  Besides  the  material  results  of  the 
expedition,  as  shown  by  this  volume,  by  the  collections  in  the  Pea- 
body  Museum,  and  by  the  scientific  observations  of  various  sorts, 
reported  to  the  Peruvian  Government  and  to  our  own,  I  believe 
that  it  has  been  not  unhelpful  in  promoting  to  some  degree  right 
understanding  and  good  will  between  Peru  and  our  own  country. 
Indeed,  I  think  I  may  say  that  Dr.  Farabee's  appointment  as  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Faculty  of  the  University  of  San  Marcos 
at  Lima  (the  oldest  university  in  both  Americas),  and  his  selection 
by  President  Harding  as  one  of  the  American  Commission  to  the 
Peruvian  Centennial,  with  the  rank  of  Envoy  Extraordinary,  are 
good  evidences  of  this  fact.  While  the  appearance  of  this  volume 
has  been  somewhat  delayed,  for  many  reasons,  including  among 
others,  Dr.  Farabee's  absence  upon  other  and  distinguished  ex- 
plorations in  Brazil  and  the  Guianas,  I  am  glad  of  its  publication 
at  this  time,  not  only  because  of  its  scientific  value,  but  also  be- 
cause it  is,  in  a  way,  an  appreciation  of  the  splendid  work  accom- 
plished by  my  comrades  of  the  expedition. 

Louis  J.  deMilhau. 
New  York,  January  5,  1922. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

It  gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  follow- 
ing persons  who  contributed  so  largely  to  the  success  of  the  ex- 
pedition: to  Mr.  Louis  J.  de  Milhau,  whose  splendid  liberality 
made  the  work  possible,  for  advice  and  assistance  in  the  field;  to 
the  late  Professor  Frederick  W.  Putnam,  for  instruction  and  hearty 
cooperation;  to  Mr.  John  W.  Hastings,  who  will  always  be  held 
in  affectionate  memory  by  his  comrades;  to  Dr.  Edward  Horr,  my 
constant  companion  and  efficient  assistant  for  three  years,  for 
looking  after  the  health  of  our  party  and  administering  to  hundreds 
of  natives  and  Indians  along  the  way;  to  the  Inca  Mining  and 
Rubber  Company  for  transportation  and  supplies;  to  the  numer- 
ous Government  officials  and  others  in  Peru  and  Bolivia  whose 
assistance  and  genial  hospitality  made  our  travels  so  enjoyable; 
to  Mr.  Charles  C.  Willoughby,  Director  of  the  Peabody  Museum, 
for  putting  the  volume  through  the  press. 

William  Curtis  Farabee. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
August  30,  1921. 


CONTENTS 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK 

Macheyenga 

PAQB 

Distribution 1 

Organization 2 

Hunting  and  Fishing 2 

Preparation  of  Game 5 

Household  Utensils 6 

Drinks 6 

The  Dance 7 

Tobacco 7 

Games 8 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 9 

Diseases 11 

Music 11 

The  Dead 12 

Religion 14 

Salutations 15 

Cosmogony 15 

Measures 16 

Marriage     16 

Childbirth 18 

The  Family 19 

Physical  Envelopment 19 

Deformation 20 

Language 21 

Grammar 23 

Vocabulary 38 

Campa 

Vocabulary     : 49 

Prao 

Distribution 53 

Organization 53 

Houses 54 

Food  Supply 55 


xii  CONTENTS 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 57 

Marriage     59 

Medicine  Men 60 

The  Dead 60 

Personal  Habits     61 

Cats  Cradles 62 

Vocabulary     62 

Mashco 

Distribution  and  General  Culture 77 

Marriage     77 

The  Dead 77 

Personal  Appearance 77 

Vocabulary      78 


PANOAN  STOCK 

History 79 

CONEBO 

Distribution 80 

Houses 81 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 82 

Food  Supply 83 

Canoes 83 

The  Dead 84 

Religion 84 

Music 84 

Marriage 85 

Personal  Appearance 86 

Pottery 86 

Grammar 88 

Vocabulary     91 

SiPIBO 

Distribution  and  General  Culture 96 

Home  Life 96 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 97 

Tobacco 100 

Artistic  Designs     100 

Marriage     101 

The  Dead 103 

Religion 104 

Medicine  Men 104 


CONTENTS  xiii 

Aha HU AC  A 

Distribution  and  General  Culture 105 

Signal  Code 106 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 107 

Marriage 107 

The  Dead 108 

Warfare 108 

Character 109 

V'ocabularj- HO 


JIVARAN  STOCK 

Distribution  of  Tribes 115 

Home  Life      U5 

FoodSupplv 116 

V'lK  Making 117 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 117 

Marriage      118 

The  Dead 119 

Religion 119 

Medicine  Men 119 

Mummified  Heads 120 

Dances 123 

Mj-ths 123 

Vooabularj-     ...       125 


WITOTAN  STOCK 

Diiitributiou 136 

Organization 137 

Houses  137 

FoodSupplv 138 

JaJikri.  ihpFoH-'tof  thePole 139 

Other  Amusements 140 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 141 

Marriage      ■.-....  141 

The  Dead 143 

Medicine  Men 143 

Cosmogony 145 

Religion   , 146 

Warfare 146 

Signal  Code 147 

Grammar 148 

VocabiUaiy 149 


xiv  CONTENTS 

MIRANHAN  GROUP 

Vocabulary     152 

TUPIAN  STOCK 

TiATINAQUA 

Distribution 154 

Organization 154 

Food  Supply 154 

Dress  and  Ornamentation 156 

Marriage 156 

The  Dead 157 

Religion 157 

Personal  Appearance 157 

Grammar 158 

Vocabulary     158 

Atsahuaca 

Vocabulary     162 

Mabenaro 

Vocabulary 164 

SOMATIC  CHARACTERS 

Measurements 165 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  REMAINS 

Mounds  at  Trinidad,  Bolivia 180 

Burial  Towers,  Colocolo,  Bolivia 180 

Circular  Burial  Tower,  Peru 180 

Petroglyphs 180 

Collections 181 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 

INDEX 189 


INDIAN  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK 

MACHEYENGA 

Distribution.  The  Macheyenga,  an  Arawakan  tribe  related  to 
the  Campa,  occupy  the  territory  along  the  middle  course  of  the 
Urubamba  River  and  its  local  tributaries.  With  other  Campa 
tribes  these  Indians  were  in  contact  with  the  Inca  east  of  the 
Andes,  but  were  never  absorbed  by  them.  The  Inca  applied  the 
term  "  Antis  "  to  all  the  tribes  without  distinction,  but  the  Campa 
group  called  themselves  by  different  local  names  and  were  known 
tb  the  interior  tribes  by  these  names.  On  the  middle  course  of  the 
Urubamba  River  they  are  known  as  Machiganga;  on  the  Perene, 
as  Acheyenga;  and  at  San  Lorenzo,  as  Achenega.  The  present 
study  was  made  at  Cahuide  on  the  Yavero,  or  Paucartambo 
River,  a  branch  of  the  Urubamba  above  Pongo  Manique,  Peru. 

A  few  years  ago  some  forty  families  of  the  Macheyenga  lived 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cahuide,  contented  and  happy;  but  today,  on 
account  of  the  raids  of  slave  traders,  there  are  but  six  or  eight 
families  left,  numbering  about  twenty  individuals.  No  enumera- 
tion of  the  Macheyenga  has  ever  been  made,  and  no  exact  infor- 
mation can  now  be  secured  because  of  the  system  of  carrying 
away  the  children  and  selling  them  down  river  where  they  soon 
loose  their  language  and  identity.  A  very  rough  estimate,  based 
upon  careful  inquiry  in  many  localities,  would  be  about  two 
thousand. 

Most  of  my  information  was  obtained  from  two  very  competent 
authorities:  Sr.  Max  Richarte,  a  very  intelligent  man  of  good 
family  and  education,  who  had  lived  for  several  years  among  the 
Macheyenga  and  spoke  their  language;  and  the  best  possible 
authority,  Simasiri,  a  Macheyenga  boy,  whose  father  at  his  death 
had  given  him  to  Richarte.  Simasiri  was  taken  to  Cuzco,  where 
he  lived  in  Richarte's  family,  and  attended  school  for  five  years. 
He  spoke  and  read  Spanish  very  well.   A  year  before  my  visit  he 


2  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

was  taken  back  to  the  interior  to  serve  as  an  interpreter  among 
his  own  people.  We  found  him  at  Cahnide,  and  had  him  with  us 
for  three  months.  After  his  return  to  the  interior,  he  met  one  of 
his  cousins  who  told  him  of  the  fate  of  his  family.  His  father  and 
mother  had  been  captured  and  sent  to  different  places  down  river; 
his  sister  had  been  dressed  up  and  sold  to  a  rubber  gatherer;  his 
brothers  had  been  killed,  and  he  alone  had  escaped.  Simasiri  was 
so  angry  at  these  acts  of  barbarism  perpetrated  by  white  men, 
that  he  threw  away  his  civilized  clothing,  put  on  his  old  Indian 
dress,  and  went  away  into  the  forest  to  live  with  the  savages. 
The  Peruvian  Government  has  since  prohibited  this  slave  traffic, 
and  punished  the  offenders.  I  was  delighted  to  see  one  of  the 
worst  offenders  against  this  tribe  carried  away  in  chains  for  trial. 

Organization.  There  is  no  tribal  organization,  no  tribal  meet- 
ings, and  no  chief  of  the  whole  tribe.  Each  locality,  comprising  a 
few  families  situated  near  together  on  the  same  river  or  near  the 
confluence  of  two  rivers,  has  its  own  curaca,  or  head-man,  who  is 
selected  because  of  his  ability  and  influence.  The  habits  of  life 
of  these  tribes  do  not  encourage  organization.  They  have  no  large 
villages,  or  large  communal  houses.  There  are,  instead,  several 
families  living  along  the  banks  of  a  river  in  the  same  vicinity,  each 
with  its  own  chacara,  or  small  clearing,  in  the  fertile  lowland, 
where  an  abundant  and  constant  food  supply  is  guaranteed.  There 
is  no  criminal  code  or  system  of  punishment,  because  there  are  so 
few  criminals.  Theft,  unfaithfulness,  and  murder  are  practically 
unknown.  If  children  are  too  intimate  before  marriage,  they  are 
severely  beaten  by  their  parents.  A  lazy  man  is  compelled  to 
work  because  no  one  will  give  him  food,  yet  anyone  will  allow  him 
to  work  in  his  field  for  food. 

The  Macheyenga  are  not  war-like,  but  when  other  tribes  carry 
off  their  women  they  declare  war.  The  women  and  children  go 
to  war  with  the  men,  carry  arrows,  and  have  them  ready  as  fast 
as  needed.  It  has  been  reported  that  they  use  poisoned  arrows, 
but  they  know  no  arrow  poison. 

Hunting  and  Fishing.  In  hunting  and  fishing,  the  Macheyenga 
use  a  very  strong  flat  bow  (plate  3)  made  of  chonta  palm  (Oreo^ 
doxa),  five  feet  long  and  an  inch  and  a  half  wide.  The  bow  is 
held  upright,  with  the  smplus  fiber  string  wound  around  the  lower 
end.  The  arrow  is  held  under  the  forefinger  on  the  left  side  of  the 


4  " 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  3 

bow.  The  bow  is  drawn  with  the  thumb  and  index  finger  holding 
the  arrowshaft  on  the  string.  The  arrowshaft  is  made  of  the 
straight  top  of  the  wild  cane  {Gynerium  saccharoides),  and  is  three 
or  four  feet  long.  The  feathers  are  put  on  spirally,  wrapped  with 
cotton  thread,  and  pitched.  The  foreshaft  is  made  of  chonta  palm 
or  bamboo,  without  any  other  point.  Different  types  of  arrows 
are  used  for  birds,  fish,  monkeys,  and  pigs.  The  men  hunt  and 
fish  together,  and  divide  the  catch.  There  is  no  definite  rule 
about  the  division  of  any  particular  animal,  or  of  the  whole  catch. 
They  use  also  a  number  of  devices  for  capturing  birds  and  animals. 

The  latex  of  the  Casiilloa  elasiica,  or  that  of  some  other  tree,  is 
used  to  make  a  sort  of  lime  which  they  call  "  popa.''  With  it  they 
catch  birds  by  smearing  limbs  of  trees  frequented  by  them.  For 
big  game,  sharpened  sticks  are  planted  in  their  runways.  For 
smaller  animals,  snares  are  made  by  planting  two  poles  in  the 
ground,  one  on  either  side  of  the  runway,  wider  apart  at  the  top 
than  at  the  bottom.  A  double  rope  is  placed  around  the  poles, 
five  or  six  feet  up;  hanging  from  this  double  rope  is  a  double 
loop  with  a  slip-knot  hanging  near  the  ground.  An  animal  pass- 
ing through  in  either  direction  picks  up  the  noose,  which  pulls 
tight  around  his  neck,  strangling  him  to  death.  This  is  one  of  the 
simplest  and  most  effective  snares  in  use  among  any  people.  They 
build  a  blind  near  the  water  hole  of  a  certain  animal  or  bird,  and 
shoot  it  when  it  comes  to  drink.  They  know  the  habits  of  the 
animals,  and  the  times  of  day  they  usually  take  water. 

For  catching  fish  they  never  use  the  hook,  but  have  other  de- 
vices. A  very  small  flat  fish,  three  to  five  inches  long,  which  feeds 
under  stones  in  shallow  water,  is  caught  in  the  hands,  and  killed  by 
biting  it  through  the  head.  When  the  rivers  are  in  flood,  the  fish 
feed  along  the  shallow  water.  To  catch  these  the  natives  use  a 
small  round  net  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  fastened  on  a  bent 
pole  which  they  hold  in  their  hands,  and  push  before  them  as 
they  wade  along  the  banks.  They  use  a  large  net  with  stone 
sinkers  for  seining  in  the  deep  holes  along  the  small  rivers.  These 
nets  are  very  well  made  of  cotton  strings,  with  small  oval  river 
stones  notched  and  pitched  to  hold  the  string. 

Their  most  successful  and  ingenious  method  of  catching  fish  is 
by  building  a  trap  and  using  poison.  A  narrow  shallow  place  in  a 
small  river  is  selected,  and  wings  of  stones  are  built  on  both  sides 


4                               TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU                          ^ 

n  order  to  confine  the  water  to  a  space  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide, 
as  shown  in  figure  1 .  At  the  inner  ends  of  the  wings,  long  poles  are 
so  placed  that  the  upstream  ends  are  on  the  Rround,  and  the  other 
ends  held  in  forked  sticks.    Across  these  poles  are  placed  others 
n  a  horizontal  position,  the  upstream  one  being  under  the  surface 
of  the  water.   Then  a  large  mat,  about  twelve  feet  long  and  eighteen 
eet  wide,  made  of  wild  cane  and  bast,  is  so  placed  upon  this  platform 
nf  poles  that  the  upstream  end  is  under  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  the  other  end  is  two  or  three  feet  higher.  The  sides  of  the  mat 

1 

1 

P^ 

1 

I 

are  turned  up  about  a  foot  to  prevent  the  fish  from  rolhng  off  into 
he  water  below  the  wings.   All  the  poles  and  the  mat  are  held  in 
place  and  made  secure  with  well-tied  lianas  or  vines.    The  mesh 
af  the  mat  nmst  t)e  just  the  right  size;  if  too  large  the  smaller  fish 
will  get  through,  if  too  small  the  resistance  to  the  rapid  water  will 
•arry  the  trap  away.    After  some  three  hours  of  hard  labor  for 
half  a  dozen  men,  the  trap  is  completed,  and  the  time  for  rest  has 
come.    While  the  trap  is  being  made,  some  men  collect  bundles 
of  roots  of  the  cavenithi,  a  small  shrub  which  grows  abundantly 
n  the  neighborhood.    These  roots  are  taken  a  mile  or  more  up- 
tream,  and  pounded  on  the  rocks  in  the  river.   The  fish  along  the 
iver  for  the  whole  distance,  overcome  by  the  poison,  rise  to  the 
urface,  and  float  out  on  the  trap,  whei-e  the  largest  ones  are 

1 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  5 

gathered  up,  and  the  smaller  ones  thrown  back  into  the  river  to 
float  on  for  possibly  another  mile  before  recovering  from  the  effect 
of  the  drug.  By  this  method  practically  every  fish  in  the  river  is 
captiu^,  but  the  device  has  its  limitations:  it  cannot  be  used  in 
large  rivers,  deep  water,  or  small  streams;  and  the  trap  is  carried 
away  by  the  first  high  water.  The  poison  has  no  deleterious  effect 
upon  the  flesh  of  the  fish,  which  may  be  eaten  without  danger. 

All  Indians  in  the  region  are  very  successful  in  imitating  the 
cries  of  animals  and  birds.  They  are  thus  able  to  call  them  within 
range  of  their  arrows,  or  to  approach  near  to  them.  On  the  river 
or  trail  they  continually  call  for  the  game  which  frequents  that 
particular  vicinity.  The  grunt  of  the  pig,  the  whistle  of  the  tapir 
or  the  monkey,  and  the  call  of  the  turkey-like  curassow,  are  each 
perfectly  reproduced.  When  hunting  or  on  a  journey,  an  Indian 
always  carries  over  his  shoulder  a  coil  of  cord  which  he  loops 
around  his  feet  when  he  climbs  trees  for  game,  fruit,  nuts,  or  vines. 
The  loops  catch  over  his  insteps  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  him  to 
clamp  his  feet  against  the  sides  of  the  tree. 

When  the  trail  crosses  a  river  which  is  not  too  wide,  a  very 
serviceable  bridge  is  built  by  felling  a  tree  from  either  side,  and 
connecting  the  two  with  long  poles  and  cross  sticks. 

Preparation  of  Game.  Fish  are  drawn,  scraped,  thorou^y 
roasted,  and  smoked  with  the  head  left  on.  Birds  are  plucked, 
washed,  scraped,  and  drawn,  and  then  either  boiled  or  roasted. 
At  home  the  commonest  method  is  to  cut  up  the  bird,  and  boil 
it  with  plantains  in  a  large  pot.  When  traveling,  everything  is 
roasted:  game,  plantains,  and  yucca. 

Monkeys  and  pigs  are  always  singed,  thoroughly  washed  in  the 
river,  scraped,  and  drawn.  The  intestines  are  carefully  cleaned 
and  eaten.  They  are  considered  great  deUcacies.  The  flesh  is 
roasted  and  smoked.  A  big  fire  is  built,  and  the  animal  is  held  in 
the  flames  until  all  the  hair  is  singed  off;  while  it  is  being  dressed, 
the  fire  has  burned  down  until  a  large  bed  of  live  coals  remains, 
then  a  barbecue  is  made  over  them,  and  the  flesh  slowly  roasted 
with  the  cut  surface  upward,  so  that  all  the  juices  are  held  in  the 
meat. 

When  on  a  hunt  it  is  always  necessary,  on  account  of  the  heat, 
to  stop  early  in  the  evening  to  roast  and  smoke  the  meat  to  pre- 
serve it.   When  traveling,  fresh  meat  is  preserved  for  five  or  six 


6  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

days  by  placing  it  over  the  fire  every  evening.  At  home  the  meat 
is  kept  hanging  over  the  fire  in  a  suspended  tray  or  on  poles, 
until  it  is  all  consumed.  The  tray  is  made  by  bending  a  stick  or 
vine  into  a  circle  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  weaving  in  strips  of 
bast.  The  smoke  preserves  the  meat,  and  keeps  away  the  flies. 
The  tray  keeps  the  food  out  of  reach  of  dogs  and  other  pets. 

All  members  of  the  family  eat  together,  and  any  strangers  or 
visitors  present  eat  with  them.  They  use  salt  freely  on  their  meat 
and  roasted  green  corn,  but  use  no  other  mineral  foods. 

Household  Utensils.  The  Macheyenga  make  a  very  rude  coarse 
potter>^  for  cooking  purposes,  and  for  water  storage.  All  their 
food  bowls  and  finer  ware  they  get  from  the  Conebo  by  exchange. 
They  make  baskets  of  palm  leaves  for  all  kinds  of  temporary  use. 
For  storage  of  trinkets,  clothing,  etc.,  they  make  a  very  good 
telescope  basket  of  wild  cane,  two  feet  or  more  long,  a  foot  wide, 
and  when  extended,  one  and  a  half  feet  high.  They  still  use  the 
peccar>'  tusk  knife,  but  depend  upon  steel  knives  for  hard  usage. 
When  using  a  modem  knife,  they  sharpen  it  on  one  side  only, 
hold  it  with  the  blade  at  the  ulnar  side  of  the  hand,  and  always 
cut  with  a  drawn  stroke;  or,  in  other  words,  they  use  it  as  they 
do  one  of  their  own  knives. 

Fire  is  made  by  twirling  a  stick  between  the  palms  of  the  hands. 
A  certain  kind  of  palm  tree  called  *'  mokavirintchi,"  has  root- 
stalks  growing  above  the  ground.  These  are  cut,  and  when  well 
cured,  one  is  flattened  for  the  hearth,  and  another  rounded  for  the 
drill.  There  is  no  tradition  about  the  origin  of  fire  —  they  "  always 
made  it  this  way.*' 

Drinks.  Chicha,  a  fennented  drink,  is  made  by  young  women 
from  cassava  and  corn.  The  sweet  cassava  {Manihot  aipi),  a 
starchy  tuber,  after  being  boiled  and  cooled,  is  chewed  by  the 
young  women  until  the  saliva  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  it,  and 
then  it  is  placed  in  a  wooden  trough  in  the  sun  for  four  or  five 
days  to  fennent.  The  com  is  ground  very  fine  by  rocking  a  semi- 
lunar-shaped  stone  on  a  flat  one  used  as  a  base.  The  com  meal  is 
then  placed  to  soak  in  a  trough  of  water.  When  fermentation  has 
progressed  sufficiently,  the  corn  and  masticated  cassava  are  mixed 
together  in  a  larger  trough  with  more  water,  and  allowed  to  stand 
two  or  three  days  longer.  While  the  mixture  is  ripening,  short 
stenuned  gourds  are  prepared  for  the  storage  of  the  chicha.   The 


Pbabodt  MuBETm  Papsbs 


Vol.  X,  Plate  2 


MulwTBiiC>  Indiau:  a,  WmtIiic  sotton  dotfa;  b,  Mtkiat  chicbs 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  7 

mass  is  then  dipped  from  the  trough  with  a  gourd,  strained  through 
a  long  basket  into  a  large  pot,  and  poured  through  a  funnel  made 
of  corn-husks  into  neckless  gourds  which  hold  about  a  gallon  each, 
as  shown  in  plate  2,  b.  The  operator  continually  expectorates  into 
the  gourds  as  she  fills  them.  When  all  are  filled  they  are  corked 
with  corn-cobs,  and  set  away  for  future  use.  We  saw  them  make 
ten  gallons  at  one  time.  When  fresh,  chicha  is  a  pleasant  refresh- 
ing drink,  but  in  a  few  days  it  becomes  very  intoxicating.  As  a 
matter  of  hospitality  it  is  always  ofifered  to  visitors,  who  must, 
of  course,  accept  and  drink  it.  Fortunately  one  learns  to  drink, 
and  to  relish  it,  before  he  knows  how  it  is  prepared.  Once  the  ap- 
petite has  been  formed,  sentiment  no  longer  affects  the  stomach. 
The  natives  drink  freely,  but  seldom  to  excess. 

The  Dance.  There  are  no  established  dances  for  regular  seasons 
of  the  year.  When  there  is  a  wedding  dance  it  comes  at  the  first 
of  harvest  season,  but  there  may  not  be  a  wedding  each  year.  The 
visitor's  dance  is  given  at  any  time  when  a  few  persons  come  from 
a  distance.  This  is  the  men's  dance  and  takes  place  around  a  fire  on 
the  outside  of  a  house.  The  leader  carries  a  small  drum  which  he 
taps  with  his  fingers  while  the  men  catch  hands  and  dance  in  a 
circle.  They  may  dance  every  day  for  a  week;  it  is  just  their 
method  of  entertainment  and  means  nothing  whatever. 

The  drum  is  made  by  stretching  the  skin  of  a  howling  monkey 
across  the  ends  of  a  hollow  tree  trunk  eighteen  inches  long  and 
twelve  inches  in  diameter.  The  snare  is  prepared  by  stringing 
beads  on  a  cord  across  one  end.  The  skin  is  placed  in  wood 
ashes  to  remove  the  hair  and  to  tan  it.  This  is  the  only  use  made 
of  the  skin  of  any  animal.  The  drum  is  used  for  dances,  and  for 
a  man's  amusement  when  he  is  drunk;  he  lies  on  the  floor  and 
taps  the  drum  with  his  fingers  by  the  hour.  Upon  hearing  the 
drum,  I  went  many  times,  and  always  found  the  same  thing  true, 
—  some  fellow  was  lying  on  the  floor  on  his  back,  tapping  the 
drum,  while  no  one  else  was  paying  any  attention  to  it. 

Tobacco.  The  men  grow  their  own  tobacco,  "  sedi,"  and  smoke 
it  in  large  wooden  pipes,  called  "  penarintci,''  made  of  the  root 
of  a  tree  caUed  "camona."  They  do  not  use  tobacco  in  any  other 
way.  The  pipe  has  a  long  tubular  bowl  with  a  short  bird-bone 
stem  set  at  a  right  angle,  similar  to  the  one  shown  at  the  left  in 
figure  7. 


8  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

Games.  Children  play  few  games.  The  principal  ones  are 
shooting  at  a  target  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  throwing  seeds  at 
each  other.  They  have  no  ball  or  stick  games  of  any  kind.  The 
boys  blow  up  the  bladders  of  animals  and  use  them  for  balls. 
The  girls  are  taugtit  to  make  cats  cradles.  The  following  examples 
were  obtained!  at  (Jahuide.  They  are  the  very  simple  types  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Guatuariy  a  nrvare.  String  around  the  neck,  right  hand  string 
around  neck  again;  right  string  under  left  forming  a  loop  with 
rest  of  string;  loop  over  the  head  with  the  cross  of  strings  behind; 
pull  the  loop  with  Ixjth  hands,  and  the  string  comes  off  the  neck. 

YobaieakCj  a  trap,  I^»ft  hand  palm  vertical  with  string  around 
hand  on  top  of  thumb;  index  of  right  under  palm  string,  between 
thumb  and  index  of  left,  hook  over  dorsal  string,  pull  through, 
twist  palm  of  right  up,  loop  over  index  of  left;  repeat  between 
each  finger  with  loop  over  the  next;  release  the  thumb;  pull  palm 
string  and  the  animal  escapes. 

Siiikalif  reledsing  the  fly.  String  around  thumb  of  left  hand  with 
both  strings  on  the  dorsal  side;  wrap  once  around  the  wrist;  take 
up  loose  loop  on  right  thumb;  with  right  little  finger  take  up  the 
two  palmar  strings  of  the  left  from  behind  over  the  right  thumb 
strings;  with  the  right  little  finger  take  up  the  right  thumb  strings 
over  the  little  finger  strings;  with  right  thumb  and  index  remove 
the  four  dorsal  strings  of  the  left  hand  to  the  palmar  side,  thus 
making  a  knot  of  all  the  strings  between  the  palms,  with  one  loop 
over  each  thumb  and  two  over  each  little  finger;  slap  palms  to- 
gether, release  little  fingers,  and  draw  apart  showing  string  on 
thumbs  with  no  knot. 

Taboringay  shelters.  Ix)op  around  middle  fingers;  take  up  on 
thumbs  the  ulnar  string  over  the  radial;  take  up  radial  on  little 
fingers;  take  up  middle  loops  over  thumb  strings  with  opposite 
ring  fingers;  slip  thumb  strings  and  take  them  up  over  middle 
finger  string;  slip  little  finger  strings  and  take  them  up  over  ring 
finger  strings;  slip  middle  and  ring  finger  loops;  draw  out  and  a 
double  diamond  remains  between  the  palms. 

Potengia,  Same  as  the  last,  except  that  the  ring  finger  strings  are 
twisted  once  toward  the  thumbs  when  put  on. 

Anif  river.  Loop  over  thumb  and  index  of  left  hand  and  thumb 
of  right;  hook  over  string  between  thumb  and  index  of  left  with 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  9 

index  of  right  and  take  up  with  turn  to  right;  Uttle  fingers  under 
uhiar  index,  over  radial  index  strings  and  take  up  ubiar  thumb 
string  on  backs  of  little  fingers;  release  thumbs;  take  up  radial 
little  finger  strings  on  backs  of  thumbs  over  index  strings;  place 
index  loops  over  thumbs  also;  place  former  thumb  string  loops 
over  Uttle  fingers;  take  off  former  Uttle  finger  loops;  release 
indexes;  draw  out  and  a  double  string  winds  around  the  outside 
strings  Uke  the  bends  of  the  river. 

Sigarintcij  spider's  web.  Loop  over  the  thumb  and  index  of 
left  hand  and  thumb  of  right;  hook  index  of  right  over  string 
between  thumb  and  index  of  left  and  take  it  up  with  turn  to  right; 
Uttle  fingers  imder  ulnar  and  radial  index  strings  and  take  up 
ulnar  thumb  string  on  backs  of  Uttle  fingers;  release  thumbs; 
take  up  radial  Uttle  finger  string  on  backs  of  thumbs;  place  index 
loops  over  thumbs;  take  off  former  thumb  loops;  place  ends  of 
indexes  downward  through  former  thumb  loops  and  turn  palms 
outward  releasing  aU  but  thumbs  and  indexes. 

Pankotciy  a  house.  String  over  thiunbs  and  Uttle  fingers;  take 
up  palm  string  on  indexes;  take  up  ulnar  Uttle  finger  string  in 
middle  with  teeth  beneath  other  palmar  strings  and  drop  the  loop 
over  other  strings;  take  up  in  middle  at  crossing  in  teeth  the  ulnar 
thumb  string  and  radial  index  string,  holding  these  until  end; 
remove  loops  from  indexes  and  Uttle  fingers,  catching  the  two 
together  (i.e.  the  ulnar  of  indexes  and  radials  of  Uttle  fingers)  and 
place  both  over  Uttle  fingers;  take  up  on  indexes  from  under 
ulnar  side  aU  strings  between  thumb  and  Uttle  finger  strings,  the 
loop  thrown  over  by  teeth  first;  place  Uttle  finger  loops  with  half 
turn  to  ulnar  side  over  middle  fingers;  place  thumb  loops  imder 
other  strings  over  Uttle  fingers;  place  index  loops  over  thumbs 
with  half  turn,  release  strings  from  teeth  and  draw  out,  first  shift- 
ing thumb  and  Uttle  finger  loops  weU  down  and  middle  finger 
loops  weU  up.  A  house  frame  with  ridge  pole,  rafters,  and  plates 
result. 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  The  most  common  dress  for  both 
men  and  women  is  the  cushma,  a  loose  fitting  sleeveless  shirt- 
Uke  cotton  garment,  which  hangs  from  the  shoulders  and  reaches 
below  the  knees,  as  illustrated  in  plate  1.  Cotton  is  not  cultivated, 
but  wild  cotton  is  coUected  by  the  women,  spim  into  very  fine 
thread,  and  woven  into  cloth  (plate  2,  a).   To  make  a  cushma,  a 


10  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

strip  is  woven  four  times  as  long  as  the  required  garment,  and  about 
a  half  yard  in  width.  It  is  then  cut  into  two  pieces  and  sewed  alon^ 
the  middle,  except  for  about  a  foot  in  the  center  which  is  left  open 
to  slip  the  head  through;  the  sides  are  sewed  up  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  hole  on  either  side  for  the  arms.  The  woman's 
cushma  has  the  hole  for  the  head  cut  crosswise  instead  of  length- 
wise. The  cushma  is  worn  plain  white,  or  dyed  a  dull  red  with 
the  pulp  of  a  plant  called  "atcohte"  (Bixa  oreUana).  Children 
run  about  naked  until  the  approach  of  puberty.  Among  some  of 
the  groups  all  go  naked  a  part  of  the  time,  others  wear  bark 
cushmas,  and  still  others  wear  the  breech  cloth. 

The  cotton  is  gathered  by  the  women,  and  stored  in  rough  bas- 
kets made  of  palm  leaves.  The  seeds  are  removed  by  hand,  as  the 
cotton  is  needed  for  spinning.  The  spindle  is  made  of  chont& 
palm  about  a  foot  long,  with  a  stone  whorl.  The  spindle  rests  in 
a  gourd  cup,  and  is  spim  by  twisting  with  the  thumb  and 
fore-finger.  The  thread  is  used  to  make  cushmas,  bags,  and 
bands  for  their  arms  and  legs;  or  cord  to  make  bags,  nets,, 
and  ropes. 

The  ornamentation  of  these  people  is  not  profuse  or  elaborate^ 
and  is  nearly  the  same  for  both  men  and  women.  The  only  object 
attached  to  the  body  is  the  nose  ornament.  The  septum  is  pierced, 
and  suspended  from  it  on  a  cotton  thread  is  a  small  thin  disc  of 
silver  about  the  size  of  a  dime,  which  just  covers  the  lip.  Often 
two  or  four  small  beads  of  stone  or  bone  are  worn  on  the  thread 
with  the  silver  disc. 

On  the  shoulders,  attached  to  the  cushma,  the  women  wear  tufts- 
of  feathers,  claws  of  animals,  bones,  and  seeds.  The  men  often 
have  tufts  of  feathers  and  bird  skins  attached  to  the  cushma,  hang- 
ing down  the  back.  These  are  mere  ornaments,  and  have  no  sig- 
nificance whatever.  The  Macheyenga,  along  with  many  other 
tribes,  admire  plump  arms  and  legs,  hence  the  women  always  wear 
bands  or  cords  of  woven  cotton  around  the  wrists  and  ankles^ 
and  above  the  elbows.  The  men  sometimes  wear  these  same  bands 
with  monkey  teeth  attached.  The  women  often  wear  long  neck- 
laces of  different  colored  seeds,  berries,  pods  of  vanilla,  teeth  of 
monkeys  and  other  animals,  and  bone  beads  (plate  3).  All  the 
people  paint  their  bodies  and  faces  in  lines  or  spots,  for  on  other 
purpose  than  the  protection  against  the  bites  of  flies. 


Fx&BODK  MirsKuii  Papbrb 


Vol.  X,  Plate  3 


MaelMrai^  bow  ud  uTom,  McklMM,  >Dd  iMtha  omuBCDU.    (About  I/1I.1 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  11 

Diseases.  The  Macheyenga  are  a  very  hardy  people,  and  are 
free  from  loathsome  diseases.  There  are  no  evidences  of  tuber- 
culosis, venereal  diseases,  or  insanity  among  them.  Many  are 
pitted  from  smallpox  and  we  saw  two  individuals  who  had  each 
lost  an  eye  from  this  disease.  One  is  apt  to  mistake  scars  made  by 
the  bite  of  the  vampire  bat  for  pox  marks.  Many  have  such  marks 
on  the  nose  and  forehead. 

There  is  no  medicine  man  but  everybody  knows  certain  herbs 
which  are  used  for  different  diseases.  Old  persons  consult  together 
in  serious  cases.  Malaria  is  common  among  them.  They  give  no 
medicine  internally,  but  in  order  to  reduce  the  temperature  they 
wash  the  body  with  a  tea  made  from  the  roots  of  a  tall  grass  called 
"  chipanaci  "  that  grows  in  swamps.  They  use  the  same  medicine 
to  attract  fish  to  certain  deep  pools.  The  plant  can  be  distin- 
guished only  by  the  flower,  and  as  it  was  not  then  in  bloom,  we 
were  unable  to  obtain  it  for  identification.  This  plant  is  worthy 
of  a  careful  study.  For  diarrhea  and  headache  they  make  a  tea 
of  the  leaves  of  the  plant  Dioscorea. 

There  are  a  few  poisonous  serpents  in  the  region,  and  in  spite 
of  great  care  the  natives  are  occasionally  bitten.  When  one  is 
bitten,  he  at  once  cuts  the  wound  open  and  squeezes  into  it  the 
juice  of  the  leaves  and  bark  of  the  cavinithi  tree.  The  leaves  and 
scraped  inner  bark  are  heated  over  a  fire,  and  then  the  juice  is 
squeezed  into  the  wound.  It  is  said  to  be  a  sure  cure,  preventing 
pain  and  swelling.  The  next  day,  to  hasten  the  cure,  the  patient 
chews  red  peppers,  and  spits  the  juice  on  the  wound.  If  allowed 
to  sleep  the  patient  will  die,  hence  a  great  noise  is  kept  up  all  night 
to  keep  him  awake.  One  night  we  heard  a  loud  noise  which  was 
kept  up  continuously,  until  we  were  unable  to  sleep.  Upon  in- 
vestigation we  learned  that  one  of  the  men  had  been  bitten  by  a 
snake  the  evening  before.  His  leg  was  badly  swollen,  and  he  seemed 
to  be  in  considerable  pain  in  spite  of  their  treatment.  However, 
he  recovered  completely  in  a  few  days.  The  snake  was  not  found, 
so  it  was  impossible  to  know  whether  or  not  it  was  the  most  pois- 
onous variety,  as  supposed. 

Music.  The  Macheyenga  sing  a  few  songs,  but  cannot  be  con- 
sidered musical.  When  men  return  from  a  long  journey,  they  give 
a  dance,  and  sing  their  experiences  for  the  benefit  of  their  friends. 
They  catch  hands  and  dance  in  a  circle  facing  each  other. 


12 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


On  the  trail  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  dry  kindling,  and  fire- 
making  is  a  slow  and  painstaking  operation.  As  the  man  blows 
his  fire,  he  sings  the  following  song  in  a  very  low  tone  to  encourage 
the  fire  to  bum. 


jt !'  r  I  r 


J  J  If  J  jif^ 


3!: 


t 


tci  -  tci 
Fire 


val  -  o  -  ri 
bum 


val  -  o  -  ri 
bum 


val  -  o  -  ri 
bum 


tci  -  td 
fire 


^ 


D,C, 


i 


?2: 


t 


-^ 


val  -  o  -  ri 
bum 


val  -  o  -  ri 
bum 


1-1-1 


1-1-1-1 


The  second  example  is  a  cradle  song  used  by  mothers  to  soothe 
their  children  when  sick  or  when  put  to  bed  in  the  evening.  Two 
mothers  singing  at  the  same  time  usually  sing  in  octaves  on  the 
outside  tones,  and  come  together  in  unison  on  the  middle  tones. 
No  words  are  used,  that  can  be  heard,  but  all  the  notes  were 
hummed  in  a  very  low  voice. 


^3 


-4- 

i 


1,1     I     M    — 1 

JT-^  r  I  i  j  1  ^ 


^ 


D,C. 


The  Dead.  The  Macheyenga  have  no  fear  of  the  dead.  They 
handle  the  body  with  impunity,  and  dispose  of  it  without  cere- 
mony. When  anyone  dies,  two  men,  relatives  or  friends,  take  the 
corpse  by  the  head  and  feet,  and  lay  it  on  a  Utter  made  of  two 
long  poles  with  cross  sticks.  Then  the  same  two  men,  or  two 
friends  out  of  courtesy,  carry  the  Utter  head  foremost  on  their 
shoulders  to  the  river  and  throw  it  into  the  water.  The  body  re- 
mains dressed  in  its  cushma,  as  in  life.  No  weights  are  used  to  sink 
the  body,  and  the  rapid  current  carries  it  away  to  be  eaten  by 
fish,  or  to  be  buried  in  the  sands  and  debris  along  the  shallow 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  13 

banks.  There  is  no  ceremony  whatsoever  in  connection  with  the 
dead,  either  at  the  house  or  at  the  river.  When  friends  happen  to 
be  present,  they  usually  carry  away  the  body  as  an  act  of  courtesy. 
If  no  one  else  is  there,  two  members  of  the  family  do  it.  No  one 
accompanies  the  two  men  to  the  river,  and  no  ceremony  is  per- 
formed while  they  are  gone.  There  is  no  reverence  for  the  body. 
It  is  thrown  into  the  river  just  as  a  dead  dog  or  kitchen  refuse  is 
thrown  in,  at  the  same  place,  and  apparently  for  the  same  reason 
It  is  the  most  convenient,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  hygienic 
method  of  disposing  of  the  dead. 

When  one  member  of  the  family  dies  the  others  desert  the  home, 
and  build  another  some  distance  away.  They  never  return  to  the 
house,  but  if  they  have  no  other  chacara,  or  clearing,  they  may 
return  for  food  until  the  new  chacara  is  ready  to  use,  a  period  of 
eight  or  ten  months.  After  that  time  another  family  may  take 
possession  of  the  old  clearing,  and  Uve  in  the  house.  When  a  small 
child  dies  they  throw  the  corpse  into  the  river,  but  do  not  leave 
the  house.  In  order  to  end  the  sufferings  of  helpless  old  persons 
and  those  about  to  die  of  some  incurable  disease,  they  throw  them 
into  the  river  while  they  are  still  alive.  However,  they  take  very 
good  care  of  their  sick  and  infirm  so  long  as  there  is  any  hope  of 
recovery. 

They  leave  the  house  because  they  are  afraid  of  the  disease  that 
took  away  the  other  member  of  the  family,  and  for  no  other  reason. 
The  case  of  a  child  would  seem  to  be  an  exception,  but  the  adults 
have  no  fear  of  children's  diseases.  No  ceremonies  are  performed 
when  leaving  the  old  home  or  when  building  a  new  one.  As  they 
have  no  beUef  in  ghosts  or  in  the  return  of  the  soul,  there  is  no 
reason  to  fear  the  soul  of  the  departed.  Aside  from  their  positive 
statements,  the  fact  that  others  may  and  do  Uve  in  the  same  house 
after  a  short  time,  is  evidence  that  they  have  no  fear  of  the  house 
or  of  spirits  about  it. 

Among  some  branches  of  the  tribe,  those  killed  in  warfare  are 
buried,  while  the  common  people  are  thrown  into  the  river.  A 
grave,  four  or  five  feet  deep,  is  dug  near  the  place  where  the  man 
fell.  The  body,  dressed  in  the  cushma,  is  laid  on  its  back  at  full 
length,  and  covered  with  leaves,  poles,  and  earth.  Nothing  is 
placed  in  the  grave  with  the  body.  No  marker  is  used,  and  no 
mound  is  heaped  over  the  grave.   The  grave  of  a  man  killed  by  a 


14  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

white  slave  hunter  was  pointed  out  to  us.  Before  leaving  the 
neighborhood  we  excavated  the  grave,  but  found  no  bones.  The 
body  had  been  removed,  and  the  earth  and  poles  replaced.  This 
may  be  the  custom.  Again,  among  some  branches,  the  small 
children  are  carried  up  into  the  hills  and  buried  among  the  rocks, 
while  all  others  are  thrown  into  the  river.  They  were  unable  to 
give  any  explanation  for  these  exceptions  to  the  general  rule. 

They  have  a  tradition  that  a  long  time  ago  the  body  of  a  Mache- 
yenga  was  buried,  and  a  guard  kept  watch  to  see  if  there  was  a 
soul,  and  if  so  what  became  of  it.  In  the  morning  of  the  eighth 
day,  they  saw  a  red  deer  jump  from  the  grave,  and  run  into  the 
forest.  Since  then  they  have  believed  that  the  souls  of  the  Mache- 
yenga  always  enter  the  red  deer  (Cervus  humilis).  They  do  not 
know  what  Ix^comes  of  the  souls  of  other  men,  but  they  do  not 
enter  the  red  deer.  They  never  eat  the  flesh  of  the  deer,  but  have 
no  objection  to  others  doing  so.  They  even  kill  it  themselves,  and 
give  it  to  others  to  eat.  It  is  in  no  way  treated  as  a  sacred  animal. 
When  the  cooked  flesh  is  offered  to  a  Macheyenga,  he  makes 
signs  as  though  the  thought  of  eating  it  made  him  sick. 

From  the  tradition  it  would  seem  that  they  believe  the  soul 
becomes  a  red  deer,  and  that  man  lives  again  in  the  form  of  a  deer. 
They  did  not  see  the  soul  enter  the  deer,  but  saw  the  deer  rise 
from  the  grave.  On  this  point  they  are  quite  clear.  The  man  dies, 
and  it  makes  no  difference  whether  his  body  is  buried  or  is  thrown 
into  the  river,  his  soul  enters  the  deer,  and  that  is  the  end  of  all. 
Neither  the  soul  nor  the  body  ever  lives  again.  It  does  not  become 
the  deer,  neither  is  it  the  soul  of  the  deer,  for  the  deer  has  a  soul  of 
its  own.  Asked  what  becomes  of  the  soul,  an  Indian  answers,  "It 
goes  into  maniro,  the  red  deer.^^  Asked  what  then  becomes  of  it,  he 
answers,  "  Nothing,  that  is  the  end  of  it  when  it  enters  the  deer." 

They  have  no  conception  of  the  origin  of  "  seletci,"  the  soul,  or 
any  very  definite  idea  of  what  it  is.  It  is  something  besides  "  isede," 
or  life,  that  animals  have  in  common  with  men,  and  that  rocks  and 
rivers  do  not  have.  It  is  never  seen,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
life,  sleep,  disease,  or  death.  It  is  an  intangible  something  that 
leaves  the  body  at  death  and  enters  the  deer. 

Religion.  The  Macheyenga  beUeve  in  "  Idioci,"  the  big  man, 
in  "  engita,"  the  sky.  He  made  man,  the  sun,  the  moon,  etc.,  in 
some  way,  they  know  not  how  or  when.  At  present  he  has  very 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  15 

little  to  do  with  the  world,  except  to  thunder  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  the  seasons,  and  to  send  the  rain.  He  takes  no  more 
care  of  men  than  of  the  animals.  He  does  not  reward  the  good  or 
punish  the  evil,  consequently  he  is  neither  adored  nor  propitiated. 
Their  attitude  toward  him  is  much  the  same  as  his  toward  them,  — 
one  of  indifference.  They  make  no  offerings  or  prayers,  and  have 
no  ceremonies,  feasts,  sacred  dances,  ceremonial  objects,  charms, 
or  fetishes.  There  is  no  conmiunion  between  themselves  and  any 
spirit. 

These  Indians  have  very  few  superstitions,  traditions,  or  stories. 
They  pay  some  attention  to  the  interpretation  of  dreams.  Good 
dreams  indicate  good  luck;  a  bad  one  is  an  omen  that  some  friend 
will  die  soon.  If  a  woman  dreams  her  husband  is  hunting,  she 
will  be  struck  by  a  poisonous  snake  when  she  goes  to  gather  wild 
cotton.  If  one  sneezes,  it  is  evidence  that  someone  has  inquired 
about  him.  Hair  cuttings  are  thrown  into  the  river;  if  they  were 
thrown  on  the  ground  the  people  would  become  sick.  Nail  parings 
are  thrown  away  anywhere. 

They  exchange  many  gifts  when  visiting.  If,  by  accident,  a  man 
breaks  something  they  give  him,  he  drinks  chicha  until  he  is 
thoroughly  drunk,  as  a  sign  of  his  humiliation. 

Salutations.  When  friends  meet  on  the  trail,  they  salute  by 
words  only,  "  Aiinowi,"  how  are  you,  and  ask  from  whence  you 
came  and  your  destination.  When  returning  after  a  long  absence, 
the  same  salutation  is  given.  When  a  stranger  visits  a  house  all 
rise  to  receive  him,  and  then  all  sit  down  together.  When  parting 
they  say,  "Nowaitaiita,*'  good-bye.  They  always  address  each 
other  in  terms  of  relationship,  as  uncle  and  nephew,  father-in-law 
and  son-in-law. 

Cosmogony.  In  the  beginning,  the  earth  was  very  much  as  it 
is  now.  Idioci,  the  big  man  in  the  sky,  made  man,  the  sun,  moon, 
stars,  day,  night,  etc.  No  one  knows  why  it  is  night,  or  where 
the  sun  goes  at  night.  The  earth  is  a  round  flat  plane,  and  tuhis 
around  contrary-clockwise.  Round,  like  the  earth,  is  "  kabogi- 
tate";  round,  like  an  orange,  is  "  kanaronkate  " ;  and  round, 
like  a  log  is  "  kanarongipoate."  Thus,  there  is  no  question  that 
the  earth  is  flat.  EcUpses  and  the  phases  of  the  moon  are  not 
understood.  All  these  things  are  just  as  Idioci  made  them«  and 
nobody  knows  why  they  are  so. 


16  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

Long  periods  of  time  are  counted  by  seasons,  the  wet  and  the 
dry,  and  by  the  return  of  the  fruits  and  flowers.  When  a  visit  is 
planned  or  an  engagement  made,  the  time  is  fixed  by  the  bloom- 
ing of  a  certain  flower.  Shorter  periods  are  coimted  by  moons. 
There  are  twelve  moons  in  a  year,  and  the  period  is  called  "  mam- 
perokesire:"  "  mampero,"  twelve,  and  "  kesiri,"  moon.  The 
word  for  a  seasonal  year  is  "  sethehagarene."  The  quarters  of 
the  moon  are  used  for  counting  time  also.  The  new  moon  is 
"  tcisipekikeni  " ;  the  half  moon,  "  tcisimokeneki  " ;  the  full 
moon,  "  tcilita  ";  and  the  dark  of  the  moon,  "  pege."  The  posi- 
tion of  the  sun  is  used  to  determine  the  time  of  day,  and  in  keep- 
ing appointments.  The  stars  are  not  used  for  direction  when 
traveling  at  night,  because  the  traveler  follows  the  rivers. 

Measures.  In  measuring  cotton  cloth  they  use  the  large  span, 
thumb  to  little  finger  tip,  called  "  serantapaca  ";  for  half  a  span 
they  guess  at  it  or  use  the  width  of  the  four  fingers.  They  also 
use  the  small  span,  thumb  and  index  finger  tip,  called  "patero- 
seragodie."  In  building  a  house  they  cut  a  pole  the  proper  length 
to  measure  the  posts  and  another  for  the  distance  apart,  or  use 
a  string  for  a  measure.  They  keep  nothing  as  a  standard  measure. 
To  measure  a  longer  distance  they  pace  it.  The  distance  between 
two  villages  or  places  far  apart,  is  indicated  by  pointing  to  the 
position  of  the  sun  for  each  place  or  the  time  required  to  go  there, 
—  a  very  satisfactory  method. 

Marriage.  The  Macheyenga  marry  within  the  tribe,  but  out- 
side their  own  group.  Monogamy  is  the  rulcj  but  any  man  may 
have  as  many  wives  as  he  can  support.  The  head  man  usually 
has  three  or  four  wives  who  all  live  in  the  same  house;  but  each 
wife  has  her  own  fireplace,  cooking  utensils,  floor  space,  and 
sleeping  mat.  The  husband  eats  alone,  each  wife  furnishing  her 
part  of  the  food,  and  after  he  has  concluded,  each  wife  with  her 
children  retires  to  her  own  quarters.  There  is  good  feehng  and 
perfect  harmony,  which  reveals  itself  at  every  meal  in  the  exchange 
of  choice  bits  of  food. 

Wives  are  always  treated  with  great  consideration  and  affec- 
tion. It  is  so  seldom  that  either  husband  or  wife  is  unfaithful,  that 
there  is  no  established  regulation  for  such  an  offense,  and  no 
divorce.  Wives  may  be  exchanged,  but  always  with  their  consent. 
A  few  weeks  before  our  visit  Pegima  and  Kobana  exchanged  wives. 


ARAWAKA.N  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  17 

Kobana  and  his  wife,  who  was  very  homely  and  eight  months 
enceinte,  lived  on  the  Maturiata  River  where  they  had  a  good 
house,  and  a  large  chacara  of  growing  com,  cassava,  and  plantains. 
P^ima,  with  his  good-looking  yomig  wife,  came  from  their  home 
on  the  Javero  River  to  visit  Kobana,  who  was  an  intimate  friend. 
A  mutual  admiration  sprang  up  between  Kobana  and  Pegima's 
wife,  and  an  exchange  of  wives  was  arranged.  Pegima  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Maturiata  home  while  Kobana  went  with  his  new  wife 
to  her  people.  The  friendship  of  the  two  families  continued,  and 
frequent  visits  were  exchanged.  In  due  course  of  time  a  son  was 
bom  to  the  wife  of  Pegima,  and  he  appeared  as  proud  as  any 
father. 

To  the  observer  there  seems  to  be  very  Uttle  in  the  way  of  a  mar- 
riage ceremony.  Marriage  is  not  obUgatory,  yet  public  opinion  is 
so  strong  in  its  favor  that  few  remain  single.  A  young  man  of 
eighteen  selects  the  girl  he  wishes  to  marry  and  makes  a  proposal 
to  her.  If  she  accepts  his  offer,  he  goes  away  and  makes  a  clearing 
in  the  forest,  plants  his  field  with  com,  cassava,  and  plantains, 
and  builds  himself  a  house  near  his  own  people.  After  eight  or 
ten  months,  when  his  field  is  ready  to  furnish  food,  the  young  man 
returns  for  his  bride,  but  he  must  now  ask  for  her  in  accordance 
with  the  ancient  custom.  He  seeks  the  curaca,  and  tells  him  that 
he  wishes  to  marry  a  certain  girl.  The  curaca  agrees  to  see  the 
girl's  father,  and  arrange  matters  if  possible.  The  father  asks  the 
girl,  and  she  replies  that  she  does  not  wish  to  marry  the  young 
man.  The  curaca  then  returns  to  the  boy  and  tells  him  that  the 
girl  seems  unfavorable,  but  at  the  same  time  urges  him  to  try 
other  methods.  The  boy  is  sad,  and  pleads  with  the  curaca  to 
know  what  can  be  done.  The  curaca  tells  him  to  gather  wood, 
build  a  fire,  and  to  throw  some  sticks  of  firewood  in  front  of  her 
father's  house.  "  If  she  changes  her  mind  and  decides  to  accept 
you,"  he  says,  "  she  will  take  a  stick  of  wood  and  throw  it  into 
your  fire."  The  boy  does  as  directed,  and  then  sits  down  in 
front  of  his  fire,  sad  but  hopeful.  Men  are  sitting  about  talking, 
but  no  one  speaks  to  him.  The  girl  sits  talking  with  some  old 
women,  occasionally  glancing  over  her  shoulder  at  the  boy.  In  a 
short  time  she  suddenly  jumps  up,  grasps  a  stick  of  wood,  throws 
it  into  his  fire,  and  runs  away.  The  boy,  attempting  to  catch  the 
girl,  follows  her  into  the  forest,  where  the  marriage  is  consummated. 


18  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

The  boy  returns  with  his  bride,  holding  her  left  wrist  in  his  right 
hand.  As  soon  as  they  appear,  the  whole  throng  begins  making 
an  awful  noise  with  drums,  singing  and  dancing.  The  men  catch 
hands  and  dance  in  a  circle  with  the  boy.  The  women  bring 
chicha  to  drink;  the  feasting,  drinking,  and  dancing  continue  for 
three  days,  after  which  the  new  couple  take  up  their  abode  in  their 
own  home. 

It  is  the  custom  also  for  the  bride  and  groom  to  exchange  pres- 
ents. Immediately  after  the  return  from  the  forest,  the  bride  gives 
the  groom  a  new  cotton  cushma  which  she  has  made  by  spinning 
and  weaving  wild  cotton.  The  groom  presents  the  bride  with  neck- 
laces and  bracelets.  No  present  or  payment  is  given  to  the  bride's 
father  or  mother. 

Widows  soon  remarry  and  indeed  if  they  are  left  with  children, 
it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  take  care  of  the  family.  We  observed 
an  interesting  case  in  point.  Shameti,  who  had  a  wife  and  five 
children,  went  on  a  journey  where  he  was  obUged  to  cross  some 
dangerous  rivers.  It  was  reported  that  he  had  been  lost,  but  he 
returned  in  a  week,  to  find  his  wife  married  to  another  man  and 
two  of  his  children  given  away.  He  took  possession  of  his  home 
and  wife,  but  not  of  the  two  children. 

Childbirth.  Women  appear  to  suffer  Uttle  in  parturition.  On 
the  morning  of  March  15,  1908,  the  wife  of  Pegima  gave  birth  to 
her  first  child,  a  boy.  Two  famiUes  were  Uving  together  in  a  long 
house  on  the  Maturiata  River  near  our  camp.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing the  men  went  to  the  hills  across  the  river,  hunting.  At  about 
ten  o'clock,  the  woman  about  to  be  confined  went  into  the  clearing 
a  short  distance  from  the  house,  threw  some  banana  leaves  on  the 
ground,  and  there,  alone,  gave  birth  to  the  child.  She  called  to 
the  woman  at  the  house,  who  brought  warm  water  to  wash  the 
baby;  but  before  doing  so  they  scraped  it  all  over  with  a  piece 
of  split  bamboo.  The  umbilical  cord  was  tied  twice  on  the  side 
of  the  mother  and  once  on  the  side  of  the  child,  then  it  was  cut  with 
the  split  bamboo  knife.  The  cord  was  not  touched  with  the  hands, 
but  held  between  pieces  of  bamboo.  The  placenta  was  buried  near 
by.  In  about  an  hour  after  leaving  the  house  the  mother  returned, 
wrapped  the  baby  in  a  cloth,  deposited  it  in  a  comfortable  posi- 
tion on  a  mat  on  the  earth  floor,  went  into  the  river  for  a  bath, 
then  built  a  fire,  and  prepared  the  noonday  meal  as  usual. 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYEXGA  19 

As  this  was  the  woman  for  whom  Pegima  had  traded  a  month 
before,  we  were  anxious  to  know  how  he  would  appreciate  the  boy, 
and  were  pleased  when  he  acted  just  as  any  father  would  who  was 
taken  by  surprise;  his  face  spread  in  a  bland  smile  as  he  inspected 
the  youngster,  but  he  said  nothing.  They  apparently  had  been 
awaiting  this  event  before  moving  away.  Three  days  afterwards, 
the  mother  carrying  a  heavy  pack  walked  five  or  six  miles  over 
the  mountain  to  their  new  home.  The  child,  being  too  light  a 
load  for  its  mother,  was  carried  by  a  little  girl  of  ten  or  twelve 
years. 

The  Family.  Families  average  four  or  five  children,  and  some- 
times six  or  eight  are  found  in  one  family.  Some  do  not  desire 
children,  and  do  not  have  them.  It  is  said  they  produce  abortion 
in  some  way,  but  we  were  unable  to  learn  the  process.  Children 
are  nursed  for  two  or  three  years  on  account  of  the  lack  of  other 
suitable  food  for  them. 

The  labor  of  the  household  is  well  and  equably  divided.  The 
men  clear  the  field,  not  in  common,  but  each  in  turn  assists  his 
neighbor.  A  visitor  who  happens  along  at  such  a  time  lends  a  hand 
at  the  clearing.  The  women  with  chonta  palm  digging  sticks  make 
up  the  hills,  plant  the  crop,  and  tend  it.  When  the  corn  is  ripe,  they 
pluck  the  ears,  and  store  them.  The  men  do  the  hunting  and  fishing, 
make  their  bows  and  arrows,  dig  out  their  canoes,  and  build  their 
houses.  The  women  take  complete  care  of  the  small  children; 
carry  the  vegetables  from  the  field,  and  cook  the  food;  collect  the 
wild  cotton,  spin,  weave,  and  make  it  into  garments;  and  chew 
the  cassava  to  make  chicha.  On  the  trail  the  women  carry  the 
heavy  loads,  and  allow  the  men  to  hunt  as  they  go.  In  the  canoe, 
the  man  paddles,  and  the  woman  steers.  They  are  good  traveUng 
companions. 

The  Macheyenga  appear  to  live  to  an  old  age;  we  saw  several 
with  some  white  hairs.  There  were  more  old  men  than  old  women, 
which  would  indicate  that  for  some  unknown  reason  the  men  Uve 
longer  than  the  women.  The  aged  are  well  cared  for,  and  respected 
by  their  children. 

Physical  Development.  The  Macheyenga  are  physically  well 
developed,  are  of  medium  size,  and  have  good  health.  Their  con- 
stant food  supply  insures  good  nourishment  and  contentment. 
They  are  happy,  good  natured,  and  affectionate.    They  are  about 


20  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

the  usual  stature  of  the  Arawakan  people  of  the  Amazon,  and  have 
shorter  arms  and  broader  shoulders  than  their  neighbors.  Their 
faces  are  slightly  longer  and  less  prognathous  as  determined  by  the 
auricular-nasion-prosthyon  index. 

Their  eyes  are  always  black  and  straight,  but  distinctly  wider 
apart  than  their  neighbors.  Their  noses  are  usually  quite  flat  and 
straight,  never  aquiline.  Their  lips  are  thin  and  straight,  and  their 
chins  round  and  short.  Their  hair  is  black,  coarse,  and  straight, 
and  is  worn  down  over  their  ears  and  neck  for  protection  against 
flies.  The  women  sometimes  wear  the  hair  over  the  shoulders. 
The  men  wear  a  band  with  short  feathers  attached  to  keep  the 
hair  away  from  the  face.   All  go  bareheaded.   The  men  pull  out 


Figure  2 
Outlines  of  hand  and  foot  of  Maoheyenca  Indian 

what  few  hairs  grow  on  the  face.  Their  feet  are  broad  and  toes 
ebort,  with  the  great  toe  set  off  a  little  from  the  second.  The  toes 
are  used  for  grasping  objects,  especially  for  holding  the  arrowshaft 
while  attaching  the  foreshaft  and  feathers  (figure  2). 

Deformation.  Deformities  of  any  sort  are  very  rare.  The  only 
one  observed  was  a  boy  near  Azupizu,  who  had  no  toes  on  one 
foot,  lacked  two  fingers  on  the  right  hand,  and  three  on  the  left. 
Artificial  deformation  is  practiced  on  all  children.  The  heads  of 
both  sexes  are  deformed  in  youth  by  binding  a  board  behind  the 
head  and  a  roll  of  cotton  over  the  forehead,  thus  making  a  groove 
into  which  the  tump-line  fits.  It  is  not  meant  to  be  a  matter  of 
beauty,  but  one  of  utility.  The  deformation,  while  not  very  great, 
could  be  felt  distinctly,  and  served  its  purpose  well. 

The  men  are  good  canoemen,  and  can  pole  along  all  day  without 
resting.  On  a  long  journey  both  men  and  women  carry  fifty  to 
seventy  pounds,  fifteen  miles  a  day.   They  carry  with  the  aid  of 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  21 

a  tump-line,  which  they  pull  down  on  with  both  hands  between 
the  head  and  the  shoulders.  All  are  good  swimmers,  and  keep 
their  bodies  in  good  condition  by  bathing  twice  a  day.  For  statis- 
tical measurements  and  comparisons  see  tables  elsewhere. 

Language.  The  following  Unguistic  material  is  submitted  to 
students  who  are  to  follow  the  study  of  the  Macheyenga  language^ 
in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  of  service  for  comparative  purposes. 
My  authority,  Simasiri,  and  I  were  handicapped  in  our  work  by 
being  compelled  to  use,  as  an  intermediary,  a  language  foreign  to> 
both  of  us.  It  was  impossible  to  get  valuable  text  because  there 
is  no  set  ritualistic  or  ceremonial  forms,  or  extended  songs  with 
words.  Making  up  stories  for  the  occasion  was  not  very  success- 
ful. This  lack  of  text  for  comparison  makes  it  dangerous  to  per- 
fect the  conjugations  and  to  build  up  a  grammar;  therefore,  the 
conjugations  are  given  just  as  written  at  the  time.  Any  attempt 
to  make  the  endings  conform  to  a  type  would  lead  to  future  con- 
fusion. The  material  is  of  more  value  in  this  imperfect  form.  The 
following  observations  may  prove  suggestive. 

True  incorporation  does  not  occur  in  the  Macheyenga  language. 
The  nominal  subject  is  placed  before  the  verb  and  the  object  after 
it.  The  verbal  stem,  however,  may  be  prefixed  by  the  subjective 
pronoun,  and  postfixed  by  other  elements  and  the  objective  pro- 
noun, as  for  example:  n-amana-tapla-nipi,  I  pray  for  you.  There 
is  thus  an  agglutination  between  the  personal  pronoun  and  the 
verb,  and  the  same  takes  place  between  the  possessives  and  their 
nouns.  These  elements  do  not  stand  alone  and  may  require  the 
presence  of  another  pronoun  to  strengthen  them,  as:  naro  n-am- 
bata-ke-ri,  I  cured  him.  It  is  often  necessary  to  designate  the 
gender  by  an  affix  of  the  sign  to  the  verbal  stem,  as:  pi-m-pe-ri- 
sabari,  he  gives  you  the  machete. 

The  possessive  prefixes  are:  n-nu,  my;  p-pi,  your;  i,  his;  and 
o,  hers.  The  first  two,  n  and  p,  are  common  in  all  Arawakan  lan- 
guages. In  some  cases  the  Macheyenga  suffix  the  possessives.  The 
plural  possessives  are  formed  by  means  of  a  special  affix.  The 
pronominal  prefixes  are:  n-nu,  I;  p-pi,  you;  i-is,  he;  o,  she;  a, 
we;  pi,  you;  i,  they,  w.;^  and  o,  they,/.*  Many  of  these  are  the 
same  as  the  possessives.  Before  vowels,  n  is  used,  and  before  con- 
sonants, nu.  I  and  o  are  more  than  pronouns,  they  indicate  gender 

'  Masculine.  *  Feminine. 


22  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

as  well.  The  i  appears  to  be  derived  from  iri,  male.  Ri,  ro,  or  ru, 
used  as  prefixes  or  suffixes,  indicate  the  gender  of  the  person  speak* 
ing.  Ni  is  a  pluralizing  nominal  suffix,  as:  primare,  some  person; 
primareni,  some  persons. 

Interrogatives  either  begin  or  end  with  ta,  as:  Tatakanika, 
what  did  he  say?  Tsaniyonta,  what  man  is  this?  Itapipatcita, 
what  is  your  name?  The  i  here  indicates  the  masculine  gender. 

The  particles  tsa  and  be,  found  with  many  interrogative  ex- 
pressions, are  used  for  emphasis  only;  tsa  with  the  masculine, 
and  be  with  the  feminine  gender. 

Ka  and  tci  are  of  very  conunon  occurrence  and  of  varied  mean- 
ings. Tci  seems  to  be  used  as  a  suffix  to  general  statements,  while 
ka,  ke,  or  ki,  is  used  as  a  verbal  suffix  with  the  past  participal: 
ninta,  to  love;  ni-ka-ninta,  I  am  loved;  ka-nioto-yeri,  to  have 
known.  Ka  is  used  also  in  the  sense  of  having  or  being,  as:  ni-ka- 
tavi,  I  am  sick;  ni-ka-pitonea,  I  have  a  son.  Ki  is  used  also  with 
the  ablative  of  instrument,  i-waka-ri-intcata-ki,  he  struck  it  with 
a  club. 

Ma  is  a  negative  prefix,  as:  ma-pihmaro,  a  widow  or  without  a 
husband;  ma-yampi,  deaf;  ni-ma-rotci,  I  do  not  drink.  Kari  is 
sometimes  used  as  an  affix  for  negation.  Mba,  or  mpa,  is  a  suffix 
denoting  future  time:  katanawakina-mba-ka,  he  will  come  soon. 

The  Macheyenga  language  is  smooth  and  musical,  lacking  en- 
tirely the  strong  gutterals  of  the  Andes  languages.  Men  and 
women  speak  the  same  language,  differing  only  in  the  endings  due 
to  difference  in  gender. 


Key  to  Phonetic  System 


a  as  in  father 

&  «  hat 

e  «  fete 

6  «  met 

i  **  ptque 

I  "  ptn 

o  "  note 

6  «  not 

u  "  rule 

tt  «  hut 


ai  as  in 

I  aisle 

au 

u 

how 

oi 

u 

oil 

c 

u 

ship 

tc 

u 

chain 

hw 

u 

when 

kw 

u 

quake 

ft 

u 

carion 

a'a. 

11, 

as  broken  vowels 

ai, 

au 

,  oi,  as 

individual  sounds 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


23 


Grammar.  Conjugation  of  the  following  sixteen  verbs:  be, 
speak,  give,  know,  live,  die,  see,  hear,  eat,  sing,  go,  bring,  make, 
paint,  fall,  and  have. 


Singular 


1  naro 
4  viro 
3  yoga 


1  noati 

2  piatheti 

3  iataki 


TO  BE,  MIRITCI 

Plural  Singular  Plural 

PRESENT  IMPERFECT  TENSE 

haroegi  1   iriati  aiigaki 

virotoegi  2  ati  iriaigeri 

iriataigakera 


PAST 


ithiro 

aitaiigakeri 

piaiiganai 

aiiganai 


FUTURE 

1  kanotakana  kanoigakerira 

2  virokanolitha  kanotaiigairi 
S  inkanoti                    inkanoigaki 

PRESENT   PARTICIPLE 

kanotaki 


2  ati 

3  iriatakera 


CONDITIONAL 

1  kanonarida  kanoigakithitha 

2  kanoigaira  ikanoigathitha 

3  ithithorakari  ithiroegi 

PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE 


1  nokanota 

2  pikanotari 

3  inkanotaki 


kanotaigakeri 

kanotaiganaiitha 

inkanotaiigakeri 


PAST   PARTICIPLE 

kanoti 


Singular 

1  noniaki 

2  piniaki 

3  piropinini 


TO  SPEAK,  INIFITHA 

Plural  Singular 

PRESENT 

niagaki 

tsaminiaki 

iniaki 


IMPERFECT 

1  ibUbaiyeti  niabaiyai 

2  piniabaiyetail         piniabaiyetaii 

3  iniabaiyeti  inihaiigi 


PAST 


1  nonitai 

2  pinihaki 

3  iniaki 


niiagira 

piniaigira 

iniantaro 


FUTURE 

1  ooniakita  niniagakera 

2  piniira  niiaigeri 

3  ithiniakera  iginiaganara 


Plural 

CONDITIONAL 

1  narononiera  niihaiigaki 

2  pinianoniera  pinihaiigakeni 


3  ithithoiriniaki  iribihaiiganakenira 


1  noniaki 

2  piniaki 

3  iniaki 


PRESENT   PERFECT 

iniaiitaki 

aigomepiniaki 

iniaganaki 


PLUPERFECT 

1  ikanotakainiakera      irotioiniatakera 

2  ariopiniakeratio  irotiopiniakera 

3  irotioiniakera  irotioiniaiigakera 

PAST  PERFECT 

1  aliomepiniaki  aliomagotaiigakeri 

2  aliomepiniaganakeri  aliomapingantaki 

3  botaganteroti  aliomairiotaiigaki 


24 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Singular  Plural 

FUTUBE  PERFECT 

1  irinianakemi  niiaiiganakemera 

2  pinianakemi  niiaiigaki 

3  inianakeratio  iniiaiiganakyeiig 


CONDITIONAL  PERFECT 

1  iniainakerakati  niiaiiganakerikatha 

2  pinianakerikara         pinaiiganakerithikatha 

3  iniakerika  iniantanaki 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

noagantci 


Singular  Plural 

PRESENT  SUBJUNCnVB 


1  nonihi 

2  pinihi 

3  piniakini 


nihayaietaiigc 
nihayaietaiigi 
inihira 


IMPERATI^-E 

nihye 


PAST  PARTIOPLE 

niake 


TO  GIVE,  EPAKA 


Singidar 


Plural 


PRESENT 

1  nomperi 

paiyeri 

2  pipakeri 

pimpaigakeri 

3  ipaki 

•     •    • 

ipin 

3/  iripakimpe 

opaiyithi 

IMPERFECT 

1  aipa 

paiigithithi 

2  pipakeri 

paiigithi 

3  ipakeri 

PAST 

pavaigithi 

1   kanti 

paiyiti 

2  pikantaki 

ipagani 

3  pinevitakeri 

ipimanteri 

3/  pimpi 

pairopiinonti 

FUTURE 

1  nompatceri  paigaithitha 

2  perinitcio  pasanoniyeri 

3  impatoeiithirakathi   aipaiethi 

3/  ompaithiroro  ompatcimpira 


Singular  Plural 

CONDITIONAL 

1  ipithithika  paiigaiithi 

2  pipakrthirika  pikavinsaiithB 

3  ipaiithi  tepinsani 


PRESENT  PERFECT 


1  ipiakeri 

2  pipakeri 

3  ipaki 


napaiigakeri 

pipakethikia. 

ipingkani 


PLUPERFECT 

1  timaki  ipakena 

2  tipaiigaiithi  ipaiigyi 

3  ipana  ipingkana 

PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE 

1  pe  paiigakeri 

2  pedi  pediegi 

3  paka  pedi 


PRESENT  PARTiaPLE 

ipwankani 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

ipagani 

TO  KNOW, 

IGOTI 

Singular                   Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

PRESENT 

nfPERFXXT 

1 

2 
3 

nogoti                         wotaiigi 
pigoti                          igoigi 
igoti                           igoting 

1  igoyeti 

2  pigotai 

3  igotaii 

gobegaka 

goigithi 

igotabaki 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


25 


Singular 


PAST 


1   nogotaii 
-2  pigotabaki 
-3  itcemakotaki 


Plural 

tcemakoigakeri 

pitcemakoigakeri 

itcemakoigakeri 


FUTUBE 

1    nogotakera  nogotaiigeri 

-2  pigoterakari  pigotaiigeri 

3   irigoteri  irigotaiigi 


CONDITIONAL 


1    igoteriki 
-2  pigoteroki 
-3  igotakilika 


goigaiilika 

pigotaiigaii 

igotaiiging 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 


gotaki 


Singular  Plural 

PRESENT  PERFECT 


1  nogataki 

2  pigotaki 

3  igotaki 


nogotaiigaki 

pigoigaki 

igoigaki 


PLUPERFECT 

1  ikelmagotaki  kelmakoigaki 

2  pikelmakeratio  kelmakoigaivaii 

3  ikelmakotaki  ikelmakoigaki 

PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE 

1   piotaki  gotaiigaki 

pigoigi 


2  piateriki 

3  igotaki 


gotaki 


PAST  PARTICIPLE 


goti 


Singular 


Plural 


TO  LIVE,  ITIMIRA 

Singular 


Plural 


PRESENl 

y 

FUTURE 

1   notimira 

alyotimaiiyera 

1   alyinontimatci 

timaigatcera 

-2  pitimira 

pitimaiyera 

2  pintimatcera 

itimaiyera 

S  athio  otimi 

otimaiyera 

3  intimatcera 

intimaiyera 

PAST 

3/  ontimatcera 

ontimaitayera 

1   notimira 

itimaiiti 

-2  pitimi 

pitimavetara 

PRESENT 

PARTICIPLE 

3  alyothimatci 

itimatcera 

itimaitake 

Sf 

otimabetara 

Singular 


TO  DIE.  KAMAKI 

Plural  Singular 


PRESENT 


1  nokamaki 
it  pintamaki 
S  ikamaki 

PAST 

1  nokamanaki 
it  pikamakiti 
S  kamaki 


kamaiigaki 

pintamaiigakera 

ikamaiigi 


kamaiigakera 

pitamaiigaki 

pogeriaka 


Plural 


FUTURE 


1  nokamaki  kamaiiganakera 

2  pintamakerakari        pintamaiigakera 

3  inkamanaki  inkamirakari 


PAST  PARTICIPLE 

ataki 


26 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Singular 

1  Doniakeri 

2  viroripenaiiihe 
8  iihiihoenaiiihe 


Phral 


TO  SEE,  INIAKA 


PREflENT 

inaenganithitha 

piniaigakethitha 

iniaigakethitha 


Sf  yoDiagantaka  oniakiti 


1   noDiakethi 
it  vtroripinakeri 
S  ttheironin«iki 
Sf  oniavitakari 


PAMT 

inaenkani 
viroeipinaigakeri 
ithiroriiniaigavakeri 
irororioniaigavakeri 


1  Domiakeroa 

2  Dehero 

3  iniakeroa 


Plwal 

FUTURE 

niaigakerora 

pampagaigero 

tsigakataembapegiakeio 


3/  iniavakerorokari      tsigakataoniaigakero 

PRESENT  PARTICIPUB 

na'akero 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

ogotaka 


TO  HEAR,  PINTCEMISANTE 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

VHKHKST  FUTURE 

1  nontcemiiiantaki      tccmiiuintaiigi  1   narotcemisangaiikitcini    tcemisantaiigakerira 

2  pintcemisantaki      pit(«inidi  it  pintcemarakari  tcemisantaiigeri 

8  pintcemaki  itcemiiiangakaii       3  intcimakerakari  intcemisantaiigerakari 


PAHT 


1  notcemisangakeri    tcemisantaiigcra 

2  pitcemakeri  pitcemaiigakeri 

3  itcemiflangakeri       itcemaiigakeri 


PRESENT   PARTICIPLE 

itcemisanteinkani 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

itcemegantaka 


TO  EAT,  SIKATEMBA 


Singular 

1  yemba 

2  isitakaiita 
8  isitakataka 
3/  yowakasa 
8n*gaiyogaso 


Plural 


PRESENT 


isikataigatha 

yogakero 

isikataiyemba 

osikataiyemba 

isikataigaka 


Singular 

1  nosigataiemba 

2  pisigatakembara 

3  isikatakembara 
3/  isikatapaiemba 
3n  isikatakarakari 


Plural 


FUTURE 


sikataiigakembara 
pogaiigakembari 
irogaiembari 
ogaigakembari 


PAST 


1  nosikatemba  isikataiitatha 

2  pisikataka  virolipisakatahigakaniroro 
8  isigataka  ithilohegaisikataiigakaniro 
3/  nakitisakatangtci    osigataiigapaka 

Sn  yogakathi 

•  Neuter 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

osikatakaingara 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

yogarantaka 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYEXGA 


27 


Sinffular 

1   nomatigaki 
St  pimatiki 
S   marenti 


TO  SING,  MATIKI 

Plural  Singular 


PRESEXT 


matekaiigakakeri 

pimatikaiigera 

imatikaiigi 


Plural 


FUTURE 


1  nomatikai  marentaiigakera 

2  piinatikaiera  pirantaiigi 

3  embirantageageti     imarentarigera 


1  nomatiki 

2  pimatiki 

3  imatikerora 


PAST 

imatikaiithira 

pimatikaiigakera 

ipirantaiigi 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

maritagqntci 

PAST   PARTICIPLE 

omarintinkani 


Singular 


TO  GO.  ATAKE 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


PRESENT 

FUTURE 

1    ninati 

tsami 

1 

ninati 

aiigakera 

St  piataki 

piagaki 

2 

pietaki 

p'aigaki 

3   iriataki 

mayu 

3/  aliooaigaki                ariooaiga 

3/  kiawata 

owaigaki 

PAST 

PRESENT   PARTICIPLE 

1   aUi 

aiigerti 

ataiunaike 

2  piateti 

aiigaibi 

3   iateti 

aiigai 

P.VST  P.UITICIPIX 

3/oateti 

oaiigai 

niuateti 

Singular 


TO  BRING,  IRAMAKERA 


Plural 


PRESENT 

1  mamakero  maiiganakero 

2  pamakero  maiiganirori 

3  yamakero  aoiakenkani 


Singular 


Plural 


1 
2 
3 


FUTURE 

namakeri  maiiganakerira 

pamanakirorakari    nompaiigakemperi 
iramakerakari  iramaiigakero 


1  Daromakero 

2  pamakeri 

3  vamakeri 


PAST 

aminkancrira 

pamaiigakerira 

yamaiigakeri 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

amanaka 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

matcero 


1» 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Singular 


TO  MAKE.  PANTAKI 

Plural  Singular 


PRESENT 

1   tatapantaki  kaiyakera 

-2  pantakera  betcikaiice 

3  betcike  yantaiyaceri 

Sf  antake  antaiyatceri 


PAST 


1   yanti 
"2  yotiyantia 
8  yobetaigatere 


obetsikanganiera 
pobetaikaigakera 
yobetsikaigatcaritha 
antaigatcaritha 


Plural 


FUTURE 


1  nobetsike  aatsamitayero 

2  tiro  pantakeri 

3  virobetsikangitcini  kanteriiyantake 
3/  virotakeroni  antaigakero 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

taiiyi 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

betsikangitcaritha 


TO  PAINT,  PITSOTEMBA 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


PRESENT 


FUTURE 


1   nopotsotaka 
-2  pipoUotaka 
3  ipotBotaka 
3/  opotsotaka 


potsoyemba 
sangenari 
tciringemba 
alyoikanta 


PAST 


1   tiweyithi  '  harohayipotsoegha 

-2  vitcapotsotatangitca  konogarii 
3  tiarikaipotsotatcita  ikanoyero 
Sf  tiaagatcero  kirasamatatci 


1  yoyetsapa,  otsapa  nosangyenatembi 

2  viropimpotsotatcemba  sangyenataka 

3  paiiroipotsota  potsoyemba 
3/  kopotsotembabiro         opotsoigaka 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

sangyinataka 


PAST   PARTICIPLE 

kantatgaka 
To  paint  a  cushma,  nopotsokatcamoyitsagari 


TO  FALL,  CraLANAKA 


Singular 

PRESENT 

1   nacirianaka 
-2  paciriaki 
3  yacirianaki 

PAST 

1  naronacirianaka 
^  paronacirianaka 
S  yaciriaiigaka 


Plural 

siriaiiganaki 

ponkaraki 

iraciriaiigi 


ciriakoiganakero 

congokoiganakero 

iricongakoianaki 


Singular 


Plural 


FUTURE 


1  naronocongoinakeri       ciriaigaka 

2  picongoiganakerakari    paciriaiganakeri 

3  iricongakonakeri  iraciriaiganakeri 

PRESENT   PARTICIPLE 

cirianaki 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

ciriaka 


ABAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


29 


Sinffuktr 

1  aiitJomaci 

2  aiitiopaci 

3  aiitioiraci 


1  nacinUveia 

2  pAcinUveta 

3  otunavetaka 


TO  HAVE,  TIMAKI 

Plural  Singtdar 


PRESENT 


PAST 


Plural 


ttmakitaricigi 

paciDtaiiga 

yacintang 


tcintahigarira 

pinaiigavttahati 

pinaiigavitahattta 


FUTURE 

1  otemakera  timaiigaiiro 

2  pintemarakari  pacintaiigaembari 

3  intimai  iraciDtaiigaembari 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

cintatcariga 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

yacintavetakari 


INDEFINITE   ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS 


Something 

iroro 

Every,  /. 

magatirotciH 

Some,  m. 

ithirotio 

All,  m. 

maganirotcitt 

Some,/. 

irorotio 

AH./. 

magainiro 

Some,  M.  fl. 

ithiroeyi 

Both 

piteonatcia 

Some,/,  jd. 

iroroeitio 

Each 

paflero 

Nobody 

ataii 

Elac:h  one 

paAiinatci 

Nothing 

mameri 

Other 

pacini 

Much 

paitimi 

Another 

irapiteni 

Little 

traintimi 

Such 

iroro,  tiara 

Every,  m. 

magaf&iro 

Thing 

oga 

USE  OP  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS 


Did  you  find  something.' 

Someday 

Are  there  any  grapes?    Yes,  there  are  some 

I  do  not  see  anything 

No  house 

I  have  no  time 

Many  years 

I  have  little  com 

AD  the  men 

The  same  day 

Both  hands 

Each  time 

The  other  day 

Sadi  a  boy 

Anjrthing 

Something  else 

The  same  thing 


pametaka? 

ontowaiiganaki 

aiitio  sinquabotcaditcite?  hlihhK,  aiitio 

teranone 

tatakiinanoiiaki 

nantowaiitaki 

towaiiti  sithiagathini 

tesanoontiminosintcine 

maganiro  siredi 

iroro  queitayiteri 

pitatiroirako 

ikantafli 

oketorira 

tia  ikantaka  isanttmpira 

pantemaka 

iropacini 

kaflovitha 


30 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES 


A  large  house 
A  good  man 
Another  man 


patiropankotci  omarafti 

panirosiradipaiiroikametiti 

imaranisiradi 


Bad  coffee 
Good  coffee 


terakamati 
kamatini 


DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES 


This,  m. 

ithitho 

This,/. 

iroro 

That,  m. 

yora 

That,  /. 

oka 

That  (remote)  m. 

yonta 

That  (remote)  /. 

onta 

These,  m. 

ithiroyi 

These,/. 

ithiroka 

POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES 


My 

naci 

My  house 

nacinopankotci 

Your 

iraci 

His  house 

pacipipankotci 

His 

pacipi 

Our  houses 

siyegipankotci 

Our 

siyegi 

Our  wine 

siyegitomiyegi 

Your 

siyegi 

Our  dogs 

siyegiotciti 

Their 

siyegi 

Our  hands 
COMPARISON 

siyegikoegi 

Good 

kametini 

Better 

kametitaki 

Best 

ithirokametini 

Bad 

terakameti 

Worse 

tcrakameti 

Worst 

terakameti 

Rich 

payesintaranti 

Richer 

pa\'esintaranti 

Richest 

pay  esinta  rant  i 

Sweet 

potcati 

Sweeter 

piropotcati 

Sweetest 

piropotcati 

Sour 

okatcuti 

Sourer 

pirokatcuti 

Much 

towaini 

More 

pacini 

Most 

pacini 

Little 

mafliti 

Less 

otcariati 

Least 

otcariati 

As  many  as 

paitimi  kaftutaka 

That  tree  is 

taller  than  this  one 

omarapayi  itcasimpo 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


31 


That  house  is  higher  than  this  one 

The  most  beautiful  flower 

The  tallest  and  oldest  tree 

Manuel  is  taller  than  Domingo 

Manuel  is  older  than  Domingo 

He  is  taller  than  you 

A  horse  is  stronger  than  five  men 

As  white  as  snow 

As  much  gold  as  silver 

As  many  turkeys  as  dogs 

I  have  three  beautiful  dogs 

The  good  and  the  evil 


ontapUnkotoi  purotioka 

otegapari  okametiti 

intcato  oga  tcantcani 

Manuel  pairo  omaraAi  Domingo 

Manuel  pairo  ikametiti  Domingo 

ithiro  tetcimotani  paiironiviro 

iriropaiiro  icicintciti  paniro  pintangciki  ihi&le 

oquitate  tankanutaka  cadaka 

paitimi  koli  kaftutaka  koliki 

paitimi  kanati  kaftutaka  otciti 

naro  ainonotsititi  maguani  notcititi 

kamatini  iriro  terakameti 


USE  OF  ARTICLE 


A  man 

A  woman 

A  house 

A  tree 

A  dog 

A  turkey 

The  man 

The  woman 

The  tree 

The  orange  is  round 

The  plate  is  round 

The  world  is  round 

The  pole  is  round 

The  man  is  tall 

The  man  is  sick 

The  tree  is  Ull 

The  small  tree  is  green 

The  house  is  high 

The  house  is  old 

Round,  like  a  globe  or  ball 

Round,  like  a  plate 

Round,  like  a  cylinder 


paniro  siredi 

patiro  cinani 

patiro  pankotci 

patiro  en  tea  to 

paniro  otciti 

paniro  panaii 

ithiro  siredi 

onti  cinani 

ithiro  entcato 

larangha  iroro  kanaronkati 

mitaro  iroro  kabogitati 

kipatci  iroro  kabogitati 

entcapoa  iroro  kanarongipoati 

iroro  siredi  iniarana 

iroro  siredi  imansigataki 

oga  intcato  oga  tsantsani 

oga  intcato  ca\'ikani 

iroro  pankotci  karaki 

oga  pankotci  pankotci  karaki 

kanaronketi 

kabogitati 

kanerongipoati 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


I 

naro 

You 

viro 

He 

ithitho 

She 

iroro 

We,  m. 

harinelyi 

We,/. 

viroyi 

You 

viroyi 

They,  m. 

ithiroiyi 

They,  /. 

iroroyi 

32 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


USE  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


They  love  us 

onintana 

They  do  not  love  us 

teraonintana 

She  is  afraid  of  me 

irovotionimpana 

She  is  not  afraid  of  me 

iroroteraimpana 

He  gave  you  a  turkey 

tiabapagatcievi 

He  loves  me 

nintana 

He  loved  me 

nintero 

I  love  her  and  fear  her  also 

nathononintero  pintimatcira 

I  saw  you  this  morning 

noniyatdlmpiinkara 

I  saw  your  sister  also 

ithiraiyenonakeri 

Is  he  homely? 

ithirotereiriklimetiti? 

Yes,  he  is 

ithirotathi 

I  wish  to  speak  with  him 

noniakethitha 

He  gives  it  to  me 

ipahanaro 

He  is  willing  to  work  with  you  and  with 

ininti  ivitsamai  itakero  tcini  intentaka 

me  but  not  with  him 

viro  intentaka 

Give  it  to  me 

painaro 

Give  them  to  us 

yimoretci 

He  gives  them  to  you 

tsilngite 

He  gives  it  to  you 

kantero  yimotetci 

He  gives  them  to  us 

tsahangatetci 

RELATIVE 

PRONOUNS 

Who                              nebinte 

All  that                        akaikanta 

Which                           tdm 

What                            UU 

USE  OF  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 


What  is  that?  tatawitaoga? 

Who  is  calling?  tcinikaiimagitci? 

Whose  is  that  beauti-  tdni  sintaro  ipanko  tci 
ful  house?  paiiro  kametiti? 


How  many  are  there?  akaokanta? 
What  man  is  this?  tsaniyonta? 
What  did  he  say?         Utakanika? 


ADVERBS 


Here 

There 

Much 


aka 

anta 

paitimi 


Easily 

There  (distant) 


tera  ongomitempa 
sitikani 


USE  OF  ADVERBS 


I  am  very  comfortable  here 

Sit  here 

Sit  there 

Two  steps  from  here 


namitaka  aka 
piriniteaka 
pirinite  anta 
tenara  oka 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


33 


We  shall  all  go  there 

He  works  much  (a  great  deal) 

I  am  veiy  tired 

He  is  much  esteemed 

It  is  now  (aheady)  late 

I  understand  now 


tsame  maganiro  aiigaki 
paiiro  itsamaiti 
paiiro  nociropitaki 
paiiro  ikyiaki 
ataka  icunganaka 
notcemaki 


USE  OF  CONJUNCTIONS 


and 

or 

but 


=  1 


impa 
non 


Father  and  mother  are  sick 
Father  and  son  are  well 
You  and  I  are  white 
Five  or  six  are  good 

He  says  so  but  I  do  not  believe  it 

I  am  not  going  to  Lima  but  to  Cuzco 

Where  are  you  going? 

Where  does  he  come  from? 

I  shall  tell  him  when  he  comes 

I  have  no  friend  but  you 

One  day  when  I  was  in  Cuzco 

The  man  is  sick 

Are  you  sick? 

He  always  tells  the  truth 


apa  imantsigataka  ina  omancigatatci 
apa  i  tomi  yoga  ipothitabaiyeta 
vironaro  thera  tsamampa 
piniropintangitci  impa  patirogangetce 

paiiro  ikomeiteti 
ikanti  tera  non  gematsateri 
garanoatai  non  timatciriaka 
tiarapia  taiviro? 
tiaiponiaka? 

pinkanteri  akalika  ithipokaka 
thirainiimi  nonthentemparitha 
patiro  notimatciti  koskoki 
siradi  imantcigatatce 
ariro  pimmantcigatatce? 
tcanantana  pintsavatatcara 


USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS 


This  fish  is  for  you 
I  am  leaving  for  Bongo 
He  caught  me  by  the  hand 
A  qx>on  for  the  soup 
A  cushma  of  cotton 
I  cut  my  finger 


yokesima  ithitho  paci 

yokapantli  onogakeri 

nagakeri  nakoki 

patiro  biciria  iroro  adkotari 

patiro  kitsagarintcintci  ampe 

nogarakanako 


Ah 


ah 


INTERJECTIONS 

Oh 


ehe 


SALUTATIONS 


How  are  you? 

Very  well,  thank  you; 

and  how  are  you? 
G<x>dday 


aii&owi? 
aiillona 
viroriaiinowi? 
ketayitetiUiai 


Goodnight 

Goodbye 

What  is  your  name? 


sayitetAnai 
nowaitaiita 
tata  pipeita? 


34 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES 


A  good  man  is  happy 

An  old  man  is  feeble 

A  good  house  is  dry 

An  old  house  is  wet 

A  good  bow  is  strong 

A  good  arrow  is  straight 

A  good  wife  is  faithful 

Good  and  bad 

Neither  good  nor  bad 

A  good  husband  loves  his  wife 

I  am  cold 

I  am  thirsty 

It  is  true 

It  is  not  true 

He  is  in  my  uncle^s  house 

He  bought  the  bow  from  my  cousin 

He  found  the  chUd 

He  has  black  hair 

It  is  hot 

It  is  windy 

It  is  early 

Is  it  late? 

I  wish  to  speak  with  you 

I  am  tired  of  walking 

There  is  nothing 

\Vhere  is  it? 

Very  tired 


yoga  siredi  kamatini  idiataki 

siredi  ibisalitaga  tenigaicingeste 

kametini  pankotci  tera  ungatsoyi 

ogali  pankotci  katsoga  sitake 

okapi  tlnuntci  oUlngsigati 

patero  tcakopi  okatingati 

pihima  kametin*  teilhitsa  kotemba 

kametiniempa  terakameti 

unkametitemati  kametini 

yoga  oimi  ikenkiro  ihina 

nokatcingataki 

nomirataki 

alits&notio 

pikankani 

aiino  pankotcita  pikonkidi 

nonebitaki  iyunti  ibiani 

aitio  itomi 

ocibokaki  igici  potcetari 

katciringakitcri 

atampiati 

tcitikamini 

atanai  ianta? 

noninti  noniania  takempira 

paiero  nocigopitaki  na  naiitakera 

menedi  yitataki 

aterekara? 

nocigopitaka 


HUNTING  STORY 
Noaiigera  nomagabi  yetitera.    Nowataki   noniaka   koniaikenaro. 

We  went         to  hunt  slept.  Being       encountered        monkeys. 

Nopatimakinakeri  ariono  kentivakeri  peniro  alionpa.    Noaiganaka 

/  fiad  persevered      here  and       fished  one    we  secured.     To  commence 

aiikeri       ario       noniaki    pacini    ocito    nokentaki    nogontiataki 
farther  off    there       we  found       other     monkeys     and  fish  thousands  of 

otemakeraneri,  nobetcikaki  nobanko.      Okitaiitetanaki       naiiro 

where  is  water ^       there  we  made  a  shelter.  Another  day  {in  the  morning)  and 

aiikiro      nani    nomata    ariononianaki    maiini      nogaivitakeri, 
another  time     to  go    beginning      we  have  found       a  hear  and  killed  it, 

nokianakeri  noungetaka    oti    makeraniateni    ario    nomaigaiigaki 
carried  it         and  left  it       where  we  have  to  sleep    where      we  had  slept 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  >L\CHEYEXGA  35 

nanaivaigeviti  noniagaiigaki  cintori  mava.    X<4Dentaki.   Xopc^^ai 

yesterday         we  hare  found        pig*     tkrer.  I  juked.       Wf  rfivm^ 

ipokaiigapi  notentaiitha  igaiithinokiaki  ciiiton        icingotenkani 

companions         me  and  my         we  han  hrovghi         pig*  we  hare  rwuifd 

cintori.    Okitaiitikanai  osairiri  DOfngaiiga  nokatataiki       cinkoti 

pigs.  Tomorrow        good  day     we  rHvm        a  third  day  roast  pigs 

nokiaki  nokantimaika  aiigi.  nopakaii  nokiaki  cintori       itemati. 

loaded  lei  us  now        return,     return        loaded         pigs  very  heary. 

Arionamaganii  nomaganakera  nakera  atangatci.  Ariookaniutaka 

There  to  sleep  again  where  we  dept  first  n  ight  voyage  first  day.         Bea  utiful  day 

t^raonpaliyaenkani.    Xoponia     nopitinitanai  oticka  no>naigakeri 

there  was  no  rain.         I  went  out  my  companions  in    great  hope 

ipokopaii    napicigopithiaiigaka.     Xokavititanaha       nogongetaka 

they  arrived  refreshed.  We  must  go  again        short  distance  to 

oniogantatha  pankotci  arioonopethinitanaki.    Xokiani  kigonkero 

where  was  seen      the  house  there  rested.  Then  we  hare      this 

nogaiithopankotciti  arionoatheti.    Oyaciati  kontiriciati  paitimaka 

the  shelter  there  had  been.  Where  plenty       game  plenty 

pankeri    paiiroitimi    icingitaciegi    paneronomaiia\atheti.      Paiiro 

turkeys  plenty  bears  and  some  fish  It 

osamaoitinoatheti  kainetigitiva>ataki. 

is  not  far  away        beautiful  place  to  lire. 

TRANSLATION 

We  went  hunting  and  slept  in  the  woods.  We  found  some  small 
monkeys.  I  went  on  here  and  caught  one  fish.  We  went  on  again 
a  long  distance  where  we  found  some  large  red  monkeys,  and 
thousands  of  fish  in  the  river.  Here  we  built  a  shelter.  In  the 
morning  we  started  again  and  found  a  bear  and  killed  it,  and  car- 
ried it  back  to  the  place  where  we  slept  the  night  before.  We  then 
encountered  a  drove  of  wild  pigs  and  killed  three.  I  caught  some 
fish.  We  returned,  I  and  my  companions,  brought  the  pigs  and 
roasted  them.  In  the  morning,  it  being  a  good  day,  we  started 
home  with  one-third  of  the  roasted  pigs.  Our  loads  were  very 
heavy.  We  spent  the  night  where  we  slept  the  first  day  out.  It 
was  a  beautiful  day  with  no  rain.  My  companions  and  I  started 
out  in  good  spirits  and  arrived  with  little  fatigue.  We  had  gone 
only  a  short  distance  when  we  rested  at  the  house  we  had  seen 


36  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

before.  Then  we  came  to  the  shelter  we  had  built.  There  was 
good  hunting,  plenty  of  turkeys,  plenty  of  bears,  and  some  fish. 
It  is  not  far  away  and  a  beautiful  place  to  live. 

FISHING  STORY 
Ogaripacini         noatiri     Paiirotoliti,      nocimatira      notentaikya 

Once  I  lived  in  place         ParantorCf  I  caught  fish     with  my  brother 

nokientaki     nobbiogakeri     yoyagakeri     egyalseokeky     ciateka 

and  fish  plenty  a  pUe  carried  on  baisa  toeU  filled 

nopokaiigai       pankotciki       yongotengkani       nosikataiigapaha. 

we  ourselves  well    house  (shelter)  after  to  cook  to  eat. 

Irorookoitaiikanaiike    noatheti     itimira     apa     noniatero     ina 

In  the  morning  I  was        where  my   father  my  mother 

nopaiiterora  cima.    Nopigaha     nomangapa       ithi       acaningka 

plenty  caught      fish.         Next  day  we  fourut  arrived      Macheyenga 

yagatsonkiaiigakera,  ikantana  * '  Tsamakiringakera. ' ' 

Uiose  who  never  came,  and  to  me  said         **Lel  us  go  below  dovm  river.*' 

Ikogakotagantana  ikantiakapikanta.    Nokantitera  nontovaiigye. 

And  me  asked  how  many  friends  how  many  families.  To  him  said  I  have  no  family, 

Yogasipapa  terainaheri    apa  nantiathatatcikeringaki  pitipaiyeno 

/  have  father  do  not  know  where  faiher        I  remained  there  four 

ciriagakotheta     gakotheta.      Nokantiri      nomatsinga      tsami 

years  below.  He  said  companions    I  am  going 

niaiigatethiraxapa  ikantani  impatciaiinopidi 

already  my  country  and  my  father  going  to  be  he  no  has  family  here,  because  he  is 

tiarapikantaka  terapinkamantena    nopoki.   Cinmacitiki 

going,  and  because  no  more  advised  has  your  father   accompany.    We  have  come 

nagatsongiataii     nokogavitapa  riapamaneri.    Arionotimapaii 

in  August  there  where  my  father       not  uxis  there.   This  house  where  arrived 

noetheti      itemera  ani  noniapaieri  nokanteri. 

/  was  to  me         where         brother'in4aw    I  found  lived  there        in  his  house^ 

Tirapigotai  ina  ani        niananito         '^  Ikantana 

Not  me  knew  frightened  mother  brother-in-law  spoke  to  me,  "  Where  have  you  come 

arioviria         ani  tatapipokacti.*'  Nokantipokahano. 

youaremybroiher-in4aw  here  something  hasbrought.**  Mesaid,^*  I  haveretumed.** 

Nokogokataganteri  apa  ani?     Yogatitio       apa,       ^'taiiraitimaii 

And  asked,  "  Where    is  father?  "  He  said  above  Parontore,  and  I  said, "  Where 

kanti? ' '      "  Arioitimaiogaciaki      Parototi. "    "  Yogapikongkidi, 
ismyunclef*'  "My  unde  and  he  is  in      ParorUore.*'  "And  my  aunt, 


ARAWAKAJ^  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA  37 

tiaroitsetaki?"  Ikantana,  ''Arioitsataki  Cimaki/' 

whereiamyaunif^*    And  to  me  fie  said,  "She  is  in  Cimaki." 

Narononerokilinga      nokonoitariacaingo.  Aliokantakikeringaki 

/  had  been  below  {down  river)  and  know  my  country  ruin.     Thus  I  know  below 

noatikeringa      naronaiirokamatike. 

thtis  weU  know  below    I  am  able  to  inform  you, 

TRANSLATION 

One  time  where  I  lived  in  Parontore  I  went  fishing  with  my 
brother.  We  caught  a  great  many,  and  put  them  on  a  balsa  in  a 
great  heap.  We  built  a  shelter  for  ourselves  and  then  cooked  some 
fish  to  eat.  The  next  morning  I  went  to  where  my  father  and 
mother  used  to  catch  many  fish.  The  next  day  some  unfriendly 
Macheyenga  arrived  and  said  to  me,  "Let  us  go  down  the  river.'' 
They  asked  me  how  many  friends  I  had  there,  and  how  many  in 
family.  I  told  them,  I  had  no  family  there,  that  I  had  a  father^ 
but  did  not  know  where  he  was.  I  remained  below  for  four  years. 
My  companions  said  to  me  that  they  were  now  going  to  the  country 
where  my  father  was  living  alone  temporarily.  Therefore  they 
advised  me  to  accompany  them  to  my  father.  In  August  we  came 
to  the  place  where  my  father  had  been  but  he  was  not  there.  We 
went  to  a  house  and  I  found  that  my  brother-in-law  lived  there. 
He  did  not  know  me.  He  was  frightened  and  said  to  me,  '*Why 
have  you  come?  You  are  my  brother-in-law,  something  has 
brought  you  here."  I  said,  "I  have  returned.  Where  is  my 
father?"  He  said,  ''Above  Parontore."  I  said,  "Where  is  my 
uncle?"  "He  is  in  Parontore."  "And  my  aunt,  where  is  she?" 
And  he  said  to  me,  "She  is  in  Cimaki." 

I  have  been  down  the  river,  and  I  know  how  my  country  has 
been  ruined.  In  this  way  I  know  the  lower  country,  and  know  it 
well  and  am  able  to  guide  you. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FISHING  STORY 

Simasiri,  the  author  of  the  above,  was  brought  up  as  a  boy  on 
the  upper  branches  of  the  Urubamba  River  where  there  were 
thirty  or  forty  scattered  families  living  in  freedom.  Lower  down, 
the  Urubamba,  the  rubber  gatherers  needed  laborers  and  hired 
neighboring  Macheyenga  to  go  with  them  to  the  upper  country 


38 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


to  capture  Indians  for  slaves.  Everyone  of  Simasiri's  family 
was  either  killed  or  captured  and  sold  down  river.  Simasiri  was 
first  taken  down  river  about  one  hundred  miles,  and  kept  there 
three  or  four  years.  His  owner  then  took  him  to  Cuzco,  and  after 
five  years,  when  he  had  learned  Spanish,  took  hun  back  to  his  old 
country  to  act  as  an  interpreter  among  his  own  people.  The  fish- 
ing trip,  he  here  gives  an  account  of,  was  undertaken  to  learn  what 
he  could  of  the  fate  of  his  relatives.  His  father  and  mother  were 
dead,  his  uncle  and  aunt  were  separated,  his  sister  lost  sight  of 
entirely,  and  his  cousins  scattered  in  many  directions  or  killed. 
One  was  cut  open  by  a  white  man  and  his  kidney-fat  used  to  make 
candles.  Small  wonder  that  Simasiri  soon  deserted  the  Whites, 
and  took  up  his  abode  among  the  wild  Indians  of  the  forest. 


Vocabulary. 

THE 

FAMILY 

Family 

towaidi 

Son 

pitomi 

Man 

siradi 

Daughter 

pisinto 

Woman 

cinani 

Child,  m. 

ikaberanantci 

Husband 

pihina 

Child.  /. 

ikantaroti 

Wife 

nuefla 

Boy 

tcilipiki 

Grandfather 

pikonkiri 

Girl 

itumieni 

Grandmother 

payiro 

Infant 

sieni 

Father 

apa 

Grandson 

tcaunka 

Mother 

ina  (pinero) 

Granddaughter 

tcainka 

Uncle 

notirili 

Nephew 

naniro 

Aunt 

nutcaringi 

Niece 

itcaria 

Brother 

ifla 

Cousin 

numatcienga 

Sister 

intco 

PARTS  OF 

THE  BODY 

Body 

nosinaganti 

Eyelash 

weceptaha 

Flesh 

ibati 

Ear 

nayempita 

Skin 

misina 

Nose 

nogirimasi 

Skeleton 

itongki 

Mouth 

nowiganti 

Skull 

neyitota 

Lips 

notcera 

Head 

noyito 

Teeth 

nai 

Hair 

neyisi 

Tongue 

nofiini 

Face 

nogoro 

Neck 

notcHno 

Beard 

nosipHtona 

Shoulder 

nosiondi 

Eye 

noki 

Back 

notisla 

Eyebrow 

nosimpiesoki 

Side 

nomersta 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


39 


Chest 

noneya 

Leg 

nobodi 

Abdomen 

nftmporetca 

Knee 

noyerto 

Arm 

nonaro 

Ankle 

nowinkiki 

Elbow 

nokioki 

Foot 

nuyiti 

Wrist 

nuyerstoki 

Sole  of  foot 

nogunta 

Hand 

nKko 

Toe 

notctipiyeti 

Right  hand 

quatingati 

Toe  nail 

notonayiti 

Left  hand 

ilUmpati 

Heart 

nUniHki 

Pahn 

nusirUutapako 

Pulse 

isita 

Finger 

nutcftpako 

Stomach 

nomotia 

NaU 

nuciata 

Lungs 

itista 

Thumb 

tciripektea 

Breath 

naniengataki 

Index  finger 

nonkutaki 

Soul 

camatciruiga 

ANIMATES 

Animal 

posanteri 

FJy  (black) 

sikidi 

Monkey  (small) 

komaikinaro 

Mosquito 

siyito 

Monkey  (large  black) 

maikasapa 

Butterfly  (large) 

patcftntero 

Jaguar 

mainiti 

Butterfly 

pempero 

Puma 

maitsonsore 

Grub 

kenitci 

Dog 

otciti 

Ant 

katitori 

Cat 

mitci 

Ant  (large  black) 

mani 

Tapir 

kemari 

Snake  (poisonous) 

yatcikanti 

Wangana 

pageri 

Anaconda 

malanki 

Hog  (wild) 

cintori 

Fish 

sima 

Deer 

maniro 

Snail 

tcai 

Bear 

maiini,  icingitaciegi 

Toad 

masero 

Ronsoco 

ipati 

BIRDS 

Bird 

tcimiidi 

Partridge 

kinsoli 

Parrot 

kintaro 

Poweel 

tsUmidi 

Duck 

pftntio 

Woodpecker 

kukaskondi 

Turkey 

kanari 

Macaw 

megantoni 

Dove 

imoti 

PLANTS 

Com 

sink! 

Papaya 

tinti 

PoUto 

maguni 

Palte 

tcivi 

Yucca 

sekatci 

Massasamba 

yairipeni 

Cane 

impogo 

Coca 

koka 

Tobacco 

sedi 

Cacao 

sariyamenaki 

Orange 

naraha 

Vanilla 

simasidiawanti 

Lemon 

ilimoki 

Achote 

apigiri 

Plantain 

palyanti 

Forest 

kovasidi 

40 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Tree 

entcato 

Flower 

otega 

TVee  trunk 

entcapoa 

Fruit 

okitoki 

Balsa  wood 

tsaiyi 

Root 

ositsa 

Branch 

od 

Seed 

okitsoki 

Leaf 

otsago 

Grass 

tdpanasi 

Frond 

tcipani 

Cotton 

okitoki  empey^' 

SPINNING  AND  WEAVING 

Loom 

tatero 

Thread 

ibiritsa 

To  weave 

amarintd 

Spindle  whorl 

kirikttnentonsi 

Woven  doth 

tagompirontd 

Cotton 

empeye 

Warp 

otsapa 

To  sew 

bobitero 

Woof 

kononkari 

Cord 

obidio 

To  spin 

mttmpetsa 

BOW  AND 

ARROW 

Bow 

piamintci 

Arrow 

tcakopi 

Back 

onegya 

Shaft  (cane) 

tcakopi 

Belly 

otista 

Foreshaf  t  (chonta) 

entditi 

Middle 

onftmpinald 

Point  (bamboo) 

kapiro 

Arm 

otdtika 

Feathers 

otega 

Arm  (surplus  string)  oytlski 

Knock 

omaretaga 

Notch 

okitcKiikilra 

Knob 

toyempiti 

String 

otsa 

Arrow  for  fish 

kerithi 

String  (surplus) 

oyecta 

Arrow  for  pigs 

pentaki 

Knot 

omaritcotlln 

Arrow  for  monkeys 

yipatakari 

Knot  (surplus  end) 

omarita 

Arrow  for  birds 

tconkanntci 

MEALS 

Breakfast 

isikAtatcikamani 

Lunch  in  woods 

ariiilrfttjiIrA 

Dinner 

isikataka  okalenga 

To  eat 

nosikatasanbara 

Supper 

inigankiti  eskata 

To  cook 

pongotakye 

PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 

Moon 

kaseri 

Full  moon 

tdiliU 

New  moon 

tciripekikttni 

Dark  of  moon 

pega 

Half  moon 

tdrimokilnttki 

• 

DIVISION  OF  TIME 

Day 

ketiyiteri 

Year 

siriagami 

Ni^t 

sayiteri 

Month 

sinki 

Today 

mika 

Last  night 

enkarasayitereti 

Tomorrow 

kamafLi 

Day  before  yesterday 

tcapiotdtoria 

Yesterday 

tcapi 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


41 


CARDINAL  POINTS 


Korih 

okoti 

Southeast 

otiunthatha 

Northwest 

katingatankitciri 

East 

padni 

West 

impojritithida 

Northeast 

watapalikoti 

Southwest 

tsaguanaki 

Zenith 

inoki 

Soath 

apiteni 

Nadir 

sabi 

NAMKS  OF  COLORS 

White 

kaitakyi 

YeUow 

kiteri 

Hedium  white 

kaitakataiitakyi 

Orange 

silnkyenari 

Bkck 

potsitari 

Red 

kamatcungari 

Green 

kafiiari 

Coffee  color 

yanigankiriaka 

Blue 

noronki 

Obscure 

potsitasimari 

NAMES  OF  PERSONS 

As  far  as  can  be  determined  from  the  names  themselves  and 
frcMn  the  direct  statement  of  the  informant,  it  appears  that  the 
names  of  persons  have  no  significance.  They  have  no  relation  to 
any  peculiarity  or  habit  of  the  individuals,  the  place  where  they 
live,  or  relationship  to  one  another.  There  are  no  family  names 
and  no  nicknames. 

The  following  individual  names  of  four  families  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  character  of  the  names  in  use. 


FiBBT  FAMILr 

Father 
Mother 
First  son 
Second  son 

cameti 
pananairi 
icantoidi 
kacankoigi 

Third  son 
First  dauf^ter 
Second  dauf^ter 

umpikidi 

petiari 

ingitaien 

Second  Familt 

Father 
Mother 

tcampitari 
holienti 

Son 

tontori 

Thibd  Family 

Father 

tsibitiori 

Son 

atmasiri 

Father 


FouBTH  Family 
poniro  Daughter 


mananega 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA. 


45 


awakanoka 

G>ntinual]y 

ritcakatd 

tsibeta 

Cool 

okatcingali 

pamanetwatci 

Corpse 

hiparatceri 

gwara 

Cotton 

empeyi 

sinthipo,  tsaiye 

Crazy 

ibigatara 

tsibeta 

Crowd 

kagite 

gantagantci 

Crude 

kaniari 

isipaktoni 

Cruel 

wagi 

kamitina 

Cup 

koboyari 

kametatakl 

Cylindrical 

kanerongipoati 

nomagamento 

Dance,  n. 

isingataka 

paikomprapayeti 

Danger 

pai'uroiseraiti 

fenu 

Dawn 

ingawipakani 

atioteni 

Day 

kreitai'ita 

tsimedi 

Days 

kreitai*itayetiri 

steniari 

Deaf 

maiyampi 

sangebandi 

Death 

kamaki 

tsompoyiari 

Delight 

nogavintsataka 

kobiti 

Descending 

malnoaka 

tciboro 

Design 

pturi 

nampiriantci 

Difficult 

okomita 

paiiroisiraliti 

Direct 

katingari 

tempia 

Distance 

fminiftni 

pabitoi 

Down 

kamatikia 

intapuriatca 

Drop,  n. 

suprawata 

osati 

Drum 

tambora 

alusaranta 

Drunk 

pwamitapa 

niatini 

Dry 

oroyero 

satcirifi 

Dust 

oyiangka 

potero 

Early 

tsitikftmana 

imorinti 

Earth 

kipatci 

apina 

Easy 

terakomaita 

pitotci 

Egg 

ihitso 

operataka 

Eggs 

ihutsoki 

kapi 

End 

nikatharo 

puematapa 

Enemy 

noyisabintsari 

kogeta 

Enough 

tcinikanta 

kuya 

Evil 

palitcagieri 

kabogitati  tsomonto 

False 

pitsoega 

irorokafloritha 

Far 

semani 

tcihispa 

Fat 

kavi 

sananka 

Feeder 

kamala 

menkoli 

Feminine 

dnani 

tcitcerna 

Fever 

mantdgarintci 

katcingari 

Feverish 

mantcigalintcienda 

wepieki 

Fill 

saputkale 

katcirmgaingari 

Fine 

putenane 

42 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


NAMES  OF  RIVERS 

The  rivers  are  named  on  account  of  some  condition,  such  as  the 
presence  of  an  abundance  of  plants  in  the  water  or  along  the  banks 
of  the  river,  or  an  occurrence  which  has  taken  place  in  the  region 
of  the  river. 


Pongo,  megantoni  large  parrot 

Urubamba  enters  the  sea 

Yanatili  cold  water 

Matoriata,  matore  butterfly 

Tirotiteiari  spiny  palm 

Tigompinia  where  they  are  always 

fighting 


Mantado  many  Campa 

Mantantciata        anaconda 
Tambo,  mamore    plenty  of  fish 
Kanaitciata  sacred  palm 

(tciata,  river) 
Tcirombia  fern 


NUMERALS 

1  patiro 

20  pititsongawaqiiangita 

2  pitati 

30  mawatsongatilngititciroirftto 

3  mawati 

40  mawataiinti 

4  pitipaiiti 

50  paineropintilngetc 

'tsongag^vantciroirftki 

5  patipintangkiti 

60  pitientini 

6  ganganapipakotini 

70  yasitienti 

7  tekaotcokawawhempa 

SO  paiiroitairogita 

8  okftrida 

90  tcrairikarUka 

9  panibati 

100  tsongagwait&ka 

10  tcombkawagwaka 

200  pitaticntini 

11   pitiganapipakot 

■     • 

mi 

300  mawatientini 

12  mSmpiro 

400  pitipaiiticntini 

CX)LLECTIVE  AND 

FRACTIONAL  NUMERALS 

Single 

ikantani 

A  pair 

pitali 

Double 

inaaki 

A  dozen 

patisungatangetci 

Once 

petiroiniatci 

One-half 

katcititi 

Twice 

piteiniakena 

One-third 

papatatero 

Thrice 

mavainana 

One-fourth 

pitipaiyeti 

Four  times 

pitipayiinana 

Two-thirds 

pipateleti 

Ten  times 

tsimkavaquakainana            Three-fourths 

pitipaiyetiitako 

How  many  times 

akainiakempi 

A  half  day 

okateingaka 

ORDINAT.S 

First 

okietovio 

Fourth 

oyittro 

Second 

nigilngitiri 

Fifth 

iy^ki 

Third 

oyiiltiridi 

TASt 

tsongatinaki 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


43 


VERBS 


Admit 

puagieri 

Divide 

pipegakoti 

Advise 

puenkageri 

Dress 

pubekatari 

Appear 

konetcate 

Drink 

bihikiilmba 

Approach 

rapiikali 

Eat 

nosikatasunbara 

Arm 

kotayeri 

Enclose 

itcula 

Arrive 

pinikapiwa 

Enter 

kiyanaki 

Aflk 

kantilli 

Escape 

rasigeri 

Awaken 

kankite 

Examine 

pakumeri 

Bark 

tsarote 

Fall 

sirianaka 

Beg 

namanari 

Fasten 

puesiatere 

Blow 

tasonka 

Fear 

pika 

Beat 

pusilageri 

Fight 

gomperi,  tacingake 

BIeii4^h 

klatalapitceri 

Fm 

citttekahali 

Bom 

watcugini 

Find 

anta 

Break 

tingarayo 

Flatten 

yananakageri 

Breathe 

anagate 

Float 

mahathi 

Bring 

matcero 

Flower 

kaweri 

Build 

potero 

Fly 

aranaki 

Burn 

kagake 

Fold 

soprigieri 

Buy 

nebiteri 

Follow 

iateri 

Call 

kaimeri 

Free 

tcakatkali 

Carry 

panigieri 

Give 

pedi 

Cast 

puemnugieri 

Go 

kimotaki 

Chew 

hahale 

Go  out 

kimotakero 

Chop 

piusaki 

Grasp 

kasitcand 

Clear 

raskabkana 

Grow 

kemoti 

Clip 

tcingiteri 

Have 

aiitio 

Comb 

gacitaka 

Hide 

isiganaki 

Come 

pimpokaka 

Hinder 

kamtceri 

Comprehend 

kemeri 

Hurt 

itcyantaka 

Cook 

pongotaki 

Inform 

puenkageri 

Cooked 

kotayi 

Join 

iksantaki 

Convince 

pemakageri 

Jump 

matcake 

Count 

pigenakateri 

Kill 

wailateri 

Cover 

pikapanateri 

Know 

igiti 

Cry 

kaimi 

Lead 

puegeletcigari 

Cultivate 

yunkapena 

Leave 

wanepakutci 

Cure 

ambatake 

Lift  up 

putakateri 

Cut 

watero 

Listen 

igenakuteri 

Deceive 

siyugerilatci 

Litter 

puetankuteri 

Desire 

puesenegeri 

lioosen 

kuseri 

Destroy 

patJtanaki 

T/>8e 

agirakari 

Die 

kamaki 

Make 

pantake 

Dig 

ovigantari 

Marry 

inantaka 

Displease 

remtawana 

Meet 

papatgeteri 

44 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Bfove 

SIrrp 

potookidri 

Offrnd 

panukatodi 

Smell 

kemangatero 

Pardon 

kametitaina 

Smoke 

oenga 

Past 

bisanaki 

Spit 

pabugeri 

Pay 

pcHnatero 

Steal 

kodti 

Persuade 

ratcmikagieri 

Sting 

yogakeri 

Place 

yerokari 

Strike 

tsenakeri 

Play 

mayempita 

Suck 

tcomiycgi 

Poifon 

tdogeri 

Suf4r1e 

tcutcupendceri 

Prick 

matcwiri 

Suffer 

kabintsanake 

Pursue 

piateri 

Support 

^gimaktari 

Push 

putiagari 

SwaUow 

pinigald 

Quarrel 

nokitsandatci 

Swim 

Rain 

inkani 

Take 

bikempa 

Respond 

gaopinata 

Talk 

miya 

Restore 

penegeri 

TeU 

tcina 

Ripen 

patkani 

Thin 

yampteri 

Rise 

kimotanald 

Think 

pildanldseriaka 

Roast 

tasiteri 

Throw 

kusateri 

Roasted 

kisidi 

Tie 

kisotiro 

Rob 

tcugeteri 

Tired 

sigopidi 

Run 

tsiganaki 

Toast 

kutakeri 

Runaway 

egimateri 

Trade 

resatake 

Scratch 

tcirangatake 

Turn 

pimpigyatcki 

Secure 

kasitcagieri 

Unite 

piokagieri 

See 

iniaki 

Understand 

kimorikero 

Seek 

koyethi 

Vomit 

kamarankyi 

Select 

pctgeri 

Walk 

naita 

SeU 

pimanteri 

Walk^ontraU 

pericageri 

Send 

tigankeri 

Wash 

kivero 

Sew 

bobetero 

Watch 

pikawakeri 

Shake 

kowaki 

Weaken 

katcendi 

Shelter 

mkatseri 

Wind 

imasantikero 

Shoot 

tsemiari 

Wish 

hemateri 

Show 

pekategateri 

Wound 

lueliukatciti 

Siege 

psoimitcani 

Wriggle 

hemani 

Sing 

matiki 

Write 

sangibandi 

Sit 

pinniti 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

Above 

katonga 

Also 

al3rikangotaki 

Absent 

kaiimeteri 

Always 

ikantani 

After 

empolini 

Ancient 

ibisalitaga 

Afterward 

impoyina 

And 

iriro 

Alone 

painiroeni 

Anger 

ikantaki 

Almost 

ithirokittkio 

As 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


45 


Ascending 

awakanoka 

Continually 

ritcakatci 

Bag 

tsibeta 

Cool 

okatcingali 

Balance 

pamanetwatci 

Corpse 

hiparatceri 

BaU 

gwara 

Cotton 

empeyi 

Balsa 

sinthipo,  tsaiye 

Crazy 

ibigatara 

Basket 

tsibeta 

Crowd 

kagite 

Battle 

gantagantci 

Crude 

kaniari 

Beard 

isipaktoni 

Cruel 

wagi 

Beauty 

kamitina 

Cup 

koboyari 

Beautiful 

kametataki 

Cylindrical 

kanerongipoati 

Bed 

nomagamento 

Dance,  n. 

isingataka 

Before 

paikomprapayeti 

Danger 

pai'iroiseraiti 

Besides 

fcnu 

Dawn 

ingawipakani 

Big 

atioteni 

Day 

kreitai*ita 

Bird 

tsimedi 

Days 

kreitai*itayetiri 

Blind 

steniari 

Deaf 

maiyampi 

Books 

sangebandi 

Death 

kamaki 

Bottom 

tsompoyiari 

Delight 

nogavintsataka 

Bowl 

kobiti 

Descending 

malnoaka 

Box 

tciboro 

Design 

pturi 

Boyish 

nampiriantci 

Difficult 

okomita 

Brave 

paiiroisiraliti 

Direct 

katingari 

Breeze 

tempia 

Distance 

tsamani 

Bridge 

pabitoi 

Down 

kamatikia 

Bright 

intapuriatca 

Drop,  n. 

suprawata 

Brilliant 

osati 

Drum 

tambora 

Broad 

alusaranta 

Drunk 

pwamitapa 

Brook 

niatini 

Dry 

oroyero 

Broom 

satcirifi 

Dust 

oyiangka 

Burn 

potcro 

Eariy 

tsitikamana 

Burrow 

imorinti 

Earth 

kipatci 

By 

apina 

Easy 

terakomaita 

Canoe 

pitotci 

Egg 

ihitso 

Careless 

operataka 

Eggs 

ihutsoki 

Cancho 

kapi 

End 

nikatharo 

Caution 

puematapa 

Enemy 

noyisabintsari 

Chest 

kogeta 

Enough 

tcinikanta 

Chicha 

kuya 

Evil 

palitcagieri 

Circular 

kabogitati  tsomonto 

False 

pitsoega 

Class 

irorokaftoritha 

Far 

semani 

Clay 

tcihispa 

Fat 

kavi 

Clearing 

sananka 

Feeder 

kamala 

Cbud 

menkoli 

Feminine 

cinani 

Coal  of  fire 

tcitcema 

Fever 

mantcigarintci 

Cold 

katcingari 

Feverish 

mantcigalintcienda 

Collar 

wepiekl 

Fill 

saputkale 

Cok>r 

katciringaingari 

Fine 

putenane 

46 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Finish 

nikauna 

Lake 

unampini 

Fire 

tcitci 

lAme 

piapi 

Fishhook 

tcagaluntci 

Lard 

kipatsi 

Fishing 

tatkatcima 

Large 

omarana 

Fit 

pupateri 

lAfje 

cungana 

Flame 

toema 

T^af 

Otsego 

Fleshy 

keriigeti 

Leak 

sagigiawa 

Flower 

katoeli 

Lean 

yaitcali 

Fog 

enapatkani 

Ticngth 

ogatsansani 

Food 

niktci 

Level 

pata*aka 

For 

itapla 

Lie,  n. 

pitsuego 

Forest 

ciyakana 

Life 

isedi 

Foundation 

etske 

Light 

molikaii 

Friend 

nitenagalitha 

Like 

itemgieri 

Front 

intati 

Listen 

igenakuteri 

Full 

iumarafli 

Lofty 

bemi 

Girlish 

nomperami 

Long 

ogatcan  tcani 

Go 

piata 

Tioose 

kureri 

God 

idioci 

Machette 

sabari 

Gold 

koli 

Masculine 

siredi 

Grass 

kutcanala 

Mat 

citatci 

Grief 

okatciti 

Mature 

irakakaii 

Group 

hitcolero 

MUd 

salaglate 

Grove 

tciyi 

Milk 

tcutcu 

Handsome 

kameteri 

Mist 

menkori 

Happy 

yataki 

Mister 

virakotci 

Hard 

okwasoti 

Moon 

kesiri 

Hat 

tcoko  irontce 

Moreover 

tiara 

Headache 

okatcitonoyitoki 

Morning 

kamana 

Health 

mampapagempi 

Mountain 

enkenisi 

Heat 

katcaringastaki 

Mud 

okisoti 

Hence 

pegineriki 

Music 

kowerintci 

Here 

evi 

My 

ibiani 

High 

umarafli 

Naked 

nogatsansaniro 

Hill 

etenahapu 

Name 

ibwairo 

Honesty 

eneriekani 

Nausea 

plapliri 

Hook 

kitcapi 

Near 

tcoeni 

Hot 

ikatcaringati 

Needle 

kitsapi 

House 

pankotci 

Neither 

vi 

How 

wanespo 

Nest 

imanko 

Hunger 

ptasigaki 

Nests 

imaiotkataka. 

Hut 

maspoti 

Net 

kitcari 

Island 

kanikali 

Never 

garato 

Joyful 

sifletaki 

Never 

ikwiepa 

Justice 

piwakekali 

Nevermore 

teratio 

Kind 

satiku 

New 

itcalyida 

Knife 

kotcero 

Next 

puniti 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MACHEYENGA 


47 


Sight 

Ka 

AToije 

Vonc 
Voon 
Vot 
N'o^hing 


^^t>ligation 


re 


^l>aerver 


Of 

Ola 


on 


iXi 


ipe 


(mon 
r 


«^ty 


Ptly 


^=kly 
t 


»^coat 


tive 


sayitiri 

tayitayeti 

tero 

snempogi 

tera 

katingataki 

tera 

mameri 

homanintd 

dibiwatci 

pawatsari 

wakalikano 

omarani 

na 

ibisaditaga 

tsitheaka 

retcikagendi 

intaii 

merati 

bitsahari 

enokatiro 

kiumaluntci 

okatciti 

ptsotemba 

siungalintci 

pesinieti 

apakapalu 

empilniki 

kumuli 

ageneriko 

soyipiki 

penarintci 

intagati 

kepigari 

ipua 

terairasintempa 

sapa 

yiyakithi 

onterotankitca 

sintci 

mika 

makana 

ingafia 

wurutegwa 

floUuta 

sintci 

puemuli 


Remote 

osamainti 

Respond 

gaopinata 

Rest 

yapisigepideri 

Rifle 

airiapa 

Ripen 

patkane 

River 

eni 

Roast  meat 

kisidi 

Robber 

kocidi 

Roof 

otefta 

Root 

ositsa 

Round 

kamaronkiti 

Rubber 

konore 

Sad 

kisa  ingantaka 

Sadness 

katdna 

Sfllt 

Ubi 

Same 

kanyoretha 

Sand 

empanaki 

Scalp 

wimpta 

Sea 

inkari 

Seat 

tsenkwarontstci 

Seat 

pteplali 

Secure 

ikaflotakatio 

Seed 

okltsoke 

Sense 

riwataratkali 

Sensible 

tseyiotsa 

Servant 

nomperatalida 

Shining 

engite 

Short 

otcariati 

Shotgun 

eriftpa 

Sick 

nomantcikata 

SUver 

koliki 

Since 

itakaro 

Skin 

gespugeri 

Sky 

inkiti 

Slave 

nomperani 

Sleep 

potcokidre 

Slowly 

atanake 

Small 

tcirepekini 

Smoke 

oenga 

Smoke  (pipe) 

pontcitciawa 

Snow 

tcaraga 

Some 

pimare 

Some,  pi. 

pimareni 

Somehow 

ihuneipineni 

Sore 

restaki 

Soul 

seletci 

Spear 

otse 

48 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Spider 

eto 

Turn 

ociingataka 

Spoon 

bisiria 

Twins 

apinatetcpa 

Stand 

ranta 

Ugly 

terakameti 

Ster 

impokero 

Underneath 

sabitithitha 

Stone 

mapui,  emparaiya 

Unknown 

mabsahata 

Stool 

sinkwarontx;! 

Unripe 

onatcerigapataga 

Straight 

tegongari 

Until 

noata 

String 

otsa 

Unwell 

yai*itca 

Strong 

katankero 

Up 

katonga 

Stop 

cenaka 

Vacant 

terontinui 

Sufficient 

intagati 

Various 

itibuiteri 

Suitable 

tciki 

Voice 

piniaki 

Sunset 

simpopokiriremkapai 

Voices 

iriniani 

Sugar 

potcari 

Voyage 

idiataki 

Sun 

poriatcira 

War 

gantagantci 

Support 

gimactare 

Water 

nia 

Sweet 

aputcati 

Water  running 

kamatika 

Swiftly 

paitanakisintci 

Wave 

oboli 

Table 

igapongkari 

Weary 

cigopiri 

Thief 

ikociti 

Well 

potabayetaka 

Then 

neitanaki 

Well  done 

wanogetcilei 

There 

feka 

Wet 

toastaki 

Therefore 

empoyini 

What 

Uta 

Thick 

kupunegi 

Whence 

inuaki 

Thirst 

meratci 

Where 

teraka 

Thorn 

kwiri 

Whither 

ivipenutci 

Thread 

mftmpetci 

Wide 

lUiopoki 

Through 

songpoyiteri 

Wind 

tampia 

Thunder 

karlyethi 

Wing 

ibanki 

Tobacco 

sedi 

Wings 

piteli'itsokieta 

Together 

itentagi 

With 

ta 

Too 

pairiyabitsanaki 

Within 

kiHki 

Top 

watceptagi 

Woods 

kovflsidi 

Town 

itimani 

Word 

idiniane 

Trail 

abotci 

Work 

ilantani 

Trap 

tsigarintci 

Yes 

hea 

Tree 

entcUto 

Yesterday 

toaki 

Tribe 

iracirikoini 

Yet 

totata 

Trifle 

yitataki 

Yonder 

sitikana 

Truth 

alitsanokyo 

Young 

metciukarira 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  CAMPA 


49 


CAMPA 

Vocabulary.    The   following   vocabulary   was   obtained  from 
^bber  men  on  the  Apuriah  River,  a  branch  of  the  Etenes  in  Peru. 


People 

atiri 

Sister 

tcio,  utcu 

Family 

nuatcaninga 

Child 

wanampi 

Woman 

sinani 

Boy 

sihiramba,  lihani 

Brother 

tetco 

Infant 

nohehna 

firethren 

piariri 

PARTS  OF  THE 

BODY 

Skeleton 

tumliki 

Throat 

hatsano 

Bone 

hitonki 

Shoulder 

atapiki 

Head 

piti 

Arm 

hembiki 

Hair 

naistci 

Hand 

tako,  nako 

Eye 

oke,  nokis 

Nail 

asketa 

Nose 

ahiri 

liCg 

habitsa 

Mouth 

hananta 

Penis 

habsabi 

Teeth 

himititaa,  nahi,  naite 

Buttock 

sabitci 

Tongue 

nonene 

ANIMATES 

Blood 

irahani 

Monkey 

pustciniti 

Bat 

pigiri 

Jaguar 

maniti 

Snake 

maranki 

Dog 

utkete 

Turkey 

kanali 

Peccary 

samani 

Partridge 

macangwa 

Hog 

onitairiki 

Poweel 

samiri 

Boar 

tcindoli 

Pucucunga 

sangati 

Armadillo 

mairi 

PLANTS 

Forest 

tumiriki 

Balsa  tree 

cindipa 

Camote 

kuliti 

Vanilla 

arupi 

Plantain 

pahantsi 

Leaf 

pano 

Papaya 

emitcuai 

Raspberry 

takiru 

Wood 

traka 

VERBS 

Afrakl 

pingatsave 

BoU 

pukiteri 

Arrive 

nunapapare 

Bum 

pinaheri 

Aik 

psambiteri 

Dance 

potsenangempa 

Attack 

putctero 

Deceive 

tamatabitana 

Begin 

uatciatini 

Die 

pingamatini 

50 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Discover 

kovite 

Like 

pinguerero 

Do 

pantserika 

Load 

pinkikero 

Drink 

piranakiero 

Loan 

ambateri 

Dry 

pinotsokeri 

Look 

nagiro 

CaU 

papinitaka 

Love 

tsimpe 

Carry 

noktaikati 

Make 

pantero 

Cheer 

katx;irigaitari 

Marry 

pinkianti 

Chew 

sihimpoki 

Nod 

pinguiki 

Choose 

atsiriki 

Pack 

hamestcitaiti 

Couple 

nonintagiro 

Paint 

psankinatseri 

Cover 

untsingari 

Pair 

kametsalini 

Cry 

pingagemua 

Pass 

pistcianake 

Cure 

pabkeri 

Present 

pempena 

Eat 

puya 

Produce 

pantero 

Embarrass 

klimkitaka 

Push 

pitastingero 

Encounter 

pitonkiteari 

Receive 

paheri 

Enter 

pinke 

Refresh 

pecta 

Entertain 

numbatctembiro 

Rest 

pimacuta 

Erect 

pubitckero 

Rejoice 

titcirantea 

Escape 

pistciapisateri 

ReUke 

pingobite 

Fear 

pitsario 

Roast 

pankeitse 

Find 

pistcibokerkasa 

Rob 

hameanguste 

Fish 

pangahati 

See 

pameniri 

Freighten 

pomistceri 

Seek 

pamini 

Give 

pimbero 

Set 

piatanaki 

Go 

natageta 

Shoot 

pinsiero 

Govern 

pimberanateri 

Shuffle 

putironki 

Grind 

notare 

Singe 

pintiri 

Have 

timatsi 

Sip 

piri 

Hear 

pingueme 

Sleep 

pimei 

Hesitate 

amimungarati 

Smell 

pasankweso 

Hide 

pimanevi 

Speak 

pimiabate 

Hit 

timbosateri 

Strike 

puheri 

Hope 

kuagika 

Swallow 

pantana 

Hunt 

pangatcati 

Swim 

nahamate 

Hurry 

pagirani 

Teach 

tuameteri 

Inform 

numakaembi 

Travel 

pitcanake 

Inhabit 

pinampi 

Understand 

tepinguema 

Join 

pwabitero 

Undress 

puinkerota 

Jump 

ciananga 

Unite 

tcovianti 

Kill 

puyeri 

Urinate 

psindaitea 

Kiss 

patemineri 

Wait 

kitata 

Labor 

pipankempa 

Walk 

pinkibante 

Lengthen 

pinotckeri 

Wish 

kitenintero 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  CAMPA 


51 


ADDITIONAL  WORDS 


Able 

ariotaki 

Few 

teacikits 

Aione 

aparoni 

Figure 

maroni 

Arrow 

tcakopi 

Fire 

pamari 

Ashes 

samampa 

First 

ucanteni 

Axe 

sihatca 

Fish 

cima 

Bad 

tukametsati 

Flame 

pamari 

Balsa 

lamengolentci 

Food 

aiti,  aitsci 

pariants 

Four 

apaporenro 

Bank 

jutatikwero 

Friend 

tciringa 

Barbarity 

maminto 

Front 

ananka 

Basin 

mitaro 

Good  day 

keti  comprats 

Basket 

kandiri 

Gold 

pistcianati 

Beautiful 

kametsari 

Gum 

katci 

Behind 

somani 

Happiness 

tubeatero 

Bebw 

kivinga 

Hard 

kisalino 

Bench 

tsame 

Heavy 

hina 

Black 

kisahali 

Hill 

tsembi 

Brave 

kisatca 

Hot 

sabataki 

Bridge 

pabirontci 

House 

pankotci 

CaU 

hibagiro 

Hunger 

nutasetsi 

Candle 

pamiri 

Hungry 

nutase 

Canoe 

pitatsi 

Hunt 

paciniri 

CaUrrh 

kamantci 

Important 

kandero 

Chacara  (field) 

1  nuani 

Indeed 

atcaniku 

Cedar 

intcato 

Inca 

kuniri 

aub 

sibitci 

Instinct 

tiotiki 

Cold 

katcingaiteri 

Knife 

kutciro 

Comb 

kiciri 

Language 

tcakra,  atsamaeteri 

Companion 

yentsi 

Land 

impatse 

Com 

tcinki 

Lard 

trenka 

Cough 

kamantci 

lAt4^ 

tsanitake 

Coward 

tenungaisi 

Lean 

matsatanaki 

Cushma 

zalenti 

Lie 

pitsaha,  nutsaha 

Danger 

inawaka 

Little 

kopitsokigi 

Downward 

aniringagi 

Long 

onimotsansal 

Drink 

piarintci 

Lower 

antakwirunta 

Drop 

katsuali 

Lumber 

pitotsi 

Dry 

paronagero 

Many 

putcaiki 

Dung 

hatsumi 

Meat 

hibatsa 

Enclosure 

buantci 

More 

hotseba,  aimiro 

End 

nutshangakero 

Mound 

tongali 

Enemy 

nusamakaso 

Much 

nuntsemp 

Excrement 

atia 

Mud 

kipatsi 

False 

pakeandenake 

Naked 

pithali 

Feather 

cinaki 

Near 

haknakigi 

52 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Neither 

oseki 

Ster 

impokira 

Never 

rekatsinume 

Stone 

mapi 

Next 

taitikeri 

Straight 

thatcitanaka 

New 

hanali 

Strong 

sintciri 

Night 

itsteniri 

Sufficient 

ariotaki 

No 

kite,  tiva,  ti 

Summer 

sitastcintci 

Noise 

ayambita 

Sun 

urialstciri 

None 

tekatsi 

Sweet 

putcahali 

Nothing 

itekatsi 

Thin 

emararu 

Nourishment 

sinkiri 

Thirsty 

numiri 

Offensive 

istebale 

This 

kohikanti 

Oh 

nimaika 

Thou 

abiro 

One 

apatiro,  apito 

Thread 

mampetsa 

Only 

apaniro 

Three 

mawa 

Other 

pihate 

Thus 

ariove 

Paddle,  n. 

komarontci 

Today 

unigatamani 

Pain 

katcirini 

Tomorrow 

sertikero 

Playa  (sand  bar) 

hataepa 

Top 

haito 

Poor 

tekatse 

Town 

emetjulini 

Pot 

kubiti,  koitsi 

Two 

apite 

Quickly 

usipaite 

Ugly 

tengametsati 

Red 

ivaka 

Unique 

aparo 

Remain 

hetepindi 

Until 

oni 

Rind 

riniki 

Urine 

hotsini 

River 

Aa 

Warm 

masabirintci 

Road 

habatsi 

Well 

kametsari 

Roast  com 

tcinki 

What 

kikongogita 

Rubber 

tutcato 

Whence 

piateka 

Ruddy 

tcungari 

WTiere 

tsotsinika 

Sad 

kinkitsari 

Wherefore 

hateka 

Salt 

tibi 

WTiich 

hupagita 

Salutation 

sutsatsmi 

WTiite 

tamaniri 

Sea 

sindoritea 

Whether 

hateka 

Shirt 

notsinka 

Whose 

hateka 

Sick 

kamantci 

WTiy 

puetaka 

Side 

knakero 

Wool 

tcuastcaki 

Silence 

piesekanake 

Yes 

ehe,  ihi,  wa 

Sleep 

ariopimae 

You 

pi 

Small 

hinkiri 

Your 

tsavi 

Soul 

inkwi 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO  53 

PIRO 

Distribution.  One  of  the  most  important  Arawakan  tribes  in 
the  Amazon  region  is  the  Piro,  sometimes  called  Chontoquiro  or 
Semirentci.  They  occupy  the  highlands  around  the  headwaters 
of  the  Funis,  Mishagua,  Camisea,  and  Manu  Rivers.  In  fonuer 
times  there  were  large  groups  living  along  the  Urubamba,  where 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  Inca,  and  assisted  them  in  building 
the  fort  of  Tonquini.  Samuel  Fritz's  map  (1707)  shows  them  in 
the  section  between  the  Ucayali  and  Pachitea  Rivers,    Today 


^ 

9m 

their  numbers  are  reduced,  through  contact  with  white  man's 
civilization,  to  five  or  six  hundred. 

My  information  concerning  the  Piro  was  obtained  at  Sutlija 
and  Portilla  from  a  chief  of  the  tribe,  through  Sr.  Torres,  a  Span- 
iard, who  had  lived  among  them  for  a  number  of  years,  and  from 
my  own  observations  at  the  two  Indian  villages. 

Organization.  The  Piro  have  a  very  good  tribal  organization 
under  the  leadership  of  a  hereditary  chief  who  has  absolute  au- 
thority. The  chief  is  called  Klineriwakipiya.  It  is  not  his  individ- 
ual name,  but  the  name  of  the  office  of  chieftainship,  which  he 
inherits  from  bis  father.  If  a  chief  has  no  son,  his  brother  in- 
herits, and  the  descent  is  in  his  line.  If  the  son  is  too  young  to 
exercise  his  authority  when  his  father  dies,  the  oldest  man  in  the 
tribe  performs  the  duties  of  chief  until  the  boy  is  about  eighteen  or 
twenty,  when  he  assumes  his  office.    Some  time  ago,  the  chief  at 


54  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

Portillo  died  without  sons.  His  brother,  who  inherited,  was  old 
and  did  not  speak  Spanish,  and  so  he  passed  the  office  on  to  his 
oldest  son,  a  young  man  of  twenty-five  years,  who  spoke  some 
Spanish,  a  great  advantage  when  dealing  with  the  rubber  men.  He 
had  two  small  sons,  who  have  their  own  individual  names,  but 
the  oldest  son  is  called  Klineriwakipiya,  in  addition. 

The  chief  takes  control  of  all  the  affairs  of  the  tribe,  and  always 
remains  at  home  except  on  very  special  occasions.  He  never  does 
any  work  in  the  fields,  goes  hunting,  or  on  a  journey,  but  sends 
men  to  perform  all  of  these  duties.  He  determines  upon  an  undar^ 
taking,  and  assigns  each  man  to  his  own  particular  task.  The  chief 
settles  all  disputes  that  arise  within  his  tribe,  or  between  tribes. 
There  is  very  little  evidence  of  crime  of  any  kind,  and  when  the 
chief  was  asked  about  it,  he  said  that  there  were  no  quarrels,  that 
no  one  ever  took  anything  that  did  not  belong  to  him,  and  that 
there  was  no  excuse  for  conmiitting  murder.  When  asked  what 
the  punishment  would  be  if  a  wife  should  prove  unfaithful,  he 
replied  that  he  did  not  know  that  such  a  thing  had  ever  happened. 

Houses.  At  both  villages,  the  Indians  were  living  in  a  miserable 
condition  in  a  few  houses  grouped  together  on  the  bank  of  the 
river.  At  Sutlija  we  found  a  deserted  Piro  village  which  gave  us 
a  good  idea  of  what  their  former  homes  had  been.  They  left  this 
village  on  account  of  sickness.  Many  had  died,  apparently  from 
fever  and  dysentery.  On  this  account  they  moved  down  the  river, 
and  built  new  houses.  At  the  deserted  place,  several  houses  were 
built  around  a  very  large  field.  The  houses  varied  in  size  accord- 
ing to  the  families  occupying  them.  One  small  house  was  twenty 
feet  long,  twelve  feet  wide,  and  eighteen  feet  high  to  the  ridge 
pole.  The  houses  are  oriented  north  and  south,  and  sometimes 
have  the  north  end  closed,  but  for  the  most  part  the  gables  are 
open  to  the  ridge  pole.  The  roof  comes  down  to  within  five  or 
six  feet  of  the  ground.  A  platform,  four  or  five  feet  high,  is  built 
along  one  side  or  across  one  end,  occupying  two-thirds  or  more 
of  the  whole  space.  This  platform  is  covered  with  split  chonta 
palm,  and  is  used  for  a  living  and  sleeping  place.  A  notched  pole 
leads  from  the  ground  to  the  platform.  The  fireplaces  are  along 
the  sides  or  at  the  end,  their  location  depending  upon  the  position 
of  the  platform.  Firewood,  cooking  pots,  and  utensils  of  all 
kinds  are  kept  under  the  platform.    There  is  sometimes  a  small 


ARAWAKA.N  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


55 


platform  over  the  fire  for  keeping  food,  and  another  outside  of  the 
house,  either  covered  or  open,  which  is  used  for  storage  and  for 
drying  clothing. 

They  have  no  large  hanging  baskets  or  placques  over  the  fire 
for  smoking  food,  which  are  so  common  among  the  Campa.  Some- 
times the  cooking  place  is  in  a  very  small  enclosure  outside  the 
main  house.  Baskets,  bags,  bows,  arrows,  and  other  implements, 
hang  from  the  roof.  The  largest  house  we  saw  was  forty  feet 
long,  twenty  feet  wide,  and  eighteen  feet  high,  with  a  steep  roof. 
The  ridgepole  was  resting  on  the  ends  of  three  chonta  palm  posts. 
The  rafters  were  thorny  palm  poles  about  two  inches  thick, 
reaching  from  the  plate  to  the  ridgepole,  without  other  support, 
and  placed  one  and  a  half  feet  apart.  The  roof  was  made  of  chonta 


FiauRK  4 
Outlines  of  hand  and  foot  of  Piro  Indian 

palm  leaves;  three  or  four  fronds  were  tied  together  in  a  group, 
and  each  group  fastened  eight  or  ten  inches  apart  on  the  rafters. 
Under  the  platform  there  were  several  burials.  It  is  the  conmion 
method  among  the  Piro  to  bury  the  dead  under  these  platforms. 

The  Piro  are  the  greatest  lovers  of  dogs  of  all  the  tribes;  they 
breed  them  for  trade,  and  give  them  great  care.  They  are  kept 
in  enclosures  underneath  the  platforms. 

Food  Supply.  The  Piro  have  larger  fields  and  grow  more  agri- 
cultural products  than  any  of  the  neighboring  tribes.  Their 
staples  are  cassava,  com,  plantains,  and  sweet  potatoes,  which  are 
common  among  their  neighbors.  The  corn  is  ground  in  a  mortar 
made  of  a  log,  the  end  of  which  is  burned  out  to  sufficient  depth 
to  serve  for  the  purpose.  The  pestle  is  made  of  hard  wood.  Com 
is  eaten  on  the  cob,  parched  in  a  shallow  pot,  or  its  meal  is  made 
into  bread.  The  Piro  used  no  salt  until  the  coming  of  the  Whites. 
They  eat  all  kinds  of  wild  game,  with  a  few  exceptions.    They  will 


56  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

not  eat  the  common  red  deer,  because  the  soul  of  man  at  death 
goes  into  the  red  deer.  Their  beUef  in  this  respect  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Macheyenga,  except  that  among  the  Piro  it  is  only  the 
man's  soul,  not  the  woman's,  that  goes  into  the  deer.  They  will 
not  eat  domesticated  chickens  and  ducks,  because  these  birds  eat 
refuse,  yet  they  eat  their  eggs  with  great  relish. 

In  hunting  they  use  the  bow  and  arrow  for  shooting  game  and 
fish.  In  using  the  bow  they  hold  it  in  the  right  hand,  with  the 
end  having  the  loose  string  uppermost,  the  thumb  gripping  the  bow 
and  the  forefinger  over  the  arrow,  which  is  placed  on  the  same 
side  of  the  bow  SiS  the  hand.  The  bow  is  drawn  with  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  fingers  on  the  string,  and  the  end  of  the  arrow 
is  held  on  the  string  with  the  thumb  and  index  finger.  It  is  a 
noteworthy  fact  that  nearly  all  of  the  men  and  boys  seen  using 
the  bow  held  it  in  the  right  hand  and  drew  the  string  with  the 
left.  Men  who  were  right-handed  in  other  ways  took  the  bow  in 
the  right  hand,  and  drew  it  with  the  left. 

The  Piro  make  rough  coarse  potter>'  (plate  6)  for  ordinary  use, 
and  depend  on  the  Conebo  for  finer  vessels.  Their  pottery  is  naade 
and  burned  by  the  same  method  used  by  the  Conebo.  What  ap- 
pears to  be  a  glaze  is  only  a  coating  of  resin  from  the  yutahy-sica 
{Hymenoe  sp,).  They  make  carrying  and  working  baskets  for 
holding  their  cotton,  spindlewhorls,  and  working  implements;  also 
the  small  telescope  basket  common  among  the  Campa,  which  is 
used  for  carrying  their  toilet  articles  and  trinkets  (plate  7).  When 
on  the  trail,  they  carry  game  in  a  rough  basket  made  of  two  palm 
leaves. 

Sieves  for  straining  chicha  are  made  of  small  palm  fronds  woven 
like  mats,  fifteen  inches  square,  and  bound  with  a  framework 
(plate  7).  They  grow  tobacco,  which  they  smoke  in  large  wooden 
pipes  with  short  bird-bone  stems,  Uke  those  of  the  Conebo  (figure 
7).  Tobacco  is  also  used  for  making  snuff,  which  is  taken  through 
the  nostrils.  When  the  tobacco  is  dr>'',  they  hold  it  over  the  fire 
in  a  leaf  until  it  is  vei-y  crisp;  it  is  then  pulverized  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  and  taken  by  means  of  the  coUpa,  a  V-shaped 
instrument  made  of  two  leg  bones  of  a  heron  (figure  5,  a).  The 
end  of  one  bone  is  decorated  so  that  it  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  other.  The  snuff  is  placed  in  the  decorated  end,  while  the  other 


AEAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO  57 

end  is  placed  in  the  nose,  and  an  assistant  blows  the  snuff  with  a 
sharp  puff  into  the  nostril.  Sometimes  the  arms  of  the  V  are  made 
so  short,  that  while  one  end  is  placed  to  the  mouth,  the  other 
reaches  the  nostril  and  allows  the  operator  to  do  his  own  blowing 
(figure  5,  b).  This  same  instrmnent  is  used  by  the  hunter  for  tak- 
ing the  pulverized,  roasted  seeds  of  Acacia  niopo  as  a  stimulant 
and  narcotic.  The  hunter  administers  the  same  powder  to  his 
dogs,  believing  that  both  he  and  the  dogs  will  be  more  alert  and 
have  clearer  vision. 

They  make  fire  by  the  common  method  of  twirling  a  stick 
between  the  palms  of  the  hands  upon  another  stick  used  as  a  base. 
They  are  experts  at  keeping  the  fire,  and  it  seldom  has  to  be  made 
by  this  method.  When  building  a  fire  along  the  trail  where  the 
wood  is  wet,  they  gather  logs  together  and  lay  them  lengthwise, 
large  ones  on  the  bottom  and  smaller  fragments  on  top,  make 
shavings,  gather  twigs,  and  build  a  fire  on  top  of  the  pile.  As  the 
fire  bums,  coals  fall  down  through  the  logs,  and  soon  they  have 
a  hot  fire,  just  where  it  is  needed  for  the  cooking  pot.  I  should 
like  to  recommend  this  method  to  campers  when  they  are  com- 
pelled to  use  green  or  wet  logs  and  have  little  kindling. 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  The  Piro  dress  in  cotton  garments, 
as  do  the  Campa  tribes  about  them.  The  men  wear  the  long 
cushma  (plate  4),  while  the  women  usually  wear  a  skirt  that 
reaches  below  the  knees,  and  a  cloak  over  the  shoulders.  The 
skirt  is  woven  in  one  piece,  and  sewed  up  on  the  side  (plate  8). 
They  put  it  on  by  stepping  into  it,  pulling  it  up,  and  folding  over 
in  front.  It  is  held  in  place  by  turning  down  in  front  where  the 
fold  comes. 

They  gather  the  wild  cotton,  and  spin  it  with  a  spindle  of  chonta 
palm,  and  a  whorl  of  pottery  (plate  9).  They  twirl  the  spindle 
between  the  thumb  and  index  finger,  with  the  other  end  of  the 
spindle  resting  in  a  small  gourd  which  contains  some  fine  white 
ashes,  used  to  keep  the  fingers  dry.  They  spin  the  thread  very 
fine,  and  wind  it  double  on  the  ball.  They  afterward  use  it  as 
needed,  by  twisting  the  two  threads  together  with  the  hand  on  the 
thigh.  As  the  wild  cotton  is  gathered  it  is  stored  without  clean- 
ing in  small  leaf  baskets,  which  resemble  hornet  nests.  When  it 
is  needed  for  spinning,  the  seeds  are  removed,  and  the  loose  cotton 


58 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


beaten  with  a  Bmalt  rod.  The  weaving  is  done  on  a  loom  (plate 
9),  which  has  one  end  attached  to  a  house  post,  and  the  other  to 
the  woman's  body. 

Besides  the  cushmas,  skirts,  and  cloaks,  they  weave  bands  for 
their  legs  and  arms,  sashes,  and  small  bags  (plates  8  and  9). 
One  end  of  the  loom  for  narrow  bands  is  held  between  the  toes, 
while  the  other  is  tied  around  the  body.  The  Piro  do  not  wear 
nose,  ear,  or  lip  ornaments.    They  paint  the  faces,  hands,  and  feet 


for  protection  against  insects  and  the  sun.  The  whole  face  may 
be  painted  or  there  may  be  lines  or  dots  on  the  forehead,  nose, 
and  chin,  with  triangular  patches  on  the  cheeks.  The  men  some- 
times have  angular  designs  tattooed  upon  their  lower  arms.  The 
head  of  the  infant  is  not  deformed.  The  hair  is  worn  long,  and 
cut  across  over  the  forehead.  The  men  remove  the  few  hairs  on 
the  face  by  holding  the  edge  of  a  knife  or  shell  against  the  thumb. 
The  men  have  no  hair  on  the  body  with  the  exception  of  the  pubes, 
and  it  is  not  abundant  there. 


Feabodt  MnsEuu  Papers 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO  59 

Marriage.  The  Piro  marry  within  the  tribe,  but  outside  their 
own  village.  A  young  man  may  select  his  wife  for  himself,  or 
parents  who  have  children  near  the  same  age  may  agree  among 
themselves  that  the  children  shall  be  married  when  they  reach  the 
proper  age.  The  children  are  then  known  as  man  and  wife  or  as 
belonging  to  each  other,  and  they  may  even  Uve  together,  but 
are  not  married  until  after  the  puberty  ceremonies  have  been 
performed.  A  man  may  take  a  child  for  his  wife,  and  keep  her 
in  his  family  until  she  is  old  enough  to  be  married.  The  father  of 
the  chief  at  Portillo  had  a  wife  not  more  than  ten  years  of  age 
living  with  his  family,  while  his  first  wife,  who  was  old  enough  to 
be  her  grandmother,  was  still  hving. 

When  a  young  man  thinks  of  taking  a  wife,  he  speaks  first  to 
the  chief,  and  if  the  chief  thinks  the  marriage  agreeable,  he  speaks 
for  the  young  man  to  the  girl's  father.  If  all  agree,  the  chief  takes 
the  young  man  and  woman  by  the  hands,  leads  them  first  to  the 
girl's  parents,  then  to  the  boy's  parents,  and  if  no  objection  is 
raised,  he,  without  other  ceremony,  pronounces  them  man  and 
wife.  At  the  same  time,  a  dance  takes  place  with  the  drinking 
of  chicha,  and  after  it  is  all  over  the  young  man  takes  his  bride  to 
his  own  home. 

The  marriage  cannot  take  place  until  after  the  puberty  ceremony 
of  defloration,  ''  pisca,"  has  taken  place.  It  is  said  that  a  woman 
is  imclean  until  after  pisca  has  been  performed.  The  operation  is 
performed  by  the  old  women  in  private,  while  a  dance  is  going 
on  outside.  The  girl  is  made  drunk  with  chicha,  and  the  hymen  is 
cut  with  a  bamboo  knife.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Piro  were 
very  loose  in  their  marriage  relations.  The  ground  for  this  report 
is  the  custom  which  is  common  among  the  Piro  of  the  loaning  of 
wives.  When  a  Piro,  without  his  wife,  visits  a  friend  at  a  distance, 
a  wife  is  loaned  him  for  the  time  of  his  stay. 

The  famiUes  are  not  large,  according  to  reports  from  the  Indians 
and  from  owners.  There  are  rarely  more  than  three  or  four 
children  in  a  family.  They  give  as  reasons  the  fact  that  women 
have  children  early,  that  the  children  nurse  until  t&ey  are  three 
years  old  because  of  the  lack  of  other  proper  food,  and  that  women 
work  as  men.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  control  over  birth, 
or  any  great  infant  mortaUty.  The  largest  family  we  saw  had  four 
sons  and  two  daughters  with  one  mother.    The  daughters  were 


60  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

married,  and  one  of  them  was  living  away  from  home.  When 
asked  the  names  of  the  children,  the  father  had  no  difficulty  in 
giving  the  names  of  the  boys  and  the  one  daughter  present,  but 
he  had  to  think  a  long  time  before  he  was  able  to  recall  the  name 
of  the  absent  daughter. 

When  a  woman  is  about  to  be  confined  she  retires  alone  to  the 
forest  across  the  river.  After  the  birth  of  the  child  she  brings  it  to 
the  river,  washes  it,  bathes  herself,  and  returns  to  the  village. 
Women  carry  their  children  in  a  cotton  bandoleer,  in  which  the 
baby  sits  astride  the  mother^s  hip,  or  with  arms  and  legs  in  front 
grasping  the  mother's  garments.  The  burden  baskets  are  carried 
with  a  tump-line. 

Medicine  Men.  The  Piro  have  no  medicine  men.  The  chief 
takes  care  of  the  health  of  his  people.  He  uses  certain  herbs  and 
manipulations.  The  people  are  all  taught  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves, and  one  is  constantly  surprised  at  the  things  they  know. 
On  one  occasion,  a  boy  of  eight  was  stung  by  a  large  black  ant  on 
the  end  of  his  great  toe;  the  sting  of  this  ant  is  more  painful  than 
that  of  bees  or  wasps.  He  made  no  outcry,  but  pulled  down  a 
thin  vine,  and  wrapped  it  around  his  toe;  then  looking  about,  he 
foimd  a  thorn  with  which  he  pierced  the  end  of  his  toe  in  a  dozen 
places  or  more,  producing  profuse  bleeding.  In  a  few  minutes  he 
removed  the  vine,  and  the  pain  and  poison  were  gone  —  the  most 
efficient  remedy  possible  in  such  an  emergency. 

The  Dead.  When  a  man  dies,  he  is  buried  in  the  floor  of  a  house, 
at  full  length,  and  the  family  moves  away  and  builds  another 
house  in  some  other  part  of  the  field.  A  man's  bows,  arrows, 
pipes,  and  everything  he  possesses,  arc  buried  with  him,  except 
his  dogs,  which  are  killed  and  buried  in  a  grave  near  by.  The  men 
of  the  immediate  family  take  charge  of  the  body  and  bury  it;  in 
the  meantime  the  women  moan  and  weep  outside.  A  widow  cuts 
her  hair  close  to  her  head,  and  is  not  allowed  to  marry  again  imtil 
her  hair  has  grown  out.  All  the  children,  also,  have  their  hair 
cut.  The  chief  takes  care  of  the  widow  and  the  children  imtil  she 
is  remarried.  The  Piro  do  not  like  to  handle  a  corpse,  and  will 
not  do  so  except  to  take  care  of  their  own  dead.  When  there  is  an 
epidemic  in  the  village  they  believe  that  it  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  "  buija,"  or  witch,  and  the  chief  may  designate  the  witch 
and  order  him  killed. 


pEABODY  Museum  Papers 


Vol..  X,  Plate  7 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO  61 

Personal  Habits.  The  Piro  are  the  cleanest,  in  person  and  about 
their  houses,  of  all  of  the  tribes  in  the  upper  Amazon.  They  bathe, 
and  wash  their  clothing  frequently.  On  the  trail  or  when  traveling 
in  canoes,  they  always  carry  an  extra  cushma  in  a  waterproof 
bag  to  sleep  in.  In  the  evening  when  camp  is  made  and  the  work 
all  done,  they  bathe,  wash  their  clothes,  hang  them  over  the  fire 
to  dry,  and  then  put  on  their  dry  clothing.  They  work  in  the  rain, 
but  always  put  on  dry  clothes  when  camp  is  made. 

They  are  thoughtful  for  the  comfort  of  others,  offering  food 
and  drink.  They  are  good  natured  and  lively,  often  joking  and 
playing  tricks  upon  each  other.  They  are  very  apt  in  compre- 
hending what  is  needed  or  desired  of  them,  and  respond  freely 
and  quickly.  They  are  curious  to  see,  and  to  understand  new 
things.  When  they  saw  me  using  a  magnet  they  were  very  much 
interested,  and  within  a  few  minutes  had  tried  it  on  everything, 
and  were  most  astonished  to  find  that  nails,  end  to  end,  would  hold 
together.  The  women  are  modest  and  reserved,  yet  not  as  tiAiid 
as  among  some  other  tribes.  They  show  their  modesty  by  droop- 
ing the  head,  and  allowing  the  loose  hair  to  fall  over  the  face. 
When  we  were  trading  with  them  we  allowed  them  to  look  over 
everything  we  had,  without  any  restraint,  to  select  what  they 
desired,  and  to  bring  to  us  an  equivalent.  Our  confidence  was 
never  betrayed,  even  when  we  allowed  them  to  go  to  another 
village  and  return  the  next  day.  Upon  the  whole  we  agreed  that 
the  Piro  were  the  most  manly  savages  we  had  encountered,  and 
most  worth}'-  of  being  treated  as  our  equals. 

The  Piro,  Uke  many  of  the  other  tribes  of  the  rubber  regions, 
have  been  captured  in  the  past  and  treated  as  slaves.  On  De- 
cember 21,  1908,  a  Spaniard  in  the  employ  of  Sr.  Rodriguez  ar- 
rived at  Serjali  with  five  families  of  Piro:  five  men,  five  women, 
six  children,  one  peccary,  five  dogs,  and  nine  chickens.  Two  of 
the  children  were  so  small,  they  were  unable  to  walk.  They 
camped  on  a  sand  bar  near  our  own  camp.  Each  family  built 
its  own  fire,  and  when  the  food  was  ready  each  woman  contributed 
her  share  of  the  food.  All  the  men  and  bo3rs  ate  together  in  one 
group,  while  the  women  and  girls  gathered  about  the  pots  and 
ate  what  was  left  when  the  men  had  finished.  When  I  asked  if 
there  was  danger  of  the  Indians  escaping  during  the  night,  the 
man  in  charge  said,  "  No,  all  I  have  to  do  to  prevent  their  escap- 


62 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


ing  is  to  chain  the  two  women  with  the  babies  to  a  tree;  the  men 
will  never  leave  the  women  and  children  in  possession  of  a  white 
man."  I  am  glad  to  report  that  the  Govenmient  of  Peru  later 
secured  the  freedom  of  these  Indians  and  pmiished  their  captors. 

Cats  Cradles.  Hapotske^  a  pole  with  spines  used  to  groU  oomomi. 
String  over  thmnb  and  left  finger  end  hanging  down  from  palm; 
pull  palm  string  with  index  of  right  hand  and  let  end  fall;  pull 
palm  string  again  and  end  drops;  with  index  of  right  hand  take 
up  from  through  loose  loop  the  outside  left  finger  string  and  out- 
side thumb  string  and  pull  out  through  loose  loop,  thus  having 
four  strings  which  pass  over  to  back,  one  between  each  finger 
and  let  fall  behind;  pull  palm  string  which  gives  a  basket-like 
form  with  the  loop  around  each  finger  and  thumb,  apex  five  inches 
from  palm. 

irapMoi7sa,  threads.  String  over  the  index  of  left  hand  and 
thumb  of  right ;  take  up  string  between  thumb  and  index  on  other 
index  from  above  with  downward  turn  to  right ;  take  up  on  back  of 
five  inside  the  string,  under  and  over  index  strings;  let  go  the 
string  and  take  up  on  thumb  the  inside  fifth  string  over  the  other 
strings;  put  index  inside  strings  over  thumb — take  off  lower  thumb 
strings  and  take  them  up  with  ends  of  index  turned  down,  or  place 
end  of  index  through  these  loops;  let  go  other  string3  and  holding 


Vocabulary. 

