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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
VOLUME TWO
INDIA'S MESSAGE
Books by the same author
.REVOLUTION & COUNTER-REVOLUTION IN CHINA
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY
SCIENTIFIC POLITICS
BEYOND COMMUNISM
NEW ORIENTATION
NEW HUMANISM
MATERIALISM
,-5527-7-6610,000 '
T* K PRISONER'S Wui \
VOLUME TWO
INDIA'S MESSAGE
By
M, N. EOY
RENAISSANCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
IS, BANKIM CHATTERJEE STREET, CALCUTTA 12.
Published by
Probodh Bhattacharja for
RENAISSANCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
15, Bankim Chatterjee Street,
Calcutta 12.
' REVISED EDITION
August, 1950.
Copy Right Reserved.
Printed in India
By B. N. Bosc at Bose Press,
30, Brofo Mitter Lane, Calcutta.
CONTENTS
PREFACE .. .. ..yii
I THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL .. 1
II PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER .. 53
III THE IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX 5
NATIONALISM .. .. ..103
IV MARX OR MANU .. .. ..134
V INDIA'S MESSAGE .. .. ..190
VI PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAIS-
SANCE .. .. .. ,.237
PREFACE
ALTHOUGH this volume is a collection of random
notes, made in jail, it can be regarded as an intro-
duction to the study of an important branch of
social science, namely, criticism of the religious
mode of thought. The first two essays were in-
cluded in my book Science and Superstition, pub-
lished about ten years ago, soon after I came out
of imprisonment. That book has been long out of
print, but is still in demand. The rest of the con-
tents of this volume are hitherto unpublished
material. The other essays published in the old
book will be incorporated in an enlarged second
edition of the first volume of Fragments of a
Prisoner s Diary, which also will include some
unpublished essays.
The belief in India's spiritual message to the
materialist West is a heady wine. It is time to
realise that the pleasant inebriation offered a so-
lace to proud intellectuals with inferiority com-
plex. The legacy of. that psychological aggressive-
ness is not an asset, but a liability. For it pre-
vents India from making the best of national in-
dependence. Therefore, a critical examination of
what is cherished as India's cultural heritage will
enable the Indian people to cast off the chilly grip
of a dead past. It will embolden them to face the
ugly realities of a living present and look forward
to a better, brighter and pleasanter future.
V1U PREFACE
The transmigration of soul and the law of
J(arma are the fundamental articles of faith with
the vast bulk of the Indian people. The entire
religious mode of thought, which still dominates
the spiritual and intellectual atmosphere of ouf
country, is rested on those twin-pillars. Modern
education and penetrati&n of scientific knowledge
are challenging the religious mode of thought.
Yet, prejudice dies hard. The efforts made even
by people with modern scientific education to ra-
tionalise the religious mode ,of thought is only a
matter of prejudice. A criticism of religious
thought, subjection of traditional beliefs and the
time-honoured dogmas of religion to a searching
analysis, is a condition for the belated Renaissance
of India. The spirit of enquiry should overwhelm
the respect for tradition. The essays collected in
this volume are expected to quicken that spirit.
Superstition is rooted in the ignorance of the
primitive man. In course of time, man outgrows
the blissful state of ignorance. Nevertheless, he is
haunted by superstitions haloed by tradition, and
often raised to the dignity of the expression of
revealed wisdom. Eventually, scientific knowledge
gives him the power to break the spiritual bon-
dage. The history of the development of science
coincides with the history of a bitter struggle
against superstition. In our country, the struggle
is still to begin. Whatever little of modern scien-
tific knowledge is now there, is very largely super-
ficial, and is often utilised with the purpose of
PREFACE IX
reinforcing superstitions. That is an abuse of
science.
These essays are bound to provoke an outburst
of criticism. But that will not be serious criticism;
it will be an arrogant condemnation of the scienti-
fic spirit and scientific knowledge. At the same
time, the purpose of initiating an organised
struggle against superstition will be served. The
clay feet of a number of time-honoured gods are
exposed by these essays. Fatalism and blind faith
have killed in the bulk of the Indian people the
incentive for knowledge and progress. The root
of this evil can be traced to the doctrine of the
transmigration of soul. Therefore, the exposure
of the fallacy of this doctrine is a historical neces-
sity. It is necessary not only for the material pro-
gress, but also for the spiritual liberation of the
Indian people.
A critique of the cult of "religious expert*
ence " is equally necessary. That requires not only
some knowledge of modern psychology, but good
deal of moral courage. Because, in the prevailing
intellectual atmosphere of our country, it amounts
almost to heresy. How superstition treats the
heretic, is a dreadful tale. Nevertheless, the here-
tics are harbingers of real spiritual progress. In
this book, the psycho-pathological foundation of
the cult of "religious experience" has been ex-
posed. The sanction for India's "spiritual mes-
sage " is derived from that doubtful source of ins*
X PREFACE
piration. Once that is realised, unwarranted arro-
gance may be replaced by a commendable modesty.
A critique of the ideology of orthodox nation-
alism may impel the spirit of a renascent India to
outgrow the obsession with antiquated ideas and
faded ideals, and transcend the narrow limits of
a political vision clouded by a racial conception
of culture. National independence would be of
little significance if it did not let in the invigo-
rating influence of a cosmopolitan outltook and
humanist culture.
These essays, which record the reflections of a
solitary prisoner, are published with the purpose
of provoking thought. They indicate an approach
to the difficult problem of overcoming the age-
long tyranny of superstition glorified as India's
spiritual genius. The past is dead ; it must be
buried. India must experience a renaissance-
spiritual re-birth. Conditions conducive for that
purpose must be created. These critical studies
may make some modest contribution in that
respect.
June 15th, 1950. M. N. ROY.
Dchradun.
INDIA'S MESSAGE
CHAPTER I
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
THERE is a new excitement among the inmates
of this little world of ours. Not exactly an ex-
citement. It is rather a commotion a futile
flutter. Excitement is an emotion caused by events
which directly affect ourselves intimately. Nothing
like that has happened. Only a story from beyond
the walls has filtered in, and everybody is repeating
it with some additional embellishing touches. It
is surprising how stories do reach us in this segre-
gated world with all its paraphernalia of rigid
watch and ward. However, whenever they break
through the blockade, they spread like wild fire,
to the edification of solitary souls hungry for infor-
mation. Particularly, when the stories are of the
nature that stimulates idle fancy or feeds general
credulity. Some of the warders would pick one up
in the neighbouring bazar, and pass it on in a dis-
torted or magnified form. Or some prisoners
employed in the office might get snatches of some
conversation among the clerks. The particular
story causing the present commotion seems to have
emanated from this source, which is usually
1
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
regarded by the prisoners as beyond all possible
doubt. It is said to be causing a little storm even
in the greater world beyond the walls. It is about
a girl remembering the events of her past life so
vividly as to give yet another knock-out blow to
those who, corrupted by the influence of the
materialist West, question the truth of the trans-
migration of soul.
The story comes from holy Muttra. Can you
possibly disbelieve anything that is reported to
have happened in that place where countless
miracles were performed by Lord Krishna when
he was a naughty boy or an amorous adolescent ?
Here is the story as I could piece it together.
It is usually related many times a day, accom-
panied with so many pious exclamations that, to
get at what is supposed to be its sub-stratum of
fact, is extremely difficult. It is marvellous how
tenacity of belief can become the measure of
accuracy ; and the blinder the faith, the more
tenacious it is.
The centre of the story, Shanti Devi, was
born, presumably for the millionth time or there-
abouts, nine years ago, the daughter of a Brahmin
resident of a place in the neighbourhood of Delhi.
It is reported that, for some time, she has been
urging her parents to take her to Muttra where
she claims to have lived her previous life. In
the beginning, the parents, so they say, did not
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
pay any heed to her assertion and request. But
presently her claim became known to others out"
side the family. A number of local gentlemen
formed themselves into a "Committee of Investi-
gation," and took the girl to Muttra. There she
is reported to have performed the following mira-
culous acts. On the station platform, she recog-
nised a local Brahmin resident as her husband of
the former life ; on the way, from a crowd of
spectators, she picked out an old gentleman as her
previous father-in-law ; she directed the Investi-
gating Committee to the house she had lived in
her last life; she showed intimate acquaintance
with the lay-out of the house ; she indicated the
ghat on the Jumna where she used to bathe ;
she, of course, manifested great tenderness to the
young son of her former husband ; the latter
reported that his wife had died nine years ago
at the birth of that boy. Now, in the face of
all these facts, who can doubt the truth of the
transmigration of soul ?
The Committee, composed of gentlemen firmly
convinced of the truth, naturally had no difficulty
in coming to the conclusion that Shanti Devi's
story had been completely borne out by facts.
TTjie conclusion was reported publicly in the press
and from the platform. Shanti Devi herself appear-
ed in public meetings, and related her story which
was then corroborated by one or the other mem-
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
her of the Investigating Committee. Enthusiastic
defenders of Hindu culture rushed to the press
jeering at the pretensions of modern science and
ridiculing the hocus-pocus of new-fangled psycho-
logy. Science was dared to take up the challenge
thrown down by the nine-years old heroine who
had never heard of such strange names as physics
and psychology ; her acquaintance with the three
R's is most probably still to be made, if she
would ever be contaminated by these symbols of
wicked worldliness. The aggressive apostles of
cultural nationalism themselves are rather subjects
of psychiatrical and psycho-analytical study than
competent critics of modern science.
Having heard the story repeated time and
again, I naturally turned it over and over in my
mind. What interested me was not so much the*
question of transmigration. I am indifferent to the
question. Once upon a time, man had reason to
invent a soul ; they must believe in their own
invention. There are those, who, having known
better, are scornful of antiquated toys. Their dis-
belief is vehemently condemned or loftily deplored
by others. I do not share the belief in truths
invented by man when he was incapable of dis-
covering objective truths. Truths discovered are
a different matter. Being physical facts, they
belong to the world of reality. \ define truth as
a physical fact) That requires a word of expla-
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
nation. The term "physical" includes biological
as. well as mental. This is a sound statement
incontestable scientifically. Metaphysicians may
resent it ; but resentment or dogmatic assertion is
no logic. Man's gods are made after their own
image. I have no more respect for gods than
for their makers. Have I not seen the clay-
feet of the makers of gods ? So, the story of
Shanti Devi did not stimulate me to meditate
over the truth of transmigration. I simply did not
believe in it, having no reason to fictionalise the
fact of my existence. Men are perverted enough
to be ashamed of being what they are, animals.
Being thinking animals, they should have more
sense ; but most of them don't. So much the
worse for them. To possess the faculty of thought,
but not to use it, is a misfortune. Therefore,
they pretend to be gods try to hide the facts of
their being with a fiction fabricated by perverted
imagination. They prefer falsehood to truth.
The subject of my reflection was the credu-
lity on the part of people expected to be more
discerning and discriminating. In Shanti Devi's
meetings, there sat men and women who could
not possibly be blind to the obvious perfunctori-
ness of the enquiry into the phenomenon ; who
could easily raise a whole host of questions that
are to be answered before any conclusion could be
accepted even hypothetically.
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
The fundamental question is about the relia-
bility of the evidence. If one simply believes in
the transmigration of soul, there is nothing to be
said about it. You cannot argue about an article
of faith. One comes to believe in transmigration
through the simplest process of thought, if it can
be placed under that category of mental act which
involves reason : Begin with the assumption that
there is a soul which transcends the biological
being of man. In the strict scientific language,
the term physical would be adequate, because
the physical being embraces everything that really
exists ; however, I use the term biological to make
it explicit that the soul of religion is not the
sum total of the intellectual and emotional acti-
vities of man. Having begun with an assumption
which, by its very nature, can never be experi-
mentally established, you further assume that soul
is immortal. This additional assumption is neces-
sary to differentiate the imaginary essence of man
from the biological reality of his being. As the
immortal essence of man, soul naturally survives
physical death. And being a disembodied spirit,
its tangible immortality can be realised only in
the acquisition of a new corporal abode every
time it is rendered homeless by the relentless
operation of biological laws which it cannot con-
trol. Thus, the dogma of transmigration is deduced
from the assumption of an immortal essence of
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
man, which assumption, in the last analysis, has
no other basis than the primitive animistic notion
of a world spirit.
The idea of an immortal soul is not the
acquisition of man when he reaches a high spiri-
tual level. It is a very very primitive idea, its
origin being not spiritual elevation, but ignorance.
The phenomenon can be observed even now among
the primitive races. The aboriginal inhabitants
of the Malay Peninsula believe that souls are red,
no bigger than grains of maize ; for other Malay
races, they are vapoury, shadowy, filmy essences,
about as big as one's thumb 1 ; in other parts
of the Pacific Islands, soul is conceived of not
as a tiny being confined to a single part of the
body, but as a sort of fluid diffused through
every part ; the backward masses of Japan con-
sidered the soul as a small, round, black thing ;
the Australian Bushman also believes the soul
to be a small thing dwelling in the breast. 2
Primitive people explain natural occurrences
as caused by the action of spirits which arc
believed to appear and operate as (1) ghosts, that
is, spirits which have formerly been incarnate ;
(2) dream-spirits which have temporarily left bodies
1 The stikshma sharecr of the Hindu scriptures is
also believed to be of the same size.
2 Carveth Read, Man and His Superstitions.
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
in sleep or trance ; (3) invisible, conscious beings
which have never been incarnate. The concep-
tion of the object of this belief, common to the
primitive man, wherever or whenever he may live,
varies from place to place and time to time. But
eventually, it divides itself in two distinct schools,
so to say, which have been named by anthropo-
logists as Hyperphysical Animism and Psycho-
logical Animism. One regards an object as being
moved by the spirit inherent in itself ; the other
attributes all movements to an agent which
possesses the object for the time being, but is
separable from it. Hyperphysical Animism con-
ceives consciousness as a distinct entity capable
of quitting the body, surviving its death and
existing independently as disembodied spirit.
Psychological Animism, on the contrary, ascribes
anthropomorphic consciousness to all objects,
particularly to the animate. This type of Animism
can be detected in children even among civilised
peoples. They are seen to hit back at such inani-
mate things as a table or a chair upon being
hurt by bumping against it. Evidently, the doctrine
of soul and its transmigration evolved out of
the Hyperphysical Animism which has been traced
to the primitive man's desire to explain dreams,
wherein the dead appears as in flesh. The expla-
1 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture.
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
nation is that on death the spirit leaves the
body. Later on, there begins speculation about
what the spirit is made of. The "soul-stuff" is
conceived as material, though subtle and normally
invisible. It is believed to be permeating the
whole body. 1
"This conception of soul-stuff may have
been an important contribution to metaphysics.
The doctrine of material substance is reached
by abstracting all the qualities of things ; but
then, there would be nothing left, were it not
for this venerable idea of something invisible and
intangible in things in which qualities may inhere,
or which may serve as a support to them
Along another line of speculation, this soul-stuff
may become the Soul of the World when by
philosophers spirits are no longer conceived to
have bodies, but to be the very opposite of
bodies ; a spiritual substance must be invented
to support their qualities, in order to put them
upon an equal footing with reality, with corporeal
things .... but such speculations are confined to
philosophers and theologians some of whom main-
tain (as if reverting to the original savage idea)
that spirit is the true substance of material things,
at least that material things depend upon a spirit,
or spirits, for their existence." 2
1 J. G. Frazer, Belief in Immortality.
2 Carveth Read, Man and His Superstitions.
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
For ages, the belief in ghosts remained mixed
up in popular mind with the idea of the "soul-
stuff ". Eventually, metaphysical subtleties about
the difference between mind and matter, spirit
and body, conceived of the notion of a pure
incorporeal, immortal spirit. The doctrine of
transmigration was a logical outcome of that
notion. However, even great modern metaphysi-
cians bound, for their own prestige as philoso-
phers, to have some regard for rationalism and
scientific knowledge, have to admit that the
venerable doctrine of soul originates in the igno-
rance of primitive man. The famous German
metaphysician Wundt came to the conclusion
that the spirit of the living body is the starting
point of Animism. 1
The doctrine of soul being thus a spiritual
relic of savagery, it may still hold its sway over
the mind of the ignorant. But it is an entirely
different proposition to claim scientific or even
empirical support for the doctrine of transmigra-
tion. Whatever may be the origin of the soul,
its process of transmigration takes place here
and now. If it is an objective reality, there
must be some way of observing it. Deny the
reality of scientific knowledge, dispute the validity
of the scientific mode of thought, and science
1 Myths and Religion.
10
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
cannot do anything but leave you with your
blind faith. But try to rationalise the dogmas
of religion by claiming empirical basis for vene-
rable superstitions, and you tread on dangerous
ground. If you challenge science, then, the issues
thus joined must be fought out scientifically ;
you must observe the rules of the game. Scientific
mode of thought differentiates itself from the
religious mode of thought by refusing to accept
any unverifiable hypothesis as the premise for
deductions claiming to be objectively true. Scienti-
fic and rationalist thought rejects religion not
because its dogmas cannot stand the test of
science and rationalism, but because of the falla-
cious nature of the religious mode of thought
itself, because of its own internal contradictions.
If the religious dare to fight science and rationa-
lism on the latter's ground, then, the combat
must be conducted according to the scientific and
rationalist methods. If they undertake to adduce
empirical evidence in support of their super-
stitions so that these could claim superiority to
scientific knowledge, then, certain elementary laws
of evidence shall have to be observed. The
method of collecting evidence must be such as
guarantees reliability.
There was a statement by a young girl. It is
claimed that the statement has been verified. The
whole case rests on the assumption that the enquiry
11
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
was conducted impartially. But is impartiality pos-
sible in such an enquiry ? Preconceived notions
rule out criticism ; evidence given by the super-
stitious and recorded by the uncritical can never
be relied upon. The enquiry into the case was
not free from those defects. It was conducted
by persons who regarded the case as yet another
proof for their belief in the transmigration of soul.
The evidence was given by people still less com-
petent to participate in a scientific investigation.
All concerned were ardent believers, untouched
by the sceptical and critical spirit of enquiry
which alone can lead to the discovery of objective
truths.
It is not logically permissible to talk of prov-
ing th? doctrine of transmigration empirically with-
out showing that the assumption of immortal soul
has even a hypothetical validity. The doctrine
results from the belief in soul and its immortality.
The ground of this belief is to be critically exa-
mined. Science challenges this belief, and has
exposed its groundlessness. As far as it is con-
cerned, the existence of soul (not in the broad
sense, but in the definite religious sense) has to
be proved before the question of transmigration
can receive any serious consideration. Who bothers
about the imaginary peregrination of a non-entity?
If the existence of soul were not assumed, then,
the enquiry into the phenomena supposed to indi-
12
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
cate some existence after death would be of an
entirely different character. The result of any
enquiry is greatly determined by its point of
departure.
The story of Shanti Devi, or any other similar
tale, 1 ' granted that its veracity has been empiri-
cally verified, does' not necessarily prove the
existence of an immortal soul. If it proves any-
thing, it proves that memory survives death.
This is an extremely fallacious assertion, and parti-
cularly ruinous for the doctrine of soul. Memory
is a biological function. It is stored up in the brain
which is destroyed upon the death of the body.
Loss of memory due to cerebral disorder is a well-
known fact showing that memory depends on the
normal functioning of the physiological apparatus
called brain. And everything physiological is physi-
cal. The brain is a lump of organic matter which
can be analysed into its chemical components. None
has ever postulated the existence of disembodied
brains. In the light of physiological knowledge,
that would be absurd.
If memory survives death as an attribute of
soul, what happens, then, to the idea of soul ? It
is materialised ! To be possessed of a physiological
1 There are any number of them told and generally
believed. Since this particular story became the matter of
public discussion, there have appeared in the press reports of
other pretenders.
13
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
property, soul must be a physical entity. But it
is supposed to be a disembodied spirit, and the
possibility of transmigration is deduced from that
supposition. The soul has nothing in common with
the body ; it resides in a body, unaffected by its
physical functions, as an unattached spectator ;
therefore, it does not die with the body. It discards
a body like a set of old clothes, and goes on to
enter a new, unless it has qualified for the state
in which it can dispense with all clothes. Now
we see that the old clothes stick to it ; more cor-
rectly speaking, it does not leave them altogether.
Because, if it did, there would be no memory. In
any case, the smell of the old clothes clings to
the soul, evidently spoiling its purity. One cannot
really be unattached to something the memory of
which is so very deeply impressed.
"Scientific proof" of the transmigration of
soul thus destroys the very doctrine of soul. In
order to be what it is believed to be, namely, dis-
embodied spirit, soul should not have any memory.
It is proposed to prove the existence of soul on
the strength of its possessing a property which it
should not possess, if it were what it is believed
to be. In other words, trying to prove transmi-
gration "scientifically," you only succeed in dis-
proving the existence of a disembodied spirit. This
is a curious procedure like cutting the branch on
which you sit.
14
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
The originators of the doctrine of soul postu-
lated the sukjhma shorter as the basis for the
belief in transmigration. As Radhakrishnan says,
"our ancients were courageous." They realised
what transmigration involved, and moulded the
concept of soul accordingly. The soul as conceived
by them is not a disembodied spirit. It is of the
size of a thumb. All these quaint and curious
ideas are set forth at great length in the Upanishads.
The ancients could be bold, because science was
not yet to challenge their speculative assertions.
Nor were these speculations altogether vain.
They had a purpose a very mundane one. The
ancients were laying down the laws of the ruling
class. A transcendental sanction was necessary.
So it was simply invented. The superstition of the
savage was utilised for the purpose. The belief
in transmigration had to be fostered for securing
submission to the law of karma. The object of
this is to defend the established social order to
keep everybody in his allotted place.
But to rationalise irrationalism, is a hopeless
undertaking. An article of faith simply cannot
be scientifically proved. Faith is above proof.
What is believed to transmigrate, to survive
death, is not a disembodied spirit, but the sufyhma
sharccr. So, the doctrine of transmigration as-
serts that a small replica of the body survives
death. If that is assumed, then, memory of past
15
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
life is hypothctically possible. But here you are
definitely on the enemy's ground, trapped with
no hope of escape. You are making an assump-
tion which is definitely of scientific nature, which
can be submitted to an empirical test. If what
survives death is a physical entity, there must
be some way of finding out what happens to it
before the next birth. i
The assertion is not simply an affirmation
of the indestructibility of matter or of the
law of conservation. The death of the body, of
course, is not the destruction of the matter
composing it, but only chemical dissolution of
this latter. Death is destruction of a morphologi-
cal organisation of matter. Matter is immortal.
But the dogma of sufyhma sharccr asserts that
the organisation of matter survives in miniature*
There would be no sense in saying that mattter
survives death ; because death occurs to an
organisation of matter. Matter itself is not in-
volved in the process. The idea of survival
implies continuation after death of that which is
supposed to be affected by the process. It implies
survival of the organisation of matter. The body
is destroyed in gross form, but an attenuated
form of it, an exact replica of the organisation
apparently destroyed, remains intact.
This is a proposition which can be put to
scientific test. The process of a human organism
16
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
dying can be observed in the minutest detail.
Indeed, the nature of this process is already known
fairly accurately. It is a matter of clinical observa-
tion. There is not the slightest evidence to show
that at any point in the process a replica of the
body leaves the dying organism. To carry over
memory and the accumulated store of experience,
that replica must have physico-chemical structure,
however fine ; and such a structure cannot possibly
elude scientific detection.
No, the ingenious doctrine of sufyhma shareer
won't do in this age when physiology has penetrated
the mystery of death. It commanded credence in
an atmosphere of ignorance about the structure
of body and the nature of life. But without
the assumption of the su\shma fharecr, it is not
possible to maintain that transmigration can be
proved. From the point of view of scientific
method, all stories like that of Shanti Devi, no
matter how very "authoritatively" told and
"scientifically" corroborated, are prima facie un-
tenable. A disembodied spirit cannot have
memory ; and a physical organisation such as can
carry over memory cannot survive death. On the
one hand, you cannot prove your case on your own
ground ; on the other hand, when your proposition
is apparently such as can be scientifically tested, it
palpably rests on a false premise and therefore docs
not deserve further consideration.
17
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
The whole procedure is logically fallacious.
It rests on the assumption of that which it seeks
to prove. If survival after death is proved by
" unchallengeable facts", then, immortality of soul
and the existence of soul itself are proved. That
is the argument. But the possibility of survival
pre-supposes the existence of something which
does not die with the body. If this pre-supposi-
tion were not there, all such stories would be
received with extreme scepticism. Their veracity
is prima facie doubtful from the point of view of
scientific knowledge. In the absence of the pre-
supposition, such stories could not be regarded
a priori as corroborating an established doctrine,
but as phenomena to be scientifically explained.
An enquiry taken up with such an attitude of
scepticism and scientific objectivity would adopt
entirely different methods.
Recent psychological research shows that col-
lecting evidence is not a simple affair at all.
The reliability of evidence depends upon a large
variety of factors which are independent of the
moral integrity of the witness. Preoccupation is
the most decisive. Thanks to it, people imagine
seeing things which are not seen by others not
so pre-occupied. On the other hand, emotional
or physical agitation makes people fail to notice
the most obvious. The actual nature of the
simplest and most obvious events is usually not fully
18
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
realised by the great majority of those who happen
to witness them. Only trained observers with
keen intelligence are able to report events approxi-
mately correctly.
The pre-condition for a really scientific investi-
gation is to ascertain that what are called facts
are really facts. Without this preliminary caution,
castles are built in the air only too easily, and
are therefore bound to crash under the slightest
impact of reason. Once fictions are taken for
facts, the rest follows swimmingly. Many people
who believe to have seen ghosts report an actual
experience. But that does not prove that they
have experienced any objective fact. Yet, such
"facts" that reliable persons have actually seen
ghosts persuade many intelligent people to believe
in ghosts. Things imagined are seen by imagi-
native eyes. They are "facts" as long as the
imagination lasts. Therefore, figments of imagina-
tion, though facts as such, cannot be taken for
the evidence for any objective reality.
Let alone experimental psychology, anybody
who has read cleverly written detective stories
knows that observation is not an easy business.
To see is not to observe. A few instances of
experimental recording of evidence may benefit
those who dogmatically assert that the "verifica-
tion" of such stories as Shanti Devi's is a chal-
lenge to modern psychology. I am boldly or
19
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
hopefully assuming that they can be benefitted, that
they are not irreparably lost in prejudice.
W. M. Marston discovered the method of
detecting through a mechanical indicator of blood-
pressure, whether an arrested person on examin-
ation is telling the truth. The following experi-
ment was made by that famous American psycho-
logist. The experimenter was in a room with
eighteen other educated persons mostly lawyers
who had no previous knowledge that there was
going to be any experiment. They were all behav-
ing spontaneously as in any chance gathering all
casually chatting. After a while, as arranged
beforehand by the experimenter, a young man,
dressed so as to attract attention, rushed into the
room, and handed to the experimenter an yellow
envelope. While the experimenter was occupied
in reading the message, the bearer, as previously
instructed, drew out a large knife in a way that
everyone in the room could see him do so. Dr.
Marston writes : " Not one of those eighteen
witnesses noticed the knife 1 Their attention was
on the supposed telegram. When asked in direct
examination about the knife, they all denied seeing
it. During cross-examination, they became still
more vehement in their denials. They suspected
that the cross-examiner was trying to trick them
into making false statements. Yet the knife had
20
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
been held in full view for approximately three
minutes 1 "
Then there are the so-called Aussage-tcsts,
which show how really difficult fact-finding is.
Students in a class room are asked to write
down everything they observe. The professor
arranges for a variety of events to take place
which the students are to report. The mistakes
are amazing, simply incredible. Had not the same
test been repeated over and over again in different
colleges, with different groups of students, the
story would sound fantastic. On the average, less
than thirty per cent, of the students report the
events correctly. Such amazing mistakes, for
example, are made : One of the events enacted
was several people exchanging heated words. A
number of students not only failed to report such
an outstanding occurrence, but when asked about
it later-on, denied all knowledge of it. In another
experiment, no less than three students described
" an unarmed person who had made no offensive
remark " as whipping out a pistol and shout :
" Stop, or I shoot ! " Apart from these singulari-
ties which can be explained by modern psychology,
the average result is that in no case out of hundred-
and-fifty events to be observed more than forty-one
arc correctly described. The most disturbing factor
of pre-occupation is eliminated from all these
experiments. The events enacted are all of the
21
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
ordinary mechanical sort, which are not likely to
touch off some pre-occupied idea. The students
are eager to demonstrate their power of concen-
tration necessary for accurate observation. Yet
the reports are so very defective ! While the mind
is attracted by one particular event, others happen
which may or may not enter the consciousness of
all present on the scene. That greatly depends on
the circumstances and the mental make-up of the
observers.
I wonder if the enthusiasts about such "de-
monstrations" as the case of Shanti Devi are able
to learn anything from these experimental tests of
the reliability of eye-witnesses. So, I must put the
point bluntly. The "verification" of the story is
not reliable ; it has no scientific validity ; the report
of the expedition to Muttra does not prove any-
thing. The evidence of the Committee of Investi-
gation is to be taken with a very large grain of salt.
This does not imply any aspersion on the integrity
and truthfulness of the gentlemen concerned. The
scepticism is justified by the demonstrated fact that
reports of thoroughly honest and intelligent
eye-witnesses are seldom reliable. Instead of telling
the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, they
are never more than partially true and often alto-
gether false. Therefore, no deduction from such
evidence can be scientifically valid.
What are the "facts" of this particular case?
22
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
(1) The girl is reported to have picked out of a
crowd several persons and identified them as her
husband, father-in-law, etc. in the fomer life ; (2)
she is reported to have directed the investigators
to the house where she claims to have lived in her
previous life ; (3) she is reported to have given
clear evidence of familiarity with the house. There
are other details. But these are the salient " facts."
Now, think of the circumstances under which
these " facts " were found. It was previously
known at Muttra that the Committee was coming.
Those picked out by the girl as her former relatives
were previously informed of the story in which
they subsequently figured so prominently and
honourably. Yes, honourably ; that's the crucial
point which upsets the balance of any possible
objectivity or impartiality.
The Committee was received at the station
by a crowd eager to see a miracle performed.
It was, therefore, in a state of great emotional
excitement, which does not tolerate caution, and
rules out criticism. In short, pre-occupation was
the dominating factor of the mental atmosphere
in which the story was " verified." How is it
possible to be sure that her would-be relatives
did not hail the girl before she recognised them?