THE 

FAMILY 

Family 

numuli 

Boy 

mteri 

Man 

ineri,  xaxi 

Girl 

setcumteri 

Woman 

setcu 

Infant 

mptero 

Husband 

]Mineri,  napoklero 

Xephe>»- 

noparalderi 

Wife 

IMinandu,  haninda 

Niece 

iKq;Mirmkkm 

Grandfather 

tote,  toti 

Cousin 

molima 

Grandmother 

nahiro,  hero 

Father-in-law 

nigimaticri 

Father 

papa,  ri 

Mother-in-law 

nigimagini 

Mother 

mama,  endo 

Old  person 

ken 

Uncle 

sajMi 

Young  man 

ma^ 

Aunt 

kiukiu 

Young  woman 

magluge 

Brother 

wewe,  nie^*ak]i 

People 

eneri 

Sister 

tcigero,  iK-awa 

Brother-in-law 

pani 

Son 

eiugeni,  noteri 

Sister-in-law 

numegwenmi 

Daughter 

hitciciu,  sitco 

Male 

81^ 

ChUd.  m. 

mteri 

Female 

^9         ^M 

ait(!U 

Child,/. 

senahi 

i*EABODT  Mdsedh  Papers 


Vol.  X,  Plate  8 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


63 


PARTS  OF  THE  BODY 


imane 

Back 

kaspa,  tcihispa 

cgetc 

Side 

sereta 

fiuemta 

Breast 

witene 

wiciwita 

Chest 

westa 

widuitc 

Abdomen 

weskota 

klatgieneri 

Buttock 

pukpala 

wehud 

Arm 

wiganoh 

'    wehirota 

Elbow 

witzugiere 

wesapto 

Hand 

wimioh 

wakota 

Palm 

tcirete 

wihada 

Finger 

seregiere 

wesaverefaa 

Thumb 

serehuimeyungie 

wiceptatd 

Index  finger 

satibtce 

wihepe 

Leg 

wetapate 

wihiii 

Knee 

wisoh 

wiihi 

Foot 

wihitce 

wespe 

Sole  of  foot 

igitci 

weigi 

Heart 

wagi 

higesta 

Blood 

girari 

wena 

Stomach 

wesata 

weprahe 

Intestines 

retckape 

wenugi 

Brain 

ratcitca 

witanae 

NUMERATES 

setepgie 

11 

sati 

epi 

12 

miiim^lfit 

mapa 

20 

epimolie 

epikutcaamukugie 

80 

mapamolie 

•  «    • 
Kngien 

40 

epikutcaamukugiemolie 

paaeritamiyo 

50 

serigierimolie 

yokepi 

00 

paseritamigomolie 

anikaigiagieri 

70 

yokepimolie 

unterigie 

80 

anikargiagierimolie 

pamolie 

00 

unterigiemolie 

COLLECTIVE  AND  FRACTIONAL  NUMERALS 


me 


muetcinani 

A  pair 

putali 

satopgiati 

One  half 

sukaqueli 

soprigieri 

A  half  day 

temanani 

pizalkapewa 

64 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


I 

iU 

You 

piiei 

He 

pitca 

She 

wali 

We,  m. 

hitca 

Who 

klineii 

Which 

katte 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

We./. 
You 

TTicy,  m. 
They,  /. 


RELATIVE  PRONOL^^S 

AUthat 


pimhiiMi 


ipigmen 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 


What  is  that? 

klinedna? 

Who  is  that  ] 

man? 

klewakina? 

What  did  you 

say?       itcena? 

Whose  dog  ifl 

ithat? 

kati^ni  kevi? 

INDEFINITE 

ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS 

Some 

pimerina 

All,  m. 

tuhiurineko 

Nobody 

ikiami 

Same 

walekla 

Nothing 

ikieni 

Both 

apina 

Much 

hitcolero 

Other 

sato 

Little 

sotsotagi 

Thing 

klini 

Every,  m. 

pegeneriko 

USE  OF  POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES 

My  father 

neri,  ita  papa 

My  cousin 

nemolins 

My  mother 

nendola 

My  hand 

nomio 

Your  father 

peri 

My  dog 

nopre 

Your  mother 

perido 

My  house 

pantci  no6 

His  father 

reri 

Your  house 

pantci  pefi 

His  mother 

rendo 

POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES 


My 

Your 


no  or  ne 
pe 


His 
Our 


re 
witca 


DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES 


This,  m. 

tcie 

These,/. 

hualeni 

This,  /. 

fue 

Which  side 

fegera  sereti 

That,  m. 

fegera 

This  side 

tcie  sereta 

That,  /. 

huari,  huali 

This  man 

hebre 

These,  m. 

huanua 

This  woman 

hebro 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


65 


COMPARISON 

Good 

hinghileri 

More 

mahate 

Better 

hinghileri 

Most 

mahata 

Best 

hinghileri 

Little 

ukepineko 

Bad 

unhinghileri 

Less 

hepeko 

Worse 

unhinghileri 

Least 

hepeko 

Worst 

unhinghileri 

Tall 

teno 

Sour 

kapsali,  katcueri 

Tallest 

tenpoti 

Much 

koleri 

ADVERBS 

Here 

evi 

There  (distent) 

teka,  bakka 

There 

koniti 

I  am  here 

eviuna 

Much 

hitcolero 

SPINNING  AND  WEAVING 

Loom 

sakspalitsa 

Batten  (black) 

kirt.hri 

To  weave 

wasiri 

Warp  string 

yamonotsali 

Woven  doth 

himta,  mkatseri 

To  spin 

tcibetewa 

Warp 

hitsa 

Thread 

wapgetsa 

Woof 

impta 

Spindlewhorl 

wahye 

Heddle 

katsuli 

Spindle 

hihye,  tcibegio 

End  stick  (largest) 

sakalya 

Whori 

hiparo 

End  stick 

hiihik 

Spindlewhorl  with 

Reeds  at  end 

yotalaila 

thread  on 

hipowa 

Shuttle 

hihitcepihi 

Cotton  beater 

hipanopihye 

Spreader  reed 

katali 

Cotton 

wapge 

Batten  (white) 

sakspalawapi 

To  sew 

pintcamkatiwa 

BOW  AND 

ARROW 

Bow 

kaciritoa 

Point  (bamboo) 

ken 

Back 

kin 

Feathers 

himexi 

BeUy 

sisateri 

Knock 

wafinsa 

Arm 

iseno 

Arrow  for  fish 

palahagi 

String 

yokaritsa 

Arrow  for  pigs 

kiri 

Anow 

kaciri 

Arrow  for  monkeys 

katsali 

Shaft  (cane) 

ahahi 

MEALS 

Breakfast 

yetflikawa 

Nourishment 

niktci 

Dinner 

temakana 

To  nourish 

niktciplnahieri 

Supper 

winikana 

To  teke  nourishment  pimia 

To  eat 

pinigiehiua 

To  drink 

puerani 

Food 

niktci 

66 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


PHASES 

OF 

THK  MOON 

Moon 

siri,  sere 

Full  moon 

sereputekalelka 

New  moon 

arutekflere 

DIVISIONS  OF  TIME 

Spring 

hinapu 

Tomorrow 

yatcikawa 

Summer 

walapu,  emerikteli 

Yesterday 

kapethugeni 

Winter 

hanati 

Year 

walape 

Day 

hugeni 

Last  night 

kapethugeni  kainu 

Night 

uyatsunukai 

Day  af  t^r 

Today 

tcawahugeni 

tomorrow 

yatcikawa  penethu 

CARDINAL  POINTS 


North         pasereta 
Northwest  pasereta  paptox 
West  hihorokiwakikatci 

gigetuhatca  katci 
Southwest  sohi  tcarati 
South  tcarati 


Southeast  sohikatci 

East  katcihespakioga 

retcpagatca  katci 
Northeast  paptoxi  katci 
Zenith        danox 
Nadir  tcihi 


SALUTATIONS 
How  are  you?    luigiteipitckaipitca?  What  is  your  name?  kliwaquepitca? 


ANIMALS 

Monkey  (small) 

nikali 

Ant  (large  black) 

kanagi 

Monkey  (large  black)  mtciri 

Bee 

urmomana 

Monkey  (red) 

kina 

Anaconda 

mabahera 

Jaguar 

mwakenutc 

Fish 

tcima,  taperipa 

Dog 

kebi 

Wasp 

sani 

Cat 

cema 

Worm 

imenetskaha 

Tapir 

tciama 

Spider 

puitsanna 

Peccary 

miditci 

Tarantula 

sinankankara 

Wangana 

hinarii 

SnaU 

iunualagi 

Hog  (domestic) 

kutci 

Snail  (large) 

gitciri 

Hog  (wild) 

iyali 

Woodlouse 

luini 

Deer 

tcuteri 

Turtle 

serapi 

Bear 

icingitaciegi 

Turtle  (shell) 

serapinagi 

Squirrel 

iupitciri 

Terrapin 

inkunapalu 

Manatee 

pizkli 

Carapata 

waseynata 

Ronsoco 

ipeti 

Maggot 

sumi 

Fly  (black) 

giero 

Lizard 

tciogi 

Fly  (white) 

atcikata 

Locust 

ketsi 

Butterfly 

kakato 

Bat 

tcio 

Ant 

pukagi 

Toad 

yotero 

Ant  (red) 

samkagi 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


67 


BIRDS 


Bird 

Duck 
iWkey 


kucid 

mbdi 

uptoe 

kanati 

tcanripa 


Cock 

Heron 

Macaw 

Vulture 

Eagle 


tcanripa  giegi 

sagimageri 

pinteni 

keripakha 

patca 


PLANTS 


V^ 


(wild) 


tain 


^^mamon 


tcigi 
gipali 
tcimeka 
poroto 
putewak  ken 
katkeleksi 
in 

paranta 
kanga 
kaneta 
higeperidi 
kanawa 
(chonta)    iniri 
of  palm    tcitciritci 
tciya 
thamiuena 


Balsa  wood 

Palo  Santo 

Log  (balsa) 

Leaf 

Frond 

Flower 

Fruit 

Root 

Bark 

Thorn 

Wax 

Copal 

Rush 

Cotton 

Pepper 

Pumpkin 


mapala 

hukli 

ahamuana 

sen 

katdkulu  pastakapana 

katkali 

eginegi 

etske 

thamta 

kuna 

iururu 

zempa 

kamalegi 

wapge 

humuli 

sulia 


^White 

Black 

Oreen 

Blue 


NAMES  OF  COLORS 

klaUli  Yellow 

sageri  Orange 

sotsuta  Red 

angatd  Obscure 


apma 
pualulu 
kerutu 
mabsahati 


VERBS 


Able 

Absent 

Abuse 

Accept 

Accord 

Accuse 

Accustom 

Admire 

Advise 

Affirm 

Agonize 


nemkateli 

iranayatka 

kacerigieri 

nemerabandi 

puismikanto 

pineneageri 

nipenanakka 

muirayapikandi 

puikutandi 

atdpenekanto 

ripapani 


Agree 

Aim 

Appear 

Appreciate 

Apprehend 

Approach 

Arrive 

Ashamed 

Ask 

Attack 

Attenuate 


pulekatere 

wamereteri 

puegewa 

pug^^'iveniteri 

puemakageri 

puatspanutawa 

ayatcewa 

patenatena 

wepumgeri 

mankateri 

puihuruturde 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  ¥ERV 


BaUiiM 

gitwatginri 

Cook 

pnenkateri 

Be 

pitckalege 

Cool 

Bwt 

piugitcw. 

CoODt 

pianUttfi 

Be« 

p«igetm 

Cbunael 

neneten 

Begia 

Cover 

Mpririgieri 

Bri»T« 

PMigd 

Crawl 

pnknKteri 

Bend 

tagirikli 

Crowd 

nliakagiewa 

Bite 

Cry 

piaaplugiatw. 

BiMne 

Cure 

kacupaUteti 

Bleadi 

Cut 

BUsed 

ubuluteri 

Dance 

nemUwuupa 

Blow 

Decorate 

pusercnatkali 

B(Ht 

Deface 

Bore 

piomugieri 

pukiganetano 

Bring 

DeUver 

"  H  tcpnkn  u-Bgr  net^ 

Brtufa 

puwiktcri 

Depart 

Hdcpatgiewa 

BuUd 

ipanuatewa 

Die 

ivBiMinonutgien-a 

Bum 

Dig 

piBitu)(»'eHa 

Bury 

pikkpanateri 

Diminiih 

psolsotngipidwasli 

Buy 

panigitfri 

Disappear 

Calk 

kapunatanH 

CII 

tUDsateri 

Disturb 

Calm 

Divide 

P«)g5plaurfi 

Came 

renani 

Dream 

wepunawnta 

Capture 

-iliageri 

Dress 

Carry 

panikandi 

Drink 

puerani 

Carry  (with 

Dry 

tump-line) 

panikaaateri 

Eat 

pinigiew. 

Caatrate 

rcalakatgeri 

Bncloae 

pirigiriteri 

Cal<* 

puatgieri 

Enter 

Ce«M 

Embrace 

Change 

Mtkapageri 

Escape 

paaigiewa 

Chaae 

puenkapU^us 

Eipbin 

piinwgeri 

Chew 

Extinguish 

pntcuageri 

Choke 

ribeatnutka 

Eirtract 

Clear 

Fail 

CoaguUte 

pigithahali 

FaU 

yuananagieri 

Comb 

intkakagieri 

Fall  asleep 

Come 

Fan 

Commence 

Fasten 

pikpateri 

Conclude 

palitcageri 

Fasting 

hitcahugeni 

Confront 

pioputeri 

Favor 

pitaigeri 

Conierve 

enemsakagiewa 

Fear 

pigiewa 

CoMume 

Feed 

niklcipenehieri 

Conatnict 

ipauualewa 

Ferment 

piawulkagewa 

Contain 

puyahuta 

FiU 

katsapateri 

CoDt«dirt 

Find 

wetcakageri 

Finiih 

nikanantca 

Fire 

namanato 

FUi 

kotcuhatawa 

Fbtten 

puigitoewa 

PKng 

wekunugieri 

Fly 

pamamta 

Float 

sagiririkle 

Fold 

yunanageri 

Forget 

rasikatka 

FVee 

maitcaweli 

FVig^ten 

pika 

Gather 

pianimatawa 

Give 

penegeri 

Glow 

tdtciupgeri 

Go 

ayeri 

Gone 

nianitci 

Gnup 

puestaganti 

Gieaae 

Grind 

pinigitcewa 

Groan 

tciahatewa 

Grow 

kretkalanu 

Hang 

puitoeripatena 

Harvest 

pukasitcandi 

Hatch 

saprerigieri 

Hate 

pigegakanteri 

Haul 

kosata 

Have 

waneri 

Heal 

wetskatagewa 

Heap 

muleteri 

Hear 

igenakukawa 

Heat 

remelena 

Heed 

pigerenteri 

Help 

pipshageri 

Hide 

piogimateri 

Hinder 

wemalateri 

Howl 

kiimekuleri 

Humble 

gigekanoata 

Hunting 

riolikayatka 

Hurl 

puekunugeri 

Hurt 

iuhulutawa 

Huny 

mutciawa 

Imagine 

kantcininatkali 

Imveaae 

pitcutenakante 

Intoxicate 

puemetakagieri 

Imitate 

wemtapatgeri 

Inform 

kiatcaparere 

Inquire 

pupumahaperi 

CK,  THE  PIRO                       69 

Intercede 

panikamteri 

Jest 

kalirigieri 

Join 

pioptutere 

Jump 

ptalesutewa 

Kill 

inkanateri 

Kiss 

pamaleteri 

Kneel 

piyubsuyitewa 

Knot 

postageri 

Know 

wemateri 

Labor 

kiapareri 

Laugh 

wetsologiwatewa 

Lead 

pindukwewa 

Leak 

psagigwa 

Leave 

wanankai 

Lengthen 

walapitcanti 

Level 

kutcageri 

Liberate 

rasigiewa 

Lick 

pameruteri 

Lie 

payaluklawata 

lifeless 

repantke 

lift 

peopkateri 

Load 

puetgiteri 

Tx>rk 

puisiateri 

Look 

peteri 

Loosen 

pikuserigieri 

Lose 

ipenkakandi 

Love 

palikli 

Lower 

mala 

Make 

pikamerateri 

Make  fire 

pitsuama 

Mark 

kweiika 

Marry 

ianiriwatawa 

Mask 

kayewa 

Match 

puegelpuka 

Measure 

piahuteri 

Meet 

pitdhalaemtani 

Mistake 

igepenagueri 

Mix 

piopgetore 

Moisten 

aati 

Mortify 

sopirigieri 

Move 

ayewa 

Mourn 

tciahatewa 

Nourish 

pimia 

Obscure 

puwemtagieri 

Offend 

pigekakli 

Offer 

pinegeri 

Open 

kucirigandewiciatandi 

70 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Owe 

pidibiwatci 

Shame 

pateteri 

Paddle 

kosete 

Shelter 

lapirigiahwa 

Pain 

katcindi 

Shoot 

puemkahateri 

Paint 

pionateri 

Show 

pakatgeteri 

Pass 

saluatewa 

Sift 

saihugiteri 

Passing 

repanatk|i 

Sing 

tcikaluretewa 

Pierce 

piomugueri 

Skin 

pigispugieri 

Pity 

nuamuneriata 

Sleep 

puemegwa 

Plant 

wetaheri 

Slap 

puerlageri 

Play 

piamwatewa 

SUde 

rasegieri 

Polish 

tcitciatandi 

Smell 

winipa 

Pour 

supreatkali 

Spit 

puatskawa 

Present 

pikigelelukageri 

Soften 

pubtciriteri 

Prop 

piwustateri 

Speak 

wanberi 

Protect 

piwemerateri 

Stand 

famatewa 

Punish 

kastigateri 

Steal 

katcungeri 

Pursue 

puyahida 

Stop 

pakutci 

Put 

witageri 

Stoop 

pepuyuguawa 

Rfarh 

saplangatawa 

Strain 

saihugiteri 

Receive 

watgieri 

Strike 

piahutcakiewa 

Recover 

itcutkali 

Suck 

tcipuleneli 

Reduce 

totsotando 

Suckle 

tcutcupanageri 

Relax 

kucirigandi 

Sunburn 

panugeri 

Remove 

kateni 

Supply 

pwyankageritci 

Repair 

palitcageri 

Sweep 

satceritcewa 

Repent 

puamunenata 

Swim 

nanuhawa 

Resist 

wetcwamtewa 

Take 

wadgieri 

Respect 

pameteteri 

Taste 

petemgeri 

Rest 

papananitawa 

Terrify 

puwemiogeri 

Rejoice 

metcuata 

Thin 

kerinatcai 

Reward 

puyenateri 

Think 

wisenigoeri 

Rise 

kerinathala 

Throw 

puekimugiri 

Rising 

maharliwato 

Tie 

postateri 

Roast 

pigamateri 

Torment 

paentcingaigen 

Rob 

pitcukateri 

Touch 

tcasitceri 

Rot 

ritcpawatkali 

Trade 

panigiteri 

Rub 

satceritcawa 

Turn 

kerenathalai 

Run 

pianetka 

Twist 

saperititatewa 

Said 

puikustewa 

Understand 

puemateri 

Say 

waneptcina 

Unite 

wakutsiregieri 

Scream 

saklanketawa 

Untie 

wesuteri 

Jsee 

pateri 

Vomit 

tapleritawa 

Seek 

puekegieri 

Wait 

etcwakaka 

Send 

tuetleli 

Walk 

pasekamtena 

Separate 

wacerayani 

Walk  (on  trail) 

pukusehamena 

Set  fire 

witcigeri 

Want 

ikwatkani 

Sew 

biutsa 

Wash 

kanaapewa 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


71 


atcwakageri 

Wish 

nalekli 

peteri 

Wither 

yatcawa 

puemiwatka 

Worship 

pameletanti 

satciritcawa 

Wrap  up 

saperitceri 

pugewanatanti 

Yawn 

ramptionabkali 

pukutcipgiateri 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

n 

wesati 

Bark  (dog) 

thamta 

able 

ekatete 

Bark  (tree) 

pitcitca 

kwageli 

Basket 

kogita 

awaka 

Battle 

puekumukandi 

malekapiani 

Bearh 

zati 

dy 

peginarekotoriko 

Bead 

tehweti 

(pknt 

Beads  (string) 

wapitci 

lint) 

apigeri 

Beard 

wesopto 

tion 

sihi 

Beautiful 

kwigeleri 

e 

putenani 

Beast 

nikali 

cptce 

Bed 

tcieteigeriko 

DAte 

vendi 

Before 

muenikans 

id 

penithugeni 

Below 

mala 

lie 

kinhalero 

Belt 

tciimbi 

siyuka 

Besides 

niyu 

walepgiali 

Bitter 

samentcekpsali 

wanekla 

Blind 

mitcawa 

toro 

Blood 

gerari 

remtewana 

Blunt 

hatendi 

nikali 

Body 

imani 

9 

muetx^ikaiinipiiti 

Bog 

kaspa 

« 

repukanata 

Boldness 

mterihuni 

?l*nt) 

hegeperidi 

Bone 

hipapua 

tcitcipagi 

Bottom 

aintcegi 

1 

pualagiri 

Bowl 

kapurali 

pieutageri 

Box 

pologi 

an 

igenakutena 

Boyish 

kobiti 

9I1S 

katciperi 

Brains 

ratcitca 

katate 

Branch 

wekano 

ni 

katco 

Brave 

renlawana 

ikwigelero 

Breath 

papananitewa 

keri 

Breeches 

hitcaragia 

ritheg 

Bridge 

kunkakigea 

paginetena 

Bright 

itenti 

mapala 

BriUiant 

kalagiri 

tcumpi 

Broth 

iha 

!C 

biliawakawa 

Brush 

pupulubandi 

rendikayatka 

Bundle 

posteteli 

72 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Button 

fostegi 

Creature 

mten 

Cabin 

yotero 

Crude 

erupti 

Cage 

teawa 

Cruel 

eetete 

Camp 

Sana 

Cup 

sulia 

Cane 

kanugeriri 

Cushma 

ikanopi 

Cane  (wild) 

kogihaci 

Custom 

piwapukineri 

Canoe 

kanawa 

Dance 

pausatiwa 

Care 

tcako 

Danger 

ilakakli 

Cause 

toenani 

Dawn 

ratcpa  hugini 

Cave 

siephepli 

Daytime 

ingeni 

Cavity 

wenama 

Dead 

ripananatka 

Certainly 

klikakli 

Dear 

hitcolero 

Chain 

iuematsa 

Debt 

palikli 

Chance 

heritca 

Decoration 

apihaieri 

Charcoal 

tcitcisiri 

Deep 

fenhali 

Cheerful 

nikatharo 

Descent 

twesitnatka 

Chicha 

kuya 

Ditch 

mitayo 

Chief 

wigiwi 

Discouraged 

iwagiwati 

Chief's  name 

klineriwakipiya 

Dish 

sorotci 

Chonta  (palm) 

•     •    • 

mm 

Distant 

wasera 

Chop 

pakastagieri 

Ditch 

tubskata 

Clay 

mapo 

I>oor 

ibapto 

Clearing 

Sana 

Doubtless 

triakle 

Clewr 

k^ngelero 

Down 

aklapulini 

Cloak 

hitcarata 

Dress 

katseri 

Close 

a\4ku 

Drunk 

rimeta 

Cluck 

kaputa 

Dust 

pagi 

Coal  of  fire 

tcitci 

Each 

kada 

Coarse 

yugepi 

Each  one 

kadahisiwi 

Coat 

kutcpakandi 

Early 

uyatsunukawa 

Comb 

tceri 

Earth 

huge 

Cook 

ralitcandi  nixi 

Edge 

spueta 

Comfort 

meiii«*ala 

Egg 

fonaki 

Common 

paginirinekopla 

EInclosure 

tcieputeku 

Companion 

nimotmlai 

End 

mkatataro 

Conceal 

pateri 

Enemy 

kaminitcieri 

Consent 

ralekli 

Enough 

palitcagieri 

Consumed 

retcpahanatka 

Entire 

pegineriko 

Content 

meiii^-atena 

Equal 

kwigali 

Convey 

piokanateri 

Estuary- 

iswitha 

Coid 

yuketsa 

E\*en 

ginando 

Com 

tcigt 

E\nl 

kantd 

Corpse 
Cotton 

ripanaatea 

Everywhere 

puenanmeriak 

vendiputenani 

Covard 

maiYti 

Excuse 

palmata 

Cmb 

yotero 

Pan 

tigenetpui 

Crmay 

tcmikaiieli 

Far 

wastcira 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


73 


B^t,ii. 
Vbvot 


F'eather 
F-etters 


Fierce 

F^inally 

Fue 

Fireside 

Firewood 

I^ishhook 


^<ollowing 


sod 


xn 


^^tidy 


ce 


c^K^id 


ne 
^*and 

*t)ve 


ibit 

QAmmer 
^lamniock 


lietceri 

putenani 

retuigi 

mekutsuri 

pipehageanu 

pikagiawa 

imegi 

wima 

soUotagi 

kuali 

nikataicali 

kwakeleri 

tcitcisi 

tcitci 

yumueigi 

kari 

entagati 

merete 

naratika 

ciarka 

iroyiani 

inkwainisi 

okiadiida 

namegwini 

ageri 

kenandi 

wiaakegia 

hitcka 

yuku 

eraba 

ahikelaklu 

nzamena 

reyepi 

piata 

thnisti 

kwigelero 

napukani 

kerini 

putanani 

tciyi 

pukigiti 

nekameriwaklatatano 

wigeuktsa 

kerehata 

hitcelaipi 

tcietci 


Handle 

Happinesfl 

Hard 

Harpoon 

Hat 

He 

Health 

Hearing,  n. 

Heat 

Hers 

Hide 

High 

Hill 

HiU-top 

HU 

Hole 

Honey 

Hot 

Horn 

House 

How 

Humor 

Hunger 

Hungry 

Hut 

I 

Ice 

Immediately 

Impossible 

In 

Inferior 

Information 

Island 

Joy 

Judge 

Jug 

Justice 

Kind 

Kindness 

Ladder 

Lame 

Large 

Late 

Lean 

Lie,  n. 

Lifeless 

Litter 


igiepi 

puekuatewa 

ciklu 

tcukurigeri 

sagietpua 

wali 

itcutkali 

wegepi 

evi 

fo 

fuemta 

fenu 

mango 

wesanariha 

ha 

sapwa 

ururapa 

emeta,  emeri 

wekapa 

pantci 

ipitcatiti 

pasigiewa 

natcinatkali 

natcenatkani 

mteripantci 

iU 

katcikleri 

ayawatci 

epkamerethuli 

egi 

patenosa 

puenkagenu 

kaneprekli 

kwigeletweno 

rektcikali 

irapi 

kanugereri 

satikla 

powakate 

unkalegea 

hitcuri 

keri 

kai 

puemnu 

kayalukeri 

repanantka 

puentankuteri 


74 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Little 

iwikie 

Opposite 

Load 

pukanaptcua 

Other 

paaereta 

Long 

wekla 

Ourselves 

witca 

Loss 

kwevi 

Over 

TuyvL 

Low 

patenosa 

Overhead 

tuakanonaka 

Maker 

kameretua 

Paddle 

saluhapi 

Male 

aneri 

Paint,  n. 

wiyona 

Mankind 

eneri 

Paint^^d 

kayunali 

Mat 

satcemta 

Pan 

yomugeri 

Meat 

igeti 

Paper 

kirika 

Medicine 

katsupali 

Passion 

Menstruation 

temteha 

Past 

pukao 

Merry 

keneri 

Pepper 

kumuli 

Middle 

sukakeli 

Perhaps 

kasitciri 

Milk 

tcukba 

Piece 

wastagen 

Mine 

wita 

Pitcher 

akbagi 

Mirror 

aniafi 

Place 

inigelawaka 

More 

sato 

Plantain 

paranta 

Moreover 

patetci 

Plate 

paranta 

Mouthful 

yubika 

Platter 

sirotoe 

Mud 

ka'ali 

Play 

sepate 

Much 

itoolena 

Plead 

paniugenteri 

My 

no 

Pocket 

Eapa 

Naked 

mamkati 

Poison 

katcinahaspa 

NaU 

itcegi,  fostagi 

Pole 

ahamuana 

Name 

genaka 

Pound 

pemgetciwa 

Narrow 

etserero 

Poor 

meganenkatati 

Nausea 

piusa 

Pot 

kulpeta  imati 

Near 

hitcanegwini 

Power 

wemkatali 

Nearby 

tciapulaku 

Preparation 

pasigitcwa 

Nearly 

itcaweweri 

Proprietor 

kaihari 

Needle 

sapui 

Quick 

iamputi 

Nest 

kusitci 

Quickly 

yamputi 

Never 

ikiepahugeni 

Rafters 

ikwansata 

New 

eruti 

Rag 

puserimkali 

New  Year 

waleruti 

Rain 

hina 

Nickname 

yukegiwaea 

Rainbow 

tci 

No 

ikia 

Rather 

wetcinani 

Nothing 

malasa 

Ready 

tcenahute 

Nourishment 

niktci 

Relative 

numuli 

Now 

tcawawiwi 

Resin 

itcali 

Never 

pahugeni 

Restless 

ipugahuta 

Occasion 

pakatgi 

Right 

put^kli 

Occiput 

haknugi 

Rind 

thamta 

Odor 

rasekata 

Ring 

pirigieri 

Old 

here 

River 

seriha 

Opening 

fenhali 

Roast  meat 

pulutere 

ABAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  PIRO 


75 


Bough 

ipubtceri 

Some 

pimerina 

Bubber 

pegi 

Somehow 

imaguini 

Rule 

fuetana 

Song 

tdkali 

Sad 

puesinika 

Soul 

usamena 

Salt 

tewi 

Sour 

kapsalikatcueri 

Same 

waliku 

Spirit 

kakwali 

Sand 

fsatte 

Stake 

pitcpap 

Sap 

ihiha 

SUr 

kakgere 

Satisfactory 

rapoohanta 

Stem 

maserati 

Scalp 

wimta 

Stick 

hukli 

Scarcely 

yumatci 

Still  water 

ipaha 

Seal 

keria 

Stink 

pusi 

Seat 

pteplali 

Stone 

sutli 

Secret 

puetcirukandi 

Stool 

tepleli 

Secure 

wali 

Stop 

atcenakaka 

Sensible 

iukletaa 

Straight 

ethero 

Settlement 

keripubtci 

Strong 

itculi 

Shade 

katcikkwaka 

Struggle,  n. 

kwya 

Shame 

patwata 

Stubborn 

kamenitciri 

Shelter 

emagiitceri 

Suck 

hirini 

SheU 

soluta 

SuiUble 

makli 

Shirt 

kanopi 

Summit 

fenu 

Short 

tcinehuti 

Sun 

katci 

Shotgun 

tcitciesi 

Support 

tcineri 

Shoulder 

puethana 

Surround 

pirigeri 

Shut 

empaleti 

Swiftly 

tcineyuti 

Sickly 

pawatanto 

Syrup 

putcuakerespa 

Sidmeas 

kapuhali 

Tail 

funtci 

Side 

wakani 

TaU 

bamiputi 

Sidewiae 

sereta 

Teacher 

imakandi 

Sieve 

aihoyi 

Tears 

wegwileha 

SUent 

puetcerugiema 

Then 

wanegweni 

Since 

agieri 

There 

bekka 

Skeleton 

inskaguli 

Therefore 

iguigeli 

Skirt 

emkatceri 

They 

hoapa 

Skirt  (black) 

katcirinama 

Thirsty 

nerenano 

SkuU 

ratcitca 

This 

fegera 

Slgr 

tawaka 

Thither 

beka 

Slander 

heyalahilyeka 

Thong 

kutcikiateri 

Slap 

wata 

Thorn 

sutci 

Sleep 

wepunawata 

Through 

ituku 

Sleeping 

remka 

Time 

satkapewa 

Sbwly 

ahigelaklu 

To 

tcapla 

Smoke 

nontcitcani 

Tobacco 

m,  idi 

Snuff-taker 

kolipa 

Together 

pawakalinaki 

So 

triakli 

Too  much 

ikwiglari 

Soap 

mukatcutara 

Town 

pubtci 

76 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Tnul 

aterihapu 

IVick 

wagerota 

Think 

pologi 

Tube 

Tump-line 

appta 

Twfligfat 

yatcukawa 

Tvrinf 

tetqmkakugeni 

Twin 

piatkapewa 

Ugly 

ekaU 

Unborn 

katdkleri 

CTndernefttb 

mala 

Unequal 

iputi^kli 

Upward 

tuaka 

Uaeful 

kwanaaen 

Uielesa 

mohareli 

Valuable 

ikatciperi 

Very 

putenani 

Vicious 

putenane 

Vine 

sapi 

Waift 

wiptcigi 

Warm 

puenkuka 

Waterfall 

kafuhali 

Wax 

iuniru 

Weapon 

hahali 

Wedge 

remaleteli 

Well 

huigelero 

Wet 

hanatkali 

Wben 

hikli 

Whence 

hetispnknta 

Where 

wakwmpcani 

Wherever 

inuawini 

Whidi 

Ueneri 

Why 

iritcOenegi 

Wide 

kertra 

Wind 

Wing 

imegi 

Wisely 

ritcinikwili 

Witch 

kahnntci 

With 

ima 

Within 

itoko 

Without 

pwotcpageri 

Wood 

Wool 

imegi 

Worn-out 

ken 

Worse 

aktataputenani 

Worth 

hikiepwi 

Worthless 

ibeila 

Wound 

katdnum 

Year 

Yes 

ehe,  ewa 

Yet 

ikwiegwa 

You 

puapa 

Your 

ne 

Yours 

pua 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK,  THE  MASHCO  77 

MASHCO 

XDistiibution  and  General  Culture.    The  Mashco,  Moeno,  or 

^^*ineiri,  as  they  are  called  by  theu:  surrounding  neighbors,  be- 

'■^^'^e  themselves  to  be  related  to  the  Piro.    It  is  a  small  tribe,  and 

'Cupies  the  territory  on  the  south  of  the  Manu  River,  between 

LC  Sutlija  and  upper  Madre  de  Dios  Rivers.    The  Mashco  live 

Long  the  rivers,  two  or  three  families  together  in  one  house,  with 

^tiller  houses  a  short  distance  away.  They  often  have  their  fields 

a  conmion  clearing.  Their  houses  are  of  the  common  type  built 

poles,  and  covered  with  leaves.    While  they  have  their  fields 

"together^  each  family  has  its  own  section.   The  men  hunt  together, 

•^Lxid  divide  their  catch  equally  among  the  families.    The  men  wear 

<^otton  cushmas,  and  the  women  wear  short  cotton  skirts.   They 

I>aint  their  faces,  hands,  and  feet  for  protection  from  insects,  as 

X8  common  among  all  the  tribes  in  the  region.    They  wear  anklets, 

s^nd  arm  and  leg  bands,  but  do  not  mutilate  the  body  in  any  form. 

*The3'  make  very  good  pottery.    They  are  the  only  Indians  left  in 

^he  region  who  continue  to  make  and  use  stone  axes. 

Marriage.  In  their  marriage  relations,  they  are  not  as  strict  as 
some  of  the  other  tribes,  for  they  often  marry  Campa  or  Piro. 
The  present  chief  is  a  Piro  who  married  a  Mashco  woman. 

The  Dead.  They  wrap  the  body  together  with  all  its  belong- 
ings in  a  cushma,  and  biuy  it  in  a  sand  bar  along  the  banks  of  the 
river;  even  a  man's  dogs  are  killed  and  buried  with  him.  All 
members  of  the  family  paint  their  faces  black,  and  spend  one  day 
and  night  in  weeping.  The  body  is  carried  to  the  grave  by  two 
men,  the  whole  tribe  going  along.  No  marker  is  used,  and  the 
next  high  water  obliterates  all  traces  of  the  burial. 

Personal  Appearance.  The  Mashco  were  known  first  through 
the  Campa,  who  had  been  in  the  habit  of  capturing  the  Mashco 
for  servants.  The  Mashco  are  larger  than  the  Campa,  and  darker 
in  color  than  the  other  tribes  about  them.  They  are  also  taller 
and  longer  headed.  The  head  measurements  of  the  only  one  I 
was  able  to  measure  were:  length,  187  nun.,  and  breadth,  142  mm., 
giving  a  cephalic  index  of  75.94. 

My  information  about  the  Mashco  was  obtained  from  Sr. 
Baldomero  Rodriguez,  who  lived  in  their  immediate  neighbor- 
hood, and  had  many  of  them  in  his  employ.   I  made  a  long  journey 


78 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  FBRU 


to  vifflt  the  tribe^  but  upon  arriving  at  their  river,  learned  th 
had  gone  away,  no  one  knew  ^ere.  After  waiting  for  three  wee 
and  despairing  of  their  return,  I  was  ocxnpeDed  to  leave  withe 
seeing  them. 


Vocabolaiy. 

An 

ondupa 

BmI 

yakulueni 

Body 

nono 

Brother 

yeyi 

CftUfe 

keaepi 

Come 

ena 

Corn 

hiuje 

Cup 

tciroroopa 

Drink 

kuthkotai 

Driver 

ekuli 

Emt 

yembapeta 

Good 

bivi 

Houte 

kitcHpo 

Little 

bapana 

Lizard 

due 

Many 

wandupa 

Moon 

thin 

Monkey 

tcure 

Monkey  (black) 

sue 

Move 

mbui 

Much 

wandupa 

Night 

ne 

One 

rufta 

Pky 

Peccary 

Gte 

Pineapple 

ihina 

Plantain 

i^pati 

PoweH  (bird) 

kwelye 

Pot 

toercAatho 

Rifle 

amatdpoto 

Saber 

itcapak> 

Sleep 

tiU 

Snake 

embi 

Stream 

umai 

Sun 

ne 

Surge 

tcaraba 

Tapir 

aema 

Two 

gandupm 

Three 

gundupa 

Turkey 

pano 

Turtle 

petha 

Unde 

kokoa 

Unta 

kanopoki 

Wangana  (animal) 

ndieri 

Woman 

buavi 

Yucca 

tai 

PANOAN  STOCK 

History.  The  first  miBaionaries  from  Lima  who  crossed  the 
Ajides  to  the  upper  Amazon  River  found  a  number  of  related 
tribes  speakiDg  dialects  of  the  same  language;  they  gave  the  name 
of  the  most  prominent  tribe  to  the  whole  stock.  That  tribe  has 
Succumbed  long  ago  to  the  by-products  of  European  civilization, 
but  its  name,  Pano,  survives.  According  to  their  eariy  tradition, 
'the  Pano  came  from  some  place  in  the  North,  near  the  equator. 


CMhibo  fiibing  village 

and  settled  about  the  mouth  of  the  Huallaga  River.  Here  they 
came  into  contact  with  the  Yevera,  who  forced  them  to  move 
southward  into  the  plains  of  Sacramento,  the  region  between  the 
Huallaga,  Ucayali,  and  Pachitea  Rivers.  In  time,  a  half  dozen  or 
more  tribes  were  differentiated  and  established  in  definite  territory 
of  their  own:  most  important  of  these  were  the  Conebo,  Setibo, 
Sipibo,  Cashibo,  Remo,  and  Amahuaca.  The  missions,  first  es- 
tablished by  Father  Juan  de  Sucero  in  1686,  later  brought  Indians 
from  various  tribes  together  in  villages.  The  Indians  became  dis- 
satisfied, however,  largely  because  diseases  introduced  by  traders 
were  scattered  among  all  the  tribes.  The  people  died  by  thou- 
sands, and  many  tribes  disappeared  entirely.  Marcoy  (page  576) 
says  that  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven 


80  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

tribes  were  recorded  along  the  upper  Amazon  and  its  tributaries' 
now  only  twenty-nine  remain.     There  was  a  general  uprisin^^ 
among  the  Indians  in  1768,  the  mission  stations  were  destroyed^! 
and  many  of  the  missionaries  were  killed.   Of  the  missions  in  Peru  ^ 
which  in  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  numbered  nearly 
one  himdred  and  fifty,  only  nine  remained  in  1875.    On  account? 
of  the  activity  of  these  early  missionaries,  the  beliefs  and  customs 
of  all  the  tribes  in  that  region  were  so  modified  that  it  is  impossible 
today  to  rebuild  their  ancient  culture.   Traditions  survive  that 
the  Pano  had  bark  paper  upon  which  they  kept  hieroglyphic  rec- 
ords of  divisions  of  the  year,  dates,  and  important  facts;  that  they 
carved  idols  of  their  deities;   worshipped  the  sun  and  fire;   and 
practised  the  rite  of  circumcision.    These  accounts  are  not  well 
authenticated,  and  we  shall  never  know  what  the  facts  were.    The 
attempts  at  hieroglyphic  writing  made  for  me  were  not  at  aU  suc- 
cessful.   No  one  except  the  man  making  the  marks  could  tell  what 
they  were,  hence  I  do  not  reproduce  them  here. 

CONEBO 

Distribution.  The  largest  of  the  Panoan  tribes  at  the  present 
time  is  the  Conebo,  which  occupies  the  territory  along  both  sides 
of  the  Ucayali  River  about  Cumarea,  in  latitude  10®  south.  For- 
merly the  tribe  numbered  several  thousand,  but  today  there  are 
not  more  than  five  hundred  remaining.  They  are  the  Indians  most 
commonly  found  in  the  employ  of  the  rubber  men  all  along  the 
river.  They  say  they  are  brothers  of  the  Inca,  and  that  there  is  a 
branch  of  their  tribe  called  Inca.  My  best  information  was  ob- 
tained from  a  Conebo  man  through  an  educated  Macheyenga, 
Samisiri,  as  an  interpreter,  and  from  Dr.  Baldimero  Rodriguez,  a 
Spaniard,  who  had  Uved  many  years  among  the  Conebo,  and  spoke 
their  language  well. 

At  Cahuide  we  found  a  Conebo  man  married  to  a  Macheyenga 
woman  who  spoke  both  Macheyenga  and  Conebo.  By  using 
Samisiri  as  interpreter,  we  were  able  to  get  a  vocabulary  and  an 
account  of  certain  Conebo  customs  and  beUefs.  The  man  did  not 
remember  his  Conebo  name.  He  came  from  down  the  Ucayali 
River  where  he  had  been  used  for  several  years  by  rubber 
gatherers.    When  his  first  wife  died,  he  brought  his  only  son  to 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO  81 

^^^  Javero  River,  and  married  the  Macheyenga  woman.    His 
life's  CJonebo  name  is  Eaiyanovi,  and  his  son's  is  Waringoci. 

The  original  home  of  the  Ck>nebo  tribe,  according  to  the  ancient 
tradition,  was  aromid  twenty-three  small  lakes  along  the  Urubamba 
River,  two  or  three  days  in  canoe  below  Sepahua,  or  six  days  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Tambo.  Meven  lakes  were  on  the  left  of  the 
river  and  twelve  on  the  right,  and  all  were  entered  by  canoes  from 
ihe  Ucayali  throu^  small  conmiunicating  rivers.  Some  tribes  are 
still  living  in  this  region.    The  names  of  the  lakes  from  south  to 


FianuB  7 
Conebo  tobacco  pipes  of  wood  with  sterna  of  bird  bone.    (2/7.) 

north  are:  Siboya,  Ankia,  Vinoya,  C!omairiya,  Toboya,  Nosotobia, 
Sawaiya,  Aroya,  Pasaya,  Hanapansia,  and  Sanpiya  on  the  left;  and 
Sunapavora,  Panaosa,  Masio,  Kako,  Amakadia,  Sipidia,  Sararaya, 
Ipfuyira,  Natoiki,  Komangiya,  Taoqua,  and  Pakatca  on  the  right. 
We  passed  along  this  river,  but  were  unable  to  learn  of  any  such 
lakes.  They  were,  no  doubt,  mere  bayous,  the  names  of  which  have 
been  forgotten,  and  not  lakes.  There  are  many  of  them  along  the 
Urubamba  and  Ucayali  Rivers,  frequented  by  the  Indian  fisher- 
men. Villages  are  often  built  on  the  high  banks  of  these  pro- 
tected bayous. 

Houses.  The  Ck>nebo  build  quadrangular  houses,  and  orient 
ihem  north  and  south.  The  southern  end  is  left  open  to  the  ridge, 
while  the  northern  end  has  a  circular  projection,  and  is  roofed  to 
within  four  feet  of  the  ground.  The  roof  on  the  sides  of  the  house 
extends  to  within  three  feet  of  the  ground. 

A  typical  house  measiu*es  forty-four  feet  long  and  twelve  feet 
wide,  with  six  posts  five  feet  high  and  five  inches  in  diameter  on 
each  side.    The  northern  semicircular  end,  which  extended  four 


82  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

foot  boyond  the  square,  is  supported  by  two  posts.  The 
polo  is  supported  by  four  forked  posts,  six  inches  in  diameter  an 
ton  feet  hiRh.  There  are  no  cross  ties  of  any  kind,  not  even  at  th 
end  of  the  house.  The  roof  is  supported  by  thirty-four  rafters  ^^ 
seventeen  on  each  side,  and  fourteen  laths,  seven  on  each  side«-^ 
The  roof  is  made  of  long  palm  leaves,  put  on  with  the  butt  of  thc^ 
frond  at  the  ridge.  The  leaves  of  the  left  side  of  the  frond  are  beat- 
to  the  right  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  three  or  four  are 
tied  together  to  the  laths  in  three  places.  The  west  roof  is  put  on 
first,  beginning  at  the  northern  comer.  The  east  roof  is  allowed 
to  project  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  west  roof.  The  method  of 
building  and  roofing  the  house  reveals  the  fact  that  the  storms 
come  from  the  north  and  east.  These  roofs  last  for  five  or  six  yeaiSi 
when  they  nuist  be  renewed.  The  poles  and  roof  are  all  tied  <m 
with  strips  of  the  bark  of  the  balsa  tree  (Cecrapia).  This  house 
had  three  fires,  and  three  large  mats,  which  would  indicate  that  it 
was  occupied  by  three  famiUes.  The  fiires  are  always  just  under 
the  roof  on  the  weet  side,  which  allows  most  of  the  smoke  to  eacapef 
and  also  allows  the  larger  logs  used  for  the  fire  to  ext^id  outside. 
The  fire  is  made  of  three  large  logs  with  ends  so  placed  together 
that  they  serve  as  a  tripod  for  the  large  cooking  pot;  if  an  extra 
pot  is  iK'eileti  another  log  is  placed  between  two  of  these.  By  this 
means«  fijre  is  easily-  kept,  and  quickly  kindled  by  the  use  of  small 
sticks  between  the  large  lo^.  It  is  an  effective  and  economical 
methoi).  The  Conebo  use  no  hanunoeks*  but  sle^,  wn^f^ped  in 
their  oushmas.  on  mats  on  the  fioor  without  mattress  or  head-rest. 

Dress  and  Oniamentatioa.  Conebo  men  wear  plain  wiiite,  clyed, 
ivr  painleil  eoiton  oloih  oushmas  azhl  embroidered  trousers.  Th^ 
oflen  ^>  without  iheir  trous^L^rs.  which  are  consideffed  more  ap- 
{«\>|Mriate  fv>r  dret^  occaisioDS.  The  wvHuen  wear  eolton  skirts  mm! 
sh^HJtkkr  ckidks  vpl^^e  IL  b\  These  ikey  usuaUy  4ye  black,  and 
iWften  embcvH^Wr  ibe  skirts.  Some«im«*t!k  instead  of  the  dodk^  thej 
wviwr  a  wafcc  with  short  sleews.  The  wvHnen  gather  wild  coltoo, 
$pin>  atKl  weavv^  it.  The  men's  cushmas  are  often  pttinWd  hy 
^r^\Aij3ifi  thpecn  on  the  tpxxjuKi.  ao^t  apfpi^Hcm:  Mack  {Munl  in  beauti- 
ful s^>txfcetncal  Awi^pxi*  with  a  brush  or  a  strip  oc  btunbixK 

Men  aod  women  wear  kw^  owvklaww  o«  ^swkfe  or  -^?^*>>^T  t^^Ui; 
ckiee^ttinij:  oieckl^^  *d^  t»ca(v>>l!e<K^  and  aakl^ 

ojciwtt  £tu«©?d  with  luir  or  te^th,     Tbje  aoklecs  are  ^omedoKS 


PeaBODT    MuSBOM    PAPERa 


Vol.  X,  Pl*te  !0 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO  83 

^^^oven  in  place.    The  men  also  wear  around  their  necks,  hanging 
do^^m  their  backs,  a  finely  woven  band  of  cotton  to  which  is  at- 
"tctclied  the  "utcate,"  the  use  of  which  is  described  on  another 
I>&Se.    The  men  carry  with  them  at  all  times  their  trinket  bags, 
"^rhich  contain  their  toilet  articles  and  small  implements:   their 
"t^v^eezers  for  extracting  the  beard,  a  bit  of  mirror,  a  comb  made  of 
Bpines  split  from  the  chonta  palm,  fruit  of  the  genipa  or  a  kernel 
of  amotto  for  paint,  a  lump  of  wax,  and  a  ball  of  thread  for  repair- 
ing their  arrows. 

Food  Supply.  The  Conebo  have  good  fields,  and  grow  all  the 
vegetables  and  fruits  conmion  to  the  tribes  of  the  region,  but  they 
are  the  great  fish  and  turtle  eaters  of  the  upper  Amazon.  It  is  said 
that  the  CJonebo  are  never  foimd  where  there  are  not  plenty  of 
fish.  They  prefer  fish  to  game  while  most  of  the  other  tribes  prefer 
game.  They  use  the  bow  made  of  chonta  palm  {Oreodaxa),  and 
arrows  of  wild  cane  {Gynerium  saccharoides) .  The  blowgun  they 
abtam  by  barter  from  the  Jivaro.  The  harpoon,  with  toggle  head 
and  float  of  a  short  piece  of  balsa  wood,  would  seem  to  be  a  native 

• 

^i^vention.   Acufia  (page  80)  says  the  Indians  of  the  lower  Amazon 

^*«e  harpoons.    The  harpoon  is  used  to  catch  the  paiche  {Vastus 

Tines),  which  feeds  in  the  quiet  water  along  the  bayous.    It  is  a 

«i^  crimson  scaled  fish,  growing  to  a  length  of  eight  feet.    The 

^dians  remove  the  skin,  cut  the  flesh  into  large  flat  slabs,  salt  it, 

*^d  hang  it  out  to  dry.    When  properly  cared  for  it  will  keep  for 

^vend  months.    They  also  catch  the  sea-cow  {Manaius  ausiralis), 

^d  preserve  its  flesh  in  the  same  way.  Large  turtles  are  captured 

^hen  they  go  out  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  sand  bars  in  the  dry 

Season.   The  men  build  a  blind,  or  hide  in  the  shadow  of  some  tree 

on  a  moon-lit  night,  until  the  turtles  come  out  some  time  after 

midnight,  then  rushing  from  their  hiding  place  they  turn  them 

over  on  their  backs,  rendering  them  helpless.   The  mjen  carry  the 

turtles  home,  and  keep  them  in  pens  or  artificial  ponds  until  needed 

for  food.    The  eggs  are  collected  in  large  numbers,  crushed  and 

preserved  with  salt  in  earthenware  jars  for  two  or  three  months. 

Formerly  the  turtles  were  fattened  and  sold  to  the  missions.    The 

egg  is  half  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  very  good  eating. 

Canoes.  The  Ck)nebo  are  the  best  canoe  builders  in  the  whole 
region^  but  are  not  better  canoemen  than  the  Piro.  All  their 
canoes  are  the  regular  dugout  t3rpe,  made  from  the  red  cedar  or 


84  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

of  capironi  {Cedrela  odorata),  known  as  the  canoe  tree,  which  groi 
from  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  very  tall,  straight,  and  free 
knots.  The  largest  canoes  are  forty  feet  long,  four  and  a  half  U 
wide,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  deep.  The  bow  is  blimtly  point 
while  the  stem  has  a  broad  flat  extension  used  as  a  seat  for  th( 
steersman.  Canoes  are  made  without  keel,  because  of  the  easic 
handUng  in  rapid  waters.  The  sides  are  worked  down  very  thin. 
Although  the  tree  works  easily  when  green,  it  is  hard  to 
when  dry.  They  formerly  burned  out  the  canoe,  controlling  the^* 
fire  with  wet  leaves,  but  now  they  use  an  adze.  The  canoes  are 
usually  plain,  but  they  are  sometimes  painted  in  geometrical  de- 
signs. The  paddle  is  made  with  great  care  from  capironi,  or  from 
the  broad  flat  root  of  the  ohe  tree.  It  is  five  and  three  quarters 
feet  long  and  seven  and  a  half  inches  wide,  painted  in  elaborate 
geometrical  designs  in  black. 

The  Dead.  When  a  man  dies  he  is  wrapped  in  his  cushma,  and 
his  face,  hands,  and  feet  are  painted  black  for  burial.  His  bows 
and  arrows  are  placed  at  his  side  and  buried  with  him,  while  his 
canoe  is  broken  to  pieces.  As  the  body  lies  on  the  floor,  the  women 
relatives  dance  around  the  corpse,  holding  up  thedr  hands,  and 
singing  the  song  of  the  dead.  The  men  sit  outside  the  house  drink- 
ing chicha.  At  sunset  the  body  is  buried  in  the  earth  floor  of  the 
house,  on  its  back,  at  full  length.  Formerly  the  body  was  placed 
in  a  large  jar,  sealed,  and  buried  in  the  floor.  When  a  woman  dies, 
her  necklaces  and  other  ornaments  are  buried  with  her,  and  all 
her  cooking  utensils  are  broken.  The  family  continues  to  live  in 
the  house.  A  widow  cuts  her  hair  and  weeps  at  intervals  for  a  time, 
but  there  is  no  other  sign  of  mourning. 

Religion.  The  Conebo  believe  in  a  creator,  who  was  once  on 
earth  when  he  made  men,  animals,  plants,  mountains,  and  valleys, 
but  is  now  in  the  sky,  from  whence  he  watches  the  actions  of  men. 
He  is  called  Otcipapa,  or  grandfather.  They  offer  him  neither 
homage  nor  devotion  of  any  kind.  They  believe  in  an  evil  spirit, 
called  Urima,  who  lives  in  the  earth.  All  evils  are  attributed  to 
his  influence.  They  fear  him,  and  refrain  from  mentioning  his 
name,  but  address  no  petitions  to  him. 

Music.  The  Conebo  are  not  particularly  musical,  yet  they  have 
flutes  and  Fan's  pipes  of  bamboo  joints,  which  are  used  by  individ- 
uals for  their  own  amusement.   The  music  here  recorded  was  heard 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO 


85 


and  whistled  by  many  difiFerent  persons  upon  many  occasions, 
words  were  used,  but  the  music  was  hummed  in  a  low  voice. 


D,C. 


Marriage.  The  Conebo  permit  plural  marriages,  but  few  men 
other  than  the  chief  have  more  than  one  wife.  There  is  no  formal 
marriage  ceremony,  but  the  approval  of  the  head-man  must  first 
be  secured,  and  then  the  girl's  father  must  be  consulted.  After 
the  marriage  the  man  may  live  with  his  wife's  father,  until  he 
clears  a  field  and  builds  a  house.  When  the  marriage  has  been 
agreed  upon,  a  fiesta  is  arranged  for  a  moonlit  night.  Abun- 
dance of  intoxicating  drink  is  manufactured  for  the  occasion  and 
aJl  dance  and  drink  freely  late  into  the  night.  The  girl  to  be  mar- 
ried is  taken  in  charge  by  some  older  women,  and  after  she  has 
been  given  drink  until  she  is  overcome,  they  build  a  platform  of 
split  balsa  logs,  lay  the  girl  upon  it,  tie  her  legs  apart  to  two  up- 
right poles,  and  then  perform  the  operation  of  defloration  with  a 
bamboo  knife.  Dining  this  time  the  others  have  continued  the 
dance.  The  girl,  when  the  dance  is  finished,  becomes  the  man's  wife 
^thout  other  ceremony,  and  takes  him  to  her  father's  house. 

This  custom  of  defloration  is  common  among  all  the  Panoan 
tribes.  Its  origin  and  import  are  impossible  now  to  determine. 
Among  some  tribes  an  old  man  performs  the  operation.  The 
Panoan  worship  the  moon:  as  the  performance  takes  place  at  the 
full  of  the  moon,  it  is  easy  to  imagine,  as  some  of  them  do,  that  the 
ceremony  is  in  the  natiue  of  a  sacrifice  of  virginity  to  the  moon. 
It  is  a  common  saying  that  the  moon  makes  women  of  the  girls. 
When  you  ask  a  man  why  the  operation  is  performed,  he  will 
either  say  that  he  does  not  know^  or  that  it  is  a  way  of  letting 
everybody  know  the  girl  is  a  virgin.  Whatever  the  origin,  this 
public  performance  would  have  a  powerful  influence  in  stimulating 
virtue.  When  asked  if  a  man  would  take  the  girl  in  case  the  women 
reported  she  was  not  a  virgin,  they  reply  that  all  girls  are  virtuous. 


86  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

•  When  there  are  two  or  more  wives,  each  has  her  own  sleepinft^^ 
mat,  fireplace,  and  cooking  utensils.  £]ach  wife  gives  the  husbancraB 
a  part  of  the  food,  which  he  eats  apart,  and  when  he  has  finiahed;^  ^ 
the  wives  eat  what  is  left.  Bo3rs  eat  with  their  fathers,  and 
with  their  mothers. 

Before  a  girl  reaches  puberty,  or  in  other  words  is  eligible 
marriage,  her  mother  makes  a  very  large  earthenwai^  jar,  cf^iaUe 
of  holding  twenty  or  more  gallons.  This  is  intended  to  hold  tbe 
intoxicating  drink  for  the  daughter's  defloration  ceremony.  Hie 
drink  is  made  by  girls  who  chew  the  root  of  sweet  cassava  (Ifam- 
hot  aipt)  in  order  to  mix  the  saliva  with  the  juices  of  the  plant  and 
start  fermentation.  Pulverized  com  is  sometimes  added  to  the 
masticated  cassava,  the  whole  mixed  with  water,  and  allowed  to 
sit  in  the  sun  until  sufficiently  ripe  to  satisfy  the  taste,  when  it  is 
strained  through  a  long  basket,  and  stored  away  in  the  large  jar. 

Personal  Appearances.  The  Conebo  admire  a  flat,  broad  head, 
and  plump  arms  and  legs.  Soon  after  birth,  the  child's  head  is 
bound  with  a  board  on  the  forehead  and  a  pad  of  cotton  bdiind. 
This  bandage  is  kept  in  place  for  five  or  six  months,  which  insures 
the  permanency  of  the  deformation.  This  method  is  followed  aldo 
by  the  Sipibo,  and  this  accounts  for  the  high  cephalic  index  of 
these  two  tribes  (plate  18  and  figure  9) .  Men  and  women  of  all  the 
Panoan  tribes  wear  constrictions  on  the  arms,  wrists,  and  ankles. 
These  are  worn  tightly  enough  to  interfere  slightly  with  the  circu- 
lation, causing  a  deposition  of  fat  in  the  tissues,  and  producing 
the  desired  plumpness  of  limbs. 

Pottery.  The  Conebo  women  are  the  best  potters  in  the  whole 
Amazon  Valley  (plate  10),  but  they  are  followed  very  closely  by 
their  Sipibo  neighbors.  The  pottery  made  by  these  two  tribes  is 
supplied  by  exchange  to  many  other  tribes  throughout  the  Ucayali 
River  and  its  tributaries.  The  Conebo  make  more  pottery,  and 
hence  their  name  is  attached  to  all  the  pottery  of  the  two  tribes. 
The  materials  and  decorations  used  by  the  two  tribes  are  practi- 
cally identical,  and  the  processes  are  the  same,  but  the  Conebo  are 
better  mechanics  and  the  more  skilful  artists.  While  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  which  tribe  made  a  piece  of  common  pottery, 
one  may  be  quit€  certain  that  the  finer  examples  were  manu- 
factured by  the  Conebo. 

The  materials  are  all  obtained  locally.    The  white  clay  is  col- 


Feabodt  HuaBuu  Fapebb 


Vol-  X,  PlJlM  11 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO  87 

t 

I^cted  from  the  river  banks  at  low  water,  and  the  pottery,  on  this 
Account,  is  made  during  the  dry  season.  The  ash  or  bark  of  the 
ohe  tree  {Licania  tUilis),  or  of  some  other  tree  giving  a  very  fine 
'^hite  ash,  is  mixed  with  clay  in  an  old  pot  where  it  can  be  kept 
clean.  When  the  clay,  mixed  with  water,  has  reached  the  desired 
Consistency,  a  small  Imnp  is  rolled,  between  the  hands  or  on  a 
board,  into  a  long  fillet,  the  size  depending  upon  the  thickness  of 
t.he  pot.  This  is  then  placed  around  the  edge  of  the  pot  under 
construction,  squeezed  into  place  by  the  fingers,  and  smoothed  by 
bolding  a  stone  on  the  inside,  and  rubbing  with  a  shell  on  the  out- 
side. Thus  the  worker  goes  around  and  around  the  pot,  until  it 
is  completed.  No  wheel  is  known;  the  pot  sits  in  the  sand  or  on  a 
lx)ard.  The  necks  of  the  smaller  pots  are  made  separately,  and 
luted  on. 

The  small  drinking  bowls  are  made  exceedingly  thin,  and  in  per- 
fect form.  The  rim  is  trimmed  with  the  teeth,  moistened  with  the 
tongue,  and  finished  with  the  thumb  nail.  When  the  pot  is  finished, 
it  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  shade  until  it  has  hardened,  then  it  is 
smoothed  and  polished.  If  it  is  a  cooking  pot,  it  is  fired  at  once; 
if  it  is  to  be  painted,  a  thin  slip  of  very  fine  white  clay  is  first  ap- 
plied, and  when  dry  the  decoration  is  laid  on  with  a  strip  of  bam- 
boo. Yellow  clay  is  used  for  yellow  slip,  and  red  stone  for  red  slip. 
The  large  rough  pots  are  placed  in  a  slow  open  fire,  and  thoroughly 
burned.  The  large  puberty  pots  are  burned  by  placing  them  up- 
side down  on  a  tripod  of  three  smaller  pots,  and  covering  them 
with  a  great  heap  of  dry  thorny  bamboo,  then  a  fire  is  built  under- 
neath, and  fed  with  the  same  material.  By  this  method  very  little 
smoke  is  produced,  and  the  intensity  of  the  heat  can  be  controlled. 
The  fine  drinking  bowls  are  treated  very  differently:  a  large  pot 
with  a  hole  in  the  bottom  is  placed  on  three  stones,  or  more  often 
three  piles  of  inverted  pots  and  the  bowls  to  be  fired  are  inverted 
inside  the  large  pot.  The  first  one  is  placed  over  the  hole  and  ashes 
poured  around  and  over  it,  and  others  are  inverted  over  this,  until 
the  pot  is  full,  or  all  are  used.  A  slow  fire  is  kept  burning  under 
the  large  pot  until  all  are  well  baked,  then  they  are  taken  out  one 
at  a  time,  and  while  hot,  melted  copal  is  poured  over  them.  This 
accounts  for  the  glazed  appearance  characteristic  of  this  pottery. 

The  various  designs  used  in  the  decoration  of  the  pottery  must 
have   had   some  symboUc  significance   in  the  beginning,  but  at 


88 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


present  no  one  seems  to  know  the  symbolism.  They  say  they  have 
alwa3rs  used  these  forms.  Similar  designs  are  used  in  TnitlriTig  their 
bead  necklaces,  in  painting  their  cushmas,  and  in  decorating  their 
paddles,  tobacco  pipes,  etc. 

The  rough  pottery  is  used  for  ordinary  cooking  purposes;  the 
small  bowls,  for  dipping  food  and  drink  from  the  larger  pots;  the 
larger  bowls,  for  passing  drink  to  guests;  the  larger  jars  with 
short  necks,  for  carrying  and  storing  water;  and  the  largest  of  all 
are  made  primarily  to  hold  the  intoxicating  drink  used  at  the 
puberty  ceremony  for  girls,  and  later  used  for  storage  purposes. 
The  largest  of  these  chicha  jars  so  far  reported  is  one  in  the  Uni- 
versity Museum,  Philadelphia,  collected  by  the  author  in  1914, 
which  is  four  feet  two  inches  across,  and  three  feet  high. 

Grammar.  The  plural  is  formed  by  adding '  bu '  to  the  singular : 
dog,  otciti;  dogs,  otcitibu;  parrot,  wawa;  parrots,  wawabu.  The 
masculine  adds  'embu'  to  the  singular  or  plural,  and  the  feminine 
adds'aibu';  dog,  otciti;  dog,  m.,  otcitembu;  dog, /.,  otcitaibu. 

The  conjugation  of  four  verbs,  be,  speak,  Uve,  and  bring,  follows: 


TO 

BE,  UNANKU 

PRESENT 

IMPERFECT 

Singular 
1  iadiki 

Plural 
nowariki 

Singular 
1  buenduraku 

Plyral 
kauralcatiriki 

9.  ff^iAilrimi'iki 

matoi'iki 
haboiiki 

2  miaraibirei 
8  haraki 

xnatokimiinaaliiilrAnA^*! 

8  hariki 

rambakandosiwa 

PAST 

Singular 
1  katanki 

Plural 
nuarakatinki 

2  minkikatana 

matokibotakatankenda 

3  karaka 

burakanki 

TO  SPEAK.  YOYOIKE 

PRESENT 

CONDITIONAL 

Singular 

1  uriyoyoikai 

2  miasayoyoiwe 
8  owanyoyoikai 

Plural 
nowarayoyoiku 
malokeyoyoikai 
owabobiyoyoikai 

Singular                          Plural ' 

1  yoyoitiraibire            norawutsatiayoyoitiki 

2  yoyoitibiraiki            haskatarayoyoiberikati 
8  haberayoyoitibiriki  haskalarayotoikati 

IMPERFECT 

1  warayoyoikatiai        noaborayoyoikatiai 

2  warayoyoikatiai        moarayoyoikatiai 
8  warayoyoikatiai        moarayoyoikatiai 


PRESENT  PERFECT 

1  uramananku  nowaraianku 

2  mironkininanku        hft«1fAli»Y^nViA«1i^f 

8  haskalaronkinanku   haskaronkiyoyoikaiika 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO 


89 


PA8T 

1  «>yiU^yoyoikai  miyakemiyoyoika 
f  KKiijralqyc^oka  miyarayoyoikSnki 
S  nuymkqroyoka     miyarayoyoikSnki 

FUTURE 

1    yte^yuyufld  nowarayoyoitiiki 

C    yoyehnii  haborayoyoitibiriki 

S    yoyoiiBbiratiiki     haborayoyoitibiriki 

PAST  PABTICTPLE 

haroyoyoiku 


PAST  PERFECT 

1  haskataraunyoyoi-    haskatankemiyoyoiku 

antanku 

2  haskatarakeman-      haskatankemiyoyoiku 

anki 

3  eroyoyoikambaiki 


IMPERFECT 

yoyoiwu 


wabarahaskahinyoyO" 
ikai 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLB 

harayoyoikai 


PRESENT  PERFECT 
IMPERATIVE 

haberayoyoiviraku 


TO  LIVE.  HARAKA 


FBBBENT 


SvHgular 
I   unhaku 
t   miakihariva 
S   liaiirahaku 


Plural 
noahano 
matokihariva 
harakanku 


IMPERFECT 


I    baiinhakaUUi 
^   biiirahakaU^ 
*  kmkati 


haiiranoahakati 
miakihaii*ikatia 
haiirahakatikanu 


PAST 


^  luahakati^  noarahaku 

^  miakihaiikati^  noararamahaiipowniku 

^  habutaraipownika     haiirahapownikanku 


FUTURE 

Singular  Plural 

1  urihabirati'iki  ninononhanonku 

2  harivandosiwu  handosiwu 

3  haraviraku  haraverakanku 

CONDITIONAL 

1  harakianku  norahativiriki 

2  harovimirahakanku  mirahati'iki 

3  haravirakanku  harakanti*iki 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

haraka 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

haiirahakatitai 

IMPERATIVE 

nendurahaku 


TO  BRING,  URAVIKAI 


PRESENT 


Singular 

1  rtbuitciki 

2  ahnnriiwA 

3  hmibuti'iki 

1  unbiiku 

2  menkibua 
S  buridma 


Plural 

nora'abuiti'iki 
nundosiwu 
wabuRfi^uti'ik] 

PAST 

norabuku 
minkibua 
marabukanki 


FUTURE 

Singular  Plural 


1  erabuti*iki 

2  nunkibuti'iki 

3  bukinka 


norabuti'iki 

bundusiwa 

haborabuti*iki 


CONDITIONAL 

1  burati'iki  noraburbuirati'iki 

2  bucongdoconk  bendosimi 

3  haraburburati'iki      harobnti'iki 


FRBBENT  PARTICIPLE 

burooni^ieiiawa 


PAST  PARTICIPLE 

marabwaku 


IMPERATIVE 

iraki 


90 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS 


Anything 

hawidi*ibidAi 

All./.                        aiinvobitcoditi 

Some 

yamerdiki 

All,  m.                      itoeritsanaii 

A  few 

taowarihovida 

Same                        harliki 

Nobody 

howana 

Sufficient                  yamatancrake 

Nothing 

maraiyamaaai 

Both                         drabui 

Much 

itcaliti 

Each  one                  habitcorilai'i 

Few,  m. 

yamataniraker 

Other                        oitsa 

Every,  m. 

havitci 

Such  a                      ha'adi 

Every,/. 

hatioavia 

Something                hardiki 

Either 

owitsarankaravitci 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


I 

iya,  ilya 

We 

witsanawa,  noabu 

Thou 

yebitco,  mia 

You 

natoti,  matobu 

He 

drabui,  eanato 

They 

yawitsarasibanawfl 

She 

hatin€toti,  owa 

owabu 

POSSESSn- E  ADJECTIVES 


Mine 

nokona 

Thine 

hawina 

His 

seitaa 

Ours 

habati 

Yours 

ha^*ina 

Theirs 

kokui 

DKMOXSTRATn'E  .XDJECTHES 


This  m. 

nMto 

That^  distant,  m. 

hadiki 

ThiJ^  /. 
That,  m. 

nokonarikinekto 
howiriito 

That,  distant,  /. 
These 

hlrim^y&kata 

That/. 

OK-adi 

tX>MPARISOX 

l^ooii 

h«i^inkinoka>KY 

Sour 

P^ 

Belter 

Best 

Bad 

Worse 

Woc*t 

hakontiki 

Kakx^ntiki 

hakon>o)iki^niii 

xSnokai'Hiake 

hajKkinuatmtmiuike 

Sourer 

Souirst 

Much 

MOIY 

Most 

makac 

itoariki 

ito^Mdedca 

itcemifiki 

Sweeter 

watacema 

little 

kimoa 

itcameciipo 

itcameeseo 

S^irtete*! 

^-atacenvK 

Least 

PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO 


91 


Vocabulary. 

THE  FAMaY 

Family 

itcarikanonkaiUbo 

Brother 

honiboci 

Man 

werbo 

Sister 

sSvi 

Woman 

ai'ibo 

Son 

yosi 

Husband 

mia 

Daughter 

yosa 

Wife 

nokoSni 

Child,  m. 

otco'atonk 

Grandfather 

otdpapa 

Child,  /. 

mici 

Grandmother 

tetiicko 

Boy 

waka 

Father 

papa 

Girl 

yosa 

Mother 

t«U 

Infant 

tcftkitcora 

Unde 

tciopapa 

Grandson 

kai*ibo 

Aunt 

natci 

Granddaughter 

tsano,  tStadko 

PARTS  OF  THE  BODY 

Body 

yamarakanami 

Stomach 

poko 

Flesh 

nami 

Belly 

poro 

Skin 

bici 

Arm 

hatioya 

Bone 

sttotc 

Forearm 

poya 

SkuU 

manapu 

Upper  arm 

kici 

Head 

mapo 

Lower  arm 

vitais 

Hair 

woa 

Elbow 

poenki 

Hair,  white 

W08 

Wrist 

muituki 

Face 

vimano 

Joint 

pontonko 

Beard 

koimi 

Hand 

maka 

Eye 

vero 

Palm 

mikenopas 

Eyebrow 

verokosini 

Thumb 

mikana 

Ear 

pavSki 

Nail 

mansis 

Nose 

dretci 

Finger 

miatoti 

Mouth 

kusa 

Index  finger 

icama*oha 

Tooth 

s^U 

Patella 

drabosa 

Tongue 

hana 

Foot 

tai*ipoga 

Nedc 

tSton 

Sole  of  foot 

tai'inopas 

Moulder 

vaska 

Toes 

tai'imontis 

Back 

karso 

Heel 

tai'itciponk 

Side 

Sspi 

Ankle 

tai'itongo 

Breast 

sirotd 

CARDINAL 

POINTS 

North 

paro 

Southwest 

natokayavi 

South 

tdpunki 

Southeast 

natotcipunki 

East 

varipikoti 

Zenith 

nato'abutciki 

West 

varihikita 

Nadir 

maiwitcitco 

Northwest 

nendoriki 

Up  river 

parorebuki 

Northeast 

nendoriparatcipunki 

Down  river 

toipunki 

92 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


UNIVERSAL  SYSTEM 

The  Conebo  have  words  for  one  and  two  only;  four  is  sometimes  two 
and  two,  while  all  the  other  words  are  taken  from  the  Quichua  instead  of 
the  old  Panoan.  The  Quichua  is  like  the  northeastern  Peruvian  dialect. 
I  do  not  now  attempt  to  account  for  this  borrowing. 


1  havitco 

14  tcunka  tcusku 

2  rabui 

15  tcunka  pitcika 

S  kwimica 

16  tcunka  sokota 

4  taisku 

17  tcunka  kantcLs 

5  pitcika 

18  tcunka  pusak 

6  sokota 

19  tcunka  iskun 

7  kantcis 

20  rabui  tcunka 

8  pusak 

21  rabui  tcunka  havitco 

9  iskun 

22  rabui  tcunka  rabui 

10  tcunka 

SO  kwimica  tcunka 

11  tcunka  havitco 

31  kwimica  tcunka  havitco 

12  tcunka  rabui 

40  tcasku  tcimka 

13  tcunka  kwimica 

50  pitcika  tcunka 
VERBS 

be 

oinke 

move 

l&m&ritkAkA 

buy 

how&kope 

paddle 

h^enake 

rail 

k«m&ke 

paint 

mksk 

carry 

sey&ke 

painted 

mkakKwk 

chop 

pusake 

pass 

venokAene 

come 

n£tahoo& 

pay 

sheroe 

cook 

yo&ke 

pick 

sen&r&ki 

cry 

siyeke 

return 

kAkAse 

cut 

n&k&kl 

roast 

yonAnke 

die 

mawatA 

nm 

h&w&ketot&k& 

dig 

toeneke 

seU 

m&nege 

divide 

p&kSrske 

send 

kiitAwA 

drink 

seyake 

sew 

kursegkS 

eat 

pete 

shoot 

tow&te 

enter 

heke 

sing 

aburwa 

faU 

r&k&te 

sit  down 

y&k&te 

fly 

noya 

sleep 

os&e 

give 

mSneke 

smell 

ken&nke 

go 

nena 

sting 

natursAkA 

grow 

yose 

stir 

cove&nke 

have 

yfttinke 

sweep 

m&sote 

hear 

fiTnlcTyfttn^ 

swim 

nonoe 

hide 

pebldaka 

think 

cen&ne 

hunt 

hav£m&ke 

vomit 

kenane 

know 

megonfyemA 

wash 

teokap&rdbli 

PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO 


93 


ADDITIONAL  WORDS 


always 
ankle 


arrow 
if 

it.  night 


b&U 


utiful 
ore 

ly 


body 

bone 

V)th 

bow 

Wekst 

breast 

kfancii 

bravc 

breakfast 

iMidgc 

IttUBant 


woldtdddce 

mimp4piyoeUi 

nokooronAinpotaame 

dr&mlde&ki 

havltce 

hativavia 

ech&«etsauie 

ienvobetcodete 

habetco 

h&beseek£ 

n&iowIdeetA 

mgr&k4k& 

tictongi 

h&leby& 

pey4 

n&d&venak&ut^k&u& 

y&me4merie 

y&me 

c&rso 

Ykckwalo 

i&pk 

sintA 

koeme 

akolekhehoo& 

watoe 

moo& 

pooo 

y&k&toe 

hike 

es& 

woa 

yam^rdlke 

yamarakaname 

8&otc 

dr&bue 

k&note 

esorsta 

srotoe 

hewepayOk 

buabo 

Impebano 

k&w&te 

kencoUkS 

tor&mpe 

sawl 


oanoe 

cat 

diair 

cloak 

dose 

cloud 

coca 

copper 

com 

cotton 

cow 

crazy 

dance 

dangerous 

dark 

day 

day  after  tomorrow 

deaf 

deep 

difficult 

deer 

dinner 

direct 

distance 

dog 

double 

dozen 

drum 

duck 

each  one 

ear 

early 

easy 

earth 

elbow 

enough 

eye 

eyebrow 

face 

far 

fear 

finger 

fire 

first 

fish 


monte 

meceato 

y&c&te 

kolltce 

ktoey& 

nictc,  nltako^ 

h&waro 

p&nse 

s^rke 

wasmie 

vaca 

tcopot&w&ke 

w6w^u&hoa 

hakomilekekatema 

tc&r&rike 

etes&v&te 

aets&b&kes 

nInkiyamSdS,  nlnkiyem&h 

koceo 

anantesnareke 

tc&so 

y&nt&mp&r&b&no 

an&tcireke 

otcolike 

otcetc 

tttkev&Ukeola 

tambora 

nono 

h&betcordie 

p&vake 

n£t&we 

on&ntemiklek& 

mie 

po^nke,  pontonko 

y&m&t&uer&kS 

v6ro 

v6rokosejie 

vem&no 

otcosereke 

n6tepautce& 

me&tote 

c&ro,  tee 

h&betco 

W0& 


94 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


flesh 

nkme 

lower  leg 

velass 

floor 

hftm&U 

machete 

matceto 

flowers 

huk 

massasamba  (fniil 

L)  s&mAme&t^^ 

fog 

m&tse 

massamba  (fruit) 

nes&urimefllX^^ 

following 

h&bwet&okl 

mend 

kofihitike 

forearm 

poya 

midday 

gu&de&ptt 

fork,  wooden 

sas& 

milk 

torftmpe 

fork,  silver 

sasica 

monkey 

esokoro 

foot 

tiepoga 

moon 

ose 

four  times 

etc«rek&tAb&t« 

mouth 

kii5» 

fruit 

sen& 

mouth 

sCrke 

gold 

cole 

much 

etcAlete 

hammock 

kmkkk 

nail 

n&uses 

hand 

mkkk 

name 

hItni 

handsome,  m. 

h&konteke 

neck 

taton 

handsome,  /. 

rak^maendw 

never 

k^mami 

happy 

hoykmk\ik 

new 

hekerftktt 

hat 

yon&r&ke 

night 

ocenftre 

head 

mkpb 

nobody 

how&n& 

headache 

esendica 

noise 

t6tir&met£ 

health 

mem!nenoImp&d6 

nose 

drfitce 

heel 

tietceponk 

nose-ornament 

k^mltc 

hill 

mkuesne 

not  any 

\^mersk& 

horse 

cabie 

nothing 

m&riy&mari 

house 

srobo 

not  yet 

olmp&deo 

how 

hdwide 

now 

olmpadeoe 

hunger 

t^r&pec&sSper&nd&suaso 

ocelot 

enowkkk 

hunt 

gu&nor&ke 

old 

p&pftcgo 

index  finger 

eshania  ob& 

old  man 

otcsp&pli 

injustice 

erftckeamftk 

old  woman 

tet&cgo 

jaguar 

eno 

old  tree 

hevetano 

just 

habetcer&Ink6 

one  or  the  other 

GweiskTkskkrkvetC^ 

lack 

mAnor&k^ 

once 

y&betcorftt&t&uga 

lake 

ey&h 

one-fourth 

dr&buekaskesabue 

large 

&ne 

one-half 

kftskebAno 

last 

p6wCste& 

one-third 

ne&w6 

late 

m&r&klb&de 

orange 

naransa 

lazy  man 

yomtttsti 

other 

oetsa 

leaf 

nepu6 

paddle 

veente 

left,  to  the 

mdrmiH) 

pair 

kesydr&bue 

lemon 

lemoh 

palm 

mek^nop&s,  tienop&s 

lie,  n. 

h&nsuet^et! 

Pan*s  pipes 

p&k&nowek&o 

life 

dromivfi 

pantaloons 

tcfirftste 

little 

y&m&tAner&ker 

papaya 

potca 

light 

howl 

parrot 

W&W& 

load 

kkvkk 

part 

s&tu 

long 

m&ik&den&uk^ 

past 

ewldeke 

PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  CONEBO 


95 


le 


xien 


Hr&bos& 

then 

olmpadeo 

hondo 

third 

keniec& 

cenet&poo 

thing 

hArdeke 

par&nt& 

thirst 

tirese&tc&se&tsemotsoson 

mAnor&ke 

three-fourths 

h&hetcek&sk& 

heve 

thrice 

kemesher&botaev& 

pak 

through 

hdwewoomanketcetcowemaukeva 

hesveyAma 

thumb 

mek&n& 

CstonAwe 

tired 

lerSosemilrez^ 

coplsege 

tire<l,  very 

&«okoce&me 

oe 

tobacco 

dromb& 

olmp&rdMhevfno 

today 

neriineng&ta 

w6rekose&me 

toes 

tiemontes 

w&rfttAw&t€ 

tomorrow 

w&kes 

mekayow 

tongue 

hknk 

huoTy& 

too  bad 

men6klen&k& 

peshe 

tooth 

sata 

hoyenifi 

trail 

vie 

hoyeni^,  pettmerfti 

tree 

hew6 

ihce 

tribe 

sowotsa 

hirleke 

trunk 

heweved& 

piroftne 

turkey 

coso 

niipong 

turn,  n. 

wietetso 

hilnpedSke 

twice 

habet£rek&t4ng& 

dakote 

two-thirds 

dr&bas&boa 

kotong 

ugly 

h&kemoleke 

tcetondC 

until 

Croki 

tow&te 

upper  leg 

kece 

v&tka 

useful 

hiyonoteAmft 

aspe 

various 

etch&reke 

coleke 

verba,  fruit 

nersw& 

miciniiho& 

village 

p6sk&uko 

y&k&p&leb&no 

voyage 

dr&m&unk&kl 

bece 

waist 

kotdnk 

pep&leb&no 

war 

senAte 

m&niipoo 

warm 

ts&n&seke 

nie 

water 

ump&s 

oa&k&s 

way 

vie 

m&ckotceenow 

where 

hfiwidc 

ne&wl 

white  hair 

wos 

y&m6rdeke 

wind 

new& 

tsow&rehovid& 

word 

h&unhitt 

hawedeebed&e 

work 

nokor& 

mAw&te 

wrist 

muetuke 

tcetck& 

year 

tsosenem&rike 

nokesta 

yesterday 

yantA 

&wa 

yucca 

ats& 

96  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


SIPIBO 

Distribution  and  General  Culture.  The  Sipibo  propeily  bekng 
to  the  region  of  the  Ueayali  River  near  the  mouth  of  the  TambOy 
but  today  they  are  found  scattered  among  rubber  wodken  all 
along  the  Ueayali,  Urubamba,  and  Madre  de  DioB  BivefS.  Thv 
traditional  home  was  a  place  called  RoboyB  on  the  lower  XJmgfA 
The  group  whose  physical  measurements  are  reoorded  here 
found  in  the  possession  of  Sr.  Maximo  Rodriguez,  a  rubber 
on  the  Madre  de  Dies,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Piedras  River.  WiB 
are  indebted  to  Sr.  Rodriguez  for  much  of  our  informatioii,.far 
the  privilege  of  working  with  the  Indians,  and  for  his  own  qileiH 
did  hospitality. 

The  Sipibo  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Panoan  language  very  eiinilar 
to  that  of  the  Conebo.  Their  whole  culture,  material  and  social, 
IS  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  Conebo.  Th^  have  the 
same  loose  political  organization,  with  a  head-man  who  exercises 
little  authority  except  in  warfare,  and  occasionally  in  family 
quarrels.  They  successfully  repelled  invasions  attempted  by  the 
Inca  in  ancient  times,  but  they  were  greatly  impressed  by  their 
civilization  and  warfare.  They  think  that  the  Inca  will  yet  return 
to  power  in  the  Andes.  An3rthing  they  see  that  is  new,  strange,  or 
l>eyond  understanding,  they  believe  belongs  to  the  Inca. 

Home  Life.  The  Sipibo  build  the  same  type  of  house  as  that 
described  for  the  Conebo  (plate  12,  a).  They  sleep  on  mats  made 
of  reeds,  or  the  soft  parts  of  palm  fronds.  For  their  food  supply, 
they  depend  less  upon  fish  and  more  upon  agriculture,  than  do  the 
Conebo.  They  grow  large  fields  of  yucca  or  sweet  cassava,  and 
make  it  into  flour  as  needed.  When  the  plant  is  about  ten  months 
old,  they  pull  the  tubers,  peel,  and  soak  them  in  an  old  canoe  for 
several  days,  then  shred  them  and  roast  in  large  pans,  thus  re- 
ducing the  mass  to  a  very  coarse  flour.  This  flour  may  be  stored 
for  several  months,  and  used  as  needed.  It  is  eaten  in  soup  or  with 
water  only,  and  is  very  nourishing.  The  plant  grows  from  a  cut- 
ting, and  requires  very  little  cultivation. 

The  cooking  utensils  consist  of  the  usual  pots,  bowls,  wooden 
spoons,  and  ladles  with  handles  on  either  the  right  or  left  side  (plate 
15). 


pEABODr    MUHBTJM    PAPBRS 


/ 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  8IPIB0 


97 


Unas  and  Omamentatum.  The  m^  drees  in  a  cotton  cushma 
Cfi^ure  10),  which  reaches  to  the  knees,  and  stnnetimes  they  add  to 
■fclxiB  a  pair  of  embroidered  trousers.  The  women  wear  short  cotton 
akirte,  tdtonti,  and  cloaks,  rakota,  over  one  or  both  shoulders 
Cpl&te  13).  Men  and  women  go  bareheaded  except  at  night,  or 
ixa.  the  sun,  when  they  throw  a  loose  cloth  over  the  head.  The 
^vcmen  gather  the  wild  cotton,  seed,  clean,  and  store  it  away  in 
laj)^  leaf  pockets  which  have  a  hole  in  the  side  for  the  hand.  These 
receptacles  are  suspended  from  the  roof,  and  look  like  hornet 


nests.  The  spinning  is  done  with  a  spindle  of  chonta  palm,  ten 
inches  long,  having  a  whorl  of  pottery,  one  and  a  half  inches' in 
diameter,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  similar  to  those  of 
neighboring  tribes.  The  lower  end  of  the  spindle  rest*  in  a  gourd 
«up,  while  the  other  is  twirled  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger. 
In  order  to  prevent  perspiration  and  the  clinging  of  the  thread, 
the  fingers  are  frequently  dipped  into  a  bowl  of  ashes. 

The  cushmas,  skirts,  and  cloaks  are  woven  on  a  lai^  horizontal 
loom  (plate  14,  b).  The  necklaces,  and  arm  and  leg  bands  are 
woven  on  a  small  heart-shaped  loom  made  of  a  bent  hana  (plate  16). 


98  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

The  cushma  may  be  dyed  dark  red,  and  have  heavy  lines  of  black 
painted  over  it,  or  it  may  be  white  with  either  red  or  black  lines 
in  paint  (plate  11,  a).  The  native-made  skirts  and  cloaks  are  usu- 
ally dyed  black. 

Cords  are  made  of  bast,  and  used  for  nets,  ba^,  carrying- 
baskets,  harpoon  and  bow  cords,  and  drum  stiings.  The  men  wear 
strings  of  feathers  hanging  down  their  backs,  and  long  strings  oi 
beads  and  seeds  over  the  left  shoulder  and  under  the  right  arm 


1  children.    The  he 


(plate  17).    The  knife,  utcate,  is  attached  to  a  long  finely  woven' 
band,  and  hung  around  the  neck  (plate  17). 

Both  sexes  wear  half-inch  bands  on  ankles,  wrists,  and  above 
the  elbows,  also  necklaces  of  monkey  teeth,  and  various  kinds  oS 
beads.  Those  of  monkey  teeth  fit  close  to  the  neck,  arms,  legs,  or 
wherever  worn  (plate  18).  The  longer  strings  of  beads  are  worn 
over  the  shoulder.  Beads  are  made  of  seeds  and  nuts  of  different 
kinds,  bird  bones,  and  teeth  of  various  animals,  such  as  pig,  jaguar, 
tapir,  and  monkey.    Many  glass  beads  are  used  on  bands,  an  inch 


WDT  MrsEuu  Papers 


Vol.  X,  Plate  U 


Pbabodt  Mubeuu  Papbes 


Vol.  X,  Platb  15 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  SIPIBO  99 

wide,  worn  about  the  neck  and  wrists;  these  are  of  different  colors, 
and  woven  into  beautiful  geometrical  designs  (plate  19).  Both 
noen  and  women  wear  nose  and  lip  ornaments.  The  septum  is 
pierced,  and  a  small  disc  of  shell  or  silver,  the  size  of  a  dime,  is 
suspended  on  a  thread  or  tied  up  close  to  the  septum.    The  lower 


lip  is  pierced  in  the  middle  at  the  level  of  the  gums,  and  a  flat  piece 
of  silver  or  wood,  kodi,  inserted.  This  ornament  is  two  to  four 
inches  long,  tapering  from  one-fourth  inch  at  the  lip,  to  one-half 
inch  at  the  lower  end  (figure  12,  a,  b).  They  paint  their  faces, 
hands,  and  feet  in  elaborate  geometrical  designs  as  shown  in  figure 
13.    These  hnes  are  laid  on  with  strips  of  bamboo.   A  strip,  of  the 


100 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


deared  width,  is  drawn  over  the  surface  oi  the  paint,  then  laid 
on  the  skin,  and  drawn  from  left  to  right.  The  work  is  free  hand, 
and  done  very  rapidly.  Certain  persons  become  more  expert 
than  others,  and  may  be  called  upon  to  paint  a  number  of  friends. 
Anyone  may  wear  the  paint,  which  seems  to  have  no  significance, 
other  than  that  of  satisfying  their  ideas  of  beauty. 

Tobacco.  The  men  grow  tobacco,  and  anoke  it  in  large  wooden 
pipes,  six  inches  lot^,  one  and  a  half  inches  across  at  the  boiri, 
and  tapering  to  one-half  inch  at  the  bottom.    The  short  stem  is 


:q]HI]^^^k 


made  of  bird  bone;  these  are  like  the  pipes  of  the  Conebo  shown 
in  figure  7.    The  women  never  smoke. 

Artistic  Designs.  The  Sipibo  use  the  same  general  geometrical 
designs  as  the  Conebo  on  their  potter>'i  paddies,  clubs,  and  parts 
of  the  body.  They  usually  paint  the  l^s,  arms,  forehead,  and 
neck  black,  and  then  paint  designs  in  red  or  black  on  the  face, 
hands,  and  feet.  The  original  designs,  here  reproduced  (figure  13), 
were  drawn  by  a  woman  n'ith  a  strip  of  bamboo  on  the  face,  hands, 
and  feet  of  her  husband;  then  with  a  pencil  she  copied  the  designs 
on  paper  after  a  tracing  of  a  hand,  a  foot,  and  a  rough  sketch  of  a 
face,  had  been  made  for  her.  The  same  designs  are  used  by  women 
and  men  without  distinction.  A\'hale\'er  meaning  these  designs 
may  have  had  originally  has  been  lost,  for  they  are  used  for  purely 


Peibodt  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  X,  Plate  16 


«,  BpindlpwhorJai  mnd  lo 


FuaoDT  MusxuM  Papers  Vol.  X,  Plate  17 


■wddsM  ol  woven  cotton  mth  nutithtl]  pcndHOti,  mnd  a  feathered  bead  banil.     (1/4.) 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  SIPIBO 


101 


decorative  puipoees  now.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  completely 
Uank  spaces  are  filled  with  fragments  of  demgns,  and  bow  variety 
is  ^ven  by  making  some  of  the  elements  in  wider  lines.  There  is 
a  general  similarity  of  design  running  through  all  the  productions, 
whetber  on  implements,  utenmls,  clothing,  or  the  person,  but  no 
two  are  exactly  alike.  The  ai^ulai  forms  may  have  been  produced 
by  basket-work.  Very  few  curved  lines,  if  any,  are  to  be  found, 
ud  no  realistic  drawings. 

Marriage.   A  man  may  marry  as  many  women  as  he  can  support, 
but  all  must  belong  to  his  own  tribe.    He  may  have  concubines 


from  another  tribe,  and  so  raids  are  made  among  enemy  tribes  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  women.  A  man  must  many  all  the 
sisters  of  the  family  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough,  but  he  may 
marry  into  other  families  also.  The  marriage  ceremony  with  the 
operation  of  defloration,  is  the  same  as  among  the  Conebo.  Each 
wife  has  her  own  fire  in  the  large  common  house,  and  she  and  her 
children  eat  and  sleep  alone.  Houses  are  not  in  villages,  but  each 
house  is  separated  by  some  distance  of  forest.  A  son  may  bring 
his  wife  into  his  father's  house;  or  several  brothers  may  build  a 
large  house  together,  and  bring  up  their  families  under  the  same 
roof,  having  nothing  else  in  common.  Wives  are  always  very 
kindly  treated;  even  when  unf^thful  they  are  not  punished  or 
driven  away.  They  are  thus  encouraged  to  confess,  and  give  the 
name  of  the  offender.    The  method  of  settling  such  a  family  affair 


102 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


is,  to  say  the  least,  unique.  The  offended  hushand  gives  no  sign, 
but  at  the  next  fiesta  when  there  is  always  drinking  of  chicha,  and 
all  arc  more  or  less  intoxicated,  he  catches  the  guilty  man  by  the 
hair  of  the  head,  and  cuts  a  long  deep  gash  in  his  scalp,  with  a  small 
knife,  called  utcate,  made  and  carried  by  every  man  for  this  pur- 
pose. They  are  now  made  of  steel,  but  in  the  form  of  the  ancient 
peccary  tusk  knife.  Satisfaction  is  thus  secured  and  the  matter 
finally  settled;  there  is  no  grudge  remaining,  and  no  retaliation. 
The  offender  cannot  be  attacked  at  any  other  time,  cut  in  any 
other  place,  or  punished  in  any  other  way.  From  the  fact  that  each 


man  carries  an  utcate,  it  would  seem  that  there  must  be  constant 
use  for  them,  Wc  examine*!  a  number  of  heads,  and  found  that 
about  one  in  four  had  sears,  and  some  fellows  had  three  or  four. 
Scars  are  no  disgrace,  yet  those  who  had  none  took  it  as  a  good 
joke  on  the  other  fellows,  and  pointwl  out  the  guilty  ones,  who  took 
it  all  good  nature<lly.  Men  treat  women  and  ehihlren  with  great 
consideration.  They  trade  their  own  things  for  necklaces,  beads, 
etc.,  and  give  them  to  the  women.  Sometimes  a  woman  would 
not  trade  her  own  things  because  her  husband  was  away,  but 
when  he  came  he  always  allowed  his  wife  to  do  as  she  wished.  I 
never  saw  any  evidence  of  angiT  or  rude  tn'atment  between  hus- 
band and  wife. 


PEMMoar  HuBKini  Papkrs 


Vol.  X,  Plate  18 


I^ABODT  Mdsxdh  Papers 


Vol.  X,  Plati  19 


Hipibo  beaded  neoklaca,  Bad  bracelet  (upper  ficun).     (About  1/3.) 


ft  ^ 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  SIPIBO 


103 


He  Dead.  When  a  man  dies  a  small  canoe  is  made  for  a  coffin, 
Ills  body  and  all  his  belongings  are  placed  in  it,  and  buried  in  the 
earth  floor  of  the  house.  All  his  neighbors  attend  the  funeral,  and 
while  the  men  are  placing  the  coffin  in  the  grave,  the  women  march 
around  the  outside  of  the  house,  holding  hands  and  weeping.  The 
wife  or  wives  remain  in  the  house  near  the  grave. 

TTw  family  cuta  down  the  field,  and  moves  away  to  prepare  a 
lew  field  and  build  a  house.  The  old  house  is  loft  standing  over 
the  grave.  The  widow  at  once  goes  into  mourning;  she  cuts  off 
her  hair,  paints  her  face  black,  and  wears  white  clothing  for  a 
year.  Every  night  for  a  month,  and  every  full  moon  for  a  year, 
ehe  returns  to  weep  at  her  husband's  grave.    She  throws  away 


Sipibo  paddle,  ahai 


Length,  6S  inctm 


everything  that  her  husband  has  given  her  or  made  for  her.  At 
Rodriguez's  place  there  were  two  women  in  mourning;  one  for  a 
relative,  and  the  other  for  her  husband.  The  one  mourning  her 
husband  had  her  hair  cut  close  to  her  head,  was  dressed  in  white, 
and  remained  under  her  mosquito  net  all  the  time,  eating  nothing 
for  some  days.  The  other  woman,  as  I  passed,  was  crying  so  as 
to  be  heard  a  long  distance,  but  in  a  half  hour  when  I  passed  again, 
she  showed  no  signs  of  mourning  or  grief. 

When  a  woman  dies,  she  is  buried  under  the  floor  of  the  house 
in  the  same  way,  without  any  ceremony,  and  the  widower  shows 
no  sign  of  mourning.  When  a  small  child  dies,  the  neighbors  come 
in  and  sit  around  the  room;  the  dead  child  is  passed  around  and 
each  woman  in  turn  holds  it  for  a  time  in  her  arms,  and  then  it  is 
buried  under  the  floor  of  the  house. 


104  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

Religion.  The  Sipibo  worship  the  moon  as  mother  of  all  men. 
At  each  full  moon  there  is  a  fiesta  with  songs  and  dancing.  They 
have  no  worship  of  the  sun.  They  do  not  account  for  the  origin  of 
man  or  of  anything  else.  There  are  three  heavens,  all  above, 
where  the  souls  of  the  dead  go.  There  were  but  two  imtil  white 
men  came,  when  the  lowest  heaven  was  invented  for  them,  the 
next  higher  for  all  the  savages,  and  the  highest  for  themselves, 
who  are  not  savages  but  civiUzed  men. 

The  good  and  bad  all  go  to  the  same  place  at  death.  Heaven, 
or  the  place  of  the  dead,  is  much  like  earth,  except  that  there  are 
no  storms,  and  simshine  always.  There  are  no  enemies,  or  hard- 
ships, but  plenty  of  game,  fish,  and  women.  All  live  above  eter- 
nally, and  there  is  no  resurrection  or  retmn  to  earth.  There  is  very 
Uttle  difference  between  the  treatment  of  the  good  and  bad,  except 
that  the  bad  may  have  more  difficulty  in  getting  food. 

Medicine  Men.  The  medicine  man  gathers  herbs,  makes  medi- 
cine, yobusi,  and  attends  the  sick.  He  reduces  dislocations,  and 
sets  broken  bones  with  splints  and  bandages.  He  massages  a 
great  deal  in  his  treatments,  but  practises  sorcery  also.  He  shoots 
small  bones  or  wooden  arrows  into  anyone  at  a  distance,  causing 
sickness  and  death.  He  can  remove  such  arrows  shot  by  other 
medicine  men.  To  do  this  he  has  a  smoking  ceremcHiy  in  which  he 
uses  tobacco.  He  sucks  the  arrow,  r^noves  the  piece  of  bone  or 
wood  frcun  the  body  of  the  sick  man,  takes  it  from  his  mouth,  and 
exhibits  it  to  the  patient  and  to  others  present.  In  certain  ail- 
ments he  covers  the  seat  of  the  pain  with  wet  tobacco  leaves, 
blows  on  them,  and  afterward  sucls  out  the  disease  and  swallows 
it.  Such  diseases  do  him  no  harm.  If  a  man  dies  in  ^te  of  this 
treatment,  it  is  because  the  other  medidne  man  is  more  powerful 
than  he«  and  he  is  not  held  responsiMe.  The  positicxi  ot  medicine 
man  is  inherited  by  his  dde^t  son.  The  sick  are  wdl  cared  for, 
and  the  dd  people  are  respected  and  kindly  treated. 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  AMAHUACA  105 

AMAHUACA 

Bistribution  and  General  Culture.     I  was  unable  to  visit  the 
borne  of  the  Amahuaca,  but  my  infonnation  was  obtained  from 
two  very  reliable  sources:  Sr.  Mathias  Scharfif,  who  had  lived  and 
Worked  among  the  Amahuaca  for  several  years,  using  them  in 
gmhering  and  transporting  rubber;   and  an  Amahuaca  girl,  Kat- 
firime,  about  twelve  years  of  age,  belonging  to  a  Peruvian  woman 
'Wko  was  on  her  way  from  the  interior  to  Lima.    The  girl  had  been 
stolen  from  her  own  people  a  few  years  before  by  the  Campa,  and 
»cdd  to  a  rubber  gatherer.    We  spent  six  weeks  at  the  same  rubber 
station,  and  got  a  vocabulary  and  much  information  from  her.   She 
was  afterward  taken  from  the  low  hot  interior  country  over  the 
Andes  moimtains  at  an  elevation  of  16,600  feet.    She  was  poorly 
dad,  compelled  to  walk  to  keep  up  with  her  owner  on  horseback, 
and,  in  her  exhausted  condition  in  the  cold  high  climate,  she  con- 
tracted pneumonia,  and  died  before  reaching  the  coast. 

The  home  of  the  Amahuaca  is  the  high  country  about  the  head- 
waters of  the  Sepauhua,  Piedras,  and  Purus  Rivers.  The  tribe  is 
reported  to  be  very  large,  possibly  three  or  four  thousand  people. 
They  live  in  families  along  the  river  in  large  communal  houses. 
Their  houses  are  built  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  long,  and 
tiiirty  to  fifty  feet  wide,  with  very  high  ridge  pole,  and  open  gables. 
The  framework  of  the  house  is  made  of  rough  poles,  and  the  roof, 
which  comes  down  to  within  three  feet  of  the  ground,  is  made  of 
pahn  leaves.  A  wide  hallway  bordered  with  woven  mats  of  palm 
leaves  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  house.  On  each  side  there 
are  a  niunber  of  rooms  ten  or  twelve  feet  square,  separated  from  each 
other  by  woven  mats.    Fifty  or  more  people  live  in  each  house. 

The  people  sleep  in  large  wide  hammocks,  capable  of  supporting 
two  or  three  persons.  When  the  evenings  are  cool  a  fire  is  built 
under  the  hammock  to  keep  the  occupants  warm.  Each  family 
has  its  own  fireplace,  which  is  either  in  the  central  hallway  or  at 
one  end  of  the  house. 

The  Amahuaca  have  a  very  loose  tribal  organization.  The  chief 
inherits  his  position,  but  exercises  very  Uttle  authority  except  in 
times  of  warfare,  when  he  has  full  control.  They  are  an  agricul- 
tural people,  having  large  fields  for  growing  com,  cassava,  plan- 
tains, pumpkins,  and  peanuts.    Their  food  supply  is  supplemented 


106  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

by  hunting  and  fishing.  They  build  blinds  of  leaves  near  game 
trails,  and  shoot  the  animals  with  arrows  as  they  pass.  They  also 
use  blinds  to  call  the  curassows  within  shooting  distance.  They 
capture  the  tapir  by  digging  a  deep  pit  in  his  runway,  and  cover- 
ing it  with  leaves.  They  carry  the  dirt  a  long  distance  away  from 
the  pit. 

Fire  is  made  by  twirling  one  stick  between  their  hands  on  a 
base  which  rests  on  raw  cotton.  They  make  chicha  by  the  same 
method  as  the  other  Panoan  tribes,  and  from  the  roots  of  some  tree 
make  a  very  intoxicating  drink,  which  renders  them  delirious  and 
causes  them  to  fall  into  a  deep  sleep  from  which  they  awaken  with 
pleasant  memories.  They  are  not  as  good  pottery  makers  as  the 
other  related  tribes,  but  manufacture  suflScient  for  their  own  use. 
They  make  a  rough  carrying-basket  of  the  ribs  of  palm  leaves, 
which  they  carry  with  the  aid  of  a  tump-line  of  bark. 

Signal  Code.  They  make  Pan's  pipes  of  reeds  which  are  used  in 
making  music  for  their  moonlight  dances.  The  drum  is  not  used 
in  their  dances,  but  is  kept  for  the  special  purpose  of  sending 
signals  at  a  distance.  The  drum  is  made  of  a  section  of  the  trunk 
of  a  hollow  tree,  covered  with  the  tanned  skin  of  the  howling 
monkey.  Instead  of  the  drum,  they  sometimes  use  a  flat  root  of 
the  alatea  tree,  from  which  they  remove  the  bark,  but  leave  the 
root  in  place.  The  signal  is  sent  by  pounding  the  root  with  a 
heavy  maul,  the  sound  of  which  may  be  heard  a  very  long  distance 
through  the  forest. 

How  complete  the  signal  code  is  no  one  has  been  able  to  learn, 
but  it  seems  to  be  sufficient  for  all  their  needs.  It  would  appear 
that  a  drum  keeper  is  always  left  at  the  village  or  at  the  landing 
place  on  the  river  to  send  warning  signals  in  case  of  emergency. 
Once  when  Scharff  went  with  his  men  to  visit  a  village,  he  found 
an  Indian  at  the  river,  who  directed  him  to  the  chief's  house. 
Soon  after  leaving  the  Indian,  Scharff  heard  the  sound  of  the  signal 
drum,  and  when  he  reached  the  house,  there  was  no  one  there 
except  the  chief  to  receive  him.  His  interpreter  told  the  chief  that 
they  came  as  friends  to  visit  him.  The  chief  replied,  "  If  you  are 
friends,  you  will  leave  your  guns  outside,  and  come  into  the  house.'' 
When  they  went  in,  they  were  given  chicha,  and  seated  in  ham- 
mocks. After  another  drum  signal  had  been  given,  the  people 
came  from  the  forest  into  the  house. 


PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  AMAHUACA  107 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  The  women  wear  a  short  sidrt 
made  of  grass,  bark,  or  woven  cotton.  The  men  go  about  naked 
with  the  exception  of  a  cord  about  the  waist  under  which  is  tucked 
the  foreskin  of  the  penis.  This  device  is  apparently  designed  to 
protect  the  organ  from  injury.  Children  go  naked  until  the  time 
of  puberty. 

The  bodies  are  more  or  less  covered  with  paint  to  protect  the 

aikin  from  the  sun  and  bites  of  insects.    Faces,  hands,  arms,  and 

legs  are  painted  either  red  or  black.    Both  men  and  women  pierce 

their  ears,  and  insert  small  joints  of  bamboo  as  needle  cases.    The 

hard  wood  and  bone  needles  are  used  primarily  for  removing  thorns 

from  their  feet  and  exposed  bodies.    The  septum  of  the  nose  is 

pierced,  and  a  small  stick  of  wood  worn  through  it.    The  lower  Up 

is  also  pierced,  and  a  decorated  piece  of  flat  wood  or  silver  is  worn 

in  the  same  manner  as  among  the  Conebo. 

They  artificially  flatten  the  head  of  infants  by  tying  a  board  on 
the  forehead,  and  they  also  flatten  the  nose  by  tying  a  band  across 
it.  The  front  teeth  are  sometimes  filed  to  a  point  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  collection  of  particles  when  eating  meat,  and  to  be  better 
able  to  tear  the  fibers  apart.  All  wear  long  strings  of  beads  made 
of  red  and  white  seeds,  and  bands  of  woven  cotton  around  the 
arms,  either  plain,  or  with  small  monkey  teeth  attached. 

Marriage.  The  Amahuaca  marry  within  the  tribe,  but  outside 
their  own  village.  While  they  are  allowed  to  marry  more  than  one 
wife,  monogamy  is  the  general  rule.  To  marry,  it  is  necessary  for 
a  boy  to  hunt  and  work  for  the  father  of  the  girl  he  proposes  to 
many,  imtil  he  has  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  father  that 
he  is  able  to  support  a  family.  When  the  father  has  given  his 
consent,  the  young  man  must  go  into  the  forest  some  miles  away, 
dear  a  field,  plant  it,  and  build  a  house.  When  his  field  is  ready 
to  use,  at  the  end  of  about  ten  months,  he  returns,  and  takes  his 
bride,  without  ceremony,  to  live  with  him  in  the  new  home.  At 
the  end  of  a  year  they  return  and  make  their  home  in  the  com- 
munal house  of  the  wife's  people.  If  a  woman  proves  unfaithful, 
which  seldom  happens,  she  is  driven  away  from  the  tribe. 

When  a  man  has  more  than  one  wife,  each  has  her  own  hammock, 
and  fireplace;  each  furnishes  her  share  of  food  for  the  husband, 
who  eats  alone,  or  with  the  boys  of  the  family.  After  he  has  con- 
cluded his  meal,  the  women  and  girls  eat  what  is  left. 


108  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

The  Dead.  When  a  man  dies  his  immediate  family  leaves  the 
house.  The  men  of  the  household  tie  a  rope  around  the  neck  of 
the  naked  corpse,  and  drag  it  into  the  forest,  where  it  is  buried  in 
a  sitting  posture,  and  covered  with  leaves  and  earth.  There  is 
no  other  ceremony,  and  no  evidence  of  mourning. 

Warfare.  The  Amahuaca  is  one  of  the  few  tribes  that  makes  a 
formal  declaration  of  war,  or  notifies  its  enemies  that  it  is  prepar- 
ing to  fight.  The  conunon  cause  for  warfare  is  the  raids  made  for 
the  purpose  of  kidnapping  women.  The  chief  has  absolute  au- 
thority, and  makes  preparations  two  or  three  months  before  set- 
ting out  on  a  war  campaign.  They  collect  food,  and  make  bows 
and  arrows.  When  everything  is  ready,  all  the  young  women  and 
children,  carrying  enough  food  to  last  two  months,  are  sent  away 
a  long  distance  into  the  forest.  It  is  the  custom  among  all  of  these 
tribes  for  the  conquerors  to  capture  the  women,  and  so  this  pre- 
caution is  taken.  The  older  women  go  with  the  men  to  carry  food 
and  ammimition.  One  tribe  notifies  another  that  it  proposes  to 
make  an  attack,  by  scattering  loose  com  along  their  trails.  This 
seems  to  be  a  formal  declaration  of  war.  When  a  rubber  gatherer 
wishes  to  be  friendly,  and  to  trade  with  the  Indians,  he  hangs  a 
gift  in  a  tree  near  the  Amahuaca's  house.  If  the  Indian  wishes 
to  accept  the  offer  of  friendship,  he  takes  it,  and  leaves  something 
in  its  place;  if  he  does  not  wish  to  be  friendly,  he  leaves  it,  and 
scatters  com  about  the  place,  as  an  evidence  of  hostility.  When 
going  into  battle,  this  tribe  makes  the  attack  on  the  enemy  very 
early  in  the  morning,  long  before  daylight.  They  keep  their  posi- 
tions as  they  advance  by  imitating  the  call  of  some  bird.  When 
they  have  completely  surrounded  the  house,  the  signal  to  attack 
is  given  by  the  chief.  The  chief  remains  behind  at  some  distance, 
with  a  small  bodyguard  about  him,  receives  messages,  and  sends 
orders  directing  the  fighting. 

They  carry  off  the  young  women  and  children,  but  kill  all  the 
men  and  old  women.  They  bum  the  buildings  and  destroy  the 
fields,  but  never  take  possession  of  them.  In  warfare,  they  use 
bows  and  arrows,  and  clubs,  but  no  spears,  blowguns,  or  poisoned 
arrows. 

The  Amahuaca  are  noted  warriors.  They  are  said  to  be  at 
enmity  with  all  Whites,  and  to  kill  them  upon  sight.  Upon  inquiry, 
I  learned  that  the  first  expedition  that  went  up  the  Purus  River  into 


PAXOAX  ^rOCK,  THE  AMAHTACA  109 

tk  AmahaacA  countrv  was  well  received  bv  the  Indians,  and 
laiialigj  with  all  neeessaiy  provisions.  Af t^^  ^)«idinf:  some  time 
ikk  the  tribe  in  looking  over  the  tenritonr  for  rubber  trees,  the 
■s.  when  they  were  ready  to  leave,  captured  an  Indian  girl,  and 
csrifd  her  away  befcxe  the  Indians  could  make  resistance.  When 
tkr  (feeo%efed  what  had  happened,  the  Indians  followed  and 
ittidDed  the  canoes  in  their  attempt  to  rescue  the  girl.  None  of 
tk  vfaite  men  were  badhr  hurt,  but  manv  of  the  Indians  were 

m  m 

iKo^iered.  They  were  finally  beaten  off,  and  the  girl  was  carried 
HIT.  Since  then  thev  have  not  admitted  white  men  to  their 
Tilhp*T:  ajMi  becau^  of  this  they  are  reported  to  be  savages. 

Chnacter.    A  very  good  in^gfat  into  the  diaracter  of  the  Ama- 
baca  ^  given  by  the  following  occurrence:  Sr.  Scharff  wished  very 
■ath  to  have  a  large  group  of  Amahuaca  asast  him  in  gathering 
ad  traisporting  rubber,  and  so  taking  with  him  as  interpreter  an 
Amahuaca  who  had  been  in  his  employ  for  several  years,  he  made 
1  nat  to  one  of  the  chiefs  in  the  interior.    When  thev  landed  from 
Aar  canoes  at  the  Indian  village,  the  interpreter  went  to  the  <4iief , 
karing  Sehar^  and  his  armed  men  behind.     He  told  the  chirf 
lAsJt  they  had  come  for,  abo  about  the  good  diaracter  of  Scharff, 
and  the  work  he  wanted  the  chief  and  hb  people  to  do.    The  Aid 
Rpfied  that  he  willed  the  white  men  would  leave  him  and  his 
people  alone  in  their  own  country,  that  they  were  not  molesting 
the  Whites,  and  they  did  not  wish  to  be  molested:  but  after  due 
eomaderatioQ  the  chief  sent  for  Scharff  and  told  him  that  he  would 
make  an  investigation  of  his  place  for  himself.    He  sheeted  four 
of  hi^  own  men.  and  went  home  with  Scharff.    They  locked  over 
the  tefritory.  made  complele  investigation  of  the  whole  situation, 
and  returned  to  their  people.    They  then  hM  a  meeting,  and  de- 
cided to  accept  Scfaarff^s  offer,  and  to  move  to  his  river.    The  chief 
told  Scharff  that  they  would  remain  where  they  were  for  the  pre:^ 
cut  and  send  men  in  advance  who  would  make  clearings*  build 
houses  fcr  his  people,  and  that  in  a  year,  when  the  firid^  were  ready^ 
the  tnbe  as  a  whole  would  nK>ve  to  its  new  location.    The  plan  was 
accepted  and  faithfully  carried  out  by  the  chief. 

The  Indians  were  not  ahravs  given  such  an  c^iportunity  to  decide 
their  own  fate,  as  we  learned  from  many  occurrences  and  reports. 
We  made  a  journey  of  several  months  to  visit  the  brother  of  Sr. 
Scharff,  who  had  a  place  and  several  hundred  Indians  on  the  upper 


no 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Piedras  River,  but  before  we  could  reach  him,  he  was  killed.  He 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  sending  a  white  man  with  some  Indians  to 
bring  in  men  of  another  tribe.  The  methods  were  often  barbarous; 
a  few  Indians  would  be  captured,  more  killed,  and  the  rest  put 
to  flight.  Just  before  his  death,  Scharff  (the  brother)  sent  some 
of  his  Amahuaca  Indians  alone,  armed  with  Winchester  rifles,  to 
capture  a  tribe  a  long  distance  away.  It  was  the  first  opportimity 
these  Indians  ever  had  to  retaUate,  and  they  decided  to  make  good 
use  of  it.  Making  preparations  for  a  long  absence,  they  soon  re- 
turned, killed  Scharff  and  his  ten  white  employees,  and  burned 
the  place.  The  report  soon  reached  other  rubber  men,  and  Sr. 
BaJdimero  Rodriguez,  with  whom  we  had  spent  several  weeks  on 
one  of  our  voyages,  went  over  to  learn  what  had  become  of  all  the 
rubber  and  other  effects  belonging  to  Scharff.  The  details  will 
never  be  known,  for  he  and  all  of  his  men  were  killed,  and  no 
white  man  has  since  risked  a  visit.  The  brother  who  was  kiUed 
was  the  most  notorious  of  all  the  rubber  gatherers  in  the  upper 
Amazon  region. 

Vocabulaiy. 

THE  FAMILY 


People 

atiri 

Sister 

tdpi 

Family 

mikai,  meke 

Son 

tcampi 

Man 

hunte 

Daughter 

tdpi 

Woman 

c6nto 

Infant 

bista 

Father 

upa 

Grandfather 

miyawaka 

Mother 

mipui 

Grandmother 

uga*  mipui 

Brother 

tcampi 

PARTS  OF  THE  BODY 

Body 

nampi 

Neck 

tustcu 

Bone 

cautc 

Breast 

tcutcu 

Hair 

bate 

Stomach 

poka 

Face 

eruke 

Bowels 

poko 

Chin 

huta 

Bkdder 

isonti 

Beard 

kunte 

Arm 

bofia 

Eye 

wcro 

Hand 

maka 

Eyebrow 

werspi 

Finger 

muka 

EyeUsh 

wersmi 

Foot 

taku 

Ear 

pavinki 

Leg 

gistci 

Mouth 

ktiska 

Heart 

hointi 

Lip 

kutcka 

Breath 

wihe 

Teeth 

huU 

PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  AMAHUACA 


111 


ANIMALS.  BIRDS,  AND  PLANTS 


Bfaok^ 


lU 

BM 

IWkiy 

fvPcd 

Hicmw 

Bee 


White 
fibck 
uieco 


Anfwer 

Aik 

Bend 

ffite 

Bleed 

Bofl 


Bam 
Bmy 

on 

Catch 
Come 
Cook 
Oy 

Core 

Cot 

Die 


Dive 

Divide 

Do 

Dream 

Drink 

Drop 

Eat 

Enter 


toelntiik 

intok 

ontuk 

iya 

iyepa 


kotcuic 

aaink 

stcka 

micki 

nedbi 


otoo 
tcao 
tooic 


nesmau 

ukaii 

konUK 

tutcaiK 

Smpi 

hobatoe 

uratcki 

wuki 

kuatci 

wake 

kimtatd 

kusatci 

hoki 

hobake 

adarki 

natcuke 

catuki 

naki 

wucaki 

h«ki 

kakuki 

aki 

uctcaiik 

aiyaki 

mananke 

hiM 

«ki 


Mosquito 

ciu 

Corn 

huki 

Yucca 

atsi 

Cane 

tawata 

Banana 

manintca 

Papaya 

niKmpe 

Camote 

kadi 

Tree 

hi 

Bark 

ckaka 

"Wood 

hie 

Cotton 

capu 

COLORS 

Blue 

tcao 

Yelk>w 

mfltce 

Red 

bietce 

VERBS 

FaU 

pakui 

Fear 

itakui 

Fight 

mutcui 

FiU 

wupatci 

Find 

J'Tnki 

Float 

wuatoe 

Fly 

pui 

Follow 

giwaii 

Forget 

sinayampi 

Freeze 

matiii 

Give 

inanki 

Go 

kai 

Grow 

naba 

Hear 

bastx^ki 

Help 

akinld 

Hit 

magui 

Hold 

untak 

Hunt 

haintc 

Kiss 

imbake 

Know 

einke 

Laugh 

usaik 

Lead 

bnki 

Leak 

bupai 

Learn 

apai 

Leave 

niwaki 

T^nd 

inanki 

lie 

utaai 

112 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


T^ift 

iyarki 

Shake 

cake 

T,ike 

untak 

Shoot 

matarke 

Listen 

undestcai 

Show 

inke 

Live 

andowhai 

Sing 

cumbake 

Tiook 

einki 

Sink 

untuke 

Lose 

yokaki 

Sit 

saui 

Make 

aki 

Sleep 

ocai  1 

Meet 

iike 

Smell 

cuti 

Miss 

kantai'i 

Smoke 

koi 

Murder 

Ytotaki 

Steal 

vianke 

Overturn 

mapokiwani 

Strike 

mauke 

Paint 

kiintari 

Suck 

uyuke 

Pass 

vindoke 

Swallow 

hidii 

Pay 

inanki 

Swim 

wugai 

Present 

inanke 

Think 

cinai 

Roast 

nantuki 

Thunder 

baiicke 

Rob 

vYanke 

Tie 

nocake 

See 

einke 

Vomit 

hanake 

Seek 

wandaki 

Wash 

tcokake 

SeU 

manke 

Weave 

kustcuke 

Set 

wake 

Wound 

buoi 

Sew 

kustcuke 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

Around 

watci 

Fan 

pici 

Bad 

iroma 

Fishhook 

mickiti 

Basket 

kaka 

Fast 

wuntah 

Bead 

moro 

Fever 

itsi 

Bed 

kaka 

Fire 

tci'I 

Belt 

navi 

Floor 

tahuk 

Bow 

biya 

Friend 

ansabu 

Bridge 

hu 

Fruit 

biempe 

Canoe 

ckatxnik 

FuU 

aui 

Cold 

matse 

Funeral 

mai 

Crooked 

takome 

Grave 

kinti 

Cooking  pot 

kunte 

Good 

cada 

Cushma 

wastci 

Hammock 

disi 

Day 

notoi 

Hard 

kuda 

Dead 

nai 

High 

mananke 

Deep 

bisma 

Hill 

mai 

Diarrhea 

trihui 

House 

tapas 

Dry 

dando 

Hot 

itsi 

Ear-rings 

theusi 

Hungry 

kucmanai 

Ear-rings  of  shell 

paruntanti 

I 

iya 

Egg 

watoe 

Knife 

iyampi 

Empty 

iyemba 

Tiake 

wakoma 

Enemy 

ilakui 

Leaf 

montepwi 

PANOAN  STOCK,  THE  AMAHUACA 


113 


Idrtcu 

Sand 

mXsbo 

tcai 

Seed 

ustcuk 

topiki,  hii 

Sharp 

mocak 

Shoe 

tantc 

bicii 

Short 

bista 

hiTd^te 

Sick 

widamba 

nampi 

Snake 

trontuk 

micipa 

Skirt 

watd 

kakiiki 

SkuU 

uapu 

natai 

Sky 

ocuk,  nai 

auntuk 

Small 

bista 

UBtcuk 

Soft 

wayo 

mismi,  nel 

Spirit,  good 

yodma 

mai 

Spoon 

yambetsamba 

watoemai 

Spring 

ifia 

sambi 

Star 

bista 

orama 

Stone 

mastca 

moro 

Straight 

tcai 

hombo 

String 

nutri 

wiputek 

Supper 

ledi 

kaka 

Sun 

wadik 

tsambe 

Sweat 

niskai 

uinta 

Sweet 

wata 

yampSi 

Tattoo 

apu 

yampa 

This 

Ytably 

yambinatcki 

Thread 

nici 

edutcbe 

Tobacco 

Ytompe 

yampa 

Tomorrow 

anuntai 

tcunti 

Tongue 

antak 

naa 

Tribe 

wuitsa 

wicuatckiii 

Truth 

konk 

•    • 

ISl 

Ugly 

ySroma 

kuntai 

Urine 

isawi 

kaao 

Unripe 

kuda 

wai 

Untrue 

ontsahi 

waketa 

Vacant 

yamba 

watdmai'e 

Vine 

nSstci 

kicpu 

War 

mauki 

ui 

Water 

wakoma 

cadak 

Wet 

mutca 

matca 

Wide 

toah 

maniwa 

Wind 

matsi 

huntuk 

Wing 

pai 

mananki 

Yesterday 

ayante 

hi 

You 

miya 

nice 

Young 

mastcuk 

doro 

Good  man 

tcadak 

tastdk 

Bad  man 

iromak 

114 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


My  house 
Our  house 
My  foot 
My  feet 
Your  foot 
My  hand 
My  hands 
Your  hand 
I^y  dog 
This  woman 


man 
I  am  warm 
I  am  oold 
lam  hungiy 
lam  thirsty 


mitapas 

untak 

tahutc 

mitahutc 

nitahutc 

muimaka 

itabuk 

mainta 

untak 

itably  oonto 

itably  hunti 

m€ska 

cukSi 

kucmenahi 

wakoma 


PHRASES 

lam  tired 
lamsle^y 
lam  weak 
Hefeit  is 
There  it  is 
lam  in  my  canoe 
You  are  in  my  canoe 
We  are  in  our  canoe 


kustcai 

wufkai 

nahaki 

oha 

mistcahu 

mindastcu 

nustcttha 


We  are  in  our  good  canoe  caduk  niknunhaunka 

He  is  in  my  canoe  ahaditu 

A  man  will  come  in  a  canoe    dahondihoe 

A  man  will  come  with  baggage    hayahue 

I  see  two  men  in  a  canoe    itawihowi 

I  saw  two  macaws  itawiinke 

I  have  seen  a  dog  intoinke 


JIVARAN  STOCK 


Distributioii  of  Tribes.   This  group  of  Indians,  commonly  known 
the  Jivaro,  occupies  a  large  territory  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
-^ndes  Mountains  in  Ecuador  between  the  Chinchipa,  Altoma- 
^^"anan,  and  Pastaza  Rivers.    A  small  space  between  the  Marona 
^^nd  the  lower  Pastaza  is  inhabited  by  the  Murato.    There  are 
isine  tribes  speaking  dialects  of  the  Jivaran  language,  and  having 
similar  cultures:  Huambesa,  Tamora,  Cuanduasi,  Ashira,  Andoa, 
Copotasa,  Arapeca,  Chargaime,  and  Upano.    The  first  five  of 
these  tribes  are  friendly  among  themselves,  and  are  enemies  of 
the  other  four  tribes.    A  line  drawn  west  from  Andoa  would  divide 
these  two  hostile  factions.    I  was  unable  to  visit  the  Jivaro  in 
their  own  country  to  make  personal  observations,  but  was  fortunate 
in  finding  at  Iquitos,  Peru,  Sr.  F.  T.  Muniz,  who  Uved  and  traveled 
for  some  years  among  this  people,  and  who  gave  me  much  informa- 
tion regarding  them. 

Early  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  missionaries  came  into 
contact  with  some  of  the  tribes,  and  established  stations.  The  old 
Spanish  town  of  Macas  is  reported  to  have  had  at  one  time  several 
thousand  Jivaro,  but  today  the  town  has  disappeared  and  the 
inhabitants  are  scattered  among  the  Upano,  who  speak  a  dialect 
of  the  same  language.  The  more  remote  tribes  have  had  Uttle 
contact  with  the  Whites,  and  they  continue  to  practise  their  old 
customs  and  to  live  their  old  tribal  life.  Their  number  has  been 
reduced,  until  at  the  present  time  there  are  not  more  than  eight 
or  ten  thousand  remaining. 

Home  Life.  There  is  no  chief  over  the  whole  group,  but  each 
tribe  has  its  own  head-man.  In  time  of  war,  a  war-chief  is  selected 
who  has  absolute  authority.  They  have  no  villages,  but  live  in 
large  oval-shaped  commimal  houses,  which  may  be  seventy-five 
feet  long  and  forty  feet  wide,  containing  several  families.  A  family 
living  in  the  large  house  may  have  a  small  house  at  a  clearing  some 
distance  away,  where  they  live  while  cultivating  their  fields.  The 
houses  are  built  of  poles  and  have  thatched  roofs,  the  walls  contin- 
uing to  the  ground,  without  wmdows  or  other  openings  except  two 

115 


116  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

doors,  one  at  either  end  of  the  house,  one  of  which  is  for  the  use 
of  women  and  the  other  for  men.  Each  woman  has  her  own  little 
section  of  the  women's  end  of  the  house,  with  her  fireplace  made 
of  three  short  logs  with  ends  together.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
house  the  men  are  grouped,  each  having  his  own  stool  and  couch. 
The  men  in  the  house  spend  their  time  manufacturing  blowguns, 
poisoned  darts,  quivers,  lances,  and  round  shields  of  wood  or  tapir 
skin.  Here  they  make  and  keep  the  great  signal  drum.  The  men 
sit  on  stools,  but  the  women  must  sit  on  the  floor.  They  have  no 
hanunocks,  but  sleep  on  couches  built  on  raised  platforms  around 
the  walls.  The  women  take  care  of  the  dogs,  and  keep  them  tied 
day  and  night  to  the  foot  of  their  couches.  They  make  coarse 
pottery  by  the  conunon  coiling  method,  and  also  make  baskets, 
nets,  mats,  and  ropes  as  needed. 

Food  Supply.  They  are  an  agricultural  people,  depending  less 
upon  hunting  and  fishing  than  many  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
They  grow  com,  cassava,  sweet  potatoes,  and  plantains.  They 
depend  to  some  extent  upon  himting  and  fishing.  They  use  no 
bows  and  arrows,  but  depend  upon  other  devices.  They  are  more 
expert  at  using  the  blowgun  than  any  of  the  surrounding  tribes. 

The  blowgun  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  chonta  palm,  carved,  pol- 
ished, wrapped  with  strips  of  bark,  and  covered  with  pitch.  The 
guns  are  about  seven  feet  long,  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  mouthpiece,  and  taper  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  at  the 
muzzle.  The  mouthpiece  is  made  of  bone  which  is  inserted  in 
the  end  of  the  gun.  The  Yagua  blowgun  mouthpiece  is  spool- 
shaped  with  a  depression  for  the  lips,  while  the  Jivaro  mouthpiece 
has  a  bone  which  is  put  into  the  mouth  when  blown. 

The  poisoned  arrows  are  made  of  strips  of  chonta  palm  with 
a  wisp  of  silk-cotton  on  one  end  to  fill  the  bore  and  catch  the 
breath.  They  are  carried  in  a  quiver  which  is  fastened  to  a  small 
joint  of  bamboo  filled  with  curari  poison,  into  which  the  points  are 
dipped  before  being  used.  Blowguns  are  used  here  as  bows  and 
arrows  are  used  among  the  other  tribes,  for  killing  birds  and 
monkeys.  The  flight  of  the  arrow  is  noiseless,  and  when  it  strikes 
the  animal  the  shock  is  so  slight  that  no  attention  is  paid  to  it. 
The  poison  acts  so  quickly  that  the  animal  soon  becomes  dizzy 
and  falls  to  the  ground.  The  blowgun  is  the  most  effective  weapon 
for  all  small  game. 


JIVARAN  STOCK  117 

Tliey  use  traps,  snares,  and  pitfalls  for  catching  the  larger 
For  catching  fish  they  use  large  nets  with  nut  sinkers  and 
floats.    They  also  poison  the  pools  with  the  roots  of  babasco 
^aequinia  armillaris).    When  the  poison  is  used  in  large  quanti- 
the  water  is  turned  a  whitish  color,  killing  all  the  fish,  which 
cm  the  surface  where  they  are  picked  up  from  canoes. 
Certain  AnimAk  are  taboo.    The  deer  and  sloth  are  supposed  to 
the  dwelling  places  of  the  evil  spirits,  and  are  not  eaten.    The 
nr  is  not  considered  good  for  women  to  eat.    The  men  grow 
^^;H<>bacco,  and  use  it  to  smoke  and  drink. 

Fixe  Haldiig.    They  make  fire  by  the  common  method  of  twirl- 
a  stick  between  the  palms.    They  have  an  interesting  tradition 
how  they  first  obtained  fire.    In  the  beginning  they  cooked  their 
in  the  sun,  and  warmed  their  food  under  their  arms.    A  Jivaro 
,  Takia,  first  learned  to  make  fire  by  rubbing  two  sticks 
"%x)gether,  but  he  kept  the  fire  to  himself,  and  would  not  allow  his 
:|)eople  to  use  it  or  to  know  how  to  make  it,  so  they  attempted  to 
^teal  it  from  him.    At  that  time  the  Jivaro  resembled  men  but 
^XMild  fly  like  birds.    Several  of  them  went  to  Takia's  house  to  try 
^o  get  the  fire,  but  Takia  kept  his  door  ajar,  and  when  one  put  his 
liead  in,  he  closed  the  door,  and  killed  him.    The  snake  said  that 
le  would  try  another  method,  so  he  wet  his  wings,  and  went  to 
the  path  where  Takia's  wife  would  find  him  in  the  early  morning. 
^be  took  pity  on  him,  carried  him  into  the  house,  and  placed  him 
near  the  fire.    When  he  was  warm  and  dry,  he  took  a  fire  brand 
with  his  tail,  and  flew  away  to  the  top  of  a  dead  tree  where  he  ob- 
tained some  dry  bark  in  which  he  wrapped  the  fire,  and  carried  it 
to  his  own  house.    There  he  built  a  fire,  and  gave  it  to  his  people, 
90  they  were  no  longer  compelled  to  ripen  their  food  under  their 
aims.    Takia  scolded  his  wife,  but  the  Jivaro  have  had  fire  ever 
smoe,  and  know  how  to  make  it  by  rubbing  together  two  pieces  of 
dk-cotton  wood. 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  Men  wear  either  a  kilt-like  cotton 
garment  reaching  the  knees,  or  a  loose  sleeveless  bark  shirt.  These 
garments  are  sometimes  painted  in  geometric  designs,  or  decorated 
by  se¥riiig  on  strings  of  monkey  teeth,  beads,  or  feathers.  The 
leaders  at  the  dance  wear  a  beautiful  ceremonial  hat  or  crown  made 
of  feathers.  The  men  also  wear  a  back  ornament  made  of  bird 
bones,  which  is  suspended  from  a  band  over  the  forehead.    The 


118  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

mummified  head  or  war  trophy  is  worn  suspended  over  this  orna- 
ment of  bird  bones.  The  women  wear  a  skirt  of  cotton  or  bark 
which  reaches  a  Uttle  below  the  knees,  and  a  cotton  cloak  thrown 
over  one  shoulder  and  fastened  under  the  arm.  The  children  run 
about  naked  until  the  approach  of  puberty. 

Both  men  and  women  wear  necklaces  of  the  teeth  of  various 
animals,  and  seeds  of  various  kinds  and  colors.  In  their  ears  the 
men  wear  sticks  of  chonta  palm  about  six  inches  long  and  one  inch 
thick,  from  which  are  suspended  feathers  and  wings  of  beetles. 
The  nose  and  lips  are  not  perforated.  They  paint  their  faces, 
hands,  and  feet  black  with  "  wito  "  {Genipa  Americana),  for  pro- 
tection against  the  flies  and  the  sim.  The  hair  is  worn  long  behind, 
and  cut  square  across  in  front.  The  men  wear  a  loop  of  hair  in 
front  of  their  ears,  wrapped  and  decorated  with  feathers. 

Marriage.  Polygamy  is  conmion  among  the  Jivaro.  A  man  has 
the  first  right  to  marry  his  cousin,  and  may  also  take  her  younger 
sister  when  she  reaches  the  age  of  puberty.  He  is  not  compelled 
to  marry  his  cousin,  as  he  may  prefer  to  steal  a  wife  from  an  enemy 
tribe.  The  consent  of  the  girl's  father  is  necessary,  before  the  mar- 
riage can  take  place,  and  if  he  is  willing,  he  gives  a  great  feast  in- 
viting all  the  members  of  the  large  household.  The  feast  and  noiar- 
riage  ceremony  are  in  charge  of  the  medicine  man.  When  all  are 
ready,  the  medicine  man  takes  food  and  serves  it  to  the  bride, 
saying,  "  This  is  the  way  you  must  serve  your  husband."  He  offers 
her  com,  cassava  bread,  sweet  potatoes,  and  plantains,  and  each 
time  repeats  the  same  injunction.  Then  he  brings  a  servant  whom 
the  bridegroom  has  secured,  and  says,  "  You  must  always  be  ready 
to  serve  your  husband  without  his  asking."  This  concludes  the 
ceremony  proper,  and  the  rest  of  the  night  is  spent  in  feasting  and 
dancing. 

The  Jivaro  often  make  raids  upon  their  enemies  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  off  young  women  for  wives  or  servants.  It  has  been 
reported  that  the  Jivaro  practise  the  couvade,  but  my  informant 
was  positive  that  they  do  not  now,  and  probably  never  did. 

When  a  man  goes  to  visit  a  friend  at  his  house,  he  steps  inside 
the  door,  and  stands  at  one  side.  A  woman  brings  him  a  seat,  and 
announces  him.  His  host  washes,  combs  his  hair,  paints  his  face, 
and  dresses;  when  ready,  he  advances,  greets  the  visitor,  and  sits 
down  in  front  of  him.    The  visitor  talks  in  a  high  voice  for  fifteen 


JIVARAN  STOCK  119 

or  twenty  minutes  without  interruption,  giving  an  account  of  what 
he  has  seen,  and  what  he  has  done  since  their  last  meeting.  The 
host  occasionally  gives  assent  by  saying,  '^  And  this  is  the  way  you 
have  done  it/'  When  the  visitor  has  concluded,  the  host  takes  his 
turn  for  about  the  same  period,  then  they  stop  and  begin  talking 
about  other  things  in  a  quiet  tone.  When  a  woman  enters  a  house 
she  is  taken  at  once  to  the  women's  apartment  without  any 
oeremony. 

Hie  Dead*  When  a  man  dies  he  is  left  in  his  bed,  all  of  his  pos- 
sessions are  placed  about  him,  together  with  food  and  drink.  The 
house  and  fields  are  deserted,  and  no  one  ever  goes  back  to  the 
house  or  takes  an3rthing  from  the  fields. 

ReUgkm.  The  Jivaro  do  not  have  a  well  developed  religious 
belief.  Iguanchi,  their  chief  spirit,  takes  account  of  all  the  impor- 
tant acts  of  life,  but  he  is  not  worshipped  in  any  sense,  although  he 
is  considered  a  good  and  friendly  spirit.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the 
early  missionaries  applied  the  name  of  this  good  spirit  to  the  Devil 
and  manufactured  a  new  name  for  God.  The  Jivaro  have  never 
willingly  accepted  reUgious  teaching,  and  many  times  have  driven 
the  missionaries  out  of  the  country.  They  despise  the  Zaparo, 
because  they  have  accepted  Christian  teaching,  and  are  more 
under  the  influence  of  the  Whites.  The  Zaparo,  on  the  other  hand, 
call  the  Jivaro  ''  ancas,"  or  savages,  and  are  greatly  afraid  of  them. 
Medicine  Men.  No  one  dies  a  natural  death.  Disease  and 
death  are  caused  by  the  influence  of  an  enemy  medicine  man,  and 
hence  the  disease  must  be  overcome  by  a  friendly  medicine  man. 
The  medicine  man  uses  both  herbs  and  magic  combined.  He 
selects  his  herbs,  performs  his  incantations  over  them,  moving 
his  head  from  side  to  side,  and  then  gives  them  to  the  patient.  He 
then  soaks  tobacco  in  water,  takes  the  fluid  in  the  hollow  of  his 
hands,  and  sniffs  it  into  his  nostrils.  He  continues  his  incanta- 
tions, and  calls  upon  the  evil  spirit  to  come  out  of  the  man,  saying 
"  If  you,  the  evil  one,  have  caused  this  sickness,  come  and  take  it 
away."  He  asks  the  patient  if  he  feels  better;  if  he  does  not,  then 
he  calls  upon  the  animals  in  the  same  language.  If  the  patient  is 
not  better  by  this  time  he  gathers  other  herbs  and  repeats  the 
process,  then  he  sucks  from  the  seat  of  the  pain  and  exhibits  a 
piece  of  bone,  chonta,  or  a  small  spider  which  he  has  sucked  out. 
If  the  patient  gets  well,  he  makes  lavish  presents  to  the  medicine 


120  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

man,  but  if  he  dies,  his  friends  may  kill  the  medicine  man  or  some 
member  of  his  family,  and  a  vendetta  may  be  started  in  this  way. 
When  a  medicine  man  is  sent  for,  he  first  makes  inquiry,  and  if 
he  thinks  a  person  may  not  recover  he  finds  some  excuse  for  not 
admmistering  unto  him. 

Mummified  Heads.  The  Jivaro  are  considered  a  war-like 
people,  and  as  stated  above,  they  are  divided  into  two  hostile 
groups,  which  have  been  traditional  enenies  for  generations  and 
live  in  a  chronic  state  of  warfare.  There  are  continual  raids  made 
from  one  tribe  to  another,  kiUing  the  men,  and  carrying  off  the 
women.  They  are  sometimes  caUed  head  hunters  and  cannibals, 
because  they  cut  off  the  heads  of  the  enemy,  and  carry  than  home 
to  be  preserved  as  trophies  (plate  20).  They  are  not  cannibals,  as 
they  never  eat  any  portion  of  the  body. 

The  tsantsa,  or  munmiified  head,  is  their  greatest  taro^Ay. 
When  one  makes  a  raid  to  secure  a  head  the  chances  are  even  that 
he  will  lose  his  own,  hence  it  is  considered  a  great  honor  to  take 
the  head  of  one  of  the  traditional  en^ny.  If  the  head  is  that  of 
a  chief,  some  noted  warrior,  or  other  important  individual,  the 
honor  is  greater,  and  a  great  feast  must  be  given  to  which  all  the 
friendly  tribes  are  invited.  To  give  such  a  feast  it  is  necessary  to 
dear  a  field  and  grow  cassava,  com,  and  plantains,  for  food  and 
drink  for  the  great  throng  that  will  attend.  This  requires  several 
months  or  pos^bly  two  or  three  j-ears,  hence  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
ser\-e  the  head  in  onler  to  have  it  present  at  the  feast,  as  evidence 
of  the  hero's  prowe^. 

The  hero  must  plant  his  fields,  but  near  the  time  of  the  feast 
his  frienils  may  assist  him  in  hunting,  fishing,  and  preserving  meat, 
while  the  ^xuuen  of  the  house  a:s^t  his  wife  in  making  great 
quantities  of  drink  to  be  storeil  in  large  earthen  jars. 

The  man  nuist  also  undergo  a  fast,  or  rather  sulnnit  to  taboos. 
He  paints  his  Ixxly  with  black  linet?,  h>-es  alone,  and  shows  his 
bravcr>-  by  g^>ing  without  weapons.  He  must  not  kill  game  with 
a  spt^ar,  or  eat  the  tlesh  of  certain  animals.  He  confines  himsdf 
ahnost  entirely  to  fmits,  >-egetaWes,  and  fish  cau|dit  in  the  net. 
When  tht^  time  for  vho  feast  anriN-es,  the  headnuan  takes  charge. 
When  the  daiuv  is  n^ii>-  to  Ix^n,  the  hero,  earning  the  tsantsa  on 
the  top  irf  a  staff,  ixnnes  thnnigh  the  htHis^\  and  presents  it  to  the 
Master  i>f  CVn^uoines,  who  dips  the  head  fir^t  into  a  decoction  of 


ChuKhu  or  jhmnkea  human  heuta,  pnpand  by  the  Jivuv  TndUflH.     (About  1/4.) 


JIVARAN  STOCK  121 

tobacco,  then  in  chicha,  and  again  in  clear  water.  He  afterwards 
poms  a  little  of  each  of  these  beverages  into  the  mouth  of  the  hero, 
wbo  is  seated  on  a  low  stool.  This  ceremony  ends  the  fast  for  the 
hero,  and  frees  him  from  further  obUgations.  The  tobacco  juice 
he  has  taken  serves  as  a  violent  emetic,  but  he  soon  recovers,  goes 
to  the  river  for  a  bath,  and  returns  to  take  part  in  the  dance.  The 
Master  of  Ceremonies  carries  the  head  towards  the  dancers,  falls 
on  his  knees  many  times,  and  ends  by  making  an  address  compU- 
mentary  to  the  courage  of  the  hero,  in  which  he  says,  "  Brave 
Jivaro,  you  have  avenged  an  injury."  He  then  sets  up  the  stafif, 
with  the  head  on  it,  in  the  dance  ground;  and  the  men,  with  the 
hero's  wife,  clasp  hands  and  dance  around  the  head,  hurUng  ridicule 
and  derisive  epithets  at  it,  as  they  advance  and  retreat.  At  the 
same  time  the  other  women  dance  in  a  great  circle  on  the  outside 
of  the  men. 

The  dance  at  the  feast  of  the  head  is  the  only  opportunity  that 
a  woman  ever  has  to  dance  with  the  men.  It  is  her  greatest  honor. 
After  this  dance  is  over,  the  hero  takes  the  head  and  hangs  it  on 
the  principal  pillar  of  the  house,  where  it  remains  indefinitely.  It 
may  eventually  be  thrown  into  the  river  or  disposed  of  at  will.  In 
some  tribes  it  is  kept  and  worn  on  anniversary  occasions  over  the 
bird-bone  back  ornament.  This  ends  the  ceremonies  connected 
with  the  head,  but  the  dance  continues  day  and  night  imtil  the 
suppUes  are  exhausted. 

At  midnight  on  the  last  day  of  the  dance,  a  large  niunber  of 
young  peccaries,  which  have  been  kept  fat  for  the  occasion,  are 
brought  out,  killed  by  the  Master  of  Ceremonies,  and  divided 
among  the  guests  to  furnish  food  for  their  journey  home.  This 
signifies  the  end  of  the  dance,  and  is  the  farewell  salutation. 
Plieparations  are  now  made  for  the  departure,  and  then  all  join 
in  a  final  dance  which  ends  at  daybreak.  They  have  been  eating^ 
drinking,  and  dancing  for  days,  and  all  are  so  tired  that  they  soon 
camp  and  take  a  long  sleep. 

When  the  enemy  is  killed,  his  head  is  cut  off  with  a  bamboo 
knife,  and  carried  home  where  it  is  himg  up  for  three  or  four  days 
until  decomposition  begins.  An  incision  is  made  at  the  edge  of 
the  hair  and  carried  over  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  back  of  the 
neck,  and  the  skull  is  removed.  The  skin  is  cleaned  of  flesh,  and 
boiled  in  an  infusion  of  herbs  containing  astringents  and  preserva- 


122  TMBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

lives.  The  skin  is  then  sewn  up,  and  shrunken  by  putting  hot 
sand  and  hot  stones  inside.  As  the  skin  shrinks  it  is  manipulated 
to  keep  it  in  the  desired  form.  Finally  the  head  is  greased  and 
smoked  for  a  long  time  over  a  fire  made  of  roots  of  a  certain  palm 
tree.  To  keep  the  lips  in  position  while  the  skin  is  drying,  three 
small  chonta  palm  sticks  are  thrust  through  them  from  below, 
and  cotton  strings  woven  in  and  out  over  the  lips.  These  sticks 
are  replaced  with  cotton  cord  when  the  head  is  completely  cured; 
a  transverse  cord  is  attached  to  the  three  suspended  cords,  and 
hanging  from  it  there  are  usuaUy  several  single  cords  about  fifteen 
inches  long,  decorated  with  feathers  or  beetle  wings.  These  cords 
are  not  records,  or  quipus,  but  are  used  for  ornamental  purposes 
only.  The  ears  are  perforated,  and  have  various  decorations  of 
feathers,  beads,  and  beetle  wings  suspended. 

When  the  skin  is  sewn  up,  a  short  stick  is  placed  inside,  attached 
to  a  string  through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  head.  This  is  used  for 
suspension  of  the  head  over  the  ornament  of  bird  bones,  when  it  is 
worn.  The  head  is  reduced  to  about  one-eighth  its  normal  size  as 
is  shown  in  the  photograph  (plate  20),  and  is  very  dark  brown  in 
color  on  account  of  the  smoke.  It  has  been  said  that  these  heads 
resemble  the  originals  to  such  an  extent  that  they  may  be  recog- 
nized. A  woman  is  said  to  have  recognized  the  head  of  her  son, 
but  in  all  such  cases  of  recognition  the  fact  is  known  that  the  head 
has  been  taken,  and  that  it  is  kept  in  a  certain  house,  so  it  would 
be  very  easy  to  identify  it.  There  is  so  little  resemblance  to  the 
original  head  that  any  one  seeing  a  head  for  the  first  time  is  likely 
to  doubt  the  story  of  its  origin. 

Some  tribes  preserve  the  heads  of  their  friends  as  well  as  those 
of  their  enemies,  but  women's  heads  are  never  preserved. 

Every  boy  is  trained  to  be  a  warrior.  He  learns  the  manufac- 
ture and  use  of  weapons,  and  the  taking  of  the  head.  He  kills  a 
sloth,  reduces  and  preserves  its  head  in  the  same  way  that  the 
warriors  preserve  the  heads  of  their  slain  enemies. 

For  protection  against  the  raids  of  their  enemies  they  make 
sharp  points  of  chonta  palm  and  set  them  in  the  ground  about  the 
fields,  so  as  to  impale  the  enemy  as  he  approaches.  They  also  dig 
pitfalls  in  the  trails,  plant  lances  below,  and  cover  the  pit  with 
leaves  and  bark.  These  pits  are  usually  dug  near  the  place  where 
a  log  crosses  the  trail. 


JIVARAN  STOCK  123 

Dances.  In  ordinary  dances,  the  men  and  women  dance  around 
a  drde,  not  together  but  at  the  same  time,  all  singing  with  a  flute 
aooompaniment.  There  is  a  special  dance  which  the  men  dance  in 
pain.  E^h  is  armed  with  a  lance,  each  in  turn  makes  a  short 
address  in  which  he  glorifies  himself,  then  dances  in  front  of  the 
others  with  his  lance  ready  to  strike,  and  ends  by  making  a  feint 
at  his  opponent;  the  others  then  go  through  the  same  performance. 
In  the  love  dance,  a  man  dances  in  a  circle,  blowing  a  flute,  while 
awcnnan  follows  him  about. 

Tlie  drum  is  never  used  to  furnish  music  for  the  dance,  but  only 
for  purposes  of  conmiunication.    It  is  made  of  a  log,  five  feet  long 


FiauBK  15 

Jinro  Indian  drum,  five  feet  long  and  about  one  foot  in  diameter,  made  by  burning  out 

the  interior  of  a  log 

mm!  one  foot  in  diameter,  with  a  hole  burned  out  in  the  middle, 
leaving  a  lip  which  gives  only  a  single  tone  (figure  15). 

Myths.  The  Creation.  They  have  an  interesting  story  of  the 
creation  of  man.  All  animals  originally  had  the  understanding  of 
nieQ;  animals,  birds,  and  reptiles  all  used  the  same  language, 
talked  together,  and  understood  each  other.  A  great  serpent 
lived  in  a  lake,  and  kiUed  many  of  the  animals  and  birds  when 
they  came  to  the  lake  to  drink  or  to  bathe.  So  many  of  them  were 
killed  that  they  held  a  consultation  to  determine  what  might  be 
done  to  dispose  of  the  serpent.  They  captured  the  serpent  by 
draining  the  lake,  and  killed  him.  Then  they  held  a  great  feast 
&t  which  they  drank  much,  and  men  danced  with  the  widows  of 
thoee  who  had  been  killed  in  the  conflict  \vith  the  serpent.  Until 
tbis  time  all  the  animals  used  one  language,  talked,  and  acted  like 
men,  but  now  each  group  of  animals  and  birds  went  away  from 
tbis  feast  speaking  its  own  language.  Some  birds  continued  as 
men,  and  some  of  the  monkeys  as  women;  so  today  at  their  dances, 
the  men  sing,  "  histi,  histi,  histi,"  and  the  women  sing,  "  oa,  oa, 
<Mt,"  in  imitation  of  the  bird  and  the  monkey. 


124  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

The  Flood.    They  have  a  myth  accounting  for  the  destruction  o* 
the  world  by  water.    A  great  feast  was  to  be  held,  and  two 
were  sent  away  into  the  forest  to  get  game.    They  made  a  cam 
under  a  tree,  and  went  out  to  hunt.    They  secured  much  game 
dressed  it,  and  hung  it  up  at  the  camp.    The  second  day  when 


they  returned  heavily  laden  with  game,  they  were  surprised  to  find 
that  their  first  day's  catch  had  been  stolen.  When  they  returned 
on  the  third  day,  they  again  found  the  meat  had  been  stolen.  On 
the  next  day,  one  remained  in  hiding  to  discover  the  thief.  He 
found  it  was  a  great  snake  that  lived  in  the  hollow  of  the  tree  under 
which  they  had  camped.  To  destroy  the  snake  they  built  a  fire 
in  the  tree,  and  the  snake  fell  into  the  fire.  The  boys  were  hungry, 
and  one  of  them  ate  some  of  the  roasted  flesh  of  the  snake.  He 
soon  became  thirsty,  drank  all  of  the  water  they  had  at  the  camp, 
then  went  to  the  spring,  and  from  there  to  the  lake.  He  was  soon 
transformed  into  a  frog,  next  into  a  lizard,  and  finally  into  a  snake, 
which  began  to  grow  very  rapidly.  His  brother  was  frightened, 
and  tried  to  pull  him  out  of  the  water,  but  the  lake  began  to  over- 
flow. The  snake  then  told  his  brother  that  the  lake  would  continue 
to  grow  until  the  whole  world  would  be  covered,  and  that  the 
people  would  perish  imless  he  returned  and  told  them  to  make 
their  escape. 

He  told  his  brother  to  put  a  calabash  in  his  pocket,  to  go  on  top 
of  the  highest  mountain,  and  when  the  water  came,  to  climb  the 
highest  palm  tree.  The  brother  returned,  and  told  his  people 
what  had  happened,  but  they  refused  to  believe  him,  accusing  him 
of  destroying  his  brother;  so  he  fled  to  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
and  when  the  water  came,  climbed  the  palm  tree.  After  many 
days  the  water  began  to  subside,  and  he  came  down  to  the  ground. 
From  the  top  of  the  mountain  he  could  see  the  vultures  eating  the 
dead  people  in  the  valley,  so  he  went  back  to  the  lake  where  he 
found  his  brother,  and  carried  him  away  in  his  calabash. 

Origin  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  The  sun  and  the  moon,  in  the  be- 
ginning, were  two  Jivaro  men  living  on  the  earth  in  the  same  house, 
with  a  woman  called  Ahora.  They  quarreled  together  about  the 
woman,  and  the  moon  said  he  did  not  like  her  anyway,  and  in  his 
anger  started  to  climb  up  a  vine  to  the  sky.  The  sun  obscured  him- 
self for  a  time,  and  the  woman  cried,  "  Why  are  you  leaving  me 
here  alone,  I  am  going  to  the  sky  also,"  and  started  to  climb  up 


JIVARAN  STOCK  125 

the  moon.  She  carried  with  her  a  basket  of  potter's  day. 
""^JThen  she  was  near  the  sky,  the  moon  saw  her,  and  called,  "  Why 
lo  you  follow  me?  "    Before  she  could  reply,  he  cut  the  vine  and 

),  with  her  basket,  fell  to  the  earth.  The  clay  grew,  and  the 
''^omen  today  say  that  the  clay  from  which  they  make  their  pots 
^;ame  from  the  soul  of  Ahora. 

The  sun  went  up  to  the  sky,  seeking  the  woman.  The  moon, 
:f  earing  the  sun,  fled,  running  on  the  moimtain  tops  so  that  the  sim 
^as  unable  to  overtake  him,  and  they  have  never  been  reconciled: 
thus  the  sun  is  always  seen  by  day,  and  the  moon  by  night.  The 
sun  and  the  moon  were  not  able  to  live  in  harmony  with  one 
woman;  they  were  always  jealous  of  each  other  and  quarreling 
about  her,  so  today  the  Jivaro  are  jealous,  and  fight  for  their 
women.  Ahora  is  now  a  bird  and  at  every  new  moon  she  can  be 
heard  to  cry,  "  My  husband,  my  husbAnd,  why  have  you  aban- 
doned me?  " 

Origin  of  the  Stars.  A  jaguar  married  a  Jivaro  woman,  and  asked 
her  to  pick  the  insects  from  his  head.  She  did  so,  and  ate  the  in- 
sects, as  is  their  custom,  but  soon  became  nauseated.  This  made 
the  jaguar  angry,  and  he  asked,  "  Why  are  you  nauseated  with 
your  husband?  "  He  at  once  ate  her.  As  he  was  eating  her,  two 
eggs  fell  from  his  mouth;  his  mother,  standing  by,  gathered  up  the 
eggs,  and  put  them  away  in  cotton  in  a  small  pot.  They  hatched 
finally,  and  were  two  Jivaro  boys.  They  were  afraid  of  jaguars, 
so  they  planned  to  kill  them  all,  but  one  escaped,  so  the  boys 
decided  to  go  to  the  sky  where  they  would  be  safe. 

They  made  two  bows,  and  many  arrows.  The  small  boy  shot 
at  the  sky  first,  but  his  arrow  did  not  reach  the  clouds.  The  first 
arrow  the  larger  boy  shot,  pierced  the  sky,  the  second  hit  the  end 
of  the  first,  and  the  third  the  end  of  the  second;  and  so  the  line  of 
arrows  finally  reached  down  to  the  earth.  The  boys  climbed  up 
the  line  of  arrows  to  the  sky,  and  became  the  first  bright  stars. 
The  line  remained  for  a  long  time,  and  the  people  from  the  earth 
and  the  sky  went  up  and  down.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  Jivaro 
learned  how  the  stars  originated.  At  last  the  moon  cut  down  the 
arrow  passage,  and  left  the  stars  up  in  the  sky.  (The  second  part 
of  this  story  seems  to  be  borrowed.) 

Vocabulaxy.  While  Sr.  Muniz  knew  enough  of  the  Jivaro  lan- 
guage to  get  on  with  the  people  whom  he  had  in  his  employ,  his 


125 


TRIBES  OF  E.ISTERN  FURU 


knomicdf^  wm  hoc  sofficiently  exact  to  be  of  much  somtifie  Tslr. 
He  had,  however,  made  a  tsj  good  Yoeabolarj  which  is 
fflippKed  for  comparative  study  in  the  future. 


THE  FASOLT 


Fcnpie 

flsgim 

Falkr 

apwm 

Mm 

aicBMMgDw  kspito 

Mother 

Bokurm 

Wmm 

mm 

Btotker 

jmtnm»yatsat 

Wife 

CMMBTl 

yctci 

OnuwtffttlMr 

KftA/oenk 

Sbtcr 

•                 _  .  -_ 

'j'mMnMCiMT 

molniconi 

Senraat 

b,»«DI 

PAins 

OF  THK  BC»Y 

Body 

syed 

ShooMer 

tankwo 

FMi 

luunanki 

Bm^ 

yakai 

II#!iWl 

miilui 

Rib 

I«K 

Ifetd,  nhninken 

tMOM 

Abdomen 

faoahi^ambog 

IfMr 

iodaci 

Buttock 

snmn 

Km« 

yapi^yaiMro 

Arm 

kmmto,  knndo 

Cliifi 

hankwi 

Right  hand 

umur'ra 

BmiH 

hankwe,  rato 

Left  haul 

wimi 

BMirrlad  man 

•iMiirintiAo 

Finger 

wfhi 

Kyfi 

ha,  hi 

Stomadi 

ambohi 

Kym 

Tmn! 

Soul 

ma'ambt,  nusi 

Month 

kweno,  weno 

Joint 

nantiyi 

Trinth 

nai 

ANIMALS 

AtimvymU 

yanunga 

Fly,  large 

antci 

Ant 

wheu 

Hawk 

pintco 

AriiiJMllllo 

(Micingi 

Hen 

ataci 

Arnwfllllo.  larf(c 

Riina 

Heron 

imia,  kau 

llitnr 

t<<afniA 

Hog 

kangai 

\Um 

tdtii 

Hornet 

eti 

lliH*,  hoiioy 

nukuicr 

Lizard 

camba 

llw,  yHtow 

mirki 

Louse 

yarangwi 

lli«r.  MiviiKr 

dikiiti 

Macaw 

apatd 

lliiil 

toitifcur,  pirko 

Macaw,  yellow 

yambono 

rut 

iiiiri,  miciko 

Monkey 

yakuma 

CMttlo 

hii|Mi 

Mosquito 

ukumbe,  ai'iti 

\>r^t 

wnirm 

Partridge 

wangwica 

I><»K 

ynwnrii 

Parrot 

tuici 

Diiik 

uiuium 

Parrot,  green 

kanwi 

Mull 

nniiiaka,  kaitka 

Pig 

kuga 

JIVARAN  STOCK 


127 


Pmna 

hapayahua 

Rabbit 

sauwa 

Rooster 

ayumba 

Snake,  blark 

napi  makantci 

Snake,  water 

nikata 

Spider 

kiifitd 

Squirrel 

kunamba 

Tapir 

pana 

Tarantula 
Tortoise 
Trompetero 
Turkey 
Turtledove 
Wasp,  yellow 
Wasp,  black 
Woodpecker 


pandakwi 

tcarapa 

tciwa 

awatca 

ciemba 

hihuhu 

angaini 

katacoma 


PLANTS 


wild 


rubber 


n 

,  dionta 


mika 

impi 

pinta 

wayi 

zapapa 

tcimbui 

ca 

sisa 

ikiama 

sapaya 

turahi 

nuka 

sipui 

piaio 

himia 


1 

8 

4 
6 
6 


cikitiki 

bimira 

mXn&idu 

ainduki 

wina'amu 

wina'iwiki'iraku 


Pine 

Plantain 

Pumpkin 

Squash 

Star  apple 

Sweet  potato 

Thorn 

Thicket 

Tobacco 

Tree 

Tree,  copal 

Tree,  lanco 

Woods 

Yucca 


NUMERALS 

7 

8 

9 

10 

90 


VERBS 


tcua 

pMUidama 

jruhui 

ungucpi 

yasu 

impiyumitak 

sapa 

suata 

sango 

kambua 

kunki  tcirikipo 

kakita,  waruma 

satca 

mama 


himira*iwiki'iraku 
mInSndu'iwiki'iraku 
ainduki'iwiki*iraku 
mai'iwiki'amuku 
huihi  iwiki  amuku 


Abandon 
Able 


Aooompany 


Addiem 
Advance 
Advise 
Afraid 


ahapatifio 

nikupasitifio 

buomakatifio 

ayatifio 

nahamatifio 

ikentakatifio 

wahastifio 

imahata 

atserkatifio 

icamatifio 


Appetize 

yayatisatifio 

Augment 

pombartifio 

Arrive 

hiatifio 

Ascertain 

canuate 

Assist 

awaratifio 

Awaken 

nandaiktifio 

Bandage 

hingwiata 

Baptize 

imitiratifio 

Bathe 

maitifio 

Bar 

ustukeratifio 

128 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Bark 

siimatifio,  tapaikifto 

Conquer 

nauratifto 

Be 

awai,  puhustifio 

Constrain 

imiteratil&o 

Beat 

awatino 

Construct 

pi'ikmartiilo 

Beg 

surucuo 

Contain 

pi'iktifto 

Behead 

supiktiAo 

Continue 

aiyemsatiAo 

Behold 

istiflo 

Converse 

ahusatifto 

Believe 

nikartiflo 

Cook 

inyarkatifto 

Bid 

unsuktifio 

Corrupt 

kanatifio 

Blister 

nuwehe 

Cover 

maingatifio 

Blow 

iyutiAo 

Covet 

wareruntifio 

Blow,  nose 

dkimartifto 

Create 

nahantifio 

BoU 

kunktifio 

Crop 

yiikiflo 

Bore 

3ruyuatifio 

Crouch 

akaiktifio 

Bore,  horn 

ihirvitifio 

Crowd 

ninatifto 

Bore,  wood 

inyuratifio 

Ciy 

haitifio 

Braid 

isemata 

Cure 

sartifto 

Brave 

kaherkatifio 

Cut 

sispiktiflo 

Bring 

itatiflo 

Cut  down 

awingatifio 

Bring  wood 

hirituatifio 

Cut  hair 

awartifio 

Build 

ukurtiflo 

Cut  up 

akartiflo 

Build,  house 

ySamtifio 

Dance 

hansihasinatifio 

Bum 

ikimaktifio 

Deceive 

anangatiflo 

Buy 

sumaktiflo 

Desert 

asatifko 

Carry 

ayatifio 

Desist 

aikatiasatifio 

Cast 

ahapatifto 

Die 

hakatifio 

Catch 

icikta 

Dig 

faustiflo 

Catch  fish 

kwinutino  a'atiflo 

Dig  out  canoe 

awatifio 

Catch  up 

amayanta 

Dine 

itsiktifto 

Change 

yapahiatifio 

Discharge 

ipiatifko 

Check 

nimakatiflo 

Disembark 

akakatiflo 

Choke 

kahimaratifio 

Divide 

akangatifio 

Chop 

aentsuquatifio  awatifio 

Do 

nahantifio 

Circle 

yetseratiflo 

Dog 

yahu*aru 

Clear 

mastaS 

Donate 

suritifio 

Climb 

kakeratifio 

Double 

apihikutifio 

Clothe 

nambiktifio 

Dress,  an  animal 

akaratiflo 

Come 

winitiflo 

Drink 

wartifio,  uwartifto. 

Come  here 

winita 

umartifto 

I  come 

winahe,  wite 

Drop 

huhisikatifio 

You  come 

winita,  wita 

Eat 

yurumatifio 

He  comes 

winima 

Elevate 

acatwa 

He  will  come 

winitiua 

Embark 

hakiertifio 

They  come 

wintiflo 

Encounter 

inguktifio 

Compress 

citatifio 

Entangle 

hukamatifio 

Conceal 

inhuktifto 

Examine 

umbuartifio 

Conclude 

amatiflo 

Exceed 

nangamastiflo 

Conduct 

iakustifto 

Execute 

umiktifto 

JIVARAN  STOCK 


129 


Effiiyiifll 

ikinatiAo 

Impede 

nukurktifio 

M 

partiik) 

Intercept 

utariatifio 

Fan 

awahingtiAo 

Instruct 

nuimiteratifto 

Fait 

Intermeddle 

pakikifio 

For 

icamamatifio 

Invite 

ipiatifto 

Fcut 

iciektifto 

Join 

huktifko 

fcnoent 

misatifio 

Jump 

sikingtifto 

Feed 

uhundatifko 

Kill 

matiflo 

Fefl 

atsongatifio 

Kill,  flies 

mandurtatifko 

m 

maakatifio 

Kiss 

apoktiflo,  apatiflo 

m 

piiktiAo 

Kneel 

aiakicatifio 

Fioiih 

amuktifko 

Knot 

awhSmata 

M 

ahundakatiflo 

Know 

wenikatifio,  nikartif&o 

FU 

whaingtiflo 

IifAd 

ikiestifto 

Follow 

mayamagatifio 

Leak 

ukartifto 

Forget 

kahinamakatifio 

Learn 

nuimiteratiflo 

Fling 

hapatifio 

Leave 

hukitiflo 

Fly 

nanamatiflo 

Lessen 

nakuiktifio 

Flreeie 

mitciptifio 

Lie 

wiitaratiflo 

m 

nayentumatiAo 

Light 

ikiftuktifio 

Gargle 

kinktifto 

light,  candle 

yiikaimaktiflo 

Give 

susatiflo 

Like 

istiflo 

Give  birth 

enyeng  ganusta 

Load 

aensuka 

Go 

witifto 

Lodge 

atuktiflo 

Go  out 

wiektiflo 

Look  for 

juktiflo 

Igo 

witi,  wihe 

I/)ose 

hatiatiflo 

You  go 

wita 

Love 

aniata 

We  go 

witi*imatin 

Make  camp 

yapartifto 

Grind 

pa'atamastiflo 

Make  candle 

aka'atifto 

Grow 

sakartifio 

Make  canoe 

pukmartifto 

Grow  plantains 

sapastiAo 

Make  drunk 

maniktifto 

Gnaid 

inguekitiflo 

Make  load 

irumartifio 

Hang 

cukamstifto 

Make  rope 

tcapiktifio 

Harvest 

iwitiflo 

Make  time 

uritiflo 

Have 

amatiflo 

Make  trail 

hindamatifio 

Hear 

anduktiflo 

Marry 

turutatifto,  nuatakatifio 

Heat,  sun 

itsiroderatifto 

Measure 

yagartifto 

Help 

yenguitiflo 

Melt 

menartiflo 

Hide 

ukmatiflo 

Mix 

surimatifio 

Hinder 

kaningmaktiflo 

Mortify 

tambiratmarta 

Hit 

atiflo 

Murder 

naruma 

Hope 

wahastifio 

Nourish 

ayuratiflo 

House 

yea 

Observe 

imastifio 

Hunt 

funakatifio 

Obstruct 

arangtiflo 

Huny 

meteke 

ObUin 

atciktifto 

Hunt 

misirtifio 

Oppose 

atuktifto 

Injure 

enuktiflo 

Overflow 

wandakatiflo 

130 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Overtake 

kenmaktifio 

Sew 

apaktiflo 

Owner 

ataciertifio 

Sharpen 

aksakata 

Paddle 

wiandakatiflo 

Ship 

ehekeratifio 

Pain 

wakemeratiflo 

Shoot 

trapitd 

Pardoned 

sakaiamatifio 

Shorten 

aksakatiflo 

Part 

akangatiflo 

Shrink,  head 

tcuiritiAo 

Pass 

nangamastifio 

Singe,  scorch 

mingartifio 

Pay 

akiktifio 

Sit 

puhustifio 

Place 

wasimayatifio 

Sit,  bird  on  tree  patamastifio,  ikitatift«« 

Play 

antengtifto 

Sleep 

kanartiAo 

Play,  drum 

tunduyatifio 

Slip 

inartiAo 

Poultice 

kankartiflo 

Smoke 

mukunatiAo 

Precipitate 

mitsangatiflo 

Soften 

minSrtiAo 

Punish 

asutiatifio 

Sow 

spikitcutiAo 

Put  out 

ikiepartifio 

Speak 

tdtcastiAo 

Quench 

kinuktifio 

Spin,  cotton 

anungtiAo 

Question 

inindarustifio 

Spy 

nakaktiAo 

Quiet 

inesatifio 

SUnd 

wahastiAo 

Quarrel 

maakatifto 

Stick 

acingate 

Rain 

yutuktifio 

Stir 

anankirtiAo 

Beach 

hiatifio 

Stoop 

itiyurcama 

Recuperate 

sa'aritifio 

Strangle 

kinktiAo 

Recover 

tcimiartifio 

Strike 

awatiAo 

Reduce 

pinuartiflo 

Suck 

mukunatiAo 

Rest 

yamaratifio 

Subdue 

nupuiktiAo 

Repay 

awangatiAo 

Subside 

wakinatiAo 

FuU 

ihemeratifto 

Suspend 

awaktanitiAo 

Return 

wakitatifio 

Swim 

ukuaktiAo 

Restore 

ayendatifto 

Talk 

tcitcastiAo 

Rise,  river 

nupengaratiAo 

Teach 

nikaperatiAo 

Roast 

uwatifio 

Thresh 

akartiAo 

Roast,  in  leaves 

yankunatifio 

Throw 

ahapatiAo 

Rob 

kasamakatiflo 

Tie 

etsemdata 

RoU 

yapimakatifio 

Tighten 

taingwegatiAo 

Roll  up 

napictifio 

Toast 

nuiktiAo 

Roost 

aiyamatifto,  awamsatifio 

Track 

yengatiAo 

Rub 

yakartifio 

Trade 

takuktcamgatiAo 

Say 

timatiflo 

Travel 

wakastiAo 

Scatter 

spikitcutiflo 

Trust 

apuhukitiAo 

Scramble 

wakatifio 

Twine 

huorta 

Secure 

aenderatiflo 

Unable 

kuhendakatiAo 

See 

istino,  ista 

Unchaste 

takaptiAo 

Sell 

suruktifio 

Understand 

ananktiAo 

oeelc 

wenekatiflo 

Unloosen 

akupkatiAo 

Send,  convey 

aumatiflo 

Unload 

takurtita 

Serve 

aismaktifto 

Uproot 

aentsuratiAo 

Settle 

pakatifio 

Untwist 

kumgatiAo 

JIVARAN  STOCK 


131 


Untie 

hetiatifio 

Weed 

takaitifto 

Visit 

btifio 

Wind 

kendaiertiflo 

MTaah 

nihertifko 

Wild 

yupieratiflo 

'Watch 

itikimartifio 

Wish 

aniatifio 

'Want 

tartifio 

Work 

takastiflo 

%Vemve 

nihingate 

Write 

artifio 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

-Alwve 

arakani 

Box 

urukta 

-Ajcoount 

cuaka 

Breathe 

aclngata 

-AxJiote,  plant 

ipiako 

Brevity 

huomuk 

-Axom 

atcuinama 

Bridge 

tcaka 

-Axtive 

asumbi 

Brief 

kuranta 

piuwa 

Broad 

whangarama 

'Afternoon 

kiawi 

Brood 

utciri 

-Again 

ataki 

Brook 

nananda 

Aged 

acanda 

Broom 

hapika 

Air 

nasi 

Broth 

kando 

Alcohol 

coaki,  kaii 

Bundle 

hintcazon 

Alone 

ningue 

Call,  n. 

kikame 

Aheady 

wingahi 

Candle 

koapartifio 

All 

tuki 

Candle 

yi 

An  right      maid,  makati,  paiayo»  ya'atsu 

Canoe 

kanu 

Ancient 

tinwiki 

Care 

titu 

i^ypetizing 

yayatiflo 

Cataract 

mutci 

Aside 

arandatci 

Certain 

turanwi,  nikasi 

Away 

aranda 

Chacara 

aha 

Aiehead 

yutca'ayineri 

Chance 

amakSi 

B«i 

kumaro 

Charcoal 

kayi,  akata,  kahimakai 

Bag 

dgra 

Chicha 

mihanantci,  mahentci 

Ban 

man,  mara 

Chip 

nakacu 

Balsa 

papanga 

Clever 

yatciteranum 

Baaket 

tcankina 

Close 

mai 

Beautiful 

penkera 

Cloth 

pud 

Because 

uruka 

Coal 

kaigami,  kaiki 

Bed 

pika,  piaka 

Cold 

kutuki,  sitsika 

Bed»  stream 

kuyuama 

Coffin 

kanunma 

Before 

yaou 

Complete 

pfiikama 

Behind 

atu 

Contented 

cire 

Bdow 

amara,  nungatci 

Copal  light 

kunkipuari 

Bitter 

yapa 

Cornfield 

naitcaca 

Bhck 

mukusa 

Cornstalk 

caski 

Bhie 

lara 

Cotton 

anitci 

Board 

hapata 

Cover  for  pot 

amanekta 

Boifed 

knukama 

Crude 

inSa 

Bow 

kicimago 

Cry 

hax 

132 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Current 

tcitciwi 

Fine  thread 

sapsati 

Custom 

nuki 

Fine 

oerma 

Dark 

kerama 

Fire 

hi 

Darkness 

kaci'Tkihi 

Firewood 

kacua 

Dart 

kandac 

First  month 

huotciti 

Day 

sawanda,  sawe 

Fishhook 

sau 

Day  before  yesterday 

anuyaou 

FleTible 

kuciterama 

Day  after  tomorrow 

nukacini 

Flour 

Dead 

hakame 

Flute 

pingue 

Deaf 

kiiiciri 

Food 

yuruna 

Deep 

hiercta 

Foolish 

upa 

Direct 

tulupin 

Form 

kutanga 

Dislike 

netsa 

Fortius 

asa 

Disregard 

yahasama 

Forward 

wikehi 

"distant 

tihercatayerta 

Fresh 

mitci 

Door 

urSta 

Fried 

jruti,  yivangue 

Doubt 

tumaci 

Friend 

amigro 

Drop 

rum 

Friendly 

nikasa 

Dry 

karma 

From  whom 

yana 

Dry  meat 

namama,  puka 

Front 

nihftyi 

Dumb 

YniirrI 

Full 

nukupwi 

Dung 

suata 

Full  moon 

nantuwata'apakwi 

Dye 

tciengarpi 

Garment 

awangwema 

Eager 

hitcitamai 

Generous 

isaramus 

Early 

taciki 

Gold 

kuri 

Easy 

ciri 

Gone 

wetci 

Egg 

nuhinda 

Grood 

penkwera,  ayo 

Embrace 

mineksate 

Good  day 

ma*aki  puhuma 

Empty 

muguida 

Good  time 

isita,  isata 

Evening 

cuara 

Gratis 

yanga,  andera 

Entire 

aci 

Grove 

ikiama 

Evil 

tuna,  tawi 

Growth 

sakarta 

Far 

koro 

Grave 

matcitnusa 

Fanner 

awahuku 

Gum 

karia 

Farmhouse 

kundino,  insawa 

Gun 

akaro 

Farther 

aranda 

Handkerchief 

papu 

Fat 

apo 

Happening 

whikahe 

Fear 

icamama 

Happy 

cira 

Feast 

manbun 

Hard 

kakarama 

Feather 

uri 

He 

ni 

Feeble 

watsarama 

Here 

yasa 

Fermented 

misawi 

Head  of  palm 

sambu,  sambia 

Few 

icitiku 

Heavy 

kamburama 

Fiber 

tcambira 

Here 

pai,  yasa 

Pierce 

yupairama 

Hide 

nuapi 

Fierce,  wild 

kaheno 

High 

yuki 

Fight 

manama 

HiU 

nainda 

JIVARAN  STOCK 


133 


HilLade 

nainda 

Money 

tcankitu 

His 

amwi 

Moon 

nantu 

Honey 

micki 

Moonlight 

isetatatwi 

Hot 

suitauit,  swariti 

Month 

mantu 

Houae 

hea,  yte 

More 

knatci 

How  much 

uruntuna 

Most 

ahui 

Hunger 

irka,  suka 

Mould 

umi 

Hungry 

sukumama 

My 

wifia 

I 

wi 

Much 

untsure 

Idle 

naki 

Mud 

sakusa 

Idiotic 

uguci 

Machete 

sa*api 

ni 

hama,  hawi 

Many 

irunume 

Image 

(irie 

Meal 

ihanikinga 

Impoanble 

itiurtcati 

Mean 

citama 

Indsion 

miaerma 

Mercy 

sakardi 

Inaide 

inita 

Naked 

misu,  tcanambi 

Inaufficient 

nukuptcu 

\/  N&me 

nari 

Inaomnia 

ahunerta 

Narrow 

pana 

Invaluable 

afiuaftuca 

Narrows 

serCtci 

Jet 

sasa 

Near 

arandatci,  tipu 

JiTaro 

cuani 

Net 

nika 

Juice 

yumiri 

New 

yamai 

Lack 

yayatsa 

Night 

kaci 

Lance 

nanki 

Nightfall 

kaiitci 

Lard 

kunduta 

No 

sa 

Large 

unda 

None 

atsuma 

Late 

uruma 

Not 

isa,  atsuma 

Lean 

watsarama 

Now 

yamfi 

Lean  to 

hea'apakta 

OU 

asuitS 

Lemon 

yumungo 

Other 

tcikitci 

Lie 

wiita 

Outside 

aranda 

light 

hi 

Over 

yukinukinama 

light,  to  make 

pandahi 

Overhead 

araka 

Lighter 

sata 

Pain 

nahamawa 

Li^tly 

takapta 

Pair 

Yhi 

Little 

utcitci 

Past 

kThini 

Load,  on  back 

aimakamatikwaskwa 

Path 

pisarta 

Long 

kuna 

People 

aentzu 

Long  ago 

nitek 

Pepper 

anaibe 

Longtime 

tconta 

Pitch 

sikatA 

Law 

kuyuama 

Pity 

kuSmU 

Lumber 

numi 

Plain 

paka 

Lunatic 

tumbl 

Playa 

kanusa 

Hidday 

itsatutapiri 

Pocket 

wambatci 

Middle 

akangata 

Poison 

siasa 

Milk 

muntzu 

Poison,  fish 

timo 

Mirror 

espik 

Pole 

numi 

134 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Poor 

misupahi 

Side,  other 

amaini 

Pot,  chicha 

muetsa 

Side,  this 

huine 

Pot,  oooldng 

ycrtri 

SUver 

kwita 

Pot,  water 

itcingana 

Simple 

kuntdkuno 

Preparation 

kokai 

Simpleton 

satca 

Purse 

pihantdri 

Singular 

iekitciki 

Fdiaw 

ma'a 

Slide 

Tiiituftngfumt 

QuiciEly 

kuranda 

Sk>wly 

yitamara 

Quiet 

Utu 

Smallpox 

muro 

Quiver 

tdpCti 

Smell 

naherstifio 

Rainbow 

kundaiika 

So 

kewi 

Readily 

acitdmbiahi 

Soft 

milla 

Ready 

urukana 

Sold 

wankani 

Rear 

insakahi 

Solid 

Red 

kapaka 

wicino 

Reed 

pa*ata 

Soup 

tumbi 

Return 

tatastahi 

Source 

pukumi 

Remedy 

sunka 

Spear 

ihiyuta 

Returned 

wakitakiapa 

Spider  web 

ango  angomari 

Right 

tutupine 

Spirit,  evil 

sumai,  cuentri  pasiu 

Ring 

^irit,good 

uisa 

Risen 

mihungahi 

SpiriU 

mahmtcikareana 

River 

entsa 

Star 

yaya 

Road 

yinda 

Steam 

m«y€ 

Robber 

kasa 

Sterik 

ka*a 

Robust 

undaiyeo 

Strange 

ma 

Roof 

Storm 

nasensayiyatawi 

Room 

piddcuad 

Street 

yinda 

Round 

kaner 

Strong 

kskarama 

Rubber 

farara 

Sufficiently 

nukupwi 

Sad 

mayahi 

Sufficient 

makiti 

Salt 

wi,  katci 

Sullen 

panda 

Same 

tuki,  au 

Summit 

nukurka 

Sands 

naikimi 

Subdued 

nupuitkam 

Sap 

yumiri 

Sun 

etsa 

Sash 

saaki 

Sunset 

Saw 

muira 

Sunset 

itsa  pukundahi 

Scanty 

sutaratd 

Supply 

ahui 

Sea 

n^ 

Sweet 

yumifia 

Sah 

)*ahu 

Thankful 

\nimMatinu 

Separate 

miswa 

Thanks 

makiti 

Shirt 

puci 

Thanksgiving 

ikiauntumkataft 

Short 

tcuwatsiki 

That 

nu 

Shortly 

sutara 

Then 

nuyi,  nu 

Short  time 

nuiki 

Thete 

nuim,  atn 

Show 

in^'ukturitifio 

Thin 

serritce 

Sick 

tumaroha*ahi 

Thirst 

Htm 

JIVARAN  STOCK 


135 


ThaOy 

titukapuhama 

Water 

yume 

Vm 

asa,  asau,  hunuasa 

Water,  boiling 

nuhukmakata 

Tlioa 

amwi 

Water,  in  pot 

uwaraS 

Tbn 

nutcuaci 

Warm 

swera 

Time 

nuike 

Wax 

nugi,  saka 

Today 

yamai 

Weary 

pimbikma 

Tosether 

Weigh 

Idflawi 

Topthor,  go 

ihe,  wiritC 

Wdl 

ya*atsi,  ya'atsin 

Tofether,  two 
Tomonow 

Wet 

tcupikama 
kurakangui 

kacini 

What 

Tw3i^t 

sawaita 

What 

wan 

Undmwath 

waptaka 

What,  animal 

unikahi 

Unknowable 

nikatcii 

Wliat,  thing 

warimba 

Unknown 

tea 

When 

unitai 

UnoaiTifH 

natsa 

Where 

tui,  tuin 

Uotflthen 

weawikatahi 

WTierefore 

itiurkatiniki 

UnwOfing 

Whirlpool 

winki 

QN)0,llflI 

murra 

Whither 

tuimba 

Vicuit,hoiue 

sa'&ki 

White 

puhu 

VtmDa 

sikuia 

White,  feather 

sui 

Veiy 

ti 

Who 

ya,  yuna 

Vetywefl 

aye 

Whole 

sinsSka 

Vend 

kahoiouna 

Wings 

nan^wfi 

Tilbge 

hea  aparama 

With 

yai 

Vine 

ka'api,  naiku,  teresa. 

Wood 

hi 

Womout 

Vbe^  fish  pobon 

yokfii 

Yes 

he,  hete 

Vinegar 

kadld 

Yestoday 

anu,  yau 

Walk 

wikasta 

You 

atuma 

Wan 

kawito 

Your 

amiAo 

Wa^> 

hihuhu 

WITOTAN  STOCK 

Distribution.  The  largest  and  most  important  of  the  tribes  of 
the  Putumayo  River  region  is  the  Witoto  (Huitote,  Ouitote, 
Uitote).  It  occupies  the  territory  between  the  Putumayo  and 
Caqueta  or  Yapura  Rivers  on  the  north,  and  the  Napo  River  on 
the  south.  The  population  of  the  region  is  fifteen  to  twenty 
thousand,  made  up  of  the  following  sub-tribes: 


Emuirise 

Kabduya 

Monunisaya 

Sigayo 

GeUa 

Komeyone 

NoDgoni 

Spuna 

Haiyofo 

Laboyano 

Oiiokaise 

Utcema 

Huraya 

Maynane 

Sebua 

Yabuyano 

My  authorities,  from  whom  the  following  information  was  ob- 
tained, were  Sr.  Plinio  Torres,  who  had  used  a  band  of  Witoto  for 


FlGCRE    16 

Outlines  of  hand  and  foot  of  Witoto  Indian 

a  number  of  years  in  gathering  rubber  along  the  Putumayo  and 
Madre  de  Dios  Rivers;  and  the  best  possible  authority,  Jagi 
Huari,  a  Peruvian,  who  when  six  years  of  age  had  been  left  alone 
with  the  tribe  for  sLx  j-ears,  in  order  that  he  might  leam  the  lan- 
guage, and  then  serve  as  an  interpreter  when  these  Indians  were 
taken  over  by  Sr.  Torres.  He  thus  learned  the  language  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Indians,  and  has  continued  to  live  with  them  for  the 
past  fourteen  years. 

On  account  of  some  disagreement  with  other  rubber  gatherers, 
Torres  left  the  Putumaj-o  region,  with  his  Indians,  and  traveled 

136 


WrrOTAN  STOCK  137 

more  than  a  thousand  miles  to  the  junction  of  the  Amigo  and  Madre 

de  Dios  Rivers,  where  we  found  him  clearing  land  and  building  a 

haaae.    Several  of  his  Indians  died  after  reaching  the  Madre  de 

Dice  on  account  of  fevers  and  d3rsentery  contracted  on  the  journey. 

QigluuzatioiL    The  Witoto  Indians  have  a  very  close  political 

organization  for  the  sub-tribes,  but  there  is  no  chief  over  all  of 

the  tribes.    They  live  in  enormous  communal  houses,  grouped 

together  about  a  great  plaza.    Each  village  has  a  chief,  ijama, 

and  two  or  more  sub-chiefs,  one  for  each  of  the  large  houses.    The 

offioes  of  chief  and  sub-chief  are  inherited  by  the  eldest  son.    The 

duties  of  the  sub-chiefs  are  to  assist  the  chief,  and  to  act  in  his 

stead  when  he  is  disabled  or  away  from  home.    If  the  chief  dies 

leaving  a  young  son,  his  brother  acts  as  chief  until  the  son  is  about 

eighteen  years  of  age.    If  a  chief  has  no  son,  his  brother  becomes 

the  chief. 

The  chief  has  absolute  power  over  the  lives  and  property  of  his 
people;  however,  if  the  chief  is  unjust  or  exercises  his  authority 
too  freely  his  people  may  move  away,  and  leave  him  behind.  The 
chief  has  full  power  in  time  of  war,  but  for  ordinary  occasions  he 
calls  for  volunteers.  The  chiefs  may  have  more  than  one  wife. 
When  one  chief  visits  another  he  takes  tobacco  and  coca  along 
with  him,  as  a  gift,  while  his  wives  take  choice  fruits  and  meats 
for  the  host's  wives.  His  host  invites  him  into  his  house,  and  offers 
him  tobacco  and  coca,  and  when  he  departs  the  chief  presents 
him  with  tobacco  and  coca,  or  a  tiger  tooth  necklace. 

Houses.  The  large  commimal  houses  may  have  as  many  as  a 
hundred  apartments,  and  are  capable  of  accommodating  as  many 
families.  The  center  of  the  house  is  used  for  a  meeting  place  and 
for  dances.  The  houses  are  kept  dark  on  account  of  flies.  The 
iDof,  made  of  the  leaves  of  vegetable  ivory  palm  (Phytelephas 
macrocarpa),  reaches  to  the  ground.  There  is  no  smoke-hole  or 
windows,  and  only  one  folding  door  made  of  leaves,  which  is  kept 
closed.  Each  family  has  a  very  small  hanging  door  of  leaves.  The 
large  apartment  opposite  the  entrance  door  is  assigned  to  the  chief. 
The  house,  plate  21,  was  being  constructed  for  the  accommodation 
of  Torres'  group,  so  that  it  was  not  as  large  as  the  ordinary  Witoto 
house.  It  was  built,  as  the  number  of  outside  posts  would  indi- 
cate, to  acconmiodate  twenty  families.  The  house  was  sixty  feet 
kmgy  forty-five  feet  wide,  and  thirty  feet  high.    It  will  be  seen 


138  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

from  the  framework  that  there  are  no  central  posts  supporting 
the  roof.  This  allows  a  large  open  space  of  floor  in  the  center. 
The  whole  inside  of  the  house  is  left  open;  the  apartments  ar6 
indicated  only  by  the  hammock  posts,  and  the  small  individilal' 
fires.  They  make  fire  in  the  ordinary  way,  by  twirling  a  stick  be- 
tween the  palms  of  the  hands,  and  also  by  striking  fire  from  two 
stones.    They  have  no  traditions  about  the  origin  of  fire. 

Food.  Supply.  The  Witoto  are  primarily  an  agricultural  people. 
Each  family  has  its  own  field  in  which  they  cultivate  caattyft^ 
plantains,  potatoes,  pineapples,  and  coca.  In  making  the  fiddi 
the  men  cut  the  trees  with  stone  axes,  and  the  women  bum  tltip 
brush,  plant,  and  cultivate  the  vegetables.  They  add  fish  and 
game  to  their  food  supply,  but  prefer  fish  to  game,  probably  b^ 
cause  there  is  less  of  it.  They  hunt  together  in  common,  and 
bring  the  catch  to  the  chief,  who  distributes  it  equally  among  the 
families. 

They  capture  peccaries,  deer,  and  tapirs  in  a  great  net,  six  feet 
high  and  a  thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  feet  long,  which  is  stretched 
among  the  trees  in  a  suitable  place  in  the  forest.  They  catch  the 
fish  with  spears,  hooks,  and  nets,  but  for  the  most  part  depend 
upon  poisoning  the  pools  with  the  crushed  leaves  and  roots  of 
the  babasco  {Jacguinia  armiUaris).  The  poison  is  carried  to  the 
pools  in  baskets,  which  are  dipped  frequently  into  the  water,  and 
soon  the  dead  fish  are  seen  floating  on  the  surface.  A  very  effec- 
tive hook  is  made  by  tying  the  spine  of  Astrocaryum  to  a  stick, 
and  baiting  it  with  a  worm.  The  blowgun,  obiyaka,  eight  or 
ten  feet  in  length,  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  chonta  palm  (Bactris 
ciliata),  grooved,  polished,  wrapped  with  a  tough  strip  of  the  bark 
of  huimbaquiro  {Bombdx  or  Jaciiara),  and  coated  with  a  resinous 
gum  (Vismia  guianensis).  The  arrows  used  with  blowguns  are 
made  of  chonta  or  patawa  palm  (Oenocarpus  paictwa)  with  a  wisp 
of  silk-cotton  (Bombax),  tipped  with  poison  made  from  the  extract 
of  a  tree  called  oipui,  or  made  of  ramu  {Strychnos  castdmoeana) 
and  pani  (Cocculus  toxicoferus).  The  arrow  points  are  cut  in  the 
making,  so  that  they  will  easily  break  off  in  the  wound.  In  hunt- 
ing, a  lance,  moruko,  is  also  used  with  poisoned  tip.  These  lances 
are  made  of  the  leaf  stalk  of  cane  with  chonta  palm  poisoned 
points.  Eight  or  ten  of  these  lances  are  carried  in  a  bamboo  case, 
the  tips  resting  in  curari  poison.    The  spears  are  of  three  types! 


Pbabodt  Museuu  Pap£R9 


Vol.  X,  Plate  21 


WITOTAN  STOCK  139 

barbed,  for  killing  the  tapir;  round,  for  use  in  warfare;  and  with 
a  point  of  bamboo,  for  killing  fish. 

The  women  make  a  very  refreshing  drink,  called  hugabi,  from 
the  fruit  of  the  kenaku  palm,  mixed  with  cassava,  but  they  have 
no  intoxicating  drinks.    They  eat  regularly,  only  twice  a  day; 
breakfast,  monefiena,  in  the  morning  at  daybreak,  and  supper, 
oawita,  in  the  evening  at  about  six  o'clock  or  sundown.    Through 
the  day  they  chew  the  leaves  of  the  coca  plant  (Erythroxylon  coca), 
but  take  no  other  food.    The  leaves  of  the  coca  are  toasted,  pul- 
verized, and  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  burnt  leaves  of  another  plant. 
Jaliko,  tfie  Feast  of  the  Pole.    Each  year  at  the  beginning  of 
the  season  for  clearing  and  planting  the  fields,  they  cut  down  a 
lai]ge  tree,  and  carry  a  section,  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter  and 
fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  length,  into  the  house  of  the  chief. 
The  log  is  so  heavy  that  it  is  always  necessary  for  them  to  call 
upon  other  villages  for  assistance.    While  the  men  are  clearing 
and  planting  the  fields,  the  chief,  with  the  aid  of  the  sub-chiefs, 
spends  his  time  in  carving  the  log.    The  chief  carves  on  one  end 
the  bust  of  a  woman  with  her  hands  crossed  on  her  breast.    The 
sub-chiefs  hew  off  the  top  of  the  log  for  a  dancing  platform,  and 
paint  on  each  side  a  great  snake,  the  anaconda,  in  three  colors: 
red,  yellow,  and  black.    At  the  end  of  eight  months,  when  the 
first  fruits  are  ripe,  a  great  feast,  called  Jaliko,  the  feast  of  the  pole, 
is  given. 

When  the  time  arrives,  the  chief  appoints  six  men  to  collect  the 
food  and  drink  for  the  feast.  Two  men  wear  white  bark  cushmas 
painted  in  front  and  back  with  jaguars;  two  wear  cushmas  painted 
with  poles  and  branches;  and  two  wear  cushmas  painted  with 
birds.  All  of  the  men  wear  bark  masks  with  only  their  eyes  visible. 
Early  in  the  afternoon  of  the  day  of  the  feast,  these  six  men  go 
armed  to  the  houses  of  the  sub-chiefs.  The  two  representing  the 
jaguars  carry  long  poles  with  hooks  on  the  ends,  and  proceed  to 
tear  oS  the  roof  of  the  house;  the  two  men  painted  with  poles  and 
branches  carry  stone  hatchets,  and  begin  to  cut  down  the  posts  of 
the  house;  and  the  two  men  painted  with  birds  go  into  the  fields, 
and  begin  to  destroy  them.  In  order  to  prevent  this  wholesale 
destruction  of  the  houses  and  fields,  the  families  hasten  to  give 
the  men  a  great  abundance  of  food  of  all  kinds:  fruit,  cassava 
bread,  meat,  fish,  and  nuts,  which  they  carry  to  the  chief's  house 


140  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

where  the  dance  and  feast  are  to  be  held.  In  the  evening  all  the 
village  people  gather  at  the  chief's  house  for  the  feast  and  dancei 
which  lasts  all  night  and  until  late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  next 
day.  The  women  dance  on  the  ground,  while  the  men  dance  on 
the  top  of  the  log.  Each  man  supports  himself  with  a  pole,  which 
he  holds  upright  in  front  of  him  with  both  hands,  facing  the 
women.  One  man  leads  the  singing  for  the  dance,  while  the  others 
join  in  at  the  chorus.  When  the  leader  is  tired  out,  another  takes 
his  place.  The  burden  of  the  song  is  in  adoration  of  the  sun, 
moon,  plants,  fruits,  and  animals.  The  rhythm  of  the  dance  is 
accentuated  by  the  sound  of  rattles,  made  of  nuts,  worn  by  the 
men  above  the  calf  of  the  right  leg.  The  dance  of  the  men  on  the 
log  is  merely  a  shifting  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  emphasizing 
the  beat  with  the  right  foot. 

After  the  dance  is  over,  the  chief  cuts  up  the  image  of  the  woman 
and  gives  a  piece  to  the  head  of  each  family  present,  who  takes  it 
home  and  burns  it  in  his  own  little  fireplace.  The  chief  himself 
burns  the  head  of  the  image. 

The  feast  appears  to  be  a  kind  of  harvest  thanksgiving  ceremony, 
but  the  exact  meaning  of  the  different  elements  is  difficult  to 
understand.  Their  dances  and  feasts  are  usually  held  when  the 
different  fruits  are  ripe,  or  when  certain  fish  come  up  the  river. 
During  these  festive  dances,  other  households  are  invited  and  all 
exchange  wives  during  the  dance,  with  the  exception  of  the  chiefs. 
Two  of  the  best  musicians  lead  the  dance.  Each  has  attached  to 
his  arm  a  bunch  of  feathers,  and  carries  a  Pan's  pipe  of  three 
bamboo  joints  of  different  lengths.  The  music  is  made  by  each 
in  turn  blowing  a  single  note  on  his  pipe.  The  women  generally 
dance  in  circles  with  clasped  hands,  and  the  men  dance  around 
the  outside  with  their  arms  locked.  The  drum  is  not  used  at  the 
dance,  but  only  for  signals  and  messages.  The  flutes  made  of 
the  hiunan  arm  bones  of  their  enemies  are  used  only  for  personal 
amusement,  and  played  when  the  individuals  who  made  them  are 
alone. 

Other  Amusements.  Among  most  tribes,  the  boys  find  amuse- 
ment in  shooting  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  but  the  Witoto  do  not 
use  these  and  the  boys  must  find  amusement  in  some  other  way. 
They  make  wooden  tops,  humuraka,  about  six  inches  long  and  one 
and  a  half  inches  thick,  with  a  notch  at  one  end,  and  a  point  at  the 


WITOTAN  STOCK  141 

other.  A  string  is  wound  around  the  top,  and  it  is  thrown  up  in 
the  air.  The  men  and  boys  also  play  ball.  They  make  a  large 
rubber  ball,  uwika  detirowi,  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  and 
all  play  together  around  the  central  plaza.  The  ball  is  tossed  into 
the  air  and  must  be  caught  on  the  knee  of  the  right  leg,  bounced 
into  the  air  again,  and  received  in  the  same  way  on  the  other  side. 
The  hands  must  not  be  used  except  in  guiding  the  ball  to  the 
knee.  These  ball  games  between  villages  last  four  or  five  days. 
They  play  ball  in  the  afternoon,  and  dance  at  night. 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  No  clothing  is  worn  indoors,  but 
the  men,  when  on  the  trail,  hunting,  or  working  in  the  fields,  wear 
a  breechcloth  of  bark.  The  women  wear  narrow  woven  cotton 
bands  on  the  wrists  and  ankles.  Neither  men  nor  women  wear 
paint  or  are  tattooed.  The  men  pierce  the  ears  and  the  alae  of  the 
nose,  for  the  insertion  of  feathers,  but  the  septum  is  not  perforated. 
The  sub-chiefs  pierce  their  ears  and  the  alae  of  the  nose,  and  wear 
a  wooden  plug  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  lip.  The  chief  wears,  in 
addition,  two  extra  lip  plugs  one  on  either  side  of  the  center.  The 
plugs  are  sometimes  made  of  silver  or  gold.  The  sub-chiefs  wear 
jaguar  tooth  necklaces;  in  case  of  trouble  between  the  chief  and  a 
sub-chief  this  necklace  is  taken  away  by  the  chief,  and  the  sub- 
chief  is  thus  disgraced.  The  extra  lip  plugs  are  the  only  evidence 
of  position  worn  by  the  chief.  As  there  is  no  clothing  or  headdress 
worn,  these  are  the  only  marks  of  distinction  within  the  tribe. 

Marriage.  The  Witoto  marry  outside  the  village,  but  within  the 
tribe.  No  one,  except  the  chiefs  and  the  medicine  men,  is  allowed 
to  have  more  than  one  wife.  The  medicine  men  are  allowed  to 
have  three  or  four,  while  the  chiefs  may  have  as  many  as  they 
wish.  The  sons  of  chiefs  must  always  marry  the  daughters  of 
other  chiefs.  The  three  or  four  hundred  people  Uving  in  one  group 
are  considered  as  one  family,  and  all  of  the  children  as  brothers  and 
sisters. 

When  a  young  man  wishes  to  take  a  wife  he  speaks  to  his  father, 
who  makes  arrangement  with  the  father  of  the  girl  he  desires; 
but  if  the  boy's  father  is  dead  he  goes  to  the  chief  instead.  The 
boy  makes  a  present  of  tobacco  to  the  chief,  works  for  the  girFs 
father,  and  gives  him  tobacco  and  coca.  The  tobacco  and  coca 
for  the  father  are  brought  in,  and  left  on  the  floor  of  the  house. 
At  the  same  time,  the  boy  brings  rare  fruits  and  game,  and  a  cer- 


142  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

tain  kind  of  wood,  popai,  which  is  very  much  prized,  and  presents 
them  to  the  girl's  mother.  The  food  is  then  divided  among  all  the 
families  in  the  house,  and  if  all  partake,  it  is  considered  a  sign  that 
they  agree  to  the  marriage.  The  boy  must  then  remain  in  the 
house  that  night,  and  sleep  alone.  The  next  day  the  girl's  father 
sends  her  to  the  boy's  household  where  she  lives  with  the  family 
until  after  puberty,  when  the  yoimg  man  takes  her  to  his  own 
apartment  in  the  family  house  of  his  father.  If  a  wife  should  prove 
unfaithful,  she  is  killed  by  her  husband. 

When  a  woman  is  about  to  be  confined,  she  retires  to  the  forest 
alone,  and  returns  with  her  child.  She  is  given  presents  by  all  of 
the  other  women  of  the  household.  When  a  chief's  wife  has  a 
child,  the  medicine  men  come  to  the  house;  the  eldest  takes  the 
child  in  his  arms,  sings  and  chants  a  ceremony,  then  passes  it  to 
the  next,  and  he  to  the  next,  continuing  throughout  the  night. 
This  ceremony  is  intended  to  keep  the  evil  spirits  away  from  the 
mother  and  child,  and  to  give  the  child  good  health.  The  child 
is  named  by  the  father  and  mother,  without  any  ceremony.  There 
seem  to  be  family  and  tribal  names.  Jagi  Huari  means  ''  beads 
about  his  neck."  His  son's  name  is  Guaita  Huari  —  Guaita 
means  "  to  catch."  The  name  Huari  is  never  found  in  any  other 
sub-tribe,  and  the  name  Jagi  can  never  be  used  by  any  other 
family.  Men  are  sometimes  given  nicknames  of  animals  or  birds. 
Some  examples  of  individual  names  are  as  follows: 

Sebua  sub-tribe:  chief's  name,  Sorroginema;  wife's,  Jenadeiio; 
and  son's,  Irimamuy.  Man's  name,  Binarima;  wife's,  Bogeirei; 
and  son's,  Keifo.  Man's  name,  Siaguide;  wife's,  Nanimegoqueina; 
and  son's,  Boiriyama. 

Kabduy a  sub-tribe:  man's  name,  Suyei;  wife's,  Setiniyei;  son's, 
Kitibequi;  and  daughter's,  Sirequitofeiio. 

Monunisaya  svb-tribe:  man's  name,  Jairebiuneima;  and  wife's, 
Diguidami. 

Nongoni  svb-tribe:  man's  name,  Yidima;  wife's,  Sanuafio; 
son's,  Cani;  and  daughter's,  Cayei. 

The  famiUes  are  always  small,  in  spite  of  the  common  desire  for 
children.  There  are  seldom  more  than  three  or  four  children  bom  in 
one  family.  The  members  of  the  family  sleep  in  individual  ham- 
mocks; the  father  on  one  side  of  the  apartment,  the  mother  on  the 
other,  with  the  children  in  the  back  part,  and  a  fire  in  the  middle. 


WITOTAN  STOCK  143 

The  Dead.  When  a  chief  dies  he  is  wrapped  in  a  new  hammock 
with  all  his  possessions  and  buried  in  the  center  of  the  floor  of 
the  house;  then  the  people  move  away,  and  build  another  house. 
When  any  other  member  of  the  tribe  dies,  he  is  buried  under  his 
own  fireplace,  and  the  house  is  not  deserted.  The  grave  is  dug 
about  five  feet  deep,  and  the  body  placed  in  a  sitting  posture.  A 
man  dies  in  his  hammock.  Each  family  places  some  offering  in  the 
hammock,  then  it  is  bound  around  the  corpse  with  a  rope,  and 
placed  in  the  grave  with  all  his  possessions.  His  dogs  and  pet 
animals  are  buried  aUve,  or  later  when  caught  are  killed  and 
buried. 

If  a  father  and  mother  both  die  and  leave  young  children,  they 
are  buried  alive  with  the  mother.  Jagi  knew  of  one  case  where 
both  parents  had  died  and  had  left  three  Uttle  children,  the  mother 
d3ring  shortly  after  the  father.  The  eldest  child,  about  eight  years 
of  age,  overheard  the  people  talking,  and  learned  that  the  children 
were  to  be  buried  aUve,  so  he  quietly  escaped  to  the  forest;  but 
the  other  two  were  put  in  the  grave  aUve  with  the  mother  and 
covered  up  with  earth.   Jagi  was  present,  and  witnessed  the  burial. 

Two  or  three  months  after  a  man's  death  the  people  of  his  house 
hold  a  fiesta  and  dance  in  his  honor.  When  a  man  dies,  his  widow 
cuts  off  and  bums  the  bands  which  are  put  on  her  ankles  and  arms 
when  she  is  promised  in  marriage.  If  she  has  great  affection  for 
her  husband,  and  thinks  she  will  never  want  to  marry  again  she 
cuts  off  her  hair  as  a  sign  of  mourning.  When  a  wife  dies,  a  man 
shows  no  signs  of  grief  or  mourning. 

If  any  one  is  suffering  from  some  incurable  disease  which  renders 
him  helpless,  or  from  some  unknown  serious  disease,  he  is  buried 
alive.  Ordinarily  they  take  exceptionally  good  care  of  the  aged, 
because  they  are  considered  wise,  and  their  counsel  is  desired. 

Medicine  Men.  When  anyone  is  sick,  the  members  of  his  family 
give  him  such  remedies  as  are  commonly  known  among  the  tribe. 
If  he  does  not  recover  and  the  sickness  proves  serious,  the  aimi,  or 
medicine  man,  is  called  in.  He  gives  no  medicine,  but  treats  the 
patient  by  magic  and  manipulation.  He  takes  ground  tobacco 
leaves,  boils  them  in  a  small  cooking  pot,  squeezes  out  the  liquid, 
boils  it  again  until  it  is  a  thick  syrup,  and  then  mixes  with  it  water 
and  the  ashes  of  the  popai.  He  dips  his  fingers  into  the  liquid,  and 
puts  them  in  his  mouth.    In  a  few  minutes  he  is  overcome  with 


144  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

dizziness  and  sickness  and  in  this  condition  is  able  to  discover  the 
disease.  After  a  half  hour  he  takes  tepid  water  as  an  emetic.  He 
has  now  discovered  the  disease,  knows  what  it  is,  and  where  it  is 
located.  He  uses  no  drugs,  but  begins  at  once  his  manipulations. 
He  rubs  the  patient,  always  in  the  direction  of  the  extremities, 
and  blows  the  disease  away  from  between  his  hands.  He  presses 
with  the  heels  of  the  hands,  rolls  his  knuckles,  and  rubs  with  his 
fingers;  as  he  finishes  rubbing,  he  brings  his  hands  together  at  the 
top  of  the  patient's  head,  or  at  his  toes,  or  his  finger  tips,  and  then 
blows  away  the  disease.  To  insure  the  safety  of  the  patient  from 
the  return  of  the  disease,  he  blows  upon  the  hammock. 

The  medicine  man  operates  in  the  middle  of  the  big  house.  The 
patient  is  brought  in,  laid  on  a  mat,  or  swung  in  a  hanmiock.  If, 
however,  the  patient  is  too  sick  to  be  moved,  he  may  be  treated  in 
his  own  apartment.  About  ten  feet  inside  of  the  door  of  the  big 
house  there  is  a  pole  on  which  hangs  a  bag  of  coca,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  is  kept  a  small  pot  of  Uquid  tobacco.  The  medicine  man, 
in  taking  his  tobacco,  squats  before  this  pot  with  his  back  towards 
the  center  of  the  house.  If  the  patient  is  seriously  sick,  the  medi- 
cine man  may  remain  with  him  for  several  days  blowing  away  the 
disease.  Besides  this  kind  of  treatment,  the  medicine  man  is 
able  also  to  reduce  fractures,  using  tablets  of  wood  as  splints;  to 
lance  ulcers;  to  put  on  plasters  of  various  kinds;  and  to  cup  the 
back  and  shoulders  for  diseases  of  the  chest. 

When  a  medicine  man  is  sick  he  attributes  his  sickness  to  some 
powerful  medicine  man  in  another  tribe.  In  cases  of  epidemics  the 
medicine  man  goes  from  house  to  house,  and  if  many  die  he  recom- 
mends that  they  burn  the  houses  and  move  away.  In  all  cases 
death  is  due  to  the  influence  of  some  other  medicine  man,  and  the 
local  medicine  man  is  not  held  responsible.  The  medicine  man  is 
paid  for  his  services  in  tobacco,  coca,  and  jaguar  teeth.  When 
a  child  is  sick  its  mother  eats  nothing  but  cassava.  If  anyone  is 
near  to  death,  the  other  members  of  the  household  sit  nearby  and 
sing.  In  case  of  smallpox  they  separate  the  sick,  and  send  all  the 
unaffected  people  away  to  the  forest  during  the  continuance  of 
the  disease. 

Ordinarily  the  medicine  man  does  not  reveal  the  sickness  that  he 
has  removed  from  the  body  of  the  patient,  but  in  certain  cases  of 
severe  illness  he  bites  and  sucks  from  the  body  of  the  patient  a 


WITOTAN  STOCK  145 

small  object  of  gold,  silver,  wood,  or  bone,  shows  it  to  the  chief, 
and  says  that  he  has  taken  it  from  the  body.  The  chief  takes  it, 
shows  it  to  the  patient,  and  then  returns  it  to  the  medicine  man, 
who  puts  it  in  his  mouth.  This  is  the  evil  that  is  causing  the  disease, 
and  since  it  has  been  removed,  the  patient  says  that  he  feels  better, 
and  usually  recovers. 

The  medicine  man  works  in  the  fields  as  an  ordinary  member  of 
the  tribe;  but  he  is  respected  by  his  own  tribe,  because  he  is  able 
to  cure  diseases,  and  he  is  feared  by  other  tribes  because  he  is  able 
to  send  diseases  upon  them.  A  medicine  man  is  not  able  to  send 
any  particular  disease,  but  just  disease  of  some  kind. 

The  position  of  medicine  man  is  inherited.  The  eldest  son  is 
always  supposed  to  have  the  power  to  heal.  From  childhood  he  is 
not  allowed  to  eat  certain  kinds  of  food,  or  to  do  certain  things. 
He  must  not  eat  the  fat  or  flesh  of  animals,  or  certain  fruits.  He 
may  eat  small  birds,  small  fish,  and  cassava,  the  conunon  staple 
food.  He  uses  a  great  deal  of  tobacco.  The  boy  is  taught  by  his 
father,  but  he  is  not  allowed  to  practise  until  after  his  father's 
death.  Each  large  house  has  a  medicine  man,  but  the  greatest 
of  the  medicine  men  lives  in  the  house  with  the  chief. 

Cosmogony.  The  Witoto  start  with  the  world  already  made, 
without  any  account  of  its  creation.  They  know  that  the  world 
is  round  from  the  fact  that  they  see  a  circular  horizon.  They  know 
also  that  it  is  flat  with  water  all  around  and  under  it,  because  they 
have  dug  wells  and  found  water  below. 

At  death  they  go  up  to  the  sky  from  the  point  of  departure  on 
the  top  of  the  high  mountains  in  the  west.  One  time  a  man,  after 
going  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  came  back,  and  told  the  people 
that  he  saw  great  mountains  and  cities  beyond,  but  no  one  else 
has  ever  gone  to  see  them.  The  rivers  join  together,  and  run  away 
into  a  great  hole  in  the  earth,  called  monokakagi,  and  never  come 
back.  Where  the  hole  is,  and  what  finally  becomes  of  the  water 
is  unknown. 

Man  is  an  evolved  monkey.  A  long  time  ago,  before  there  was 
any  sun  or  moon,  monkeys  came  up  through  a  hole  in  the  earth, 
and  after  a  long  time  some  of  them  developed  into  men,  while  the 
rest  remained  monkeys.  The  Witoto  were  the  first  men.  At  the 
time  the  monkeys  became  men,  there  was  no  sun,  but  it  came 
afterward  from  some  unknown  place.    The  animals  came  about 


146  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

the  same  time  that  men  made  their  appearance.  Fathers  tell  their 
children  stories  about  how  the  monkeys  became  men. 

Time  is  counted  by  moons,  dawi;  and  by  seasons,  hwiyaraoli; 
the  time  from  one  rainy  season  to  another,  or  from  harvest  to 
harvest,  or  flowering  time  to  flowering  time. 

Religion.  They  believe  a  big  man,  Hosifiimui,  is  in  the  sky, 
who  has  a  long  beard  which  reaches  to  the  middle  of  his  body,  but 
has  no  hair  on  his  head,  and  who  wears  the  sim  as  a  crown.  When 
the  sun  goes  down  at  night  it  is  because  he  has  gone  to  bed,  and 
put  out  the  light.  His  food  is  composed  entirely  of  honey  and 
peanuts.  There  is  also  an  evil  spirit,  Taife,  who  has  long  finger 
nails,  and  may  do  personal  injury  to  his  victims.  At  death  all 
without  distinction  go  above  in  the  sky,  and  remain  there  forever, 
inactive.  The  soul  of  the  dead,  hiu'sesima,  comes  back  to  earth 
at  times,  and  walks  around  at  night. 

Warfare.  The  Witoto  are  not  a  war-like  people,  but  are  forced 
at  times  to  go  to  war,  and  at  such  times  are  well  organized  under 
the  chief.  When  they  want  to  provoke  war  with  another  tribe, 
some  members  of  the  war  party  go  to  the  other  tribe,  and  give 
a  man  coca;  when  he  begins  to  eat  it,  they  hit  him  on  the  head  with 
a  stone  hatchet,  kill  him,  cut  off  his  head,  and  carry  it  home  to  eat. 
To  secure  volunteers  for  such  a  war,  the  chief  places  on  the  ground 
a  pot  containing  the  extract  of  tobacco.  He  then  makes  an  ad- 
dress, dips  his  fingers  into  the  Uquid,  places  them  on  the  tip  of  his 
tongue,  and  caUs  upon  all  who  are  wiUing  to  go  to  war  to  do  the 
same  thing.  This  ceremony  is  in  the  nature  of  an  oath,  and  is 
often  used  on  other  occasions.  It  is  the  most  sacred  oath,  and  is 
never  broken. 

When  they  kill  men  in  war  they  cut  off  the  heads  and  the  arms, 
and  carry  them  home,  where  they  eat  the  flesh  of  the  heads,  throw 
away  the  skull,  and  make  flutes  of  the  arm  bones.  The  heads  are 
boiled,  and  the  teeth  taken  out  and  made  into  necklaces.  The 
flesh  is  eaten  by  the  old  men,  and  the  leader  of  songs,  nugoitimoi. 
Recently  Torres'  band  of  Witoto  Indians  made  a  raid  against  the 
Andoke,  killed  three  men,  cut  off  their  heads,  ate  the  flesh,  then 
placed  the  skulls  on  top  of  poles  in  front  of  their  own  houses. 
Jagi  says  this  is  not  the  usual  practice.  Sometimes  the  skulls  have 
the  facial  part  broken  away,  and  the  rest  hung  to  the  roof  over  the 
chief's  quarters. 


WrrOTAN  STOCK  147 

When  a  chi^  dies  or  is  killed,  his  own  people  take  out  bis  teeth, 
and  bum  or  break  them,  for  fear  some  enemy  may  dig  up  the  body, 
and  take  the  teeth  for  a  necklace.  When  prisoners  are  taken,  they 
are  brought  home,  and  killed  in  the  plaza  by  an  executioner,  who 
uses  a  lance  or  a  stone  hatchet.  Captured  women  are  tied  to  a 
pole  in  the  center  of  the  plaza,  and  left  there  over  night,  when  any 
man  who  wishes  may  have  access  to  them,  a  privilege  seldom 
accepted.    The  next  day  they  are  killed  by  the  executioner. 

As  the  Witoto  have  no  bows  and  arrows,  they  use  in  warfare 
spears,  bard  wood  clubs  like  double-edged  swords,  called  makana, 
and  stone  axes.  They  do  not  use  their  poisoned  lances  or  blow- 
guns  in  warfare. 

It  has  been  reported  that  the  Witoto  are  cannibals,  that  th^ 
eat  the  heads,  arms,  hands,  and  feet  of  their  enemies  or  undesirable 


persons  coming  among  them;  but  they  eat  only  a  part  of  the 
flesh  of  the  head,  and  that  for  revenge,  and  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
duing fear  in  their  enemies.  For  the  same  reason,  they  make 
flutes  of  the  bones  of  the  ann. 

Signal  Code.  The  drum,  huari,  is  used  entirely  as  a  means  of 
conmiunication.  It  is  made  of  a  log,  five  or  six  feet  In  length  and 
two  feet  in  diameter  (figure  17).  On  the  top  of  the  log  is  a  hole 
near  each  end,  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  connecting  these  is  a 
slit,  one  and  a  half  inches  wide.  The  interior  of  the  log  is  burned 
out  through  the  slit  and  holes,  and  the  fire  controlled  by  blowing 
through  the  leg  bone  of  a  stork.  The  two  sides  are  of  different 
thickness,  thus  they  produce  two  tones  differing  in  pitch.  For 
sending  messages  two  drums  are  used,  and  four  tones  are  furnished, 


148 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


differing  in  pitch  and  quality.  The  operator  stands  between  the 
two  logs,  and  beats  them  with  his  rubber-tipped  stick,  huakitchu. 
His  code  is  based  upon  these  four  different  tones,  the  time  between 
his  strokes,  and  the  number  of  blows.  The  drum  is  kept  in  the 
chief's  house,  suspended  from  the  roof  or  is  hung  by  lianas  from 
a  tree  outside,  and  kept  from  swinging  by  cords  attached  to  a 
buried  log. 

The  Witoto  have  been  made  notorious  on  accoimt  of  the  "  Atroc- 
ities of  the  Putumayo,"  made  public  a  few  years  ago  by  Sir  Roger 
Casement.  The  real  condition  of  affairs  in  the  Putimiayo  region, 
and  the  treatment  of  the  Witoto  by  rubber  gatherers  could  not 
well  be  exaggerated.  Hearing  of  these  misdeeds  of  the  rubber 
gatherers,  I  reported  them  to  the  Peruvian  Government  and  to 
my  own,  some  two  years  before  Sir  Roger  Casement  had  heard  of 
them.  The  Peruvian  Government  immediately  stopped  the  atroc- 
ities, as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  Sir  Roger  presents  only 
reports  of  what  had  happened,  not  anything  that  he  himself  saw. 

Grammar.  In  order  to  form  the  comparative,  maka,  much,  is 
prefixed  to  the  positive.    There  is  no  superlative  form. 


COMPARISON 

Good 

mari 

Bad 

marineti 

Bett4^r 

makamari 

Worse 

makamarineti 

USE  OF  POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES 

My  father 

kwaimoa 

Their  house 

imakahopo 

My  mother 

kwaiftofto 

Our  house 

kaghopo 

My  house 

kwaihopo 

My  good  house 

knaihopomari 

His  house 

baimwihopo 

His  good  dogs 

baimakotikomari 

Your  house 

ohapo 

Large  house 
PRONOUNS 

ijuihopo 

I 

kwe 

We 

kai 

Thou 

o 

You 

omo 

He 

o 

They 

omo 

She 

ohe 

This 

naimwe 

My 

knai 

That 

biama 

Your 

ohe 

Which 

muka 

This 

bai 

Who 

bumwa 

Our 

kai 

What  is  this? 

hadiyabuwi? 

What  man  is  this? 

wimabuo? 

What  did  you  say?    nupodo? 


Whose  dog  is  this?    biyihikobuwi? 


WITOTAN  STOCK 


149 


Vocabulaiy. 


Man 

Woman 

Husband 

Wife 

Grandfather 

Grandmother 

Father 

Mother 

Uncle 


North 
West 

South 
East 


White 
Black 
Red 


1 
ft 

8 

4 


DECLENSION 

The  man 
For  the  man 
With  the  man 


wigma 

wigmayi 

wigmadiga 


THE  FAMILY 


igma 

rino 

kwi  mi 

kwi'ai 

iusuma 

iusunu 

mota 

e'i 

iusuma 


Aunt 

Brother 

Sister 

Son 

Daughter 

Boy 

Girl 

Baby 


CARDINAL  POINTS 


oguayak 

bibemu 

oyekodubehaukunak 

biye 


Zenith 
Nadir 
Up  river 
Down  river 


COLORS 


insereti 
hitereti 
hiyoreti 


dahi 
mena 

dahiyamand 
naka*amak 


Blue 

Yellow 

Brown 


NUMERALS 


iusunu 

ama 

bunu 

hito 

hisa 

iurotiko 

hisa 

hamadi 


haaka 
ana 

avibeni 
wireni 


mokoreti 

hosi 

hetuda 


5  dabakwiro 

10  nangwahibekwiro 

20  aikwiro 

Above  20  (many)  daheseti 


Jniit 


dahi 


ORDINALS 

Last 


irakena 


They  count  their  fingers,  beginning  with  the  little  finger  of  the 
left  hand.  For  the  right  hand,  the  same  names  are  used  as  for  the 
left  hand;  except  for  the  thumb  which  has  a  new  word,  ten.  From 
ten  to  twenty  the  toes  are  counted  in  the  same  order  as  the  fingers, 
with  a  new  word  for  twenty.  No  other  words  are  used  for  num- 
bers except  the  indefinite  word  for  a  great  number. 


150 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


VERBS 


Ask 

hikanaiti 

Know 

iunati 

Break 

jedi 

Make 

huinoka 

Bring 

ati 

Pamt 

hidi 

Bum 

oside 

PUy 

dsterowi 

Catch 

gaita 

Put 

honi 

Come 

biti 

Reply 

iu'aidoti 

Cook 

rokold 

Return 

biU 

Cry 

kweri 

Roast 

ruika 

Cut 

koaiti 

Run 

arikina 

Pie 

foodaiti 

Say 

nupo 

Dig 

ekono 

See 

Idodo 

Drink 

hiro 

Send 

orStati 

Eat 

guflu 

Sew 

tifoka 

FaU 

iu'aidi 

Sing 

rono 

Fly 

fedi 

Sleep 

inidi 

Give 

haisika 

Smell 

ftuita 

Go 

makariti 

Speak 

fiakti 

Grow 

moni 

Suck 

disenhiro 

Have 

jino 

Swim 

idi 

Hear 

kakadi 

Take 

hiro 

Hunt 

henodi 

Walk 

haiti 

Judge 

hifaneti 

Wash 

hokold 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

About 

iaredi 

Death 

baidi 

Bad 

marifieti 

Dog 

hiko 

Ball,  rubber 

uika 

Dog,/. 

hikoeriflo 

Beads 

jagi 

Dog,  m. 

hiko'oima 

Better 

makamari 

Dogs 

hikotiko 

Bird 

ofoma 

Drum 

wari 

Bird,/. 

ofomaerifia 

Drumstick 

wakitcu 

Bird,  m. 

ofomaoima 

Dry 

safrenSti 

Birds 

nanofoma 

Empty 

heriaifioti 

Blowgun 

obiyaka 

False 

benagnoyoti 

Chicha 

Simo 

Feast 

jaliko 

Chicha,  fruit 

hugabi 

Fever 

duiko 

Chief  (name  o 

f)      Ijama 

Full 

monitaiti 

«          <«       i 

"       Kutunen 

Good 

mari 

**          «       < 

"      Rianumui 

Green 

h&madi 

«          <«       ( 

"      Amigo 

Hard 

kweneredi 

<«          <«       ( 

"      Mampi 

Here 

benoma 

«          ««       < 

"      Ifi 

Hot 

usirSti 

Cold 

rosirCti 

House 

hopo 

Corn 

peU^to 

Jaguar 

hiko 

Day 

aje 

Lance 

suda 

WITOTAN  STOCK 


151 


JLATge 

IjUl 

I^te 

nawiti 

Blany 

aka 

Medicine  man 

Sima 

Idoon 

hwibui 

Bfore 

aka 

liuoh 

aka 

Kaked 

diiftoka 

Needle 

e^do 

Negative 

iflSti 

Nest 

hoho 

Night 

nagone 

No 

damaiti 

None 

ifieti 

Nothing 

jidi 

Old 

iuaikeroma 

Open 

ekono 

Opposite 

oruikadibi 

Paddle 

faijahi 

Pain 

isirSdi 

Palmfniit 

kenaku 

Partridge 

kotoma 

Kg 

aimo 

Kg./. 

aimo'erifto 

Pig,  m. 

aimo*oima 

Pigs 

togaimo 

Poison 

aupui 

Qnirkly 

arikena 

Rain 

d^ 

Raw 

uwSnSti 

lUpe 

hiedi 

River 

•  • 

ije 

Same 

adinomo 

Singer 

ftugoitemai 

Sky 

mona 

Small 

hllnoredi 

Soul 

hursSsima 

Spirit,  evil 

taife 

Spirit,  good 

hosiAimui 

Stone 

nofuika 

Straight 

hanoredi 

Sun 

hitoma 

Sweet 

niaimeridi 

Tapir 

hegedima 

Tapir,/. 

hegedima*erino 

Tapir,  m. 

hegedima*oima 

Tapirs 

hegeditiko 

There 

hipihi 

There,  distant        baini 

Thief 

fuiki 

Tobacco 

jera 

Tomorrow 

ikomoni 

Top 

humuraka 

Tree 

amina 

Tribe  (name  of)     Laboyano 

«          « 

"      Sebua 

«          « 

"      Huraya 

«          « 

"      Monunisaya 

«          << 

"      Nongoni 

<<          « 

"      Kabduya 

«          « 

"      Haiyofo 

Truth 

wanai 

Turkey 

muidoki 

Ugly 

heredi 

Warm 

ik}Lsiti 

Wet 

rittdi 

Where 

nifuS 

Wide 

adjuSmi 

Wind 

aifui 

Wing 

riaiko 

Worse 

makamarifieti 

Yes 

hS 

Yesterday 

naftttoni 

MIRANHAN  GROUP 

Vocabulaiy.  The  short  vocabulary  here  appended  was  ob- 
tained from  a  small  boy  at  a  rubber  station  on  the  Manu  River. 
He  had  been  captured  sometime  before,  but  had  not  learned  to 
speak  Spanish  well  enough  to  give  me  any  information  about  his 
I)eople,  nor  even  where  they  lived.  The  man  who  had  him  did  not 
know  where  he  came  from,  or  to  what  tribe  he  belonged. 


THE  FAMILY 


Man 

kwakpi 

Son 

itsSmeni 

Woman 

kwatci 

Child 

m&ni 

Father 

takani,  tci*iha 

Baby 

toowapekwi 

Mother 

kwa'atro,  kwa*atco 

PARTS  OF 

THE  BODY 

Head 

mUnikwi 

Chest 

mXpahi 

Hair 

m]lnikwahi 

Abdomen 

mXpahi 

Cheek 

m]lnipa 

Arm 

mlUiahenkwa 

Chin 

nUikwatsahi 

Upper  arm 

miUiehikwa 

Eye 

m]l*atci 

liower  arm 

mKonsik 

Eyebrow 

mlhe 

Hand 

mKonse 

Eyelash 

nUi'atcitci 

F'mger 

maonskwa 

Ear 

m&nimi 

XaU 

mMonsikwam 

Nose 

nUitihigo 

Hips 

makipa 

Mouth 

mi&hi 

Leg 

m&ttia 

Teeth 

m&kwahi 

Upper  leg 

m&kipa 

Tongue 

m&nihikwi 

Lower  leg 

mfipateri 

Xeck 

miinikwa 

Knee 

m&tofiahi 

Throat 

nUlkortotsa 

Ankle 

m&ttia 

Shoukler 

nUikoma\*ik 

Foot 

m&ttiapa 

Back 

mlLpaseria 

Toe 

mittikwa 

Side 

mMm'miko 

Joint 

m&komivik 

N-ERBS 

Bite 

meikoi 

Rise 

kwakwam^ni 

Come 

kwaditcitci 

Run 

matini 

Dnak 

v^h^terik 

^t 

kwatakivi 

Eat 

kwam^matcowa 

Sleep 

kwakikwa 

Pkddle 

m&potoa 

152 


MIRANHAN  GROUP 


153 


ADDITIONAL  WORDS 


Dog 

oipi 

^  Floor 

iumainkwa 

Cat 

i*Ikeraek 

Canoe 

meina 

Hog 

mlLm 

Paddle 

potokwa 

Jaguar 

hoipi 

'^Pole 

kat^hika 

Fkrrot 

waro 

.  Day 

mepa 

Turkey 

nimiko 

^  Night 

kaveni 

Cork 

kwapi 

Tomorrow 

pekorekan 

Hfn 

katAriika 

Grood  day 

Imlnik 

Yucca 

waheriki 

Thank  you 

mSimivi 

Planlain 

iuhTko 

Yes 

eheh 

House 

ha'antc 

No 

tsatanikato 

Roof 

iiime*eko 

TUPIAN  STOCK 

TIATINAGUA 

Distribution.  The  Tiatinagua  occupy  the  territory  south  of  the 
Madre  de  Dios  between  the  Inambari  and  Beni  Rivers,  particularly 
along  the  Tambopata,  Heath,  and  Madidi  Rivers.  They  number 
at  present  five  or  six  hundred,  and  are  known  locally  by  various 
names:  Atsahuaca,  Yamiaca,  and  Guara3ro  or  Huarayo.  The 
term  Huara^x)  has  no  ethnic  value,  but  is  a  general  name  applied 
to  all  savages,  as  the  term  Chuncho  is  used  in  some  other  regions. 
Theee  Indians  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Tupian  language. 

OrganixatioiL  The  Tiatinagua  have  a  very  loose  tribal  organi- 
lation.  Each  group  has  a  head-man  or  chief,  who  leads  his  people 
in  their  wanderings  from  their  pennanent  villages  in  the  interior 
to  their  hunting  places.  Two  or  three  families  live  together  in 
small  palm4eaf  houses.  Tliey  build  temporary  shelters  on  sand 
bars,  along  the  rivers,  by  leaning  palm  leaves  against  a  bent  pole. 
Itiey  travel  for  the  most  part  on  foot,  crossing  the  riv»«  on  balsas, 
nuide  of  two  logs  fa$t^>ned  together  by  chonta  palm  (uns  driven 
thnnigh  them«    They  make  no  canoes. 

Food  Su|^ty«  Aroimd  their  permanent  homes  in  the  forest  they 
mako  gn>at  cleHrtl^c$  whert^  they  grow  com,  cassava,  sweet  pota- 
tiH\^,  aiul  |Jai\taii^.  Akuxg  the  ri\-ers.  when?  they  hunt  and  fish 
at  ct^rtain  s^'a^vtvii  i\f  the  >*e^r.  they  plant  bananas  and  jdantains 
in  a  snudi  cK>arii)g  oiit  i>f  :^ight  of  the  river.  These  clearings  are 
*t^  \^yU  ^^ei^KKkxl  that  a  tra\t4er  wouM  not  be  able  to  find  them 
with\Hit  kiK^wing  the  knr^ition  or  chie.  The  traveler,  seeing  a 
$ii\|[k^  haivuwi  ivr  t>lantaiu  tive  siamiing  at  the  river  bank,  wcHideTs 
Ih>w  it  Ka)H^^^  ^^^  ^^^'  ther^.  If  be  wer^  to  land,  and  make  his 
W5!^Y  iut\>  th^  f\V[\>!^t  N^ttvl  thi$  tw^.  he  wouki  find  plenty  of  froit. 

lHaixt;ui>s  are  eaten  raw,  or  aw*  n>a$ie\l  when  green  cr  ripe. 
11h^  rtuvl  b  ^*t  by  Utii^  it  K>i^tiJKiiiiaU>\  and  is  rranov^  with 
th^  tit^is^^^  ^^i  t^x^hs  l^heti  the  pbmt;uti  i?  placed  in  the  fir^, 
atnl  rv>a:^v\l  \hi  h^^  \\>aK  IVa-  make  wry  little  pottery,  aiKl 
v^>%Nu  tt!^  a  JvHUt  v>f  bautKvv  iik^iv<Ki  v>f  a  vxvidi:^  piH. 

11^ 


TUPIAN  STOCK,  THE  TUTINAGUA 


155 


when  tfaey  wish  to  cook  fish.  They  cut  a  joint  of  green  bamboo  of 
sufficient  dze,  place  the  fish  inside,  and  throw  the  joint  into  the 
fire.    The  fish  cooks  before  the  bamboo  bums  through. 

The  men  make  fire  by  twirling  a  stick  between  the  pahns  of  the 
hands  in  the  ordinary  fashion.  They  do  not  grow  tobacco,  or  use 
it  in  any  form.  The  men  hunt,  fish,  and  make  balsas.  The  women 
dear,  plant,  and  cultivate  the  fields,  build  their  houses  and  shelters, 
gather  fruits  and  nuts,  and  even  make  bows  and  arrows  for  the 
men.  The  men  hunt  in  large  numbers,  and  divide  their  catch. 
The  common  method  used  in  hunting  most  of  their  game  is  the 


TiatinMu*  wi 


drive.  They  encircle  a  wide  area,  and  drive  game  towards  a  com- 
mon center  on  high  ground,  where  the  animals  are  killed  with  bows 
and  arrows.  They  have  no  hooks,  but  are  very  successful  in 
diooting  fish,  and  sometimes  drive  them  into  a  trap  made  by 
[danting  sticks  across  a  side  stream. 

The  Tiatinaguas  are  the  most  expert  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and 
arrow  of  any  of  the  tribes  visited.  The  bow  is  held  in  the  left 
hand,  with  the  arrow  on  the  left  of  the  bow,  and  under  the  fore- 
finger; then  the  arrow  is  held  on  the  string  with  the  thumb  and 
itidcoE  finger,  and  pulled  with  the  other  three  fingers  on  the  string. 
They  pull  across  the  breast  with  the  head  turned  to  the  left,  and 
the  arrow  below  the  line  of  the  eye.  In  shooting  at  a  target,  six 
inches  in  diameter,  at  a  distance  of  twenty-five  yards,  they  made 


156  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

an  average  of  a  direct  hit  once  in  five  times,  with  the  other  arrows 
close  to  the  target.  They  use  bows  and  arrows  about  six  feet  in 
length. 

Dress  and  Ornamentation.  The  chief  wears  a  shirt  made  of 
woven  wild  cotton  while  all  the  other  men  wear  a  close  fitting 
sleeveless  bark  shirt  which  comes  down  nearly  to  the  knees.  The 
women  wear  a  piece  of  bark  as  an  apron,  hanging  in  front  from  a 
belt  or  string  tied  around  the  waist.  The  children  wear  no  cloth- 
ing until  after  puberty.  They  dye  their  clothing,  and  paint  their 
bodies,  black  with  wito  and  red  with  amotto.  Women  and  children 
wear  necklaces  made  of  the  teeth  of  monkeys,  peccaries,  and  other 
animals.  The  men  sometimes  wear  a  crescent-shaped  nose  orna- 
ment made  of  mother-of-pearl,  and  certain  men  wear  two  or  three 
bright  feathers  under  one  arm.  Neither  men  nor  women  pierce 
their  ears  or  lips.  The  heads  of  the  children  are  flattened  by  tying 
a  board  on  the  forehead,  as  is  the  custom  already  described  among 
the  Conebo. 

Marriage.  The  chief  alone  is  allowed  to  have  more  than  one 
wife.  They  marry  within  their  own  tribe,  but  outside  of  their  own 
village,  and  bring  their  wives  to  live  in  their  villages.  There  is  no 
marriage  ceremony,  and  as  far  as  could  be  learned,  only  mutual 
consent  between  the  two  parties  directly  concerned  is  necessary. 
If  a  woman  dislikes  her  husband  or  his  people,  she  may  retiim  to 
her  own  people,  without  restraint.  Wives  are  very  well  treated, 
yet  a  husband  may  sell  his  wife  or  his  children.  Marriage  cannot 
take  place  until  after  puberty  ceremonies  have  been  performed  for 
both  boys  and  girls. 

When  puberty  arrives,  a  feast  and  dance  takes  place.  The  old 
women  take  the  girls  aside  and  cut  the  h>Tnen  with  a  bamboo 
knife.  The  men  take  the  boys  at  puberty,  and  cut  the  frenum 
preputii  \^nth  the  same  kind  of  bamboo  knife.  WTien  a  husband 
dies  his  \\ndow  returns  to  her  own  people,  and  lives  with  her 
brother.  The  chief  may  have  five  or  six  wives,  but  must  take  them 
from  other  Tiatinagua  villages. 

AMien  a  woman  is  to  be  confined  she  retires  into  the  forest  with 
two  other  women  as  assistants.  After  a  suitable  place  is  selected, 
one  woman  sits  down  with  her  back  against  a  tree  and  takes  the 
patient  on  her  lap,  locking  her  arms  under  those  of  the  patient, 
and  holding  her  firmly  in  that  position  while  the  other  woman 
assists  in  the  deliver>% 


SSabddy  Mdsbuh  Papxrs 


Vol.  X,  Plate  22 


TUPIAN  STOCK,  THE  TIATINAGUA  157 

The  Dead.  When  a  man  dies  in  a  village  the  body  is  taken  to 
the  forest,  and  buried  at  full  length.  His  clothing,  bows,  and 
arrows  are  buried  with  him.  If  a  man  dies  while  traveling  or  en- 
camped along  the  river,  the  body  is  thrown  into  the  river  without 
ceremony. 

A  few  days  after  we  left  one  Tiatinagua  village,  a  Peruvian,  Sr. 
Galvez,  who  had  formerly  visited  the  village,  came  back  to  it.  For 
some  unknown  reason,  the  Indians  killed  him,  cut  off  his  head,  and 
threw  the  body  into  the  river.  It  is  not  known  what  disposition 
they  made  of  the  head.  When  our  canoemen  were  returning  up 
the  river,  they  found  a  skeleton  on  a  sand  bar  which  they  identified 
as  that  of  Galvez  by  means  of  his  American  shoes.  The  fish  had 
eaten  all  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  but  the  boots  were  still  in  place. 

When  one  is  sick  with  some  incurable  disease,  or  is  thought 
permanently  helpless,  the  men  tie  his  hands  and  feet  together,  and 
throw  him  into  the  river  to  drown.  They  beUeve  that  all  sickness 
comes  on  account  of  cultivation,  as  there  is  no  sickness  in  the 
forest.  When  there  is  an  epidemic,  they  segregate  the  sick.  Some 
time  before  our  visit,  there  had  been  an  epidemic  of  sore  eyes,  and 
half  the  i)eople  were  affected.  The  diseased  ones  were  separated, 
while  the  others  went  away  into  the  forest. 

Religion.  They  start  with  the  world  in  its  present  condition, 
and  have  no  traditions  of  a  creator.  They  believe  in  two  separate 
spirits.  A  good  spirit,  Itosiga,  is  in  the  form  of  a  very  large  white 
man,  with  a  long  black  beard  who  Uves  in  the  depths  of  the  forest, 
where  only  a  few  very  old  men  have  seen  him.  His  only  function 
is  that  of  causing  the  growth  of  plants.  He  is  not  worshipped  or 
held  in  any  reverence.  The  other  spirit,  Ikwikwi,  is  in  the  form  of 
a  small  black  man,  with  black  beard.  He  also  lives  in  the  forest, 
and  occasionally  is  seen.  When  he  is  heard  coming  through  the 
bushes,  they  shoot  arrows  at  him,  and  drive  him  away.  He  is  not 
evil,  and  does  them  no  harm,  but  they  feel  uncomfortable  when  he 
is  near. 

Personal  Appearance.  When  we  visited  the  Tiatinagua  village 
at  La  Torre,  on  the  Tambopata  River  we  found  the  people  healthy 
and  in  good  physical  condition.  Apparently,  they  take  less  care 
of  their  personal  appearance  than  any  of  the  other  tribes.  They 
allow  the  hair  to  grow  long,  and  do  not  extract  the  scattered  hairs 
on  the  face  or  body;  consequently  they  appear  to  be  much  more 


158 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


hairy  than  any  of  the  other  tribes.  The  list  of  physical  measure- 
ments will  reveal  a  marked  difference  between  the  Tiatinagua, 
and  the  Panoan  and  Arawakan  groups. 

The  Tiatinagua,  while  not  dififering  greatly  in  stature,  have 
very  slender  bodies,  long  faces,  and  long  heads.  They  have  the 
lowest  index  of  any  of  the  groups,  76.31.  The  minimum  frontal 
measurement  is  the  lowest  of  all,  and  there  is  a  marked  depression 
at  the  temples.  While  they  have  the  long  face  and  long  head,  they 
have,  at  the  same  time,  the  broadest  nose  of  any  of  the  tribes 
measured,  which  may  indicate  that  some  method  of  artificial 
flattening  is  in  use. 

Grammar.  The  masculine  is  formed  by  adding  yawi  to  the 
noun,  and  the  feminine  by  adding  pona.  The  plural  is  formed  by 
adding  kematine  to  the  singular. 


PRONOUNS 

I 

eya 

We 

dekya 

Thou 

ikwanaiyi 

You 

dekya 

He 

iyawi 

They 

dekya 

She 

iwenasi 

Vocabulaiy. 

THE  FAMILY 

Chief 

otonia 

Uncle 

bapba 

Man 

deha,  yawi 

Aunt 

toto 

Woman 

ipona 

Brother 

koki 

Husband 

bekopu 

Sister 

ohi 

Wife 

ikuyi 

Son 

tcowa 

His  wife 

alwanasi 

Daughter 

icewi 

Grandfather 

hoasi 

Boy 

ibakwe 

Grandmother 

canasi 

Girl 

ipona 

Father 

kaka 

Infant 

icowi 

Mother 

nai*ig 

PARTS  OF  THE  BODY 

Head 

iyohwak 

Teeth 

ese 

Hair 

iohwaAa 

Tongue 

yana 

Face 

ikohwa 

Shoulder 

ibahak 

Eye 

ikohwa 

Back 

itna'asa 

Ear 

icahak 

Side 

ithohanic 

Nose 

ekwi 

Breast 

ekopeci 

Mouth 

inama 

Arm 

iya 

Lip 

ikwasa 

Elbow 

wacu 

TUPIAN  STOCK,  THE  TIATINAGUA 


159 


EUnd 

ime 

Knee 

ocaha 

Pklm 

imehoto 

Ankle 

ikibocahi 

Finger 

imesis 

Foot 

ihiohu 

NiQ 

imekica 

Toe 

ihiohis 

Hmmb 

im^raiyai 

Sole 

ihiohukahu 

Index 

imekiaa 

Stomach 

mahi 

Leg 

ikisi 

COLORS 

UldL 

katagwa 

red 

kaokwiuigi 

Uoe 

katawakiheni 

white 

kaocini 

SMD 

katawa 

yellow 
NUMERALS 

hawahawa 

1 

owi 

12 

tiyehipa 

2 

bikapiai 

IS 

owitahoho 

3 

bahipiep 

14 

owitahawa 

4 

bekadepiai 

15 

owikacici 

5 

iamatamata 

16 

iyisamahow 

6 

ailpiep 

17 

owitahoakikici 

7 

bikanipiai 

18 

iyidakawadakawa 

8 

bikapiyohuma 

19 

diyikini 

9 

ki*ipiha 

20 

i'isawani 

10 

i*iamatamata 

21 

i'iniweyakakiko 

11 

wanta 

22 
VERBS 

eaniwgyakakiko 

Ask 

woihaha 

Go 

pokihey 

Break 

isahakwi 

Grow 

powahi 

Bring 

yckwi 

Have 

akwikayani 

Bum 

ewahakwi 

Hear 

hacahak 

Buy 

ehehaikwi 

Know 

habawikaAa 

c%u 

gowikwi 

Make 

tiotikwi 

^me 

fuekwi 

Play 

mahamaha 

Cook 

ekwakwi 

Put 

heakikwokwama 

Cry- 

ta*akwi 

Rain 

enahwa 

Cm 

ahakwi 

Reply 

soiha*akwi 

l>ie 

manohe 

Return 

fuinahi 

X>ig 

tiokwi 

Roast 

nowakwi 

tMnk 

ycne 

Rob 

sikanto 

t>ry 

hokaya 

Run 

kwahikwahi 

*:«t 

itcahikaha 

Send 

pokimi 

^all 

hawitcakwihi 

Sew 

sokokwi 

^y 

kwakwesan 

Shoot 

pohoheti 

^ivc 

kiakwi 

Sit 

aliokikwi 

160 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Sing 

isawahki 

Swim 

besani 

Sleep 

kakawi 

Take 

idkwi 

Rmftll 

udwicini 

Thing 

keawiya 

Speak 

mimikwi 

Walk 

pokikwi 

Sting 

ha'akwakwi 

Wash 

cakwakwi 

Sudc 

hekibibikwi 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

Above 

biMkwa 

Hand 

AU 

pokohiwi 

Hat 

ehyauha 

Arrow 

emdii 

Here 

andikwi 

Balsa 

ewisipi 

High 

Barkcushma 

nohwa*aki 

Hot 

tditiyo 

Bark  for  cuahma 

tcapaka 

House 

iking 

Basket 

icaha 

My  house 

ikwayiki 

Bird 

tsami^pwi 

Hunger 

hiakwi 

Blind 

kowamihi 

Knife 

epi 

Bow 

weya 

Late 

sidia 

Breakfast 

mdnwaka 

Leaf 

ehawifti 

Canoe 

kwakba 

I^ 

icafti 

CkMid 

bo 

Light 

sidia 

Cold 

tdUwi 

Uttle 

oipohwi 

Com 

ciki 

Long 

hoano 

Deaf 

keaftifti 

Machete 

ba 

Di^ 

hapohwakia 

Many 

kematini 

Death 

manwa«  emano 

Midday 

yekohayan 

Dinner 

kici 

Moon 

bahi 

Dog 

nyawewa 

Much 

kibutrini 

Do>tp 

kwibehi 

Music 

Each 

obwmAi 

Naked 

Earth 

meca 

Near 

katcipede 

East 

ei>*a 

Needle 

akbeko 

Enemy 

hahipya 

Net 

hietdlkyi 

Every 

kewicini 

Nevtr 

kiyakwa 

Far 

kewrcini 

New 

itoakwm 

Fire 

kwaki 

Night 

siaia 

Fta^ 

s»pwa 

No 

opwuyahwi 

Flesh 

nolct 

Nothing 

tcftmak 

FVcir 

kkika 

Old 

itig 

Flowvr 

akwikaha 

Oppcksate 

owhcmihik 

F^M^st 

e|Hy^> 

Other 

kiepiya 

F»if«a 

ksMMMaiakvikwie 

0«vm 

% 

FnU 

orahietrka 

P^MhDe 

C^Kb&i 

GoM 

owi 

ISun 

kaKi 

Good 

* 

ISuat«red 

atcote 

Gfid 

kawhi 

ISiiat.  bkck 

aito 

TDPIAN  STOCK,  THE  TIATINAGUA 


161 


Fbinted 

Snow 

nehatcitcina 

Fkpaya 

e«ya 

Sour 

weci 

Futridge 

koicwi 

Spectacles 

ikowa 

Fkntain 

mh^gnl 

Spoon 

oyana 

Flaym,  aand  bar 

vidhai 

Stone 

mei 

Plenty 

kematoni 

Straight 

kaminihi 

Fk)le 

akwi 

Sun 

eceki 

Fowed 

ekwik 

Supper 

sindia 

Qnid^ly 

sokokwahihi 

Sweet 

kabitca 

Bttdy 

yekwohaiikwi 

That 

hikifoihi 

Bigbt 

ipafii 

There 

wekwi 

Ripe 

inhawB 

Thief 

sipohwi 

River 

•  • 
naai 

Thirst 

ina 

Roof 

omi 

This 

hikiwa 

Root 

akwisakwi 

Tired 

kemano 

Rout  com 

piki 

Tobacco 

nabakwakwi 

Round 

ciVi 

Today 

mikawa 

Salt 

aesasesi 

Tomorrow 

bikawa,  mikawahi 

Same 

yckwi 

Tree 

akwa 

Short 

itewehi 

Tree,  cushma 

wapei 

SOver 

ihawi 

Water 

ena,  enaoha 

Spirit,  good 

idosiga 

Wet 

keatco 

Spirit.  l>ad 

imigue 

Wide 

ewecani 

Sky 

cya 

Yes 

ftpweya 

Sleepy 

balahi 

Yonder 

ahipwehi 

Small 

keatdya 

Young 

ico 

Snake 

peyo 

Yucca 

eyi 

1A2 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


ATSAHUACA 

Vocabultry.    A  dialect  of  Tiatinagua  vocabulary,  obtained  fron 
It  nihhiT  man  on  the  Tambopata  River. 

FAMILY 

Man  t'harki 

Woman  tcinani 


lUlr 

cyohwa 

N«H^k 

rnatok 

I^VtH^ 

t^rinHi 

Kjt^ 

rt(\hwii 

Kj't^w^^w 

ihi>wii 

K>vU»h 

it\^wi^*a 

Ki^r 

««c«lwii 

N\M# 

<pwi 

M^N^K 

iNMlKft 

^^ 

^'~** 

IWk>fc 

.1 

^^>« 

M^^i 

\Vv^*^'^ 

i%«l^i^Vt 

>  ^ft^mr^ 

"kdit^jiA 

\\>W^ 

<^ 

\\t^Sv 

KHiKx^ 

\\'^S^ 

l:|^^f»M^V, 

nXn*^'^ 

\«)^Vv|N^i» 

>  \v^. 

>^V 

>Vv^«i%ik 

^•>l«k<. 

>  V"y>»M^  V*»  "i 

^»|«M>AVi 

^Vv*^ 

Vi«Mb«^ 

^\v 

i||^^>««.!^ 

V«s«s\ 

Vt«bMS>S^ 

>\v^ 

>»»WHm« 

Vlvs^^ 

i-K* 

PARTS  OF  THE  BODY 

Teeth 

Chin 

Arm 

Hand 

Thumb 

Index 

Fool 
Blood 


Aiwmowu.  vncttDs 


isthe 
iya 


Hiai 


IS|iar» 


ic  jo: 
In. 


TUPIAN  STOCK,  THE  MABENARO 


163 


MABENARO 


The  Mabenaro  live  in  the  interior  of  the  forests  north  of  the 
Madre  de  Dios  River,  some  twenty  miles  from  Gamatana.  At  the 
time  of  our  visit,  their  villages  had  not  been  discovered  by  the 
rubber  men.  One  of  Torres'  rubber  prospectors,  while  traveling 
through  the  forest  in  search  of  rubber  trees,  came  upon  two  Indian 
children,  a  boy  about  twelve  years  of  age  and  his  sister  some  two 
years  younger,  and  carried  them  to  his  home  on  the  Madre  de 
Dios.  We  visited  his  place  about  three  months  later,  and  found 
the  children  held  there  as  servants.  When  found,  they  were  both 
naked,  and  the  only  thing  they  had  in  their  possession  was  a  bow 
and  arrow.  As  the  children  had  not  yet  learned  to  speak  Spanish, 
we  could  obtain  very  little  information  concerning  them  or  their 
language.  The  children  were  both  rather  tall  and  slender,  and 
had  no  phyBical  deformations.    Their  head  measurements  were: 


Boy 

length,  185  mm. 
breadth*  147  mm. 
height,  186  mm. 
cephalic  index,  79.46 


Girl 

length,  171  mm. 
breadth,  186  mm. 
height,  125  mm. 
cephalic  index,  79.58 


I  was  able  to  obtain  a  short  vocabulary  from  which  it  would  seem 
that  their  language  is  very  closely  related  to  that  of  the  Tiatinagua. 
I  did  not  obtain  any  numerals,  because  the  children  were  unable 
to  count.  They  seemed  bright  and  cheerful  in  spite  of  their  un- 
happy surroundings,  and  the  girl  was  continually  humming  the 
following  time: 


D,C, 


164 


TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 


Vocabulaiy. 

THE  FAMH-Y 

Man 

dia 

Son 

Woman 

wani 

Daughter 

Father 

tata 

Infant 

Mother 

wanti 

Boy 

Brother 

dodo 

Girl 

Sister 

doda 

PARTS   OF  THK  BODY 

Hair 

iyoifia 

Neck 

Head 

iyoa 

Shoulder 

Eye 

ithoa 

Back 

Eyebrow 

iboathuna 

Chest 

Eyehuih 

ithokaguifia 

Arm 

Ear 

ithaha 

Hand 

Nose 

awi 

Finger 

Mouth 

ikwatsa 

Leg 

Teeth 

itsi 

Foot 

Chin 

ithawi 

ADDITIONAL  WORDS 

Bird 

waboro 

Parrot 

Chicken 

tawalipa 

Peccary 

Cock 

tawalipadia 

Poweel 

Cold 

buata 

Pucucungf 

Come 

thiathia 

Plantain 

Dog 

niyo 

River 

Duck 

hohi 

Tree 

Fire 

kwathi 

Turkey 

Forest 

athe 

Wangana 

Hot 

atoowa 

Water 

House 

ithai'i 

Wood 

Jaguar 

huli 

Yucca 

deanawa 
ipona 
nana 
ka'abo 
iyaro 


mara 

ibatha 

ibibakwa 

thatha 

ibai 

imiatsa 

imi 

itha 

iwatsi 


kwitsa 

wabathama 

mapi 

tintothara 

naha 

mano 

akwi 

titobai'i 

wabu 

eowi 

kwathithi 

kwavia 

SOMATIC  CHARACTERS 

Measurements.   While  the  measurements  recorded  are  the  ones 
usually  taken  by  workers  in  the  field,  some  explanation  of  points 
(rf  departure  may  prevent  confusion  in  comparisons.   Those  who 
bve  worked  among  the  more  primitive  peoples,  know  how  difficult 
it  sometimes  is  to  disarm  suspicion  and  to  overcome  superstition, 
^th  regard  to  taking  measurements,  which,  for  accuracy,  require 
that  the  instrument  touch  the  body  of  the  subject.     It  is  often  a 
very  delicate  matter,  necessitating  sufficient  time  to  work  into  the 
good  graces  of  the  people,  and  to  secure  their  full  confidence.    It 
was  always  an  individual  matter  with  these  people;  one  man  would 
'  stand  up  to  be  measured  without  hesitation,  while  another  would 
refuse  absolutely,  and  no  amount  of  persuasion,  cigarettes,  or  other 
inducements,  would  overcome  his  prejudice.    We  foimd  it  next  to 
impossible  to  take  measiu'ements  of  the  women;  any  such  sug- 
gestion was  resented  by  the  men  in  unmistakable  demeanor.    The 
only  measurements  of  women  obtained  were  those  of  the  Witoto 
andPiro. 

A  comparison  of  the  measurements  of  various  stock  groups  re- 
veals some  interesting  differences  in  physical  development,  see  table 
6,  pages  178-9.  The  Witoto  are  the  tallest,  and  have  the  longest 
anns  and  legs,  and  the  smallest  heads,  faces,  noses,  and  bodies. 
Their  heads  are  the  longest  and  lowest,  giving  them  a  height- 
breadth  index  of  86.23  and  a  cephalic  index  of  77.43.  They  have 
the  least  prognathism,  the  greatest  breadth  of  lower  face,  but  the 
lowest  upper  facial  index,  76.63.  They  have  an  unusual  span  with 
a  ratio  to  height  of  107.3.  The  difference  in  height  between  men 
and  women  is  152  mm.,  which  makes  the  women  only  90.6  per  cent 
of  the  men  in  stature. 

The  Tupian  representatives,  the  Tiatinagua,  were  the  shortest 
in  stature,  arms,  legs,  and  trunk.  Their  ratio  of  span  to  stature 
is  102.3.  They  had  the  highest  and  narrowest  heads  which  gave 
them  a  height-breadth  index  of  94.49,  and  a  cephalic  index  of  76.31. 
They  had  the  shortest  noses,  and  the  highest  nasal  index,  or  92.16. 
The  Panoan  had  the  largest  and  broadest  heads  and  faces,  with 

165 


166  TRIBES  OF  EASTERN  PERU 

indices  of  87.23  and  84.75,  respectively.  The  Arawakan  had  the 
longest  and  largest  bodies  of  all,  and  they  were  taller  than  the 
Panoan.  The  women  of  the  Arawakan  group  measured  were 
Piro.  Comparing  their  stature  with  that  of  the  Piro  men,  there  is 
found  a  difference  of  103  nmi.,  which  makes  the  women  93.6  per 
cent  the  height  of  the  men.  The  ratio  of  the  span  to  the  stature 
of  the  women  is  100.8,  while  for  the  men  it  is  103.7.  The  average 
cephalic  index  of  the  men  is  77.43,  while  that  of  the  women  is  78.07. 
There  is  a  very  noticeable  difference  in  ranges  in  the  two  largest 
groups,  the  Arawakan  and  the  Panoan;  they  were  greater  among 
the  Arawakan  in  every  case. 

EXPLANATORY 

1.  Age:  approximate.    All  were  adults. 

2.  Height:  in  bare  feet. 

8.  Height  to  shoulder:  to  acromion  of  right  shoulder. 

4.  Span:  maximum  arm  reach. 

5.  Arm  length:  height  to  shoulder,  less  height  to  middle  finger. 

6.  Shoulder  breadth:  biacromial. 

7.  Chest  diameters:  at  level  of  nipples. 

S.  Length  of  cubit:  left,  over  the  elbow  to  tip  of  medius. 

9.  Length  of  finger:  left,  third,  over  the  joint. 

10.  Length  of  hand:   left,  line  of  thenar  and  hypothenar  eminences  to  end  of 

medius. 

11.  Breadth  of  hand:  left,  across  the  knuckles. 

12.  Breadth  of  foot:  left,  maximum  at  right  angles  to  the  length. 
IS.  Head  length:  glabello-occipital. 

14.  Head  breadth :  maximum. 

15.  Head  height:  auricular. 

16.  Minimum  frontal:  between  temporal  crests. 

17.  Menton-crinion:  chin  to  hair  line. 

18.  Bizygomatic:  maximum  width  of  upper  face. 
10.  Bigonial:  diameter  between  angles  of  lower  jaw. 

20.  Nose  height:  sub-nasal  point  to  nasion. 

21.  Nose  breadth:  over  the  alae. 

22.  Eye  measurements:  between  the  outer  and  the  inner  angles. 

23.  Cephalic  module:  average  of  length,  breadth,  and  height  of  head. 

24.  A  X  100  4-  b:  measure  of  prognathism. 

25.  Facial  index:  menton-nasion  -^  bizygomatic  breadth. 

26.  Measurements:  in  millimeters. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  subject  the  measurements  to  a 
refined  mathematical  treatment,  because  the  different  series  con- 
tain too  few  individuals  to  make  the  results  of  much  value. 


SOMATIC  CHARACTERS  167 

Thirty-four  measurements  were  taken,  twelve  indices  were  cal- 
culated, and  the  average,  minimum,  maximum,  and  range  de- 
termined of  the  following  groups. 

TABLES  OF  MEASUREMENTS  AND  INDICES 

Arawakan  Stock 

Table  1.  Piro,  28  males  and  S  females. 
"     2.  Macheyenga,  19  males. 

Panoan  Stock 

Table  8.  Sipibo,  14  males. 

**     4.  Conebo,  8  males; 

"     "  Setibo,  3  males; 

*'     "  Amahuaca,  2  males. 

TupiAN  Stock 
Table  5.  Tiatinagua,  4  males 

Witotan  Stock 

Table  5.  Witoto,  5  males  and  4  females. 

6.  Comparison  of  Average  Measurements. 


« 


TABLE  1.     ARAWAKAN  STOCK.    MEASUREMENT! 


Bt^t 

B«i|ht  to  ■bouldn' 

Baaht  tA  DiUdle  fincer . . 

Bdaht  ^ttint 

H^ht  *.  perct.  tot.  ht,  . . 
SpM.... 


BliyconiKtir!  'bmultli 

Fuasllndei         

Mid.  frontal  biwdth. 
Bisonkl  bnwtth .  .  .  . 


SO.fiS    ' 

S3.ee  ! 

90.61     ! 


77.73 

M.e? 

94.23 


NmbI  index 

Eubdcht 

Eu  breadth 

Mouth  width 

Eyea  max.  width. . 
Byca  miD.  width . . 


f  PmO  INDIANS,  (23  MALES  AND  8  FEMALES) 


IS 

14 

18 

16 

IT 

16 

19 

SO 

SI 

SS 

SS 

Aver. 

Min. 

Max. 

Range 

21 

25 

24 

32 

40 

33 

43 

26 

23 

30 

35 

•  •    •  • 

•  •   •  • 

•  •   •  • 

•  •  •  • 

lilO 

1550 

1630 

1630 

1600 

1660 

1540 

1580 

1620 

1650 

1660 

1613 

1530 

1680 

150 

laoo 

1280 

1350 

1370 

1310 

1390 

1260 

1310 

1360 

1410 

1390 

1344 

1260 

1410 

160 

MO 

500 

610 

640 

580 

630 

550 

600 

620 

670 

660 

620 

660 

680 

130 

890 

850 

850 

860 

880 

875 

845 

890 

850 

880 

870 

866 

830 

930 

100 

fS.» 

54.34     52.14 

52.76 

55 

52.71 

54.87 

56.33 

52.47 

53.33 

62.41 

63.77 

61.23 

66.71 

5.48 

leso 

1615 

1680 

1705 

1635 

1745 

1590 

1650 

1700 

1695 

1730 

1673 

1680 

1750 

170 

40 

65 

50 

75 

35 

85 

50 

70 

80 

45 

70 

61 

30 

100 

70 

372 

390 

375 

385 

370 

380 

375 

372 

380 

400 

390 

379 

360 

400 

40 

286 

280 

285 

290 

275 

280 

290 

290 

275 

295 

285 

283 

270 

300 

30 

MO 

235 

245 

230 

220 

250 

240 

245 

230 

240 

240 

237 

205 

250 

45 

S4.22 

83.41 

85.95 

79.30 

80.02 

89.27 

82.75 

85.17 

83.65 

81.37 

84.22 

83.87 

76.82 

92.59 

16.77 

488 

430 

445 

450 

460 

440 

455 

430 

455 

450 

462 

460 

426 

465 

40 

180        172 

180 

173 

184 

182 

172 

176 

179 

173 

178 

177 

167 

188 

21 

84  !        R5  ,       84 

82 

85 

83 

88 

87 

84 

86 

86 

84 

78 

90 

12 

48.66  i  49.42  j  46.66 

47.40 

46.19 

45.60 

51.16 

49.43 

46.92 

49.71 

47.76 

47.64 

44.16 

53.57 

9.42 

110        106 

107 

108 

116 

107 

110 

105 

109 

110 

111 

109 

101 

117 

16 

345        240 

250 

255 

260 

245 

253 

245 

250 

250 

240 

248 

240 

260 

20 

100        101 

106 

105 

105 

106 

110 

105 

104 

107 

97 

104 

92 

110 

18 

81.02     42.06 

42.40 

41.17 

40.38 

43.27 

43.47 

42.86 

41.60 

42.80 

40.40 

42.77 

38.33 

61.02 

12.69 

35  :       32 

35 

33 

35 

37 

29 

36 

35 

33 

30 

33 

27 

37 

10 

30          31 

35 

34 

33 

32 

30 

36 

38 

31 

36 

33 

26 

40 

15 

203        191 

192 

182 

194 

204 

193 

201 

188 

181 

208 

194 

180 

209 

29 

153        153 

149 

144 

145 

159 

150 

155 

147 

142 

158 

160 

141 

159 

18 

129  ;     134 

133 

133 

139 

138 

141 

138 

130 

134 

140 

134 

123 

142 

19 

93  :       91 

96 

93 

99 

97 

91 

93 

94 

93 

98 

96 

90 

100 

10 

103  ;     100 

102 

102 

103 

102 

100 

101 

101 

105 

102 

102 

99 

105 

6 

75.25  179.58 

78.60 

79.12 

74.74 

77.92 

77.72 

77.11 

78.19 

77.34 

76.90 

77.43 

72.68 

80.95 

8.27 

84^1  i  88.16 

89.62 

92.36 

95.86 

86.79 

93.99 

89.03 

88.43 

94.36 

88.60 

89.71 

83.66 

95.86 

12.20 

9020 

1       91  196.08 

91.18 

96.11 

96.10 

91 

92.08 

93.07 

88.67 

96.08 

93.26 

88.57 

98.11 

9.54 

162 

159 

158 

153 

159 

167 

161 

164 

155 

152 

168 

169 

162 

168 

16 

100.6     102.5 

06.93 

93.86 

99.37 

100.60 

104.54 

103.79 

95.67 

92.12 

101.20 

99.17 

92.12 

105.23 

13.11 

113        121 

120 

113 

124 

120 

121 

117 

117 

112 

112 

118 

111 

129 

18 

68 

73 

75 

72 

74 

72 

77 

74 

74 

71 

69 

72 

66 

77 

12 

200 

205 

189 

185 

188 

189 

205 

203 

186 

190 

191 

194 

186 

206 

21 

145 

146 

146 

144 

140 

151 

146 

145 

145 

142 

140 

146 

136 

153 

17 

77.93 

82.87 

82.19 

78.47 

88.57 

79.47 

82.88 

80.69 

80.6 

78.87 

79.43 

81.46 

77.08 

89.58 

12.50 

123 

119 

123 

119 

117 

124 

120 

123 

121 

120 

117 

121 

116 

127 

11 

120 

132 

126 

121 

125 

128 

137 

128 

123 

120 

126 

126 

120 

137 

17 

46 

48 

47 

47 

49 

48 

51 

50 

48 

46 

49 

48 

44 

51 

7 

41 

41 

40 

43 

39 

43 

44 

42 

41 

42 

40 

41 

38 

44 

6 

89.13 

85.42 

85.10 

91.48 

79.59 

89.58 

86.27 

84.00 

85.42 

91.3 

81.63 

86.69 

79.17 

97.73 

8.56 

68 

67 

72 

66 

64 

66 

69 

•   ■    •   • 

•  •    •  » 

■   •    •   ■ 

•   ■    ■   ■ 

66 

63 

72 

9 

34 

31 

34 

33 

34 

32 

35 

•   •    •   ■ 

•  «    •   • 

•   •    •   • 

•  •    •   • 

33 

27 

35 

8 

56 

55 

56 

55 

51 

58 

55 

56 

55 

68 

66 

65 

61 

60 

9 

99 

91 

98 

97 

93 

99 

91 

97 

96 

98 

99 

96 

89 

102 

13 

35 

32 

40 

34 

34 

35 

32 

34 

37 

36 

40 

36 

32 

41 

9 

Fkmaixs 

1 

8 

S 

4 

f 

• 

T 

8 

Aver. 

Min. 

Max. 

Range 

25 

1560 

1580 

182 

140 

20 

60 

1580 

1620 

186 

139 

40 

30 

1470 

1460 

178 

141 

10 

33 

1580 

1580 

185 

143 

0 

28 

1490 

1490 

189 

151 

0 

25 

1450 

1460 

184 

148 

10 

50 

1520 

1550 

185 

144 

30 

40 

1430 

1440 

188 

147 

10 

36 

1510 

1522 

183 

143 

12 

•  •   •  • 

1470 

1440 

178 

139 

0 

•  •   •  ■ 

1580 

1620 

189 

148 

40 

rt 

•  •  •  • 

110 

180 

length. 
l»csdth 
eseewoj 

11 

9 

rbeicht 

40 

lieiDdes 

r...... 

76.92 

74.73 

79.21 

77.33 

79.89 

80.43 

77.87 

78.19 

78.07 

74.73 

80.43 

5.70 

m  •    9   *    •••"    »-»» 

169 


TABLE  2. 

ARAWAKAN  STOCK.    MEASUHEMENT8   1 

tlALM 

1 

t 

s 

4 

■ 

• 

T           •       f 

2S 
1870 
1300 

850 

ITOO 

3D 

313 
X30 

1830 

830 

ISBO 
20 

281 

1030 

850 
52.5 
1800 

70 

290 

420 

84 

252 
06 
3S.1 

ISO 

98 

15,5 

09 

153 
73.2 

52 
75 

BO 

40 

1580 
1300 

850 
54.6 

00 

285 

420 

83 

250 

38 
1B3 

08 

76 
03.1 

15.8 

105 
TO 

144 

72.9 

117 
78 

52 

04 
35 

ISOO 

680 

800 

1640 

310 

77-4 
430 

m 

353 

39.1 

30 
ITS 

138 

23 
1610 

640 

18S0 

270 
75.0 

87 

106 
252 

38.5 

40 
185 

133 

50         l£l    «' 
1570      1«5D  1  lO* 
1300  1  1370  '  lao 
e2o'   «3a'  «3i> 

850|     860     M   ■ 
54.1  1    53  1     Sl» 
1640      1800  '  IBW 

70  '     40     ga 

400  1     4U     1» 
300  1     3M      Hi 
23S|     230'  » 

si.o  1  7S.8    nt 

;s  s  :: 

Hei.ht.-ix'Kt.lot.ht 

88 

?« 
351 

80.8 

32 

180 
145 

1!? 

B3.1 

91.8 
120 

70 
1S7 

85,7 
50 

OS 

63 
104 

85 

263 

39.1 

187 

17.7 

72 
180 

8S.8 

S2 
SS.S 

H 
100 

106 

38.8 

36 

.     3» 

142 
135 

107 

OS 

95.3 

107 
180 

IIS 

42 

98 

84  <    IS 

fiol    A 

101    :     101 

360      M 
181  1     « 

38.4       » 

182      IM 

141       lt» 

81.7  j    78.9 

79.1     T9-* 
91.7     »»-' 

98 

Ufl 

120 
49 
34 

es.4 

35 

96.3 
119 

eo 

141 
45 

46 

02.1      »^ 

I3D 

SO 

80 
61 

102 

41 

43 

87 

Emi  bnadth 

OP  MACHEYENGA  INDIANS  (19  MALES) 


M 

u 

U 

» 

I. 

u 

li 

.. 

IS 

1. 

A-nr. 

MlD. 

Mu. 

Ruo 

« 

3t 

35 

30 

3o" 

4S 

M 

35 

22 

23 

... 

in 

IMO 

IS60 

iw 

lUD 

1370 

1350 

1310 

1360 

1380 

1310 

1340 

1350 

1360 

1390 

1390 

100 

tu 

620 

90 

m 

800 

832 

a. 

» 

SI.Z 

51.3 

51.3 

so.n 

SI. 3 

53,8 

51.3 

,»,fl 

51  1 

50 

M!, 

4.5 

UK 

ItM 

70 

70 

w 

380 

410 

400 

430 

450 

380 

370 

420 

360 

450 

90 

« 

m 

300 

390 

46 

lae 

230 

346 

216 

226 

346 

234 

45 

S8-9 

78.7 

71.2 

84.4 

76.3 

BO.S 

79.6 

80,3 

81.6 

80.3 

15.8 

m 

wo 

00 

in 

177 

176 

180 

170 

171 

175 

-*• 

87 

83 

88 

84 

83 

80 

85 

80 

90 

10 

«j 

7.6 

IQB 

110 

107 

108 

108 

106 

102 

105 

asa 

M3 

357 

363 

259 

356 

351 

263 

13 

as 

90 

T 

as 

3B.1 

38.5 

38.5 

39 

39,1 

38.4 

39,4 

as 

37 

31 

29 

36 

34 

37 

30 

3S 

28 

38 

10 

'M 

36 

36 

«7» 

ISO 

186 

188 

191 

180 

179 

187 

1-M 

145 

145 

142 

148 

6 

»« 

136 

136 

M 

103 

103 

98 

101 

107 

103 

109 

99 

106 

lOS 

loe 

loe 

102 

109 

107 

101 

113 

11 

«l* 

7S.E 

7.10 

WJ 

02.S 

91.8 

91  .e 

91.B 

93.1 

93.1 

89,9 

S2,5 

*0.1 

96,3 

97.1 

96,3 

00.7 

90.1 

S.4 

IM 

15.7 

.8 

•LB 

M.4 

W.S 

OB.l 

97.5 

83,0 

81, n 

98,1 

9.8 

UD 

107 

112 

08 

33 

71 

68 

68 

IW 

179 

176 

163 

17S 

178 

37 

145 

153 

13 

Ol 

80-9 

77.3 

78,1 

77.2 

'" 

133 

133 

110 

118 

123 

122 

7 

116 

7 

SI 

50 

49 

SO 

3 

3S 

43 

40 

39 

39 

37 

40 

34 

45 

11 

TS 

76 

80.1 

90.0 

3i.e 

M 

53 

66 

B4 

61 

60 

68 

6B 

67 

68 

66 

68 

60 

10 

U 

51 

60 

51 

57 

61 

53 

63 

61 

S3 

'b7 

SI 

64 

13 

9fi 

103 

104 

98 

96 

99 

103 

96 

90 

« 

43 

40 

37 

36 

43 

35 

36 

41 

35 

4fl 

11 

TABLE  3.    PANOAN  STOCK.     MEASUREMENTS 


Males 


Ace  25  to  50 

Heicht 

Height  to  shoulder .... 
Height  to  middle  finger 

Height  sitting 

Height  8.  peret.  tot.  ht. 

Span 

Span  excess  of  height .  . 

Shoulder  bresdth 

Chest  diam.  lateral .  . . . 
Chest  diam.  ant.-post.  . 

Chest  index 

Cubit  length 

Hand  length 

Hand  width 

Hand  index 

Length  middle  finger .  . 

Foot  length 

Foot  width 

Foot  index 

Hand  grasp,  r 

Hand  grasp,  1 

Head  length 

Head  breadth 

Head  height 

Auricular-nasion  (a) .  . . 
Aurieular-prosthyon  (b) 

Cephalic  index 

Height-breadth  index .  . 

(a)  X  100  +  6 

Cephalic  module 

C.  M.  versus  height .  .  . 

Menton-nasion 

Mouth-nasion 

Menton-crinion 

Bisygomatic  breadth .  . 

Facial  index 

Min.  frontal  breadth  .  . 

Bigonial  breadth 

Nose  height 

Nose  breadth 

Nasal  index 

Ear  height 

Ear  breadth 

Mouth  width 

Eyes  max.  width 

Eyes  min.  width 


1 

S 

S 

4 

i 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

1590 

1590 

1580 

1585 

1500 

1260 

1270 

1320 

1290 

1220 

615 

590 

615 

570 

565 

782 

760 

833 

810 

801 

49.8 

48 

52.6 

51.1 

53.4 

1715 

1670 

1690 

1675 

1605 

125 

80 

110 

90 

105 

375 

390 

405 

365 

350 

305 

320 

300 

270 

275 

225 

250 

235 

225 

220 

73.7 

78.1 

74.3 

83.3 

80 

455 

450 

450 

455 

430 

172 

170 

168 

180 

173 

82 

81 

80 

80 

88 

47.6 

47.9 

47.6 

44.7 

50.8 

110 

109 

108 

115 

113 

235 

245 

250 

253 

250 

102 

103 

105 

101 

111 

43.4 

42 

42 

39.9 

44.4 

37 

35 

43 

32 

35 

40 

30 

37 

32 

32 

179 

190 

174 

176 

182 

163 

157 

149 

159 

145 

131 

136 

132 

139 

142 

97 

101 

91 

91 

92 

104 

108 

99 

95 

99 

91.06 

82.63 

84.48 

90.34 

79.67 

80.37 

86.08 

88.59 

87.43 

97.90 

93.27 

93.52 

91.92 

95.55 

92.93 

15.77 

16.10 

15.16 

15.80 

15.63 

99 

101.3 

95.8 

97.7 

104 

125 

117 

125 

125 

117 

72 

73 

74 

73 

69 

193 

190 

193 

191 

186 

151 

155 

146 

141 

142 

82.78 

75.48 

85.62 

88.65 

82.39 

127 

127 

124 

125 

119 

134 

134 

118 

118 

127 

46 

46 

48 

51 

47 

39 

46 

38 

38 

40 

84.78 

100 

79.17 

74.51 

85.11 

65 

69 

68 

67 

59 

34 

32 

30 

36 

29 

53 

67 

54 

49 

50 

109 

112 

98 

102 

100 

41 

41 

37 

37 

37 

1570 

1280 

580 

815 

51.9 

1660 

90 

370 

270 

230 

85.2 

445 

179 

82 

45.8 

110 

254 

106 

41.7 

40 

36 

173 

147 

130 

91 

95 

84.22 

88.44 

95.55 

15 

98.7 

126 

72 

192 

143 

88.11 

126 

119 

50 

39 

78 

68 

35 

49 

103 

38 


1500 

1260 
600 
775 

48.7 

1090 
100 
385 
315 
245 

77.7 

453 

171 

81 

47.4 
110 
250 
102 

40.8 
35 


189 

156 

137 

101 

100 

82.54 

87.82 

02.66 

16.06 

101 

118 

75 

191 

144 

81.04 

125 

133 

49 

46 

93.87 

69 

35 

60 

110 

40 


172 


OF  SIPIBO  INDIANS  (14  MALES) 


f 

9 

10 

U 

12 

11 

14 

Aver. 

Mio. 

Max. 

Range 

•  •  •  « 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  ■  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  ■  •  ■ 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  ■  • 

um 

15S0 

1570 

1580 

1580 

1640 

1690 

1668 

1600 

1690 

90 

un 

laoo 

1330 

1300 

1250 

1260 

1270 

1273 

1220 

1330 

110 

m 

506 

620 

580 

598 

605 

610 

594 

665 

620 

65 

ns 

770 

825 

800 

796 

820 

776 

797 

760 

833 

73 

at 

49.6 

52.5 

50.6 

60.3 

63.2 

48.7 

50.97 

48 

63.4 

6.4 

Mtt 

1645 

1680 

1675 

1690 

1630 

1670 

1666 

1606 

1716 

110 

MB 

95 

110 

95 

110 

90 

80 

99 

80 

126 

45 

IK 

385 

400 

371 

390 

366 

380 

381 

360 

406 

55 

ao 

295 

315 

303 

316 

276 

312 

292 

270 

320 

50 

MO 

235 

240 

232 

260 

230 

246 

236 

220 

260 

30 

n 

79.6 

76.2 

76.2 

79.3 

84 

77.7 

78.68 

73.7 

86.2 

11.5 

m 

440 

452 

450 

455 

436 

462 

447 

430 

466 

25 

174 

172 

169 

178 

171 

172 

171 

173 

168 

180 

12 

M 

82 

81 

80 

82 

88 

82 

82.6 

80 

88 

8 

11.4 

47.7 

47.9 

44.9 

47.9 

60.8 

47.9 

47.73 

44.7 

50.8 

6.1 

m 

109 

108 

116 

109 

113 

108 

111 

108 

116 

8 

MS 

238 

238 

247 

246 

246 

240 

246 

235 

264 

19 

«U 

108 

104 

102 

103 

no 

101 

104 

101 

111 

10 

4L1 

43^ 

43.6 

41.3 

42 

44.9 

42.1 

42.32 

39.9 

44.9 

5.0 

» 

40 

33 

36 

36 

38 

32 

36.4 

32 

43 

11 

» 

31 

39 

30 

32 

30 

33 

34.2 

30 

40 

10 

US 

182 

178 

179 

190 

186 

186 

182 

173 

190 

17 

MS 

163 

161 

160 

169 

160 

160 

166 

146 

163 

18 

131 

132 

142 

138 

136 

130 

133 

136 

130 

142 

12 

W 

96 

94 

92 

101 

96 

99 

96 

91 

101 

10 

Itt 

103 

101 

97 

107 

99 

106 

101 

96 

109 

14 

M 

89.56 

90.45 

89.40 

83.68 

80.66 

81.08 

86.69 

79.67 

91.06 

11.39 

MJI 

80.98 

88.25 

86.25 

84.91 

86.67 

83.13 

86.82 

80.37 

97.90 

17.53 

•M 

93.20 

93.07 

94.84 

94.38 

96.96 

93.39 

93.81 

91.92 

96.96 

4.04 

UJO 

15.90 

16.03 

15.90 

16.13 

16.60 

16.93 

15.76 

16.00 

16.13 

1.13 

uu 

102.5 

102.1 

100.6 

101.9 

100.6 

100 

100.6 

97.7 

104 

6.3 

ISO 

121 

125 

124 

119 

123 

117 

121.6 

117 

126 

9 

n 

70 

74 

72 

74 

72 

70 

72 

69 

76 

6 

uo 

191 

192 

190 

191 

193 

186 

190 

186 

193 

7 

us 

148 

146 

142 

162 

164 

143 

146.6 

141 

166 

14 

8U« 

81.76 

85.62 

85.21 

78.29 

79.87 

81.82 

82.88 

76.48 

88.66 

13.17 

m 

124 

124 

126 

127 

119 

127 

124 

119 

127 

8 

uo 

131 

118 

119 

133 

128 

134 

128 

118 

134 

16 

so 

48 

46 

49 

46 

48 

47 

48 

46 

51 

5 

as 

41 

39 

43 

41 

41 

38 

40.6 

38 

46 

8 

79 

85.42 

84.78 

87.76 

89.13 

86.42 

80.86 

84.63 

74.61 

100 

25.49 

St 

66 

68 

67 

69 

69 

67 

66 

69 

69 

10 

» 

34 

31 

35 

33 

30 

33 

33 

29 

36 

7 

49 

52 

55 

49 

66 

61 

60 

66 

49 

67 

18 

96 

105 

99 

103 

111 

101 

110 

104 

98 

112 

14 

41 

39 

38 

37 

41 

38 

41 

39 

37 

41 

4 

178 


TABLE  4.    PANOAN  STOCK.     MEASUREMENTS  OF  3  CONEBO, 


Maim 


A«» 

Height 

H«i|ht  to  thoukler 

Height  to  middle  finger . 

Height  aitting 

Height  ■.  perot.  tot.  ht. 

8|Mai 

fiJ^MOi  esoeee  of  height . . 

ahoukler  breadth 

Cheet  dUm.  Uteral 

Cheat  dUm.  ant.-poet.  . 

Cheet  index 

Cubit  length 

Hand  length 

Hand  width 

Hand  index 

Length  mid.  finger 

Vnut  length 

Foot  width 

Vopt  index 

Hand  graep.  r 

H«nd  grMp.  1 

HeiKl  length 

HfAd  breadth 

Head  height 

Auriouiar-naeion  (a) .  . . . 
AuriauUr-prfiiithyon  (6) . 

Pephaiip  index 

Height-breadth  index . . . 

(a)  X  lUU  -^  6 

(^pkiulic  intHlulo 

(!.  Vt    viiriiuit  hniiiht .  .  .  . 

MeuUiU-imniou 

Muuth-uuiiiuu 

MeuUiU-uiiuiuu 

iitiyguiituliu  brtuulth    .  . 
Faml  iii(i(i«  . 

Miu   (ruitltti  biMuUh    .  . 

Biguuial  biuttiilh 

hfoin:  Leighi 

liiunti  brtottlih 

^ftt*ttl  ilt(l4:» 

iutr  Uetght        

Eitr  brcttUtti 
Mouth  witiiii 
Eyi:M  iiiu«.  w'uiiU 
Cyeto  liiiii    Huith 


CONXBO 


1 

S 

S 

Average 

Range 

38 

30 

23 

•  •  ■  • 

•  •  •  • 

1610 

1620 

1590 

1610 

30 

1350 

1370 

1330 

1350 

40 

620 

630 

600 

612 

ao 

841 

854 

820 

838 

34 

52.20 

52.71 

51.57 

52.16 

1.14 

1670 

1670 

1660 

1666 

10 

60 

50 

70 

60 

20 

370 

390 

365 

375 

25 

275 

285 

264 

274 

21 

240 

260 

220 

240 

40 

87.27 

91.22 

83.33 

87.27 

7.89 

450 

470 

440 

451 

30 

173 

176 

170 

173 

6 

81 

82 

81 

81 

1 

46.82 

46.59 

47.65 

47.02 

1.06 

109 

108 

110 

109 

2 

240 

230 

260 

241 

30 

103 

106 

101 

103 

5 

42.92 

46.08 

38.84 

42.61 

7.89 

40 

46 

37 

40 

9 

37 

41 

33 

37 

8 

177 

180 

175 

177 

5 

162 

164 

160 

162 

4 

141 

142 

141 

142 

1 

95 

95 

94 

95 

1 

103 

104 

101 

103 

3 

91.53 

91.11 

91.43 

91.36 

.42 

87.04 

86.59 

88.13 

87.25 

1.54 

92.23 

1 

91.35 

93.07 

92.22 

1.72 

16    ' 

16.2 

15.9 

16 

.3 

99.38    > 

100 

100    I 

99.13 

.62 

124 

124 

123 

124 

1 

75    ' 

77 

72    1 

74 

5 

192 

193 

198    1 

194 

6 

142 

141 

142    , 

141 

1 

87.32 

87.94 

86.62 

87.26 

1.32 

117    1 

115 

118 

116 

3 

126    1 

128 

125 

126 

3 

52 

54 

52 

53 

2 

44    1 

45 

44 

44 

1 

84.62    I 

i 

«  •  •  • 

83.33 

•  •  •  • 

84.62 

84.19 

1.29 

•  ■  •  • 

1 
•  •  •  ■ 

53    1 

•  •  ■  « 

56 

52 

54 

•  •  •  • 

4 

103 

100 

105 

103 

5 

35 

1 

34 

35 

35 

1 

174 


3  SETIBO,  AND  2  AMAHUACA  INDIANS  (MALES) 


SSTIBO 

Aaiahuaca 

1 

1 

8 

Average 

Range 

1 

8 

Ayerace 

Range 

40 

28 

30 

•  •  •  • 

•  ■  •  • 

35 

30 

•  «  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

un 

1600 

1560 

1580 

40 

1580 

1620 

1600 

40 

ISO 

1330 

1270 

1290 

60 

1300 

1360 

1330 

60 

MO 

610 

540 

570 

70 

640 

640 

640 

•  •  •  • 

ns 

830 

795 

813 

35 

775 

800 

787.5 

25 

AA 

61.87 

50.90 

51.45 

.97 

49.05 

49.38 

49.21 

.33 

1610 

1600 

1675 

1670 

40 

1670 

1650 

1660 

20 

70 

00 

115 

92 

45 

90 

30 

60 

60 

IW 

350 

365 

370 

40 

380 

410 

395 

30 

170 

275 

270 

272 

5 

285 

310 

297 

25 

m 

220 

233 

226 

13 

240 

240 

240 

•  •  •  • 

8U1 

80 

86.29 

83.20 

6.29 

84.21 

77.42 

80.81 

6.79 

IBS 

470 

435 

453 

35 

450 

455 

453 

5 

1» 

178 

179 

179 

2 

177 

183 

180 

6 

80 

80 

82 

81 

2 

80 

86 

83 

6 

4iM 

44.94 

45.81 

45.06 

1.37 

45.19 

46.99 

46.09 

1.80 

m 

114 

116 

115 

2 

107 

111 

109 

4 

m 

253 

245 

253 

15 

240 

240 

240 

•  •  •  • 

101 

101 

101 

101 

•  •  •  • 

97 

103 

100 

6 

MM 

39.91 

41.22 

39.99 

2.38 

40.41 

42.92 

41.66 

2.51 

40 

28 

32 

33 

12 

35 

33 

34 

2 

90 

34 

32 

32 

4 

30 

38 

34 

8 

UO 

178 

174 

177 

6 

192 

191 

192 

1 

164 

161 

156 

160 

8 

167 

155 

156 

2 

141 

139 

130 

137 

11 

136 

141 

138 

5 

% 

91 

92 

93 

4 

95 

99 

97 

4 

108 

95 

95 

97 

7 

101 

103 

102 

2 

tLll 

90.45 

89.66 

90.41 

1.45 

81.77 

81.15 

81.46 

.62 

11.96 

86.43 

83.87 

85.43 

2.56 

86.62 

90.97 

88.79 

4.35 

tt.14 

96.55 

96.84 

95.17 

3.70 

94.06 

96.12 

95.09 

2.06 

16 

15.9 

15.4 

15.8 

.6 

16.2 

16.2 

16.2 

•  •  •  • 

10LS7 

99.38 

98.12 

99.59 

3.15 

102.53 

100 

101.26 

2.53 

125 

126 

124 

125 

2 

122 

120 

121 

2 

73 

72 

72 

72 

1 

73 

76 

74 

2 

182 

192 

191 

192 

1 

185 

198 

191 

13 

141 

143 

140 

141 

3 

154 

147 

150 

'   7 

IM.65 

88.11 

88.57 

88.44 

.54 

79.22 

81.63 

80.42 

2.41  • 

126 

125 

127 

126 

2 

125 

130 

127 

5 

117 

120 

118 

118 

3 

123 

131 

127 

8 

47 

51 

53 

50 

6 

50 

62 

51 

2 

38 

38 

39 

38 

3 

43 

46 

44 

2 

78.60 

74.51 

73.58 

74.89 

3.02 

86 

86.54 

86.27 

.54 

87 

68 

65 

67 

3 

63 

67 

60 

6 

36 

30 

34 

33 

6 

30 

35 

33 

5 

48 

53 

44 

38 

9 

55 

59 

57 

4 

100 

102 

104 

102 

4 

100 

95 

97 

5 

37 

37 

38 

37 

1 

33 

35 

34 

2 

175 


TABLE  5.    TUPIAN  STOCK.    MEASUREMENTS  OF  TIATINAGUA 

INDIANS  (4  MALES) 


Males 


Ace 

Height 

Height  to  shoulder . . . . 
Height  to  mid.  finger . . 

Height  sitting 

Height  s.  perct.  tot.  ht. . 

Span 

Span  excess  of  height . . 

Shoulder  breadth 

Chest  diam.  lateral . . . . 
Chest  diam.ant.-post.  . 

Chest  index 

Cubit  length 

Hand  length 

Hand  width 

Hand  index 

Length  mid.  finger .... 

Toot  length 

Foot  width 

Toot  index 

Hand  grasp,  r 

Hand  grasp.  1 

Head  length 

Head  breadth 

Head  hdght 

Aurioular-nasion  (a) . . . 
Aurioular-prosthyon  (b) 

Cephalic  index 

Height-breadth  index . . 

(o)  XlOO  +6 

Cephalic  module 

C.  M.  versus  height . . . 

Menton-nasion 

Mouth-nasion 

Menton-crinion 

Bixygom&tio  breadth  . . 

Eadal  index 

Min.  frontal  breadth  . . 

Bigonial  breadth 

Nose  height 

Nose  breadth 

Nasal  index 

Ear  height 

Ear  breadth 

Mouth  width 

Eyes"max.  width 

Eyes  min.  width 


30 

1590 

1320 

630 

80 

50.31 

1620 

30 

360 

280 

220 

78.67 

450 

177 

78 

44.7 

109 

245 

108 

44.1 

37 

37 

197 

145 

141 

97 

100 

73.60 

97.24 

97 

16.1 

101.3 

121 

67 

186 

147 

82.31 

117 

118 

44 

39 

88.64 

60 

33 

58 

98 

37 


25 

1600 

1350 

610 

79.5 

49.06 

1630 

30 

355 

260 

225 

86  JM 

450 

171 

77 

44.0 

108 

240 

99 

41.3 

30 

35 

196 

147 

136 

96 

99 

75 

92.52 

96.97 

16.0 

100 

114 

67 

187 

147 

77.55 

114 

118 

45 

42 

93.33 

67 

37 

63 

102 

37 


23 

1570 

1290 

630 

79 

50.32 

1590 

20 

350 

265 

230 

86.82 

430 

166 

77 

46.4 

102 

235 

99 

42.1 

28 

25 

184 

143 

139 

93 

101 

77.72 

97.20 

92.08 

16.5 

98.7 

115 

68 

171 

142 

80.99 

111 

119 

45 

39 

86.67 

65 

36 

51 

96 

34 


22 

1580 

1330 

620 

79.6 

50.31 

1650 

70 

370 

266 

246 

92.45 

460 

174 

75 

43.1 

110 

245 

105 

42.8 

32 

32 

185 

146 

134 

92 

98 

78.92 

91.10 

93.08 

15.2 

96.2 

116 

65 

180 

139 

82.73 

114 

123 

42 

42 

100 

69 

34 

62 

96 

36 


Aver. 


1585 

1323 

622 

79.6 

50 

1622 

38 

359 

268 

230 

86.09 

450 

172 

77 

43.8 

107 

241 

103 

42.6 

32 

32 

191 

145 

137 

96 

99 

76.31 

94.49 

94.98 

16.7 

99.1 

118 

67 

181 

144 

80.90 

114 

119 

44 

40 

92.16 

60 

36 

56 

98 

36 


Min. 


1670 

1290 

610 

79 

49.06 

1590 

20 

350 

260 

220 

86.54 

430 

166 

75 

43.1 

102 

235 

99 

41.3 

28 

25 

184 

143 

134 

92 

98 

73.60 

91.10 

92.08 

16.2 

96.2 

114 

65 

171 

139 

77.55 

111 

118 

42 

39 

86.67 

69 

33 

61 

96 

34 


Max. 


1600 

1350 

630 

80 

50.32 

1650 

70 
370 
280 
245 
92.45 
460 
177 

78 

46.4 

110 

245 

108 

44.1 

37 

37 
197 
147 
141 

97 

101 

78.92 

97.24 

97 

16.1 

101.3 

121 

68 
187 
147 
82.73 
117 
123 

45 

42 
100 

65 

37 

63 
102 

37 


Range 


30 

60 

20 

1 

1.26 

60 

50 

20 

20 

26 

5.91 

30 

11 

3 

3.3 

8 

10 

9 

2.8 

9 

12 

13 

4 

7 

5 

3 

6.32 

6.14 

4.92 

.9 

5.1 

7 

3 

16 

8 

5.18 

6 

5 

3 

3 

13..33 

6 

4 

12 

6 

3 


176 


WrrOTAN  STOCK.    MEASUREMENTS  OF  WITOTO 
INDIANS  (5  MALES,  4  FEMALES) 


XaMi 

1 

S 

4 

i 

Aver. 

Min. 

Max. 

Rang* 

30 

20 

30 

28 

35 

•  •   •  • 

•  •   •  • 

•  •   •  • 

•  •  •  • 

MOO 

1550 

1650 

1620 

1600 

1620 

1550 

1690 

140 

U» 

1300 

1370 

1340 

1330 

1340 

1300 

1380 

80 

610 

550 

580 

610 

570 

594 

550 

660 

110 

870 

760 

860 

820 

810 

824 

760 

870 

110 

SIM 

49.03 

52.12 

50.62 

50.63 

50.78 

49.03 

62.12 

3.09 

1800 

1660 

1780 

1730 

1720 

1738 

1660 

1800 

140 

110 

110 

130 

110 

120 

116 

110 

130 

20 

400 

335 

410 

375 

380 

380 

336 

400 

65 

SIO 

275 

285 

290 

300 

292 

275 

310 

35 

ao 

225 

215 

230 

225 

223 

215 

230 

15 

rosi 

81.81 

75.44 

79.31 

76 

76.51 

70.97 

81.81 

10.84 

400 

455 

480 

470 

455 

464 

455 

480 

25 

185 

180 

180 

183 

180 

181 

180 

185 

5 

o 

77 

85 

80 

81 

81 

77 

85 

8 

4iM 

42.78 

47.22 

43.71 

45 

44.71 

42.78 

45.00 

2.22 

100 

106 

106 

107 

107 

107 

106 

109 

3 

255 

240 

260 

250 

25f. 

252 

240 

260 

20 

100 

109 

99 

105 

104 

103 

99 

105 

6 

3»J0 

45.42 

38.08 

42 

46.22 

42.18 

38.06 

46.22 

8.14 

45 

35 

40 

40 

41 

40 

35 

45 

10 

33 

32 

40 

33 

35 

35 

32 

40 

8 

191 

190 

196 

191 

193 

192 

190 

196 

6 

140 

150 

147 

150 

148 

149 

147 

150 

3 

133 

131 

127 

132 

129 

130 

127 

133 

6 

98 

92 

95 

95 

94 

95 

92 

98 

6 

96 

89 

88 

92 

88 

91 

88 

96 

8 

7&01 

78.95 

75 

78.53 

76.68 

77.43 

76 

78.95 

3.95 

ttJ6 

87.33 

86.39 

88 

87.16 

86.23 

82.26 

88.00 

5.74 

97.96 

96.74 

92.63 

90.84 

93.62 

104.40 

92.63 

104.40 

11.77 

15.8 

15.7 

15.7 

15.8 

15.7 

15.7 

15.7 

15.8 

.1 

98.49 

101.29 

96.15 

97.53 

98.13 

97.12 

93.49 

101.29 

7.80 

116 

113 

105 

115 

109 

112 

105 

116 

11 

70 

69 

65 

70 

67 

68 

66 

70 

5 

183 

185 

180 

184 

183 

183 

180 

185 

5 

149 

144 

144 

147 

144 

146 

144 

149 

5 

77^ 

78.47 

72.92 

78.23 

75.69 

76.13 

72.92 

78.47 

5.55 

123 

122 

111 

123 

116 

119 

111 

123 

12 

128 

130 

129 

129 

129 

129 

128 

130 

2 

46 

43 

45 

45 

44 

46 

43 

46 

3 

44 

39 

40 

41 

39 

41 

39 

44 

5 

95.65 

90.70 

88.89 

91.11 

88.64 

91 

88.04 

95.65 

7.01 

59 

59 

62 

59 

60 

60 

59 

62 

3 

28 

30 

30 

29 

31 

30 

28 

31 

3 

M 

52 

52 

52 

55 

53 

62 

55 

3 

40 

34 

37 

38 

35 

37 

34 

40 

6 

Females 

1 

S 

S 

4 

Avw. 

id^xn  -.-.. 

1430 

1480 

1505 

1455 

1468 

tm^t^^^mm  •••••.•.••••••••••••••••     ••     •••••••••• 

177 


TABLE  6.    COMPARISON  OF  AVERAGE  MEASUREMENTS 


Macheyencfti  A 

Piro.  A 

Sipibo,  P.    ... 
Conebo,  P.  . . . 

Setibo,  P 

Amahuaoa,  P. 
TiatinacuA .... 
Witoto 

Arawakan 

Panoan 

Difference . . . 


No. 


19 
23 
14 
3 
3 
2 
4 
5 

42 
22 


Hei«ht 


1610 
1613 
1586 
1610 
1580 
1600 
1585 
1620 

1612 
1593 


19 


Height 

to 
shoulder 


1350 
1344 
1273 
1350 
1290 
1330 
1322 
1340 

1347 
1311 


36 


Height 

to 
middle 
finger 


632 
620 
594 
612 
570 
640 
622 
594 

626 
604 


22 


Height 
sitUng 


832 
866 
797 
838 

813 
788 
795 
824 

849 
809 


40 


Height 
8.  perct. 
tot.  ht. 


51.10 
53.77 
50.97 
52.16 
51.45 
49.21 
50.00 
50.78 

52.44 
50.97 


1.47 


Arm 
length 


718 
724 
679 
738 
720 
690 
700 
746 

721 
707 


14 


Macheyenga,  A 

Piro.  A 

Sipibo.  P.  ... 
Conebo,  P.  . . . 

Setibo,  P 

Amahuaoa,  P.  . 
Tiatinagua .... 
Witoto 

Arawakan 

Panoan 

Difference . . . 


No. 


19 

23 

14 

3 

3 
2 

4 
5 

42 
22 


Hand 
index 


48.10 
47.64 
47.73 
47.02 
45.06 
46.09 
44.80 
44.71 

47.87 
46.78 


1.09 


Middle 
finger 
length 


105 
109 
111 
109 
115 
109 
107 
107 

107 
111 


-4 


Foot 
length 


254 
248 
245 
241 
253 
240 
241 
252 

251 
245 


6 


Foot 
width 


99 
104 
104 
103 
101 
100 
103 
103 

102 
102 


Foot 
index 


38.70 
42.77 
42.32 
42.61 
39.99 
41.66 
42.60 
42.18 

40.74 
41.65 


-.91 


Hand 
[laap,  r. 


34.5 
33.5 
36.4 
40.4 
33.3 
34.0 
31.7 
40.0 

34.0 
36.0 


-2.0 


Macheyenga,  A 

Piro,  A 

Sipibo,  P.  ... 
Ck>nebo,  P.  . . . 

Setibo,  P 

Amahuaca,  P.  . 
Tiatinagua . . .  . 
Witoto 

Arawakan 

Panoan 

Difference . . . 


No. 


19 
23 
14 
3 
3 
2 
4 
5 

42 
22 


CM. 

verBUB 
height 


96.20 
99.17 

100.50 
99.13 
99.59 

101.26 
99.10 
97.12 

97.69 
100.24 


-2.65 


Menton- 
nasion 


112 
118 
122 
124 
125 
121 
118 
112 

115 
123 


-8 


Mouth- 
naeion 


67 
72 
72 
74 
72 
74 
67 
68 

70 
73 


-3 


Menton- 
crinion 


173 
194 
190 
194 
192 
191 
181 
183 

184 
192 


-8 


Diam. 
bisyg. 


145 
145 
147 
141 
141 
150 
144 
146 

145 
145 


Facial 
index 


77.50 
81.45 
82.88 
87.26 
88.44 
80.42 
80.00 
76.63 

79.48 
84.75 


-5.27 


178 


lUALES)  SHOWN  IN  TABLES  1  TO  5 


r^ 

■pan 

ovnr 

height 

Span 
percent 
^i^t 

Shoulder 
breadth 

Chest 

diameter 

lateral 

Chest 

diameter 

ant.- 

post. 

Chest 
index 

Cubit 
length 

Hand 
length 

Hand 
width 

10B1 

imn 

IfiTO 

tee 

17» 

1687 
1686 

51 
60 
80 
M 
90 
60 
38 
116 

57 

78 

103.2 
108.7 
105.0 
108.4 
105.6 
108.7 
102.3 
107.3 

103.4 
104.5 

406 
379 
381 
375 
370 
395 
359 
380 

392 
385 

293 
283 
292 
274 
272 
297 
268 
292 

288 
284 

234 
237 
235 
240 
226 
240 
230 
223 

236 
235 

80.20 
83.87 
78.58 
87.27 
83.20 
80.81 
86.09 
76.51 

82.04 
82.46 

439 
450 
447 
451 
453 
453 
450 
464 

445 
451 

175 
177 
173 
173 
179 
180 
172 
181 

176 
176 

85 
84 
83 
81 
81 
83 
77 
81 

85 
82 

1 

-21 

-1.1 

7 

4 

1 

-.42 

-6 

3 

Hud 
inap.L 

Head 
Imcth 

Head 
breadth 

Head 
height 

Auric- 
nasion 

(a) 

Auric- 
pros- 
thyon 

ib) 

Cephalic 
index 

Height- 
breadth 
index 

a  X  100 
6 

Ceph- 

auc 
module 

3B.7 
33.1 
)i3 
37.0 
82.0 
34i) 
33i 
35.0 

38.4 

3U 

184 
104 
182 
177 
177 
192 
191 
192 

189 
182 

146 
150 
156 
162 
160 
156 
145 
145 

148 
159 

134 
134 
135 
142 
137 
138 
138 
130 

134 
138 

102 
95 
95 
95 
93 
97 
95 
95 

99 
95 

107 
102 
101 
103 

97 
102 
100 

91 

105 
101 

78.99 
77.43 
85.69 
91.36 
90.41 
81.46 
76.31 
77.43 

78.30 
87.33 

92.50 
89.71 
86.82 
87.25 
85.43 
88.79 
94.49 
86.23 

91.10 
87.07 

96.00 
93.26 
94.07 
92.22 
95.17 
95.09 
95.00 
104.4 

94.63 
94.07 

156 
159 
158 
160 
158 
162 
157 
157 

158 
160 

2.1 

7 

-11 

-4 

4 

4 

-9.03 

4.03 

.56 

-2 

IXun. 
nontal 

Diam. 
bigcm. 

Nose 
height 

Nose 
width 

Nasal 
index 

Ear 

height 

r. 

Ear 

width 

r. 

Mouth 
width 

Eyes 
max. 
width 

Eyes 

min. 

width 

121 

121 
124 
116 
126 
127 
114 
119 

121 
123 

119 
125 
128 
126 
118 
127 
119 
129 

122 
125 

50 
48 
48 
53 
50 
51 
44 
45 

49 
51 

40 
41 
41 
44 
38 
44 
41 
41 

41 
42 

80.10 
86.59 
84.63 
84.19 
74.89 
86.27 
92.16 
91.00 

83.35 
82.50 

65 
66 
66 

67 
60 
60 
60 

66 
64 

•  • 

34 
33 

•  • 

33 
33 
35 
30 

34 
33 

57 
55 
56 
54 
48 
57 
56 
53 

56 
54 

99 

96 

104 

103 

102 

97 

98 

100 

98 
102 

41 
35 
39 
35 
37 
34 
36 
37 

38 
36 

-2 

-3 

-2 

-1 

.85 

2 

1 

2 

-4 

2 

179 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  REMAINS 

The  expedition  was  not  equipped  to  do  archaeological  work,  but 
studies  were  made  of  the  ancient  ruins  in  the  Andes  r^on,  and  of 
some  previously  unreported  remains  in  the  interior  of  Bolivia. 

Mounds  at  Trinidad,  Bolivia.  Just  below  Trinidad  on  the 
Mamore  River,  there  is  a  mound  so  large  that  it  gives  the  name 
La  Loma  to  the  home  and  cattle  ranch  of  Sr.  Suarez.  In  diggqig 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  mound  was  artificially  bu^ 
we  found  a  very  badly  decomposed  human  skeleton  in  situ  atj  i*. 
depth  of  eight  feet.  The  mound  was  originally  about  twentgrwi^: 
feet  high  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  but  it'li#lr 
been  cut  down  on  one  side  to  make  room  for  a  house  and  a  grad6(t 
road  to  it  (plate  23,  a).  We  looked  about  the  coimtry  and  located 
several  other  mounds.  No  excavations  have  been  made  in  this 
territory,  and  we  know  nothing  of  the  ancient  culture  represented 
here. 

Burial  Towers,  Colocolo,  Bolivia.  At  Colocolo,  on  the  high 
plateau  between  Oroyo  and  La  Paz,  there  are  groups  of  peculiar 
adobe  burial  towers.  A  square-topped  structure  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet  high,  ten  to  twelve  feet  wide,  and  five  or  six  feet  thick^ 
was  built  up  solid  with  adobe  bricks  excepting  for  a  small  arched 
central  chamber  on  the  original  surface,  and  an  entrance  niche. 
After  the  tower  was  completed,  the  wrapped  body  of  the  dead  was 
placed  inside  and  the  door  blocked  (plate  23,  b). 

Circular  Burial  Tower,  Peru.  A  very  common  type  of  circular 
burial  tower  was  found  north  of  Lake  Titicaca  in  Peru.  These 
are  remarkable  for  their  perfection  in  form  and  masonry.  Farther 
north  in  the  vicinity  of  Oroyo,  a  new  type  was  found,  built  of 
small  flat  stones  on  mountain  tops.  These  towers  often  stand  one 
against  the  other,  and  are  usually  two  stories  high.  A  single  section 
is  four  or  five  feet  wide  and  eight  feet  high,  with  a  small  opening  at 
the  floor  of  each  story  (plate  24,  a). 

Petroglyphs.  While  resting  over  a  day  at  the  Peruvian  Colony 
on  the  Peren6  River  in  Peru,  we  made  a  study  of  some  petroglyphs, 

180 


P£ABODT   MUBEtllt 


\ 


I 


I^uoDT  MuBECM  Papers 


Vol.  X,  Plate  26 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  REMAINS  181 

'Urree  miles  up  the  Paucartambo  River.    An  enormous  red  granite 

^t>oiiIder,  roughly  60  by  150  feet,  and  40  feet  high,  stands  in  the 

'^^Siter  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.    The  lower  part,  30  feet  next 

tJic  river,  is  vertical,  but  the  top  is  oval-shaped.    Originally  more 

tlian  half  of  this  upper  part  was  covered  with  glyphs  of  various 

toxins,  as  seen  in  plate  24,  b.  Some  of  the  grooves  were  so  weathered 

ttuit  it  was  impossible  to  trace  their  lines,  while  others  are  a  half 

ch  deep,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  wide.   As  the  river  is  unnavigable, 

le  gljrphs  must  have  been  intended  for  an  observer  on  the  high 

i^^jid  across  the  river,    A  bridge  has  now  been  anchored  to  the 

^^*K)ck,  and  a  trail  cut  around  its  upstream  side.    No  other  glyphs 

'^^ere  reported  in  the  region. 

Collections.  In  addition  to  those  made  by  the  expedition  in 
"^le  field,  some  very  valuable  collections  were  purchased.  They 
S-aiclude  the  following  specimens:  several  hundred  choice  pieces 
ancient  pottery  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  representing  various 
cultures  from  Truxillo  to  Nasca  (next  to  that  of  the  early  fisher- 
:ffolk,  the  Nasca  appears  to  be  the  earUest  culture  along  the  coast), 
«nd  containing  the  most  striking  examples  of  ceramics,  character- 
ized by  an  extraordinary  variety  of  color  (a  few  of  these  are  illus- 
trated in  plate  25);  a  large  collection  of  perfectly  preserved 
wooden  specimens,  such  as  agricultural  and  other  implements, 
paddles,  clubs,  and  strange  ceremonial  objects  of  various  forms, 
all  from  excavations  near  Pisco,  Peru,  examples  of  which  are 
shown  in  plate  26;  a  gold  necklace  made  of  twenty-eight  human 
faces,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  dug  up  at  Ferrifiofe, 
Peru,  a  splendid  unique  piece,  plate  27;  and  a  Mission  Indian 
basket  from  southern  California  bought  in  Lima,  Peru,  whence 
it  had  been  carried  so  long  ago  that  its  history  had  been  forgotten. 
The  owner  thought  it  had  come  from  the  Amazon  Indians  in 
Colonial  times.    It  is  the  best  Mission  basket  with  a  hd  extant. 


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1897. 
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130.    Wien,  1905.    (A  critical  review.) 
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r 


INDEX 


Adienccit.  iocml  name.  M«che3reii«a.  1 
Acfaeyeoga,  local  name,  Macheyensa,  1 
Acofta  reference,  Conebo,  83 
Adie.  use  of.  Conebo,  84 
Altomaranan  Rhrer,  Jivaro,  115 
Amahuaca,  tribe,  Panoan,  79 
Amakadia  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Amason  River,  Panoan,  79;  Piro,  53 
Amico  Raver,  Witoto.  137 
Anaconda,  painted  on  platform,  Witoto,  139 
Ancas,  term  applied  to  Jivaro  by  Zaparo,  119 
Andes,  Jivaro,   115;   Maeheyenira,  1;   ruine, 

180 
Andoa,  tribe,  Jivaro,  115 
Andoke,  raid  on,  Witoto,  146 
Ankia  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Anklete,  Conebo,  82-83;    Macheyenca,  10; 

Maahco,  77;  Sipibo.  98 
AnUs,    term    applied    to     Macheyenca    by 

Inca,  1. 
Apron,  bark,  Tiatinacua,  156 
Arapeca,  tribe,  Jivaro,  1 15 
Amotto,  paint,  Conebo,  83;  Tiatinagua,  156 
Aroya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Arrows  for  blowgun,  Witoto,  138 
Artificial    deformation,    Amahuaca,    107; 

Con^x),  86;   Macheyenga,  20;   Sipibo,  86; 

Tiatinacua,  156 
Ashira,  tribe,  Jivaro,  115 
Atchote,  dye,  Macheyenga,  10 
Atrocities  of  Putumayo  Region,  Witoto,  148 
Ataahuaca,  local  name,  Tiatinacua,  154 
Azn,  stone,  Mashco,  77;    Witoto,  138;    in 

warfare,  Witoto,  147 

Babasco,  poison.  Jivaro,  117;  Witoto,  138 

Ball  made  from  bladder,  Macheyenga,  8 

Ball  games,  Witoto,  141 

Balsa,  float,  Conebo,  83,  Jivaro,  117;  Tiati- 
nacua, 154;  platform,  Conebo,  85;  wood, 
Conebo,  82 

Bamboo,'  case,  Witoto,  138;  flutes,  Conebo, 
84;  for  cookinc.  Tiatinagua,  154-155; 
knives,  Conebo,  85;  Jivaro,  121;  Mache- 
yenca, 18;  Piro,  59;  Tiatinacua,  156; 
needle  cases,  Amahuaca,  107;  Pan's  pipes, 
Conebo,  84;  Witoto,  140;  strips  for  paint- 
ing, Conebo,  87;  Sipibo,  99, 100 

Bananas,  Tiatinacua,  154 


Bark,  aprtHi,  tiatinacua,  156;  breech  doth* 

Witoto,  141;    cushmas,  Macheyenca,  10; 

Witoto,  139;    mask.  Witoto,  139;    paper, 

Panoan, 80;  shirt,  Jivaro,  117;  Tiatinacua, 

156 
Baskets,  Macheyenca,  6,  10;    Piro,  55.  56; 

burden  baskets,  Amahuaca,  106;  Piro,  60 
Basrous,  Conebo,  81,  83 
Beetle  wine  decoration,  Jivaro,  122 
Beni  River,  Tiatinacua,  154 
Bites,  black  ant,  Piro,  60;    snake,  Mache> 

yenca,  11;  vampire  bat,  Macheyenca,  11 
Blowcun,  Conebo,  83;  Jivaro,  116;  Witoto, 

138,  147 
Bowandarrow,  Conebo,  83;  Macheyenca,  2- 

3,  8;  Piro,  56;  Tiatinacua,  155-156;  used 

in  warfare,  Amahuaca,  108 
Bracelets,    Conebo,    82;     as    weddinc    ciftt 

Macheyenca,  18 
Breech    cloth,    Macheyenca,    10;     of   bark, 

Witoto,  141 
Bridce,  built  by  Macheyenca,  5 
Burial  alive,  Witoto,  143 
Burial  jars,  former  use  of,  Conebo,  84 
Burial  tower.  180 

Cahuide,  Conebo,  80;  Macheyenca,  1,  2,  8 

Camisea  River,  Piro,  53 

Campa.  banket,  55,  56;  capture  of  Amahuaca 

girl,  105;  kidnapping  of  Mashco.  77;  dress, 

57;  related  to  Maoheyenga,  1 
Canoes,  Conebo,  84 
Canoemen,  Macheyenga.  20 
Canoe  tree,  capironi,  Conebo,  84 
Capture  of  natives,  by  Campa,  77,  105;   by 

rubbermen,  Amahuaca,  109-110;    Mache- 
yenga, 2;  Piro.  61 
Capture  of  women,  in  waHare,  Amahuaca, 

108;  Jivaro,  120;  Witoto,  147;  for  wives, 

Jivaro,  118;  Sipibo,  101 
Caqueta  River.  Witoto,  136 
Casement,  Sir  Roger,  Witoto,  148 
Cashibo,  tribe.  Panoan,  79 
Cassava,  Witoto,  138;  as  drink,  Conebo,  86; 

Macheyenga,  6;   as  food,  Amahuaca,  105; 

Jivaro,  116;  Sipibo,  96;  Tiatinagua,  154 
Cavenithi,  poison,  for  fishing,  Macheyenga,  4 
Cavinithi,  for  snake  bite,  Macheyenga,  11 
Ceremony,  at  birth  of  child,  Witoto,  142;  at 


180 


190 


INDEX 


death  of  child,  Sipibo.  103;  harvest. 
Witoto,  140;  marriace,  Jivaro,  118;  Ma- 
cheyenca,  17;  Piro,  50;  mummified  head, 
Jivaro,  121;  vintinc,  Jivaro,  118;  war, 
Witoto,  146 

Chacara,  field,  Macheyenga,  2,  13 

Chargaime,  tribe,  Jivaro,  115 

Chicha,  jars  for,  Conebo,  86,  88;  preparation 
of,  Aroahuaca,  106;   Conebo,  85;   Mache- 
yenca,  6-7;    uae  of,  Amahuaca,   106; 
Conebo,  86;  Jivaro,  121;  Macheyenca,  15, 
18;  Piro,  50;  Sipibo,  102 

Chief,  ai^roval  to  marriage,  Conebo,  85;  at 
death,  Witoto,  147;  duties  of,  Amahuaca, 
105;  Jivaro,  115,  120;  Piro,  54,  60;  Tla- 
tinagua,  154;  Witoto,  137,  130;  name, 
Piro,  53-54;  wives,  Macheyenga,  16;  Tia- 
tinagua,  156 

Children  buried  aUve,  Witoto.  143 

Chinchipa  River,  Jivaro,  115 

Chipanad,  medicine,  Macheyenga,  11 

Chonta  palm,  arrows,  Jivaro,  116;  arrows  and 
blowgun,  Witoto,  138;  blowguns,  Jivaro, 
116;  bows,  Conebo,  83;  Macheyenga,  2; 
comb,  Conebo.  83;  digging  stick,  Mache- 
yenga, 10;  ear  ornament,  Jivaro,  118;  pins, 
Tiatinagua,  154;  posts,  Piro,  55;  spindle, 
Macheyenga,  10;  Sipibo,  07 

Chontoquiro,  Piro,  53 

Chuncho,  Tiatinagua.  154 

Cimaki,  Macheyenga,  37 

Clay  for  pottery,  Conebo,  86,  87 

Cloaks,  Conebo,  82;  Jivaro,  118;  Sipibo,  07 

Clubs  in  warfare,  Witoto,  147 

Coca,  Witoto,  138, 130;  in  marriage,  Witoto. 
141;  in  warfare,  Witoto.  146 

Comairiya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Comb,  Conebo,  83 

Communal  house,  Witoto,  137 

Conebo.  designs,  100;  dialect,  06;  houses, 
06;  lip  plugs,  107;  marriage  ceremony, 
101;  pipes.  56,  100;  pottery,  6.  56 

Cooking  place,  Conebo,  82;  Piro,  55;  uten- 
sils, Sipibo,  06 

Copotasa,  tribe,  Jivaro,  115 

Com,  as  declaration  of  war,  Amahuaca,  108; 
for  food,  Amahuaca,  105;  Jivaro,  116; 
Tiatinagua,  154;  preparation  of,  Piro,  55 

Cotton,  for  cushma,  Conebo.  82;  Mache- 
yenga, 10;  Piro,  57;  Sipibo,  07;  for  shirts, 
Tiatinagua,  156;  for  skirts,  Amahuaca,  107 

Cradle  song,  Macheyenga,  12 

Cuanduaai,  tribe.  Jivaro.  115 

Cumarea,  Panoan,  80 

Curari,  poison,  Jivaro,  116;  Witoto.  138 

Curassows,  call  of,  Macheyenga.  5;  capture  of, 
Amahuaca.  106 

Cushma,  Conebo,  82;    Macheyenga,  0-10; 


Mashco,   77;    Piro,   57;    Sipibo,  07;    as 
wedding  gift,  Macheyenga,  18 
Cusco,  Macheyenga,  1 

Dance.  Witoto,  130,  140;  after  ball  game, 
Witoto,  141;  after  journey,  Macheyenga, 
11;  love,  Jivaro,  123;  marriage,  Maohe> 
yenga.  18;  moonlight,  Amahuaca,  106 

Darts,  Jivaro,  116 

Deer,  Witoto,  138;  tradition  of,  Jivaro,  117; 
Macheyenga,  14;  Piro,  56 

Disease.  Witoto,  143;  scattered  by  Whites, 
Panoan,  70;  treatment  of,  Tiatinagua,  157 

Division  of  food,  Amahuaca.  107;  Conebo, 
86;  Macheyenga,  16;  Mashco,  77;  Piro, 
61;  Witoto,  138 

Division  of  labor,  Macheyenga,  10;  Tiati- 
nagua, 155;  Witoto,  138 

Dogs,  burial  of.  Mashco,  77;  Piro,  60;  Witoto* 
143;  care  of,  Jivaro,  116;  given  powder, 
Piro,  57;  love  of,  Piro.  55 

Drum,  method  of  making,  Amahuaca,  106; 
Macheyenga.  7;  use  of,  Amahuaca,  106; 
Jivaro,  123;  Witoto,  140, 147 

Dugout  canoes,  Conebo,  83 

Dye,  atchote,  Macheyenga,  10 

Dyeing,  Conebo,  82;  Macheyenga,  10; 
Sipibo,  08;  Tiatinagua,  156 

Ear  ornament,  Jivaro,  118 

Emuirise,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 

Evil  spirit,  Conebo,  84;    Tiatinagua,   157; 

Witoto,  146 
Exchange  of  gifts,  Macheyenga,  15;  of  wives, 

Macheyenga,  16 

Families,  Amahuaca,  105;  Conebo,  86; 
Macheyenga.  10;  Piro,  50;  Sipibo,  101; 
Witoto,  142 

Feast,  of  dead.  Witoto,  143;  of  marriage, 
Conebo,  85;  Jivaro,  118;  Macheyenga,  18; 
Tiatinagua,  156;  of  moon,  Sipibo,  104;  of 
mummified  head,  Jivaro,  120;  of  pole, 
Witoto,  130 

Feather  ornament,  Macheyenga,  10;  Tia- 
tinagua. 156;  Witoto,  140 

Ferrifiofe.  181 

Fire,  Amahuaca.  105;  Conebo.  82;  Piro,  54; 
Witoto,  142 

Fire-making,  Amahuaca,  106;  Jivaro,  117; 
Macheyenga,  6,  12;  Piro,  57;  Tiatinagua, 
155;  Witoto.  138;  tradition  of,  Jivaro, 
117 

Fish,  cooking,  Tiatinagua,  155;  hook,  Witoto, 
138;  nets,  Jivaro,  117;  poison  for  catch- 
ing, Jivaro,  117;  shooting,  Tiatinagua, 
155;  traps,  Macheyenga,  3-5 

Flour  from  cassava,  Sipibo,  06 


INDEX 


191 


notit,  CoMbo,  84;  Jhruo,  123;  Witoto, 
140;  of  haman  Arm  bonct,  Witoto,  140, 
146,147 

Food,  dhrkkm  of,  Anmhtuiea,  107;  Conebo, 
86;  MMiMgrMiga,  16;  MMboo,  77;  Piro, 
61;  Witolo.  138;  rapply,  8i|Mbo.  96 

fVita,  Sanroel,  m«p,  FIro,  63 

QalvM,  8r.,  PvuriAn,  killed  by  Tiatinacua, 

187 
OsBHitaaa,  Mabonaro,  163 
GtUa.  aab-tribe,  Witoto.  136 
Onipa.  paint.  Conebo,  83 
GfaM  beads.  Kpibo.  08 
Gold,  lip  plate.  Witoto.  141;  necklace.  181; 

OMd  by  medicine  men,  Witoto,  145 
Oood  epirit.  Conebo.  84;    Macbeyenca,  14. 

16;  TIatiaasua.  157;  Witoto.  146 
Qfaae  akirta,  Amahnaea.  107 
Gouajro,  Tiatinatua,  154 

Hair,  mode  of  wearing,  ^varo.  118;  Piro,  58; 
Tiatinacaa.  167;  for  widows,  Conebo,  84; 
Piro,  60;  Sipibo.  108;  Witoto.  143;  to 
show  modesty,  Piro,  61;  superstition  re- 
fanUnc  cuttings,  Macbeyenga.  15;  white 
haiim,  Maehearenga,  19 

Haiyofo.  sub-tribe.  Witoto,  136 

Haiiapansia  Lake,  Conebo.  81 

Harpoon  for  fishing.  Conebo.  83 

Hatdiet,  stone.  Witoto.  146;  in  executions, 
Witoto.  147 

Head  hunters.  Jivaro.  120;  Witoto,  146 

Heath  River.  Tiatinagua.  154 

Heaven,  idea  of,  Sipibo.  104;  Witoto.  146 

Hieroglyphs.  Panoan.  80 

Hook,  fish,  Witoto.  138 

HoQMS,  Amahuaca.  105;  Conebo.  81 ;  Jivaro. 
115-116;  Mashoo.  77;  Sipibo,  96.  101; 
oommunnl.  Witoto.  137;  palm  leaf.  Tia- 
tinagua, 154 

HuaUaga  River.  Panoan.  79 

Hoambesa.  tribe.  Jivaro.  115 

Huarayo.  Tiatinagua.  154 

Hnari,  Jagi,  Peruvian,  Witoto,  136,  142, 
143.146 

Hugabt.  drink.  Witoto,  139 

Huitote,  Witoto,  136 

Human  arm  bone  flutes,  Witoto,  140,  146, 
147 

Human  teeth  necklaces,  Witoto,  146.  147 

Huraya,  sub-tribe,  Witoto.  136 

Idols,  PUioan.  80 
Image  of  woman.  Witoto,  139-140 
Inambari  River.  Tiatinagua,  154 
Inca,  reference  to.  Conebo.  80;  Macheyenfra. 
1;  Piro.  53;  Sipibo,  96 


Infants,  method  of  carrying,  Piro.  60 
Intermarriage,  Conebo,  80;  Mashco,  77 
Ipaiyira  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Jaguar  teeth,  Witoto,  144;  necklaces,  Sipibo, 

98;  Witoto,  141 
Jars,  burial,  Conebo,  84;  chicha,  Conebo,  86. 