In the given situation, such a possibility could
not be excluded. Granted that precautions were
taken against their actually doing so, although the
23
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
reports do not say that such was the case. Even
then it was impossible to control the emotions
of a whole crowd. It can be reasonably presumed
that immediately on their appearance on the scene,
there were such exclamations as "There comes
her husband or father-in-law or son ! " Such ex-
clamations would be totally involuntary, none
would act with the purpose of giving the girl a
tip. For the crowd, there was no doubt about the
story. The idea that the girl might not recognise
her relatives would not occur to anybody. So,
why should any one ever think of coming to her
aid? The members of the Committee, granted
that they were sufficiently critical, would be
naturally closely watching the girl, and conse-
quently fail to notice the behaviour of the crowd.
It would be quite natural for the credulous popu-
lace, already acquainted with the story, to specu-
late who might have been relatives of the girl in
her previous life, in which house she might have
lived, so on and so forth. Equally natural it would
be for them to .believe that only people distin-
guished for piety could have been related to such
a spiritually gifted girl. Many must have aspired
for that distinction ; and most probably the pre-
tenders had staked their claim publicly. Conse-
quently, the identification can have no value as
reliable evidence, unless it was assured that all the
necessary precautions had been taken. The assur-
24
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
ance is lacking. The fact is that preconditions for
a scientific investigation were totally absent. The
unreliability of the " verification " results from the
circumstances in which the enquiry was conduc-
ted, as well as from the method adopted. The
enquiry was hopelessly prejudiced by the fact that
the story was publicly known at Muttra previous
to the arrival of the Committee of Investigation.
Having had previous information, it would be
only natural for the would-be relatives to present
themselves proudly and prominently at the station.
One must have a very high degree of credulity to
believe that, under the given circumstances, the
girl's behaviour was not aided and influenced in-
voluntarily. The essential condition for a reliable
test would be to keep the people at Muttra totally
in the dark. This condition was absent. The pre-
caution was not taken. It could not be done.
The story was a public property before the forma-
tion of the Investigation Committee. The enquiry
was undertaken when it was too late to conduct
it under conditions which could give the most
minimum guarantee for the reliability of the
result.
As regards the other "facts", they were
" found" similarly under the pressure of circum-
stances which were all too favourable for the pur-
pose. Uncontrolled movement of the crowd, which
previously knew where the house was, must have
25
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
helped the girl direct the Committee. Then, in the
house, who could guarantee that her actions were
not forced by eager "relatives" reminding her of
events of the past and indicating places, such as
the sleeping room, bathing ghat, etc.? "There
you used to keep your clothes, is it not ? " The
girl would immediately "remember." None was
consciously fabricating the story. All concerned
were honest in their belief. That is exactly the
point. In an atmosphere of unmitigated credulity,
fictions are easily raised to the dignity of facts.
Everyone present on the scene was there to see
the demonstration of a truth, any doubt about
which was out of the question. Granted that the
Committee was the exception, it also was the victim
of circumstances.
The necessary precautions not having been
taken, the Committee could not possibly control
the situation. It would be extremely bold for it
to assert that throughout the enquiry nothing hap-
pened which could influence the girl's actions.
Should the Committee make such assertion, it
would be testifying against its own objectivity*
Then, as far as I know, not a single member of the
Committee was sceptical about the doctrine of soul
and the belief in life after death. That fact alone
is sufficient to disqualify the gentlemen for the
undertaking.
You cannot put your own faith to test. That
26
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
is psychologically impossible. The desire to test it
signifies that the faith is lost. As long as you
believe a thing to be true, you don't feel the neces-
sity of verifying it. If you do so, that is with the
purpose of convincing others who do not share
your belief. There is sufficient reason to think that
that was the purpose of the investigation. Indeed,
it was not investigation, but verification. Investi-
gation pre-supposes scepticism. There was a con-
crete instance of transmigration. The proposition
was to verify it so. as to adduce empirical evidence
in support of the doctrine. Obviously, the Com-
mittee was prejudiced. Its object was not to find
facts to ascertain if what appeared in the story as
facts, were really facts. Its object was to prove
that the story was true.
Apart from these psychological and methodo-
logical considerations, there are other grounds for
doubting that the enquiry was conducted with
rigour. There are discrepancies in the details of
different reports. The Committee's report avoids
these details. But pressmen deal with them, and in
doing so, expose that the whole affair was rather
a procession to celebrate a miracle than an enquiry
for checking up the veracity of assertions made by
an illiterate female infant.
Thus, from the scientific point of view, the
verification does not prove anything more than the
tenacity of the belief in transmigration. But
27
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
tenacity of belief is not the test of its truth.
Obviously, the story was not put to a test. The
report of the Committee is worthless as evidence.
It may be respected as a declaration of faith ; but
as a challenge to science, it is ridiculous. The
pretentious challengers have not observed the
elementary rules of the game, being blissfully
ignorant of the elementary principles of scientific
enquiry. It is amusing that even now clever
people are seriously talking of a " scientific investi-
gation" of the question. It does not occur to
these "scientific" believers that the data for this
proposed investigation, namely, the report of the
Committee, are scientifically worthless. Nor is it
possible any longer to verify the data. It is too
late to create conditions necessary for a scientific
enquiry. Any scientific investigation into the
question of transmigration must begin with some
other story. Then, the first condition must be that
the story does not spread before it is put to a
rigorously controlled test.
It is rather surprising that so much excite-
ment has been caused by this particular story.
It is by no means a singular phenomenon. Tales
of people remembering events of past life are
frequently told in this country. They are of
common currency even among the modern
educated. But never before was there any orga-
nised verification enacted. This particular story
28
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
does not seem to be any different from others ;
it does not offer any clearer or more conclusive evi-
dence in support of the belief in transmigration.
Even now one reads in the press reports of new
phenomena. Why the scope of investigation is
not extended? Why rest your case on data that
cannot stand the test of criticism, and stick to a
story that can no longer be subjected to a new
verification? The "scientific" defenders of the
doctrine of transmigration seem to be afraid of
going too far afield.
Anybody with some scientific education knows
that these stories are bred in the cess-pool of
superstition ; and that, given the atmosphere of
rank credulity, in which they thrive, they do not
offer any basis for a rigorous scientific investi-
gation. Every instance of superstition cannot be
regarded as upsetting the theories of science
established on the solid foundation of systematic
observation and rigorous experiments. A scientific
enquiry must start from a plausible hypothesis ;
and for an enquiry, to be conducted according to
the scientific method, the hypothesis must be
scientifically plausible. The only hypothesis that
could be plausibly set up on the prima facie
evidence of the current stories, including the
present one, is that memory survives death of the
body. But this hypothesis is not scientifically
plausible, because it is excluded by the definite
29
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
knowledge that no such physical organisation as
can carry memory, survives the biological event
called death.
So, no enquiry would be scientific if it started
from the acceptance of the stories on their face-
value. It is necessary to go a step backward.
The point of departure should be a critical attitude
towards the stories themselves.
If somebody announces the discovery of some
hitherto unknown phenomenon, such as water
freezing on fire, or a man with three legs, or
a stone floating on water, which, if verified, would
invalidate this or that scientific theory, the first
thing to be done is to ascertain the reliability of
the discoverer. It is not a question of moral
integrity, but of intellectual ability and the psycho-
logical state in which the discovery was made.
How did he make the discovery? Where did he
see the phenomenon described? Was he pre-
viously acquainted with the scientific theory which
is apparently contradicted by his discovery ? What
was his attitude towards this theory? Did he
really see the phenomenon, or is he repeating
a hear-say? Is he capable of scrutinising, and
correctly reporting? Is he not susceptible to
hallucinations? These are some of the questions
that must be satisfactorily answered before the
discovery could be taken seriously, and its verifi-
cation considered worthwhile.
30
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
The stories about transmigration should be
subjected to similar scrutiny before they could be
taken for the basis of any scientific investigation.
Shanti Devi's story was not so scrutinised. One
might indignantly demand : Why should we
think that a little girl had fabricated such an
elaborate story? But there are different ways of
looking at a thing. It could be asked, not
indignantly, but with more pertinence : How could
a story told by a mere child, born and brought up
in an atmosphere of superstition, be taken on its
face-value ? Is it not conceivable that the story was
fabricated by others and put in her mouth? The
fabrication could be done unconsciously ; it would
be a fabrication none the less. I do not assert
that it was fabricated, but suggest that such stories
can be mere fabrications. And that was a vital
point to be looked into.
How did the story originate ? Did the parents
of the child and others who claim to have it first,
previously believe in transmigration? Undoubted-
ly they did. That being the case, the story might
have conceivably been constructed on the basis
of some casual childish remark. The initial proce-
dure, therefore, should have been a through
cross-examination of those through whose inter-
mediary the story reached the public. Such a
procedure might have exposed the fictitious nature
of the story, and obviate all the fuss made over
31
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
its verification. When the data are not con-
trolled, verification may make facts out of a
fiction. It is a fact that, whatever might have
been the genesis of the story, the people initially
concerned with it are firm believers in trans-
migration. This fact alone provides sufficient
ground for the assumption that, by the time it
reached the public, the story must have beerv highly
coloured by the imagination of its original pur-
veyors. The story as it reached the public must
be very different from the original told by the
girl, if she ever did really tell any at all. It is
well-known how tales of the extraordinary are
embellished in the course of propagation. The
story might have originated in the following way,
for example.
The girl heard her parents or other members
of the household talk about past life in general.
Devout Hindus are always talking of the fytrma
in previous births. There might have been refer-
ences to people remembering events of past life.
In course of such conversations, someone might
have playfully asked the young girl what was
she in her past life. Such conversations would
be quite likely to quicken the imagination of the
young girl. Whether the girl is temperamentally
given to fantasy, could be easily ascertained
through psychiatrical tests. This is one of the
steps that should have been taken in order to
32
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
dig into the origin of the story. A child with
abnormal power of imagination would be quite
liable to spin a fantastic yarn out of suitable
materials picked up at random. Having heard fairy
tales, such children would imagine seeing fairies,
and would relate the "experience" so graphically
and with such conviction as would assure the accep-
tance of the story by the credulous. If the story
was the product of imagination, how is it to be
explained that she mentioned one particular place
and some particular persons ? There is no difficulty
about it. But before talking of explanation, it must
be asked if there is really anything to explain.
That the original story was so full of concrete de-
tails, is open to reasonable doubt. At any rate,
there is no guarantee that originally the girl
actually did mention the place and persons. Those
details could have been interpolated by those who
made the story public. But granted that the girl
herself did supply the details she could have hit
upon the particular place and persons simply by
hearing about them.
The only valid argument against this psycho-
logically plausible assumption would be to establish
the fact that her " relatives " at Muttra were totally
unknown to the family of the girl before she re-
vealed the secret. This all-important point was
never touched. None of the investigators ever
took the trouble of ascertaining this fact. Indeed,
33
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
none thought it necessary to scrutinise the origin
of the story. Now then, supposing that the people
at Muttra had been previously known to the girl's
family, she must have heard the names mentioned.
Then, the name of the place, Muttra, is very sug-
gestive of all sorts of miraculous happenings. The
girl might have heard that the death of the woman
at Muttra had some temporary relation with her
own birth, and moreover that she died at child-
birth. Furthermore, that coincidence might have
suggested to some member of her family that pro-
bably the dead woman was re-born as the girl.
While dwelling on the coincidence, someone might
have casually or playfully asked the girl if she was
the reincarnation of the Muttra woman. An affir-
mative answer, given by the girl, mechanically, or
allured by the idea of having lived at Muttra, would
start the whole story with all the details put in
subsequently ; and that would be done fully in
good faith. The story as it eventually reached the
public need not have any more substantial founda-
tion of fact. Nevertheless, it would be a menda-
cious fabrication.
Once the point of departure is given by the
whim or fantasy on the part of the girl, the
whole story follows logically. Only, the worked
out yarn was not originally told by the girl ; it
was put in her mouth, but those who did so
were unaware that they were spreading a false-
34
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
hood They themselves honestly believed in the
story. It derived its "truthfulness" from the
faith on the part of the good people in the
doctrine of transmigration. Given that faith, the
story necessarily follows from the single affirma-
tive syllable pronounced by the girl. If she was
the dead woman, then so-and-so, of course, was
her husband, so-and-so her father-in-law, her
child was still living, she lived in that particular
house, etc., etc. What could be more obvious?
And it would only be all too easy for the girl
to repeat the story as told by herself from the
very beginning.
The origin of the story may be explained in
still another way even more scientific. The former
explanation is psychological, the latter biological.
It might sound rather far-fetched, but it is quite
plausible scientifically. Of course, in this case
also, the starting point is the assumption that
the Muttra people were previously known to the
girl's family. The assumption is permissible, be-
cause this a point that can still be ascertained. It
is not an arbitrary assumption. , Let others prove
that it is baseless ; meanwhile, the exposure of
the fictitious origin of the story is hypothetically
sound.
But the investigation of this crucial point
must be very rigorous. Statements of the parties
concerned, however solemnly made, are not valid
35
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
as evidence. Independent evidence must be sought.
Meanwhile, the assumption of previous acquaint-
ance stands. Without it, no scientific explana-
tion is possible. Science has been challenged ; so
it is entitled to offer its explanation, and its
explanation should not be judged by the standard
set up by the alternative view of the question.
Science has no plausible ground for assuming
transmigration. Therefore, it must approach the
story from some other angle of vision with the
object of explaining a phenomenon. If previous
acquaintance is proved (and it is sure to be proved,
provided that the enquiry is properly made, because
it is practically certain that it was there), then,
the origin of the story would be scientifically ex-
plained, and consequently, it could no longer serve
as a hypothetical ground for the doctrine of trans-
migration. The story exposed as a fiction, the
question of verification does not arise.
Here is the other hypothetical explanation-
from the biological point of view. The death
of the woman at Muttra might have been talked
about by the girl's mother before her (girl's)
birth. It appears from the reports that there was
an interval between the death of the woman at
Muttra and the birth of the girl. The interval
has not been definitely fixed yet another evi-
dence for the looseness of the whole enquiry.
So, it is just possible that rather the conception
36
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
than the birth of the girl approximately coincided
with the death of the woman. Indeed, for the
convenience of the demonstrators of the doctrine
of soul, this should be the case ; otherwise, the
transmigrators would be confronted with a tough
problem.
The new organism is "born" at the moment
of conception. As soon as the ovum is fertilised,
a new organism comes into being. Since the
doctrine of transmigration must interpret soul as
the sufyhma shareer, according to it, the em-
bryonic body should be occupied by the transmi-
grating soul at the moment of conception.
But to return to the point. At the time of
the conception of the girl, her mother might
have thought of the recent death of the woman
at Muttra. Assuming that there was acquaintance,
such thought would be only too natural, parti-
cularly because the death had been at child-birth.
While remembering the death of a kin or an
acquaintance, she might fancy that the dead
woman would be born as her prospective child.
Thoughts or fancies that occupy the mind of the
mother at the moment of conception are known
to be deeply impressed upon the embryo, and
thus inherited by the child. That is the reason
for the great difference noticed in the psychology
of children born of spontaneous love and of those
produced by "breeding machines". That is an
37
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
incidental remark. Subsequently, the mother might
keep on thinking of the possibility of the dead
woman's going to be reborn as her child, and talk
about that fancy of hers. Such behaviour on the
part of the mother would render it possible that
the girl was born with a pre-conceived idea,
inherited from her mother, accidentally to emerge
from her sub-conscious mind, in response to some
external suggestion, as " the memory of past life ".
Of course, even then the story would not
be so full of concrete details. These would be
filled in as in the case of the alternative psycho-
logical explanation, but in a lesser degree. In this
case, the nucleus of the story would spontane-
ously originate with the girl. On hearing Muttra
mentioned, she might suddenly be conscious of
the pre-conceived idea inherited from the mother,
and say : " Oh, I know Muttra. I lived there," or
something like it. Any such declaration or insinua-
tion on the part of the girl would confirm the
mother's premonition. She would say that she
had always thought so, or felt so. The mother's
original fancy would thus be immediately trans-
formed into a "reality". And the story would
be woven with all the details, just as in the
case of the alternative possibility. Only, in this
case, it would have a broader foundation of " fact ".
The girl, presumably, had never been to Muttra.
So, she could have known the place, lived there,
38
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
only in the past life. She says so. Therefore,
she must be recollecting her past life. This assump-
tion logically follows from the belief in transmi-
gration.
While watching all the commotion caused by
the story of Shanti Devi, who came to be such an
object of reverence as to be received in audience by
the Maharaja of Patiala as well as by the Mahatma,
I could not help being somewhat scornful about
the intelligence of the proud and aggressive defen-
ders of the spiritual culture of India. It could be
easily seen that there were a number of serious
questions which the believers in transmigration
would find very difficult to answer satisfactorily.
For instance, why does not everybody remem-
ber the events of past life ? Inability to answer
this question convincingly, is fatal for the conten-
tion that stories of rare individuals, having the
remembrance, prove transmigration. It is held
that the doctrine of life after death is not a
matter of belief, of primitive animistic tradition ;
that it can be empirically proved. Now, empi-
rical laws are inductive generalisations. Human
mortality is believed to be a law of nature, be-
cause all men die sooner or later. But in the case
of transmigration, we are asked to generalise from
the exception ! That is a very curious idea of
empirical proof. Suppose some individuals are
found to have outlived the usual span of human
39
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
life. The maximum claim justifiable on the strength
of that discovery, provided that the data are cri-
tically checked up, would be that mortality is not
a general law. On the strength of the fact that
a few men have lived well over a hundred years,
it would be simply ridiculous to maintain that
millions and millions, actually observed to die, do
not really die ! The attempt to prove trans-
migration empirically involves the responsibility
of explaining why everyone cannot remember the
past life. In the absence of this explanation,
the empirical evidence is all against the doctrine.
If memory is the evidence of past life, the general
rule is the absence of this evidence. Unless this
overwhelming evidence to the contrary is satisfac-
torily explained, empirical defence of transmigra-
tion is a hopeless undertaking. This explanation
has never been attempted, because there is none.
The Scriptures say that to see into the past
and future, one must be endowed with divya
drishti. Since the Scriptures are infallible, the
faithful must believe that those who remember
events of past life are possessed of a power which
accrues only to the spiritually elevated. Indeed,
those rare cases are so regarded. Shanti Devi has
become a minor Saint. The curious thing is that
this spiritual attribute is usually claimed, in these
degenerate days of modern civilisation, by ignor-
ant people. None of the educated defenders of
40
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
transmigration seem to possess the requisite
spiritual refinement which would enable them to
experience the truth of what they so tenaciously
believe in. The divya drishti is denied even to
our modern Swamis those proud propagandists of
Indian Spiritualism. This is rather unfortunate.
Because the fact that divya drishti is seldom
possessed by those who really possess spiritual
refinements, encourages the irreverential conclusion
that ignorance and the consequent superstition are
the foundation of " divine " powers. And it follows
logically that in the Golden Age of yore, there
were so many more seers because there was so
much more ignorance.
However, the doctrine of divya drishti is no
answer to the question. It "explains" why
some can see what others cannot; but it does
not explain why everybody cannot remember past
life. If I really had a past life, then there is no
reason for supposing that I must have a special
kind of spiritual power to remember it. It won't
do to argue that spiritual vision is clouded by
attachment, by the bondage of the body. Memory
is a sign of attachment. We remember things we
like or dislike. Matters of indifference are easily
forgotten. So, remembrance of past life is not a
token of spiritual elevation ; on the contrary, it
proves greater attachment than in ordinary cases.
We are forced to the conclusion that, the greater
41
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
the attachment to life, the clearer the spiritual
vision, a conclusion which contradicts the assump-
tion that the common people cannot see into the
past, because the effulgence of their souls is
clouded by the bondage of the body. The con-
clusion is ruinous for spiritualism in general.
Attachment, not only to this life, but also to the
memory of the past, is the sign of spiritual
elevation.
It is impossible to rationalise irrationalisnu
Transmigration is an article of faith, which follows
from the ad hoc assumption of an immortal souL
It cannot be proved. It is foolish of the storm-
troopers of spiritualism to risk a battle with
science on its own ground. Theirs is a hopelessly
lost cause.
There are still other questions which the
defenders of transmigration also cannot answer.
What happens between the death and re-birth ?
How does the soul or the su\shma shareer enter
the new body ? At what stage of its evolution
does the embryo acquire a soul ? How is the
choice of the next body made ? These are ques-
tions which suggest themselves to anybody not
blinded by faith. None of the traditional
answers to them can stand scientific scrutiny.
But unless these and many other equally perti-
nent questions are satisfactorily answered, it is
simple dogmatism to assert that transmigration is
42
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOCJL
a demonstrated or verifiable fact. The spiritualist
jubilation over the desired debacle of science is
dogmatism pure and simple. If transmigration
and other spiritualist beliefs are founded on the
verifiable knowledge of objective realities, why
the crusade against science ? Science knows no
finality. It does not claim absoluteness. It never
hesitates to throw over-board established theories
if they are contradicted by objective facts. If
transmigration could be proved to be a fact,
science would be readily convinced. Only, it
refuses to take anything for granted. The spiri-
tualists, however, do not maintain that their
view of life is scientific. Their point is that
science is all nonsense. The reason of thq crusade
against science is that it dispenses with the assump-
tion of super-natural agencies for the explanation
of life ; and belief in the super-natural is the very
essence of spiritualism. Disembodied spirit is a
super-natural category. It is above and beyond
the laws of nature. Science can explain, hypothe-
tically at any rate, all phenomena which may defy
it. And scientific hypothesis is not ad hoc assump-
tion. It is logically plausible and subject to veri-
fication. If hypothetical explanations are not
borne out by observation and experiments, science
simply looks for other explanations. Exceptions do
not definitely disprove a law ; besides, very often
the exceptions, on close and critical examination,
43
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
are found to be not exceptions at all. On the
question of transmigration, science is not per-
turbed by the challenge of the divine vision of
ignorance and superstition. It can easily expose
the fictitious nature of stories like that of Shanti
Devi can reveal their origin in the atmosphere
of superstitious beliefs based on ignorance. It
can defend itself against the attack of spiritualist
prejudice. Fighting science, on its own ground,
spiritualism suffers irreparable defeat. Attack is
not the best defence always. Sometimes it is
simply foolish and ruinous. That is the case with
the spiritualist crusade against science.
Science and rationalism, on the other hand, can
carry the fight triumphantly in the enemy's terri-
tory. Rationlist thought does not challenge spiri-
tualism to meet science on the latter's ground. It
exposes the fallacies of spiritualist thought, and
rejects it on the strength of its own evidence. Let
spiritualism take up the challenge represented by
the above questions which rise from the belief in
transmigration.
The idea of su\$hma sharecr is implicit in
the doctrine of transmigration. For one thing,
the idea contradicts the notion of disembodied
spirit ; it means that the soul is attached to the
body. Secondly, if the su\shma shareer were a
reality, conception as a rule should be immaculate.
The physical process would be unnecessary. Why
44
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
did, then, God give human beings, created after his
own image, a physical structure which is a super-
fluity in the divine scheme of things ? There
should not have been males and females. The
former, at any rate, could be dispensed with. All
sukjhma shareers could enter mother's womb as
in the case of Saints and Avatars. What a mishap
that would be for the arrogant male ! And what
a gloomy existence for the female to bear the
pains of motherhood without the joy of love that
makes it worthwhile ! I wonder how many normal
females would relish being virgin mothers. How-
ever, nature, with or without the sanction of
God, is happily not such a monstrosity. Concep-
tion of a new organism is a physical process
which excludes the entrance of sufyhma shareer
in the embryonic gross body. Genetics and gynea-
cology trace step by step the whole process of
evolution of a human organism from a fertilised
egg. Until it leaves the mother's womb, the new
organism has no direct contact with the external
world. The foundation of all spiritual attributes is
life. The inanimate is purely material. That which
differentiates organic beings from gross material
existence, namely, life, is a chemical phenomenon.
An eggXa sperm cell=a new life. Where does
the soul come in ? If it is a disembodied spirit,
whose mysterious ways are beyond the compre-
hension of science, well, have it that way; but
45
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
then the doctrine of transmigration must be
abandoned, because this cannot do without the
su^shma sharccr, which evidently is not a dis-
embodied spirit.
There is still another fly in the spiritualist
ointment. The birth (conception) of higher orga-
nisms results from the combination of two living
entities the ovum and the spermatozoa. If every
living body is the seat of a soul, in other words,
if the presence of soul brings about the pheno-
menon of life, then two souls a^e involved in
every act of conception, the result of which is
one body, providing home for one soul. What
happens to the other ? Which of the two souls
contending for the prospective home, gets posses-
sion ? How is the duel between souls seeking a
vehicle of re-birth settled ? A " scientific " expla-
nation of the doctrine of re-birth cannot carry
conviction unless these questions are scientifically
answered ; that is to say, unless it is able to give
such answers as can stand the scientific test of veri-
fication under control.
The two living entities going into the forma-
tion of a new organism come from two different
bodies. So, if they bring along any traces of
memory, that will be only memory of the parental
bodies. They, having grown in those bodies, can
possibly be the seat of extraneous informations.
And science has discovered that parental charac-
4*
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
teristics, mental, emotional, as well as physical, are
inherited that way. But remembrance of events
is not a part of that inheritance which may be
traced back throughout the whole line of evolution
of the species. The previous birth of any one
human being is lived in two places, the mother's
as well as the father's body. It is lived as germ
cells which, having no brain could not have any
memory. In any case, previous birth having been
lived in the sexual glands of two different bodies,
the question of remembering the events of a life
lived as a human being in the world at large does
not arise, within the limits of scientific know-
ledge.
Yet another point of fact in the process of
the birth of a new organism queers the case of
the " scientific " defenders of the doctrine of
transmigration. Life is not interjected from out-
side. It is inherited from the parental bodies.
This being the case, souls seeking re-birth cannot
directly enter into new bodies, nor can they
choose their new worldly abode. They must enter
into the parental bodies, and wait for a chance
to be born in a new body. But the germ cells
are born in parental bodies. So, souls coming
from outside, in order to live in them, are ficti-
tious. And what is still queerer is that, suppos-
ing that souls do come from outside, each must
split itself into two, one half entering the mother's
47
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
body and the other half the father's. Otherwise,
the duel for the possession of the new home can-
not be avoided. But even then, there arises a new
problem : Where is the guarantee that the corres-
ponding halves will come together at conception?
Bodies in the state of puberty generate
myriads of germ cells, only very very few of which
go into the conception of new organisms. In
such a situation, the probability of correspond-
ing halves of a soul coming together again in one
body, is extremely small. Here the " scientific "
re-incarnationist could make a point : That pre-
vious birth is not usually remembered precisely
because of the extreme rarity of cases in which it
is possible. But to make this point, itself not
very strong, he must throw off his whole case.
He must admit that transmigration is not direct ;
and then he would have to prove that germ cells
are seats of souls seeking re-incarnation. However,
let him take care of his case, and let us follow
our argument.
It is known that a vast majority of germ
cells are killed off in the process of the concep-
tion of one new organism. If they are stored up
through the practice of celibacy, which is more
often professed than really practised, they don't
go up to the brain and increase intellectual and
spiritual power. They are generated in the sexual
glands. There they remain, creating the natural
48
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
impulse of love-life, the inhibition of which is
not a way to spiritual elevation, but to hallucina-
tion caused by mental derangement. What
happens to those poor souls or half-souls whose
prospect of re-birth is thus annihilated ? They
cannot move on to newly generated germ cells to
wait for another chance. Each new germ cell is a
self-contained living being. It has its own soul, and
therefore cannot be the home for another homeless
soul. Anyhow, the chance of a new human exist-
ence in the world at large comes to only a few, and
that by sheer accident. Thus, the great majority of
souls are deprived of the chance of re-birth. How
are those poor chaps ever to work out their \arma ?
There is still another nut to crack. The germ
cells that went into the making of Shanti Devi
had been there in the bodies of her parents con-
siderably before they went into her conception. So,
the soul of Shanti Devi must have been awaiting
re-birth even before the woman at Muttra died.
How do you connect the two ? The fact (granted
that it is a fact) that the woman at Muttra died
just before Shanti Devi was born, disproves exactly
what it is believed to prove : The dead woman's
soul could not possibly re-incarnate in Shanti Devi.
In order to have the ghost of a chance to do so,
she should have died long before. She was still
living when Shanti Devi's su\shma sharper was
either living half and half in the bodies of her
49
FRAGMENTS Of A PRISONER^ DIARY
parents, or possibly reunited in her mother's womb.
The way out of this difficulty would be to assert
that the dead woman's soul did go directly over to
the embryonic girl. This assertion, obviously, can-
not be made scientifically. Besides, it involves the
ruinous admission that living bodies, not only germ
cells, but even a human embroyo, can be without a
soul. Because, had the germ cells that went into
the conception of the girl or her embryonic exist-
ence been possessed of a soul, there would be no
room for an interpolating soul coming straight from
Muttra. Or, why should the older occupant be
dislodged ? The admission of the possibility of
life without soul is ruinous for spiritualism, because
soul was invented to explain the phenomenon of
life.
Originally, soul was assumed for explaining
vital phenomena. Now these can be explained
without any animistic assumption. They are
mechanical processes, associated with a certain
physico-chemical organisation of matter. Life it-
self is a chemical process. Where does soul come
in ? It can remain as an article of blind faith a
dogma. Its position might not be so hopeless if
it were possible to find some break in the process
of embryonic evolution. Then it could be main-
tained (until science was able to fill up the gap)
that the soul slips in through the rift in the
mechanical process. In the absence of any such
50
THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
break, thanks to the self-containedness of the
process of embryonic evolution, it is not possible
to answer the question : How docs the soul
enter a new body ? Inability to answer this and
other associated questions leaves the spiritualists
no ground whatsoever, on which they can stand
in the crusade against science. When their
alternative view is so palpably untenable, except as
a matter of blind faith, they cannot reject the
scientific view with any pretence of reasonableness.
And the scientific view does not stand by the
default of any alternative, but by its own merit.
The spiritualist view was born of the inability to
explain life in terms of the physical laws of nature.
It stood in the absence of scientific knowledge.
The rise of science sounded the deathknell of
spiritualism. It persists as a prejudice. Tradition
dies hard.
The great bulk of the Indian people still
vegetate in the pre-scientific age. Hence the
prevalence of the belief in miracles, in the occult,
in the mysterious, in the super-natural. The thin
stratum of the modern educated is so weighed
down by the ballast of general ignorance that
instead of being the bold bearers of the torch oi
scientific knowledge, they act as valiant defenders
of the tradition of superstition. The pompous
crusade against science is a vain effort to defend
a view of life which must disappear if India is to
51
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
live. The belief in transmigration fosters fatalism.
Fatalism destroys initiative. Spiritualist culture
has taught the Indian masses to be resigned. The
spirit of revolt is unknown to them. But they
must revolt ; otherwise, instead of saving the world
with the message of their spiritual culture, they
will themselves follow other ancient peoples into
oblivion. To conquer the future, the past must
be shaken off. The people of India must have the
conviction that man makes his own destiny.
Karma, fate, transmigration, unattachment,
immortal spiritual essence, Providential Ordinance
all these are ghosts out of a dead past. Let the
past bury its dead, so that the people of India may
live in a future brighter than the present.
52
CHAPTER II
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
RELIGIOSITY is not an Indian monopoly. It is
more wide-spread in this country than in others
because in no other civilised country, the masses
are so very ignorant. Ignorance and religiosity
are causally connected. Besides, what is called
naturally religious temperament, is really a culti-
vated habit. Therefore, it may persist even in
educated people capable of casting off supersti-
tious beliefs if they want. Nor is it a matter
of voluntary choice. It is a psychological pheno-
menon which has an interesting history. Soul,
mind or personality is not a static entity. Like
any other empirical reality, it also has a natural
history. At any given moment, it is a sum total
of past experience, the major portion of which,
however, remains subconscious. Emotional or
spiritual life is largely dominated by impressions
and impulses buried in the subconscious mind.
Hence the mystic nature of the psychic phenomena.
About the time that the story of Shanti Devi
was widely advertised as the knock-out blow
to the scientific disbelief in the doctrine of re-
incarnation, I read in an American periodical the
53
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
account of a "religious experience". In that case
also, the subject was a girl of that accursed land
of rank materialism. Nevertheless, the account
shows how religious temperament can be culti-
vated, and that mystic religious experiences result
from preconceived notions, being nothing more
mysterious than auto-hypnosis. Such experiences
are familiar phenomena in India. But they are
seldom observed critically and recorded as data
for psychological or psychiatrical investigation.
Superstition reads in them manifestations of the
super-natural ; and they reinforce the religiosity,
not only of the uneducated credulous, but often
of the learned sceptic.
The account of the experience of the American
girl is also an instance of superstition, a cultivat-
ed habit of religiosity. But taking place in a social
atmosphere different from that of India, the event
was scientifically explained. Nevertheless, in the
face of a scientific explanation of the phenomenon,
the cultivated religiosity of the girl and others of
similar temperament remained unmoved in its
blind faith. Therefore, I shall record the account
as an appendix to the criticism of the "scientific
verification" of Shanti Devi's story.
A middle aged worker of the Ford Motor
Works went to a Revivalist meeting with his wife
and seventeen years old daughter. The entire
family belonged to the congregation. For that
54
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
particular meeting, the text of the Evangelist
sermon was : " I will pour out my spirit in the
last days, and the young men shall prophesy and
the young women shall dream dreams."
It was a winter evr-ring, wet and cold. The
parents were reluctant to take along the girl who
was of weak constitution, having had three attacks
of pneumonia. But the girl would not miss the
meeting, because she believed that it was going to
be a great occasion for her. She had made that
enthusiastic declaration on the way to the church.
Evidently, she was determined to catch the spirit
of God and "dream dreams."
As soon as the preacher roused the congrega-
tion to a frenzy, usual in such Revivalist meetings,
the girl rushed up to the altar and collapsed there
in a heap. She was in a trance, described variously
in different religions, as beatitude, samadhi, dasha,
etc. Throughout the night, the whole congrega-
tion remained in the church and prayed in pious
ecstasy. Finally, the unconscious girl was carried
home. There, she lay in her trance day after day.
The parents declined to take her to the hospital.
They firmly belived that the girl was having a
communion with God. The proud father exclaim-
ed that the state of the girl was produced by the
death of the sinful nature of the body.
Physicians, however, came to ascertain that the
life of the girl was not in danger. On examination,
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
no alarming symptoms were found. There
was nothing wrong physiologically the pulse was
normal, reflexes satisfactory. But psychiatrists
ascertained that psychologically (as distinct from
purely physical reflex actions), the girl responded
only to religious stimuli. For example, when a
prayerful hymn was sung, the girl's pulsation
increased ; on being asked if she loved God or
was with him, there was a faint smile on her
otherwise entirely expressionless face. Responding
to the priest's call for a fervent prayer, the
girl's rigid arms shot up in a supplicating posture,
while the rest of her body was irresponsive to any
stimulus. She held her arms up in that posture
for forty minutes, while all the conscious members
of the congregation, though in ecstasy, got tired
in ten minutes more or less, as any ordinary person
would. That was a " miracle " which was pro-
claimed by the priest to be a manifestation of the
super-natural power attained through the commu-
nion with God. Members of the congregation, of
course, believed it to be so, and kept on praying
ecstatically.
On the sixth day, having been in that state
of religious coma for hundred and forty-three
hours, the girl finally woke up to make the follow-
ing declaration : " I seemed to be standing on a
cloud with the earth below me, and I had a
glimpse of the Heaven. I saw God walking to-
56
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
wards me on a white path." She also claimed
to have seen the recently dead little son of the
priest, "picking flowers along the path, dressed
in pure white."
Now, that was a mystic experience which, in
this country, would naturally reinforce the reli-
giosity not only of a small community, but of the
entire population. The educated would read in
it another irrefutable evidence of transcendental
truth and realities beyond the reach of scientific
investigation. Disregarding her predisposition to
auto-hypnosis, superstitious mentality, debilitated
physical conditions conducive to abnormal neurotic
state (hysteria), in short, her general spiritual
backwardness, the girl would be hailed as a seer,
a sadhu, a Free Spirit, and could easily assume
the authority of a prophetess commanding a
devoted following, if she were so disposed. And the
band of her disciples would be composed mostly
of educated people. For, with all their traditional
religiosity, the ignorant masses are not actively
religious. Not being at all bothered by the dis-
turbing influence of modern education, even of
the most rudimentary and superficial kind, they
do not feel the necessity of rationalising their
faith. In modern countries, religion still thrives
only in its appropriate atmosphere among the
ignorant, ill-educated, intellectually deficient, frus-
trated. There, religious mentality is cultivated only
57
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
by those deprived of the benefit of modern edu-
cation or dejected by the defeat in the fierce
struggle of life. In India, religious revivalism is
rampant among the modern educated middle-class
intellectuals. It is mostly by their effort that
religious mentality is assiduously cultivated. There-
fore, mystic experiences, authentic or fraudulent,
which otherwise would be lost in the vast wilder-
ness of mass superstition, receive so much publi-
city whenever they happen to come to the notice
of the modern intelligentsia.
The skepticism of the talented young man, who
became famous as Swami Vivekananda, was swept
away by the claim of an illiterate person to mystic
experience which, if subjected to a psychiatrical
scrutiny, would be found to be of the nature of
the experience of the American girl. In both
cases, the claim is personal communion with God.
Science has no difficulty in conceiving the sincerity
of the claim in either case, and yet show that
the experience takes place on the background of
superstition and, therefore, though authentic sub-
jectively, is not an experience of objective truth.
It is mental anaesthesia, self-hypnotism or neurotic
struggle with reality.
Predisposition is the condition for mystic
experience. One can be so disposed constitutionally,
that is to say, possessed of a mental make-up
heavily loaded with preconceived notions. Neurotic
58
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
condition conducive to the struggle against reality
results from inhibition of physical impulses and
suppression of normal mental activities. In appa-
rently normal persons, the predisposition for mystic
experience can be produced by hetero-suggestion.
Even in such cases, the predisposition is there,
congenitally, so to say. It is partially over-
whelmed by reason. The wavering will to believe
is reinforced by the claim to actual religious experi-
ence on the part of someone who easily does
the rest by means of suggestion. In authentic
cases of mystic initiation, the guru performs this
function, of placing the disciple in the state
of self-hypnotism. Latent predisposition is thus
awakened.
The content of religious experience, whether
spontaneous or attained through laborious prac-
tices, is imaginary. Interest is focussed upon a
particular image to the exclusion of other objects
claiming the attention of any normal person.
There is, however, nothing mystic in the experi-
ence ; it is a psychological state, either produced
spontaneously, or cultivated through the practice
of auto-suggestion. \Every psychological state
can be reduced to a physiological state of
the braiii Emotions are governed by internal
secretions^ which, in their turn, are affected by
emotional states. In psychological states, believed
to be indications of religious experience, con-
59
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
scious mind lapses into a coma ; the ego visits the
dream-land of the subconscious. Neurotic persons
fall into mental coma spontaneously. Hysteria is
not usually regarded as a religous experience
but as disease. Samadhi is mental coma attained
through practice. It is a form of hysteria. Visions
seen in samadhi, therefore, are not more divine
than the dreams of the neurotic or the hallucina-
tions of hysteria. They are images of the seer's
desires. One may "see" whatever he wishes to
see, provided that he has the faith necessary for
the purpose. The village urchin " sees " ghosts in
every bush, because he believes in all the ghost
stories he has heard all his life. To have mystic
visions, one needs only to disturb the normal
operation of mind.
What is believed to be the attainment of a
higher form of consciousness, experience of realities
beyond the reach of mind, is really a psychological
reaction. It is either associated with given patho-
logical conditions as in the case of those suffering
from hysteria, or produced by the canalisation of
mental activity on one particular interest. In
either case, there is a temporay suspension, or
coma, of cerebral functions in the neo-mental,
intellectual area (cerebral cortex), psychological
activity taking place then only in the paleo-mental,
thalamic region (base of the brain). In other
words, the more primitive, biological, functions of
60
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
the nervous system gain predominance over what,
in the absence of a more appropriate term, can be
called purely mental activity. (This term is in-
correct and misleading, because even the purest
mental activity is expenditure of nervous energy,
liberated either by external stimuli, or by the
reciprocity of internal excitations).
Rational activity takes place in the neo-mental
region. When that part of the brain is in a state
of coma, all intelligent control and guidance of
psychological activity disappear. The ego is con-
fronted with a chaotic kaleidoscope of stored-up
images shifting under the influence of nervous re-
flexes and mutual excitations. The operation of
reason and intelligence thus suspended, there is a
return to primitive (culturally as well as biologi-
cally) psychological state dominated by supersti-
tions. Mental pictures, created by ignorance,
appear as realities actually experienced. Inhibited
physical impulses, suppressed desires, are sublimated
into mystic images and spontaneous emotions
(ecstasy).
So, in the state of beatitude, attained in
religious experience, intellectually, man sinks to a
lower spiritual level, instead of rising high above
the reach of consciousness. The theory is that all
activity of the conscious mind must cease as con-
dition for the realisation of the super-human in
man. Now, modern physiology shows that cessa-
61
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
tion of the conscious mental activity is produced
by a cerebral coma, and therefore is coincident
with the relapse into a more primitive psycho-
logical state, wherein biological reflex-action
reigns supreme. In that state, man comes nearer
to animal than God. The divine sha\ti released
by the suppression of the conscious mind, redly,
is something which is neither divine nor myste-
rious. It is the life-force which man shares with
all the members of the organic world ; and that
force is a form of physical energy. Man is spiri-
tually superior to other living creatures because,
in human organism, there appear psychological
phenomena which transcend biological laws hold-
ing supreme mechanically throughout the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. Before it becomes cons-
cious, life is an animal force : not even human
much less divine.
If shatyi is supposed to be something other
than life, then it is a mere name, for nothing.
It is a figment of imagination. Human organism
does not possess any other empirical category of
force than life and mind. The object of religious
experience must be an empirical category ; other-
wise, it would be nonsense to talk of experi-
ence. While the yoga system differentiates life
(prana) from the soul as well as from mind
(manas), in the Gita, they are identified. And
all the different schools of Hindu philosophy are
62
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
supposed to be co-ordinated in the Gita. In the
second chapter, Krishna says : " Life cannot slay ;
life cannot be slain." Evidently, life here stands
for soul. The following line makes it still
clearer ; therein identical qualifications are attri-
buted to soul. " The soul was never born ; it
shall never ceases", etc., etc. Indeed, the idea of
soul is animistic. Its existence is deduced from
the vital phenomena. The divine shatyi, therefore,
is the same as life. Modern science has dispel-
led all mystery about the vital phenomena. Shafyi,
therefore, is animal force which in man develops
the spiritual properties of reason and intelligence.
Religious experience thus is the experience of
the animal in man ; only, thanks to pathological
conditions, which must be created by practice, if
not existing spontaneously, animal instincts are
sublimated. Superstition becomes revealed truth ;
mental images, born of ignorance, appear as super-
natural realities ; preconceived notions take con-
crete form ; faith manufactures facts.
In an artificially produced subconscious state,
the ego experiences the mechanistic operation of
the force of life. Reflex-actions of the nervous
system, which constitute the foundation of mental
life, are rather biological than psychological phe-
nomena. If conscious mind is to be regarded as
the obstacle to man's experiencing the free flow
of divine power in him, then, the identification
63
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
of this with the animal force of unintelligent
life cannot be avoided. Intelligence differentiates
man from the lower animal. It is the function
of conscious mind. Suppression of the conscious
mind, therefore, naturally leads to a sub-human,
not super-human, psychological state. Super-con-
sciousness is a fiction which really stands for sub-
consciousness.
Modern biology has outgrown the recru-
descence of vitalist prejudice. Neither Bergson's
elan vital, nor Driesch's entckchy is more of
an empirical reality than the divine shatyi of
the Hindu mystic. " Scientific " vitalism ascribes
purposiveness, that is, intelligence, to life which
is described as a mysterious impulse. There is
absolutely no empirical evidence in support of
the contention. All the evidence is to the con-
trary. Except in higher animals with developed
brains, life operates as a blind impulse. Vitalism
stands on a purely logical ground, having no
ontological foundation. It argues that mental
activity in higher animals proves that intelligence is
inherent in the vital force. Even its logic is falla-
cious. jLi leads to infinite regress, unless one stops
at Panpsychism or Pantheism, neither of which
doctrines can claim scientific support. Besides, con-
sistent Pantheism is inverted materialism. When
the world is reduced to one single entity which can
be interchangeably called matter or spirit, the dis-
64
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
tinction between body, mind, soul, intelligence, in-
tuition, becomes meaningless. Religious experience
pre-supposes dualism. Individual soul must free
itself from the bondage of body, in order to feel
its union with the world-spirit. The body could
not be a bondage if it did not exist. The fallacy
of its logic drives spiritualist monism to an absurd
position. Shankaracharya declared Maya to be real!
How could the world be real and unreal at the
same time ? Modern absolute idealism also takes
up the same position. According to Bradley,
" appearances " are unreal, but they exist ! There,
then, exists something which is not spirit. That
is a contradiction of the panpsychist or pantheist
view. Vitalism is unsound even logically because
it leads to this contradiction.
However, even logically, vitalism has no force
as against evolutionary biology. The doctrine of
emergence explains how consciousness appears as
a " novelty." But the point is that, on the conten-
tion of vitalism itself, mind stands higher than
intuition in the scale of spiritual evolution.
Mind is the afflorescence of intelligence, which,
the vitalists contend, is latent in life-impulse. In
other words, mind is a higher form of the vital
force, the highest so far reached. May be, still
higher forms will be evolved. But for the moment,
we don't know anything about that. For the
present, the future can be visualised only in
65
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
terms of greatly developed mental activity. So,
the flow of shaltfi, that is experienced while con-
scious mental activities are suspended, is a mani-
festation of life-force lower than intelligence. If
there is anything divine in the life-force, it should
be more manifest on a higher level of life. Intelli-
gence is the highest manifestation of whatever
spiritual or mystic power there may be hidden in
life. Lapse into the subconscious state of mind,
therefore, cannot be regarded as spiritual elevation.
It is a reaction, degeneration. Religious experience
(samadhi, etc.) is a psychological derangement,
an artificially created psycho-pathological condi-
tion. Only superstition can sublimate abnormality.
The vision of the Seer or the ecstasy of the devotee
is a psychiatrical phenomenon like the hallucina-
tion of the hysteric or trance of the spiritist
medium.
The discovery of the cause and cure of
nervous disorder throws much light on the mys-
tery of religious experience. The famous French
physician Charcot discovered the relation between
hysteria and hypnosis. While treating cases of
hysteria, he observed that hypnotised patients
accepted without the slightest resistance any idea
suggested to them. Further investigation disclosed
the fact that the tendency to be influenced by
suggested ideas was not produced by hypnosis. It
is a characteristic symptom of hysteria. Normal
65
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
persons, provided that they are so disposed, can
also be hypnotised But the mind of a hysterical
patient is more open to suggestion than that of a
normal person. Hypnosis is an artificially produced
(as distinct from the pathological), more or less
partial, coma of the conscious mind. Physiologi-
cally, mental activity is expenditure of nervous
energy liberated by external stimuli or internal ex-
citations. Under normal conditions, the mind is
occupied with a variety of interests. The liberated
energy is canalised in diverse directions. As ex-
pended energy is constantly replenished from the
reserve put up by the cells of the nerve-tissues, there
is a balance of cerebral functioning. Excessive con-
centration on one particular interest upsets the
balance. One particular set of neurones consumes
its whole reserve. Consequently, other parts of
the brain are not excited internally, while excessive
concentration upon one particular interest renders
them incapable of feeling external stimuli. In the
absence of external stimuli as well as internal
excitations, energy is not liberated. There is
a temporary suspension of cerebral activity, except
of one particular set of neurones which itself is
exhausted by using up its entire reserve of energy.
Hypnosis produces such a state of partial coma,
because the hypnotised person's attention is con-
centrated upon one particular interest. The hypno-
tic state is really a momentary case of hysteria
67
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
artificially created. Therefore, even normal per-
sons, under hypnosis, are also open to suggestions.
Besides, they are " normal " only apparently. They
could not be hypnotised, that is, made to develop
momentary symptoms of hysteria, unless so dis-
posed. Evidently, the disposition itself shoud be
regarded as a symptom of the tendency to hysteria.
It is a fact that only weak-minded persons can be
consciously hypnotised, although their weakness
may not always be apparent.
Hysteria, or the tendency thereto, as evidenced
by suggestibility, indicates congenital deterioration
of the entire nervous system including the brain.
In other words, it is a sign of a hereditary mental
degeneration. This conclusion, reached by Charcot,
was reinforced by the investigations of Janet who
found that hysterical patients could not have more
than one idea at a time. That is a sign of mental
deficiency. Rational thought is not possible in the
absence of the association of ideas. Of course,
hysterical symptoms occur also in people who are
not mentally deficient, apparently. Even in those
cases, the mind is predisposed to be obsessed with
one idea. This is demonstrated by their sug-
gestibility under hypnosis. The obsession with
one idea, cither "normally" or under hypnosis,
releases emotion to overwhelm intelligence. Because
hysterical symptoms, developed in intelligent
people, who appear to be mentally normal, cannot
PSYCHOLOGY OP THE SEER
be traced to purely physical causes, to any
specific defect of neural anatomy therefore, they
have been regarded by the religious as signs of
mystic communion with God. But they can be
explained psychologically as produced by the con-
flict of suppressed emotions ; and emotions are
biological phenomena. By digging into the sub-
conscious parts of mental life, psycho-analysis
reveals the causes of the phenomenon of "mystic
experience." There is nothing mystic about it ;
that is to say, the content of such experience is
not some super-natural force or transcendental
truth ; it is hallucination produced by the conflict
of suppressed emotions.
On the other hand, psychologically, hysteria is
auto-hypnosis. It is the result of a morbid occupa-
tion with some particular idea or emotion, to the
exclusion of others. This reverse relation between
hysteria and hypnosis was discovered by Liebault
and Bernheim, who demonstrated that symptoms
of hysteria could be produced in hypnotised persons.
Charcot had ascertained that, while associated
with all sorts of mental and physical disturbances,
hysteria fundamentally was an emotional disorder.
Modern physiology has discovered how emotion
produces the physical symptoms of hysteria. Caus-
ing excessive liberation of nervous energy, too
much to be used up in appropriate behaviour,
strong emotions produce all sorts of physical dis-
69
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
turbances, such as are recognised to be hysterical
symptoms, and are believed to be the evidence of
religious experience. Lapicque's investigations
reveal emotions as purely physiological phenomena.
An abnormal state of emotional excitement, which
produces mental and physical symptoms of hysteria,
is a state of auto-hypnosis. Because, that state
represents momentary suspension of nomal cere-
bral activity, and, in cases of physical disturbance,
of the entire nervous system.
Ordinarily, the mind, at any given moment,
is occupied with a number of ideas checking and
correcting each other. One of them may be the
predominant. As a matter of fact, intense mental
activity is concentration upon one single idea.
Hence the exhaustion that follows. Intense men-
tal activity means liberation and expenditure of a
large amount of nervous energy. But except in
rare cases of nervous break-down, caused rather by
physical debility than psychological disequilibrium,
exhaustion from intense mental activity does not
produce coma. Because rationalist thought always
involves more than one idea, it is never concen-
trated upon one single interest. The very essence
of rationalism is the checking and correlation
of an idea in the light of others. Intense intel-
lectual labour, apparently dominated by one idea,
does not draw upon the energy reserves of any
particular set of neurones ; the entire brain is
70
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
involved in the process. The energy expended is
liberated by internal excitements. The supply
being copious, it is not totally consumed even
when the demand is great.
The distinctive psychological feature common
to the hysterical and hypnotic states, is concen-
tration upon one single idea to the exclusion of
others, the interest being emotional, not intel-
lectual An idea suggested to a hypnotised person
operates independent of his conscious mind,
indeed, overwhelming this for a time. So long as
he remains in the hypnotic state, the normal
function of his cerebral mechanism is suspended.
The process is more pronounced in hysteria, the
cause of which psychological malady is obsession
with a fixed idea. From this it is clear that
psychologically hysteria is unconscious auto-
hypnosis. Sometimes it is conscious. Symptoms of
hysteria can be produced in hypnotised persons,
because auto-hypnosis lies at the bottom of the
abnormal emotional state which brings about the
nervous and physiological disturbance called
hysteria. In hypnosis, the idea is suggested from
outside ; the hysterical patient receives the sug-
gestion from his subconscious mind. Charcot's
investigations, carried on in greater detail by
Janet, establish the existence of the unconscious
process of auto-suggestion. Since hysterical
symptoms can be produced by hypnotic sugges-
71
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
tions, it is evident that the disease must be due to
similar suggestions present in the patient's mind,
without his being conscious of them.
That is the internal connection between
hysteria and hypnosis. The discovery of this
connection between the physical and psychologi-
cal aspects of a complex pathological condition
throws a flood of light on the mechanism of reli-
gious experience. It reveals the physiology of the
exalted emotional state in which the mystic claims
to come in sensible contact with realities beyond
the reach of intelligence.
Religious experience is a case of hypnotism,
the suggestion for producing the abnormal emo-
tional state coming either from outside or arising
from the subconscious mind of the subject. But,
in either case, ultimately, it is self-hypnosis, that
is to say, hysteria. To realise this fact, one needs
only compare hysterical symptoms, produced under
hypnosis, with the tokens of mystic experience.
Let us take the famous case of Ramakrishna
Paramhamsa, which was so undoubtedly spontane-
ous as to impress many intelligent observers and
convinced not a few skeptics. At the touch of
any metal, his hand used to be paralysed. The
cause of that remarkable phenomenon, according
to himself, was his aversion to money which he
regarded as the emblem of worldliness. The
phenomenon is physically explicable. It is a reflex-
72
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
action, analogous to the shutting o the eye-lid at
the approach of an insect, with the only differ-
ence that it takes place on a high emotional level.
And that only proves the physical nature of
emotion. Like all complicated reflex-actions, the
paralysis of the hand was preceded by a cerebral
process a mental activity. Money is bad ; its
possession involves one in worldliness, which is
harmful for spiritual life ; so it must be avoided.
This is a whole process of logical deduction. But
it takes place in the subconscious mind, completely
overwhelmed by an emotional super-structure
aversion to money. That is hypnosis, the sugges-
tion coming from the subject's subconscious mind
where the rationalist foundation of his aversion
remains hidden. The aversion to money alone
would not have the hypnotic effect if it resulted
consciously from an intelligent conviction. An
intelligent desire to avoid contact with money
would not produce a physical reflex at the touch
of metal wares ; because intelligence would distin-
guish metal from money. To regard a coin as a
mere piece of metal and consider this latter as
identical with any other piece of matter, would
be abstract thought, though from the practical
point of view it would be false. When the Param-
hamsa threw some coins in the river, he was
engaged in rational thinking. To shrink from the
contact of such things as ornaments, whose value
73
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
is calculated in terms of money, would also be a
behaviour determined by intelligent thought. But
it is utterly irrational to believe that the mere touch
of any metal is corrupting because coins are made
of metal. Indeed, intelligent thought can never
lead to that conclusion. The original idea about
the evilness of money is totally lost in irrational
emotion. The behaviour, believed to be the con-
scious expression of a rational idea, is purely physi-
cala reflex-action. And when it takes on an
abnormal form, such as paralysis, it is a symptom
of hysteria, brought about by emotional excess. It
is quite natural to remove our hand automatically
whenever it comes in contact with a heated object;
but if the reflex-action becomes more violent, for
example, if someone runs away at the sight of fire,
or suffers from any physical deformity simply from
the proximity of a heated object, he is regarded as
behaving neither rationally, nor naturally in the
physical sense. In plain language, that is a case of
hysteria, and is usually given medical treatment.
Similarly, the paralysis of hand at the touch of
any metal vessel is a case of hysteria. It is a
physical phenomenon, and should have a physical
cause. To maintain that it is produced by any
spiritual force, is to debase the idea of spiritual
force. The essence of the idea is qualitative distinc-
tiveness from the material being. This distinction
precludes the possibility of any causal relation
74
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
between spirit and matter, soul and body. The
paralysis of the hand, even of a holy man, must
have a physiological reason. As it is not a normal
reflex-action, the reason evidently is pathological.
There is no direct physical cause, as, for instance, a
strong electric shock ; so, it is clearly a matter of
psycho-pathology. The reason is a morbid psycho-
logical state in which all rational thinking is over-
whelmed by emotional exuberance ; an hysterical
symptom is produced by unconscious auto-sug-
gestion.
Emotion is a biological (as distinct from
psychological) function. Therefore, it affects
bodily behaviour. Normal physiological processes
may be disturbed by emotional exuberance.
Abnormal physical behaviours take place in the
absence of the intelligent control of neural activity
exercised by the brain. In the absence of that
control, liberated nervous energy is not evenly
distributed ; the excessive supply overflows the
normal reaction tracks ; and brings about reflex-
actions without apparent cause, such as accelera-
tion or retardation of the heart, dilatation or con-
traction of the peripheric blood-vessels, disturbance
of gastric or other internal secretion, perspiration,
profuse flow of tears, muscular contraction (in
epileptic fits, cramps or partial paralysis), dilation
of the pupils, so on and so forth.
That is the physiological explanation of unusual
75
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
bodily behaviours believed to be indications of
mystic experience. The emotional state in which
they appear is not a state of spiritual elevation,
but of psycho-pathological degeneration. Con-
scious mental activity is suspended ; organic func-
tions thrown out of balance.
Now, all these physical abnormalities can be
produced ii\ hysterical patients under hypnosis.
If a patient's arm is placed in a certain posture
and he is told that it is paralysed, he will not be
able to move it. Charcot and his pupils made a
whole series of such experiments. The suggestion
that he has drunk wine would produce in the
patient all the symptoms of intoxication. Given
an unprejudiced approach, a spirit of scientific
investigation, it is clear that in either case of the
mystic as well as of the hypnotic patient the
abnormalities must be caused by the identical
reason. It is the psycho-pathological condition in
which suggestibility increases in proportion as
intelligence is paralysed either by disease or pre-
disposition. It is a general conclusion of psychia-
trical practice that suggestibility is greatly
increased by checking the critical faculty in the
patient. For tfyis purpose, nothing is more effec-
tive than blind faith and preconceived ideas.
Therefore, religious people are particularly sugges-
tible, the suggestions being inherent in their own
mental make-up. The auto-suggestion, required
76
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SKFE
for producing the hypnotic state called mystic
experience, is supplied either by conscious faith or
unconscious predisposition. When one firmly
believes that there is a world of mystery in himself,
and his faith is sufficiently fortified by the bliss of
ignorance, he is sure to "experience*' it. All he
has got to do is to take his faith seriously make
it the sole interest of life.
Physiological actions can be to some extent
influenced voluntarily. For example, sometimes,
physical ailments can be cured or produced through
suggestions. But what appears to be "volition"
in such processes is not a mental force. It is
stimulus to organic reaction which quickens certain
kinds of glandular secretion. Even a thorough-
going vitalist like Driesch, having investigated
these " psychic " phenomena, comes to the follow-
ing interesting conclusion : " It is not volition, but
a kind of imagination to which must be added the
firm conviction that that which is being imagined
will really come about. And thereupon it happens,
and that which brings it about is the vital factor
operating upon the body. The things which are
here at length comprehended in a scientific form,
are some mart ancient and others most modern ;
the practices of Indian yogis and of Christian
Science arc at tic bottom the same thing in a
religious form." 1 The " vital factor " is an obses-
1 Hans Drtcsch, Mm md *ke Universe.
77
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
sion of Driesch. Modern biology has exposed the
fictitious nature of this old notion refurbished by
"scientific" mysticism. In the passage quoted,
Driesch himself admits that unwittingly. The
events ascribed to "volition" are brought about
by the " vital factor " ; but we are also told that,
what is believed to be " volition ", is really " imagi-
nation." So, "vital factor" is an imagination.
Because, things equal to the same thing, are equal
to one another. The finding of recent biological
research is that " vital factor " is the name for the
electro-chemical process which functions as the
"organiser of life." However, the point here is
that science has exposed the physiological essence
of certain "psychic phenomena" which had pre-
viously been taken for the evidence of mystic
power, whose cultivation is still believed to be the
way to spiritual elevation. In other words, science
has cut the ground under a venerable superstition.
Concentration upon one single interest, un-
less it is of intellectual nature, upsets the equili-
brium of cerebral function ; an hysterical state is
brought ^about in consequence ; and, hypnotised
by auto-suggestions coming from his belief, one
sees not only desired images, but hallucinations
reflecting the conflict of emotions in the sub-
conscious self.
In the case of skeptics, converted by mystic ex-
78
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
perience, there is unconscious predisposition which
is liberated as soon as the resistance of criticism
gives way before the power of pure faith. This was
what happened, for example, with Vivekananda.