88;  for  turtle  eggs.  Conebo,  83 
Javero  River.  Conebo,  81 ;  Macbeyenga.  17 
Jivaro  blowgun,  Conebo,  83 

Kabduya,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136;  native 
namn,  Witoto,  142 

Kako  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Katseime,  Amahuaca  girl,  105 

Kenaku,  palm,  Witoto,  139 

Kidnapping  of  natives,  by  Campa,  77.  105; 
by  rubberraen.  Amahuaca,  109-110;  Ma- 
cbeyenga, 2;  Piro,  61 

Kidnapping  of  women,  in  warfare,  Ama- 
huaca, 108;  Jivaro,  120;  Witoto.  147;  for 
wives.  Jivaro.  118;  Sipibo.  101 

Knives,  method  of  using,  Macbeyenga,  6 

Knowledge  of  medicine,  Macheyenga,  11; 
Piro,  60 

Koroangiya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Komeyone,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 

Labor,  division  of.  Macheyenga,  19;  Tia- 
tinagua, 155;  Witoto.  138 

Laboyano,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 

Lance,  poisoned,  Witoto.  138;  in  executions. 
Witoto.  147:  in  traps,  Jivaro,  122 

La  Torre,  Tiatinagua,  157 

Lip  ornament.  Amahuaca,  107;  Macheyenga, 
10;  Sipibo,  99;  Witoto,  141 

Local  names,  Macheyenga,  1;  Mashco,  77; 
Piro,  53 

Love  dance,  Jivaro.  123 

Loom  for  weaving,  Piro,  58;  Sipibo,  97 

Loops  for  climbing,  Macheyenga,  5 

Macas,  old  Spanish  town,  Jivaro,  115 

Macheyengs  woman,  Conebo,  80 

Machiganga,  Macheyenga,  1 

Madidi  River.  Tiatinagua.  154 

Madre    de    Dios    River,    Mabenaro,    163; 

Mashco,  77;  Sipibo,  96;  Tiatinagua,  154; 

Witoto,  136 
Makana,  war  club,  Witoto,  147 
Malaria,  prevalence  among  Macheyenga,  1 1 
Manu  River,  Mashco,  77;    Miranhan,  152; 

Piro.  53 
Marooy  reference,  Panoan,  79 
Marona  River,  Jivaro,  115 
Marriage  bands,  Witoto,  143 
Mssio  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Masks,  bark,  Witoto,  139 


192 


INDEX 


-  >iv 


Massacre  of  Whites,  Amahuaca,  110 

Maturiata  River,  Macheyenga,  17 

Maynane,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 

Meals.  Witoto.  139 

Medicine,  knowledge  of,  Macheyenga,  11; 
Piro,  60 

Medicine  man,  duties  of,  Jivaro,  118; 
Witoto.  142 

Mishagua  River,  Piro,  53 

Missionaries,  Panoan,  79;  Jivaro,  115,  119; 
killed  by  Panoan,  80 

Mission  Indian  basket,  181 

Moeno,  Mashco,  77 

Moon  worship,  Conebo,  85;  Sipibo,  104 

Monkey,  belief  regarding,  Witoto,  145;  prep- 
aration for  eating.  Macheyenga.  5;  skin 
for  drum.  Macheyenga,  7 

Monkey  teeth,  decoration,  Jivaro,  117;  neck- 
laces, Amahuaca,  107;    Macheyenga,  10; 
Sipibo.  98;  Tiatinagua,  156 
■  Monogamy,      Amahuaca,      107;       Mache- 
yenga, 16 

Monunisaya,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136;  native 
names,  Witoto,  142 

Mortar,  Piro,  55 

Mother-of-pearl  ornament,  Tiatinagua,  156 

Mummified  heads,  Jivaro,  1 18,  120-121 

Munis,  F.  T.,  authority  on  Jivaro,  115 

Murato,  tribe,  Jivaro,  115 

Nasca,  181 

Native  names,  Conebo,  81;  Tiatinagua,  154; 
Witoto.  142 

Natoiki  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Necklaces,  Conebo,  82;  Jivaro,  118;  Ma- 
cheyenga. 10,  18;  Sipibo,  97,  98;  Tiati- 
nagua, 156;  of  human  teeth,  Witoto,  146, 
147 

Needle,  use  of,  Amahuaca,  107 

Needle  case,  Amahuaca,  107 

Net,  animal,  Witoto,  138;  fish,  Macheyenga, 
3;  W^itoto,  138 

Nongoni,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136;  native 
names,  Witoto,  142 

Nose  ornament,  Amahuaca,  107;  Mache- 
yenga, 10;  Sipibo,  99;  Tiatinagua,  156 

Nosotobia  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Number  of  Indians,  Amahuaca,  105;  Conebo, 
80;  Jivaro,  115;  Macheyenga.  1;  Piro,  53; 
Tiatinagua,  154;  Witoto.  136 

Oath,  war-time,  Witoto,  146 
Ohc  tree,  use  of,  Conebo,  84,  87 
Oipui.  poison,  Witoto,  138 
Oroyo,  180 
Ouitote,  Witoto,  136 
Ouokaise,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 


Paehitea  River,  Panoan,  79;  Piro,  53 

Paddles,  Conebo,  84 

Paiche,  fish,  Conebo,  83 

Paint,  amotto,  Conebo,  83;  Tiatinagua,  156; 
genipa,  Conebo,  83;  wito,  Jivaro,  118; 
Tiatinagua,  156 

Painting,  bodies,  Jivaro,  120;  Sipibo,  90, 
100;  Tiatinagua,  156;  for  protection, 
Amahuaca,  107;  Jivaro,  118;  Mache- 
yenga, 10;  Mashco,  77;  Piro,  58;  for 
burial,  Conebo,  84;  oushmas,  Conebo,  82; 
Sipibo,  98;  Wit4>to,  139;  faces  black  for 
mourning,  Mashco,  77;  Sipibo,  103;  gar- 
ments, Jivaro,  117;  paddles,  Conebo,  84; 
pottery,  Conebo,  87 

Pakatca  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Palm  leaf,  baskets,  Amahuaca,  106;  Mache- 
yenga, 6;  houses,  Tiatinagua,  154;  mats, 
Amahuaca,  105;  Sipibo,  96;  roofs,  Conebo, 
82 

Panaosa  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Pano,  Panoan,  79.  80 

Pan's  pipes,  Amahuaca,  106;  Conebo,  84; 
Witoto,  140 

Piut>ntore,  Macheyenga,  37 

Pasaya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Pastasa  River,  115 

Paucartambo  River.  181 

Peanuts,  Amahuaca,  105 

Peccaries,  Jivaro,  121;  Witoto.  138 

Peccary  tooth  necklaces,  Tiatinagua,  156 

Pec<»ry  tusk  knife,  Macheyenga,  6 

Perene  River,  Macheyenga,  1 ;  180 

Pestle,  IHro,  55 

Piedras  River,  Amahuaca,  105,  110; 
Sipibo,  96 

Pigs,  preparation  for  eating,  Macheyenga,  5 

Pig  tooth  necklaces,  Sipibo,  98 

Pineapples,  Witoto.  138 

Pipes,  snuff.  Piro,  56-67;  tobacco,  Mache- 
yenga, 7;  Sipibo,  100 

Piro  related  to  Mashco,  77 

Piro  canoemen,  Conebo,  83 

Piro  chief,  Mashco,  77 

Pisco,  181 

Plantains,  Amahuaca,  105;  Jivaro,  116;  Tia- 
tinagua, 154;  Witoto,  138 

Poison,  babasco,  Jivaro,  117;  Witoto,  138; 
curari,  Jivaro,  116;  Witoto,  138;  for  fish, 
Macheyenga,  4-6;  oipui,  Witoto,  138 

Poisoned  arrows,  Jivaro,  116;  lances, 
Witoto,  147 

Polygamy,  Conebo,  86;  Jivaro,  118;  Sipibo, 
101 

Pongo  Manigue,  Macheyenga,  1 

Popa,  lime  for  catching  birds,  Macheyenga,  S 

Popai,  valued  wood,  Witoto,  142 

Portillo,  Piro,  63-54 


INDEX 


193 


PototoM,  Witoto,  138 

Pottery.  Amahuaca.   106;     Conebo,  86-88; 

Jintfo,  116;  Maoheyenga,  6;  Mashco,  77; 

Piro.  56;  Sipibo,  86;  Tiatinacua,  154 
PkCMsnration  of  fish,  Conebo,  83;    of  foods, 

Madieyensa,      5-6;      of      turtle      eggs, 

Oonebo,  83 

of  war,  Witoto,  147 
dam,  Amahuaca,  105 
Poms  River,  Amahuaca,  105,  108;  Piro.  53 
Potnmayo  River,  Witoto,  136,  148 

QuipuB,  records,  Jivaro,  122 
QaiTcn,  Jiraro,  116 


Raids,  SiiMbo,  101;  Witoto.  146;  of  slave 
traders,  Macheyenga,  1;  precaution 
•gainst  enemy  raids,  Jivaro,  122 

Rattka,  Witoto,  140 

Remo,  Panoan,  79 

Resin  for  pottery,  Piro,  56 

Riebarte,  Max,  Macheyenga,  1 

Rivers:  Altomaranan,  115;  Amason,  53,  79 
Amigo,  137;  Beni,  154;  Camisea,  53;  Ca- 
queto,  136;  Chinchipa,  115;  Heath,  154 
HuaUaga,  79;  Javero,  17, 81;  Madidi,  154 
Msdre  de  Dios,  77, 96, 136, 154, 163;  Manu 
53,  77,  152;  Marona,  115;  Maturiata,  17 
Mishagua,  53;  Pachitea,  53,  79;  Pastasa 
115;  Perene,  1,  180;  Piedras,  96,  105,  110 
Purus,  53,  105,  108;  Putumayo,  136,  148 
Sepauhua,  105;  Sutlija,  77;  Tambo,  81 
96;  Tambopata.  154, 157;  Ucayali.  53,  79 
80,  81,  86.  96;  Urubamba,  1,  37,  53.  81,  96 

Roboya,  traditional  home,  Sipibo,  96 

RodriqueB,  Sr.  Baldimero,  Conebo,  80;  death 
of,  Amahuaca,  110;  slaves  of,  Mashco,  77; 
Piro,  61 

Rodriques,  Sr.  Maximo,  Sipibo,  96 

Rubber  ball,  Witoto,  141 

Rubber  workers,  Amahuaca,  105,  109-110; 
Conebo,  80;  Macheyenga,  1;  Piro,  61; 
Sipibo,  96;  Witoto,  136, 148 

Sacramento,  Panoan,  79 

Salt,  use  of,  Macheyenga,  6;  Piro.  55 

San  Lorensa,  Macheyenga,  1 

Sanpiya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Sararaya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Sawaiya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Seharff ,  Mathias,  Amahuaca,  105, 106,  109 

Searcow,  Conebo,  83 

Sebua,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136;  native  names, 

Witoto,  142 
Sepahua,  Conebo,  81 
Sepauhua  River,  Amahuaca,  105 
Setibo,  Panoan,  79 
Semirentd,  Piro,  53 


Serjali,  Piro,  61 

Shelters,  Tiatinagua,  154 

Shields,  Jivaro,  116 

Shirt,  bark.  Jivaro,  117;    Tiatinagua,  156; 

cotton,  Tiatinagua,  156 
Shrunken  heads,  Jivaro,  120-121 
Siboya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Sickness,  belief  regarding,  Tiatinagua,  157 
Sieves  for  chicha,  Piro,  56 
Sigaya,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 
Signal  drum,  Amahuaca,  106;  Jivaro,  116 
Silver,  lip  plugs,  Amahuaca,  107;  Sipibo,  99; 

Witoto,   141;    in  medicine,  Witoto,   145; 

nose  ornament,  Mach^enga,  10 
Simasiri.  story  of,  Mach^enga,  1-2,  36-38; 

as  interpreter,  Conebo,  80 
Sipibo,  79;  artificial  deformation,  86;  pottery, 

86 
Sipidia  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Sirineiii,  Mashco,  77 
Skeleton,  human,  180 
Skirts,  Amahuaca,  107;  Mashco,  77;  Sipibo, 

97 
Slave    traffic,    Macheyenga,    1-2;     captive 

families,  Piro,  61 
Sleeping  place,  Amahuaca,  105;  Conebo,  82; 

Jivaro,  116;  Piro,  54;  Sipibo,  96;  Witoto, 

142 
Smallpox,  Witoto,  144 
Snake  bite,  Mach^enga,  11 
Snares,  animal.  Jivaro.  117;  Macheyenga,  3; 

Witoto.  138 
SnuflF,  Piro,  56-57 
Sorcery,  Sipibo.  104;  Witoto,  143 
Spear.  Witoto.  138;  in  warfare.  Witoto,  147 
Spindle  whorl.  Macheyenga.  10;  Piro,  57 
Spuna,  sub-tribe,  Witoto.  136 
Sucero,  Father  Juan  de.  Panoan,  79 
Sun.  belief  regarding,  Witoto,  146;   worship 

of,  Panoan.  80 
Sunapavora  Lake.  Conebo.  81 
Superstition.  Macheyenga,  15 
Sutlija.  Piro.  53,  54 
Sutlija  River,  Mashco,  77 
Sweet  iwtatoes.  Jivaro,  116;  Tiatinagua,  154 

Tambo  River,  Conebo,  81;  Sipibo,  96 

Tambopata  River.  Tiatinagua,  154,  157 

Tapir,  as  food,  Jivaro,  117;  capture  of,  Ama- 
huaca, 106;  Macheyenga,  5;  Witoto,  138 

Tapir  skin  shield,  Jivaro,  116 

Tapir  tooth  necklace,  Sipibo,  98 

Tattooed  designs,  Piro.  58 

Tea  from  herbs,  Macheyenga,  11 

Teeth  filed.  Amahuaca,  107 

Tiger  tooth  necklace,  Witoto,  137 

Time,  methods  of  counting,  Macheyenga,  16; 
Witoto,  146 


194 


INDEX 


TUicacft  Lake,  180 

Tobacco,  in  ceremony,  Jivaro,  121;  as  drink 

and  smoke,  Jivaro,  117;   as  gift.  Witoto, 

137, 141,  144;  for  making  anuff,  FIro,  56; 

used  by  medicine  men,  Jivaro,  119,  121; 

Sipibo,  104;  Witoto.  143;  in  war.  Wltoto, 

146 
Tobacco  pipea,  Macheyenga,  7;    decoration 

of,  Conebo,  88;  illiistration  of ,  Conebo,  81 
Toboya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 
Toes,  use  of,  Macheyenga,  20 
Tonquini  Fort,  IHro,  53 
Tops.  Witoto.  140 
Torres,  8r.,  Indians  of.  Witoto.  136,  146; 

worker  of,  Mabenaro,  163 
Traditionsof  deer,  Jiraro,  117;  Macheyenga, 

14;  Piro.  66;  of  hieroglyphs,  etc.,  Pmomi. 

80;    of  home,  Conebo,  81;   Panoan,  79; 

Sipibo,  96;  of  monkey,  Witoto,  145 
Traps,  for  animals.  Jivaro,  117;  for  enemies, 

Jivaro.  122;  for  fish,  Tiatinagua,  155 
Trinidad  mounds,  180 
Trinket  bags.  Conebo,  83 
Trousers,  Sipibo,  97 
Tnizillo,  181 

Tsantsa,  mummified  head,  Jivaro,  120 
Tump-line,  groove  for.  Macheyenga,  20;   use 
of,    Amahuaca,    106;     Macheyenga,    21; 
Piro,  60 
Turtles,  as  food,  Conebo,  83 
Tweesers  for  extracting  beard,  Conebo,  83 

Ucayali  River,  Conebo,  80,  81,  86;  Panoan. 

79;  Piro,  53;  Sipibo.  96 
Unfaithfulness.  Amahuaca,  107;  Macheyenga, 

2,     16;      Piro.     64;      Sipibo,      101-102; 

Witoto.  142 
University  Museum,  Philadelphia,  88 
Upano,  tribe,  Jivaro,  116 
Urubamba  River,  Conebo,  81 ;  Macheyenga, 

1,  37;  Piro,  63;  Sipibo.  96 


Utcate,  Conebo,  83;  Sqabo.  96.  102 
Uioenia,  sub-tribe.  Witoto.  196 

Vampire  bites.  Macheyenga,  11 

Vanilla  pod  necklaces,  Macheyenga.  10 

Vendetta,  cause  of.  Jivaro.  120 

Vinoya  Lake,  Conebo,  81 

Visiting  custom,  Machesrenga,   15;    Jivaro* 

118;  Witoto,  137 
Visitor's  dance,  Macheyenga,  7 

Waist,  Conebo,  82 

War  chief,  Jivaro,  115 

War  dub,  Witoto,  147 

War  customs,  Amahuaca,  108;  Jivaro,  120; 

Macheyenga,  2,  13;  Witoto.  146-147 
War  prisoners,  Witoto,  147 
Wax,  Conebo,  83 
Wedding  dance,  Macheyenga,  7 
White  for  mourning,  Sipibo,  103 
Widows,  Macheyenga,  18;   Tiatinagua,  156; 

care   of,    Piro,   60;    signs   of   mourning, 

Conebo,  84;  Sipibo,  103 
Witches,  Piro,  60 

Wito,  paint,  Jivaro,  118;  Tiatinagua,  156 
Wives,  exchange  of,   Macheyenga,   16,   19; 

kidnapping  of,  Jivaro,  118;  Sipibo,   101; 

loan  of,  Piro,  59;    treatment  of,  Maehe- 

yenga,  16 
Worship  of  moon,  Conebo,  85;  Sipibo,  104 
Worship  of  sun  and  fire,  Panoan,  80 

Yabuyano,  sub-tribe,  Witoto,  136 
Yagua,  blowgun,  Jivaro,  116 
Yamaica,  Tiatinagua,  154 
Yevera,  Panoan,  79 
Yucca,  Sipibo,  96 
Yutahy-sica,  I*iro,  56 

Zaparo,  tribe,  119 


PRINTED  AT 

THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.S.A. 


Z^py^ 


PAPERS 

OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


Vol.  XI.  —  No.  1 


\J  ( 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 
AT  WINTHROP.  MASSACHUSETTS 


BY 

CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 

WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS  BY 

EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 


FOUB  PLATES  AND  TWESTV  ILLUSTRATIONS  IS  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

1924 


rr  TWK  rcAiTjOT 


ncucTM  or  .ixee^.i^ 

rnDKOt£i&T,  ■LUev.UKD  C3IT 


NOTE 

Accounts  of  a  number  of  explorations  carried  on  by  the 
late  Professor  Frederick  W.  Putnam,  or  imder  his  direction, 
remained  impublished  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Two  of  the 
most  important  of  these,  dealing  with  the  archaeology  of 
Ohio,  have  since  been  brought  out  as  parts  of  Volume  VIII  of 
this  series,  and  it  is  hoped  that  others  will  follow. 

The  exploration  of  the  small  burial  place  at  Winthrop, 
while  merely  an  incident  in  Professor  Putnam's  work,  is 
thought  worthy  of  record  owing  to  the  early  historic  period  to 
which  the  burials  belong,  and  to  the  rarity  of  such  dis- 
coveries in  Massachusetts. 


Charles  C.  Willoughby,  Director 


Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
April  18,  1924 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE  AT  WINTHROP 

MASSACHUSETTS 

In  April,  1888,  workmen,  excavating  for  the  narrow  gauge  railroad 
at  Winthrop,  Massachusetts,  just  across  the  harbor  from  Boston, 
unearthed  three  or  four  Indian  skeletons.  The  skull  of  one  of  these 
lay  in  contact  with  pieces  of  thin  copper,  evidently  parts  of  a  copper 
vessel  which  had  been  placed  over  the  head.  The  greater  part  of  the 
skull  was  deeply  stained  by  the  metal  which  had  preserved  portions 
of  the  hair  and  scalp,  and  what  appear  to  be  parts  of  the  brain  and 
its  membranes,  also  fragments  of  matting  and  other  wrappings. 
As  soon  as  Mr.  C.  A.  Hammond,  superintendent  of  the  road,  heard 
of  the  discovery,  he  secured  the  skulls  and  such  other  bones  as  had 
not  been  destroyed,  and  presented  them  to  the  Peabody  Museum. 
On  August  21,  Mr.  Hanmiond  wrote  to  Professor  Putnam  as  fol- 
lows: "We  are  now  obliged  to  make  further  excavations  in  the 
pound  ^  where  relics  have  been  found,  and  have  already  unearthed 
another  skeleton,  and  more  to  follow,  but  I  do  not  want  to  proceed 
further  .  .  .  until  you  can  see  the  situation  and  give  us  some  ad- 
vice." 

Professor  Putnam  was  unable  to  go  to  Winthrop  at  the  time,  and 
arrangements  were  made  for  Mr.  Hammond  to  discontinue  the 
work  on  the  road  at  that  point  for  a  few  weeks.  On  November  22, 
the  work  of  excavating  the  burials  was  begun  under  Professor  Put- 
nam's personal  direction,  and  was  continued  for  three  days.  Five 
graves  were  carefully  opened.  As  these  were  the  only  ones  within 
the  line  of  the  roadway  which  needed  immediate  attention,  and  as 
the  weather  meanwhile  had  become  too  cold  to  work  to  advantage, 
further  investigations  were  postponed.  On  March  30, 1890,  excava- 
tions were  continued  by  Professor  Putnam,  and  graves  8,  9,  and  10 
were  opened.  This  burial  place  was  located  on  the  southern  slope 
of  a  low  sandy  hill  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  Centre  Station  of 
the  Boston,  Revere  Beach,  and  Lynn  Narrow  Gauge  Railroad.   Its 

>  Built  by  act  of  the  authorities  of  Boston  dated  February  23, 1634. 

1 


2  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

locality  is  shown  on  the  accompanying  sketch-map,  plate  1,  which 
indicates  only  the  streets  in  the  inmiediate  vicinity  of  the  station. 

The  positions  of  the  skeletons  are  illustrated  in  figure  1.  They 
were  found  at  an  average  depth  of  about  two  feet,  and  artifacts 
were  found  in  all  of  the  graves  opened  by  Professor  Putnam,  with 
the  exception  of  number  3. 

The  pound  in  which  the  burials  were  discovered  was  built  for  the 
protection  of  cattle  owned  by  the  settlers  of  Boston.  On  the  23rd  of 
February,  1634,  the  authorities  voted  that  ''there  shall  be  a  little 
house  built  and  a  sufficiently  payled  yard  to  lodge  cattle  in  of 


FioinuB  1 
BurUl  Place  at  Winthrop:  !«ketch-plan  showing  position  of  graves. 

nights  at  PuUen  Poynt  Neck  before  the  14th  day  of  ye  next  second 
month."  1 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  burials  (1888),  the  place  was 
traditionally  known  as  *'The  Pound.''  In  1902,  Mr.  Charies  W. 
Hall  wrote  as  follows  regarding  it : 

The  house  and  palisaded  yard  thus  erected  were  certainly  the  first  built  by 
the  Massachusetts  settlers  within  Winthrop  territory.  William  Cheeseborough, 
Constable  of  Boston,  and  cattle  guard  at  Pullen  Point  Neck,  must  have  had 
his  *' corral"  and  house  somewhere  between  the  Court  Park  section  and  the 
Town  Hall,  as  the  natural  water  supply  for  the  cattle  was  the  swamp  that 
formerly  stood  near  the  site  of  Winthrop  Centre  Station.* 

From  the  above  we  may  definitely  assign  to  the  burial  place  a 
date  some  time  previous  to  1634;  and  judging  from  the  artifacts  un- 
earthed, it  seems  probable  that  the  period  is  very  near  the  begin- 

»  Charles  W.  Hall,  History  of  Winthrop,  1902,  p.  19.  «  Ibid. 


Peasodt  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  XI,  No.  1,  Plate  1 


I  nASSACHUSETTS 


''^Ol 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  3 

•■ning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  locality  was  in  the  territory 
«3f  the  Massachuset  IndiaoB,  and  the  burial  place  undoubtedly  be- 
longs to  that  tribe. 

The  rarity  of  Indian  cemeteries  of  the  proto-historic  period  in 
ZMassachusetts  makes  the  interments  here  recorded  of  unusual  in- 
"terest.  The  majority  of  Indian  skeletons  which  have  been  un- 
earthed in  this  Commonwealth  belong  to  a  somewhat  later  date, 
and  are  usually  unaccompanied  by  artifacts. 

The  first  burials  unearthed  by  the  workmen  are  not  located  on 
the  plan,  as  their  exact  positions  were  not  recorded.    As  already 


nwrnffffk 


^i^^AJ^iiffiifiimm 


stated,  the  skull,  which  lay  in  contact  with  the  copper  vessel,  and 
the  adhering  portions  of  the  grave  wrappings  were  sent  to  the  Mu- 
seum with  the  other  bones.  No  pipes,  beads,  or  other  ornaments 
were  noticed,  such  articles  being  easily  overlooked. 

This  skull  was  that  of  an  adult  male,  and,  judging  by  the  frag- 
ments of  wrapping  adhering  to  the  copper,  the  burial  was  the  result 
of  careful  preparation.  The  grave  had  apparently  been  lined  or  the 
body  covered  with  birch-bark,  and  well-preserved  pieces  formed  the 
outer  portion  of  the  adhering  mass.  The  original  pieces  of  bark  had 
been  sewed  together  with  spUt  roots.  It  is  possible  that  this  may 
have  been  a  portion  of  a  bark  mat  such  as  were  used  for  portable 


4  IN  WAX  BUMAL  PLACE 

UhIip^  tHn*t>rii\|C8  by  the  AUtonquian  tribes  inhabiting  the  birch-bark 
Ai\Hi;  b\it  th^  !ii>wii\|c  iU>es  not  correspond  to  that  occurring  in  ex- 
AU^^t^ei  i\f  thf^  Ivturk  nuit$  in  the  Museum  from  the  more  eastern 
A)|ii^U)uiAn^  Within  this  tniter  covering  of  birch-bark  was  a  layer 
t\f  Nvh^t  Apivars  to  U'  iho  l^ark  of  the  cedar,  and  within  this,  and  in 
iHviUtiot  with  the  ivp)^r  \-««^^l  co\Tring  the  head  of  the  skeleton, 
wmi  n  i^tHH^  \U'  \n^You  Imlnish  luat  which  had  been  perfectly  pre- 
s^i^rvtHl  by  \\ua^ot  with  the  nu^tal.  The  type  of  weaving  shown  in 
t)uA  umt  i^  iUustrtittxi  in  ti|[ure  3.  The  warp  cords  are  in  pairs  and 
Hre^  muloubttnil^*  \xf  l\vi$le\t  l^ast:  the  woof  is  of  selected  rushes. 
AiHHxnliiVK  to  U^th  lU^^r  WilUaius  and  John  Josselyn,  the  interiors 
iU^  tlxo  uuuv  i^'nuM^eut  hutiaix  haUtations  of  New  England  were 
UutHl  with  '>iulu\M\teiv\)  niat$  i^  with  mats  of  rushes  painted  in 
i*^vt>rHl  \^J\xrs^**  "Ove  niat*  of  the  OJibwa  of  the  Great  Lakes  area 


are  doubtlec^fii  very  ^s^miUr  to  th^xse  ox  the  Iiulians  of  this  region. 
The  i\>lor  of  the  ^rvnuulwork  ot  the  v^^jibw:*  luats  is  the  natural 
browuish-yellow  of  the  drU\l  rushes^  and  pleasing  patterns  are  pro- 
duiHxi  iu  consivlerable  variety  by  weaving  in  rushes  d\-ed  in  various 
ivkxnj.  Both  Williams  and  Jc^sselvn  undoubtevUv  refer  to  mats 
which  were  woven  in  colors,  not  embroidenxl  or  painted.  This 
s|HX*uuen  is  of  special  interest,  as  it  is  pn.>bably  the  only  example 
extant  frv>m  New  England.  Mats  f a^m  Algonquian  tribes  in  general 
aiv  usually'  about  3  feet  wide  by  5  to  7  feet  long,  with  cross-stripes, 
k>aenge<:?hapeil  figures,  or  other  designs,  usually  in  red,  yeUow.  and 
black.  Although  coarser,  they  resemble  some  of  the  well-known 
coimuereial  floor-mattings  from  China  and  Japan. 
The  metal  object  which  lay  in  contact  with  the  skull  appears  to 


k 

■  ■ 

^ 

F- 

^^^^^■■^^■■i^^H^B 

e 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hjj^^^^^H 

! 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 

'  4 

^^^^^^^^^^^^HL   M^^^^HH^H 

^ 

^^^^^^^^^^rV^uK  ^^^^1 

1 

HHI 

I 

^Bki^^^hI 

1 

! 

^^^^^B^^HHoK^^ra 

1 

^BjRJ^^j^H 

1 

:i 

(U 

^Km                >  ^^B^^l 

1 

1               1 

g 

^^^^K,  '                                                     '^^^^^1 

* 

g 

^^^B^                          '"'^1^1 

S 

^^^^^^K  >                           ^^^^9 

1 

^^^^B 

1 
1 

HikHua.^        -^xi 

m 

AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  5 

Itave  been  a  basin  about  12  inches  in  diameter  and  3  inches  deep, 
made  from  sheetH;opper.  It  had  become  corroded  in  places  and  was 
broken  into  numerous  pieces.  The  largest  fragment  is  about  7  by 
4  inches.  Many  of  the  smaller  pieces  were  apparently  overlooked 
by  the  workmen.  The  edge  of  the  basin  was  not  turned  over  or 
wired,  but  was  roughly  cut  and  made  smooth,  probably  by  grind- 
ing. This  may  possibly  have  been  made  by  an  Indian  workman  by 
cutting  a  disc  of  the  proper  size  from  a  sheet  of  copper  and  beating 
it  into  concavo-convex  form.  Similar  lai^e  drinking  cups  of  this 
metal  were  seen  by  Brereton  in  possession  of  the  Indians  of  south- 
em  Massachusetts  in  1602. 

Gravel.  This  was  opened  by  Professor  Putnam.  It  was  30  inches 
deep,  and  contained  the  skeleton  of  a  man  in  a  flexed  position.  Ly- 


ing parallel  to  the  spinal  column,  in  the  position  shown  in  plate  2, 
was  a  much  corroded  implement  or  bar  of  iron,  231  inches  long,  |  of 
an  inch  wide,  and  }  of  an  inch  thick,  one  end  of  which  tapered  to  a 
chisel-like  edge. 

Over  this  implement  were  five  bone  points  and  an  incisor  of  a 
beaver  such  as  were  commonly  hafted  and  used  as  chisels  or  knives 
(figure  3).  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  was  another  group  of 
five  bone  points  and  a  second  beaver  tooth.  Both  groups  of  points 
are  illustrated  in  figure  4.  The  position  of  the  first  group  is  shown 
in  the  photograph.  It  seems  probable  that  these  points  were  all 
that  remained  of  two  groups  of  arrows.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the 
first  group  the  points  lay  nearly  parallel  with  each  other,  with  the 


6  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

tips  in  one  direction,  as  would  be  the  case  had  they  been  attached  to 
shafts.  The  relative  positions  of  the  individual  points  in  the  second 
group  are  not  recorded.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection 
that  the  Virginia  Indians  used  a  beaver  tooth,  properly  hafted,  for 
notching  the  feathered  end  of  their  arrow  shafts.' 

Many  varieties  of  arrowpoints  were  used  by  the  New  England 
Indians,  including  flint,  bone,  the  hollowed  tips  of  deer  antler,  e^e 
claws,  tails  of  the  horseshoe^rab,  and  triangular  points  of  sheet- 
brass.  At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  colonists,  sheet-brass  points 


had  almost  wholly  replaced  those  of  flint.  The  arrows  were  care- 
fully made.  Elder  twigs  were  a  favorite  wood  for  the  shaft,  into  one 
end  of  which  was  inserted  a  foreshaft  of  heavier  wood,  to  which  the 
point  was  attached. 

Higgeson,  writing  in  1629  of  the  arrows  of  this  region,  says  that 
some  were  headed  with  bone,  some  with  brass. ^  These  two  varieties 
of  arrowpoints  were  found  in  the  grave  we  are  describing.  The  one 
of  brass  had  caused  the  death  of  this  Indian.  It  was  found  half 
buried  in  the  forward  portion  of  one  of  the  lumbar  vertebrie,  and  is 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  7 

shown  in  position  in  figure  5.   The  arrow  bad  been  shot  into  the 
abdomen  as  the  Indian  was  facing  his  opponent. 

The  only  other  artifacts  recovered  were  a  bead-like  object  of 
abeet-copper,  one  end  somewhat  larger  than  the  other,  and  a  bone 
point  or  awl,  which  was  apparently  in  the  earth  used  for  filling  the 
grave. 

Grave  2.  This  was  di%  to  the  depth  of  2 j  feet  and  had  been  lined 
with  matting.  It  contained  the  fiexed  skeleton  of  a  woman.  At  its 
left  side  lay  an  unworked  shell  of  Fidgur  canaliculala,  a  species  not 


imcommon  on  the  Massachusetts  coast.  This  was  probably  used  as 
ft  drinking  cup  or  dipper  (figure  6).  About  a  foot  from  the  skull 
were  the  three  pottery  vessels  which  are  illustrated  in  figures  7  and 
8.  Near  the  left  shoulder  were  also  about  twenty  beads,  approxi- 
mately 4  inches  in  length  and  i  inch  in  diameter,  examples  of  which 
are  illustrated  in  figure  9,  and  also  what  appears  to  be  a  piece  of  a 
skin  garment  in  which  the  body  was  wrapped.  Each  bead  was  made 
of  a  section  of  a  twig,  probably  elder,  with  the  pith  removed,  and 
neatly  covered  with  thin  sheet-copper,  the  salts  of  which  had  pre- 
served the  two-ply  twisted  cord  with  which  the  beads  had  been 


INDIAN  BUaiAI,  PLACE 

fastened  together.  These  beads  had  not  been  strung  end  to  end 
as  a  necklace,  but  seem  to  have  been  fastened  aide  by  side  into  a 
sort  of  band,  similar  to  that  taken  from  the  Indian  skeleton  found 
near  Fall  River  in  1831,  and  later  made  famous  by  Longfellow  as 
the  skeleton  in  annor.  Beads  similar  to  these,  made  of  sheet-copper 
or  brass,  were  quite  common  among  the  New  England  Indians  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  many  have  been  taken  from  graves.  Sheets  of 


nuiiper  and  brass  were  undoubtedly  sold  to  the  Indians  of  this  re- 
gion by  European  fishermen  and  explorers  many  years  before  the 
arrivKl  of  the  colonists.  As  early  as  1524,  Verrazano  saw  many 
jilatvM  of  wrought  copper  in  possession  of  the  Indians  of  southern 
NewICngland.  These  were  undoubtedly  of  European  origin.  Brere- 
ton  ill  IW)2  Haw  among  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts: 

.  .  .  a  BWnl  Htore  of  Copper,  Bome  very  red,  and  some  of  a  paler  colour 
ILkCHWli  ikooo  iiT  thrnn  but  have  Chaines,  Eare-ringa,  or  Collars  of  this  metall; 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  9 

they  head  some  of  their  Arrows  herewith  much  like  our  broad  Arrow  heads, 
very  workmanly  made.  Their  Chaines  are  many  hollow  pieces  Bemented  to- 
cher, each  piece  o!  the  bignesse  of  one  of  our  reeds,  a  finger  in  length,  ten  or 
twelve  of  them  tc^ther  on  a  string,  which  they  weare  about  their  neekes:  their 
CoU&ra  they  weare  about  their  bodies  Uke  BandoUeres  a  handful!  broad,  all  hol- 
low pieces,  like  the  other,  but  somewhat  shorter,  foure  hundred  pieces  in  a  Col- 
lar, very  fioe  and  evenly  set  together.  Besides  these  they  have  large  drinkii^ 
cups  made  like  Sculls  [bowls],  and  other  thinne  plates  of  Copper,  made  much 
Uke  our  Boare-spear  blades,  all  of  which  they  so  little  esteeme  as  they  offered 


their  fairest  Collars  and  Chaines  for  a  Knife,  or  such  like  trifle,  but  we  seemed 
little  to  regard  it.' 

The  twisted  cord  oq  which  the  copper  beads  found  with  this 
skeleton  were  strung  is  larger  and  coarser  than  is  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  material  from  which  it  is  made  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  sinew. 

The  three  pottery  vessels  belong  to  the  later  Algonquian  group. 
The  clay  from  which  they  are  made  is  of  good  quality  and  is  tem- 
pered with  crushed  burnt  shell.  Cooking  vessels  having  nearly 
globular  bodies  like  these  were  usually  suspended  over  the  fire. 
The  older  pots  with  pointed  bottoms  belonging  to  the  archaic 
group  of  primitive  New  England  pottery,  sherds  of  which  are 
common  in  the  older  shell-heaps,  were  supported  by  hearth-stones 
or  were  set  a  few  inches  into  the  ground,  instead  of  being  sus- 
pended.  The  decoration  upon  these  three  vessels  is  characteristic 

1  Bnrtton,  Jc«nifilK/<7a(naU'(l'atNVe.  Mw>.  Hin.  Coll..  3dSciia,  vd.  Till,  p.  01. 


ui!  u  iiii-Miuf,  i/nt  fiwiii  Ui  imvit  \ti»ii  in-'.-. 
bniX  uf  huii'i,  biiiiihr  tAi  Uutt  tnkitn  fpuu  tli< 
iii'ui  I'ull  M)v<r  ill  IKil,  ari'l  laUir  iriadc  t'n: 
lilt; aki:|t.-l.itii  ill  lU'iJi'ir.  Ihwin Hiiiiiliir  to  thi.-' 
Ill  lij'itM,  wi'i'ir  (|ii)Ui  rimiliKili  niiiuug  the  N<' 
viuy  miiiy  iliiU«,  iind  rimiiy  Imvit  Imoii  Uiki'j 


.'.<--(  Sew  En^atid  In- 

ixiCUty.  The  euIieBt 

•  )<••  jlyr*rT"*"  tzilses 

'  ill&cp  aitm  inlaiul.  and 

>  or  iilMJI  fwipiinf  mrr  tide- 

'I  ihaM  aounes  shows  that 

III!  imintwri    Then  veasriB 

:.^  !4)|ppartad  by  a  tzipod  of 

.  u  ouMan  ao  inch  or  two  in  the 

.  'tmlrr*  aautfawud  along  our 

il»n  "  **"  '■**"'  "*'*  "*  ***^ 

.^Atertay  ikMi  Sntm-tilBBtP,  ttaey 
rSll— ■  Tilrr'-  gn"  ~—  '*•"  '*" 


is  11 

■nun  these  graves, 

,;■  led  necks,  seem  to 

i!y  for  .susp)ension  by 

.  1  lu-  rim,  to  which  cords 

.  inches  from  the  live  coals 

■  ■  luat,  without  obstructing 

I'urt's  Relation**  we  have  a 

■  (  ape  C'od  in  1620.    In  the 

.-•Air  fireplace,  where  were  found 

: 'k>i  knockt  into  the  ground  and 

ilif\v  hang  their  pots  and  what 

•■')  ilu'  earthenware  of  the  Indians  of 
~  lullows.   Gookin  in  1674  writes: 

i  III.  which  were  heretofore  and  vet  are  in  use 

of  clay  or  earth,  ahnost  in  the  form  of  an  egg 

.  w  1  hey  generally  get  kettles  of  brass,  eopper  or 

:  lasting  than  those  of  clay,  which  were  subject  to 

iith  they  were  made  of  was  ven-  scarce  and  dear.j 


;v  tts  of  divers  sizes,  from  quart  to  a  gallon,  2  or  3,  to 
;y  strong  though  they  be  thin  like  our  iron  pots.' 

■ .  [ )( >t  tery  in  use  along  the  Massachusetts  coast,  and 
.  1 1  he  natives  eat  Indian  com  they  boil  it  in  earthern 
>  y  make  in  a  different  way  from  ours."  * 
iv  New  England  potsherds  examined  by  the  writer, 
I  wo  show  indications  that  the  vessel  of  which  they 
■  t  (  may  have  been  made  by  the  coiling  process, 
loubtful  if  this  method,  so  common  in  the  West,  was 
!>•  ^reat  extent  by  the  northeastern  tribes.  The  following, 
i  l)y  Laverdi^re,  from  Sagard's  "History  of  Canada,"  writ- 
i^VMSy  doubtless  refers  to  Iroquoian  potters;  the  description 
,'ply  as  well  to  the  Algonquian  potters  of  New  England: 

nnl  o/thePilgrima  ot  Pigmouih  (London.  1A22).  Cbeever's  Reprint,  p.  39. 
>'  kin,  Mmb.  Hist.  ColL,  1st  Series.  voL  x.  p.  151. 
•  initia  Morton.  NtwEngUtk  Canaan  (1637),  Prince  Society  Reprint,  p.  159. 
'  '  'implain'§  Foyoffw,  PHnoe  Society  Reprint,  vol.  n.  p.  86. 


-  « 


12 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 


They  are  skilful  in  making  good  earthen  pots  which  they  hBrden  very  weU  on 
the  hearth,  and  which  are  bo  atroi^  that  they  do  not,  like  our  own,  break  over 
the  fire  when  having  no  water  in  them.  But  they  cannot  augtain  d&ini»ieaa  nor 
cold  wat«r  so  lonf;  as  our  own,  since  they  become  brittle  &nd  break  at  the  least 
shock  given  them-  otherwise  they  last  very  well.  The  savages  make  Uiem  hf 
taking  some  earth  of  the  right  kind,  which  they  clean  and  knead  well  in  thrir 
hands,  mixing  with  it,  on  what  principle  I  know  not,  a  small  quantity  of  gnue. 
Then  making  the  mass  into  the  shape  of  a  ball,  they  make  an  indentatioD  in  Um 
middle  of  it  with  the  fist,  which  they  make  continually  larger  by  striking  re- 


peatedly on  the  outside  with  a  little  wooden  paddle  as  much  as  is  necessary  to 
complete  it.  These  vessels  are  of  different  sizes,  without  feet  or  handles,  com- 
pletely round  like  a  ball,  excepting  the  mouth,  which  projects  a  little.' 

Grave  3.  Skeleton  of  a  child  about  one  year  old,  at  a  depth  of  2 
feet.   No  artifacts  were  found  with  it. 

Grave  4-  A  shallow  grave  containing  the  skeletons  of  a  man,  a 
woman,  and  two  children,  in  the  positions  shown  in  plate  3.  Frag- 
ments of  the  pottery  vessel,  illustrated  in  figure  10,  lay  near  the 

'  Champloin'i  VovxBa.  Prime  Soci«t>-  Reprint,  vot.  ii,  p.  S6,  note. 


i 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  13 

iiead  of  the  woman.  Beneath  her  head  were  80  blue  and  white  tu- 
bular glass  beads,  |  to  |  of  an  inch  long  and  of  various  diameters, 
*^lso  a  few  copper  beads  of  about  the  same  size.  There  were  also 
found  in  this  grave  148  white  beads  made  from  the  columella  of  oae 
of  the  larger  univalves,  probably  Fulffur  cartca  or  Fuigur  canalicii- 
i<tta,  and  a  few  small  discoidal  beads  of  mussel  shell  (plate  4).  The 
■^hite  beads  are  of  ancient  type  and  were  made  before  the  oommon 
^liite  and  purple  wampum  became  the  vogue  among  the  Indians  of 
^^ew  England  and  the  Middle  States.  This  later  commercial 
^VEunpum,  made  principally  from  the  shell  of  the  quahog,  was  in- 
troduced into  New  England  by  the  Dutch  about  1628. 

Grave  5.    A  much  decayed  skeleton  of  a  man  lay  2  feet  below 
tlxe  surface.   The  earth  at  this  point  was  less  sandy  than  the  other 


sections  of  the  cemetery,  and  the  dampness  caused  a  more  rapid 
disintegration  of  the  bones.  The  only  artifacts  found  were  a  few 
tubular  white  shell  beads  and  five  tubular  glass  beads  which  lay 
beneath  the  jaw. 

Graves  6  and  7.  Unearthed  by  workmen.  Exact  locality  unre- 
corded.  No  artifacts  found  with  skeletons. 

Grave  8,  Skeleton  of  man,  2  feet  below  the  surface,  in  the  usual 
flexed  position,  and  facing  southeast.  The  only  implement  re- 
covered was  a  bone  awl  lying  about  4  inches  back  from  the  verte- 
bral column. 

Grave  9.  This  contained  the  skeleton  of  a  child,  two  to  three 
years  old,  at  a  depth  of  14  inches,  and  judging  by  the  objects  found, 
it  must  have  been  a  girl.  Near  the  head  were  fragments  of  a  pot- 
tery vessel  of  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  one  illustrated  in 
figure  7;  also  the  antler  spoon  shown  in  figure  11.   Nearby  lay  the 


14 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 


stone  pestle  (figure  12)  with  its  upper  portion  carved  to  represent 
the  head  of  an  animal,  also  the  small  water-worn  stone  (figure  13) 

which  resembles  the  ordinary  polish- 
ing or  sharpening  stone  although  it 
shows  no  sign  of  use.  As  one  end  of  the 
stone  somewhat  resembles  an  animal 
head,  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  this 
may  have  been  a  toy.  Near  the  knees 
of  the  skeleton  was  found  the  small  pottery 
vessel  illustrated  in  figure  14.   This  also  was 
probably  a  toy.    The  only   other  artifact 
recovered  was  a  bone  point,  which  may  have 
been  thrown  into  the  grave  with  the  earth 
when  covering  the  body. 

The  pestle  is  of  considerable  interest  as  it 
represents  a  type  not  uncommon  among  the 
Algonquian  tribes  of  New  England  and  the 
eastern  sections  of  the  Middle  States,  but 
rare  in  the  adjacent  regions.  Although  no 
object  of  European  provenience  was  found 
in  this  grave,  the  burial  undoubtedly  belongs 
to  the  same  period  as  the  others  in  this 
cemetery,  which  would  indicate  that  pestles 
of  this  general  form,  with  or  without  the 
terminating  animal  head,  were  used  up  to 
about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Judging  from  the  collections  from 
Massachusetts  in  the  Peabody  Museum, 
about  five  per  cent  of  the  more  carefully 
wrought  stone  pestles  terminate  at  one  end 
in  a  knob  or  a  more  or  less  carefully  sculp- 
tured head  of  an  animal.  The  best  example 
of  this  type  known  to  the  writer  was  found 
in  the  Kennebec  Valley,  and  has  a  finely 
wrought  human  head  at  the  upper  extremity. 
These  pestles  are  of  various  lengths,  up  to 
about  28  inches,  and  are  commonly  about  2 
to  2^  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  usually  made  of  a  variety  of 
metamorphosed  slate,  and  are  generally  gray  or  greenish  in  color. 


Figure  12 

Stone  pestle.  Grave  9. 

(1/2.) 


FiiABODT  MceBUM  FipEna 


Vol.  XI,  No.  1,  Plate  4 


/ 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS 


15 

Tbey  were  probably  used  with  wooden  mortars  made  by  buniing  a 
hole  in  the  end  or  the  side  of  a  section  of  a  tree  trunk.  There  is  an 
old  Indian  mortar  and  pestle  from  Nantucket  in  the  Peabody  Mu- 
seum. The  mortar  is  made  from  a  section  of  an  oak  tree  trunk.  It 
IS  about  20  inches  high,  9  inches  in  diameter,  and  has  a  cavity  about 
lO  inches  deep.  This  is  probably  similar  to  the  larger  mortars  used 
'■u  prehistoric  times  in  New  England.  With  such  mortars  the  longer 


stone  pestles  were  probably  used.  It  is  also  probable  that  long 
■vvooden  pestles  similar  to  those  sfill  common  jamong  the  Algon- 
Cjuians  of  the  Great  Lakes  region  were  used  in  these  mortars  The 
J>estle  that  accompanies  the  old  mortar  above  mentioned  is  about 
30  inches  long,  and  is  of  wood  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  lower  portion,  which  consists  of  a 
short  piece  of  an  ancient  stone  pestle  fitted  to 
the  wooden  handle  and  bound  with  an  iron 
band.  The  smaller  stone  pestles  were  probably 
used  in  wooden  mortars  of  relative  size,  and 
were  doubtless  for  preparing  maize  foods, 
"medicine,"  and  other  substances 

Schoolcraft  figures,  on  plate  21  of  the  fourth 
volume  of  bis  work,  a  woman  grinding  com. 
There  is  an  ancient  stone  pestle,  with  a  head 
at  its  upper  end,  suspended  by  a  cord  from  the  Hmb  of  a  tree 
which  serves  as  a  spring-pole.  A  very  broad  and  shallow  mortar  of 
stone  is  shown  below.  In  connection  with  this  picture  are  two  views 
of  the  stone  pestle  drawn  to  a  much  larger  scale.  On  p^e  175,  un- 
der the  caption  "Relics  from  New  Hampshire,"  is  the  following 
reference  to  this  illustration: 

The  mode  of  pounding  maize  by  suspending  a  stone  pestle  from  the  limb  of 
a  tree  as  practised  by  the  ancient  Pennacooks  of  the  Merrimack  Valley  in  New 
Hampshire  is  represented  in  plate  21.  The  pestle  is  commonly  onuimented  by 


16  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

the  head  of  a  man  or  quadruped,  neatly  carved  from  greywacke,  or  compact 
sandstone,  the  mortar  being  also  of  the  same  material. 

This  reference  has  been  widely  quoted.  It  seems  apparent,  how- 
ever, that  Schoolcraft  was  describing  a  stone  pestle  found  in  the 
habitat  of  the  Pennacook  Indians  in  the  Merrimack  Valley  which 
he  figures  separately,  and  that  his  accompanying  drawing  showing 
a  woman  using  this  same  pestle  is  wholly  ideal.  Stone  mortars  of 
Indian  origin,  such  as  is  shown  in  this  drawing,  if  they  occur  at  all  in 
New  England,  are  extiemely  rare. 

Referring  previously  to  the  use  of  the  spring-pole  in  connection 
with  the  mortar  and  pestle,  Schoolcraft  says  (vol.  iii,  page  467) : 

After  the  introduction  of  the  iron  axe  consequent  on  the  discovery,  stumps 
of  trees  were  excavated  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  mortar,  a  practice  which  com- 


FlQURE    15 

Spoons:  the  larger  is  made  of  sheet-brass,  the  smaller  of  sheet-copper, 

Grave  10.     (1/2.) 

mended  itself  to  the  early  back  settlers  who  improved  on  the  idea  by  attaching 
the  wooden  pestle  to  a  spring-pole  loaded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lift  the  pestle 
from  the  block  with  but  little  effort. 

It  seems  doubtful,  therefore,  if  the  spring-pole  was  used  by  the 
New  England  Indians  in  ancient  times. 

Grave  10.  Skeleton  of  a  child  two  to  three  years  of  age,  probably 
a  boy.  Near  the  foot  of  the  grave  were  fragments  of  a  pottery  ves- 
sel. Near  the  extremity  of  the  forearm  lay  a  deposit  consisting  of 
two  spoons,  the  larger  made  of  sheet-brass  and  the  smaller  of  sheet- 
copper  (figure  15) ;  5  pendants  and  a  disc  having  two  perforations, 
all  of  sheet-brass  (figure  16) ;  a  terra-cotta  pipe  (figure  18) ;  the  rem- 
nants of  a  bag  of  coiled  netting  which  had  evidently  contained  the 
pipe;  and  what  may  have  been  the  remains  of  a  second  bag,  prob- 
ably of  dressed  skin,  which  perhaps  had  held  the  metal  spoons. 
With  these  objects  were  several  seeds,  resembling  those  of  a  variety 
of  the  CornuSy  having  the  ends  ground  down  to  the  cavity,  thus 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS 


17 


forming  a  perforation  for  the  purpose  of  stringing  for  use  as  beads. 
\^ith  the  skeleton  were  also  several  glass  beads,  both  blue  and 
'^vbite,  of  the  same  kind  as  those  shown  in  plate  4;  and  the  iron 
sk.dze  blade  illustrated  in  figure  17. 

Roger  Williams  says  that  "generally  all  the  [Indian]  men 
"fcliroughout  the  country  have  a  tobacco  bag  with  a  pipe  in  it  hang- 
xng  at  their  back."  It  was  doubtless  such  a  bag  which  was  placed  in 
"t^biB  grave.  It  was  of  coiled  netting  (figure  19),  a  style  of  fabric  used 
principally  for  bags  by  various  tribes  of  both  North  and  South 
.America,  and  also  found  among  the  natives  of  Africa  and  the  Pacific 
Islands.  The  foundation  for  the  mouth  of  these  bags  was  a  cord 
over  which  the  first  coil  of  the  bag  was  looped,  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  This  looped  coiling  was  continued  spirally  downward,  the 


lower  portions  of  the  bag  being  drawn  in  gradually  until  the  center 
of  the  bottom  was  reached.  The  texture  is  shown  more  open  in  the 
illustration  than  in  the  original,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  tech- 
nic  clearer.  This  is  the  first  record  of  the  occurrence  of  this  fabric 
among  the  natives  of  New  England. 

So  Uttle  remains  of  what  appears  to  be  a  second  b^  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell  the  material  of  which  it  was  made.  It  was  probably 
of  dressed  skin,  however,  and  was  apparently  ornamented  with 
the  brass  [>endants  and  disc  (figure  16);  beads  made  from  seeds; 
and  a  double  fringe  of  hair,  a  section  of  one  layer  of  which  is 
shown  in  figure  20. 

The  tobacco  pipe  is  of  a  type  evidently  fairly  common  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  probably  also  at  a  much 
earlier  date.  It  is  of  terrarcotta,  and  of  a  form  occurring  among  ihe 
eastern  Algonquians  from  Virginia  northward,  to  and  including  the 
southeastern  portion  of  New  England.  This  specimen  has  its  stem 


18  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

covered  with  a  piece  of  sheet-brass,  very  neatly  joined.  The  ma- 
jority of  these  pipes,  however,  are  without  this  metal  reinforce- 
ment. Gosnold  in  1602  saw  among  the  Indians  in  the  vicinity  of 
Buzzards  Bay,  southern  Massachusetts,  pipes  "steeled  with  cop- 
per. *'  Brereton's  account  is  more  explicit.  He  says: 

the  necks  of  their  pipes  are  made  of  clay,  hard  dried  .  .  .  the  other  part  is  a 
piece  of  hollow  copper  very  finely  closed  and  cemented  together.* 

This  is  a  very  good  description  of  the  pipe  from  this  burial. 
There  are  two  other  terra-cotta  pipes  in  the  Museum  from  Mas- 
sachuset  Indian  graves  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  having  bowls  also 
bound  with  sheet-brass.  It  is  probable  that  the  stems  of  both 
were  originally  covered  with  the  same  material,  for  one  still  retains 

a  narrow  band  of  brass  just  below  the 
bowl,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the 
other  had  evidently  been  cut  down 
to  fit  a  tapering  metal  stem. 
FiGURK  17  During  this  period,  stone  tobacco 

Itave^i^*  li/H  P^P®^  ^^^  figures  of  men  or  beasts 

in  relief  upon  them  were  also  in  use 
by  our  Indians.  This  is  shown  by  the  accounts  of  contemporary 
writers,  and  by  archaeological  investigations.  The  platform  pipe, 
however,  frequently  found  in  this  region  seems  to  belong  to  an 
earlier  period. 

The  two  spoons  found  near  the  bag  containing  the  pipe  were 
neatly  made,  the  larger  of  sheet-brass  and  the  smaller  of  sheet-cop- 
per. The  concavo-convex  form  of  the  bowls  may  have  been  pro- 
duced by  hammering  that  portion  of  the  unfinished  spoon  into  a 
corresponding  depression  in  a  block  of  wood  with  a  round-faced 
hammer  of  some  kind,  a  method  followed  by  our  sheet-metal  work- 
ers in  making  various  objects,  up  to  quite  recent  times.  The  edges 
of  the  spoons  are  ground  smooth.  If  they  were  originally  cut  with 
heavy  shears,  or  if  they  were  finished  with  a  file,  all  traces  seem  to 
have  been  removed  by  grinding.  The  edges  of  the  brass  pendants 
appear  to  have  been  finished  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  pendants  were  doubtless  produced  with  an  iron  punch, 
HH  the  bur  upon  the  under  side  is  very  marked.  The  copper  basin 
found  with  the  first  burial  described  was  doubtless  shaped  by  the 

»  Brcreton,  op.  cit.  p.  88. 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  19 

same  process  as  were  the  bowls  of  the  spoons.  The  metal  handles 
of  the  spoons  are  very  short,  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  they  were  origmally  attached  to  longer  handles  of  wood.  On 
the  whole,  it  seems  probable  that  the  basin  and  spoons  were  made 
by  Whites  who  possessed  only  crude  tools,  although  it  is  possible 
that  they  were  worked  out  of  sheet  metal  by  the  Indians. 

The  occasional  finding  of  tobacco  pipes  in  graves  of  young  chil- 
dren is  an  interesting  indication  of  the  affectionate  forethought  of 
the  parents  for  the  future  comfort  and  welfare  of  the  departed  boy. 
It  seems  to  indicate  a  belief  in  the  continued  growth  and  maturity 


Figure  18 

Teira-cotta  tobacco  pipe  with  stem  covered  with  sheet-brass  and 
wound  with  sinew,  Grave  10.     (2/3.) 

of  the  spirit,  for  it  is  hardly  probable  that  these  very  young  chil- 
dren were  users  of  tobacco  at  the  time  of  their  death. 

Throughout  the  century  following  the  discovery  of  Newfoimd- 
land  by  Cabot  in  1497,  ships  from  various  nations  of  Europe  visited 
the  northeastern  coast  of  America,  and  had  more  or  less  communi- 
cation with  the  natives.  Verrazano,  the  Florentine  explorer, 
reached  the  eastern  coast  of  America  in  1524,  and  turning  north- 
ward explored  the  bays  and  inlets  to  about  the  latitude  of  eastern 
Maine.  He  gives  an  accurate  account  of  the  Indians  of  southern 
New  England,  and  describes  their  habitations,  dress,  canoes,  agri- 
culture, etc.  He  writes  as  follows  of  the  copper  found  among  them : 

We  saw  many  plates  of  wrought  copper  which  they  esteem  more  than  gold, 
which  for  the  color,  they  make  no  account  of,  for  that  among  all  other  is  ac- 
counted the  basest.  They  make  most  account  of  azure  and  red.  The  things 
they  esteemed  most  of  all  those  which  we  gave  them  were  bells,  cr3rstals  of 
azure  color,  and  other  toys  to  hang  at  their  ears  and  about  their  necks.^ 

This  copper  must  have  been  obtained  from  previous  explorers  of 
whom  we  have  no  account;  for  although  an  occasional  implement 

>  Aclolum  of  John  Fcrrasano,  Hakluyt'e  Divers  Voyacet,  Hakluyt  Society  Reprint,  p.  65. 


20 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 


and  a  few  small  beads  have  been  found,  wrought  from  native  cop- 
per, nothing  in  the  way  of  metal  plates  or  lai^  beads  has  been  re- 
covered in  New  England  which  was  not  made  of  European  copper 
or  brass.  It  has  been  suggested  that  much  of  the  sheet  metal  was 
obtained  from  wrecked  ships.  It  seems  much  more  probable  that  it 
was  acquired  in  trade  with  the  early  fishermen  and  explorers,  many 
of  whom  undoubtedly  skirted  our  New  England  shores  in  the  six- 
teenth  century.  In  1535,  Cartier  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence.  Itap- 


Sectinn  at  layu  of  [rince. 

protwbly  >  part  ot  bac, 

OrȴB  10.     (1/1.) 

pears  that  the  English  trade  "out  of  England  to  Newfound  land 
was  common  and  frequented"  as  early  as  1548.' 

In  1578,  Anthonie  Parkhurst  wrote  a  letter  to  Richard  Hakluyt, 
a  portion  of  which  is  as  follows: 

Now  to  answer  some  part  ot  your  letter  touching  the  sundry  navies  that 
come  tj>  Newfoundland  or  Terra  nova,  for  fish:  you  shal  understand  that  some 
fish  not  neere  the  other  by  200.  leagues,  and  therefore  the  certaintie  is  not 
knowen;  and  some  yeres  come  many  more  than  other  some,  as  I  sec  the  like 
among  us:  who  since  my  first  travcll  l>eing  but  4.  yeeres,  are  increased  from  30. 
sayle  to  50.  which  commeth  to  passe  chiefly  by  the  imagination  of  the  Wcstcme 
men,  who  thinke  their  neighbours  have  had  greater  gaines  then  in  very  deed 
they  have,  for  that  they  see  me  to  take  such  paines  yeerely  to  go  in  proper  per- 
son: they  also  suppose  that  I  find  some  secret  commoditie  by  reason  that  I  doe 
seareh  the  harbors,  creekes  and  havens,  and  also  the  land  much  more  than  ever 
any  Englishman  hath  done.  Surely  I  am  glad  that  it  so  increaseth,  whereof 
soever  it  springeth.  But  to  let  (his  passe,  you  shall  understand  that  I  am  in- 
formed that  they  arc  above  100.  saile  of  Spaniards  that  come  to  take  Cod  be- 
sides 20.  or  30.  more  that  come  from  Biskaie  to  kill  WTiale  for  Traine.  These  be 
better  appoj-nted  for  shipping  and  furniture  of  munition,  then  any  nation  sav- 


■  HaiWt 


■  Voj/a^t4  fGlaoEOW  E 


>,  IBM),  vol.  V 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  21 

ing  the  Englishmen,  who  commonly  are  lords  of  the  harbors  where  they  fish, 
and  do  use  all  strangers  helpe  in  fishing  if  need  require,  according  to  an  old  cus- 
tome  of  the  countrey,  which  they  do  willingly,  so  that  you  take  nothing  from 
them  more  then  a  boat  or  twaine  of  salt,  in  respect  of  your  protection  of  them 
against  rovers  or  other  violent  intruders,  who  do  often  put  them  from  good  har- 
bor, &c.  As  touching  their  tunnage,  1  thinke  it  may  be  neere  five  or  sixe  thou- 
sand tunne.  But  of  Portugals  there  are  not  Ughtly  above  50.  saile,  whose  tun- 
nage may  amount  to  three  thousand  tuns,  and  not  upwarde.  Of  the  French 
nation  and  Britons,  are  about  one  hundred  and  fiftie  sailes,  the  most  of  their 
shipping  is  very  small,  not  past  fortie  tunnes,  among  which  some  are  great  and 
reasonably  well  appointed,  better  then  the  Portugals,  and  not  so  well  as  the 
Spaniards,  and  the  burden  of  them  may  be  some  7000.  tunne.  Their  shipping  is 
from  all  parts  of  France  and  Britaine,  and  the  Spaniards  from  most  parts  of 
Spaine,  the  Portugsds  from  Aviero  and  Viana,  and  from  2.  or  3.  ports  more. 
The  trade  that  our  nation  hath  to  Island  maketh,  that  the  EngUsh  are  not  there 
in  such  numbers  as  other  nations.^ 

From  the  above  we  leam  that  at  this  date  there  were  evidently 
nearly  400  European  vessels  engaged  in  taking  fish  or  whales,  and 
probably  a  portion  of  them  incidentally  trading  for  furs,  in  an  area 
600  miles  in  diameter  in  the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland  and  Cape 
Breton.  The  New  England  coast  was  doubtless  within  this  600 
mile  area,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  it  was 
visited  by  many  of  these  ships  and  that  there  was  more  or  less  inter- 
course between  these  vessels  and  the  natives.  This  seems  to  be  the 
most  reasonable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  quantities  of  cop- 
per and  brass  objects  recorded  by  early  writers  as  in  possession  of 
the  Indians  of  this  region,  and  it  doubtless  explains  their  presence  in 
early  proto-historic  graves  of  the  tidewater  region.  It  may  also  ex- 
plain the  presence  of  certain  unusual  forms  of  porcelain  and  glass 
beads. 

In  September,  1907,  the  attention  of  the  writer  was  called  to  the 
finding  of  an  Indian  cemetery  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  in  Ipswich, 
Ma43sachusetts,  where  the  land  was  being  graded.  One  or  two  graves 
were  uncovered,  and  with  the  burials  were  found  a  terra-cotta  pipe 
similar  to  the  one  illustrated  in  figure  18,  but  without  the  brass 
binding  on  the  stem;  a  bracelet  of  small  beads  of  sheet-copper 
strung  alternately  with  blue  glass  beads;  a  necklace  of  small  white 
porcelain  beads  of  oval  form;  and  the  bronze  brazier  shown  in  figure 
21.   Only  a  few  fragments  of  bone  were  recovered. 

Obtaining  permission,  in  behalf  of  the  Museum,  of  the  owner  of 

1  HaUuyVB  Voyagea  (Glasgow  Edition,  1904).  vol.  vxu,  pp.  9-11. 


22 


INDIAN  BURL\L  PLACE 


the  estate,  Mr,  F.  B.  Harrington,  investigations  were  carried  on  at 
the  burial  place  for  several  days.  A  few  additional  graves  were 
opened,  but  no  artifacts  were  found.  In  each  of  these  graves  the 
skeletons  had  disintegrated,  leaving  nothing  but  a  whitish  paste  in 
the  damp  soil  in  place  of  the  bones.  This,  upon  drying,  turned  to 
powder.  Not  a  tooth  was  recovered.  The  bodies  had  been  interred 
in  a  soil  composed  largely  of  clay,  which  allowed  the  water  to 


B 

n 

^^^^^^Vf> 

■ 

^^^^^^1 

^■^1 

■ 

percolate  but  slowly;  consequently  the  disintegration  of  the  bones 
was  probably  more  rapid  than  it  would  have  been  had  they  been 
buried  in  sand  or  gravel. 

Not  being  able  to  determine  the  provenience  of  the  brazier  from 
collections  in  our  colonial  museums,  inquiries  were  made  at  the 
British  Museum,  at  the  Museum  at  Hull,  England,  and  at  the 
Museo  de  Anthropologia,  Madrid.  No  reply  has  come  from 
Madrid.    From  the  first  institution,  the  following  was  received: 


J 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  23 

We  have  two  or  three  bronze  (not  brass)  braziers  with  a  general  similarity  to 
the  one  of  which  you  enclose  a  photograph.  One  has  projections  rising  from 
the  rim  in  a  similar  manner,  presumably  to  support  a  vessel  placed  above,  but 
they  have  no  curves  and  are  not  so  "spiky."  We  have  no  precise  data  to  help 
U.S  in  dating,  but  regard  our  specimens  as  late  15th  or  early  16th  Century. 

From  the  Hull  Museum  we  received  the  following: 

In  reply  to  your  letter  of  the  5th  instant,  the  object  shown  on  the  photograph 
seems  to  be  a  brazier,  is  probably  late  16th  Century  in  date,  and  appears  to  be  of 
Spanish  origin. 

If  the  last  identification  is  correct,  the  specimen  must  have  been 
obtained  from  a  Spanish  or  Portuguese  ship  which  communicated 
with  the  Massachuset  Indians  during  the  latter  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

No  exhaustive  study  has  been  made  of  the  various  types  of  glass 
and  porcelain  beads  which  have  been  recovered  from  Indian  graves 
of  eastern  New  England.  When  this  is  done  it  may  throw  addi- 
tional light  on  the  intercourse  of  the  natives  with  the  sixteenth 
century  fishermen  and  traders. 

Previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  colonists,  the  most  valued  articles 
obtained  from  the  Whites  were  probably  glass  beads,  and  sheet-cop- 
per and  brass.  There  seems  to  be  no  evidence  that  European  cloth 
was  sold  to  the  Indians  during  this  period.  After  the  colonists  be- 
came established,  many  well-made  brass  and  copper  kettles  of  vari- 
ous sizes  and  forms  were  obtained  by  barter,  in  addition  to  sheets  of 
these  metals,  which  were  still  in  demand.  The  Indians  also  were 
able  to  procure  European  cloth,  cast  brass  spoons,  glassware,  crock- 
ery, etc.,  and  an  occasional  object  of  pewter,  all  of  which  have  been 
found  in  graves  dating  about  1625  to  1670. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  a 
considerable  change  took  place  in  the  burial  customs  of  this  section, 
especially  among  the  so-called  Christianized  Indians,  and  most  of 
such  graves  which  have  been  opened  contain  no  artifacts  and  the 
skeletons  are  usually  in  a  horizontal  position. 

The  long  cultivation  of  the  fields  of  this  Commonwealth,  the 
grading  of  lands,  and  the  many  excavations  preliminary  to  building 
houses  and  roads,  have  brought  to  light  relatively  few  Indian 
graves  as  compared  with  many  sections  of  this  country.  These 
graves  have  usually  been  found  singly  or  in  small  groups,  and  many 


24 


INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 


were  without  artifacts.  Their  discovery  has  usually  been  under 
conditions  which  did  not  allow  careful  investigation  by  experienced 
excavators,  therefore  it  is  hoped  that  the  foregoing  account  will 
prove  of  special  value  to  those  interested  in  the  archaeology  of  oiu- 
northern  Atlantic  seaboard. 


Knife  with  antler  handle,  and  blade  probably 
made  from  a  piece  of  brass  kettle.  Found  with 
an  Indian  skeleton  on  Hermon  Street,  Winthrop, 
in  1886.  The  handle  is  of  a  tyi>e  originally  used 
for  flint  blades.     (1/2.) 


NOTES  ON  THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

By  earnest  A.  HOOTON 

These  remains  from  the  Winthrop  cemetery  consist  of  incom- 
plete skeletons  of  seven  adult  males,  four  adult  or  sub-adult  fe- 
males, and  five  infants.  Two  of  the  skeletons  of  males  are  well 
preserved,  as  is  also  the  skeleton  of  one  female.  But  none  of  them 
is  complete.  Several  skeletons  are  represented  only  by  calvariae  or 
skull  fragments. 

In  connection  with  the  cranial  measurements  and  indices,  the 
most  important  morphological  features  of  the  various  crania  are 
described.  Following  this,  a  brief  consideration  of  the  salient  char- 
acters of  the  long  bones  accompanies  the  table  recording  their 
measurements  and  indices. 

60380 J  Grave  1.  This  is  the  skeleton  of  a  young  adult  male.  The 
brain  case  is  of  good  size  and  very  dolichocephalic  (71 .4) .  It  is  also 
hypsicephalic  (75.0)  and  akrocephalic  (105.1).  The  frontal  region 
is  of  medium  breadth,  but  low  and  retreating;  the  sagittal  region 
has  a  very  pronounced  median  elevation ;  the  temporal  regions  are 
flat,  with  moderate  supramastoid  crests,  and  the  occipital  region 
is  moderately  convex,  and  has  a  slight  torus. 

The  serration  of  the  sutures  is  simple,  and  obliteration  has  begun 
externally  only  in  the  obelion  region  of  the  sagittal  suture.  There 
are  a  few  small  Wormian  bones  in  the  lambdoid  suture,  and  one  in 
each  of  the  squamous  sutures.  There  is  also  a  very  small  bone  in 
the  right  side  of  the  coronal.  The  pterions  are  of  the  usual  medium 
H-form,  and  there  are  no  parietal  foramina.  One  small  right  re- 
tromastoid  foramen,  and  one  small  and  one  medium  left  foramen 
were  observed.    The  mastoids  are  of  mediimi  size. 

The  brow-ridges  are  large  and  divided  into  median  and  lateral 
portions.  There  is  a  moderate  depression  at  nasion.  The  nasal 
bridge  is  narrow,  of  medium  height,  and  concavo-convex  in  profile. 
The  moderately  broad  nasal  aperture  shows  lower  borders  of  fair 
development  and  a  large  nasal  spine.  The  orbits  are  low  and 
broad,  with  a  medium  inclination  of  their  horizontal  axes.    There 

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AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  27 

The  nasal  aperture  is  broad,  with  a  moderate  development  of  the 
lower  borders  and  the  nasal  spine.  The  orbits  are  low  and  oblong 
in  shape,  with  the  horizontal  axes  slightly  inclined.  There  are  no 
infraorbital  sutures,  and  the  suborbital  fossae  are  shallow.  The 
malars  and  zygomata  are  large,  but  alveolar  prognathism  is  slight. 

The  dentition  is  complete, and  the  teeth  are  moderately  worn  and 
of  fair  quality.  Several  abscesses,  caries,  and  traces  of  pyorrhoea 
are  evident.  The  number  of  cusps  of  the  molar  teeth  cannot  be 
counted,  nor  is  it  possible  to  ascertain  the  presence  or  absence  of 
shovel  incisors.  The  palate  is  parabolic  in  shape,  with  a  moderate 
torus.  The  glenoid  fossae  are  of  medium  depth  and  show  a  medium 
postglenoid  process.  The  styloids  are  small.  The  middle  lacerate 
foramina  are  large,  and  the  depression  of  the  petrous  portions  of 
the  temporal  bones  is  about  the  average  for  Europeans.  The  pos- 
terior lacerate  and  postcondyloid  foramina  are  ordinary.  The 
foramen  magnum  is  hexagonal.  Partially  formed  pterygo-spinous 
foramina  are  present. 

The  mandible  is  large,  with  a  well-developed  mental  process. 
The  mylo-hyoid  ridge  is  submedium  in  development,  but  the  genial 
tubercles  are  average.  Slight  traces  of  a  mandibular  torus  may  be 
noticed. 

6037 9 y  Unearthed  by  workmen.  The  calvaria  is  that  of  a  middle- 
aged  male.  The  frontal  breadth  is  very  narrow,  and  the  maximum 
breadth  occurs  at  the  level  of  the  parietal  tuberosities.  The  skull 
is  high,  short,  and  of  rather  small  breadth.  It  is  subbrachycephalic 
(78.09),  and  appears  to  be  the  result  of  the  admixture  of  a  doUcho- 
cephalic  element  with  a  brachycephalic  element. 

The  frontal  region  is  of  medium  height,  but  narrow  and  very  re- 
ceding. In  the  sagittal  region  there  is  a  slight  median  elevation  and 
a  slight  postcoronoid  depression.  The  temporal  region  is  protube- 
rant, with  a  slight  supramastoid  crest.  The  occiput  shows  a  moder- 
ate convexity. 

The  sutures  are  simple  in  serration.  The  sagittal  suture  is  about 
one-half  obliterated,  and  occlusion  has  begun  in  the  coronal.  The 
lambdoid  suture  is  open.  There  is  an  apex  bone  in  this  suture  and  a 
small  Wormian  bone  in  the  right  squamous  suture.  The  pterions 
are  of  the  usual  H-form.  One  small  parietal  foramen  occurs  on  the 
right  side,  and  two  medium  retromastoid  foramina  on  the  left  side. 
The  mastoids  are  of  medium  size.  The  brow-ridges  are  moderately 


28  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

developed  and  confined  to  the  medial  portions  of  the  orbits.   The 
facial  portion  is  missing. 

The  glenoid  fossae  are  of  medium  depth  and  there  are  no  post- 
glenoid  processes.  The  base  of  the  skull  shows  no  unusual  features. 
There  is  a  medium  sized  dehiscence  in  the  floor  of  the  left  auditory 
meatus.  The  mandible  is  of  medium  development  and  size,  except 
that  the  mylo-hyoid  ridges  and  genial  tubercles  are  poorly  marked. 

45651 J  Unearthed  by  workmen.  This  is  the  partially  mununified 
skull  of  a  young  adult  male  subject.  The  scalp,  hair,  and  integu- 
ment are  preserved  on  the  right  half  of  the  cranium.  This  condi- 
tion is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  skull  was  covered  with  a 
brass  vessel,  for  the  mummified  tissues  and  the  adjacent  bony  parts 
show  green  copper  stains.  The  skull  is  subbrachycephalic  (79.35), 
hypsicephalic  (81.52),  and  akrocephalic  (102.74). 

The  frontal  region  of  the  skull  is  mediiun  in  height,  breadth,  and 
slope.  The  sagittal  region  shows  a  slight  median  elevation.  The 
temporal  regions  are  rather  flat.  The  occipital  region  is  steep,  with 
traces  of  a  torus.  The  sutures  are  simple,  and  obliteration  has  be- 
gun dorsally  in  the  pterion  regions.  The  half  of  the  skull  uncovered 
shows  no  Wormian  bones.  The  left  side  shows  one  large,  one 
medium,  and  one  small  retromastoid  foramen,  and  the  mastoid 
process  is  of  medium  size. 

The  brow-ridges  are  limited  to  the  median  halves  of  the  supraor- 
bital region  and  show  average  development.  The  nasion  depression 
is  slight.  The  nasal  bridge  is  low,  of  medium  breadth,  and  concavo- 
convex  in  profile.  The  nasal  aperture  is  broad,  with  indistinct 
lower  borders  and  a  small  spine.  There  are  traces  of  subnasal 
grooves.  The  orbits  are  oblong,  with  no  inclination  of  their  hori- 
zontal axes.  On  the  left  side  an  infraorbital  suture  is  about  one-half 
complete.  The  suborbital  fossae  are  medium;  the  malars  and 
zygomata  are  large.   Alveolar  prognathism  is  very  slight. 

The  dentition  is  complete, and  the  wear  of  the  teeth  is  slight.  The 
teeth  are  of  good  quality.  The  cusps  of  the  upper  molars  show  a 
4-3-3  formula,  and  the  lower  molars  5-4-?.  The  third  molars  are 
much  reduced  in  size.  Traces  of  shovel  incisors  may  be  observed. 
Observations  and  measurements  on  the  palate  and  teeth  are  in- 
complete, because  the  mandible  cannot  be  disarticulated  without 
destroying  the  mummified  tissues.  The  palate  is  parabolic,  with  a 
slight  torus.  The  glenoid  fossae  are  deep,  with  marked  postglenoid 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  29 

processes.  The  styloids  are  rudimentary.  The  other  features  of  the 
skull  base,  so  far  as  observable,  are  ordinary.  Incomplete  pterygo- 
spinous  foramina  are  present. 

The  mandible  is  large,  with  a  prominent  chin,  and  a  medium  de- 
velopment of  other  morphological  features. 

The  hair  preserved  is  straight  and  black,  but  rather  fine  in  qual- 
ity. The  interior  of  the  skull  still  contains  the  dried  mass  of  the 
brain  tissues. 

60377 J  Unearthed  by  workmen.  Fragmentary  calvaria  of  a  mid- 
dle-aged male.  The  length-breadth  index  is  subdolichocepha- 
lic  (75.81).  The  frontal  region  is  of  mediiun  breadth,  but  low  and 
retreating.  The  sagittal  region  has  a  slight  median  elevation.  The 
temporal  region  is  moderately  convex,  as  is  also  the  occipital 
region.  The  sutures  are  simple  in  serration.  The  sagittal  suture  is 
half  obliterated,  and,  in  the  coronal,  obliteration  has  begun  in  the 
lateral  portions.  The  lambdoid  suture  also  shows  beginnings  of  ex- 
ternal obliteration.  There  are  no  Wormian  bones.  Two  very  small 
parietal  foramina  are  found  on  the  right  side,  and  there  are  one 
small  right  and  two  small  left  retromastoid  foramina.  The  mas- 
toids are  of  medium  size,  but  the  brow-ridges  are  small  and  divided 
into  medial  and  lateral  portions.  The  facial  portion  is  fragmentary. 
The  nasal  aperture  is  broad.  It  has  no  lower  borders;  the  nasal 
floor  slopes  off  into  an  alveolar  clivus  without  definite  transition. 
The  nasal  spine  is  rudimentary.  The  orbits  are  oblong,  low,  and 
horizontal.  There  are  no  infraorbital  sutures.  The  suborbital 
fossae  are  shallow.  There  is  a  moderate  degree  of  alveolar  progna- 
thism. 

The  dentition  is  complete  and  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  are  mark- 
edly worn.  Three  molars  have  been  lost  in  life,  and  there  are  traces 
of  five  alveolar  abscesses,  but  the  general  quality  of  the  teeth  is 
good.  The  cusps  cannot  be  coimted.  Evidently  the  third  molars 
are  much  reduced  in  size.  The  palate  is  of  the  usual  parabolic 
shape.  The  base  of  the  skull  shows  a  medium  development  in  all 
featm-es. 

The  mandible  is  large  and  heavy,  with  thick  everted  gonial 
angles  and  extensive  attachments  of  masticatory  muscles.  The 
mental  prominence  is  submediiun  in  development.  Other  features 
are  ordinary. 


»T    ■ 


•*  -u  :;  J.VU  oe**R  aoousiai 
«,-  i»  nr  •  le  ■•aiv 


•jr  .mimisri 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS 


31 


ble  ventral  occlusion.  There  are  a  few  small  Wormian  bones  in  the 
lambdoid  suture.  There  are  no  parietal  foramina,  and  the  mastoid 
processes  are  rather  small.  The  brow-ridges  are  of  medium  size  and 
iivided  into  median  and  lateral  portions.  The  facial  portion  is  de- 
tached and  fragmentary.  On  the  right  side  is  a  complete  infraorbi- 
tal suture.  The  malars  are  large,  but  the  zygomata  show  only 
medium  development.  The  dentition  is  complete  and  moderately 
nrom.  The  teeth  are  of  fair  quality,  showing  a  few  caries  and  traces 
3f  several  alveolar  abscesses.  The  cusp  formula  of  the  lower  molars 
is  5-5-4.    The  mandible  is  large,  with  a  prominent  mental  process, 

CRANIAL  INDICES 


I^taloffue  ntimber 60S80 

Male 


Sex 


•0S88 

Male 


60S79 

Male 


45661 

Male 


Lencth-Breadth 
Hacht-Length  . 
Bocht-Breadth 
!!?raiual  Module 
rotal  Facial    ... 

[Jpper  Facial 

Qnathic 

>bital:  right  . . 
left  ... 

Snaal  Index    

Pfelato-Maxillary 


71.35 

75.00 

105.11 

157.6 

85.71 

53.74 

93.69 

78.89 

78.89 

44.83 

120.69 


72.19 

74.87 

103.70 

154.00 

89.19 

51.35 

91.23 

78.26 

78.26 

51.92 

118.03 


78.09 
77.53 
99.28 
151.6 

? 

? 

? 


79.35 
81.52 
102.74 
160.0 
83.57 
50.00 
96.26 

t 

74.36 
52.94 


60S77 

603M 

S6M9 

Male 

Female 

Female 

1 

(75.81) 

79.64 

78.70 

85.03 

81.07 

106.76 

103.01 

147.3 

146.3 

88.71 

? 

54.84 

? 

95.15 

99.02 

81.58 

? 

84.93 

97.74 

47.06 

50.00 

117.24 

120.75 

111.32 

60S78 


78.65 
76.40 
97.14 
151.3 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 


I  well-marked  mylo-hj'^oid  ridge,  but  small  genial  tubercles.  The 
ganial  angles  are  everted. 

60387 J  Grave  5,  These  are  fragments  of  the  skull  of  a  middle- 
Eiged  male.  The  teeth  are  well  worn.  The  palate  shows  a  well-de- 
veloped torus.  The  fragmentary  mandible  was  large,  with  promi- 
nent mental  process  and  strongly  everted  gonial  angles.  The 
mylo-hyoid  ridge  and  genial  tubercles  are  poorly  developed.  The 
fragments  show  strong  muscular  attachments.  No  measurements 
could  be  taken,  nor  were  suflBcient  portions  preserved  to  permit 
repair  of  the  skull. 

60384,  Grave  4,  Western  skeleton.  Skeleton  of  a  sub-adult  female 
about  eighteen  years  of  age. 

The  skull  is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  The  frontal  region  is 
narrow  and  of  medium  height  and  slope.  There  is  a  slight  median 
frontal  crest.    The  sagittal  region  is  moderately  arched,  with  a 


32  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

slight  postcoronoid  depression.  The  skull  is  rather  narrow.  It  is 
subbrachycephalic  (69.64),  hypsicephalic  (85.03),  and  akrocephalic 
(106.76).  The  temporal  region  is  rather  flat,  and  the  occipital  curve 
is  steep.  The  sutures  are  of  a  simple  pattern  and  have  remained 
open.  There  are  no  Wormian  bones.  The  pterions  are  a  narrow  H  in 
shape,  and  there  is  but  one  small  left  parietal  foramen.  One  medium 
retromastoid  foramen  is  found  on  each  side,  and  the  mastoid 
processes  are  small. 

The  brow-ridges  are  imdeveloped,  and  there  is  no  nasion  depres- 
sion. The  nasal  bridge  is  low,  of  medium  breadth,  and  concavo- 
convex.  The  nasal  aperture  is  of  medium  breadth,  with  dull  lower 
borders  and  a  small  spine.  The  orbits  are  oblong  and  horizontal, 
and  there  are  no  infraorbital  sutures.  Suborbital  fossae  are  shal- 
low, malars  of  medium  size,  and  zygomata  small.  There  is  a  moder- 
ate alveolar  prognathism.  The  dentition  is  complete,  the  teeth  of 
excellent  quality  and  but  slightly  worn.  The  molar  cusp  formula  is 
^.  Shovel-shaped  incisors  are  present.  There  is  but  one  caries, 
and  one  alveolar  abscess.  On  account  of  reduction  and  rotation  of 
the  third  molars,  the  palate  is  elliptical  in  shape,  with  a  slight  torus. 
The  glenoid  fossae  are  of  medium  depth,  with  traces  of  the  post- 
glenoid  tubercle.  The  styloids  are  undeveloped.  The  middle  lacer- 
ate foramina  are  small,  but  the  petrous  parts  show  a  moderate  de- 
pression. The  posterior  lacerate  foramina  are  large.  There  are  no 
other  features  of  the  skull  base  of  particular  note,  except  that  post- 
condyloid  foramina  are  absent  and  there  are  no  dehiscences  in  the 
floor  of  the  auditory  meatus.  The  mandible  is  of  medium  size,  but 
with  a  rather  low  and  broad  ascending  ramus  and  a  shallow  sigmoid 
notch. 

60381 ,  Grave  2,  Fragmentary  skull  of  a  young  adult  female.  Al- 
though measurements  cannot  be  taken,  the  subject  was  certainly 
dolichocephalic.  The  frontal  region  shows  medium  height,  breadth, 
and  slope.  The  calvaria  is  narrow  in  the  sagittal  region  and  shows 
a  slight  postcoronoid  depression.  The  temporal  regions  are  flat  and 
the  occiput  is  protuberant.  The  sutures  are  simple  in  pattern  and 
obliteration  has  not  begim.  There  are  no  Wormian  bones,  no  parie- 
tal or  retromastoid  foramina.  The  pterions  are  of  the  usual  H-form. 
The  mastoid  processes  are  small.  There  is  a  medium  development 
of  the  supraorbital  ridges,  which  are  divided  into  median  and  lat- 
eral portions.  No  depression  occurs  at  nasion.  The  nasal  bridge  is 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  33 

broken  away.  The  nasal  aperture  is  of  medium  breadth,  with  sharp 
lower  borders  and  a  medium-sized  spine.  Traces  of  subnasal 
grooves  were  noticed.  The  orbits  approximate  to  a  square  form  and 
show  slight  inclination  of  their  horizontal  axes.  Malars  and  zy- 
gomata are  broken.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  moderate  degree  of 
alveolar  protrusion. 

The  dentition  is  complete,  and  the  teeth  are  but  slightly  worn. 
The  quality  is  fair.  The  dental  cusp  formula  for  molars  is  ^ . 
There  are  no  shovel-shaped  incisors.  Four  alveolar  abscesses  have 
left  their  traces  in  the  dental  arch.  The  palate  is  parabolic,  with  a 
high  roof.  The  glenoid  fossae  are  of  medium  depth  and  have  no 
postglenoid  processes.  Styloids  are  undeveloped.  The  skull  base  is 
fragmentary,  and  the  vault  has  suffered  considerable  post-mortem 
deformation.  The  mandible  is  of  medium  size  and  shows  poor  de- 
velopment of  the  mylo-hyoid  ridge  and  the  genial  tubercles. 

56669,  Unearthed  by  workmen.  This  is  the  calvarium  of  a  yoimg 
adult  female.  Its  description  is  very  similar  to  that  of  No.  60384. 
It  is  also  subbrachycephalic  (78.70),  hypsicephalic  (81.07),  and 
akrocephalic  (103.01).  In  features  of  the  skull  vault  it  is  almost 
identical  with  the  previously  described  female  skull.  The  orbits, 
however,  are  high  and  rounded;  the  suborbital  fossae  are  pro- 
nounced and  there  is  marked  alveolar  prognathism.  Most  of  the 
teeth  have  dropped  out,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  dentition  was 
complete  and  that  the  third  molars  were  much  reduced.  Traces 
of  one  alveolar  abscess  were  noted.  The  palate  is  parabolic.  The 
base  of  the  skull  presents  the  usual  low  relief  found  in  the  crania  of 
female  Indians.   There  is  no  accompanying  mandible. 

60378,  Unearthed  by  workmen.  Skeleton  of  a  middle-aged  female. 
The  facial  portion  of  the  skull  is  broken  away  and  the  mandible  is 
fragmentary.  The  calvaria  is  subbrachycephalic  (78.65),  hypsi- 
cephalic (76.40),  and  metriocephalic  (97.14).  It  is  of  good  size 
and  capacity  (1410  cc).  The  morphological  features  are  those 
of  an  average  Indian  female,  with  points  of  sex  distinction  well 
marked. 

60385,  Grave  4-  These  are  the  bones  of  the  "child  nearest  the 
mother."  Since  the  milk  dentition  is  complete  the  child  must  have 
been  twenty  months  to  three  years  of  age. 

60386,  Grave  4-  These  are  the  bones  of  the  "infant  by  the  side 
of  the  other  child."  In  this  case  also  the  milk  dentition  is  complete. 


34  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

The  child  was  then  within  the  limits  of  age  stated  in  the  case  of  the 
preceding  subject. 

60383y  Grave  3.  Bones  of  an  infant.  The  first  milk  molar  is 
erupted  but  the  second  is  unerupted.  The  age  of  the  infant  was 
then  twelve  to  twenty-one  months. 

60382,. Grave  10,  Bones  of  a  child.  The  first  lower  milk  molar 
has  erupted,  the  lower  canine  is  almost  erupted,  and  the  second 
milk  molar  is  unerupted.  The  age  of  the  child  at  death  was  prob- 
ably between  sixteen  and  twenty-four  months.  The  orbits  of  this 
child  show  somewhat  dubious  traces  of  synmietrical  osteop)orosis. 
This  is  a  nutritional  disease  of  obscure  nature,  especially  common 
in  crania  of  Peruvian  and  Central  American  Indians.  The  writer 
has  seen  it  in  ancient  Indian  crania  from  the  Southwest;  but  has 
never  before  observed  it  in  crania  of  Eastern  Indians. 

60389 y  Grave  9.  Skeleton  of  a  child.  The  milk  dentition  is 
complete  and  shows  a  certain  amount  of  wear.  The  child  was  aged 
three  to  five  years.  Here  again  the  left  orbit  shows  signs  of  an 
osteoporitic  condition. 

Long  Bones 

The  femora  of  this  series  display  ordinary  Indian  characteristics 
and  do  not  merit  individual  descriptions.  The  middle  shaft  section 
is  usually  prismatic,  the  linea  aspera  is  well  developed,  and  there  is 
a  marked  pilastter.  Curvature  is  medium.  Some  form  of  a  third 
trochanter  is  generally  present.  Platymeria  is  pronounced.  Tor- 
sion of  the  femoral  head  is  medium  to  pronounced. 

The  tibiae  have  strongly  retroverted  heads.  The  external  tibial 
condyle  is  usually  more  or  less  convex.  Platycnemia  is  marked. 
The  shaft  form  is  usually  a  lateral  prism.  ''Squatting  facets''  on 
the  anterior  lip  of  the  inferior  articular  surface  are  usual. 

The  other  long  bones  present  no  features  of  special  interest. 

The  long  bones  of  three  male  skeletons  and  three  female  skeletons 
were  sufficiently  preserved  to  permit  their  utilization  for  the  cal- 
culation of  stature.  For  this  purpose  the  well-known  formulae  of 
Pearson  have  been  utilized.^ 

The  tibio-femoral  index  in  this  group,  as  in  many  other  Indian 
groups,  is  extremely  high.   Stature  calculated  on  the  tibiae,  conse- 

*  Pearson,  Karl,  On  the  Reconstruction  of  the  Stature  of  Prehistoric  Races,  Philosophical 
Trans.  192.  A.  1899,  p.  196. 


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36  INDIAN  BURIAL  PLACE 

quently,  is  somewhat  higher  than  when  calculated  from  the  lengths 
of  other  long  bones.  In  the  present  instance,  fonnulae  utilizing  the 
lengths  of  both  femur  and  tibia  have  been  utilized,  or,  when  neces- 
sary, the  mean  stature  has  been  deduced  from  the  results  arrived  at 
by  using  formulae  for  separate  bones. 

No.  60380,  an  extremely  dolichocephalic  male,  must  have  had  a 
stature  in  life  of  about  171.5  cm.  On  the  basis  of  femora  the  stature 
of  this  subject  is  168.5,  but  the  tibia  yields  a  stature  of  174.4  cm. 

No.  60388,  another  dolichocephalic  male,  was  about  174.3  cm. 
tall.  Here  again  the  tibia  yields  too  high  a  stature  (175.1  cm.).  No. 
60377,  a  mesocephalic  male,  had  a  much  lower  stature,  only  163.6 
cm.,  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  femur.  The  tibiae  are  missing.  If 
these  had  been  present  the  estimate  of  stature  would  have  been 
raised  to  about  165  cm. 

No.  60384,  a  sub-adult  female,  had  a  stature  of  about  157.5  cm. 
No.  60378,  a  rather  large  female,  had  a  stature  of  about  161.8  cm. 
No.  60381,  a  young  adult  female,  was  about  158  cm.  in  stature. 

Pelvis.  The  pelves  show  the  usual  marks  of  sex  differentiation. 
With  the  exception  of  that  of  No.  60378,  they  were  too  fragmentary 
for  the  taking  of  measurements. 

Measurements  and  Indices  op  Pelvis  of  No.  60378,  Female 

mm.  mm. 

Pelvis  as  a  whole  Ossa  Innominata 

Breadth  Maximum    . . .       257  Height 

Superior  Strait  right 200 

Breadth  Maximum    .       124  left   201 

Sagittal  diameter  ...       115  Breadth 

Distance  between  right 148 

Ischiatic  Spines    (95)  left   ? 

Height  of  Sacrum 106  Sacral  Index 116.03 

Breadth  of  Sacrum    123  Index  of  Right 

Pelvic  Index     78. —  Innominate  Bone 74. — 

Brim  Index 92.74 

The  brim  index  of  this  pelvis  is  so  high  that  one  might  judge  it  to 
be  that  of  a  male,  were  it  not  for  the  morphological  features,  which 
are  clearly  female.  The  ischiatic  notch  is  broad;  the  preauricular 
sulcus  is  well  marked;  the  subpubic  angle  is  large;  and  the  ascend- 
ing ramus  of  the  ischium  and  the  symphysis  pubis  are  characteris- 


AT  WINTHROP,  MASSACHUSETTS  37 

tically  female.  The  condition  of  the  pubic  symphysis  indicates  the 
ninth  phase  of  Todd's  age  gradations. 

Vertebrde.  In  general  the  vertebrae  of  these  skeletons  present 
no  featm^s  of  special  interest.  Marginal  exostoses  occur  on  the 
vertebrae  of  No.  60377,  a  middle-aged  male.  In  the  case  of  60383, 
another  middle-aged  male,  the  vertebrae  seem  to  be  carious.  One 
suspects  tuberculosis,  but  it  is  scarcely  safe  to  attempt  a  definite 
diagnosis. 

Summary 

In  addition  to  the  usual  tall  dolichocephalic  type  of  Eastern 
Indian  there  is  present  in  this  series  a  mesocephalic  type  due  to 
admixture  of  a  short  brachycephalic  stock.  The  evidence  of  this 
admixture  is  to  be  seen  in  the  shortening  of  the  skull,  the  increase  of 
breadth  across  the  posterior  portions  of  the  parietals,  increase  of 
the  skull  height,  shorter  face,  and  broader,  lower  nose.  The  meas- 
urements of  some  of  the  mesocephals  and  subbrachycephals  are 
such  as  to  make  one  suspect  some  occipital  deformation.  This, 
however,  is  not  apparent  from  the  contours  of  the  occipital  bones. 
In  the  short  series  from  Winthrop  this  mixed  type  actually  pre- 
dominates. 


PAPERS 

OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HAR\^RD  UNIVERSITY 


Vol.  XI,  No.  2  V/ ,  ( 


OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

ON  THE  TOWNS  OF 

TEQUIZISTLAN,  TEPECHPAN,  ACOLMAN,  AND  SAN  JUAN 

TEOTIHUACAN  SENT  BY  FRANCISCO  DE   CASTANEDA 

TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II,  AND  THE  COUNCIL 

OF  THE  INDIES,  IN  1580 

TRANSLATED  AND  EDITED,  WITH  AX 
INTRODUCTION  AND  NOTES 

BT 

ZELIA  NUTTALL 


TWO  PLATES  AS'D  TWO  TEXT  FIGURES 


CAMBRIDGE,  M.VSSACHUSETTS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

1926 


^^3 


COPYRIGHT,  19«8 

BY  THE  PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 

AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


PRINTED  AT  THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.S.A. 


The  remarkable  acumen  of  the  Spanish  authorities  in  send- 
ing out  a  questionnaire  to  many  of  the  settlements  through- 
out the  Spanish  domain  in  .\merica  is  amply  justified  by  the 
wealth  of  material  collected  by  this  means.  The  replies  to 
this  list  of  questions  returned  by  the  various  towns  are  all 
important  but  special  interest  centers  on  that  sent  by  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan  on  account  of  the  famous  ruins  at  that 
site. 

Mrs.  Nuttall  early  discovered  the  great  importanceof  this 
manuscript  and  has  kindly  translated  it  for  the  present 
paper. 

The  Museum  is  greatly  indebted  to  Clarence  L.  Hay, 

qr.,  for  its  publication. 


Ch.\rles  C.  Willoughby,  Director. 


'.,  MASSACHUeETTa, 

February  8,  1926. 


i 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 

Plate  1.   Map   op  Tequizistlan,  Tepechpax,  Acolman,  and 
San  Juan  Teotihuacax 

Plate  2.   A  Part  of  the  Map  by  Alonso  de  Santa  Cruz  {circa 
1570) 

FIGURES 

Fig.  1.   Place-names  of  Texcoco 49 

Fig.  2.   Place-name  of  Acolman 64 


INTRODUCTION 


In  1900,  Seflor  Don  Pedro  Torres  Lanzas,  the  distinguished  Direc- 
tor of  the  Archivo  de  Indias  in  Seville,  in  Volume  I  of  his  valuable 
Inventory  of  the  Flans  and  Maps  contained  in  the  Archives, 
published  the  title  of  the  "  Map  of  the  towns  of  Acolmaa,  San  Juan 
Teotihuacan,  TequizJstlan  and  adjoining  towns  by  the  Corregidor 
r  Don   Francisco   de    Castaneda,   accompanied    by   a   descriptive 
kjZetocidn  [dated  1580],  of  each  of  said  towns,  made  in  compliance 
^With  His  Majesty's  Instructions."  ' 

Separated  from  its  Reladdn  for  years,  the  Map  was,  and  still 
I  may  be,  exhibited  in  one  of  the  treasure  filled  show-cases  of  the 
I  Archivo.  It  thus  came  about  that,  in  1911,  on  registering  the 
(contents  of  a  "Legajo"  attractively  labelled  "Indiferente  Gen- 
fceral,"  I  came  across  the  Relacidn  by  mere  chance,  and  after  read- 
r ing  it  with  intense  interest,  copied  it  forthwith,  as  a  document  of 
utmost  importance  that  should  be  generally  known, 

I  had  not  seen  the  Torres  Lanzas  Inventory  and  was  unaware 
at  the  time  that,  in  1905,  Senor  Francisco  del  Paso  y  Troncoso  had 
actually  published  the  Rdaci6n  with  the  Map,  in  Volume  VI  of 
his  "Papeles  de  Nueva  Espafia,"  etc,;'  for  this,  like  others  of  his 
important  and  valuable  publications,  was  and  is,  unfortunately, 
^  practically  unobtainable  and  inaccessible  to  students. 

In  the  monumental  work  on  the  "Population  of  the  Valley  of 
ETeotihuacan,"  recently  issued  by  Senor  Manuel  Gamio,'  the  Map 
'  is  reproduced,  but  the  Relacidn,  while  referred  to,  is  not  described 


■SM-Rdlacload 

icrirtiva  de  log 

Mapas,  plan 

w.  etc 

.  de  Meiic 

V  Florida,  e 

ii«wntaen 

cl  Anhivo  Gancnl  de 

India.,  POT  P«i 

ro  Tonu  La 

.  Se.    Tint 

doeumiDt  ii  n(uter«i 

in  tbe  Archivo 

G*ne«l  d* 

DdiBK. 

Sevilln.ufoUow.;  iDdil 

ireote  Gbb- 

pobJucioDesy 

viaJM 

NuovB  EBpafin.    ADoe 

15Z1-1S13 

BrtuitelM  — Cojfio 

7  — Lwilofl. 

The  text  of  thi  qfi 

anilBted  lion 

the' 

Memoris" 

pub;i.hBd  in 

RclacioBE. 

ibYucaUn.'-    Colec 

nt«  lD«diUi 

pubLinuU 

POT  U  Real  A 

h  Hirtori..  Se«undii  Serio ,  Tomo  XI 

>  ■■P.p.lMd.  Nu 

rdeny 

COD  tondo. 

del  Cbidra 

Mcidc»iia, 

Secunds  Seric.    Geog 

I.    Ho 

larioaa  OeocriBinui  de  la  Diocesis  do 

Maim.    ManUKrilo. 

delaR«ilAc« 

emiadi^lmHiatoria 

dc  Madrid 

Snilk.    Afl»  1679-1 

82."    Madrid 

IBM.    T«t, 

pp.  209-230. 

>  "lAPobluidnd 

IVBllpdeTeoI 

n  de  Agricu 

to,    Direc- 

ftte  d.  Astropolodo. 

Medro.  IB23 

46  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

as  a  source  of  invaluable  and  authentic  information,  nor  is  it  de- 
servedly utilized  and  recorded. 

It  therefore  seems  opportune  that  a  publication  be  made,  in 
English,  and  in  exknao,  of  the  Relacidn,  for  the  benefit  of  Ameri- 
canists. This  docmnent  is  one  of  the  many  that  were  drawn  up 
and  sent  from  Mexico  to  Spain  in  obedience  to  a  remarkable  decree, 
dated  May  25,  1577,  issued  by  King  Philip  II  and  distributed 
broadcast  throughout  his  New  World  possessions.  This  decree 
reads: 

"Instructions  and  memorandum  for  the  drawing  up  of  the  re- 
ports which  are  to  be  made  for  the  'Description  of  the  Indies'  His 
Majesty  is  having  made,  to  facilitate  the  good  government  and 
ennoblement  of  the  same. 

^'Firstly:  The  governors,  corregidors,  or  mayors  to  whom  the 
Viceroys  or  Audiences  or  other  government  officials  and  adminis- 
trators send  these  printed  instructions  and  memorandum  are  first 
of  all  to  make  a  list  and  memorial  of  the  towns  inhabited  by 
Spaniards  or  by  Indians  within  their  jurisdictions,  in  which  only 
the  names  of  these  towns  are  to  be  entered,  written  clearly  and 
legibly.  This  is  to  be  immediately  sent  to  said  government  offi- 
cials so  that  it  can  be  returned  to  His  Majesty  and  the  Council  of 
the  Indies  jointly  with  the  reports  drawn  up  in  each  town. 

*'Said  printed  instructions  and  memorandum  are  to  be  dis- 
tributed throughout  all  towns  of  Spaniards  and  Indians  in  each 
jurisdiction  in  which  there  are  Spaniards,  sending  them  to  the 
Councils,  or,  if  these  are  lacking,  to  the  parish  priests  or  to  the 
monks  in  charge  of  religious  instruction,  with  direct  orders  to 
the  councils  or  a  recommendation  from  His  Majesty  to  the  priests 
and  monks,  that  within  a  short  time  they  answer  and  fulfil  their 
obligations. 

*'The  reports  made  are  to  be  sent  to  the  above  officials,  with 
the  printed  instructions,  so  that,  as  they  go  on  receiving  them  they 
can  redistribute  them  to  other  towns  to  which  none  have  been 
previously  sent. 

''In  the  towns  and  cities  where  the  governors  or  mayors  or 
other  officials  reside,  these  are  either  to  write  the  reports  accord- 
ing to  the  instructions,  or  to  have  this  done  by  persons  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  affairs  of  the  country.  The  persons  charged 
with  the  drawing  up  of  the  report  of  each  town  are  to  give  answers 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  47 

to  the  questions  in  the  memorandum  and  observe  the  following 
order  and  form. 

^'Firstly:  On  a  separate  sheet,  as  a  superscription  to  their  re- 
port, they  are  to  write  the  day,  month  and  year  dates,  with  the 
name  of  the  person  or  persons  who  participated  in  making  it;  also 
the  name  of  the  governor  or  other  person  who  sent  them  the  said 
instructions. 

"After  carefully  reading  each  paragraph  of  the  memorandum, 
they  are  to  write  down  separately  what  they  have  to  say,  answer- 
ing each  one  of  the  questions  it  contains,  one  after  the  other. 
Those  questions  to  which  they  have  nothing  to  answer  are  to  be 
omitted  without  comment,  passing  on  to  those  that  follow,  until 
all  are  read.  The  answers  given  are  to  be  short  and  clear.  What 
is  certain  is  to  be  given  as  such,  what  is  not  is  to  be  recorded  as 
doubtful,  so  that  the  reports  may  be  exact  and  in  strict  conformity 
to  the  instructions  and  memorandum." 

The  latter  consists  of  a  series  of  most  carefully  formulated, 
penetrating  and  comprehensive  inquiries,  and  constitutes  a 
"questionnaire''  so  remarkable  for  its  acumen  that  I  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  presenting  the  questions  in  the  order  established  by  the 
royal  questionnaire  and,  after  each  one,  in  succession,  the  answers 
to  it  sent  in  from  the  four  towns. 

The  combined  evidence  is  thus  presented  in  a  concentrated  and 
more  interesting  form,  that  will  facilitate  the  survey  and  study 
of  the  fresh  data  presented  concerning  one  of  the  most  important 
archaeological  regions  in  America. 

The  Relad&n  was  supplemented  by  the  interesting  map  that  is 
reproduced  as  Plate  1.  The  reproduction  in  Plate  2  is  from  a 
photograph  of  the  same  district  containing  the  four  towns,  as 
represented  in  the  famous  map  of  Mexico  and  its  surroundings 
made  by  the  cosmographer  of  King  Philip  II,  Alonso  de  Santa 
Cruz,  about  1570. 

As  the  main  purpose  of  this  publication  is  that  of  placing  the 
valuable  record  within  the  reach  of  students,  I  have  confined  my- 
self in  my  notes  to  drawing  attention  to  certain  important  points 
and  elucidating  a  few  statements  that  are  obscure  or  misleading. 

Descriptions  of  the  towns  of  Tequizistlan,  Tepechpan,  Acolman, 
and  San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  and  their  dependencies,  were  composed 
by  the  illustrious  Sefior  Francisco  de  Castafteda,  the  Corregidor  of 


48  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

said  towns,  for  His  Majesty,  in  obedience  to  the  royal  instructions 
transmitted  to  him  by  the  illustrious  SefLor  Gordian  Cassasano, 
accountant  and  administrator  of  the  Royal  Revenue  of  this  New 
Spain. 

The  description  of  each  town  is  signed  by  those  persons  present 
who  could  sign. 

A  list  of  said  towns  and  those  subordinate  to  them  accompanies 
each  description. 

The  towns  included  in  the  circuit  and  jurisdiction  of  Tequizistlan 
are  as  follows: 

Firstly:  Tequizistlan,  chief  town,  with  its  subordinates  Totol- 
zingo  and  Acaltecoya. 

Secondly:  Tepechpan,  chief  town,  with  its  subordinates  San 
Miguel  Atlanmaxac,  Santiago  Saqualuca,  Santa  Ana  Tlachahualco, 
San  Francisco  Temazcalapa,  San  Matheo  Teopancalca,  San  Pedro 
Tulamiguacan,  SanXriptoualCulhuacazingo,  Santa  Maria  Maquix- 
co,  Sant  Jhoan  Tlacalco,  San  Bartolome  Atocpan,  San  Xeronimo 
Chiapa,  Santa  Maria  Suchitepec,  its  subordinates,  and  San  Juan 
Cuyoa. 

Thirdly:  Acolman,  the  capital,  with  its  subordinates  Santiago 
Atla,  San  Miguel  Jumetla,  San  Agustin  Tonala,  los  Tres  Reyes 
Yzquitlan,  Santa  Maria  Chiapa,  San  Matheo  Tuchatlauco,  San 
Lucas  Tlamazingo,  San  Juan  Tepehuizco,  Santiago  Nopaltepec, 
San  Juan  TIaxinca,  San  Martin  Huiznahuac,  San  Felipe  Sacatepec, 
San  Tomas  Atlauco,  San  Matheo  Tezcacohuac,  Santa  Maria 
Atenpa,  San]\Iarcos(iuacyocan,San  Pedro  Tepetitlan,  San  Antonio 
Huiztonco,  Santa  Maria  TIatecpa,  San  Bartolome  Quauhtla- 
pecco,  San  Juan  Chicnahiiatecapa,  San  Martin  Aticpac,  San 
Niculas  Tenextlacotla,  Santa  Maria  Astatonacazco,  Santa  Maria 
Atenpa,  Santa  ^laria  Saguala,  and  San  Juan  Atlatongo. 

FonrLhly:  San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  with  its  subordinates  San 
Loren^'o  Atezcapa,  San  Miguel  Tlotezcac,  San  Matheo  Tenango, 
San  Sebastian  Chimalpan,  Santa  Maria  Coatlan,  San  Francisco 
Ma^atlan,  San  Martin  Teacal,  San  Pedro  Tlaxican,  Santiago  Tol- 
man,  Sant  Andres  Oztoepachocan,  Los  Reyes  Aticpac,  San  Antonio 
Tlaxomolco,  San  Agustin  Ohuayocan,  San  Pedro  Ocotitlan,  San 
Miguel  Tlaguac,  San  Luis  Xiuhqueniecan  and  Juan  Tlaylotlacan. 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHIUP  II  49 

THE  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  THERETO 

QIJESTION  I 

In  ttie  towns  with  Spanish  infaabit&nts  the  Dame  of  the  district 

or  province  is  to  be  stated,  also  the  meaning  of  the  name  and  the 

reason  it  is  so  named. 

Tbqoizistlan 
The  town  of  Tequizistlan  is  the  capital  of  the  jurisdiction.    It 
is  in  the  district  of  Texcoco,  and  was  in  ancient  times  an  indepen- 
dent town  that  rendered  allegiance  to  its  natural  lords  until  Neza- 


hualcoyotzin,  lord  of  Texcoco,  became  an  ally  and  confederate  of 
Montezuma,  lord  of  Mexico,  and  with  tyranny  subjugated  said 
district,  incorporating  it  into  Texcoco  and  Mexico.  The  natives 
were  unable  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the  name  Texcoco.' 

■  Evidence  that  the  primitiye  town  of  Teicoco,  like  the  raidenn.  and  hill  larden  of  Nma- 
huftleoyotl.  wne  utuAted  in  or  among  th«  rocky  fool-hiUs  is  fumiflhed  by  the  hieroetyph  of  the 
town,  of  which  eevemi  variuita  are  recorded  in  the  native  picture-writimiB  and  are  retained  in 
tbs  arm*  of  the  town  mated  by  Philip  II  and  ■till  in  use. 

Ita  main  element  ig  a  rocky  hill,  "Teicalli,"  that  com-eyg  tht 
th»-'Code«iCroii"of  the  Aubin-Goupii CoHeetion .  the  rocky 
rendered  and  thii  is  surmounted  by  an  earthen  pot  with  two  hai 
theByUable"co"— an  affix  that  BiviiBeB"iD"  (Fis,  l.i). 

In  the  Codei  Mendou,  the  hill  it  incenioualy  formed  by  thm 


laColIectioD  Goupil.  £.  Boban.    Allu.    Plaor^hca  2  and  3),  where,  in  a  conical  hill  [covend  wit 

"Tetl."  In  thiacaK  t«o  duplicationa  of  sound  occur,  that  ii:  "  Teicalli "  or  hill,  and  "Tetl"  < 
(tone.  Tbs  duplication  of  "co"  was  obtained  by  placini  the  "ComitI  "  in  (co)  the  hill  (Fl| 
Ij).  Of  the  three  Biamplee  liven.  thi>  iithe  onlj'  one  in  which  the  vowel  "co"  is  duplicate 
and  the  full  name  "Texcoco"  ia  conveyed.  In  the  othen,  it  was  evidently  considered  sufficiei 
to  nrord  Teico"  only. 

For  the  etymology  of  the  names  of  the  other  towns  dealt  with  in  this  document,  ece  II 


50  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

Tepechpan 

The  town  of  Tepechpan  and  its  dependencies  are  held  by 
Geronimo  de  Baessa,  citizen  of  Mexico  City.  It  is  in  the  province 
of  Texcoco  and  was  an  independent  town  until  Nezahualcoyotzin, 
lord  of  Texcoco,  tyrannized  over  it  and  made  it  a  subject  of  Texcoco. 

ACOLMAN 

Acolman  is  in  the  district  of  Texcoco  and  was  an  independent 
town  where  the  Chichimecs  had  their  metropolis  until  Nezahual- 
coyotzin, lord  of  Texcoco,  tyrannized  over  them,  as  will  be  told 
farther  on. 

Teotihuacan 

The  town  of  San  Juan  is  in  the  district  of  Texcoco.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  the  capital  of  a  province  because  the  surrounding  towns, 
which  were  Otumba,  Tepeapulco,  Tlaquilpa  and  others,  acknowl- 
edged it  as  such  in  heathen  times,  imtil  Nezahualcoyotzin,  lord 
of  Texcoco,  conquered  them  in  war  and  tjo^annized  over  them.  ^ 

QUESTION  II 

Who  was  the  discoverer  and  conqueror  of  said  province  and  by 
whose  order  or  mandate  was  it  discovered?  Give  the  year  of  its 
discovery^  and  conquest  and  all  that  can  be  readily  learnt  about  it. 

Tequizistlax 

As  it  is  publicly  known  that  it  was  Don  Hernan  Cortds,  the  Mar- 
ques del  Valle,  who  discovered  New  Spain  in  1519,  reference  is  here 
made  to  the  description  which  will  be  written  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 

Tepechpan 

The  discovery  of  said  town  in  New  Spain  was  made  in  1519  by 
the  Marques  del  Valle,  Hernan  Cortds,  as  is  referred  to  in  the 
description  of  the  town  of  Tequizistlan. 

*  The  important  facts  established  by  the  above  answers  to  Question  I  are  that  Tequizistlan 
and  Tepechpan  were  "independent  towns,"  that  Acolman  was  "the  Chichimec  metropolis," 
and  that  Teotihuacan  was  "the  capital  of  a  province"  until  all  four  towns  were  conquered  by 
the  allied  lords  of  Mexico  and  Texcoco.  The  date  of  this  conquest,  etc.,  will  be  given  in  the 
note  pertaining  to  the  answers  given  to  Question  XIV. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  H  51 

ACOLMAN 

As  is  publicly  known,  the  discoverer  of  this  town  and  of  New 
Spain  was  Heman  Cortfe,  the  Marques  del  Valle.  The  order 
and  mandate  and  the  year  of  its  discovery  are  not  set  down  here 
because  in  the  description  to  be  made  in  the  City  of  Mexico  these 
will  be  stated  by  the  person  in  charge. 

Teotihuacan 
The  Marques  del  Valle  was  the  discoverer  of  this  land. 

QUESTION  III 

State  in  general  the  climate  and  quality  of  said  province  or  dis- 
trict; whether  it  is  cold  or  hot,  dry  or  damp,  with  much  water  or 
Uttle  and  at  what  season  there  is  more  or  less;  and  the  prevailing 
winds,  whether  violent  and  from  what  quarter  and  at  what  season 
of  the  year. 

Tequizistlan 

Its  temperature  is  cold  and  damp  on  account  of  its  being  situated 
near  the  great  lagoon  in  the  midst  of  canals.  The  rains  fall  gener- 
ally from  May  imtil  the  end  of  September.  The  winds  blow  from 
the  South  from  January  to  the  end  of  March  in  which  month  it 
blows  with  such  violence  that  it  causes  many  natives  to  suffer 
dangerously  from  headaches.  From  April  onward,  until  the  rains 
begin,  the  North  wind  generally  blows  with  great  strength  at  sun- 
set.   This  does  less  harm  to  the  natives  than  the  South  wind. 

Tepechpan 

The  temperature  and  quality  of  the  climate  of  the  capital 
Tepechpan  is  cold  and  damp,  for  the  greater  part  of  it  lies  low 
among  canals.  All  of  its  dependencies  are  in  a  cold,  dry  region. 
Rains  fall  generally  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  end  of  September. 
South  winds  are  prevalent  from  Christmas  imtil  the  end  of  March 
and  are  very  violent  during  the  whole  of  this  month,  causing  ill- 
ness among  the  natives.  From  April  onwards  the  North  wind 
blows  and  is  less  harmful,  for  in  the  day  time  it  is  temperate.  All 
night  it  blows  violently  but  as  at  this  time  the  natives  have  re- 
tired into  their  homes  it  does  not  harm  them. 


S2  OFnCUL  REPORTS 

ACOLMAX 

The  capitftl  town  of  ActJnuui  is  edd  and  damp  on  aecoimt  of 
being  situated  among  canals  and  of  having  bad  night  dews.  Its 
dependencies  are  in  a  cold  region  and  lack  water  because  the  oohr 
water  they  have  is  rain  water  in  basins  or  pools.  From  the  middle 
of  December  until  the  end  of  March  the  South  wind  gives  the  na- 
tives headaches  and  pains  in  their  bodies.  In  March  it  blows  with 
great  force,  lllien  the  rains  begin,  the  North  wind  blows  and  is 
unhealthy  for  the  natives  even  if  it  blows  temperately. 

Teotxhtacax 

The  region  in  which  said  town  and  its  dependencies  lie,  is  cold, 
ex^^;ptirig  its  capital  which  is  cold  and  damp  on  account  of  being 
niiufiU'A  among  canals  and  fountains  all  proceeding  from  flowing 
springs.  In  winter  from  Christmas  to  March  the  South  wind 
hlowH,  with  greater  violence  in  March.  It  is  unhealthful  for  the 
nativcH.  From  March  to  the  end  of  October  the  North  wind  blows 
but  (l(j4'H  nr>  harm  to  the  natives  because  it  is  tempered. 

(2UKSTI0X  IV 

Stat/;  whether  the  countrj'  is  level,  rough,  flat  or  mountainous; 
with  uiiiuy  r)r  ffvv  rivers  and  fountains,  with  abundance  or  scare- 
ity  of  water;  whether  fertile  or  lacking  in  pasture;  with  an 
abundanre  or  seareitv  of  fruits  and  sustenance. 

Tkquizistlax 

Its  frntire  rlistrict  ftonsists  of  a  level  plain  open  on  all  sides 
without  arjy  trees.  'J'owards  the  East  there  is  a  high  range  of 
rnountains.  It  laeks  wood.  The  natives  drink  water  from  wells. 
It  lacks  fodder  hut  yields  an  abundance  of  maize  and  beans, 
cactus  fruits,  (;}ierrif»s  and  agaves,  of  which  the  natives  make  good 
use. 

Tkpechpan 


The  land  is  fiat  and  in  Tepechpan  and  its  dependencies  there 
are  very  few  tret^s.  All  the  natives  drink  stored  rain  water  al- 
though th(^  river  named  San  Juan  passes  through  the  town. 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  53 

ACOLMAN 

The  capital  Acolman  is  situated  in  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  a 
mound.  It  is  level  and  has  no  fountains.  A  river  called  ^'de  San 
Juan"  runs  by  said  town  and  is  divided  into  three  canals  with 
which  they  irrigate  a  great  piece  of  land  nearly  a  league  long 
and  half  a  league  wide.    It  is  prolific  in  fodder  and  sustenance. 

Teotihuacan 

The  capital,  San  Juan,  and  all  its  subordinate  towns  lie  in  a 
plain  and  the  farthest  of  the  latter  is  situated  at  a  distance  of  two 
leagues  from  the  capital.  Towards  the  North,  a  league  distant, 
is  a  great  mountain  which  the  natives  name  Tenan,  which  in 
Spanish  means  "mother,''  because  many  small  hills  issue  from  it.^ 

1  The  second  half  of  this  name,  "  nan,"  is  an  abbreviation  of  "  Nantii,"  mother,  while  this 
first,  "te,"  is  a  contraction  of  "Tetl,"  stone;  thus  the  ancient  Nahuatl  name  of  the  moimtain 
signified  "Stone  Mother,"  or  "Mother  of  Stone."  The  native  explanation  that  the  moun- 
tain was  so  named  "because  many  small  hills  issue  from  it "  and  because  " it  had  given  birth  to 
many  other  mountains"  (see  answer  to  Question  XXI)  is  shown  to  be  strikingly  appropriate  by 
the  report  on  the  geology  of  the  mountain  recently  published  by  Sefior  Ezcquiel  Ordofiez,  the 
distingiiished  ex-Director  of  the  Geographical  Institute  of  Mexico,  in  the  monumental  work 
already  cited  on  the  Valley  of  Teotihuacan  issued  by  the  Department  of  Anthropology. 

Sefior  Ordofies  writes  that  the  mountain,  an  extinct  volcano,  "  does  not  now  show  its  crater 
which  had  once  vomited  such  great  volumes  of  lava  and  loose  stones,  doubtlessly  because  the 
residue  of  the  last  lava  flow  had  consolidated  and  obstructed  its  mouth.  Before  becoming 
extinct,  however,  it  gave  birth  to  a  number  of  small  subordinate  volcanoes  which,  like  parasite 
volcano^,  are  scattered  over  its  eastern,  northern,  and  western  slopes,  and  look  very  fresh." 
From  the  foregoing,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  native  name  "  Mother  of  Stone"  dated  from  a 
period  when  the  dying  volcano  gave  periodical  birth  to  the  small  craters ,  possibly  in  compara- 
tively recent  times.    Compare  note  1  on  p.  74. 

Additional  light  is  thrown  on  the  ancient  association  of  the  mountain  with  the  production 
of  stone  by  other  facts  recorded  by  Sefior  Ordofiez  and  also  reported  upon  by  the  energetic  and 
painstaking  young  geologist,  Sefior  Diaz  Lozano,  in  the  same  monumental  work.  Both  geolo- 
gists point  out,  as  a  characteristic  of  the  now  extinct  volcano,  the  enormous  quantities  of  loose 
stones  and  volcanic  bombs  which  it  cast  forth  with  great  force  and  scattered  over  the  adjacent 
plains.  Sefior  Ordofiez  states  that  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  Valley  of  Teotihuacan  must  have 
found  it  thickly  strewn  with  loose  stonra  which  would  have  constituted  an  inducement  for  them 
to  settle  there  and  build  a  city.  Close  by,  moreover,  was  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  loose  basal- 
tic stones  of  a  portable  size,  for  between  the  base  of  the  "  Mother  of  Stone"  and  the  site  of  the 
ancient  metropolis  there  are  vast  areas  covered  with  basaltic  agglomerations  which  can  easily 
be  detached  and  there  are  also  great  caves  or  pockets  entirely  filled  with  loose  stones.  One  of 
these  cavee  is  two  hundred  and  ten  feet  long,  sixty  feet  wide  and  forty-five  feet  high  —  others 
are  three  hundred  feet  long  and  nine  feet  deep.  Besides  this  loose  portable  material  the  mountain 
furnished  different  kinds  of  basalt  which  were  8hai>ed  and  worked  at  a  later  period ,  a  peculiar 
basalt  whose  structure  furnished  very  compact  and  hard,  thin,  flat  stone  slabs  which  the  primi- 
tive builders  used  as  flags  for  flooring,  in  making  drains  and  as  supiK>rt8  for  cornices.  Pointed 
fragments  of  this  hard  stone  were  also  employed  as  chisels  by  the  ancient  sculptors;  besides  all 
this  valuable  building  material  the  same  mountain  had  produced  the  immense  quantity  of 
the  very  light,  porous  loose  fragments  of  lava,  of  various  colors,  which  are  so  extensively  em- 
ployed by  the  ancient  constructors.  The  entire  appropriateness  of  the  name  bestowed  upon 
the  prolific  mountain  by  the  ancient  builders  is  therefore  amply  demonstrated,  as  well  as  its 


54  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

Another  hill,  medium  sized,  shelters  the  southeastern  iK)rtion  of 
the  plain.  In  the  territoiy  of  the  subordinate  towns  there  is  a  lack 
of  water  and  the  natives  drink  stored  rain  water.  In  the  capital 
there  is  an  abundance  of  water  and  many  springs  close  together 
that  feed  a  large  river  on  which  the  natives  have  a  mill.  The 
water  of  said  river  irrigates  two  leagues  of  land,  which  is  the 
whole  length  of  its  course.  It  passes  by  the  towns  of  Acolman, 
Tepechpan,  Tequizistlan,  and  the  boundary  of  Texcoco,  and  emp- 
ties itself  into  the  lagoon.  This  region  yields  an  abundance  of 
fodder  and  food  supplies. 

QUESTION  V 

State  whether  the  district  is  inhabited  by  many  or  few  Indians 
and  whether  in  former  times  it  had  a  greater  or  lesser  population; 
the  causes  for  the  increase  or  diminution  and  whether  the  inhabi- 
tants live  in  regular  towns  permanently  or  not. 

State  also  what  is  the  character  and  condition  of  their  intel- 
ligence, inclinations  and  modes  of  life;  also  whether  different 
languages  are  spoken  throughout  the  whole  province  or  whether 
they  have  one  which  is  spoken  by  all. 

Tequizistlan 

In  ancient  times,  before  the  Conquest,  it  was  densely  populated 
and  had  more  than  four  thousand  tribute-pacing  inhabitants. 
After  the  Conquest  manj^  died  from  an  illness  like  itch  or  mange 
all  over  the  body.  Since  then  they  have  always  had  illnesses. 
The  Indians  think  that  these  have  increased  because  they  now 
have  more  luxury  than  in  former  times  and  because,  before  the 

unquestionable  ftntiquity;  for  all  indioations  point  to  the  name  having  been  invented  at  a  re- 
mote period  when  small  craters  were  still  bcinj?  formed  and  when  the  vast  agglomerations  of 
portable  building  material  liad  been  discovered  and  exploited  by  the  founders  of  the  great  me- 
tropolis, that  owed  its  existence  to  the  vast  amount  of  portable  stones  so  conveniently  at  hand. 

The  ancient  name  "Tcnan"  is  quite  unknown  to  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  region,  as  I 
found  on  making  many  inquiries.  Nor  is  the  old  name  recorded  in  the  recent  publication  men- 
tioned above. 

In  a  document  dated  1G08,  published  in  this  same  work  (Part  III,  p.  573),  the  name  of  the 
mountain  Is  given  as  "  Tcmiztepetl,"  called  "  Cerro  Gordo,"  and  the  latter  Spanish  name  is  the 
only  one  by  which  it  is  known  by  the  natives  nowadays.  The  fact  that  the  ancient  name 
*'Tenan,"  which  appears  to  hark  back  to  the  nebulous  period  when  Teotihuacan  was  founded, 
is  in  the  highly  developed  and  ancient  Nahuatl  tongue  furnishes  a  valuable  indication  that 
the  occupation  of  the  Valley  by  Toltecs,  a  Nahuatl-speaking  race,  long  ante-dated  the  arrival 
of  the  Aztecs  in  historical  times. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  55 

Conquest,  they  used  to  go  naked  and  sleep  on  the  ground  and  eat 
cactus  leaves,  cooked  agave  leaves  and  other  plants  yielding 
scant  nourishment.  Now  they  live  well,  eat  delicate  viands,  baked 
bread,  chicken,  and  beef  and  mutton,  and  wear  clothes  and  sleep 
high  [that  is,  in  beds]  covered  at  night  with  blankets.  Any  excess 
makes  them  ill,  especially  the  drinking  of  pulque,  which  is  gen- 
eral amongst  them  and  is  drunk  from  their  childhood.  Previous 
to  the  Conquest,  when  they  did  not  drink  nor  were  permitted 
to  do  so  and  were  punished  for  drinking,  they  died  old.  Nowadays 
they  do  not  live  as  long.^  This  town  has  no  streets  nor  have  its 
dependencies,  which  are  scattered  about.  The  inhabitants  are  of 
medium  intelligence.  Their  inclination  is  toward  cultivating  their 
lands  excepting  in  one  dependency  which  lies  on  the  shore  of  the 
lagoon,  in  which  the  natives  live  on  fishing  and  catching  ducks 
and  other  birds  with  nets.    They  speak  the  Nahuatl  language. 

Tepechpan 

At  the  present  time  this  town  and  its  dependencies  have  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  tribute  payers.  In  former  times,  and  a  short 
time  before  the  Conquest,  it  was  densely  populated.  The  inhabi- 
tants have  dwindled  on  account  of  the  diseases  they  have  had, 
which,  according  to  the  native  belief,  proceeded  from  their  having 
less  work  and  more  luxury  than  before  the  Conquest,  and  also 
from  the  drinking  of  pulque  and  because  at  present  the  natives 
eat  fowl  and  other  birds  whereas  formerly  they  ate  cactus  leaves 
and  the  pulpy  agave  leaves  and  other  herbs  of  Uttle  sustenance. 
The  town  is  not  a  regular  but  a  scattered  one.  The  foremost  or 
chief  natives  are  of  medium  understanding  and  the  rest  are  rude 
and  dull.  They  are  inclined  to  cultivate  the  land  and  maintain 
themselves  by  this  exclusively.  The  Nahuatl  tongue  is  commonly 
spoken,  with  the  exception  of  some  few  natives  who  speak  the 
Otomi  tongue. 

ACOLMAN 

In  past  times  it  had  many  inhabitants.  The  natives  were  not 
able  to  tell  us  anything  more  certain  than  that  in  every  house  there 
lived  six  or  seven  married  couples,  besides  unmarried  youths. 
They  died  of  the  illnesses  which  spread  amongst  them.    At  the 

1  For  interesting  evidence  concerning  the  relative  health  and  longevity  of  the  natives  before 
and  after  the  Conquest,  see  the  answers  to  Question  XV  and  notes  thereto. 


56  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

present  day  according  to  the  list  of  tribute  payers,  it  has  nineteen 
hundred  of  these.  It  is  built  without  order  and  is  not  a  regular 
town.  Its  inhabitants  are  well  dispK)sed  although  dull  of  under- 
standing. They  live  by  cultivating  the  soil.  The  language  they 
generally  use  is  the  Nahuatl.    A  few  speak  Otomi. 

Teotihtjacan 

The  natives  say  that  in  ancient  times  this  town  was  thickly  pop- 
ulated by  a  great  number  of  inhabitants.  At  present  it  has  besides 
the  ordinary  population,  according  to  appraisement,  one  thousand 
and  six  hundred  payers  of  tribute.  The  natives  say  that  many  of 
them  died  during  an  epidemic  which  occurred  a  year  before  the 
discovery  of  New  Spain.  The  town  was  not  founded  on  a  regular 
plan,  but  consists  of  a  number  of  scattered  houses.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  said  town  are  a  polished  people  of  a  good  imderstanding  ^ 
who  always  live  on  the  produce  of  their  land.  They  speak 
Nahuatl  generally,  but  a  very  few  of  them  speak  the  Otomi  and 
Popoluca  tongues. 

QUESTION  VI 

State  the  latitude  in  which  these  towns  of  Spaniards  lie  if  this 
has  been  taken  or  if  known  or  if  there  is  any  one  who  knows  how 
to  take  it.  State  on  what  days  of  the  year  the  sun  does  not  cast 
a  shadow  at  noon. 

Tequizistlan 

This  town  lies  in  a  straight  line  directly  north  of  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico at  a  distance  of  three  leagues,  therefore  its  latitude  would  be 
ten  minutes  higher  than  that  of  said  city.  In  the  middle  of  May 
and  at  the  end  of  June  the  sun  casts  no  shadow  at  noon. 

Tepeciipax 

The  latitude  of  the  town  of  Tepechpan  is  about  twelve  minutes 
higher  than  the  City  of  Mexico  as  its  distance  is  about  three 

1  Attention  is  drawn  to  the  siKnificant  fact  that  whereas  the  inhabitants  of  Teotihuacan  are 
described  as  "a  jwlished  people  of  a  good  understanding,"  those  of  two  of  the  other  towns  are 
entered  as  "of  medium  intelligence,"  and  those  of  Acolman  as  "well  disposed  although  dull 
of  understanding."  The  higher  degree  of  culture  was  evidently  a  survival  from  the  time  when 
Teotihuacan  was  the  capital  of  a  province,  the  residence  of  the  ruling  intellectual  class  and  a 
great  religious  centre. 


TO  mS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  57 

leagues  to  the  North  of  said  City.  In  the  middle  of  May  and 
at  the  end  of  June  the  sun  casts  no  shadow  because  the  sun  is  at 
the  zenith  and  shadows  are  under  one's  feet  and  do  not  incline  in 
any  direction. 

AcOLBiAN 

Acolman  lies  due  north  from  the  City  of  Mexico  at  a  distance  of 
a  little  more  than  three  leagues;  the  difference  in  the  latitude  is 
nine  minutes.  In  the  middle  of  May  and  almost  at  the  end  of 
Jime  the  sun  casts  no  shadow  at  noon  and  the  shadow  is  underfoot. 

Teotihuacan 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  the  necessary  instrument  it  was  not 
possible  to  determine  the  latitude  of  the  town,  but,  judging  by  that 
of  the  City  of  Mexico,  it  must  be  a  little  over  twenty  degrees.  At 
the  end  of  the  month  of  May  and  in  June  the  sun  casts  no  shadow 
at  noon.^ 

QUESTION  VII 2 

State  the  distance  in  leagues  between  each  city  or  town  occu- 
pied by  Spaniards  and  the  city  in  which  resides  the  Audiencia  to 
whose  jurisdiction  it  belongs  or  the  residence  of  the  governor  to 
whom  it  is  subject  —  also  the  direction  in  which  said  cities  and 
towns  lie  from  each  other. 

QUESTION  VIII 

Give  also  the  distance  in  leagues  between  each  city  or  town  oc- 
cupied by  Spaniards  and  those  of  the  adjoining  district,  stating  in 
what  direction  they  lie;  whether  the  leagues  are  long  or  short, 
the  country  level  or  broken  and  mountainous;  whether  the  roads 
are  straight  or  winding  and  good  or  bad  for  travel. 

QUESTION  IX 

State  the  name  and  surname  that  every  city  or  town  has  or  had 
and  the  reason,  if  known,  why  they  were  so  named;  also  who  was 

^  In  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  at  Teotihuacan  the  sun  is  in  the  zenith  tvnce  a  year:  on 
May  17th  at  about  11.33  a.m.,  on  its  journey  northward,  and  on  July  2Gth.  at  about  11.43  a.m., 
on  its  return  southward,  at  legal  time  (that  is,  the  local  mean  time  of  the  105th  Meridian). 

*  The  following  six  questions  are  grouped  together,  and  others  will  be  similarly  treated 
when  the  answers  to  them  sent  in  from  the  four  towns  are  more  or  less  incomplete  or  are  fur- 
nished by  one  town  and  not  by  another. 


58  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

their  founder,  who  named  them,  and  by  whose  order  or  mandate 
he  made  the  settlement;  the  year  of  its  foundation  and  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  at  that  and  at  the  present  time. 

QUESTION  X 

State  the  situation  of  said  town,  if  it  lies  high  or  low  or  in  a  plain, 
and  give  a  plan  or  colored  drawing  of  the  streets,  squares  and 
other  places,  the  monasteries  to  be  marked,  which  can  be  easily 
sketched  on  paper,  as  well  as  can  be  done.  It  is  to  be  noted  which 
parts  of  the  town  face  North  and  South. 

QUESTION  XI 

In  the  case  of  Indian  towns  it  is  only  to  be  stated  how  far  they 
are  from  the  capital,  in  what  district  and  jurisdiction  they  lie, 
and  which  is  the  nearest  centre  for  the  teaching  of  religious  doc- 
trine. The  names  of  all  of  the  chief  towns  in  its  jurisdiction  are 
to  be  given  as  well  as  those  of  their  respective  dependencies. 

QUESTION  XII 

State  also  the  distance  between  the  other  towns  of  Indians  or 
Spaniards  that  surround  it  and  the  directions  in  which  they  lie  and 
whether  the  leagues  are  long  or  short  and  the  roads  level  or  straight 
or  mountainous  and  winding. 

Tequizistlan^ 

The  distance  between  the  town  of  Tequizistlan  and  the  City  of 
Mexico,  where  the  Royal  Audiencia  resides,  is  of  five  leagues  of 
road,  three  running  from  North  to  South  and  two  from  East  to 
West.  The  town  lies  at  the  Northeast  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  It 
lies  in  a  low  plain,  among  canals,  very  close  to  the  lagoon.    It  is 

1  Scfior  TroncoHO  has  dmwn  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  a  document  dating  from  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  centurj',  the  name  of  this  town  is  Riven  as  "Tecciztlan"  (op.  cit..  Vol.  VI,  p.  226 
note).  This  is  confirmed  by  the  use  of  the  great  marine  conch  shell  — "  Tecciztli" — as  the  hiero- 
glyph to  designate  the  town  in  the  Alonso  de  Santa  Cruz  map,  although  the  Spanish  rendering 
of  the  name  as  "  Tequizistlan, "  is  written  alongside.  (See  Plate  2,  upper  left  corner.)  The  native 
informants  were  evidently  aware  that  the  local  name  was  derives!  from  some  sort  of  shell.  The 
gratuitous  and  plausible  explanation  they  volunteered,  however,  about  the  name  ha^'ing  origi- 
nated from  the  abundance  of  small  fresh-water  shells  found  in  the  canals  is  obviously  wrong, 
and  may  have  been  inspired  by  the  Mvish  to  appear  ignorant  of  the  name,  even,  of  the  marine 
conch  shell  that  was  so  intimately  associated  u-ith  the  cult  of  the  moon  and  the  water  gods  in 
their  ancient,  forbidden  and  persecuted  religion. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  59 

the  capital  of  the  district  of  the  Corregidor  and  is  a  league  distant 
from  Acolman,  the  centre  for  the  teaching  of  religious  doctrine. 
Its  dependencies  are  Totoltzinco  and  Acaltecoya.  It  lies  to  the 
Northeast  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  separated  from  it  by  a  distance 
of  five  leagues  of  straight  and  level  road  running  from  North  to 
South  for  three  leagues  and  from  East  to  West  for  two  leagues. 
A  straight  and  level  road  leads  to  the  City  of  Texcoco  which  lies 
to  the  Southeast  at  a  distance  of  two  leagues.  These  leagues  are 
medium  ones. 

Tepechpan 

The  town  of  Tepechpan  is  at  a  distance  of  five  leagues  from  the 
City  of  Mexico  where  the  Audiencia  and  Royal  Chancery  reside 
and  is  separated  by  a  level  road  which  runs  directly  from  North  to 
South  for  three  leagues  and  two  from  East  to  West.  It  lies  to  the 
Northeast  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  town  is  situated  in  a  plain 
on  the  southern  slope  of  a  small  hill.  The  plain  is  open  to  all  sides. 
It  has,  to  the  Northwest,  a  small  mountain  which  shelters  it,  and 
at  the  North  the  hill  at  whose  base  it  lies  protects  it  also  some- 
what. It  is  exposed  towards  the  East.  It  belongs  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Tequizistlan  and  is  at  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  league 
from  said  town  and  from  Acolman  where  the  monks  who  teach 
the  Doctrine  reside.  Within  three  quarters  of  a  league  are  its 
dependencies,  Santiago  Zaqualuca,  San  Miguel  Atlanmaxac,  Santa 
Ana  Tlachahualco,  San  Francisco  Temazcalapa,  San  Matheo 
Teopancalco,  San  Pedro  Tulamihuacan,  San  Cristobal  Culhuaca- 
zingo,  Santa  Maria  Maquiteco,  San  Juan  Teacalco,  San  Bartolome 
Atocpan,  San  Geronimo  Chiapa  and  Santa  Maria  Suchitepec. 

The  town  Tepechpan  is  at  a  distance  from  the  City  of  Mexico 
of  five  medium  leagues  by  level  road,  which  runs  for  three  leagues 
from  North  to  South  and  two  from  East  to  West.  It  lies  North- 
east of  the  City  of  Mexico. 

At  the  Southwest  of  the  town  of  Tepechpan  lies  the  town  of 
Texcoco  two  long  leagues  distant  by  a  straight  and  level  road.  At 
its  South  lies  the  town  of  Tequizistlan,  a  quarter  of  a  league  distant 
by  a  straight  road  and  at  its  North  the  town  of  Acolman,  its  reli- 
gious centre,  three  quarters  of  a  league  distant  by  a  straight,  level 
road.  Towards  the  West  it  has  the  town  and  district  of  Chico- 
nauhtla,  two  short  leagues  distant  by  a  straight  and  level  road. 


60  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

ACOLMAN 

The  town  of  Acolman  falls  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  City  of 
Mexico  where  the  Royal  Audiencia  resides,  at  a  distance  of  five 
long  leagues  of  level  road,  three  and  a  half  of  which  run  almost 
due  North  to  South  and  a  league  and  a  half  to  the  Northeast.  At 
its  Southwest  lies  the  town  of  Texcoco  at  a  distance  of  two  and  a 
half  leagues  of  straight,  level  road.  It  belongs  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  district  of  Tequizistlan  and  is  the  chief  seat  of  religious 
instruction.  Its  dependencies  are  San  Pedro  Tepetitlan,  San 
Antonio  Huiztonco,  San  Miguel  Jumetla,  Santa  Maria  Tlatecpa, 
Sant  Ana  Atenpa,  San  Bartolome  Quauhtlapeco,  San  Juan  Chico- 
nauhtecapa,  Santiago  Atla,  Tres  Reyes  Yzquitlan,  San  Agustin 
Aticpac,  San  Martin  Tonala,  San  Niculas  Tenextlacotla,  Santa 
Maria  Ostonocazca,  San  Matheo  Tezcacohuac,  Santo  Tomas 
Atlauhco,  San  Marcos  Quauhyoca,  San  Felipe  Sacatepec,  San 
Martin  Huiznahuac,  Santa  Maria  Atenpa,  San  Juan  Tlaxicaya, 
Santiago  Nopaltepec,  San  Matheo  Tochatlauco,  San  Lucas  Tla- 
mazingo,  Santa  Maria  Saquala,  Santa  Maria  Chiapan,  San  Juan 
Tepehuizco  and  San  Juan  Atlatonco. 

To  its  South  it  has  the  town  of  Tepechpan,  three  quarters  of  a 
league  distant;  to  the  North-northeast  the  town  of  San  Juan 
Teotihuacan,  one  league  distant;  to  the  Southwest  the  town  of 
Texcoco,  nearly  two  and  a  half  leagues  distant;  to  the  West  the 
town  and  district  of  Chiconauhtla,  a  long  league  and  a  half  distant. 

Teotihuacan 

The  town  of  San  Juan  Teotihuacan  lies  to  the  Northeast  of  the 
Citv  of  Mexico  where  the  Roval  Audiencia  resides,  at  a  distance  of 
six  long  leagues  of  level  country.  The  said  town  of  San  Juan  is 
separated  from  the  city  of  Texcoco  by  three  long  leagues  of 
straight  road  and  level  country-.  Its  distance  from  Acolman  is  one 
league;  from  Tequizistlan  two  leagues  both  lying  almost  directly 
South.    Tequizistlan  is  the  capital  of  the  Corregimiento. 

Its  subordinate  towns  arc:  San  Lorenzo  Atezcapa,  San  Miguel 
Tl6tezcac,  San  Matheo  Tenango,  San  Sebastian  Chimalpan,  Santa 
Maria  Aguatlan,  San  Francisco  Ma^*atlan,  San  Pedro  Tlaguican, 
San  Martin  Teacal,  Santiago  Tolman,  San  Andres  Oztolpachun- 
can  (sic),  Los  Reyes  Aticpac,  San  Antonio  Tlajomulco,  San  Agustin 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  61 

Ohuayucan,  San  Pedro  Ocotitlan,  San  Miguel  Tlalguac,  San  Luis 
Xiuhquemeccan,  San  Juan  Evangelista  Tlaylotlacan.  Its  distance 
from  Otumba  is  two  leagues  to  the  Northeast  by  a  straight  road. 
The  town  of  Tepetlauztuc  lies  to  the  Southwest  at  a  distance  of 
two  and  a  half  leagues  of  level  ground. 

QUESTION  XIII 

State  what  the  name  of  the  Indian  town  means;  why  it  was  so 
named;  what  there  is  to  know  about  it  and  what  its  name  is  in  the 
language  which  the  native  inhabitants  actually  speak. 

Tequizistlan 

Tequizistlan  means  "place  where  shells  abound  "  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  natives,  it  is  so  called  because  there  are  many  shells  in 
the  canals  of  said  town.  The  sole  language  they  speak  is  the 
Nahuatl. 

Tepechpan  ^ 

Tepechpan  in  the  Indian  language  means  "a  town  set  on  a  large 
rock"  and  is  named  thus  because  it  was  founded  near  a  rocky  hill. 
The  language  spoken  by  the  natives  of  the  chief  town  and  its  de- 
pendencies is  the  Nahuatl,  with  the  exception  that  some  few  of 
them  speak  Otomi. 

ACOLMAN  2 

Acolman  in  the  Nahuatl  language  means  "shoulder  and  arm." 
The  Indians  could  give  no  reason  why  it  was  thus  named.  The 
language  they  generally  speak  is  the  Nahuatl;  a  few  speak  Otomi. 

>  "Tepexitl"  —  a  large  rock;  "Pan"  —  upon.  In  the  original  document  the  name  of  thia 
town  in  written  "  Tepexpan  "  —  a  spelling  that  is  more  correct  than  '*  Tepechpan,"  now  in  use. 

*  The  name  of  the  town  of  Acohnan,  expressed  by  a  rebus  consisting  of  a  shoulder  and  arm 
oombined  with  the  sign  for  water,  is  an  interesting  specimen  of  the  native  picture  writing.  The 
shoulder  —  "Acolli"  —  conveys  the  first  two  syllables  of  the  name  and  the  sign  for  water  — 
**Atl"  —  serves  as  a  determinative  by  duplicating  the  vowel  "a."  The  hand  —  "Maitl"  — 
fumishee  the  syllable  "  ma,"  and  thus  "  Acol-ma"  was  conveyed,  this  being  the  ancient  name, 
M  can  be  seen  in  the  Plan  (Plate  1)  where  it  is  spelt  "  Aculma,"  the  u  and  o  being  interchange- 
able in  the  Nahuatl  tongue.  The  fact  that  the  same  hieroglyph  served  also  to  express  the  tribal 
name  "  Acolhua"  and  the  name  of  the  province  "Acolhuacan  "  is  revealed  by  its  use  in  combinsk> 
tion  with  the  sign  for  Texcoco  in  the  Codex  Mendoca,  the  Codex  Osuna,  and  in  the  arms  of  the 
town  conferred  upon  it  by  Philip  II. 

This  combination  was  probably  assumed  after  the  Conquest  of  Acolman,  the  ancient  metrop- 
olis of  Acolhuacan,  by  Nesahualcoyotl,  when  Texcoco  became  the  capital  of  the  province,  and 
the  name  Acolhuacan  was  applied  to  the  whole  territory  subjected  to  the  Texcocan  rulers. 

In  the  famous  map  of  Alonso  de  Santa  Cnu,  the  familiar  rebus  consisting  of  an  arm  and 
water  designates  the  town  of  Acolman  (see  centre  of  Plate  2  and  compare  with  Fig.  2,  from 


62  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

Teotihuacan 

In  the  language  of  the  Indians  the  name  of  the  town  of  San 
Juan  is  Teotihuacan,  meaning  ''temple  of  gods,"  because  in  this 
town  there  was  the  oracle  where  the  Indians  of  Mexico  and  those 
of  all  other  surrounding  towns  idolatrized.^ 

QUESTION  XIV 

State  to  whom  the  Indians  belonged  in  heathen  times  and  what 
dominion  was  exercised  over  them  by  their  lords;  what  tribute 
they  paid  and  the  form  of  worship,  rites  and  customs  they  had, 
good  or  bad.2 

Codex  Mcxicanus,  Collection  Goupil-Aubin  Planche,  24,  op.  cit.)  the  name  of  which  is,  however, 
not  written  also  in  Spanish  characters  as  in  the  case  of  the  majority  of  other  places.  It  was 
probably  for  this  reason,  and  for  the  misleading  error  of  the  map-maker,  who  wrote  the  name 
"  Tequi«istlan"  close  by  (in  the  wrong  place  and  for  the  second  time)  that  it  was  overlooked  by 
Scfior  Arreola  in  the  recent  Mexican  government  publication  already  cited.  On  page  370  of 
Tomo  I,  Volume  II,  he  actually  affirms:  "  Alonso  de  Santa  Cruat  does  not  even  register  the  town 
of  Acolman."    ("Alonso  de  Santa  Crux  no  regLstro  siquiera  el  pueblo  de  Acolman.") 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  1697  Gemelli  Carreri  wrote  that  he  had  visited  *'  the  town  of 
Acolman  or  Aculma,"  which  shows  that  both  pronunciations  were  still  in  use  at  that  time. 

The  fact  that,  in  the  Codex  Mcndoza,  the  identical  sign  composed  by  an  arm  and  water  is 
used  to  designate  the  town  of  *'  Coliman"  —  Colima  —  is  interpreted  by  Orosco  y  Berra  and 
Pefiafiel,  in  N ombres  Geogrdficos,  as  implj-ing  that  this  locality,  near  the  Pacific  Coast,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Acolhuas.  They  were  evidently  not  aware  that  Ixtlilxochitl,  the  native  historian 
whose  statements  arc  of  great  weight,  having  been  approved  of  by  the  six  most  learned  and 
aged  caciques  of  his  time,  relates  that  the  Acolhuas  "  were  from  beyond  the  provinces  of  Mich- 
oacan,"  ami  that  in  the  year  One  Flint  (1063  a.d.)  three  Acolhua  lords,  whose  names  he  gives, 
"accompnnied  by  many  vassals,  among  tliein  the  nation  of  Otomii*,  having  heard  of  the 
grcntno«s  of  Xolotl,  the  Chiohimoc  lord  find  loader,  of  his  havinR  seized  all  the  country  and 
that  ho  was  eoloniziiiK  it,  eanie  to  ofTer  him  ohedieiice  and  ask  Inni  for  lands  where  they  could 
colonize.  Ho  was  much  pleaded  to  see  them,  for  they  were  a  civil  people,  well  governed,  and 
givintr  them  lands  for  colnnizinjr.  lie  also  Rave  two  of  them  daughters  of  his  in  marriage;  to  the 
principal  lortl  named  Acolhua  he  ^avc  his  oldest  tlauKhter,  and  the  town  of  Atzcapotznlco  as 
the  capital  of  liis  state,  with  more  lands  and  i)rovinces  for  his  vassals;  to  the  second,  \%ith  a 
dau«hter,  the  town  of  Xaltocan  (on  an  island  in  the  lake  of  Xaltocan):  and  to  the  third  *  Acol- 
huatitlan  Acolliuacan.'  In  this  way  he  obliKod  them,  tellinK  them  that  they  only  needed  to 
recognize  him  as  their  lord  and  sovoreiKn.  and  need  not  pay  him  any  tribute  whatsoever."  (See 
Obras  Ilistoricas  de  .  .  .  Ixtlilxochitl,  ed.  Chavcro,  Mexico,  ISOl.Tomo  I,  p.  94,aL«op.  26S 
and  Tomo  II.  p.  40.)  ArchaeoloKical  evidence,  obtained  in  recent  years,  strikingly  confirms  the 
truth  of  the  above  history,  for  a  remarkable  similarity  exists  between  the  type  of  the  clay  figu- 
rines 1  and  several  fellow-archaeologists  have  found  near  Atzcapotzalco  (in  my  case  at  a  depth 
of  10  feet  under  a  gravel-bod)  and  those  unearthed  in  the  present  states  of  Michoacan  and  Col- 
ima. Both  arc  characterized  by  the  same  type  of  lonK.  narrow  faces  and  square  brows,  etc.,  the 
clay  being,  in  both  ea^cs,  of  a  fine,  light-colored  variety. 

1  Without  entering  here  into  what  would  be  a  fruitless  discussion  of  the  many  different 
etymologies  of  the  name  tlmt  have  been  published  from  time  to  time,  the  newest  being  contained 
in  the  recent  pubHcation  of  the  Mexican  Government,  attention  is  drawn  to  the  interesting  ex- 
planation given  here  that  Teotihuacan  owed  its  name  and  designation  as  a  "temple  of  gods" 
to  a  famous  oracle  that  was  there.  Further  mention  of  this  oracle  will  be  found  in  the  answer  to 
Question  XIV. 

'  Attention  is  drawn  here  to  the  curious  fact  that  in  the  following  answers  from  the  town 
of  Tequizistlan  it  is  stated  that  "they  adored  the  idol  Iluitzilopochtli";    in  the  answer  from 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  63 

Tequizistlan 

In  ancient  times  the  Indians  came  from  Chicomoztoc  in  the  land 
of  the  Chichimecs  and  peopled  the  town  of  Tequizistlan  and  the 
other  districts.  They  had  as  their  lord  Izcuin,  who  wore  a  cloak 
of  coarse  agave  fibre,  a  loin  cloth  and  sandals.  Every  day  they 
contributed  some  rabbits  and  snakes  for  his  sustenance  and  he  had 
Indian  servants  who  guarded  and  served  in  his  house.  He  did  not 
eat  fowl.  Besides  the  above  they  gave  him  skirts  and  shoulder 
capes  of  coarse  agave  fibre.  He  did  not  use  cotton;  nor  did  the 
natives  take  him  aught  beyond  what  has  been  stated.  They 
adored  the  idol  HuitzUopochtli  and  every  eighty  days  they  sacri- 
ficed thereto  the  Indians  who  were  condemned  to  death  for  crimes 
they  had  committed.  They  lived  and  were  condemned  to  pun- 
ishments according  to  the  law  of  Nature. 

Tepechpan 

The  Indians  affirm  that  in  heathen  times  they  formed  an  in- 
dependent republic.  They  paid  no  tribute  to  their  lords  but  only 
acknowledged  them  as  such  by  giving  them  daily,  hares,  rabbits, 
snakes,  quail  and  domestic  fowl.  They  were  Chichimecs  until 
some  years  later  a  cacique  of  somewhat  greater  culture,  named 
Axoquauhtzin,  became  their  ruler.  To  him  they  contributed, 
every  eighty  days,  four  loads  of  coarse  agave-fibre  cloths,  each 
load  containing  twenty  cloths  and  eighty  sandals;  also  four  loads 
of  the  finer  cloths  made  of  agave  fibre  called  "ayates.*'  Later  on, 
fifty  years  previous  to  the  reign  of  Montezuma,  lord  of  Mexico,  the 
lordship  of  Tepechpan  was  held  by  Tencuyotzin,  to  whom  the 
natives  of  said  town  began  to  yield  tribute.  Every  eighty  days 
they  brought  him  fifty  cotton  cloths  four  legs  (piemas)  wide  and 
eight  arm-lengths  long;  and  also  thirty  other  cotton  cloths  four 
arm-lengths  long  and  four  legs  wide;  also  forty  other  cloths  for 
wearing  worked  with  rabbits'  wool  and  twenty  loads  of  cocoa  from 
Soconozco,  each  load  containing  twenty-four  thousand  cocoa 
beans;  also  forty  skirts  and  as  many  shoulder  capes  (for  women); 
twenty  loads  of  chili  peppers  and  as  many  of  seeds. 

Tepechpan,  that  "  they  had  no  idola  and  worshipped  the  Sun  daily";  in  the  answer  from  Acol- 
nuui,  that  "they  adored  Tescatlipoca";  and  in  that  from  Teotihuacan,  that  "their  principal 
idol  was  Huitzilopochtli,"  but  that  "for  greater  veneration,  this  had  been  placed  on  the  hill 
of  Chapultepec,"  a  statement  that  may  have  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  warding  off  any 
search  for  this  idol  being  made  at  Teotihuacan. 


»j)  <r  km,  latme  tte  Mnqsa  dd  Valh  amml 

/jK  Ml  u«l|»nil  X<«  Sin.  lae  Naaluko- 

y^r  ivin,  lad  •(  Iteaov  diBl  bnadf  nitk 

y  ^%  IllWlli^l.  llMll  1^  tfi  liiii.  Mil  Ij iwill 

/^^^■H  will  tte  vmIb  iCffOB.*  AnmnraBttB  mtim 

^  cf  TcsRMD.  b«  oalr  to  tke  cxtot  of  fdndrit- 

iac  faim  with  fitting  mts  in  wir  time.  T» 
their  mtiTr  knfe  tfaey  bad  luuiieUy  paid,  m 
tribote,  a  kad  cf  raaiw  agan-fifafe  dotfi^  twoi^  m.  a  load  and  ' 
aaother  load  of  thin  aeaw^bredoihs;  aloadof  woam'ariMiiUer 
capes  of  thin  agsT^  fibre:  a  load  of  petticoats  of  tiie  same  and 
some  lowl  «they  did  dot  know  how  manv  .  Eveiy  day  th^  cou- 
tiibuted  a  load  of  dried  a^w  leaves  to  be  used  for  foel,  and  an- 
other load  of  the  wood  of  the  wild  oberrv  tree.  Tbeir  k«d  bad, 
in  his  house.  Indians  who  guai\led  and  served  him.  Th^  adored 
IViratlipoca. 

>Yhen  they  returned  from  warfare  and  brought  some  piisoneiB 
tWy  aasemhled  by  order  of  the  lord  and  held  a  fefti^-al,  taking  those 
vtM.^  were  to  be  sacnficed  to  a  ^:Teat  temple  which  is  in  the  eaid 
Wwn.  Tliey  were  decked  with  rich  cloths,  carried  Sowers  in  their 
Wikii»  and  danced  imtil  they  reached  the  summit  of  the  pyia- 
Mtd  temple  where  they  tamely  submitted  to  being  stripped  and 
ibi^vn  backwards  on  a  large  stone  on  the  edge  of  which  they  were 
mwichcit,  their  head  and  l^s  hanging  and  their  breast  taut.    A 

>  iMMMioi  "l>MiUji«n  mrrmrr' —  "~ri"rinf'7rrin  "ilir  ^niirnniiimi  il  Iniliiw 
alkJi  Viiiihwi  asd  toliMVBl  omMit  by  NoahiulMyotl  ud  hi*  coubd  Moouiusia  tb*  Ekk> 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  65 

cut  was  made  across  the  body  below  the  ribs  with  a  flint  knife  and 
the  heart  was  torn  out.  This  was  carried  in  a  painted  gourd  bowl 
to  the  idol  and  was  cast  before  it.  Old  men  were  specially  ap- 
pointed for  this  office  and  they  took  the  dead  body  and  placed  it 
in  a  bath.  After  it  was  well  washed  with  hot  water  they  cooked 
and  ate  it,  dividing  it  between  the  chieftains  and  captains.  They 
lived  according  to  the  law  of  Nature. 

The  Indians  who  distinguished  themselves  in  warfare,  took 
prisoners  and  killed  enemies,  were  authorized  to  wear  on  their 
heads  in  peace  times  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  white  feathers 
stuck  on  with  paste.  In  the  month  of  March  they  celebrated 
a  feast  which  they  named  Tlacaxipehualiztli  which  means  ''the 
flaying  of  a  person."  It  was  ordered  that  during  twenty  days 
the  slaves  who  were  to  be  sacrificed  danced  every  day,  singing  sad 
songs,  carrying  certain  shields  and  flowers  in  their  hands  and  wear- 
ing a  kind  of  wide  shirt  sewn  together  at  the  sides  and  named 
"xicalco." 

When,  at  the  end  of  the  twenty  days,  they  were  to  be  sacrificed 
they  were  taken  to  the  summit  of  the  pyramid  temple  where  the 
idol  was.  After  the  heart  had  been  torn  out  and  offered  to  the 
idol,  the  corpse  was  thrown  to  the  base  of  the  pyramid  and  beaten 
with  rods  until  the  skin  became  raised.^  Then  they  flayed  it  and 
an  Indian  clothed  himself  with  it  and  ran  about  the  neighboring 
towns  showing  himself  and  begging  for  alms.  He  was  given  maize 
and  huauhtli  and  other  things,  all  of  which  was  given  to  the  owner 
of  the  sacrificed  slave  who,  twenty  days  after  the  sacrifice,  took 
the  flayed  skin  and  buried  it  publicly  in  the  temple  of  the  idol. 
Inviting  all  the  lords  on  the  day  of  the  burial,  they  consumed  all 
the  edibles  which  had  been  collected  as  alms.  On  the  day  when 
the  slave  was  sacrificed  the  lords  arrayed  themselves  and  danced 
.all  day  long  and  partook  of  the  flesh  of  the  victim.  On  the  day 
when  the  skin  was  buried  they  beat  a  drum  in  the  temple  of  the 
idol,  at  the  sound  of  which  all  Indians  who  were  working  in  their 
fields  ran  and  shut  themselves  up  in  their  houses.  For  the  Indian 
who  had  worn  the  skin  ran  all  over  the  country  and  if  he  found 
anyone  working  in  the  fields  he  shaved  the  top  of  his  head  and 
thus  made  him  a  slave.    If  he  found  no  living  soul,  instead  of  hair 

>  According  to  Sefior  Troncoso  y  Pnso,  thifl  method  of  treating  the  skin  before  flaying  the 
body  was  also  used  by  the  Indians  of  Teutitlan.  It  was  probably  the  method  generally  em- 
ployed in  the  gruesome  rite. 


66  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

he  had  to  cut  agave  leaves  to  bring  back  to  the  temple.  They  ob- 
served the  custom  of  burning  incense  every  twenty  days  in  a  cir- 
cular building  nearly  two  yards  high.  The  vassals  daily  burnt  in- 
cense in  their  homes. 

The  festivals  they  observed  every  twenty  days  had  different 
names.  One  of  them  was  named  Suchimanaloya,  which  means 
"the  gathering  of  flowers/*  ^  it  being  the  custom  to  gather,  on  that 
day,  many  flowers  in  the  hills  and  plains  and  to  place  them  where 
they  burned  incense  without  any  further  rite  or  ceremony.  An- 
other festival  was  named  Hueytozoztli,  its  ritual  being  that,  three 
days  previously,  they  gathered  some  of  the  earliest  maize  shoots 
and  tied  them  in  bunches  with  bean-blossoms.  On  the  feast  day 
they  carried  these  to  the  house  of  the  owner  of  the  field  in  which 
they  had  been  gathered  and  laid  them  on  a  clean  mat.  In  front 
of  said  bunches  they  placed  as  an  offering,  a  small  basketful  of 
pinole  which  is  made  of  roasted  and  ground  maize,  and  a  basket  of 
tamales  and  on  the  top  of  the  basket  a  cooked  frog  *  with  its  limbs 
stretched  out.  It  was  their  intention  thereby  to  appease  their 
idol  so  that  it  would  give  them  a  good  harvest.  When  the  said 
feast  day  had  passed  the  owner  of  the  field  in  which  said  maize 
shoots  had  been  gathered,  ate  the  offerings.  They  had  another 
festival  named  Toxcatl,  the  ceremonial  of  which  was  to  take 
maize  from  the  fields  and  roast  it  and  when  it  popped  and  burst 
to  string  the  pop-corn  for  necklaces  and  chaplets  which  they  wore 
on  their  necks  and  heads.  The  old  people  danced,  rejoicing  at  the 
good  year  conceded  to  them. 

Another  festival  was  named  Etzalqualiztli  and  its  ritual  was 
that  they  took  maize,  teans,  huaiMli,  and  all  kinds  of  seeds  they 
cultivated  and  made  tamales  of  them  all  mixed  together.  Small 
groups  consisting  of  five,  six  or  ten  persons  went  dancing  through 
the  streets  and  into  houses  and  the  palaces  of  the  lords  where  they 
offered  each  other  the  aforesaid  tamales  as  a  sign  of  festivity  and 
rejoicing. 

They  had  five  other  festivals  named  Tecuilhuitontli,  Hueytecuil- 
huitl,  MiccailhuitI,  HueymiccailhuitI   and  Ochpaniztli  in  which 

'  This  scorns  to  have  been  a  locnl  name  for  the  festival  that  is  usually  named  "  Tozoitli"  — 
the  feast  that  followed  it  being  designated  as  "  Iluei-tozoztli"  or  "  the  great  Toioitli." 

'  The  frog  was  the  emblem  of  the  goddess  of  water,  and  she  was  worshipped  under  this  form. 
An  "extremely  beautiful  Temple  of  the  Frog,  the  goddess  of  Water"  is  mentioned  by  IxtlUxo- 
chitl  (Obras  Hist<Sricaa  .  .  .  ed.  Chavero,  Mexico  1891,  Tomo  I,  p.  37)  as  having  been  built  by 
the  Toltecs  in  the  ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era  by  Mitl. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  67 

the  only  ceremony  observed  was  the  burning  of  incense  in  front 
of  the  idol.  They  had  another  festival  named  Tepeilhuitl  which 
means  "the  feast  of  the  mountains,"  the  ritual  of  which  was  that 
whenever  an  Indian,  on  going  to  fetch  fuel,  found  any  piece  of 
wood  or  branch  which  was  crooked  or  twisted,  he  brought  it  to 
his  house  and  when  this  festival  arrived,  covered  it  with  the  dough 
named  tzoalli,  placed  it  on  a  clean  rush  mat,  and  when  the  festival 
was  over,  ate  the  dough.  They  had  another  festival  named  Que- 
cholli,  the  ritual  of  which  was  to  take  dry  canes  and  make  arrows 
of  them,  decorating  them  with  feathers.  Early  in  the  morning  of 
this  day  all  the  conmion  people  assembled  arrayed  for  warfare 
and  went  hunting.  They  then  danced  with  the  produce  of  their 
hunt  such  as  rabbits,  rats  or  snakes,  and  ate  them  with  tamales 
made  of  maize  and  the  sweet  juice  of  the  agave. 

They  had  another  festival  named  Panquetzaliztli,  in  which  the 
boys  of  the  town  aged  ten  years  or  less,  wearing  rich  mantles, 
danced  in  honor  of  the  idol  in  the  temple  square.  During  the 
other  two  festivals  named  Atemoztli  and  Tititl,  the  sole  ceremonial 
was  the  burning  of  incense  before  the  idol. 

Another  festival  was  named  Izcalli  and  its  ritual  was  that  after 
midnight  they  took  their  children  and  holding  their  heads  between 
the  palms  of  their  hands  lifted  them  repeatedly  so  that  they  should 
grow  rapidly.    At  the  same  time  they  also  feasted  and  drank. 

In  another  festival,  named  Quahuitlecua,  their  ritual  was  that 
the  chieftain  took  many  folded  sheets  of  paper  and  joining  them 
together  made  [something]  like  a  lance.  He  then  went  to  the  top 
of  some  hill  where  they  had  their  idols,  followed  by  all  the  conmion 
people  and  there  they  offered  the  papers  and  burnt  incense  and 
covered  the  idols  with  cotton  mantles,  leaving  them  there  until 
time  destroyed  them. 

Teotihuacan 

In  heathen  times  its  people  constituted  a  republic  which  recog- 
nized no  authority  but  that  of  its  natural  lords  who  were  [of  the 
race]  named  Chichimecas,  until  Netzahualcoyotzin,  lord  of  Tex- 
coco,  made  war  and  tyrannized  over  the  whole  territory,  killing 
sons  of  Tetzotzomoctzin,  lord  of  Atzcapotzalco,  to  whom  all  ren- 
dered allegiance.  After  the  death  of  Tetzotzomoctzin  the  said 
Netzahualcoyotzin  made  himself  powerful  by  making  an  alliance 


"102.  Mnmaamiih.  Jiirt  of  3i&£sa*f.  TTbpr  mridisd  iMAmviM  them- 
Kiicf  lift  jsns^  if  ^ait  :tniai5  if  TTwuniDBcxL  xnd  4nnihTMin.  Hie 
imocinBin?  if  T*nrnnmrgT.  jl  jryiyiininr  oc  liicar  owededsfaip, 
pbifC  T31SII:  Jif  Tdnrn?.  -pi^srr  ^sichi  as]rsk.  saiiip  iibaiiscfis  Bttde  of 
tTQBTEic^  usrr*  &i».  usos^t  tsciotuap*,  snz  nnat  iowk  cf  agave 

T^jr  iranrxii^  ja.t  "n^  Hrmaniix^ngciL  hods^  5cr  grcaxer  Tener- 
viL  -iTitf  Tubr?*;  .11  "31*  iiil  .x  I^iiciDiKie:  jl  isbsr  Cntj  rf  Mexico. 
fmn.  TXif  T2f=»  -viHr*  roe:  mmar  lodi?  it  lip  toim  of  San 
JiiLZ.  -vij:^  -vriif  lii*  vsziiruf  fcn:  .c^Hi*  '^^r  -vijira:  lif  TTthahrtants  of 

ia»i  >LtI^^  vni.  "ij^e  ik^^i-'-r^  jiibne?  j'ss^^as?  rtr  smzis  of  viiicfa 
"Xi^,  h*«*»^iei  M  -Jilt  szuzir:.  .>l  rt*  szzjut:  ^ra*  a  f^^iEfee  idc4  tbey 
rft>"i*:'i  ""' r :t.  rJL -«*«"- '*~-  r^3f  n:  4  Tf^frrbu-i  r":iaci  SwDdt'  all  of  one 
pift-*     >.  vjif  ijirLi-f^c  :-f^-  jrcic  szt  5**-*  "irii*  azii  sx  ieei  thick. 

li  Tiir  ji^T»L  rTp^:^  iz.  fr.c:  :c  SL^i  i^rc::^.  lii?^^  was  azkodier  scoall 

'.ci^    r-C-ir-rc  f^*:  '  jr     :c  -wii-rc.  -w-i?  1:1  j5:l  ssaZjea-  ihan  the 

rr^r.  liijiir-:  Z^LLnlLz.:^."-^^^   -vin-rc  z^fazis  Lcri  <x  ibt  Under- 

w^,^j±.    Ti-r  :  irt**i  lifT  ±rr:  iz-i  -w-is  fei'ie-i  :c  &  l&rce  sKvte  sx  feet 

fC-iJ*      A  li^^   zi^.ijrz  :•:   ihi*  X:r±  irsiS  iz*:cber  jfrramid] 

Vf^y'jr  "^  jr^Iy  -ci-il^r  -.Liii  ihr  ±rr.  Thirh  -w^is  ^raJjed  "ihe  Hill 

^c  -:.^    ■.  -•.•        :.  :;.T  :.7.   .:  ^i_  .1  -if  iji^ji^r  i:rr:a:  :::o.  Dearly 

rjp'^:.  :V  '  r-^'-  ~i.  :.  :ir:  i-j'^-ii  ™:  M  •;-.  Surrvxiiiding 
:?  ■_•    -■-....         •^'-  -   ..  -■-'•-  -    -  V     -'-^^-vi     -  -'-^  Iatt^^^  V*'  which 

wr^^  V.  ^-^-^^  ;  1-  ;._:•:  :i^  1  :\ ::.?:::  ::  :h^  M>:~/*  :o  ail  of 
-arL.::^  \:.-:   '.  r .-:?     -  M[  L--:r\^:i_j.    ::.:    .  r:   .:  M-fx::':.  with  the 

jrjLT^-!     .-.-..'■.--  ■■--.■..  ..T  ■     •    -•.      _-    :  -        .        :.  T  •- - : -.--X  Mir    T^j-**  1 

jt  ^ie  r-.~  i^--  -i--   ■ '-  -     -  -■   •    -"•  -" --*  -  :  ••    ^'      -■ .  :  .  -  .      Iv* i.vj^-.l  i^<  rjiuve 

aaCLrnaJr    -k  i.>: '■^^:-:  i'.  ~ -■.'   ._-•.•.    --.--•.:.:  7    ■  .-      :i-  _    -.r_::-— :-•:       •;»;.:' ''.sKfCJkZ.re"* 

-ytA;  - .:>■  T-ii  :cr!  ::  f.^  -  -_\  ..  i.  *  ..i-    ./.  ::      r^  _-  ■    ^  -  _:.    :_  :   ;::-;.;,  ^x  i^  -^fe   i:i  ti.« 

^!ir"  ::  ~<  r.>:i-  .■.'.?  .-:_:•. .-.:  i^  :.  T  . -.  I--.--.:-  :.  .-:  ^.  .  >.-  .'..-.-'_  :1.  eo»  CiiAvero. 
H«>."Uv-    .SjI    T;c.-:  .7.     . - 

■  r^is-  jcaie^^'i-*  '.:!-*'  M.-'.---'^i  i-i  .  --  ;  -  •?:?  -  .  :  *. .  7:-.  ..  _■  .-..-  ;vvr>-  t-Kf-ty  ddky^ 
♦  .•»  :xintit.«  jrponi-  *  ir_:  :.-->:*-:.  ::r  ;:  :-.-._*  -._.-.  :  _»  •-.  ..1:  7 -.-.-:•-•  .-A^itAl  vvcunu^i 
^  .^  A  «ra*;  .-isiiiwa  c»c---*  i>»^  *.:  '.iic  ::.:.■;  . :  --t  -p^  _^^  7  .  -  ;  --^:. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  69 

During  the  entire  year  they  observed  eighteen  festivals,  or  one 
festival  every  period  of  twenty  days.  Each  festival  had  its  differ- 
ent ceremonials  as  is  set  forth  in  paragraph  fourteen  of  the  descrip- 
tion of  Acolman  to  which  I  refer. 