Aggressive skepticism is an interesting psychological
phenomenon. It is the manifestation of the sub-
conscious desire to find some evidence for reinforc-
ing the flagging faith. The bold assertion of
Ramakrishna that he had seen God was rather a
relief (unconsciously felt) than a matter of ridicule
for the young skeptic. Skepticism is not positive
disbelief. It implies readiness to believe if more
convincing evidence would be available. So, the
assertion awakened the predisposition to believe.
That immediately weakened the critical faculty of
the would-be Seer. Weakening of the faculty of
criticism increased his suggestibility. The silent
suggestion from the Paramhamsa that the young
man could have the experience of God in him,
self, reinforced by the auto-suggestion coming
from awakened predisposition, placed him in the
hypnotic state in which he found what he had
been unconsciously looking for. Only, he did not
find anything but believed to have done so. And
faith moves mountains.
An authoritative opinion, very appropriate in
this connection, is again pronounced by the
scientific mystic Driesch. Referring to the psycho-
logical state created by imagination, reinforced by
79
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
the conviction that the imaginary is real, he writes:
" In this state, suggestion with reference to a parti-
cular content, that is, a faith in the reality of this
content, is attained without any ground of rational
nature. I pass to the other person a hetero-
suggestion, that is, I tell him that this or that
thing is a fact ; and he internally transforms this
external suggestion into an auto-suggestion, and is
convinced that things are as I have said." 1
But let us have some more facts showing that
religious experience is a psycho-pathological
(hysterical) phenomenon. Sometimes, hysterical
patients under hypnosis behave as if they were
dreaming. They would give informations about
the cause of their disease which they could not
while not under hypnosis. Afterwards, they would
forget all about it. In the hypnotic state, hidden
parts of mental life become revealed to the ego.
Similarly, mystic experience is a peep into the
obscure recesses of the ego ; and those dark cham-
bers of mental life are filled with distorted images
representing natural impulses, suppressed conscious-
ly or unconsciously. It is also like dream.
According to scriptural tradition, the divine light
in man cannot be described even by those who
have seen it. The Seer wakes up from a dream
which is nothing but auto-hypnosis. The object of
1 Hans Driesch, Mtm and the Universe.
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
mystic experience cannot be described, because it is
hidden in the subconscious mind. Modern
psychology has dragged out the contents of those
dark chambers. There is nothing spiritual in them.
If honest mystics, while having their experiences,
were placed under expert psycho-pathological
observation, there would be much interesting reve-
lation about the psychology of religious experience.
Under hypnosis, they could be made to relate the
contents of their experience without sublimating
them. Of course, on waking up, they would for-
get what they have said under hypnosis, and would
return to the religious ideas which are unconscious
sublimations of suppressed desires. And there
would be no dishonesty in that.
As a matter of fact, illuminating glimpses into
the psychology of religious experience are afford-
ed by the life-stories, historical or legendary, of
famous Saints and mystics. The ancient Greeks
associated hysteria with sex ; the very term im-
plies that. Modern psychology traces its origin
to the conflict of vital impulses, one being the
sexual which is repressed (mystic experience often
results from the suppression of sex-impulse).
Whatever may be the nature of the conflicting
impulse, all Saints and Seers are well known to
have suffered from the same psychological symp-
toms as mark the hysterical state created by
the suppression of sex-impulse. They were all
81
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
disturbed in their tapasya by the appearance of
temptresses, deputed from the Court of the King
of Paradise. In the language of modern psycho-
logy, they were being haunted by the images of
a suppressed desire ; they were suffering from
hysteria. That was the psychological background
of their mystic experience. Suppression of sex-
impulse is believed to be the road to mystic
experience. Knowing what it leads to, one cannot
but regard mystic experience as the hallucination
of hysteria.
Nor is it a matter of logic alone. The factual
evidence is incontestable. Sublimation of sex-
impulse is a typical symptom of hysteria. Women
disappointed in love would devote their lives to
charitable services or become nuns. Men with
similar experience! may depict romantic ideals of
love in novels or mystic lyrics. These and many
others are facts, established by modern psycholo-
gical research. Even Indian religious life is rich
in sublimations ; because it attaches so much im-
portance to the suppression of the sex-impulse.
The practices of certain religious sects (Vaishnavas,
for example) are entirely composed of such subli-
mations. There are others (Tantrics) who perform
sexual acts, not as such, as a matter of physical
necessity, but as a part of their religious practice.
To make of the sex organ (lingam) the emblem
of God, and to deify sex-impulse, are the most
82
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
extreme forms of sublimation. To look upon every
woman as one's mother, is yet another form of
sublimating sex, very common in India. This
form of sublimation is associated with the cult of
conceiving God as the female (creative) force, or
of splitting the indivisible One into male and
female principles. (A curiously contradictory
notion ! How can the indivisible be divided ?
But that is a different question, which does not
concern us here.)
Ramakrishna Paramhamsa was altogether
obsessed with the sublimation of sex into the
"mother principle." Hence his extraordinary
behaviour in the proximity of women. The mother
complex served the purpose of auto-suggestion to
put himself in a hypnotic state. That curious
behaviour was a conditioned reflex,, developed un-
consciously as a check upon the sex-impulse. The
mere sight or touch of a woman does not awaken
sex-impulse in every normal male. Then, why
should the holy man fly into a trance to avoid an
influence that cannot corrupt even all normal
mortals ? That queer behaviour was not a sign of
mystic elevation, but symptom of a bad case of
hysteria. In his subconscious emotional life, the
conflict of impulses must have been very strong.
The more fierce the conflict, the more pronounced
the sublimation ; otherwise, there would be
insanity. That, however, does not mean that the
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
sublimation is conscious. Indeed, in the sublimated
form, the sex-impulse is totally unconscious. But
it is there as the cause of abnormal emotional
and physical appearances. To heap one's worship
and devotion on a female image on the imaginary
"mother principle" is a classic case of sublimat-
ing sex-impulse.
The religious practice of the shatyas worship-
pers of God in a female image includes sexual
acts. To combine worship of the female principle
with the suppression of sex, involves a severe
emotional conflict which naturally upsets mental
equilibrium, and brings about a hysterical state.
All Staints and Seers, modern as well as ancient,
are victims of a very complicated type of hysteria.
Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, for example, lived prac-
tically always under auto-suggestions. Therefore,
mystic experience was so very frequent with him.
Split-up personality is another hysterical symp-
tom. It is often produced in spiritist mediums
under hypnosis. The story of Mr. Jackyll and
Dr. Hyde is not a pure fantasy. Hysterical patients
are known to develop a second personality. All
recollections of a certain portion of life is lost,
and the patient believes himself to be an entirely
different person. Very remarkable cases of this
curious phenomenon, commonly characterised as
" occult ", may be caused by the conversion of an
84
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
emotion into morbid symptoms. A very typical
case was the famous Vaishnava prophet, Chaitanya.
It is said that he believed himself to be the incar-
nation of Radha. In trance, he enacted the part
of that mythical mistress of Krishna. Undoubt-
edly, he imagined himself to be the beloved of
God ; and that imagination was the content of his
mystic experience. It was, nevertheless, a hysterical
symptom, produced by the suppression of sex-
impulse which found the morbid emotional
expression.
Nature is not easily bullied. She takes revenge
which is often spiritually catastrophic, though it
may be glorified by the superstitious victims and
their credulous followers as token of spiritual
elevation. Psychologically, the stribhav culti-
vated by Vaishnava mystics like their prophet, is a
perverted expression of sex-impulse of the same
type as homo-sexuality. In this abnormal
emotional relation, which is now regarded as a
psycho-pathological phenomenon, and medically
treated as such, one of the partners imagines him-
self to be sexually converted. The emotional
abnormality originates in difficulties or frustration
in finding an appropriate object of affection,
which, experienced in the earlier stages of puberty,
create hysterical condition. Cultivated in practice
over a sufficiently long period, it becomes a physical
habit with no deep psychological foundation, and
85
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
thus the addict may not suffer from any mental
derangement.
But sublimated in a religious devotion, its
original psycho-pathological nature is accentuated.
Because, the emotion does not find even an
abnormal physical expression. It develops intros-
pectively. In course of time, the balance between
emotion and intelligence is upset. The whole
mental life is thrown off the gear of orderly
cerebral mechanism. The devotee falls a victim
of chronic hysteria which, consciously cultivated,
becomes the characteristic feature of his spiritual
life. That 'is a standing state of auto-hypnosis,
and consequently abounds in mystic experience.
Chaitanya, for example, would dream (in trance
or ecstasy) of being in the embrace of Krishna, or
caressing his feet in the classical Hindu fashion ;
and that image of unconscious erotic desire would
be interpreted as mystic communion with God.
There is nothing spiritual in such experience,
which is abnormal satisfaction of a natural impulse
driven underground as sinful.
The Freudian school of psycho-analysts is of
the opinion that all religious symbols are expres-
sions of suppressed emotions, chiefly of the sexual
nature. Freudian " pan-sexualism ", however, is
rejected by other psycho-analysts ; and, although
Freud himself cannot be so accused, many of his
followers are certainly guilty of exaggeration.
86
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
Nevertheless, there is general agreement about the
fundamental role of sex-impulse in emotional life.
A critic of Freudian pan-sexualism writes : " We
admit that further enquiry into the history of the
human mind may prove that the sexual impulse
has been a great factor in the development of
religion and art ; and there are many facts that
point that way." 1 Hinduism provides a surfeit of
such facts. Sex figures very prominently in Hindu
symbolism. It also determines the devotional prac-
tices to a considerable extent. But the most sig-
nificant fact is that even the metaphysical aspects
of Hinduism are directly linked up with a pres-
cribed attitude towards the physical impulse of sex.
Brahmacharya is the condition sine qua non
for mystic experience. The burden of this virtue
is suppression of the sex-impulse. A natural im-
pulse cannot be killed. It is simply driven down
in the subconscious mind, where it becomes harm-
ful. It forces its way out, and influences the
conscious mental life in various disguise. The
control of instinctive impulses, by itself, is not a
harmful practice. As a matter of fact, their intel-
ligent control distinguishes man from animal.
Organisation of natural impulses into a well
balanced emotional life is the essence of spiritual
development. That is done by reason and intelli-
*J. H. Van der Hoop, Character and the Unconscious
87
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
gence. Impulses, useless for, or antagonistic to,
such a spiritual development, may be suppressed
without any harm. If they are few and really
unimportant in the scheme of intelligent life, they
will remain quietly in the subconscious mind. The
intellectual worker may habituate himself to light
meals in order to avoid the cerebral function
temporarily slowing down by the use of excessive
physical energy in the digestive process. That
would be a control of the impulse to eat. But the
physical requirement would still be there to be
satisfied by the supply of a certain irreducible
amount of energy to compensate for the recurring
expenditure. Only, the demand should be made
through the consumption of such food as might
contain greater energy in smaller quantities. That
is intelligent control of a natural impulse. Simi-
lar process of control can be applied to the satisfac-
tion of sex-impulse. One need not ruin himself
psycho-physically through the practice of abstinence
in order to avoid the dissipation of energy in
elemental passion and lust. Indeed, sex-impulse,
powerful and fundamental as it is, is automatically
controlled by the operation of other emotions and
intellectual occupations. The sex-impulse of all
normal human beings, with a varied interest in
life, is necessarily controlled, more or less. People
with high intellectual occupations are less consci-
ous of the impulse than the Brahmachari, who may
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
not be anything more than a religious loafer. You
cannot be really unconscious of an impulse which
you are combating consciously. Control necessary
for an all-round spiritual development is an auto-
matic process. Only idle minds are swayed by
elemental passions and desires. Occupied with
things, not directly concerned with the ego, one
ceases to be constantly conscious of the sex and
other natural impulses.
However, while control (intelligent satisfac-
tion) of basic impulses belongs to the scheme of a
well-balanced mind, and minor impulses (for
example, desire to go to the theatre one particular
evening, or to visit a friend, etc.) can be suppressed,
the suppression of, or even the attempt to suppress,
a major impulse is positively harmful.
Sex is a major impulse ; indeed, the most
fundamental. That is easy to see. Spiritual deve-
lopment presupposes life ; and existence of life
requires reproduction. If there is any creative
principle, that is to be found in the sex-impulse.
The idea that spiritual development is conditional
upon the suppression of sex-impulse is, therefore,
obviously absurd. The practice is as sensible as
to strike at the root of the tree to make it flower
and bear fruit. The satisfaction of natural impulses
cannot be antagonistic to spiritual development,
if the faculty naturally belongs to man. Sex
being the fundamental impulse of life, its satisfac-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
tion is necessary for the physical, intellectual and
emotional well-being of man. Its suppression is
bound to be injurious psychologically as well as
physically. In fact, it cannot be suppressed. It
manifests itself in morbid symptoms, the form of
which is determined by unconscious predisposi-
tions. An abnormal psychological state is created.
Mystic experience is a feature of that state. It is
the product of hysteria, cultivated artificially
through the practice of Brahmacharya. A psycho-
pathological state is purposefully created to that
the struggle against reality could be carried on with
apparent success. Mystic experience does reveal the
real nature of the self, because it is a peep into the
dark chambers of the subconscious mind wherein
lurk the predispositions and congenital tendencies
which profoundly influence all the behaviour of life
in so far as this is not guided by intelligence. But
in mystic experience, realities about the nature of
the self appear in distorted images. Therefore, it
is rather hallucination than realisation of the truth.
It is a gross superstition to seek in distorted pictures
of one's inner self the guidance for conscious life.
One should rather try to dig up the ugly realities
behind the fascinating pictures. That would be
real knowledge of the self. The knowledge of its
defects, deformities, handicaps, would enable one to
remove them through the exercise of intelligence,
and thus liberating the self progressively from the
90
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
bondage of unconscious predispositions, set it on
the endless road of real spiritual elevation. Science
(psychology) helping us to overcome the time-
honoured superstition about the nature of self,
enables us to find objective truths about ourselves
instead of hallucinations. Truth is a more depend-
able guide to life than fantasy.
Mystic experience results from a struggle
against the realities of life. In hysterical patients,
the struggle is unconscious, being a product of
a neurotic state. The religious man, swayed by
superstition, takes up the struggle consciously. It
is an instance of what Freud describes as "the
escape into illness." In his case, the neurotic state
is the product of deliberate practice. Once that
psychological condition is created by the suppression
of normal impulses and other prescribed practices,
the struggle becomes unconscious. Mental life is
submerged in emotional exuberance. The ruling
emotions are morbid, being not the normal expres-
sion, but sublimation of natural impulses. Hypno-
tic dreams, hallucinations, phantasies, are the
characteristic features of a morbid emotional state.
Truth cannot be attained by the sacrifice of reason
and realities. The light of known realities alone
can illuminate the way to hidden truths.
The psychological foundation for mystic experi-
ence is predisposition which may be conscious or
subconscious. An idea suggested from outside
91
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
brings about an emotional state overwhelming
normal cerebral function, only when it is such as
awakens some predisposition. The subconscious
mind is a store of predisposition acquired either
through automatic experience or under the pressure
of social environment. Congenital predispositions
are inherited. By far the greater part of the ego is
subconscious. Therefore, predispositions dominate
mental life whenever emotions are not controlled
by reason and intelligence. This happens in mystic
experience as well as hysteria.
Religion is belief in the super-natural. Igno-
rance is its foundation. Metaphysical agencies are
postulated by man unable to explain natural pheno-
mena otherwise. Ignorance is the " original sin " of
mankind. Therefore, no people or individual is
naturally more or less religious than others. Thanks
to the original sin of ignorance, religious predis-
position remains deep-rooted in every human being
until a very high level of spiritual development is
reached. Man's spiritual life may remain befogged
by the ignorance of his forefathers even when he
himself has consciously cast off the " original sin."
Knowledge strengthens the highest mental
faculties of rationality and intelligence. Conse-
quently, it shakes the influence of religious pre-
judice. Religiosity is the badge of spiritual back-
wardness. Therefore, the greater the intellectual
backwardness the stronger the religious predisposi-
92
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
tion. The psychology of the intellectually back-
ward is prone to be swayed by emotions. These
are more primitive biological functions, being ex-
pressions of physical impulses. Not balanced by
reason and intelligence, they conflict with each
other one trying to overwhelm the other. The
result is the psycho-pathological state called hysteria.
The religious, therefore, are more susceptible to
hypnosis. In other words, they are more hysteri-
cally predisposed. Naturally, mystic experience is
more frequent among them. That is the psycholo-
gical explanation of the religious temperament of
the Indian people. Even when the religious pre-
disposition is hidden by a thin layer of modern
education, it is still there to be awakened by some
appropriate suggestion. As a matter of fact,
modern education creates an emotional conflict in
the religiously disposed, even when the disposition
is partially suppressed by reason and knowledge.
In these cases, the emotional conflict is likely to be
so strong as to produce hysteria. For that reason,
we have this swarm of modern swamis preaching
mysticism as a matter of experience.
There is an internal connection between the
practice of Brahmacharya and mystic experience.
Only, the connection is not spiritual, but patho-
logical. It is the reverse of the relation " sound
mind in a sound body." The spiritual tempera-
ment more correctly, religious atavism, of thr
93
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
educated youth is buttressed upon the traditional
prejudice in favour of that pernicious practice.
(It is more pernicious when only professed, but
not practised ; and that is generally the case.)
This temperament is the psychological pheno-
menon of " regression " on a mass scale. An un-
satisfied or abnormally or partially satisfied desire
causes great mental tension and compression of
physical energy, seeking emotional expression.
Driven underground, so to say, it flows into sub-
terranean channels ; the result is resurgence of
more elementary forms of emotion. " As the water
of a dammed-up river is pressed back and flows
into long abandoned channels, so the emotional
tension will try to express itself in obsolete forms.
Old habits, events or fantasies, which were accom-
panied in the past by strong emotions, will emerge
once more as possible outlets for the suppressed
emotion. This process is called regression, and
occurs also in normal people." 1 The "normality"
of people suffering from this psychological regres-
sion is only apparent. If they were psychologically
quite normal, people with modern education could
not be aggressively religious, and try to rationa-
lise irrationalism, which is the very essence of
religion.
To react upon the environment, is the most
1 J. H. Van der Hoop, Character and the Unconscious.
94
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
fundamental impulse of life. From an automatic,
unconscious, physical process, the reaction gradually
develops into a conscious approach with the pur-
pose of understanding. Originally, a purely physi-
cal interaction, the relation between living beings
and their environments becomes eventually differen-
tiated into physical stimuli and psychological res-
ponse thereto. The psychological content of the
conscious reaction to environment is the impulse
to know. Religion is the most elementary expres-
sion of this impulse. The essence of religion is
belief in the super-natural. It satisfies the primi-
tive man's incipient rationalist impulse to know.
The significance of the impulse to know is the
desire to find the cause of observed phenomena.
The primitive man finds the cause in imaginary
super-natural or super-human agencies. That is
the foundation of religion. Imagination, reinforced
by the conviction that that which is imagined
really exists, assumes the complexion of
" knowledge." The conviction has a pseudo-ration-
alist basis : Natural phenomena must be caused ;
they are beyond human control ; ergo, their cause
must be super-human. Thus, religion becomes a
psychological "fixation."
This phenomenon occurs also in the process
of individual spiritual development. The race
being an aggregate of individuals, its psycholo-
gical as well as the biological history can be traced.
95
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
in broad outlines, in the development of the indi-
vidual. It is an established finding of modern
psychological research that a child's desire for gra-
tification may be so deeply influenced by peculiar
circumstances as to remain fixed in its earliest form
of expression. That is the reason of some grown-
up people behaving childishly in certain respects.
Religiosity in educated people is spiritual childish-
ness a psychological fixation. Thanks to the
" original sin " of ignorance, the satisfaction of the
primitive man's desire for an understanding of
phenomena, which dominate his existence, is neces-
sarily found in faith. That peculiar mode of satis-
faction puts its stamp on subsequent emotional and
intellectual development. It is cast in religious
mould. The twilight of primitive ignorance en-
dures, more or less, over a long period of human
development. Consequently, the forms of emo-
tional and ideological expression are fixed by that
circumstance. They persist even after the founda-
tion of religion is undermined by scientific know-
ledge. Gradually, intelligence and reason, fortified
by the advance of scientific knowledge, overwhelm
those antiqfuated psychological traits. But they
cannot altogether be eradicated at once. That re-
quires a long period of time, during which new
forms of expression are developed under different
cultural conditions. Meanwhile, the psychological
forms fixed in our spiritual childhood, and culti-
96
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
vated over a long period of slow adolescence, sink
into the subconscious mind.
Now, mental tension caused by the suppres-
sion of a major physical impulse drives emotional
energy underground. There the old forms of ex-
pression provide it with channels to flow into.
What is called regression, takes place. This is an
abnormal psychological phenomenon a symptom
of emotional morbidity. The recollected old forms
of expression cannot be fitted into the scheme of
the conscious mental life. There is an emotional
conflict which overwhelms reason and intelligence.
Cerebral functions are necessarily slackened, even
suspended, when excessive nervous energy flows
into the subterranean channels of the subconscious
mind. The resurgence of the ghosts of old super-
stitions coincides with, indeed, is preceded by, a
derangement of conscious mental activity. Regres-
sion, therefore, is a hysterical symptom. It takes
place in hysterical patients. Mystic experience is
a classical case of regression. It is an abnormal
psychological state. It is a symptom of emotional
morbidity, inasmuch as it is brought about by the
practice of the suppression of the major impulses
of life.
The mental tension caused by the practice
of Brahmacharya paralyses cerebral activity ; sup-
pressed sex-impulse finds abnormal satisfaction in
fixed forms of emotional expression ; that is to say,.
97
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
in forms determined by primitive faith. The fixed
forms may be conscious psychological traits as in
the case of the avowedly religious ; or they may
lie in the subconscious mind. In the latter case,
their reappearance is more plausibly regarded as
mystic experience ; because, then the phenomenon
appears to defy rational explanation which, of
course, it does not. Once intelligence and reason
are consciously or unconsciously subordinated to
the predisposition to find satisfaction in faith, one
sees anything he wishes to see ; imaginations are
believed to be pictures of reality.
Faith alone, however, does not lead to mystic
experience which is a rare phenomenon even in
the religious atmosphere of India. It is unknown to
the masses of the Indian people with all their pro-
verbial religious temperament. They are religious
because they do not know any better ; that
is to say, their spiritual backwardness precludes
the development of higher forms of mental and
emotional activity. They are fully satisfied with
their spiritual childishness. Undisturbed by any
departure from the blissful heaven of ignorance,
their faith, though degenerated into rank super-
stition, does not require rationalisation. Conse-
quently, their primitive spiritualism knows no
emotional conflict, which alone produces the
psycho-pathological state in which mystic experi-
ence is possible. Palpably contradictory ideas may
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEER
remain side by side in the primitive mind without
causing any emotional conflict. That paradox is
the mark of its primitiveness. It has not yet deve-
loped the faculty of systematic thought, which is
to associate ideas in a logical chain.
While for the vast bulk of the Indian people
religiosity is a matter of habit, an emblem of spiri-
tual stagnation, in the case of those with modern
education, it is a psychological regression. With
these latter, faith has lost spontaneity, though
many of them are not conscious of that spiritual
progress ; and those who realise it more or less
vaguely, feel distressed and endeavour to stem it.
They take to prescribed religious practices which
include suppression of natural impulses physical
as well as psychological sex being looked upon as
the devil of the drama. This is conscious and volun-
tary regression, which produces genuine emotional
conflict inasmuch as the desired suppression is suc-
cessfully practised. In the great majority of cases,
it is not successful ; but the effort itself is physi-
cally harmful. Besides, the shame of the failure
creates an emotional tension which is aggravated
by the anxiety to hide it. Parallel to this, there is
unconscious regression. The unconscious process is
more far-reaching because it is rather spontaneous
than voluntary. It lies at the bottom of the reli-
gious mentality of the educated who preach the
doctrine of India's spiritual mission. Modern educa-
99
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
tion, provided that it is not altogether superficial,
inevitably brings about some psychological change.
The process is reinforced by the conditions of life
in cities. Instinctive impulses tend to seek new
forms of emotional, intellectual and physical ex-
pressions. Conscious resistance to the tendency
would be inconsistent with reason and intelligence,
which faculties are quickened by modern education*
But the social atmosphere and cultural traditions
are opposed to the tendency. And the mental as
well as physical behaviour of man is determined
by those factors. The predisposition is to resist the
tendency. But it cannot be done rationally*
Therefore, the resistance is offered unconsciously.
Nevertheless, the result is the same, emotional ten-
sion. Produced by an unconscious psychological
conflict, the tension is not consciously felt. It finds
an automatic expression in aggressive religiosity,
the endeavour to rationalise faith. The symptoms
of regression are determined by the forms of spiri-
tual expression fixed by the peculiar circumstances
of the past.
The religiosity of the Indian people is a badge
of spiritual infancy, a psychological fixation as
far as the masses are concerned ; and with the
educated, it is a symptom of regression which,
being spiritual atavism, is an abnormal psycho-
logical state. When through voluntary suppres-
sion of physical instincts and emotional impulses,
100
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SEEB
the abnormality is consciously cultivated, so as
to develop symptoms of hysteria, mystic experi-
ence occurs in exceptional cases. The goal of divine
madness is attained only by a few. Because nature
provides guarantees against mass insanity.
With all their proverbial religiosity, the masses
of the Indian people are no more given to the volun-
tary suppression of elementary human desires and
impulses than any other people. While their spiri-
tual life stagnates behind a dam of superstition,
physically and emotionally they behave, on the
whole, like normal bipeds. Thus, religiosity does
not upset the equilibrium of their primitive psycho-
logy. Thanks to superstitious beliefs, cultivated
through ages, they are totally devoid of the faculty
of criticism. Therefore, they are naturally open to
hypnotic suggesions particularly en masse. But
that psychological tendency cannot affect their
nervous system, the soundness of which is guaran-
teed by the satisfaction of all fundamental biologi-
cal impulses.
In the case of the educated also, as a rule,
nature prevails ; suppression is not practised. Even
those who honestly try, mostly fail. So, while re-
ligiosity is generally cultivated, and considerable
psycho-physical injury results from the practices
attempted for the purpose, it is only in exceptional
cases that the operation of biological laws is dis-
turbed to the extent of producing full-fledged hys-
101
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
teria. And searching psychopathological examina-
tion would reveal congenital predisposition in these
exceptional cases. Obviously, the determining
factor of predisposition is not the "spiritual
nature " ; because that is shared by all, and yet
mystic experience is a rare phenomenon. It is
either neurosis, a physical malady, or an uncons-
cious emotional maladjustment. In any case, the
Seer suffers from potential hysteria, which aggra-
vated by the suppression of normal impulses, deve-
lops manifestly morbid symptoms, auto-suggesti-
bility, hallucination, trance, double-personality, etc.
Since hysterical predisposition involves physical ab-
normality or emotional maladjustment, it guaran-
tees success in the practice of suppression. Com-
plete suppression, however, is not always necessary
for developing an acutely hysterical state. The
attempt is enough to expose the subconscious emo-
tional conflicts which touch off the congenital pre-
disposition. Mystic experience is hallucination of
hysteria, sublimated by superstition.
102
CHAPTER III
THE IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX
NATIONALISM
THE common characteristic of Indian patriotism,
irrespective of its shades, is the antipathy for the
" Western civilisation." The degree of this charac-
teristic common complexion of the ideology of
Indian nationalism, of course, varies according to
the social background of particular political groups.
The attitude, for example, of the Hindu Mahasabha
or the Arya Samaj, not to mention the die-hard
Sanatanists, is of fierce hostility, backed by sanc-
timonious self-righteousness. On the other end of
the front stand the liberal reformers who stultify
themselves politically as well as ideologically by
disavowing admiration for a course of social deve-
lopment which they must follow, if they are true
to their professions and principles.
The realisation of the political ideals of Indian
nationalism will clear the obstacles to a capitalist
development of the country ; India will " civilise "
herself on the model of the West. In order to out-
grow the domination of capitalist interest, exercised
directly or indirectly, Indian political aspirations
must transcend the narrow limits of orthodox
103
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
nationalism. The ideal of national freedom must
reflect the objective striving of the masses for social
liberation. In that case, India would be able to
inherit the great achievements of the "Western
civilisation," free from the abuses of capitalist ex-
ploitation. Then, and only then, would a cri-
tical attitude towards "Western civilisation," in
its entirety, enrich the ideology of Indian Renais-
sance. As the situation is, and as the perspective
appears at present, all the diatribes against
" Western civilisation " are entirely out of place. It
is so foolish to sling mud at the moon for its blemi-
shes when you are crying for it.
Between the two extremes of frankly professed
revivalism and the self -contradictory attitude of the
modernist Liberals, there stands the Congress, with
millions of heterogeneous adherents and sympathi-
sers, occupying the centre of the nationalist ideolo-
gical front, under the proud banner of Gandhism.
The attitude of the Congress is the most typical
and representative. In spite of all its obvious con-
tradictions, mental acrobatics, unexpected somer-
saults, "Himalayan mistakes" (which in plain
language mean woeful debacles), Gandhism still
dominates the ideology of the great bulk of the
politically awakened and forward moving (though
not forward looking) sections of the Indian popu-
lation. And Gandhism is believed to be the veri-
table antithesis of Western civilisation.
104
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
A Gandhist need no longer decry railways,
motor cars and even modern hospitals as Satanic
contrivances. The Prophet himself has moved far
away from that original position of pristine purity.
Close association with not only the Gujarati cotton
kings, but also all the modern magnates of money,
and honorary membership of the Indian Chamber
of Commerce cannot but dampen the zeal
against modern industry. Illustrious patrons
of the Congress Birlas, Bajajes and others
of their kind may put on the white cap, but
are the last persons to brook any serious opposition
to capitalism. Yet, the typical Indian nationalist,
inebriated with frothy Gandhism, speaks as the pro-
phet of a new civilisation. To be sure, he does not
know what his pet ideal would look like when, if
ever, realised. But he very emphatically proclaims
that India does not want to imitate the West. If
he only knew how ridiculous it is to be heading
towards a goal, protesting all the time that he does
not want to go that despised destination !
So unreasonable is this article of faith of Indian
nationalism that even people with a more or less
decidedly progressive outlook start with the decla-
ration that they are not admirers of Western civili-
sation whenever they dare criticise the established
social customs and institutions. These half-hearted,
shame-faced reformers repeat parrot-like the super-
cilious disapproval of Western civilisation, eve;.
105
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
when they advocate the introduction of social and
political institutions associated with it. For
example, give freedom to the women as in Europe
and America, but don't let them abandon the ideal
of Indian womanhood, don't let them be contami-
nated by the " abuse " of that freedom, as is the case
with the women in the West ; abolish the caste
system, but guard against the promiscuity of
Western society ; encourage capitalism, but avoid
the greediness of Western materialism ; get rid of
religious superstitions and have a rationalist view
of life, but don't accept experimental science as the
only source of human knowledge. Such is the
attitude of the advocates of progress, of those who
grudgingly admit that there is something wrong
with Indian society, and are distressed not to find a
remedy in ancient traditions. They find it difficult
to reject the outcome of a thousand years of
human progress called Western civilisation. Yet,
they don't have the courage to break with the old
and embrace the new.
Theirs is the theory of the so-called synthesis,
a compromise between progress and reaction ; the
compromise is to take place on the basis of the
" spiritual genius " of Indian culture. The abomin-
able Western civilisation will be admitted into Holy
India only after it has performed the ceremony of
Prayaschitta. The Western civilisatoin is not
altogether rejected ; it is only asked to place itself
106
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
under the purifying influence of India. The
spokesmen of this spiritual imperialism do not
know what they are talking about. They expound
the doctrine of " synthesis " with a show of philo-
sophic wisdom. But what do they actually pro-
pose ? An impossibility harmonious inter-weaving
of two mutually exclusive systems of culture and
forms of thought, belonging to different historical
epochs, centuries apart.
Philosophically understood, synthesis is the
process of a new positive category coming out of
the negation of something which has previously
existed also as a positive category. Chemically,
synthesis results from what is called a compound
mixture. It is something entirely new, and
different from the old, and the constituents from
which it results. A synthesis of the conflicting ele-
ments contained in what is known as Western civi-
lisation, (that is, capitalist society) will be the rise
of an entirely new type of civilisation on the basis
laid by the capitalist civilisation itself. The posi-
tive elements of the capitalist civilisation will go
into the making of a higher form of civilisation.
Indians talking of a synthesis propose just the re-
verse process. They suggest that the "good" in
Western civilisation should be adopted by India,
to be harmonised with her native culture.
Two functions of the capitalist civilisation can
be styled "good", if the term is defined as p;>
107
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
gressive, inducive to human progress. One is
destructive : Capitalism performs a " good" function
when it disrupts, and eventually clears away, the
ruins of the mediaeval feudal social order with its
religious mode of thought. The other "good"
function of capitalism the constructive function
is to bring about industrial development to a
point from where humanity can easily enter into
a higher stage of social evolution. The destructive
"good" function of capitalism cannot be
harmonised with the traditional Indian culture
which was based upon a social order, disrupted
and finally destroyed by it more than two hundred
years ago in Europe. It is doubtful that the Indian
social " synthesists " would welcome that " good "
in Western civilisation. To recognise that function
of capitalism as good, would mean wholehogging
for Western civilisation. Then, there could be no
more wise talk of synthesis.
Those who cannot appreciate without reserve
the historical value of the destructive "good"
function of capitalism, cannot possibly welcome and
avail of its constructive "good" its positive out-
come. Moreover, the latter " good " function opens
up a vista of the future whch is entirely irreconcil-
able with a wistful look backwards.
Indian nationalist criticism of the capitalist
civilisation is not directed against its real evil the
reactionary, degrading, degenerating features it de-
108
IDEOLOGY OP ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
velops in the period of decay. Indian nationalists
reject precisely what is " good " in capitalist civilisa-
tion. Culturally, the positive outcome of the capi-
talist civilisation has been the tremendous advance
of science, in theory and practice an advance
which has prepared the ground for final libera-
tion of man from the age-long spiritual bondage.
The basic evil of capitalist civilisation, in the
cultural aspects, has been the systematic and per-
sistent attempt to block the spiritual liberation of
man, even when it was creating the conditions
favourable for that liberation. That was done by
protecting and fostering religion (of course, in
modernised forms), idealist philosophy and all sorts
of the associated obscurantist metaphysical specula-
tion, just when the triumphal march of scientific
knowledge was disrupting the foundation of these
relics of the dark ages. Yet, curiously enough
materialism is held, by the Indian nationalists, to
be the fundamental sin of Western civilisation !
As a matter of fact, the situation is just the
reverse : Materialist philosophy is a bugbear no less
hated and combated by the ruling classes of the
West than by our nationalists the would-be rulers
of India. Why? Because materialist philosophy
is the mighty instrument for the spiritual liberation
of mankind. This weapon, originally hammered
out roughly by the great thinkers of antiquity
(India had her share of that glorious pioneering
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
work), has been perfected in course of the history
of capitalist culture. Therefore, all fighters for
freedom and honest advocates of progress must
appreciate Western civilisation as the hitherto most
brilliant chapter of human history. To decry that
imposing monument of human progress, from the
standpoint of an antiquated culture, as the Indian
nationalists do, is simply reactionary.
"Western civilisation is materialist" and
" Eastern culture is spiritual " these are the favou-
rite shibboleths of the Indian nationalist ideology.
While harping on this theme ad nauseum, none
takes the pain of proving the contention. It is re-
garded simply as an axiomatic truth, which be-
comes all the more categorical, the more it it asser-
ted domatically, and proclaimed loudly. The purpose
of this book is not controversial. It will neverthe-
less be demonstrated that, what is claimed to be
the " special genius " of Indian culture, is not special
at all ; that spiritualism, that is, the religious form
of thought, characterises human ideology every-
where in a certain stage of social evolution. It will
also.be shown that the modes of thought change
in accordance with the variation of social environ-
ments, and therefore no particular way of thinking
can be the eternal and immutable characteristic of
any people.
If India clings tenaciously to a particular mode
of thought which has been rejected or reformed or
110
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
camouflaged by the Western nations, it is not be-
cause the latter are morally depraved by nature, and
therefore have not been able to remain on the high
level of a religious ideology. It simply proves that
advance of civilisation (progressive conquest of
nature by man) has enabled those nations to think
more in terms of reason and positive knowledge
than in terms of faith and metaphysical fantasies.
It simply proves that changes in the conditions of
life inevitably revolutionise human ideology. It
proves that India clings to an antiquated mode of
thought because she did not experience similar
changes. Otherwise, the peope of India also would
to-day be thinking more or less similarly as the
Western peoples. They did so until only three
hundred years ago.
The gigantic transformation of the conditions
of life experienced by the Western peoples during
the last two hundred years has created the gulf
which separates them ideologically from the Indian
people. Subject India to the same process of trans-
formation, and the gulf will close up in no time.
The great bulk of Indian nationalists exclaim :
"Ah ! That is precisely what we want to avoid";
and complacently believe to have proved the spiri-
tual superiority of the Indian culture. Is not the
desire itself born of an innate spiritual inclination?
Unless Indians were by nature spiritually inclined,
how could they resist the temptation of travelling
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
the road of greed and worldly grandeur like the
wayward peoples of the West? But one may ask
an entirely different question : Was it by choice
that India did not travel that road? Is she resisting
the temptation even to-day? The least regard for
the facts of history and the realities of the present
situation will compel the answer to be decisively
in the negative. Even the disappointed jackal
makes a laughing-stock of itself by attempting to
hide the chagrin in an ill-fitting garb of lofty in-
difference for the sour grapes. Such harmful self-
deception should not have any place in the ideology
of a great people in the process of a renaissance.
The proclamation that India wishes to avoid
travelling the path of Western nations implies two
very important admissions. Firstly, that, given the
similar changes in their conditions of life, the Indian
people also would think just in the same way as the
peoples of the West. This admission knocks the
bottom off the dogma of innate spirituality of the
Indians. It is admitted that India has remained
wedded to the religious mode of thought simply
because she has had no opportunity for outgrowing
it. The second admission is that Indian nationalism
is utterly futile. It does not believe in its own pro-
gramme. The nationalist movement, the striving
for political freedom, itself is the decisive testimony
to the fact that the Indian people are just as much
concerned with the conditions of life as others.
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
Political freedom will enable the Indian peo
pic to catch up with the progress of two hundred
years that separates them from the Western nations.
The historical significance of Indian nationalism is
precisely the realisation of that which its prevalent
ideology disclaims ! Is it not a pitiful spectacle ? If
you really believe that you are spiritually superior
to others, that your superiority is innate, then why
bother about other things of life. Being innate,
your spiritual genius cannot be destroyed or cor-
rupted by the vicissitudes of the mundane existence.
So, your nationalism is a mistake ; the will to poli-
tical freedom is a deviation from your spiritual
nature. Show your spirituality by bearing the
cross of political slavery and economic ruin. Either
your spirituality is a sham, or your nationalism is
a huge joke.
Then, to hark back to history and a legend is
a double-edged sword. It cuts both ways. The
West, too, can boast of its Janakas, and they are
living to-day, giving a spiritualist complexion to the
materialist civilisation. If acquisition of wealth is
justified, provided that it is devoted to good pur-
poses, can you accuse a Rockfeller of materialism?
Does he not spend huge sums for the very virtuous
purpose of spreading Christianity, for saving mil-
lions and millions of heathen souls? Has not a
Carnegie contributed magnificently to the promo-
tion of peace? The list can be prolonged to include
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
practically all the richest men of America and
Europe. Yet, those are the very people who imper-
sonate what is decried as Western materialism.
A dispassionate observation of facts unmistak-
ably reveals the essential similarity of the ideals and
activities pursued in the daily life of all peoples ir-
respective of the geographical location of their
habitats. The apparent diversity is only a form.
The great bulk of the Indian people are also con-
cerned mainly with the material things of life. Not
for enjoyment, but as a matter of necessity. It is
not only the case to-day, it has been so always. And
the culture of a people, after all, is to be judged by
the standard of its bulk. High-sounding phrases
or pet doctrines, invented by the "intellectual elite",
do not reflect the real ideology of a people. Even
intellectuals themselves, in practical life, are
obliged to come down from the giddy altitude of
their ideals. The great majority of Indian intellec-
tuals are ardent believers in the spiritual superiority
of their race. They are eloquent defenders of the
" Aryan " ideals of life. They are convinced, by
some queer and questionable process of reasoning,
that such noble qualities as the spirit of sacrifice,
sincerity, purity of mind, etc., are Indian mono-
polies. They cherish the day-dream of participat-
ing in the mission of India to save the tormented
humanity from the sin of materialism. This all
sounds so beautiful, and it is so exhilarating to re-
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
peat it with a ring of conviction. But what, after all
this moonshine, is the ideal the Indian intellectuals
actually pursue ? To get a semblance of education,
not for the sake of education, but for its market
value; to equip themselves with the object of acquir-
ing worldly goods. Do the youth of the materialist
West pursue any different ideal ?
If the concern for the physical necessities of
life is " materialism ", the peoples of the West are
no more to be blamed than the Indian for perform-
ing what is only a biological function. No rational
person can ever dispute the fact that to subsist and
reproduce are the essential functions of every orga-
nism. The human being naturally tries to perform
these basic biological functions under the most
favourable conditions. The ability to create such
conditions, and to improve them progressively,
separates man from the lower animals ; that is to
say, hankering for comfort is a biological urge.
Anyone who would dispute the view must* defend
the absurd proposition that the cave-dweller is the
ideal human being.
But the opponents of materialism, of course,
do not stretch their spiritualism to such an obvious-
ly absurd extent, although logically they should.
Because, who is to determine where the line is to
be drawn? Once the biological necessity is admit-
ted, any limit to it can be set only arbitrarily. In
spite of all humbug, there is scriptural evidence
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that materialism, in the sense of the desire to sub-
sist, reproduce and acquire worldly goods, is not
against the genius of Indian culture. According to
the scriptures, the object of human life is fourfold :
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Mo\sha. Sandwiched
piously in between Dharma and Mo\sha, Artha and
Kama do not cease to mean what they are. The
fact remains that the acquisition of worldly goods
as well as sexual enjoyment was not only sanctioned
scripturally, but was recognised as the object of
human life, on equal footing with religion and
salvation. Enjoyment in general is the broad inter-
pretation of the term Kama given by all the com-
mentators.
The Mahabharat contains the most elaborate
and comprehensive exposition of Dharma. The
closing verse of the Epic declares: "Artha and
Kama are derived from Dharma." This very signi-
ficant declaration is put in the mouth of Vyasa.
The divine inspiration of that saintly law-giver of
ancient India was the sanction for the codes of
Dharma formulated in the Mahabharat. The in-
junction is : Be religious, and you will have all the
pleasures of the world. The materialistic essence
of Indian spiritualism is evident. What is still
more significant is that the saintly injunction is
associated with a note of exasperation: " But none
listens to me." In the very "Golden Age" of
Indian history the pursuit of Artha and Kama was
116
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
not even restricted by Dharma. The prevalent
"materialism" must have exasperated the saintly
law-giver.
One of the charges commonly hurled against
the Western civilisation is that of sexuality. On
this point again, Indian sanctimoniousness is borne
out neither by present practice nor by past theories.
In fact, ancient and mediaeval literature of no other
country is so full of erotics as that of India. Leave
aside the classical example of the mediaeval
Vaishnava and the ancient Bhagavata cults ; the
Brahma Sutras themselves lay down : " The sexual
instinct is germinal in the child, and obtains full
expression when the proper age comes. So "
It is not at all difficult to reconstruct the conclusion
left unsaid. It must be, since sex is a natural in-
stinct, it is to be enjoyed; the Dharma sanctions it.
According to the Gita also, God operates as " the
rightful desire (Kama) in all creatures." Rightful
that is, according to Dharma. But in spite of
such an admirably liberal interpretation, Dharma
was superceded by the other ideals of human life
even in the Golden Age of Indian history.
At the end of the Mahabharat, Vyasa informs
that Dharma was generally disregarded. Dharma
evidently meant social codes which, in a backward
stage of human development, are defined every-
where in religious terms, and remain in operation
on the authority of some divine or heavenly sanc-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
tions. One must acquire worldly goods, satisfy the
sexual urge, and enjoy the pleasure of physical life
generally, but under certain conditions governed
by the laws of the established society.
Does the daily life in the materialist West fall
short of this ideal? None but a raving maniac,
utterly ignorant of the subject under discussion,
would venture an answer in the affirmative. High-
way robbery as a means of acquiring wealth and the
caveman's method of winning his mate are no more
practised in the Western countries than in India.
The peoples of Europe and America pursue the
objects of Artha and Kama just as much governed
by Dharma as the Indians. And essentially, there
is little difference in what they respectively accept
as the legitimate limitations to their pursuits. In
the last analysis, the limitations, be they in the form
of the Hindu Samhitas or generally accepted moral
codes or the civil law, can be reduced to the good
old Mosaic Ten Commandments.
As regards the fourth object, Moksha, the
average European or American is a Christian, and
is as true to his religious belief as the average
Indian is to his. It is simply impertinent to main-
tain that the average Westerner is hypocritical
about his religious beliefs, whereas the average
Indian is sincere. There is absolutely no evidence
in support of this amazing contention, so often
made light-heartedly. Salvation of the soul is a
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
cardinal principle also of Christianity, and an
average European or American Christian, by virtue
of being better educated, is able to follow his faith
more intelligently than the average Indian whose
religion is but a bundle of superstitions and habits.
Moftsha has practically vanished from the latter's
religious vision. The struggle for the bare physical
existence cruelly governs his whole being, with
Kama, often in very unappetising forms, dominat-
ing the dark corners. Shackles of antiquated social
codes, such as the caste regulations together with
the civil laws of the British Government, have taken
the place of Dharma the limitation of the pursuit
of the two basic objects of human life.
The more reasonable protagonist of spiritualism
would come forward with the rejoinder : Granted
that the above picture depicts the reality of the
situation, it only proves a certain degree of degene-
ration of our culture ; the object of Indian national-
ism is to arrest the deplorable process, and revive
our spiritual culture as the model for the world.
The present failing to prove the case, the evidence
for the spiritual superiority of Indian culture is to
be discovered in the past. Before Dharma degene-
rated under the impact of Western materialism,
Mo\sha shone as the guiding star of life, and Art ha
and Kama occupied but minor places in the life of
the Hindu. That is the contention. Historically,
it is simply not true. Even the legends of the Epks,
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unscientifically accorded the dignity of history, do
not corroborate the contention. The best traditions
of Indian culture go back to the beef-eating and
soma-drinking Brahmins of the Vedic age. The
Epics are full of descriptions of royal courts vying
with each other as regards grandeur, luxury and
vain glory. Even when Dharma was pure, and
Mofaha did not vanish from the vision of life,
Artha and Kama were not despised. They were
certainly enjoyed, if not actually worshipped. But
you do worship what you enjoy, if worship has
any meaning. The quintessence of the Dharma of
India in her Golden Age is contained in the Santi
Parva of the Mahabharat. Read it to find how
eager even the Brahmins were to acquire worldly
goods.
If the talk of a few is to be taken for the
evidence about an entire community, then Europe
and specially America deserve the palm of spiri-
tuality on the strength of the army of priests voci-
ferously preaching Christian virtues from numerous
pulpits. And Christian virtues have no reason to
be ashamed before the " Aryan " ideals of life. It
would be staking an absurd claim to contend that
similar conceptions of God, soul and other spiritual
categories might have greater regenerating values
when stated in the Indian scriptures. It would be
equally illogical and damaging for the very doctrine
of spirituality to assert that Christianity was
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
corrupted by materialism, whereas extra-mundane
notions of life proved immune to such degeneration
in India. If spiritual categories are what they are
claimed to be, they must be incorruptible under all
circumstances and everywhere. But if they lose
force in one place, and under one set of circum-
stances, their immutability is disproved, and it is
but a logical deduction that, given similar change
of conditions, they would go the same way every-
where.
"What does it profit a man if he gains the
whole world and loses his soul ? " This highly
spiritualistic sermon is repeated every day through-
out the Christian world. As a matter of fact,
Christianity contains all the articles of faith, all the
metaphysical doctrines and moral dogmas which
are cited as the evidence of the spiritual nature of
Indian culture. Christ himself taught : " The
kingdom of God is within you." It means that the
salvation of man is to be attained through the
realisation of the soul an ideal identical with the
"Atmadarshan" of the Hindus. St. Paul chided
his audience : " Are Ye so foolish ? Having begun
in spirit, are you made perfect by the flesh ? "
Coming to the fathers of the Church, we find
Gregory of Nicea teaching : " Human soul is
identical with God." Finally, one may learn from
the greatest Christian theologian, Thomas Aquinas :
"That intellectual light that is within us, is not
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else than a certain participated likeness of the
Uncreated Light in which are contained the Eternal
Reasons."
No use murmuring adverse reflections or
entertaining doubts about the divinity of the
creatures of the Christian Gospel or about the
sincerity of the faith of their congregations. On
this issue the table can be turned against the
Indians just as well. The divinity of the Brahman,
the standard-bearer of " Aryan " culture, is palpably
open to doubt. The modern Swami can hardly
claim superiority to an up-to-date Christian theo-
logian. Only blind prejudice and impotent
national chauvinism can brand the Christian con-
gregations of Europe and America with spiritual
inferiority to the Indian masses. The former have
at least a faith, whereas the latter have only super-
stitions. There is absolutely no reason to believe
that, when one repeats the enigmatic aphorisms of
Vedanta, or recites the Gita, his catholicity is
beyond doubt, whereas the sincerity of a Christian
priest is to be suspected when he teaches the
Gospel of Christ.
There are those who identify materialism with
capitalism. They cannot denounce materialism as
a Western product. Capitalism is not a thing of
to-day. Nor did it drop from heaven or spring out
of the hell. It is an economic system which evolved
over a whole period of history. Although, for
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
many reasons, it happened to flourish more luxuri-
antly in Europe, its germs had been sprouting for
hundreds of years in all the civilised countries.
The facts, proudly cited, often exaggeratedly, by
nationalist historians, regarding the growth of
industry (handicraft) and expansion of trade in
India, " when the fore-fathers of modern Europe
were going naked ", only prove that India was
heading towards " materialism " even before the
European peoples outgrew their primitive inno-
cence. The growth of handicraft and the conse-
quent expansion of trade eventually usher in
capitalism. Leaving aside the controversial facts
about the pre-historic and antique periods, it can
be established with reliable data that commodity
production on the basis of handicraft was well
advanced in India even before the advent of the
Europeans. So, India stood on the threshold of
modern capitalism, and was walking into the
corrupting embrace of materialism, when Europe
was still largely merged in the darkness of the
highly " spiritual " middle-ages. Two very impor-
tant things are thus proved : Firstly, the love of
lucre, as typified in capitalism, is not a peculiar
feature of Western civilisation ; and secondly, India
developed this sinful love earlier than Europe.
The Indian nationalist is not ashamed of this
sinful love. He only wishes to legalise, rather
sanctify, it in a happy and a harmonious wedlock
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
between capital and labour, thereby setting an
object lesson to the materialist West. The proposi-
tion is to " spiritualise " capitalism. The least
understanding of the nature of capitalism would
show the absurdity of this Utopia. Accumulation
of wealth in the possession of the owners of the
means of production by exploiting the labour power
of the wage-slaves, is the essence of capitalism.
That is " greed ", if a moral term is to be used for
describing a social impulse. The Utopia of an
ethical capitalism, however, is nothing new. It is
an old song. It was heard in the materialist West
long before Gandhi fascinated with it his uncritical
followers. The most remarkable thing is that
people, passing sweeping judgment against Western
civilisation, are often totally ignorant of its history.
Some knowledge of the social history of Europe
opens one's eyes to the fact that it was the classical
home of capitalism, namely, England, which gave
birth also to a whole variety of utopain doctrines
for the moral rehabilitation of that "unnecessary
social evil."
The Christian Socialism of Charles Kingsley and
his followers anticipated Gandhism by more than
half a century. If William Lovett, the leader of
the " moral force " wing of the Chartist movement,
was here to-day, he would be found eminently qua-
lified, in every respect, for admission into the inner
conclave of the Pope of Indian nationalism, and
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
membership of the Working Committee of the
Congress. The Christian Socialists held that disre-
gard for " spiritual values " made the workers bitter
against the employers. They set about to " spiritu-
alise " the atmosphere, so that a perfect social har-
mony could be established for the benefit and happi-
ness of all. To the workers, brutally exploited by
rapacious capitalism, and bloodily suppressed by
the Government whenever they revolted against
intolerable conditions, Kingsley piously preached :
" Be fit to be free, and God Himself will set you
free .... There will be no true freedom without
virtue, no true science without religion, no true in-
dustry without the fear of God and love to your
fellow-citizen." It may be pertinently pointed out
that the Gospel of Christ, as falsified by Saint
Mathew, was the source of inspiration of Kingsley's
highly " spiritualist " view of freedom. (The origi-
nal Gospel recorded by St. Luke was a powerful
cry of revolt. Christianity rose as the ideology of
the rebellious slaves. As such, originally it was as
sublime as any religion can ever be.) Kingsley's
sermon to the toiling masses, bleeding on the cross
of capitalism, was of course livened up, and made
more attractive by denunciation of the rich with
an apostolic fervour. But that was followed by
the very pragmatic proposition to throw some
crumbs of justice and magnanimity to the hungry
multitude before it was too late to stem the omi-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
nous tide of revolt. The purpose of the Christian
Socialist propaganda of Kingsley, Maurice,
Stephens and other devout reformers was to divert
the attention of the victims of capitalist greed from
the sorrows and sufferings of life to illusive spiritual
and moral ideals. The hero of Kingsley 's novel,
Anton Locke, is an ex-Chartist workman. The
philosophy of deception is put into his mouth :
" Fool that I was ! It was within rather than with-
out that I should reform. For my part, I seem to
have learned that the only thing to regulate the
world is not more of any system, good or bad, but
simply more of the spirit of God."
One of the master-builders of the British Em-
pire, Disraeli, came under the wholesome influence
of Christian Socialism. He bitterly criticised the
laissez-faire policy of the whig bourgeoisie as the
cause of the social misery, depicted with real artistic
merit in his famous book Sybil, and advocated
social reform a benevolent attitude to the working
class. Does the pious " anti-capitalism " of the
Gandhists propose anything more spiritual ?
Another famous British statesman of the nine-
teenth century, Sir Robert Peel, said : " Take my
word for it, it is not prudent to trust yourself to a
man who does not believe in God and in a future
life after death." As a matter of fact, all the lead-
ing men of the nineteenth century the classical age
of vulgar materialism running rampant were all
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
highly religious, God-fearing souls. Philosophical
materialism of the eighteenth century of the
French Encyclopedists had turned out to be dan-
gerous for the established order of society. So, the
ruling class had taken refuge under the protection
of God, and their pious spokesmen agitated for
more benevolence, more kindness, more justice, in
the relations of the established social order based
on the exploitation of man by man.
" Thou shalt not make mammon thy god ;
thou shalt not make gold thy god, but thy servant ;
thou shalt not suffer the paradox of poverty and
plenty, else thou sinnest grievously." Who do you
think pronounced those biblical words ? An Assis-
tant Secretary of State of the United States of
America under the Roosevelt regime. This Mahat-
mic sermon could be preached just as well by any
orthodox Indian nationalist. But in practice, the
cap is not placed, neither in India nor in the West,
on the head it fits. The hypocritical sermon is
meant for the masses, so that the preserves of the
fortunate few are not in the least touched. The
sanctimonious attitude towards poverty is not bom
of spiritualism, but of the fear of revolution. It
is highly interesting to note that the object of the
rulers of the most materialist country of the West
happens to be identical with the Gandhist attitude
towards capitalism. Gandhi also denounces capita-
lism, but does not advocate its abolition. His
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
avowed desire is to establish harmonious relations
between the capitalists and workers to persuade
the former to be benevolent guardians of the latter.
Addressing a public meeting at Nagpur in Novem-
ber 1933, the Mahatma declared : " I have been
doing my very best to secure adequate wages for the
labourers and to convert the capitalists to be the
trustees of workers rather than their employers."
On innumerable occasions, previous to that and
subsequently, he has repeated the same sentiment.
In the light of such utterances the Mahatma cannot
be looked upon as a greater enemy of capitalism
than Disraeli. Both advocate giving the bitter pill
a sugar-coating.
The Christian Socialism of Kingsley and others
simply aided capitalism which it proposed to reform.
Anton Locke's pious pessimism captured the de-
pressed spirit of the workers, heavily defeated in
their first great struggle for freedom. A few
miserable crumbs from the overflowing table of
the capitalists, accompanied by the expression of
pious wishes, succeeded in making the workers
accept wage-slavery as a normal condition of life.
The masses were brought back under the spell of
religiosity, and meekly submitted to the established
codes of ethics and law. The average English wor-
ker became not only a believer in constitutional re-
form, but also a devoutly religious man.
In no other country is to be found a community
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IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
of civilised men and women more religious than
the English proletariat. Since the doctrine of spiri-
tualism bore them such magnificent fruits, the
English capitalists also became converts to it, con-
veniently forgetting the rationalist and materialist
traditions of their revolutionary forefathers.
Sickening philistinism ran rampant in the land of
Bacon, Hobbes and Locke. The Victorian era
the period of phenomenal capitalist development
and colonial expansion was intensely religious.
Gladstonian liberalism sailed merrily with the
fraudulent colours of harmony between capital and
labour.
No reasonable person can possibly believe that
the magic wand of Gandhism will spiritualise the
capitalist system in any different fashion. It is not
a part of the " spiritual genius " of India to abolish
capitalism. The proposition is only to " moralise "
it, humanise it. Materialism, in the worst sense
of the term, always thrives in the gairic garb of
spiritualism. Those who reject spiritualism, that
is, religious mode of thought, have nothing but
disdain for what is vulgarly called materialism.
Their moral attitude is depicted in the words of
Epicurus one of the illustrious founders of philo-
sophical materialism. He cast away the belief in
gods and threw off the shackles of religion, not to
"eat, drink and be merry", but "in order to be
noble and virtuous because it is a pleasure to be so".
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
The vulgar doctrine of " eat, drink and be merry ",
maliciously attributed to the materialist sage of
ancient Greece by the barbarous Christian theolo-
gians, has been adopted by the ruling classes which
devoutly profess Christian virtues, and pompously
talk of high ideals. Nor is vulgar materialism con-
fined to the ruling classes of the West. It has been
practised by them also in India in the past and is
practised at present as well. The Epics and other
classical literature are full of incontestable evidence
to that effect. At present, the orthodox cotton
kings of Ahmedabad, for example, do not lead a
life more altruistic than the westernised Parsi mill-
owners of Bombay. The Banya who washes his
corpulent frame daily in the holy water of the
Ganges and spends several hours in Puja-patha, beats
Shylock in his game. It is just as erroneous to
castigate the entire Western world for the vulgar
materialism of its ruling class, as it is to declare
Indian culture innately spiritual on the strength of
the reactionary orthodoxy of the few having a stake
in the established order of things. The multitude
of people, in the West as well as in the East, are
simply engrossed in the performance of biological
functions. The desire to eat, drink and be merry,
on the part of those, who at best can ever get just
a glimpse of that kingdom of heaven, is a veritable
incentive to progress an urge to freedom, spiritual
as well as mundane. Spiritualism, discouraging
130
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
this legitimate desire in them, stands in the way
not only of material progress, but of the real spiri-
tual emancipation of mankind.
The antithesis of spiritualism is philosophical
materialism which has absolutely nothing to do
with the vulgar characterisation "eat, drink and
be merry." It is not the ideology of the capitalist
Western civilisation. On the contrary, all the in-
tellectual forces of the capitalist society are concen-
trated in fighting the hated and dreaded foe the
philosophy of revolution which heralds a civilisa-
tion higher than the capitalist. So, by denouncing
materialism, the Indian nationalists do not reject
the capitalist civilisation, but enter into an unholy
alliance with it. They place themselves in such a
position because of their erroneous notion about
materialism. This does not mean that a better
acquaintance with the enemy would make them
love it. But in that case, they would at least be
able to talk more intelligently and seriously. At
the same time, there would be a differentiation in
their ranks. The progressive elements, freed from
the prejudice born of ignorance, might find in phi-
losophical materialism a powerful means for the
realisation of theijr goal. In any case, they are
bound to break away from the traditions of reli-
gious orthodoxy.
To-day, in the Western countries, the bour-
geoisie are carrying on desperately a losing struggle
131
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
against the revolutionary philosophy of materia-
lism ; but their forefathers had to carry on the
historic fight against the religiosity of mediaeval
barbarism in order to shake the moral and spiritual
foundation of the pre-capitalist society. Their
ideological weapon in that fight was philosophical
materialism. The revolutionary weapon, forged
originally by the great thinkers of antiquity, was
profitably employed and greatly sharpened in
course of the struggle of the rising bourgeoisie.