Every  four-year  period  closed  with  a  feast  on  the  number  twenty 
but  in  the  bissextile  year  there  were  five  days  in  excess  and  they 
then  held  a  feast  in  a  large  square  that  was  situated  between  the 
two  pyramids.  In  the  centre  of  this  square  there  was  a  small  plat- 
form about  twelve  feet  high  on  which  they  punished  evil-doers  and 
delinquents. 

QUESTION  XV 

State  how  they  were  governed;  with  whom  they  carried  on  war- 
fare; how  they  fought;  the  clothes  and  costiune  they  wore  and 
now  wear  and  whether  they  used  to  be  more  or  less  healthy  than 
now  and  the  reason  that  is  known  for  this.^ 

>  It  is  an  interesting  and  instructive  fact  that,  in  reports  from  a  number  of  towns,  situated 
in  different  parts  of  Mexico,  the  answers  to  Questions  V  and  XV  unanimously  and  invariably 
relate  that  previous  to  the  Conquest  the  natives  enjoyed  bettor  health  and  longer  lives  and 
that  the  physical  deterioration  since  then  was  due  to  the  living  io  towns,  the  use  of  more  cloth- 
ing t  a  greater  license  and  independence,  and  the  indulgence  in  a  meat  diet  and  pulque.  The 
following  reports  from  towns  pertaining  to  the  diocese  of  Oaxaca,  corroborate  those  and  are 
particularly  explicit  and  illuminating: 

"  The  oldest  inhabitants  state  that  the  reason  why  the  natives  are  more  shortlived  nowadays 
than  in  heathen  times  is  because  anciently  they  did  not  sleep  in  towns  or  settlements;  and  ate 
naught  but  dry  tortillas  made  with  great  labor  and  care.  Thus  they  lived  strong  and  healthy 
and  when  they  married  they  were  at  least  over  thirty  years  of  age  and  thus  led  healthy  lives. 
After  the  Spaniards  came  they  built  houses  and  lived  in  peace  and  tranquillity;  ate  an  abun- 
dance of  different  foods;  wore  clothes  and  indulged  themselves.  The  boys  marry  at  twelve 
and  fifteen,  and  all  these  things,  as  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  cause  them  to  be  more  short- 
lived nowadays."    (Town  of  Chichicapa.) 

"...  In  olden  times  the  natives  lived  a  hundred  years  or  more  and  now  they  die  young 
and  what  they  say  and  explain  and  communicate  to  each  other  on  the  subject  is  that  the  reason 
for  this  is  that  anciently  the  children  were  put  to  work  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  As  there 
were  so  many  wars  there  was  no  time  to  cultivate  much  and  so  they  ate  little ,  slept  in  the  open 
and  were  fitted  to  live  in  constant  labor.  After  the  Spaniards  came  they  wore  clothes,  slept 
in  houses,  ate  and  drank  and  indulged  themselves  much.  In  those  days  an  Indian  married  at 
forty  and  now  at  twelve  or  fifteen.  .  .  .'*     (Town  of  Ocelotepec.) 

"...  They  used  to  fight  with  the  natives  of  other  neighboring  towns  for  no  cause  or  reason 
whatsoever,  only  for  the  exercise  and  they  ate  the  flesh  of  those  they  captured  alive  in  battle, 
and  not  that  of  those  killed  in  warfare.  .  .  .  They  ate  tortillas  or  tamales  and  some  chile  and 
no  more.  Once  a  year  when  they  celebrated  their  harvest ,  they  killed  a  hen ,  chicken ,  dog  or 
rabbit  (if  able  to  catch  it)  or  other  game  and  ate  it,  offering  first  of  all  to  their  idol  the  first 
fruits  of  all  they  caught  or  killed  —  for  in  all  things  they  were  subjected  to  strict  laws.  .  .  . 
They  say  that  notwithstanding  the  hard  work  they  used  to  suffer  under,  they  used  to  be  health- 
ier ..  .  they  say  an  Indian  used  to  live  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  years  and  now  it  is 
a  great  deal  if  the  age  of  eighty  is  reached,  although  the  natives  now  lead  such  an  easy  life  and 
are  the  naastMB  of  their  properties  which  formerly  they  were  not,  for  no  one  then  dared  eat  any- 
thing they  raised  under  x>ain  of  fine  or  death."    (Town  of  Istepexi.) 

**  .  .  .  Their  ordinary  food  used  to  be  tortillas  and  chile  and  beans  and  if  anyone  hunted  a 

r,  rabbit  or  mouse  they  ate  it  although  usually  they  presented  it  to  their  native  lord  who 


70  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

Tequizistlan 

The  natives  of  this  place  had  no  government.  All  they  under- 
stood was  to  hunt  and  to  cultivate  very  little  land.  They  had 
never  been  at  war  or  quarrelled  with  anyone  until  Nezahualcoyot- 
zin,  the  lord  of  Texcoco,  conquered  the  district  and  allied  himself 
with  Montezimia,  lord  of  Mexico.  They  made  vassals  of  the 
natives  of  this  town  and  distributed  among  their  sons  the  lands 
they  owned.  They  fought  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  clubs  gar- 
nished with  obsidian  points.  They  had  shields  made  of  hard  cane. 
Their  war  costume  was  of  the  skin  of  rabbits  and  other  animals 
and  feathers  of  birds,  and  in  time  of  peace  they  went  naked  and 
only  used  coarse  mantles  of  agave  fibre  and  loin  cloths.  The  chiefs 
wore  sandals.  Nowadays  all  in  general  wear  cotton  mantles, 
shirts  and  trousers  and  the  women  cotton  shirts  and  shoulder 
capes.  Some  use  woollen  mantles.  They  sleep  high  and  cover 
themselves  with  woollen  blankets. 

In  ancient  times  their  food  consisted  of  snakes,  cactus  and  cooked 
agave  leaves  and  some  herbs  of  little  nourishment  with  which  they 
lived  heathily.  Nowadays  they  are  accustomed  to  eat  game  birds 
and  domestic  fowl,  baked  bread,  also  other  products  of  the  lagoon, 
with  which  they  are  not  as  healthy  as  in  olden  times  because  they 
have  more  luxury  now  than  they  had  then. 

Tepeciipan 

According  to  what  the  natives  say,  they  governed  themselves 
according  to  the  law  of  Nature.  For  many  years  they  lived  in 
peace,  without  being  at  war  with  anyone  until,  two  hundred  years 
before  the  time  of  Montezuma,  they  had  some  encounters  with 
the  lords  of  Mexico  who  wanted  to  subjugate  them,  whereas  they 

would  Rive  them  sonic  of  it  or  some  other  food  or  clothing  as  a  compensation,  because  only  the 
lords  had  permission  to  eat  turkeys,  quail,  deer  and  other  game.  Nowadays  everybody  eats 
tortillas,  chile,  beans,  gourds  and  deer  although  they  cost  excessive  prices,  also  other  meats  of 
our  cattle  or  of  the  game  they  kill.  .  .  ."    (Town  of  Tepcucila.) 

"  They  use  at  present  the  same  foods  they  used  to  but  have  many  meats,  as  they  eat  sheep, 
ewes  and  co^-s,  there  being  no  town  which  does  not  have  its  community  ranch  and  private  ones, 
thus  having  meat  in  abundance.  ...  As  the  reason  wh\,  in  ancient  times,  they  lived  much 
longer,  all  dying  old  then  and  young  nowadays,  they  pay  it  must  be  because  they  work  less  now 
than  they  used  to,  having  then  to  render  personal  service  not  only  to  the  caciques  and  lords 
but  also  to  the  *  Tequitlatoe'  who  were  those  who  were  in  charge.  Also  because  nowadays  they 
marry  in  boyhood,  whereas  formerly  they  did  so  at  the  age  of  thirty  or  forty.  .  .  ."  (Town  of 
Miahuatlan.) 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  71 

defended  themselves  so  as  not  to  receive  their  evil  customs.  They 
became  confederates  by  means  of  a  marriage.  A  hundred  and 
twenty  years  later  a  lord  of  Atzcapotzalco  near  Mexico,  named 
Maxtlaton,  with  despotism  killed  Tencoyotzin,  lord  of  Tepechpan, 
in  order  to  increase  his  dominion,  for  which  reason  they  waged 
war  against  Atzcapotzalco  and  joined  the  Mexicans  and  made  war 
on  those  of  Soconusco  and  Tlaxcala  and  Huejotzinco  and  the 
province  of  Michoacan. 

The  chieftains  wore  a  loin  cloth  named  maxtlif  no  shirt,  and  man- 
tles worked  with  designs,  also  bracelets  and  labrets  of  stones 
named  chcdchihuites.  Ordinary  men  went  naked  with  a  loin  cloth 
only  and  a  mantle  of  agave  fibre.  Nowadays  they  generally  wear 
cotton  mantles,  shirts  and  loose  trousers;  only  a  few  wear  loin 
cloths.  The  conmionest  foods  they  have  always  used  and  still  use 
are  maize,  beans,  squashes,  huauhtli  and  chili  peppers. 

After  the  arrival  of  the  Marques  del  Valle  they  ate  fowl.  The 
natives  state  that  before  he  came  they  had  never  had  any  remark- 
able illness  but  that  about  a  year  before  his  arrival,  a  great  num- 
ber of  them  died  of  a  disease  like  small-pox  which  broke  out  all 
over  their  bodies.  Since  then  they  have  never  been  free  from  ill- 
ness, they  do  not  know  why. 

ACOLMAN 

The  lord  of  Acolman  used  to  govern  his  Indians  and  punished 
those  who  committed  crimes.  If  any  chieftain  committed  a  crime 
this  was  investigated  by  the  lord  of  Texcoco. 

The  people  of  Acolman  carried  on  war  with  those  of  Tlaxcalla 
and  the  mountain  range  of  Metztitlan,  and  fought  them  with  bows 
and  arrows,  wooden  sabres  with  obsidian  points,  and  wore  cotton 
mantles.  In  time  of  peace  the  chieftains  always  wore  fine  loin 
clothes,  mantles  of  agave  fibre,  and  sandals,  excepting  at  festivals 
when  they  wore  mantles  worked  with  designs.  When  they  went 
out,  in  order  to  protect  themselves  from  the  sun,  each  carried  a 
feather  fan.  All  vassals  wore  only  a  mantle  of  coarse  agave  fibre 
and  a  loin  cloth.  Nowadays  all  generally  wear  cotton  shirts  and 
mantles  and  trousers;  they  cover  themselves  at  night  with  blankets, 
whereas  in  ancient  times  they  only  covered  themselves  with  the 
mantle  they  wore  in  day  time.  The  chieftains  used  to  eat  game 
birds  and  some  domestic  fowl.   The  conmioners  only  ate  the  cooked 


7/  OP  fir  I AL  Rr.P:.^.T- 

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mil.  I.  Ii    I  Jif^r  fli.'if   f|,i  V  now  haVf.'. 

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«,,,V  NH  ^i^-'' 

TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  73 

and  did  not  serve  her  husband.    An  equal  division  of  property  was 
made  when  a  separation  took  place. 

The  slave  who  escaped  from  his  prison  and  made  a  public  decla- 
ration that  he  had  done  so  before  the  elder  of  his  quarter,  was  ac- 
quitted of  his  imprisonment  and  set  free  by  said  elder.  If  war 
captives,  while  being  led  to  the  temple  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  idol, 
were  by  chance  able  to  escape  and  reach  the  summit  of  the  pyramid 
where  the  idol  was,  and  get  behind  this,  he  was  acquitted  of  said 
death  and  sacrifice. 

The  inhabitants  of  Teotihuacan  used  to  carry  on  warfare  with 
the  people  of  Huejotzinco  and  Atlixco  and  used  to  fight  with  bows, 
arrows  and  wooden  sabres  edged  with  sharp  obsidian  points  {ma- 
cana).  The  usual  costume  of  the  chieftains  in  time  of  peace  con- 
sisted of  a  mantle  of  fine  agave  fibre,  a  loin  cloth  and  sandals.  In 
war  time  the  chieftains  and  others  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves in  warfare  wore  a  cotton  armor  and  various  devices;  some 
disguised  themselves  as  herons,  or  ducks,  or  eagles.  Others  dis- 
guised themselves  by  wearing  the  skins  of  pumas,  jaguars,  wolves 
(coyotes),  deer  or  other  animals.  The  common  Indians  only  car- 
ried bows  and  arrows  and  wore  no  device  whatsoever.  They  went 
naked  excepting  for  a  loin  cloth  and  coarse  mantle  of  agave  fibre. 
Nowadays  they  all  wear  cloaks,  cotton  shirts  and  trousers;  they 
sleep  on  beds  and  cover  themselves  with  woolen  blankets.  They 
eat  good  food,  boiled  maize,  domestic  and  wild  fowl,  beef  and 
mutton. 

In  ancient  times  most  of  them  sustained  Ufe  on  the  boiled  leaves 
of  the  cactus  and  agave,  or  roots,  or  mice,  snakes  and  other  reptiles, 
and  were  healthier  because  of  this  and  because  they  were  more 
accustomed  to  exercise  and  hard  work  than  nowadays.  The 
natives  realize  that  the  luxury  they  now  live  in  and  the  little  work 
they  do  is  the  cause  of  illness,  because  they  now  fall  ill  whenever 
they  make  any  exertion,  especially  on  account  of  the  pulque  which 
they  are  accustomed  to  drink  from  childhood  and  which  does  them 
much  harm. 

QUESTION  XVI 

It  is  to  be  stated,  about  all  towns  of  Spaniards  or  Indians, 
whether  it  is  situated  in  a  mountain,  valley  or  open  plain,  and  the 
name  of  the  mountain  or  valley.  The  district  is  to  be  recorded  with 
the  meaning  of  everything  in  the  native  tongue. 


L 


74  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

Tequizistlaj^ 

This  town  is  situated  in  a  plain,  among  canals  and  close  to  the 
lagoon.  Towards  the  North  it  is  open  on  all  sides  but  there  is  a 
small  mountain  there  which  is  named  Tlahuilquitl  because  the 
natives  say  that  in  ancient  times  they  saw  fire  come  out  of  said 
mountain  and  that  it  illuminated  a  great  part  of  the  country; 
therefore  they  call  it  the  "mountain  of  light/'  ^  To  the  Northwest 
there  is  another  large  mountain  within  its  boundaries.  It  is  named 
Yelocotl  because  it  has  plentiful  game,  so  the  Viceroys  of  this  New 
Spain  have  used  it  as  a  hunting  ground. 

Tepechpan 

The  town  is  situated  in  a  plain  at  the  base  of  a  rough  hill  and  is 
open  to  all  sides.  Near  it,  at  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  league,  in 
the  confines  of  Texcoco,  there  is  a  medium-sized,  round  hill  which 
is  named  Tlahuilquitl,  thus  named  because  the  natives  say  that  in 
said  hill  there  used  to  be  fire  which  gave  light  at  night;  therefore 
they  named  it  "the  mountain  of  light." 

ACOLMAN 

Acolman  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  in  a  plain  open  to  all 
sides.  At  a  distance  of  about  half  a  league  there  is  a  mountain 
named  Tlahuilquitl  and  another  big  mountain  named  Yelocotl. 
The  meaning  of  these  names  is  given  in  the  descriptions  of  Tequi- 
zistlan  and  Tepechpan. 

Tegtiiiuacan 

This  town  is  situated  in  a  vast  plain  wherein  there  are  many 
springs,  as  has  been  declared  above. 

QUKSTIOX  XVII 

State  whether  the  town  is  situated  in  a  healthful  or  unhealthful 
place  and  if  unhealthful  the  cause  for  this,  also  the  kinds  of  illnesses 
that  are  prevalent  and  the  remedies  employed  for  curing  them. 

*  It  is  interesting  and  important  to  learn  that,  witliin  the  memory  of  man,  a  small  volcano 
in  this  vicinity  was  still  active.  Compare  with  the  evidence  presented  in  note  1,  p.  63,  tending 
to  prove  that  the  name  "  Tenan  "  was  given  to  the  large  volcano  in  the  same  region  while  it 
was  periodically  active.  The  name  "Yelocotl"  may  be  derived  from  *' Yeloa"  =  a  crowded 
place,  or  "  Yeltia  "  =to  flee  or  cause  to  flee. 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  75 

Tequizistlan 

The  situation  of  this  town  is  unhealthf  ul  on  account  of  being  very 
damp.  Its  inhabitants  suffer  from  fever  and  cure  themselves  with 
nettles  and  a  kind  of  lily,  which  afford  them  some  relief. 

Tepechpan 

The  situation  is  healthful.  The  usual  illness  is  fever  which  pro- 
ceeds from  their  working  in  their  seed  lands.  They  cure  themselves 
with  cooling  things.    Those  that  are  to  die  only  live  eight  days. 

ACOLMAN 

It  is  a  place  of  medium  healthfulness  and  has  bad  night  dews. 
The  prevalent  illness  among  the  Indians  is  headache  which  they 
cure  with  cooling  herbs. 

Teotihuacan 

It  is  a  healthful  region  although  the  natives  sometimes  suffer 
from  headache  and  fever,  which  maladies  they  cure  with  herbs  and 
roots  of  cooling  qualities. 

QUESTION  XVIII 1 

How  far  or  near  is  any  remarkable  mountain  or  mountain  range: 
in  what  direction  does  it  lie  and  how  is  it  called? 

QUESTION  XIX 

State  what  principal  river  or  rivers  pass  close  to  the  town;  at 
what  distance  they  do  so;  how  abundant  they  are  and  whether 
there  is  anything  remarkable  about  their  sources,  their  water,  its 
water-supply  and  the  land  it  irrigates,  also  whether  it  is  employed 
or  could  be  employed  for  irrigation  on  an  important  scale. 

QUESTION  XX 

Cite  the  remarkable  lakes,  lagoons  and  fountains  and  any  notable 
things  there  may  be  in  the  district  of  the  towns. 

1  As  the  aoBwera  to  Questions  XVIII  to  XXI,  and  from  XXIII  to  XXVII,  ore  either  omitted 
or  scant,  these  questions  are  sroupod  together. 

In  the  case  of  Question  XXXII  and  others  to  which  no  answers  are  given,  the  questions 
are  printed  as  being  interesting  in  themselves  and  completing  the  questionnaire. 


76  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

QUESTION  XXI 

Mention  the  volcanoes,  eaves  and  all  other  remarkable  and  ad- 
mirable works  of  nature  there  may  be  in  the  district,  which  are 
worthy  of  being  known. 

Tequizistlan 

At  the  East  of  this  town  the  river  named  San  Juan  passes  in  a 
deep  canal  at  a  distance  of  two  arquebuss  shots  and  it  irrigates 
nearly  half  a  league. 

Tepechpan 

To  the  East  of  the  town  at  a  distance  of  half  a  long  league,  at  the 
confines  of  Texcoco,  is  a  range  of  mountains,  the  names  of  which 
are  not  given  as  they  are  not  ver>'  noteworthy.  There  is  no  river 
or  fountain,  only  the  river  of  San  Juan  passes  through  the  town, 
dividing  into  two  canals  which  irrigate  the  land  of  said  town  for  a 
distance  of  half  a  league. 

ACOLMAX 

The  river  named  San  Juan  passes  through  the  town  of  Acolman, 
dividing  into  four  canals,  each  conveying  the  measure  of  two  oxen 
of  water  and  irngating  nearly  a  league  of  land. 

Tegtihuacax 

Towards  the  North  lies  a  big  mountain  which  the  natives  name 
''-^nan  and  it  has  given  birth  to  man}-  other  mountains.  On  the 
-'AStorn  slope  of  the  aforesaid  mountain,  about  half  wa3'  up,  is  a 
-*A2i'i  in  which  one  hears  a  great  noise  which  appears  to  proceed 

.^ v^^^  interior,  at  a  distance  of  twenty  yards.    This  seems  to  be 

.  •ioi;5e  of  the  water  which  descends  from  the  said  mountain. 

•'■^.  ••d**^'es  are  convinced  that  it  is  wat(M',  l)ecausc  in  the  w^hole 

■  :w*  4>vtpnds  between  the  town  of  San  Juan  and  the  confines 

'vvxNV  there  is  no  river  nor  spring  other  than  the  one  at  the 

ho  town  of  San  Juan  which  the  natives  associate  with  the 

."^.^^1    »iuoh  makes  a  noise  in  the  mountain. 

*,i  •>ijun,  for  a  circumference  of  a  league,  between  the  head 

•  »rt«  ot  San  Juan  and  Otumba,  there  are  many  large  and 

*^t>.  s«.»ine  as  extensive  underground  as  an  arquebus  shot. 

^      IK'   •  •  Ikv  extract  the  saltpeter  with  which  gun  powder  is 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  77 

made  in  His  Majesty's  Munition  House  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 
Thirty  Indians  are  usually  employed  every  week  in  extracting  said 
saltpeter  and  the  train  of  mules  which  conveys  it  to  the  City  of 
Mexico  is  famous. 

QUESTION  XXII 

Describe  the  native  trees  that  commonly  grow  wild  in  said  dis- 
trict, and  the  profit  gained  from  their  fruits  and  wood.  State 
what  they  are  or  might  be  good  for. 

QUESTION  XXIII 

Mention  whether  the  cultivated  trees  and  fruit  trees  in  the 
district  brought  there  from  Spain  or  elsewhere  do  well  or  not. 

QUESTION  XXIV 

Mention  the  grain  and  seeds  and  other  plants  and  vegetables 
which  have  served  or  serve  as  food  for  the  natives. 

QUESTION  XXV 

State  what  plants  have  been  introduced  there  from  Spain  and 
whether  wheat,  barley,  wine  and  the  olive  flourish;  in  what  quantity 
they  are  harvested  and  whether  there  are  silk-worms  or  cochineal 
in  the  district  and  in  what  quantities. 

QUESTION  XXVI 

Mention  the  herbs  or  aromatic  plants  with  which  the  Indians 
cure  themselves  and  their  medicinal  or  poisonous  qualities. 

QUESTION  XXVII 

Describe  the  native  animals,  birds  of  prey  and  domestic  fowl 
and  those  introduced  from  Spain  and  state  how  they  breed  and 
multiply. 

Tequizistlan 

They  have  trees  of  the  native  cherry  and  a  quantity  of  agave 
plants  which  yield  sweet  juice  and  fibre.  When  cooked  the  leaves 
furnish  food  and  when  dried  supply  fuel.    They  have  no  other 


78  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

fnxit  trees,  for  the  earth  contains  aattpet^  and  they  eoukl  not  grow . 
The  seeds  they  sow  are  maiae,  diia,  hvauUU,  and  beans^  abo  aome 
wheat,  about  fifty  fanegas  [boshels]  more  or  less.  They  l»eed 
dogs  from  Spain  and  some  native  ones  which  multi^dy.  Of  the 
wild  native  animals  there  are  coyotes,  and  some  hares  and  rabbits. 

Tepechpax 

Within  the  confines  of  this  town  there  are  some  quince  and  peach 
trees  and  some  native  cherry  trees.  In  one  of  the  dependencies 
named  Maquizco  they  grow  a  quantity  of  pear,  peach  and  quince 
trees  which  give  fruit  at  Christmas.  Throughout  the  whole  dis- 
trict there  grow  quantities  of  agaves  which  jield  sweet  juice  and 
fuel.  The  natives  cultivate  and  gather  for  their  food  mai^e,  beans, 
squashes,  peppers,  chia,  and  huauhUi.  Of  Spanish  vegetables  they 
have  lettuce,  radishes,  onions  and  parsley.  They  have  wheat 
which,  although  the  quantity  is  small,  serves  as  provision  for  the 
natives.  They  have  raised  quantities  of  dogs  of  those  brought 
from  Spain  and  a  few  of  the  native  ones.  Of  wild  animals  there  are 
coyotes. 

ACOLMAX 

They  have  a  quantity  of  the  native  cherry  tree  which  produce 
much  good  fruit.  They  have  walnut,  pear,  and  quince  trees  and 
vines  in  the  orchard  of  the  monaster}'  of  this  town.  Of  agave  and 
cactus  plants,  which  are  the  principal  food  of  the  natives,  there  is 
an  abundance.  They  cultivate  maize,  beans,  chia,  and  huauhUi,  on 
which  they  live.  They  have  no  other  vegetables  out  of  careless- 
nesis,  for  they  would  grow  well  in  this  district.  They  cultivate 
wheat  with  and  without  irrigation,  and  it  does  ver>'  well,  but  they 
only  sow  a  small  quantity. 

Teotihuacan 

Thov  have  an  abundance  of  the  native  cherries,  of  the  edible 
cacti  and  agaves  which  sustain  them,  and  which  they  sell  in  the 
iun>!:liboring  towns.  In  said  town  and  its  confines  they  harvest 
uiuch  niaizo,  beans,  hiiauhtli^  and  chia  for  their  maintenance.  They 
hIh<)  raist>  some  Spanish  vegetables.  The  natives  sow  but  little 
wht*Ht  Hlthi>ugh  what  is  raised  is  very  good. 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  79 

QUESTION  XXX 

State  whether  there  are  salt  works  in  or  near  said  town  and  from 
where  they  get  their  supplies  of  salt  and  of  all  other  things  they 
need  for  sustenance  and  clothing. 

Tequizistlan 

In  ancient  times  they  used  to  make  salt  in  this  town  with  which 
they  provided  the  City  of  Mexico.  For  the  past  thirty-eight 
years  they  have  given  up  doing  so  because  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants have  decreased  and  because  the  water  of  the  lagoon  has  risen 
and  covered  the  salt  beds  from  which  they  extracted  the  salt. 

Tepechpan 

They  lack  salt  and  procure  what  they  need  from  the  City  of 
Mexico  or  the  town  of  San  Cristobal  Ecatepec  or  from  Exqui- 
payaque,  a  dependency  of  Texcoco.  For  their  clothing  they  pro- 
cure cotton  from  the  estate  of  the  Marques  del  Valle. 

ACOLMAN 

The  salt  they  use  is  brought  from  the  towns  of  Tequizistlan  and 
Acatepec  and  Mexico;  the  cotton  which  they  use  for  clothing 
themselves  is  brought  from  the  land  of  the  Marques  del  Valle  and 
from  the  mountain  of  Meztitlan. 

Tegtihuacan 

There  are  no  salt  beds  in  said  town  or  its  dependencies,  so  all 
that  is  consumed  there  is  brought  from  the  City  of  Mexico,  from 
the  town  of  San  Cristobal  or  from  the  mountain  range  of  Meztitlan 
and  the  hot  lands.  The  cotton  they  use  for  clothing  is  brought 
from  the  region  of  Panuco. 

QUESTION  XXXI 

Describe  the  form  and  construction  of  their  houses  and  the  ma- 
terials for  building  them  that  are  found  in  the  towns  or  the  other 
places  from  which  they  are  brought. 

Tequizistlan 

The  houses  and  constructions  in  which  they  live  are  generally 
built  with  stone  foundations  and  adobe  walls  covered  with  fiat 


so  OFFICIAL  EEPORTB 


• .  m 


r  ;  1 1  '4  i 1 1  I  i 


zooCb.   TheBtoneiieededforbuikliiigutobehadintfae 
hood.   The  timlser  zeqaiied  u  broui^t  frctti  t^ 
ooooi  distant  four  kagiies. 

Tbpbghpak 
An  of  the  houaee  in  this  town  sndits  dependencies  are  genenlly 


built  with  stone  f oundationSi  adobe  waUs  and  flat  roofis. 

AcoiaiAN 

An  of  their  houses  and  stnictuxes  have  stone  foundations,  adobe 
waUs  and  flat  roofs.   They  have  an  abimdanoe  of  stone. 

TaSOTEHUACAN 

An  the  inhabitants  of  this  town  and  its  dependencies  live  in 
houses  built  of  stone  and  adobe,  with  flat  roofs.  The  houses  of  the 
principal  personages  are  curiously  and  elaborately  constructed.^ 


QUESTION  XXXn 

Describe  the  fortresses  in  said  towns  and  the  strongholds  there 
are  in  their  vicinity  and  within  their  confines. 

QUESTION  XXXIII 

Describe  the  trade  and  traffic  and  dealings  with  which  the 
Spanish  and  native  inhabitants  of  the  town  support  themselves 
and  state  with  what  produce  and  how  they  pay  their  tributes. 

Tequizistlan 

The  Indians  live  by  farming.  They  have  the  custom  of  buying 
cotton  brought  from  the  Marques  del  Valle  and  of  this  they  spin 
and  weave  skirts  and  mantles  (mantas)  with  designs,  that  they 
sell.  The  natives  of  Acaltecoya,  subordinate  to  Tequizistlan,  deal 
in  fish  and  game  birds  and  pay  their  tribute  with  these. 

>  In  a  document  dated  1563  mention  is  made  of  the  great  palaces  then  occupied  by  Alonso 
Basan,  a  descendant  of  the  Kincs  of  Texcoco,  who  was  the  native  lord  and  encomendero  of 
Teotihuacan. 


TO  fflS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  81 

Tepechpan 

The  inhabitants  of  this  town  live  by  cultivating  their  lands  and 
raising  hens  and  have  no  other  trade  or  dealings.  They  pay  their 
tribute  to  their  Encomendero  in  agaves,  money  and  maize  as  is 
generally  done  by  the  other  towns  in  New  Spain. 

ACOLMAN 

The  inhabitants  live  by  farming  and  raising  hens  and  have  no 
other  trade  or  dealings.  With  their  profits  and  the  sweet  juice  of  the 
agave,  they  pay  their  tribute  in  money  and  in  maize. 

Teotihxjacan 

The  natives  incline  to  farming  and  its  produce  is  their  principal 
means  of  support.  They  raise  Spanish  and  native  fowl  for  nourish- 
ment and  have  no  other  trade. 


QUESTION  XXXIV 

State  the  diocese  of  the  archbishopric  or  bishopric  or  abbey  to 
which  the  town  belongs;  the  district  in  which  it  is  situated  and 
its  distance  in  leagues.  State  in  what  direction  from  it  lies  the 
cathedral  town  and  the  capital  of  the  district  and  whether  the 
leagues  are  long  or  short;  the  roads  straight  or  winding  and  the 
country  fiat  or  rough. 

QUESTION  XXXV 

Mention  the  cathedral  or  parish  church  or  churches  in  each  town 
with  the  number  of  beneficiaries  and  prebends  in  each;  if  the  town 
contains  any  chapel  or  noteworthy  endowment,  state  whose  it  is 
and  who  was  its  founder. 

QUESTION  XXXVI 

Mention  the  monasteries  of  friars  and  convents  of  nuns  of  each 
order  there  may  be  in  each  town;  when  and  by  whom  they  were 
founded  and  the  number  of  friars  and  nuns  therein.  Mention  also 
an3rthing  noteworthy  there  may  be  in  the  towns. 


82  OFFICIAL  REPORTS 

QUESTION  XXXVII 

Mention  also  the  hospitals,  colleges  and  pious  institutions  there 
may  be  in  said  towns  and  by  whom  and  when  they  were  instituted. 

Tequizistlan 

This  town  belongs  to  the  diocese  and  archbishopric  of  the  City 
of  Mexico  which  lies  to  its  Southwest  at  a  distance  of  five  leagues 
of  level  country.  The  boundary  of  the  district  of  Tequizistlan  lies 
to  the  North  of  the  City  of  Mexico  at  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a 
league. 

Tepechpan 

Tepechpan  pertains  to  the  diocese  and  archbishopric  of  Mexico 
and  lies  in  the  district  of  the  town  of  Tequizistlan,  a  quarter  of  a 
league  to  its  North,  and  five  leagues  from  the  City  of  Mexico, 
wherein  the  cathedral  stands. 

ACOLMAN 

The  town  belongs  to  the  archbishopric  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
where  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese  stands,  at  a  distance  of  five  long 
leagues  of  level  country.  In  Acolman  there  is  a  monastery  of 
friars  of  the  order  of  Saint  Augustine,  in  which  there  is  a  school 
in  which  grammar  is  taught.  Twenty-four  monks  reside  therein 
and  five  priests  for  the  administration  of  religious  doctrine  to  the 
natives.  They  have  a  very  grand  church  with  a  vaulted  ceiling 
and  a  ver^'  sumptuous  portal  of  carved  stone;  also  a  good  orchard 
within  the  monaster^'  walls,  in  which  they  gather  quantities  of 
Spanish  walnuts  and  cherries,  of  native  cherries  and  plums.  This 
monaster^'  was  founded  in  1539,  the  provincial  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Augustine  being  the  reverend  father  Friar  George  Davila. 

Teotihucax 

The  town  of  San  Juan  and  its  dependencies  pertain  to  the  diocese 
and  bishopric  of  the  City  of  Mexico  and  is  two  leagues  distant 
from  Tequizistlan,  the  headquarters  of  the  Corregidor.  In  San 
Juan  there  is  a  monasterj^  of  Franciscan  friars  who  administer  the 
doctrine  to  the  natives.  They  have  a  good  church  and  fair  house 
in  which  three  priests  and  a  lay  brother  generally  reside.     The 


TO  HIS  MAJESTY,  PHILIP  II  83 

monastery  was  founded  in  1566,  the  provincial  of  the  Franciscan 
order  being  Friar  Miguel  Navarro  and  the  guardian  of  said  town 
Friar  Francisco  Perez. 

Paragraph  L 

And  after  the  said  description  has  been  written  down,  it  is  to  be 
signed  by  the  persons  who  helped  to  make  it.  It  is  to  be  sent 
without  delay  with  this  instruction,  to  the  person  who  may  have 
forwarded  it. 

Tequizistlan 

The  description  of  this  town  was  written  therein  on  the  twenty- 
second  of  February,  1580,  and  was  signed  by  the  Corregidor  Fran- 
cisco de  Castafieda  and  those  who  knew  how  to  write,  namely 

Juan  de  Vera,  Antonio  de  San  Francisco, [an  illegible  name 

followed  by  the  word  fiscal,  that  is  prior  or  censurer], 

Benito  Martinez,  derk. 

Tepechpan 

Description  written  in  the  town  of  Tepechpan  on  the  twenty- 
third  of  February,  1580,  and  signed  by  the  Corregidor  Francisco 
de  Castafieda,  and  those  who  could  sign:  Juan  de  Vera;  Don  An- 
tonio de  Herrera;  Rodrigo  de  Sandoval. 

Benito  Martinez,  derk. 

Acolman 

The  description  of  the  town  of  Acolman,  under  the  encomienda 
of  Francisco  de  Solis,  citizen  of  Mexico  City,  was  written  in  said 
town  on  the  twenty-sixth  of  February,  1580,  those  present  while 
it  was  being  drawn  up  being:  the  Corregidor  Francisco  de  Cas- 
tafieda, Benito  Martinez,  Alonso  de  SoUs,  Francisco  de  Miranda, 
and  Juan  de  Vera,  Spaniards;  Don  Diego  Vazquez,  Governor, 
Don  Guillermo  de  San  Francisco,  Alcalde,  Lucas  de  Molina,  Don 
Cristobal  de  Santiago,  Pablo  Zihuatecpanecatl,  Regidors;  Don 
Juan  Bautista,  Diego  Atecpanecatl,  and  Antonio  de  Santiago, 
chieftains  and  natives  of  said  town.^ 

*  The  above  entry  appeal  8  as  a  superacription  to  the  report  from  Acolman  and  the  ngnatores 
f  oDoir  aeparately  at  the  end. 


■IpBd  igr  As  Gompdv 


I  dl  Castaoeda  aod  Uumb 
Jmb  de  Vera;  GuiDenixxler 
pn^  Govunor. 
Ban-ro  IMabtisex,  cbri. 


Tbs^ 


1  ol  tte  temu  <i  Sn  Joan  Teotibuacan,  underi 
1  of  Jkm  Aalomo  Ba^an,  ChieT  Alguanl 
of  the  Hfllr  Ofliee  of  dv  TnguMtiiw,'  mw  %rnttca  in  said  town 
aBftnttilMwdi,lfi80.th«rebKiiKpnHnt  Don  Cristoball^me-it- . 
td  lad  loii  de  Su  M^od,  AleaUei;  Antonio  de  i>aii  Francisco,, 
Msteo  JiuKs,  and  Antcnio  de  ba  Anpips,  R«g>dom;  AndreS' 
DMlbi^  Dm  Lonn(o  ud  VuadaBO  OnniLochtii,  chief  iDdtans  of, 
Mid  town;  Aknso  ds  Senmlw  and  Jun  de  Vera,  Spaniards.  It- 
mm  tnodated  by  VnaoBBo  de  Miranda;  interpreted  and  ng 
bj  the  Conepdor  and  those  iriio  knew  how  to  write:  Franeiaeg 
de  CastBfiedo,  Andrea  Dalbu,  Oamiau  Bnro.  Gabriel  de  la  Cni^ 
naadsoo  de  Miranda. 

BsRiTo  Maktinki,  tierk. 


ttMaeiam  Bah  OOtu.  Tb«* 

oBon  lyitamatiraOy  aDd  rathltagly  Evrkd 
br  CorU*  ud  Kchop  ~ 
native  Citholie  uecpiiyttt. 


PAPERS 

OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


Vol.  XI,  No.  3 


V/  ll 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY 
OF  HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND 

MIXED  BLOOD 


BY 

LESLIE  C.  DUNN 


BASED  UPON  DATA  COLLECTED  BY 

ALFRED  M.  TOZZER 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

19^ 


H33 


*-9 

BT  «HB  FBAB(H)¥  injOUlf  or  IMBUOAK  ABCHABOIiOOT 
AND  BTHNOLOQT,  HABTABD  UNITXBSITr 


PRINTED  AT  THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITT  PRESS 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.  8.  A. 


NOTE 

At  the  time  when  Dr.  Tozzer  gathered  the  data  which  are 
analyzed  in  this  paper  practicallj'-  no  measurements  had 
been  undertaken  on  living  Hawaiians.  Later  Dr.  Louis 
Sullivan  made  most  extensive  anthropometrical  investiga- 
tions in  Hawaii.  His  lamented  death  came  before  his  data 
could  be  worked  up.  It  has  thus  seemed  worth  while  to  pub- 
lish the  results  of  the  investigation  of  the  present  data  al- 
though they  are  far  less  adequate  than  those  collected  by 
Sullivan. 

Dr.  Hooton,  who  suggested  this  investigation,  has  given 
amply  of  his  time  and  attention  throughout  its  analysis, 
and  has  seen  it  through  the  press  owing  to  the  absence  of 
Dr.  Dunn  in  Europe. 

The  pubUcation  is  made  possible  through  the  kindness  of 
George  P.  Castle,  Esq.,  of  Honolulu,  and  of  Dr.  Tozzer. 


Charles  C.  Willoughby,  Director 


Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
December  15,  1927 


CONTENTS 

Introduction 91 

Plan  of  the  Study 91 

CJollection  of  the  Material 92 

Treatment  of  the  Material 95 

Classification  of  the  Subjects 95 

Statistical  Analysis 97 

Racial  Frequency  in  Hawaii 98 

PART  I 

An  Anthropometric  Description  of  the  Native  Hawaiians 

Preliminary  Statements 100 

The  Evidence  and  its  Analysis 100 

A.  General  Body  Form 101 

I.   Stature 101 

II.   Sitting  Height 103 

III.  Index  of  Sitting  Height 103 

IV.  Height  of  Shoulder 104 

V.   Length  of  Arm 105 

VI.   Index  of  Arm  Length     106 

VII.    Body  Weight 106 

Conclusions  from  bodily  dimensions 108 

B.  Cephalic  and  Facial  Characteristics 108 

I.   Head  length 108 

II.   Head  Breadth 110 

III.  Cephalic  Index 113 

IV.  Bizygomatic  diameter 114 

V.   Nasion-Menton  Height 115 

VI.    Facial  Index 115 

VII.    Nasal  Height,  Breadth  and  Shape 117 

Conclusions  from  dimensions  of  head  and  face  .    .    .    .119 

C.  Non-Mensurable  Characteristics 119 

I.   Hair  Color 119 

II.   Hair  Form 120 

III.  Eye  Color 121 

IV.  Skin  Color 121 

V.   Nose  Form 122 

VI.   Mongolian  (Epicanthic)  Fold 123 

VII.   Prognathism 123 

VIII.    Other  Traits 123 

D.  General  Characteristics  of  the  Hawaiians 124 

I.   Homogeneity  of  Type 125 

11.   Racial  Affinities 128 


90  CONTENTS 


PART  II 

Descriptions  of  Other  Races  in  Hawaii  and  op  Descend- 
ants FROM  Crosses  of  Hawaiians  with  Other  Races 

Chinese  and  Chinese-llawaiians 130 

Description  of  the  South  Chinese 130 

Comparison  of  Hawaiians  and  Chinese 132 

First  Hybrid  (Fi)  Generation  from  Hawaiian  X  Chinese 134 

Mensurable  Traits 135 

Non-mensurable  Traits 139 

General  Character  of  the  Fi  Generation 141 

Homogeneity 141 

Resemblances  to  Parents 141 

Backcross  Generations 142 

Matings  of  Fi  with  Hawaiians 142 

Other  Hawaiian-Chinese  Mixtures 145 

Discuasion 146 

White  Kaces  and  White- Hawaiian  Hybrids 148 

The  European  Parent  Types 149 

Comparison  of  Hawaiians  and  WTiites 151 

First  Hybrid  (Fi)  Generation  from  Hawaiian  X  AVhite 152 

Body  Size 152 

Head  Measurements 154 

Face  Measurements 156 

Nose 157 

Hair 158 

Fye  Color      159 

Skin  Color 160 

Other  Traits      160 

Second  Generation 160 

BackcTo.ss  Generations 163 

Comparison  of  Mensurable  Traits 165 

Hybrids  of  Hawaiians  and  South  Europeans 171 

Other  Hawaiian- White  Mixtures 172 

General  Summary  and  Discussion 173 

Apix^ndix 180 

Tables  of  Raw  Data ISO 

Bibliography 210 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 
HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 

INTRODUCTION 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  report  to  present  and  discuss  a  large  body 
of  detailed  evidence  bearing  on  the  physical  consequences  of  racial 
hybridization  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  study  was  under- 
taken and  the  data  were  collected  and  analyzed  in  the  hope  that 
the  results  would  contribute  towards  a  solution  of  the  important 
problem  of  race  mixture.  We  have  regarded  this  problem  chiefly 
as  a  biological  one,  the  solution  of  which  depends  on  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  concerning  the  inheritance  and  interrelationship 
of  the  specific  traits  which  differentiate  races.  The  most  needed 
contributions  at  present  appear  to  be  detailed  descriptions  of  racial 
traits  and  of  their  behavior  in  inheritance. 

This  is  particularly  true  of  the  great  problem  presented  by  the 
population  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Here,  as  is  evident  from  the 
data  presented  by  several  observers,  e.g.  (1, 2,  3)  S  a  great  natural 
experiment  in  racial  hybridization  is  taking  place,  in  which  the 
blood  of  the  native  Hawaiian  people  is  being  mingled  with  that  of 
most  of  the  chief  racial  groups  of  the  world.  This  amalgamation 
of  diverse  races  is,  as  our  own  observations  and  those  of  others 
show,  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The  racial  elements  con- 
tributing to  the  hybrid  population  are  still  present  in  Hawaii 
together  with  the  progeny  of  various  crosses  between  them.  A 
tempting  opportunity  is  therefore  offered  for  anthropologists  and 
geneticists  to  study  the  inheritance  of  racial  traits. 

PLAN  OF  THE  STUDY 

It  was  this  opportunity  which  in  1916  prompted  Professor  A.  M. 
Tozzer  and  Professor  E.  A.  Hooton  of  Harvard  University  to 
make  plans  for  studying  the  races  and  hybrids  of  Hawaii.  The 
writer,  as  a  student  of  genetics,  was  called  upon  to  collaborate  in 

>  The  titles  of  papers  which  are  referred  to  by  number  in  the  text  will  be  found  in  the  bib- 
liocraphy  at  the  end. 


92  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

the  plans,  and  to  undertake  the  analysis  of  the  data  relating  to 
the  descriptions  of  the  pure  races  and  of  their  hybrids.  Our  plans 
called  for  (1)  the  accumulation  of  anthropometric  data  for  as  many 
subjects  of  known  race  or  mixture  as  could  be  measured;  (2)  data 
on  the  fertility,  longevity,  mental  capacity,  etc.  of  subjects  of  pure 
and  mixed  races;  (3)  analysis  of  these  data  with  the  objects  of  dis- 
covering the  mode  of  inheritance  of  specific  traits;  the  efifect  of 
crossing  on  physical  traits,  growth,  fertility,  vigor,  etc.  and  the 
differences  between  various  racial  crosses  in  these  respects.  We 
also  hoped  to  obtain  from  these  data  some  light  on  the  vexed 
question  of  the  racial  origins  and  affinities  of  the  population  of 
Hawaii  and  of  other  Polynesian  peoples  as  well. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  so  ambitious  a  plan  remains  unfulfilled; 
for,  with  the  time  and  resources  at  our  disposal,  we  were  able  to 
accomplish  only  a  part  of  what  we  set  out  to  do.  It  soon  became 
evident,  for  example,  that  the  data  on  hybrid  peoples  had  value 
directly  in  proportion  to  the  completeness  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  parent  races.  There  proved  to  be  almost  no  data  of  value  on 
the  physical  traits  of  living  native  Hawaiians,  and  it  became  our 
first  task  to  make  good  so  far  as  we  were  able  this  deficiency  in  our 
knowledge.  We  also  realized  that  the  behavior  of  racial  traits  in 
inheritance,  or  even  the  descriptions  of  racial  hybrids  could  only 
be  established  from  observations  on  a  relatively  large  number  of 
subjects  from  each  cross.  We  thorofore  limited  our  efforts  to  ob- 
taining aiithropomet  ric  deseriptions  of  living  native  Hawaiians,  and 
of  the  descendants  of  crosses  between  Hawaiians  on  the  one  hand, 
and  nienil)ers  of  the  C'hinese  and  white  races  on  the  other,  since 
these  crosses  offered  the  largest  amount  of  material  and  the  clear- 
est differences  in  parental  traits.  It  is  principally  this  evidence 
which  will  be  i)resented  in  the  reports  which  follow.  A  general 
interpretation  of  the  evidence  and  its  relation  to  other  racial 
crosses  has  not  been  attempted,  since  our  ow^n  and  other  com- 
parative data  are  not  as  yet  complete  enough  to  justify  general- 
izations. 

COLLECTION  OF  THE  MATERIAL 

The  field  w^ork  for  this  study  was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Tozzer, 
who  spent  the  summers  of  1916  and  1920  in  and  about  Honolulu. 
Prior  to  beginning  the  actual  work  of  observation,  a  standard 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  93 

schedule  of  measurements  to  be  taken  was  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Hooton, 
and  a  technique  of  measurement  decided  on  and  practised  which 
should  conform  throughout  to  the  recommendations  of  the  current 
international  agreement.  (4)  The  provisions  of  this  agreement, 
therefore,  serve  as  a  description  of  the  methods  employed  in  this 
study. 

The  following  measurements  were  taken: 

Body         1.  Weight.* 

2.  Stature. 

3.  Height  of  Acromion. 

4.  Height  of  Dactylion 

5.  Chest  circumference. 

6.  Sitting  height. 
Head         7.  Length. 

8.  Breadth. 

9.  Mnimum  frontal  diameter.* 
Face        10.   Bizygomatic  diameter.* 

11.  Bigonial  diameter.* 

12.  Nasion-menton  height. 

13.  Nasion-prosthion  height. 

14.  Nasal  height. 

15.  Nasal  breadth. 

The  following  observations  were  made: 

1.  Skin  color  (on  an  unexposed  part). 

2.  Head  hair:  color,  form. 

3.  Eye  color. 

4.  Eyelids :  obliquity  of  opening,  epicanthus. 

5.  Brow  ridges:  degree  of  development.* 

6.  Forehead:  height,  breadth,  slope.* 

7.  Nose:    height  and  breadth  of  root,  height  and  profile  of 
bridge,  inclination  of  septum. 

8.  Prognathism. 

9.  Thickness  of  lips. 

10.   Dynamometric  pressure. 

*  Measurements  taken  on  only  a  portion  of  the  series. 

Measurements  of  the  circumference  of  the  chest  and  of  the  mini- 
mum frontal  and  bigonial  diameters  of  the  head  were  made  only 
on  those  subjects  measured  in  1916.  Most  of  the  measurements 
were  made  on  fully  clothed  subjects,  and  in  some  cases  shoes 
were  worn.    A  deduction  of  from  2  to  4  cm.  was  made  from  the 


M  AN  ANTHROFOMETBIC  8TDDY  OF 

[|<iffMfnt^  ftCVOmiC  llBUSltif  80Q  dftOfeyllC  ■ywff"f'  wi|ftiMB|w^^fH<i^itff  Qg  BOD" 

jecte  wealing  ahoesy  depending  on  tbe  hei^  of  tbe  heels  mmL 

Sldn  color  was  roocmkd  f or  idatively  f ew  of  the  80^^ 
of  the  unaatiaf actoiy  color  scales  available  and  beeanse  of  the 
diflScuUy  of  finding  unexposed  aieas  of  sidn  on  iihidi  to  jn^^ 
nonnal  skin  color  of  the  subject.  Even  on  those  subjeets  foririiidi 
observations  are  reoordedy  the  color  determination  is  of  doabtfid 
aceuiacy  because  of  the  possible  tanning  of  the  skin.  IhlOlGsidn 
colors  were  recorded  in  terms  of  Broca's  color  scale;  in  1920  the 
better  scale  of  von  Luschan  (Hautfaiben-Tsfel  made  ^7  Puhl  and 
Wagner,  Rixdorf)  was  used.  Comparison  was  in  all  cases  made 
frith  the  volar  surface  of  the  forearm  in  the  least  exposed  part. 

Hair  colors  were  distinguished  by  name  only  and  the  following 
terms  used  in  recording:  black,  very  dark  brown,  daA  brown, 
brown,  lig^t  brown,  reddish  brown  and  yellow. 

Hair  form  was  recorded  as  straight,  wavy  (sUg^  or  medium), 
curly,  f riszy,  Idnky  and  wiry. 

The  eye  colors  recognised  were  black,  very  dark  brown,  dark 
brown,  brown,  light  brown,  hazel,  blue,  and  light  blue. 

Strength  was  measured  by  means  of  Collin's  Pynamometer  and 
the  squeeze  pressure  recorded  in  kilograms. 

In  addition  to  the  information  noted  on  the  face  of  the  schedule, 

m 

each  subject  was  questioned  concerning  his  parentage,  and  the 
race  of  his  father,  mother  and  other  known  ancestors  was  recorded 
on  his  schedule,  together  with  any  additional  or  confirmatory 
evidence  concerning  his  pedigree.  Such  additional  evidence  was 
obtained  from  school  or  other  public  records,  relatives,  friends,  etc. 
An  eflfort  was  made  also  to  get  information  concerning  the  relative 
fecundity  and  viability  of  the  various  races  and  hybrids;  and  to 
this  end,  the  number  of  children,  in  the  case  of  parents,  or  of 
brothers  and  sisters  in  the  case  of  unmarried  subjects;  was  sought 
for  and  recorded.  The  absolute  amount  of  information  obtained 
in  this  way  was  too  meager  to  be  of  use  and  is  not  reported  here. 

The  choice  of  the  subjects  to  be  observed  was  governed  in  the 
1016  observations  by  a  desire  to  obtain  data  on  pure  Hawaiians 
and  on  crossbred  subjects  in  general.  In  1920  a  particular  effort 
was  made  to  increase  the  series  of  pure  Hawaiian  observations,  and 
to  obtain  data  on  hybrids  involving  Hawaiian  as  one  element  in 
the  cross.    The  series  obtained  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  random 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  95 

sample  of  the  Hawaiian  population,  as  far  as  the  frequency  of  pure 
races  or  of  hybrids  other  than  Hawaiian  are  concerned.  It  does 
give  a  fair  sample  of  the  frequency  and  the  stage  of  mixtiu-e  be- 
tween Hawaiian  and  other  races,  since  all  available  persons  who 
had  any  Hawaiian  blood  were  measured. 

In  respect  to  social,  occupational,  and  local  groups,  it  is  improb- 
able that  a  purely  random  sample  of  the  population  was  secured. 
The  chief  departure  of  our  sample  from  a  random  one  is  its  inclu- 
sion of  a  relatively  large  nmnber  of  subjects  from  each  of  a  few  occu- 
pational groups.  The  individuals  measured  may  roughly  be  classi- 
fied as  follows:  fishermen,  police,  stevedores,  teachers,  members  of 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A.  and  kindred  organizations,  school  stu- 
dents, workers  in  pineapple  factories,  and  attendants  at  an  Ha- 
waiian church.  The  fishermen,  police,  stevedores,  and  possibly  the 
teachers,  are  from  selected  groups,  probably  above  the  average  in 
general  size.  The  school  and  church  attendants  probably  constitute 
a  random  sample,  while  the  factory  workers  may  deviate  somewhat, 
owing  to  occupational  selection.  Size  characters  and  variability  in 
general  may  thus  be  somewhat  higher  than  normal  in  a  sample  in- 
cluding a  greater  proportion  of  the  larger-sized  individuals  of  the 
population. 

Most  of  the  Hawaiians  and  part  Hawaiians  measured  were  na- 
tives of  the  island  of  Oahu,  on  which  Honolulu  is  situated,  although 
in  the  groups  of  stevedores  and  students  at  the  summer  school  are 
included  a  number  of  natives  from  other  islands  in  the  Hawaiian 
group;  Maui,  Molokai,  Hawaii,  and  Kauai.  A  key  to  the  occupa- 
tional groups  and  nativity  of  the  subjects  is  given  in  Appendix 
Table  I. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  MATERIAL 

Classification  op  the  Subjects 

The  completed  schedules  were  turned  over  to  the  writer  for 
analysis  and  were  immediately  classified  and  grouped  for  study. 
All  subjects  reporting  themselves  as  of  one  pure  race  were  provi- 
sionally grouped  together;  and,  if  no  evidence  from  other  records  or 
from  physical  traits  appeared  to  contradict  the  statement  of  pedi- 
gree, they  were  regarded  as  members  of  that  racial  group.  Con- 
siderable care  was  exercised  by  the  original  observer  to  exclude 
doubtful  persons  from  pure  race  groups,  and  additional  precau- 


96  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

tions  have  been  taken  by  the  writer  to  exclude  any  subject  with 
characters  obviously  abnormal  for  his  supposed  group.  Such 
exclusion  must  be  used  with  care  however  and  is  usually  not  i^ 
plicable  to  quantitative  characters  which  are  so  variable  in  the 
purest  races.  Several  eliminations  from  the  pure  Hawaiian  group 
were  made  on  the  basis  of  eye  color,  hair  form,  and  other  evidences 
of  mixture,  chiefly  with  a  white  race  or  negro. 

The  cross-bred  subjects  had  to  be  classified  almost  wholly  on  the 
basis  of  their  own  statements,  although  in  many  cases  these  state- 
ments could  be  verified.  No  check  on  these  statements  was  avail- 
able in  the  phjrsical  appearance  of  the  subjects,  however,  since  the 
inheritance  of  most  the  racial  traits  involved  was  imknown.  Hy- 
brids were  classified  according  to  the  race  of  their  parents  and  the 
number  of  generations  intervening  since  the  original  cross.  Using 
as  an  example  the  hybrids  between  Hawaiians  and  Chinese,  the 
following  classes  were  recognized: 

1.  Fi  Hawaiian  X  Chinese  —  The  direct  result  of  a  cross  be- 
tween Hawaiian  female  and  Chinese  male,  the  subject's  pedigree 
reading:  mother  Hawaiian,  father  Chinese. 

2.  Fi  Hawaiian  X  Chinese. —  The  result  of  a  cross  between  two 
Fi  hybrids;  the  subject's  pedigree  reading  mother  one-half  Ha- 
waiian, one-half  Chinese;  father  one-half  Hawaiian,  one-half 
Chinese.  The  classification  of  this  generation  may  contain  a 
few  errors;  since,  unless  we  know  the  race  of  all  four  grandparents, 
there  is  a  possibility  that  the  parents  are  themselves  second  genera- 
tion hybrids.  Because  of  the  comparatively  recent  introduction 
of  Chinese  in  large  numbers,  this  is  not  highly  probable.  There 
is  also  the  possibility  that  "one-half,"  as  a  description  of  a  racial 
element  in  a  parent,  is  merely  a  guess,  and  indicates  only  admix- 
ture of  the  race  named.  The  number  of  such  hybrids  is  not  large 
and  few  wide  conclusions  are  drawn  from  this  generation. 

3.  BC  Fi  X  Hawaiian.  —  The  result  of  a  backcross  of  an  Fi 
hybrid  to  a  pure  Hawaiian,  the  subject^s  pedigree  reading:  father 
one-half  Hawaiian,  one-half  Chinese;  mother  pure  Hawaiian. 

4.  BC  Fi  X  Chinese. — The  result  of  a  backcross  of  an  Fi  hybrid 
to  a  pure  Chinese,  the  subject's  pedigree  reading:  mother  one-half 
Hawaiian  one-half  Chinese;  father  pure  Chinese. 

5.  Other  mixtures.  —  In  this  category  are  placed  those  hybrids 
between  two  races  which  have  been  produced  by  crosses  other 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  97 

than  those  outlined  above,  but  in  too  small  niunbers  to  be  classified 
separately. 

After  such  classification,  the  pure  race  and  hybrid  groups  were 
subdivided  on  the  basis  of  sex,  and  again  on  the  basis  of  age.  Males 
of  20  years  and  older  and  females  of  18  years  and  over  were  classi- 
fied as  adult.  Means  and  other  constants  for  quantitative  char- 
acters have  been  calculated  from  these  adult  series  of  each  sex. 
In  smnmarizing  descriptive,  non-mensurable  characters  the  im- 
matiu'e  subjects  have  also  been  included. 

Statistical  Analysis 

The  original  data  have  been  tabled  separately  by  race,  sex  and 
age,  and  are  to  be  foimd  in  the  appendix,  Tables  I  to  V.  The 
principal  ratios  or  indices  calculated  for  each  individual  have  been 
incorporated  in  these  tables.  From  these  raw  data,  the  frequency 
distributions,  which  are  presented  by  separate  measurements  in 
the  text  tables,  have  been  formed.  With  the  numbers  available  it 
has  been  necessary  to  use  rather  coarse  groupings  in  seriating  the 
data  for  statistical  treatment.  In  general,  that  grouping  has  been 
used  which  by  actual  test  gave  the  smoothest  graduation,  except 
that  for  any  one  measurement,  the  classification  was  determined 
for  the  males  (or  the  large  group),  and  applied  arbitrarily  to  the 
females  (or  the  small  comparable  group). 

From  the  grouped  frequencies  of  the  larger  distributions  have 
been  calculated  the  mean,  the  standard  deviation,  the  coeflBcient 
of  variation,  and  the  probable  errors  of  each  of  these  constants, 
by  the  usual  formulae  as  given  in  treatises  on  statistical  methods 
(5,  6,  7).  In  the  case  of  distributions  containing  few  (less  than  20) 
individuals,  the  constants  have  been  calculated  from  the  im- 
grouped  material. 

The  variation  constants  for  indices  and  proportions  have  been 
calculated  by  Pearson's  formulae.    (8) 

Ml 

Af  1  =  77-  (l  —  Fo  —  ^1  2^1  ^2)  is  for  the  mean 
Mi 

and 

(T  =  -rp^  \/  y?  —  Vl  —  2ri,2^i^2  for  the  standard  deviation; 


2 


where  Mi  is  the  mean  of  the  first  variable  such  as  head  breadth, 
Mi  the  mean  of  the  second  such  as  head  length,  Vi  and  Vi  the 


98  AN  AMTHKOFQBfETRIC  8TDDT  OF 

codBdents  of  Tariatioii  (divided  by  100)  of  the  fimfc  and  eeeond 
YBriaUeB  xeq>ectivdy,  and  ri,  %  the  ooeffident  of  eaixdatioii  be- 
tween the  variableB.  AMhoii^  the  means  of  indices  as  ealeokted 
by  the  use  of  this  fonnula  have  not  differed  significantly,  in  the 
present  study,  from  the  means  as  usually  calculated  direetly  Iram 
the  frequency  distributions  of  indices,  the  method  here  used  in- 
volves less  labor  and  is  probably  more  accurate  than  deducing 
variation  constants  of  indices  from  the  array  of  individual  indices 
without  regard  to  the  condation  between  the  component  variaUes. 

In  order  to  obtain  ccnnpamtive  data  from  cranial  material,  we 
have  in  several  cases  reduced  cranial  to  oei^Alic  indices  by  means 
of  the  correction  factor  proposed  by  Craig  (0).  Other  methods 
are  noted  as  used. 

The  separate  seriation  of  measurements  by  sex  and  age  has 
resulted  in  many  small  and  irregular  distributions,  and  we  have 
not  tried  to  combine  them  by  reducing  both  sexes  to  a  eommxm 
scale  or  by  correcting  the  observations  on  immature  subjects  to  an 
adult  basis.  Larger  distributions  and  smoother  graduations  mig^ 
have  been  obtained  by  this  method,  yet  I  believe  that  there  is  a 
basic  objection  to  such  a  practice.  If  corrections  for  age  or  sex 
are  to  be  applied,  they  must  be  calculated  as  the  differences  be- 
tween the  means  of  two  distributions.  One  must  be  taken  as  the 
standard,  and  a  certain  proportion  of  this  standard  added  to  each 
individual  of  the  distribution  to  be  corrected.  This  results  in  no 
addition  whatever  to  the  original  data,  but  only  in  multiplying 
the  distribution  by  a  portion  of  itself,  along  with  the  errors  which 
attended  the  original  measurements.  The  resulting  amplified 
distribution  appears  larger  than  the  standard ;  its  probable  error 
is  lowered  by  the  larger  number  of  individuals  in  it,  although  the 
number  of  original  observations  remains  imaltered.  These  changes 
are  probably  wholly  fictitious  and  likely  to  be  deceptive  and  it 
seems  a  much  sounder  procedure  to  face  the  paucity  of  numbers 
and  practise  the  rigid  conservatism  in  drawing  conclusions  which 
this  condition  dictates. 

Racial  Frequency  in  Hawaii 

A  racial  classification  of  all  of  the  subjects  observed  is  given  in 
the  table  on  page  177,  and  the  detailed  data  on  all  subjects 
measured  will  be  found  in  the  appendix  tables. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  99 

About  a  third  of  the  508  subjects  measured  were  pure  Hawaiians, 
while  all  except  a  few  of  the  remainder  were  descendants  of  crosses 
between  native  Hawaiians  and  other  races.  The  few  individuals 
not  included  in  these  classes  were  scattered  among  various  pure 
races  of  the  table  (A),  and  mixtures  either  unknown  or  not  involving 
Hawaiian  (E).  The  hybrid  groups  involving  Hawaiian  as  one 
element  have  been  broken  up  into  (B) ;  those  in  which  only  one 
other  race  beside  Hawaiian  was  involved,  producing  a  dihybrid 
combination ;  (C)  those  involving  two  other  races  besides  Hawaiian 
(trihybrids) ;  and  (D)  those  in  which  more  than  two  other  races 
participated.  The  dihybrid  groups  were  by  far  the  most  numer- 
ous, comprising  247  of  the  whole  295  crossbred  subjects.  The 
trihybrid  mixtiu'es  were  few,  only  forty-five  in  number,  while 
numbers  of  individuals  with  foiu*  races  represented  in  the  ancestry 
were  practically  negligible.  On  the  whole  the  more  races  involved 
in  the  ancestry  of  an  individual,  the  fewer  representatives  are 
foimd,  and,  incidentally,  the  less  reliable  the  pedigree  as  given. 

A  preliminary  discussion  of  the  frequency  and  approximate  dates 
of  origin  of  the  principal  racial  crosses  in  Hawaii  has  already  been 
published.  (10)  A  fuller  treatment  of  this  matter,  leading  to  a 
general  picture  of  racial  hybridism  in  Hawaii,  will  be  given  in  the 
parts  of  this  study  devoted  to  the  data  on  the  hybrid  subjects.  At 
present  our  chief  concern  is  with  the  principal  and  perhaps  most 
interesting  single  race  involved;  i.e.,  the  native  Hawaiians. 


100  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

PART  I 

AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  NATIVE 

HAWAHANS 

Preuminart  Statements 

Our  description  of  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  native 
Hawaiians  rests  on  observations  of  158  subjects,  concerning  ^oee 
pedigree  there  seemed  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt.  Several  pre- 
sumptive Hawaiians  were  excluded  from  this  classification  because 
of  coniSicting  pedigree  records,  or  by  the  possession  of  certain 
features  falling  far  outside  the  normal  range  of  variability  of  the 
bulk  of  the  Hawaiians  observed.  Of  these  158  subjects,  85  were 
males  and  73  were  females.  Adults  were  separated  from  inmiature 
subjects  for  analysis  of  all  characteristics  affected  by  age^  and  the 
constants  for  pure  Hawaiians  were  calculated  from  the  records  of  74 
males  of  age  20  and  over,  and  of  34  females  of  age  18  and  over. 
The  numbers  of  immature  subjects  were  too  small  to  be  treated  in 
separate  age  groups,  nor  could  they  furnish  information  concern- 
ing the  changes  of  the  various  bodily  measurements  during  growth. 
Observations  taken  on  these  immatiu-e  subjects  have  been  used 
in  establishing  racial  norms  for  such  characteristics  as  hair  color 
and  form,  skin  color,  eye  color,  etc. 

The  groups  on  which  we  must  depend  for  our  most  reliable  in- 
formation concerning  the  mensurable  physical  characteristics  of 
the  Hawaiians  are  these  two  small  groups  of  74  males  and  34  fe- 
males. Permanent  racial  standards  cannot,  of  course,  be  estab- 
lished on  such  small  samples  as  these.  Nevertheless,  since  there 
are  no  other  data  on  living  pure  Hawaiians,  the  constants  here 
given  may  be  used  as  temporary  standards  of  comparison,  until 
they  are  supplemented  by  more  extensive  evidence. 

The  Evidence  and  its  Analysis 

The  raw  data  for  the  study  of  the  anthropometry  of  the  Ha- 
waiians are  given  in  Appendix  Table  I,  together  with  the  chief 
indices  and  derived  measurements  calculated  for  each  individual. 
The  grouped  distributions  and  constants  for  each  dimension  are 
given  separately  in  the  text  tables  accompanying  the  discussion, 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  101 

and  all  the  constants  have  been  summarized  in  Table  22.  These 
data  include  for  each  subject  the  weight,  height,  shoulder  height, 
dactylic  height,  sitting  height,  head  length,  head  breadth,  face 
width  (bizygomatic  diameter),  face  height  (nasion-menton), 
height  of  upper  face  (nasion-prosthion),  nasal  height,  and  nasal 
breadth.  The  cephalic  index,  the  facial  index,  the  nasal  index, 
the  index  of  sitting  height,  the  arm  length  (shoulder  height  minus 
dactylic  height)  and  the  index  of  arm  length  are  given  in  italics  in 
the  appendix  tables.  The  descriptive  characters  are  given  as  re- 
corded and  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section. 

GENERAL  BODY  FORM 

I.  Stature  (Table  1).  The  Hawaiians  are  a  tall  people.  The 
mean  height  of  the  males,  171.3  cm.,  places  them  in  the  same  class 
with  the  Tahitians  (173.3),^  the  Samoans  (171.7)  and  the  Mar- 
quesans  (174.3)  and  it  is  with  these  groups  that  they  are  most  nearly 
related  racially.  They  are  only  slightly  shorter  than  the  white 
population  of  the  United  States  (171.9),  and  approach  closely  the 
height  of  the  taller  North  American  Indians  (Sioux  172.4).  The 
females  are  shorter,  averaging  162.6  cm.,  or  94.9  per  cent  of  the 
male  height.  The  sexual  difference  in  height  is  rather  less  than 
that  observed  among  races  of  similar  height. 

The  frequency  distributions  of  these  samples  of  the  Hawaiians 
are  given  in  Table  1.  The  height  measurements  have  been 
grouped  in  two  centimeter  classes;  but,  even  under  this  treatment, 
the  graduation  is  not  good  and  the  distributions  are  irregular  and 
give  a  poor  approximation  to  a  normal  curve.  Distinct  indications 
of  bimodality  are  absent,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  irregularities 
are  due  to  paucity  of  numbers  rather  than  to  the  presence  of  more 
than  one  racial  type  in  respect  to  stature.  That  the  material 
studied  is  homogeneous  is  witnessed  further  by  the  comparatively 
short  range  of  variation  in  height,  26  cm.  in  both  sexes,  and  by 
the  values  of  the  dispersion  measures,  standard  deviation  and 
coefficient  of  variation.  The  coefficient  of  variation  is  the  more 
suitable  for  use  in  comparing  these  Hawaiians  with  other  races, 
since  it  is  stated  in  per  cent  and  not  in  terms  of  the  particular  unit 
of  measurement  used.    Its  value  for  the  height  of  Hawaiian  males 

1  ComparuoDS  are  made,  unless  noted  to  the  contrary,  with  data  compiled  by  Martin  (13). 


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HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  103 

is  but  slightly  greater  than  2.9  per  cent.  This  does  not  differ 
significantly  from  the  variability  of  3.05  per  cent  for  Samoan  males 
as  determined  by  Sullivan  (11).  It  is  significantly  less  than  the 
variability  of  pure  Sioux  males  —  3.3  per  cent  (Sullivan  12)  and 
of  the  modem  Eg3rptians  studied  by  Craig  (9),  the  variability  of 
various  groups  of  the  latter  (comprising  over  9000  individuals) 
ranging  from  3.26  to  4.43  per  cent.  The  Hawaiians  are  less  vari- 
able in  height  than  either  of  the  last  named  homogeneous  types. 

n.  Sitting  Height  (Table  2).  The  mean  absolute  value  of  this 
measurement  is  of  significance  only  as  a  record.  Its  chief  impor- 
tance lies  in  its  indication  of  bodily  proportion  and  it  must  thence 
be  stated  as  a  percentage  of  the  total  stature.  The  data  are  pre- 
sented in  this  form  in  the  next  section. 

The  frequency  distribution  itself  shows  a  greater  irregularity, 
a  greater  relative  range  and  a  higher  variability  than  does  the 
distribution  of  total  stature.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the 
inherent  error  of  the  observation,^  but  a  portion  of  the  increased 
variability  is  probably  real,  since  other  segments  of  stature  not 
susceptible  to  such  error,  show  the  same  increase  in  variability. 
This  conclusion  is  borne  out  by  a  comparison  of  the  Hawaiians 
with  the  large  series  of  Sioux  studied  by  Sullivan  (12).  The  coef- 
ficient of  variability  of  sitting  height  of  the  Sioux  males  is  3.95 
per  cent,  which  is  greater  than  the  variability  of  the  same  meas- 
urement in  the  Hawaiians  (3.27  per  cent),  and  greater  also  than 
the  variability  of  the  Sioux  in  total  stature  (3.3  per  cent).  We 
have  found  no  comparable  data  on  the  sitting  height  of  other 
Polynesian  peoples.  The  mean  sitting  height  of  the  females  is 
95.8  per  cent  of  the  mean  sitting  height  of  the  males.  Thus  the 
sexes  differ  less  in  sitting  height  than  in  total  stature. 

in.  Index  of  Sitting  Height  (Table  3).  This  index  gives  the 
sitting  height  as  a  proportion  of  total  height  and  is  an  indication 
of  the  relative  length  of  the  trunk  as  compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  body.  The  races  of  mankind  in  which  this  proportion  has 
been  studied  differ  relatively  little  in  this  respect.  Its  value  ranges 
from  a  mean  of  46.5  in  the  long  legged  Australians  to  slightly 
over  54  in  Ainos  and  certain  negroes  (BaBinga).  The  Hawaiians 
fall  in  about  the  center  of  the  range  with  a  mean  relative  trunk 

1  Sittinc  height  is  difficult  to  measure  accurately  because  of  the  varyinc  thickness  of  fat  and 
integument  on  the  buttocks. 


IM       AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF  HAWAHANB 

tength  of  62.6  for  the  males  and  63.13  for  the  femaleo.  The  sezual 
difference  in  this  index  ia  not  mgnificant.  The  individual  diffierenoes 
in  respect  to  this  index  among  the  Hawaiians  are  rdattvely  small, 
as  can  be  seen  in  the  frequency  distribution  in  TaUe  3.  Of  the 
males  44  or  63.8  per  cent  are  characterised  by  indices  between  62 
and  63.9.  It  is  an  extremely  compact  distribution  and  is  markedly 
aqrmetrical.  The  frequency  curve  descends  slowly  from  the  nciode 
toward  the  lower  limit  of  49.6  and  very  rapidly  toward  the  upper 
limit  of  66.9.  It  would  appear  from  this  that  the  limit  ct  variation 
in  the  direction  of  short  leggedness  is  much  more  rigid  than  in  the 
opposite  direction.  A  negative  skewness  indicates  that  the  same 
is  true  of  the  sitting  height  index  in  Sioux  males. 

The  variation  constants  for  this  index  are  lower  than  those  for 
any  other  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Hawaiians,  although 
the  differences  between  stature  and  sitting  height  in  this  respect 
are  probably  not  significant. 

IV.  Heis^t  of  Shoulder  (Table  4).  This  measure  is  chiefly 
of  value  in  deteimining  the  absolute  and  relative  arm  length,  Iqr 
subtraction  from  it  of  the  dactylic  height.  The  distribution  in  its 
irr^ularity  and  variability  resembles  that  of  sitting  height.  In 
this  segment  the  variability  also  exceeds  that  of  the  total  stature. 

The  mean  shoulder  height  of  the  females  is  96  per  cent  of  that 
of  the  males,  a  sexual  difference  similar  to  that  noted  in  sitting 
height.  The  variability  of  the  two  sexes  is  the  same  and  there  is 
no  sexual  difference  in  the  proportion  of  shoulder  height  to  stature 
(males  81.8  per  cent,  females  81.9  per  cent). 

V.  Length  of  Ann  (Table  5).  The  length  of  arm  in  the  Ha- 
waiians (acromion  to  dactylion  III)  varies  through  a  rather  wide 
range,  21  cm.  in  the  males  and  14  cm.  in  the  females.  The  mean  is 
77.76  cm.  in  the  males,  72.07  cm.  in  the  females.  The  arm  length 
of  the  Hawaiians  is  practically  the  same  as  the  arm  length  of  the 
Siouan  tribes  (Sioux  males  77.0  cm.,  females  71.8  cm.).  In  the 
male  distribution  there  is  some  indication  of  a  positive  skewness 
while  the  small  numbers  in  the  female  distribution  preclude  a 
comparison  on  this  point.  Certainly,  however,  this  is  the  most 
variable  of  any  of  the  bodily  measurements  yet  considered.  Much 
of  this  variability  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  it  is  an 
indirect  measurement,  liable  to  error  (possibly  cumulative)  from 
two  sources  —  the  acromic  and  the  dactylic  measurements  — 
neither  of  which  is  entirely  accurate. 


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106        AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF  HAWAIIAN8 

The  sexual  differences  in  this  measurement  are  somewhat  greater 
than  in  the  other  bodily  measurements,  since  the  female  mean  is 
but  92.7  per  cent  of  the  male.  The  males  are  apparently  somewhat 
more  variable  in  respect  to  arm  length. 

VI.  Index  of  Arm  Length  (Table  6).  The  ratio  of  arm  length 
to  total  height  is  45.28  per  cent  for  Hawaiian  males  and  slightly 
less  (44.33  per  cent)  for  Hawaiian  females.  The  means  for  Sioux 
males  and  females  are  44.6  and  44.9  respectively.  The  distribu- 
tion of  this  proportion  is  irregular  in  both  sexes,  although  the 
total  range  of  variation  is  very  small  (42  to  48  per  cent  in  males; 
41.5  to  46  per  cent  in  females).  This  range  of  variation  resembles 
the  variation  in  racial  means  for  this  character  in  all  races  measured 
since  the  mean  index  varies  only  from  43.2  for  Japanese  to  48.5  for 
certain  pygmy  races.  The  variability  of  the  index  as  measured  by 
the  coefficient  of  variability  is  likewise  low — 3.34  for  males;  3.27 
for  females  as  compared  with  3.29  and  3.75  for  Sioux  males  and 
females.  As  in  the  case  of  sitting  height,  the  proportion  is  much 
less  variable  than  the  absolute  dimension,  indicating  correlation 
between  the  part  and  the  total  stature.  In  the  case  of  arm  length 
the  correlation  with  stature  is  very  high  (0.80^0.03).  It  is  note- 
worthy that  a  dimension  of  the  appendicular  skeleton  should  show 
a  closer  relation  to  height  than  actual  segments  of  height,  such 
as  sitting  height. 

VII.  Body  Weight.  The  weights  of  a  portion  of  the  subjects  were 
obtained,  the  mea.suremc.nts  being  recorded  to  the  nearest  pound, 
and  in  some  cases,  to  the  nearest  five  pound  class.  The  distribu- 
tion of  weight  in  each  sex  was  highly  variable  and  irregular.  Be- 
cause of  the  small  sizci  of  the  sample,  and  the  error  attending  the 
observations  (variability  of  clothing,  coarseness  of  the  unit  of 
measurement,  etc.)  the  data  are  thought  not  to  be  comparable  in 
accuracy  to  the  measurements  given  above.  They  have,  there- 
fore, not  been  given  statistical  treatment.  We  have  been  content 
to  calculate  the  averages  for  a  series  of  60  adult  males  and  16  adult 
females.  The  averages  are:  males  170.3  pounds  (7726  grams); 
females  153.1  pounds  (6942  grams).  These  averages  place  the 
Hawaiians  among  the  heavier  races  of  men.    The  index  of  bodily 

fullness  "^    .  . — i —  has  been  calculated  from  the  weight  and 

statures  of  the  sixty  male  subjects  for  which  both  measures  are 
available  and  has  been  found  to  be  1.53  which  is  considerably 


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108  AN  ANTHROPOIVIETRIC  STUDY  OF 

higher  than  the  averages  for  the  males  of  European  races  [Martin 
(13),  p.  248],  This  tendency  toward  bodily  fullness  (stoutness) 
has  been  noted  by  many  observers  of  the  Hawaiians  and  other 
Polj^fcsians  and  has  been  frequently  attributed  to  their  diet,  mode 
of  Ufe  and  admiration  for  corpulence.  In  view  of  Davenport's 
recent  investigations  (15),  however,  the  Hawaiians  may  have  an 
inherent  racial  tendency  toward  stoutness. 

Conclusions  from  Bodily  Dimensions.  On  the  whole,  the  means 
of  the  main  bodily  dimensions  of  living  Hawaiians  accord  well  with 
those  given  for  other  Polynesians  (cf.  Martin  (13);  Deniker  (20); 
Sullivan  (11)).  The  measures  of  variation  (range,  standard  devia- 
tion, coefficient  of  variation)  are  of  the  same  order  of  magnitude 
as  those  obtained  from  larger  samples  of  other  well  defined  races, 
for  example  with  those  of  the  697  pure  Siouan  subjects  collated 
by  SulUvan  (12).  Wherever  significant  differences  occur,  these  are 
found  to  be  in  the  direction  of  lesser  variabiKty  and  greater  homo- 
geneity on  the  part  of  the  Hawaiians. 

CEPHALIC  AND  FACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

I.  Head  Length  (Table  7).  (a)  Distribution,  The  graduation 
of  this  distribution  is  fairly  regular  for  the  males  and  poor  for  the 
females  even  with  the  rather  coarse  class  intervals  of  4  mm.  which 
it  has  been  nccessarj^  to  use.  Variation  in  head  length  has  usually 
been  found  in  larger  samples  of  other  races  to  be  described  by  a 
normal  curve  of  error  and  our  data  approximates  this  type  although 
a  slight  positive  skewnei^s  is  in  evidence.  The  male  curve  is  mono- 
modal  and  a  large  majority  of  the  individuals  fall  in  the  modal 
and  two  greater  classes.  The  female  curve  shows  some  evidence 
of  bimodality  in  the  concentration  of  frequencies  in  the  classes 
170-173  and  178-81,  although  in  view  of  the  small  numbers  this 
is  probably  not  significant. 

(b)  Mean.  The  mean  head  length  of  the  males  is  182.42  mm., 
of  the  females  178.79  mm.,  giving  a  sexual  difference  of  3.63  mm., 
which  is  barely  significant.  The  female  head  length  is  about  98  per 
cent  of  the  male  length,  indicating  relatively  less  difference  in  this 
respect  than  between  the  sexes  of  other  races. 

These  mean  head  lengths  are  to  be  compared  with  other  Poly- 
nesian material  as  follows: 


HAWAJIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


109 


Table  7a.    Comparative  Data  on  Cephalic  Features  op  Polynesian 

Peoples 


Hawaii 

Samoa 

Tonga 

Marquesas  . . 

Hawaii 

Hawaii 


Xo. 

74 

Sex 

Head 
length 

Head 
breadth 

Cephalic 
index 

M 

182.4 

152.0 

83.4 

68 

M 

190.6 

154.8 

81.3 

95 

M 

191.0 

154.8 

81.1 

84 

M 

193.2 

153.2 

79.4 

18 

M 

185.8 

139.1 

77.3 « 

135 

M&F 

175.2 

139.8 

81.7« 

Authority 


This  paper 
SuUivan  (11) 

"      (11a) 

«      (lla) 
von  Luschan  (16)  Crania 
Otis  (19)  Crania » 


^  Chiefly  from  Kaui  but  including  a  few  from  Maui. 

*  Cephalic  index  derived  from  cranial  index  by  means  of  Craig's  correction  (addition  of  2.5 
units  to  cranial  index). 

The  first  five  series  refer  to  present  inhabitants  and  are  probably 
comparable.  They  differ  somewhat,  but  agree  in  showing  a  signifi- 
cantly greater  head  length  than  the  earlier  data  for  crania  of  pre- 
vious inhabitants.  A  portion  of  this  may  be  due  to  a  difference 
in  the  technique  of  measurement.  The  racial  classification  of  the 
cranial  series  is  less  certain  than  that  of  the  living  subjects,  and 
evidence  from  the  former  is  less  reliable. 

(c)  Variability.  Both  measures  of  variabihty  are  very  high 
when  compared  with  the  same  constants  for  other  races  as  listed 
below: 


Race 

No. 

Standard 
Deviation  (mm.) 

CoeflBcient  of 
Variation  (%) 

Authority 

Hawaiian    

Sarooan 

cf     9 
74     34 

68     23 

9892' 

539  156 

Male     Female 

8.90      8.43 
5.69      5.22 
5.09-6.65 « 
6.16      5.09 

Male     Female 

4.89      4.71 
2.98      2.85 
2.95-3.49* 
3.16      2.72 

This  paper 
Sullivan  (11) 

Eg>T>tian(19dists.) 
Sioux 

Craig  (9) 
SulUvan  (12) 

1  Males  only. 


>  Range  by  districts. 


No  standard  deviation  for  head  length  as  high  as  that  found  for  our 
Hawaiian  series  is  listed  by  Martin  (13,  p.  705)  for  eight  races. 

The  range  of  variation  of  the  Hawaiians  is  likewise  very  great. 
The  comparative  data  for  males  only  are  given  below: 


no 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


Race 

Hawaiian 

Samoan 

Marquesan 

Hawaiian  (skulls) 
Hawaiian  (skulls) 

Tongan 

Hawaiian 


No. 


74 
68 
84 
60 
18 
95 
109 


Range  (mm.) 


41  (162-203) 

29  (174-203) 
32  (178-210) 
32  (162-194) 
20  (175-195) 
37  (176-213) 

30  (163-193) 


Authority 


This  paper 
SulHvan  (11) 
Sullivan 
Allen  (17) 
von  Luschan  (16) 
Sullivan 
Otis  (19) 


In  general  our  series  shows  a  greater  range  of  variation  in  head 
length  than  any  of  the  other  series  quoted.  Its  lower  limit  coin- 
cides with  Allen's  skull  series,  and  its  upper  limit  with  Sullivan's 
series  from  Samoa.  The  technique  used  in  the  measurement  of 
our  own  and  Sullivan's  subjects  was  the  same,  and  this  comparison 
is  the  more  enlightening.  The  chief  difference  here  is  the  presence 
of  a  number  of  absolutely  short  headed  subjects  with  head  lengths 
of  162-174  mm.  in  our  series  and  their  complete  absence  from 
Sullivan's  series.  All  of  these  shorter  headed  individuals  appear 
in  the  series  measured  in  1920.  The  range  of  the  subjects  in  the 
1916  series  was  from  174-203,  and  is  identical  with  Sullivan's 
Samoan  series.  The  abnormally  high  range  and  variability  in 
the  head  length  of  our  whole  series  appear  to  be  due  to  the  addi- 
tion of  about  12J  per  cent  of  very  short  headed  subjects  in  the 
data  secured  in  1920.  All  except  two  of  these  short  headed  subjects 
were  stevedores  and  half  of  them  came  from  the  island  of  Maui. 
Both  of  these  groups  have  somewhat  shorter  heads  than  the  gen- 
eral Hawaiian  population  (33  stevedores  average  177.7,  10  males 
from  Maui  average  177.0,  general  average  182.4),  so  we  are  unable 
to  decide  whether  the  difference  is  racial  or  due  to  occupational 
selection. 

The  slight  difference  in  variability  existing  between  the  sexes 
in  respect  to  head  length  is  not  significant  in  the  present  sample. 

II.  Head  Breadth  (Table  8).  (a)  The  distribution  of  head 
breadth  in  both  sexes  is  in  general  similar  to  the  distribution  of 
head  length.  The  graduation  is  irregular,  though  in  general  the 
curve  is  smoother  than  that  for  head  length.  A  positive  skewness 
is  in  evidence  in  the  distributions  of  both  sexes,  slight  in  the  females, 
more  pronounced  in  the  males.   Both  distributions  are  undoubtedly 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  111 

monomodaly  indicating  that  in  all  probability  the  different  head 
breadths  encountered  are  variations  of  one  main  type. 

(b)  The  mean  of  this  type  is  152.03  mm.  for  the  males  and  150.26 
mm.  for  the  females.  The  sexual  difference  is  1.77^0.81  mm., 
which  indicates  that  in  the  subjects  measured  the  heads  of  females 
were  not  significantly  narrower  than  those  of  the  males.  The  fe- 
male width  is  98.8  per  cent  of  the  male  width.  For  comparison 
we  may  refer  to  Table  7a  above.  The  head  breadth  of  the  Ha- 
waiians  of  our  series  agrees  closely  with  the  head  breadth  of  living 
SamoanS;  but  is  considerably  greater  than  the  head  breadth  of  the 
earlier  series  of  crania. 

(c)  Head  breadth  in  these  subjects,  as  is  in  general  the  case,  is 
less  variable  both  relatively  and  absolutely  than  head  length  (the 
coeflScient  of  variation  for  the  males  is  3.80).  Nevertheless  the 
constants  of  variation  are  extremely  high  for  an  island  people. 
The  Hawaiians  are  more  variable  in  head  breadth  than  the  Sa- 
moans  reported  by  Sullivan  (11)  (coefficient  of  variation  for  males 
2.88).  The  coefficient  of  variation  of  head  breadth  of  modern 
Egyptians  (Craig  (9))  varies  in  districts  from  3.04  to  3.59  per  cent. 
For  Sioux  Indians  Sullivan  (12)  gives  the  variability  for  females 
3.47,  males  3.20.  Martin  lists  variabilities  in  head  breadth  for 
eight  races.  The  male  values  range  from  2.76  (Aino)  to  4.21 
(French);  females  from  2.47  (Tasmanians)  to  3.78  (English). 
These  Hawaiians  are  apparently  more  variable  in  head  breadth 
than  any  races  for  which  figures  are  given,  with  the  exception  of 
the  composite  English  and  French.  The  range  of  the  Hawaiians 
in  head  breadth  is  24  mm.  (144-165)  for  the  males  and  23  mm. 
(138-161)  for  the  females.  This  range  is  somewhat  less  than  that 
met  with  in  other  racial  groups,  since  the  average  range  in  head 
breadth  of  13  races  listed  by  Martin  (p.  663)  is  about  29  mm.  for 
males.  The  agreement  between  our  data  and  the  skull  measure- 
ments in  respect  to  range  and  variability  of  head  breadth  is  no 
better  than  in  the  case  of  head  length,  but  the  comparability  of 
the  material  is  too  uncertain  to  allow  conclusions  to  be  drawn  con- 
cerning changes  in  the  physical  features  of  the  Hawaiians. 

The  range  of  the  1916  subjects  was  from  148  to  165  mm.  with 
a  mean  of  158.78  =*=0.45,  while  that  of  the  1920  subjects  was  from 
140  to  163  with  a  mean  of  150.01^1.01.  The  difference  between 
the  means  of  the  two  series  is  8.77=*=  1.10,  which  is  eight  times  its 
error,  and  is  undoubtedly  significant. 


s  s 


z  c 


^  5 


>    *     . 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


113 


m.  Cephalic  Index  (Table  9).  (a)  The  distribution  of  head 
shape  as  measured  by  the  length-breadth  index  departs  from  the 
expected  normal  curve  especially  among  the  males.  The  positive 
skewness  is  greater  than  in  either  the  length  or  breadth  measure- 
ments and  the  distribution  appears  truncated  at  the  doUchocephalic 
end.  Only  two  males  and  one  female  can  be  said  to  be  dolicho- 
cephaHc  (index  under  75.9).  Forty-three  males  (58  per  cent)  and  19 
females  (56  per  cent)  are  grouped  in  the  relatively  short  space  of 
three  classes  from  80-85.9.  In  the  males  the  main  part  of  the  curve, 
i.e.  about  78,  is  monomodal,  and  the  two  dolichocephalic  individu- 
als are  separated  from  the  main  distribution  by  a  zero  class,  in- 
dicating a  possibiUty  that  they  may  be  discontinuously  variable 
from  the  rest  of  the  subjects  and  a  distinct  type.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  one  female  dolichocephal. 

(6)  The  mean  cephalic  index  plainly  places  these  Hawaiians 
among  the  brachycephalic  races.  The  mean  cephalic  index  for 
related  races  is  given  in  Table  7a. 

The  females,  as  is  generally  the  case,  are  slightly  shorter  headed 
than  the  males,  the  sexual  difference  in  mean  index  being  0.8  per 
cent;  or  the  male  index  is  about  99  per  cent  of  the  female. 

(c)  Variability.  All  types  of  head  shape  were  encountered 
among  these  Hawaiians  from  dolicho  to  extreme  brachycephaUc. 
The  actual  range  of  indices  (males)  was  from  74  to  93  per  cent, 
which  is  quite  similar  to  the  range  of  the  related  Samoan  males 
74-89  per  cent  (Sullivan).  The  concentration  of  head  shapes  in  the 
brachycephalic  part  of  the  range  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
rather  low  value  of  the  dispersion  measures.  Data  from  other 
representative  racial  types  are  given  below: 


Group 

No.  of 
Cases 

Sex 

Coefficient  of 
Variation  (%) 

Authority 

Hawaiians 

74 

68 

9892 

537 

Male 

u 
u 
u 

3.80 

4.341 

3.06-4.35 

4.031 

This  paper 

Samoans 

Esyptians 

Sullivan  (11) 
Craig  (9) 

Sioux 

Sullivan  (12) 

1  These  constants  have  apparently  been  calculated  from  the  arrays  of  indices  without  regard 
to  the  correlation  between  the  components  of  the  index.  This  produces  a  somewhat  higher 
apparent  variability  than  the  method  employed  in  this  paper.     Cf .  p.  97. 


114  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

The  conclusion  seems  warranted  that,  although  extremely  variable 
in  the  absolute  dimensions  of  the  head,  the  Hawaiians  measured 
are  relatively  conservative  and  constant  in  head  shape.  It  prob- 
ably follows  that  the  variability  found  in  the  absolute  dimensions 
was  due  to  variation  in  the  degree  of  growth  attained,  nourish- 
ment, etc.  rather  than  to  a  mixture  of  types  of  head  form. 

The  females  were  somewhat  more  variable  in  head  form  than 
the  males,  although  the  diflference  is  not  certainly  significant. 

IV.  Maximum  Width  of  Face  (Bizygomatic  Diameter).  Table 
10.  (a)  The  frequency  curve  of  variation  in  width  of  face  is  normal 
for  the  males  between  the  classes  123-150.  The  graduation  is 
regular,  a  single  mode  is  in  evidence,  and  there  is  only  a  slight  nega- 
tive skewness.  But  above  the  class  150  there  is  a  distinct  tendency 
toward  the  formation  of  another  mode  about  the  class  153.  The 
ten  subjects  with  very  wide  faces  occur  in  the  1916  data.  They  re- 
semble the  other  1916  subjects  in  being  much  larger  in  all  cephalic 
and  facial  dimensions  than  any  of  the  1920  subjects.  The  female 
frequencies  are  irregular  and  the  curve  describing  their  variation 
in  facial  width  appears  also  to  be  bimodal,  as  though  the  larger 
group  were  made  up  of  two  or  more  groups  diflfermg  in  width  of 
face. 

(6)  The  mean  width  of  face  (males  140.19  nmi.,  females  136.71 
nmi.)  places  these  Hawaiians  among  the  broader  faced  races.  This 
dimension  ranges  in  average  value  for  the  various  races  for  which 
data  are  available  from  116  to  153  mm.  (Martin,  p.  793);  The 
Hawaiians  fall  in  the  upper  part  of  the  range  together  with  other 
Polynesians  and  with  the  Mongoloid  types  in  general.  They  agree 
in  this  character  with  the  Samoans  (males  145.9  mm.,  females 
136.5  mm.).  Wc  have  not  found  other  comparable  data  for  Poly- 
nesians. 

The  sexual  difference  in  face  width  is  greater  than  in  the  other 
head  characters  measured,  and  is  statistically  significant.  The 
female  bizygomatic  diameter  is  97.5  per  cent  of  the  male  diameter. 

(c)  The  variability  of  the  Hawaiians  in  face  width  is  very  great. 
The  coefficient  of  variation  for  the  males  is  5.88  per  cent  as  com- 
pared with  3.59  per  cent  for  the  face  width  of  Samoan  males  and 
3.65  for  Sioux  males.  The  males  are  somewhat  more  variable  than 
the  females. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  115 

V.  Anatomical  Height  of  Face  (Nasion-Menton  Height).  Table 
11.  (a)  A  repetition  of  all  of  the  remarks  made  concerning  face 
width  would  serve  equally  well  for  face  height.  There  is  a  tend- 
ency toward  bimodaUty  in  the  upper  part  of  the  range  in  both 
sexes. 

(b)  The  mean  values  indicate  that  these  Hawaiians  have  not 
only  very  broad  but  also  very  high  faces.  Racial  averages  for  this 
trait  vary  from  103  to  131  mm.  (males,  Martin,  p.  793),  and  the 
E[awaiians  with  a  mean  height  of  122.72  mm.  are  near  the  upper 
limit  of  inter-racial  variation.  They  resemble  the  closely  related 
Samoans  who  have  a  face  height  of  131  nmi.,  the  greatest  racial 
value  for  this  trait  which  I  have  found.  The  faces  of  the  Hawaiians 
are  therefore  absolutely  large  and  massive,  although  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Samoans.  The  sexual  difference  in  this  dimension  is 
marked  and  significant,  the  female  face  averaging  only  about  94.7 
per  cent  as  high  as  the  male. 

(c)  The  variability  in  height  of  face  is  the  same  as  the  variability 
in  width  of  face.  This  group  is  more  variable  in  face  height  than 
the  Samoans  (C.  V.  males  5  per  cent),  or  the  Sioux  (C.  V.  males 
5.12  per  cent).  The  variability  of  the  sexes  is,  in  view  of  the  prob- 
able errors  involved,  about  the  same. 

Data  for  the  nasion-prosthion  height  are  also  given  (Table  12), 
but  call  for  no  discussion  since  this  measurement  enters  into  none 
of  the  proportions  used. 

VI.  Facial  Index  (Table  13).  (a)  The  distribution  of  the  index 
measuring  the  shape  of  the  face  is  continuous  and  fairly  regular 
in  the  males,  and  in  spite  of  the  tendency  towards  the  formation  of 
minor  modes  in  the  curves  of  variation  in  face  width  and  height, 
the  curve  describing  variation  in  shape  of  face  has  but  one  mode, 
and  this  falls  in  the  same  class  (86-87.9  per  cent)  with  the  mean. 
Variation  in  shape  of  face  appears  to  be  described  by  a  normal 
curve  of  error,  indicating  a  degree  of  homogeneity  in  the  material. 

(6)  The  mean  indices  (males  87.67  per  cent,  females  85.07  per 
cent)  indicate  an  average  meso-  to  leptoprosopic  type,  although  all 
types  of  face  form  were  encountered.  Of  the  males  17  or  about 
23  per  cent  had  relatively  broad  euryprosopic  faces  (index  below 
84) ,  22  or  about  30  per  cent  fell  in  the  meso  group,  24  or  nearly 
33  per  cent  were  leptoprosope,  while  the  remainder  or  about  14 
per  cent  had  extremely  narrow  faces  of  the  hyperlepto  type  (index 


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HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  117 

above  93).  In  mean  and  distribution  they  resemble  the  Samoans 
(average  index  89.9)  although  they  have  relatively  as  well  as  ab- 
solutely somewhat  narrower  faces  than  the  Samoans.  The  fe- 
males had  significantly  broader  faces  than  the  males,  the  female 
index  being  about  98  per  cent  of  the  male. 

(c)  The  chief  peculiarity  of  variation  in  the  shape  of  the  face 
is  the  extremely  wide  range  through  which  the  index  varies.  The 
range  is  (male)  from  74  to  100,  and  includes  the  whole  range  of 
racial  face  shapes  so  far  encountered  among  the  races  of  men.  (The 
range  of  racial  means  as  collated  by  Martin,  p.  796,  is  only  from 
80  to  97.2  per  cent.)  The  variability  measures  are  not,  however, 
banormally  high.  The  coefficient  of  variability  (males  5.91)  is  but 
slightly  greater  than  the  same  constant  for  Samoan  males  (5.42), 
and  less  than  that  of  Sioux  males  (7.58).  This  is  probably  due  to 
the  clustering  of  frequencies  about  the  modal  value,  since  over  61 
per  cent  of  the  male  subjects  had  indices  between  84  and  92.9. 

The  males  were  more  variable  than  the  females  in  shape  of  face. 

Vn.  Nasal  Height,  Breadth  and  Shape  (Tables  14-16).  (a) 
The  measurements  of  these  soft  parts  are  much  less  accurate  than 
the  data  for  other  characteristics  described;  and,  aside  from  general 
indications,  call  for  little  discussion.  Variation  in  height  of  nose  is 
the  most  regular,  but  there  is  little  approach  to  a  normal  curve  in 
any  of  these  dimensions.  All  are  characterized  by  a  wide  range  and 
higher  variation  constants  than  any  of  the  other  facial  or  cephaUc 
measures. 

(b)  In  mean  height  and  breadth  of  nose  the  Hawaiians  resemble 
the  Samoans,  although  the  nose  is  absolutely  shorter,  and  the  index, 
which  measures  the  shape  of  the  nose,  significantly  higher  than 
that  of  the  Samoans  (Hawaiian  males  index  82.9;  Samoan  males 
73.6).  The  Hawaiian  nose  is  typically  mesorrhine  and  relatively 
broader  than  the  Samoan.  Only  the  broader  types  of  nose  were 
found,  no  true  leptorrhine  types  occurring  in  our  sample.  Seventy 
per  cent  of  the  subjects  were  mesorrhine,  and  the  remainder  were 
chamaerrhine,  except  for  two  subjects  with  indices  of  100  and  102. 
The  males  appeared  to  have  somewhat  larger  and  relatively  broader 
noses  than  the  females. 

(c)  Variation  in  the  dimensions  and  shape  of  the  nose  is  high. 
The  variation  constants  are  in  general  greater  than  for  the  corre- 
sponding measiu^ements  of  the  Samoans,  and  less  than  those  of 
the  Sioux. 


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HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  119 

Conclusions  from  Data  on  Dimensions  of  Head  and  Face.  The 
data  on  the  dimensions  and  shape  of  the  head  and  face  of  the 
Hawaiians  agree  fairly  well  with  Sullivan's  descriptions  of  the 
Samoans,  but  not  with  previous  observations  on  Hawaiians,  de- 
rived from  cranial  material.  The  heads  measured  were  large  and 
predominantly  brachycephalic.  Only  three  subjects  were  found 
to  be  dolichocephalic,  and  these  appeared  to  be  discontinuous  vari- 
ates  from  the  rounder  headed  type.  The  Hawaiian  faces  were 
found  to  be  broad  and  massive  like  those  of  Mongoloid  peoples. 
The  dimensions  and  shape  of  the  Hawaiian  face  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  Samoan,  but  are  somewhat  narrower  and  less  massive. 

The  absolute  dimensions  of  both  head  and  face  appeared  to  be 
abnormally  variable;  while  the  range,  distribution  and  dispersion 
measures  of  the  shape  indices  were  not  abnormal,  but  indicated 
rather  a  degree  of  homogeneity  in  the  material.  This  difference 
is  interpreted  as  due  to  a  considerable  environmental  variation  in 
growth  as  expressed  in  the  absolute  dimensions,  while  the  form 
attained  may  be  regarded  as  innate  or  racial.  As  we  concluded 
from  the  comparison  of  bodily  proportions,  these  presumably 
racial  traits  are  relatively  conservative  in  variation  in  the  Hawai- 
ians measured,  and  they  may  be  regarded  as  a  fairly  homogeneous 
group  racially. 

NON-MENSURABLE,  PHYSICAL  CnARACT ERISTICS  OF 

THE  HAWAIIANS 

Several  of  the  physical  traits  of  the  Hawaiians  which  are  not 
susceptible  of  exact  mechanical  measurement  were  classified 
roughly  and  entered  on  the  schedules.  The  descriptive  terms  used 
are  explained  on  p.  94.  Such  traits  included  hair  color,  hair  form, 
eye  color,  skin  color,  nose  form,  incidence  of  the  Mongolian  (epi- 
canthic)  fold  and  of  prognathism.  For  a  portion  of  the  subjects, 
descriptions  of  eyebrows,  brow  ridges,  forehead,  malars,  face  shape, 
lips,  chin,  teeth  and  ears  were  also  obtained,  but  the  records  are 
thought  to  be  too  scattered  and  diflScult  of  classification  to  con- 
tribute materially  to  this  description  of  the  Hawaiians. 

I.  Hair  color  (Table  17).  Although  few  grades  of  hair  color 
were  distinguished,  this  characteristic  apparently  varies  but  little 
among  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  subjects  observed.  Ninety- 
one  per  cent  of  these  Hawaiians  had  black  hair.    About  six  per 


120 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


Table  17.    Distribution  op  Hair  Color  in  Pure  Hawauans 


Color 

White 

Red- 

diah 

Brown 

Brown 

Dark 
Brown 

Black 

No 
RMtwvi 

Total 

Freauencv 

1 

2 

1 

9 

141 

3 

157 

cent  of  the  subjects  had  dark  brown  hair,  while  only  three  or  less 
than  two  per  cent  had  hau-  of  a  lighter  shade.  Of  these  two  had 
distinctly  reddish  hair.  This  variation  is  qualitatively  different 
from  the  normal  black  or  dark  brown  pigmentation,  and  the  red 
haired  subjects  probably  represent  a  recessive  blonde  type  intro- 
duced originally  by  a  remote  cross  with  a  European  race.  These 
subjects  were  typically  Hawaiian  in  their  other  traits,  and  there 
is  no  reason  for  questioning  their  immediate  pedigrees.  Such  red- 
dish brown  hair  is  occasionally  seen  on  persons  regarded  as  pure 
Hawaiian  and  designated  by  the  native  name  Ehu.  There  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  their  blood  is  not  as  pure  as  that  of  the 
darker  haired  natives  and  they  should  be  included  in  a  description 
of  the  Hawaiian  type. 

n.  Hair  form  (Table  18).    It  is  in  hair  form  that  the  Hawaiians 
depart  most  widely  from  the  uniformity  which  one  might  expect 

Table  18.     DisTRinrTiox  of  Haik  Form  in  Pure  Hawaiians 


Form 

StraiKhl 

^^'llvy 
1)2 

Curly 
44 

Frizzy 

Crinkly 

Kinky 

No 
record 

Total 

Frc(ni('iicy 

i;^ 

3 

2 

1 

2 

157 

in  an  island  race.  The  predominant  forms  are  plainly  wavy  and 
curly,  themselves  quite  variable  and  intorgi-ading  with  each  other. 
To  the  general  wavy-curly  type  may  probably  be  assigned  also  the 
kind  of  straight  smooth  hair  which  occurs  among  the  Hawaiians. 
The  Hawaiian  straight  hair  is  very  similar  in  texture  to  the  wa\y 
type  and  continuous  intergi*adations  connect  the  two  t3T)es.  It 
is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  heavier,  straighter  and  coarser 
Mongolian  type  of  straight  hair.  All  except  six  of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-five  subjects  fell  in  one  of  these  three  related  classi- 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


121 


fications,  the  most  frequent  hair  type  being  wavy  (fifty-nine  per 
cent).  Three  individuals  were  reported  as  having  frizzy,  two 
crinkly,  and  one  kinky  hair  —  variations  in  hair  form  which  are 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  straight.  These  forms,  on  accoimt 
of  their  rarity  and  the  greater  change  they  involve  in  hair  form, 
are  much  less  likely  to  be  normal  to  the  Hawaiian  type.  All  six 
were  females,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  some  of  the  subjects  arti- 
ficial deformation  of  the  hair  may  have  disguised  its  true  form. 
One  "  kinky  "  subject  departed  seriously  from  the  average  in  arm 
length,  while  the  observer  noted  of  one  of  the  girls  described  as 
"  crinkly  "  haired  that  she  "  looked  like  a  Negro."  The  observer, 
in  absence  of  other  evidence  to  the  contrary,  accepted  them  as 
Hawaiians,  and  although  it  is  likely  that  one  or  two  may  have  some 
negro  blood,  we  have  included  them  in  the  Hawaiian  series.  Their 
omission  would  cause  no  significant  change  in  the  averages  of  the 
physical  characteristics  of  Hawaiian  females. 

m.  Eye  color  (Table  19).  Eye  color,  like  hair  color,  varied  but 
little  among  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  subjects  observed.    The 

Table  19.     Distribution  of  Eye  Color  in  Pure  Hawaiians 


Color 

Very 
Light 

Brown- 
ish 
Blue 

Liprht 
Brown 

Brown 

Dark 
Brown 

Very 

Dark 

Brown 

No 
Record 

Total 

Frequency 

11 

1 

18 

67 

61 

7 

2 

157 

»  Recorded  as  "almost  blue." 


eyes  of  all  except  two  were  some  shade  of  brown,  the  classes  medium 
and  dark  brown  including  seventy-eight  percent  of  the  whole  group. 
The  individual  recorded  as  "  brownish  blue  "  was  typically  Ha- 
waiian in  other  respects  and  was  entered  as  "  Ehu."  This  case 
may  be  interpreted  as  a  further  instance  of  segregation  of  the  reces- 
sive blonde  Ehu  type,  this  time  with  respect  to  eye  color  only, 
since  the  hair  was  dark  brown.  The  other  exception  described  as 
"  almost  blue  "  in  eye  color  may  be  a  quantitative  variant  from 
the  brown  type  or  a  segregate  from  an  earlier  cross.  In  other 
traits  he  agreed  with  the  Hawaiian  type. 

IV.   Skin  color  (Table  20).    The  descriptions  of  the  skin  color 
of  these  Hawaiians  are  admittedly  approximate  and,  in  the  only 


122 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


Table  20.    Description  of  Skin  Color 


Grade  No. 

von  Luflchan's 
Scale  Frequency 

Grade 
No. 

Broca'sScalei 
Frequency 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

11 

1 
1 

1 
2 

•    • 

1 
1 

1 
1 

2 
3 
3 
2 
2 

•  • 

•  • 

47 

23 

•  • 

24 
39 
25 
40 

•  • 

2 
2 

•  • 

6 
5 
2 
5 

•  m 

•  • 

15 

12 

12 

13 

14 

23 

15 

16 

1 

17 

2 

18 

19 

Total 

7 

14 

B           • 

22 

53 

^  The  Krades  of  Broca's  scale  have  been  placed  opposite  similar  grades  on  von  Luschan's 
scales.  The  colors  in  the  two  scales  are  not  of  the  same  quality,  and  it  is  unwise  to  combine 
observations  recorded  on  the  two  scales. 


form  in  which  it  was  practicable  to  collect  such  data,  not  suscepti- 
ble of  quantitative  treatment. 

The  1916  series  of  fifty-three  females  and  twenty-two  males  were 
described  in  terms  of  Broca's  scale  as  reprinted  by  Hrdlicka  (1904). 
Most  of  the  subjects  had  skin  colors  corresponding  to  Broca's 
numbers  24,  47,  and  23.  The  modal  grade  for  both  sexes  was  24. 
Only  three  females  had  «kin  colors  darker  than  23  (gi'ades  25  and 
40).  The  nial(\s  had  in  general  somewhat  darker  skins  than  the 
females.  Twelve  or  nearly  half  of  them  were  described  by  the 
gi'ades  25,  39,  and  40.  In  1920,  von  Lusehan's  better  scale  was  used, 
and  although  only  twenty  subjects  (six  males  and  fourteen  females) 
were  described  on  this  scale,  the  results  agreed  well  with  the  earlier 
descriptions.  On  von  Lusehan's  scale,  the  skin  colors  varied  from 
grade  11  to  grade  19,  the  modal  grades  being  14  and  15  which, 
aside  from  the  yellow  or  red  component  of  the  color,  are  about 
equivalent  to  Broca's  grade  24.  The  average  skin  color  of  the 
Hawaiians  is  api)arent  ly  a  light  yellowish  or  reddish  brown  —  of 
about  the  tone  of  cafe  au  lait, 

V.  Nose  form  (Table  21).  In  addition  to  the  data  yielded  by 
measurements  of  the  nose,  descriptive  notes  were  made  of  the 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


123 


Table  21.    Description  op  Nose  Form  —  Pure  Hawauans 


Root 

Bridffe 

Septum 

Normal 

De- 
pressed 

Straiffht 

Con- 
cave 

Con- 
vex 

Straight 

Down 

Up 

Males 

46 
11 

27 
20 

43 
15 

14 
9 

15 
5 

40 
14 

2 

1 

31 

Females 

16 

general  form  of  the  nose  with  especial  reference  to  root,  bridge, 
and  septum.  The  records  were  made  in  the  terms  used  in  Table 
21.  The  root  of  the  nose  was  found  to  be  more  frequently  normal 
than  depressed  in  the  males;  but  in  two-thirds  of  the  females  the 
root  was  depressed.  The  form  of  the  bridge  was  straight  in  about 
half  the  subjects  in  both  sexes.  Departures  from  the  straight- 
bridged  type  were  as  frequently  in  the  direction  of  convexity  as 
toward  the  concave  type.  The  septum  was  either  straight  or 
directed  slightly  upward,  while  in  only  three  subjects  did  it  slope 
downward. 

VI.  Incidence  of  the  Mongolian  (epicanthic)  fold.  Out  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty-eight  subjects  observed,  only  four  were  found 
to  exhibit  this  peculiarity  of  the  eyelids,  and  in  these  subjects  it 
was  described  as  slight.  Although  it  is  somewhat  dilBBcult  to  dis- 
tinguish this  trait  in  the  reduced  form  in  which  it  occasionally  ap- 
pears, we  fee)  fairly  safe  in  saying  that  the  typical  Mongolian  fold 
does  not  occur  among  the  Hawaiians. 

Vn.  Incidence  of  Prognathism.  Observations  of  twenty-two 
adult  males  and  fourteen  adult  females  with  special  reference  to 
prognathism  indicate  it  is  absent  in  the  majority  of  the  Hawaiians 
observed.  Slight  prognathism  was  noted  in  two  males  and  four 
females. 

Vin.  Other  traits.  Observations  of  other  traits  listed  on  the 
schedule  (p.  93)  were  made  on  a  portion  of  the  subjects  observed 
in  1916.  A  brief  summary  of  the  more  important  of  these  is  given 
below.    Only  adult  subjects  are  included. 


124 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


(a)  Brow  ridges: 

Clasfiification  Males 

Absent 

Present 2 

Slight 7 

Prominent 11 


Females 
14 


Total 20 

(6)  Thickness  of  lips : 

Classification  Males 

Medium 11 

Thick 9 


17 


Females 
9 

8 


Total 20 


17 


(c)   Strength  as  measured  by  grip  of  hand  (recorded  in  kilograms). 


Number 58 

Average 53.8 

(d)  Forehead: 


Right  Hand 
Males        Females 

Left  Hand 
Males        Females 

58               30 

19             17 

53.8         29.8 

52.6         26.3 

Height 

Breadth 

CIas8 

Slope 

CInRS 

Males 

Females* 

CllKS 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Low .... 

1 

1 

Medium 

U 

15 

Vertical 

10 

Medium 

10 

11 

Broad 

5 

2 

Slightly 
receding 

9 

4 

High  .  . . 

9 

5 

•    •    •    • 

•  • 

Receding 
Low 

10 

1 

3 

•      • 

Total .  .  . 

20 

17 

.... 

20 

17 

•    •   ■    • 

20 

17 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  HAWAIIANS 

The  general  picture  of  the  average  Hawaiian  wliich  may  be 
reconstructed  from  the  foregoing  description  portrays  a  tall  hea\y 
individual,  inclined  to  be  stout;  with  limbs  and  trunk  of  medium 
length.  The  head  is  large,  and  both  absolutely  and  relatively 
short.  It  is  generally  brachycephalic  in  shape.  The  face  is  both 
broad  and  high  with  prominent  cheek  bones,  and  its  shape  ap- 


HAWAIUNS  OF  PUBE  AND  MXED  BLOOD 


SOMc-i-tcod-fddi'i'-iddd 


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126 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


preaches  the  square  rather  than  the  oval.  The  forehead  is  of 
medium  height  or  higher,  and  in  the  male  is  generally  receding. 
Brow  ridges  are  present  and  frequently  prominent.  The  nose  is 
large  and  relatively  broad  and  flat,  although  the  root  is  more  fre- 
quently of  the  straight  European  type  than  depressed  as  in  negroid 
or  Mongoloid  races.  The  lips  are  but  little  thicker  than  among 
European  races,  and  the  teeth  are  usually  very  good.  Prognathism 
is  absent,  and  the  chin  is  slightly  receding. 

The  skin  is  light  brown  with  a  creamy  or  yellowish  tinge.  The 
hair  is  black,  wavy  or  curly  and  generally  abundant.  The  eyes 
are  brown,  large  and  straight  as  among  Europeans. 

I.  Homogeneity  of  Type.  As  in  all  the  races  of  men  so  far 
measured,  all  of  these  general  traits  as  well  as  the  various  dimen- 
sions and  proportions  of  the  body  and  its  parts  are  very  variable. 
A  comparison  of  one  measure  of  variability  for  a  number  of  traits 
of  these  Hawaiians  with  the  corresponding  traits  for  several  other 
groups  is  given  below  (Table  23). 


Table  23.     Comparison  of  the  Coefficient  of  Variation  in 
Hawaiians  and  Other  Comparable  Groups.    Males 


Ilawaiiiin 

Samoan 

Sioux 

South  Chineee 

Number 

Stature 

69-74 
2.92 

4.,S9 

:i^o 

5.8S 
5.88 
7.()9 
().;V2 
3.80 
5.91 
9.32 

67-70 
3.05 

2.98 
2.88 
3.59 
5.00 
().09 
5.91 
4.34 
5.42 
7.96 

540 
3.27 
3.16 
3.47 
3.65 
5.12 
6.75 
8.07 
4.03 
5.78 
10.25 

64 
3.43 

Ifeaci  length 

Head  breadth 

liizygomatic  ciianieter 

Nasion-inenton  height 

Nose  height 

Nose  ])readth 

(Vj)hahc  index 

3.58 
3.91 
3.24 
4.69 

Facial  index      

5.70 

Nasai  index 

'I'bc  Hawaiian  series  appears  to  be  the  most  variable  of  all  of 
tlie  racial  jz;roups  compared.  It  exceeds  the  Samoan  group  in 
varial)iHty  of  all  except  two  of  the  traits  given,  viz.,  stature  and 
ceplialic  indc^x.  It  exceeds  the  Sioux  series  in  all  excei)t  four  of 
tlie  traits  given;  viz.,  stature,  cephalic  index,  nose  breadth  and 
nasal  index.    It  is  more  variable  than  the  South  Chinese  series  in 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  127 

head  length,  face  breadth  and  height,  cephalic  index  and  facial  in- 
dex. The  actual  amount  by  which  the  Hawaiian  exceeds  the  other 
series  given  is  not  great,  except  in  the  case  of  face  breadth  and  not 
all  of  the  differences  in  variability  among  these  races  are  statisti- 
cally significant.  The  excess  in  variability  of  the  Hawaiians,  while 
not  great,  is  general  and  calls  for  some  explanation. 

Some  of  the  reasons  for  the  greater  variability  of  the  Hawaiians 
may  be  inferred  from  a  comparison  of  the  Samoans  and  Hawaiians. 
These  two  groups  are  strictly  comparable  in  numbers,  in  race,  in 
time  and  in  technique  of  measurement.  Both  are  from  island 
populations  which  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  inbreeding 
brought  about  by  isolation,  are  usually  rather  conservative  in  their 
physical  traits.  The  chief  difference  between  the  Samoan  and 
Hawaiian  series  is  in  their  relative  amount  of  recent  contact  with 
foreign  stocks.  The  Samoans  are  to  a  greater  degree  unaffected 
by  European  or  Oriental  inunigration  and  by  the  more  complex 
social  and  economic  conditions  induced  by  the  influx  of  foreign 
cultures.  Their  environment  is  less  variable,  and  since  many  of 
the  absolute  dimensions  of  the  body  depend  to  some  extent  on  the 
degree  of  growth  attained,  and  thence  on  such  environmental  varia- 
tions as  nourishment,  health,  etc.,  it  may  be  that  their  greater 
conservatism  in  physical  traits  is  in  part  due  to  this  fact.  Greater 
social,  economic  and  physical  inequalities  have  been  brought 
about  in  Hawaii  by  the  introduction  of  more  of  the  machinery  of 
civilization,  and  this  greater  variability  in  the  environment  may 
induce  a  greater  variability  in  the  less  stable  physical  character- 
istics. Wherever  industrial  methods  are  present,  there  is  always 
the  possibiUty  of  occupational  variation  in  physical  traits.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  general  cause  of  variation  it  has  been  already  noted  that 
our  sample  has  been  drawn  chiefly  from  a  few  groups  such  as  steve- 
dores and  factory  workers  and  is  probably  more  variable  in  size 
characters  than  a  strictly  random  sample. 

Contact  with  foreign  stocks  likewise  produces  the  possibility 
of  actual  physical  mixture  between  races,  and  such  mixture  leads 
generally  to  increased  variability.  We  have  tried  to  exclude  from 
our  Hawaiian  series  all  progeny  of  recent  crosses  between  Hawaiians 
and  other  races.  We  may,  however,  have  included  subjects  de- 
scended from  remoter  crosses,  and  may  thereby  have  obtained 
variabiUties  in  excess  of  those  normal  to  the  race. 


ISS  AN  MITHKOPOIIKEBIC  BTOBY  GT 


Tlie  yaliMB  of  tte  dM|Mnion  niBMinei  of  tte  iPtt^^ 
Mt  homtmr  antiidiy  idMble  m  gBodm  m  iiilii— tiiifc  hMmuMwilj! 
flftijrpe.   Thqr  le  pot|y  incwised  aoi  cnjy  by  atiiiuuBMttUl 
YMBtaon  but  bj  tte  pnsenm  of  a  ieir  iDdfividuyb  lAi^ 
iridd^  from  the  mmmg^  or  bj  the  depubm  of  tte  dgtributiop 
fram  the  nofmal.   llie  diftribolion  Hadtf ,  and  tte  lanse  of  ^ari^ 
tion  aie  better  gpideB  to  homogeneity.    Distiiiet  evidenees  of 
bmodefify  aie  abeent  in  the  dirtrifaationB  of  niOBt  of  ^ 
tmite.    Even  in  eodi  tnitB  as  head  length,  head  bieadtli,  £aoe 
he^ht  and  faee  bfeadth,  in  iffaidh  the  TBtriebilify  of  tte  B^^^ 
ie  greater  than  that  of  other  graqpe,  we  find  no  evidenee  of  the 
preaenoe  ci  more  than  one  chief  iTpe.   And  aince  the  proportiona 
between  these  parta,  eqiedaHy  in  the  case  erf  the  length-bteadth 
index  erf  the  head,  are  idativdy  kas  variaUe,  and  show  fai^T 
normal  and  regular  distributions,  we  may  ascribe  modi  of  the 
variaMity  in  the  dimensions  to  the  degree  erf  growth  attained 
rather  than  to  lack  ci  homogeneity.    The  Hawaiian  grofup  aa  a 
whole  then,  iriifle  somewhat  more  variaUe  than  we  mi|^  expect 
a  pure  island  race  to  be,  has  none  the  less  a  unity  whidh  azgnea 
a  large  amount  of  antecedent  pure  breeding. 

IL  Kadal  AflGhiitiea.  The  Hawaiians  have  long  been  reoogniaed 
as  belcmging  to  the  Polynesian  race,  which  is  widdy  dktributed  in 
the  Pacific  area.  Their  nearest  rdatives  are  undoubtedly  the 
peoples  of  the  Marquesas  and  Samoan  Islands.  Their  ph3^cal 
characteristics  agree  in  general  with  those  of  the  Samoans  de- 
scribed by  Sullivan.  These  diflferences  are  however  to  be  noted: 
although  of  the  same  height  as  the  Hawaiians,  the  Samoans  exceed 
them  somewhat  in  nearly  all  of  the  other  physical  dimensions 
recorded;  the  Samoan  head  appears  to  be  both  longer  and  broader 
than  the  Hawaiian,  while  in  shape  it  is  relatively  narrower;  the 
proportion  of  very  short  headed  (index  85  and  over)  individuals 
is  much  higher  among  the  Hawaiians;  the  Samoan  face  is  larger 
and  both  absolutely  and  relatively  broader  than  the  Hawaiian; 
the  nose  of  the  Hawaiians,  while  smaller,  is  relatively  broader  than 
that  of  the  Samoans;  the  frequency  of  straight  hair  is  much  higher 
among  the  Samoans  than  among  the  Hawaiians,  although  the 
general  type  of  hair  is  similar.  The  differences  between  these 
groups  are  small  and  the  resemblances  many.  The  present  data 
indicate  that  both  belong  to  one  large  racial  group  —  the  Poly- 
nesian. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  129 

We  have  made  no  attempt  to  deduce  the  affinities  or  origins 
of  this  large  group  from  the  present  data.  Sullivan  has  tentatively 
classified  the  various  traits  of  the  Samoans  as  resembling  the 
Eiu'opean,  Negroid  or  Mongoloid  races  of  man,  and  concludes  that 
their  physical  traits  resemble  most  closely  those  of  Mongoloid 
peoples.  In  so  far  as  the  Hawaiians  resemble  the  Samoans,  and 
in  so  far  as  Sullivan's  racial  classification  of  traits  is  cogent,  the 
same  might  be  inferred  from  our  data.  Resemblances,  however, 
as  Sullivan  rightly  notes,  do  not  always  represent  closeness  of 
relationship,  but  may  arise  by  independent  variation,  or  may  be 
produced  by  other  than  inherent  causes.  Another  kind  of  data, 
in  addition  to  careful  description  of  individual  and  group  character- 
istics, is  needed  for  explanations  of  racial  origins  or  affinities.  Such 
data  should  consist  of  descriptions  of  the  behavior  of  the  characters 
of  a  race,  such  as  the  Polynesian,  when  crossed  with  several  of  its 
putative  parent  races  such  as  the  Mongoloid  or  the  European. 
When  truly  heritable  traits  (and  these  are  the  only  traits  of  evo- 
lutionary significance)  can  be  observed  in  a  number  of  genera- 
tions, the  amoimt  of  similarity  or  divergence  between  races  may 
be  inferred  from  the  characters  and  variability  of  the  hybrids. 
We  have  obtained  a  small  amoimt  of  such  evidence  for  hybrids 
between  Hawaiians  as  one  parent  race  and  Chinese  and  Europeans 
as  the  other.  Further  discussion  of  the  racial  relationships  of  the 
Hawaiians  and  Polynesians  may  then  be  deferred  imtil  such  evi- 
dence is  presented. 


130  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

PART  n 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  OTHER  RACES  IN  HAWAH  AND  OF 
DESCENDANTS  FROM  CROSSES  OF  HAWAHANS 

WITH  OTHER  RACES 

Chinese  and  Chinese-BLa.waiians 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  student  of  race  mixture,  the  most  in- 
teresting cross  which  is  taking  place  in  Hawaii  is  that  between  the 
native  Hawaiians  and  the  Chinese.  In  numbers  of  hybrids  pro- 
duced, and  in  the  general  effect  on  the  character  of  the  Hawaiian 
population,  this  cross  is  not  so  important  as  that  between  Ha- 
waiians and  Europeans.  The  interest  and  scientific  value  of  the 
Hawaiian-Chinese  cross  inheres  in  the  first  place  in  the  relative 
purity  of  the  races  involved.  The  past  history  and  present  char- 
acteristics of  both  the  Hawaiians  and  the  Chinese  indicate  that 
both  races  have  undergone  a  period  of  relatively  pure  breeding  in 
the  immediate  past,  during  which  time  racial  traits  have  become 
well  defined  and  less  variable  than  in  more  widespread  and  mobile 
races.  The  source  of  the  Chinese  participating  in  this  mixture  is 
distinctly  local,  since  most  of  the  Chinese  in  Hawaii  have  been 
imported  as  coolies  from  Canton  Province  and  belong  to  the  rela- 
tively conserv^ative  South  Chinese  type. 

Secondly,  this  cross  has  taken  place  in  recent  times,  the  first 
Chinese  to  reach  Hawaii  in  significant  numbers  having  arrived  in 
the  decade  1870-80.  The  cross  has  been  made  practically  always 
in  one  direction,  i.e.  Chinese  male  b}'  Hawaiian  female.  In  ap- 
pearance, mentality,  temperament  and  customs,  the  Chinese  and 
Hawaiians  present  what  appear  to  be  well  marked  contrasts.  There 
seems  to  be  little  or  no  social  disapproval  of  marriages  between 
these  races;  and  both  of  the  parent  races  and  the  hybrids  live  on 
what  is  practical]}'  a  social  parity.  For  these  reasons  the  results 
of  the  cross  should  be  simpler  and  offer  fewer  difficulties  in  inter- 
pretation than  crosses  involving  Hawaiians  and  members  of  other 
races. 

Dkscriptiox  of  the  South  Chinese 

The  description  of  the  South  Chinese  which  follows  is  based  on 
our  observ\ations  of  twenty  pure  South  Chinese  living  in  and  near 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PXJRE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


131 


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132  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

Honolulu,  and  on  Hagen's  (1889)  meaauiements  of  64  adult  male 
coolieB  from  Canton,  observed  at  Deli  on  the  northeast  coast  ci 
Sumatra.  The  Chinese  of  Ebgen's  series  were  born  in  Ghinai  \dule 
all  except  two  of  our  series  were  bom  in  Hawaii  of  pure  CSunese 
•  parentage,  the  parents  having  in  most  cases  been  bom  in  Qiina. 
The  original  measurements  of  our  series  are  given  in  Appendix 
Table  11.  Hagen's  data  are  given  in  full  in  his  memdr  (21).  We 
have  calculated  from  both  of  these  series  of  measurements  the 
averages  of  the  principal  dimenHions  and  proportions  of  the  body, 
and  these  are  given  in  Table  24  following.  The  observations  on 
females  are  too  few  to  be  of  use  except  in  descriptions  of  non- 
mensurable  traits. 

In  general  the  measurements  of  South  Qunese  males  from 
Hawaii  agree  quite  well  with  those  obtained  by  Ebgen  in  Sumatra. 
The  Chinese  measured  by  us  were  slightly  taller,  and  longer  headed 
and  had  slightly  higher  faces  than  those  observed  by  Hagen,  but 
the  differences  are  small  and  generally  insignificant.  The  two 
series  together  give  as  good  an  indication  of  the  dimensions  and 
proportions  of  the  South  Chinese  as  can  be  obtained  at  present. 

The  non-mensurable  traits  of  our  series  of  South  Chinese  are 
described  in  Table  25.  The  hair  color  is  prevailingly  black  and 
uniformly  straight  and  coarse;  the  eyes  are  brown,  generally 
oblique  and  the  Mongolian  fold  is  present  and  marked  in  more  than 
half  of  the  subjects.  The  frequency  of  the  fold  is  probably  higher 
than  that  shown  by  our  data,  for  in  the  first  subjects  observed  no 
specific  mention  was  made  of  this  trait.  Hagen  noted  the  eye  fold 
in  80  per  cent  of  the  South  Chinese  observed  by  him;  and,  while  it 
varies  in  degree  it  is  probably  present  in  most  of  the  South  Chinese. 
The  skin  color  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Hawaiians.  The  root 
of  the  nose  is  generally  depressed,  the  bridge  straight,  and  the 
septum  directed  upwards.  The  forehead  is  of  medium  height  and 
breadth  and  frequently  receding.  Prognathism  is  generally  ab- 
sent, only  two  subjects  having  been  recorded  as  slightly  prog- 
nathous. 

Comparison  op  Hawaiians  and  Chinese 

From  the  information  provided  above,  a  general  comparison  of 
the  native  Hawaiians  and  South  Chinese  can  be  made.  The 
Hawaiians  are  taller  and  heavier  than  the  Chinese;  although  the 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  133 

Table  25.    Descriptions  of  the  Non-mensurablb  Traits  of  the 

South  Chinese 

Hair  color Black  19,  Dark  Brown  1 

Hair  form Straight  20 

Eye  color Brown  10,  Black  2,  Dark  Brown  5,  Light  Brown  2 

Eye  fold Present  10 

Absent  ^  8  c^        9 

Skin  color Broca's  Grade  23  5        3 

Broca's  Grade  24  3 

Broca's  Grade  47  3 

Nose  form  Root,  depressed  17 

straight  3 
Bridge,  straight  14 
concave  6 
Septum,  straight  5 
up  15 

Lips Thin  2 

Medium  13 
Thick  1 

Prognathism Absent  14 

Slight  2 

Forehead Height  Breadth  Slope 

high  5  medium  13  straight  9 

medium  8  broad  3  receding  7 

low  3 

Brow  ridges Absent  8 

Slight  5 
Prominent  3 


} 


»  Five  recorded  as  oblique  eyelids     ■  ,  r  r  i  j      ^      ^  !_!•  l  o  .  j 

-,  ,,        ^...Li-i      r  presence  or  absence  of  fold  not  established  by  record. 

Two  recorded  as  straight  eyeUds    ' 


proportions  of  the  body  are  very  similar  in  the  two  races.  The 
Chinese  appear  to  have  slightly  longer  trunks;  the  difference  in 
the  sitting  height  index,  although  small,  is  statistically  significant. 
The  Hawaiians  are  predominantly  brachycephalic,  while  the 
Chinese  are  frequently  dolicho-  or  mesocephalic.  The  Chinese 
head  is  probably  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Hawaiian;  the  princi- 
pal difference  being  in  absolute  breadth  of  head,in  which  Hagen's 
measurements  and  our  own  agree.  The  faces  of  the  Hawaiians 
and  Chinese  are  quite  similar  in  size  and  shape,  the  averages  of  the 
absolute  dimensions  being  nearly  identical.  In  nose  shape  the  two 
races  are  slightly  different,  the  Hawaiians  having  relatively  and 
absolutely  broader  noses  than  the  Chinese,  although  the  difference 


IM  AX  A>THE-DPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

is  DOC  hr^.  The  zxase  of  ihe  Clmiege  is  tjpicilhr  depreaeed  at  the 
root,  vhik  in  the  Havmnus  it  is  more  frequently  of  the  European 
stzai^t  type.  The  septum  of  the  nose  is  directed  upirard  in  the 
Chinese,  hm  is  ^PDenHy  stTsigfct  or  hmixxital  in  the  Hawaiians. 
The  lips  of  the  Hawaiiaz^  are  scmevfaat  thicker  than  thoee  of  the 
Chinese.  One  dearly  marked  diference  is  in  the  diape  of  the  eye 
and  in  the  presence  or  absence  c^  the  Mongicdian  fcdd.  In  the  Ha- 
naiians  the  eye  is  foil,  roimd  and  straight  and  the  eye  fold  is  ab- 
sent: in  the  Chinese  the  eye  b  typically  narrower,  is  set  obliquely 
and  the  eye  fold  is  generally  present.  The  two  races  are  also 
sharply  distinguished  by  the  fonn  of  the  hair,  whidi  is  unifomily 
straight  and  coazse  in  the  Chinese,  wavy  and  finer  in  the  Hawaiians. 
The  brow  ridges  which  are  generally  present  and  frequently  promi- 
nent in  the  Hawaiians  are  as  a  rule  absent  or  slight  in  the  Chinese. 
In  the  color  of  the  hair,  skin  and  eyes,  in  the  incidence  of  prog- 
nathism and  shape  of  the  forehead,  the  two  races  are  very  similar. 
To  the  casual  observer  the  Chinese  and  Hawaiians  appear  to  be 
quite  different  and  are  readily  differentiated.  When  the  differ- 
ences are  measured  and  reduced  to  anthropometric  terms,  however, 
the  J'  are  fewer  than  one  would  expect.  They  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  general  body  size,  a  slightly  different  head  shape,  hair  form, 
shape  of  the  nose  and  the  character  of  the  eye.  We  may  now  turn 
to  the  behavior  of  these  traits  in  inheritance,  and  formulate  a 
description  of  the  hybrids  arising  from  crosses  of  Chinese  and 
Hawaiian  5?. 

First  Hybrid    F:    GexeFw\tiox  from  Ha wah.vx  X  Chinese 

Our  data  on  this  generation  consist  of  descriptions  of  twenty- 
eight  progf-ny  of  matings  of  pure  Chinese  males,  with  pure  Ha- 
waiian females.  Of  these  hvbrids  four  were  mature  males  and  ten 
were  immature  males  ranging  in  age  from  fifteen  to  nineteen  years. 
Of  the  fourteen  females  all  except  three  were  mature.  In  averag- 
ing the  measurements  of  this  generation  only  mature  subjects 
have  lx*en  used,  \\nth  the  exception  that  three  males  of  age  twenty 
have  been  considered  as  ha\'ing  attained  adult  gro\Nth  in  all  traits 
except  stature  and  its  separate  elements.  Even  with  this  addition, 
our  description  of  the  mensurable  traits  of  the  hybrids  rests  on  only 
seven  males  and  eleven  females.  The  averages  of  males  and  females 
of  this  generation  are  contained  in  Table  26,  while  the  descriptions 
of  non-mensurable  traits  are  summarized  in  Table  27. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


135 


Table  26.    Averages  of  the  Mensurable  Characters  of  Adult 
Fi  Hybrids  Between  Chinese  Males  and  Hawaiian  Females 


Males 

Females 

Average 

Range 

Average 

Range 

Number  of  subjects  . . 

4^7 

4^7 

11 

11 

Stature,  cm 

165.6 
88.6 

157-176 
82-93 

157.54=*=  1.17 
84.80=*=  0.63 

148-169 

Sitting  height,  cm.  . . . 

79-90 

Sitting  height  index,  % 

53.5 

52.1-55.1 

53.83=^0.32 

52.3-57.8 

Ht.  of  acromion,  cm.  . 

134.9 

127-144 

128.14=*=  1.00 

121-138 

Arm  length,  cm 

73.0 

67-77 

68.79=*=  0.71 

64-76 

Index  of  arm  length,  % 

44.1 

42.5-46.5 

43.67=^0.35 

42.1-45.0 

Head  length,  mm.   . . . 

179.9=*=  2.8 

165-200 

168.36=*=  1.43 

157-175 

Head  breadth,  mm.  . . 

152.3=^1.5 

141-162 

144.73=*=  1.35 

133-153 

Cephalic  index,    %  . . . 

84.5=*=  0.8 

77.5-93.3 

85.96=*=  0.67 

79.6-89.5 

Bizygomatic  diam. 

mm 

138.7=*=  1.8 

129-146 

131.18=*=  1.30 

124-144 

Nasion-menton  height 

. 

mm 

119.4=*=  2.3 
86.1=*=  1.2 

109-138 
81.1-94.5 

109.27=*=  1.26 
83.30=*=  0.77 

99-117 

Facial  index,  % 

78.5-92.1 

Nasal  height,  mm.  . . . 

52.4=^0.7 

48-58 

47.55=*=  0.57 

43-51 

Nasal  breadth,  mm.  . . 

39.4=^0.5 

36-43 

37.91=*=  0.42 

36-42 

Nasal  index,  % 

75.2=*=  1.6 

65.5^2.7 

79.73=*=  1.10 

70.6-93.0 

Mensurable  Traits 

An  examination  of  Table  26  indicates  immediately  that  only 
tentative  conclusions  can  be  reached  regarding  the  average  ap- 
pearance of  the  hybrids  in  respect  to  most  of  the  traits  measured. 
The  errors  of  the  averages  are  so  high,  due  to  the  smallness  of  the 
samples,  that  only  very  large  differences  from  one  of  the  parent 
races  could  be  regarded  as  significant.  And  as  we  learned  from  the 
comparison  of  the  pure  Hawaiians  and  Chinese,  such  large  diiBfer- 
ences,  even  between  the  parent  races,  are  apparent  only  in  stature 
and  its  segments.  Concerning  this  dimension  in  the  male  hybrids, 
no  statements  can  be  made,  for  our  average  is  based  on  but  four 
individuals,  two  of  which  were  as  tall  as  the  Hawaiian  average, 
and  two  of  which  were  shorter  than  the  Chinese  average.  The 
height  of  the  female  hybrids  is  157  cm.  compared  with  162  cm. 
for  pure  Hawaiian  females.  The  height  of  South  Chinese  females 
is  probably  about  150  cm.  (Hagen),  although  three  Chinese  females 


136  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

Tabia  27.    DncBiFTioiiB  of  tbb  NozMaaiBinuBiA  TsAjn  or  im  F| 
Htbbos  Barwnnf  Cbjnesm  Males  amd  Hawaiuk  Fouum 

Hait  o^or Black  26,  Dark  Brown  2 

Hair  foim Straii^t  17,  Sli^tly  wavy  8,  Wavy  6,  Ciixly  1,  Wiiy  \ 

E^  odor Daik  Brown  11,  Brown  16,  li^t  Brown  1 

Eye  fold Present  11  (4  "slight") 

AbsentQ^ 

No  record  8  d*         9 

Skin  color Brooa's  Grade  23    4 

Brocage  Grade  24   -         8 
Broca's  Grade  40    1 
Brooa's  Grade  47    1         2 
von  Lusohan's  Grades  8^15 

c?         9 

Nose  form Root,  depressed      9         12 

straight         5  2 

Bridge,  straight    10  2 

concave      1  8 

convex        1  2 

no  record   2  2 

Beptum,  straii^t    3  6 

up  11  8 

lips Medium  8,  thick  5 

Prognathism  males  .Absent  10,  marked  1 
Brow  ridges  males    Absent  4,  slight  3,  marked  1 
Forehead insufficient  data 

>  In  these  cases  the  angle  of  the  eye  was  observed  (5  oblique,  4  straight)  but  the  presence  er 
absence  of  the  fold  was  not  specifically  noted.  The  absence  of  the  fold  in  these  subjects  is 
probable  but  not  established. 

in  our  series  averaged  153  em.  in  height.  The  hybrids  appear, 
therefore,  to  be  intermediate  between  the  parents  in  stature,  a 
result  which  has  usually  been  observed  in  crosses  between  animals 
and  plants  differing  in  size.  Sitting  height  is  Ukewise  intermediate 
between  the  parental  dimensions,  although  in  both  males  and 
females,  the  relative  length  of  trunk  appears  to  be  closer  to  the 
Chinese  than  to  the  Hawaiian  average.  The  difference  in  the  sit- 
ting height  index  between  Hawaiian  and  hybrid  females  is,  how- 
ever, small  (.70=*=  .36  per  cent)  and  probably  not  statistically 
significant.  An  examination  of  the  range  of  variation  in  this  pro- 
portion in  the  Hawaiians  and  hybrids  shows  that  while  the  individ- 
ual Hawaiian  females  varied  from  50.5  to  56.9  in  this  index,  the 
range  of  the  hybrid  females  extends  from  52.3  to  57.8.    There 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  137 

were  relatively  fewer  short-trunked  individuals  among  the  hybrids. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  this  represents  a  tendency  toward 
dominance  of  the  longer  relative  tnmk  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  more 
probably  accoimted  for  by  the  shorter  stature  of  the  hybrids;  since, 
as  HrdliCka  has  shown,  shorter  individuals  have  usually  a  some- 
what higher  index  of  sitting  height.  The  slight  differences  found 
are  probably  due  to  the  fundamental  differences  in  general  body 
size  between  the  two  parent  races  and  the  hybrids. 

In  acromic  height  and  arm  length  the  hybrids  are  likewise  inter- 
mediate between  the  parent  races,  while  the  relative  length  of  arm 
is  somewhat  less  in  the  hybrid  females  than  in  the  Hawaiian  fe- 
males. This  difference  is  only  twice  as  large  as  its  error;  and,  since 
the  parent  races  were  very  similar  in  this  respect,  it  is  probably 
due  to  sampling. 

In  the  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face  the  differences  between 
the  parent  races  were  not  marked,  although  the  proportions  of  the 
head  were  somewhat  different  in  that  the  head  of  the  Chinese  was 
relatively  longer  than  the  head  of  the  Hawaiians.  This  racial  dif- 
ference in  head  shape  is  statistically  significant. 

The  head  length  of  the  hybrids  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of 
either  parent  race.  The  difference  in  head  length  between  the 
Hawaiian  and  hybrid  females  is  10.43=^1.73  mm.,  while  in  the 
males  the  difference  (2.5  mm.)  although  insignificant,  is  in  the 
same  direction. 

In  breadth  of  head  the  parent  races  did  not  differ  greatly  and  the 
difference  between  the  hybrids  and  Hawaiians  is  less  than  the  dif- 
ference in  length  of  head.  For  the  females,  the  difference  in  head 
breadth  between  the  Hawaiians  and  hybrids  is  5.53=^1.51  mm. 

The  greatest  difference  noted  is  in  head  shape  as  measured  by 
the  cephalic  index.  The  hybrids  appear  to  have  relatively  shorter 
heads  (a  higher  index)  than  either  parent  race.  These  differences 
are  as  follows: 

Table  28.     Difference  in  Cephalic  Index 

Difference 


E  diflference 

Groups  compared 

Males 

Females 

Males         Females 

Fi— Chinese 

5.40=^1.06 

5.1 

Fi— Hawaiian  . . . 

1.06=^   .84 

1.80:*=     .81 

1.3             2.2 

138 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


Lack  of  data  precludes  an  exact  comparison  of  Fi  with  Chinese 
females,  but  we  may  assume  the  difference  to  be  similar  to  that 
which  exists  between  the  males  of  the  two  groups.  The  most 
significant  differences  shown  are  between  the  hybrids  and  the 
Chinese.  The  hybrids  have  relatively  shorter  heads  than  the 
Chinese.  The  diifferences  in  head  shape  between  the  hybrids  and 
Hawaiians  are  not  statistically  significant,  although  in  both  sexes 
the  hybrids  have  relatively  shorter  heads. 

The  distribution  of  head  form  in  the  parent  races  and  hybrids  is 
compared  in  Table  29.  The  chief  differences  between  the  parent 
races  are  the  relatively  larger  proportion  of  doUcho-  and  meso- 
cephalic  individuals  among  the  Chinese  and  the  greater  frequency 
of  brachycephaly  among  the  Hawaiians.  The  hybrids  plainly  re- 
semble the  Hawaiians  in  this  respect. 

Table  29.     Comparison  op  Head  Shape  in  Hawaiians,  Chinese 

AND   THEIR   HYBRIDS   (MaLES   AND   FEMALES   CoMBINED) 


Number 

Per  cent 
dolicho- 
cephalic 

Per  cent 

mceo- 
ceplialic 

Percent 
brachy- 
cephalic 

Hawaiian 

108 
20 
18 

2.1 
15.0 

•   •   •   • 

9.8 
20.0 
11.7 

88.0 

Chinese 

Fi 

65.0 
88.3 

Considered  in  both  of  these  ways  the  evidence  indicates  that  the 
cross  of  the  short  headed  Hawaiians  with  the  slightly  longer  headed 
Chinese  produces  a  distinctly  brachycephalic  average  type.  This 
alone  might  be  interpreted,  as  similar  results  liave  been,  by  assum- 
ing dominance  of  shorter  over  longer  headedncss.  But  there  is 
some  possibility,  which  our  evidence  cannot  make  a  certainty,  that 
the  hybrids  are  actually  shorter  headed  than  the  shorter  headed 
parent.  This  difference,  if  real,  is  probably  due  to  the  smaller 
bodily  dimensions  of  the  hybrids,  which  fail  to  attain  the  full 
height  or  size  of  the  Hawaiian  parents.  There  is  some  evidence 
(22)  that  all  parts  of  the  body  are  influenced  by  general  growth  or 
size  factors,  and  it  is  known  that  within  the  same  racial  group  the 
individuals  of  shorter  stature  have  also  shorter  heads.  Head 
length,  as  Boas  (23  and  24)  has  shown,  is  more  dependent  than  is 
r 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  139 

head  breadth  on  total  stature.  It  may  be  possible  to  interpret  such 
results  as  we  have  observed  in  terms  of  such  general  growth  factors, 
without  referring  the  differences  to  heritable  factors  affecting  shape 
of  the  head.  It  is  improbable  that  the  reaUty  or  inheritance  of 
such  shape  factors  can  be  established  from  evidence  such  as  ours 
on  crosses  involving  differences  in  general  body  size. 

In  the  size  and  shape  of  the  face  the  Chinese  and  Hawaiians  were 
foimd  to  be  very  similar.  The  hybrids  appear  to  have  somewhat 
smaller  faces  than  the  Hawaiians  and  in  the  female  hybrids  the 
face  is  relatively  slightly  lower  and  broader  than  in  the  Hawaiian 
females.  The  differences  in  this  respect  are  not  significant;  and, 
while  the  cross  may  have  altered  somewhat  the  parental  facial 
proportions,  the  results  are  not  conclusive. 

In  the  size  and  shape  of  the  nose  there  were  slight  differences  be- 
tween the  parents,  the  Hawaiian  nose  being  somewhat  larger  and 
broader  than  the  Chinese.  The  nose  of  the  Fi  hybrids  in  both 
sexes  resembles  more  closely  the  Chinese  type  both  in  size  and 
shape.  In  our  sample,  the  hybrids  had  relatively  narrower  noses 
than  the  Chinese,  although  in  view  of  the  variability  of  this  char- 
acter and  the  large  errors  of  our  averages  this  cannot  be  regarded 
as  significant. 

In  general,  few  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the  com- 
parison of  the  quantitative  characters  of  Hawaiians,  Chinese  and 
hybrids.  In  size  the  hybrids  appear  to  be  intermediate,  while  in 
the  proportions  of  the  body  they  are  nearer  to  the  Chinese  type. 
In  head  shape  the  resemblance  is  plainly  toward  the  Hawaiian 
parent,  while  the  face  and  nose  resemble  the  Chinese.  There  is 
some  indication  that  the  hybrids  may  depart  from  the  parental 
description  even  in  traits  in  which  the  parents  do  not  differ,  and 
that  the  relations  of  parts  may  be  altered  by  the  cross  of  parents 
differing  chiefly  in  general  body  size. 

Non-Mensurable  Traits 

• 

Several  differences  exist  between  the  Hawaiians  and  Chinese  in 
non-mensurable  qualitative  traits.  The  appearance  of  the  hybrids 
in  these  respects  is  described  in  Table  27. 

Hair  Form.  The  greatest  difference  foimd  was  in  hair  form,  the 
Hawaiians  having  wavy  or  curly  (rarely  straight)  hair  of  the 
Eiwopean  type,  the  Chinese  without  exception  having  coarse 


140  AN  ASTHaOKMETBlC  STDDT  OP 

■liai^  Ur  of  the  MflDgoloid  ^ype.    Tte  i«Bificuik  foKtore  cr-:: 
the  Ft  genemtioD  is  ihml  tt  is  iM*  imifoRn  in  raqieet  to  — 

Sefcnteoi  or  flizfey  par  eent  of  ilie  Iqrlvidb  hnd  8tn%^  h^   mbSli^s^ 
of  the  ntiMiining  deven  mAvidub,  ten  hnd  m^  or  early 
of  the  Bmwaiian  tjrpe  while  one  had  wiiy  hair.   Hie  genetic 
tiondiip  bet  iroiai  the  stf«%^  Mongoloid  type  of  beg 
European  type  has  not  been  eetaUiBhed,  althoui^  the  evidence  (rf 
Bean  (2S)  and  of  other  dbaerrere  makes  it  appear  probaUe  that 
the  Mongoloid  type  bdbavea  as  a  dominant  trait  in  inheritance. 
Our  evidence  partially  corroborates  this  asBomption  in  that  the 
majority  of  the  hybrids  had  straif^t  hair  of  the  Mongcdoid  type. 
Whether  the  lack  of  unif onnity  of  the  first  goieration  in  respect 
to  hair  form  is  due  to  variaUe  or  incomfdete  dominance  of  Mongo- 
Imd  strai^  over  wavy  and  curly  hair,  or  to  misiiifcHmation  con- 
cerning the  pedigrees  of  the  wavy  and  curiy  haired  Fi  subjects, 
cannot  be  establidied  from  the  present  evidence.   The  sin^e  wiry 
haired  Fi  subject  was  a  female,  whose  other  physical  characteris- 
tics did  not  depart  widely  from  the  means  of  the  Fi  generation. 
This  exceptional  hair  form  may  have  heeai  due  to  artificial  defor- 
mation or  to  otherwise  unexpressed  negro  blood  in  the  ancestry. 

Bpicanthic  Fold.  The  Hawaiians  and  Chinese  were  found  to 
differ  sharply  in  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  fold  of  the  upper 
eyelid,  known  as  the  Mongolian  or  epicanthic  fold.  This  fold  was 
observed  to  be  present  in  eleven  of  the  Fi  hybrids.  Of  the  remain- 
ing seventeen,  eight  were  not  obsen'ed  for  this  trait,  while  in  nine 
the  entries  on  the  schedule  indicate  that  the  eye  was  examined  but 
do  not  reveal  whether  the  fold  was  present  or  absent.  It  was  prob- 
ably absent  or  slight,  and  was  hence  not  recorded.  The  presence 
of  the  fold  is  certainly  established  in  a  majority  of  the  Fi  hj^brids, 
and  it  is  therefore  inherited  as  a  dominant  trait. 

Nose  Form.  In  nose  form  the  hybrids  apparently  resemble  the 
Chinese  more  than  the  Hawaiians.  The  root  is  more  frequently 
depressed,  as  in  the  Chinese,  than  straight,  as  in  the  Hawaiians; 
although  both  types  of  root  are  found,  even  among  pure  Hawaiians. 
The  bridge  of  the  nose  in  typically  straight  in  the  male  hybrids, 
and  concave  in  females  as  in  both  parent  races.  The  septiun  of  the 
hybrids  is  generally  directed  upwards,  which  is  the  typical  de- 
scription of  the  Chinese  nose,  whereas  in  Hawaiians  the  septum  is 
usually  straight  or  horizontal. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  141 

The  lips  of  the  hybrids  are  probably  intermediate  in  thickness 
between  the  Hawaiian  and  Chinese  types,  although  both  parent 
races  have  Ups  which  vary  about  a  medium  thickness.  In  other 
traits  the  differences  between  parents  and  hybrids  are  imimportant. 

General  Character  of  the  First  Hybrid  Generation 

1.  Homogeneity.  The  results  of  crossing  animals  and  plants 
differing  in  quantitative  characters  have  shown  that  in  general  the 
offspring  of  a  cross  between  two  pure  (inbred)  types  are  no  more 
variable  in  respect  to  a  given  character  than  the  more  variable  of 
the  parent  types.  The  homogeneity  of  the  Fi  generation  may  under 
certain  conditions  be  used  as  an  indication  of  the  relative  purity 
of  the  parental  types.  In  the  present  case,  paucity  of  numbers 
precludes  an  exact  comparison  of  the  variability  of  Fi  and  parental 
types,  but  the  range  and  dispersion  measures  of  the  mensurable 
traits  of  the  first  generation  compare  favorably  with  those  of  the 
pure  Chinese.  In  a  few  traits  (e.g.  hair  form)  the  Fi  generation  is 
more  variable  than  should  be  expected  if  the  race  containing  the 
assumed  dominant  trait  (Chinese)  were  entirely  pure.  This,  and 
a  certain  part  of  the  variability  of  other  traits  in  the  first  genera- 
tion, may  perhaps  be  due  to  some  misinformation  concerning  pedi- 
grees and  the  inclusion  in  the  Fi  generation  of  a  few  subjects  of 
later  generations  in  which  segregation  is  taking  place,  resulting  in 
increased  variability. 

2.  Resemblances  to  Parents.  In  general  the  Fi  generation  is 
intermediate  in  character  between  the  parent  races.  Such  a  result 
is  usual  in  crosses  between  types  differing  in  quantitative  traits 
such  as  size.  Wherever  the  hybrids  resemble  one  parent  more 
than  the  other,  the  resemblance  more  often  appears  to  be  toward 
the  Chinese  type,  as  in  relative  trunk  length,  hair  form,  and  facial 
features  (eye,  nose,  etc.).  In  one  trait,  i.e.  head  form,  the  hybrids 
while  nearer  to  the  Hawaiian  type  depart  to  some  extent  from  both 
parental  averages.  This  may  be  due  to  a  combination  of  factors 
from  both  parents,  producing  a  new  or  a  phylogenetically  older 
character,  a  result  not  without  parallel  in  experimental  animal 
breeding  (recombinations,  reversions,  etc.). 


142 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


The  Backcross  Generations 

Critical  data  on  the  inheritance  of  the  traits  which  differentiate 
races  can  only  be  obtained  when  some  description  of  the  behavior 
of  these  traits  in  the  germ  cells  of  the  hybrids  is  available.  In  the 
present  case,  we  have  very  little  data  on  the  results  of  matings 
between  two  Fi  hybrids.  We  have  more  data  on  the  results  of 
matings  between  Fi  hybrids  and  one  of  the  piure  parent  races. 
The  most  frequent  mating  of  this  kind  is  between  Fi  hybrids  and 
pure  Hawaiians.  The  raw  data  on  the  progeny  of  such  matings 
are  given  in  Appendix  Table  III.  Sunmiaries  of  the  averages  of 
mensurable  traits  are  given  in  Table  30,  and  of  descriptive  traits 
in  Table  31. 

Progeny  from  Matings  of  Fi  wrra  Hawaiians 

The  total  number  of  subjects  of  this  generation  observed  was 
twenty-eight.  Of  these  only  nine  were  mature,  three  males  and  six 
females.    The  averages  of  the  mensurable  traits  are,  therefore,  of 

Table  30.    Averages  of  the  Mensurable  Characters  of  the 
Progexy  of  Matings  of  Fi  Hybrids  with  Pure  Hawahans 

(Backcross  Generation) 


Xuinlx'r  of  siihjfcts  .  .  . 

vStaturo,  cm 

Sitting  ln.'i^ht,  cm 

Sitting  hcii^ht  index.    '; 
Hoight  of  acromion,  cm. 

Arm  lenj^th,  cm 

Index  of  arm  length,   ^ 

Head  length,  mm 

Head  l)readth,  mm 

Cephalic  index,   Vt  .... 
Bizygomatic  diam.,  mm. 
Nasion-menton  height, 

mm 

Facial  index,   \[ 

Nasal  height,  mm 

Nasal  breadth,  mm.  .  . . 
Nasal  index,   ^^ 


Males 


Average 


3 

lt)7.0 
S.').<) 
51.2 

VM\.b 
7G.0 
45.  .S 

18r,.3 

152.3 
SI. 7 

147.7 

122.0 
82.() 
53.0 
44.0 
83.0 


Range 


3 

1()3-173 
85.3-8t).0 
4<).3-53.1 

133-141 
74.2-77.8 
45.0-45.0 

178-11)5 

147-103 
75.3-91.6 

142-154 

110-120 

/0..5-8/.3 

52-55 

43-40 

78.2-88.4 


Females 


Average 


158.18=^1.43 
84.77=^:0.58 
53.00=^:0.19 

128.33=^1.31 
70. 18  ±1.05 
44.37:^0.29 

171.()7±2.21 

143.33^1.01 
83.49:^:0.93 

133.83=^1.00 

109.50=^1.15 
81.82=^1.24 
48.00:^0.94 
40.00=^0.35 
83.03=^1.17 


Range 


6 

153-107 
83.0-88.9 
52.5-54.6 

122-137 
07.0-78.1 
43.5-46.6 

159-183 

13^151 
70.5-86.3 

126-143 

103-116 

76.2-89.2 

42-52 

38-42 

78.4-90.5 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  143 

Table  31.    Descriptions  of  the  Non-mensurable  Traits  of  the 
Proqent  of  Matings  of  Fi  Hybrids  with  Pure  Hawaiians 

Hair  color Black  24,  Dark  Brown  3,  Red  Brown  1 

Hair  form Straight  9,  Wavy  11,  Ciirly  7,  Kinky  1 

Eye  color Brown  12,  Dark  brown  14,  Light  Brown  2 

Eye  fold Present  14  (4  "sUght") 

Absent  12  (presence  or  absence  of  fold  not  established; 
10  straight,  2  oblique) 

No  record  2 

^  9 

Skin  color Broca's  Grade  23    1  6 

Broca's  Grade  24    -  3 
Broca's  Grade  29    1 

Broca's  Grade  40    1  3 

Broca's  Grade  46    1  - 

Broca's  Grade  47    -  1 

&  9 

Nose  form Root,  depressed      9  8 

straight         3  6 

Bridge,  straight      6  6 

concave      2  8 

convex        1  - 

no  record    3  - 

Septum,  straight     3  4 

up  9  9 

no  record  -  1 

Lips TTiick  19,  medium  4 

Prognathism Absent  11,  slight  3 

Brow  ridges Absent  9,  slight  1 

little  value.  As  far  as  the  meager  data  go  they  indicate  a  greater 
resemblance  between  this  generation  and  the  pure  Hawaiians  than 
between  the  Fi  and  the  Hawaiians,  although  in  general  size  these 
subjects,  who  are  three-fourths  Hawaiian,  are  still  intermediate 
between  the  Chinese  and  Hawaiians.  The  head  form  of  the  sub- 
jects in  this  generation  is  likewise  intermediate  between  the  head 
form  of  the  parent  races,  indicating  that  the  increase  in  the  cephalic 
index  noted  in  Fi  was  probably  due  to  combinations  of  factors 
which  take  place  principally  in  the  Fi  generation.  Nose  form  in 
this  generation  also  shows  a  return  to  the  broader  Hawaiian  type. 
The  description  of  the  non-mensurable  traits  of  this  generation, 
although  based  on  twenty-eight  subjects,  provides  but  little  data 
on  the  inheritance  of  separate  traits.    The  principal  non-mensu- 


9B0CIBBDBB  Ml  wV  sQB^BK  flBB  WV^HSHDw  IjypBi  01 

to 

off  ike  conse  Mongoloid  tjpe  or 
oTlbe 

Hiatopmiik  of 
eridnoe  that  ike  MoBfoloid  npe 
vlncli  aiv  tiijee  qoirtcn  Bminiui.  Better  eiidenee  on  Ike 
gBtion  of  these  hair  tjpee  k  found  m  one  £uni|T  off  ^dnck  botk 
pORDtff  ood  €%fat  children  were  ofaserped.  The  mother  in  tiuB 
WM  a  etni|^  haired  Fi:  the  fstker  nne  n  cnriv-haired  Hat 
or  the  eight  children,  five  had  cmlT  (one '^  ahncni  kinlgr 'O  iudr, 
while  three  had  stiaight  hair.  The  abspfioe  off  the  intennediate 
hair  form  —  wavy  —  in  this  famihr  strengthens  the  supposition 
that  thes^  difF^rence^  in  hair  form  depend  on  Mendelian  factors 
which  segregate  cleanly. 

The  ratio  of  wa^y  to  straight  haired  subjects  in  this  generation 
ha£  little  significance,  since  in  noost  cases  the  hair  form  of  the  in- 
dividual Fi  parents  is  not  known :  and  we  ha^"e  already  shown  that 
the  Fi  generation  was  not  uniform  in  hair  t>"pe.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  frequency  of  straight  hair  is  higher  in  the  back- 
cross  generation  than  in  the  pure  Hawaiians,  and  this  may  be  as* 
sumed  to  be  due  to  dominant  factors  for  straight  hair  introduced 
by  the  Chinese  grandparents.  In  the  single  famUy  obsen^ed,  the 
ratio  of  curl^'  to  straight  haired  children  is  close  to  that  expected 
on  the  assumption  that  one  dominant  factor  differentiates  curl^^- 
from  straight. 

Eye  fold.  Our  records  show  that  the  eye  fold  appears  in  half  of 
the  subjects  of  the  backcross  generation.    The  occurrence  of  this 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  145 

typically"  Chinese  trait  in  individuals  which  have  only  one-fourth 
Chinese  blood  is  very  good  evidence  that  the  epicanthic  fold  de- 
pends on  dominant  factors,  and  confirms  a  similar  conclusion  drawn 
from  the  data  on  the  Fi  generation.  This  trait  apparently,  in  some 
cases,  segregates  from  the  hybrid  in  its  original  form,  while  in  a 
few  cases  it  is  recorded  as  **  sUght ''  in  the  backcross  subjects,  so 
that  its  expression  may  be  altered  by  other  factors.  Evidence  that 
the  alternative  trait  (absence  of  the  fold)  segregates  as  a  recessive 
is  found  in  the  family  of  eight  children  (Nos.  6-15)  descended  from 
the  mating  of  an  Fi  female  by  pure  Hawaiian  male.  In  this  case 
both  parents  lacked  the  fold  and  it  does  not  appear  in  any  of  the 
children. 

The  numerical  ratio  in  which  the  eye  fold  segregates  appears  on 
casual  inspection  to  be  the  ratio  expected  if  it  depended  on  a  single 
dominant  factor.  Thus  it  appeared  in  fourteen  of  the  backcross 
subjects  and  was  not  noted  in  fourteen  (absence  of  notation  prob- 
ably indicates  absence  of  the  trait,  since  it  is  a  prominent  feature 
when- present).  This  coincides  exactly  with  the  ratio  expected 
when  individuals  heterozygous  in  a  single  factor  are  crossed  to  the 
recessive  form.  We  know,  however,  that  the  data  are  not  sufficient 
to  establish  such  a  conclusion,  since  (1)  the  character  is  not  ex 
pressed  in  all  pure  Chinese,  (2)  the  Fi  generation  is  not  uniform, 
(3)  the  number  of  observations  of  backcross  individuals  is  small. 
We  are  content  to  establish  the  dominance  and  segregation  of  this 
trait  and  to  point  to  it  as  offering  a  favorable  opportunity  for 
making  a  factorial  analysis  of  a  typically  "  racial ''  trait. 

The  other  descriptive  traits  are  too  variable,  the  differences 
between  the  parents  too  poorly  defined  and  the  data  too  meager 
to  justify  conclusions. 