Materialist philosophy has to be called in to
assist also at the re-birth of India. As long as the
progressively minded intellectuals will remain
wedded to the antiquated forms of religious
thought, superficially rationalised to be all the more
harmful because of its deceptiveness, they will
simply stultify themselves. The boldness required
for tearing down the rotten structure of Indian
society, in the vicious atmosphere of which all in-
centive to progress is checked, can be born only out
of a spirit set free by scientific knowledge.
The weakness of the Indian struggle for freedom
lies in its ideology. An objectively progressive
movement is saddled with a whole cargo of re-
actionary ideas which contradict its very being.
The latent forces of the movement are being
cramped by its ideology. If we want to go forward
in the future, we must have the courage to break
away from the past. The longer we linger with
132
IDEOLOGY OF ORTHODOX NATIONALISM
the virtues of the past virtues which have ceased
to be virtues, having become veritable vices in
course of time the farther shall we remain from
the victories of the future. The fighters for
freedom who want to go forward must seek
inspiration in philosophical materialism which alone
can make a correct appreciation of the past culture
as containing the germs for a superior culture to
come. Only that much in past greatness is useful
which helps to attain a greater future. The rest of
the past are shackles to be shaken by those who
want to be free and go ahead. Therefore, a correct
understanding of philosophical materialism is an
urgent necessity of the moment. It will immensely
strengthen the forces of progress, and hasten the
much delayed renaissance of India. On the other
hand, it will enable our opponents, that is, the ideo-
logists of reaction, slavery, degeneration and degra-
dation, to put up their case with a modicum of phi-
losophical knowledge, so that some intellectual
pleasure might be derived from fighting them.
133
CHAPTER IV
MARX OR MANU
A DISPASSIONATE examination of the history of
Indian culture and a critical appreciation of its
positive outcome will require a book by itself. Here,
I shall only record some evidence, gathered at
random, which reveals the real nature of our " spi-
ritual " culture. On the evidence of its contempo-
rary protagonists and defenders, Indian culture is
no less materialistic than the so called western cul-
ture. As a matter of fact, spiritualism, that is, the
religious view of life, while antithetical to materia-
list philosophy, is, and always and everywhere has
been, associated with vulgar materialism. Indian
culture has always been materialistic in the vulgar
sense, as distinct from the philosophical sense. It
is hostile to the philosophy, not to the practice,
of materialism. That is only natural. After all,
Indians, even of the legendary Golden Age, also are
terrestrial beings, and as such could not possibly
rise above the necessities of physical existence.
Therefore, it is a sheer fiction that Indian civilisa-
tion was fundamentally different from the civili-
sation of other peoples, approximately on the same
level of social development. The nature of a civili-
134
MARX OR MANU
sation is not determined by the points of the com-
pass, but by the conditions of the age in which it
develops. What is called a spiritual civilisation,
represents a backward stage of social progress.
Indian culture is distinct from modern western cul-
ture inasmuch as it clings to medievalism.
The other day, in an article expounding the
inexhaustible, all-embracing nature of Indian
culture, no less an authority on the subject than
the venerable Dr. Bhagwan Das gently rebuked
the radical elements of the nationalist youth for
the unnationalistic tendency of seeking inspiration
from the dubious foreign sources, instead of drink-
ing deep at the fountain-head of native tradition.
(The word * native ' is used for the linguistic
exigency of avoiding repetition ; I hope it would
not offend nationalist super-sensitiveness. Besides,
what is the harm in using the word ? We are
natives of our country. So, why should we resent
being called so ?) Dr. Bhagwan Das says that
Indians are not afraid of socialism. Undoubtedly,
he meant broad-minded and humanitarian Indians
like himself. Unfortunately, India, like any other
country, is populated mostly by ordinary mortals
who, swayed by the irresistible realities of terres-
trial life, cannot attain the state of philosophic calm
and emotional exaltation.
So, the fact is that socialism has become a bogey
in India as well as in any other country. Of course*
135
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
to the multitude, with nothing to lose but their
chains, (and a chain is a chain even when it is rusty
as in India), socialism offers the way to salvation in
this mortal world. Therefore, in a way, it is true
that India, with her pauperised masses, is not afraid
of socialism, should not be, at any rate. But there
are Indians and Indians. If the great majority of
the Indian people have nothing to lose but their
chains, the foreign rulers are not alone responsible
for this national misfortune, nor are they the sole
beneficiaries thereof. There are Indians with stakes
in the present conditions of the country. They can
not naturally share the detached and benevolent
attitude of modern rishis like Dr. Bhagwan Das.
They have also something substantial to lose. One
should not expect them to face the menace of socia-
lism with a philosophic calm, much less to be sym-
pathetic to it. They are afraid of socialism ; and
fear breeds hatred.
Though the authoritative exponent of Indian
culture assured that its spiritualist traditions would
enable Indian society, as a whole, to embrace socia-
lism, the fact is that those with stakes in the present
conditions of the country are afraid of socialism.
They consist of a small' minority of the Indian
people which is responsible for, and is benefitted by,
the misery, ignorance and general degradation of
the masses. Their attitude towards this " product
of western materialism" is that of hostility and
136
MARX OR MANU
hatred. Let alone the direct beneficiaries, even the
nationalist political leaders, so very loud in their
profession of concern for the masses, frown upon the
socialistic tendency spreading among the younger
generation which, under the pressure of the
experience of economic realities, and thanks to
the blessing of modern education, is breaking
away from the bondage of venerable tradition.
Indeed, practically all the nationalist leaders have
expressed their disapproval of, if not open hostility
to, socialism.
That being the case, the statement of
Dr. Bhagwan Das should be dismissed as a sweep-
ing generalisation, utterly unfounded. Neverthe-
less, it is not without significance. He is holding
up a fiction to obscure facts. The modern intel-
lectual is attracted by socialism ; let him have a
fraudulent variety, so that he may not fall for
dangerous ideas. Let the perverse child have the
toy. By socialism, Dr. Bhagwan Das means
something entirely different from the abhorrent
materialistic doctrine which the misguided, de-
nationalised, Indian youth is learning from out-
landish prophets of social justice, who must be
false prophets, if what they teach is not to be
found in Manu.
Dr. Bhagwan Das, together with other
revivalist defenders of Indian culture, is of the
opinion that the last word of social science (poli-
137
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
tics, economics, law, civics, so on and so forth) has
been said by the sages of ancient India. There-
fore, he deplores the fact that the youthful
enthusiasts for social justice are seeking inspira-
tion from Marx and Lenin, ignoring or neglecting
the teachings of Manu. Let the Indian socialists
eschew Marx, to be guided by the wisdom of
Manu, and they will find a place in the all-
inclusive embrace of Mother India. If Socialism
conforms with the codes which provide the moral
sanction to the established social system, naturally,
it will not be dreaded by those who enjoy a
privileged position in, and derive benefits from,
the status quo.
That is the kind of socialism Dr. Bhagwan
Das has in mind when he makes the sweeping
generalisation which appears to make the incredible
impression that, thanks to their spiritual culture,
the Indian upper classes would readily forego their
lucrative privileges. Granted that ancient India
really had her Janakas, to-day she cannot boast
of any bearing the remotest resemblance to those
benevolent patriarchs of legendary fame. Besides,
charity may be a virtue; but it is not social justice.
It adds insult to injury. Alms-giving is not
socialism. Some of the rich, in India as well as
in other countries, are liberal givers of alms. There
are those who give in charity a part of their ill-
gotten wealth. On that token, there is no less
138
MARX OR MANU
of Manu's socialism in materialist America than
in spiritualist India. Rockefellers and Carnegies
should be regarded as modern incarnations of
Janaka; and a civilisation that could produce
dozens of modern Janakas should not be accused
of materialism.
Let us suppose that the inspired wisdom of
Manu anticipated the teachings of Marx, and that
scientific socialism is not an ideal unknown to
ancient India. Why, then, this curious animus
against this doctrine which, on your own claim, is
not outlandish at all ? Since Marx simply repeat-
ed what the Indian sage had taught, there can be
no reasonable objection to the Indian youth learn-
ing the teachings of Manu second-hand, if they
are not able to appreciate the original goods. They
are on the right road, anyhow ; and if Marxism is
nothing but a feeble echo of the profound wisdom
of Manu, the erring Indian youth are sure to
return home in a round-about way. Why not let
them have the rope, and wait for the return of
the prodigal ?
Evidently, there is a reason for this curious
attitude. The taboo on Marx means fear of the
spread of real socialism. If the ideals of social
justice preached by Marx allure Indian youth away
from the traditional allegiance to Manu, that is
because there is nothing common between socialism
and the feudal-patriarchal social codes of mediaeval
139
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
India. Whatever might have been the merits of
the codes of Manu, they could not possibly be
socialistic. This goes without any argument.
The necessity for the socialist reorganisation of
society does not arise before the attainment of
social conditions which make such reorganisation
possible. However, one need only read Manu to
find that he was not the prophet of new social
order, but an apologist of the established system.
And that system was not socialistic, even in the
primitive sense.
Manu's laws themselves expose the nature
of the social system for the preservation of which
they were given. It was a system dominated by
priestly patriarchs. They may have been bene-
volent, but were certainly not democratically
minded. Their power was not even constitutional-
ly limited. Manu's codes lay down social obliga-
tions. They don't mention popular rights, not
even of the most rudimentary kind admitted in
primitive tribal organisations. Undoubtedly, Manu
legislated for a society much above the tribal level.
The primitive communism of the pre-Vedic era
had disappeared. The society at the time of
Manu was based upon the patriarchal form of
private property guaranteed by a theocratic State.
The whole social philosophy of Manu is sum-
marised in his definition of dharma, and it is the
Hindu conception of dharma which is supposed
140
MARX OR MANU
to be the essence of India's message to the world.
Dharma is a religio-ethical concept of social
conduct. Manu defines it as "contentment, for-
giveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteously
appropriating (what belongs to others), obedience
to rules of purification, coercion of organs, wisdom,
knowledge of the supreme soul, truthfulness arid
abstention from anger."
That is a formidable catalogue of virtues, all
of which could be easily and profitably professed,
even practised, by the privileged class of priests
and patriarchs. For the rest of the society of the
time, the practice of these virtues would mean
voluntary submission to the established order.
Look at these time-honoured gods a little more
closely, and their clay-feet will be palpable even to
the least critical.
Contentment ? There is no point in preach-
ing this virtue to those who have no reason to be
discontented. To practise it, is no effort for the
privileged. Discontent on the part of the have-
nots is a natural enough sentiment, and as such
morally justifiable. But it is a standing menace
to the social status quo. A virtue, to be practised
as a religious duty, was made out of contentment
because it would guarantee the position of the
privileged. The latter could easily set the example,
having no reason to be discontented ; and thus
encourage those with ample reason to rebel again ^
141
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
their fate, in the practice of the virtue with the
forlorn hope of placating the gods who dictate
the destinies of man. For the privileged, the
virtue is only a matter of profession, which gives
the comfortable feeling of self-righteousness, an
emotional gain for nothing. From the multitude,
however, it demands hard practice. They must
make real sacrifice to practise contentment.
Forgiveness is a virtue only when it is practis-
ed by those who have been wronged. So, the
moral burden is again on the masses, who must be
constantly wronged should a minority be
vouchsafed power and privilege. Then, practice
of the virtue by the latter is recommended as a
policy. The powerful can afford to be magnani-
mous. That would only benefit themselves, secur-
ing the gratefulness of the forgiven, who have
much more to forgive. Forgiveness is not a virtue,
but sheer hypocrisy, when delinquencies for-
given are justifiable morally, because they are
committed under the pressure of necessity. It is
not virtue to pardon a theft committed by a hungry
man.
Unless the masses were taught self-control,
that is, the habit of doing without the elementary
necessities of life, the surplus produce of their
labour could not accumulate in the possession of
the upper classes. Self-control is the religio-
ethical formulation of the fundamental principle
142
MARX OR MANU
of the economics of a society based upon non-
productive ownership. In a limited sense, as a
check upon action and emotion, it is denial of
individual freedom, and inhibition of natural
impulses. In the former case, it is a subtle but
very effective method of exercising social coercion ;
in the latter, it is harmful intellectually as well as
emotionally. What is recommended is not self-
control, but self-annihilation. Control is desirable
and necessary, socially as well as ethically. But it
amounts to denial of the right of the individual to
human existence and normoral exercise of biological
functions, unless the demand for control is preceded
by an express recognition of that right. Social
harmony secured through the arbitrary restriction
of the physical and emotional life of the masses
guarantees an established order at the expense of
the future. The virtue of self-control keeps the
standard of living of the masses in a static condi-
tion ; indeed, it has a depressing effect. The
economic development of a country primarily
depends on the growth of the consuming capacity
of the population. That is an elementary principle
of economics. The dharma of self-control is
dictated by conditions of pre-capitalist economy
which, based on non-productive ownership
(sacerdotal, patriarchal, feudal) precluded expan-
sion of production. The total production having
been necessarily limited, the grandeur of the upper
143
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
classes (described, for example, in the Maha-
bharata) was possible only if the producing masses
could be persuaded or coerced to practise the
virtue of simple life. The simpler, the better.
The virtue of self-control stands for the spoliation
and exploitation of the masses.
The next virtue on the catalogue is respect
for the sanctity of private property. This alone
exposes how fantastic is the contention that Manu
was the prophet of socialism. If the socialists,
acting on the advice of Dr. Bhagwan Das, spurn
outlandish doctrines and turn to Manu for the
ideal of social justice, they must practise the virtue
of "abstention from unrighteous appropriation".
Faithful to the traditions of India's spiritual
culture, nationalist leaders professing sympathy
for the ideal of social justice, discountenance the
least disturbance of the established property
relations, which mocks at the professed ideal. It
is worse than Utopian to discover socialist princi-
ples in a mediaeval social philosophy, which invokes
religious sanction for the right of private property,
while providing religio-ethical pretexts for the
spoliation and expropriation of the producers of
wealth.
After this, it is hardly necessary to go through
the remaining virtues on the catalogue. Some of
them are mere variations of those already examined.
Others are metaphysical conceptions open to all
144
MARX OR MANU
sorts of interpretations. Truthfulness, for example^
has no meaning so long as the question, what is
truth remains unanswered. The religious answer
to this question declares a fiction to be the only
reality ; makes truth out of a falsehood. Truth is
correspondence with reality ; reality is objective
existence ; change is the only thing that exists
objectively ; what does not change, does not exist;
ergo, change or changeablcness is the only truth.
But religion raises the metaphysical concept of
absoluteness to the pedestal of truth. Absoluteness
is not objectively real. Therefore, it is a falsehood.
Since reality is changeable, correspondence with it
cannot be immutable. There is no absolute truth.
The abstract concept of truthfulness is meaning-
less. What is truthful to-day, may be positively
false tomorrow, and it might have been so yester-
day. What appears to be true from one point of
view may be false from another. The illogical
doctrine of absolute truth provides a metaphysical
justification for the maintenance of a given social
order by all means, including violence and
coercion. If truth is immutable, any change is a
violation of truth. Truthfulness is loyalty to the
established regime. The socialists are advised to
seek inspiration from this spiritualist philosophy!
* Let alone socialists ; even those advocating
milder forms of social reform do not find many
noble ideals and progressive principles in Manu*
145
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
The fact is that the Draco of India was the law-
giver of the mediaeval form of class domination.
His laws were the instrument for the preservation
of the privileges of priestly patriarchy. One need
not be a de-nationalised disciple of Marx to realise
that India must repudiate the teachings of Manu
as a condition for her much too belated
Renaissance.
For example, Professor S. V. Puntambekar of
the Benares Hindu University, a liberal, writes :
" No doubt, Manu's code has a spiritual outlook,
a moral emphasis, a social organisation, /a funda-
mental principle, a political scheme and an educa-
tional method." Having given the devil his due,
the Professor goes on : " But it will not help in
modern times. It is socially a code of conquerors
and of the feudal classes suited for feudal times. The
principle of inequality, of classes and of special
privileges and liberties, forms the background of
its social structure and legal justice. The con-
quered, the serfs and slaves, and the non-political
classes of merchants, artisans and labourers, are
given no equality of status or privilege with the
nobility and clergy, who are revered as warriors
and guardians of society, both in secular and
spiritual affairs. The idea of the sacredness of
private property, of heredity and hereditary suc-
cession, and class system are its moral foundations.
The notions of the divine right of monarchy and
146
MARX OR MANU
of the aristocracy of land and religion sharing in
its privileges and powers, are its political theories.
None of these reflects the spirit and the philosophy
of new times."
Here speaks a person of moral courage and
intellectual honesty. He knows his Manu, and
would not spin out fictions to gloss over facts. He
appreciates the codes of Manu in their historical
setting, but is not^handicapped by the metaphysi-
cal dogma of absolute truth. What was good,
meritorious and useful in the past, should not be
raised to the status of wisdom unaffected by time.
But the Professor does not stop at the above correct
exposition of the codes of Manu. He goes on to
point out the motives of those who cry " Back to
Manu ", and courageously lays bare the selfish
significance of the spiritualistic social principles
they expound and ideals they hold up.
"To-day, under the onslaught of new demo-
cratic and radical or revolutionary philosophies
our conservatives feel driven to philosophise about
their conception of social order and their outlook
on social progress. Their philosophy is, of course,
apologetic, and developed to justify the position of
the propertied and privileged classes. But owing to
the forces of the spirit of modern times, their chief
representatives cannot continue to be very re-
actionary. They are willing to accept as just most
147
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIART
of the contentions of the other liberal classes,
provided that they themselves are permitted
to enjoy their most important social and
economic privileges. They arc even prepared
to champion, within the limits of their
personal and property security, the rights of
individuals such as tenants, workers or labourers.
They are, therefore, concerned more with defending
themselves and their property than with maintain-
ing any traditional principles of society or morality.
Hence they advocate the absolute right of private
property, specially in land, the present law of inheri-
tance, succession and taxation, and also the prin-
ciples of class system and lalsser ]airc. They believe
in the tried wisdom and experience of their fore-
fathers and of old institutions and traditions. They
have no faith in the devices and untried theories
of rationalism and democracy adopted in reorganis-
ing society, religion and politics. They do not
believe in the potency of individual reason. There
is for them something mystic, something sacred,
something living, something eternal in their past
wisdom, institutions and culture. They do not
believe in the right of disobedience or resistance to
laws and institutions of the country or in a revolu-
tion in any form. They do not want a breach with
the past. The positive ideal of the conservatives is
a kind of idealised feudalism. They believe in an
expert governing class of hereditary nobles. They
148
MARX OR MANU
are against any democratic system based on equality
or merit or competition. They like functional orga-
nisations (caste) and fixed privileges and status of
a mediaeval society."
This is a terrible indictment of the spiritualist
ideology that dominates our nationalist movement.
No use resenting the impudence of a benighted
liberal for criticising those who are " suffering and
sacrificing" for the freedom of the country to
question the disinterestedness of the sea-green in-
corruptibles of the Congress. That would be simply
peevish. The regrettable fact is that it is a well-
founded criticism. Those pledged to truthfulness
should not be afraid of facing the truth. The sooner
this deadly truth about the much vaunted spiri-
tualist tradition is realised, the better for the future
of India. If she is to advance towards the goal of
progress and prosperity of the masses, she must
break away from the reactionary ideology represen-
ted by a good many of its present leaders.
* # * *
There was a debate on socialism in Delhi the
other day. Several prominent Congress leaders
participated. For one reason or another, they all
opposed the proposition that the economic problems
of India could be solved only through the adop-
tion of a socialist programme. The General Secre-
tary of the Congress, Kripalani, argued that India
149
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
could never accept socialism because it is associated
with materialist philosophy, which is incompatible
with her cultural traditions. He availed himself
of the occasion to deliver what he must have believed
to be an altogether deadly attack upon materialism.
Being an Acharya, not an ordinary professor, he
would not be content with the usual claptrap argu-
ments. He must say something wise, original and
even " scientific ". He was not disappointing. He
did produce an argument which, though not very
wise, was certainly original in the sense of betray-
ing a woeful ignorance of the subject under discus-
sion. He made the amazing assertion that material-
ist philosophy discouraged enquiry and therefore it
was anti-scientific. The most outstanding fact in
the history of human development, however, is that
the spirit of enquiry has always been associated with
the rejection of views antithetical to materialism.
The belief in a super-natural force, which is the
essence of spiritualist philosophy, sets a limit to
human intelligence. Because, if it were accessible
to human understanding, it could not be regarded
as super-natural. Faith and enquiry are mutually
exclusive. The spirit of enquiry can never be acco-
modated with the out-and-out religious doctrine of
Providential Ordinance, nor is it compatible with
mystic spiritualism. There is little to choose be-
tween the Hindu conception of Lila and the faith
of other religions in the creation by a personal God.
150
MARX OR MANU
Both are equally dogmatic. The doctrine of Ula
is also based on the belief in a personal God. Ir-
rationalism being the very essence of religion and
religious philosophy, these are antagonistic to the
spirit of enquiry, and consequently the rise of
modern science coincided with a revolt against
them.
That is a historical fact. And that rationalist
revolt, reinforced by scientific development, which
it quickened, culminated in the materialist philo-
sophy. Unrestricted enquiry into the nature and
cause of things is conditional upon the assumption
that there is nothing inscrutable, that whatever
really exists can be known. That is the funda-
mental principle of materialism. Presumably, by
enquiry, Kripalani meant metaphysical speculation.
But that is not scientific enquiry, which needs posi-
tive knowledge to equip man with the power to
push the enquiry farther and farther into the
secretes of existence. While turning its back upon
idle metaphysical speculation that fruitless coha-
bitation with the "barren virgin of the Final
Cause " materialism stimulates the enquiry into
the unknowable. The vain effort to know what is
believed to be unknowable is not enquiry.
Materialism does not say that everything has been
known ; it simply asserts the cognisability of every-
thing that really exists. Nothing could give a
greater impetus to the spirit of fruitful enquiry.
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
Even the enquiry into the spirit, soul, God, is not
logically excluded by materialism, provided that
some rational ground for assuming their existence
could be indicated ; if the belief in them could
have the character of a sufficiently plausible
hypothesis.
That much for Kripalani's ignorance of the
subject he talks about with an air of wisdom and
boldness. If he were to be credited with the know-
ledge that one with his academic pretention should
have, his regard for truth would be open to doubt
Not a very commendable qualification on the part
of an advocate of spiritualism ! Granted moral
integrity (regard for truth), he had better cultivate
the spirit of enquiry so that he might know a little
more about materialism before presuming to judge
it.
Kripalani's ignorance or disregard for truth,
however, is not of particular interest. There is
something more interesting which I wish to record
as evidence thereof that Indian culture is not so
spiritualist, after all ; that it is as materialistic (not
in the philosophical, but the vulgar sense) as the
western civilisation so much maligned by the ortho-
dox nationalists. Here is what one of them one
distinguished by his particular vociferousness said
in the same debate. Satyamurthi of Madras made
the following declaration : that India would never
accept socialism because the love, of private pro-
152
MARX OR MANU
perty is deep-rooted in her cultural traditions. That
is rather stunning. We should thank Satyamurthi
for telling us the truth ; and admire his courage of
disregarding the wise dictum which places a limit
to truthfulness. Some of the shrewd law-givers of
the Golden Age advised that unpleasant truths
should not be told. Satyamurthi represented the
true spirit of Manu. Challenged by the teachings
of Marx, the followers of Manu must take the field
as apologists and defenders of everything antago-
nistic to socialism.
Socialism, of course, does not propose to abolish
the ownership of personal belongings. Under it,
private property in the means of production, distri-
bution and exchange shall be abolished. Because,
it is the instrument of the exploitation of man by
man the basis of class-ridden society which, by
its very nature, must be vitiated by selfishness, greed,
violence and a whole lot of other immoral practices.
The opposition to socialism inspired by the love of
private property, therefore, implies defence of the
right of man to exploit his fellow-men. One defends
what is threatened. Socialism threatens the private
ownership of the means of production land, capi-
tal, factories, machines, etc. inasmuch as it is the
instrument of the exploitation of the masses. The
current belief that the peculiar structure of the
Indian society precludes the development of private
property to the stage where it becomes an instru-
153
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
ment of exploitation, is simply fantastic. It repre-
sents ignorance of the science of economics, and of
the laws of social evolution.
Except in primitive communities, in which the
means of production belong to individual produ-
cers, and economic relations remain confined to
barter, private property, always and in every form,
is an instrument of exploitation. Whereas in the
earlier stages of capitalism the owner of the means
of production still performs the function of pro-
ducer, pre-capitalist forms of private property
(theocratic, patriarchal, feudal) are entirely para-
sitic. Based on them, society remains in a more or
less static condition, maintained by such Draconion
religio-ethical laws as the codes of Manu. Success-
ful operation of these laws obstructs the germina-
tion of new forces, which heralded the rise of capi-
talism as the liquidator of the mediaeval social
order.
In spite of Manu, the spiritual atmosphere of
India could not be kept altogether immune from
the germs of capitalism. And it was precisely
thanks to those corrupting germs that India
attained a comparatively high stage of civilisation
already in the olden days. A prosperous trade in
manufactured goods could not develop except
through the intermediary of a mercantile class.
Moreover, it was conditional upon production for
exchange, partially if not entirely. Shipping and
154
MARX OR MANU
trade-relations with distant lands could never thrive
on the narrow foundation of the surplus of a
production which was essentially for use. Since
India exported manufactured goods already in the
beginning of the Christian era, probably even
earlier, in her Golden Age private property must
have passed out of the hands of individual pro-
ducers and consequently developed into the means
of exploitation of the expropriated producers. Of
course, capitalism was still a long way off. But
capitalism is not the only form of exploitation ;
and certainly not the worst. Pre-capitalist forms
of exploitation are unmitigated evils ; and the spi-
ritual civilisation of ancient and mediaeval India
was based on those entirely parasitic forms of
private property.
Thus, it was not by virtue of the imaginery
special genius that India deliberately shunned the
path of modern capitalism. As a matter of fact,
she was well advanced on that path before other
peoples appeared on the scene. Having had a
start, she lagged behind because of her " spiritual "
culture compulsory practice of dharma, which
killed in the masses of her population all the initia-
tive necessary for the stimulation of the forces of
production and the consequent rise of new classes
to take over the leadership of society from reaction-
ary priesthood and a decrepit aristocracy. India
failed to enter the stage of modern civilisation be-
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FRAG!MENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
cause she remained wedded to backward, more
parasitic, economically ruinous forms of private
ownership.
Development of industries at the expense of
the masses is the economic programme of nation-
alism. The preaching of dharma on the authority
of Manu's ghost will be very useful for the realisa-
tion of this programme of selfishness. Still under
the pernicious spell of a reactionary tradition, the
masses will be easily persuaded to practise self-
control and sacrifice for the material aggrandise-
ment of the fortunate few. It is not allegiance to
the spiritualist past, but an ambition for a materia-
list future, which accounts for the hostility towards
socialism on the part of orthodox nationalists who
profess so much concern for the welfare of the
masses. The above statement of Satyamurthi was
not made casually. It is a statement of the
accepted social philosophy of orthodox nationalism.
Other Congress leaders have time and again ex-
pressed similar views, though not often with the
same bluntness. Satyamurthi is a representative
Congressman.
The overthrow of imperialism by a movement
under the slogan "Back to Manu" or even "Back
to the villages " may be a counterrevolution. India
would be led neither back to Manu nor kept in an
Arcadian simplicity. Politically, an undemocratic
regime will be established. Traditions of an ancient
156
MARX OR MANU
culture would be fully exploited for the purpose.
Socially, however, the new regime would be a bad
imitation of the demagogically denounced, but
secretly coveted, western civilisation. It would be
a bad imitation because there would be no demo-
cratic freedom and cultural progress associated
with normal capitalist development. Puma Swaraj,
under the tricolour of orthodox nationalism, may
be a ruinous, extremely unstable regime of exploita-
tion of the masses. Nationalist China presents
the tragic picture of the regime that ma"y be the
fate of India also under the rule of orthodox
nationalism.
This is neither a morbid fancy nor sheer extra-
vagance. I am not concerned with the character
of this or that individual leader. The object of
this criticism is a body of preconceived ideas which
have had a reactionary influence on the public life.
Therefore, they must be discarded, however noble,
virtuous, altruistic, spiritualistic they may be made
out to be by the interested people. The fact that
they happen to be advocated by men and women
whose moral integrity and humanitarian motives
may not be doubted adds to the traditional glory
of these hackneyed shibboleths. Therefore, criticism
must be all the more searching and thoroughly
iconoclastic. Pet ideas and popular doctrines
should be dissected with a scientific rigour ; they
should be carried to their logical consequences.
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
Then we shall be able to judge whether they are
helpful or harmful. Ideas guide action ; so, let us
clarify our ideas, because only then effective action
will be possible.
There is plenty of evidence indicating that
under the rule of orthodox nationalism the most
reactionary type of dictatorship may be established
under the cover of benevolent paternalism, which
will bolster up the most parasitic forms of exploi-
tation on the pretext of social harmony. Lately,
we have heard of objections to socialism some
wise, some demagogic, others frankly capitalistic.
Look closely at these objections, and you will find
that they are not objections to socialism, but to
democratic freedom, even of the kind established
by capitalism. The Congress-Socialists have failed
to expose the undemocratic nature of the opposition
to their propaganda, and the latter has therefore
greatly lost its force.
In India to-day, the advocates of the greatly
belated social renaissance should stand on the plat-
form of democracy. Political and social changes
necessary for the establishment of democratic free-
dom will amount to a profound revolution. The
Congress-Socialists vaguely realise the situation
when they say that political freedom must precede
economic emancipation. But the economic tasks
of a movement cannot be so separated from its
political programme. The correct attitude on the
158
MARX OR MANU
part of the socialists will be to appear as the
advocates of democratic freedom. Then they would
avoid the mistake of following a tactical line which
raises the demand of national independence divested
of its social implications. The programme of
democratic freedom combines the political and so-
cial aspects of the movement. By advocating it,
the socialists will be pursuing their ideal of social
revolution, but disarm their honestly mistaken
opponents ; on the other hand, the rest of the
crowd will be exposed as anti-democratic. The
result will be weakening of orthodox nationalism,
which is the condition for the attainment of demo-
cratic freedom.
* * * *
Reviewing a socialist publication (Why Socia-
lism ? by Jaiprakash Narain), one of the leading
Congress press organs wrote : " India is tradition-
ally bourgeois. Her religion, her society, her insti-
tutions, have all been built on the corner-stone of
authoritarianism and property. There is no deny-
ing that democracy in India, whenever it comes,
will be more akin to the democracy of the Reich
than the democracy of Great Britain." (Hindustan
Times, Delhi, April 20, 1936). The reviewer's
characterisation of Indian culture is strictly scrip-
tural. It is borne out by Manu. Only, while well-
versed in scriptures, the reviewer is rather deficient
in sociology. India is not traditionally bourgeois.