Other  Hawaiian-Chinese  Mixtures 

The  remaining  subjects  observed  by  us  fall  into  groups  which  are 
too  small  for  quantitative  treatment.  The  F2  generation  consists 
in  our  data  of  but  six  subjects,  all  females,  of  which  only  three  are 
mature.  The  measurements  and  observations  of  these  subjects 
are  given  in  Appendix  Table  III.  Inspection  of  these  data  and 
comparison  with  the  observations  of  the  pure  races  and  other 
hybrids  indicate  the  presence  of  Chinese  traits  —  presence  of 
Mongolian  fold,  straight  hair,  etc.  —  in  combination  with  some 


146  AX  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

tzmiis  mere  ciimneziftic  of  the  Hawaiians  —  tall  stature  (subject 
Xo.  160  ,  bndijrepfaihr  "Xo.  250}.    Xo  satisfactoiy  estiinate  of 
the  TarnbOhy  cr  rerambcDatioiis  of  qaanthathne  traits  can  be 
maoe  from  ibe  few  descnptioDS  at  hazkd. 

Tbe  ceoerataoei  aziszji:  ntm  the  backcross  of  Fi  by  Chinese  coa^ 
si<t5  of  ra\>  males  azhi  three  females  including  one  mature  indi-- 
ridual.   On  acocmnt  of  the  paucity  of  numbers  and  inunaturity  of 
the  subjects  they  caimot  he  compared  with  the  parent  races  ii 
respect  to  quantitative  traits.  In  three  of  them  the  Mongolian  fol< 
was  present,  while  in  one  it  was  absent  and  in  one  the  trait  was  nof^ 
recorded.    In  spite  of  the  fact  that  each  subject  had  one  pure^^ 
Chinese  parent,  two  of  them  were  found  not  to  have  the  strai^t 
coarse  hair  which  is  typical  of  tbe  Chinese  and  which  we  found  was 
probably  inherited  as  a  dominant.    The  curiy-haired  subjects  in 
this  generation,  like  those  in  the  first  hybrid  generation,  may  have 
risen  from  a  cross  other  than  that  specified  on  their  schedules,  or 
their  presence  may  indicate  incc«nple:e  dominance  of  strai^t  over 
curly  hair.    Except  for  dominant  Hawaiian  traits  and  a  somewhat 
gn^ater  ^-ariabLlity,  this  generation  should  lesemble  the  first  hybrid 
generation,  and  such  in  general  is  the  case. 

The  measurements  of  eight  other  subjects  recorded  on  the 
sohcviules  as  ••  part  Chinese  "  are  given  in  Appendix  Table  HI 
under  the  heading  "  Other  Hawaiian-Chinese  Mixtures."  These 
are  noarlv  all  immature  subjects  whose  schedules  indicate  the 
pr\^M^iu*e  of  rx'th  nriwriiiai:  ani  Ch:r.o>e  ar.cvsTors  in  their  pedi- 
crws.  The  doirro'?  »:•:  i!::x:;:re  i<  v.r-kr.o\\Ti.  Thev  form  a  rather 
vnriablo  irroiip  in  which  :v:h  Chinese  and  Hawaiian  traits  appear. 
The  ovivlenee<  vf  r'hir.e-e  :\  :!iiix:u!>'  arx^  unmistakable  since  the 
Mv^iisjolian  eye-ioM  app- ars  in  ever>-  suhjeet  of  the  group.  In  two 
OiiM^s  this  is  coinbin^M  with  wavy  hair  inniicating  that  these  sub- 
Kvis  an^  prol^ably  the  ortsprini:  of  F:  parents  or  parents  of  later 
^ei'.evaiions.  Several  an-  taller  than  pure  Chinese,  while  the  dis- 
ti  ibution  oi  head  shapes  i-  similar  to  that  found  among  Hawaiians. 

Discussion.  The  brief  descriptions  of  the  parent  races  involved 
ill  the  v*ivsses  descrirxd.  and  tlie  appearance  of  the  hybrids  pro- 
di:v\\l»  make  it  evident  that  the  chief  ditTerences  which  distinguish 
iho  Ua^^aiiaus  and  Chinese  are  due  to  heritable  factors  which 
iimte  temporarily  and  later  separate  and  reapjx^ar  in  various  com- 
^inatioiu^.    IVminance  is  in  general  absent,  as  has  Ixx^n  found  gen- 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  147 

erally  to  be  the  case  with  quantitative  traits.  Where  one  racial 
trait  appears  to  exclude  or  nearly  to  exclude  its  alternative,  the 
more  dominant  trait  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Chinese 
parent.  The  evidences  of  Chinese  blood  in  the  hybrids  are  through- 
out more  easily  and  certainly  distinguishable  than  the  Hawaiian 
traits.  Segregation  of  several  distinctly  racial  traits  unquestion- 
ably occurs  as  well  as  a  degree  of  independent  recombination  of 
separate  traits,  so  that  while  many  Hawaiian-Chinese  hybrids  ap- 
pear to  represent  "  blends  "  of  the  parental  race  traits,  many  are 
more  accurately  described  as  "mosaics,"  showing  traits  of  both 
races  in  almost  typical  form. 

In  contrast  to  the  few  differences  which  were  noted  between  these 
races,  are  the  many  resemblances.  Many  such  resemblances  may 
be  merely  fortuitous  and  due  to  the  similar  expression  of  different 
hereditary  factors.  But  if  such  were  the  case  here  we  should  ex- 
pect to  find  in  the  hybrids  many  new  or  reversionary  traits.  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  head  shape,  such  traits  if  present  in  the  hybrids 
were  not  prominent  enough  to  be  noted  and  we  may  infer  a  fairly 
close  genetic  aflBnity  between  the  Hawaiians  and  Chinese. 

Both  races  were  very  variable  in  most  of  their  characters,  al- 
though not  more  so  than  the  average  "  pure  "  race.  The  hybrids 
also  were  quite  variable,  and  there  is  no  question  that  the  vari- 
ability of  the  generations  subsequent  to  the  Fi  has  been  increased 
by  the  cross.  However,  this  variability  is  thought  not  to  exceed 
that  of  the  parent  types  by  an  amount  sufficient  to  indicate  that 
the  parent  races  differ  in  an  extremely  large  number  of  genetic 
factors.  It  is  easy  to  overemphasize  the  differences  in  physical 
featiwes,  because  of  the  relative  prominence  of  one  or  a  few  traits. 
.  For  example,  the  Mongolian  fold  and  the  shape  of  the  eye  give  a 
Mongolian  cast  to  the  face  of  many  individuals  of  quite  diverse 
origins.  Yet  the  really  important  distinction  to  be  made  between 
races  is  the  nmnber,  rather  than  the  magnitude  of  the  expression, 
of  the  inherited  factors  in  which  they  differ.  And  we  have  seen  that 
such  a  prominent  trait  as  the  eye-fold  probably  depends  on  rela- 
tively few  hereditary  differences;  while  it  is  evident  that  a  slight 
difference  in  some  quantitative  trait  such  as  stature  or  head  shape 
may  involve  a  large  number  of  factor  differences. 

Our  data  are  probably  not  adequate  to  establish  the  presence 
or  absence  of  heterosis  or  hybrid  vigor,  a  phenomenon  which  fre- 


MB  ix  isiTHaarmKEnac  ETum  or 


Otiif  jw  of  the  muhiiig  liylMJgb.  Tk  iB|veBim  ^ined  fagr  the  ob* 
acrver  m  that  the  IqrIxidB  ariong  &«n  the  cnw  of  Hnafiuv 
and  the  ChiiKae  wen  nomal  peraona,  l■o^i^■^^^y  ^— ■'■■■"■g  the 

moR  vahiable  pcnonal  cfaanMteistim  of  bodi  iHUcat  I^M^  Ber- 
aoBB  of  thb  deaeent  are  wppmnnldj  uoi  handiranicdy  ctther  pbiyv- 
ieaQror  mentally,  in  coBD|iariBon  with  cither  pareni  ^]Fpe. 

HHITE  BACES  AND  limTB-HAWAHAX  HnOODS 

Tarn  white  races  hnve  been  ii'iaeacnledin  thepopiJationof  HnwaS, 
in  gieatcr  or  ksB  nmnbcESy  for  abont  a  ccuUuj  and  n  half.  Ik  la 
probable  that  noe  mixture  inrohring  EnrapeanB  and  Havaiinna 
has  been  taking  place  to  aonie  extent  dminKandiiB  time.  Ennipena 
immigraticm  into  Hawaii  did  not  attain  any  eanskkrafaie  propor- 
tions, however,  until  about  fifty  years  ago.  when  deliberate  at- 
tempts to  cdonize  the  islands  with  European  laborers  were  begim. 
s  movement  began  with  the  transportation  of  P<»iugoc9e  laboF- 

s  from  Madeira  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  in  ISTS,  fdlowed  by 
a  ccmsiderable  immigration  from  these  Portuguese  possessions,  and 
later  by  the  transportation  of  laborers  fran  Porto  Rico,  beginning 
in*1900.  At  the  same  time  a  steady  but  numerically  less  important 
immigration  of  North  Europeans  and  Americans  began.  It  is  thus 
only  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  race  mix- 
ture between  Europeans  and  Hawaiians  has  taken  place  in  any 
inipcwtant  degree. 

In  1919«  it  was  estimated  that  Europeans  constituted  about  23 
per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  islands.  This  fraction  consisted  of 
aKwt  12  per  cent  of  North  European  peoples,  British,  Scandina- 
vians Gennans,  Americans  etc.,  over  9  per  cent  of  Portuguese, 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  149 

chiefly  from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  frequently  showing  evi- 
dence of  negro  admixture,  and  about  2  per  cent  of  Porto  Bicans, 
largely  Spanish  in  origin.  However,  the  numerical  proportion  of 
these  various  kinds  of  Europeans  does  not  represent  the  relative 
contribution  of  the  white  races  to  the  racial  mixtures  which  are 
taking  place  in  Hawaii,  for  it  has  been  found  that  the  frequency  of 
matings  between  Europeans  and  Hawaiians  is  quite  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  relative  size  of  the  European  population.  Thus,  of  all 
hybrids  between  Hawaiians  and  members  of  other  races  which  were 
observed  for  the  purposes  of  this  study,  57  per  cent  involved  a  mem- 
ber of  one  of  the  European  races.  From  McCaughey's  (1)  study  of 
the  frequency  of  mixed  marriages  in  Hawaii  and  from  Hoffman's 
(3)  analysis  of  the  vital  statistics  of  Honolulu,  it  may  be  concluded 
that  at  least  half  of  the  racial  crosses  in  which  the  Hawaiians  have 
participated,  have  been  with  members  of  the  white  races.  This 
means  that  numerically  the  Hawaiian-white  mixture  is  at  present 
the  most  important  one  in  Hawaii. 

As  biological  material,  the  Hawaiian-European  mixture,  al- 
though of  great  social  importance,  is  not  as  suitable  for  study  as  the 
Hawaiian-Chinese  cross.  The  European  parent  types  are  not  homo- 
geneous, but  extremely  variable,  including,  as  is  shown  below, 
such  mixed  or  racially  composite  types  as  "Americans"  and  north 
and  south  Europeans,  which  in  their  progress  toward  Hawaii  have 
frequently  mingled  their  blood  with  that  of  American  Indian,  negro 
and  other  peoples.  A  second  disadvantage  for  the  student  of  race 
mixture  is  that  the  differences  between  Europeans  and  Hawaiians 
are  not  so  clearly  marked  as  those  which  distinguish  Chinese  and 
Hawaiians,  and  it  is  therefore  more  difficult  to  follow  these  differ- 
ences in  inheritance.  A  somewhat  greater  amount  of  data  are  avail- 
able for  this  cross  and  some  fairly  constant  differences  have  ap- 
peared, so  that  while  general  conclusions  cannot  be  drawn,  the  de- 
scription of  the  Hawaiian-European  hybrids  is  not  without  interest. 

European  Parent  Types 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  give  an  exact  description  of  the 
characters  of  the  white  parent  type  such  as  we  attempted  for  the 
Chinese  parent  type.  Two  quite  different  European  types  are  re- 
presented, each  of  which  is  itself  heterogeneous.  The  North  Euro- 
pean groups  consist  chiefly  of  the  racially  composite  British  and 


150  AN  ANTHROPO^^ETRIC  STUDY  OF 

white  Americans  with  many  Scandinavians,  and  Germans.   The 
South  European  groups  are  chiefly  Portuguese  or  Spanish  in  ori^t 
but  had  been  brought  to  Hawaii  from  colonized  islands  in  which 
considerable  mixture  with  negro  and  native  types  had  aheady  taken 
place.    In  our  anal^'sis  we  have  been  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
hybrids  from  the  North  European  groups,  and  have  dealt  separ— 
atelv  in  all  cases  with  the  descendants  of  North  and  of  South  Euro — 
pean  types.   It  is  impractical,  from  the  data  at  hand,  to  make  any" 
further  subdi\Tsions  of  the  white  parent  stocks.   It  must  therefore 
be  realized  at  the  outset  that  the  white  parents  of  the  HawaiiaiB^ 
h\'brids  are  a  complex  racial  group,  even  when  restricted  to  a  North- 
European  origin. 

We  shaU  then  foUow  the  rule  of  describing  each  Hawaiian-white 
hybrid  group  (Fi,  F;  and  backcrosses),  and  of  comparing  the  char- 
acters found  with  those  of  the  pure  Hawaiians  as  described  in  Part 
I,  and  vnih  the  probable  condition  of  each  trait  in  the  average 
North  European,  a  procedure  which  ob\'ioush'  can  lead  to  only  ap- 
proximate statements.  For  comparative  European  material  we 
have  drawn  chiefly  from  the  measuremepts  of  Davenport  (26)  on 
soldiers  of  kno^m  race  in  the  U.  S.  Army  1917-19,  those  of  Goring 
(27)  on  English  prisoners,  and  the  racial  means  as  collated  by 
Martin  (13).  These  references  have  been  used  in  forming  an  esti- 
mate of  an  average  North  European  typQ.  The  best  comparative 
data  from  a  mixed  Polynesian- white  group  are  those  of  Shapiro 
(2>n)  on  the  inhal>itaiits  of  Norfolk  Island,  which  are  knoNMi  to  be 
the  descendants,  through  inbreeding,  of  hybrids  between  Tabitians 
and  English. 

The  number  of  subjects  of  mixed  Hawaiian  and  white  parentage 
is  larger  than  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese-Hawaiians.  We  have  ob- 
servations on  a  total  of  147  hybrids  involving  Hawaiian  and  white 
European  ancestry,  distributed  as  follows:  Fi  —  36;  Fo  —  30;  back- 
crosses  60;  other  mixtures  21.  In  about  25  of  these,  the  white  as- 
cendant was  Portuguese  or  Spanish,  in  the  remaining  cases  the 
white  ascendant  was  from  North  Europe  or  America. 

In  comparing  these  hybrids  with  the  parent  types  we  have  classi- 
fied all  subjects  into  adult  and  innnature  groups,  and  treated  the 
sexes  separately  as  in  Part  I,  while,  in  addition,  the  descendants  of 
North  Europeans  have  been  separated  from  the  descendants  of 
South  Europeans.    This  has  resulted  in  many  small  distributions. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  151 

The  means  and  variation  constants  of  these  small  series  have  been 
calculated  from  the  ungrouped  frequencies.  The  constants  for  in- 
dices or  proportions  have  been  calculated  from  their  arrays,  since  it 
is  impossible  to  use  a  method  involving  a  knowledge  of  correlation 
for  such  small  series.  This  produces  a  slightly  higher  average  value 
than  the  method  used  in  Part  I  (97). 

Comparison  of  Hawaiians  and  Whites 

At  the  outset  we  are  faced  with  the  question:  In  what  specific 
traits  do  the  Hawaiians  differ  from  the  races  of  Europe?  In  gross 
appearance  the  Hawaiian  is  readily  distinguishable  from  the  aver- 
age European.  The  darker  skin,  hair  and  eyes  of  the  Hawaiian,  his 
broader  nose,  slightly  thicker  lips,  large  square  face,  and  brachyce- 
phaUc  head  distinguish  him  at  once  from  the  blonde  Nordic  type  of 
northern  Europe,  while  his  greater  stature,  his  head-form,  bodily 
dimensions,  corpulence,  and  heavy  face  set  him  apart  from  those 
Southern  European  types  from  which  he  differs  less  markedly  in 
pigmentation. 

When  one  attempts  to  specify  the  chief  differences  between  the 
Hawaiian  and  the  European,  one  finds  that  the  most  noticeable  and 
constant  differences,  apart  from  skin  color,  relate  to  the  general 
build  or  fullness  of  the  body,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  face  as  a 
whole  and  of  the  nose  in  particular.  The  Hawaiians  are  stouter 
than  the  Europeans,  that  is,  they  carry  more  flesh  in  proportion  to 
their  height.  The  face  of  the  Hawaiian  is  square,  fleshy  and  mas- 
sive, while  the  typical  North  European  face  is  oval  and  slighter.  A 
comparison  of  the  actual  facial  measurements  of  the  two  races 
shows  that  the  Hawaiians  only  slightly  exceed  such  a  representative 
European  type  as  the  English  in  facial  breadth  and  height.  The 
measurements  available  describe  only  the  shape  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  face  whereas  it  is  the  greater  size  of  the  lower  face  and  the 
greater  amount  of  flesh  which  distinguish  the  Hawaiians.  The 
difference  in  nose  form  is  of  a  similar  sort,  although  less  constant, 
the  Hawaiians  having  in  general  larger  and  broader  noses  than  the 
Europeans.  The  nose  of  the  North  European  has  a  higher,  narrower 
root  than  is  found  among  the  Hawaiians. 

In  head  form,  the  greatest  difference  is  in  absolute  length  of  head, 
in  which  the  North  Europeans  greatly  exceed  the  Hawaiians.  Head 
breadth  is  not  greatly  different  in  the  two  races,  the  Hawaiians 


152  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

having  only  slightly  broader  heads.  In  average  head  shape  the  dif- 
ference is  well  marked,  the  North  European  having  generally  a 
dolicho-  or  mesocephalic  head,  while  the  Hawaiians  are  predomi- 
nantly brachycephalic.  Throughout,  the  chief  differences  between 
Hawaiians  and  Europeans  appear  to  be  those  of  degree  rather  than 
of  kind,  and  are  in  general  less  marked  than  those  which  differenti- 
ate Hawaiians  and  Chinese. 

First  Hybrid  (Fi)  Generation  from  Hawaiian  X  Whtte 

We  have  observations  of  36  subjects  whose  ancestry  is  given  as: 
mother  Hawaiian,  father  white  (German,  American  etc.).  In  all 
except  one  case  the  non-Hawaiian  parent  was  the  father.  This 
agrees  with  other  data  from  marriage  statistics  which  show  that 
most  persons  of  mixed  blood  in  Hawaii  originate  in  matings  of 
Hawaiian  women  with  men  of  other  races.  Of  these  Fi  subjects,  21 
are  adults  (14  males  and  7  females).  Again  subdividing  on  the 
basis  of  racial  origin  of  the  white  parent,  we  find  10  adult  male  and 
6  adult  female  offspring  of  North  European  X  Hawaiian.  The  de- 
scription of  the  mensurable  physical  traits  of  the  hybrids  is  based  on 
the  average  of  the  measurements  taken  on  these  16  subjects.  The 
hybrids  resulting  from  crosses  of  Hawaiians  with  South  Europeans 
(Portuguese  and  Spanish)  are  fewer  in  number,  comprising  only  4 
adult  males  and  4  inmiature  subjects.  Descriptions  of  the  non- 
mensurable  traits  rest  on  observations  of  26  Hawaiian-North  Euro- 
pean hybrids  of  all  ages  and  of  8  Hawaiian-South  European  hy- 
brids. 

The  most  reliable  information  on  the  characters  of  the  hybrids  is 
to  be  obtained  from  the  adult  males  of  the  Hawaiian-North  Euro- 
pean crosses.  The  nativities  of  the  fathers  of  this  group  are  Ameri- 
can 3,  German  2,  Scotch  3,  Canadian  1,  unspecified  North  Euro- 
pean 1.  The  averages  and  variation  constants  of  the  chief  measure- 
ments of  these  subjects  are  given  in  Table  32.  These  averages  are 
to  be  compared  with  the  corresponding  averages  for  adult  male 
Hawaiians  (Table  22,  p.  125),  and  with  a  general  average  for  the 
trait  in  North  European  peoples.  The  latter  can  be  obtained  only 
by  estimation  and  has  relatively  little  value. 

Body  Size.  In  stature  it  is  probable  that  the  North  European 
parents,  if  they  are  a  random  sample  of  the  North  European  type, 
average  slightly  taller  (about  172  cm.)  than  the  pure  Hawaiians 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  153 

(171.3  cm.).  The  North  European  hybrids  average  173.5  cm.,  and, 
although  the  probable  error  of  the  average  is  so  large  that  it  cannot 
be  estabUshed  as  significantly  different  from  either  the  Hawaiian  or 
European  average,  it  is  probable  that  the  hybrids  are  slightly  taller 
than  the  Hawaiians.  The  Tahitian-white  hybrids  of  Norfolk  Island 
also  appear  to  be  taller  than  the  Polynesian  parent  type.  These 
hybrids  have  the  high  average  stature  of  174  cm.,  whereas  the  Eng- 
lish parents  probably  averaged  not  more  than  172  cm.  and  the 
Tahitian  parents  about  171.  Other  length  dimensions  of  the  body 
(acromial  height,  sitting  height,  arm  length),  are  likewise  slightly 
greater  in  the  hybrids  than  in  the  Hawaiians  and  are  probably  in- 
termediate in  size  between  the  parent  types.  In  the  proportions  of 
the  body  there  is  very  little  difference  between  the  Hawaiians, 
North  Europeans  and  hybrids.  In  the  index  of  sitting  height,  for 
example,  the  probable  European  value  is  about  52.4  per  cent, 
Hawaiian  52.6,  hybrid  52.3. 

There  exists,  however,  one  unquestionable  difference  in  body 
build  between  the  European  and  Hawaiian  peoples.  This  is  the 
difference  in  body  weight,  and  especially  in  relative  corpulence  as 
measured  by  the  ratio  of  height  to  weight.  The  Hawaiians  are 
heavy  (average  weight  170  pounds  for  males)  and  have  a  very 

high  height-weight  index,  i.  e.  /  =  \_\  ^  ^fs  J  =  1-53.  The  aver- 
age weight  of  North  Europeans  is  much  less,  probably  about  150 
pounds  (the  average  weight  of  white  drafted  soldiers  in  the  U.  S. 
Army  1917  was  144  pounds)  while  they  are  less  corpulent,  with  an 
average  height-weight  index  of  about  1.30  —  1.35.  The  hybrids  of 
our  sample  exceed  both  parent  races  both  in  weight  (male  average 
194  pounds)  and  in  the  height-weight  index  (1.68).  The  Norfolk 
Island  hybrids  are  also  characterized  by  a  relatively  great  weight 
(169  pounds).  The  weights  of  both  the  Hawaiian  and  Norfolk  sub- 
jects include  clothes  and  are  probably  accurate  only  to  within  5  or 
10  pounds,  yet  both  sets  of  data  indicate  large  size  as  a  characteris- 
tic of  the  Polynesian-white  nuxtures.  Before  concluding  that  such 
corpulence  as  characterizes  the  Hawaiians  is  a  heritable,  dominant 
trait  in  racial  crosses  we  must  consider  (1)  that  our  sample  of  hy- 
brids is  very  small  and  may  not  be  representative  of  the  average  Fi 
type;  (2)  that  body  build  is  undoubtedly  conditioned  in  part  by 
environmental  factors  such  as  nutrition,  occupation,  and  the  rela- 


IM  AS  ANTHBOFOlfEIBIC  STDDT  OF 

lin  um  nr  ililBniltj  rf  pittine  ■  Hirim.  ind  thit  thn  nrnimlminr  rf 
Vitk  thr  hjlwidw  ind  thn  Hmnilmn  imj  hn  dim  tn  thn  ■irfinn  nf  n 
environment  lather  than  to  heredity;  (3)  that  the  large 
of  the  hyfaridSy  einoe  ibey  exceed  erven  the  heavy  HawaiiaDs, 
Migrl^<lw  to  hybrid  vigor  or  heterooB.  Theee  poanbilitien  may  be 
JJMHiBBr  d  more  profitably  after  the  evidenee  &om  more  hybrids  of 
later  generations  ia  presented. 

Head.  One  of  the  duef  differences  between  the  Hawaiians  and 
North  Europeans  is  in  absolate  and  relative  length  of  the  head. 
The  Hawaiians  have  chaiscteristically  short  heads  (average  182 
mm.)  whfle  the  head  of  the  average  North  European  is  longer  (190 
mm.  or  more;  192  for  Goiing's  English  prisoners  and  198  for  von 
Luschan's  Enc^ish  scientists).  In  breadth  there  is  litde  difference 
between  the  Hawaiians  (152  nun.)  and  the  North  Europeans  (about 
150  mm.).  These  dimensions  produce  a  typically  brachjrcephalic 
head  in  the  Hawaiians,  while  the  North  Eur(q)eans  are  predomi- 
nantly dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic  The  absolute  siae  of  the 
hybrid  head  is  greater  in  both  dimensions  than  that  of  the  Har 
waiians.  The  hybrids,  like  the  Hawaiians,  are  predominantly  bra- 
chycephalic,  with  a  mean  index  of  about  83,  which  is  the  same  as 
the  Hawaiian  index.  This  condition  holds  not  only  for  the  adult 
male  hybrids  now  under  discussion  but  for  all  of  tiie  Fi  hybrids.  In 
a  total  of  36  hybrids  only  1  case  of  dolichocephaly  was  found  (index 
76),  1  subject  was  mesocephalic  (index  79)  while  the  remaining  34 
were  brachycephalic  with  indices  resembling  those  of  the  Ha- 
waiians. It  is  evident  that  the  Fi  hybrids  resemble  the  more  bra- 
chycephalic of  the  parent  races.  Our  Hawaiian-white  hybrids  diflfer 
in  this  respect  from  the  Norfolk  hybrids,  since  the  latter  have  on 
the  average  absolutely  long  heads  (average  195.6  mm.)  while  their 
heads  are  no  broader  than  those  of  our  Fi  mdividuals  (Norfolk 
breadth  155.5  mm.).  The  resulting  head  shape  of  the  Norfolk  Is- 
landers is  mesocephalic  (index  79.5)  and  the  series  includes  many 
with  dolichocephalic  heads.  The  average  head  dimensions  and  the 
ilistribution  of  head  shape  among  the  Norfolk  Islanders  have  un- 
doubtedly been  affected  by  the  reappearance  through  segregation 
of  the  recessive  European  type  (long  head,  low  index),  and  are 
thence  not  strictly  comparable  with  our  Fi  type. 

In  the  present  case  the  inheritance  of  head  shape  is  probably 
uncomplicated  by  differences  in  general  body  size,  since  the  Hawaii- 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


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Tlie  action  of  Uie  tmtUan  ^Btxtiao^  hemi  Ampt  is,  however,  6b- 
aeoie.  In  the  cni»  of  HawMoas  and  CMneaeT  btady  eephaly  in  Fi. 
appeared  to  be  doe  to  the  aboofaildT  fliiottcr  heads  of  ihe  hi^^ 
In  the  present  ease  this  is  iiot  80,  doiee  the  leogth  of  the  Fi  head  is 
agnifiauitly  longer  (bj  6l4  ^  2.0  mm.)  than  the  Hawaiian  head. 
It  is  also  broader  (fay  4.6  ^ab  1.9  mm.)  than  the  Hawaiian  head. 
Here  both  dimensions  of  the  Hawaiian  head  haive  been  equally 
affected  by  the  craes  with  North  EoropeanSy  and  one  cannot  say 
that  the  dominance  of  Ixachycephaly  is  dne  chiefty  to  the  domi- 
nance of  either  one  of  the  rfiin<>n«Mint 

Face.  In  facial  dimensions  the  diief  difference  between  the 
Hawaiians  and  Europeans  is  in  the  breadth  of  the  face.  Thelmty- 
gomatic  diameter  of  the  face  is  about  135-7  in  North  Ekuropeans, 
(137.5  mm.  j  for  the  English  males  measured  by  Goring  (27, 66), 
while  the  Hawaiians  of  our  sample  averaged  about  140  nun.  How- 
ever, Sullivan  Qlai  found  a  facial  width  somewhat  higher  than  this 
(144.5  mm.;  in  his  large  sample  of  pure  Hawaiians,  and  other  Poly- 
nesian groups  have  in  general  rather  wider  faces  than  we  have  found 
in  the  Hawaiians.  In  face  ^iidth  the  Fi  hybrids  undoubtedly  re- 
semble the  Poh-nesian  rather  than  the  European  tj-pe.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  the  average  bizygomatic  diameter  of  Fi  (145.4  mm.),  and 
it  is  especially  noticeable  on  the  living  subject  and  in  photographs. 
The  Norfolk  hybrids,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a  bizygomatic  diame- 
ter (140.9  mm.)  which  resembles  the  European  rather  than  the 
Pol>Tiesian  average.  The  length  of  the  face  (nasion-menton  height) 
is  similar  in  Europeans  and  Hawaiians.  In  Goring's  English  males, 
for  example,  the  measurement  is  about  124  mm.;  in  the  Hawaiian 
males  of  our  sample  it  is  about  123  mm. ;  while  in  Sullivan's  sample 
of  Hawaiian  males  it  is  a  little  greater  than  125  mm.  In  the  hybrid 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  157 

males,  facial  leDgth  is  125  mm.,  not  significantly  different  from 
either  parent  race.  The  same  face  height  is  characteristic  of  the 
Norfolk  Islanders  (125.3  mm.).  The  index  describing  the  shape  of 
the  face  is  probably  slightly  different  in  Hawaiians  and  Europeans, 
the  faces  of  the  latter  being  somewhat  more  elongated.  In  Gonng's 
English  males  the  length  of  the  face  is  about  90  per  cent  of  the 
breadth;  in  our  Hawaiians  this  index  is  about  88,  while  in  Sullivan's 
series  it  is  about  87.  In  the  Fi  hybrids,  the  facial  index  is  about  86. 
While  the  hybrid  index  is  undoubtedly  nearer  to  that  of  the  Ha- 
waiians, the  differences  are  small,  and  due  chiefly  to  variation  in 
the  absolute  breadth  of  the  face,  which  appears  to  be  the  more  im- 
portant distinguishing  facial  measurement.  The  facial  index  of  the 
Norfolk  Island  hybrids  (88.9)  is  more  like  that  of  the  English  than 
that  of  the  Polynesian  parent  type,  chiefly  due  to  the  narrower 
bizygomatic  diameter.  Since  we  have  already  found  that  brachy- 
oephaly  appears  to  be  dominant  in  crosses,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  broader  Hawaiian  face  should  also  seem  to  be  dominant,  for 
facial  and  cephalic  shapes  are  of  course  positively  correlated  and 
may  be  expected  to  depend  in  part  on  the  same  or  similar  factors. 
In  the  shape  of  the  lower  face,  and  in  amount  of  flesh,  the  Fi  hy- 
brids appear  also  to  bear  closer  resemblance  to  the  Hawaiian  than 
to  the  European  parent  type. 

Nose.  In  the  absolute  measurements  and  shape  index  of  the 
nose  there  is  a  well  marked  difference  between  Hawaiians  and  the 
average  European,  although  nasal  dimensions  are  extremely  varia- 
ble in  both  parental  and  hybrid  types.  Using  only  data  from  male 
subjects  for  comparison,  the  height  measurements  are  found  to  be 
similar  in  Hawaiians  (53.6  mm.),  English  (52-53  mm.  Goring),  and 
hybrids  (53.8  mm.).  The  breadth  of  the  lower  part  of  the  nostrils 
is,  however,  plainly  different  in  Hawaiians  (44.2  mm.)  and  English 
(35-36  mm.),  while  the  hybrids  closely  resemble  the  Hawaiians. 
The  nasal  index  of  the  hybrids  is  nearly  the  same  (80.8)  as  that  of 
the  Hawaiians  (82.9),  and  unquestionably  higher  than  that  of  the 
average  North  European  (65-70).  Here  again  the  size  and  espe- 
cially the  breadth  of  the  Hawaiian  type  appears  to  be  dominant.  In 
this  respect  the  Norfolk  hybrids  again  show  greater  similarity  to 
the  English  type  since  in  mean  nasal  height  (55.3  mm.),  breadth 
(37.6  nmi.)  and  index  (68),  they  approach  very  closely  to  the  Euro- 
pean measurements  and  depart  markedly  both  from  our  Hawaiians 


158  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OP 

and  Fi  hybrids.  Qmiparison  of  the  descriptions  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  nose  indicates  pbunly  the  partial  dominance  of  the  hi^ 
nasal  root  of  the  European  type  as  shown  below. 

Table  3S.    Fbequenct  or  Vabioub  Ttpss  of  Nosb  Foxk  ui  fbb  cdet 

Root  Bbidob  Sdtcm 

De-  Con-      Con- 

High    Straicht  preated     Stniffht    <»ve       vex         Stimicht  Down  Up 

73 Haw.  Males  ..0       63         37  60        19       21  53       3     ti 

12  Fi  Males  . . .  .42        50  2  66        17        17  83      ..     17 

The  only  other  significant  difference  shown  by  this  comparison  is 
the  lower  frequency  among  the  hybrids  of  the  upward  direction  ol 
the  nasal  septum  which  occurs  in  nearly  half  of  the  Hawaiians  bat 
in  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  hybrids.  This  trait,  which  is  associated 
with  the  broader  nose  of  the  Hawaiians,  has  been  neariy  eztiiH 
guished  by  the  cross  with  European  types.  The  nose  of  the  hybrids 
as  a  whole  then  represents  a  new  type  different  in  some  respeets 
from  that  of  either  parent,  for  it  combines  the  size  and  breadth  of 
the  Hawaiian  type  with  the  high  nasal  root  and  straight  septum  of 
the  European. 

Hair.  (Table  34.)  The  hair  color  of  the  European  parents  of 
the  hybrids  of  our  sample  is  problematical.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in 

Table  34.    Description  op  the  Non-mensurable  Traits  of  26  Fi 
Hybrids  Between  Hawaiian  Females  and  North  European  Males 

Hair  color Block  12,  Dark  brown  8,  Brown  5,  Reddish  brown  1 

Hair  form Wavy  17,  Curly  4,  Straight  3,  Frizzy  1. 

Eye  color Brown  12,  Light  brown  10,  Dark  brown  2,  Hazel  1,  Blue  1 

Eye  fold Not  observed 

Skin  color Broca's  grades  23  and  24  • 

(^  9 

Nose  form Root  high                     5  3 

straight               6  8 

depressed            1  2 

Bridge  straight             8  10 

concave             2  3 

convex  2 

Septum  straight          10  8 

up                    2  5 

Lips  Thick  4,  Medium  7 

Prognathism Absent  8 

Brow  ridges Prominent  2,  Slight  4,  Absent  2 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  159 

average  shade  it  is  somewhat  lighter  than  the  hair  color  of  the  Ha- 
waiians  which  is  prevailingly  black.  The  hybrids  likewise  have 
generally  black  or  dark  brown  hair,  although  the  average  shade  is 
probably  lighter  than  among  pure  Hawaiians.  One  hybrid  (no.  221) 
had  reddish  brown  hair  of  the  Ehu  type,  and  it  is  known  that  the 
mother  of  this  subject  was  a  Red  Hawaiian.  The  hair  color  of  the 
white  father  was  not  known,  but  he  was  probably  blonde  or  carried 
a  recessive  blondness.  The  pedigree  of  this  girl  was  somewhat 
doubtful  and  full  credence  cannot  be  placed  in  the  record.  It  is 
probably  not  an  exception  to  the  general  statement  that  no  light 
haired  hybrids  result  from  matings  of  dark-haired  Hawaiians  and 
Europeans. 

The  chief  difference  between  the  parent  races  in  hair  form  is  prob- 
ably in  the  higher  incidence  of  straight  hair  among  the  European 
parents.  The  Hawaiians  have  predominantly  wavy  or  curly  hair. 
The  distribution  of  hair  form  among  the  hybrids  is  almost  the  same 
as  among  the  Hawaiians,  indicating  probably  partial  dominance  of 
the  wavy  or  ciurly  type.  One  Fi  female  (no.  232)  had  hair  with 
narrow  close  waves,  designated  as  frizzy.  Her  nine  children  by  a 
wavy-haired  Fi  male  (no.  128)  consisted  of  four  wavy-haired,  three 
curly-haired  and  one  straight-haired  (one  not  noted),  indicating 
that  frizzy  hair  is  probably  a  form  of  curly,  possibly  artificially  de- 
formed. Three  examples  of  this  hair  type  were  found  among  pure 
Hawaiians,  all  females. 

Eye  Color.  (Table  34.)  The  eye  colors  found  among  Hawaii- 
ans were  chiefly  brown  and  dark  brown,  although  two  anomalous 
individuals  were  noted  with  light  colored  brownish  blue  eyes.  We 
have  no  data  on  the  frequency  of  light  brown  and  blue  eyes  among 
the  European  parent  types,  although  the  average  shade  of  eye  color 
was  probably  lighter  than  among  the  Hawaiians.  The  hybrids  are 
intermediate  in  this  respect,  the  eye  color  of  most  of  them  being 
brown  and  light  brown  (84  per  cent).  Two  (8  per  cent)  had  darker 
eyes,  and  a  similar  number  had  lighter  eyes  (one  hazel  and  one 
blue).  One  of  these  subjects  (no.  149)  was  similar  in  other  traits 
to  the  other  hybrids,  while  the  other  (no.  417)  was  tall  with  a 
narrow  head,  long  face,  and  narrow  nose,  characters  which  are  not 
entirely  compatible  with  the  parentage  as  given,  and  indicate  that 
she  probably  belonged  to  a  later  generation  from  the  cross  of 
Hawaiian  and  white.   These  subjects  are  anomalous  in  the  same 


160  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OP 

sense  as  the  two  Hawaiiaos  with  light  eyes,  and  no  further  evi- 
dence on  these  exceptions  is  available  in  the  data. 

Skin  Color.  (Table  34.)  Our  evidence  on  skin  color,  unfoita- 
nately,  is  not  very  satisfactory,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  notice- 
able traits  in  which  the  Hawaiians  and  Europeans  differ.  There  are 
available  skin  color  records  of  twelve  hybrids,  determined  by  com- 
parison with  Broca's  scale.  The  skin  color  of  three  of  these  cone- 
sponded  with  grade  24,  while  9  were  of  grade  23  or  slightly  lighter. 
These  were  the  two  modal  grades  for  the  75  Hawaiians  recorded 
on  this  scale,  and  this  fact  would  indicate  a  dose  resemblance  ci 
the  hybrids  to  the  average  Hawaiian  skin  color.  However,  this 
conclusion  is  not  confirmed  by  the  few  comparisons  made  witii  the 
better  scale  of  von  Luschan.  Of  the  3  hybrids  recorded  on  this 
scale  2  were  lighter  (grades  7  and  10)  than  any  of  the  pure  Hawaii- 
ans. The  skin  color  of  the  hybrids  is  unquestionably  darker  than 
that  of  the  average  European,  but  probably  not  so  dark  as  the  pure 
Hawaiian  type. 

Other  Traits.  A  few  descriptive  observations  of  some  other 
traits  were  made  on  some  of  the  hybrids  observed  in  1916.  These 
are  given  in  Table  34,  but  are  too  few  and  scattering  to  add  signifi- 
cantly to  the  hybrid  description.  A  general  summary  of  the  cha^ 
actcrs  of  the  hybrids  will  follow  the  descriptions  of  later  generations 
from  this  cross. 

The  Second  Generation 

Twenty-eight  subjects  were  found  which  gave  their  parentage  as 
"father  i  white,  ^  Hawaiian;  mother  |  white,  i  Hawaiian."  As- 
suming that  both  parents  were  Fi  hybrids  (and  in  many  cases  it 
was  established  that  this  was  so),  these  individuals  should  consti- 
tute the  second  generation  from  the  cross  of  Hawaiian  by  North 
European,  although  some  of  them  probably  belong  to  later  genera- 
tions. It  is  in  this  group  that  the  segregation  of  traits  in  which  the 
parent  types  differed  should  be  most  apparent.  Only  seven  of  this 
grou]i  were  mature  when  measured,  3  males  and  4  females,  and  the 
group  as  a  whole  is  too  small  to  yield  reliable  averages  or  variation 
constants  of  mensurable  traits.  However,  the  group  includes  one 
family  of  9  children,  all  immature,  resulting  from  the  marriage  of 
2  P\  hybrids  (male  no.  12S  X  female  no.  132).  A  complete  series  of 
observations  is  available  for  each  of  the  parents  and  the  children. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  IVnXED  BLOOD  161 

By  reference  to  these  individual  observations  (Appendix  Table  IV) 
we  shall  attempt  to  determine  the  extent  of  segregation  and  re- 
combination of  single  traits,  without  attempting  any  description  of 
this  generation  as  a  whole.  On  account  of  the  usually  great  varia- 
bility of  hybrid  generations  beyond  the  first,  such  a  description 
would  have  to  rest  on  a  much  larger  material  than  is  available  at 
present. 

In  respect  to  stature  and  general  body  size,  the  data  are  too  few 
and  the  parental  differences  too  slight  to  make  comparisons  profit- 
able. In  head  size  and  shape,  however,  the  parent  races  were  prob- 
ably different,  and  for  shape  characters  some  of  the  immature  Fj 
subjects  may  be  included,  thereby  increasing  the  nmnbers  of  ob- 
servations. Among  the  24  subjects  of  age  11  and  over,  the  cephalic 
index  ranges  from  72  to  88  as  compared  with  a  range  or  74  to  92  for 
the  Hawaiians.  The  distribution  of  head  form  among  the  Fs  sub- 
jects as  compared  with  the  pure  Hawaiians  is  as  follows: 

Table  35.     Cephalic  Index 

-74.9  75-79.9  80- 

Per  cent  Per  cent  Per  cent 

No.       dolichocephalic  mesoccphalic     brachy cephalic 

Hawaiian  male  and  female. . .     1C8  2.1  9.8  88. 

Fi  male  and  female 36  5.5  94.4 

F,  male  and  female 26  7.7*  34. 6»  57.7 

There  are  relatively  more  dolicho-  and  meso-cephalic  heads 
among  the  F2  hybrids  than  among  either  the  Hawaiians  or  the  Fi 
hybrids.  This  probably  indicates  the  segregation  of  recessive  fac- 
tors for  longer  headedness  introduced  by  the  white  ancestors.^ 
There  is,  however,  no  such  evidence  of  the  segregation  of  head  shape 
in  the  F2  family  observed.  Both  of  the  Fi  parents  had  a  cephaUc 
index  of  81,  while  the  indices  of  the  children  of  age  6  and  over 
range  from  76  to  81.  Although  still  immature  they  have,  on  the 
average,  slightly  longer  heads  than  their  parents;  but  are  grouped 
closely  together  and  do  not  resemble  a  segregating  distribution. 
Such  a  condition  would  arise  if  the  particular  white  and  Hawaiian 
parents  involved  did  not  differ  much  in  head  form. 

I  The  per  cent  of  dolicho-  and  mesocephalic  in  Fs  as  shown  in  the  table  is  probably  too  low, 
since  some  of  the  subjects  included  were  immature,  and  the  index  may  be  expected  to  fall  some- 
what with  increasing  age. 


I 


The  shape  of  the  face  varies  in  the  Fi  subjects  through  the  same 
range  as  in  the  Hawaiians,  without  distinct  evidence  of  segregation. 
In  nose  form,  however,  there  is  an  evident  tendency  for  a  return  to 
the  narrower  condition  characteristic  of  the  European.  The  nasal 
index  in  the  pure  Hawaiians  ranged  from  68-102  (average  83  for 
males);  in  Fi  the  range  was  from  62-98  (average  81  for  males) 
while  in  Fs  only  4  individuals  of  age  15  and  over  exceed  the  F,  aver- 
age. The  frequency  of  narrow  noses  of  index  74  and  under  is  un- 
questionably higher  in  the  F;  than  in  either  the  Fi  or  Hawaiian 
distributions.  Thin  is  apparently  diir  to  the  segregation  of  recessive 
f  Sflton  govOTting  the  nbscdate  width  c^  the  nostnls,  hum  ubiI 
beigbt  is  about  the  same  in  parant  typee,  Fi  and  F%  and  ia  un- 
affected by  the  oroes.  Deeo^onB  of  nasal  loot,  Imdge  and  aqitom 
are  avaS&ble  for  only  7  Ft  males  of  age  15  and  over.  InSoftiiBM 
&B  aaaaX  root  was  straight  and  in  one  it  was  hi^  In  none  was  it 
depressed.  The  reeemblanoe  here  is  to  the  Fi  malea  laUur  than  to 
the  Hawaiian  parents.  The  oondition  of  nasal  bridge  and  Mptnmb 
about  the  Bsme  as  in  the  Fi  generation.  S^ir^cationctfnoMfcnain 
the  Ftfamilyia  made  highly  probable  by  the  obeervataoDs,  snee  the 
nasal  indices  range  from  62  to  90  (the  parents  had  indieee  of  86  aod 
76).  Five  of  the  nine  children  had  indices  <tf  lees  than  77,  and  wiiea 
it  is  considered  that  these  were  immature  subjeots  in  tdiidi  the  noes 
is  relatively  broader  than  at  maturity,  it  wiU  be  evident  that  the 
narrower  type  characteristic  of  the  European  shows  a  considerable 
tendency  to  reappear  in  the  second  generation. 

Segregation  of  hair  color  is  not  very  evident  in  this  generation. 
Twenty-three  individuals  had  black  or  dark  brown  hair  while  3  had 
brown  hair.  Two  had  light  brown  hair  while  in  one  the  hair  was  a 
very  light  brown,  almost  blonde.  These  light  hair  colors  were  not 
observed  in  the  Fi  generation,  and  although  the  lightest  haired  Fi 
was  a  very  young  child,  they  probably  represent  the  reappearance 
of  a  recessive  blondness  introduced  by  the  European  grandparent. 
In  hair  form  also  there  is  httle  difference  between  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding generation.  Wavy  hair  was  observed  in  20  cases,  curiy  in  5, 
while  straight  hair  appeared  only  3  times.  In  the  family  observed 
the  father  had  wavy  and  the  mother  frizzy  (probably  a  variety  of 
curly)  hair  while  of  the  8  children  observed  for  this  trait  4  had 
wavy,  3  had  curly,  and  1  had  straight  hair.  The  last  is  probably  the 
recessive  type. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  163 

Although  most  of  the  F2  subjects  had  eyes  of  some  shade  of  brown 
(brown  12,  dark  brown  7,  light  brown  6)  as  in  the  Fi  generation,  the 
frequency  of  blue  and  hazel  eyes  was  somewhat  higher  (1  hazel  and 
3  blue).  This  evidence  of  the  reappearance  of  a  recessive  blond- 
ness  is  borne  out  by  the  occurrence  of  several  F2  subjects  with  very 
light  skins.  In  the  one  F2  family  observed,  the  Fi  parents  had  skin 
of  about  the  average  shade  of  pure  Hawaiians,  while  of  the  Fa  chil- 
dren 6  had  skin  as  dark  or  slightly  darker  than  the  parents,  while  3 
had  very  light  skins,  practically  white,  and  1  of  them  was  distinctly 
of  the  blonde  type. 

In  general  there  is  some  evidence  of  the  reappearance  in  the 
second  generation  of  several  traits  such  as  longer  head  shape,  nar- 
rower nose,  and  the  lighter  types  of  pigmentation,  which  from  the 
Fi  evidence  appeared  to  be  recessive  in  inheritance.  Because  of  the 
diverse  combinations  in  which  these  traits  reappeared,  the  second 
generation  is  much  more  variable  than  the  first,  although  the  small 
numbers  preclude  a  quantitative  analysis  of  this  point  or  of  the 
statistical  relations  between  the  various  types  and  combinations. 

Backcross  Generations 

Our  observations  on  progeny  of  matings  of  hybrids  with  either 
Hawaiians  or  Europeans  are  more  numerous  than  the  observations 
on  progeny  of  matings  of  hybrids  inter-se.   The  data  include  de- 
scriptions of  42  individuals  with  1  pure  Hawaiian  parent  and  1 
hybrid  parent;  of  23  individuals  with  1  European  and  1  hybrid 
parent;  and  of  16  individuals  with  variable  proportions  of  white 
and  Hawaiian  blood  who  cannot  be  properly  placed  in  any  of  the 
above  classes.   It  is  apparent  from  the  relative  numbers  encoun- 
tered in  our  sample  and  from  the  marriage  statistics  that  persons 
^th  part  Hawaiian  blood  more  often  marry  members  of  one  of  the 
parent  races,  than  others  part  Hawaiians  like  themselves.   Of  the 
^roup  with  1  Hawaiian  and  1  hybrid  parent,  the  Hawaiian  parent 
^as  the  mother  in  24  cases  and  the  father  in  18  cases.  Of  the  group 
^th  1  European  and  1  hybrid  parent,  the  European  partnt  was  in 
all  cases  the  father.   No  offspring  of  matings  between  a  European 
^oman  and  a  part  Hawaiian  man  were  found.  The  original  obser- 
vations of  these  subjects  are  given  in  Appendix  Table  IV,  where 
they  have  been  grouped  according  to  the  mating  involved,  and  on 
the  basis  of  sex  and  maturity.   Those  individuals  descended  from 


164  AN  ANTBDEIOPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

matmgB  of  hybrids  with  pure  HawaiiaoB  aie  olaand  as  "  BC  (back- 
croBs)  X  Hawaiiaa'';  the  reciprocal  group  as  "BC  X  white."  All 
individuals  included  in  either  BC  group  had  one  paient  of  puie 
race.  As  in  the  other  taUeSi  those  matingH  in  which  a  European 
ancestor  was  Portuguese  are  specially  designated  (P)  and  follow 
those  in  which  the  white  parent  was  a  North  Eunqiean.  The 
"BC  X  Hawaiian"  group  consists  chiefly  of  individuals  from 
matings  of  Fi  (i  Hawaiian,  ^  white)  by  Hawaiian,  althooif^  a 
few  are  included  in  which  the  hybrid  parent  was  f  Hawaiian,  } 
white.  In  general  these  backcross  subjects  have  about  f  Hawaiian 
and  I  white  blood.  Similarly  the  individuals  in  the  "BC  X 
white"  group  are  in  general  f  white  and  i  Hawaiian.  Neither  of 
these  generations  then  represents  a  "backcross"  in  the  strict  sense 
of  matings  between  Fi  hybrids  with  a  pure  parent  type,  and  the 
questions  conceming  segregation  of  traits  in  numerical  proportions 
which  might  be  solved  from  such  a  generation^  strictly  defined, 
cannot  be  answered  from  the  present  data.  The  data  on  these  gen- 
erations, however,  are  useful  in  determining  in  how  far  the  plqrsical 
traits  of  the  backcross  groups  differ  from  those  of  the  pure  Hawaii- 
ans  and  of  the  first  generation  hybrids.  Wherever  significant  differ- 
ences appear,  these  may  be  ascribed  to  inheritance  from  the  white 
ancestors  involved,  and  they  should  be  more  pronounced  in  those 
individuals  which  are  f  white  than  in  those  which  have  but  one 
quarter  of  white  blood.  Some  indications  of  the  manner  of  inherit- 
ance of  the  traits  observed  should  be  yielded  by  a  comparison  of 
the  backcross  groups  with  each  other  and  with  the  parent  groups, 
since,  for  example,  any  Hawaiian  traits  appearing  in  the  "BC  X 
white**  group  may  be  assumed  to  be  dominant  in  inheritance  while 
the  appearance  of  white  traits  in  the  "BC  X  Hawaiian"  group 
may  likewise  be  ascribed  to  some  degree  of  dominance  of  the  trait 
in  question. 

The  most  profitable  results,  therefore,  may  be  obtained  by  a 
direct  comparison  of  the  physical  characters  of  the  backcross  gen- 
erations with  those  of  the  Hawaiians  and  of  the  Fi  hybrids. 

The  best  description  of  the  mensurable  traits  of  the  "BC  X 
Hawaiian"  group  is  available  from  the  measurements  of  12  adult 
females,  of  |  Hawaiian  and  i  white  blood.  Only  4  adult  males  of 
this  type  were  encountered.  Brief  reference  to  the  characteristics 
of  these  will  be  made  in  the  course  of  the  comparison,  but  it  is  of 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  166 

little  value  to  average  their  measurements.  For  the  measurements 
of  the  "BC  X  white"  group  we  have  only  the  data  on  6  adult 
females,  and  again  a  small  group  of  4  adult  males.  For  non-men- 
surable traits  we  may  include  the  whole  "BC  X  Hawaiian"  group 
of  33  individuals  from  crosses  with  North  European,  and  the  19 
subjects  of  the  "BC  X  white"  (North  European)  group.  It  is 
safer  not  to  include  in  these  groups  individuals  with  Portuguese 
blood  in  the  ancestry,  because  of  the  occasional  appearance  of  negro 
traits  in  individuals  of  this  descent.  The  mensurable  traits  are 
compared  in  Table  36;  the  non-mensurable  traits  are  given  for  each 
group  separately  in  Tables  37  and  38,  and  compared  in  Table  39. 

Comparison  of  Mensurable  Traits.  In  Table  36  appear  the 
average  measurements  and  the  range  of  variability  of  34  Hawaiian 
females,  12  BC  X  Hawaiian  females  of  f  Hawaiian  and  }  North 
European  blood,  and  6  BC  X  white  females  of  J  Hawaiian  and  f 
North  European  blood.  Acromic  height  and  arm  length  measures 
are  not  included,  since  there  was  practically  no  difference  between 
the  parent  races  in  these  dimensions.  The  probable  errors  and 
variation  constants  have  not  been  appended  since  these  could 
have  no  significance  with  such  small  numbers  of  subjects  and 
since  there  is  no  intention  of  drawing  conclusions  from  the  absolute 
difiFerences  between  the  averages.  We  shall  only  attempt  to  de- 
termine whether  there  is  any  tendency  toward  change  in  the  aver- 
ages in  going  from  pure  Hawaiians  to  those  with  but  one  quarter 
of  Hawaiian  blood. 

A  general  view  of  the  averages  is  sufficient  to  indicate  that  there 
are  no  great  differences  between  the  bodily  dimensions  of  these 
three  groups,  and  this  was  hardly  to  be  expected  in  view  of  the  simi- 
larity of  the  parent  races  in  size.  The  four  possibly  significant  indi- 
cations however  are  (1)  the  lower  average  weight  of  the  f  white 
group;  (2)  the  tendency  for  the  cephalic  index  to  decrease  in  passing 
from  the  Hawaiian  to  the  f  white  group;  (3)  the  lower  average  of 
nose  breadth  and  nasal  index  in  the  f  whites;  (4)  the  somewhat 
narrower  and  relatively  higher  faces  of  the  subjects  with  more 
white  blood.  In  respect  to  the  first  it  was  found  that  the  Hawaiians 
were  marked  by  stoutness,  having  a  relatively  higher  index  of 
bodily  fullness  (Index  1.53  males).  The  same  tendency  was  obser- 
vable in  Fi  (Index  males  1.68)  and  is  evident  in  the  J  Hawaiians 
females.  The  index  for  the  J  Hawaiians  is  much  lower,  but  for  two 


166 


AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 


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»it  cr  (X  o  1^  »^  cc  ro  '—  cc  o  -^  00 


cc 


^   v,  5   C    -.  C3      ^  O  C   g 

c  bf'  *^  3  -TU  ^  -5  C  ^  ti  ;i^  X 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  167 

reasons  it  cannot  be  certainly  attributed  to  the  inheritance  of 
slighter  body  build  from  the  white  parent:  (1)  the  Fi  (i  Hawaiian) 
and  f  Hawaiian  groups  show  no  tendency  to  deviate  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  lighter  European  average  (2)  the  weights  of  the  i 
Hawaiians  are  derived  from  only  five  subjects  all  of  whom  were 
under  25  years  of  age,  or  before  maximum  weight  is  attained. 

Table  37.    Descriptioxs  op  Non-mensurable  Traits  op  33 

Oppsprinq  op  Backcross  Matings  between  Fi  (Hawahan  X 

North  European)  and  Pure  Hawahans 

Hair  color Black  21,  Dark  brown  9,  Reddish  1,  no  record  2 

Hair  form Wavy  23,  Curly  6,  Straight  3,  no  record  1 

Eye  color Brown  16,  Light  brown  7,  Dark  brown  9,  Hazel  1 

Skin  color Brocage  grades.  .24-7        von  Luschan's  grades 8-1 

23-5  9-1 

47-n3  10-1 

39-2  12-2 

13-1 
14-1 
16-2 

d^  9 

Nose  form Root,  high 3  2 

straight 7  7 

depressed 3  11 

Bridge,  straight 8  10 

concave 1  8 

convex 4  2 

Septum,  straight 10  7 

up 3  13 

Lips Thick  9,  medium  8 

Prognathism Absent  13,  slight  2 

Brow  ridges Absent  13,  slight  2,  prominent  1 

The  cephalic  index  falls  from  84.2  in  the  Hawaiian  females,  to 
82.6  in  the  f  Hawaiians,  to  79.9  in  the  J  Hawaiians.  The  tendency 
indicated  is  toward  longerheadedness  in  those  individuals  with 
more  white  blood.  In  attempting  to  establish  whether  this  ten- 
dency is  significant  we  have  tabulated  the  cephaUc  indices  of  all  of 
the  f  Hawaiian  and  J  Hawaiian  subjects  (exclusive  of  Portuguese 
mixtures),  combining  the  observations  on  subjects  of  age  13  and 
over  and  of  both  sexes.  This  is  not  strictly  justifiable,  but  the 
sexual  difference  in  the  index  is  so  small,  it  changes  so  httle  between 
age  13  and  maturity,  and  the  distribution  of  age  and  sex  is  so 


168  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

Table  38.  Description  op  NoN-iiENSuaABLE  Traits  of  19 

OfFSPRINO  of  BaCKCROBS  MaTINOS  BETWEEN  Fi  (HAWAIIAN  X 

North  European)  and  Pure  Whites 

Hair  color Black  1,  Dark  brown  5,  Brown  8,  Light  brown  3,  Light 

yellow  1,  no  record  1 

Hair  form ...    Wavy  7,  Straight  6,  Curly  1,  no  record  5 

Eye  color Dark  brown  3,  Brown  4,  Light  brown  3,  Haxel  1,  Blue  6, 

no  record  2 

Skin  color Broca's  grades.  .23-6 

24-1 
"light  "-2 

d^  9 

Nose  form Root,  high 5  1 

straight 4  3 

depressed 1  1 

Bridge,  straight 7  5 

concave 2 

convex I 

Septum,  straight 6  2 

up 3  ^ 

down 1 

Lips Thick  2,  medium  6,  thin  1 

Prognathism Absent  8 

Brow  ridges  Absent  t,  slight  3,  prominent  1 

similar  in  the  groups  to  be  compared  as  to  result  in  but  little  dis- 
tortion of  the  data.   The  results  are  given  in  Table  39. 

In  spite  of  the  small  differences  between  the  means  of  the  adult 
indices,  the  f  Hawaiians  and  J  Hawaiians  do  show  distinct  differ- 
ences in  the  frequency  of  different  headforms.  Longer  or  medium 
heads  are  more  frequent  in  those  with  most  white  blood,  while  the 
short  or  round  head  forms  are  most  frequent  in  those  with  most 
Hawaiian  blood. 

The  difference  in  mean  nasal  index  between  the  subjects  with  f 
and  with  \  Hawaiian  blood  is  probably  significant  although  based 
on  very  few  observations  of  the  latter  type.  h]xamination  of  the 
individual  indices  of  all  subjects  of  both  sexes  and  of  age  13  and 
over  shows  that  over  35  per  cent  of  the  }  Hawaiians  had  narrow 

Table  '30.     Percentage  Distribution  of  Cephalic  Index 

No.  -74.9      75-70.9      80-84.9      S5-S9.9         90- 

3/4  Hawaiian (20)  . . .         38.0        34.5        24.1         3.4 

1/4  Hawaiian (19)         21.0        oS.O         15.8  5.2 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  169 

noses  with  index  of  66  or  below  while  only  10  per  cent  of  the  f  Ha- 
waiians  had  such  narrow  noses.  This  index  (65)  marks  the  approxi- 
mate lower  limit  of  variation  in  shape  of  nose  among  the  pure  Ha- 
waiians,  since  only  three  inmiature  subjects  out  of  157  pure  Ha- 
waiians  had  noses  as  narrow  as  this.  The  appearance  of  narrow 
noses  in  the  generation  arising  from  a  backcross  of  Fi  hybrids  with 
the  European  parent  type  is  probably  due  to  the  segregation  of  the 
narrow  European  nose  form  as  a  recessive,  which  agrees  with  the 
evidence  from  the  Fi  generation. 

The  possible  differences  in  the  relative  height  and  width  of  the 
face  in  the  different  hybrid  groups  has  also  been  tested  by  examin- 
ing the  individual  facial  indices  of  all  of  the  subjects.  In  the  "BC 
X Hawaiian"  (f  Hawaiian)  group  about  one  third  of  all  of  the  sub- 
jects have  indices  of  the  high  or  leptoprosopic  type  (above  88  per 
cent),  while  in  the  "BC  X  white"  (\  Hawaiian)  group  nearly  half 
have  high  faces  of  this  type.  The  difference  in  the  mean  facial  in- 
dex of  the  two  groups  is  small,  as  is  also  the  difference  between  the 
two  parent  types,  but  there  seems  to  be  some  tendency  for  the 
slightly  narrower,  higher  face  of  the  European  to  be  recessive  in 
inheritance. 

In  Table  40  appears  a  comparison  of  the  backcross  generations 
with  the  Hawaiian  and  Fi  generation  in  respect  to  hair  form  and 
color  and  eye  color.  The  generations  are  arranged  in  the  table  in 
order  of  decreasing  amount  of  Hawaiian  blood,  and  the  per  cent  of 
each  generation  falling  into  each  descriptive  class  is  given.  In  this 
table  the  conclusions  already  indicated  by  the  Fi  and  F2  data  are 
confirmed  and  in  addition  there  is  evidence  of  segregation  of  several 
North  European  recessive  traits.  In  general,  the  frequency  of  the 
typically  Hawaiian  condition  of  the  trait  decreases  with  the  in- 
creasing proportion  of  white  blood.  Thus  in  hair  color  the  frequency 
of  black  hair  falls  from  about  90  per  cent  among  the  Hawaiians  to 
about  5  per  cent  among  those  subjects  with  }  Hawaiian  and  | 
white  blood,  while  the  frequency  of  lighter  shades  of  hair  rises  cor- 
respondingly with  the  increase  in  proportion  of  white  blood.  One 
clear  blonde  segregate  occurs  in  the  "BC  X  European"  group, 
while  the  presence  of  individuals  with  light  brown  hair  in  this  group 
and  their  absence  from  all  the  others  indicates  that  this  color  also 
appears  as  a  recessive  introduced  by  the  European  ancestor.  The 
red-brown  hair  which  appears  in  3  of  the  groups  is  of  the  Hawaiian 


170  AN  ANTHBOFOMETBIC  BTODT  OF 

Tuu  40l    OoHPJAawv  or  tbs  Golob  a3P>  Font  or  tbs  "Ha/ml  mjksp 
or  TBS  CbLOB  or  En  ur  HAWAiuai  aiid  ni  Hibbds  or 

N< 


P«raBiila0«  DMHMioii  qf  Fair  Cofar 


Dwi;  L^t  Jed 

liOb  Bmck  BhwB  BhwB  BnwB  BnwB  z  h19^ 


HnrBiian 4/4  IM  01^  U  ^    ...  1.8  ... 

BC Fi  X  HawmUan  8/4  81  07.7  ».0      8.2  ... 

Fi 2/4  26  44.0  82.0  200    ...  8.7  ... 

BC  Ft  X  North  Eun^mii.  1/4  17     U  27.8  44.4  10.7  ...  hJ^ 

HftvaitaB       No.         OmOw  Wtcwj        SIniWkt 

Hawaiian 4/4  140  2»JS  eL7  8.7 

BC  Ft  X  Hawaiian 8/4  82  18.7  7L9  0.4 

Fi 2/4  28  17.4  TaO  12.0 

BC  Ft  X  North  Ean^mm.  1/4  14  7.1  5a0  4M 

ByeCckr 

Dark  U^ 

HftwAiiaa   No.       brown     Brown      brown   Bnwl    Bhm 

Hawaiian 4/4  155  48.0  48.2  11.0  .0  .0 

BC Fi  X  Hawaiian 3/4  33  27.3  48.5  21.2  3.0  ... 

Fi 2/4  25  8.0  48.0  86.0  40  40 

BCFiX  North  European.  1/4  17  17.0  23w5  17.0  5.0  35.8 

C'Ehu")  type  and  has  apparently  not  been  introduced  by  the  im- 
mediate European  cross.  In  hair  form,  the  frequency  of  the  Ha- 
waiian  curly  type  decreases,  and  of  the  European  straight  type  in- 
creases with  decreasing  amount  of  Hawaiian  blood.  The  eye  color 
becomes  progressively  lighter  in  passing  from  Hawaiians  to  those 
with  only  {  Hawaiian  blood,  culminating  in  the  appearance  of  blue 
and  hazel  eyes  in  over  40  per  cent  of  the  "BC  X  European"  group. 
The  lighter  colors  of  hair  and  eyes,  and  the  straighter  hair  form  in- 
troduced by  the  European  ancestors  are  apparently  behaving  in 
this  as  in  other  crosses  as  recessives,  although  it  is  evident  that 
dominance  is  not  complete  in  respect  to  any  of  them. 

The  descriptions  of  other  non-mensurable  traits  of  the  backcross 
groups  are  given  in  Tables  37  and  38.  There  are  too  few  of  these 
to  permit  of  any  conclusive  statements.  The  skin  colors  of  the 
"BC  X  Hawaiian"  group  are  apparently  similar  to  those  of  the 
pure  Hawaiians,  while  of  the  9  observations  of  the  "BC  X  white" 
group,  2  were  recorded  as  "light,"  presumably  of  the  European 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  171 

^ype,  while  6  were  somewhat  lighter  than  the  modal  shade  for  Ha- 
waiians.  Several  subjects  in  each  backcross  group  were  described 
as  having  the  high  nasal  root  of  the  European  type.  The  presence 
of  this  type  in  the  "  BC  X  Hawaiian  "  group  with  f  Hawaiian  blood 
confirms  the  Fi  evidence  that  the  high  nasal  root  behaves  as  a  dom- 
inant. The  Hawaiian  type  of  low  or  depressed  nasal  root  was  rare 
in  the  "BC  X  white"  group  and  more  frequent  in  the  "BC  X 
Hawaiian"  group. 

Hybrids  of  Hawaiians  and  South  Europeans 

The  number  of  subjects  descended  from  matings  between  Hsr 
waiians  and  Portuguese  or  Spanish  is  too  small  for  detailed  analy- 
sis (20  with  some  Portuguese  blood,  5  with  some  Spanish  blood), 
although  the  physical  features  of  this  group  differ  somewhat  from 
those  of  the  Hawaiian-North  European  hybrids.  The  chief  argu- 
ment for  considering  the  Portuguese  hybrids  separately  was  the 
frequent  evidence  of  negro  admixture  in  subjects  reporting  them- 
selves of  Portuguese  descent.  The  Portuguese  in  Hawaii,  as  has 
been  noted,  have  come  chiefly  from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and 
many  of  them  are  thought  to  be  either  negroes  or  negro-Portuguese 
hybrids.  In  our  material  several  negroid  traits  appear  in  "Portu- 
guese" and  Spanish  hybrids.  No.  313,  J  Spanish,  J  Hawaiian 
(Table  IV,  BC  X  Hawaiian  female),  for  example,  was  noted  by  the 
observer  as  possibly  part  negro  and  the  description  confirms  this 
suspicion.  This  woman  had  very  long  arms  (arm  index  49.6,  the 
highest  in  our  material),  a  very  small  head,  a  small,  narrow,  long 
face  and  dark  skin.  No.  442  (f  Portuguese,  f  Hawaiian),  showed 
less  distinctly  negroid  features,  but  had  a  low  broad  nose  (index  94) 
and  kinky  black  hair.  No.  432,  (J  Portuguese,  J  Hawaiian),  had  a 
typically  negroid  nose,  with  a  high  index,  low  root  and  upturned 
septum.  In  addition  to  these  subjects  5  others  representing  crosses 
of  Hawaiian  and  negro  were  observed.  Their  measurements  are 
given  in  Appendix  Table  VI.  In  the  case  of  3  of  these  the  negro 
ancestor  was  traced  to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and  was  said  to  be 
"Portuguese."  Each  of  these  had  kinky  black  hair;  one  had  long 
arms  (index  47.2)  with  a  relatively  short  trunk  (index  50.2)  and  a 
narrow  high  face.  Other  negroid  features  similar  to  those  noted 
among  the  Portuguese  hybrids  were  in  evidence. 


172  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  OF 

The  principal  peculiarities  of  the  Portuguese  hybrid  group  ss  a 
whole  as  compared  with  the  North  European  hybrids,  are  thor 
smaller  size,  the  greater  frequency  of  individuals  with  idatiTdy 
long  arms,  sometimes  combined  with  a  rather  short  trunk,  and  their 
narrower  and  frequently  higher  faces.  Thus  4  mature  males  Fi 
Portuguese  X  Hawaiian  averaged  155  pounds  in  weight  and  166 
cm.  in  height,  compared  with  194  pounds  and  173  cm.  for  the  Norih 
European  Fi  group.  The  face  width  of  the  Portuguese  group  was 
134  mm.  while  the  northern  group  averaged  145  nun.  The  nar- 
rower face  seems  to  obtain  throughout  the  whole  group  of  Portu- 
guese hybrids,  although  because  of  somewhat  greater  facial  height, 
the  facial  index  is  about  the  same  as  in  the  northern  group.  We 
have  no  good  evidence  from  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  phy- 
sical features  of  the  Portuguese  parents.  Our  own  material  indudee 
descriptions  of  9  Portuguese  observed  in  Hawaii,  although  only  4  of 
these  were  adult,  all  females  (see  Appendix,  Table  VI).  From  these 
and  other  observations  (cf.  Martin),  it  is  apparent  that  the  Portu- 
guese parents  are  shorter  (average  height  males  about  165  cm.), 
and  smaller  than  the  North  European  parents  or  the  Hawaiians.  Id 
bodily  proportions  they  probably  do  not  differ  significantly  from 
the  North  Europeans  or  Hawaiians;  in  head  shape  they  are  meso- 
cephalic  (average  head  index  about  78-80) .  Their  nose  form,  where 
not  aflfected  by  negro  mixture,  is  probably  similar  to  that  of  the 
North  Fliiropeans,  i.  o.  index  about  65,  with  high  root  and  straight 
bridge.  The  shorter  stature  and  size  of  the  Portuguese-Hawaiian 
hybrids  indicates  the  absence  of  dominance  which  obtains  in  most 
dimensional  characters;  while  the  narrower  face  is  probably  an 
expression  of  their  generally  smaller  size,  since  the  facial  index  is 
about  the  same  for  the  Portuguese  as  for  the  North  European 
hybrids. 

Other  Hawaii  an- White  Mixtures 

Observations  were  made  of  a  number  of  Hawaiian-white  hybrids 
which  could  not  l>e  classified  in  any  of  the  groups  discussed  above, 
chiefly  because  of  the  greater  complexity  or  incompleteness  of  the 
pedigrees.  The  original  data  on  these  are  given  at  the  end  of  Ap- 
pendix, Table  IV.  For  the  most  part  these  subjects  represent  a 
more  advanced  stage  of  race  mixture  than  the  Fj  or  backcross 
groups,  and  they  form  a  rather  variable  group,  showing  many  dif- 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  173 

ferent  combinations  of  Hawaiian  and  European  traits.  The  pedi- 
gree of  No.  290,  for  example,  indicates  that  she  probably  is  of  the 
third  hybrid  generation.  She  resembles  a  pure  Hawaiian  in  most  of 
the  traits  observed.  Likewise  No.  33,  although  half  white,  probably 
is  of  the  third  hybrid  generation,  and  appears  to  be  a  typical  Ha- 
waiian. No.  167  on  the  other  hand  is  |  white,  yet  has  a  low  broad 
face,  and  resembles  the  Hawaiian  type  in  body  build,  but  has  the 
high  nose  and  lighter  hair  and  eyes  more  characteristic  of  the  Euro- 
pean type.  The  occurrence  of  different  combinations  of  traits  in 
this  heterogeneous  group  bespeaks  some  measure  of  independent 
segregation  of  the  heritable  features  of  each  racial  type.  Aside  from 
this,  the  group  does  not  add  anything  to  our  knowledge  of  the  in- 
heritance of  the  traits  in  question. 

SUMMARY  AND  DISCUSSION 

The  European  and  Hawaiian  types  which  have  intermarried  in 
Hawaii  are  very  similar  in  bodily  dimensions  and  proportions,  ex- 
cept for  the  greater  corpulence  of  the  Hawaiians.  The  Fi  hybrids 
and  those  with  f  Hawaiian  blood  resemble  the  Hawaiians  in  this 
respect,  although  there  is  not  enough  evidence  on  the  weight  either 
of  the  European  type  when  living  under  Hawaiian  conditions  or  of 
hybrids  of  later  generations  to  permit  the  conclusion  that  the  ten- 
dency to  corpulence  is  inherited  as  a  dominant,  or  that  it  is  due  to 
diet  and  habits  of  life. 

There  is  distinct  evidence  of  the  inheritance  of  the  brachyceph- 
alic  head  shape  of  the  Hawaiians  as  a  dominant,  and  of  the  re- 
appearance of  the  European  type  of  head  as  a  recessive  in  later 
hybrid  generations.  The  Hawaiians  have  broader  noses  than  the 
Europeans,  and  this  characteristic  appears  likewise  in  the  hybrids. 
It  possibly  depends  on  dominant  factors,  although  the  size  of  a  soft 
part  such  as  the  width  of  the  nostrils  must  depend  to  some  extent 
on  the  relative  fleshiness  of  the  face,  and  thus  indirectly  and  partial- 
ly on  the  same  environmental  conditions  which  conduce  to  greater 
corpulence.  The  shape  of  the  root  of  the  nose  probably  is  affected 
less  or  not  at  all  by  such  conditions,  and  the  differences  between  the 
lower  and  frequently  depressed  root  of  the  Hawaiian  nose  and  the 
higher,  narrower  root  of  the  European  type  probably  depend  on 
heritable  factors.   In  this  trait  there  is  good  evidence  of  the  domi- 


m  AN  ANTHROPOMETRIC  STUDY  C 

BHMB  d  tha  U^HT  EnrainHi  ^-pe.  It  is  possible  that  these  two 
piztoof  tbslKHBiratiEBOtBclby  different  factors,  since  the  broader 
woihrna  of  ttw  Bftmiiaii  wdA  tbe  higher  root  of  the  European  ap- 
pear togottier  in  nme  o(  the  Fi  hybrids,  indicating  that  the  Ha- 
miiiii  oonditiaii  of  the  one  pert  (nostrile)  nuqr  be  doaimeiit;  iridk 
of  the  other  put  (root)  is  probeblr  neomn. 

"Ilie  dadper  hair  oolor,  iraner  heir  fofm,  and  deriEsr  ihede  of  flTfea 
and  akin  of  the  Hamiian  ^fpe  an  partially  dnminani  Stnig^ 
hair,  andbVmdnewrfhair,  ayBB,andridnrei4q)earaaiTiBauaimiin 
aagTBgating  genemtionB  OBi  and  backoroas).  Aa  a  iritole,  the  Fi 
hybrids  bear  a  doaer  reaemblanoe  to  the  Hawaiian  than  to  the 
European  parent  fype,  and  it  BMma  tiiat  in  the  tratte  obasmd,  the 
HawaiiMMoontribute  to  the  OTOaardatiTely  more  dominant  faefam 

than  the  Europeans.  ft'ntmmHonwwnfthAilntpjnMnmrf  ^hafa^ft^m 

oontributed  by  this  or  tikat  parent  type  are,  howenr,  flf  idativdiy 
minra  imp(vtBnoe,  atnoe  in  moat  of  tiie  traits  obeerved  dominanoe 
was  inc(Hnplete,  the  hybrid  oeoupying  a  podfiaD  intgnoediate 
between  the  parental  conditions  of  the  trait.  The  more  sgnifieant 
features  of  the  lesults  are  the  evidencea  of  segregation  of  "radal" 
characters  such  as  nose  form,  head  form,  hair  and  alda  oolor  in  di- 
Terse  combinationB  in  the  Ft  and  backorosa  generationa.  Hut  eri- 
denoes  of  Mendelian  inheritanoe  in  such  traits  do  not  extend  to  tin 
ratios  obtained,  and  this  is  not  to  be  expected  from  the  data  at  psee- 
ent  available.  Factorial  analyses  supported  by  clear  segr^ation 
ratios  can  be  expected  to  appear  only  in  data  involving  large  num- 
bers of  Ft  or  backcroBs  progeny,  obtained  from  complete  family 
records  in  which  the  description  of  each  trait  in  each  ascendant  is 
known. 

Nor  do  the  data  throw  much  light  on  the  important  quesrtion  of 
the  relative  number  of  hereditary  differences  between  the  Hawai* 
ians  and  Europeans,  In  the  dimensional  traits  such  as  stature  and 
length  of  parts,  there  appears  to  be  very  little  difference;  in  the 
shape  of  the  nose  there  is  a  distinct  and  apparently  wide  difference, 
yet  from  the  behavior  of  nose  shape  in  inheritance,  this  seems  to  be 
determined  by  relatively  few  factors,  so  that  the  divergence  may 
have  been  brought  about  by  only  a  few  hereditary  chaoges.  In 
general  those  features  in  which  the  Hawaiians  differ  most  markedly 
from  the  Europeans  (color  of  skin,  hair  and  eyes,  form  of  nose  and 
face)  u«  those  in  which  the  Hawaiians  and  Chinese  arc  m(»t  alike. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD  176 

Thus  the  chief  divergence  of  Hawaiians  and  Europeans  is  in  the 
more  Mongoloid  features  of  the  Hawaiians.  These  are  few  in  the 
present  case,  possibly  because  some  distinctly  Mongoloid  features 
were  not  observed  (such  as  relative  hairiness  of  head  and  body). 
The  data  thus  appear  to  show  relatively  fewer  differences  between 
the  Hawaiian  and  European  than  between  the  Hawaiian  and  Chi- 
nese, and  indicate  for  the  Hawaiians  a  position  (in  respect  to  num- 
ber of  hereditary  differences)  intermediate  between  Europeans  and 
Mongoloids,  with  somewhat  closer  afiinity  to  the  European.  In 
any  event,  the  number  of  differences  between  the  Hawaiian  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Europeans  or  Chinese  on  the  other  appear  to  be 
definitely  fewer  than  those  between  the  European  and  the  Chinese. 
Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  criteria  for  judging  the 
number  and  importance  of  racial  differences,  viz.,  the  results  of 
factorial  analysis  of  the  separate  traits,  can  at  present  be  applied 
only  in  a  fragmentary  and  tentative  way,  because  of  inadequate 
evidence  on  inheritance  and  ignorance  of  the  effects  of  diverse  en- 
vironments on  most  of  the  traits  commonly  observed. 

The  results  of  study  of  the  Hawaiian-Chinese  and  Hawaiian- 
European  cross^  confirm  the  already  considerable  evidence  that 
(1)  all  physical  characters  of  the  kind  observed  are  quite  variable 
even  in  pure  racial  groups;  (2)  this  physical  variability  is  somewhat 
increased  in  the  hybrids,  chiefly  through  the  formation  of  different 
combinations  of  characters,  although  the  hybrid  groups  cannot  be 
distinguished  from  the  "pure"  types  merely  by  increased  variabil- 
ity in  single  traits;  (3)  there  are  few  or  no  constant  or  infallibly  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  any  of  the  races  or  hybrid  groups  studied. 
From  the  observations  recorded,  all  of  these  types  appear  to  have 
much  in  common,  and  the  heritable  physical  differences  are  fewer 
than  one  would  have  been  led  to  expect  from  a  knowledge  of  the 
previous  geographic  isolation  of  the  groups  and  of  the  absence  of 
recent  intercrossing  between  them.  So  far  as  the  measurements  go, 
there  appear  to  be  no  absolute  criteria  of  race  or  of  stage  of  mixture. 
The  results  of  crosses  between  "races"  show  that  "race"  as  it  ap- 
plies to  a  congeries  of  physical  characters,  must  be  used  only  in  a 
relative  or  comparative  sense,  since  "races"  as  such  do  not  segre- 
gate from  crosses,  but  break  up  into  their  separate  component  fea- 
tures. Thus  from  the  crossing  of  races  in  Hawaii  there  emerges  a 
heterogeneous  population  which  does  not  contain  distinctly  Ha- 


iniian,  or  Cbittan,  ac  Wliite  mdmdiuls,  itthoo^  maqgr  may  n- 
produoe  the  Hftwiiim,  or  Ounan  or  irbUb  oonditioB  of  ooa  or  « 
number  of  traita.  Sa<^  a  grotqi  departa  frtau  ita  parvit  itrpas  not 
ao  mudi  m  "noiai"  traita,  but  tather  I7  ailiibitmsiii  ita  pl^aical 
featuna  the  poteatialitiea  for  the  dendc^anent  of  a  fotaze  more 
unif  cnrn  type  niiieh  may  be  more  or  Ion  Hawaiiaii,  or  CSunoaa,  or 
iffaite,  (kpeading  on  oonAmatioM  of  nirriiimrilannf  wtaeh.  oatmot 
at  pteeent  be  foretold. 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PURE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


177 


Racial  Classification  of  the  Subjects 


A.   Pure  Races 

B.   Hawaiian-"White"xHybridB 

C.   Hawaiian-Chinese  Hybrids 

Hawaiian  . . .  157 

Chinese 23 

Portuguese.  .     9 
Japanese ....     8 

Korean 4 

Filipino 2 

Totals  .  .203 

Fi 36 

F, 30 

Backcross  X  Hawaiian    42 

Backcross  X  White 23 

Other  mixtures 16 

147 

Fi 28 

F, 6 

Backcross  X  Hawaiian  28 
Backcross  X  Chinese  .     5 
Other  mixtures 8 

75 

D.   Fi  Hawaiian 

E.   Tri-Racial  Hybrids 

F.    Multiple  and  Other  Hybrida 

Negro 5 

Japanese . .  4 
Samoan ...  3 
Filipino ...  1 
Indian ....  1 
Hindu ....   1 

Totals   15 

Haw.  Chinese  White.  .27 
Haw.  Indian  White ...  4 
Haw.  Malay  White ...  2 
Haw.  Japanese  White .  2 
Haw.  (other) »  WTiite  .  6 
Haw.  Japanese  Samoan  1 

42 

Haw.  Port.'  Tahitian  White  .   1 
Haw.  Chinese  Negro  White . .   1 
Haw.  Indian  Japanese  White   1 

Part  Hawaiian 8 

Non-Hawaiian  hybrids 7 

Unclassified  and  omitted ....  8 

26 

Total  for  all  groups 508 

1  Including  Portuguese  and  North  European. 

*  Including  one  each  of  Syrian,  Hindu,  Tahitian,  Negro,  Portuguese  (negro?)  and  Filipino 
and  "Eiast  Indian."  »  Probably  part  Negro. 

Nativity  of  Hawaiian  Subjects 
Subjects  listed  as  pure  Hawaiiayis  are  natives  of  Oahu  except  for  the  following: 


Males 


Females 


Subject  No. 

Native  of 

Subject  No. 

Native  of 

14 

Maui 

286 

....  Maui 

279 

....     Molokai 
....     Hawaii 

287 

Molokai 

282-284 

289 

294 

.  . .     Hawaii 

343-344 

....     Maui 

.  . .     Kauai 

345-346 

....     Hawaii 

299 

. . .     Molokai 

351-352 

a 

304 

.  . .     Maui 

355-356 

u 

311 

.  . .     Hawaii 

358-359 

u 

318 

.  . .     Hawaii 

360 

Maui 

319 

.  . .     Kauai 

361 

....     Hawaii 

322 

.  . .     Maui 

363 

Maui 

u 

331 

Hawaii 

366 

371 

u 

374-375 

....     Hawaii 

379 

....     Hawaii 

380 

....     Ivauai 

381 

....     Maui 

386 

Maui 

389 

Kauai 

393 

Maui 

396 

Kauai 

Stevedores 

Workers  io  pineapple  factories 


HAWAIIANS  OF  PUBE  AND  MIXED  BLOOD 


179 


Note  to  Table  IV,  Appendix 

In  this  and  the  following  tables,  information  on  the  parentage  of  each  subject 
is  given  in  the  column  headed  ''pedigree/'  The  following  abbreviations  are 
uewd  to  designate  race  (or  nationality)  of  the  parents. 


Am  . . .  White  American 

C Chinese 

Ca.  .  .  .  Canadian 

£ En^ish 

F Fihpino 

Fr French 

G German 

H Hawaiian 

I Amerindian 

le East  Indian 

Ir Irish 

J Japanese 

Je Jewish 


K Korean 

M Malay 

N North  European 

Ne .  .  .  .  Negro 

No ....  Norwegian 

P Portuguese 

Sa Samoan 

Sc Scotch 

Sw .  . .  .  Swedish 

Sp Spanish 

T Tahitian 

W White  (usually  North  European) 


The  mother's  race  is  given  before  the  line;  the  father's  after. 

Thus  HE/H  indicates  that  the  mother  was  1/2  Hawaiian,  l/2^English  and  the 

father  was  Hawaiian. 


TABLE  L    B&W  DATA  FOB  IBB  STtJDY  OF  THE  ANTHBOFOUETaY  OF 
PUBE  HAWAIUNS 




Ai. 

' 

UadUrMcua 

»ltH>U 

nCm. 

Rrmd  Meuon 

i«t.t<i>SI>. 

"^ 

Wewbt 

Stiltm 

S* 

« 

&"; 

li;".l. 

■s 

Sitting 

L«glh 

Bn,dlb 

2 

»• 

48 

170.8 

140.4 

59.5 

67.0 

80.9 

47.S6 

50.M 

ISS 

lei 

86.56 

m 

14* 

71 

1S2.0 

ISS.O 

69.0 

88.5 

183 

161 

87.98 

m 

W 

42 

189.6 

139.5 

eo.o 

85.0 

79.6 

46.90 

60.15 

176 

1S6 

88.57 

^ 

M 

42 

1»4 

169 

84.08 

m 

140 

47 

160.8 

182.5 

60.8 

88.8 

72.8 

44.90 

53.96 

188 

161 

ULffT 

a 

141 

«0 

185 

170.8 

188.0 

68.8 

87.8 

76.8 

44.6S 

51.5» 

198 

168 

7BJ0 

ti 

I4S 

«8 

IBS 

178.4 

147.0 

66.0 

83.8 

81.0 

45.40 

58.84 

IBS 

1S9 

S8J1 

fl 

14C 

5B 

216 

178.9 

147.8 

84.8 

90.4 

88.0 

46.98 

51.10 

199 

16S 

81:91 

B 

148 

33 

183 

183.5 

151.2 

68.8 

96.4 

88.4 

47.65 

51.97 

1S5 

164 

T&.97 

M 

ISO 

48 

830 

176.7 

147.0 

66.1 

93.1 

80.9 

46.-.8 

58.69 

IBS 

159 

H.81 

a 

ISl 

23 

208 

170.4 

140.6 

64.9 

91.4 

76.6 

44.87 

5S.64 

1« 

160 

85.i« 

fl 

ISS 

41 

800 

173.5 

141.5 

82.8 

03.2 

79.8 

45.65 

53.72 

801 

183 

81.0* 

11* 

175 

25 

147 

170.5 

140.0 

68.8 

8B.7 

77.S 

46.63 

58.61 

IBS 

105 

87.76 

17« 

47 

181 .8 

148.8 

67.4 

96.0 

SI.4 

44.77 

58.80 

190 

150 

83.68 

3 

183 

«7 

169.5 

135.5 

59.8 

86.6 

76.7 

44.66 

51.05 

178 

158 

86  J9 

ISA 

89 

147 

176.0 

141.7 

60.9 

88.8 

80.8 

46.17 

60.74 

808 

155 

T6J6 

3 

187 

32 

IW 

170.8 

138.9 

62,2 

B7.7 

76.T 

44.91 

5],3S 

186 

163 

87.68 

188' 

43 

175 

175,0 

H3.2 

02.5 

01.8 

80.7 

40.11 

52,46 

188 

135 

88.45 

m 

IQi* 

43 

IBO.O 

132.2 

58.1 

a3.fl 

74.1 

46.14 

51,99 

194 

156 

80.41 

111 

279 

27 

108 

170.9 

U5.C 

n4.4 

02.2 

81.2 

46.90 

52-12 

186 

150 

80.64 

283 

31 

1(H) 

160.4 

130.0 

ao.o 

87.4 

75.5 

45.37 

i8.52 

185 

160 

81.35 

283 

82 

100 

172.4 

142.2 

03.5 

SB.3 

76.7 

44.40 

51  .SO 

170 

147 

83.52 

281 

43 

150 

lOB.O 

130.2 

0,',.5 

89.0 

73.7 

43.61 

53.10 

191 

156 

81.67 

317 

SS 

270 

1011.4 

130.S 

03.0 

80.3 

78,e 

44.08 

52.71 

199 

159 

79.90 

333 

53 

170.6 

146.4 

03.3 

83.1 

47.08 

178 

154 

87.50 

343 

? 

isa 

104.5 

132.3 

511.2 

92.3 

73,! 

44.44 

50.05 

176 

147 

84.00 

344 

2S 

135 

105.0 

130.5 

61 .9 

80,0 

74.6 

45,21 

53.94 

160 

141 

83.43 

34S 

36 

151 

107.9 

130.4 

00.5 

02.4 

75.9 

4.5,20 

55.03 

181 

150 

82.87 

848 

28 

lt!» 

104.3 

I3;(.* 

01.0 

80.1 

T2.2 

43,04 

52.40 

176 

143 

82.39 

340 

25 

138 

165.4 

134.5 

00.9 

89.9 

73.6 

44,50 

34.35 

163 

146 

89.57 

351 

43 

185 

IU5.4 

137.3 

39.5 

89.3 

77 .8 

47,04 

33.99 

183 

156 

85.24 

352 

32 

145 

107.7 

135.4 

03.3 

90.2 

T2.1 

42,99 

58.70 

180 

159 

88.33 

855 

21 

140 

172.4 

13S.7 

69-1 

85.K 

70.0 

40,17 

48.77 

173 

147 

84.97 

^ 

1  Bubud  ol  No.  t  (Fi  Hmiiui  X  ChincK)-,  htba  at  >>'<" 
•  Fstbu  o(  No.  4.  Bodily  mcuuKmcnti  of  tbiiiubjcct  not 
« tbt  biir  Md  eyt  colon  of  the  Hiniii 


0-\     'Oo-kiTC- 


-  liiht  biaww  B(  +1  ■ 


APPENDIX 

;LE  I.  RAW  DATA  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  ANTHROPOMETRY  OP 

PURE  HAWAHANS 

Adult  Males 


•n- 

n 

L 


13 
;3 
% 
.0 
15 

;3 

1 
;i 

17 

» 
10 
27 
26 

27 

7 

0 
( 


Facial 
Index 


re 


78.54 

86.30 

75.67 

90.32 

90.57 

90.47 

81.29 

80.66 

89.78 

87.26 

78.43 

78.75 

82.05 

90.91 

90.71 

86.30 

88.19 

89.18 

91.6(» 

86.67 

81.48 

78.79 

H7.14 

H4.35 

S7.86 

»G.86 

04.44 

03.02 

01.87 

oo.oo 

HS.Od 
HS.40 
00.24 


leaauremei 

ata  in  Mm. 

Naaion    i 

Pro*.     ' 

thion     T 

Ht       ^ 

Mam,     **^- 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

Skin* 
Color 

73 

130      56 

42 

75.00 

47 

76 

120      62 

44 

70.96 

39 

67 

119      50 

41 

82.00 

40- 

80 

128      59 

46 

77.96 

23+ 

72 

126      60 

45 

75.00 

23- 

75 

132      58 

47 

81.08 

24 

69 

141      52 

41 

78.85 

•    •   • 

61 

135      52 

48 

92.31 

•    ■   • 

79 

127      58 

44 

75.86 

24 

76 

141      61 

44 

72.13 

24 

78 

142      56 

39 

69.64 

24 

07 

145      54 

48 

88.88 

24 

66 

127      59 

46 

77.96 

25 

79 

142      59 

48 

81.35 

39 

80 

124      61 

44 

72.13 

74 

128      53 

43 

81.13 

73 

131      53 

42 

79.24 

73 

129      64 

44 

08.75 

74 

130      57 

46 

80.70 

08 

.  ..       53 

42 

7{).U 

;/ 

71 

.  ..      52 

45 

S6.54 

15 

60 

.  ..      46 

41.5 

90.22 

n 

75 

.  ..      53 

47 

S8.68 

12 

70 

.  ..      GO 

49 

Sl.(>7 

lo 

71 

.  ..      55 

52 

94.54 

•    •  • 

as 

...      49 

45 

91.81 

19 

15 

55 

41 

74.54 

•    ■   • 

72 

...      50 

43 

86.00 

•    •   • 

67 

52 

45 

86.51 

•    .   • 

70 

55 

40 

72.73 

•    •   • 

70 

54 

44 

HI. 48 

•    •   • 

68 

..      52 

43 

S2.()9 

•    •   ■ 

80 

59 

43 

72.SS 

•    •   • 

Descriptive 


Hair 
Color 


Bluck 


a 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 


Black 

u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 

Black 

u 

Br-fl 

Black 


Hair 
Form 


Curly 
« 

Wavy 


u 


Straight 
Wavy 


a 


Curly 
Wavy 


tt 


a 

Curly 


a 


Wavy 
Curly 

u 

Wavy 
Curly 

u 

Wavy 

u 


Curly 
Wavy 
Curly 
Wavy 


Straight 
Curly 


Eye 
Color 


Brown 

u 

Br+2 
Br-1 
Br-1 
Br-1 
Br-1 
Br+l 
Br-1 

Bro^n 
Br-1 

u 
u 

Brown 

u 
u 

Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
Br +2 
Brown 

u 

Br+l 
Br+1 
Br+1 
Brown 
Br-fl 
Br-fl 
Br+1 
Br-fBlue 
Br-fl 
Br+l 


Strength 
rt  Ift. 


38-37 
49-42^ 
55-49 
51-46 
39-34 
40-45 
61-55 
53-47 
6:$-66 
52-48 
58-60 
61-59 
48-54 
62-55 
49-49 
62-62 
53-52 
54-48 
52-43 

56 

54 

69 

56 

56 

42 

46 

46 

38 

57 

36 

61 

64 

56 


IitslxLnd  of  No.  17  (Hawaiian);  fulher  of  No.  20.  «  Nos-  188  and  \9i  are  twins. 

^o  colors  on  Von  Liuchan's  scale  are  given  in  italics;   those  on  BrocaN  scale  in  Roman  type. 


182 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I  (continued) 
AdtdtMaU* 


Age 

Bodily  Measurementa  in  Cm. 

Head  Measurementi  n 

Subject 
No. 

Weight 
lb«. 

suture 

Height 
of  Ac- 
romion 

Height 

of  Dac- 

tylion 

Height 
Sitting 

Arm 
Length 

Index 
oi  Arm 
Length 

% 

Index 
of  Ht. 
Sitting 

% 

Length 

Breadth 

lades 

356 

38 

190 

164.4 

134.7 

61.6 

87.9 

73.1 

44.46 

53.47 

177 

150 

84.74 

858 

21 

181 

172.1 

138.3 

56.2 

91.2 

82.1 

47.70 

52.99 

174 

146 

83.91 

859 

42 

154 

165.0 

133.2 

58.4 

88.0 

74.8 

45.33 

53.88 

177 

142 

80.22 

860 

25 

135 

166.0 

136.8 

61.9 

85.S 

74.9 

45.12 

51.69 

168 

142 

84.52 

861 

30 

169 

167.7 

138.6 

59.2 

88.2 

79.4 

47.85 

52.59 

175 

147 

81.00 

868 

30 

160 

170.0 

140.9 

•    •   •    • 

88.8 

•    •   •    • 

•    •  •    • 

52.23 

162 

147 

90.74 

86G 

50 

108 

171.5 

142.1 

60.4 

90.0 

81.7 

47.64 

52.48 

181 

151 

83.42 

868 

89 

156 

166.4 

130.3 

60.4 

89.2 

75.9 

45.61 

58.61 

178 

145 

81.46 

871 

23 

165 

172.4 

140.8 

65.1 

90.3 

75.7 

43.91 

52.38 

185 

152 

82.16 

872 

59 

225 

173.5 

140.7 

59.2 

91.2 

81.5 

46.97 

52.56 

184 

155 

S4.24 

873 

31 

143 

168.9 

138.2 

60.3 

84.0 

77.9 

46.12 

49.78 

183 

152 

83.06 

374 

26 

150 

170.9 

137.5 

61.4 

91.6 

76.1 

44.58 

58.60 

184 

151 

82.06 

875 

S5 

175 

178.0 

146.9 

64.3 

89.5 

82.6 

46.40 

50.28 

180 

147 

81.67 

877 

28 

171 

175.9 

143.8 

62.2 

93.2 

81.6 

46.39 

52.98 

188 

152 

80.85 

879 

29 

160 

170.5 

138.6 

68.2 

90.1 

75.4 

44.22 

52.84 

176 

149 

84.66 

880 

46 

187 

168.9 

135.2 

60.6 

86.0 

74.6 

44.17 

50.92 

190 

142 

74.74 

881 

39 

206 

170.6 

140.1 

63.7 

91.5 

76.4 

44.78 

53.63 

185 

150 

81.08 

384 

45 

175 

109.9 

138.9 

62.0 

92.5 

70.3 

44.91 

54.44 

180 

156 

86.(17 

386 

25 

140 

172.3 

141.1 

0(;.9 

91.6 

74.2 

43.00 

53.16 

181 

143 

70.00 

389 

30 

175 

170.2 

140.6 

03.1 

91.0 

77.5 

45.53 

53.47 

182 

151 

Si.97  i 

392 

27 

115 

100.1 

130.3 

(KJ.O 

88.0 

09.7 

41.90 

52.98 

173 

150 

8<5.70 

393 

31 

lOH 

179.5 

144.9 

07.5 

95.2 

77.4 

43.12 

53.04 

181 

148 

81.77  ' 

394* 

23 

145 

170.7 

135.5 

59.9 

91.5 

44.29 

53.00 

171 

151 

SS.80 

390 

37 

152 

175.9 

145.2 

02.0 

iK\.r> 

83.2 

47.30 

53.15 

182 

149 

S1.S7  i 

397 

20 

139 

100.2 

134.9 

00.2 

S7.5 

74.7 

44.94 

52.05 

109 

156 

92.31 

402 

42 

150 

109.0 

137.0 

00.3 

S9.J) 

77.3 

45.74 

53.19 

190 

151 

79.47 

404 

39 

1H3 

170.2 

1 10.2 

03.4 

91.9 

70.H 

45.12 

53.99 

171 

150 

87.7^  i 

400 

07 

150'' 

101.2<5 

131.0 

()0.5c 

S7.()" 

.... 

.... 

.... 

179 

154 

80.03  i 

1 

407 

28 

190 

170.5 

139.H 

03.5 

90.5 

70.3 

44.75 

53.08 

183 

154 

84.13  ' 

409 

49 

142 

171.0 

140.1 

01.7 

91.0 

78.4 

45.85 

53.22 

170 

147 

S3.52  1 

410 

GO 

200 

100.0 

130.S 

00.5 

90.4 

70.3 

45.80 

54.20 

187 

157 

8:196 

412 

CO 

170.2 

1  13.2 

Ol.S 

92.5 

78.1 

11.49 

52.50 

190 

154 

81.05 

413 

41 

135 

107.1 

130.S 

01.1 

H7.1 

72.4 

43.33 

52.12 

177 

149 

81.18 

415 

58 

170 

1S2.2 

151.2 

08.0 

90.1 

H3.2 

45.0(; 

52.74 

178 

151 

S4.83 

410 

25 

135 

lOS.O 

13H.1 

Ol.O 

HO.l 

77.1 

45.73 

51.07 

183 

144 

7S.09 

419 

02 

194 

177.8 

147.S 

01.7 

90. 1 

80.1 

48.42 

50.84 

178 

149 

8S.71  ' 

420 

05 

175 

170.3 

139.9 

01.4 

92.0 

78.5 

40.09 

54.02 

179 

146 

81.5(5 

422 

00 

10S.4 

139.0 

00.1 

81.9 

78.9 

40.85 

50.41 

177 

146 

8^.4S 

423 

30 

105 

178.0 

140.5 

03.9 

95.4 

82.4 

40.14 

53.41 

180 

152 

84.44  1 

424 

64 

•    •    • 

152.9» 

120.4» 

50.0« 

70.9« 

.... 

•    •   •    • 

■    ■   •    • 

174 

146 

83.91 

9 

33 

•    •    • 

180.H 

149.0 

09.0 

92.0 

80.0 

44.25 

50.88 

198 

159 

i 

»  Red  Hawaiian  **  Ehu.' 


*  Mcnsurcments  omitted  from  averages. 


APPENDIX 


183 


TABLE  I  (continued) 
AduU  Males 


Face  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

sr 

Nasion 
Men- 
ton 
Ht. 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

thion 

Ht. 

Bi^ 

nial 

DianL 

Nasal 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

CoTor       Stre 

r 

ogth 
t. 

16 

117 

86.03 

62 

47 

44 

93.62 

Black 

Wavy 

Brown         5 

9 

k4 

119 

82.64 

67 

49 

45 

91.84 

u 

Curly 

Br+l          5 

7 

rr 

114 

83.21 

64 

45 

44 

97.78 

u 

a 

Brown        5 

8 

» 

114 

89.06 

62 

46 

38 

82.61 

u 

Wavy 

Br-fl         5 

5 

15 

110 

81.48 

70 

52 

41 

78.85 

a 

a 

Bro>vn        8 

2 

» 

113 

81.88 

64 

49 

46 

93.88 

u 

Straight 

Br+l         6 

4 

11 

118 

83.69 

73 

59 

45 

76.27 

u 

Curly 

Brown         6 

5 

16 

122 

89.70 

68 

49 

46 

93.88 

u 

u 

5 

4 

!9 

121 

87.05 

68 

50 

42 

84.00 

u 

u 

Br+l          5 

1 

^ 

119 

82.07 

70 

51 

48 

94.12 

u 

a 

Br+l         3 

9 

16 

122 

89.70 

71 

54 

42 

77.78 

u 

Wavy 

Brown        6 

1 

7 

122 

89.05 

72 

49 

47 

95.92 

a 

Curly 

Br+1         5 

4 

^ 

114 

84.44 

64 

48 

48 

100.00 

u 

Wavy 

Brown        6 

1 

^1 

129 

91.49 

78 

59 

42 

71.19 

u 

Curly 

Br-fl         5 

5 

11 

119 

90.84 

71 

52 

39 

75.00 

a 

Wavy 

Brown        5 

1 

)2 

125 

94.70 

67 

53 

47 

88.68 

u 

a 

Br-fl          4 

0 

ts 

127 

95.49 

70 

49 

44 

89.79 

u 

u 

Brown        4 

3 

H) 

119 

85.61 

69 

55 

45 

81.82 

a 

Curly 

4 

5 

» 

122 

94.57 

71 

55 

41 

74.54 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1         5 

7 

S6 

120 

88.23 

72 

53 

43 

81.13 

(I 

Curly 

Brown        4 

9 

» 

119 

92.97 

73 

55 

41 

74.54 

u 

Wavy 

4 

3 

)6 

122 

89.70 

79 

55 

42 

76.36 

a 

Curly 

5 

2 

(I 

121 

85.81 

75 

51 

42 

73.68 

Red  Br. 

u 

6 

2 

S3 

112 

84.21 

67 

5\ 

42 

82.35 

Black 

Wavy 

Br-fl          4 

1 

38 

114 

82.61 

70 

52 

41 

78.85 

u 

Curly 

Brown         5 

7 

38 

133 

96.38 

77 

57 

46 

80.70 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

S6 

118 

86.76 

66 

51 

44 

80.27 

u 

Straight 

Brown 

11 

121 

85.81 

67 

50 

51 

102.00 

u 

Wavy 

Br-1 

U 

118 

83.69 

67 

49 

46 

93.88 

u 

u 

Br+1 

35 

124 

91.85 

71 

58 

48 

82.76 

u 

u 

Br+1 

•  • 

128 

■    ■   •    « 

71 

53 

45 

84.90 

a 

u 

Brown 

87 

138 

100.73 

76 

01 

44 

72.13 

Wiitc 

a 

u 

87 

120 

87.59 

65 

51 

43 

H4.31 

Black 

u 

a 

41 

126 

89.36 

77 

5H 

43 

74.14 

u 

u 

Br+1 

83 

117 

87.97 

66 

50 

44 

88.00 

u 

Curly 

Brown 

[89 

lil 

87.05 

62 

53 

44 

83.02 

u 

u 

Blue  7 

142 

123 

86.62 

72 

55 

46 

83.64 

u 

Wavy 

Br-1 

ISO 

121 

93.08 

65 

49 

42 

85.71 

a 

u 

M 

186 

118 

86.76 

65 

53 

43 

81.13 

u 

Curly 

Br.+l 

182 

120 

97.73 

65 

52 

51 

98.08 

u 

Wavy 

Brown 

155 

184 

86.45 

83 

• 

63 

45 

71.43 

a 

Curly 

u 

^  Recorded  as  "almost  blue." 


181 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I  (omtimied) 


Ac* 

Bodily  JMMVBBntiiD  Gm» 

EmdUmmm 

i^^bM 

Wfligbt 
Ibi. 

SUtm 

ofZeT 

H«Uht 
of3£ 
tflUw 

EMiht 

aSSm 

Am 

Lnfllh 

Inte 
of  Am 

Inte 
ofHt. 

Uvfth  BkMdUi 

% 

1 

A 

1 

n 

M 

17 

■  «   • 

176.0 

145.0 

69.0 

94.0 

76.0 

48.18 

58.41 

185 

155 

88.78    U 
82.51    U 

SO 

17 

•   •  • 

165.5 

188.0 

60.4 

88.7 

72.6 

48.87 

50.57 

188 

151 

aft 

18 

•   •  • 

155.9 

1«7.5 

57.8 

88.0 

69.7 

44.71 

58.84 

185 

150 

81.08 

11 

84 

15 

•   •  • 

167.8 

189.8 

58.0 

88.0 

81.8 

48.89 

52.60 

190 

160 

84.21 

It 

40 

15 

•    •  * 

154.0 

122.0 

58.0 

77.0 

69.0 

44.80 

50.00 

178 

144 

88.24 

IK 

5t 

16 

•  •  • 

166.4 

185.0 

60.9 

87.0 

74.1 

44.58 

52.28 

196 

164 

88.67 

Ul 

58 

18 

•   •  • 

175.7 

145.5 

68.0 

89.2 

82.5 

46.95 

50.77 

184 

158 

85J7 

Ifl 

54 

17 

•   •  • 

154.7 

126.0 

58.0 

79.5 

68.0 

48.96 

51.89 

188 

159 

86.88 

111 

19$ 

19 

150 

155.2 

188.8 

58.2 

89.2 

75.1 

48.89 

57.47 

188 

149 

81.87 

m 

189 

18 

•   ■  • 

159.9 

122.0 

51.9 

78.6 

70.1 

48.84 

46.08 

171 

154 

90.06 

in 

404 

16 

•  •  • 

159.8 

181.1 

58.7 

81.8 

72.4 

45.81 

50.88 

169 

147 

86J8 

... 

AdidtFemaUi 

16* 

48 

•   •  • 

162.5 

188.0 

59.5 

82.7 

78.5 

45.S8 

50.89 

181 

159 

87.85 

lU 

17 

adult 

•   •  • 

164.5 

184.5 

68.8 

84.0 

71.2 

48.28 

51.06 

180 

161 

89.44 

111 

18 

21 

•   •  • 

151.5 

124.0 

5S.7 

81.0 

70.8 

46.40 

58.46 

180 

159 

88.8S 

m 

57 

21 

•    •  ■ 

164.9 

133.1 

62.4 

84.S 

70.7 

42.87 

51.12 

195 

144 

78.85 

111 

87 

23 

115 

106.8 

137.5 

64.0 

85.8 

78.5 

44.06 

51.44 

189 

158 

83.60 

118 

91 

19 

•    •    • 

103.7 

133.1 

03.2 

87.3 

09.9 

42.70 

53.33 

102 

153 

79.69 

184 

101 

46 

•    •    • 

1G4.2 

133.5 

01.9 

90.0 

71.0 

43.61 

55.18  ' 

181 

154 

85.08 

lli 

104 

48 

•    •    ■ 

109.2 

140.8 

64.2 

87.3 

70.0 

45.27 

51.59  ' 

177 

148 

83.62 

114 

105 

67 

•    •    • 

101.5 

133.2 

61.8 

87.8 

72.4 

44.S3 

54.36! 

185 

151 

81.62 

111 

106 

18 

•    ■    • 

lGi2.5 

132.3 

58.5 

85.9 

73.8 

45.41 

52.86 

184 

152 

82.61 

VIA 

107 

53 

•    •   • 

lOO.i 

135.3 

62.0 

88.4 

73.3 

44.10 

53.19 

184 

151 

82.07 

m 

108 

47 

•    •   • 

150.6 

128.6 

01.0 

82.4 

07.0 

43.17 

52.02  > 

180 

155 

83.33 

IM 

110 

30 

•    •    • 

165.7 

134.5 

58.9 

85.9 

75.0 

45.02 

51.84  1 

178 

145 

81.46 

IM 

112 

31 

«    •   « 

1G2.3 

129.8 

59.8 

88.1 

70.0 

43.13 

54.28, 

190 

154 

78.57 

lis 

153 

23 

147 

103.6 

134.5 

62.0 

83.1 

72.3 

44.19 

50.79  1 

183 

159 

86.89 

\\l 

161 

19 

158 

160.0 

131.9 

59.6 

80.4 

72.3 

45.19 

54.00 

198 

161 

81.31 

Hi 

162 

18 

•    •   • 

161.7 

132.5 

60.2 

80.0 

72.3 

44.71 

53.55  1 

180 

149 

82.78 

lU 

286 

35 

235 

107.0 

137.6 

08.0 

91.0 

09.0 

41.08 

54.49  , 

171 

152 

88.89 

.  • 

287 

51 

160 

100.0 

131.5 

00.5 

80.0 

71.5 

44.44 

53.45 

175 

147 

84.00 

.  • 

289 

22 

158 

103.9 

135.0 

61.8 

87.9 

73.2 

44.00 

53.03 

179 

148 

82.68 

.  • 

294 

23 

140 

157.9 

127.1 

65.0 

87.7 

•    ■   •    • 

•    ■   •    • 

55.54 

171 

150 

87.72 

•  • 

299 

35 

150 

1G7.9 

139.3 

05.4 

89.3 

-js.g 

44.01 

53.19  , 

172 

145 

84.30 

m     • 

804 

SO 

180 

102.1 

131.5 

04.2 

89.4 

67.3 

41.52 

55.15  , 

171 

146 

85.38 

- 

811 

27 

145 

163.0 

131.9 

61.7 

92.4 

•;o.2 

43.07 

56.09  < 

i 

169 

149 

88.16 

^  ^ 

•  Siiter  of  cf  No.  4  (Hawaiian);  mother  of  Noi.  17  and  18  following. 


APPENDIX 


185 


TABLE  I  (oontinued) 
Immature  Males 


Face  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

on 

B- 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

thion 

Ht. 

nial 
Diam. 

Nautl 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

Strength 
rt  1ft 

0 
3 
5 
5 

9 
5 
5 

8 
8 
1 
1 

90.28 
87.86 
89.93 
85.03 
86.86 
86.81 
86.21 
81.94 
90.78 
81.62 
86.72 

78 
82 
80 
72 
73 
78 
75 
71 
78 
65 
71 

115 
105 
112 
122 
110 
122 
121 
117 
118 
110 

•    •    • 

53 
65 
57 
55 
48 
56 
61 
56 
62 
48 
48 

41 
43 
39 
40 
40 
39 
39 
41 
39 
38 
40 

77.36 
66.15 
68.42 
72.73 
83.33 
69.64 
63.93 
73.21 
62.90 
79.17 
83.33 

40- 

40- 

40 

24 

47 

39 

39 

40- 

39 

25 

•    •   • 

Black 

M 
U 

a 
u 
u 
u 
a 
a 
u 

Br+l 

Wavy 

u 

a 
u 

Curly 

u 

Wavy 

Curly 

Wavy 

Straight 

Straight 

Br-fl 

Br+l 

Brown 

Br+1 

Brown 

Br-fl 

Br.+l 

Br+2 

Br-fl 

Brown 

Br+l 

53-40 
39-40 
30-29 
56-50 
26-24 
54-54 

45 
3»-35 
52-58 
25-24 

34 

Adult  Females 


2 

84.72 

64 

lb 

I      52 

39 

75.00 

47 

Black 

SI.  curly 

Br-fl 

30-29 

1 

80.28 

63 

lb 

I      54 

30 

7^.22 

24 

a 

Wavy 

u 

27-25 

0 

77.85 

05 

lb 

I      47 

42 

89.30 

40- 

u 

V.  curly 

Br-l-2 

35-33 

3 

88.06 

75 

ii: 

i      52 

41 

78.85 

•    •    • 

u 

Wavy 

Brown 

25-19 

4 

87.32 

71 

12: 

(      55 

42 

76.30 

24 

u 

a 

Br-fl 

S4-27 

7 

88.81 

74 

IH 

i      55 

40 

72.72 

24 

u 

Curly 

Br+2 

29-34 

7 

85.81 

72 

12J 

J      57 

45 

78.94 

23 

u 

a 

Brown 

25-24 

1 

82.87 

70 

12^ 

t      57 

41 

71.92 

47- 

u 

Wavy 

u 

27-22 

2 

80.79 

67 

12J 

)      50 

44 

8H.00 

47- 

u 

Crinkly 

u 

24-21 

5 

85.18 

59 

12^ 

I      47 

41 

87.23 

47- 

u 

Frizzy 

Br+2 

29-27 

3 

87.23 

72 

12i 

J      57 

44 

77.19 

47- 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

37-31 

4 

78.62 

68 

12' 

r    55 

40 

7i:.72 

24 

u 

Crinkly 

u 

22-18 

5 

03.98 

72 

111 

r    49 

37 

75.51 

23 

u 

Straight 

Br-1 

35-26 

4 

86.11 

71 

12] 

k      52 

41 

78.8-1 

47- 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

39-30 

8 

81.94 

67 

12( 

)      52 

41 

78.84 

23 

u 

tt 

u 

26-17 

Ji 

88.65 

71 

IK 

}      53 

39 

73.58 

47 

u 

Frizzy 

u 

30-31 

3 

81.88 

62 

IH 

i     49 

40 

81.63 

24 

u 

Straight 

a 

35-33 

13 

84.96 

61 

•    •   < 

48 

49 

102.08 

tr 

u 

Wavy 

u 

32 

20 

86.96 

67 

•    •   < 

54 

48 

HH.S9 

ih 

u 

Wavy 

u 

41 

09 

83.21 

60 

•    • 

45 

39 

HG.67 

10 

u 

Curly 

Brown 

27 

11 

85.71 

60 

•    • 

45 

35 

77.78 

10 

u 

Wavy 

u 

25 

09 

83.85 

65 

•    • 

51 

40 

78.43 

15 

u 

u 

Br+1 

•    • 

18 

87.60 

66 

•    • 

51 

43 

81.31 

15 

u 

a 

Brown 

27 

IS 

86.26 

67 

•    • 

47 

44 

93.62 

17 

u 

u 

Br-fl 

24 

TAUT  J  I  [eOBtlBM^ 

AdJlFtmJm 


Ate 

BoailyUwu 

l^^u 

^^.^ 

"^ 

Wtighi 

Suiun 

■oionii 

ga 

A 

loda 

LoBctb 

Bnwllh 

1 

SIC 

SB 

14a 

156.9 

127.7 

S3.3 

86.2 

71J 

46.88 

65.80 

170 

148 

87.06 

SIS 

28 

100 

166.0 

138.0 

64.3 

S6.4 

7S» 

44.46 

58.05 

172 

148 

86.06 

319 

48 

164.0 

130.3 

63.3 

gs.o 

72.9 

44.46 

53.S8 

166 

ISl 

00.96 

SH 

20 

169.6 

136.7 

68.0 

88.0 

73.1 

44.14 

52.47 

164 

144 

87.80 

8M 

20 

174.1 

145.0 

64.7 

S9.3 

80.S 

46.13 

51.33 

175 

146 

88.4S 

asi 

1& 

ii« 

154.7 

130.4 

59.0 

83.4 

67.4 

43.57 

5SJi6 

167 

146 

87.43 

SS8 

2S 

120 

160.4 

131.3 

60.0 

86.9 

70.7 

44.08 

5S.66 

181 

138 

76.M 

437 

SO 

138 

157J 

138.6 

59.B 

83.4 

68.7 

43.62 

53.05 

179 

146 

81.00 

U9 

SS 

103.0 

136.3 

56.3 

S4.4 

61.49 

173 

141 

81.98 

451 

48 

IU.S 

137.3 

59.3 

S3.0 

67^ 

43.78 

63.80 

180 

164 

a5J5 

;>r 

mature 

PtmaU 

1 

90> 

IS 

153.5 

131  .S 

56.9 

76.B 

64.4 

41.05 

49.H 

173 

152 

&7.8« 

HI 

11» 

7 

124.0 

07.8 

44.0 

61.2 

53.8 

43.39 

49.35 

16B 

140 

82.84 

111 

H 

17 

162.7 

133.3 

68.7 

g4.S 

73.5 

46.17 

68.18 

188 

149 

80.11 

111 

87 

14 

1(7.1 

135.4 

64.8 

80.0 

70.6 

44.60 

61.90 

186 

146 

78.40 

III 

lis 

0 

l«fl.5 

108.0 

46.4 

09.3 

56.3 

43.73 

48.48 

173 

146 

84.BS 

IH 

lit 

8 

J  34.9 

107.0 

4)1.4 

09.5 

58.5 

44.08 

58.30 

173 

149 

80.13 

lU 

17B 

13 

147.1 

11H.5 

fll.4 

74.4 

07.1 

45.01 

50.58 

175 

148 

81.14 

ID) 

IDS 

13 

135.7 

108.0 

47.2 

78.4 

Ofl.8 

41.80 

53.35 

174 

149 

85.03 

111 

109 

171.3 

130.4 

G1.3 

8M.0 

78.1 

4.1.-.9 

.il.37 

188 

l.i2 

83..« 

!« 

200 

134.1 

18.1.8 

50.8 

81.0 

67.0 

4J.B7 

.-.^i„-,^i 

IHM 

113 

SjM 

Hi 

801 

151.S 

183.3 

S5.8 

80.4 

67.5 

44.55 

53.07 

165 

143 

80.67 

no 

soe 

150.4 

180.3 

S6.7 

83.0 

60.8 

44.68 

58.43 

177 

158 

80.37 

111 

808 

163.4 

133.8 

S8.9 

87.4 

74.3 

45.47 

S3.4B 

178 

140 

83.71 

Hi 

810 

154.8 

183.8 

54.9 

84.4 

08.0 

44.51 

54.52 

175 

153 

87.43 

lis 

812 

151.6 

183.7 

53.8 

88.9 

68.0 

45.45 

54.68 

179 

144 

80.45 

11» 

216 

153.8 

188.8 

55.1 

79.8 

67.1 

43.80 

58.09 

177 

144 

81.30 

114 

218 

150.8 

180.7 

50.8 

88.1 

60.9 

46.54 

54.60 

180 

156 

88.67 

111 

220 

103.3 

13i.8 

63.8 

80.9 

72.4 

44.33 

53.81 

188 

152 

83.53 

111 

234 

161.5 

130.1 

S7.3 

84.7 

72.8 

45.08 

52.45 

170 

140 

83.35 

IB 

229 

150.0 

188.7 

57.S 

85.0 

71.4 

44.00 

53.46 

171 

154 

eo.o« 

WT 

133 

lOi.l 

138.8 

60.0 

88.3 

71.9 

44.60 

54.47 

178 

153 

85.39 

111 

ass 

151.5 

180.9 

5.1.8 

81.9 

67.1 

44.29 

54,06 

177 

156 

88.14 

HO 

237 

158.0 

181.8 

58.9 

80.3 

68.0 

45.33 

52.83 

171 

146 

86.55 

no 

240 

158.5 

123.8 

64.3 

79.3 

69.5 

45.57 

52.00 

171 

152 

88.89 

111 

241" 

1S4.0 

183.5 

55.3 

78.6 

68.8 

44.89 

51.04 

180 

151 

83.89 

111 

24« 

W3.7 

122.8 

56.2 

84.0 

60.0 

43.33 

54.65 

176 

148 

84.67 

1(ff 

^^_ 

^^^ 

^^ 



"== 

u  Sou  9(1  ud  «T  u 


APPENDIX 


187 


TABLE  I  (continued) 
Adult  Female* 


Face  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

t 

Nanon 
Men- 
ton 
Ht. 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

thion 

HL 

Bijso- 

mal 

Diam. 

Nasal 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Ck>lor 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

&>T 

Strength 
rt  1ft, 

% 

8 
1 

r 
» 
) 

5 

109 
108 
113 
114 
127 
101 
114 
113 
109 
116 

85.16 
78.26 
85.61 
88.37 
93.38 
81.45 
89.76 
87.60 
83.85 
85.92 

58 
64 
66 
65 
69 
59 
63 
69 
62 
60 

45 
50 
49 
51 
55 
44 
48 
47 
44 
54 

41 
38 
42 
38 
39 
38 
38 
38 
39 
47 

91.11 
76.00 
85.71 
74.51 
70.91 
86.30 
79.17 
80.85 
88.64 
87.04 

n 

13 

Ik 

15 
12 
13 
11 

•  •  • 

■    •   • 

•  •   ■ 

Br+l 
Black 

u 

Br+l 
Black 

u 
u 

•      • 

Black 

u 

Wavy 

a 
a 
u 

Curly 

Wavy 
a 

•    • 

Kinky 
Wavy 

Br+l 
Brown 
Br+l 

o 
u 
u 

Brown 

•  • 

Brown 
Br+l 

32 
29 

27 
27 
33 
21 
31 

«   • 

•  • 

•  • 

Immature  Females 


I 

3 

9 
6 

15 
19 
18 
\l 


109 

80.74 

67 

98 

50 

34 

68.00 

23 

Black 

Wavy 

Brown 

19-13 

94 

72.31 

55 

100 

41 

34 

82.93 

40- 

u 

Straight 

u 

10-9 

120 

86.33 

71 

115 

53 

40 

75.47 

47- 

u 

Wavy 

u 

25-23 

124 

93.23 

74 

109 

51 

40 

74.07 

24 

u 

Curly 

u 

22-25 

108 

84.38 

68 

101 

48 

37 

77.08 

47- 

Br+2 

Wavy 

Br+2 

7-7 

110 

82.71 

67 

107 

54 

36 

66.67 

47 

Black 

u 

Br+l 

14-10 

113 

90.40 

65 

113 

50 

37 

74.00 

47 

Br+l 

a 

Brown 

19-14 

107 

81.25 

61 

111 

43 

41 

95.35 

23+ 

Black 

u 

Br+l 

18-12 

•   •  • 

•    •  •    • 

•   •  • 

■    •  « 

60 

38 

63.33 

47 

u 

u 

u 

44-37 

118 

84.29 

68 

119 

54 

38 

70.37 

23 

u 

a 

Brown 

20-23 

113 

80.14 

70 

123 

50 

34 

68.00 

47 

u 

Frizzy 

Br+l 

28-17 

125 

87.41 

74 

130 

57 

39 

68.42 

23- 

Br+l 

Curly 

Brown 

22-25 

120 

86.96 

70 

122 

54 

3.5 

64.81 

23 

Black 

Wavy 

Br+l 

39-35 

118 

86.76 

70 

122 

50 

41 

82.00 

47- 

a 

Curly 

u 

28-21 

117 

86.03 

72 

133 

51 

39 

76.47 

24 

u 

Wavy 

Brown 

22-20 

113 

83.09 

61 

123 

49 

43 

87.76 

24 

u 

u 

Br+l 

24-23 

111 

79.29 

66 

129 

51 

44 

S6.27 

24 

u 

Straight 

Brown 

24-17 

115 

84.56 

70 

123 

53 

39 

73.58 

24 

u 

Wavy 

u 

31-28 

113 

81.29 

64 

128 

49 

39 

79.59 

24 

u 

Curly 

a 

30-31 

107 

78.68 

60 

123 

49 

37 

75.51 

24 

Red  Br 

Wavy 

Br-1 

25-17 

120 

82.76 

74 

138 

57 

40 

70.18 

24 

Black 

It 

Br+l 

32-30 

114 

84.44 

67 

123 

48 

37 

77.08 

24 

a 

u 

Browu 

31-26 

117 

84.17 

70 

119 

54 

39 

72.22 

23 

a 

u 

Br+l 

21-19 

117 

84.78 

68 

124 

54 

41 

75.93 

47 

u 

straight 

Brown 

24-20 

119 

81.40 

72 

127 

56 

43 

76.79 

24- 

a 

Wavy 

Brown 

29-27 

116 

87.21 

72 

118 

51 

35 

64.81 

24 

a 

u 

Br-1 

20-26 

188 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I  (oontinued) 
Immahm  Femaia 


Afle 

Bodily  Measurements 

in  Cm. 

HendMeMVN 

^_  ■ 

Snbjeet 
No, 

Wci^ 
Ibi. 

Suture 

Heicht 
of  Ac- 
rMDiaii 

Height 

oIDms 

tylMo 

Heifbt 
Sitting 

Ann 
Length 

Index 

of  Ann 

Length 

% 

Index 
ofHL 
Sitting 

Length 

BiMdth 

him 

% 

243 

16 

•    •   • 

153.0 

125.1 

55.6 

84.9 

69.6 

45.49 

55.49 

173 

153 

Rft.44 

246 

16 

157.5 

125.8 

53.4 

81.8 

72.4 

45.97 

51.94 

180 

155 

8S.ll 

247" 

15 

155.3 

127.8 

57.9 

83.0 

69.9 

45.01 

53.44 

184 

142 

77.17 

256 

11 

132.2 

107.5 

45.2 

69.2 

62.3 

47.13 

52.34 

168 

164 

97.01 

257 

16 

151.5 

122.4 

54.2 

77.9 

68.2 

45.02 

51.42 

169 

148 

87J7 

258 

16 

154.2 

122.8 

53.4 

83.4 

69.4 

45.01 

54.09 

176 

149 

M.06 

1^1 

10 

145.0 

115.4 

50.4 

75.6 

65.0 

44.83 

52.14 

172 

155 

90.19 

266 

17 

153.9 

124.4 

55.0 

80.6 

69.4 

45.09 

52.37 

175 

158 

90.tt 

267 

16 

147.0 

120.8 

55.5 

78.4 

65.3 

44.42 

53.33 

171 

154 

90JM 

268 

16 

151.8 

124.8 

56.6 

85.3 

68.2 

44.93 

56.19 

177 

163 

9109 

270 

17 

157.5 

127.8 

58.5 

85.1 

69.3 

44.00 

54.03 

182 

154 

84.es 

420 

17 

118 

155.5 

124.4 

56.9 

80.7 

67.5 

43.41 

51.90 

169 

141 

83.49 

APPENDIX 


189 


TABLE  I  (continued) 
Immature  Females 


Face  Measurements  in 

Mm. 

Descriptive 

Diun. 

Nasion 

ton 
Ht. 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Narion 

Pros- 

thion 

Ht. 

Bip>- 

nial 

Diam. 

Nautl 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 

Form 

Color 

Strength 

142 

114 

80.28 

65 

124 

47 

41 

87.23 

24 

Black 

Wavy 

Brown 

21-20 

148 

110 

83.22 

71 

125 

40 

35 

71.43 

25 

u 

Curly 

Brown 

23-22 

1S9 

122 

87.77 

75 

123 

58 

45 

77.50 

24 

Br+l 

Wavy 

Brown 

20-21 

184 

111 

82.84 

G6 

120 

50 

37 

74.00 

24 

u 

u 

Br-1 

22-17 

187 

107 

78.10 

66 

110 

40 

37 

75.51 

24 

Black 

u 

Br-1 

20-20 

189 

118 

84.80 

72 

118 

55 

30 

70.01 

23 

a 

u 

Brown 

31-28 

187 

112 

81.75 

66 

121 

40 

38 

77.55 

23 

Brown 

Straight 

a 

20-15 

140 

113 

80.71 

66 

122 

40 

42 

85.71 

24 

Black 

Wavy 

a 

20-20 

145 

115 

70.31 

64 

133 

40 

41 

83.67 

23 

u 

Ciu-ly 

« 

26-24 

148 

117 

81.82 

68 

130 

51 

40 

78. 43 

24 

u 

Straight 

Br-1 

20-22 

189 

117 

84.17 

70 

125 

50 

37 

74.00 

24 

u 

Wavy 

Brown 

34-27 

1587 

■    «   • 

85.83 

58 

•    •   ■ 

42 

35 

88.10 

•    •  • 

•     •     ■     • 

«    •  •    ■ 

•  •  •   • 

•   •    • 

190 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  II.    PURE  CHINESE 


Adult  Males 


Age 

Bodily  Measurements  in  Cm. 

Head  MeasarsEDenta  in  Ma 

Subject 
No. 

Weight 
lbs. 

Stature 

Height 
otAc- 
romion 

Height 
of  Dac- 

tylion 

Height 
Sitting 

Arm 
Length 

Index 

of  Arm 

Length 

% 

Index 
of  Ht. 

Sitting 
% 

Length 

Breadth 

Iiidei 

% 

lb. 

fm 
td 

68 

20 

•    •    • 

164.8 

188.5 

58.0 

86.2 

75.5 

45.95 

52.47 

184 

148 

77.71 

lU 

64 

20 

187 

171.0 

137.5 

68.2 

87.6 

74.8 

43.45 

51.28 

185 

155 

83.78 

m 

78 

20 

•    •   • 

169.3 

185.5 

62.8 

98.8 

72.7 

42.94 

55.40 

200 

146 

78.00 

US 

169 

50 

144 

160.8 

131.2 

56.5 

87.8 

74.7 

46.45 

54.29 

190 

154 

81.05 

lit 

172 

51 

«    •  • 

159.4 

128.5 

57.2 

90.0 

71.8 

44.73 

56.46 

197 

146 

74.11 

lis 

178 

85 

126 

169.2 

135.3 

60.6 

90.3 

74.7 

44.15 

53.87 

190 

156 

82.10 

119 

174 

45 

no 

154.9 

126.0 

57.5 

81.1 

68.5 

44.22 

52.86 

194 

158 

81.44 

117 

865 

84 

158 

165.9 

135.5 

59.2 

85.7 

76.3 

45.99 

51.66 

181 

140 

77.85 

•  «  • 

869 

82 

130 

170.0 

137.3 

58.9 

88.8 

78.4 

46.12 

52.28 

1 

174 

143 

8118 

... 

Immature  Males 


1 

16 

•      •     a 

162.0 

133.0 

60.0 

83.7 

73.0 

45.06 

51.67 

178 

158 

88  76 

Itt 

8 

12 

*      •      • 

127.0 

101.0 

46.6 

65.7 

54.4 

42.83 

51.78 

169 

145 

85.80 

119 

70 

19 

•      •     • 

167.4 

130.5 

50.8 

87.0 

76.7 

45.82 

51.97 

192 

152 

79.16 

121 

72 

15 

a       ■      • 

154.0 

131.0 

54.9 

80.5 

79.1 

51.30 

52.27 

182 

152 

83.51 

112 

74 

18 

110 

103.4 

132.3 

57.4 

82.3 

74.9 

45.84 

50.37 

179 

153 

85.47 

1» 

126 

16 

101 

100.1 

132.0 

03.5 

88.4 

08.5 

42.79 

55.21 

195 

144 

73.8* 

116 

Adult  Females 


170 

39 

118 

153.0 

125.3 

54.9 

80.8 

70.4 

45.83 

52.60 

176 

146 

82.95 

295 

22 

103 

151.4 

124.1 

59.4 

81.8 

04.7 

42.73 

54.03 

165 

138 

83.64 

332 

22 

94 

100.0 

134.0 

03.3 

84.9 

70.7 

44.19 

53.06 

104 

133 

81.10 

119 


Immature  Females 


118 
122 


10 

100 

157.9 

120.1 

57.9 

80.5 

08.2 

43.19 

54.78 

186 

143 

76.88 

18 

•  ■  • 

100.2 

131.5 

00.2 

80.9 

71.3 

44.51 

54.24 

178 

149 

83.70 

115 
112 


APPENDIX 


191 


TABLE  II.    PURE  CHINESE 

Advlt  Males 


Face  Measurementa  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

anon 
len- 
ton 
Ht. 

Fadal 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

tbion 

Ht. 

mai 
Diam. 

Nasal 

Ht 

Naiial 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

47 

47 

23 
24- 

24 

23 
i3- 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

Strength  pJdi 

128 
123 
130 
123 
116 
135 
125 
120 
118 

06.96 
85.41 
92.19 
84.24 
85.29 
93.75 
90.57 
91.60 
86.76 

80 
76 
74 
71 
64 
74 
71 
72 
66 

110 
118 
115 
134 
116 
122 
123 

•    •   « 

•        •       a 

56 
55 
55 
55 
52 
52 
51 
49 
45 

41 
40 
40 
45 
43 
42 
44 
38 
41 

73.21 
72.73 

72.73 
81.82 
82.69 
80.77 
80.27 
77.55 
91.11 

Black 

tt 

u 
a 
a 
u 
u 
tt 
u 

Straight 

u 
u 
tt 
u 
u 
a 
a 
u 

Brown 

Br-fl 
Brown 

Br-1 

Brown 
Br-1 
Brown 

36-37 
48-48 
58-60 
41-37 
34-20 
40-39 
38-41 

54 

32 

0 
0 

+ 

0 
0 

Immature  Afales 


120 

85.11 

70 

120 

54 

40 

74.07 

•    ■ 

u 

U 

Black 

44-31 

0 

113 

86.92 

68 

114 

47 

36 

76.59 

•    « 

u 

u 

u 

9-8 

0 

119 

79.86 

72 

114 

53 

39 

73.58 

23 

<» 

a 

Brown 

58-48 

+ 

no 

100.00 

70 

112 

55 

39 

70.91 

47- 

M 

u 

Br-hl 

24-25 

0 

121 

85.81 

71 

121 

54 

39 

72.22 

23 

U 

u 

Brown 

47-45 

+ 

125 

99.20 

72 

113 

53 

42 

79.24 

24 

U 

a 

Br-f2 

43-28 

+ 

Adult  Females 


114 

• 

84.44 

67 

127 

52 

41 

78.85 

23 

u 

a 

Brown 

30-25 

+ 

102 

81.27 

62 

•    ■   ■ 

40 

36 

90.00 

•    • 

Br-fl 

u 

•   •  •   • 

27 

+ 

100 

78.74 

59 

•    •    • 

45 

34 

75.55 

•    • 

Black 

u 

Br-fl 

27 

0 

Immature  Females 


118 

87.40 

69 

107 

47 

34 

72.34 

23 

u 

u 

Br-fl 

23-20 

^ 

117 

85.40 

70 

116 

51 

34 

66.67 

23 

u 

u 

Brown 

25-21 

+ 

describing  the  eye  fold  the  following  abbreviation^  are  used:  -{■  present;   —  absent;  0  no  record;   ^  slight. 


192 


APPEXDEX 


TABLE  m.    Fi  HAWAIIAX  X  CHINESE 
Htbbdb  mmjMEMSk  Hawjulax  jkssu  Socek  Ci 


Bm&It 


Cm. 


aobiert 


1S4 

570  I 
57S  I 
411     ! 

I 


StatvR! 


IlM. 


21 

4S 
48 


lej  .  157.S  '  I».i  i5.9 
171  i  176.^  144.J  ^.3 
lit)  i  IJ7.1  1^.7  '  6»>.») 
I^     171.0  !  139.4  I  W.3 


Height 

5ittin« 

Lngtib 

,  \sAex 

'of  Arm 

olHt. 

Stttiac 

La«tkBc«ftihJk 

lades 

ftm- 

Id 

>i.3 

73.3 

46.45 

je.u 

183      151 

82.51     111 

93.3 

77.i 

43.S1 

53.06 

165  !  1>4 

93.33     ... 

S#J.3    ' 

66.7 

42.46 

55.06 

176 

141 

80.11  !  ... 

9^.^ 

74.9 

43.67 

53.76 

176 

loo 

88.07 

... 

Immtdure  Males 


« 

15 

-    .    . 

166.7 

136.0 

62.0 

S2.2 

74.0 

44.39 

49.31 

183 

158 

86.33 

117 

28 

15 

157.5 

127.5 

56.0 

79.4 

71.5 

45.40 

50.41 

166 

156 

93.97 

111 

SV 

19 

1       ■    ■    • 

169.0 

137.5 

06.3 

91.5 

71.2 

42.13 

.>4.14 

188 

162 

86.17 

\il 

56 

17 

.    -    - 

lr;5.0 

135.9 

Ol.S 

V3.3 

74.1 

44.91 

51.70 

176 

loi 

89.^0 

\ii 

75 

17 

.    .    . 

1*3*1.4 

13^.5 

oS.5 

s*>.7 

72.0 

44.S9 

50.31 

170 

LW 

90.00 

lis 

155 

16 

\:tfi 

1  JH.S 

129.U 

02.3 

v;.2 

f>>.7 

42.t)0 

54.2S 

177 

152 

85.87 

119 

166 

19 

102 

17«-S 

143.5 

Ol.S 

91.0 

5>1.7 

46.27 

51.81 

200 

155 

77.50 

121 

354 

19 

,   132 

i  1W.7 

132.0 

00.0 

v>.9 

72.0 

44-SO 

54.07 

171 

148 

86.55 

471 

17 

,    11^ 

153.0 

124.0 

54.!> 

Hl.7 

09.S 

45.44 

53.19 

174 

138 

79.31 

1  ••• 

485 

17 

1M5 

10.3.1 

I:>5.5 

W.2 

S4.0 

71.3 

4:M9 

50.S7 

16,> 

.   144 

S7.27 

.  ■  • 

.1.^*.'*  Fr-:.iU. 


4»» 

l':i." 

!.>,'.•■ 

♦:i  s 

^i  5 

7i»  -> 

4/..f".'> 

5-,\4s 

175 

152 

st;.js3 

\^^ 

H> 

Is 

i.-.:.^ 

\-:''.i 

.->',.  \ 

S.i.S 

7".*.» 

i4  :».; 

55.1-' 

17:i 

15:3 

sS.4o 

114 

HM 

il 

114 

] »;■»  s 

!.;i.!' 

•  •-.*■ 

Ni:..; 

•;.•..; 

i:1 1 

5;.7;» 

Is:? 

14S 

M.Sl 

107 

11*0 

IS 

!•■!.♦'. 

1-J!«.5 

.-,:*. 1 

--1.7 

7' '.  » 

4.--..-» 

5-2.  U 

175 

15-> 

s7.S<> 

lis 

21*2 

U) 

ll'» 

I'ln.T 

151." 

r.\.:\ 

^l."..» 

•;.»  7 

5:>.V> 

105 

1:>.S 

S1.51) 

3<XJ 

.v.» 

115 

155.4 

1 -J*;.".' 

01.5 

^'.1  '.J 

♦i5.4 

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Sii) 

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y 

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■ 

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171) 

140 

SI. 50 

H 

443 

17 

134 

151.2 

lxM.5 

54.5 

si.l 

.    (JO.S 

44. IS 

55.02 

n;5 

l:'>0 

S2.42 

1 

•  < 

435 

17 

100 

154.5 

124.S 

54.3 

.  H2.:{ 

1 

;   70.5 

45.05 

55.27 

101 

140 

i  S<>.95 

• 

•   Brother  of  No.  iS. 


*  Wife  vl  No.  4    HawMiJan',  niolhor  of  NOs.  6-15  ;  HacLcTo^s  F.  X  Hawaiian). 


APPENDIX 


193 


TABLE  ni.    Fi  HAWAIIAN  X  CHINESE 

HtBBIDS  between  HAWAnAN  AND  SoUTH  ChINESE 

AduH  Males 


Pace  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

^asion 
klen- 

ton 

Ht. 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Naaion 

Pros- 

thion 

flt. 

Bi^. 

nial 

Diam.. 

Nasal 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

•  « 

9 

•  • 

•  • 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

Strength 

Eye 
Fold 

117 
116 
111 
119 

84.17 
81.12 
85.38 
87.50 

70 
66 
63 

72 

119 

•  ■   • 

•  «   • 

•  «   ■ 

52 
54 

48 
53 

43 
36 
38 
40 

82.69 
66.67 
79.17 
75.47 

Black 
u 

i. 

a 

Wavy 

u 

Straight 
Curly 

Brown 

Br-1 

Brown 
tt 

36-29 
39 
41 

•    • 

0 
0 

Immature  Males 


116 

81.11 

81 

112 

58 

45 

77.59 

40 

U 

Straight 

Brown 

35-32 

0 

118 

85.50 

69 

115 

53 

37 

69.81 

23 

•• 

SI  wavy 

u 

45-38 

0 

138 

94.52 

87 

111 

58 

38 

65.52 

23 

u 

a 

u 

51-44 

0 

119 

79.86 

70 

119 

53 

42 

79.24 

47 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

40-41 

— 

119 

86.23 

71 

108 

49 

37 

75.51 

23 

a 

Straight 

Brown 

29-28 

0 

113 

78.47 

68 

120 

49 

37 

75.51 

23 

u 

SI  wavy 

Br-hl 

32-28 

i±i 

126 

85.13 

73 

128 

52 

41 

78.85 

•    • 

Br+l 

Straight 

Brown 

54-47 

+ 

109 

84.50 

65 

«    •   • 

50 

40 

80.00 

•    ■ 

Black 

u 

Br+1 

50 

+ 

101 

78.91 

61 

•    •   • 

44 

38 

86.36 

•    • 

u 

ft 

u 

49 

+ 

107 

83.59 

56 

«    •   • 

43 

37 

86.05 

•    • 

Br-hl 

tt 

Bro^^-n 

•    ■ 

+ 

AduU  Females 


109 

78.98 

63 

113 

49 

36 

73.47 

47 

Black 

u 

Brown 

22-20 

111 

81.60 

68        ] 

115 

51 

42 

82.35 

47 

u 

u 

Br+1 

20-25 

^ 

115 

85.82 

68        ] 

117 

49 

39 

79.59 

24 

u 

tt 

Brown 

28-23 

=*= 

115 

79.86 

67        ] 

128 

51 

36 

70.59 

24 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

1-9 

— 

101 

81.45 

62 

43 

36 

83.72 

16 

u 

Wiry 

Brown 

29 

0 

99 

78.57 

63 

49 

39 

79.59 

8 

u 

Straight 

Br+1 

20 

0 

102 

82.26 

62 

45 

36 

80.00 

15 

u 

tt 

u 

26 

0 

117 

86.03 

65 

50 

40 

80.00 

n 

u 

« 

tt 

43 

+ 

107 

84.25 

62 

43 

40 

93.02 

10 

u 

tf 

Brown 

20 

0 

117 

92.12 

65 

46 

36 

78.26 

•  • 

t. 

u 

Br+1 

•    • 

+ 

109 

85.83 

68 

47 

37 

78.72 

•  • 

u 

u 

Brown 

•   • 

i±i 

Immature  Femalea 


106 

80.30 

61 

116 

45 

43 

95.55 

24 

u 

Wavy 

Brown 

23-20 

0 

107 

86.99 

56 

■   •  • 

39 

39 

100.00 

■    ■ 

a 

Straight 

Br+1 

•   • 

0 

109 

86.51 

67 

•    •   • 

46 

37 

80.43 

«    • 

a 

Wavy 

•    •  •    • 

«    • 

0 

ae 


m 


^^ 


s 


17 

105^ 

lUJ 

<s.s 

MJ 

Tl.T 

4&JS 

iLU 

IM 

uo 

nji 

M 

ua.0 

IflTJ 

V7J 

86A 

TOJ 

4US 

HJ8 

in 

iw 

tarn 

U 

1WJ> 

ItlJI 

UJ 

TM 

SSJ 

4SM 

nA 

17t 

UB 

KM 

Bacxcmmb  Fi  X  H4WAIU1I 


«s 

ITS 

mo 

141.0 

a.s 

B63 

nj 

M.S7 

4«J1 

178 

la 

KJ! 

•dnit 

ne 

l«S.O 

1SS.5 

5S.S 

88.a 

74J 

UJM 

M.IS 

IM 

14T 

7t.« 

U 

108 

IMS 

1U.0 

S8.9 

Sfi.« 

78.1 

«a.« 

01.00 

IM 

147 

7M§ 

7' 

«3 

ieo.7 

ie8.s 

57.8 

85.9 

70.7 

43.S9 

53.45 

178 

ISl 

S4S3 

ir 

10» 

]» 

153.0 

iaa.5 

55.0 

83.0 

67.5 

44.18 

54.25 

183 

140 

78^0 

11 

207 

83 

12a 

160.5 

130.4 

60.0 

»4.3 

70.4 

43.86 

52.52 

175 

151 

86.N 

S86 

20 

149 

107.4 

137.4 

59.3 

88.9 

78.1 

46.65 

53.11 

170 

141 

82.M 

339 

20 

ie9 

153.8 

125.4 

58.0 

83.9 

67.4 

43.88 

54.62 

159 

135 

84.01 

45S 

83 

U5 

153.9 

125.8 

58.8 

82.6 

67.0 

43.53 

53.67 

166 

142 

».»,, 

Immalun 

Mfltr. 

8' 

16 

111.5 

139.8 

63.5 

89.5 

76.3 

44.49 

58.19 

195 

149 

76.41 

Itf 

8* 

13 

141.4 

112.0 

49.9 

76.5 

62.1 

43.98 

53.39 

195 

145 

74.36 

4S 

15 

16S.0 

138.0 

59.0 

85.0 

73.0 

44.24 

51.51 

178 

158 

88.76 

111 

191 

8 

115.5 

90.5 

48.1 

04.5 

48.4 

41.90 

55.84 

161 

145 

90.06 

lOtt 

4«1 

IS 

100 

152.4 

124.8 

54.7 

77.3 

70.1 

48.00 

50.78 

171 

146 

85.38 

472 

16 

102 

160.9 

130.8 

58.2 

H2.9 

72.6 

46.12 

51.52 

176 

136 

77.27 

466 

16 

138 

172.2 

139.4 

81.8 

87.0 

77.6 

45.08 

50.52 

178 

138 

80.23 

469 

17 

181 

166.6 

128.6 

66.8 

81.7 

72.7 

46.45 

62.20 

161 

138 

86.71 

X  Cbloae)  X  cf  No.  4  (Himiiu). 


APPENDIX 


195 


TABLE  m  (oontinued) 

Fi  Hawaiian  X  Chinesb 

Adult  Females 


Face  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Deflcriptive 

Fadal 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

thioD 

Ht. 

Bi^. 

mal 

Diam. 

Nasal 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

23 

13 

•    ■ 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

Strength 

Eye 
Fold 

83.85 
84.73 
88.00 

70 
66 
63 

104 

•    •    • 
■    ■    • 

51 
51 
47 

35 
42 
37 

68.63 
82.35 

78.72 

Black 

a 
u 

Straight 

Br+1 

u 

u 

26-19 
20 

•   • 

0 
0 

Immature  Fem^xlea 


53.70 

68 

105 

48 

34 

70.83 

23- 

Brown 

Wavy 

Br-1 

2a-23 

^^ 

M.72 

75 

126 

57 

45 

78.95 

23 

Black 

a 

Brown 

32-28 

+ 

W.87 

57 

•    •   • 

39 

36 

92.31 

•   • 

u 

u 

Br+1 

•   • 

+ 

Backcross  Fi  X  Hawauan 
Adidi  Males 


75.32 

69 

117 

55 

43 

78.18 

23 

u 

Curly 

tt 

60-43 

^^ 

m;.71 

73 

132 

52 

43 

82.69 

•   • 

a 

Wavy 

Brown 

48-36 

:±= 

87.32 

67 

•    •   • 

52 

46 

88.46 

•   • 

tt 

Curly 

Br+1 

45 

+ 

Advlt  Females 


77.62 

68 

104 

51 

40 

78.43 

40- 

u 

tt 

Brown 

25-20 

76.26 

61 

107 

46 

40 

86.96 

40- 

tt 

u 

Br+1 

22-23 

— 

80.74 

64 

•    ■   • 

52 

41 

78.85 

13 

u 

Straight 

Brown 

20 

+ 

86.15 

66 

•    •    • 

47 

39 

82.98 

15 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

29 

0 

81.75 

61 

«    t   t 

42 

38 

90.48 

12 

tt 

Straight 

25 

+ 

89.23 

63 

•    •    • 

50 

42 

84.00 

•    • 

u 

Wavy 

a 

•   • 

+ 

Immature  Males 


83.11 

71 

•    •  • 

53 

40 

75.47 

46- 

Black 

Curly 

Brown 

50-49 

_ 

76.98 

62 

45 

44 

97.78 

40 

u 

Straight 

Br+1 

21-18 

— 

80.71 

68 

57 

40 

70.17 

39 

u 

Wavy 

Br+2 

•   • 

+ 

80.00 

65 

38 

33 

86.81 

u 

u 

Br+1 

9-9 

— 

91.34 

71 

50 

41 

82.00 

tt 

Curly 

tt 

•    • 

+ 

84.13 

64 

45 

38 

84.44 

tt 

Wavy 

Brown 

38 

+ 

8f,.37 

69 

47 

36 

76.59 

tt 

Straight 

Br+1 

•   • 

+ 

84.50 

62 

47 

41 

87.23 

tt 

« 

u 

•   • 

+ 

196 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  m  (oontinued) 
Immature  Fem<de$ 


Age 

Bodily  Measurements  in  Cm. 

Head  Meaanrements  in  Mil 

Subject 
No. 

Weight 
lbs. 

Suture 

Height 
of  Ac- 
romion 

Height 
of  Dac- 
tylion 

Heiffat 
Sittmg 

Arm 
Length 

Index 
of  Arm 
Length 

% 

Index 

ofHt. 

Sitting 

% 

Length 

Bradth 

Index 

% 

Mk 

fm 

Dm 

11» 

9 

131.5 

103.0 

44.3 

70.3 

58.7 

44.64 

53.46 

190 

135 

71.05 

106 

12» 

5 

107.5 

83.5 

33.8 

58.2 

49.7 

46.28 

54.14 

176 

137 

77.84 

101 

13» 

10 

130.5 

104.0 

46.0 

71.3 

58.0 

44.44 

54.64 

167 

148 

88.62 

114 

95 

14 

156.0 

128.5 

59.6 

83.6 

68.9 

44.17 

53.59 

167 

146 

87.43 

111 

225 

17 

152.9 

121.8 

52.4 

78.5 

69.4 

45.39 

51.34 

170 

149 

87.65 

111 

227 

17 

155.4 

125.5 

57.3 

S4.8 

68.2 

43.89 

54.57 

190 

148 

77.89 

loe 

239 

17 

161.6 

131.2 

61.7 

87.3 

69.5 

43.01 

54.02 

171 

153 

89.47 

111 

245 

16 

159.6 

128.8 

mmt    aw 

Ot.t 

87.0 

71.1 

44.55 

54.51 

174 

164 

94.25 

lis 

251 

15 

153.6 

124.8 

54.3 

81.2 

70.5 

45.90 

52.86 

173 

142 

82.08 

lOS 

259 

17 

150.0 

122.0 

52.8 

80.5 

69.2 

46.13 

53.67 

171 

145 

81.80 

III 

271 

13 

148.5 

121.4 

51.0 

76.0 

70.4 

47.41 

51.18 

182 

143 

78.57 

lis 

Backcboss  Fi  X  Chinese 
Males 


80 
376 


15 
29 


150 


145.4 
170.9 


117.9 
140.2 


49.9 
64.0 


74.6 

01.0 


68.0 
76.2 


46.77 
44.59 


51.31 
53.25 


178 
173 


148 
153 


83.15 
88.44 


117 


FtmaJr.-t 


204 

42H 
455 


10 
1(5 
1(5 


{H) 


155.'i 
1  17.:  J 


l'r).7 
lll>.'2 
1 '2:^.1 


5(5.1 
57.0 


SLl 
7(5.!) 
70. 1 


(17.7 


41.S5 
U.77 


54.19 
5-2.^1 
50.51 


175 
IGG 
1()4 


148 
13i 
VM) 


st.57  m 

71).5^ 
St.7(5    ••• 


Other  Haw.uiax-Chink.se  Mix'n'Ri--s* 

Males 


3t)5 
35:5 


:)i 

IS 


1  ;;(5 


17'i.S 


1:J5   ;  KiS.o 


in.o 

i:iS.*,> 


05.1 
5J).!) 


})-2.5 
S5.(; 


75.!) 

7s.:; 


.).!»rj  I  .}.i.oo 


171 


K;.(5]      50.!)5      174 


1 4(5 
1:54 


*  Ancestry  doubtful;  probably  J  to  J  Chinese. 


S5.38 
77.01 


FtJiu 

:lrs 

^ 

209 

14 

15S.0 

h>S.9 

04  .S 

S2.S 

71.1 

15.00 

5^.41 

ISl 

14G 

S0.G(5 

116 

335 

IS 

KJS 

1  I  .».«> 

1  ^>.:; 

(;7.s 

SS.7 

7  i.5 

^2.!)!) 

51. IS 

171 

141 

8^.46 

440 

IS 

110 

15(5.!) 

1'27.:5 

5(5. G 

Sl.l 

70.7 

45.0G 

5:5.(50 

\7i 

139 

SO.Sl 

474 

16 

121 

1(50.5 

i;J0.3 

59.1 

8:5.3 

G9.:5 

43.18 

51.90 

ISO 

137 

70.11 

488 

18 

135 

1(55.4 

133.(5 

58.0 

SG.9 

75. G 

45.71 

5^.54 

ISO 

143 

79.44 

.    - 

500 

17 

•    ■    • 

15S.0 

12S.-^ 

58.9 

SI. 4 

(59.:J 

4:j.sg 

M.oi 

1G9 

144 

85.21 

APPENDIX 


197 


TABLE  m  (continued) 
Immature  Fem^des 


Face  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

a 

Facial 
Index 

% 

Nasion 

Pros- 

thion 

Ht. 

Bi^ 

nial 

Diam. 

Nasal 
Ht. 

Nasal 
Bth. 

Nasal 
Index 

% 

Skin 
Color 

40 

23 

23 
47- 

23 
23- 

24 

24 

24 

23 

23 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

^r 

Strength 

Eye 
Fold 

82.11 
77.17 
72.99 
77.54 
82.01 
80.29 
78.17 
84.51 
87.60 
81.88 
87.97 

64 
57 
61 
66 
66 
69 
70 
73 
73 
69 
72 

91 
103 
106 
108 
125 
124 
127 
124 
116 
125 
127 

47 
41 
46 
55 
51 
53 
53 
55 
52 
45 
51 

35 
34 
38 
37 
40 
40 
39 
38 
38 
37 
41 

74.47 
82.93 
82.61 
67.27 
78.43 
75.47 
73.59 
69.09 
73.08 
82.22 
80.39 

Black 

u 
u 
u 
u 

Redbr 
Black 

Br+l 
Black 
Br+1 

u 

Kinky 
Straight 

Wavy 

u 
a 

Straight 
Curly 
Wavy 

Straight 

Br+1 

Br-h2 

Brown 

« 

Br-1 

Brown 

u 
a 

Br-1 
Brown 

14-12 
9-7 
10-9 
23-20 
22-19 
30-32 
30-27 
28-25 
17-16 
19-13 
26-23 

0 

Backcross  Fi  X  Chinesb 
Males 


82.86 

69 

112 

53 

38 

71.70 

39- 

Black 

Wavy 

u 

33-34 

79.43 

69 

•    •   • 

53 

43 

81.13 

•    •    ■ 

u 

Curly 

Br-fl 

48 

Females 


76.76 

65 

128 

48 

36 

75.00 

24 

tt 

Straight 

Br-fl 

31-25 

+ 

94.26 

60 

•    •   • 

43 

38 

88.37 

,    , 

«    •   •    • 

•    •  •   • 

•    •  •   • 

•    ■ 

+ 

87.70 

58 

■    «   • 

41 

36 

87.80 

•    • 

Black 

Straight 

Br-fl 

•   • 

+ 

Other  Hawaiian-Chinese  Mixtures  * 

Males 


90.08 

68 

•   ■   • 

52 

36 

69.23 

■    • 

« 

u 

Brown 

56 

+ 

98.43 

79 

■    ■   • 

53 

44 

83.02 

•    • 

tt 

Wavy 

u 

42 

+ 

Females 


79.43 

65 

122 

46 

41 

89.13 

24 

u 

Straight 

u 

29-23 

-f 

82.95 

61 

47 

42 

89.36 

tt 

u 

Br-fl 

+ 

84.00 

61 

40 

39 

97.50 

u 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

+ 

91.73 

66 

46 

39 

84.78 

u 

Straight 

Br-fl 

-f 

88.28 

67 

47 

87 

78.72 

•    •    •    • 

a 

Br-fl 

+ 

87.50 

60 

45 

35 

77.78 

Black 

u 

u 

-f 

198 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  IV.    HAWAHAN  WHITE  HYBRIDS 

Adult  Fi  Maltt 


1 

47 

Pedigree 

Bodily  Measurements  in  < 

Cm. 

Head  Meaxurementa  to  11 

Subject 
No. 

3 

Height  of 
Acromion 

Height  of 
Dactylion 

Height 
Sitting 

Arm 
Length 

Index  of 

Arm 

length 

Index  of 
Height 

Sitting 

! 

J3 

"C 

m 
t 

n 

128 » 

h/g 

260 

176.8 

143.7 

64.2 

94.0 

79.5 

44.97 

53.17 

206 

167 

81.07  (  U 

144 

25 

h/sc 

197 

179.0 

148.4 

65.3 

93.2 

83.1 

46.42 

52.07 

198 

160  ! 

80.81  m 

145 

35 

h/Sc 

... 

161.6 

133.0 

58.9 

83.1 

74.1 

45.85 

51.42 

182 

165 

90.66  \  m 

149 

30 

h/o 

215 

177.8 

146.0 

67.9 

94.5 

78.1 

43.93 

53.15 

196 

159  1 

mM\  m 

367 

42 

n/Am 

170 

171.3 

140.7 

65.1 

92.9 

75.6 

44.13 

54.23 

177 

159 

89.83   ... 

400 

19 

Il/Ca 

132 

166.3 

136.5 

61.2 

84.1 

75.3 

45.27 

50.57 

184 

138 

75.00 1  ... 

403 

65 

h/sc 

170 

174.2 

144.8 

65.8 

90.7 

79.0 

45.35 

52.07 

184 

148  1 

80.4S  ... 

408 

^ 

H/A.m 

230 

171.4 

141.0 

62.4 

89.1 

78.6 

45.85 

51.98 

195 

166 

85.13   ... 

417 

51 

H/Am 

191 

181.4 

150.1 

65.5 

92.6 

84.6 

46.64 

51.05 

182 

148  1 

81.82i  ... 

418 

64 

n/w 

180 

175.0 

141.9 

62.£ 

92.7 

79.7 

45.54 

52.97 

184 

156 

84.78j  ... 

347 

^1 

h/p 

160 

163.2 

134.7 

61.9 

87.9 

72.8 

44.60 

53.86 

180 

147 

81.67   .- 

1 

364 

29 

h/sp 

165 

165.7 

135.7 

60.0 

87.8 

75.7 

45.68 

52.98 

177 

151 

85.8li  ••• 

391 

50 

h/p 

160 

170.2 

137.2 

56.6 

88.4 

80.6 

47.35 

51.94 

188 

154 

81.91 !  ... 

493 

20 

1 

h/p 

135 

165.4 

135.3 

60.0 

87.3 

75.3 

45.53 

52.78 

177 

150 

84.75,  - 

F\  Females 


86 

23 

n/Am 

116  i 

£32* 

35 

n/ir 

•    •    • 

296 

50 

h/e 

180 

328 

18 

n/sw 

135 

439 

18 

II /Am 

... 

310 

24 

H/Am-I 

154 

285 » 

73 

H/E 

140 

48 

14 

486 

1.5 

382 

17 

165.8 
156.6 
16C.9 
167.4 
150.2 
161.8 
164.0 


135.8 
129.4 
139.4 
138.4 
127.^ 
13^.7 
135.C 


65.2 
63.8 
65.8 
65.0 
59.7 
03.3 


88.9 
86.4 
89.0 
86.6 
H0.4 
85.5 
88.7 


70.6 
65.6 
73.6 
73.4 
67.5 
69.4 


42.58 
41.89 
44.09 
43.84 
43.21 
42.89 


52.98 
55.17 
53.33 
51.73 
55.31 
52.84 
.54.09 


183 

189 
167 
164 
165 
170 
180 


F\  Males  Immafure 


ii/g 

•     ■     ■ 

No/ll 

115 

h/p 

140 

106.  133.0  55.5  85.0 
156,9  127.0  55.8  81.2 
l()S.O     13(>.l     50.4    SO.-i 


/ 1  .i> 
71.7 
76.7 


46.68 

51.20 

lis 

45.70 

51.75 

172 

45.65 

53.09 

170 

155  I  8^.45  U5 
136  79.09  .  . 
147  i  86.47    .-• 


Fi  Females  hnviature 

98 

1 
12 

ii/g 

...    '   l.->6.0 

125.3    57.7    78.8    67.6 

43.16 

50.32 

178 

149 

83.71    11 

221^ 

16 

h/w 

...       157.5 

1^6.2    57.£    85.0    69.0 

43.87 

53.97  ; 

181 

151 

83.4S,  11 

228 

17 

ii/g 

.  . .       103.6 

13^.7    01.7    80.5    71.0;  43.39 

52.87 

171 

145 

84.80    1< 

i63 

16 

Il/lr 

.  .  .       152.5 

123.3    5\.H    84.2    0H.5 :  44.92 

55.21 

169 

149 

88.17    I 

265 

17 

h/Aiti 

...    ;   158.5 

i 

129.4    57.1    81.5    72.3 

1 

45.61 

51.42 

1 

179 

147 

82.12    1 

I  Hasband  of  No.  2.S«  (Fi);  father  of  Nos.  H0-1P4  and  «3  (Fj). 
»  Wife  of  No.  1«8  (Fi);  mother  of  Nos.  H^lSl  and  233  (Fj). 


•  Old-measurements  not  included  in  averaj 

*  Mother  a  "Red  Hawaiian"  (Ehu). 


APPENDIX 


199 


TABLE  IV.    HAWAIIAN  WHITE  HYBRIDS 

Adult  Fi  Males 


Facial  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

Naaion 

Menton 

Height 

Facial 
Index 

•ill 

Diameter 

Nose 

Height 

Nose 
Breadth 

Nasal 
Index 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

CO 

187 

83.03 

76      1 

150        52 

45 

66.54 

23- 

Black 

Wavy 

Br-1 

74-68 

125 

80.65 

70      1 

130        53 

41 

77.36 

23- 

u 

Curly 

a 

5(M8 

•     121 

81.76 

70      ] 

134        57 

44 

77.19 

24 

u 

Wavy 

Br 

38-25 

»     129 

86.00 

67      ] 

128       49 

42 

85.71 

23 

a 

Curly 

Hazel 

77-S5 

1     123 

88.49 

68      . 

50 

49 

98.00 

•   ■   • 

u 

Wavy 

Br-1 

47 

112 

88.19 

65 

46 

43 

93.48 

•   •   • 

Br-fl 

Curly 

Br 

52 

ISO 

94.89 

75 

58 

43 

74.14 

10 

Br 

Wavy 

Br-1 

•   • 

120 

78.95 

n 

5^ 

40 

71.43 

•   •   • 

Br+1 

u 

Br 

•   • 

126 

91.97 

75 

56 

41 

73.21 

■   •  • 

a 

u 

Blue 

•   • 

128 

88.89 

73 

61 

43 

70.49 

■   •  • 

Black 

u 

Br-1 

•    • 

109 

84.50 

61 

49 

38 

77.55 

16 

Br+l 

Straight 

Br 

60 

119 

86.76 

15 

53 

36 

67.92 

■   •   • 

Black 

Wavy 

a 

38 

116 

85.29 

73 

55 

46 

83.64 

•   •   • 

u 

Curly 

Br+1 

46 

113 

84.33 

63 

...   '     46 

41 

89.13 

•   •   • 

Br+l 

Wavy 

Br 

46 

115 
122 
126 
110 
110 
111 
109 


Fi  Females 


82.73 

69 

113 

56 

35 

62.50 

23 

80.26 

67 

134 

54 

41 

75.92 

23 

96.92 

73 

5Q 

35 

62.50 

7 

85,27 

68 

... 

50 

33 

66.00 

n 

86.61 

63 

40 

31 

73.91 

•  •  • 

86.05 

64 

47 

a> 

74.47 

8 

81.50 

62 

. . . 

49 

39 

79.59 

9 

Br+1 
Black 

a 

Hr 

u 

Br-f-l 

Black 


Fi  Males  Immature 


120 

83.33 

73 

113 

55 

39 

70.91 

23- 

104 

85.95 

62 

•   •   • 

45 

35 

77.78 

•   •   • 

112 

89.60 

63 

■   •   • 

49 

38 

77.55 

•   •   • 

Br 

u 

Black 


Wavy 
Straight 


Br+1 
Br-1 

Br+1 


Fi  Females  Im,mature 


117 

89.81 

72 

114 

53 

109 

76.76 

64 

120 

47 

114 

85.07 

67 

l%\ 

52 

102 

75.56 

61 

115 

43 

114 

85.71 

67 

107 

53 

37  ! 
37  ■ 
36 
32 
36 


32-29 
31 
58 


69.81 

24 

Black 

Wavy 

Br-1 

23-23 

78.72     . . . 

Red  Br 

— 

Br-2 

27-23 

69.23 

•   «   • 

Br-f2 

Wavy 

Br 

32-28 

74.42 

23 

Br+  1 

a 

Br 

28-24 

67.92 

23 

Black 

Curly 

Br 

26-21 

200 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  IV  (continued). 
Fi  Femalet  Immature 


Subject 
No. 

^ 

255 

12 

456 

17 

491 

17 

156 

16 

444 

17 

487 

16 

438 

14 

Pedigree 


h/q 
h/e 

H/lr 

h/p 
h/p 

h/p 

H/je  Am 


■§ 


98 
98 


Bodily  Measurements  in  Cm. 


5 

en 


o  o 
tap 


140.3 
155.2 
160.4 
150.8 
154.9 
150.4 
141.2 


110.8 
125.4 
131.4 
122.2 
126.3 
123.4 
112.9 


o  o 


48.9 
57.8 
58.8 
55.3 
58.8 
5b.8 
50.1 


•5*  *• 


70.5 
S2.£ 
84.6 

•   •   • 

82.7 
80.5 

74.2 


IJ 


61.9 
67.6 
72.6 
66.9 
67.5 
64.b 
62.8 


8 

a 


a 


a  •  —  »» 


44.12 
43.56 
45.26 
44.36 
43.58 
42.95 
44.47 


50.25 
53.31 
53.07 

•   •  •  • 

53.39 
53.52 
52.55 


Head  Bfeaaurements  in  ICa 


a 


J3 

4.* 

S 

n 


175 
170 
176 
175 
170 
162 
170 


140 
137 
142 
155 
141 
147 
136 


il 


Si 


I 


80.00 

80.59 

80.68 

86.5?  I 

82.94 

90.74, 

80.001 


111 


Il9 


Ft  AduU  Males 


276 

ad 

hw/hw 

150 

166.9 

132.5 

59 

87.7 

73.5 

44.03 

52.55 

168 

144    &5.71   ... 

337 

29 

nw/nw 

154 

168.9    135.8 

6i.5 

90.0 

73.3 

43.39 

53.29 

184 

152    8i.61   ... 

425 

32 

hw/hw 

187 

16-/  .9 

140.0 

6S.1 

86.2 

76.9 

45.80    51.34 

! 

190 

146 

76.m;  ... 

Fi  AduU  Females 


96 
214 
222 
252 
433 
496 
465 


280 

36 

hw/hw 

193 

173.5    143.4 

65.2 

92.5 

78.2 

45.07 

53.31 

170 

147    86.47 

302 

30 

HAm/HAm 

■    •    • 

1  128.9 

63.8 

82.7 

65.1 

•   •   •   • 

•   ■   •   • 

169 

187  :  81.07 

303 

25 

hg/he 

185 

161.1  j  133.4 

60.4 1  85.0 

73.0 

45.31 

52.76 

175 

153    87.48 

305 

18 

HAmHIr 

125 

158.5    130.7     64.5'  82.4 

66.2 

41.76 

51.99 

166 

133     80.12 

489 

18 

hq/hp 

138 

lC9.9i  140.9 

63.6 

h6.7 

77.3 

45.50 

51.03 

173 

130     75.14 

Fi  Males  Immature 


165 

13 

HAm/nAm 

85 

149.2 

1           1 
120.0'  52.5 

179 

18 

hw/hw 

142 

171.2 

138.0    63.2; 

23 

17 

hw/hw 

■     ■     • 

159.7 

127.5    57.3 1 

26 

17 

« 

•     •     « 

172.1 

139.2    62.0 

467 

16 

HAm/HAm 

90 

101.5 

134.8    62.0 1 

484 

18 

hw/hw 

120 

155.4    125.3    54.9 

7i:.6 

89.8 
83.9 
86.0 


67.5 
75.4 
70.2 
77.2 


84.0 !  7i.S 
83.1    70.4 


45.24 
44.04 
43.95 
44.85 
45.07 
45.30 


Fi  Females  Immature 


16 
17 
10 
15 
16 
17 
17 


hw/hw 


u 


hfy/he 
hw/hw 

HP/HAm 


105 


111 


160 

1G9.3 

154.1 

158.3 

158.2 

160.2 

164.0 


129.S 
13^.0 
US.S 
126.5 
131.8 
133.3 
133.4 


5S.3 
58.8 
57.0 
57.5 
61.7 
60.2 
61.0 


80.4 
85,3 
84.2 
84.2 
81.2 
81.0 
^.1 


71.5 

73.2 

66.8 

69.0, 

70.1 

73.1  ' 

72.4 


44.68 
43.23 
43.34 
43.59 
44.31 
45.63 
44.15 


54.00 
50.38 
54.64 
53.19 
51.65 
50.56 
51.28 


184 
182 
185 
185 
176 
183 
164 


147 
156 
143 
144 
129 
141 
134 


72.45  IW 
80.31 '  14<> 
83.51  11» 

88.46  145 
78.09  ■• 
78.53   ... 


79.89 

85  .'il 

77.30 

77.84 

73.30 

77.05 

81.71 


lis 

lU 
106 

Iflf? 


APPENDIX 


201 


TABLE  IV  (continued). 
Ft  Females  Immaturs 


Facial  Measurements  in  Mm. 

1 

Descriptive 

i 

2 

Naaion 

Mentun 

Height 

sceua 

NOM 

Height 

Nose 
Breadth 

11 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

en 

»!  107 

PG.99 

67 

108 

49 

34 

09.39    23 

Br+1 

Straiglit 

Br 

13-16 

» 

112 

88.89 

65 

•   •  • 

45 

38 

84.44,   ... 

Br+2 

Wavy 

Br 

•  •  •  • 

n 

106 

81.54 

59 

•   •   • 

41 

36  .  87.80 

.  •  • 

Black 

a 

U 

•   •  •  • 

n ,  no 

78.01 

62 

123 

44 

39 

78.01 

24 

Black 

Curly 

Br 

25He2 

Ml  108 

85.71 

60 

•   ■   • 

41 

36 

87.80 

•   •   • 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br+1 

•  •  •  • 

ff  '  lOS 

81.10 

55 

•  •  • 

45 

33 

73.33     . . . 

Br+1 

Curly 

Blue 

•  •  •  « 

8 

100 

84.75 

50 

•  •  • 

39 

39  ;  100.00' 

•  •   • 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br+l 

•  •  •  • 

Ft  AduU  Males 


112 

86.82 

68 

•  •   • 

49 

36 

73.47 

12 

117 

89.31 

68 

•  •  • 

48 

35 

72.92 

12 

127 

93.38 

66 

■   •  • 

57 

44 

77.19 

•   •   • 

Black 


57 


Ft  AduU  Females 


111 

86.05 

62 

48 

40 

83.33 

10 

106 

89.83 

63 

45 

31 

68.89 

12 

119 

95.20 

73 

46 

39 

84.78 

11 

109 

89.34 

62 

47 

33 

70.21 

10 

109 

90.08 

62 

47 

35 

74.47 

•   •   « 

Br+l 

Wavy 

Br 

32 

Br 

Straight 

Br-2 

25 

Br+l 

Wavy 

•   •  • 

30 

Br+1 

u 

Br-1 

22 

Br+1 

Curly 

Br-1 

•  •  •  • 

Ft  Males  Immature 


113 

86.92 

73 

110 

47 

36 

1 
76.60     ... 

Br+1 

Straight 

Hazel 

22-21 

I    122 

85.92 

69      123 

49 

42 

85.71     24 

Black 

Wavy 

Br 

48-36 

118 

83.69 

72     119 

66 

37 

67.27,  40- 

Black 

« 

Br+l 

48-36 

130 

89.04 

80  '  118 

60 

40 

66.67    40 

tf 

u 

Br 

44--40 

107 

86.00 

60  1    ... 

41 

37 

90.24 

■   •   • 

Br+2 

u 

fc 

■   •   •  • 

111 

88.10 

61  :   ... 

1 

49 

39 

79.59 

•   •   • 

Black 

u 

Br+1 

35 

Ft  Females  Immature 


!      112 

78.32 

59 

118 

48 

37 

77.03 

23 

Black 

Wavj' 

Br+1 

27-25 

123 

90.44 

71 

126 

54 

37 

68.52:  23- 

Br+1 

tt 

Blue 

25-20 

115 

82.14 

65 

121 

46 

34 

73.91  ;  24 

Black 

u 

Br 

28-28 

113 

83.70 

68 

117 

50 

37 

74.00    24 

u 

u 

Br-1 

28-26 

105 

91.30 

62 

■   •  • 

44 

32 

72.73 

■   ■   • 

Br+l 

•    •    • 

Lt  Blue 

•   •   •  • 

114 

91.94 

65 

•  •   • 

50 

34 

68.00 

•  •  • 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br 

•   ■  •  • 

1 

• 

108 

86.52 

64 

■  •  • 

45 

32 

71.11 

•   •   • 

Br-1 

Curly 

Lt  Blue 

•  •   •  • 

TABLE  IV  (eODtiniwd) 
Ft  Famag  —  Childrm  of  Fi  no.  IBS  andFitto-tSt 




5 

PMv« 

H«dM«.=BMl.iill»] 

1. 

'i     1 

■81 

i 

i 

ll 

MM. 

1 

3 

1 

ll' 

129 

n"3 

HIr/HO 

88.a 

76.7 

33.0 

57.4 

43.7  \  44.51 '  58.45 

173 

US    (H.m'i  It 

ISO 

^7 

" 

. ,      148.3 

06.9 

43,4 

63.1 

52.9,  41.23    50.74 

182 

145  1  7B.B7.m 

131 

9H 

' 

15S.9 

li7.5 

fiO.O 

83.3 

67.5    43.30,  54.71 

183 

ISO    81.08  m 

1.12 

rf-If 

" 

104.1 

146.8    57.8 

flO.* 

68.0  1  44.71      53.17 

187 

150  1  80,41  Hi 

133 

n-e 

" 

109.0 

87.4    40.b 

63.8 

40,0     42.75  '  58.53 

176 

149    B(I.r!  1« 

184 

911 

" 

Ifil.l 

133.0    flO.5 

81.7 

64,3    4a.6(»    54-07 

177 

143  w.a  m 

135 

51( 

" 

15S.3 

132.0    01.0 

88.e 

71.0 1  44.57     55.81 

195 

148  '  7S.90  IS 

IflS 

811 

. ,      153.0 

125.2 1  .59.8 

84.1 

65.4  1  4£.7*     34.97 

184 

150    Bl,H'  lli 

233 

9» 

" 

137.1 

103.3,  47.6 

70.8 

53.7    43.82    35.33 

175 

137    78.tB  101 

Backckosb  X  Hawaiian 


100 

49 

hw/h 

174.8    141.5    66.41  9S.3i  73.1 

42.96 

53.37 

«» 

160    80,00  HI 

277 

31 

kw/h 

145 

176.S|  143.0    59.5,  B3.4|  83.5 

47.31 

6S.1« 

170 

150    Sl«| 

401 

48 

iH/iw 

1S3 

171,0,  140.8    02.5    90.5'  78.3 

45.63 

52.74 

194 

131  1  77.84 

414 

40 

185 

178.0     147.0!  6G.4'  91.3    80.6 

45.2.> 

51.12 

181 

138     87.i9| 

321 

32 

ii/hp 

143 

17«.9'   147.0'  65.3    B0.3 1  81.8 

45,72 

30.42 

176 

153  ,  86.93 1 

390 

27 

i]p/n 

150 

170.6 1  140.1,  60.4    8n..0    79.7 

46.72 

50.94 

180 

147     81,67. 

405 

50 

wpn/r; 

100 

173.2'  144.4    62.1    M.2    82.3 

47.52 

33.08 

179 

144  <  80.4> 

I   196 

I  ino 


157.5     129.2'  lis. 


53.32 1   182  '  143 


3.23    53.07     no     148     87.06   . 
1.53'  56,94 1   108     141  I  83.93    . 


161.0    132.7    61.8 


132.3    37.3'  83.4    73,0 

40.07 

31.90 ' 

120.8    57.3    H4.4    69.3 

44.87 

54.49 ' 

129.0    62.7    87.7    60.3 

41.04 

53.09, 

13i.G    51.9'  8S.0    80.7 

49.63 

54.49 

133,4    Oi.O    «J,9'  73,4 

44.50 

51.55' 

80.46  . 
78.86  . 
'  93.33    . 


APPENDIX 


203 


TABLE  IV  (continued)  • 
Ft  Family  —  Children  of  Fi  no.  128  and  Fi  no.  S3S 


I 
) 
) 

) 

3 
I 


Fadal  Measurements  in  Mm. 


§55 


90 
105 
115 
116 

98 
IIG 
127 
125 
103 


73.77 
82.03 
82.14 
82.86 
79.08 
86.57 
83.01 
87.41 
88.06 


e 
o 


«  g  4« 


52 
60 
68 
69 

68 
73 
74 
60 


ll 


107 
106 
119 
113 
104 
112 
133 
116 
112 


ll 


32 
41 
54 
52 
37 
50 
52 
53 
42 


29 
35 
39 
40 
31 
31 
40 
36 
34 


Descriptive 


oj2 

^6 


90.63 
85.37 
72.22 
76.92 
83.78 
62.00 
76.92 
67.92 
80.95 


Blonde 
very  light 

23+ 
23 

light 
23 
23 
23 
24 


Br-2 
Br-1 
Black 

Brown 
Br+1 

Br 
Black 
Br+l 


•Si 


Wavy 

Curly 


M 

U 


Wavy 


u 


Straight 


•.5 

Hc3 


Br+l 

Br+l 

Br 


Br+l 
Br 

u 
u 


16-14 
32-27 
30-27 
9-  9 
24-21 
38r-32 
28-24 
12-12 


Backcross  X  Hawaiian 
Adult  Males 


132 
120 
124 
135 

127 
125 
118 


91.03 

75 

116 

59 

39 

66.10; 

83.92 

72 

58 

42 

72.41 

95.3S 

72 

52 

39 

75.00 

97.83 

80 

57 

40 

70.18 

101.60 

74 

52 

40 

76.92 

90.58 

63 

50 

49 

98.00 

86.13 

69 

52 

44 

84.621 

2S- 

8 
9 


Black 

•    •  • 

Black 


u 
u 
u 
u 


Curly 

a 

Wavy 


<( 


Curly 


Br 
Br-2 

Br 

Br-1 

Br+l 

Br 

Br-fl 


40-32 


38- 
67- 


AduU  Females 


122 
116 
119 
114 
99 
110 
109 
111 
110 
113 
116 
111 
113 
1  1  115 


I 


91.73 
87.22 
83.22 
85.71  i 
78.57 ; 
82.71 
87.90 
87.40  i 
90.16  I 
86.26 
87.22 
88.10 
103.67  i 
87.79 


71 
66 
69 
67 
58 
68 
61 
63 
67 
64 
69 
67 
66 
66 


114 
107 
126 


53 
52 
48 
49 
44 
52 
41 
50 
49 
49 
49 
47 
48 
46 


41 
39 
40 
39 
40 
42 
87 
30 
30 
41 
39 
37 
38 
43 


77.36 
75.00 
83.33 
79.59 
90.91 
80.77 
90.24 
72.00 
73.47 
83.67 
79.59 
78.22 
79.17 
93.48 


23 

24 

23- 

12 
9 

U 
12 
10 
15 
IS 
15 

•   •   • 

15 


Black 


« 


Br+l 
Br+l 

Black 


u 
u 
a 
u 


Br+l 
Black 
Black 


Straight 
Wavy 

a 

Curly 
Curly - 

Wa\'y 
Straight 

Wavy 

u 


<< 


Kinky 


Br+l 
Br+l 
Br-1 

Br 
Br-1 

Br 


u 


u 


u 


I  Br+l 
Curly  I  Br+l 
Wavy  Br+l 
Br+l 


Black 


21-17 
28-25 
27-29 
41 
28 
37 
17 
34 
23 
31 
35 
28 
25 


204 


APPENDIX 


Subject 
No. 

^ 

24 

17 

40 

16 

46 

18 

55 

16 

51 

16 

460 

16 

50 

17 

164 

13 

475 

17 

93 

14 

89 

17 

204 

16 

215 

16 

253  « 

17 

254 

14 

437 

15 

457 

16 

458 

16 

432 

17 

476 

17 

102 

8 

TABLE  IV  (conUnued) 
Immature  Males 


Pedigree 


h/hw 
h/hw 
hw/h 

HAm/n 

hw/h 

HAm/n 

n/iuG 
h/hp 
h/hp 


ja 


105 

•  •  • 

76 
125 


C/3 


171.1 

173.0 

152.5 

175.8 

168.3 

159.8 

179.5 

143 

169.6 


•   •   • 

hw/h 

161 

h/Ihw 

•    •   • 

h/hq 

•    •    • 

HW/fl 

•    •   • 

h/hw 

•    •    • 

h/hFt 

80 

HAm/n 

95 

h/hw 

•  •  ■ 

h/hp 

181 

h/hp 

121 

h/Jhw 

•   •   • 

Bodily  Meaxurementt  in  Cm 


•Si 
'Z  5 


140.0 1 

139.0; 

123.0 

143.9 

133.3 

130.5 

145.0 

114.5 

138.8' 


'S  S 


58.9 

57.0 

54.0 

64.2 

61.8 

55.2  j 

63.0 

49.3 

59.8! 


S5.4 
89.0 
76.0 
91.2 
90.2 
81.5 
89.0 
73.8 
85.5 


81.1 
82.0 
69.0 
79.7 
76.5 
75.3 
82.0 
65.2 
79.0 


Cm. 

Index  of 

Arm 

Length 

Index  of 

Height 

Sitting 

47.39 

49.91 

47.40 

51.44 

45.24 

49.84 

45.33 

51.88 

45.45 

53.59 

47.12 

51.00 

45.68 

49.58 

45.59 

51.26 

46.58 

50.41 

Head  Measurements  in  Mm 


210 
195 
188 
191 
186 
177 
184 
181 
183 


1 
t 


W  aM  ^~ 


163 
148 
154 
151 
154 
141 
159 
147 
143 


77.62    126 
75.90!  118 


81.91 

79.06 

82.80. 

79.66 

86.41  i 

81.22 

78.14 


120 
12$ 

lis 

•  •  * 

lift 
IM 


Immature  Females 


Backcross  X  White 


AdiiU  Males 

168 

19 

HAm/E 

169 

175.0 

143.2 

66.4    89.8    76.8 

43.88 

51.31 

197 

145 

78.60  m 

177 

25 

f  wn/w 

•    •    • 

171.4 

139.0 

63.6    90.7    75.4 

43.99 

52.92 

195 

150 

76.92    118 

2747 

28 

HA.m/Am 

125 

166.5 

138.0 

60.0    86.9    78.0 

46.84 

52.19 

187 

155 

82.89    lis 

482 

21 

HAm/Am 

127 

169.2 

135.4 

57.6'  89.9  i  77.8 

45.98 

53.13 

180 

141 

•J8.33    ... 

Adult  Females 

60 

18 

HAm/xo 

126 

159.0 

130.0 

1 

60.7    83.2,  69.3 

43.58 

52.33 

176 

151 

85.80    115 

121 

19 

J  HAm/E 

■    t    • 

167.4 

139.5 

66.4    88.0    73.1 

43.66 

52.57 

184 

146 

79.35     115 

137  » 

25 

HE/lr 

124 

161.2 

132.2 

63.6    88.2    68.6 

42.55 

54.71 

177 

144 

81.36,  109 

138» 

24 

(t 

137 

170.7 

143.0 

66.9    93.4    76.1 

,           1 

44.58 

54.71 

187 

148 

79.14     IH 

•  Ehu. 


'  Husband  of  No.  275. 


•  Sisters. 


APPENDIX 


205 


TABLE  IV  (oontinued) 
Immaiure  Males 


Facial  Measurements  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

X    1 

111 

a«;-c 

Nasion 

Prosthion 

Height 

Nose 
Height 

Nose 
Breadth 

Nasal 
Index 

'0 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

00 

147 

135 

91.84 

81 

115 

62 

40 

64.52 

24+ 

Black 

Curly 

Br 

45-84 

145 

127 

87.59 

76 

112 

69 

35 

50.72 

47 

tt 

Wavy 

Br 

50-43 

m 

112 

82.35 

70 

113 

51 

37 

72.55 

24 

Br+2 

a 

Hazel 

38-35 

141 

126 

89.36 

72 

122 

51 

44 

86.27 

39 

Black 

a 

Br 

61-53 

144 

121 

84.03 

73 

112 

55 

37 

67.27 

47 

a 

u 

(• 

48-44 

122 

IIG 

95.08 

64 

•  ■   • 

47 

S6 

76.60 

•   •   • 

Br-f-1 

tt 

Br-1 

•  •  • 

180 

117 

84.17 

70 

112 

60 

43 

71.67 

39 

Black 

u 

Br+1 

50-38 

190 

114 

87.69 

66 

108 

48 

36 

75.00 

•   ■   • 

Black 

Straight 

Br-1 

16-21 

126 

116 

92.06 

67 

•  •   • 

46 

42 

91.30 

«   •    • 

•   «    • 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

•  •  • 

Immaiure  Females 


128 

114 

89.06 

70 

105 

51 

34 

66.67 

23- 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br 

23-19 

148    116 

81.12 

68 

116 

50 

39 

78.00'  23 

Black 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

2»-29 

145 

115 

79.31 

66 

132 

47 

38 

80.85 

24 

a 

<k 

Br 

2&-25 

188 

122 

88.41 

71 

120 

49 

41 

88.67 

24 

Br-fl 

u 

Br-1 

27-22 

151 

115 

76.16 

67 

131 

51 

39 

76.47 

24 

Bleached 

u 

Br 

32-30 

150 

112 

74.67 

65 

118 

48 

37 

77.08 

24 

Black 

a 

Br 

25-23 

121     113 

93.39 

63 

46 

36 

'18.26 

Br-fl 

u 

Br-2 

125 

108 

86.40 

60 

42 

37 

88.10 

Black 

Straight 

Br 

196 

104 

82.54 

61 

45 

37 

82.22 

Reddish 

•  •  • 

Br+1 

125 

109 

87.20 

60 

42 

41 

97.62 

Br+1 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

121 

113 

93.39 

60 

47 

37 

78.72 

•  •  • 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

128    102 

79.69 

65 

102 

48 

32 

66.67    47 

Br-fl 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

9-10 

Backcross  X  White 
AduU  Males 


144 
182 
148 
127 


Aduli  Females 


187 
182 
185 
182 


126 

87.50 

69 

123 

52 

44 

84.62 

—. 

Black 

Wavy 

Br-fl 

55-49 

114 

86.36 

59 

118 

48 

40 

83.33 

— 

Lt  YeUow 

Wavy 

Lt  Blue 

47-42 

117 

81.82 

71 

117 

59 

35 

59.32 

23 

Br-fl 

Wavy 

Blue 

49^4 

109 

85.83 

63 

•   •   • 

46 

35 

76.09 

— 

Br-fl 

Straight 

Br-fl 

56 

115 

88.94 

75 

107 

55 

30 

54.55 

23- 

Br-fl 

Wavy 

Blue 

22-22 

129 

97.73 

76 

110 

58 

34 

58.62 

23- 

Br-fl 

Wavy 

Hazel 

26-33 

117 

86.67 

70 

106 

58 

30 

51.72 

23- 

Br 

Straight 

•  •  • 

25-22 

115 

97.12 

70 

118 

56 

34 

60.71 

23 

Br-fl 

« 

Br-fl 

8a-87 

206 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  IV  (continued). 
AduU  Females 


.?. 

•^s 

^ 

cnSf. 

< 

430 

18 

451 

20 

445 

43 

Pedigree 

•? . 

JhAdh/sc 

110 

HE/No 

135 

he/p 

151 

Bodily  Measurements  in  Cm. 


3 


O  O 

I 


•^  e 


If 

acQ 


160.4!  131.4 
169.8 1  139.0 
169.0    140.3 


59.8 
64.0 1 
67.3 


80.3 
90.5 
90.6 


U 


71.6 
75.0 
73.0 


44.63 
44.16 
43.19 


0«J     M 


50.06 
53.30 
53.61 


Head  Measuremeots  in  M& 


-3 


171 
178 
176 


I 


■38 


Jg(S 


130 

76.02 

139 

78.09 

150 

85.23 

Immature  Males 


36 
49 
385 
454 
468 
480 
462 


15  I  f  \mI{/Am 

18  I    }eh/e 

16  I    fHO/Am 

18  [    fwn/E 

16  fAmn/.Vm 

18  I    Hw/w 

16  ,    HAm/p 


162.0 

168.0 

165.5 

178.4 ' 

174.5 1 

175.4 

161.2' 


129.0 ' 

58.1 

138.0 

62.0 

134.7 

59.5 

146.8, 

63.6 

143.0 1 

64.7 

140.8, 

56.6 

132.3 

58.2 

89.0 ! 
88.0,' 
85.7  j 
89.3, 
91.31 
90.4  j 

80.21 

I 


70.9 
76.0 
75.2 
83.2 
78.3 
84.2 
74.1 


43.75 
45.23 
45.43 
46.63 
44.87 
48.00 
45.97 


54.94  200 

52.38 1  188 

51.781  183 

50.06:  192 

52.32]  181 

51.541  179 

49.75!  174 


149 
149 
138 
138 
140 
140 
141 


74.50 
79.26 1 
74.51 
71.88' 
77.35 1 
78.21 
81.03 1 


m 

IIS 


Immature  Fem/des 


219 

17 

223 

16 

426 

17 

230 

17 

231 

13 

WH/W 
HW/w 

HAm/Am 

nw/p 


110 


163.0 
153.2 
171.2 
KU.o 
1.>S.0 


132.6 ' 
123.21 
143.3 
131.2' 

131.-> 


59.0 
55.0 

60.8 
59.1 


79.9 

86.4 
84.7 
SI.O 


73.61  44.98     .... 

182 

147 

80.T7 

lie 

68.2 

44.51 

52.15 

181 

144 

79.56 

108 

76.5 

44.68 

50.47 

176 

139 

7898 

. .  • 

72.1     44.64    52.45 

182  1 

150 

82.42    110 

7i.(> 

45.94 

53.73 

1H5  1 

139 

7.5.U 

in 

O'PiiKH  IIaw.miav-Wihtk  MixTrnr.s 


2,3 

16 

lII.^^v  1 

1(J0.3 

129.5 

52.5 

80.3 

77.0 

48.03  , 

50,09 

179 

143 

79.S9 

115 

33 

15 

Jiiw  :^  wii 

. .  • 

1()3.S 

13i.S 

59.3 

81.3 

75.5  1 

40.09 

51.47 

180 

151 

83.S9 

125 

39 

10 

]  wn.^  i: 

...    1 

17^2.S 

111.5 

0k5 

90.2 

77.0 

41.55 

52.20 

187 

154 

82.3:> 

120 

43 

17 

W.^    II 

.  • . 

1()0.0 

139.0 

02.0 

H.VO 

77.0 

45.50 

50.29 

198 

101 

81.31 

12: 

lit 

10 

Hspi:?  WII 

■  ■  . 

107.."> 

1  to.o 

00.4 

85,9 

79,6 

47.52 

51.28 

184 

149 

80.08 

in 

107 

20 

I  \VH,  .1  Wll 

V.H 

170.1 

1U.4 

07.9 

87.5 

4  t  ..> 

44.01 

49.(J9 

195 

161 

82.50 

119 

4'il 

55 
10 

WII    ? 

1S7 

180.4 

13.5.5 

07.2    92.5 

Fi'malcif 
59.7    S0.9 

85.0 
75.8 

47.12 
45.71 

51.27 

189 

154 
145 

81.48 
83.33 

52.41 

174 

0% 

nw,  Hw 

*    •    • 

113 

103 

13 

II.  w  .^ 

•    •    • 

149.3 

120.5 

5.>.5 

80.5 

(;5.0 

43.53 

53.91 

184 

144 

7S.2G 

IK 

119 

20 

KH    Anill 

10i> 

10^2.4 

133.0 

0^.0 

80.0 

71.0 

44.09 

53.33  , 

180 

155 

83.33 

118 

158 

17 

AmIlAviuH 

110 

1.50.^2 

121.2 

54.4 

79.8 

00.8' 

44.47  ; 

53.13  1 

179 

140 

78.21 

109 

290 

20 

HW,  HW    1 

105 

108.7 

139.1 

00.0 

89.2 

73.1' 

43.33  1 

52.87  1 

170 

143 

84.12 

%  ' 

4*7 

16 

H/Jlr 

140 

154.0 

128.6 

00.0 

84.0 

()S.0  , 

43.98  1 

54.72  ' 

168 

142 

84.52 

•  * 

449 

10 

HG/HP      i 

110 

101.9 

131.3 

58.5 

84.1 

72.bi 

41.90  ' 

1 

51.95  ' 

1 

161 

141 

87.58 

450 

10 

9 

... 

155.7 

126.3 

50.4 

81.1 

09.9  1 

44.89  1 

52.09  1 

173 

144 

83.24 

497 

17 

Hw/nw  1 

150 

157.1 

127.6 

59.9 

85.9 

07.7 

43.09  1 

54.08  j 

178 

137 

76.97 

• 

^ 

- 

^ 

^ 

- 

— 

_  — 

^_;>>-' 

•  Father  l/i  Hawaiian,  1/4  ¥lugV\s\\,  A/*  YotluRucic,  ^Vo^.WT  \/^^oT\.ci'^\cMv,\f"i^^aLTiUh. 


APPENDIX 

207 

AduU  FtmaUt 

Dwriptivr 

P 

III 

IL 

i 

t 

i 

a 

H.. 

ri 

II 

II 

kl 

1 

Km  107 

01.45 

iS 

...     *1 

3i  i  78.03 

Br-1 

■  lU     111 

8ft.5i 

fi& 

44 

35      -.9.54 

Br 

Straight 

Br 

fui     IIS 

87.00 

ss 

53 

37  ,  09.S1 

Black 

Wa^T 

Br 

Immatun  Male* 


Hw.  i«B 

M.81 

77 

114 

57 

35 

ei.4a.  24 

Br 

Straight 

flr-l 

38-34 

Htai  lOT 

78.88 

05 

113 

50 

33 

06.00    23 

Br 

" 

Br 

41-35 

HlB      119 

98.35 

«7 

45 

37 

8«.2i'   ... 

Br 

Wnvy 

Blue 

51 

HU5      115 

M.00 

01 

50 

38 

76.00 1     8 

Br-1 

Curly 

Blue- 

■us  1  110 

89.43 

62 

46 

32 

60.57       .  . 

Br 

Br 

Rf   m 

B5.35 

71 

56 

36 

64.29     ... 

Br 

SlmighV 

Br 

41 

ps.m 

89.60 

63 

45 

35 

77.7H      ,  - 

Br-1 

Br 

ImmaluTt  Femalai 


127 

47 

37 

78.72. 

<!,, 

Wi 

4H 

35 

irflf' 

us 

124 

43 
18 
51 

^ 

23 
24 

BlucJc 

114  8S.2l!     70 

I  123  Sl.d3 1      73 

I  133  86.0]  I       7B 
I  IS3  I  87.10,'       85 

I  129  02.11 

117  7J.»7 

I  137  90.48 


1      117      88.97 

J 

;  1   lis     85.61 

•r 

1    ]£0      80.90 

if' 

1  112  1  91.80 

. 

1- 

I   111  ,  85J8 

. 

h 

I  lU  I  82.54 

. 

1 

1   Kl  |100,00 

J 

1 

1  n«  '  M.04 

' 

1 

I  M30| 


Itr+I 

W.i'.y 

Dr 

3H-a9 

Jllick 

Hr 

20-13 

Hr+a 

SlminliL 

»r 

at-do 

Rkck 

Curly 

Br 

lO-lb 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br 

27 

Black 

Hr 

'      ... 

Br+1 

Br+l 

Br+1 

208 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  V.    HAWAHAX  WHITE  CHINESE 


1 

1 

Pedigree 

Bodily  Measurements  in 

Cm. 

Head  Measurements 

iaH 

"I 

i- 

i  - 

Subject 
No. 

Weight 
lbs. 

suture 

Height  of 
Acromion 

Height  of 
Dactylion 

Height 
Sitting 

Arm 
Length 

Index  of 

Arm 

Ixrngth 

Index  of 

Height 

Sitting 

1       ta. 

189 

%i\& 

hn/c 

132    173.8 

140.4    62.4 

83.2 

78.0 

44.76    47.87 

197 

!  155     78.68   11 

27 

16    & 

hc/n 

. . .     164.7 

133.0    60.5 

86.1 

72.5 

44.02    52.28 

173 

146     81.30   in 

S5 

16   cf 

hn/hc 

. .  .     155.7 

124.5    51.5 

82.2 

73.0 

46.89    51.52 

174 

155     89.0S   117 

88 

14 

& 

ch/n 

. . .     158.0 

126.5    56.5 

84.9 

70.0 

44.30    53.73 

193 

150     Ti.n   II* 

41 

15    cf 

ch/h 

. .  .     160.0 

130.0    60.0 

84.0 

70.0 

43.751  52.50 

187 

153  '  81.82' IW 

463 

14 

& 

hn/c 

102    153.2 

12i.8    53.5 

79.2 

69.3 

45.23 

51.70 

172 

139     80.81... 

473 

16 

& 

hh/nc 

115    157.9 

127.1    55.4 

80.6 

71.7 

45.41 

51.04 

159 

137     86.16   ... 

483 

17 

cf 

p/hc 

120    161.4 

131.3    57.5 

85.6 

73.8 

45.44 

52.71 

174 

140     80.46 1  ... 

159 

18'  9 

ch/nh 

120    156.5 

129.8    58.4 

82.5 

71.4 

45.62    52.71 

166 

155  ,  9S.S7 '  lis 

293 

21 

9 

C/CHN 

115    159.0 

127.6    58.8 

86.1 

68.8 

43.27    54.15 

170 

134  i  78.82!  ... 

306 

9 

hx/hc 

145    162.9 

132.4'  61.0 

87.5 

71.4 

43.56    53.39 

172 

147     85.47   ... 

334 

27 

9 

•  nh/c 

. .  .     164.0 

133.6    61.1 

86.4 

72.5 

44.21     52.68 

166 

136     81.9S   ... 

90 

16 

9 

HC/'r 

143    154.7 

125.5    58.5 

83.5 

67.0 

43.31 

53.97 

180 

156  '  86.66 

m 

182 

14 

9 

HC/X 

. .  .     158.4 

128.1    54.7 

79.9 

73.4 

46.34 

50.44 

178 

145     81.46   in 

111 

11 

9 

h(c.'^)/xh 

...     144.2 

116.5    51.6 

73.7 

64.9 

45.01     51.11 

169 

145     85.S0 1  IW 

217 

16 

9 

hn/ch 

. . .     163.6 

lt>0^    55.5 

87.7 

74.8 

45.72 

53.61 

176 

146  1  82.0f'   118 

234 

16 

9 

ch/nh 

.  . .     153.5 

124.3 '>$6.4, 

80.2 

67.9 

44.30 

52.25 

164 

146     89.02   111 

248 

17 

9 

Cn/Sp 

. . .     158.0 

129.2    59:2 

85.7 

69.9 

44.30 

54.24 

181 

150     82.87    1« 

273 

15 

9 

nc/x 

. . .     159.0 

127.4    57.8 

Ka.o' 

69.6 

43.77 

54.09 

186 

144     77.421  in 

434 

17 

9 

sph/hc 

. . .     150.7 

123.4    57.bl 

75.0 

65.8 

41.91 

49.77 

161 

141     87.58    .. 

492 

17 

9 

hc/hx 

125    158.0 

129.3    50.9 

80.9 

7!t6 

45.66 

50.88 

174 

133     76.44    .. 

498 

17 

9 

HSpc/nc 

105    155.6 

129.3    60.2 

79.1 

69.1  ' 

44.41 

50.83 

163 

138     S4.66    .. 

499 

17 

9 

nc/p 

...     ^o'^.0 

124.9    5G.7 

79.5 

mM 

44.87     52.30 

162 

141      87.04    . 

501 

26    d" 

xii/hcx 

160    177.1 

147.0    65.4 

88.5 

81.6 

4(5.07 

49.97 

178 

137  i  76.97     . 

503^ 

Ocf 

hc/hxc 

. .  .     123.G 

96.8    39.7 

64.5 

57.1 

4G.i>ft     52.18 

162 

132     81.48     . 

504 1 

6 

& 

a 

...     107.9 

82.5    34.9 

O.J.5 

47.6 

44.11  .  51.44 

155 

127     81.93    . 

5051 

5 

9 

a 

. . .     106.5 

•    •    •    • 

•    •    • 

53.5 

•    •    • 

•    •    •   • 

m23 

s 

146 

127     06.99    . 

»  Children  of  cf  501  and  9  502  (Fi  Hawaiian  X  Chinesi)- 


\ 


APPENDIX 


209 


TABLE  V.    HAWAHAN  WHITE  CHINESE 


Face  Me««ureinenta  in  Mm. 

Descriptive 

ff 

Ill 

Facial 
Indez 
% 

§ 
III 

Naaal 
Height 

Naaal 
Breadth 

Skin 
Color 

Hair 
Color 

Hair 
Form 

Eye 
Color 

1 

CO 

Eye 
Fold 

140 

98.59 

81 

58 

•40 

68.97 

^_ 

Black 

Straight 

Br-2 

57-47 

.^ 

126 

97.67 

71 

51 

41 

80.39 

23 

Br+2 

ft* 

Br 

45H19 

127 

89.44 

77 

58 

41 

70.69 

40- 

Black 

Wavy 

Br+l 

42-49 

— 

113 

88.28 

66 

47 

36 

76.58 

24- 

a 

Straight 

Hazel 

27-30 

110 

87.30 

64 

52 

39 

75.00 

23 

a 

Wavy 

Br 

37-37 

— 

104 

80.62 

62 

41 

36 

87.81 

— 

a 

Straight 

Br+1 

— 

+ 

108 

88.52 

60 

43 

40 

95.24 

— 

a 

a 

a 

47- 

+ 

116 

92.06 

66 

45 

36 

77.77 

11 

Br-fl 

Wavy 

Br 

51- 

db 

116 

83.45 

63 

46 

38 

8i.61 

23- 

Br 

u 

Br-1 

25-24 

± 

110 

85.27 

65 

47 

34 

72.34 

Br+1 

Straight 

Br 

24- 

0 

112 

102.75 

67 

49 

42 

85.71 

12 

Black 

Wavy 

u 

30- 

0 

105 

80.77 

59 

47 

36 

76.59 

15 

u 

Straight 

Br+1 

33-      0 

125 

86.81 

74 

54 

40 

74.07 

23 

u 

Wavy 

Br+1 

24-24     =fc 

123 

88.49 

76 

55 

35 

63.63 

Blonde 

Br+1 

Straight 

Hazel 

21-17 

— 

116 

92.80 

71 

49 

33 

67.35 

47- 

Br+1 

Wavy 

Br+1 

16-17 

+ 

118 

87.41 

67 

51 

39 

76.47 

24 

Black 

Straight 

Br 

25-22 

— 

113 

81.88 

65 

49 

38 

77.55 

light 

Br+1 

u 

Br-1 

27-26 

— 

122 

87.14 

74 

52 

38 

73.07 

23 

Black 

Wavy 

a 

33-34 

— 

115 

84.56 

68 

50 

40 

80.00 

23 

u 

Curly 

Br 

31-34     =fc 

» 

99 

79.84 

58 

39 

39 

100.00 

— 

a 

Straight 

Br+1 

— 

0 

1 

111 

88.09 

66 

49 

34 

69.39 

— 

Br+1 

W^avy 

Br 

— 

+ 

112 

85.50 

65 

43 

33 

76.74 

^~ 

Black 

u 

u 

— 

+ 

105 

84.68 

58 

40 

37 

92.50 

— 

a 

a 

Br+1 

— 

0 

115 

89.15 

67 

44 

40 

90.91 

— 

Black 

Curly 

Br-1 

— 

0 

95 

— 

57 

38 

33 

86.84 

•   •   • 

a 

Wavy 

Br+1 

— 

0 

84 

— 

45 

39 

31 

79.49 

•   •   • 

Br+2 

a 

Br 

— 

0 

81 

•^ 

45 

31 

32 

103.23 

•   •   • 

a 

a 

Br 

^ 

0 

•.*■■■■  •■■■  •7  ■    .         •  ^     ■  «    ..     . 

•  •■    •  •  ■-  ■•        -r.       •    .  -.     r    . 


BIBUOGRAFHY 


(na«  tM  nlMMd  tp  Iqr  awdMr  ai^  in  tlw  l«0 


h  MdCkaifikeiy,  Y^  1919.     Jour.  Band.  10:  90-9fi. 

S.IbJd.  Sdntille  MontUtr  6:  10^-174. 

8..  Hoffmani  F.  L.,  1028.      EufHiict  in  Baoe  and  8teto«  pfk  90-106. 

4.  mdHdkA,  Ak%  1990.       AnHiioiioinrtry.   Wiite  iMlitiite'Ql  Anatomy 

and  Biology,  PhihwMphlft.   F]p.  168. 
Cnie  XntonaAioiial  Agrwpwpt  adopted  at  Mo- 
naco (1906)  andaiqpplenMnted  l^^tiia  Qenevm 
AgTMiBient  (1912)  ia  gtf«n  in  pp.  10-81.) 

8.  Davenporti  C.  B.,  1904.  Staturfacal  Methods.   John  Wlkgr  4b  Bona,  New 

Toiic.    225  pp. 

0.  Tule,  Q.  U.,  1919.  Intiodtiotlon  to  the  lliecny  cf  Btatiatiea,  5tfa  ed. 

C.  Qiiffin  4b  Go.,  Ltd.,  Lmdni. 

7.  Peanon,  K,  1807.  Proc.  Boy.  Soe.  60:  489-496. 

8.  Pearson,  K.,  1906.  Biometiika  2:  838. 

9.  Craig,  J.  I.,  1911.  Biometiika  8:  66-7a 

10.  Dunn,  L.  C,  1928.  Eugenioa  in  Race  and  State,  pp.  109-124,  Wil- 

liams d;  Wilkins  Co.,  Baltimoie. 

11.  Sullivan,  L.  R.,  1921.       Memoirs  of  the  Beroioe  P.  Bishop  Mnsomn,  VoL 

8,  No.  2.   Published  by  the  Museum,  Honolulu. 
11a.  Sullivan,  L.  R.,  1923.     Memoirs  of  the  Bemice  P.  Bishop  Museum,  Vol. 

9,  No.  2. 
Hawaii. 

12.  Sullivan,  L.  R.,  1920.       Anthropological  Papers  of  the  Amer.  Mus.  Nat. 

Hist.,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  23,  Part  3. 

13.  Martin,  R.,  1914.  Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologie.    Gustav  Fischer, 

Jena. 

14.  Davenport,  C.  B.,  1917.  Genetics  2:  313-389. 

15.  Davenport,  C.  B.,  1923.  Proc.  Nat.  Acad.  Sciences  9:  226-230. 

16.  von  Luschan,  F.,  1907.     VeroflF.   aus.   d.  Konigl.  Museum  fttr  V6lker- 

kunde  Bd  XII,  No.  2. 

17.  Allen,  H.,  1898.  Trans.  Wagner  Free  Inst,  of  Science.    Phil.  V, 

p.  1. 

18.  Flower,  W.  H.,  1878.        Roy.  Inst.  Great  Britain. 

19.  Otis,  G.  A.,  1876.  Check  list  of  preparations  and  objects  in  the 

section  of  human  anatomy  of  the  U.  S.  Army 
Medical  Museiun,  etc.  Washington,  pp. 
113-121. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


211 


20.  Deniker,  J.,  1900. 

21.  Hagen,  B.,  1889. 

22.  Castle,  W.  E.,  1922. 

23.  Boas,  F.,  1899. 

24.  Boas,  F.,  1907. 

25.  Bean,  R.  B. 

26.  Davenport,  C.  B.,  and 

Love,  A.  G.,  1921. 


27.  Goring,  C,  1913. 

28.  Shapiro,  H.L. 


The  Races  of  Man. 

Anthropologische  Studien  aus  dem  Insulinde. 

Natur.  Verh.  der  Koninkl.  Akad.  Deel.  28. 

Carnegie  Inst.  Publ.  320. 

The  Cephalic  Index.   Amer.  Anth.  Vol.  1,  p.  448. 

Heredity  in  Anthropometric  Traits.  Amer.  Anth. 

Vol.  9,  p.  457. 
Heredity  of  Hair  Form  among  Filipinos.    Amer. 

Nat.  Vol.  45,  p.  524. 
Army  Anthropology.     Medical    Dept.,  U.  S. 

Army  in  World  War,  Vol.  15.   Statistics,  Part 

I,  Gov't  Printing  Office,  635  pp.  Washington, 

D.C. 
The  English   Convict.     A  Statistical   Study. 

London. 
The  Norfolk  Islanders.    MS. 


I 


PAPERS 

OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  XI.  — No.  4 


\rA( 


AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 
FROM  MONTARDIT  (ARI^GE) 

FRANCE 


BY 


RUTH  OTIS  SAWTELL 


SEVEN  PLATES  AND  TWO  ILLUSTRATIONS 

IN  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSEITS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

1931 


.,«"   s 


rt33 


PSINTTD  AT  THE  HASTJLKO  rxmK3TT  PWES& 
CAWSIOGE.  lL&:^w  T.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 

Introduction 

The  Site 217 

Stratification 217 

Description  of  Skeletal  Remains 

Osteological  Catalogue 220 

Age  and  Sex  of  Azilian  Skeletons 221 

Cranial  Characters  of  Azilians  of  Montardit 222 

Maxilla  and  Mandible 225 

Dentition 225 

Extremities 226 

Stature 228 

Vertebrae 229 

Shoulder-girdle  and  Pelvis 230 

Patella  and  Footbones 230 

Pathology 233 

Morphological  Rating 235 

ZJomparative  Data 

Upper  Palaeolithic 238 

Mesolithic 242 

Nummary 250 

BiBUOORAPHY 251 

Tables 

1.  Vertebrae      231 

2.  Right  pateUa,  male 232 

3.  Tarsus 233 

4.  Mean  ratings  of  crania 235 

5.  Morphological  rating  of  Montardit  I  (Hooton  scale)     ....  236 

6.  Montardit  measurements  compared  with  Mesolithic  and  Pa- 
laeolithic male  crania 243 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 

1.  Cranium  of  Montardit  I,  norma  frontalis  and  norma  occipitalis.  .  221 

2.  Cranium  of  Montardit  I,  norma  verticalis  and  norma  lateralis.  .  .  223 

3.  Maxilla  of  Montardit  I 225 

4.  Mandible  of  Montardit  I     227 

5.  Right  femur  and  right  tibia  of  Montardit  I,  lateral  and  anterior 
views 229 

6.  Right  and  left  ulnae  of  Montardit  I,  anterior  and  lateral  views  .  231 

7.  Fourth  lumbar  vertebra  of  Montardit  I 233 

FIGURES 

1.  Male  cranium  from  Mugem  (after  Carthailac) 246 

2.  Superimposition  of  sagittal  arcs  of  Montardit  I  and  Kaufertsberg 

skulls 248 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  SITE 

The  rock  shelters  of  Montardit  are  surrounded  by  famous  caves 
of  the  French  Pyrenees.  The  Mas  d'Azil,  Tuc  d'Audoubert,  Trois 
IFrferes,  and  Enl6ne  lie  within  a  few  miles,  and  on  all  sides  the  lime- 
stone of  the  Plantaurel  is  pierced  by  hundreds  of  caves,  many  of 
^^vhich  have  yielded  traces  of  industry  from  which  the  palaeolithic 
past  has  been  reconstructed.  During  excavations  of  the  largest  of 
'the  Montardit  shelters,  a  small  cave  well  known  in  the  local  patois 
^ts  the  Tuto  Biouleto  {Trou  Violet) ,  the  Violet  Hole,  certain  human 
skeletal  remains  were  discovered  associated  with  fauna  and  im- 
;plements  of  stone  and  bone  which  dated  them  as  definitely  Azilian. 

The  work  of  the  first  field  season,  1924,  undertaken  by  Paul  and 
Jda  Treat  VaiUant-Couturier  and  the  present  writer,  then  Rad- 
cjliffe  traveling  fellow  in  science,  was  made  possible  by  the  interest 
^md  enthusiasm  of  the  late  Mrs.  William  G.  Farlow  of  Cambridge. 
The  excavations  of  1925  and  1926  were  carried  on  by  Monsieur 
end  Madame  VaiUant-Couturier  under  the  patronage  of  the  Insti- 
"^ut  de  Pal^ontologie  Humaine  de  Paris.  The  human  skeletons  are 
iiow  in  the  Mus^  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Paris,  together  with 
"^he  greater  part  of  the  animal  bones  and  artifacts;  a  small  collec- 
tion representing  the  Azilian  industry  and  fauna  was  presented  to 
^he  Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard  University. 

Through  the  great  courtesy  of  Professor  Boule  and  Professor 
"Vemeau  of  the  Musfe  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Paris,  the  writer 
^^^as  able  to  study  the  Azilian  skeletons  in  their  laboratories,  to- 
gether with  other  rare  prehistoric  remains,  notably  the  three  Cro- 
^^agnon  crania.  Monsieur  Paul  Clavelin  of  the  Laboratoire  d'An- 
^hropologie  was  unfailing  in  help  and  kindness.  For  advice  in  the 
S>reparation  of  this  monograph,  gratitude  is  expressed  to  Professor 
Xiamest  A.  Hooton  of  Harvard  University. 

STRATIFICATION 

Five  distinct  strata  were  disclosed  in  the  excavation  of  the  Trou 
Violet,  These  strata,  their  peculiar  fauna  and  industry,  have  been 


218  INTEODtJCnON 


tiioioiiglily  deeeribed  by  the  VaillBnt-CioutiirieRii  and  it  is  from 
their  study  that  these  statoooe&tB  aie  munmai^  ftembattom 
to  top  the  strata  ran: 

A.  Clay,  friable  and  sterile,  restiiig  on  the  rock  floor  of  tlie  cave. 

B.  Yellow  day  containing  Magdalenian  hearths  and  rein^er 
bones. 

C.  Clay,  muddy,  containing  pieces  of  limestone,  oobUestones, 
bones  of  roctents  and  birds,  and  covered  in  certain  spots  by 
a  deposit  ci  stalagmite. 

D.  Black  earth,  striped  with  red,  containing  many  Azilian 
hearths,  fauna  characteristic  of  that  period,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  Helix. 

E.  Disturbed  oarth.  Neolithic  and  Gallo-Roman  rranains. 

Stratum  D,  the  Azilian  layer,  began  at  1.40  m.  below  the  cave 
surface  of  1924.  Sixty  centimeters  down  in  this  layer  —  two  meters 
from  the  top  —  was-  found  the  first  Azilian  burial.  This  was  on 
August  28, 1924.  Ten  dajns  later,  at  an  additional  depth  of  50  cm., 
the  second  grave  came  to  light.  The  trench  at  the  back  of  the  cave 
had  reached  the  level  of  an  archway,  the  entrance  of  which  was 
closed  by  great  blocks  of  limestone.  Removal  of  these  blocks  dis- 
closed a  small  chamber  1.50  m.  in  length.  The  first  human  skele- 
ton (Montardit  I)  lay  with  the  skull  vault  against  the  springstone 
of  this  arch.  It  had  been  placed  on  the  right  side,  completely  ex- 
tended, the  head  higher  than  the  feet,  the  body  inclined  downward 
and  inward  toward  the  back  of  the  small  chamber.  Across  the 
legs  a  large  flat  stone  had  been  set,  and  the  grave  was  roughly 
outlined  by  eighteen  cobblestones,  one  with  traces  of  red.  Numer- 
ous other  stones  showing  use  as  hammers,  anvils,  etc.,  and  marked 
with  red,  or  blackened  from  fire,  were  found  within  this  circle.  A 
large  flint  chip  crudely  worked  was  the  only  implement.  The 
remains  of  the  second  human  skeleton  (Montardit  II)  were  also 
buried  within  a  second  archway,  shallower  than  the  first,  also  closed 
by  a  pile  of  limestone  blocks.  Although  few  bones  were  found,  in 
contrast  to  the  almost  complete  preservation  of  Montardit  I,  the 
number  of  stones  outlining  the  grave  and  the  objects  within  greatly 

»  L'Anthropoloffie,  vol.  xxxvin  (1928),  pp.  217-243.  Several  photographs  accompanying 
this  article  appeared  in  the  study  above;  others  are  used  thro\i«;h  the  courtesy  of  D.  Appleton 
and  Company. 


INTRODUCTION  219 

exceeded  those  of  the  first  burial.  The  type  of  objects  was  the 
same,  even  to  the  great  crude  rdclcir.  Beside  the  skull  was  found 
a  small  scraper  {gratioir  sur  bout  de  lame). 

Both  hearths  on  which  the  burials  were  made  contained  the 
same  fauna,  characteristically  Azilian:  Sus  scrofa,  Cervus  elaphus, 
Capreolus,  Bos  sp,,  Cams  lapus,  Felts  sylvestris,  Mustela  foina^ 
Meles  taxuSy  Mustela  martes,  rodents  and  birds.  Above  and  below 
the  two  graves  continued  hearths  filled  with  remains  of  the  same 
animals  and  with  typical  Azilian  implements  of  stone  and  bone. 
There  is  no  question,  then,  of  burial  at  a  later  date. 


\ 


220  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

OSTEOLOGICAL  CATALOGUE 

Skeletal  remains  of  four  individuals  have  been  found  in  tb 
Trou  Violet ;  two  represented  by  one  bone  each,  and  the  two  Azil- 
ian  burials  excavated  in  1924. 

Montardit  A.  Portion  of  the  left  side  of  the  pelvis  of  a  young 
individual.  Picked  up  on  the  surface  by  the  Abb6  Cistac  and 
M.  Vaillant-Couturier  in  1905. 

Montardit  B.  Right  humerus  of  a  small,  non-muscular  subject, 
probably  female.  This  was  found  in  July,  1924,  in  the  disturbed 
stratum  (E)  and  is  therefore  of  uncertain  period.  The  distal  ex- 
tremity and  about  one-half  of  the  shaft  were  present.  The  shaft, 
rounded  and  smooth,  with  middle  diameters  of  19  nun.  and  16  nmi., 
was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  rugged,  relatively  massive  bone 
of  the  first  Azilian  burial.  The  middle  shaft  index  (84.2)  indicates 
less  flattening  than  in  any  of  the  group  means  cited  by  Martin, 
the  nearest  being  83,  the  mean  for  the  right  humerus  of  white 
American  females. 

Montardit  I.  Skeleton  of  an  old  male,  the  first  of  the  two 
Azilian  burials.  The  condition  of  the  cranium  and  long  bones  was 
sufficiently  good  to  warrant  a  fairly  complete  series  of  measure- 
ments and  detailed  morphological  observations.  The  following 
bones  were  present : 

Cranium.  Calvaria  complete  except  for  anterior  half  of  both 
temporals  and  portion  of  right  parietal  and  frontal.  Base  and  most 
of  face  lacking  (Plates  1  and  2).  Maxilla  present  (Plate  3).  Man- 
dible complete  except  for  right  ascending  ramus  (Plate  4). 

Clamcles.   Left,  complete.    Right,  lateral  portion  only. 

Scapulae.  Right  and  left,  glenoid  cavities,  coracoid  and  acro- 
mion processes,  part  of  axillary  borders. 

Sternum.   Gladiolus,  right  side  complete. 

Ribs.   Fragments  of  18.   Slender. 

Pelvis.   Portion  of  right  and  loft  ilia  with  acetabula.   I^ft  crest. 
Sacrum,  fragment  of  first  segment. 

Vericbrae.    Cervical  3;  dorsal  8:  lumbar  4  (Plate  7);  sacral  1; 
coccygeal  0;  total  16.    Miscellaneous  fragments. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  221 

Femora.  Right,  complete  except  for  small  portion  of  internal 
surface  of  interior  condyle  (Plate  5).  Left,  portions  of  both  con- 
dyles, neck,  and  head. 

Tibiae,  Right,  complete.  Shaft  below  head  shows  some  crush- 
ing inward  (Plate  5).  Left,  lower  half  of  shaft  and  part  of  head. 

Fibulae.   Left,  complete.   Right,  distal  extremity. 

Humeri.  Right,  part  of  head  missing.  Left,  lower  half  of  shaft 
and  most  of  head. 

Radii.  Right,  shaft  from  below  bicipital  tuberosity  to  beginning 
of  extremity.   Left,  head  and  shaft  to  beginning  of  extremity. 

Ulnae.  Right,  styloid  process  and  articulation  for  radius  miss- 
ing. Left,  complete  (Plate  6). 

Foot  and  Hand.  Os  calcis,  right  and  left  almost  complete.  First 
left  metatarsal;  left  cuboid,  fragment;  3rd  metacarpal,  right  and 
left;  4th  left  metacarpal;  fragments  of  1  metacarpal  and  1  meta- 
tarsal. 

Montardit  n.  The  Second  Azilian  Burial.  Remains  of  an  indi- 
vidual, probably  male,  much  younger  than  Montardit  I. 

Calva.  Major  portion  of  parietals;  part  of  occipital  and  of  right 
frontal.  Temporal  border  of  left  parietal  and  piece  of  right  frontal 
found  apart  from  calva,  distinctly  warped  and  possibly  gnawed. 

Clavicle.   Right,  almost  complete. 

Scapula.  Right,  fragment  inferior  angle,  junction  of  vertebral 
and  axillary  borders. 

Patella.   Right,  complete. 

Ribs.  Fragments  of  three. 

Footbones.  Cuboid,  right;  scaphoid,  left;  internal  cuneiform, 
right;  metatarsals,  first  right,  fourth  right  and  left. 

AGE  AND  SEX  OF  AZILIAN  SKELETONS 

Montardit  I.  The  burial  found  in  the  first  Azilian  hearth,  two 
meters  from  the  level  of  1924,  was  presumably  that  of  an  old  man. 
Of  the  areas  where  age  changes  are  most  definitely  indicated,  the 
symphysis  pubis  was  absent,  but  the  excessive  wear  of  the  teeth 
(Plate  4),  the  condition  of  the  palate,  —  constricted,  senile,  and 
diseased  (Plate  3),  —  and  the  vertebrae  with  their  depressed  cen- 
tra and  arthritic  borders  (Plate  7),  all  pointed  to  more  than  middle 
life.  Moreover,  the  state  of  the  cranial  sutures  agreed  with  this 
conclusion.    Viewed  from  the  inner  surface,  the  coronal  and  tem- 


222  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

poro-lambdoid  sutures  were  entirely  closed,  the  sagittal  was  three- 
fourths  obliterated,  and  of  the  lambdoid,  only  traces  remained. 
On  the  outside,  the  coronal  was  visible  only  in  the  temporal  region 
(Plate  2),  the  lambdoid  almost  obUterated  (Plate  1),  the  sagittal 
present  only  at  bregma  and  obeUon,  and  the  temporo-occipitalopen. 

Sex  differentiation  in  the  craniiun  was  most  marked  in  the 
heavy  brow-ridges  and  rugged  mastoids,  both  remarkable  for  so 
small  a  skull.  The  skull  base  and  zygomata  being  absent  and  the 
palate  senile,  the  only  other  evidence  was  furnished  by  the  man- 
dible. The  menton  and  the  gonial  angles  were  strongly  marked; 
the  other  characters  were  definitely  masculine.  Of  the  other  bones, 
the  fragmentary  pelvis  offered  Uttle.  The  ischiatic  notch  was  deep 
and  of  medium  width;  the  spines  were  broken.  On  the  right,  the 
preauricular  sulcus  showed  a  sharp  line;  on  the  left,  it  was  less 
clearly  marked,  but  with  no  roughness. 

All  the  long  bones  were  sturdy  with  heavy  musculature,  and  the 
heads  of  femur  and  humerus  were  large  both  actually  and  relative 
to  the  shaft  (Plate  5). 

The  balance  of  evidence  thus  seems  to  justify  the  conclusion 
that  the  first  Azilian  skeleton  was  male  and  old.  Of  the  second, 
while  almost  none  of  the  decisive  characters  were  present,  on  the 
basis  of  its  greater  thickness  and  similar  size,  and  of  the  prominent 
occipital  torus,  seems  also  male.  The  suture  closure  —  internal, 
all  open ;  external,  all  open  except  the  sagittal  around  obelion  — 
indicates  a  young  individual. 

CRANIAL  CHARACTERS  OF  AZILIANS  OF  MONTARDIT 

As  nearly  as  one  can  judge  from  its  present  state,  the  cranium  of 
Montardit  II  in  norvia  veriicalis  resembled  a  slightly  broadened 
ellipse,  with  a  parietal  breadth  approximating  136  mm.  There  is 
definite  flattening  at  and  just  above  lambda.  These  traits  are 
equally  characteristic  of  Montardit  I,  but  the  occipital  torus,  a 
ridge  marked  but  not  extremely  rugged,  is  in  contrast  to  the  inion 
of  Number  I.  Both  skulls  show  suture  patterns  of  medium  com- 
plexity. The  coronal  suture  of  Montardit  II  is  very  simple,  t^^ 
others  grading  from  medium  to  complex.  Several  small  Wormian 
bones  appear  in  the  sagittal  suture,  and  the  left  portion  of  the  lamb- 
doid contains  one  large  and  one  small.  In  both  crania,  there  is  one 
very  large  parietal  foramen  and  several  of  minute  size. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  223 

The  most  outstanding  characteristic  of  this  fragmentary  skull 
is  the  thickness  of  the  frontal  bone.  At  bregma,  it  measures  9  mm., 
and  at  2.5  mm.  lower,  10  mm.  The  mean  thickness  of  the  left 
parietal  above  the  temporo-parietal  suture  is,  however,  only  3.6 
mm.  The  relation  this  bears  to  other  prehistoric  skulls  will  be 
discussed  later. 

Of  those  personal  experiences  both  post-  and  ante-mortem  which 
individualize  even  so  remote  a  specimen,  this  cranium  had  its 
share.  Two  healed  depressed  lesions  mar  the  surface  of  the  parie- 
tals,  a  small  one  on  the  right,  and  on  the  left,  38  mm.  from  obelion, 
A  depression  12  X  6  mm.  in  diameter.  Whether  from  the  early  dis- 
turbance of  the  grave  already  mentioned  or  from  the  wear  and 
tear  of  the  following  ages,  numerous  scratches  cross  both  parietals, 
those  on  the  portion  of  the  frontal  and  parietal  found  outside  the 
sepulture  being  deepest.  At  the  point  where  the  frontal  ends,  the 
xoughness  of  the  bone  suggests  gnawing,  but  is  equally  and  more 
I)robably  indicative  of  long  contact  with  earth  and  stone.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  clavicle,  patella,  and  footbones  were  found  in  ap- 
I)roximately  normal  relationship  to  the  calva,  the  suggestion  offered 
l>y  the  Abb<^  Breuil  that  the  scratches  mean  preparation  and  cere- 
xnonial  burial  of  the  Le  Placard  type  does  not  seem  probable. 

Montardit  I.  Calvarium — Measurements,  On  the  calvarium  of 
the  first  Azilian  skeleton  it  was  possible  to  take  the  following 
:measurements. 

Glabello-occipital  length  180  nmi.;  maximum  transverse  breadth 
136.5  mm.;  auricular  height  117  mm.    These,  with  the  length- 
l>readth  and  length-auricular  height  indices  of  75.83  and  65,  show  a 
small  skull  at  the  lowest  limit  of  mesocephaly  and  well  within  the 
liypsicephalic  division  of  Martin.    The  maximum  circumference 
^ibove  the  brow-ridges  approximated  510  mm.   The  height  of  the 
xather  low  right  orbit  was  about  30  mm.,  and  the  nasal  breadth 
:iiieasured  24  mm.    The  cranial  bones  showed  considerable  thick- 
ness.  On  the  left  parietal  just  above  the  temporo-parietal  suture, 
the  mean  was  5.3,  about  that  obtained  by  Boule  on  the  Neanderthal 
man  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  2.6  mm.  thicker  than  the  Old  Man 
of  Cro-Magnon,  and  1.7  mm.  thicker  than  the  same  region  of 
Montardit  II.   The  frontal  region  at  bregma,  however,  was  6  mm., 
the  same  as  Cro-Magnon  I,  whereas  the  Neanderthal  specimen 
xneasured  8  mm.  and  Montardit  II,  9  mm.    At  2.5  mm.  below 


234  AZUIAN  SBELETAL  KEMAINB 

htegmai  wfaeie  Mcmtardit  n  ahows  its  greatert 
Montardit  I  remains  6  mm.,  lAnkb  the  Cra^Msgnnn  firantal  bt' 
orsases  to  7  mm.  It  must  be  horod  in  ndndy  however,  tihat  Mod- 
tardit  I  is  a  muoh  older  individual  than  Montardit  11. 

By  the  Lee-Pearson  fonnula  10  bis^  a  eranial  capacity  of  1389 
was  oompated,  an  amount  small  but  well  within  the  nmge  of  all 
mtodem  European  groups  listed  by  Martin. 

Measur^nents  of  the  palate  were  unsatisf actcMy  beoauae  of 
senility  and  state  of  i>reservation,  but  a  tentative  index  of  110.35 
supports  the  observaiton  of  original  narrowness. 

Tlie  degree  of  completeness  of  the  mandiUe  allowed  these  four 
measurements:  hei^t  of  symfkymBf  31  mm.;  minimum  fafeadth 
of  left  ascending  ramus,  32  mm.;  hei^t  of  ramus,  53  mm.;  conctyio- 
symphysial  length,  100  mm. 

Discussion  of  these  measurements  will  be  found  in  relati<m  to 
the  morphological  observations,  and  in  c(miparison  with  other 
crania  of  the  Stone  Ages. 

MootarditL  CaJvarium — McrpholoQiod  ObBervatioM.  The  fron- 
tal region  of  the  skull  was  of  average  height,  the  slope  gradual 
and  of  medium  steepness  (Plate  2).  The  breadth  was  apparently 
medium  (Plate  1).  There  was  a  slight  median  ridge.  Brow-ridges 
heavy  and  protruding  surmounted  each  orbit,  but  with  no  ex- 
tension above  nasion  of  the  torus  type.  Bdow  these  ridges,  the 
glabella  was  prominent  and  protuberant,  and  the  upper  border  of 
the  orbit  showed  great  thickness. 

Viewed  in  norma  verticalis,  the  sagittal  region  formed  a  some- 
what widened  ellipse  of  medium  breadth.  No  elevation  or  post- 
coronoid  depression  broke  the  continuous  curve  to  the  region  just 
above  lambda,  where  the  same  flattening  already  mentioned  in 
Montardit  II  occurs.  The  curve  again  continues  throughout  the 
perfectly  convex,  non-protuberant  occipital  region  with  its  small, 
definitely  marked  inion.  The  temporal  region  was  probably  of 
medium  development.  Large  supra-mastoid  crests  were  present, 
more  pronounced  on  the  left  than  on  the  right,  and  the  mastoids 
were  big  for  so  small  a  skull  and  quite  rugged. 

Sutures  were  apparently  of  medium  pattern,  and  almost  entirely 
obliterated,  as  has  been  stated  above.  Several  Wormian  bones  of 
small  size  were  present  in  the  right  and  left  portions  of  the  coronal 
suture;  one  large  example  appeared  as  lambda,  and  one  large  left. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  225 

one  medium  right,  and  various  ossicles  in  each  side  of  the  occipital 
suture.  In  the  sagittal  suture,  a  parietal  foramen  of  considerable 
size  with  a  smaller  perforation  at  the  left  recalled  a  similar  occur- 
rence in  Montardit  II. 

MAXILLA  AND  MANDIBLE 

Although  too  great  an  area  was  lacking  to  permit  the  attachment 
of  maxilla  (Plate  3)  to  calvarium,  the  condition  of  both  upper 
and  lower  jaws  made  possible  a  fairly  complete  study  of  the  face 
of  the  Montardit  Azilian.  The  orbits  were  rather  low,  rhomboid  in 
shape,  and  of  medium  inclination.  The  nasal  root  was  depressed  to 
a  moderate  degree,  the  spine  small,  and  the  lower  borders  of  the 
aperture  not  sharply  defined.  No  trace  of  alveolar  prognathism 
was  discernible;  facial  prognathism  could  not  be  ascertained.  The 
hard  palate,  now  distorted  by  senility  and  with  the  alveolar  borders 
eaten  and  absorbed  by  abscesses,  doubtless  had  a  narrow  para- 
bolic form.  The  mandible  (Plate  4)  was  of  medium  size,  with  a 
strong  body  and  ascending  rami  moderately  broad  but  very  thin. 
The  sigmoid  notch  was  not  deep.  The  inferior  dental  foramen  was 
unusually  large;  the  eversion  of  the  gonial  angles  strongly  marked; 
the  chin  was  positive,  a  rough  oval  in  form.  On  the  inner  surface 
two  characters  offered  marked  evolutionary  conflict  —  the  almost 
complete  absence  of  the  mylo-hyoid  ridge,  reminiscent  of  the 
anthropoid,  associated  with  an  ultra-human  development  of  the 
genial  tubercles. 

DENTITION 

When  the  jaws  were  disinterred,  eight  teeth  were  more  or  less 
present;  none  were  found  in  the  grave.  \Vhile  all  of  these  teeth 
showed  excessive  wear,  there  were  no  signs  of  caries.  The  teeth 
present  were  the  upper  left  canine  and  the  mesial  fang  of  the  upper 
left  first  molar  (Plate  3);  in  the  mandible  (Plate  4),  root  of  the 
canine,  first  right  premolar,  all  three  right  molars,  left  first  premolar. 
Of  the  upper  teeth  missing,  all  four  premolars  were  probably  lost 
in  life.  Their  sockets  are  pitted  and  eaten  by  abscesses  and  possible 
pyorrhoea,  and  traces  of  the  same  condition  extend  throughout 
the  molar  region. 

While  the  borders  of  the  lower  jaw  show  less  evidence  of  inflam- 
matory processes  than  does  the  maxilla,  the  enlargement  of  the 


I 

1  ■ 

•    J 


AmiAN  SKELETAL  BEICAINB 

to  tt0  li^  seecxid  molar  aiid  its  «Kta^^ 
pnbaUy  denotoi  a&  abieewed  comBtioiL  Both  wntnl 
aiid  poflriUy  the  kft  seecxid  iiMiaw 
ipoe  afaacMrbed.  Tlie  third  molar  ia  mnah  kaa  wofn  thu 
aagf  of  the  other  teeth.  The  fint  and  aaeoiid  molam  aie  of  equal 
riaa^  agahi  an  anthropoid  trait,  but  the  eaninea  are  non-ptojeetiiig 
aad.thete  ia  no  other  hint  of  diaraeteni  leas  than  ^rpieaDy  humaiL 

extrebhtieb 

Hie  Hmb  bonea  of  the  M<mtaidit  Aiilian  diaracteriae  Urn  aa  a 
alMMTt,  muaeular  man  with  no  apelike  and  few  primitive  traita. 

Hie  rif^t  femur  (Plate  5)  meaaurea  407  mm,  bieondjlar  and 
415  mm.  maximiim.  At  mid-shaft,  the  antero-poaterior  diameter 
la  87  mm.y  the  transverse  23  mm.;  the  correqxmding  aabtioehan* 
taite  diameters  22  mm.  and  28  mm.  Hie  shaft  of  the  left  meaaurea 
SB  mm.  X  23  mm.,  and,  subtrochanteric,  22  mm,  and  28  mm., 
baing  about  identical  with  the  rifi^t.  The  head  of  the  ri|^t  booe 
la  of  large  diameter,  45  mm.  maximum,  and  ahows  a  moderate 
dagiee  <tf  tonrion.  Shafts  are  prismatic  in  section,  with  pronounced 
curvature,  of  greater  degree  in  the  left.  The  compensating  pilaster 
ll  alao  greater  on  this  bone,  being  7  mm.  broad  at  tlie  middle,  f^ule 
the  maximum  for  the  rigjit  is  6  mm.  The  index  of  irilaster  (Martin) 
ll  117.39  for  the  right  and  121.74  for  the  left.  Both  indices  are 
highor  than  in  any  of  the  racial  averages  given  by  Martin,  with 
the  exception  of  Eskimos,  Veddahs,  and  Australians,  but  so  great 
)»  the  individual  variation  in  all  groups  both  ancient  and  modem 
that  even  the  Montardit  left  femur  falls  from  five  to  ten  points 
below  the  upper  limit  of  the  range  for  groups  cited.  Means  for 
yhHous  peoples  run  as  follows:  Cro-Magnon  111.6;  France,  Neo- 
Hthi<'  111.1;  France,  Mediaeval  105.1;  France,  Modem  107.8. 
Memtvirements  of  a  pair  of  fragmentary  femora  from  the  douche  de 
f^Ma  of  the  Mas  d'Azil  (Mus^e  de  St.  Geraiain)  gave  for  the  right 
HU  index  of  114.29  and  113.64  for  the  left.  Since  a  record  of  shaft 
vHHUU>ter8  on  the  Mugem  skeletons  cannot  be  found  and  no  long 
kna^en  accompanied  the  burials  at  Ofnet  and  Kaufertsberg,  the 
((^lUMTH  from  Montardit  and  the  Mas  d'Azil  give  us  our  only  indi- 
^i^tuu^  of  the  condition  in  the  Mesolithic  period.  While  in  relation 
\k\  uunlern  Europeans  this  pronounced  pilaster  may  be  considered 
iM'iluitive,  the  fact  that  it  is  the  opposite  condition  from  that  found 


FROM  MONTARDIT  227 

among  Neanderthal  man  and  the  anthropoid  apes  suggests  that 
it  is  an  ultra-human  character. 

A  moderate  degree  of  platymeria  characterizes  the  subtrochan- 
teric region  of  the  Montardit  femora,  the  index,  identical  for 
each  side,  being  78.57.  The  AziUan  femora  from  the  Mas  give 
indices  of  84  and  81.48,  still  within  the  limits  of  platymeria,  and 
illustrating  Martin's  statement  that  the  condition  is  usually  less 
pronounced  on  the  right.  The  Neanderthal  mean  given  by  Boule 
is  80;  the  Cro-Magnon  72.2;  various  groups  from  France:  Neo- 
lithic 75.1;  Mediaeval  82.3;  Modem  85.3.  In  general  pronounced 
antero-posterior  flattening  is  more  characteristic  of  primitive 
peoples,  but  Boule  states  that  the  variability  of  this  character  is 
extremely  high  and  its  relation  to  the  anthropoid  condition  uncer- 
tain and  of  Uttle  significance.  The  lineae  asperae  of  the  Montardit 
femora  are  strongly  marked,  particularly  on  the  left,  where  the 
pilaster  ig  also  greatest.  Subtrochanteric  cristae  and  fossae  are 
prominent.  On  the  neck  no  ** squatting  facets'*  could  be  discerned. 

The  right  tibia  of  Montardit  I  (Plate  5)  has  a  maximum  length 
of  345  mm.  The  antero-posterior  and  transverse  diameters  of  both 
left  and  right  are  29  mm.  and  22  mm.,  index  75.86.  Below  the 
nutritive  foramen,  the  right  diameters,  34  mm.  and  23  mm.,  give 
the  index  of  67.65.  The  index  of  a  tibia  from  the  Mas  d'Azil  (St. 
Germain  Collection)  is  also  mesocneme,  65.62.  This  comparative 
absence  of  flattening  is  associated  with  pronounced  backward 
inclination  of  the  head  and  an  S-shaped  shin  crest  of  remarkable 
sharpness.  All  these  features  are  also  present  in  the  Mas  d'Azil 
specimen.  The  external  surface  of  the  tibial  shaft  is  concave  (the 
opposite  side  convex).  The  surface  of  the  external  condyle  of  the 
head  is  concave.  On  the  articular  surface  of  the  lower  extremity 
are  well  defined  supplementary  facets  for  the  astragalus.  Unfor- 
tunately both  astragali  are  missing. 

In  relation  to  the  thigh,  the  leg  of  this  Azilian  male  was  rather 
long  (tibio-femoral  index,  84.77).  This  value,  slightly  higher  than 
the  Cro-Magnon  mean  and  much  above  the  Solutrean  Aurignacian 
79.9,*  corresponds  with  that  of  the  Guanches  of  Teneriffe,  Malays, 
Peruvians,  and  several  Negro  groups,  a  variety  too  wide,  as 
Hooton  points  out,*  to  have  great  significance  in  racial  diagnosis. 
More  or  less  primitive  peoples,  as  he  says,  tend  to  have  higher 

1  Skeleton  3,  season  1922-1923. 

•  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands,  Harvard  African  Studies,  vol.  vu,  pp.  85-86. 


228  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

indices  than  Europeans,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  consider  this  a 
negroid  feature. 

The  complete  left  fibula,  with  a  maximum  length  of  337  mm. 
and  a  shaft  of  no  clear-cut  type  (HrdU£ka  4),  is  without  extraordi- 
nary features,  but  a  fragment  of  fibula  from  the  Mas  d'AsQ  in 
contrast  showed  an  extremely  flattened  section,  and  surfaces 
deeply  channelled. 

On  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremity,  fewer  accurate  measure- 
ments were  possible.  The  hiuneri,  of  which  parts  were  present,  are 
short,  sturdy  bones,  the  length  of  the  right  approximating  280  mm. 
Both  shafts  are  prismatic  in  section,  with  middle  diameter  indices 
of  85.7  and  85.  The  heads  were  large,  the  diameter  of  the  nearly 
complete  right  being  44  mm.  There  is  no  bowing  of  shaft. 

In  both  radii,  however,  the  curve  is  pronoimced.  Bicipital 
tuberosities  are  well  developed.  Shafts  of  radii  and  ulnae  as  well 
are  of  prismatic  form.  The  maximiun  length  of  the  left  ulna  is 
252  mm.;  the  right  240  mm.  without  the  extremity  and  styloid 
process,  which  measures  10  mm.  on  the  left  (Plate  6).  If  the  path- 
ological condition  of  the  ulna  has  caused  some  shortening  of  the 
bone,  it  must  always  have  been  longer  than  the  right.  In  lateral 
view,  the  normal  right  bone  shows  no  curvature. 

STATURE 

The  height  of  the  Montardit  Azilian  was  just  under  160  cm. 
Since  the  skeleton  still  possessed  an  entire  femur,  tibia,  and  fibula, 
it  was  possible  to  reconstruct  the  stature  according  to  the  tables 
of  Manouvrier  and  the  formula  of  Pearson.  By  the  latter  method 
based  on  femur  and  tibia,  the  stature  is  159.8  cm.  The  Manou\Tier 
mean  for  femur,  tibia,  and  fibula  is  160.3  cm.;  for  femur  and  tibia 
alone,  100.2  cm.  With  the  addition  of  figures  based  on  the  ulna, 
however,  it  rises  to  161.3  cm.  Similar  comparisons  based  on 
femur,  humerus,  and  ulna  of  the  man  of  Chancelade  give  the  same 
results:  Manouvrier  —  femur,  humerus,  ulna,  160.3  cm.;  Manou- 
vrier—  femur,  humerus,  158.0  cm. ;  Pearson — femur,  humerus,  157.7 
cm.  This  seems  to  bear  out  Pearson's  statement  that  if  the  stature- 
ulna  correlation  worked  out  as  did  the  correlation  between  stature 
and  radius,  this  bone  would  give  very  exaggerated  results  for  prim- 
itive man.^ 

1  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  cxu,  Ser.  A  (1899),  p.  207. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  229 

While  in  the  case  of  other  fossil  skeletons,  such  as  an  Auiig- 
nacian  from  Solutr^  and  three  of  the  five  Cro-Magnons  from  the 
caves  of  Mentone,  the  stature  calculated  from  the  ulna  does  not 
exceed  that  from  the  tibia  or  himierus,  it  is  always  above  the  mean, 
and  evidently  more  variable  and  unreUable  than  the  other  bases 
of  calculation. 

The  stature,  then,  of  Montardit  I  we  shall  consider  as  159.8  cm. 

(Pearson  formula,  now  used  throughout  the  paper).  Long  bones  of 

two  individuals,  cultural  contemporaries,  from  the  Mas  d'Azil 

were  available  for  some  sUght  comparison.    One,  the  tibia  of  a 

small,  probably  female,  subject,  in  the  Mus^  de  St.  Germain-en- 

Xaye,  gives  a  stature  of  145.0  cm.   The  other,  a  femur,  evidently 

in  perfect  condition,  is  represented  life-size  in  one  of  the  plates 

j[nade  for  the  imfinished  volume  of  M.  Piette.    Professor  Boule 

l>rought  this  to  the  writer's  attention,  and  since  the  bone  itself 

<x>uld  not  be  discovered  in  the  Collection  Piette  at  St.  Grermain,  the 

maximum  length  (447  mm.)  was  measured  from  the  plate.    The 

etature  obtained  therefrom  of  165.3  cm.  is  five  and  one-half  centi- 

:aiieters  taller  than  from  the  femur  of  Montardit. 

The  other  Mesolithic  burials  which  have  yielded  long  bones,  the 
shell  heaps  of  Mugem,  also  indicate  a  short  people.  Seven  male 
skeletons  average  157.5  cm.  =*=  3.9,  and  two  female  statures  are 
J147.8  cm.  and  152.0  cm. 

The  known  examples  of  the  Mugem  and  Montardit  peoples, 
^hen,  fall  at  the  upper  limit  of  the  group  of  lowest  stature,  159.9 
^3m.  (Martin).  Few  groups  of  European  males  have  means  of  less 
^han  164  cm.,  and  the  prehistoric  and  early  historic  groups  also 
^iven  by  Martin  ofifer  no  close  comparisons  except  the  Chance- 
lade  Magdalenian  and  two  groups  of  Neolithics  from  France. 

VERTEBRAE 

Thirteen  of  the  sixteen  vertebral  segments  of  Montardit  I  were 
Kieasureable  at  least  in  part.  Wherever  possible  this  was  done 
according  to  the  methods  in  Martin's  Lehrhuch,  partly  as  documen- 
't^ation,  but  chiefly  because  the  cervical  vertebrae  are,  apart  from 
t:he  skull,  the  only  human  bones  found  at  the  Azilian  sites  of  Ofnet 
3Jid  Kaufertsberg. 

Those  measurements  of  the  cervical  and  dorsal  region  for  which 
comparative  data  could  be  found  are  given  below.   Other  than  the 


J 


J^>^*  A2ILIAN  SKEIJ:TAL  REMAINB 

fact  that  the  Montardit  vertebrae,  like  most  parts  of  the  skeleton, 
are  generally  smaller  than  in  most  modem  Europeans,  they  do  not 
Beem  particularly  significant. 

All  vertebrae  show  the  lightness  of  age,  and  in  all  regions  there 
is  some  e\'idence  of  arthritis  (Plate  7).'  Both  foramina  for  the 
vertelwal  uteiy  (tf  the  fourth  oervical  are  nibdivided.  Owii^  to 
the  degenentitm  of  the  lumbar  regioii,  no  aocurate  measuranenta 
of  ventral  hei^^ta  wen  pomiUe.  Donal  heifl^ta  of  tta  last  four 
are:  27  mm.,  27  mm.,  28  mm.,  23  rnm, 

8H0ULDER-GIBDLE  AND  FELVm 

The  remains  of  the  scapulae  of  Montardit  I  and  II  warrant  little 
description.  Both  have  heavy  axUlary  borders,  like  left  acromicoi 
of  Montardit  I,  almost  complete,  is  of  meditun  sise.  The  groove 
for  the  au^aeapulam  muscle  is  prominent,  particularly  on  the  ri^t 
bone.  At  three  centimeters  below  the  glenoid  cavity — where 
Testut  found  B  breadth  of  18  mm.  on  the  Chancelade  man  —  the 
Montardit  scapula  measures  13  mm. 

From  each  AsUian  grave  one  clavicle  was  disinterred.  The  left 
of  Montardit  I  was  140  mm.  long;  the  ri^t  of  Montardit  II  was 
about  the  same  length,  but  a  sturdier  bone  with  a  curve  leas  pio- 
nouooed  than  that  of  Montardit  I. 

The  sternum  of  Montardit  I  was  represented  by  the  i^adiolue 
nearly  complete,  95  mm.  in  length  and  with  a  maximum  thickness 
of  10  mm.  No  fossil  and  little  other  comparative  material  could 
be  found.  Hrdli^ka*  gives  these  averages  for  Muoeee  Indians: 
maximum  thickness,  males  13  mm.,  females  10  mm.;  minimum, 
male  10  mm.,  female  8  mm.  The  Montardit  gladiolus  has  facets 
for  six  ribs. 

For  the  pelvis,  all  that  can  be  said  has  already  been  mentioned 
under  Age  and  Sex.' 

PATELLA  AND  FOOTBONES 
Patella.  Oddly,  the  scanty  remains  of  Montardit  II,  unlike  the 
more  complete  skeleton,  included  the  right  patella.  It  is  appar- 
ently of  average  size,  the  maximum  height  and  breadth  approach- 
ing each  other,  although  not  so  closely  as  in  modem  Whites  or  in 
the  Lenap4  Indians. 

'  Sm  Pulhology.  p.  233.  •  Fhgiieal  A  nlhropolBaii  oj  Ou  Ltna}4,  p.  72. 


FROM  MONTARDIT 


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232  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

The  greatest  thickness  is  the  same  as  that  of  modem  Europeans  and 
in  contrast  to  the  broad,  thick  bone  of  the  Chancelade  steleton. 

Foxbanes.  With  both  Anlian  skeletons,  a  small  number  of  foot- 
bones  remained  intact.  Unfortunately,  the  selection  in  few  in- 
stances was  identical,  so  almost  no  comparison  is  possible.  The 
calcanea  of  Montardit  I  have  a  maximum  length  of  79  mm.,  which 
coincides  with  Southwestern  Indian  groups  measured  by  Hrdli2ka. 
For  55  United  States  Whites  the  mean  is  83.3  mm.,  and  the  heel  of 
the  fossil  skeleton  of  Chancelade,  of  stature  slightly  less  than  Mon- 
tardit, has  a  length  of  87  nun.,  while  three  Cro-Magnons  from 
Grimaldi  range  from  88-97  mm.   The  Montardit  calcanea  exhibit 

Table  2.  Right  Patblla  Malb 

Heicht  BrwKlth 

Marimum  Maximum  Index  ThidaMM 

Montardit  II 42.0  44.0  104.7  .     19.0 

3  Cro-Magnon,  Mentone  47.0  50.0  105.8  ? 

Chancelade  44.0  52.0  118.2  25.0 

8  Munsee  Indians  ^ 45.0  46.0  102.8  21.0 

100  United  States  Whites'  45.6  46.0  101.7  21.0 

Europeans  (Martin) 41.2  42.4  102.9  19.3 

no  torsion.  Three  facets  for  the  astragalus  are  present,  a  condition 
which  Hrdli£ka  foimd  in  74  per  cent  of  125  Whites  and  Indians. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  Chancelade  os  calcis. 

A  first  metatarsal  was  present  in  both  skeletons,  Montardit  I, 
left,  Montardit  II,  right;  lengths  58  nun.  and  63  nun.  The  right 
bone  from  Chancelade  measures  64  mm.  Means  for  males  given  by 
Martin  are  as  follows:  Europeans  60.2  mm.;  Japanese  54.4  mm.; 
Hottentots  53  mm.;  by  Hrdli^ka  (both  sexes):  Munsee  Indians 
63  mm. ;  United  States  Whites  66  mm. 

Montardit  II  still  retained  a  left  scaphoid  and  a  right  cuboid 
and  internal  cuneiform.  The  measurements  of  these,  together  with 
those  of  the  Chancelade  skeleton  and  the  means  for  Whites  and 
Indians,  show  the  same  tendency  noted  in  the  other  footbones  to 
be  always  slightly  smaller  than  the  Indian,  but  nearer  to  them  than 
to  the  other  figures. 

1  Hrdlicka,  Physical  Anthropolooy  of  the  Lenapi. 


FROM  MONTARDIT 


233 


Table  3.    Tarsus 
Left  Scaphoid,  Male 

Height- 
Breadth  Breadth 
Maximum         Height         Stoutnen  Index 

Montardit  II 39.0  20.5  27.0  52.6 

Chancelade  43.0  20.0  ?  46.5 

Munsee    41.3  20.8  25.9  50.4 

United  States  Whites  43.3  22.3  29.6  51.5 

Right  Cuboid,  Male 

Breadth- 
Length 
Length  Breadth        Thickness  Index 

Montardit  I 38.0  29.0  23.0  76.3 

Chancelade  42.5  30.0  25.0  70.6 

Munsee    37.5  28.5  25.2  75.8 

United  States  Whites  39.6  30.2  25.9  76.3 

Right  Internal  Cuneiform,  Male 

Breadth  Height       Breadth-Height  Index 

Montardit  II 22.0  34.0  64.7 

Chancelade  ?  37.0  ? 

Munsee    22.4  31.7  70.7 

United  States  Whites  24.3  34.8  69.9 


Stoutness- 
Breadth 
Index 

69.23 

? 
62.8 
68.5 


Thickness- 
Length 
Index 

60.5 

58.8 
67.1 
65.5 


The  remaining  footbones,  fourth  metatarsal  right  and  left  of 
Montardit  II,  had  lengths  of  64  mm.  and  66  mm.  The  average  for 
Europeans  (Martin)  is  66.7  mm. 

Montardit  I  also  still  possessed  the  two  third  metacarpals, 
lengths  63  mm.,  corresponding  with  the  European  mean  cited  by 
Martin  of  62.8  mm. 

PATHOLOGY 

Abscesses  and  inflammatory  disease  have  left  traces  in  three 
regions  of  the  Montardit  skeleton:  alveolar  borders,  the  vertebrae, 
and  the  shaft  of  the  left  ulna.  Such  a  condition  as  has  already  been 
described  in  the  molar  region  of  maxilla  and  mandible  must  have 
sent  out  a  septic  stream  to  all  parts  of  the  body  which  may  well 
account  for  the  state  of  the  ulna.  Below  the  nutrient  foramen  and 
extending  downward  for  29  mm.,  there  is  pronounced  anterior 
bulging  of  the  shaft,  and  nearer  the  extremity  a  second  bulge  of 
less  circumference  and  of  26  mm.  in  length.  The  slight  displace- 
ment and  obvious  absence  of  shortening  in  comparison  with  the 


234  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

normal  right  bone  rules  out  the  possibility  of  a  double  fracture. 
Nor  does  the  region  suggest  arthritis.  Lues,  favorite  speculation 
of  palaeopathologists,  would  be  hard  to  prove,  particularly  since 
no  lesions  appear  on  skull  or  long  bones.  Roentgenograms  may 
shed  some  light  on  the  cause,  but  for  the  moment,  at  least,  it  is 
safest  to  leave  it  at  disease,  ostitis;  cause,  possibly  teeth  (Plate  6). 

In  the  three  upper  regions  of  the  vertebral  column,  pathological 
changes  are  evident.  All  of  the  vertebrae  are  very  light,  and  many 
centra  show  age  depression.  On  the  third  and  fourth  cervical, 
marked  depressions  are  associated  with  marginal  exostoses  of  ar- 
thritic t3rpe;  slight  exostoses  are  also  present  on  the  bodies  of  two 
dorsal  vertebrae,  and  in  the  liunbar  region  age  and  arthritis  have 
combined  in  destruction.  The  cranial  surface  of  the  third  lumbar 
vertebra  is  depressed  at  the  center  and  a  rough  exostosis  edges  the 
upper  ventral  border.  The  centrum  of  the  fourth  is  intact,  but  a 
pronounced  exostosis  follows  the  entire  lower  ventral  border.  It  is 
in  the  fifth,  however,  that  the  disease  is  most  advanced  (Plate  7). 
The  upper  surface  of  the  bone  has  been  eaten  away  anteriorly  almost 
to  the  inferior  surface.  The  lower  face  of  the  centrum  is  normal  in 
appearance,  but  exostoses  of  exceptional  size  protrude  from  both 
borders.  At  the  margin  of  the  inferior  surface,  this  bony  outgrowth 
is  9  mm.  thick  at  the  center  and  extends  7  mm.  below  the  surface  of 
the  body.  It  is  this  exuberant  growth  of  bone  which  indicates  ar^ 
thritis  deformans  rather  than  spondylitis  tuberculosa  which  the  con- 
dition of  the  centra  might  otherwise  suggest.  Bartels  ^  has  described 
a  case  of  vertebral  caries,  probably  tubercular,  from  the  Neolithic 
period.  The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  dorsals  were  coalesced  and  the 
bodies  greatly  reduced.  No  other  signs  of  malady  appeared  on 
long  bones  or  articulations,  and  no  lesions  on  the  skull.  The  chief 
interest,  the  author  states,  is  this  evidence  of  the  great  age  of  the 
disease,  the  oldest  case  previously  cited  being  from  the  Merovin- 
gian period. 

This  same  factor,  the  ancient  origin  of  disease,  again  confronts 
us  in  the  much  older  remains  from  Montardit.  And  at  this  far-oflf 
moment,  the  exact  nature  of  that  malady  and  its  interrelation  with 
age,  arthritis,  and  alveolar  abscesses  it  is  safer  to  speculate  upon 
than  to  state. 

»  ArchirfUr  Ant.,  vol.  \T  (1907),  pp.  243-255. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  235 

MORPHOLOGICAL  RATING 

From  time  to  time  in  the  descriptive  notes  of  the  Azilian  skel- 
eton, we  have  spoken  of  characteristics  showing  degrees  of  develop- 
ment differing  widely  in  the  evolutionary  scale.  Thus  we  have  in 
the  lower  jaw  the  typical  apeUke  smoothness  of  the  mylo-hyoid 
region  associated  with  genial  tubercles  of  ultra-human  t3rpe,  and 
an  extreme  condition  of  the  sharp  European  shin-crest  together 
with  primitive  "squatting  facets"  and  retroversion  of  the  tibial 
head. 

This  tendency  to  inequaUty  in  morphological  traits,  not  only  in 
such  striking  cases  as  the  Piltdown  jaw  and  cranium,  and  the 
brain-case  and  femur  of  Pithecanthropus  erectus,  but  also  in  all 
modem  types  of  man,  has  recently  been  brought  forward  by 
Professor  Earnest  A.  Hooton  of  Harvard  University.  In  order  to 
demonstrate  the  essentially  as3rmmetrical  character  of  human  evo- 

Table  4.    Mean  Ratings  of  Crania 
(Hooton) 

Standard 
Brain  Case  Face  Total  Deviation 

Gorilla,  male 1.33  1.65  1.51  0.59 

Orang-utan,  male 1.77  1.52  1.68  0.90 

Gorilla,  female 1.89  2.00  1.95  0.66 

Orang-utan,  female 2.27  1.74  1.98  0.81 

Chimpanzee,  male 2.00  2.13  2.07  0.64 

Pithecanthropus 2.64  —  2.64  0.77 

Heidelberg —  2.70  2.70  0.83 

Broken  Hill 3.05  3.86  3.46  1.00 

PUtdown 4.31  2.30  3.63  1.17 

Neanderthal 3.47  3.74  3.63  0.89 

Talgai    4.00  3.65  3.81  0.88 

Eskimo    4.16  3.91  4.00  0.96 

Australian 3.83  4.30  4.10  0.65 

Combe  Capelle 4.39  4.13  4.24  0.88 

Negro 4.50  4.22  4.34  0.65 

Montarditi 4.92  4.56  4.71  0.88 

Mongol   4.94  4.43  4.71  0.67 

Guanche    4.89  4.78  4.83  0.69 

Mediterranean 5.22  5.00  5.10  0.93 

Nordic 5.33  5.09  5.20  0.96 

Alpine   5.61  4.96  5.24  0.69 

*  This  memoir. 


^^msaa              aziliax  skeletal  remains            ^BH 

^^P    lution,  he  has  devised  a  achcrae  of  morphological  rating'  whereby 
^^H     the  cranial  characters  of  the  apes  and  all  types  of  man  can  be  ev&lu- 
^^H    ated  in  terms  of  lagging  or  progression.    For  each  trait,  there  are 
^^Hr  Rix  degrees  of  development  from  ultra-anthropoid  to  ultra-human. 

^^^1                         Table  5.    Morpbo logical  RATtHO  of  Montardit  i 

^^H                                                     aiooTON  Scale) 
^^^^1             Fronial  Region 

^^H           Saffilial  Region 
^^H                 Prrnrl''- 

^^H            Temporal  Region 

^^H           Occipiud  Region 

^^1             Fadal  Region 

Nftsion  depression    4 

PrognaAism 

AlveoUr 6 

Ptdate 

Proportions fl 

Shape  5 

Mandible 

Size 5 

Chin  5 

Genial  tubercles 6 

Mylo-hyoid  ridge  3 

Breadth,  ascending  ramus    4 

Teelh 

Canines,  projection,  diastema 5 

Molare,  proportion  of  crowns 5 

Relative  size  of  first  and  second  molats 3 

Mean  4.71 

>  Am.  Jour.  PAtw.  AnOnr..  vol.  vni  (192Q,  pp.  125- UO. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  237 

1.  Ultra-anthropoid;  2.  Typically  anthropoid;  3.  Sub-human, 
supra-anthropoid;  4.  Inferior  human;  5.  Typically  hiunan;  6. 
Ultrarhuman.  The  mean  rating  of  crania  with  standard  deviations 
is  given  below,  with  the  addition  of  the  Montardit  skull. 

With  28  of  the  41  morphological  characters  present  in  the  Azil- 
ian  craniiun,  a  fair  rating  was  obtainable  in  the  following  manner. 

The  total  mean  of  these  28  characters,  4.71,  somewhat  more  than 
halfway  between  the  inferior  human  and  typically  human  groups, 
is  higher  than  for  any  fossil  skull  rated  by  Hooton.  It  is  almost 
identical  with  the  Mongol  on  his  scale.  Rated  separately,  the 
brain-case  shows  itself  to  be  both  more  highly  evolved  and  less 
variable  than  the  facial  region,  brain-case  4.92  =*=  0.76;  facial 
region  4.56  =*=  0.93.  It  is  in  the  mandible  of  the  man  of  Montardit 
that  the  only  two  features  rated  less  than  inferior  human  (4)  occur. 

In  13  out  of  19  types,  the  brain-case  is  the  more  highly  evolved 
region,  this  being  uniformly  true  of  the  eight  highest  means  (in- 
cluding Montardit).  The  orang-utan,  both  male  and  female,  the 
Piltdown  and  Talgai  skulls,  and  Eskimo  crania  follow  the  same 
rule.  But  Neanderthal  man,  the  Broken  Hill  skull,  the  modern 
Australian,  together  with  gorilla  and  chimpanzee,  have  developed 
in  the  opposite  manner,  the  evolution  of  the  brain-case  not  keeping 
pace  with  the  reduction  of  primitive  features  in  the  face  and  jaws. 


COMPARATIVE  DATA 

There  enn  be  Uttie  sdentlfio  mtiAetiaa  in  diai^c  eoodagfana 
as  to  race  type  &om  a  sdltaty  qMobnen,  nor  eaa  the  fidriy  amnring 
game  of  minute  oomparfsone  irith  tocdated  indtvidiiab  bom  other 
epochs  lead  to  brilliant  disaovetieB.  But  nntO  snne  nine^-4une 
additional  men  who  inhatdted  the  Fyteneea  during  the  Aiilian 
onlture  p^od  aie  unearthed,  we  slmi^  put  (»i  teocnd  the  unreli- 
aUe  fiiBt,  and  wait  hoprfully  tox  more.  la  the  meantime,  such 
ocnnpariscHia  as  the  Montardit  material  warrants  have  been  drawn 
with  late  palaeoUthio  inedeoenuB,  together  with  a  more  detailed 
study  of  poBsiUe  relationship  to  human  rranains  fenn  oUier  Aiilio- 
Tardmoisian  sites. 

I.   UPPER  PALASOUTHIC 

The  three  tsrpes  of  fossil  men  assooiated  with  Aorignaoian  and 
Magdalenian  cultures  selected  for  oomparison  with  the  Mtmtardit 
burials  ate  the  Cro-Magnon  peoples,  the  Chanoelade  skeleton,  and 
the  more  recent  finds  at  Soluti^.  The  position  of  the  Montardit 
man  in  the  evdutionaiy  scale  rules  out  the  necessity  of  seeking 
kinship  to  the  Neanderthal  race,  and  the  oonunon  poseession  at 
teaito  more  or  less  primitive  but  typically  human  within  titese 
later  groups  makes  generalised  kinship  obvious. 

From  the  Cro-Magnon  as  represented  by  the  three  iDdividuala 
from  the  type  site  and  the  five  males  from  the  caves  of  Mentone, 
the  Montardit  skull  differs  obviously  io  capacity  and  proportions. 
It  is  shorter  by  22  mm.  and  with  a  cubic  volume,  according  to  the 
Pearson  formula  lObis,  of  more  than  300  c.c.  under  that  for  the  Old 
Man  of  Cro-Magnon.  Whereas  all  the  specimens  cited  above  are 
distinctly  dohchocephalic,  the  Azilian  index  reaches  mesocephaly. 
The  author,  through  the  great  courtesy  of  Professor  Vemeau,  was 
privileged  to  examine  the  three  crania  from  Cro-Magnon  and  to 
make  the  morphological  observations  tabulated  below. 

Evidently,  with  these  pronounced  types  which  gave  rise  to  the 
belief  in  the  homogeneity  of  a  tall,  dolichocephalic,  disharmonic 
Aurignacian  race,  the  Montardit  skull  has  little  in  common,  but 
within  a  group  which  may  include  such  aberrant  individuals  as 
the  small  brachycephalic  female  from  Le  Placard,  and  during  an 
era  which  we  now  know  saw  the  high,  sub-brachycephals  of  SoIutr£ 


FROM  MONTARDIT 


239 


MONTARDIT  I 

Norma  lateralis 

Simple  curve,  reaching  greatest 
height,  ca.25  mm.  before  obelion. 
Moderate  flattening  between  obe- 
lion and  lambda. 

Occiput 

CJonvex.  No  protuberance.  In- 
ion  small  but  clearly  marked. 

Temporal  bosses 
Non-salient. 

N.B.       Supra-mastoid    crests    as 
large  as  OM  I.    Mastoids  size  of 
9  C-M  II 

Brouyridges 

Pronounced  development  not  only 
in  sinus  region  but  extending  to 
and  associated  with  great  thicken- 
ing of  orbital  border. 

Orbits 

Shortidr  and  a  bit  higher  than  C-M. 

Mandible 
Slender. 

Eversion  of  gonial  angles. 
Chin  —  oval. 


Cro-Magnon  I,  II,  III 

I,  II,  and  III  all  show  frontal  ris- 
ing to  bregma,  post-coronoid  de- 
pression and  continuation  of  curve. 


Flattened  in  the  lambdoid  region 
and  extremely  protuberant.  Torus 
large. 

Low  and  outstanding. 


Pronoimced  over  region  of  frontal 
sinus,  then  disappear.  (C-M  I 
and  III,  and  Vemeau's  observa- 
tions for  Grimaldi.) 

Very  long  and  low. 

Heavy.   Ascending  ramus  wide. 
Chin  —  triangular. 


well  established  in  France,  there  is  the  possibility  of  finding  closer 
kinship. 

In  comparison  with  the  most  complete  Cro-Magnon  under  our 
observation  (the  ''Old  Man"),  one  region  of  the  Montardit  cal- 
varium  showed  distinctly  greater  development  —  the  portion  of  the 
vault  between  bregma  and  lambda.  The  arc  between  these  points 
measured  130  mm.  alike  for  Cro-Magnon  I  and  the  two  small  Mon- 
tardit skulls,  and  the  diameter  only  5  mm.  less  than  Montardit  I 
and  2  mm.  less  than  Montardit  II,  whereas  the  difference  between 
the  glabello-occipital  lengths  of  Cro-Magnon  I  and  Montardit  I  is 
22  nun.  The  diameter  bregma-lambda  of  the  Montardit  is  64% 
of  the  glabello-occipital;  the  Cro-Magnon  59.9.  Associated  with 
this  is  an  auricular-bregma  height  —  maximum  length  index  of 
61.4  for  Cro-Magnon  in  contrast  to  65  for  Montardit. 

The  difference  in  the  low  stature  of  the  Azilian  man  and  the  high 
Cro-Magnon  mean^  is  outstanding,  but  in  type  and  stage  of  devel- 

^  5cf  from  Grimaldi  182  (Tables  of  Manouvrier);  Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon  177. 


240  AZnJAN  SKELETAL  BEMAINB 

<q;mieiit,  the  limb  boiieB  in  the  Musde  d'Hjstoire  NatoreOe  de 
Ptois  oonf orm  doedy  to  thoee  of  the  small  flueoeaKir.  Tbe  Oo- 
MagDOQ  femur  is  less  cmrved^  the  ani^  of  the  aedc  leai  open,  the 
tomioB  of  the  head  mcne  pronounced,  but  tiie  pHaeteri  the  Bnea 
aspera,  and  the  development  of  the  sub-tooehanteiie  rogion  iriiile 
evidencing  heavier  musculature  are  of  the  same  primitive  human 
variety.  The  maximum  diameter  of  the  head,  48  mm.,  is  afanost 
equalled  by  the  Aiilian  bone,  47  mm.  The  tibiae  of  both  qseoimeDS 
have  a  pronounced  backward  inclination  of  the  head,  but  the  Cro- 
Magnon  shin  crest  is  relatively  indistinct  in  contrast  to  the  diari>- 
ness  of  Montardit  I. 

Li  two  features  in  which  it  differs  widely  from  the  Chfo-Magnon 
type,  the  Montardit  Aailian  most  nearly  approaches  the  Magda- 
lenian  man  of  Chancelade.  Both  were  short;  both  were  hypsieeidi- 
alic,  and  in  degree  the  honors  were  divided.  The  Chancdade  man 
is  the  shorter  by  21  mm.  (Pearson  formula)  and  Montardit  I  has 
length-auricular  height  index  hig^her  by  2  points.  Sudbi  Hmb  bones 
as  can  be  compared  are  of  nearly  equal  length ;  —  femur,  maximum, 
Montardit  407  mm.;  Chancelade  408  mm.;  ulna,  252  nun.  and  255 
mm.  The  upper  arm  of  the  Magdalenian  was  probably  longer,  the 
humerus  measuring  300  mm.,  while  the  bone  of  the  Montardit 
man  could  not  have  been  much  over  280  mm.  Testut,^  comparing 
his  subject  with  means  derived  from  ten  European  males,  finds  the 
humerus  massive  in  relation  to  its  length,  with  an  "indtoe  de 
largeur  "  of  88.  The  European  mean  is  69,  so  that  of  Montardit  (76) 
is  also  relatively  robust.  With  its  greater  length  and  breadth, 
however,  the  Chancelade  arm  bone  has  a  smaller  head;  diameter 
39.5  mm.,  Montardit  44  mm.  Measurements  of  the  clavicle  indi- 
cate a  man  of  broader  build  than  the  two  Azilians;  the  length 
maximum  of  148  mm.  surpasses  the  Montardit  collar  bones  by 
8  mm.  The  middle  diameters  of  all  three  are  nearly  identical. 
Testut's  description  of  the  Chancelade  clavicle,  distinguished  by 
''sa  gracilit6  et  degr^  de  courbure,"  is  equally  appropriate  to 
Montardit  I.  The  general  characteristics  of  the  leg  bones  —  fem- 
ora slightly  curved,  with  pilaster  and  sub- trochanteric  fossa;  tibial 
heads  distinctly  retroverted  —  conform  to  the  primitive  pattern 
of  Cro-Magnon  and  Montardit.  The  unusual  size  of  the  Chance- 
lade feet  have  already  been  noted  in  the  description  of  the  Mon- 
tardit tarsus. 

1  BuU.  Soc.  (VAnth.  de  Lyon,  vol.  vni.  pp.  131-246. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  241 

When  we  consider  the  cranial  characters  of  the  Magdalenian, 
aside  from  the  length-height  relation,  we  find  Uttle  in  common. 
The  Chancelade  skull  is  large,  distinctly  doUchocephaUc  (index  72), 
and  even  after  the  Testut  capacity  of  1710  c.c.  (taken  with  mustard 
seed)  shrinks  by  the  Lee-Pearson  computation  to  1532  c.c;  the 
brain  size  contrasts  all  too  favorably  with  the  little  man  of  Mon- 
tardit.  Moreover,  it  is  in  just  those  pecuUarly  Eskimoid  traits 
which  distinguish  the  Chancelade  skull  that  the  Azilian  is  wholly 
lacking.  Of  the  four  characters  which  Hooton  ^  names  as  distinc- 
tively Eskimoid,  mandibular  and  palatine  torus,  thickness  of  tym- 
panic plate,  and  scaphoid  vault,  the  first  two  are  prominent  in  the 
Chancelade  skull  and  totally  absent  in  the  Montardit  mouth,  while 
the  small  median  elevation  of  the  frontal  bone  has  no  continuation 
in  the  sagittal  region,  no  hint  of  the  typically  Eskimoid  ridge  so 
marked  on  the  Chancelade  vault.  As  for  the  thickness  of  the 
tympanic  plate,  this  could  not  be  measured  on  the  Magdalenian 
specimen  as  only  a  cast  was  available,  but  the  Montardit  maximum 
thickness  of  4  mm.  compared  to  various  averages  (Eskimo  6  mm., 
Icelanders  5  mm.,  Italians  4.5  mm.,  Southern  CaUfomia  Indians 
4  mm.)  seems  as  far  removed  as  the  other  three  traits  from  the 
conditions  hereditary  or  functional  which  gave  the  Chancelade 
cranium  its  characteristic  form. 

From  these  two  palaeolithic  types  with  which,  in  their  distinc- 
tive features  at  least,  the  Montardit  Azilian  has  little  in  common, 
we  now  turn  to  a  group  which  illustrates  the  variety  and  complex- 
ity of  human  types  at  a  period  earlier  than  was  once  believed. 
The  skulls  excavated  from  Aurignacian  strata  at  Solutr^  during 
the  seasons  1923  and  1924,  while  retaining  various  Cro-Magnon 
features  such  as  outstanding  parietal  bosses  contributing  to  the 
well-known  pentagonoid  form,  faces  short  and  very  broad  and 
long  low  orbits,  are  by  no  means  so  disharmonic.  These  are  much 
shorter  skulls  with  cephalic  indices  ranging  from  78  to  83,  justify- 
ing the  conclusion  that  "la  dolicocephalie  des  Pal^olithiques  ne 
doit  plus  6tre  consider6e  comme  un  dogme  absolu.''^  Also  in  con- 
trast to  the  Cro-Magnon  type,  these  are  hypsicephalic  crania  with 
auricular  height-length  indices  of  68  and  71,  much  higher  than 
Montardit.    Capacities,  while  somewhat  below  many  of  the  Cro- 

»  Am.  JovT.  Phya.  Anthrop.,  vol.  i,  pp.  63-76. 

s  Arcelin  et  Mayet,  Bulletin  2,  Aasoc.  Reg.  de  Paliont.  Humaine,  Lyon  (1924),  p.  25. 


M>givm  figmei,  we  stfll  Ui^  two  naales  havliig  ouUo  aontento  of 
UUfi  t.a.  and  1813  e^ 

Ths  wtatart  ol  tbeae  two,  br  the  Peanon  fommk,  ta  171  em. 
and  175  odl,  iriiUe  for  a  thbd  100  em.  to  170  em.  iB  BtTetn,'  and  s 
fnnale  was  only  about  IM  em.  Hie  long  bmee  are  rc^mst,  bat 
laek  the  primitive  featone  noted  in  all  otben  pvevioady  deeeribed. 
No  platymetia  is  pawnut,  so  femoral  pilaster,  and  in  the  sob- 
tm^anteric  region  then  is  no  traee  of  foon  ta  third  tjoohanter; 
the  tlUae  are  very  ali^tly  platyeuanio,  and  a  tilao-f emoral  index 
ol  79.0  is  the  same  as  Broea's  mean  for  modem  Eunqieans. 

In  relation  to  the  Asiliana  ot  Montardit,  tUs  groap  from  Scdutr6 
li  significant,  not  because  of  many  oranmon  tzaits,  but  ratber  fin* 
the  proof  they  add  <tf  the  c<nn{to  heredity  of  man  koig  beftxe  the 
end  of  HiB  palaedithic  period. 

n.  MESOLITHIC 

It  is  in  the  AiiUo-Tardenoiglan  culture  strata  of  weatem  Eimqie 
that  we  find  human  remains  near,  not  on^  in  em  and  industry 
but  in  {diyeical  type  as  well,  to  the  men  ot  Montardit.  H  we  disre- 
gard material  from  all  tdtee  of  doubtful  stratification,  such  as 
Furfoos  and  Sous-Sac  (Ain),*  we  have,  in  addition  to  the  frag- 
mentary long  bcmee  from  the  Mas  d'Azil,  the  Tarden<Hsian  burials, 
rei^esenting  nearly  fifty  individuals  from  the  shell  heaps  of  Mugem, 
Portugal,  and  the  crania  from  the  Bavarian  sites  of  Ofnet  and 
Kaufertsbei^. 

Of  the  arm  and  leg  bones  from  the  Mas  d'Azil,  mention  has 
already  been  made  in  the  discussion  of  the  extremities  and  stature 
of  Montardit  I.  Fragmentary  as  they  are,  their  provenience 
justifies  detailed  examination.  The  type  site  of  the  Azilian  culture, 
where  the  research  of  Edouard  Piette  upset  all  earlier  beliefs  in  a 
complete  hiatus  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Stone  Ages,  is  less 
than  twenty  miles  from  the  Trou  Violet  of  Montardit.  There,  in 
the  stratum  of  painted  pebbles,  Piette  found  human  remains  which 
he  described  in  a  brief  article.'    "Les  os  longs  avaient  6t^  mis  en 

tas  k  c6t4  de  la  machoire  inf^rieure tons  rougis  par  du 

peroxide  de  fer  —  quelques-uns  —  ray^s  par  le  tranchant  d'un 

1  Boule.  L'Anilriipiiltieii.  vol.  xixr,  p.  ISS. 

t  Bode,  L'AiUhnpolofii  <I9QI),  "Mouvemenl  Bcientifiquc." 

■  BuU.  4t  la  Sec.  d-Anllt.  (180$),  p.  4S«. 


FROM  MONTARDIT 


243 


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tOoL"  Afi 

teat  d'une  bleeaure  Caite  ptr  una  fitehs."  The  ricoU  and  all  mall 

booea,  be  reporta,  ven  miasing. 

Nothing  in  the  burial  custcMiia  here  iNotured  Boggieata  the  Aiflian 
gaena  at  Montardit.  In  contrast  to  a  heap  of  Ihnb  bonea,  the 
eomf^te  extended  skeleton  of  Montardit  I  within  ita  frame  ot 
itfMies  showed  no  traces  of  scrai^ng  by  flint  kniyes  or  axtifidvl 
eoknation.  On  the  boiws'of  Montardit  II  as  wdl,  then  were  no 
marim  to  be  unquestionab^  explained  by  other  than  natural  oaoaeB. 
It  was  in  morpholc^Qr,  tiien,  rather  than  arehaedogy  tiiat  analo- 
glee  were  to  be  sou^t.  first  of  all,  however,  it  waa  neeoaaary  to 
find  the  hemes  themselvee.  Thanks  to  Uie  suggestions  <rf  PrafessOT 
Boole  and  the  Jondneas  of  various  mranbers  of  tiie  staff  <d  the  pre* 
historic  inusraim  at  St.  Gennain-en-Laye,  the  writer  was  aUe  to 
measure  and  observe  certain  of  tbeee  human  fragments.  In  the 
CoUeotitm  Piette  at  the  Musfe  de  St.  CScamain  were  found  parts 
of  two  femora,  a  tiUa,  two  humeri,  a  |dece  (tf  a  fibula  and  cme  of  a 
ri^t  ulna.  There  waa  no  sign  of  the  mandible  mentiaaed  by 
Piette,  but  the  provenience  of  these  bonea  —  "coudie  du  galeta, 
Mas  d'Azil"  —  and  the  traces  they  bore  both  of  red  coloring  mat- 
ter and  flint  cute,  seemed  to  indicate  their  identity  with  the  de- 
aeription  above.  Red  color  appeared  along  the  inlaster  ridges  <rf  the 
fnnora  and  on  the  tibia;  scratches  suggesting  the  use  of  flint  knivee 
were  present  on  the  neck  of  the  left  femur,  and  the  n^t  humenu 
showed  many  of  these  marks  at  the  distal  articulation. 

In  general,  the  character  of  the  bones  resembled  the  segmenta 
of  the  Montardit  extremities.  The  femora  —  represented  by  the 
greater  portion  of  the  right  diaphysis  and  the  head  and  two-thirds 
of  the  left  diaphysis  —  had  marked  pilasters,  some  platymeria, 
well  developed  Ilneae  asperae,  and  pronounced  sub-trochanteric 
fossae,  all  traits  found  in  Montardit  I.  The  diameter  of  the  head, 
38  mm.,  is  appreciably  smaller  than  that  of  the  old  Montardit 
male,  and  the  diaphysis  is  more  slender.  The  tibia  from  the  Mas 
d'Azi),  short,  slender,  and  probably  female  (length  ca.  307  mm., 
middle  diameters  24  mm.  and  17  mm.,  index  70.83),  also  exhibits 
characters  prominent  in  Montardit  I,  particularly  the  extremely 
sharp  shin  crest  associated  with  retroversion  of  the  head.  Of  the 
two  fragmentary  humeri,  the  left  shaft  is  bowed,  the  right  straight ; 
there  was  no  bowing  of  either  Montardit  humerus.    The  bite  of 


FROM  MONTARDIT  245 

fibula  and  ulna  from  the  Mas  were  deeply  channelled  and  flattened; 
on  the  ulna,  the  line  descending  from  the  articular  surface  for 
the  radius  was  very  sharp. 

A  colored  plate  prepared  for  a  monograph  which  Piette  did  not 
Uve  to  write  reproduced  a  femur  of  life  size  with  a  maximum  length 
of  447  mm.  Calculations  of  stature  from  this  and  from  the  female 
tibia  will  be  foimd  in  the  section  on  Stature.^ 

From  the  Tardenoisian  shell  heaps  of  Mugem  in  Portugal  comes 
evidence  of  another  short  mesolithic  group.  Near  the  bottom  of  a 
mound  seven  meters  high  were  found  remains  of  fifty  individuals.* 
The  accompanying  fragments  of  animal  bones,  burned  but  not 
gnawed,  included  specimens  of  cervus,  ovuSj  equusj  sus,  canisj  felts, 
meles,  viverra,  lepiMS,  and  a  few  fish.  Flint  implements  were  scarce. 
Simple  bone  points,  chips  of  stag  horn,  and  an  ornament  made 
from  a  perforated  pebble  completed  the  industry.'  No  ochre  was 
used  in  the  burial  rites  and  skeletons  were  found  entire.  The  ab- 
sence of  these  characteristics  of  Ofnet  and  Kaufertsberg  suggests 
the  Montardit  graves.  Few  of  the  skeletons,  however,  were  fully 
extended,  the  majority  being  tightly  flexed. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  skulls  were  dolichocephalic;  two 
were  brachycephalic  and  one  was  sub-brachycephalic.  Seven  of 
the  dolichocephals  were  measurable.  They  are  described  as  ''trfes 
homogfenes."  Long  skulls  are  associated  with  long  faces.  Some 
prognathism,  particularly  sub-nasal,  was  present.  The  brow-ridges 
of  the  males  were  strongly  developed.  Cranial  walls  were  thick 
and  capacities  small.  Number  6,  a  male,  of  which  Francisco  Paula 
e  Oliveira  gives  complete  measurements,*  is  shown  in  Figure  1. 
Like  Montardit  I,  this  is  a  small  skull  with  heavy  brow-ridges  and 
thick  walls,  accompanied  by  a  mandible  with  marked  eversion  of 
the  gonions.  The  maximum  cranial  breadths  are  nearly  equal,  but 
a  greater  length  of  5  mm.  in  the  Mugem  male  gives  an  index  three 
points  lower  (73.0).  The  Montardit  skull  is  the  higher.  Of  the 
mandibular  measurements,  the  heights  of  symphysis  and  ramus 
are  close,  but  the  Mugem  ramus  is  broader  than  the  very  slender 
Montardit  specimen.  The  cranial  capacities  were  probably  about 
equal.  The  figures  given  for  Mugem  6  are  approximately  1490  c.c. 
par  la  m^thode  de  Tindice  cubique"  and  labelled  ''trfes  peu 

>  See  page  228.  *  Carthailac,  Les  Age*  prihUtoriquea  de  VEg-pagne. 

*  See  Treat  and  Vaillant-Couturier  for  similar  industry  at  Montardit. 
«  Carthailac,  op.  cti. 


ii 


Tolmniiicnx."  The  auricular  heis^t  not  bditi  glveii,  the  writer 
osed  the  Lee-PeaxacHi  fonnula  12  (method  of  leMt9qiiHm),irtiieh 
iBTatTW  baaloD-Jvespna  hdg^t.  llu  resolt,  1408  &&,  fa  too  laigs. 
The  Kaufertsbeaf  aknll.  Boon  to  be  described,  wftii  both  these 
heists  measurable  had  a  oiqiaeity  of  1473  e.o.  fay  f<»nnik  12  and 
1432  C.C.  by  formula  10  bia  (see  TaUe  6),  an  enjess  of  about  Uiree 
per  cent.  The  Mugem  oapadty,  then,  reduces  to  1870  e.c.,  di^tly 
smaller  than  that  of  Montardit. 

In  outline,  the  two  skulls  show  certain  difimenees.    The  al- 
veolar prognatiusm  of  the  Mugem  skull  has  been  meotitHied.  1^ 


(Bft«r  CuthaUao) 


parietal  flattening  above  lambda  oharacteristifl  of  both  Montardit 
IHvfilee  seems  to  extend  well  down  the  Mugem  occiput;  the  lower 
vault  also  contributes  to  the  deviationB.  But  in  the  interrelation- 
ship of  small  eize  and  great  muscularity,  and  in  total  absence  of 
Cro-Magnon  outlines  and  disharmony,  the  total  impression  is  of 
similarity,  if  not  of  the  closest  kinship. 

The  stature  of  the  Montardit  Azilians  and  the  Mugem  Tarde- 
noisians  contributes  to  this  common  picture  and  ha«  already  been 
mentioned.  The  mean  statures  for  7  males  from  Mugem  calcu- 
lated from  all  possible  long  bones  was  166.0  cm.  by  the  Manouvrier 
tables  and  157.5  cm.  by  the  Pearsonian  method.  Montardit  I  had 
a  stature  of  159.8  cm.  The  Mugem  range  was  from  154.1  cm.  to 
159.8  cm.  Only  bones  of  the  upper  extremity  were  available  for 
the  calculation  of  female  stature,  so  the  two  heights,  152.0  cm. 
and  147.8  cm.,  are  not  exactly  comparable  to  the  small,  probably 
female  stature  of  145.0  cm.  from  the  Mas  d'Azil,  which  was  based 
on  a  tibia.   All,  however,  fall  within  the  same  group  of  remarkably 


FROM  MONTARDIT  247 

low  stature  whose  closest  affinities  among  European  racial  groups 
are  to  certain  neolithic  peoples  of  France. 

The  most  famous  mesolithic  site  from  the  anthropologist's  point 
of  view,  Of  net  in  Bavaria,  adds  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  statiu^ 
contemporary  with  the  short  men  of  the  Portuguese  coast  and  the 
French  Pyrenees.  Only  skulls  and  cervical  vertebrae  were  foimd 
in  that  spectacular  group  of  twenty  men,  women,  and  children 
smeared  with  ochre  and  ornamented  with  shells  and  canine  teeth. 
Several  studies  of  the  stratification,  burial  rites,  and  industry  are 
well  known,  particularly  those  of  Schmidt  and  Breuil.  The  simi- 
lar setting  for  the  individual  from  Kaufertsberg  is  less  familiar. 
There  also  was  found  only  the  skull,  with  atlas  and  axis.  They  lay 
in  red  ochre.  No  ornaments  were  discovered,  but  the  fauna  and 
flint  implements  were  clearly  Azilian.^  Secondary  burial  associa- 
ted with  the  use  of  red  ochre  occurred  in  the  Azilian  layers  of  the 
Mas  d'Azil,  but  seems  to  have  included  the  entire  skeleton,^  while 
the  simphcity  of  the  Montardit  and  Mugem  burials;  flexed  or 
extended,  suggest  a  different  cultural  chain. 

In  physical  characteristics,  however,  the  closest  kinship  is  be- 
tween the  Montardit  crania,  the  Kaufertsberg  skull,  and  one  of 
the  types  from  Ofnet.  Fortunately,  there  is  available  for  the  study 
of  these  groups  the  exhaustive  monograph  by  Dr.  Walter  Scheldt 
inth  its  excellent  photographs  and  life-size  reproductions  of  draw- 
ings made  by  the  Martin  diagraph.  Among  the  fourteen  adults 
ifrom  Ofnet,  Scheldt  recognized  five  types  of  which  the  two  extremes 
'^f  dolichocephaly  and  brachycephaly  he  thinks  show  strong  aflSli- 
^tions  with  Cro-Magnon  and  Crenelle.  It  is  with  type  III  repre- 
sented by  the  Ofnet  male  skull  1800  and  by  the  adult  male  from 
JKaufertsberg  that  we  are  chiefly  concerned.  Scheldt's  description 
"Of  these  two  crania  follows:'  medium  size,  muscular;  mesocephalic; 
^ery  high;  oval  in  norma  verticalis;  moderately  broad,  well  devel- 
"Oped  frontal  region;  uniformly  developed  parietal  region  with 
"pre-lambdoid  depression;  occipital  region  symmetrical  and  non- 
protuberant;  strong  muscle  relief;  strongly  marked  glabella  and 
«upra-orbital  ridges;  mesognathous. 

In  addition  to  the  striking  similarity  of  this  description,  there 
is  the  frequent  identity  of  measurements  between  Montardit  I  and 

^  F.  Birkner,  "Der  EbBeitmensch  in  Bayem,"  Beitr.  Anth.,  vol.  xix,  Munich,  1914. 
I  No  akulla  were  preserved,  but  Piette  mentions  the  discovery  of  a  mandible. 
*  W.  Scheidtt  Die  eugeitlichen  Schddelfunde  aus  der  Groeeen  Ofnet,  p.  86. 


ACTTJAW  fffnajPTAh  BEUAINS 


Kaufertsberg  (Tdde  6)  HHi  the  atriUng  n 

in  the  supend^oiecl  prafika  (Rg.  3.)    TIm  fonr  b 

the  axis,  the  onlj  hlMMie  of  tlw  M 

skulls,  all  JDdk^  a  note  Tobort  derclc^Miimt  in  tlie  IfontH^ 

specimen  (Talde  1). 

That  trait  in  iMdi  Hbe  KMdBrteberg  Bkoll  diffien  most  vide^ 
from  Ofnet  1800  ia  the  nanvwiWM  td  the  tmoa.  VidartaaatUiy,  tins 


id  KauferUbera  ilnilb 


region  was  too  fragmentary  in  the  Montardit  cranium  for  either 
measurement  or  speculation.  Scheldt  stresses  the  pot«ntial  sig- 
nificance of  this  facial  form  in  a  discussion  of  the  possible  onginB 
of  the  Ofnet-Kaufertsberg  p-oup.'  Between  the  two,  he  finds  only 
a  moderate  racial  affinity.  The  Ofnet  group,  however,  contains 
such  extreme  forms  as  the  low  dolichocephahc  Cro-Magnon  type 
and  the  extremely  brachycephafic  of  Crenelle,  and  the  divergence 
of  the  Kaufertsberg  sl^ull  from  its  nearest  affinity  at  Ofnet  is  not 

'  Dtr  nacluimiaitlii  SchadtUunde  torn  KauferUbtrs. 


FROM  MONTARDIT  249 

so  great  as  the  five  Ofnet  types  from  one  another.  The  AziUan 
period  was  a  time  of  mixing  of  types  very  far  apart,  and  the  narrow 
face  of  Kaufertsberg  may  be  considered  either  as  a  new,  not  yet 
known  racial  element,  or  as  the  result  of  racial  crossing. 

Further  evidence  to  strengthen  Dr.  Scheldt's  conception  of  the 
Azilian  as  an  age  of  racial  mixture  is  certainly  present  in  the  asso- 
ciation of  long  and  short  skulls  at  Mugem.  All  these  skulls  were 
small  and  all  the  long  bones  indicated  low  stature.  It  would  be 
of  inestimable  value  to  know  the  stature  of  Ofnet  1818,  the  ''Cro- 
Magnon"  male  with  a  glabello-occipital  diameter  of  205  mm., and 
that  of  the  two  males  so  closely  resembling  Montardit  I.  Racial 
origins  and  racial  affinities  can  never  be  based  on  the  skull  alone. 
At  Ofnet,  the  individual  nearest  to  Montardit  I  was  an  intermediate 
type.  We  cannot  be  sure,  however,  that  he  represented  a  mixture 
of  the  two  extremes  also  present,  nor  can  we  definitely  associate  him 
by  analogy  with  the  descendant  of  the  most  specialized  palaeolithic 
peoples  and  the  forerunner  of  a  prominent  neolithic  type  who  was 
buried  in  the  Trou  Violet  at  Montardit. 

Mixture  undoubtedly  did  take  place  in  the  Azilian  period,  and 
doubtless  much  earlier.  Or  new  forms  other  than  those  once 
believed  peculiar  to  the  pre-neolithic  may  then  have  put  in  a 
European  appearance.  Certainly  the  skulls  from  Solutr6  bear 
evidences  of  types  far  from  classical  before  the  Aurignacian  ended. 


\ 


250  AZILIAN  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

SUMMARY 

The  remains  of  the  two  Azilians  found  in  the  Trou  Violet  at 
Montardit  in  the  French  Pyrenees,  so  far  as  the  few  traits  preserved 
in  common  are  concerned,  seem  homogeneous  in  type.  This  judg- 
ment rests  largely  on  the  parietal  region  and  on  the  thickness  and 
muscularity  of  both  skulls. 

The  almost  complete  skeleton,  Montardit  I,  an  old  male,  was  of 
short  statins  (159.8  cm.).  The  bones  of  the  extremities  show 
various  traits  primitive  as  opposed  to  modem  European  but  in  no 
way  suggesting  anthropoid  characters.  The  degree  of  development 
of  the  cranium  can  be  similarly  placed.  Small,  with  heavy  brow- 
ridges  and  mastoids,  non-prognathous,  mesocephalic,  hypsiceph- 
alic,  and  with  several  contradictory  features  in  the  mandible,  its 
final  rating  on  the  Hooton  evolutionary  scale  is  identical  with  the 
modem  Mongol  and  surpassed  only  by  Mediterranean,  Nordic,  and 
Alpine. 

Certain  abnormahties  of  maxilla,  ulna,  and  vertebrae  caused  by 
age  and  disease  add  further  items  to  the  lists  of  palaeopathology. 

The  racial  affiUations  of  the  Montardit  people  seem  to  lie  not  in 
the  groups  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  but  in  the  Azilo-Tardenoisian 
types  of  France,  Portugal,  and  Bavaria.  Low  stature  is  conunon 
to  Montardit,  the  Mas  d'Azil,  and  Mugem.  There  are  similarities 
between  Montardit  and  Mugem  skulls,  and  between  Scheidt's 
Type  III  Ofnet-Kaufertsberg  crania  and  the  skull  of  Montardit  I 
a  large  number  of  traits  are  identical. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Arcelin  et  Mayet 

Solutr^;  Les  fouilles  de  1907,  1922  et  1923.  Assoc.  R^gionale  de  Paid- 
ontologie  Humaine,  Bull.  2,  Lyons,  1924. 

Bartels,  Paul 

Tuberkulose  (Wirbelkaries)  in  der  jiingeren  Steinzeit.  Archiv  ftir 
Anthropologie,  neue  folge,  vol.  vi  (Braunschweig,  1907),  pp.  243-255. 

Boule,  Marcellin 

L^  hommes  fossiles.  Paris,  1923. 

Boule,  Marcellin 

L'honime  fossile  de  La  ChapeUe-aux-Saints.  Annales  de  Pal^ntologie, 
vol.  VI,  Paris,  1911. 

Boule,  Marcellin 

Nouvelles  ddcouvertes  de  squelettes  humains  k  Solutrd.  L' Anthropol- 
ogie, vol.  XXXV  (1925),  p.  188. 

Boule,  Marcellin 

Leas  nouvelles  fouilles  de  Solutrd.  L' Anthropologie,  vol.  xxxin  (1923), 
Nouvelles  et  Correspondance. 

Breuil,  H. 

Les  subdivisions  du  pal^lithique  supdrieur  et  leur  signification. 
Compte  rendu  du  xiv™®  Congr^  d'Anthropol.  et  d'Archdol.  Prdhist., 
vol.  I  (Geneva,  1913),  pp.  223-227. 

Breuil,  H. 

Le  gisement  quaternaire  d'Ofnet  (Bavi^re)  et  sa  sepulture  m^lith- 
ique.   L'Anthropologie,  vol.  xx  (1909),  pp.  207-214. 

Breuil  et  Obermaier 

Cr^es  pal^lithiques  fagonnes  en  coupes.  L' Anthropologie,  vol.  xx 
(1909),  pp.  523-530. 

Carthailhac,  Emil 

Les  Ages  prdhistoriques  de  TEspagne  et  du  Portugal.  Anthropologie 
par  Paula  e  Oliveria,  Paris,  1886. 

Corr^,  A.  A.  Mendes 

A  propos  des  caract^res  infdrieurs  de  quelques  crdiies  prdhistoriques 
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1917),  pp.  221-237. 

Depdret,  Arcelin  et  Mayet 

Nouvelles  ddcouvertes  dans  le  gisement  prdhistorique  de  Solutrd. 
Comptes  rendus  de  TAcaddmie  des  Sciences,  Institut  de  France,  vol. 
CLXXix  (1924),  p.  1374. 


I 


2S2  BIBLI00RAFH7  * 

Hamy.  E.  T. 

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Les  brachyc^phales  n^lithiqaes.    Bevoe  de  l^Botde  d'Anth.  de  Fvia 

(1895).  pp.  18-28. 
Booton,  Eunart  A. 

Tlie  anoint  inhabituiti  td  the  Cuniy  Ubuxb.    Hunrd  Afrioan 

Studies,  -ml.  -vm,  Cuatttklge,  1925. 
Hooton,  Eunnt  A. 

The  aBymmetrieal  obamAet  of  human  emlutUHi.   Am.  Joor.  FI^ts. 

Anthrop.    ApriMune,  1925,  pp.  125-140. 
Hooton,  Earnest  A. 

On  certain  Eakimdd  oharaoters  in  ledandio  aknUs.  Am.  Jbor.  Tliys. 

AntiiTop.,  vol.  I  (1918),  pp.  63-76. 
BMlicka,  Ales 

FhyBiosl  Anthropology  of  the  Lenap6.  Boieauof  Am.EthDoL,Bull.62, 

Washington,  1916. 
KdliSka,  Alee 

Anthropometry.  I%ilade)|^iia,  1D20. 
Lee,  A.,  and  Peanon,  K. 

Data  for  the  problem  of  evolution  in  man:  TZ.  A  flnt  stody  ttf  the 

eoirelation  of  the  human  skull.   Philoaoiriuoal  l^anoaotiuis,  ser.  A, 

vol.  cxcn  (1901),  pp.  225-264. 
Martin,  R. 

Lehrbuch  der  Anthropoh^e.  Jena,  1914. 
Noulet.  J.  B. 

£tude  de  I'Ombrive.    Archives  du  Musfe  d'Hietoire  Naturelle  de 

Toulouse,  1882. 
Pearson,  Karl 

On  the  reconstruction  of  the  stature  of  prehistoric  races.  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions,  aer.  A,  vol.  cxcii  (1899),  p.  196. 
Piette,  Ed. 

Une  sepulture  dans  I'assise  fk  galets  colorifo  du  Mas  d'Azil.   Bull,  de 

la  Soc.  d'Anth.  de  Paris  (1895),  p.  485. 
Salmon,  Philippe 

D^nombrement  et  types  des  crSnes  n^lithiques  en  Gaule.    Rev. 

mens,  de  I'ficole  d'Anthrop.  de  Paris,  1895. 
Sawtell,  Ruth  Otis,  and  Treat,  Ida 

Primitive  Hearths  ia  the  Pyrenees.   New  York,  1927. 
Scheidt,  Walter 

Die  eiszeitlichen  Schadelfunde  aus  der  Grossen  Ofnet-Htthle   und 

vom  Kaufertsberg  bei  NOrdlingea.   MUnchen,  1923. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  253 

Scheldt,  Walter 

Der  nacheiszeitliche  Schadelfund  vom  Kaufertsberg  bei  Nordlingen 
und  die  rassenkundliche  Stellung  der  Ofnetbevolkerung.  Anth.  An- 
zeiger  (Stuttgart,  1924),  pp.  30-34. 

Schmidt,  R.  R. 

Die  Diluviale  Vorzeit  Deutschlands.  Stuttgart,  1912. 

Testut,  L. 

Recherches  anthropologiques  sur  le  squelette  quaternaire  de  Chance- 
lade.  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d'Anthrop.  de  Lyons,  vol.  viii  (1889),  pp.  131- 
246. 

Treat,  Ida  Vaillant-Couturier,  et  Vaillant-Couturier,  Paul 

La  grotte  Azilienhe  du  "Trou  Violet"  k  Montardit  (Ari^ge).  L'An- 
thropologie,  vol.  xxxviii  (1928),  pp.  217-243. 

Verneau,  Ren6 

L'Allee  Couverte  des  Mureaux  (Seine-et-Oise).  L'Anthropologie, 
vol.  I  (1890),  pp.  157-186. 

Verneau,  Ren6 

Les  Grottes  de  Grinialdi  (Baouss6-Rouss6).  Tome  II,  Fascicule  I. 
Anthropologie  (Monaco,  1906). 


1 


MsiilUolMonUrditl 


fticht  Ismur  uid  ruht  ti1>i>  u<  Mon 


Plate  6 


Right  and  left  ulnae  of  Mrmtardit  I,  nnterior  and  lateral  viewH 


Fourth  lumbar  vntobn  ol  MonUrdit 


PAPERS 

OF    THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


Vol.  XI.— No.  5 


mM 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN 

PELVIS  IN  RELATION  TO  THE 

MECHANICS  OF  THE  ERECT 

POSTURE 


BY 

EDWARD  REYNOLDS 


THREE  PLATES  ASD   TEN  ILLUSTRATIONS  IX  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 

1931 


CONTENTS 

PAQB 

'x-RODUcnoN 255 

Thesis 255 

Law  of  Squares  and  Cubes 256 

Consequences 256 

EiE  Primitive  Pelvis 260 

Common  Characteristics 260 

Triangularity  of  Cross  Section 266 

ETELOPMENT  OP  SPECIALIZATIONS 271 

The  Anthropoidal  Plate 273 

Balance  and  Base  of  Support 274 

*«X:iAUZATI0N8  OF  THE  IsCHIA  AND  PUBES 276 

AGES  OP  Development  of  the  Erect  Posture 278 

The  Kangaroo 278 

The  Anteater 283 

The  Rodential  Sitting  Habit 285 

The  Bear 287 

The  Primates 288 

Lemuroidea 289 

Anthropoidea 290 

Marmosets      290 

New  World  Monkeys 291 

Old  World  Monkeys 294 

Simiidae 296 

Gibbon 296 

Orang      303 

Chimpanzee 305 

Gorilla 307 

Hominidae      310 

Man 310 

>5CLU8I0N8 328 

i^ENDIX 330 

Bradypus 330 

Ungulata 331 

^UOGRAPHY 334 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plates 

1.  A  trained  Cebus  in  its  usual  standing  position  294 

2.  Slow  motion  photographs  of  gibbons  at  the  Philadelphia  Zoo- 

logical Garden  302 

3.  Photographs  of  chimpanzees  in  the  gardens  of  Madame  Abreu 

in  Havana  306 

Figures 

1.  Diagrammatic  drawing  of  pelves  showing  speciaUzations  .   .   .  262 

2.  Diagrammatic  presentations  of  iliac  axes 264 

3.  Diagrammatic  drawings  of  ilia  and  ischia 268 

4.  Cross  sections  of  primate  pelves 280 

5.  Myrmecophaga  jubata 284 

6.  Diagrammatic  drawings  of  the  pelves  of  Cebus,  Macaque,  the 

gibbon,  the  orang,  the  chimpanzee,  and  the  gorilla  ....     292 

7.  Diagrammatic  drawing  showing  the  axes  of  the  pelvic  arms  in 

the  gibbon,  the  gorilla,  the  chimpanzee,  and  in  man  ....     299 

8.  Tracing  from  photographs  of  a  young  gorilla  in  (1)  a  bipedal 

standing  position,  and  (2)  the  same  animal  in  a  quadrupedal 
gait 308 

9.  Diagrammatic  drawing  showing  the  bilateral  asymmetry  in  the 

pelves  of  the  gibbon,  the  orang,  the  gorilla,  and  of  man  .   .      313 

10.  Diagrammatic  drawing  showing  the  shift  in  the  centre  of  gravity 

in  the  erect  posture  and  the  quadrupedal 322 


I 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF   THE   HUMAN   PELVIS 

IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  MECHANICS 

OF  THE  ERECT  POSTURE 

INTRODUCTION 

Few  subjects  in  physical  anthropology  have  excited  more  interest 
than  the  development  of  the  specializations  which  enable  man  to 
maintain  his  erect  posture  and  the  bipedal  activity  by  which  he 
is  distinguished  from  all  other  mammals.  Among  the  many  spe- 
cializations which  have  a  bearing  upon  this  subject  two  are  of 
predominant  importance.  Those  of  his  very  distinctive  foot  have 
been  extensively  studied,  while  the  characters  which  distinguish 
his  equally  unique  pelvis  have  received  but  little  attention.  The 
method  by  which  these  peculiarities  have  been  developed,  under 
the  operation  of  the  fundamental  mechanical  laws,  and  their 
functional  relation  to  the  mechanics  of  the  erect  posture  will  be 
discussed  in  this  paper  along  the  following  lines: 

THESIS 

A  study  of  the  primitive  characters  in  the  mammalian  pelvis 
«nd  a  description  of  the  writer's  method  of  tracing  the  develop- 
xnent  of  the  various  specializations  which  are  necessary  to  the 
"Varying  habits  of  the  more  highly  specialized  groups. 

A  brief  reference  to  the  simple  laws  of  balance  in  their  bearing 
Xjpon  the  feet  as  the  base  of  support  and  upon  the  pelvis  as  the 
^•inain  factor  in  stabilizing  the  attitude. 

The  quadrupedal  position  of  the  femur  in  its  relation  to  the 
Ivic  shape  and  architecture,  contrasted  with  its  position  in  erect 
an  and  its  mechanical  relation  to  his  pelvis. 
The  animals  which  make  at  least  an  occasional  use  of  at  least 
partially  erect  posture,  and  which  exhibit  in  their  pelvic  de- 
elopment  transitional  stages  between  the  most  generalized  quad- 
X-nipeds  and  highly  specialized  man,  are  the  marsupial  kangaroos 
^Macropodidae) ;  the  edentate  anteaters    (Mynnecophagidae) ; 
Y^any  small  animals,  principally  rodents,  which  have  well  devel- 
oped erect  sitting  habits;  the  bears  {Ursidae),  which  are  Car- 

255 


256  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  rELYB 

nlvoni;  the  lower  Primates;  and  the  anthropoid  apes.  Hie  habits 
and  flkdeial  devdopme&fc  of  eaeh  of  tiieae  mnfc  be  tBacniwrd  ia 
aomedetaiL 

The  human  pehris  and  the  Upedal  activifies  of  man. 

The  ilia  of  the  imgiilateH  and  of  Bradypua  will  be  diaciiflBeS 
in  an  appendix. 

LAW  OF  SQUARES  AND  CUBES 

A  mechanical  ptmdple  which  should  ahrajra  be  lemembefed  is 
that  if  the  shape  and  proportkms  of  any  material  body  remain 
the  same,  but  its  siie  varies,  its  streogth  increaaes  aa  the  sqiuae 
of  any  one  dimension,  while  its  wri^^  increaaes  as  the  cube. 

This  law  is  of  muvorsal  amplication,  and  apfdies  not  only  to 
every  stractiire  of  mechanical  function,  hot  to  every  pari  of  such 
a  structure;  animate  or  inanimate.  It  applies  then,  not  onfy  to  a 
complete  animal,  but  to  every  individual  heme  and  musde  in  that 
animal,  We  shall  readily  see  that  it  is  of  fundamental  impmianoe 
in  every  d^eletal  qiecialiiation  idiidi  we  encounter. 


Consider  as  an  illustration  the  case  of  a  simple  and  generalised 
mammalian  qiedes,  which  in  the  course  of  its  evcdutkm  gradually 
increases  in  sixe.  Suppose  for  a  moment  that  in  its  increase  from 
a  total  length  of  two  inches  to  one  of  four  inches  it  underwent 
no  other  change,  and  consider  the  consequences  which  would 
ensue.  During  this  growth  its  length  has  been  multiplied  by  two ; 
its  weight  will  have  increased  as  the  cube  of  two,  and  it  will  then 
weigh  eight  times  as  much;  but  the  strength  of  its  muscles  will 
have  increased  merely  as  the  square  of  two,  and  it  will  be  only 
four  times  as  strong.^ 

It  will  then  be  endeavoring  to  move  eight  times  its  original 
weight  bj-  muscles  only  four  times  as  strong.  It  is  evident  that 
it  would  fail  in  the  competition  of  life.  With  no  great  further 
increase  of  size,  it  would  indeed  become  incapable  of  motion. 

It  might  seem  that  the  difficulty  could  be  met  by  a  greater  and 
disproportionate  increase  in  the  sixe  of  the  muscles,  but  this  would 

1  A  musde  is  made  op  of  many  fusiform  ceQs  of  m  grven  sue,  mrrmnced  eaaentiaUy 
side  by  side,  mzMl  coanecied  essentially  end  to  end;  each  is  capable  of  a  grvea  amount  aztd 
of  a  given  strength  of  eontractkm.  The  strength  of  a  muscle  is  then  proportiotwte  to  the 
number  of  ceils  arranged  side  by  side  in  its  cross  section.  i.e.  to  the  square  of  its  diameter, 
vhile  its  length.  Le.  the  number  of  cells  which  are  eotmected  end  to  end.  determine  only 
the  length  of  its  ecntractaoo. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  257 

at  once  result  in  a  further  and  still  more  disastrous  gain  in  weight. 
It  is  then  evident  that  in  the  evolution  of  greater  size  an  increase 
of  muscular  strength  appropriate  to  the  much  greater  increase 
of  weight  must  be  attained  in  some  way  which  does  not  involve 
a  further  increase  of  weight.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  usually 
obtained  by  changes  in  the  bones  and  muscular  attachments  that 
improve  the  leverages  afforded  to  the  muscles  and  so  give  them 
increased  power  without  disproportionate*  increase  of  weight. 


CONSEQUENCES 

The  strength  of  the  bones  which  are  to  be  moved  must,  moreover, 
be  proportionate  to  the  power  of  the  muscles  which  are  to  move 
them,  and  here  again,  if  the  animal  is  to  maintain  its  activity,  the 
increased  strength  of  bone  must  be  obtained  without  a  dispro- 
portionate increase  of  weight.  This  can  only  be  obtained  by 
improvements  in  their  internal  construction. 

As  soon  as  the  skeletons  of  the  mammalian  series  are  studied 
from  a  mechanical  standpoint  it  is  at  once  plain  that  this  appar- 
ently diflScult  problem  has  been  solved  by  the  evolutionary  forces 
in  a  manner  which  is  of  necessity  in  strict  accordance  with  those 
fundamental  mechanical  laws,  by  the  discovery  of  which,  and 
in  obedience  to  which,  the  human  engineer  has  learned  to  carry 
on  his  work. 

The  necessary  increase  of  power  has  been  provided  without 
disproportionate  increase  of  weight  by  the  appearance  of  pro- 
cesses ^  which  give  to  the  muscles  attached  to  them  improved 
leverages  which  yield  the  required  gains  in  power  without  any 
significant  further  increase  in  the  size  or  weight  of  the  muscles. 

Examples  of  such  increase  of  power  by  improved  leverage,  in 
fact,  appear  on  every  hand  as  we  follow  the  bones  of  the  mam- 
onalian  series  from  the  simpler  to  the  more  specialized  groups. 

The  increased  strength  of  the  bones  which  enables  them  to 
Tesist  this  greater  power  must  also  be  obtained  without  undue 
increase  in  their  weight.  This  is,  in  fact,  afforded  to  them  by 
improvements  in  their  internal  architecture,  which  are  again  in 
strict  accordance  with  well-known  and  fundamental  mechanical 
principles. 

1  Or  other  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  bones. 


25S  THE  E\'OLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PEL\1S 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  a  tube  of  given  weight 
is  stronger  than  a  rod  of  the  same  weight  and  which  contains  the 
same  amount  of  substance.  The  first  change  to  be  noticed  in  this 
study  is  the  replacement  of  the  simple  rod  constnietion  of  the 
most  primitive  bones  by  the  tubular  long  bones  of  most  mammals. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  strains  and  stresses  imposed  upon  a 
ro<l  are  greatest  at  the  surface  and  least  at  the  center.  Under  the 
operation  of  evolutionary  law,  the  tubular  structure  of  the  long 
bones  has  then  resulted  from  hypertrophy  at  the  surface  and 
atrophy  at  the  center.  The  process  of  gain  in  strength  without 
increase  of  weight  does  not.  however,  stop  here.  The  strength  of  a 
tube  can,  of  course,  be  greatly  increased  by  cross  bracings  within 
its  lumen,  and  nothing  would  please  the  human  engineer  more 
than  to  lighten  his  tubular  construction  by  carrj-ing  such  cross 
bracing  to  its  logical  extreme,  if  this  were  not  inhibited  by  the 
nature  and  coot  of  his  matcnals  and  labor.  The  farces  of  ero- 
hitaon  have  i»oved  quite  able  to  cany  thia  praoeaa  to  iriiat  am>eaiB 
to  be  at  least  a  eloee  approach  to  poieeticHL 

Tbe  arrangement  of  the  flpiculae  of  solid  bone  and  of  the  ean- 
odlated  tisBoe  which  cross  braces  and  suppcHts  them  within  tbe 
troehantaic  angle  of  the  fonur  is  a  beaotifal  instance  of  the 
accuracy  with  which  this  law  produces  just  the  airangemoits 
i^eh  are  indicated  by  mathematical  fxanpotation  for  sueh  an 
L-Bhaped  Bupporting  structure,'  and  the  resistance  of  the  pelvis  to 
great  strains,  in  spite  of  its  light  weight,  is  another  excellent 
example. 

The  appearance  of  increased  power  without  disproportionate 
gain  in  weight  is  not,  however,  merely  a  necessary  element  in  tbe 
development  of  giantism,  and  as  such,  apparent  in  every  portion 
of  an  animal  whose  species  has  increased  in  size.  It  is  also  an 
almost  equally  necessar>-  element  in  the  development  of  most, 
if  not  all  specializations,  and  may  therefore  be  present  in  marked 
degree  in  some  one  part  only  of  an  individual  animal. 

In  point  of  fact,  whenever  a  gi^■en  species  has  acquired  spe- 
cialited  habits,  the  conditions  which  give  increase  of  muscu- 
lar power  and  strength  of  bone  will  be  especially  well  developed 
in  those  parts  of  its  body  on  which  the  specialized  habits  impose 
especial  demands. 

1  Gny.  ira.  Amalomg,  p.  MtL 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         259 

Familiarity  with  these  two  mechanical  advances  will  prove  to 
be  of  importance  to  every  step  in  this  study  of  the  development 
of  the  pelvis,  and  several  of  the  corollaries  which  follow  from 
it  are  also  so  important  that  it  may  perhaps  be  advantageous  to 
enumerate  them  here,  before  proceeding  to  the  detailed  study  of 
their  results. 

Large  and  heavy  species  usually  show  any  given  specializations 
in  higher  degree  than  their  relatives  of  similar  habits  but  of  lesser 
weight. 

Increased  activity  has  the  same  effect  as  increased  weight,  be- 
cause a  quick  start  against  the  inertia  of  a  stationary  body  re- 
quires much  more  power  than  the  maintenance  of  motion  after 
it  has  been  inaugurated,  a  fact  familiar  to  everyone  who  has  ever 
driven  an  automobile. 

Economy  of  weight  at  every  point  is  an  element  of  primary 
importance  in  the  evolution  of  an  active  and  eflScient  species.  The 
great  importance  of  this  fact  is  seldom  suflSciently  appreciated. 

Since  the  disadvantages  which  result  from  increased  weight 
under  the  law  of  squares  and  cubes  can  rarely  be  completely 
compensated,  the  smaller  animals  are  usually  the  more  active. 

With  these  mechanical  principles  well  in  mind,  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  the  consideration  of  the  primitive  forms  of  pelvis  from 
"which  we  are  to  trace  the  development  of  the  highly  specialized 
^rdle  of  erect  bipedal  man. 


THE  PRIMrnVE  PELVIS 

Some  idea  of  the  probable  pelvis  of  the  primitive  ancestral  mam- 
mals may  be  obtained  by  assembling  the  characters  which  are 
common  to  all  mammalian  pelves,  and  by  eliminating  those  which 
are  present  only  in  groups  which  have  become  specialized  in  some 
given  direction. 

Such  a  conception  can  then  be  checked  by  comparing  the  hypo- 
thetical pelvis  so  constructed  with  the  least  specialized  pelves 
which  can  be  found  in  each  of  the  several  mammalian  orders. 

Figiu'e  1  shows  outlines  drawn  by  camera  lucida  from  such  a 
group.  It  depicts  a  specimen  from  each  of  the  mammalian 
orders  with  four  exceptions;  the  Sirenia,  Cetacea,  Ungulata,  and 
Chiroptera.^ 

Each  of  these  pelves  is  from  a  family  or  genus  of  generalized 
habits  and  structure,  and  was  selected  from  among  those  groups 
as  representing  the  species  which  showed  the  least  degree  of  the 
specializations  characteristic  of  the  order. 

All  of  even  these  pelves  show  some  degree  of  specialization, 
and  at  first  sight  one  is  impressed  chiefly  by  their  differences,  but 
on  analysis  their  striking  similarity  in  fundamentals  becomes 
apparent. 

Their  somewhat  close  resemblance  in  general  shape  should 
be  noticed  before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  discussion  of  their 
several  parts. 


COMMON  CHARACTERISTICS 

In  all  of  them,  the  ilio-ischiatic  length  exceeds  the  bilateral 
width  (as  a  rule,  by  about  two  to  one) ,  while  externally,  the  dorso- 
ventral  depth  at  the  acetabular  level  is  always  less  than  the 
greatest  width.  (See  Table  1.)  The  cavity  of  the  true  pelvis  is, 
however,  in  all  these  instances,  pentagonal  in  shape  and  with  the 
sagittal  diameter  greater  than  the  transverse.  (See  Table  2.) 

1  The  vestigial  pelves  of  the  Sirenia  and  Cetacea  are  not  without  interest  in  the  re- 
construction of  the  primitive  pelvis,  but  are  omitted  here,  as  having  no  direct  bearing 
upon  our  special  subject.  The  orders  Ungulata  and  Chiroptera  are  highly  specialised 
throughout,  and  contain  no  unspecialized  or  primitive  pelves.  Each  of  the  other  orders  if 
represented. 

260 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  261 

Table  1.  Length  and  Breadth  Dumetees  and  Indices  of  Peimitive 

Pelves 

the  length  always  exceeds  the  breadth 

Average 
Length     Breadth      Index         Index 

Zaglossus  (2)   8.1  3.9  48.15 

10.5  5.4  51.43           49.79 

Didelphis  (3)   7.9  3.8  48.10 

7.3  3.2  43.84 

7.8  3.4  43.59           45.18 

Genetta  (2)  6.4  3.3  51.56 

6.3  3.3  52.38           51.97 

Manis  (3)   13.4  11.1  82.84 

8.3  6.3  75.90 

5.0  3.9  78.00  78.91 

Marmota  (4)   7.5  3.9  52.00 

7.4  5.2  70.27 
7.4  5.2  70.27 

7.7  5.2  67.53  65.02 

Tupaia  (1)    2.6  1.7  65.38  65.38 

Lemur  Mongos  (1)  4.8  7.5  64.00  64.00 

Many  more  specimens  of  these  pelves  were  studied,  but  for  the  purposes 
)f  this  and  the  two  succeeding  tables  the  few  which  were  readily  at  hand 
ifere  thought  sufficient,  since  the  indices  are  so  very  distinctive. 

Table  2.  Internal  Depth-breadth  Diameters  and  Indices  of 

Primitive  Pelves 

Sagittal    Transverse 

Zaglossus  (2)    4.0  2.4 

5.7  3.5 

Didelphis  (3)   4.7  2.6 

3.5  2.2 

4.7  2.6 

Genetta  (2)  3.0  2.3 

3.0  2.3 

Manis  (3)    7.1  4.5 

5.3  3.7 
3.2  2.5 

Marmota  (4)    4.1  2.3 

4.0  2.1 

3.9  2.1 

4.4  2.2 

Tupaia  (1)    1.6  0.9 

T^mur  Mongos  (1) 3.9  3.0 


Average 

Index 

Index 

60.00 

61.40 

60.70 

55.32 

62.86 

55.32 

57.83 

76.67 

76.67 

76.67 

63.38 

69.81 

78.12 

70.44 

56.10 

52.50 

53.85 

50.00 

53.11 

56.25 

56.25 

7.69 

76.90 

262  THE  EVOLUTION  Of  THE  HDMAN  PELVIS 


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Q-^ 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  263 

FIGURE  1 

These  pelves  have  been  reduced  or  enlarged  to  an  approximately 
uniform  size  to  facilitate  comparison.  In  all,  the  dotted  lines  A  or  B 
indicate  the  position  at  which  the  adjoining  cross  section  of  the  ilium 
was  taken.  /  is  opposite  the  internal  surface,  D-l,  the  dorso-lateral, 
V'l,  the  ventro-lateral. 

All  have,  in  general,  the  primitive  characters  enumerated  in  the 
text,  but  all  show  some  specializations,  as  noted  below. 

I.  Probchidna  has  a  very  large  pectineal  process  (P),  which  is  present, 
in  varying  shapes,  in  all  the  Monotremata;  a  metischial  process  (Af ), 
and  a  prominent  pubis.  The  quadrupedal  plate  extends  into  the 
shank  and  alters  the  otherwise  equilateral  triangularity  of  the  cross 
section. 

II  and  III.  DiDELPHis  has  a  slight  metischial  cur\'^e  and  some  free 
ihum.  It  is  as  a  whole  very  primitive.  Note  its  very  primitive  cross 
section. 

rV.  Geneta  is  one  of  the  least  specialized  representatives  of  a  very 
highly  specialized  order. 

y.  Manis  has  an  edentate  pubis,  and  a  long  metischial  process. 

VI.  Marmota.  The  single  line  between  the  anterior  spines  represents 
the  vestigial,  primitive,  external  edge;  the  double  line,  the  false 
anthropoidal  plate.  In  the  cross  sections  A  and  B,  e  is  the  vestigial 
external  edge,  /,  the  false  plate.  The  true  edge  is  less  vestigial  than 
in  most  rodential  pelves.  The  free  ilia  are  strongly  bent,  laterally 
outwards. 

VII.  Tupaia.  The  resemblances  in  general  shape  and  cross  section 
between  this  and  the  lemur  are  interesting. 

VIII.  Lemur  Mongos.  The  unusually  ventral  situation  of  the  anthro- 
poidal plate  is  a  primate  character. 


[Figure  1] 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         265 

FIGURE  2 

In  these  figures  the  heavy  lines  which  are  blocked  at  the  ends 
represent  the  three  pelvic  arms,  those  with  circled  ends  the  femur, 
and  the  dotted  lines  the  action  of  the  extensor  and  flexor  muscles. 
It  must  be  understood  that  these  dotted  lines  make  no  pretense  of 
representing  an  accurate  determination  of  the  resultants  of  these 
muscles,  which,  indeed,  it  would  probably  be  impossible  to  obtain. 

The  figures  are,  in  fact,  merely  diagrammatic  presentations  of  the 
conditions  which  may  convey  their  meaning  more  clearly  and  easily 
than  any  verbal  description.  The  iliac  axes  are  each  placed  in  an  ap- 
proximation to  their  usual  position  in  a  standing  attitude. 

I.  The  Quadrupedal.  The  proportions  are  taken  from  a  fox  {Vulpes 
julva)y  an  animal  which  is  highly  specialized  for  quadrupedal  speed 
and  endurance.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  with  any  great  extension 
of  the  femur  the  muscles  would  lose  power  very  rapidly. 

II.  The  Anturopoidal.  The  proportions  are  taken  from  a  chimpan- 
zee. It  will  be  observed  that  the  bend  in  the  iliac  axis  throws  the 
ischial  axis  so  well  backward  that  the  muscles  act  to  advantage,  even 
though  the  femur  is  much  more  extended  in  relation  to  the  ilium 
(and  spine). 

III.  Man.  a,  the  region  of  the  posterior  superior  spine;  b,  the  tu- 
berosity of  the  ilium ;  c,  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium ;  d,  the  pubis. 

The  dorsal  curvature  of  the  iliac  axis  brings  it,  essentially  through- 
out its  length,  into  line  with  the  much  elongated  and  strengthened 
pubic  arm.  It  also  throws  the  ischiatic  axis  into  line  with  the  newly 
developed  tubero-acetabular  line  of  strength.  The  muscles  act  to  full 
advantage  with  both  the  femur  and  the  trunk  fully  extended  and 
erect.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  lateral  leverages,  which,  to  avoid 
complexity,  are  not  figured. 

The  leverages  are,  in  fact,  mechanically  equivalent  to  those  which 
would  be  exerted  by  a  prolongation  of  the  muscular  resultants  to  a 
single  plane  {E,  E),  at  right  angles  to  the  femur  and  trunk. 


[Figure  2] 


266  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELMS 

These  are  primitive  proportions  which  persist  in  probably  sl  txx^' 
jority  of  the  whole  class,  but  which  are  in  marked  contrast  to  ^^^ 
human  specializations.^ 

Another  very  important  characteristic  of  the  general  shaf>^  ^^ 
all  unspecialized  mammalian  pelves  is  that  the  ilio-ischiatic  a.:3iis 
is  nearly  straight. 

In  detail:  in  all  unspecialized  mammalian  pelves  the  iliunx  is 
an  approximately  straight,  long  bone,  extending  from  the  acetafc^u- 
lum  to  a  sacro-iliac  joint  at,  or  nearly  at,  its  distal  extremi^ty, 
i.e.  with  but  little  free  ilium.  In  all  of  them,  the  body  of  t  le 
ischium  from  the  acetabulum  to  the  tuberosity  is  also  a  long  bo:«rae, 
the  axis  of  which  continues  the  line  of  the  iliac  axis  either  exact-  ly, 
or,  as  in  most  cases,  at  a  slight  dorsally-open  angle. 

The  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis  and  the  femur  form  an  inclined  T 
in  all  quadrupeds  of  generalized  structure  (Figure  2),  a  f^a-ct 
which  will  become  of  much  importance  as  the  argument  j^x^o- 
gresses,  since  it  furnishes  a  key  to  an  understanding  of  some  of 
the  most  important  modifications  of  the  human  pelvis. 

In  all  mammalian  pelves,  the  acetabular  ramus  of  the  puit>^ 
leaves  the  acetabulum  at  somewhat  more  than  a  right  angle  wi'th 
the  iliac  axis,  and  extends  thence  to  its  junction  with  its  fell<=^^ 
in  the  median  line.  This  pubic  acetabular  arm  is,  moreover,  wi'^h 
few  exceptions,  supported  and  converted  into  a  bracket,  a^  ^^ 
were,  by  the  conjunction  of  the  descending  ramus  with  the  ascei^^" 
ing  ramus  of  the  ischium. 

A  conception  of  the  primitive  pelvis  as  consisting,   from     ^ 
mechanical  standi)oint  and  when  viewed  from  the  norma  lateralis; 
of  an  acetabulum,  from  which  three  essentially  straight  arms    ^^ 
bone  project  as  levers,  seems  to  the  writer  an  important  start i^^ 
point  for  the  study  of  pelvic  evolution,  and  it  will  be  so  used   in 
this  paper. 

TRIANGULARITY  OF  CROSS  SECTION 

The  cross  sections  of  the  ilium  are  triangular  throughout  i^s 
length  in  all  mammalian  pelves  of  primitive  type.-  See  Figures  1 
and  2.  In  most  of  them  this  is  equally  true  of  the  ischium  from 

1  Note  tliat  they  arc  present  in  Lemur  Mongos,  representing  the  primitive  Primatefl,  •* 
in  all   the  other  represiMitatives  of  the  primitive. 

2  See  also,  Wcidenreich,  1913,  Anat.  Am.,  p.  497. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  267 

the  acetabulum  to  the  tuberosity.  In  the  Primates,  in  many 
Rodentia,  in  some  Insectivora,  and  in  occasional  families  through- 
out the  class,  the  same  is  true  of  the  pubic  arm. 