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
Her misfortune is that she failed to throw up a
mercantile and manufacturing class sufficiently diffe-
rentiated from the feudal-patriarchal ownership of
land, and sufficiently strong to revolt against, and
overthrow the feudal order. That society is
bourgeois which is based primarily upon capitalist
production. India never reached that stage, cer-
tainly not in the olden days. Traditionally, Indian
society is theocratic-feudal-patriarchal. However,
the reviewer is quite correct in what he means to say.
Presumably, to demonstrate his acquaintance with
worthless modernism, he used the wrong termino-
logy. He meant that traditionally Indian society
is based upon class domination ; and the specific
form of domination is clearly described by him. He
must be given the credit not only of calling the
spade a spade, but also for logical consistency,
though most probably unconscious.
The zealous critic of the new-fangled, un-Indian
doctrine admits that Indian tradition is antagonistic
not only to socialism, but even to democratic
freedom. The anti-democratic nature of Indian
culture and tradition, of course, can be logically
deduced from what they are said to stand for.
Property as such is not antagonistic to political
democracy. Capitalist property, for example, nor-
mally is associated with parliamentary government.
Indian society, however, rests on still another pillar:
authoritarianism, which is negation of democracy.
160
MARX OR MANtt
But the reviewer does not leave us to draw the
logical conclusions from the picture he correctly
depicts. He frankly says : What is all this nonsense
about socialism? Or that confounded non- Aryan
Marx? Traditionally and by virtue of our culture,
India would follow the footsteps of the heroic
Hitler ; she has no use for the old forgeys who
preached the Rights of Man, individualism, demo*
cracy and all that tommy-rot 1
It is not an obscure journalist who points out
the dreadful perspective of socio-political develop-
ment in independent India, if she remains faithful
to her spiritualist cultural traditions. More autho-
ritative pronouncements also open up the same
perspective, though not always with such naive
frankness. Several months ago, addressing the
students of the Lucknow University, Govind
Bhallabh Pant told that each of them should strive
to be a Gandhi or a Tagore or a Mussolini or a
Hitler or a Ford. Some of the students may have
been bewildered by the mixed company recom-
mended and by the promiscuity of the ideal held
up before them. Pant's promiscuous idealism should
not be dismissed as an individual aberration.
Fascist tendency is inherent in orthodox nationa-
lism. Authoritarianism, medievalism, demagogy,
spiritualist cant, vulgar materialism these traits
are all common to both. Indeed, Fascism (which
in Germany takes the deceptive label of National-
161
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
Socialism) is nationalism which finds its ideals not
in future progress, but in past traditions. Our
orthodox nationalists also have their eyes fixed on
the past. TJiere is thus a spiritual affinity which
often manifests itself. More than one nationalist
leader has returned from Hitler's Germany full of
enthusiastic admiration, and also from Italy. Musso-
lini's civilising mission in Abyssinia should have
influenced the Indian attitude towards fascist
Italy. Yet, there are Congress leaders who dis-
approved of the nationalist movement declaring
solidarity with the victim of fascist aggression.
Kripalani, for instance, went to the extent of
guardedly justifying Italy's action, and openly main-
tained, as against the demand of the socialists, that
it was no business of Indian nationalists to take
sides in the conflict !
Shortly before Mussolini launched on his
African venture, he delivered an oration on the
spiritual values of oriental culture to a gathering
of Indian students. Some " radical " nationalist
leaders (Subhas Bose, for example) were present at
that memorable scene and spoke about the spiritual
affinity between Fascism and the struggle of the
subject peoples for freedom. The fate of Abyssinia
must have given them a rude shock. But did it?
That still remains to be seen. In the meanwhile,
Subhas Bose has entertained us by the picture of a
" synthesis of nationalism and communism " which,
162
MARX OR MANU
according to him, will result from, the victory of
the Indian struggle for freedom ! Germany has
had her National-Socialism ; and there is not one
single lover of freedom, peace and progress, who
does not bitterly bemoan her fate. India might
have a similar experience, only under the slightly
different flag of National-Communism, if she did
not look out before it was too late.
Reverting to Pant's promiscuity of ideah,
Gandhi and Tagore, each in his own way, embody
what is called the special genius of Indian culture.
Both are ardent opponents of western
materialism, would not only prevent India,
if they could, to fall under the degenerating
influence of modernism, but also bring to
the tormented world the panacea of India's
message. The doctors, however, do not agree.
The panacea has been differently prescribed.
For the one, it is a denunciation of modern indus-
trialism and also of nationalist exclusiveness ; for
the other, it is non-violence. Gandhi is also hostile
to modern industrialism, but politics has brought
him in contact with sobering influences. On the
other hand, the ideals which Indian youth might
alternatively follow, curiously enough, happen to
be personifications of the crassest forms of the evil
of western civilisation that are to be cured by the
medicines prescribed by Gandhi and Tagore.
Ford has perfected the industrial technique of
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
the capitalist mode of production to the point
where man becomes completely enslaved to the
machine, a mere part of it. His " humanitaria-
nism " the much advertised policy of paying high
wages is determined by the old utilitarian wisdom
which prohibits the killing of the goose that lays
the golden eggs. The legend of Ford's fatherliness
is no longer believed except by those who have no
understanding of modern industrial technique,
and are utterly indifferent to the human value of
labour. The fact is that Ford's system is such an
extreme form of exploitation of human labour as
has no regard even for the elementary principle of
capitalist economics which lays down that wages
should represent the money value of the most mini-
mum necessities for the subsistence and reproduction
of the labourer. The productivity of a unit of
labour performed under the Ford system is much
greater than in less exacting industrial processes.
So, in reality, the higher wages paid by Ford are
lower than the average scale of wages elsewhere.
The essence of Ford's system is to make a man
produce more in a given unit of time and pay him
for only a fraction of his speeded up productivity.
But even this fake paternalism has broken down.
Higher wages are a thing of the past while the
other aspects of paternalism are stubbornly de-
fended. With the threat of summary dismissal
Ford combats the effort of his employees to organise
164
MARX OR MANU
themselves in trade-unions. He would not accept
the principle of collective bargaining, because that
would limit his arbitrary power on the slaves tied
to the monstrous machines which he owns, not as
means of production but as merciless instruments
of exploitation. That is one of the ideals placed
on par with the spiritualist ideals born of Indian
culture !
The others are still worse. Mussolini and
Hitler are personifications of the most violent forms
of capitalist exploitation. They are avowed enemies
of all the cultural values of modern civilisation.
They not only practise, but brazenly glorify vio-
lence. They are veritable gods of war. They are
the rabidest apostles of predatory nationalism,
which logically leads to brutal aggression upon the
weak. In short, they stand for everything that is
opposed to India's message as delivered by Gandhi
and Tagore. Yet, the ideology of our orthodox
nationalism idealises them.
An alternative explanation of the apparently
incongruous mixture of ideals is that the preacher
is totally devoid of any moral conviction or social
principles. He does not believe in whatever he may
profess. That means that the political standard-
bearers of orthodox nationalism pay only lip loyalty
to the spiritualist traditions for demagogic purposes
to keep the masses under the spell of authori-
tarian and fatalistic tradition, so that they may
165
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
not grudge against the shining chains of national
freedom, when these have replaced the rusty fetters
of colonial slavery.
In any case, it is clear that either the ideals of
orthodox nationalism are false ideals, or the poli-
tical leaders sailing under that misleading banner
are dishonest and therefore not trustworthy. The
incipient forces of Indian Renaissance are thus beset
with a double danger. Ideologically, they are pur-
suing a dangerous fiction ; politically they are at
the mercy of misleaders who are fools if not knaves.
And the two dangers are inter-connected. The
one results from the other. Get rid of the false
ideology, and you will see through your heroes*
With a clear social orientation, the fighters for
national freedom will be able to throw up a cour-
ageous, different and honest leadership which is
the crying need of the moment.
* # # *
The orthodox nationalist leaders carefully avoid
giving any idea as regards the political constitution
and social structure the country will have under
Swaraj. That is a very curious attitude for the
leaders of a political movement to take. But the
nature of the political regime to be established
under the leadership of a party logically results
from its social outlook. The paternalistic social
outlook of the Congress leaders implies a negation
of democratic freedom. A picture of the political
166
MARX OK MANU
constitution which can have the sanction of the
spiritualist tradition of Indian nationalism was
presented the other day by one of the modern re-
ligious leaders of India while delivering the Con-
vocation Address at the Agra University. He said :
" The wrong spirit of democracy is the cause of the
prevailing discontent and confusion. The existing
cause of conflict in politics, in economics and in
the soul of man will not be lifted from any society
till, through higher education, it will be able to
produce leaders, thinkers, statesmen and legislators
who will recognise the natural inequality of men in
intellect and will, and understand the benefit of
giving perference to the good of the society over
personal interests, and appreciate the subtle differ-
ence between happiness and pleasure." The spea-
ker was Sahebji Maharaj of Dayalbagh.
So, the orthodox nationalist Swaraj will not,
after all, be restoration of the Ramraj. It will be
a modernised Brahmin Raj, an intellectual aristo-
cracy wielding absolute power which is their mono-
poly, because the multitude is by nature deprived
of that qualification. That is the corollary of the
doctrine of "natural inequality". The excellence
of Hindu philosophy is said to consist in a principle
which is diametrically opposed to this doctrine. It
is said that the self-same divine light burns in all,
making everybody potentially equal ; and the equa-
lity is realisable. Now we arc told that spiritual
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
equality does not imply even potential equality on
this earth. Some are made, by God presumably,
superior to others and are therefore destined to
rule by divine right, so to say.
That is not the view of a stray individual. It
is a " spiritual truth ". The doctrine of inequality
is preached by Lord Krishna himself in the Gita,
which is the gospel of orthodox nationalism.
Evidently on that authority, the famous "scheme
of Swaraj " prepared by the late C. R. Das with
the co-operation of the modern Rishi Dr. Bhagwan
Das, vests supreme administrative and legislative
authority in an intellectual elite particularly quali-
fied for the job.
A year later, the same doctrine was preached
to the students of another University by an autho-
rity on the Hindu scriptures. " Equality and free-
dom, about which there has been a lot of ill-digested
talk among the Indian youth, should not degene-
rate into social anarchy. Any attempt to write on
a clean slate and to demolish the past completely,
and to build anew, is against the nature of India's
genius and will prove a dismal failure. The pro-
blems of the world will be solved by educated men
inspired by the ideal of disinterestedness and
disciplined skill suggested in the teaching of the
Gita." (Mahamahopadhyaya Kuppuswami Sastri,
Madras University Convocation, 1936).
Of course, I do not maintain that men are bom
168
MARX OR MANU
equal, or that at any conceivable time in the future
the entire mankind will be levelled up intellectually.
But on the other hand, biological sciences show
that, except for th^ diseased, every human being,
given favourable conditions, is capable of developing
unlimited powers of intellect and will. The un-
folding of the inherent possibilities of development
is held in abeyance so long as the blessing of higher
education is kept reserved for the privileged few.
All we need do is to change the conditions of life
so that a growingly large number of people will
have plenty of leisure, with the requisite facilities
for intellectual development, and there will be any
number of men fit to be leaders, thinkers, statesmen
and intellectuals. The process of unfolding po-
tential possibilities could not be general imme-
diately, and the present demarcation between the
intellectual elite and the dumb-driven mob will
begin to lose its sharpness only when several gene-
rations have grown up in the midst of changed
conditions. As a matter of fact, in the more
advanced countries of Europe, thanks to the spread
of education and the consequent general cultural
progress, brought about by the curse of democratic
freedom, the demarcation has almost disappeared.
There leaders, thinkers, statesmen, legislators hail
from all walks of life, and nobody can assert that
those rising from the lower classes are in anv
way inferior to the scions of the social elite. Natu-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
rally, the former do not recognise any natural
inequality of men, they themselves being the refu-
tation of the damnable doctrine. The prevailing
discontent and confusion are not the result of the
spirit of democracy, but of checks placed upon its
free development.
But the spiritualist philosophy of India recom-
mends a return to the rule of intellectual aristocracy
which, until now, has always entered into an
alliance with the secular aristocracy. Such an
alliance thrived not. only on the sacred soil of India.
The Holy Roman Empire, which ruled Europe for
one thousand years, was such an alliance, the clergy
(intellectual as well as spiritual aristocracy) having
had the upper hand most of the time. Similarly,
in ancient India, the Brahmins ruled in conjunction
with the Kshattriyas occupying a higher place in
the social hierachy. That mediaeval political system
guaranteed in India as well as in Europe a social
order based upon such a purely parasitic form of
private property and such a ruinous mode of ex-
ploitation of the labouring masses, as rendered any
spread of culture impossible. Given not the least
opportunity for unfolding their human potentiali-
ties, the multitude was branded with natural
inequality. Yet, they were all either Naranara
yanas or the children of God. Such is the hypocrisy
of religious thought palmed off as the spiritual
panacea for all the evils of a world which has
170
MARX OR MANU
travelled far away from the reactionary rule of the
sacerdotal aristocracy. It is true that there is one
thing which the intellectual elite, as the ideologists
of the feudal aristocracy, alone can do " to appre-
ciate the subtle difference between happiness and
pleasure " ; and teach the masses to prefer the for-
mer to the latter. There we have the function of
spiritualism in a nutshell. One of the intellectual
c'lite, which claims the right to rule by divine right
even in the middle of the twentieth century, makes
the difference quite clear lest his hearers might fail
to grasp the subtlety. We read the following in
Sahebji Maharaj's Convocation Address at the Agra
University : " You never can make life happy with
mere abstract intelligibility the ideal of science.
You must control the lower appetite of man and
satisfy his higher cravings with the help of religion."
The speaker might be a particularly fanatical
defender of reactionary ideas ; but the more signi-
ficant fact is that these ideas could be preached in
a modern University and thousands of educated
young men listened to them without a single voice
of protest.
The possession of intellectual superiority is
proclaimed to be the qualification for political
power and social leadership. Yet the hankering
for that quality is discouraged ! If too many aspired
for it, the monopoly of the privileged few would
171
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
be threatened. The cross of responsibility should
be borne only by the chosen few.
"Abstract intelligibility", that is, scientific
knowledge, is deprecated because it disturbs the
religious spirit of resignation to the inscrutable Will
of God, who has made men naturally unequal, some
endowed with the quality to rule, others destined
to perform dutifully lowly functions allotted to
them. Don't try to know too much. That will
only make you doubtful about the traditional
values of life. Whoever eat of the fruit of know-
ledge are sure to be driven out of the paradise of
faith. Ignorance is bliss. Since blissfulness is the
ideal of human life, knowledge must be placed at
a discount, if not altogether under taboo. But one
may ask, if scientific learning is to be avoided, what
then is higher education ? We are told that it is
cultivation of the religious spirit, which subordi-
nates knowledge to faith. If faith in Divine Pro-
vidence is the standard of education, it logically
follows that the purer the faith, the higher the
education, and the Indian masses are possessed of
the highest education by this standard. Where,
then, is the natural superiority of the intellectual
elite ? There is one qualification which distin-
guishes the elite from the multitude of believers.
It is the ability to rationalise faith ; in other words,
to justify immoral social relations which are guaran-
teed by blind faith on the part of the masses. That
172
MARX OK MANU
distinction entitles them to the privilege of ruling
so long as society remains an immoral order claim-
ing the sanction of metaphysical principles of
morality.
The higher education of the ruling elite, thus,
is the skill to deceive the people in the name of
God. The duty of those aspiring for political power
and social leadership is to give stones to the hungry
crowd when they ask for bread, and call the stone
shalgram shecla or the Shiva lignum. The func-
tion of religion is to teach the masses to do with
the most minimum of earthly goods, so that the
great bulk of the fruits of their labour remain the
share of the privileged few. These are entitled to
" pleasure " derived from the enjoyment of wordly
goods. But the masses should be taught to prefer
"happiness" which flows from the ability to toil
and starve with resignation. The rule of an
intellectual aristocracy is better than democratic
government, because the former is qualified to
teach the masses that one gets more happiness
from starving than from eating.
We are further sermonised : " Your modern
education can make people clever, but not happy.
Your modern democratic rights can make people
powerful, but not self-controlled. The more you
accumulate earthly good, the greater becomes the
desire for them, and you are never satisfied. It is
evident that everybody in this world cannot possess
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motor cars and horses ; nor can everybody be a
multi-millionaire."
Since the doctrine of happiness without
pleasure can go down only in an atmosphere of
ignorance, and the consequent intellectual servility,
modern education is to be shunned like a plague.
It makes people " clever ". What a crime ! In a
a society given to the disparaged scientific ideal of
intelligibility and with the perverse tendency to
encourage cleverness, there is no room for an in-
tellectual elite claiming authority as a matter of
divine right. When an increasing number of com-
mon people begin to shake off the bliss of ignor-
ance, and acquire the ability to look at things in-
telligently, and examine venerable ideas critically,
the spiritual value of happiness derived from abject
resignation becomes open to doubt. Clever people
are naturally not happy to starve, or go without
other elementary human necessities. The society
ruled by an intellectual aristocracy with the en-
slaving and dehumanising dogma of spiritualism
must be composed of dumb-driven cattle. Modern
education foments rebelliousness. It disturbs the
spirit of resignation which is the fountain of happi-
ness without pleasure.
The possession of earthly goods like motor cars
and horses is not condemned ; nor is it a sin to be
a multi-millionaire. It is damnable materialism
only when those who manufacture motor cars
174
MARX OR MANU
want to ride in them, those who build houses want
to have a decent place to live in. That is " lower
appetite". The common man's stomach cannot
digest rich food which must be reserved for those
few who are accustomed to luxury. That is pro-
vidential dispensation.
Then, how is it evident that everybody cannot
possess a motor car ? And a house, together with
all the other amenities of life which today are re-
served for the privileged few ? Of course, there
cannot be a whole population of parasites. But
there is absolutely no obstacle in the way to pro-
viding every member of a community with all the
ease and comfort of a civilised existence. Modern
democratic rights equip the masses with weapons
necessary for conducting a struggle for the estab-
lishment of such civilised conditions of life. So,
they must be deprecated. Should the Indian
masses ever get hold of that weapon, they would
sooner or later be powerful and shake off the fetters
of self-control imposed upon them by religion
that charter of slavery bearing the seal of God.
They practise the virtue of simple life because they
are forced to. Let them have the power to con-
quer a fuller, better, happier life on this earth, and
they will not be slow to assert themselves. But
that will necessarily mean encroachment upon the
traditional preserve of the privileged. Therefore,
democratic freedom has no place in the spiritualist
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
politics of Indian tradition ; democratic rights arc
condemned as evils which corrupt the virtue of
self-abnegation.
A reactionary philosophy, loyalty to antiquated,
parasitic, ruinous social institutions, and the result-
ing anti-democratic spirit drive the orthodox
nationalist leaders to a position where they must
rub shoulders with all sorts of queer company.
Let me illustrate : " We are prepared to make
joint efforts with any political party for the for-/
mulation of a practical programme on lines which
have proved successful in countries other than
Russia, and without causing disturbance to the
existing order of things. No one can deny tlW
the contentment and happiness of the masses should
be our main objective. But this will never be
accomplished by up-rooting centuries' old institu-
tions, and going counter to India's culture and
tradition.'* Now who do you think uttered these
noble sentiments ? The credit could be given to
any member of the Congress Working Committee,
perhaps except the President* and the three Social-
ists who are entirely out of place and do not count
in the determination of high politics. These words,
which might have fallen from the lips of any other
apostle of Puma Swaraj, were uttered by
Sir Cowasjee Jehangir as the President of
the conference of the Bombay Liberal Federation.
* Jawaharkl Nehnr
176
MARX OR MANU
The Bombay Baronet, in spite of being the
embodiment of "western materialism" (read
capitalist exploitation) which is polluting the
sacred soil of India, is able to appreciate the
spiritual value of happiness as against pleasure.
He also is a defender of centuries' old institutions
and India's cultural traditions, although personally
he does not believe in any one of those
antique gods. But he encourages their worship
because that is helpful for keeping the masses in
contentment and happiness. Starvation wages and
the chawls of Bombay represent the order of things
that should not be disturbed. Barring that, the
Baronet is ready to profess the high ideal of
humanitarianism as loudly as anybody.
The bogey of Socialism and Communism is
raised with the object of combatting the growing
consciousness of the urgent necessity for a radical
change of the established order, not only political
but also economic. Historically, this required
change is brought about by the democratic revolu-
tion. Therefore, Indian nationalist hostility to
Socialism is in reality opposition to democratic
freedom. When you oppose revolutionary changes,
you do not fight an abstract idea ; you place your-
self against the specific changes that are on the
order of the day.
The crusade against an imaginary attack upon
the sacred institutions of traditional significance is
177
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
justified with the pseudo-democratic proclamation
that the questions about the constitution of the
National State and the re-construction of society
could not be raised now ; they will be settled by
the people when free. No political party which
knows its business can ever be so open-minded. If
sincere, it is a deplorable empty-headedness, not
open-mindedness. The people cannot be led to a
void. There must be a goal ; and they must know
where they are going. The posing and discussion
of fundamental questions about the objective of a
movement are deferred when it lacks the unity of
purpose ; when the ideology and social outlook of
the leadership run counter to the sub-conscious or
semi-conscious strivings of the people. In such a
situation, rank hypocrisy becomes the guiding
principle of propaganda, and agitation degenerates
into sheer demagogy. The people are deceived by
their leaders, some of whom may be deceiving them-
selves. The masses are told that the Congress is
determined to help them. At the same time, no
orthodox Congressman should explain how the
condition of the masses will be improved. Place
your faith in miracles, and meanwhile raise the
hopes of the masses. Talk of social reconstruction
frightens vested interests and impairs unity, so
very essential for attaining Swaraj, which however
should remain mystified, to turn out a myth in
the fulness of time. But it is not difficult to sec
178
MARX OR MANU
through the veil of mystification. If not to frighten
away vested interests is a condition for the attain-
ment of Swaraj, the goal obviously is mortgaged
heavily in advance to those interests, whose ad-
hesion to the cause is so solicitously canvassed.
While thus insisting that the Congress should
not be committed to any definite programme of
social reconstruction, the orthodox leaders, never-
theless, do not make any secret of the fact that
they have very definite ideas about the socio-poli-
tical future of the country. Only the other day,
Vallabhbhai Patel thundered that the Congress
had no use for Socialism, Communism or any
other ism. It is incredible that such an idiotic
assertion would be made by one hailed as a great
leader. If the assertion means anything, it means
that the Congress has no principle. But that is
not true. The Congress has a very rigidly formu-
lated " creed ". What Patel means, then, is that,
so long as leaders like himself remain in control,
the Congress will not accept any revolutionary
principle elaborated in a programme of social re-
construction.
What are those other isms which are to be
rejected, so that the Congress may remain true to
Gandhism ? That is also an ism. And the pre-
sent leaders of the Congress cannot disown it.
Is it not significant that, while opposing the socia-
list programme, they have failed to advocate a
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
clearly defined programme of bourgeois democra-
tic revolution ? If both are ruled out, one expli-
citly and the other implicitly, what remains ? It
can be logically inferred that under Swaraj India
will have a political constitution more backward
than parliamentary democracy ; socially, she will
retain property relations the abolition of which by
a democratic revolution is necessary for the
modernisation of her economy and the conquest
of progress and prosperity of the nation. Swaraj
will be a Dead Sea fruit a superficial political
change which will leave intact the economic struc-
ture of society as a whole, which is fundamentally
responsible for the poverty, misery, ignorance, and
degradation of the masses. The perspective is still
more ominous. There is a likelihood of the coveted
Swaraj being transformed into a fascist dictator-
ship. Under the game banner of orthodox
nationalism, Swaraj is more likely to be Hitler
Raj than Ram Raj, which, being a legend, can
never be realised, anyhow.
# # # #
There still remains the familiar but fallacious
question why should India follow the path of
European socio-political development ? The
question might have some pertinence if any
nationalist theoretician could indicate a possible
alternative line of evolution, instead of, as they
usually do, expatiating on the legendary glory of
1RO
MARX OR MANU
the past. Involution is not an alternative to evolu-
tion. Reaction and progress are not identical.
The question is backed up by the utterly ground-
less assertion that India's mystic special genius will
enable her to strike out a novel way of socio-politi-
cal development, which will defy all the empiri-
cally established laws of history. Since the spiri-
tualist view of life is claimed to be the special
genius of India, with that superiority she is doomed
to vegetate in the foul backwaters of antiquated
medievalism. This dogma of special genius has
deprived Indian nationalism of the benefit of clear
thinking. Let this ghost be laid on the strength of
an unchallengeable evidence.
Sir Radhakrishnan is the recognised authority
on Indian philosophy. He is a panegyrist, not a
critic. Speaking in Madras (April 1936), he
admitted that "we might not be able to contri-
bute very much to the economic and political
thought of the world. India's great contribution
is religion and philosophy. But let us not imagine
that we have a monopoly in that. I have always
felt that in the history of the world, there has been
no real contrast between the East and the West.
It is only in recent times that there has been a
cleavage between the Enlightenment, Humanism
and Rationalism of the West and Spiritualism of
the East. Rationality, enlightenment and human
rights those are the key-notes of modern western
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
civilisation." Mutatis mutandis, their rejection is
the essence of what is called the special genius of
India. Only, there is no speciality. Western civi-
lisation was also spiritualistic in the past.
Sir Radhakrishnan himself said later on that the
existence of a " mysterious something is not recog-
nised in recent times by the West, while it was
recognised in the Middle-Ages."
That is a statement of historical fact. And
what does it mean ? It means that spiritualism
is the philosophy of a mediaeval society. So, the
special genius of India may keep her away from
the temptation of the ways of Western develop-
ment the ways of rationalism, enlightenment,
human rights but it cannot show her an alterna-
tive way out of the morass of medievalism. There-
fore, to ask why should India follow the
European line of socio-political development ? is
to ask why she should come out of the darkness
of medievalism, why should the Indian people be
deprived of the bliss of ignorance ? Why, in-
deed ! The question implies that India is quite
content to be without rationality, enlightenment
and human rights.
Those who want to conquer the future must
turn their back on the past, break away from the
paralysing grip of traditional notions. The essence
of our ancient culture is religion. Spiritualism is
blind faith in an inscrutable power which must be
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MARX OR MANU
obeyed It is a tclcological view of life and the
world. Everything is providentially preordained.
Everything happens in fulfilment of a divine pur-
pose. Thus, religious spirit the essence of Indian
culture is naturally antagonistic to any change to
be brought about by human effort. Fatalism in
the garb of religiosity has been fatal to India.
The programme of reforming religion is un-
realisable. The power of religion lies in the claim
to immutability. Hinduism particularly docs not
admit of any reform. It is Sanatan Dharma
eternal, unchangeable, infallible. Reformers deceive
themselves as well as their followers. Hinduism
itself cannot be reformed, and it is against all social
change. Orthodox religionists tell us the hidden
truth behind the lies of spiritualist rationalism.
The Sanatanist conference of Gujarat (August
1936) declared that " Socialism is definitely against
Hindu scriptures and Sanatan Dharma, and that its
spread must be checked by all possible means."
The President of the conference delivered himself
of the following sentiments : " The king is the
most important factor in preserving the peace of a
country. The capitalist system is most suited to
India, and all attempts to overthrow it should be
opposed." For Socialism, read any change in the
established social order. Because, monarchist senti-
ment is antagonistic to the introduction of a demo-
cratic regime, although it accomodates capitalism,
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
which, as in India, does not rise as a socially revolu-
tionary force.
The mill-owners of Ahmedabad and the cotton
kings of Gujarat are mostly Sanatanists, osten-
tatiously religious at any rate. Who is more
demonstratively devotional than the Marwari mer-
chants ? The above declaration cannot be dis-
missed as that of some obscure Sanatanist. It is
almost a verbatim repetition of pronouncements of
Congress leaders already referred to. As a matter
of fact, the Congress leaders only echo the Sana-
tanist spirit, which is the essence of Indian culture
idealised by them. They simply try to gloss over
the crass superstitious aspects of that spirit, so that
it might be reconciled with a superficial modern
education. But in relation to the social implication
of the religious spirit, they do not differentiate
themselves from the outspoken Sanatanists.
There are other critical students of India's past
who also plead passionately for a break with the
traditional notions, although they do not share the
views of a conscious revolutionary. Nobody would
accuse Sir Hari Singh Gour of any socialistic incli-
nation. On the other hand, it would be sheer im-
pudence to deny him the credit of patriotism.
Moreover, his learning is unquestionable. He is an
authority of Hindu law. So, his opinion deserves
careful consideration.
" We can no longer feed upon the dry crumbs
184
MARX OR MANU
of old tradition. We should no longer accept the
old because it is old, but stretch it out on the dis-
secting table of reason. There should be no tender
regard for ancient authority which has painted all
our history so red with our own blood. What
India wants is a Renaissance, which must accom-
pany a revolt against traditional belief and tradi-
tional credulity. What India needs is an intellec-
tual iconoclasm which will destroy the still more
sinister idolas of our superstition. Our forefathers
lived primitive lives. Their wants were simple,
their struggles hard, their environments limited.
That life may create a yearning for its return, but
we cannot return to the simple lives of our fore-
fathers when we are born in the rattle of machi-
nery and its finished outpourings, before which
man-made products are crude and uneconomic.
Some feeble and wholly inadequate efforts are being
made to improve the lot of the depressed classes ;
but nothing short of absolute inequality is possible
so long as Hinduism remains tied to the shackles
of caste. Some self-complacent Indians reconcile
themselves to their reactionary march on the
ground that we have always been a people who have
scorned the materialism of the West. Our strength,
they say, lies in our spirituality. But are we sure
that this is not an empty phrase ? What has
India contributed to the spiritual uplift of ourselves
or of the world ? We have expelled Buddhism,
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
the supreme spiritual force generated in our midst.
We deny the materialism of the West, and asso-
ciate it with the filth and squalour of factory life ...
Let us face the facts as we find them. The so-called
materialism of the West has added to human happi-
ness and alleviated human suffering, which will
astound those if they only took stock of the ranges
of disease which used to decimate the populations
of eastern countries before the healing balm of wes-
tern science started its humane mission of saving
the people against themselves." (Hindusthan
Review, February 1936).