This  triangularity  of  the  cross  sections  is,  moreover,  detectable, 
at  least  in  the  acetabular  ends  of  the  ilium  and  ischium,  in  every 
mammalian  pelvis.^ 

In  all  the  more  primitive  pelves,  such  as  are  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 1,  the  ilia  and  ischia  plainly  present  for  description  three 
surfaces,  the  internal,  the  dorso-lateral,  and  the  ventro-lateral ; 
and  three  edges,  the  external,  the  dorsal  and  the  ventral.  These 
primitive  edges  and  surfaces  are,  moreover,  present  in  some  de- 
gree, in  every  mammalian  pelvis  (Figure  3),  and  the  process  of 
tracing  them  out  into  the  specializations  furnishes  an  important 
key  to  the  evolution  of  all  their  pelvic  characters.^ 

In  the  most  highly  specialized  pelves,  as,  for  instance,  in  those 
of  the  Camivora,  of  the  Artiodactyla,  and  of  man,  the  existence 
of  these  three  edges  is  not  always  at  once  apparent.  The  writer 
has  so  far,  however,  found  no  single  character  which  could  not 
be  traced  back  to  the  primitive,  through  intermediary  stages, 
by  the  use  of  the  conception  that  all  individual  specializations  of 
the  pelvis  have  been  produced  by  alterations  in  the  proportions 
of  the  triangular  cross  sections,  or  by  the  extension  of  plates  or 
isolated  processes  from  one  or  the  other  of  these  three  primitive 
edges,  often,  however,  in  combination  with  alterations  in  the 
relative  size,  directions,  and  proportions  of  the  three  acetabular 
arms.  This  becomes  very  apparent  as  the  bones  are  studied  in 
quantity,  but  can  only  be  shown  here  by  quoting  illustrative 
instances. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  an  increased  projection  of  any 
one  of  the  three  primitive  edges  involves,  of  necessity,  an  increase 
in  the  extent,  and  usually  an  alteration  of  the  shape,  of  both  the 
adjacent  surfaces. 

In  order  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  full  value  of  this  concept, 
we  must,  moreover,  go  one  step  further  in  our  study  of  the 
primitive. 

In  the  pelves  of  the  Prototheria,  in  those  of  the  Metatheria  of 

1  So  far,  at  least,  as  the  writer's  observation  of  the  large  osteological  collection  of  the 
Hanurd  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  warrants  the  statement. 

2  See  also  Straus»,  1929,  Studies  on  Primate  Ilia.  This  article  also  contains  a  very  full 
t>ibliography  of  the  pelvis. 


XI 


in  II  E 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  269 

FIGURE  3 

Throughout  this  figure  the  odd  numbers  represent  lead  strip  trac- 
ings of  the  ilia,  the  even,  those  of  the  ischia,  both  taken  as  near  to 
the  acetabula  as  possible.^  i,  internal  surface;  D-l,  dorso-lateral ; 
V4,  ventro-lateral. 

I  and  II.  Zaglossus  {the  spiny  anteater).  The  Prototheria,  though 
the  most  primitive  of  mammals,  are  all  highly  specialized  for  swim- 
ming or  digging,  hence  their  pelves  all  show  developments  of  exten- 
sive processes  from  the  dorsal  edges  of  their  ilia  and  ischia. 

Ill  and  rV.  DiDELPHis  (opossum)  is  a  slow  moving  marsupial  with 
a  very  primitive  pelvis. 

V  and  VI.  Taxidea  (badger)  is  a  carnivore  with  a  but  slightly  spe- 
cialized pelvis. 

VII  and  VIII.  Antilocapra  (prong  horn  antelope).  It  is  an  ungulate 
characteristic  that  in  them  the  spine  of  the  ischium  is  represented  by 
a  long  thin  plate  which  extends  over  the  entire  length  of  both  the 
ischial  and  iliac  shanks,  which  is  here  seen  extending  dorsally. 

IX  and  X.  Chimpanzee.  In  the  chimp  and  in  the  very  similar  gorilla 
(XI  and  XII)  the  essential  triangularity  of  both  shanks  is  plainly 
apparent  in  spite  of  the  high  degree  of  specialization  of  their  pelves. 

XIII  and  XIV.  Man.  Both  the  shanks  bear  a  general  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  gorilla  and  chimp,  but  the  section  of  the  human  ilium 
is  here  taken  across  the  blade  instead  of  from  the  shank,  in  order  to 
show  that  even  in  that  most  highly  specialized  portion  of  a  special- 
ized pelvis  the  triangularity  is  clearly  apparent  if  it  is  realized  that 
the  blade  (the  anthropoidal  plate)  is  merely  a  process  developed 
from  the  lateral  edge.  It  must  be  noted  that  for  economy  of  space 
this  iliac  section  has  been  rotated  from  the  others  and  should  be 
viewed  from  the  side,  i.e.  with  the  internal  face  (i)  horizontal. 

1  Except  in  the  human  ilium. 


[Figure  8] 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN'  PELVIS 

generalized  habits  and  structures,  and  in  some  of  the  most  pen' 
ernliaed  of  tlif  Eullieria,  tiie  tross  sections  of  the  ilia  and  isch^ 
are  nol  only  triangular,  but  are,  at  least  approximately,  enilil**^ 

erally  triangular.'  ' 

luAc  Shanks  n«     ^^ 


Kdsiphii  (a) Oil 


MMnrpus  (3)  iA 


Lemur  (1)  . 


OS 


It  we  assume  proviuotully  that  this  equilateral  triai^ularity 
fs  the  primitive  condition,  we  sliaU  find  that  specialisation  by 
ertensiott  of  any  one  of  the  three  primitive  edges  has  an  individual 
significance  of  its  own,  both  functionally  and  in  systematic 
xoology,  at  least  among  the  Mammalia. 

1  Thia  ii  tnie  sIk  id  not  a  few  bifhl)'  specialited  groupg,  ihouch  it  i*  then  limiud, 
■>  a  nile,  to  th«  uetsbulsr  endi  only. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  SPECIALIZATIONS 

The  writer  not  only  believes  that  all  pelvic  specializations  can 
be  interpreted  in  this  way,  but  also  that  this  method  of  tracing 
out  and  classifying  them,  by  following  the  successive  stages  of 
their  development  from  one  or  the  other  of  the  three  primitive 
edges,  is  not  merely  simple  and  practically  successful,  but  that 
it  is  also  a  natural  and  fundamentally  correct  method.  This  is 
because  it  is  evidently  in  accord  with  mechanical  law. 

If  the  problem  of  fitting  to  a  shaft  a  socket  which  is  to  receive 
stresses  in  three  directions  is  treated  as  an  engineering  question, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  lightest  and  most  efiicient  method  is  to 
sustain  the  edges  of  the  socket  by  buttresses,  and  to  stiffen  the 
shaft  against  the  lateral  stresses  by  extending  the  buttresses  along 
it.  This,  in  itself,  creates  triangularity  of  cross  section  and  is  just 
what  nature  does  in  the  primitive  ilium,^  e.g.  Didelphis  (Figure  1) . 

Again,  if  a  power-producing  structure  is  to  be  installed  at  some 
point  along  the  shaft,  it  would  be  natural  to  install  it  on  a  strut 
derived  from  one  of  the  edges,  in  order  to  increase  its  leverage, 
precisely  as  is  done  in  bone  by  nature,  and,  in  each  instance,  on  the 
edge  which  is  best  situated  to  direct  the  power-producing  element, 
e.g.  the  attachment  of  the  erector  spinae  muscles  to  the  long 
spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  perhaps  best  seen  in  the 
ungulates,  in  whom  powerful  extension  of  the  spine  is  essential 
to  the  speed  on  which  their  lives  depend. 

This,  then,  seems  to  afford  a  reason  for  the  success  of  this 
method  of  study.  This  subject  is,  however,  a  large  one,  and  no 
extended  discussion  of  variations  in  other  directions  than  towards 
the  use  of  the  erect  posture  is  in  any  sense  germane  to  the  purpose 
of  this  paper.  A  few  instances  of  similar  pelvic  specializations 
may,  however,  be  mentioned  here,  as  illustrations  of  the  general 
subject. 

It  is,  for  instance,  noticeable  that  the  (development  of  speed 
and  activity  in  quadrupedal  locomotion  tends  typically  to  the 
acquisition  of  ilia  which  are  extended  dorso-ventrally  into  flat- 
tened blades  by  plates  developed  from  the  primitive  dorsal,  or 
dorsal  and  ventral  edges.  These,  in  the  most  typical  instances 

1  In  the  case  of  the  heavier  and  more  specialized  animals,  the  shape  is  somewhat 
modified  by  the  more  advanced  internal  architecture  of  the  bone. 

271 


272  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

indeed,  occupy  very  nearly  parallel  dorso-ventral  planes,  as  in  \!t:^ 
Uon  {Fdi%  Uo),  in  Figure  4,  vn.  In  fact,  in  many  quadruped^^ 
groups,  as,  for  instance,  amoi^  others,  in  the  heavier  Camivon^^i 
and  in  the  edentate  armadillos  (Dasypodidae) ,  even  the  shai 
of  the  ilium  also  has  become  a  flattened  beam,  with  its  breadi 
extending  dorso-ventrally.^  This  1$  evidently  an  adaptation 
ibe  direction  of  the  thrust  received  from  the  femur  in  the  qui 
rupedal  attitude. 

As  an  illustration  of  another  specialisation  see  the  mule  dee: 
(OdocoUetis  hennionus)f  Figure  4,  vi,  which  shows  a  strongl^^i^^ 
mariced  example  of  a  plate  to  be  referred  to  hereafter  as  th^^ 
quadrupedal  plate.  This  is  developed  to  a  greater  or  less  d^re^ 
in  most  quadrupeds  from  the  primitive  dorsal  edge  at  the  leveK 
of  the  sacro-iUac  articulation.  The  value  of  this  plate  is  evidently^ 
that  it  furnishes  to  the  quadrupeds  an  opportunity  for  a  dorso- 
ventraUy  directed  extension  of  the  weight  bearing  Uio-sacral 
articulation.  It  is  largest  in  those  of  great  weight  or  activity  and 
as  it  is  quadrupedal,  it  disappears  or  is  decreased  in  the  Simiidae 
luod  man. 

The  development  of  a  metischial  (or  dorsally  directed)  process 
from  the  primitive  dorsal  edge  of  the  ischium,  as  in  Manis  (Fig- 
ure 1),  or  very  prominently  in  Omithorhynchus  (unfigured),  is 
another  instance.  This  gives  power  to  the  hamstring  muscles  in 
the  extension  of  the  femur.  It  is  common  in  diggers,  swimmers, 
and  jumpers. 

Many  other  instances  of  specializations  derived  from  the  primi- 
tive ventral  and  dorsal  edges  might  be  quoted,  but  they  have  no 
direct  bearing  upon  the  development  of  the  erect  posture,  which 
is  especially  associated  with  extensions  of  the  external  primitive 
edge  of  the  ilium,  in  combination  with  changes  in  the  shape  and 
proportions  of  the  sacrum  and  of  the  pubic  and  ischiatic  acetabu- 
lar arms.  The  writer  hopes  that  the  truth  and  force  of  this  state- 
ment will  become  apparent  as  the  argument  develops. 

1  The  methods  by  which  this  shape  is  produced  are,  however,  different  in  the  differ- 
ent  orders.  In  the  armadillos  it  is  produced  by  an  extension  from  the  ventral,  but  in  the 
Camivora,  from  the  dorsal  edge.  In  the  latter,  it  is,  in  its  varying  degrees,  a  strong 
ordinal  characteristic. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         273 

THE  ANTHROPOID AL  PLATE 

In  every  case  that  has  been  observed,  the  adoption  of  any  con- 
siderable use  of  the  erect  attitude  by  an  animal  of  any  sort  is 
attended  by  the  appearance  of  a  plate  developed  from  the  primi- 
tive external  edge  of  the  ilium  and,  consequently,  extended  lat- 
erally. The  degree  to  which  this  plate,  which  for  convenience  will 
be  referred  to  hereafter  as  the  anthropoidal  plate,  is  developed 
is,  moreover,  always  correlated  with  the  degree  to  which  an  erect 
attitude  of  the  trunk  has  been  perfected  and  adopted  by  the  given 
group  (family,  genus,  or  species). 

Even  animals  which  have  only  an  erect  sitting  habit  show 
some  extra  development  of  the  primitive  external  edge,  while  in 
the  few  animals  in  which  the  use  of  an  erect  attitude  has  become  a 
frequent  and  important  life  habit,  the  extension  of  the  primitive 
external  edge,  and  consequently  of  the  dorso-lateral  and  ventro- 
lateral  surfaces,  results  in  the  formation  of  much  extended  iliac 
blades  which  project  laterally  or  transversely  in  very  nearly  the 
same  plane  with  each  other  (Figures  4,  viii;  and  6).  It  will  be 
seen  later  that  the  development  of  this  plate  gives  greatly  im- 
proved leverages  to  the  muscles  which  erect  the  body,  and  also 
affords  to  many  of  them  an  opportunity  for  increased  power  by 
enlarging  their  sites  of  origin. 

The  anthropoidal  plate  can  be  traced  and  recognized,  even  in 
its  most  specialized  forms,  by  the  fact  that  the  external  primitive 
edge  from  which  it  is  developed  always  begins  in  the  anterior 
inferior  spine  (present  in  all  mammalian  pelves),  and  extends 
continuously  to  its  end  at  the  crest,  where  the  anterior  superior 
spine  is  usually  recognizable  as  its  termination. 

The  development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate  in  the  ilium  is,  then, 
the  most  prominent  and  striking  of  the  localized  specializations 
which  we  shall  come  to  recognize  as  characteristics  of  the  erect 
pK)sture  in  any  form.  The  changes  in  the  sacrum,  ischium,  and 
pubes,  which  are  to  be  described  later,  are  chiefly  related  to  the 
appearance  of  an  erect,  alternate,  bipedal  progression,  and  govern 
the  increased  extension  of  the  femur,  which  in  one  degree  or 
another  is  essential  to  all  such  erect  locomotion. 


I 


BALANCE  AMD  BABE  OF  SUPP(HtT 

Tin  diaamkn  of  then  gpeaaSaaikmM,  the  itady  of  thor 
meehanioal  ngniSeaiUie,  and  of  Us  influeaiee  on  tfadr  devdopnietrt, 
ja  oar  immediate  Bubjeet  Thxar  oeeemlj  to  Um  erect  poeitiao  can 
hardly  be  made  folly  oomprdwnnble,  bowevcf ,  witboat  aome 
preliminary  eonnderation  of  the  priiunplea  of  balance  as  i4)pli«d 
to  ihe  animal  body  in  tbat  poati<RL  In  thia  connectitm  we  most 
alao  reoogniae  not  only  the  pcdvis  and  the  pelvic  musdes,  which 
are  the  chief  agents  in  effecting  and  maintaining  tbe  erect  balance, 
but  alao  the  equally  impwtant  base  of  roi^xHt  on  iirtiieh  the  irticde 
■tnictuze  reata.  In  the  emA  sitting  position  this  eoneista'  of  the 
buttocks  and  feet,  in  the  erect  standing  pontion,  of  the  feet  only. 

No  digitigrade  animal  makes  any  essential  ot  habitual  me  of 
an  erect  bipedal  position.  Tbe  extent  of  base  afforded  l^  plantar 
feet  is  eaaential  to  this  posture.* 

In  general,  tbe  d^ree  of  statnlity  of  any  erect  object  is  de- 
tomined  by  tbe  proportion  between  tbe  diameters  of  its  base  of 
support  and  the  height  of  its  center  of  gravity.* 

The  animate  body  has,  faowerer,  two  advantages  n^eh  ^ve  ifc 
far  more  chance  of  maintaining  an  erect  standing  poeiti<m  than 
tiuMe  of  an  inanimate  object  with  the  same  hd^t  of  center  and 
diameter  of  the  base  of  support.  The  fii^t  of  these  is  that  it  can, 
by  movements  of  its  trunk,  adjust  its  center  of  gravity  to  the 
position  of  its  base  in  any  variations  of  its  attitude,  and  the  sec- 
ond, that  it  can  at  any  moment  extend  that  base  in  any  desired 
direction  by  shifting  the  position  of  a  foot. 

Since  both  of  these  two  adjustments  are,  however,  executed  by 
muscles  which  originate  from  the  pelvis,  the  degree  of  activity 
and  power  in  executing  such  movements  which  any  given  animal 
possesses  is  plainly  dependent  upon  the  mechanical  advantages 
which  are  afforded  to  its  muscles  by  the  shape  and  proportions 
of  its  pelvis. 

pqvtion  upon  a  IripodaL  baw  mmpoKd  eilber  of  the  two  hind  fed  hihI  luiuichH.  or  of  the 
hind  fr^i  luid  it  powerful  tail.  .Sinrr  both  of  Ihne  po«1ui««  invoh-F  some  d«civ«  of  pdvio 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  275 

As  has  been  said,  the  most  striking  and  the  most  important  of 
the  pelvic  modifications  which  are  related  to  the  erect  posture 
is  the  development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate,  since  it  is  present 
in  all  degrees  of  the  assumption  of  this  habit. 

In  maintaining  the  balance  of  the  erect  trunk  upon  the  pelvis, 
and  consequently  upon  the  base,  the  antero-posterior  (i.e.  dorso- 
ventral)  and  the  lateral  motions  are  plainly  of  equal  importance. 

Since  in  the  erect  postures  of  all  animals  (from  the  erect 
sitting  animals  to  man)  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  trunk  is 
always  anterior  (i.e.  ventral)  to  the  acetabulum,  the  maintenance 
of  antero-posterior  balance  is  mainly  governed  by  the  erector 
spinae  group  of  muscles.  This  group  is  not  greatly  affected  by  the 
development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate,  but  it  is  so  important  and 
powerful  an  element  in  quadrupedal  progression  that  it  is  prob- 
ably always  sufficient  for  its  part  in  the  erection  of  the  body,  if 
that  is  needed.  In  man  and  the  anthropoids  it  is,  however,  con- 
siderably widened  and,  therefore,  increased  in  size  by  an  exten- 
sion of  its  lateral  elements  along  the  inner  lip  of  the  iliac  crest.^ 
The  increased  size  of  the  glutei  which  follows  the  development 
of  the  anthropoidal  plate  is  also  an  aid  to  the  erection  of  the 
trunk  in  even  the  sitting  animal,  since  even  in  them  these  muscles 
contribute  to  the  fixation  of  the  pelvis  from  which  the  action  of 
the  spinal  muscles  originate. 

The  existence  of  the  anthropoidal  plate  is  all-important  to  the 
equally  important  matter  of  lateral  balance  of  the  body.  The 
muscles  which  govern  lateral  flexion  and  extension  all  take  origin 
from  the  iliac  crest,  and  both  their  size  and  their  mechanical 
advantage  in  leverage  are  greatly  increased  by  the  lateral  exten- 
sion of  that  crest  which  is  due  to  the  presence,  in  all  of  them,  of 
the  anthropoidal  plate. 

As  we  review  the  mammals  it  will  be  found,  as  has  already 
been  said,  that  the  development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate  pro- 
ceeds pari  passu  with  the  degree  of  adoption  of  an  erect  habit. 

1  Keith,  1923,  Posture  of  Man,  p.  451. 


SPECIALIZATIONS  OF  THE  ISCHIA  AND  PDBES 

Frequent  use  of  even  a  bipedal  standing  position  by  any  animal 
may  sometimes  involve  some  additional  pelvic  specializations, 
which  increase  in  prominence  and  complexity  with  the  adoption 
of  bipedal  progression.  These  occur  in  the  ischia  and  pubes.  They 
are  chiefly  related  to  a  changed  position  of  the  femur  which  favors 
the  erect  posture.  Most  such  animals,  however,  still  retain  a  quad- 
rupedal gait,  and  the  degree  to  which  the  bipedal  habit  modifies 
the  pelvis  is,  of  course,  dependent  upon  the  frequency  and  im- 
portance of  the  use  of  this  posture  to  the  individual  animal,  as 
compared  with  his  habitual  quadrupedal  gait. 

Comprehension  of  the  relation  between  these  pelvic  specializa- 
tions and  extension  of  the  femur  is  essential  to  an  understanding 
of  the  erect  bipedal  gait,  and  its  lesser  degrees  must  be  dis- 
cussed here. 

In  animals  adapted  to  the  quadrupedal  attitude  only,  the 
median  position  of  the  femur,  its  position  when  it  is  in  least 
active  use,  i.e.  when  the  animal  is  standing  at  ease,  is  not  far 
from  a  right  angle  with  the  ilio-ischiatic  axis,  or  perhaps  usually 
slightly  more  flexed.  In  this  position  the  attachment  of  the  muscles 
to  the  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis  furnishes  them  with  admirable 
leverages  for  action  upon  the  femur  so  long  as  its  motion  is 
restricted  to  an  arc  of  moderate  extent  upon  either  side  of  this 
position  (Figure  2,  i).  A  little  consideration  of  the  figure  will 
show,  however,  that  in  a  position  of  extension  of  the  femur  the 
pelvic  leverages  would  be  so  decreased  that  none  of  the  muscles 
arising  from  the  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis  would  be  in  a  position 
to  exert  any  effective  traction  upon  it. 

The  femur  of  quadrupeds  of  generalized  habits  and  structure 
is  rarely  carried  into  really  great,  and  never  into  extreme  exten- 
sion; indeed,  in  most  quadrupeds  its  arc  of  motion  is  probably 
much  less  wide  than  we  are  apt  to  think,  most  of  the  extension 
of  the  limb  as  a  whole  being  in  reality  obtained  from  its  lower 
articulations. 

In  certain  quadrupeds  of  specialized  habits  we  do,  however, 
see  some  slight  approach  to  specialization  towards  the  use  of  the 
femur  in  extension.  This  occurs  in  fossorial  animals  and  in  those 

276 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         277 

which  are  great  leapers.  Diggers  usually  excavate  the  dirt  with 
their  fore  paws  and  kick  it  far  behind  them  with  their  hind  limbs, 
and  all  leapers  must  make  a  powerful  effort  with  their  hind  limbs 
after  their  body  is  directed  upwards;  both  are  naturally  aided 
l)y  somewhat  greater  extensions  of  the  femora  than  are  necessary 
in  their  ordinary  terrestrial  progression.  These  animals  always 
show  some  metischial  development  and  some  increased  ventral 
projection  of  the  pubis.  Consult  the  shapes  of  the  ischia  and  pubes 
in  Proechidna  (Figure  1),  in  Odocoileus  (Figure  4),  and  in  Leo 
(Figure  4).  These  metischial  and  pubic  changes  are  interesting 
as  instances  of  a  slight  specialization  towards  a  more  than 
<iuadrupedal  extension  of  the  femur,  which  occurs  in  perhaps 
a  more  decided  form  in  certain  bears  (Ursidae),  and  which  may 
l>e  regarded  as  an  intermediate  stage  between  the  quadrupedal 
:f  orm  and  the  developments  of  the  lower  pelvis  which  are  peculiar 
"to  the  Simiidae  and  man. 


STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ERECT 

F06TDBE 

Thi  several  stages  in  the  development  of  the  ereot  poetnn 
which  appear  in  ihe  m«mmali*n  eeriee  may  be  defined  aa  an  erect 
sittiiig  posture  from  a  tripodal  base  orauiBting  of  tiie  hind  feet 
and  the  buttocks;  a  standiug  posture  up<m  a  tripodal  base  ccm- 
poeed  of  the  hind  feet  and  tail;  *  an  encA  staDding  podtion  upon 
plantar  feet  without  tnpedal  ]»ogreesi(Hi;  erect,  alternate,  Mpedal 
forward  locomotion,  such  as  occurs,  for  example,  in  the  anthro- 
poid apee  and  in  acone  bears;  and  the  more  complete  Inpedal 
activitr  which  beloogs  to  man  abne  (see  p.  310). -Each  of  these 
d^rees  of  erectness  has  its  characteristio  d^pee  of  pelvic 
specialisation. 

Instances  of  partial  use  of  the  erect  halat  occur,  as  has  been 
said,  in  some  species  among  the  Marsupiala,  the  Edentata,  the 
Camivora,  the  Rodentia,  and  in  many  Priiq^teH.  Each  of  these 
instances  must  now  be  discussed  in  some  det^  in  siq>p(fft  of  the 
theories  which  have  bera  outlined,  and  as  transitional  st^;es 
towards  tlie  fuller  specialisation  which  exists  in  man. 

THE  KANGAROO 

The  pelves  of  the  subclass  Metatheria  as  a  whole  are  primitive, 

but  are  interesting  from  the  very  diverse  epecializations  which 
occur  among  them.  The  group  has,  of  course,  developed  inde- 
pendently, and  in  its  Australian  habitat  contains  animals  of  quite 
varied  habits.  The  pelves  of  its  members  often  parallel  those  of 
the  Eutheria  of  similar  habit  to  a  very  curious  degree,  for  in- 
stance, that  of  Sarcophilus,  a  highly  predatory  animal,  has  ilia 
which,  though  developed  by  a  different  method,  closely  imitate 
in  shape  and  appearance  the  main  characteristics  of  those  of 
the  Carnivora. 

The  Macropodidae  (the  Kangaroos  and  Wallabies),  the  only 
members  of  the  group  which  make  any  use  of  even  a  partially 
erect  attitude,  are  closely  alike,  and,  for  our  purpose,  may  be 
described  as  one.  When  grazing,  or  in  slow  motion,  they  have  an 
awkward  but  strictly  quadrupedal  gait.  When  in  rapid  motion 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  279 

they  are  bipedal,  and  appear  to  be  wholly,  or  almost  wholly 
digitigrade.  They  then  progress  by  a  series  of  hops  or  leaps, 
in  which  the  hind  limbs  are  used  simultaneously.  In  this  gait 
they  evidently  maintain  their  balance,  in  spite  of  their  digiti- 
grade base  of  support,  by  availing  themselves  of  the  inertia  of 
motion  and  by  an  adaptation  of  the  successive  positions  of  their 
feet  to  its  guidance.^ 

The  effect  of  the  inertia  of  motion  in  holding  the  progress  of 
such  a  body  to  a  straight  line  is,  moreover,  just  as  valuable  in 
preventing  vertical  variation  downward  or  upward.  This  is  a  very 
important  mechanical  principle  which  should  not  be  forgotten 
in  considering  the  gaits  of  the  various  animals  which  are  to  be 
studied. 

When  at  rest,  and  especially  when  on  the  lookout  for  enemies, 
they  bring  both  their  long  tarsi  and  their  powerful  tails  to  the 
ground,  and  thus  obtain  a  very  extensive  base  of  support  by  a 
combination  of  the  plantar  and  tripodal  methods.  In  this  position 
the  body  is  erect,  and  the  burden  of  its  weight  is  well  distributed 
between  the  feet  and  tail. 

The  pelvis  (Figure  4)  is  but  moderately  modified  from  the 
primitive.  The  ilio-ischiatic  axis  is  straight  and  thoroughly  quad- 
rupedal when  viewed  from  the  norma  lateralis;  but  the  free  ilia 
extend  a  long  way  above  the  synchondrosis  and  are  widely  bent, 
laterally  outward.  The  anthropoidal  plate  is  developed  in  the 
smaller  species  to  about  the  prominence  and  shape  which  is  func- 
tionally present  in  those  of  the  rodents  which  have  a  well 
developed  sitting  habit  {Marmota  marmota,  Figure  1,  vi),  and 
in  the  very  heavy  Macropus  giganteus  to  a  somewhat  greater 
degree. 

The  ischia  have  a  moderate  metischial  (i.e.  dorsal)  extension, 
and  the  pubes  are  ventrally  prominent.  The  symphysis  is  long. 

It  would  seem  at  first  sight  that  this  pelvis  showed  an  insuf- 
ficient degree  of  pelvic  development  to  correspond  to  such  habits 
in  so  heavy  an  animal  as  the  giant  kangaroo,  and  that  a  doubt 

1  Any  body  in  motion  has  a  tendency  to  follow  a  straight  line  unless  its  path  is  dis- 
turbed by  some  other  force.  This  inertia  of  motion  increases  with  the  weight  of  the  mov- 
ing body  and  with  the  rapidity  of  its  motion.  With  a  heavy  animal  in  rapid  motion  it 
becomes  an  important  factor,  making  the  maintenance  of  balance  much  easier  and  con- 
siderably lessening  the  effort  required  from  the  muscles  in  maintaining  straightforward 
progression.  This  is  very  noticeable  in  the  human  use  of  the  bicycle.  Compare  its  in« 
stability  when  moving  slowly  with  its  security  of  balance  when  at  high  speed. 


280  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  281 

FIGURE  4 

These  pelves  have  been  reduced  or  enlarged  to  an  approximately 
uniform  size  to  facilitate  comparison.  In  all,  the  dotted  lines  ^4  or  B 
indicate  the  position  at  which  the  adjoining  cross  section  of  the 
ilium  was  taken.  /  is  opposite  the  internal  surface,  D-l,  the  dorso- 
lateral, V-l,  the  ventro-lateral. 

I.  The  giant  kangaroo  {Macropus  giganteus).  The  leaping  char- 
acters are  strongly  developed  but  are  best  seen  in  a  lateral  view.  It 
is  shown  here  in  illustration  of  the  first  degree  of  development  of  the 
anthropoidal  plate.  A,  and  of  the  lateral  bend  of  the  long  free  ilia. 

II.  Cyclotura  didactylus. 

III.  The  great  anteater  (Myrmecophaga  juhatd). 

Both  these  animals  have  developed  extensive  anthropoidal  plates 
in  response  to  their  frequent  and  vitally  necessary  habit  of  lateral 
and  antero-posterior  swa>'ing  movements  of  the  trunk  in  an  erect 
posture,  but  their  retention  of  the  weak  edentate  pubis  shows  beauti- 
fully the  unimportance  of  the  pubic  arm  to  the  maintenance  of  an 
erect  position,  so  long  as  bipedal  locomotion  is  not  attempted. 

rV.  Bradypus  tridaciylus.  See  Appendix. 

V.  and  VI.  The  mule  deer  {Odocoileus  hermionus) .  Another  highly 
specialized  quadruped  with  a  quadrupedal  cross  section  of  the  shank, 
but  with  some  degree  of  the  widely  spread  iliac  blades  which  are  an 
ungulate  characteristic  (see  Appendix).  Note  the  large  quadrupedal 
plate,  q.  Note  also  the  long,  metischially  directed  ischiatic  axis  and 
the  strong  pubis,  which  respectively  aid  in  the  extension  and  recovery 
of  the  femur  in  the  leap. 

VII.  Felis  LEO.  The  pelvis  of  a  highly  specialized  quadruped.  Note 
the  long  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis,  the  dorso-ventrally  directed  cross 
section  and  the  similar  direction  of  the  blades.  Note  also  the  added 
characters  of  the  leapers,  the  very  long  ischium  (not  in  this  instance 
metischially  curved),  and  the  ventrally  projecting  pubis. 

Vni.  Ursus  (species  unidentified).  The  small  but  fairly  well  de- 
veloped and  laterally  widely  spread  anthropoid  plates,  the  large  metis- 
chial  and  parischial  processes,  and  the  very  strong  and  prominent 
pubes  are  somewhat  imperfect  adaptations  to  erect,  bipedal  progres- 
sion, especially  in  so  heavy  an  animal.  They  are,  however,  evidently 
sufficient  for  its  very  moderate  degree  of  this  habit. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  bears  are  unique  among  quadrupeds  in 
combining  these  three  pelvic  characters  with  plantar  feet,  and  that 
they,  alone,  make  even  an  occasional  natural  and  untaught  use  of 
an  alternate,  bipedal,  walking  gait. 

The  cross  section  shows  the  combination  of  a  quadrupedal  (Q) 
and  an  anthropoidal  (^4)  plate  which  is  again  appropriate  to  their 
habits. 

[Figured] 


p-  HE  EVOLUTION'  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

the  importance  of  tlie  anthropoidal  plate  in  particular  was 
eby  created.  This  apparent  discrepancy  is,  however,  explained 
he  peculiar  balance  of  the  kangaroo,  which  is  easily  obsen.'ed 
any  zoological  garden.  Botli  when  in  bipedal  motion,  and 

ring  the  verj-  brief  moments  when  it  is  at  rest  in  a  bipedal  posi- 
.  tion,  the  balance  of  the  kangaroo's  trunk  upon  its  hind  legs  is 
verj-  like  that  of  most  birds.  The  short  femur  is  held  very  rigidly 
in  a  flexed  position  at  the  sides  of  the  abdomen;  the  heav-y  tail  is 
extended  as  an  important  counterweight;  the  center  of  gravitj- 
ia  nearly  above  the  knee  joint,  and  balance  is  chiefly  maintained 
by  the  muscles  which  control  the  knee.  The  kangaroo  is,  in  fact, 
a  much  less  erect  animal  than  is  commonly  supposed,  an  occa- 
sional use  of  the  erect  sitting  position  from  a  tripodal  base  being 
really  the  only  degree  of  erectness  to  which  it  attains,  and  even 
when  the  tail  is  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  the  base  is  tripodal, 
the  same  quadrupedal  position  of  the  femur  is  maintained. 

When  in  the  erect  sitting  position,  the  animal  is,  however, 
capable  of  making  considerable  swaying  motions  of  the  body 
without  carrying  its  center  of  gravity  outside  its  wide  tripodal 
base  of  support.  In  these  motions  the  pelvio-corporeal  group  of 
muscles  is  subjected  to  an  increased  functional  demand  and  an 
evohition  of  improved  leverages  for  their  action  does  become 
advautagoous.  Tho  erector  epinae  group  is  already  powerful  and 
is  continued  without  interruption  into  the  heavy  tail.  No  change 
is  needed  to  permit  the  extension  of  the  spine,  but  since  the 
muscles  which  govern  the  lateral  flexions  arise  largely  from  the 
iliac  crest,  the  advantage  of  more  lateral  situations  for  their 
origins  is  at  once  apparent.  This  is  given  to  them  by  the  wide 
lateral  curve  in  the  free  ilia,  and  is  probably  very  necessary  to  the 
lateral  swaying  motions. 

On  analysis  the  ilia  then  prove  to  be  modified  to  about  the 
degree  which  would  be  expected  from  the  animal's  habits. 

The  changes  in  tlie  ischia  and  pubes  about  correspond  to  those 
which  are  present  in  the  pelves  of  the  other  leaping  quadrupeds 
and  are  evidently  correlated  with  the  animal's  bipedal  hopping 
habit  when  at  speed. 

It  will  be  noted  later  that  in  the  lower  Primates  also,  a  hopping 
or  leaping  gait,  in  which  the  hind  legs  are  used  simultaneously, 
requires  extremely  little  modification  of  the  pelvis,  the  reason 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  283 

being,  undoubtedly,  that  given  above;  that  it  requires  but  little 
effort  from  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  the  balance  being  maintained 
mainly  by  management  of  the  inertia  of  motion. 


THE  ANTEATER 

In  the  order  Edentata  the  sacrum,  ischia,  and  pubes  are  con- 
siderably specialized  in  a  manner  which  is  distinctive  of  the 
Edentata,  and  of  them  only.^  The  ilia  are,  on  the  other  hand,  very 
primitive  except  among  the  anteaters^  (Myrmecophagidae) , 
They,  the  only  members  of  the  order  which  make  any  use  of  an 
erect  attitude,  have,  in  accordance  with  their  habits,  developed 
fairly  wide  iliac  blades  from  the  external  primitive  edge. 

The  small  anteaters,  of  which  the  smallest,  Cyclura  didactylus 
(Figure  4,  ii),  may  serve  as  a  good  example,  are  arboreal.  Their 
tails  are  long,  with  powerful  flexor  muscles,  the  action  of  which 
is  increased  by  the  existence  of  chevron  bones  opposite  the  bodies 
of  the  vertebrae.  Cyclura  has  peculiar,  but  very  efficient,  grasping 
feet,  especially  well  developed  on  the  hind  limbs.  It  lives  among 
the  small  branches  near  the  tops  of  high  trees.  It  has  a  habit  of 
grasping  a  branch  with  its  hind  feet,  another  with  its  prehensile 
tail,  and  upon  the  extensive  tripodal  base  so  obtained  not  only 
erects  its  body,  but  bows  and  sways  to  and  fro,  apparently  for 
amusement.  It  probably  often  pursues  the  ants  upon  which  it 
feeds  by  the  same  motion.*  It  is  of  about  the  size  of  a  very  large 
rat,  and  is  very  lightly  built,  but  with  this  erect  feeding  habit 
it  has  developed  an  anthropoidal  plate  which  is  more  complete 
than  that  of  any  animal  outside  its  own  family,  except  those  of 
the  anthropoid  apes  (Simiidae),  The  remainder  of  its  pelvis  is, 
like  those  of  all  the  other  anteaters,  unmodified  from  the  peculiar 
edentate  type;  the  reason  being,  of  course,  that  the  position  of 
its  thighs  is  quadrupedal,  even  when  it  is  in  the  erect  posture, 
and  that  its  locomotion  is  always  quadrupedal. 

The  great  anteater,  or  ant-bear  {Myrmecophaga  jubata),  is 
a  large  and  heavy  terrestrial  animal  (Figure  5) .  Its  locomotion  is 

1  The  iBchia  and  sacrum  are  long  and  firmly  united,  while  the  pubis  is  usually  absent 
or  ligamentous. 

2  See  Appendix,  however,  for  the  pelves  of  Bradypus  and  the  extinct  ground  sloths. 

8  Cyclura  is  a  very  delicate  animal  which  does  not  survive  removal  from  the  tropics, 
but  is  easily  kept  alive  in  captivity  for  short  periods  there. 


284  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

wholly  quadrupedal.  Ita  hind  legs  are  long,  its  fore  l^s  ahor""*- 
It  walks  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  long  claws  of  its  froc::^^*'^ 
feet,  but  hae  a  well  developed  plantar  tread  with  the  hind  leg^^^- 
It  feeds  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  upon  termites,  whose  elevate — '*^ 
nests  it  tears  open  with  the  powerful  claws  of  ita  fore  feet.  The^^*^ 


FIGURE  s 
MYRMECOPHAGA  JUBATA.  At 


claws  are  also  its  only  weapons  of  defense.  When  feeding  or  de- 
fending itself  it  often  adopts  a  very  thoroughly  bipedal  attitude 
upon  its  plantar  hind  feet.  Its  long  and  heavy  tail  is  not  applied 
to  the  ground,  but  is  usually  elevated  and  extended  as  a  counter- 
weight. In  this  attitude  it  rips  open  the  termite  neats,  pursues  the 
escaping  termites  with  its  tongue,  and  is  said  to  be  capable  of 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  285 

very  powerful  sweeping  blows  with  its  fore  claws  when  attacked 
by  an  enemy.  Myrmecophaga  is  a  frequent  inhabitant  of  the 
zoos,  and  although  it  is  not  fed  on  ants  there,  it  not  infrequently 
adopts  the  erect  attitude,  when  its  easy  and  extensive  swaying 
movements  from  its  bipedal  base  are  readily  observed.  It  drops 
to  a  quadrupedal  gait  if  it  wishes  to  shift  its  position  even  a  few 
inches.  Even  in  the  erect  attitude  its  femora  are  in  the  quad- 
rupedal position,  hence  no  modification  of  the  lower  pelvis  is 
necessary,  but  it  has  an  anthropoidal  plate  which  is  quite  equal 
to  that  of  the  gibbon,  and  is  exceeded  in  development  only  by 
those  of  the  three  heavier  anthropoid  apes  (Figure  4,  iii).  The 
other  portions  of  its  pelvic  girdle  are  closely  like  those  of  the 
other  and  wholly  quadrupedal  edentates.  The  defective  pubes 
and  poorly  developed  ischia  of  its  order  deprive  it  of  any  power 
of  bipedal  progression. 


THE  RODENTIAL  SITTING  HABIT 

The  Rodentia  are  of  special  interest  in  arguing  the  importance 
of  the  anthropoidal  plate  to  the  erect  posture  on  account  of  a 
modification  of  the  ilium  which  is  peculiar  to  this  order.  The  most 
striking  and  fixed  ordinal  characteristic  of  the  rodential  pelvis 
is  that  in  it  the  primitive  external  edge  has  become  vestigial. 
In  some  Dipodinae  it  is  apparent  as  a  slight  ridge,  in  Thryonomys 
swinderianus  there  is  a  transitional  form,  but  in  all  other  rodential 
pelves  it  is  represented  merely  by  a  vestigial  marking.^ 

The  necessary  mechanical  function  of  stiffening  the  iliac  blade 
against  transverse  strains,  which  is  in  almost  all  other  pelves 
supplied  by  the  persistence  of  the  external  primitive  edge  in 
greater  or  less  degree,  is  in  most  rodential  ilia  furnished  by  a 
thickened  band  in  the  dorso-lateral  surface,  which  is  peculiar  to 
this  order.  It  starts  in  the  primitive  dorso-lateral  surface,  nearly 
opposite  the  anterior  inferior  spine  and  terminates  in  the  crest 
(Figure  1,  vi) .  In  the  blade  this  new  band  lies  dorsal  to  and  nearly 
parallel  with  the  vestigial  evidences  of  the  primitive  external  edge 
on  the  surface  of  the  blade,  and  in  those  rodents  which  use  an 
erect   sitting   attitude  this  band   becomes   a  prominent   ridge 

1  So  far,  at  least,  as  the  writer's  study  of  the  somewhat  large  rodential  collection  of 
the  Harvard  Museum  of  Ck>mparative  Zoology  warrants  the  statement. 


I 


28C  THE  EVOLtmON  OP  THE  HUBCAN  PELVIS 

{Marmota  nmrjnota,  Figure  1,  vi),  and  thus  effects  s  traiuverse 
extension  nf  tiit-  blade  which  soight  easily  be  mirtakai  for  a  true 
antbropoidal  plnte  if  it  vere  oot  for  tbe  vetti^al  markiiig  along- 
side it.  Tliis  di?f«lopment  oceurs  in  some  equirrels  {Sdwvuu), 
in  many  martnotB  {Mtermotmae) ,  and  in  the  beavers  {CaatoridaB). 

Tba  stiffly  erect  sitting  poution,  which  many  marmots  use 
when  alarmed,  which  some  squirrels  at  times  use  when  feeding 
and  which  beavers  sCHnetimes  adopt  when  felling  trees,*  must 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  a  squsttii^  position  witit  relaxed 
back  which  is  common  to  many  small  animals.  In  both,  the  hind 
legs  are  fiexed  and  the  buttocks  and  feet  form  a  tripodal  base  of 
support.  In  the  common  squatting  position  the  knees  are  pressed 
against  the  abdomen,  the  spine  is  relaxed  and  curved  forward, 
the  we^ht  of  tbe  body  is  sustained  by  the  knees,  and  no  essen- 
tially increased  action  of  the  pelvio-corporeal  muscles  is  involved 
in  its  use.  In  the  erect  sitting  position,  on  the  other  band,  the  spine 
is  held  stiffly  vertical,  the  abdomen  is  free  of  the  knees,  and  iix 
pelvio-corporeal  muscles  are  in  full  action. 

This  latter  attitude  has  all  the  appearances  of  a  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  erect  posture.  From  analogy  with  the  other 
partially  erect  animals  we  should  expect  that  this  habit  would 
be  accompanied  by  the  development,  to  some  degree,  of  an 
anthropoidal  plate,  with  elongated  and  laterally  extended  free 
ilia,  but  with  no  other  change  in  their  pelves,  since  there  is  no 
possibility  of  the  use  of  the  limbs  in  bipedal  progression  from  this 
attitude.  In  point  of  fact,  these  pelves  show  almost  precisely  the 
same  shape  of  ilia  that  characterizes  the  smaller  kangaroos,  al- 
though it  is  obtained  by  an  entirely  different  method  of  origin. 

That  this  shape  has  been  attained  by  a  new  development  in 
some  members  of  an  order  which,  as  a  wiiole,  has  suppressed  the 
primitive  external  edge,  and  that  it  only  occurs  in  animals  which 
are  known  to  have  the  erect  sitting  habit,  seems  to  be  of  especial 
interest.* 


ioua  thai  the  argiiiiient  from  Ihc  Rodentia  would  be  rendered  cam- 
it  dI  VBried  licld  knawledie  which  he  is  unable  to  supply. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         287 

THE  BEAR 

A  somewhat  similar  example  of  the  development  of  the  func- 
tional anthropoidal  plate  in  a  single  family  within  an  order  ap- 
pears also  among  the  Carnivora.  Most  of  the  members  of  this 
order  are  wholly  predatory,  and  their  pelves  are,  as  a  rule, 
specialized  towards  eflBcient  quadrupedal  activity  and  speed  of 
motion.  The  chief  ordinal  character  is  iliac.  The  primitive  ex- 
ternal edge  typically  merges  with  the  ventral  edge  almost  im- 
mediately after  leaving  its  origin  in  the  anterior  inferior  spine. 
The  combined  edge  so  formed  is  thick  and  strong,  and  the  dorsal 
edge  thickens  to  correspond;  the  blade  between  them  is  thin. 
Both  shank  and  blade  are  thus  formed  almost  wholly  from  the 
primitive  dorso-lateral  surface  and  the  internal,  the  ven- 
tro-lateral  being  almost  wholly  effaced.  The  long  diameter 
of  all  the  cross  sections  runs  approximately  dorso-ventrally, 
and  the  blades  throughout  lie  in  nearly  parallel  dorso-yentral 
planes.  In  the  most  typical  pelves  the  combined  edge  is  very 
short,  ending  in  the  anterior  superior  spine  shortly  above  the 
acetabulum,  and  a  large  part  of  the  blade  is  thus  formed  by  a 
cephalad  extension  of  the  crest,  as  in  the  lion  {Felis  leo,  Figure 
4,  vii) . 

One  single  family  of  Carnivora  is  not  wholly  quadrupedal.  The 
Ursidae  have  developed  hind  feet  with  plantar  treads.  Some  of 
them,^  at  least,  are  capable  of  assuming  a  fairly  well  developed 
erect  bipedal  standing  position,  and  even  of  using  at  times,  and 
for  short  distances,  an  awkward,  waddling,  bipedal  walk.  Their 
pelves  show  a  corresponding  variation  from  the  ordinal  car- 
nivoral  type. 

In  them  the  shank  still  suggests  the  normal  camivoral  shape, 
the  dorsal  edge  is  thickened,  and  the  ventro-lateral  surface  much 
narrowed.  This  surface  is,  however,  distinctly  a  surface,  and  the 
external  edge  persists  as  a  distinct  entity,  even  in  the  shank. 
As  it  passes  into  the  blade,  moreover,  it  separates  from  the  ventral 
edge  and  expands  laterally  into  a  well  developed  anthropoidal 
plate  (Figure  4,  viii).  The  anterior  superior  spine  resumes  its 

1  The  several  genera  and  species  are  said  to  vary  greatly  in  the  frequency  and  extent 
to  which  they  use  the  erect  position.  There  is  certainly  a  noticeable  variation  in  the  degree 
of  pelvic  specialization. 


288  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

primitive  position  and  the  crest  is  well  developed  and  shaped 
as  in  the  other  orders. 

The  ilium  as  a  whole  is  thus  to  a  very  considerable  degree 
specialized  for  the  erect  posture,  as  would  seem  inevitable  if  so 
heavy  an  animal  is  to  use  any  degree  of  that  attitude,  yet  its  car- 
nivoral  method  of  development  is  still  plainly  recognizable. 

The  sacrum  is  wider  than  in  typical  Carnivora,  its  spinal  proc- 
esses are  well  developed,  and  the  posterior  superior  spines  of  the 
ilium  are  prominent  and  wide  apart.  These  conditions  in  com- 
bination with  the  well  developed  and  laterally  extended  iliac 
crests,  are  all  provisions  for  large  and  well  situated  origins  of  the 
pelvio-corporeal  muscles. 

The  parischial  ^  and  metischial  processes  are  prominent  and 
strong,  the  pubis  is  ventrally  prominent,  and  the  pelvis  as  a  whole 
is  short,  wide,  and  deep,  as  compared  with  most  other  Carnivora. 
These  specializations  of  the  lower  pelvis  are  favorable  to  erect 
bipedal  progression.  As  compared  with  the  human  specializations, 
they  are  very  moderate,  indeed  slight,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that 
we  see  them  for  the  first  time  in  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  only 
quadruped  in  which  true,  erect,  alternate,  bipedal  progression 
is  a  natural  factor  in  habit. 

THE  PRIMATES 

With  the  Primates  we  reach  pelves  which  have  a  direct  bearing 

upon  tlie  pelvis  of  man,  since  their  owners  are  members  of  his 
own  order.-  All  Primates,  including  man,  therefore,  attain  their 
specializations,  of  whatever  degree,  by  the  same  ordinal  methods. 
It  will  then  be  necessary  in  this  order  to  refer  at  least  briefly  to 
the  pelves,  not  only  of  each  family,  but  at  times  of  lesser  groups, 
as  illustrative  of  the  steps  by  which  the  human  pelvis  has  probably 
evolved  along  its  own  and  collateral  stem. 

The  primate  pelvis  has  a  well  marked  ordinate  character,  which 
is  not  shared  by  any  other  order,  in  the  persistence  and  prominence 
of  the  primitive  external  edge  in  all  three  of  the  pelvic  arms, 
i.e.  the  ilia,  ischia,  and  pubes. 

Throughout  the  order  there  is  a  considerable  development  of 

1  A  laterally  extending  process  developed  from  the  external  primitive  edge  of  the 
ischium,  usually  close  to,  or  on  the  edge  of  the  tuberosity. 

2  See  Schultz.  1930.  The  Skeleton  of  the  Trunk  and  Limbs  of  Higher  Primates. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         289 

the  free  ilium.  Throughout  the  order  also  there  is  a  reduction  of 
the  primitive  ventral  edge,  so  that  the  strongly  developed  ex- 
ternal edge  is  situated  close  to  the  ventral  line  of  the  ilium.  The 
cross  section  therefore  tends  to  an  L  shape  (Lemur  mongos,  Fig- 
ure 1,  viii).  In  all  but  the  most  generalized  members  of  the 
order,  the  primitive  external  edge  is  developed  into  an  anthro- 
poidal  plate,  and  this  is  prominent  from  its  origin  in  the  anterior 
inferior  spine  to  the  crest.  The  shank  is  usually  rather  long  and 
merges  gradually  into  the  blade.  In  the  ilia  of  the  order  as  a 
whole,  there  is  also  a  considerable  development  of  the  quadru- 
pedal plate  from  the  dorsal  edge,  but  this  is  much  reduced  in  the 
Simiidae  and  in  man. 

In  the  ischium  the  presence  of  a  triangular  cross  section  is 
fairly  well  marked  throughout  the  length  of  the  descending  ramus 
in  all  the  families,  and  there  is  always  some  indication  of  a 
parischial  process,  at  least  in  the  presence  of  a  lateral  projection 
in  the  edge  of  the  tuberosity. 

In  the  pubes  triangularity  of  cross  section  from  the  acetabulum 
to  the  symphysis  exists  throughout  this  order.  It  is  rare,  and 
is  limited  to  small  groups  in  the  other  orders. 

The  primate  pelvis  is  the  more  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
although  the  ordinate  characters  are  preserved  throughout,  the 
several  families  exhibit  every  stage  of  habit  and  posture,  from 
the  quadrupedal  to  the  erect  bipedal,  and  exhibit  equally  clearly 
the  corresponding  degrees  of  specialization  in  the  pelvis. 

Lemuroidea.  The  lemurs  are  mostly  arboreal.  As  seen  in  the 
zoos,  their  movements  about  the  cage  are  quadrupedal,  but  varied 
by  very  active  bipedal  leaping.  It  is  reported  that  in  their  native 
habitat,  when  seen  upon  the  ground,  they  progress  when  pressed 
by  rapidly  repeated  leaps  or  hops,  but  do  not  walk.  They  have 
and  use  constantly  a  very  fully  developed  erect  sitting  posture. 

The  general  shape  and  proportion  of  their  pelves  is  primitive. 
The  anthropoid  plate  is  less  well  developed  than  in  the  true 
Primates,  but  it  is  primate  in  situation  and  exists  as  a  definite, 
though  narrow,  plate  from  the  anterior  inferior  spine  to  the  crest 
(Lemur  mongos,  Figure  1,  vui).  It  is  perhaps  somewhat  more 
definitely  developed  than  that  of  any  other  animal  which  ap- 
proaches the  erect  posture  only  by  a  sitting  position.  The  symphy- 
sis pubis  is  strongly  inclined,  and  the  angle  of  the  pubis  projects 


D  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PEL\T;S 

strongly  ventrally.  This  feature  is  always  characteristic  of  leapers 
(is  leo.  Figure  4,  vii,  and  Odacoileus,  Figure  i,  n).  Most 

tat  leapers  also  show  a  metiachial  development,  which  the 
lemurs  do  not.  The  desceoding  ramus  of  the  ischiimi  is,  however, 
rather  unusually  long,  and  this,  to  a  certain  extent,  favors  ex- 
tension of  the  femur. 

It  is  difficult  for  the  eye  to  follow  the  rapid  movements  of  such 
very  active  animals,  but  it  is  evident  that  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  motion  the  thigh  is  within  the  limits  of  the  quadrupedal 
position,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  never  carried  into  great  ex- 
tension, even  in  the  leap.  They  are  othera'ise  strictly  quadrupedal 
and  they  have  quadrupedal  pelves,  but  with  the  degree  of  anthro- 
poidal  plate  which  corresponds  to  their  sitting  habit. 

Taraius '  and  Daubentonia  are  nocturnal,  arboreal  quadrupedi 
with  aubequal  limbs.  Taraius  hops  actively.  Their  pelves  are 
primate,  primitive,  and  lemuroid.'  They  are  not  of  any  special 
interest  here. 

Anthropoidea.  This  suborder  includes  five  families,  of  wbi^ 
the  Hapalidae  and  Cebidae  are  confined  to  the  New  World,  and 
the  Simiidae  and  Cercopithecidae  to  the  Old  World.  The  Homicii- 
dae  is  the  fifth. 

The  marmosets  (Hapalidae)  are  arboreal  quadrupeds.  They 
lure  long  bodies  and  rather  abort  subequal  limba,  a  geoeraliaed 
type  of  quadrupedal  construction.  All  four  paws  are  equipped 
with  sharp  claws,  with  which  they  cling  to  the  bark  of  the  trees 
as  they  move  about.  Their  locomotion  is  thus  strictly  quadru- 
pedal. They  make  a  considerable  use  of  a  squatting  posture,  but 
in  this  attitude  the  trunk  is  allowed  to  curve  forward  in  flexion, 
and  its  weight  is  apparently  largely  supported  by  the  thighs  and 
knees,  which  rest  against  the  abdomen.  The  spine  is  not  held 
extended,  and  the  attitude  cannot  be  described  as  an  erect  sittii^ 
posture. 

Their  pelves  correspond  with  their  development.  They  show  the 
primate  characters  in  sufficient  degree  to  make  them  recognizable 
as  primate  pelves,  but  the  general  shape  of  the  pelvis  is  primitive 
and  consequently  quadrupedal.  The  primitive  external  edge  is 

1  Collon.  IMO.  Biped  Habit. 

2  Hopping  from  hoth  hind  Ipits  b  !™ping.  It  rtquitw  the  iKhiBl  uid  pubic  chmrut«n 
which  bslong  to  all  I«pini  qiudnip«di.  but  not  thoN  which  belonf  to  alternate  bipolal 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         291 

preserved  throughout  the  ilium,  and   in  the  ventral  position 

characteristic  of  the  Primates,  but  it  is  not  elevated  into  an 

anthropoidal  plate.  The  blade  is  formed  almost  wholly  by  the 

dorso-lateral  and  internal  surfaces,  and,  consequently,  the  long 

diameter  of  the  cross  section  extends  dorso-ventrally.  The  ischia 

and  pubes  are  primitive  and  unspecialized  in  their  shape  and 

character. 

The  New  World  monkeys  ^  (Cebidae)  may  for  our  purposes 
be  divided  into  two  groups,  those  with  prehensile  tails  {Mycetinae 
^nd  Cebinae)  and  those  whose  tails  are  non-prehensile  {Pithe- 
<yiinae  and  Nyctipithecinae) .  The  pelves  of  these  two  groups 
differ,  and  differ  most  conclusively,  in  accordance  with  a  corre- 
sponding difference  in  their  locomotive  habits.  All  are  completely 
arboreal,  but  the  Pitheciinae  and  Nyctipithecinae,  with  non- 
jDrehensile  tails,  are  small  animals  which  apparently  move  about 
"the  branches  with  all  four  paws  used  as  grasping  organs,  and,  of 
course,  without  any  other  assistance  in  their  locomotion. 

Their  pelves  are  but  little  specialized  in  any  direction,  and 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  Hapalidae,  with  a  little,  but  very 
little  more  development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate. 

The  prehensile  tailed  monkeys,  Alouata,  Ateles,  Lagothrix,  and 
Cebus,  have,  as  a  whole,  pelves  with  large  and  well  developed 
anthropoidal  plates,  but  the  degree  of  this  development  varies 
considerably  both  among  the  several  genera  and  species,  and  often 
between  individuals  within  them. 

In  Alouata,  Ateles,  and  Lagothrix  the  anthropoidal  plate  is 
xvidest  at  the  crest ;  the  crest  itself  is  thick  and  strongly  developed. 
The  sacrum  is  wide  and  has  very  strong  and  prominent  spinous 
iDrocesses.  All  these  characters  are,  of  course,  especially  fitted 
'to  give  advantages  to  the  pelvio-corporeal  group  of  muscles. 

The  ilio-ischiatic  axis  is  quite  straight;  the  free  ilium  is  shorter 
'than  in  other  anthropoids;  the  ischium  and  pubes  are  rather 
;i)rimitive  and  unspecialized. 

In  action  these  animals  frequently  plant  their  hind  feet  against 
«  branch,  seize  another  with  the  prehensile  tail,  and  from  the 
strong  and  widely  extended  tripodal  base  so  obtained,  move  the 
lody  about  with  the  utmost  freedom.  The  power  and  flexibility 

1  In  addition  to  the  quadrupedal  marmosets  (Hapalidae)  which  have  been  already 
«le8cribed. 


282  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 


s? 


5 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  293 

FIGURE  6 

These  pelves  have  been  reduced  or  enlarged  to  an  approximately 
uniform  size  to  facilitate  comparison.  In  all,  the  dotted  lines  A  or  B 
indicate  the  position  at  which  the  adjoining  cross  section  of  the  ilium 
was  taken.  /  is  opposite  the  internal  surface,  D4,  the  dorso-lateral, 
V'l,  the  ventro-lateral. 

I  and  II.  Cebus  (species  uncertain). 

Ill  and  IV.  Macaque  (Lasiopyga  kolbi) . 

The  contrast  between  the  pelves  of  a  representative  specimen  of 
the  prehensile  tailed  Cebinae  and  one  of  the  preponderantly  quad- 
rupedal Cercopithecinae  is  well  shown.  Note  the  relative  proportions 
and  directions  of  the  quadrupedal  and  anthropoidal  plates  in  the  two 
groups.  Also  the  characteristic  cercopithecidal  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium. 

V.  Gibbon  (Hylobates).  The  pelvis  is  short,  broad,  and  shallow  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  other  Simiidae.  The  crest  is  less  de- 
veloped and  the  shank  less  differentiated  from  the  blade.  The  long 
axes  of  the  ischial  tuberosities  run  almost  directly  transversely.  See 
also  Figure  9. 

VI.  Oranq  (Simla).  The  pelvis  is  broad,  short,  and  deep.  The  iliac 
blades  and  crests  are  broad,  flat,  and  straight.  The  ischia  are  narrow 
and  the  acetabula  face  laterally  outwards. 

VII.  Chimpanzee  (Anthropopithecus) .  The  iliac  blade  and  shaft  are 
thoroughly  differentiated.  The  crest  is  well  developed  and  highly 
curved.  The  ilia  are  relatively  longer  and  the  lower  pelvis  shorter 
than  in  the  other  great  apes,  but  a  slight  difference  in  the  angle  from 
which  this  illustration  was  drawn  somewhat  exaggerates  these  facts. 
See  also  Figure  9. 

VIII.  Gorilla  (Gorilla  gorilla).  The  pelvis  is  broader  in  proportion 
to  its  length ;  the  crests  are  broad  and  highly  curved ;  and  the  ischia 
are  proportionately  less  wide  than  in  the  chimpanzee.  Otherwise  the 
pelves  are  much  alike.  See  Figure  9. 


[Figure  6] 


294  THE  E\'OLUnON  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

of  their  lumbar  regions  are  especially  evident  when  one  of  them 
hangs  suspended  by  the  tail  with  its  feet  against  a  vertical  sur- 
face, and  the  body  and  arms  extended  and  moving  about  in  hori- 
zontal directions.  The  reason  for  the  sacral  and  iliac  developments 
is  at  once  evident.  The  larger  Cebus  monkeys  indeed  possess  a 
degree  of  this  development  which  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
gibbon. 

The  absence  of  a  corresponding  degree  of  ischial  and  pubic 
specialization  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that  these  animiilii  in 
a  state  of  nature  probably  make  but  little  effort  to  use  their ^ksji 
in  an  erect,  alternate,  bipedal  gait. 

The  trained  monkeys  of  the  organ  grinders  which  are  nenally 
members  of  this  genus  are  familiar  objects,  and  we  are  apt  to  think 
of  them  as  erect  bipedal  animals.  Closer  observation  wiU  immedi- 
ately show  that  although  the  greatly  developed  spinal  processes  of 
their  sacro-lumbar  region  and  their  fairly  large  anthropoidal 
plates  allow  them  to  erect  and  balance  the  trunk  fairly  well,  they 
have  little  power  of  extension  of  the  thighs.  In  spite  of  their 
very  good  feet  their  walk  is  quite  tottering,  and  it  is  also  to  be  re- 
membered that  even  this  d^ree  of  bipedal  prc^ression  is  not 
natural  to  them  but  is  in  fact  attained  only  as  the  result  of  care- 
ful and  often  prolonged  training,  while  if  forced  to  stand,  they 
commonly  adopt  a  trif)odal  base  (Plate  1).  They  are  at  ease  and 
active  only  in  a  quadrupedal  gait.  In  a  state  of  nature  they 
probably  rise  to  a  bipedal  attitude  only  when  reaching  for  a  high 
object. 

The  Old  World  monkeys  (Cercopithecidae)  are  di\nded  into 
two  subfamilies,  the  Cercopithecinae  (the  baboons  and  macaques) 
and  the  Semnopithecinae  (the  true  monkeys  of  Africa  and  Asia). 
One  is  at  first  inclined  to  think  of  the  Cercopithecinae  as  ter- 
restrial, and  of  the  Semnopithecinae  as  arboreal  animals,  but,  in 
fact,  the  habits  of  the  two  groups  are  not  ver>'  radically  different. 

Though  the  baboons  are  preponderantly  terrestrial  and  quad- 
rupedal, they  make  frequent  excursions  into  the  trees,  at  least 
when  tlieir  habitat  permits  it;  while  the  macaques  are  rather  more 
arboreal  than  terrestrial,  but  use  both  habits.  Thev  both  have 
ratlier  short,  siibequal  legs.  They  are  both,  as  a  whole,  hea^y 
animals,  are  soniewliat  le>s  active  than  the  Semnopithecinae,  and 
from  tlieir  weight  are  necessarily  confined  to  the  larger  branches. 


Pbabodt  Museum  Fafebs 


Vol.  XI,  No.  5,  Plato  1 


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IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         295 

The  Semnopithecinae,  though  preponderantly  arboreal,  make 
frequent  excursions  to  the  ground.  They  are  more  lightly  built, 
their  pelvic  limbs  are  considerably  longer  than  their  pectorals, 
and  they  are  much  more  active  and  varied  in  their  locomotion. 

Both  subfamilies  use  a  highly  developed  erect  sitting  position 
with  great  frequency.  In  that  posture  they  use  the  fore  limbs  and 
paws  as  arms  and  hands,  and  flex  and  extend  their  lumbar  regions 
freely  and  in  all  directions.  When  in  motion  upon  the  ground,  both 
groups  are  quadrupedal,  and  even  in  the  trees  the  baboons  and 
macaques  are  essentially  so,  keeping  their  femora  well  within 
the  limits  of  the  quadrupedal  position.^ 

Their  pelves  reflect  their  habits.  In  both  subfamilies  the  ilio- 
ischial  axis  is  straight,  and  the  pubic  arm  extends  from  it  at 
nearly  a  right  angle  (Figure  5,  in  and  iv),  a  distinctly  quad- 
rupedal and  primitive  character.  The  ilium  is,  however,  in  them, 
as  in  all  of  the  true  Anthropoidea,  thoroughly  specialized  and  in 
no  sense  primitive.  In  them  the  quadrupedal  plate  is  broad,  and 
extends,  of  course,  dorso-ventrally,  but  the  anthropoidal  plate  is 
about  equally  broad,  extends  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the 
ilium,  and  is  directed  almost  exactly  laterally.  The  L  shape  of 
the  cross  section  is  thus  fully  evident.  In  the  Semnopithecinae 
the  anthropoidal  plate  is  somewhat  more  developed  than  in  the 
Cercopithecinae,  as  would  be  expected  from  the  difference  in 
their  habits,  and  it  is  especially  wide  in  the  free  end  of  the  ilium. 
In  both,  the  crest  is  thickened  and  well  developed. 

In  the  Cercopithecinae  the  ischium  shows  a  most  distinctive 
cercopithecidal  character.  The  primitive  external  edge  is  very 
strongly  developed,  and  terminates  in  a  very  prominent  and 
broad  parischial  projection.  The  result  is  a  very  large  and  flat 
tuberosity  of  auricular  shape,  and  of  wide  transverse  diameter. 
In  some  of  them  the  dorsal  edge  of  the  tuberosity  also  extends 
backward  into  a  metischial  projection.  The  ischia  incline  towards 
each  other,  and  the  inner  edges  of  the  broad  tuberosities  lie  so 
closely  together  that  the  parturient  opening  is  wholly  post-ischial. 

In  both  subfamilies  the  pubic  arm  extends  well  forward  (ven- 
trally).  In  both,  the  symphysis  is  long  and  curved;  this  last  fea- 
ture being  more  evident  in  the  Cercopithecinae.  In  both,  the  true 
pelvis  is  externally  wide  and  also  dorso-ventrally  deep. 

1  So  far,  at  least,  as  can  be  judged  from  observation  in  the  zoos. 


apo  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

It  ia  evident  that  the  ilium,  with  its  wide  quadrupedal  plate, 
'fleets  the  fact  that  these  animals  are  essentially  quadrupeds. 
i  that  the  fairly  well  developed  anthropoidal  plate  corresponds 
to  their  frequent  and  secure  sitting  habit.  It  is  noteworthy  thaC^* 
the  preponderantly  terrestrial  Cercopithecinae  have  wider  quad— ^ 
rupedal  and  lesser  anthropoidal  plates  than  those  of  the  mainly 
arboreal  Semnopitliecinae. 

So,  too,  the  great  breadth  of  the  ischia,  the  universal  presence 
of  a  well  developed  parischial  process,  and  in  many,  a  metiaehial, 
with  the  strongly  ventral  projection  of  the  symphysis,  reflect 
their  necessity  for  exertion  in  varied  positions  of  the  hind  limbs 
and  with  somewhat  more  than  a  quadrupedal  extension  of  the 
femur. 

The  Stmiidae,  The  pelves  of  the  anthropoid  apes  show  develop- 
ments of  the  ordinal,  primate  pelvis  which  are  of  especial  interest 
in  as  mucii  as  they  foreshadow  the  pelvis  of  man,  and,  in  f»ct, 
constitute  transitional  stages  towards  it. 

The  anthropoidal  plate  widens  into  a  transverse  blade  un-  . 
equalled  in  any  of  the  other  antBtalfl  which  have  been  deaoribed.^ 
The  ischium,  Baonim,  and  pubea  are  modified  to  pennit  a  greater 
extenuon  of  the  femur  than  is  neceasaiy  to  tite  quadrupeds,  and 
the  shape  and  proportitma  of  the  tiiree  aortabular  aima  (the  iliac, 
ischiatic,  and  pulnc  axee)  distinctly  suggest  their  very  peculiar 
development  in  man. 

The  four  genera,  however,  differ  widely  both  in  habits  and 
degree  of  pelvic  development.  They  must  consequently  be  de- 
scribed separately. 

Gibbon.  The  gibbons  {Hylobates)  are  highly  arboreal  animals, 
brachiators  by  preference,  and  from  the  great  interest  which 
attaches  to  the  relations  between  their  pelves  and  their  habits, 
these  must  be  described  with  especial  care.  This  description  will 
so  far  cover  the  general  family  peculiarities  that  the  other  genera 
will  be  chiefly  described  by  comparison  therewith. 

The  gibbons  pass  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  suspended  from 
their  hands  and  habitually  moving  among  the  branches,  either 
by  swinging  from  the  grasp  of  one  hand  to  that  of  the  other,  or 
by  swinging  leaps  in  which  both  hands  release  their  grasp  simul- 

I  S«,  howpi-er.  ttia  ■pp«dial  note  od  Biadypua  Mid  Ihe  Uoculata. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         297 

taneously.  In  either  leap  the  animal  is  often  in  unattached  motion 
through  the  air  until  a  new  branch  is  grasped,  frequently  for  a 
long  distance. 

The  lateral  swinging  motions  are  initiated  and  maintained  ex- 
clusively by  the  arms,  the  legs  being  completely  flexed,  with  the 
knees  against  the  abdomen  and  the  heels  against  the  buttocks. 
The  explanation  for  the  adoption  of  this  attitude  of  the  hind  limbs 
is,  probably,  that  its  effect  is  to  raise  the  position  of  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  animal  as  a  whole,  thereby  shortening  the  pendu- 
lum and  lessening  the  moment  of  inertia  against  the  initiation  and 
increase  or  decrease  of  the  motion. 

The  antero-posterior  swing  is  initiated  by  alternate  flexions 
and  extensions  of  the  lumbar  regions  and  legs,  much  like  those 
used  by  a  human  gymnast  upon  a  trapeze. 

Homaday,^  who  has  had  unusually  extended  opportunities  for 
watching  the  gibbon  at  home,  says  that  when  it  is  at  top  speed 
through  the  branches,  the  swing  which  starts  from  the  hands  fre- 
quently ends  in  the  grasp  of  the  feet,  when  the  animal  turns 
" .  .  .  end  over  end,  catching  the  branches  with  his  hands  and 
feet  alternately." 

Even  among  the  branches,  the  gibbon  is  not  exclusively  a 
brachiator.  The  writer  has  several  times  seen  a  gibbon  run  along 
a  horizontal  branch  for  a  few  feet  in  a  true,  alternate,  erect 
bipedal  gait.  In  this  progression,  they  steady  themselves,  if  possi- 
ble, by  grasping  other  branches  with  their  hands,  but  for  a  short 
distance,  nevertheless,  they  are  able  to  keep  their  balance  when 
compelled  to  do  so,  without  any  actual  brachiation.  In  such  cases, 
the  arms  are  usually  extended  and  moved  about  as  aids  to  balance, 
and  the  feet  undoubtedly  aid  in  it  by  their  grasp  upon  the 
branch. 

In  nature  the  gibbon  lives  in  the  tree  tops  and  his  excursions 
to  the  ground  are  probably  exceedingly  rare.^  In  captivity  those 
\vhich  are  thoroughly  tamed  come  to  the  floor  of  their  cages  not 
infrequently.  They  then  move  most  rapidly  and  easily  in  a  semi- 
erect  position,  by  means  of  an  approach  to  the  bipedal  gait,  but 
'with  their  arms,  which  are  far  longer  than  their  legs,  extended, 
and  maintaining  their  balance  by  putting  the  knuckles  to  the 
ground,  i.e.  in  a  compromise  between  the  bipedal  and  quadrupedal 

1  Hornaday,  1885,  Two  Yeart  in  the  Jungle.  2  Ibid. 


298  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

gaits.  However,  they  are  capable  of  moving  in  a  straight  line  only 
in  a  true,  alternate,  bipedal  gait,  even  upon  the  ground,  and  of 
standing  bipedally  for  brief  periods.  They  have  a  well  developed 
sitting  posture,  which  is  in  frequent  use. 

The  ilium  (Figure  6,  v)  shows  an  advance  in  specialization 
over  that  of  any  of  the.  lower  Primates,  but  somewhat  less 
than  that  of  the  other  apes.  The  shank  is  somewhat  more  differ- 
entiated from  the  blade  than  it  is  in  either  the  Cebidae  or  the 
Cercopithecidae,  in  which  respect  it  approaches  that  of  the  other 
apes.  The  blade  is  wider  and  the  crest  is  more  developed  than  in 
the  monkeys,  but  in  both  respects  the  gibbon  shows  much  less 
specialization  than  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla.  The  quadrupedal 
plate  is  so  greatly  decreased  that  the  L  shape  of  the  cross  section 
hardly  exists,  and  its  long  diameter  is  almost  exactly  transverse. 
This  evidently  corresponds  to  the  fact  that  they  have  no  complete 
quadrupedal  gait. 

The  sacrum  is  narrow,  and  very  narrow  on  its  dorsal  as  com- 
pared with  its  ventral  surface. 

The  ischia  resemble  those  of  the  Cercopithecidae  and  have 
their  peculiarly  shaped  tuberosities,  but  their  inner  ends  are  so 
close  together  that  there  is  no  sub-pubic  arch,  the  whole  ventral 
ramus  of  the  ischium  taking  part  in  the  symphysis.  The  long  axis 
of  the  tuberosities  is  thus  turned  inward  until  it  is  very  nearly 
transverse.  The  pubes  are  rather  flat,  and  this  absence  of  the 
ventral  projection  which  is  so  constant  in  the  lower  anthropoids 
probably  corresponds  with  the  comparative  absence  of  bipedal 
leaping  in  the  gibbon's  habits. 

In  general  shape  the  pelvis  is  short  and  laterally  wide  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  lower  Anthropoidea,  and  shows  some  ap- 
proach to  the  human  characters,  but  from  the  flat  pubis  it  is 
rather  shallow  dorso-ventrally  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
other  Simiidac  and  also  of  man. 

The  most  interesting  character  in  this  pelvis  is  a  changed  rela- 
tion of  the  three  acetabular  arms. 

The  iliac  axis  leaves  the  acetabulum  nearly  in  line  with  the 
ischiatic  axis,  but  almost  immediately  bends  dorsally,  so  that  the 
angle  between  the  remaining  and  greater  part  of  the  iliac  and 
ischiatic  axes  is  considerable  (Figure  7,  i).  This  bend  is  visible 
externally,  but  is  best  seen  on  the  internal  surface  of  the  ilium. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE 


299 


It  is  still  better  appreciated  by  palpation  along  the  line  of  the 
thickened  iliac  axis. 

This  bend  in  the  iliac  axis  throws  both  the  ischiatic  and  pubic 
axes  backward,  and  the  direction  of  the  iliac  axis  thus  lies  almost 
directly  between  the  other  two.  The  result  is  that  the  three  arms 
form  an  inverted  Y,  of  which  the  iliac  axis  is  the  tail  and  the 
other  two  are  the  arms  (Figure  2,  ii). 


n 

•  111 

FIGURE  7 

I.    GIBBON 

II.    CHIMPANZn 

II.    GORILLA 

I?.     MAN 

IV 


The  dotted  lines  show  the  axes  of  the  pelvic  arms  in  each  of  the  animals. 

The  complex  and  vao'ing  curves  of  the  pelves  make  any  representation  of  these  axes 

<fn  a  single  plane  difficult  and  imperfect.  They  are  much  more  easily  appreciated  on  the 

-«ctual  specimens,  and  here  again,  palpation  is  the  more  valuable  method  of  examination. 

There  is  a  very  great  individual  variation  in  the  amount  of  the  iliac  curve  within  each 

of  the  three  genera  of  Simiidae. 

Note  that  in  the  apes  the  axis  of  the  auricular  surface  is  directed  diagonally  downward 
and  backward,  and  is  but  slightly  curx'ed.  In  man  it  is  much  curved,  and  ite  posterior 
half  runs  in  a  direction  which,  if  the  iliac  axis  were  straight,  woud  be  backward  and 
upward. 

This  is  a  very  significant  change  from  the  nearly  straight  ilio- 
ischiatic  axis  with  the  pubic  bracket  at  nearly  a  right  angle  to  it, 
which  characterizes  the  quadrupeds  and  the  lower  Primates.  It  is 
definitely  an  adaptation  favorable  to  the  control  of  an  extended 
femur  and  may  be  regarded  as  presenting  a  transitional  stage 
between  the  quadrupedal  innominate  and  that  of  man.  It  is  some- 


300  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

what  more  highly  developed  in  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla  pelves, 
but  varies  much  in  degree  not  only  in  the  three  genera  but  also 
as  between  individuals  in  each  of  them. 

These  pelvic  characters  are  very  closely  those  which  animals  of 
the  gibbon's  peculiar  habits  might  have  been  expected  to  acquire. 

As  one  watches  the  initiation  of  the  forward  swing  from  both 
hands,  it  is  very  evident  that  a  capacity  for  complete  extensions 
and  flexions  of  the  lower  limbs  is  essential  to  the  rapidity  and 
completeness  with  which  it  is  executed.  It  should  be  noted,  too, 
that  at  any  time  when  the  gibbon  hangs  by  his  feet,  head  down- 
ward, his  pelvic  limb  is  completely  extended;  that  the  action 
described  by  Homaday  is  evidently  facilitated  by  a  capacity  for 
nearly  complete  extension  of  the  pelvic  limbs;  and  that  these 
frequent  necessities  for  the  head  down  position  in  the  aboreal 
life  of  the  animal  may  not  improbably  be  another  important 
factor  towards  its  acquisition  of  a  confirmation  which  permits  it. 
The  ways  in  which  the  pelvic  developments  favor  these  extensions 
and  flexions  are  very  evident. 

The  iliac  bend  has,  as  has  been  said,  an  important  evolutionary 
significance.  Its  mechanical  effect  is  much  the  same  in  kind  as 
that  which  is  produced  by  the  metischial  processes  and  pubic 
prominence  which  we  have  noted  in  the  quadrupedal  leapers  and 
diggers,  but  the  method  by  which  this  advantage  is  developed  is 
new  and  peculiar  to  the  Primates.  When  it  is  followed  into  the 
higher  degrees  which  are  often  shown  by  the  chimpanzees  and 
gorillas,  it  throws  a  decidedly  illuminating  light  upon  the  transi- 
tional stages  which  probably  existed  in  the  ancestors  of  man  and 
so  preceded  the  full  development  of  the  human  pelvic  girdle. 

The  greater  development  of  the  crest  gives  to  the  pelvio- 
corporeal  muscles  of  lateral  flexion  an  increase  of  both  power 
and  accuracy  of  action.  The  greater  expanse  of  the  blade  as  a 
whole  gives  to  the  glutei  both  an  increase  of  size  and  a  change 
in  the  situation  of  their  origins,  which  must  add  much  to  their 
efiiciency  as  extensors,  abductors,  and  rotators  in  the  extended 
positions  of  the  femur.  The  iliacus  flexor  also  gains  in  size.  The 
more  dorsal  situation  of  the  ischial  tuberosities,  which  is  due  to 
the  bend  in  the  ilio-ischiatic  axis,  gives  to  the  ham-string  muscles, 
also,  greater  power  over  the  extending  femur. 

These  many  added  factors  of  accuracy  of  control  over  the 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         301 

motions  of  both  the  trunk  and  limbs  in  an  extended  posture  must 
be  all-essential  to  the  speed  and  direction  of  the  gibbon's  wonder- 
ful brachiating  swings  through  the  branches.  These  are  executed 
by  the  arms,  but  of  necessity  gain  their  direction  from  the  chang- 
ing attitudes  of  the  trunk  and  legs  as  the  swing  starts. 

A  gibbon  in  the  very  large  open  air  cage  in  the  London  Zoo 
was  once  seen  to  watch  the  flight  of  a  bird  which  had  been  loosed 
within  it,  and  then  so  to  time  and  direct  his  own  swing  that  he 
was  able  to  catch  the  bird  in  full  flight  and  yet  reach  the  branch 
toward  which  his  own  course  through  the  air  was  directed  as  easily 
as  though  no  such  incident  had  occurred. 

On  due  consideration  of  the  accuracy  of  the  gibbon's  arboreal 
activity,  and  of  the  value  of  complete  control  of  the  extended  legs 
in  its  direction,  it  seems  probable  that  all  these  pelvic  specializa- 
tions may  have  been  developed  in  response  to  the  necessity  for 
speedy,  accurate,  and  extended  motions  of  the  hind  limbs  which 
is  involved  in  the  "  trapeze  gymnastics "  of  his  brachiating 
aerial  life. 

His  posture  and  gait  when  he  uses  the  bipedal  method  of  pro- 
gression either  upon  a  branch  or  on  the  ground  show,  upon  the 
other  hand,  the  limitations  which  are  imposed  by  the  very  moder- 
ate degree  to  which  these  developments  have  advanced. 

A  gibbon's  attitude  when  standing  or  walking  varies  consider- 
ably from  that  which  he  assumes  in  his  occasional  short  but  rapid 
bipedal  runs,  and  the  two  must  be  studied  separately. 

In  standing  or  walking  the  trunk  is  inclined  forward  from  the 
buttocks  to  a  much  more  than  human  degree,^  but  the  back  is 
nearly  straight  and  the  head  is  carried  quite  well  erected.  This 
gives  the  position  of  the  gibbon  quite  a  human  appearance  at 
the  first  glance.  In  fact,  when  standing  or  walking  his  position 
appears  as  a  whole,  to  a  casual  observer,  to  be  almost  human, 
but  on  closer  observation  it  proves  to  be  only  a  modification  of 
that  which  is  characteristic  of  the  other  anthropoids.  The  lower 
leg  is  inclined  forward  from  the  ankle  to  the  knee;  the  knee  is 
rather  in  advance  of  the  foot;  the  thighs  are  sloped  strongly 
backward ;  and  the  buttocks  are  behind  the  heels.  The  femora  are 
considerably  abducted  and  the  knees  are  therefore  quite  wide 

1  Some  such  inclination  is  of  course  present  in  the  natural  positicm  of  most  men  and 
of  almost  all  women. 


803  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVra 

apiH.  The  limb  as  ■  wbcde  b  tiieo  in  a  far  fram  bnnuui  poeitira, 
thou(^  it  is  in  a  aomewliat  nearar  ^ipraadi  to  ii  than  is  that  ti 
«ither  the  chimpaniee  or  gorilla  in  eith«  tkeir  ataading  or  walk- 
ing positions.  The  walk  is  waddling,  as  a  naoU  of  the  ecanpsn- 
tive^  wide  position  of  theknees,  bat  notto  avety  maiked  eztoit 
In  raiud  running  upon  a  flat  sorf aee  the  wteds  body  is  strooglT 
inclined  forward,  the  lowo-  limbs  aia  nmah  mora  oxleaded,  the 
knees  are  nearer  togetber  than  in  the  walk,  and  the  waddle  d^^K 
pears  (Plate  3).  In  this  gait  be  is,  however,  pn^abiy  voy  con- 
siderably aided  by  the  inwtia  of  motko,  iriiidi  graatly  aasiste  his 
balance  and  abokesMie  the  effort  of  his  muBehahaoiiiwrtiiiglus 
vui^t.  Whttci  in  this  gait  be  ii,  howvnrt  qvte  ine^Mble  oi 
dianipng  the  direeUon  of  hia  nm  wittioat:  b 


The  diltoenee  in  attitude  between  tiiese  two  gsH^  ts  important 
in  ita  rdatkm  to  the  leverages  wfaidi  bis  pelvU  alTords  to  hia 
pehno-femoral  mvadea. 

The  ipbbon'k  fernnr  ie  very  kog,  ami  extremely  long  as  com- 
paicd  to  tbe  siae  of  lus  pdris.  £Eb  Cxten^r  and  other  f«noraL 
moades  an,  ttereforei  faom  the  Aorin^^  of  the  patrer  unas  of 
the  leven,  adapted  to  the  prednutioa  of  ^-cTy  rapkl  motiocts,  but 
hne  in  power  to  a  iiiaiimiilMg  deper. 

H»  aerial  pertonnanns  drnw  eoBtlu«i\-pIy  that  tbeir  power  ia 
quite  sutlicieni  to  nio\~p  his  legs  with  speed  and  great  acconwy 
e\~pn  when  they  are  in  complete  extensioQ.  so  ioog  as  tmiy  tbeir 
light  weight  is  to  be  mox-ed.' 

Hi^  stamlii^  ami  walkii^  anitude.  on  tbe  otbo-  hand,  proves 
that  their  origin  fn>Di  the  \Try  $bc«t  arms  of  tbe  levas.  wUcb  ate 
all  that  is  aff<.v^i^1  by  the  small  petris  and  the  inverted  Y  arrange- 
ment, makes  their  power  of  eontrol  om-  the  folly  extended  fannr 
iosii^ient  :\v  the  supfvtrt  ot  tbe  body  in  tbe  enrt  postaie  and 
c\>aipeU  hiiu  to  >»e  the  :eci-.-j  in  an  only  p«nially  eateawlej  posi- 
th>a  whe^r.  staaiiini  vr  walking  ujvo  his  leet 

Th»*  rt^itpunthvly.  N^t  sot  wsuviy,  eiiiinp4e4e  extmson  ai  the 
W^  in  th'e  ra;v>:  rui:  s^k^w^  l^J:  the  szcaUcr  amount  ol  force  that 
is  ixwitxi  :o  hsvxi  a  n:>AiIy  c:x'>vi::¥  iittjeei  to  a  ftrai^M  fine  pcr- 
n;i:s  their  i:se  ir:  di  s^cxwhas  =xice  extecdiKl  p 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         303 

At  either  gait  the  imperfect  character  of  the  feet  (base  of 
support)  is  of  course  important. 

As  observed  in  captivity,  gibbons  vary  greatly  in  the  tread  of 
their  feet.  Of  two  young  gibbons  which  were  studied  in  the 
London  Zoo  and  which  were  closely  similar  in  age,  size,  and 
appearance,^  one  walked  upon  the  outer  edge  of  his  inturned 
feet,  while  the  other  had  the  sole  on  the  ground  and  the  hallux 
widely  extended.  Similarly  an  adult  white-handed  gibbon  in  the 
New  York  Zoological  Garden  walks  upon  the  fifth  metatarsal 
edge,  while  an  adult  of  the  same  species  in  the  Philadelphia  Zoo 
has  a  completely  plantar  tread,  again  with  extended  hallux.  (This 
last  aninfial  seldom  walks  erect,  but  runs  frequently,  and  is  then 
very  erect.)  The  variation  thus  appears  to  be  individual  rather 
than  specific,  but  the  feet  are  very  long,  and  with  the  inturned 
tread  the  digits  are  curled  inward  in  partial  flexion  so  that  the 
fifth  metatarsal  and  fifth  digit  are  in  contact  with  the  ground 
throughout  their  length.  The  feet  are  carried  well  apart,  and  with 
either  tread  evidently  give  a  very  fair  base  of  support. 

The  gibbon  is  a  small  and  extremely  lightly  built  animal,  and 
the  fact  that  it  can  attain  a  somewhat  more  complete,  even  if 
occasional  and  brief,  bipedal  attitude  than  the  other  apes,  with  a 
somewhat  lesser  pelvic  development,  is  evidently  a  consequence 
of  the  all-important  law  of  squares  and  cubes. 

Orang,  The  orang  (Simia)  is  less  bipedal  in  its  habits  than  any 
other  member  of  this  family.  It  is  highly  arboreal,  and  is  quad- 
rumanous,  grasping  the  branches  or  other  supports  about  it  with 
any  one  of  its  four  extremities,  and  progressing  by  the  use  of 
any  two  of  them  as  a  pair.  It  is  a  heavy  animal,  and  when  active, 
swings  and  throws  itself  about  in  a  great  variety  of  actions, 
during  which  both  groups  of  pelvic  muscles  are  called  upon  for 
active  and  varied  use. 

It  is  a  marked  peculiarity  of  this  animal  that  it  habitually  uses 
its  legs  with  the  femora  in  a  position  midway  between  extension 
and  flexion,  but  abducted  until  they  are  directed  laterally  out- 
wards. In  correspondence  to  this  habit  the  acetabula  open  almost 
directly  laterally.  Its  arms  are  powerful  and  are  longer  than  its 
legs.  It  is  very  prone  to  sustain  itself  by  grasping  an  upright 

1  They  were  presumably  of  the  same  species,  but  circumstances  prevoited  the  writer 
from  making  sure  of  this. 


I 


THE  E\'OLUnOX  OF  THE  HUMAN  PEL\T5 

objert  with  the  band  and  foot  of  one  side  extaided  latoanjr,  nd 
in  this  positKD  swingi  itadf  aboot  in  fwder  to  grup  MkoUkar  o^eei 
witti  tbebanduidfootof  theivfKM^aide.ItDanitBfaaadBH>d 
f(v(-i  h^  paqang  orgam  with  equal  fadfitf. 

Vpaa  a  levd  surface  it  baa,  at  tiniea,  a  faitfy  active  quadra- 
pedal  gait,  but  tbe  tiead  ia  vpaa  tbe  flexed  kou^lce  of  wH  four 
hands.  Its  most  eharaetenatic  and  pobaps  moat  fraqooit  move- 
ment acRMB  tbe  floor  of  its  cage  is  firom  a  tttting  ponticn  vittt 
its  buttons  as  a  base.  Its  bind  limbe  aie  tben  flexed  and  it  swings 
&om  qpot  to  Epot  betwem  its  long  aims,  wbieb  aie  used  asif  tfae;^ 


In  a  state  of  nature  it  probably  rardy,  if  ever,  attempts  an 
enet  l^iedal  balance.  It  is  vaj  tatriy  seai  in  aa  erect  pontkn 
in  the  looB,  tboogh  it  is  just  capable  td  an  cnet  balance  and 
of  a  few  stc^  in  bqwdal  pcopessiao,  bat  with  a  very  pecdUar  gait. 

An  immatme  oiang  in  tbe  London  Zoo  was,  with  eonaidBable 
difficuify,  persuaded  by  its  keeper  to  stand  and  to  walk  a  few  alepa 
under  tbe  observation  erf  tike  writer.  Li  the  irtsndine  paaitinn  the 
lower  le^  wen  txaadawJaij  ioefined  forward  and  the  tlugba 
were  modi  flexed,  Ute  tread  was  upaa  tiie  fifth  metaiataal  edg^ 
but  tbe  diief  peeoUari^  of  the  podtion  was  thai  the  thi^iB  were 
abducted  to  folly  forty-five  defers  bam  the  median  tine.  The 
step  was  made  by  eairying  the  timb  wlmh  gave  the  impoke  back 
into  3  completely  lateral  positioo  li.e,  by  increased  abductirai), 
while  the  advancii^  leg  was  merely  cleared  from  the  ground; 
the  jiosterior  limb  was  then  bn>ught  forward  by  a  swingiiig  mo- 
tioo  of  adduction;  then  the  process  was  repeated  on  the  other 
side.  The  result  was  a  rather  ludicrous  and  in^t  waddle. 

It  has  a  well  de\'e loped  sitting  position. 

Its  peh-is  is  broader  laterally  in  proportion  to  its  length  than 
thst  of  any  other  IVimate.  except  man.  It  is  also  deep  dorso- 
laterally  i  Figure  5.  ri'. 

Tfie  iUiim  has  a  sbttrt  shank  and  an  anthropoidal  plate  which 
extends  slmi*-t  directly  laterally  and  is  maited  by  great  lateral 
width  rather  than  by  length,  l^rf  crest  is  straighier.  and  tbe  blade 
is  consequently  more  nearly  iriangylar  in  aspect,  wboi  viewed 
from  in  front,  than  in  any  other  oi  tbe  great  apes.  The  sacrum 
is  a!s»>  r*;.-\ii\-ely  broad  and  shon,  and  the  interlocking  processes 
between  ib*  sacrum  and  tbe  ilium  are  well  dev«k^>ed.  Tbe  isciuom 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         305 

is    but  little  diflferent  from  that  of  the  Cereopithecidae,  though 
^•Hc  tuberosities  are  less  flat  and  broad.  The  pubis  shows  a  highly 

arked  triangularity  of  cross  section,  probably  in  correspondence 

the  great  strains  put  upon  the  adductor  muscles  in  managing 
tilie  femora  in  the  peculiar  abducted  position  which  is  character- 
istic of  the  animal. 

The  ilio-ischiatic  axis  is  nearly  straight,  and  the  pubic  axis  is 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  it.  The  metischial  process  is  not  promi- 
nent, while  the  parischial  is  rather  large. 

In  these  very  important  particulars,  the  orang  is  alone  among 
the  Simiidae  in  being  unspecialized  towards  any  use  of  the  femur 
in  an  extended  position.  This  condition,  and  the  lateral  expansion 
of  the  whole  pelvis,  the  lateral  facing  of  its  acetabula,  and  the 
parischial  development,  are  evidently  specializations  towards  its 
peculiar  quadrumanous  progression.  They  all  evidently  afford 
the  best  of  leverages  for  lateral  flexions  of  the  trunk  and  for  the 
Use  of  the  thigh  in  an  abducted  position,  and  in  one  which  is  midway 
between  flexion  and  extension.  The  somewhat  extreme  degree  of 
t.his  peculiar  specialization  is  just  what  would  be  expected  in  so 
Heavy  and,  at  times,  extremely  active  an  animal. 

Chimpanzee.  The  chimpanzee  (Anthropopithecus)  y  a  large  and 

ixeavy  animal,  is  primarily  arboreal,  but  is  quite  at  home  upon  the 

ground  and  is  capable  of  rapid  and  sustained  progress  upon  its 

Surface.   Its  gait  at   such   times  may   be  described   as   semi- 

cjuadrupedal,  since  its  arms  are  decidedly  longer  than  its  legs,  and 

'fche  trunk  inclines  strongly  upward  from  the  hips.  In  this  gait  the 

jDlantar  surface  of  the  pes  is,  at  times,  wholly  in  contact  with  the 

ground,  at  times,  in  its  digital  portion  only,  the  knuckles  only 

K^f  the  hands.  The  fore  limbs  thus  maintain  its  balance,  and,  at 

*iost,  sustain  the  weight  of  the  fore  part  of  the  animal  only,  while 

"the  hind  limbs  support  most  of  its  weight,  and  apparently  supply 

J)ractically  all  of  the  forward  impulse.  These  conditions  evidently 

demand  powerful  actions  of  the  legs  in  a  more  extended  position 

^han  would  be  necessary  if  the  trunk  were  horizontal,  and  it 

should  be  remembered  that  the  pelvic  adaptations  which  are 

appropriate  to  this  considerable  elevation  of  the  trunk  also  favor 

the  adoption  of  an  erect  bipedal  attitude. 

As  a  quadruped  the  chimpanzee  is  a  very  active  animal.  It  is, 
in  fact,  preponderantly  a  quadrupedal  animal  and  as  such  is 


306  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

evidently  quite  capable  of  successful  pursuit  of  food  and  avoid- 
ance of  enemies. 

Even  when  not  hurried  it  usually  moves  about  in  this  quad- 
rupedal way,  but  for  short  distances,  and  when  at  ease,  it  at  times 
uses  a  semi-erect  bipedal  gait.  The  lower  leg  is  then  almost  ex- 
actly erect  (Plate  3).  The  knee  is  in  moderate  flexion,  and  either 
above  or  slightly  in  advance  of  the  foot.  The  thigh  slopes  back- 
ward from  the  knee  towards  the  buttocks.  The  buttocks  are  well 
behind  the  feet,  and  the  trunk  inclines  forward.  The  center  of 
gravity  is  thus  above  the  base  of  support,  but  the  legs  are  not 
columnar,  and  the  posture  as  a  whole  is  but  semi-erect;  the  kneeB 
are  wide  apart  and  the  gait  is  waddling,  but  the  balance  is  furly 
well  maintained.  This  is  the  typical  anthropoidal  erect  attitade 
as  contrasted  with  the  human. 

The  animal  can  not  only  walk  bipedally,  but  since  its  feet  give 
it  a  tolerably  firm  base  of  support,  it  maintains  a  bipedal  stand- 
ing balance  fairly  well,  in  the  same  anthropoidal  attitude,  how- 
ever. It  has  a  well  developed  and  thoroughly  well  balanced  sitting 
position.  Its  balance  is  good  enough  to  enable  it  to  use  its  hands 
and  arms  freely  when  standing,  walking,  or  sitting.  It  is,  however, 
so  far  from  perfect,  that  if  there  is  a  fixed  object  within  reach, 
the  animal  is  apt  to  seize  it,  or  to  rest  a  hand  upon  it,  as  it  stands 
or  moves  about  bipedally. 

In  all  of  this  the  form  of  the  foot  is,  of  course,  of  great  impor- 
tance. That  of  the  chimpanzee,  though  still,  on  the  whole,  of  an 
arboreal  type^  approaches  that  of  the  gorilla  and  foreshadows 
the  human  type,  more  especially  in  the  character  of  its  mid- 
tarsus,  and  in  the  strength  and  development  of  the  hallux.^  The 
whole  plantar  surface  of  the  foot  is  then  in  contact  with  the 
ground. 

The  pelvis  (Figure  6,  vii)  reflects  the  habits  of  the  animal  in 
an  interesting  way,  and  especially  in  its  general  shape.  In  the 
shank  of  the  ilium  the  anthropoidal  plate  is  somewhat  narrower 
proportionally  than  in  any  of  the  anthropoids  previously  de- 
scribed, and  expands  more  abruptly  as  it  enters  the  blade,  whicl^,^ 
is  thus  more  differentiated  from  the  shank  than  in  them.  It  ^^^^ 
much  wider  in  the  blade  than  in  any  of  them,  except  the  orarx     "^^ 

1  Morton.   1923.    TJir  Eiohttinn   of  thr  Human  Foot;   and   also,  Miller.   1920.   Confitr^ 
Views  of  the  Problem  of  Man's  Ancestry. 


I 


Peabooy  MrsEUM  PATcaa 


Vol.  XI,  No.  5,  Pl.ate  3 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         307 

The  free  ilium  is  long,  and  the  crest  rises  in  a  considerable  curve 
between  the  anterior  and  posterior  superior  spines  (consult  sub- 
headings Gorilla  and  Man) ,  but  on  this  point  there  is  much  indi- 
vidual variation.  In  some  specimens  the  crest  also  has  a  con- 
siderable ventral  curve,  and  there  is  a  decided  foreshadowing  of 
an  iliac  fossa.  In  others  there  is  very  little  of  this. 

The  sacrum  is  narrow  ventrally,  and  much  narrower  on  its 
dorsal  surface.  This  marked  difference  in  the  width  of  the  sur- 
faces also  appears  in  the  gorilla  and  man.  Its  spinous  processes 
are  small,  but  those  of  the  lumbar  region  are  large,  strong,  and 
prominent. 

The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  shows  moderately  developed 
metischial  and  parischial  processes. 

The  pubis  is  ventrally  more  prominent  than  in  the  gibbon. 

In  its  general  shape  the  pelvis  is  shorter  and  broader  than  it 
is  in  the  true  quadrupeds  or  lower  Anthropoidea,  but  these  changes 
are  much  less  marked  than  in  man.  The  bend  in  the  iliac  shank 
which  is  responsible  for  the  inverted  Y  arrangement  is  somewhat 
more  developed  (Figure  7,  ii)  than  in  the  gibbon,  but  it  is  some- 
what less  pronounced  than  in  most  female  gorillas,  and  much 
less  than  is  usual  in  the  still  heavier  male  gorilla. 

That  a  somewhat  less  degree  of  perfection  of  the  erect  habit 
than  that  of  the  gibbon  requires  a  somewhat  greater  degree  of 
bony  specialization  in  this  and  the  still  heavier  gorillas  again 
illustrates  the  importance  of  the  law  of  squares  and  cubes. 

Gorilla.  The  gorilla  {Gorilla  gorilla)  is  much  the  heaviest  of  the 
Primates.  One  adult  male  has  been  reported  as  weighing  more 
than  four  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  Its  habitat  is  limited  to  a 
few  small  and,  for  the  most  part,  rather  inaccessible  districts  in 
Africa,  and  even  there,  its  numbers  are  probably  not  large.  Its 
habits  in  its  native  wilds  are  but  little  known,  and  the  best 
published  accounts,  those  of  Akeley  and  of  Barns,  are  only 
incidentally  concerned  with  its  locomotive  habits.  Both  sexes 
are  described  as  habitually  quadrupedal.  Numerous  hunters 
have,  however,  reported  that  when  the  adult  male  is  confronted 
at  close  quarters,  he  rises  into  a  bipedal  position  and  advances 
bipedally.  It  seems  probable  that  the  female  is  also  capable  of 
this  attitude,  but  no  definite  statement  on  this  point  has  been 
found. 


308 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 


it  is  believed  that  the  gorilla  is  primarily  a  tenrestclal 
though  with  a  habit  of  making  excursions  into  the  trees.  The 
sexes  differ  greatly  in  fflsse,  weight,  and  degree  of  pelvic  specialisa- 
tions. Even  the  females  and  young  are  restricted  by  their  weight 
to  the  larg^  branches.  None  but  very  young  gorillas  have  ever 
been  captured,  and  few  of  them  have  survived  for  any  length  of 
time.  Only  two  have  been  accurately  observed  and  reported  on, 
both  immature  males,  under  the  care  of  Miss  Alyse  Cunningham 


FIGURE  8 

Tracings  from  very  indistinct  photographs 

I.  One  of  Miss  Cunningham's  young  gorillas  in  a  bipedal  standing  position.     It  will  be 

seen  that  one  of  the  feet  has  an  inverted,  the  other  a  plantar  tread ;  the  same  peciiliahty 

has  been  reported  as  habitual  in  some  chimpanzees  and  gibbons. 

II.   The  same   animal   in   a   quadrupedal   gait. 

and  Major  Penny,  in  London.^  Both  of  them  died  at  the  beginning 
of  their  second  dentition.  They  were  therefore  still  in  the  childish 
stage  of  life,  and  not  even  adolescent,  but  so  little  is  known  of 
the  gaits  and  attitudes  of  the  adult  that  those  of  even  these 
young  specimens  assume  importance  (Figure  8).  Miss  Cunning- 
ham has  published  several  accounts  of  their  habits,  with  photo- 
graphs, and  she  and  Major  Penny  have  kindly  exhibited  their 
collection  of  photographs  and  motion  pictures  to  the  writer,  be- 
sides answering  many  questions.  From  their  account  it  would 

1  See  also,  Yerkes  and  Yerkes,  1929,   The  Great  Apet. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         309 

appear  that  the  habits  and  gait  of  the  young  male  gorilla  are  very 
closely  similar  to  those  of  the  chimpanzee.^ 

The  pelvis  of  the  gorilla  (Figure  6,  vm)  differs  from  that  of 
the  chimpanzee  only  in  presenting  a  much  more  advanced  stage 
of  the  same  specializations.  That  of  the  female  is  frequently 
distinctly  less  advanced  in  each  of  the  peculiar  characters  than 
that  of  the  male,  and  those  of  the  males  vary  considerably  in 
degree  among  themselves,  chiefly  in  correspondence  with  their 
size,  which  also  varies  considerably.  In  general,  the  larger  the 
pehis,  the  higher  the  degree  of  specialization.  That  of  the  male 
will  be  taken  as  the  type. 

In  general  shape,  the  lateral  width  and  dorso-ventral  depth 
are  greater  in  proportion  to  the  length  than  those  of  the  chim- 
panzee, and  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  squares  and  cubes,  the 
whole  pehis  is,  of  course,  more  massive  proportionally. 

The  shank  of  the  ilium  is  shorter;  the  blade  is  much  wider;  the 
crest  is  thicker  and  more  developed;  its  arch  from  the  posterior 
superior  to  the  anterior  superior  spine  is  more  pronounced;  and 
its  ventral  curve  is  greatly  increased,  thus  forming  an  internal 
iliac  fossa,  which  is  well  marked  in  all  and  very  pronouncedly 
developed  in  most  of  the  larger  specimens. 

The  sacrum  is  shorter  and  broader  proportionally,  and  the 
SATichondroses  are  longer  proportionally  than  in  the  chimpanzee. 
The  interlocking  processes  between  the  iliac  and  sacral  surfaces 
are  often  many,  prominent,  and  complicated. 

The  dorsally  directed  bend  in  the  iliac  axis  is  usually  more 
pronounced  than  in  the  chimpanzee,  and  in  the  large  males  the 
relationship  of  its  formation  to  that  present  in  the  human  pelvis  is 
very  clear  (Figure  7,  iii).  A  beginning  development  of  the  tuber- 
osity of  the  ilium  is  e\ndent  in  some  specimens.  The  ilio-ischiatic 
and  ilio-pubic  angles  are  somewhat  more  acute,  and  the  arms  of 
the  inverted  Y  are  thus  somewhat  more  widely  separated. 

In  all  these  respects,  the  pelvis  of  the  lighter  female  occupies, 
upon  the  average,  a  position  about  midway  between  those  of  the 
chimpanzee  and  the  male  gorillas. 

The   relationship    between    the    pelves   of    the    chimpanzees 

1  The  ricdcton  of  ooe  of  these  individuAls  is  in  the  Museum  of  The  Ro>-ml  Collect  of 
BoTWBOOM.  The  pelvis  is  characteristically  that  of  a  gorilla,  but  in  this  connection  it  should 
be  noted  that  it  is.  of  course,  immature,  and  its  specialisations  are  decidedly  leas  advanced 
ba  degias  than  cvai  thoM  of  an  adult  female. 


310  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

and  gorillas  is  thus  just  what  would  be  expected  between  ani- 
mals of  probably  closely  similar  habits,  but  widely  differing 
weights. 

The  comparatively  frequent  use  of  the  erect  attitude  by  these 
three  genera  of  the  Simiidae,  and  their  acquisition  of  a  fairly 
useful,  true,  alternate,  bipedal  progression  may  probably  be  taken 
as  showing  that  the  primate  method  of  developing  leverages  which 
give  the  pelvio-femoral  muscles  an  improved  control  over  the  ex- 
tended femur  is  an  advance  over  the  mere  metischial  and  pubic 
prominences  which  have  been  described  as  appearing  in  some 
true  quadrupeds.  Their  imperfect  balance  and  waddling  gaits 
show  that  in  the  degree  to  which  it  has  been  advanced  in  these 
anthropoids  it  is  not  sufficient  for  complete  success  in  bipedal 
progression. 

It  is,  however,  an  evident  transitional  step  towards  the  human 
arrangement  which  is  next  to  be  described,  and  which  was 
probably  also  possessed,  in  some  degree,  by  man's  prehuman 
ancestors.  Its  conversion  into  the  mechanically  more  efficient 
plan  of  the  human  pelvis  needs  only  the  very  easy  evolution  of 
one  more  pelvic  arm,  or  line  of  strength,  and  some  changes  in  the 
general  shape  of  the  girdle.  These,  too,  are  the  more  easily  compre- 
hended if  we  remember,  first,  that  the  pelves  of  both  the  Simiidae 
and  Ursidae  are  also  usually  shorter,  wider,  and  of  greater  antero- 
posterior depth  than  those  of  other  quadrupeds,  or  even  of  their 
near  relatives;  second,  that  these  changes,  like  the  development 
of  the  Y,  increase  proportionally  to  the  degree  of  frequency  and 
perfection  of  the  erect  habit,  and  to  the  increasing  weights  of  the 
animal. 

The  Hominidae.  Man.  Man  is  essentially  terrestrial  and  wholly 
bipedal  in  his  habits.  He  has  entirely  lost  the  quadrupedal  activity 
of  his  remote  ancestors.  Bipedally  he  excels  the  anthropoids  in 
degree,  in  the  excellence  of  his  balance  in  the  erect  posture,  in 
his  capacity  for  standing,  walking,  and  running  bipedally  for  ex- 
tended periods,  and  in  the  rapidity  of  his  erect  progression.  In 
his  varied  bipedal  activity  he  differs  from  them  in  kind,  and  is 
unique.  Man,  and  man  alone,  is  able  to  spring  in  any  direction 
from  a  bipedal  position,  and,  moreover,  he  alights  from  such  a 
spring  with  a  certainty  of  balance  which  enables  him  to  repeat 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         311 

it  in  the  same  or  a  diflferent  direction.  This  may  seem  a  small 
point  to  insist  upon,  but  this  ability  to  avoid  an  attack  or  to 
pursue  a  dodging  quadruped  must  not  only  have  been  of  inestima- 
ble value  to  primeval  man,  but  its  development  was  perhaps  in 
itself  the  factor  which  enabled  the  ancestral  anthropoid  jfinally  to 
abandon  the  quadrupedal  gait,  and  which  freed  his  fore  paws  for 
development  into  the  human  hand.  It  is  strictly  an  attribute  of 
man  alone,  and  is  dependent  not  only  upon  his  more  perfect  foot, 
but  to  an  equal,  or  perhaps  greater  degree  upon  the  extreme 
specialization  of  his  pelvis. 

This  will  be  described  here  entirely  by  comparison  with  those 
of  the  other  animals. 

The  human  pelvis  as  a  whole  is  very  short  and  broad  (Figure  9, 
V,  VI,  and  vii).  Its  external  antero-posterior  diameter^  is  long 
in  proportion  to  the  total  height  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  breadth- 
height  index  of  the  innominates  is  also  high,  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  anthropoids  and  most  other  mammals. 

The  innominates,  in  addition  to  their  high  breadth-height  index, 
possess  distinctively  human  characters  in  their  increased  curva- 
tures, in  the  extreme  development  of  the  anthropoidal  plate,  in  the 
greatly  bent  iliac  axis,  and  in  their  acquisition  of  a  new  and  very 
important  development,  that  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ilium  and 
the  line  of  architectural  strength  which  extends  between  it  and 
the  acetabulum. 

The  specializations  of  the  ilium  are  perhaps  the  most  striking. 
The  great  change  in  the  direction  of  its  axis  (Figure  7,  iv)  must 
be  described  first.  A  full  familiarity  with  this  change  is  essential 
to  any  complete  comprehension  of  the  pelvic  share  in  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  erect  posture,  and  to  an  understanding  of  the  very 
complex  relations  of  the  anthropoidal  plate  (which  forms  the 
whole  iliac  blade)  to  the  rest  of  the  pelvis. 

Although  it  can  be  perceived,  especially  on  the  internal  sur- 
face of  the  bone,  and  by  palpation,  that  the  iliac  axis,  i.e.  the 
line  which  follows  the  center  of  the  triangular  cross  section,  per- 
haps shows  a  trace  of  leaving  the  acetabulum  in  line  with  the 
ischiatic  axis,^  its  course  runs,  almost  from  the  start,  posteriorly 
and  at  almost  a  right  angle  to  the  ischiatic  axis  (Figure  7,  IV) . 

1  Anterior  face  of  symphysis  to  end  of  spinal  process  of  first  sacral  vertebra. 

2  This  is  often  more  apparent  in  the  female  than  in  the  male. 


312  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

This  is  so  important  a  point  that  something  should  be  said  here 
about  the  best  method  of  determining  it. 

In  the  more  primitive  pelves  the  triangularity  of  the  cross 
section  of  the  ilium  is  readily  apparent.  In  the  more  si>ecialized, 
i.e.  in  the  Simiidae  and  especially  in  man,  it  is  less  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  eye,  but  even  in  them  it  can  be  clearly  appreciated 
by  palpation. 

In  man  the  primitive  ventral  edge  is  represented  by  the  iliac 
portion  of  the  ilio-pectineal  line,  and  by  the  anterior  edge  of  the 
articular  surface  which  continues  it.  The  primitive  dorsal  edge 
forms  the  border  of  the  iliac  portion  of  the  so-called  sacro-sciatic 
notch.  The  primitive  external  edge  runs,  as  always,  from  the 
anterior  inferior  to  the  anterior  superior  spine.  It  is  the  fact  that 
this  edge  has  been  carried  so  far  away  from  the  iliac  axis  and  has 
been  turned  so  far  forward  by  the  great  development  of  the 
anthropoidal  plate  which  obscures  the  triangularity  of  cross  sec- 
tion in  the  gorilla  and  man  to  the  eye  of  anyone  who  has  not 
followed  the  successive  steps  in  its  development  among  the  other 
Anthropoidea.  If,  however,  the  thumb  of  one  hand  is  placed  upon 
the  inner  surface  of  the  ilium,  immediately  above  the  acetabulum, 
and  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  other  hand  are  applied  to  the 
internal  and  external  fossae,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  other 
thumb,  the  triangularity  of  cross  section  in  the  shank  is  at  once 
appreciated.  Remembering  that  the  auricular  surface  is  always  a 
part  of  the  primitive  internal  surface,  and  neglecting  the  anthro- 
poidal plate,  i.e.  in  these  pelves  the  whole  blade,  the  triangularity 
of  the  axis  can  then  be  easilv  followed  to  the  crest.^ 

At  first  sight  it  would  often  seem  that  in  the  male  the  axis  was 
bent  upon  itself  to  much  more  than  a  right  angle,  but  if  it  is 
remembered  that  the  axis,  or  line  of  greatest  strength,  lies  in  the 
center  of  the  cross  section,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  greater 
narrowing  of  the  sacro-sciatic  notch  of  the  male  is  formed  by  an 
excessive  flexion  of  the  primitive  posterior  edge  rather  than  of 
the  axis  itself.  The  position  of  the  true  iliac  axis  varies  com- 
paratively little  as  between  the  sexes. 

The  great  width  of  the  blade  is  due  to  the  high  degree  of  de- 
velopment of  the  anthropoidal  plate,  which  extends  from  the  retro- 

1  In  other  words,  tracing  out  the  primitive  external  edge  by  the  baae  line  of  the 
anthropoidal  plate. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE 


313 


11 


in 


IV 


v-t. 


»« 


VI 


Vll 


FIGURE  9 


IV.   GOIIUJl 

V.    MAN 
VI.    MAN 


I.  GIBBON 
II.    ORANG 
III.  CHIMPANZEE 

VII.    MAN 

^u^teral  aa>'inmetry  is  almost  the  rule  in  the  pelves  of  the  Simiidae.  That  it  is  the  left  ilium  that  is 

narrow   in  all  the  first  three  figures  is  a  mere  coincidence. 

*•  The  sacrum  is  incompletely  shown  as  the  drawing  was  made  from  an  articulated  specimen  and 

most  of  the  sacrum  was  hidden  from  the  camera  lucida. 


314  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

flexed  iliac  axis  to  the  anterior  spines.  Its  great  extent,  however, 
is  due  rather  more  to  the  backward  flexion  of  the  axis  than  to  the 
anterior  position  of  the  spines,  although  they  are,  in  fact,  situated 
much  further  forward  than  in  the  anthropoids.  It  must  be  und^- 
stood,  too,  that  its  expansion  is  fan-like,  i.e.  that  its  lines  of  cross 
section  radiate  from  the  curved  axis,  starting  always  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  and  therefore  radiating  apart  from  each  other 
as  they  proceed  towards  the  crest. 

The  crest  is  greatly  developed,  thickened,  strengthened,  and 
increased  in  width.  It  shows  in  full  degree  the  S  curve  which  is 
due  to  the  development  of  the  internal  and  external  iliac  fossae 
and  which  in  developed  form  is  a  human  attribute,  although  it  is 
foreshadowed  in  the  Simiidae  (Figure  9)  and  appears  in  some 
ungulates  (see  Appendix) .  As  a  result  of  this  curve  the  bi-spinal 
diameter  is  always  less  than  the  greatest  bi-iliac,  which  is  typi- 
cally, though  by  no  means  always,  between  the  tuberosities.  The 
anterior  inferior  spine  has  been  shifted  forward  and  inward  along 
the  edge  of  the  acetabulum  and  is  directed  almost  exactly  an- 
teriorly, whereas  in  the  quadrupeds  it  is  external  and  is  directed 
laterally,  and  in  the  Simiidae  it  occupies  an  intermediate  position. 

The  tuberosity  of  the  ilium  is  distinctively  a  human  character- 
istic, although,  as  has  been  said,  a  beginning  tuberosity  is  per- 
ceptible in  many  male  gorillas.  Palpation  will  show  in  all  cases 
that  the  ilium  is  thickened  along  a  line  running  from  the  ace- 
tabulum to  the  tuberosity,  but  this  thickness  and  also  increase  of 
strength  often  persists  in  partial  degree  across  that  segment  of 
the  blade  which  lies  between  its  greatest  development  in  the 
acetabulo-tuberous  line  and  the  anterior  spines. 

The  ischium  as  a  whole  is  short,  and  its  shank  is  very  short. 
The  tuberosity  runs  up  nearly  to  the  edge  of  the  acetabulum  and 
its  surface  for  muscular  attachments  is  largely  on  the  posterior 
aspect  of  the  ischium.  The  spine  of  the  ischium  is  greatly  de- 
veloped, in  correspondence  to  the  extremely  important  function 
of  the  great  sacro-sciatic  ligaments  in  the  attitude  and  gait 
of  man. 

In  the  ischium  of  even  the  most  specialized  pelves  the  trian- 
gularity is  apparent  to  the  eye.  The  primitive  dorsal  edge  is 
easily  identified  by  the  spine  of  the  ischium  which  projects  from 
it,  the  anterior   (primitive  ventral)    edge  is  in  the  obturator 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         315 

foramen,  and  the  external  edge  runs  from  the  acetabulum  to  the 
tuberosity. 

The  acetabular  ramus  of  the  pubis  is  strong  and  has  a  much 
more  fully  developed  triangularity  of  cross  section  than  in  the 
anthropoids,  although  it  is  in  them  more  easily  recognized  on 
account  of  the  less  complex  shape  of  the  ramus. 

This  triangularity  in  the  pubes  is  rare  and  is  limited  to  small 
groups  in  the  other  orders.  The  edge  of  the  foramen  corresponds 
to  the  primitive  dorsal  and  the  pectineal  line  is  the  primitive 
ventral  edge.  The  external  runs  from  the  acetabular  opening  to 
the  spine  of  the  pubis.  The  symphysis  is  short  and  broad. 

The  sacrum  is  extremely  broad  in  proportion  to  its  length  but 
its  external  or  posterior  surface  is  narrow  as  compared  with  the 
internal.  Its  spinous  processes  are  much  reduced  in  prominence, 
and  the  arches  may  even  be  diastemic.  It  is  distinguished  from 
other  sacra  by  the  great  antero-posterior  depth  of  the  first  ver- 
tebra, which,  with  a  similar  condition  in  the  fifth  lumbar,  forms 
the  promontory. 

The  mechanical  relations  which  are  dependent  upon  these 
altered  proportions  of  the  human  pelvis  are  of  great  interest. 
They  must  be  considered  both  from  the  norma  lateralis  and  norma 
Arerticalis,  and  in  their  relation  to  the  pelvio-femoral  and  to  the 
pelvio-corporeal  muscles. 

The  direction  of  the  sacral  axis  is  thrown  considerably  back- 
ward by  the  formation  of  the  promontory  and  lumbar  curve.  This 
combines  with  the  bend  in  the  iliac  axis  to  throw  the  ischium  also 
backward,  and  places  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  in  a  posterior 
position  which  could  otherwise  be  obtained  only  by  a  long 
metischial  process.^  The  pubis  is  also,  of  course,  rotated  down- 

1  The  effect  of  these  changes  upon  the  sacro- iliac  synchondrosis  is  very  interesting.  In 
primitive  pelves  the  iliac  surface  of  the  synchondrosis  runs  along  the  primitive  internal 
surface  cephalo-caudally.  or  at  most,  slightly  cephalo-dorsally.  In  the  more  specialized 
quadrupeds  the  angle  of  its  direction  varies  considerably,  but  it  runs,  in  general,  in  a 
oephalo -dorsal  direction. 

In  the  Simiidae  iia  upper  (i.e.  cephalad)  part  runs  cephalo-caudally  along  the  primi- 
tive ventral  edge  (Plate  1),  but  the  lower  part  turns  to  run  cephalo-dorsally  across  the 
primitive  internal  surface  to  the  primitive  dorsal  edge. 

In  man  the  upper  part  runs  in  the  primitive  direction  (i.e.  in  that  which  with  a 
straight  axis  would  be  cephalo- caudal)  along  the  primitive  ventral  edge,  while  the  lower 
part  has  increased  the  curve  and  change  of  direction  which  exists  in  the  Simiidae  so 
greatly  that,  after  crossing  to  the  primitive  dorsal  edge,  it  often  ends  by  running  along 
that  edge  in  a  direction  which  is  the  reverse  of  the  primitive,  i.e.  caudo-oephalad. 
The  writer  believes  that  this  change  has  a  probable  bearing  on  the  conflict  between  the 


f^       THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 
'■Td,  and  the  anterior  Buperior  spines  of  the  ilium  are  thrown 

■ward. 

The  position  assumed  by  the  whole  pelvis  in  the  erect  position 
varies  coDsiderably  in  different  individuals  and  its  mean  has 
ne\-er  been  satisfactorily  deternained  for  either  sex,  but  the  con-     | 
ventional  positiou,  in  which  the  pubi.s  and  the  anterior  superior     I 
spines  of  the  ilium  are  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  will  be  assumed 
for  the  purposes  of  this  paper  as  approximately  correct.' 

The  changes  in  the  constructional  architecture  of  the  itmomi- 
nates  which  follow  these  changes  of  shape  and  directioa  are  also 
important. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  more  primitiv-e  mammalB  the 
architectural  strength  of  the  pelvis  is  mainly  concentrated  in  the 
approximately  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis,  with  the  average  posi- 
tion of  the  femur  at  about  a  right  angle  thereto  (Figure  31 ;  also 
that  in  the  Simiidae  the  chief  lines  of  strength  are  distributed  in 
somewhat  the  shape  of  an  inverted  Y,  and  with  the  line  of  the 
femur  between  the  tails  of  the  Y,  In  the  human  pelvis  the  appear- 
ance of  the  new  acetabulo-tuberous  line  of  strength  and  the  much 
increased  bend  in  the  iliac  axis  give  to  the  architecture  of  the 
pelvis  a  mechanical  construction  which  may  be  fairly  represented 
by  an  X  with  its  arms  ver\'  nearly  at  right  angles  and  with  the  I 
lice  of  [otce  ot  the  extended  lemur  lying  between  the  lower  arms  ' 
of  the  X  •  (Figures  2  and  7) . 

When  viewed  from  the  norma  lateralis,  it  may  perhaps  be  more 
satisfactorily  compared  to  a  wheel,  with  the  acetabulum  then 
representing  the  hub;  the  four  pelvic  arms  or  lines  of  strength, 
the  spokes;  while  the  iliac  crest,  the  pubo-ischiatic  ramus,  the 


1  the  newt 

«ry  1 

irovision.  for  tha 

IS  quMtion 

.  ot  th 

e  lelatioiu  of  Um 

pelvii  to  Isbor  within  th*  limiU  ot  thie  irticlo.  All  tha 

t  mn  Iw  f 

laid  h( 

irg  iii  that  eondi- 

DUlatId 

firm,  »nd  M  Iho  same  time  capuble  of  adaptjilion  lu  pa 

be  coDiidcrni  u  though  it  vfte.  in  truth,  atniaht.    The  small  allowanca  which  ahould  b* 

neglected.  In  the  movemenli  of  rotation  of  the  limb  the  ellect  eieited  by  tlie  eiiitcnoi 
of  the  neck  ii,  however,  all -important,  but  will  be  Kl[-evident. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         317 

sacrum,  and  the  ligaments  which  fill  in  the  gaps  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  rim.^  The  thinner  sheets,  of  bone  and  the  fasciae  fill 
in  the  spaces  between  the  spokes  and  bind  the  whole  structure 
together. 

The  lengths  of  the  power  arms  of  the  levers  which  this  arrange- 
ment gives  to  the  muscles  that  govern  the  antero-posterior 
movements  of  the  extended  femur  (Figure  3)  should  be  especially 
noted.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  these  advantages  in 
leverage  apply  equally  well  to  the  similar  movements  of  the  pelvis 
upon  the  femur,  in  the  management  of  the  positions  of  the  trunk. 

When  the  human  pelvis  is  viewed  from  the  norma  verticalis 
the  contrast  which  it  offers  to  tho§e  of  the  Simiidae  is  again  great 
(Figure  8) . 

The  great  extent  of  the  human  anthropoidal  plate  and  its  crest, 
with  the  forward  and  even  inward  curvature  which  the  crest 
shows  as  it  nears  the  anterior  superior  spine,  is  particularly 
important. 

It  will  be  seen  later  that  these  changes  give  to  the  pelvio- 
corporeal  muscles  greatly  extended  origins  and  constantly  in- 
creased power,  as  well  as  very  direct  action.  From  a  mechanical 
standpoint  the  crests  are  continued  to  the  pubes  by  Poupart's 
ligaments;  and  both  the  great  lateral  width  and  the  antero- 
posterior depth,  which  this  whole  arrangement  gives  to  the  upper 
edge  of  the  pelvis,  are  equally  noteworthy. 

The  mechanical  advantages  which  these  various  changes  in 
the  shape,  dimensions,  and  construction  of  the  human  pelvis 
give  to  both  the  pelvio-femoral  and  pelvio-corporeal  muscles  will 
now  be  discussed  in  detail  and  in  order,  as  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  an  analysis  of  the  human  balance  and  gait. 

The  relationship  of  the  altered  shape  of  the  human  pelvis  to 
the  management  of  the  extended  femur  in  the  movements  of  ex- 
tension, flexion,  abduction,  adduction,  and  rotation  will  be  taken 
first.  The  similar  movements  of  the  trunk  will  follow. 

Since,  however,  a  discussion  of  the  action  of  each  muscle  would 
involve  a  very  great  complexity  and  a  great  amount  of  space, 
they  will  be  treated  in  the  text  merely   from  the  aspect  of 

1  As  attachments  for  muscles,  the  sacro-sciatic  and  Poupart's  ligaments  are  quite  as 
satisfactory  as  bone,  more  especially  since  Poupart's  ligament  is  reinforced  by  the  inguinal 
fascia  and  Gimbemat's  ligament.  Some  initial  trace  of  Poupart's  ligament  is  also  present 
in  the  gorilla.  Keith,  1028,  Potture  of  Man, 


818  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

their  Fesultants  as  groups,  rather  than  as  wn^e  muscles. 
Beferences  to  individual  muscles  wiU,  as  a  rule,  be  giv^i  in  foot- 
notes. 

The  group  of  muscles  which  extend  the  fonur  arise  mainly 
from  the  ischiatic  spokes  and  from  the  rim  and  surface  of  the 
posterior  quadrant  of  the  wheel,  as  seen  from  the  norma  lateralis. 
Each  of  them  evidently  gains  power  over  the  extended  femur 
from  the  (human)  dorsal  situation  of  its  origin.^ 

The  flexor  muscles  differ  somewhat  in  the  situations  of  their 
origins,  but  depend  for  the  most  part  upon  the  position  of  tiie 
pubic.spoke.  They  gain  similar  advantages  from  the  great  antero- 
posterior depth  of  the  pelvis  and  from  the  forward  rotation  of 
the  free  ilium.* 

Abduction  of  the  thigh  is  chiefly  performed  by  the  glutei  medius 
and  minimus.  From  the  great  lateral  expansion  of  the  iliac  blade 
in  man  their  origins  lie,  in  him,  directly  above  their  insertions  into 
the  great  trochanter,  and  this  gives  them  a  very  direct  abductive 
action  as  compared  with  that  of  the  apes.  Their  dse  also  in- 
creases from  the  increased  space  afforded  for  their  origins.  They 
are  still  small  muscles,  but  the  greatest  importance  of  the  motion 
of  abduction  is  perhaps  that  of  placing  the  limb  in  position  for 
the  action  of  the  extensors  in  man's  lateral  spring,  and  for  that, 
no  more  powerful  group  is  needed. 

The  adductors  gain  power  from  the  widely  lateral  situation  of 
the  human  acetabula.  This  is  of  real  importance  in  many  of  our 
activities  and  chiefiy  perhaps  in  their  contribution  to  the  very 

1  In  particular,  the  backward  position  of  the  sacrum  and,  consequently,  of  the  sacro- 
sciatic  ligaments,  gives  great  power  and  a  direct  backward  pull  to  the  gluteus  maximus, 
and  the  position  of  the  origins  of  the  hamstrings  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  pos- 
teriorly situated  ischium  gives  to  these  muscles  also  an  advantage  towards  complete 
extension  of  the  femur,  which  is  distinctively  human. 

2  The  forward  position  of  the  anterior  superior  spines  of  the  ilium,  which  they  obtain 
both  from  the  forward  extension  of  the  crest  and  from  the  promontorial  rotation  of  the 
pelvis  as  a  whole,  gives  to  the  sartorius  a  long  power  arm  for  its  flexor  action  upon  the 
extended  femur.  This  the  much  more  powerful  sartorius  of  the  quadrupeds  entirely  lacks, 
as  a  result  of  the  merely  lateral  position  of  their  anterior  superior  spines  and  the  conse- 
quent lack  of  any  anteriorly  directed  power  arm  when  the  femur  is  fully  extended.  The 
great  psoas-iliacus  flexor  runs,  after  passing  in  front  of  the  pectineal  eminence,  strongly 
backward  to  its  insertion  in  the  femur.  The  forward  position  of  the  pubis  which  is  de- 
rived from  the  great  length  of  the  external  sagittal  diameter  gives  to  the  adductor  group 
of  muscles  which  are  attached  to  it  a  degree  of  flexor  power  which  is  again  distinctively 
human;  i.e.  with  the  abductor  muscles  and  those  of  external  rotation  in  resistance,  the 
great  adductor  group,  and  especially  the  adductor  magnus,  exerts  upon  the  extended  femur 
in  man  an  extremely  powerful  flexor  action  which  is  comparatively  slight  in  other 
animals. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE  319 

important  lateral  flexions  of  the  whole  structure,  which  are  essen- 
tial to  balance,  as  will  be  seen. 

External  rotation  of  the  thigh  is  a  movement  of  much  more 
importance  than  is  usually  attributed  to  it,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
analysis  of  the  gait  of  man.  All  the  muscles  which  effect  it  are 
inserted  upon  the  great  trochanter,  or  its  immediate  neighbor- 
hood, and  consequently  depend  for  their  power  upon  the  fact  that 
the  position  of  the  trochanter  is  well  to  the  outside  of  the  line  of 
rotation  of  the  femur,  the  straight  line  between  the  bearing  sur- 
faces of  its  head  and  condyles,  but  they  obtain  their  very  direct 
action  upon  the  trochanter  in  man  from  the  fact  that  their  origins 
are  carried  far  posterior  by  the  backward  positions  of  the  ischium 
and  sacrum.^ 

It  will  be  seen  that  internal  rotation  of  the  thigh  is  in  the 
gait  of  man  merely  a  movement  of  recovery  of  the  position  of 
t.he  limb  unapposed  by  any  load.  Its  muscles  require  no  great 
power  and  need  not  be  enumerated  here. 

In  studying  the  mechanical  advantages  which  the  peculiarities 
of  the  human  pelvis  give  to  man  in  the  very  important  matter 
of  the  balance  of  the  erect  trunk  upon  the  pelvis  as  controlled 
by  the  pelvio-corporeal  muscles,  we  must  also  consider  the  pelvic 
shape  from  the  norma  verticalis,  or  perhaps  for  the  moment,  from 
the  plane  of  the  superior  strait.  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  crests 
^nd  their  ligamentous  extensions  form  a  complete  oval  for  the 
attachment  of  the  muscles  which  control  the  trunk.  Compare  their 
Jhuman  and  anthropoid  shapes  (Figure  9). 

The  antero-posterior  extensions  and  flexions,  the  lateral  ex- 
fc-ensions  and  flexions,  and  the  torsions  of  the  trunk  upon  the 
elvis  will  be  considered  in  that  order. 

The  pelvio-corporeal  extensors  of  the  trunk  obtain  a  great 

dvantage  from  the  formation  of  the  promontory  and  the  lumbar 

tirve.  They  have,  indeed,  a  quite  different  mechanical  action  in 

an  from  that  which  they  exert  in  the  other  animals,  more  espe- 

ally  in  their  effect  upon  the  lumbar  and  dorsal  spine. 


1  This  motion  is  performed  by  a  large  group  of  powerful  muAcIes.  The  lower  portion 

oC   the  gluteus  maximus  and  the  posterior  fibres  of  the  medius  and  even  of  the  minimus 

K^^Ay  a  considerable  part  in  it,  while  the  pyriformis,  obturator  intemus,  both  gemelli,  and 

^^«  quadratus  femoris  have  this  as  their  main  function.  (Note  that  even  in  the  case  of 

'tl&c  obturator  and  gemelli  the  direction  of  the  strain  is  determined  by  the  position  of  the 

^■cJiium.) 


k 


320  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

In  all  ihe  animals  witii  posterior  convexities  of  the  lumbar 
spine  and  comparatively  straight  sacra,  the  leverage  from  which 
the  muscles  obtain  their  power  is  derived  mainly  from  thdr  origins 
and  insertions  upon  the  long  and  strong  spinous  processes  of  the 
sacral  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  which  act  as  strong  power  arms  in 
tilting  the  vertebrae.  In  man  the  lumbar  concavity,  increased 
as  it  is  by  the  backward  direction  of  the  sacrum,  gives  to  the 
erector  spinas  group  scnnewhat  the  action  of  a  bowstring.  It  is 
true  that  the  erector  spinas  group  as  a  whole  is  bound  down  to 
the  lumbar  curve  by  fascia,  but  the  effect  of  this  transverse  bind- 
ing is  closely  comparable  to  that  of  the  annular  ligament  in  the 
wrist.  It  makes  for  ccmipactness  and  does  not  greatly  diminish 
the  resultant  power  exerted  by  the  whole  muscle  from  that  which 
would  exist  if  it  ran  straight  across  ihe  concavity  upon  which 
it  acts.^  The  spinous  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  persist 
and  are  still  advantageous  to  the  deeper  fibres,  but  the  great  and 
strong  sacral  spinous  processes  which  exist  in  so  many  of  the 
other  animals  are  no  longer  necessary,  tiieir  function  being  taken 
up  by  the  bowstring  action.  They  are  in  man  evidently  involuting.* 

Since  even  in  the  erect  position  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
trunk  is  always  anterior  to  the  acetabula,  the  anterior  flexions 
are  usually  assisted  by  gravity.  The  muscles  which  perform  them 
are  a  powerful  group  in  all  the  other  animals,  and  are  but  little 
altered  in  their  action  in  man.* 

The  muscles  which  effect  lateral  flexions  of  the  trunk  origi- 
nate wholly,  or  in  part,  from  the  crests  of  the  ilia  and  gain  long 
power  arms  from  the  great  lateral  expansion  of  the  crests,*  but 

1  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  sacro-spinalis,  the  longisaimus  dorsi,  and,  in  fact, 
all  the  superficial  portions  of  the  muscle  run  from  end  to  end  of  the  concavity. 

2  In  many  sacra  those  of  the  upper  vertebrae  are  still  present  in  size  sufficient  to  sug- 
gest some  functional  value,  but  the  spinous  processes  of  the  lower  vertebrae  are  rarely 
prominent,  and  often  vestigial;  their  entire  disappearance  and  a  diastemic  condition  of 
the  arches  at  either  end,  or  even  throughout,  is  indeed  not  unconunon.  This  condition  may 
probably  be  regarded  as  representing  merdy  an  excess  in  the  variability  which  is  so  com- 
mon in  all  involuting  organs. 

3  The  recti  abdominis  originate  from  the  crests  of  the  pubes,  and  in  so  far  as  their 
action  is  concerned,  the  greater  antero- posterior  depth  of  the  human  p^vis  is  probably 
about  compensated  for  by  the  backward  rotation  of  the  pubis,  which  is  produced  by  the 
formation  of  the  promontor>''  and  lumbar  curve.  They  are  assisted  by  the  middle  fibres  of 
the  external  obliques,  which  originate  from  the  inner  lips  of  the  crests  at  about  the 
tuberosities,  and  when  employed  bilaterally  exert  together  a  moderate  amotmt  of  flexor 
action.  They  undoubtedly  do  obtain  some  advantage  from  the  forward  extension  of  the 
crests. 

4  When  one  erector  spinae  is  in  relaxation  and  the  other  in  contraction  they  are,  of 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         321 

it  will  be  seen  later  that  in  any  erect  bipedal  position  these  very 
frequent  and  important  adjustments  of  attitude  usually  involve 
coordinate  and  simultaneous  action  of  the  trunk  and  femurs.  In 
the  lateral  flexions  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  the  motion  of  one  femur 
is  of  course  that  of  abduction;  of  the  other,  that  of  adduction. 

When  this  whole  process  is  considered  as  one  action  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  muscular  force  which  pro- 
duces it  ^  originates  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  acetabulo-tuberous 
line  of  strength,  which  has  probably  been  developed  partly  in 
resistance  to  the  stresses  so  exerted. 

All  the  pelvio-corporeal  muscles  are,  of  course,  bilaterally 
duplicated,  and  the  varying  torsions  of  the  trunk,  which  are  fre- 
quent and  necessary  elements  of  balance  in  many  of  man's  erect 
bipedal  activities,  are  effected  by  contraction  of  one  muscle  of 
each  pair  with  simultaneous  relaxation  of  the  other.^ 

A  very  little  reconsideration  of  the  preceding  paragraphs  will 
readily  show  that  all  the  muscles  which  are  involved  in  these  com- 
bined movements  obtain  important  mechanical  advantages  from 
their  attachment  to  the  strongly  constructed,  widespread,  and, 
with  the  ligaments,  completed  oval  of  the  upper  rim  of  the  human 
pelvis,  as  seen  from  the  norma  verticalis.  It  is  the  perfect  control 
of  lateral  balance  that  is  so  obtained  which  gives  man  the  power 
to  stand,  walk,  and  run  with  his  knees  and  feet  close  together,  and 
with,  in  consequence,  the  great  advantage  of  a  directly  antero- 
posterior movement  of  his  legs  in  walking  and  running. 

A  comparative  analysis  of  the  bipedal  attitude  and  gait  of 
man  and  the  great  apes  in  the  light  of  observed  facts  about  bi- 
pedal balance  is  the  final  step  in  estimating  the  importance  of 
the  human  pelvic  specializations. 

The  writer's  studies  of  balance  have  shown  that  there  is  a  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  position  of  the  human  center  of  gravity 
in  different  individuals  in  the  standing  position,  but  that  each  in- 


course,  acting  as  muscles  of  lateral  flexion,  but  their  most  powerful  portions  for  this 
action  are  to  be  found  in  the  longissimi  dorsi,  which,  in  man,  arise  from  the  posterior  parte 
of  the  crests.  The  quadratus  lumborum  and  external  oblique  also  arise  from  the  crests 
and  exert  a  direct  action  both  in  the  maintenance  of  lateral  equilibrium  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  lateral  flexion. 

1  That  of  the  abdominal  obliques  and  of  the  abductors  of  the  femur. 

2  The  latissimi  dorsi  and  the  obliques  of  the  abdominal  wall  are  probably  the  chief 
factors  in  torsion  of  the  trunk  upon  the  pelvis,  but  the  action  of  some  of  the  deeper 
portions  of  the  erectores  spinae  must  not  be  forgotten. 


822 


'  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  FELVK 


dividual  teiuli  to  iii*int*in  his  individual  ponfum  of  the  octfv 
of  gravity  with  a  sarprini«  degree  of  axai^tnde,  in  ^ote  rf  th 
aeBumption  of  many  difTerent  attitudes  (Hlguie  10)>  Wfaai  vj 
ehsnge  of  attitude  oarriee  a  portion  of  tlie  body  furthv  to  iw 


FiaURB  10 

Th 

WhJKt 

■tsn 

!•   on   a  muLh 

me  w 

aU 

■  the  po 

ind 

ated  bv  the  V 

ertial  line.  Th 

figur. 

du«d  (rom 

p™lo  pholojre 

ph  in 

e  di> 

» 

ally  in 

iixle 

outline,   io  It. 

e  two 

side  of  the  perpendicular  dropped  from  the  habitual  center  of 
gravity,  another  portion  of  the  body  is  always  carried  to  the 
opposite  side  to  a  distance  just  sufficient  to  maintain  the  center  in 
the  same  position.  The  movement  of  the  buttocks  backward  in 
compensation  of  the  forward  position  of  the  head  and  shoulder? 

1  Reynold*  a. 
o/  GnvUv  i 


and   Lovelt,  l»M.  A  Method  of  Dtt,^ 

ii>ir>(r 

he  Peitiion  of  Iht  CerOrt 

•  Rtialim  In  Certain  Bmy  Landmark, 

ErttI  Poiition:   ■■»,   1W(, 

I  Sludu  a!  Ctrlam  PhaK,  o/  ChtonU  B 

Kkach 

*.  pp.  I0M-104S. 

IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         323 

is  shown  in  the  figure.  Anyone  can  easily  observe  the  effect  of 
lateral  flexion  in  his  own  person.  If  he  will  stand  between  a  mirror 
and  any  vertical  line,  such  as  the  edge  of  a  door  casing,  and  will 
then  flex  his  body  laterally,  he  will  see  that  his  hips  are  always 
thrown  to  the  left  as  the  head  and  shoulders  move  to  the  right, 
or  vice  versa.  He  will  easily  be  able  to  judge  that  the  movement 
is  exactly  compensatory,  as  it  has  in  fact  been  shown  to  be  by 
many  observations  upon  the  machine.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind 
throughout  all  comparisons  of  the  attitudes  of  the  apes  and  man. 

When  any  animal  other  than  man  attempts  a  bipedal  attitude 
or  gait,  its  feet  and  knees  are  held  wide  apart,  its  hind  limbs  are 
in  partial  flexion  throughout,  its  buttocks  are  well  behind,  and 
its  head  and  shoulders  correspondingly  in  advance  of  the  vertical 
position  of  the  center  of  gravity,  which  in  the  standing  position  of 
any  animal  is  undoubtedly  kept  at  a  point  not  far  from  the 
center  of  its  base  of  support.  There  are  two  reasons  for  its  re- 
striction to  this  imperfectly  erect  posture. 

In  the  first  place,  the  lateral  spread  of  the  feet  and  knees 
widens  the  base  of  support  and  makes  lateral  balance  easy.  The 
animal  is  thus  able  to  maintain  it  and  even  to  execute  lateral 
swaying  motions  without  overdoing  them,  in  spite  of  the  im- 
perfect leverages  and  the  small  size  of  the  attachments  which 
are  afforded  to  the  muscles  governing  these  movements  by  its 
comparatively  ill  developed  anthropoidal  plate. 

In  the  second  place,  it  is  forced  to  adhere  to  a  semi-erect  antero- 
posterior position  by  the  fact  that  this  is  the  nearest  approach 
to  an  erect  posture  in  which  the  muscles  attached  to  its  pelvis 
have  effective  control  of  the  femur  under  either  the  quadrupedal 
or  semi-quadrupedal  (anthropoidal)  arrangements  of  the  pelvic 
architecture.^ 

The  walking  gait  of  all  such  animals  is  rendered  waddling, 
awkward,  and  ineffective  by  two  factors  which  are  due  to  this 
attitude ;  first,  the  widely  separated  position  of  the  feet  compels 
it  at  each  step  to  sway  the  body  strongly  towards  the  foot  which 
is  to  remain  on  the  ground  before  raising  the  other,  in  order  to 
avoid  a  lateral  fall;  second,  for  the  same  reason,  the  advancing 

1  Bonn  tag,  in  The  Morphology  and  Evolution  of  the  Apes  and  Man,  thinks  that  the 
wide  fascial  attachments  of  certain  of  the  posterior  muscles  of  the  thigh  probably  also 
limit  extension  at  the  knee  in  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla. 


324  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUNL\N  PELVIS  j 

inee  must  move  in  the  are  of  a  circle  instead  of  in  an  antero- 

isterior  line.  These  are  the  characteristics  of  the  gait  which  4 
)elonge  to  the  anthropoid  stage  of  pelvic  advancement. 

Man  has  developed  a  pelvis  with  leverages  which  permit  him 
to  manage  his  legs  accurately  in  a  position  of  full  extension.  His 
legs  have  become  straight  and  columnar.  His  pelvic  leverages,  as 
already  enumerated,  are  sufficiently  developed  to  give  him  also  a 
quick  and  accurate  control  of  the  fully  erected  trunk  upon  the  . 
pelvis.  He  stands,  walks,  and  nms  with  his  feet  and  knees  close 
together,  with  his  body  swaying  but  little  laterally,  and  with  all 
the  force  of  his  muscles  available  for  an  almost  directly  antero-  ( 
posterior  stride.  . 

He  is  also  able  to  change  the  direction  of  his  run  at  any  moment 
from  a  bipedal  attitude,  and  lie  is  capable  of  either  an  antero-  I 
posterior  or  lateral  leap,  during  which  both  feet  are  clear  of  the 
ground.   These   are   powers   which    are   not  possessed   by    any 
anthropoid. 

His  ability  to  do  all  this  with  so  high  a  center  of  gravity  and   ' 
BO  email  a  base  of  support  is  in  part  due  to  his  bettar  contool  of 
body  balance,  and  in  part  to  his  improved  feet,  which  will  be  re- 
f  ored  to  lata. 

In  his  standii^c  attitude  tiie  center  of  gravity  of  his  tnmk  is, 
as  has  been  SMd,  anterior  to  the  acetabula,  and  bis  maintenance  of 
body  balance  must  therefore  be  maintained  by  some  tension  upon 
the  extensors.  His  weight  is,  however,  sustained  by  a  direct  thrust 
upon  the  bones  of  his  columnar  legs,  and  this  with  the  very  nearly 
erect  position  of  his  trunk  reduces  to  a  minimum  the  force  which 
is  required  to  maintain  the  attitude.  Moreover,  the  long  power 
arms  which  are  supplied  to  the  extensor  muscles  of  both  his 
back  and  thigh  by  his  pelvic  developments  and  patella  enable 
the  extensor  muscles  to  supply  this  minimum  of  force  with  a 
second  minimum  of  contractile  effort  in  either  the  body  or  thigh; 
hence  his  easy  endurance  of  this  position. 

His  rapid  bipedal  locomotion,  his  ability  to  change  its  direction, 
and  his  lateral  spring  are  all  greatly  aided  by  the  large  size  and 
advantageous  situation  of  the  group  of  muscles  which  govern  and 
produce  the  motion  of  external  rotation  of  the  femur.  The  value 
and  relationships  of  this  very  important  motion  have  been  much 
underestimated.  They  must  now  be  considered  in  detail. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         325 

The  chief  element  in  bipedal  progression  is,  of  course,  furnished 
by  the  extensors  of  the  whole  limb,  but  in  man  at  full  speed  the 
stride  finishes  and  obtains  its  final  and  crowning  impetus  of  force 
by  a  combined  movement  of  external  rotation  of  the  straightened 
limb  and  of  extension  of  the  foot. 

In  change  of  direction  of  the  run,  and  in  the  lateral  spring,  the 
center  of  gravity  is  shifted  towards  the  new  direction  by  lateral 
flexion  of  the  trunk  (quick  and  powerful  pelvio-corporeal  mus- 
cles) ,  and  the  leg  from  which  the  lateral  movement  is  to  originate 
reaches  the  ground  in  flexion  and  in  a  position  of  abduction  (from 
the  acetabular  joint).  This  element  in  the  action  of  the  limb  is 
of  extreme  importance.  The  extensors  of  the  thigh  and  leg  are 
then,  of  course,  the  chief  agents  in  the  subsequent  spring,  but 
from  the  early  moment  at  which  the  heel  leaves  the  ground,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  spring,  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  external 
rotation  become  not  only  essential  to  its  continuance,  but  an 
important  element  in  its  force  and  speed. 

A  single  experiment  with  the  lateral  spring  in  his  own  person 
will  convince  anyone  of  the  importance  of  the  combined  move- 
ment of  external  rotation  and  extension  of  the  foot  in  this  all- 
important  action. 

Conceive  primeval  man  in  the  act  of  receiving  the  charge  of  a 
dangerous  animal  or  pursuing  agile  prey,  and  without  effective 
missile  weapons. 

Two  facts  about  this  combined  movement  remain  for 
consideration. 

It  is  of  value  to  either  antero-posterior  or  lateral  progression 
only  when  the  limb  is  wholly,  or  nearly  extended,  and  chiefly  when 
it  is  synchronous  with  extension  of  the  ankle.^ 

The  spring  which  initiates  lateral  movement,  either  in  the  run 
or  from  a  standing  position,  is,  of  necessity,  always  executed  with 
the  limb  in  an  abducted  position.  In  this  position  of  the  limb  the 
hallux  and  first  metatarsal  are  the  only  portion  of  the  foot  which 
are  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  the  spring  is  taken  from 
them  alone. 

It  seems  probable,  then,  that  these  several  human  character- 

1  A  little  thought  will  show  that  in  the  flexed  position  of  the  limb  the  rotational 
power  of  the  muscles  is  at  a  minimum,  but  any  attempt  at  a  full  exposition  of  the  action 
and  interaction  of  even  a  few  of  the  muscular  groups  which  are  involved  in  the  main- 
tenance of  the  erect  position  and  gait  would  require  a  large  volume  for  its  expression. 


I 


326  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  FELVIS 

istida,  namely,  the  pelvic  changea  which  give  power  to  the  a 
aon  and  extmis]  rotators,  the  oolmnnsr  le^  and  the  ] 
pontion,  length,  and  etroigth  of  the  fint  metatarsal,  ooenrred  eoiw 
temporaneously,  and  by  synchronoua  stages  of  development. 

It  seems  probable,  too,  that  they  occurred  at  a  time  which  was 
antecedent  to  the  speciaiiiations  for  grasping  which  characteriie  * 
the  feet  of  all  the  existing  Simiidae.* 

The  study  of  the  devebpment  of  the  human  foot  is  not  strietly 
germane  to  the  subject  of  this  paper,  but  since  the  pelvic  develop- 
ments may  have  some  bearing  upon  the  vexed  question  of  the 
relationship  between  man  and  the  several  genera  of  the  anthropoid 
apes,  it  se^ns  proper  that  the  paper  should  not  be  dosed  without 
eome  reference  to  that  subject. 

The  chimpansee^iorills  stem  is  generally  considered  to  be 
nearest  that  of  the  Hominidae,  but  the  ^parently  much,  and 
really  somewhat  more  perfect,  erect  gait  of  the  gibbon,  in  otMO- 
bination  perhaps  with  the  eharaoteristics  of  the  Fithecantim^us 
femur,  have  led  stnne  authorities  to  a  belief  that  tiie  common 
ancestor  was  fvobably  a  very  laige  gibbon,  or  more  properly,  a 
large  {pbboD-like  animal. 

It  is  the  writer's  belief  tiiat  all  the  locomotive  skeletal  spe- 
cialisations of  the  gibbon  can  be  traced  to  his  assumption  of 
a  very  active  arboreal  life  among  the  smaller  branches,  for  which 
small  size  and  light  weight  are  absolutely  essential,  and  to  his 
acquirement  of  the  capacity  for  quite  complete  extension  of  both 
the  trunk  and  limbs  which  has  been  incidental  to  his  brachiating 
habits. 

It  seems  quite  unlikely,  on  the  one  hand,  that  complete  brachia- 
tion  and  the  development  of  the  specializations  towards  exten- 
sion which  are  appropriate  to  it  could  have  been  attained  by  an 
animal  whose  greater  weight  limited  him  to  the  lower  branches. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  at  least  equally  improbable  that  an  animal 
which  had  acquired  security  from  enemies  and  success  in  the 
pursuit  of  food  by  the  development  of  great  brachial  activity 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         327 

among  the  upper  branches  would  ever  be  led  to  resort  habitually 
to  the  more  dangerous  terrestrial  life,  or  to  undergo  a  giantism 
which  would  shut  him  out  from  the  habitat  in  which  he  is  so  con- 
spicuously successful.  When  all  the  other  differences  between  the 
gibbon  and  man  are  taken  into  account  their  common  ancestry 
becomes  probably  very  remote. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  existing  chimpanzees  and  gorillas  have 
obtained  about  the  same  degree  of  pelvic  development  and  bipedal 
capacity  as  a  result  of  their  long  arms  and  semi-quadrupedal 
terrestrial  activity.  An  ancestor  common  to  them  and  man  would 
be  as  well  equipped  for  the  development  of  further  bipedal  ac- 
tivity as  any  gibbon-like  animal.  He  would  probably  be  already 
large  enough  to  be  restricted  to  the  larger  branches,  which  afford 
far  less  food  than  is  accessible  to  the  lighter  arboreal  animals. 
He  would  therefore  be  likely  to  be  at  least  partly  terrestrial  in  his 
habits,  from  his  semi-quadrupedal  activity  would  have  already 
acquired  about  the  same  degree  of  pelvic  and  locomotive  develop- 
ment, and  would  be  already  quite  capable  of  taking  care  of 
himself  upon  the  ground. 


CONCLUSIONS 

In  eonclnsioii  tlie  writer  thmks: 

1.  That  a  eapacHgr  for  habitual  ereeticm  of  the  tninki  even 
upon  a  etataonaiy  baee  of  support^  is  dependent  upon  a  lateral 
expansion  of  the  iliao  blades  such  as  is  provided  1^  tiie  anthro- 
poidal  plate.  This  plate,  cat  ito  equiyalrat,  is,  in  fact,  pres^it  in 
all  animals  which  have  such  a  habit 

2.  That  a  capacity  for  haUtual  alternate,  erect,  bipedal  pro- 
gresssion  is  d^endent  upon  the  poflseasion  of  a  plantar  tread, 
a  well  develqpkl  anthropoidal  plate,  and,  in  addition,  a  power  of 
using  the  femur  in  an  extoided  position.  Further,  that  the  exten- 
sion of  the  f  onur  and  ito  adequate  control  in  that  position  is  pri- 
marily dependent  on  the  additional  development  of  advantageous 
leverages  in  the  ischium  and  pubes. 

8.  That  the  degree  of  bipedal  progression  which  is  possessed 
Iqr  the  Simiidae  andcertain  Ursidae  is  afforded  to  them  by  their 
acquisition  of  a  mdderately  well  developed  set  of  the  above  men- 
tioned specialisations,  but  is  limited  h;f  their  retention  of  the 
quadrupedal,  long,  aiMi  nearly  straight  ilio-ischiatic  axis  and  the 
quadrupedal  lengUi-breadtii-depth  proportions  of  the  pelvis, 
which  are  necessary  to  their  preponderantiy  quadrupedal  habito. 

4.  That  man's  general  bipedal  activity  is  dependent  on  his  well 
developed  plantar  feet,  his  excellent  control  of  the  antero- 
posterior and  lateral  balance  of  his  erected  trunk,  and  his  very 
perfect  control  of  his  pelvic  limbs  when  they  are  in  a  position  of 
complete  extension.  Further,  that  these  latter  superiorities  of 
man  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  changes  in  the  shape  and  pro- 
portions of  his  pelvis  have  resulted  in  placing  its  most  advan- 
tageous leverages  in  resultants  of  position,  which  lie  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  his  trunk  and  to  that  of  his  fully  extended 
legs  (Figure  3) ,  in  contrast  to  the  quadrupedal  arrangement,  in 
which  the  best  pelvic  leverages  lie  very  nearly  in  the  lateral  plane 
which  contains  the  axis  of  the  trunk. 

5.  That  the  individual  specializations  of  the  human  pelvis 
conform  exceedingly  well  to  the  muscular  origins  and  insertions 
which  are  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  erect  balance  and  to 
erect  bipedal  activity.  Further,  that  they  are  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained thereby. 

328 


CONCLUSIONS  329 

6.  That  all  of  the  specializations  which  have  produced  these 
results  can  be  traced  back  to  the  primitive  through  intermediate 
stages,  by  the  method  of  attributing  all  specializations  to  the 
development  of  plates  and  other  processes  from  the  three  primi- 
tive edges.  That  the  shape  of  each  change  has  of  course  been 
determined  in  each  case  by  strict  obedience  to  the  demands  of 
mechanical  law,  and  that  their  comparative  perfection  is  an  inevi- 
table and  necessary  consequence  of  this  fact. 


\ 


APPENDIX 

THE  PELVES  OF  BRADTPUS  AND  THE  UNOULATES 

Bradypus  (Ilgiire  2),  which  from  its  peculiar  habits  makes 
very  small  domuids  upon  its  pehris,  has  an  ilimn  which,  in  the 
breadth  of  its  blade  and  the  evidotit  method  of  its  devel<q[mient» 
strongly  suggests  that  of  an  animal  which  makes  frequent  use  of 
the  erect  posture.  The  fact  that  an  animal  which  never  sustains 
its  weight  in  an  ordinaiy  way ,  but  passes  its  life  suspeiMled,  should 
have  such  an  ilium  would  be  unexplained  and  would  throw  (bnibt 
upon  the  entire  hypothesisi  if  the  answer  were  not  supplied  by 
the  palaeontological  evidence. 

Many  of  the  ground  sloths  were  enormously  heavy  animals 
which  must  have  passed  much  of  their  time  in  a  semi-a:^ect  pos- 
ture, and  in  reaching  their  food  must  have  constantly  swayed  their 
enormous  weight  back  and  forth  and  from  side  to  side  upon  the 
base  formed  by  Iheir  hind  legs  and  tail,  with  the  pdvis  mechani- 
cally, periiaps,  the  most  important  factor  in  the  machinery  by 
which  these  movements  were  performed.  Their  ischia,  pubes,  and 
sacrum  are  edentate  in  form  and  are  unmodified.  The  f onur  is 
short;  the  caudal  vertebrae  are  furnished  with  large  chevron 
bones;  and  the  tripodal  base  must  have  been  formed  in  the  usual 
tripodal  manner,  with  the  femora  in  the  quadrupedal  position,  and 
the  powerful  tail  extended  backward.  In  exact  accordance  with 
what  would  be  expected  from  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  text, 
their  ilia  have,  however,  large  anthropoidal  plates  of  great  lateral 
extension,  and  even  curve  ventrally  as  they  approach  the  anterior 
superior  spines,  in  a  way  which  strikingly  suggests  those  of  man. 

In  comparing  the  pelvis  of  Bradypus  with  them  it  is  evident 
that  though  it  resembles  those  of  its  extinct  relatives  in  every 
taxonomic  character,  it  has,  in  the  extreme  tenuity  of  the  bones, 
even  for  an  animal  of  its  weight,  in  the  absence  of  the  ridges  and 
roughened  surfaces  for  muscular  attachments,  in  the  flatness  of 
the  ilia,  and  the  essentially  total  disappearance  of  the  spinous 
processes  of  the  sacral  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  lost  practically 
every  feature  which  would  make  it  functional  in  the  assumption 
of  an  erect  posture. 

The  character  of  this  pelvis  then  lends  support  to  the  historical 
probability  that  the  existing  sloths  are  survivals  from  some  re- 

330 


THE  PELVES  OF  BRADYPUS  AND  THE  UNGULATES    331 

mote  ancestor  which  escaped  extinction  by  small  size  and  the 
adoption  of  truly  arboreal  habits.  This  pelvis  may  then  be  most 
probably  explained  as  a  rudimentary  persistence  of  characters 
which  have  ceased  to  be  of  functional  value. 

The  Ungulata  are  a  highly  specialized  order,  and  in  the 
Ungulata  vera,  at  all  events,  they  are  a  very  homogeneous  order, 
both  in  habits  and  configuration. 

They  are  all  digitigrade,  quadrupedal,  and  terrestrial;  none 
of  them  make  use  of  an  erect  posture,  and  their  skeletons  are 
throughout  highly  specialized  towards  cursorial  speed.^ 

Their  pelves  all  have  the  essentially  straight,  and  usually  long, 
quadrupedal,  ilio-ischiatic  axis.^  Their  ischia,  pubes,  and  sacra 
are  strictly  quadrupedal  in  type. 

Their  iliac  shanks  are,  as  a  rule,  unusually  long  (a  quadru- 
pedal character) ,  and  in  the  Artiodactyla,  at  least,  have  a  pecu- 
liarly quadrupedal  cross  section.  The  blades  have,  almost  without 
exception,  well  developed  and  often  extensive  quadrupedal  plates, 
which  often  form  a  large  portion  of  the  blade,  but  in  the  Perisso- 
dactyla  and  Proboscidea  the  ventral  and  usually  somewhat  larger 
portion  of  the  very  wide  blade  is  furnished  by  a  true  anthropoidal 
plate,  while  the  Artiodactyla  have  a  plate  of  similar  shape  which 
is  probably  developed  from  the  fused  ventral  and  external  edges ' 
(Figure  4,  vi).  In  certain  of  the  heavier  animals  the  blades  often 
have  well  developed  crests. 

The  appearance  in  these  exclusively  quadrupedal  animals  of 
wide  and  laterally  extended  blades,  formed  in  some  cases  by  a 
true  anthropoidal  plate,  is  a  marked  exception  to  the  general  rule 
that  this  plate  is  only  developed  by  animals  which  use  an  erect 
posture.  This  would  be  a  severe  blow  to  the  general  argument  in 
the  text  if  there  were  not  an  adequate  mechanical  reason  for  its 
appearance  here.  As  it  is,  perhaps  this  is  a  case  in  which  the  ex- 
ception proves  the  rule,  and  supports  that  argument. 

We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  functions  of  the  laterally  expanded 

1  The  Hyracoidea  are  to  be  noted  aa  exceptions  to  several  of  these  statements,  but  as 
the  propriety  of  their  inclusion  in  the  order  is  doubted,  and  as  their  pelves  in  particular 
show  quite  as  many  rodential  as  ungulate  characters,  they  are  neglected  here. 

2  The  metischial  processes,  or  metischial  curves,  which  occur  in  some  of  them  as  extra 
specialisations  for  leaping,  have  been  mentioned  in  the  text. 

8  In  the  absence  of  any  really  primitive  ungulates  this  statement  must  be  put  for- 
ward a  little  cautiously,  but  certain  Bovidae  appear  to  furnish  transitional  stages  between 
the  blades  of  the  Perissodactyla  and  those  of  the  Artiodactyla. 


332  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HUMAN  PELVIS 

blade,  and  the  chief  function  of  ita  crest,  is  in  furnishing  direct  and 
(idvantftgeous  leverage  to  the  muacle3  of  lateral  flexion  of  the 
Junk. 

This  is,  as  has  been  seen,  of  great  importance  to  the  balance  of 
the  erected  trunk,  but  we  have  tiere  quadrupedal  animals  in 
whom  the  lateral  flexions  of  the  trunk  are  extremely  important 
elements  in  the  quadrupedal  speed,  on  which  their  preservation 
mainly  rests. 

The  Ungulata  aa  an  order  are  preponderantly  trotters  or  pacers, 
gaits  in  which  the  hind  legs  are  used  in  strict  alternation. 

In  both  these  gaits  the  animals  when  at  speed  lengthen  the 
stride  and  increase  its  power  by  strong,  alternate,  lateral  flexions 
of  the  lumbar  spine,  and  the  lives  of  most  ungulates  are  preserved 
from  their  enemies  only  by  their  speed. ^ 

The  laterally  extended  iliac  blades  of  the  Ungulata  then  per- 
form an  exactly  similar  function  to  that  which  they  execute  in 
the  erect  animals.  They  give  power  and  direct  action  to  the 
muscles  of  lateral  flexion,  which  here  again  are  all-important 
necessities. 

The  degree  of  lateral  expansion  of  the  blades  and  crests  in  the 
ungulates  is,  moreover,  proportional  to  the  weight  and  speed  of  j 
the  several  groups,  and  to  the  degree  in  which  they  are  pre-l 
poaderantly  trotters  or  pacers.  ' 

They  reach  their  maximum  extent  and  even  turn  ventrally  and 
inwards  as  they  approach  the  region  of  the  anterior  superior 
spines  in  the  Elephantidae,  which  are  among  the  heaviest  of 
terrestrial  animals;  never  use  any  other  gait  than  the  pace,  even 
when  pressed;  are  very  fast,  and  can  remain  at  speed  for  ex- 
ceedingly long  distances.  They  use  a  considerable  amount  of 
lateral,  lumbar  flexion  even  when  moving  slowly,  and  this  is  said 
to  become  very  great  when  they  are  at  speed.'  They  have  long 


: 

1  Itii 

s  w«u  ki 

lown 

,  lh> 

t  even  in  the  ir] 

lopth 

Ehii 

idl 

est 

.re  not  used  ur 

but 

fle:ii< 

m  of  the  1 

irunk  toward 

tht 

b  which 

ileal 

ITbi 

deg 

somel 

buted  to  the 

imbent 

weight  1 

3f   th 

for 

:  .upport 

in   the  erect 

s  unlil 

kely 

be 

auiiliary.  lo 

poll 

nlof 

Isct  th 

.ter'i 

iX-i 

-sy  .tud,a  of  tl 

of 

th. 

.  pelv 

i.  in  the 

erect  poitun 

of 

livin( 

:  »ubi« 

le  a 

parti  ol 

the  pout. 

Miot  wall  of 

the 

Bbd 

Id    0 

verb 

Mt 

com. 

enU.  CertaiDly  no  one 

.  equally 

vide  apreod  ol 

!  the 

elepbsD 

ilis  1 

lo  the  nil 

perincumbeDt 

weiaht  0 

i  hi*  in 

UWi! 

IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ERECT  POSTURE         333 

legs  and  their  very  long  strides  are  lengthened  and  increased  in 
power  when  they  are  at  speed  by  dorso-ventral  flexions  of  the 
lumbar  spine.  The  ventral  prolongation  of  the  iliac  crests  which  is 
peculiar  to  them  is  an  evident  adaptation  to  the  performance  of 
this  motion. 


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1923.  Poiture  of  Man.  British  Medical  Journal,  Vol.  I. 
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1920,     Conflicting  Views  on  the  Problem  of  Man's  Ancestry.  .Ameri- 
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Morton,  DuDLEn"  L. 

1922-24.    Evolution  of  the  Human  Foot.  American  Journal  of  Physi- 
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1910.  An  Experimental  Study  of  Certain  Phases  of  Chronic  Back- 
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SCHCLTZ,  AdOLPHE  H. 

1930.     The  Skeleton  of  the  Trunk  and  Limbs  of  Higher  Primates. 
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1924.  The  Morphology  and  Evolution  of  the  Apes  and  Man.  Bale, 
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Strauss,  William  L.,  Jr. 
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1913.    Vber   das   Huftban   und   das   Becken   der   Primaten    und 
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Yerkes,  Robert  M.  and  (Mrs.)  Ad-  W. 

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a  bios  DD5  H3\  lao 


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