These few lines, carrying the authority of a
thorough study of the subject, are worth more than
all the Gandhist clap-trap which fatally fascinates
even the more progressive elements in the nation-
alist movement. India will not be able to shake off
her political servitude and economic misery, her
social backwardness, her intellectual coma, so long
as the educated youth remains drugged by the spiri-
tualist message of a Vivekananda, Dayanand or an
Aurobinda, or of any other prophet who may preach
some such doctrine. The spirit of Renaissance is
the urgent intellectual need of the time. It is
abroad, but too feeble to influence the situation as
yet It must be fostered. Those engaged in that
task will not win cheap popularity, but their efforts
will contribute much more to the cause of Indian
186
MARX OR MANU
freedom than the dramatics of political demonstra-
tions.
Finally, I shall cite the most damaging judg-
ment against our so fondly cherished spiritual tradi-
tion : most damaging, because it is pronounced by
a judge biassed in favour of the condemned. In his
farewell address to the students of the Andhra
University, Sir Radhakrishnan said : " Many of
the fundamental evils of Indian society can be
traced to two important factors, namely, irrespon-
sible wealth and religious bigotry. While economic
injustices are not peculiar to our country alone,
religious bigotry, which treats millions of our coun-
trymen in a shameless and inhuman way, and im-
poses senseless disabilities and inconveniences on
the womanhood of the country, is a standing
danger. It is corruption of the spirit in the guise
of superstition. Those who impose those disabili-
ties on other human beings, are themselves victims
of ignorance and superstition. There is such a thing
as degeneration of accepted ideas. Many of them
are kept going artificially even after life has left
them. We must liberate ourselves from the tyranny
of the dark past, from the oppression of spectres
and ghosts, from falsehood and deceits. There are
millions tcxlay whose life has been rendered mean-
ingless by social maladjustments which are sancti-
fied by religion, and they may be pardoned if they
dismiss religion as a luxury which they cannot
187
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
afford," The speaker concluded by a passionate
appeal " to resist economic and religious tyranny ".
He exclaimed : " It is the duty of every patriotic
person to resist. In our country, we have to resist
despotism on every side."
This cannot be dismissed as the ravings of a
destructive revolutionary, as loose talk of a socialist
propagandist. It is the verdict of a sober thinker.
When a confirmed protagonist of the spiritualist
philosophy is driven by his human sentiment to
such a righteous indignation against the practical
products of his own philosophy, it can no longer
be doubted that there is something radically wrong
with it. A few days later, in a speech in Madras,
Sir Radhakrishnan once again vehemently con-
demned " the seemy sides of Hindu society ". The
evils condemned by him are bred in the foul atmos-
phere of social stagnation. They can be eradicated
only through a profound social and ideological re-
volution. Traditional notions must be discarded,
venerable dogmas must be subjected to severe criti-
cism, time-honoured institutions must be mercilessly
pulled down. The reactionary ideology of orthodox
nationalism must be replaced by a revolutionary
philosophy. All the advocates of democratic free-
dom, cultural progress, general welfare, all true re-
formers, all sincere humanitarians, all opponents
of violence and lovers of peace, all who want to
transform the fiction of social harmony into a
188
MARX OR MANU
reality, all who would conquer the future instead
of living in "a legendary past, should travel that
way. Materialist philosophy knowledge instead
of faith, reason instead of authority, the physical
instead of the metaphysical, the natural instead of
the super-natural, facts instead of fiction this can
lead not only to political freedom, economic
prosperity and social happiness ; it indicates the
only way to real spiritual freedom.
189
CHAPTER V
INDIA'S MESSAGE
THE "decline of the West" being in reality
only the decline of capitalism, the crisis of western
civilisation means only disintegration of the
bourgeois social order. In that context, India's " spi-
ritual mission" appears to be a mission with a
mundane purpose, namely, to salvage a social system
based upon the love of lucre and lust for power. It
is not suggested that the believers in India's spiritual
mission are all conscious of its reactionary implica-
tion. Probably very few of them are. Most of them
may be credited with a sincere antipathy for capi-
talism. But antipathy does not necessarily give
birth to a desire to go farther than capitalism. It
indicates an attachment to pre-capitalist social con-
ditions, which are idealised. Objectively, it is there-
fore the token of a reactionary social outlook.
Indian spiritualism is not different from the
western kind. The merit of a philosophy is to be
judged by its historical role and social significance.
The sincerity or otherwise of its protagonists is al-
together beside the point.
The preachers of India's "world mission" never-
theless take their stand on the dogmatic assertion
190
INDIA S MESSAGE
that Indian philosophy is different from western
idealism. The basic principles of idealist philo-
sophy, together with the survey of its mediaeval
and pre-Christian background, prove that this
assertion is utterly groundless. While the emo-
tional aspect of Indian speculation is well matched,
if not surpassed, by Christian mysticism, intellec-
tually it can hardly claim superiority to western
idealism, either modern or ancient. As regards
transcendental fantasies, the western mind has been
no less fertile. The great Sage of Athens, the Seers
of Alexandria, the Saints of early Christianity, the
monks of the Middle-Ages that is a record which
can proudly meet any competition. On the ques-
tion of moral doctrines, Christianity stands un-
beaten on the solid ground of the Jewish, Socratic
and Stoic traditions. Should the modern West be
accused of not having lived up to those noble prin-
ciples, could India conscientiously be absolved of
a similar charge ? The claim that the Indian
people as a whole is morally less corrupt, emotion-
ally purer, idealistically less worldly, in short, spiri-
tually more elevated, than the bulk of the western
society, is based upon a wanton disregard for
reality.
First, let us examine the argument advanced
to maintain the spiritual superiority of Indian phi-
losophy. Then we shall proceed to analyse its social
significance. And its social significance will reveal
191
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
its historical background. Thus, it will be possible
to make a correct appreciation of Indian culture,
and ascertain if it can be a better alternative to
the modern western culture, granted hypotheti-
cally that a retrograde movement is possible in
the history of human progress.
The origin of the claim that Indian philo-
sophy is different from western idealism can be
traced to the doctrine of revelation, although
modern advocates of the claim fight shy of standing
boldly by the very crux of their case. For, that
would oblige them to forego all scientific preten-
sions, and come out frankly as defenders of a full-
blooded faith. Only this way can Indian philosophy
be proved to be different from western idealism. In
that case, the finger will be laid on a real, not an
imaginary, point of difference. The point is that
orthodox Indian philosophy is essentially a system
of mystic theology. The difference between Indian
philosophy and modern idealism is identical with
the difference between this latter and neo-Platonic
mysticism. But to reduce the difference to the
reality of historical sequence would be to blow up
the myth of the Indian spiritual message ; because,
then the message could no longer claim originality
the product of a special genius. Therefore, the
kernel of historical reality is carefully hidden in a
florid verbiage which seeks to make up for the defi-
192
INDIA'S MESSAGE
ciency of argument in support of the claim to an
imaginary difference.
It is maintained that western idealism is a mere
intellectual system of speculation, whereas Indian
philosophy is based upon pure experience. This
contention must face the question : what is expe-
rience ? It should be noted that western idealism,
as distinguished from metaphysical speculations,
also starts from experience. It holds that experience
is the only source of knowledge. But the " experi-
ence" of Indian philosophy apparently is not an
act of cognition ; it is not derived through a mental
process. For, in that case, it could not be an extra-
intellectual or supra-intellectual achievement. Thus,
the real difference is not, as it is stated ; it is in
the concept of experience.
Experience presupposes a dual existence a sub-
ject and an object. It results when the ego comes
in contact with the non-ego. This contact, in its
turn, takes place through senses. The only possible
way of making an experience is through the organs
of sensation, which make the ego conscious of the
thing to be experienced. Experience, therefore, is
the result of sensation ; and the sum total of the
process of sensation is mind or intelligence. Expe-
rience, therefore, is derived through an intellectual
process. It is not an extra-intellectual or supra-in-
tellectual act.
Obviously, the experience of Indian philosophy
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
is something different. It is not the way to acquire
knowledge of things existing objectively outside the
ego, and coming in contact with the ego through
processes of sensation. It is what is called " direct
experience " by the frankly metaphysical schools of
modern western philosophy. It is experience made
directly, that is to say, not through the interme-
diary of sense organs, not through the usual process
of cognition. Consequently, this experience does
not represent the knowledge of something existing
objectively outside the ego. It is a sort of self-illu-
mination of the ego. It is revelation, if you do not
mind calling the spade a spade. And revelation has
absolutely nothing in common with the concept
of experience. Experience is conditional upon the
ego getting in touch with the non-ego through the
medium of sense organs. Eternal truth, absolute
knowledge, on the contrary, is revealed to the ego
only when it has completely detatched itself from
the non-ego.
Indian philosophy, as philosophy, cannot be
distinguished from western idealism. If it is really
based upon experience, it must deal with sensible
objects. It must admit the process of sensation as
identical with experience as the only way to know-
ledge ; it must be an intellectual system, a system
of positive thought. But as a matter of fact, Indian
philosophy is not based upon experience. It places
knowledge beyond the reach of the physical pro-
194
INDIA S MESSAGE
cess of cognition. It discovers truth on the super-
sensual plane. Thus, Indian philosophy claims dis-
tinction from western idealism by leaving the
ground of philosophy. It claims to possess the
knowledge of the super-natural, whereas western
idealism limits itself to the science of nature. That
is the difference between the two, and it is a real
difference, being the difference between a system
of mystical metaphysics and philosophy. Orthodox
Indian philosophy is essentially a system of religi-
ous speculation, whereas the classical idealism of the
West originated in a challenge of reason to faith.
The doctrine of direct experience is but another
name for faith, only faith transferred from the God
to the divinely inspired. An experience which is
made on the super-sensual plane, in the state of
ecstasy, in samadhi, is not verifiable. An unverifi-
able truth must either be dismissed as a fiction or
be taken for granted. There is absolutely no possi-
bility of ascertaining whether the seer actually saw
what he claims to have seen. He must be taken
on his word. The criterion of truth, thus, is not
experience but the testimony of one who is as likely
to be a saint as a charlatan or a demented soul.
Honest fantasy of the morbidly emotional ; or naive
imagery reflecting the prejudice of the ignorant ;
or the hallucination of those obsessed with a fixed
idea ; or the wilful lie of the imposter all or any
one of these can claim the dignity of knowledge
195
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
acquired by direct experience, can usurp the autho-
rity of absolute truth discovered in the super-sen-
sual way.
Of course, the believers in the doctrine of direct
experience will retort that it is open to anybody,
whosoever may wish, to verify its authenticity. But
failure to gain the experience is attributed to the
lack of spiritual uplift necessary for the attainment
of the state of beatitude. Thus, a premium is
placed on imposture or self-deception. Whoever
would admit spiritual inferiority when there is an
easy escape from that disgrace ? Whoever would
resist the temptation of being acclaimed a seer
when the highest price for the honour might not
be more than a bit of self-deception, if not an actual
lie. The holy profession is not overcrowded be-
cause the innate rationalism of man sets a limit to
its advantages. The profession thrives in an inverse
ratio to rationalism. The greater the ignorance of
a people, the more widespread will be the belief in
direct experience, in revelation.
Even with the damaging distinction of direct
experience, Indian philosophy cannot claim supe-
riority to western idealism. Plato is the father of
that classical school of philosophy. His metaphysi-
cal speculations directly went into the ecstasy of
the Alexandrian mystics. Since then, throughout
the Middle-Ages, ecstasy was an article of Christian
faith. The mediaeval saints all experienced divine
196
INDIA S MESSAGE
light in their inner selves saw divinity face to face.
Modern idealism set out to destroy the dogma;
but after an initial period of brilliant success, it
got scared away by its own shadow cast ahead, and
degenerated into a rationalist faith, a scientific reli-
gion. It came to scoff, but stayed to pray. In
our days, modern idealism also has set up the doc-
trine of pure experience, and resurrected the dogma
of " religious experience ".
Idealism was predestined to go that way. By
its very nature, it was bound to land in the quiet
backwaters of religious experience. Mystical meta-
physics was inherent in its being. A denial, be it
open or through subterfuge, of the objective reality
of things outside our consciousness, necessarily
throws us back upon introspective speculation in
search of an absolute criterion of truth. The doc-
trine of the objective existence of immaterial idea
inevitably leads to the conclusion that the physical
organs of cognition cannot present us with a com-
plete picture of things to be known. Immaterial
categories cannot be within the reach of sensory
organs. Mind, in so as it is fed by the organs, can
not conceive those transcendental categories. They
are therefore matters of intuition. So, we are back
again to the familiar dogma of revelation. Only,
the "scientific" idealists of our days naturally do
not use the old religious terminology. They invent
scientific terms to express an old dogma. Anyhow,
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
the conceptions of direct experience, pure experi-
ence, religious experience, are not altogether foreign
to contemporary western idealism. Indeed, idealist
philosophy degenerated into this sort of esoteric
speculation preparatory to the rise of the contem-
porary mysticism as the ideology of the epoch of
capitalist decay.
A contemporary philosophical writer, himself
a modern theologian, makes the following observa-
tion on the nature and validity of direct or reli-
gious experience : " The truest visions of religion
are illusions, which may be partially realised by
being resolutely believed. For what religion believes
to be true, is not wholly true, but ought to be true;
and may become true if its truth is not doubted.'*
(Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral
Society). The replacement of intelligence by illu-
sion as the basis of philosophy is not a peculiarity
of India, and therefore it can hardly serve the
purpose of providing evidence of its superiority.
Pointing out that in the history of Europe intelli-
gence was often overwhelmed by " habits and tra-
ditions", one of the foremost western philosophers
of our time writes : "At critical times, widespread
illusions, generated by intense emotions, have
played a role, in comparison with which the influ-
ence of intelligence is negligible." (John Dewey,
Intelligence and Power).
Indian philosophy, which makes the vain effort
198
INDIA'S MESSAGE
to seek immutable truths beyond the reach of in-
telligence, was the product of such critical times
in the past. Contemporary western idealism has
degenerated into a similar state of introspection
because of the crisis of the modern capitalist civi-
lisation. In either catse, intelligence is replaced by
emotion, tradition and illusion, in order to rein-
force the shaken position of vested interests.
Pleading for "the attitude of mind exemplified in
the conquest of nature by the experimental
sciences", Dewey says : "The alternative is dog-
matism, reinforced by the weight of unquestioned
custom and tradition, the disguised or open play of
class interest, dependence upon brute force and
violence."
Such is the nature and significance of western
idealism, when it is divested of intelligence and
reason, which originally distinguished it from the
earlier forms of religious metaphysical speculations,
Indian as well as western. Western idealism was
different from Indian philosophy when it rejected
the religious dogma of revealed truth, fought faith
with the weapons of reason and intelligence.
Although western idealism, as long as it re-
mained on the strictly philosophical ground, did
have some points of difference with the mystic
theology of India, recently the difference has dis-
appeared owing to its own mystic-metaphysical
deviations. Consequently, the spiritual message of
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
India has become superflous, the West having found
a similar mission in its own traditions of Christian
morality and mysticism. It is, however, extremely
difficult to find out what exactly is the message
of India. The difficulty arises from the fact that
Indian philosophy embraces a heterogeneous, often
conflicting, body of speculative thought. The
principles of Indian culture have been differently
stated by the various schools of its modern inter-
preters. Emphasis has been laid respectively on
religion, positive thought, emotional values, moral
standards, so on and so forth. The confusion is
due to the failure of the interpreters of Indian
culture to view its development in the historical
perspective. Those who glorify it as the highwater
mark of human culture and propose to impose it
on the world are, paradoxically, incapable of appre-
ciating its merits properly, to discover its positive
outcome.
The Sanatan Dharma, however, is generally
accepted as the embodiment of the basic principles
of Hindu culture. Sanatan Dharma, as the very
name implies, is a body of religiously conceived
social doctrines, which claim eternal validity. It
was not only beneficial in the past, but would be
equally so if it were practised to-day, and offers
the panacea for the future. It is maintained that
India's present plight is due to her deviation from
the path of the eternal truth revealed in the Sanatan
200
INDIA'S MESSAGE
Dharma. Back on that path, she would surely
return to the Golden Age and set an example to
the world tormented by materialism. It is not
explained why India herself deviated from her
destiny. Why did her "spiritual genius" fail to
keep her on the right road ? Then, the ideal it-
self is also a puzzle. It has been variously inter-
preted as a religion, a faith, a system of philosophy,
a code of morals. Whatever it might have been
in the past, we must judge it on its present show-
ing. We must analyse it as it presents itself to the
world as the cure for all its troubles and tribula-
tions.
For an authoritative statement of the principles
of Sanatan Dharma, and its prescriptions for cur-
ing India as well as the rest of the world of the
canker of modern civilisation, we shall quote from
an address to the conference of its defenders and
exponents, held in Calcutta in September 1933.
The presence of Jagatguru Sri Shankaracharya
vouched for the representative character of the
conference, and placed the stamp of authenticity
on the views expressed on that occasion.
The president of the conference, M. K.
Acharya, denounced the law against child marriage
as the product of " the slave mentality of the un-
thinking," and stigmatised Gandhi's agitation for
temple entry as "ausaric" (demoniac). Then he
proceeded : such attacks are going " to whip up
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
all lovers of Sanatan Dhctrma to unite in defence
of the higher laws of life. Such dharmic awaken-
ing is necessary for the larger interests of India
and of the world at large. Very soon, every
country on earth will be faced with problems that
cannot be solved without a fundamental change
in the mental and moral outlook from a hankering
after sense gratification, which is the goal of
western materialism, to a striving after sense
control, which is the essence of India's dharmic
culture. India for millennia has been the
privileged home of Sanatan Dharma that teaches
how every man and woman, according to their
birth and environment, must practise swadharma
or self-control, must evolve their higher
nature, and so realise the bliss of Divinity deep-
seated in the heart of all beings. For this bliss, all
humanity blindly pants, not knowing that neither
cigarettes and cinemas and sense enjoyment nor
superficial democracy nor temple entry can lead
them to the path of dharmic discipline, through
which alone the highest bliss can be realised. It is
for India to reveal this path to the modern world.
Let us wake up and qualify ourselves for this great
world mission. Let us not be obsessed with either
the artificial temple entry agitation of people who
have no faith in temple worship, or with the super-
ficial White Paper Scheme (of the Indian Consti-
tution) drawn up by people who do not know the
202
INDIA S MESSAGE
genius of India. Both are bound to do more harm
than good, unless fundamentally recast the one
in consonance with the true religion of God-love,
the other in consonance with the higher principles
of Swaraj."
Indian nationalists in general would vigorously
repudiate the pretension of the president of the
Sanatan Dharma conference to represent the spirit
of Indian culture. But that would be for political
reasons. His enunciation of " India's message to
the world" as well as his statement of the cardi-
nal principles of Indian culture, is quite commen-
surate with the prevalent nationalist ideology. The
indignant outburst of the champion of Sanatan
Dharma may be marred by frivolity here and
there ; but there is no flaw in his logic. He is not
half-hearted in his belief. He is a whole-hogger-
an unblushing full-blooded reactionary. He knows
that any political advance, even that mighty little
proposed in the White Paper scheme, might take
India further away from the cherished ideals of
Sanatan Dharma. Therefore, he is not ashamed of
opposing political progress in the interest of
cultural reaction. His position is much more
logical than that of those who would combine
political progress with cultural reaction.
The attack against Gandhi may be another
ground on which the representative character of
Mr. Acharya's views will be disputed. That, how-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
ever, is a very insecure ground. The Mahatma
himself has admitted the legitimacy of the
Sanatanist opposition to his agitation for temple
entry and removal of untouchability. He would
not have his pet hobbies enforced by law. His pro-
claimed desire is to introduce these superficial
measures of social and religious reform with the
approval of the die-hard orthodox. Besides, the
Mahatma himself is an avowed protagonist of the
Sanatan Dharma, and fully believes in the spiritual
ideals and moral principles adumbrated by
Mr. Acharya.
Purged of the political tendency (which, by
the way, is quite logical) and the attack upon
Gandhi, the statement of Mr. Acharya could be
made by any other preacher of India's spiritual
mission, be he a Rabindranath Tagore or a
Mahatma Gandhi or any orthodox Congressman or
an Arya Samajist or a member of the Hindu
Mahasabha or a Vedantist of the Ramakrishna
Vivekananda Mission or a modern intellectual like
Sir Radhakrishnan. This being the case, the views
of the venerable president of the Sanatan Dharma
conference can be taken as representative, and
analysed to explain the, real nature of India's
culture and the significance of her message to the
world.
Thanks to the generosity of Mr. Acharya, we
have actually an embarrassment of riches. The
204
INDIA S MESSAGE
picture presented by him is so very complete that
hardly any retouching is necessary to make its
meaning clear. The social basis of Indian culture
is naively laid bare. The function of the " higher
laws of life" is clearly indicated. In the past, it
was to maintain the ruling classes in their positions
of power and privilege. To-day it is to hold
together the withered limbs of a decayed social
organism. "The essence of India's dharmic
culture " is such an elaborate system of taboos and
repressions upon the natural inclinations of the
masses as spells a decisive check against the normal
forces of social evolution.
The keynote of the culture which is offered to
the world for its salvation is " self-control ". For-
tunately, we are not left in doubt about the real
meaning of this oft-repeated formula. " Sanatan
Dharma teaches how every man and woman,
according to their birth and environments, must
practise swadharma or self-control." So, the spiri-
tual genius of Indian culture consists in its success
to have taught everybody to be reconciled to his
fate. His or her position in society is fixed for ever.
Self-control means willing subordination to the
established system of social slavery. The "higher
nature " evolved through the practice of the sterl-
ing virtue of self-control is slave-mentality. That
is the ideal of Indian culture placed before the
masses. And this ideal of slave-mentality, intellec-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
tual inertia, moral death, lack of all signs of life,
except the faithful discharge of duty prescribed by
the ruling class that is the way to " divine bliss ",
which the slave must find in his own self as the
consolation for the depressing blankness of life.
The function of the "divinity deep-seated in the
heart of all beings " therefore is to keep the slave
out of harm's length, to keep him in the bliss of
ignorance, so that the idea of changing the condi-
tions of his life, of ever encroaching upon the pre-
serves of the master, may never occur to him.
Sense enjoyment is, of course, taboo. Not only
such frivolities as cigarettes and cinemas disturb
dharmic discipline, but democracy is also detri-
mental to the realisation of " the highest bliss " !
The purpose of dharmic discipline thus is to reduce
the material necessities of life to the lowest con-
ceivable level. This is the moral ideal of a static
society of a society which has ceased to grow, and
whose retarded growth, in its turn, kills all
impulse of life in its fossilised organism. In a
static society, wealth is not produced in a progres-
sively larger volume. Unless consumption is re-
duced to the lowest possible level, the margin of
surplus wealth will be very narrow. The income
of the ruling classes, which under such conditions
usually are an alliance of the priesthood and patri-
archal-feudal aristocracy, goes down. Out of this
mundane background rise the moral principles of
206
INDIA S MESSAGE
the Sanatan Dharma. The fewer the necessities of
the masses, the more earthly possessions accrue to
the aristocratic rulers, who can thus live in splen-
dour, opulence and luxury, while their sacerdotal
allies preach the virtues of self-control, abstemious-
ness, simplicity, as the roads to a higher life. Apart
from its flagrant immorality, this dharmic disci-
pline is a decisive check upon the progress of the
community as a whole. Expanding consumption
is an impetus to the development of the productive
forces. The consuming capacity of the most luxu-
rious and extravagant ruling class is limited by
their numerical smallness. Therefore, the restric-
tion even of the elementary requirements of the
masses by an elaborate system of taboos and repres-
sions, buttressed upon dogmatic religious doctrines,
has a reactionary influence upon the entire society.
Sanatan Dharma, rising as the ideology of social
stagnation, condemned the Indian people to a pro-
cess of slow cultural death in the interest of a
privileged minority.
By prohibiting sense enjoyment, the dharmic
discipline raises ignorance to the dignity of highest
virtue. Consequently, it places a premium on pre-
judice which thrives on ignorance. And prejudice
precludes all cultural progress. Experience gained
through sense perception is the only road to
knowledge ; and knowledge is the basis of culture.
Condemn sense enjoyment, and you block man's
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
road to knowledge ; you sentence him to perpetual
barbarism. It is absurd to distinguish one sense
enjoyment from another. If it is sinful to smoke a
cigarette, it is equally perverse to listen to music.
If it is forbidden to feast one's eyes on feminine
beauty, the joy of looking at a rose or of watching
the sun-set or even admiring artistically made
images of gods and goddesses, cannot be logically
permitted. If the natural sex instinct is to be sup-
pressed, the equally natural hunger for food and
thirst for water should not also be tolerated.
The absurd taboo on sense enjoyment has no moral
force. It is rooted in the vulgar-materialist interest
of the ruling class. Firstly, its object is to keep
the masses on the lowest level of physical existence
so that they may consume the smallest fraction of
the fruits of their labour, and consequently the
lion's share go to the parasitic classes. Secondly,
to keep the masses in the bliss of ignorance, so that
they could be exploited all the better.
The basic principle of Sanatan Dharma being
that the social position of the individual is fixed
by birth, it can naturally have no use for democracy.
Any political advance of the Indian people must
be "in consonance with the higher principles of
Swaraj ". These higher principles in the domain
of politics have not yet been formulated. But pre-
sumably, they must be governed by the basic
principles of the Sanatan Dharma, which admit-
208
INDIA S MESSAGE
tedly excludes democracy. Since social position is
predetermined by birth, and the individuals must
perform the functions respectively allotted to them,
presumably by the Providence, the position of those
belonging to the upper strata of society is as un-
changeable as that of those lower down in the
social scale. Thus, we have a stratified social orga-
nisation, rigidly held together by Sanatan Dharma,
which itself is immutable, and eternally valid, as
its name implies. To possess slaves is a divinely
sanctioned right of the slave-owner, just as to
serve his master is the religious duty of the slave.
If this "spiritual message" of Sanatan Dharma
could possibly be conveyed to the masses of the
western peoples, undoubtedly their rulers would be
highly thankful to India. What surer guarantee
could be available to delapidated capitalism than
the conversion of its victims to the cult of the
" highest bliss of Sanatan Dharma " , to be attained
through voluntary submission to the lowest
possible standard of living? But there is little
chance of Sanatan Dharma succeeding in this
ambitious world mission. India herself must throw
off the yoke of her precious spiritual genius, if she
wishes to escape further degeneration, demoralisa-
tion and utter destruction.
* * * *
The most commonly agreed form of India*?
world message is Gandhism. Not only does it
209
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
dominate the nationalist ideology ; it has found
some echo outside of India. It is as the moralising
mysticism of Gandhi that Indian thought makes
any appeal to the western mind. Therefore, an
analysis of Gandhism will give a correct idea of
the real nature of India's message to the world.
But Gandhism is not a co-ordinated system of
thought. There is little of philosophy in it. In
the midst of a mass of platitudes and hopeless self-
contradictions, it harps on one constant note a
conception of morality based upon dogmatic faith.
But what Gandhi preaches is primarily a religion :
the faith in God is the only reliable guide in life.
The fact that even in the twentieth century India
is swayed by the naive doctrines of Gandhi speaks
for the cultural backwardness of the masses of her
peopk. The subtlety of the Hindu philosophy is
not the measure of the intellectual level of the
Indian people as a whole. It was the brain-child
of a pampered intellectual elite sharing power and
privileges with the temporal ruling class. It still
remains confined to the comparatively small
circle of intellectuals who try to put on a thin
veneer of modernism, and represent nothing more
than a nostalgia. The popularity of Gandhi and
the uncritical acceptance of his antics as the highest
of human wisdom knock the bottom off the
doctrine that the Indian people as a whole is
morally and spiritually superior to the western.
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INDIA'S MESSAGE
The fact is that the great bulk of the Indian people
are steeped in religious superstitions. Otherwise,
Gandhism would have no social background, and
disappear before long. They have neither any
understanding of philosophical problems nor are
they concerned with metaphysical speculations in
preference to material questions. As normal
human beings, they are engrossed with the problems
of worldly life, and, being culturally backward,
necessarily thinks in terms of religion, conceive
their earthly ideals, their egoistic aspirations, in
religious forms. Faith is the mainstay of their
existence ; prejudice, the trusted guide of life ;
and superstition their only philosophy.
Gandhism is the ideological reflex of this
social background. It sways the mass mind, not
as a moral philosophy, but as a religion. It is
neither a philosopher nor a moralist who has
become the idol of the Indian people. The masses
pay their homage to a Mahatma a source of
revealed wisdom and agency of super-natural
power. The social basis of Gandhism is cultural
backwardness ; its intellectual mainstay, supersti-
tion.
It has found some response in the West also
not as a system of philosophy, but as a cult of reli-
gious morality which, if accepted by the masses,
might be helpful in saving the tottering structure
of capitalism in stemming the tide of revolution*
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
Gandhi calls himself a man of the masses. He is
supposed to be the champion of the poor. He has
demonstratively taken the vow of voluntary
poverty. He is believed by his educated followers
to be the most powerful enemy of capitalism. He
has been acclaimed by the more adoring disciples
as the greatest Socialist. Yet, the curious thing is
that the message of Gandhism appeals not so much
to the oppressed masses of the West as to the
capitalist ruling class and its ideologists. In India,
many a leader of materialist commerce and " soul-
killing" industrialism are among the most devout
disciples as well as generous patrons of the avowed
enemy of capitalism. Are the capitalist rulers of
the West perchance getting converted to the cult
of voluntary poverty ? Or is India shunning the
sinful path of industrialism at the behest of the
Mahatma ? There is not the slightest reason to
believe that such a miracle can be wrought by the
modern Saint.
But it is not difficult to find an explanation
of the curious spectacle. The explanation is pro-
vided by the Mahatma himself. On his way back
from London, after the second Round Table
Conference at the end of 1931, he gave a long press
interview in which he summarised the message
that he had delivered to the West. At the same
time, he made the following characteristic and
highly significant declaration of faith : " So long
212
INDIA'S
as I believe in a benevolent God, I must believe
that the world is getting better, even though I sec
evidence to the contrary."
This can be taken as the central point of
Gandhism. It is the philosophy of blind faith*
Nothing can be more beneficial to the established
order of things, be it in the West or in the East,
than the propagation of this blind faith and the
acceptance of a code of religious morality based
upon a dogmatic belief. This is the spiritual
message of India which finds some response in the
West, and may possibly have a greater success.
Because, it fits in with the ideological needs of the
western capitalist society in decay ; because it pro-
vides a moral justification and a super-human
sanction for social injustice and for the entire
system of exploitation of man by man.
Love, goodness, sacrifice, simplicity, absolute
non-violence (in thought as well as in deed) these
are the moral precepts preached by Gandhi. They
are all categorical imperatives, being based upon a
blind faith. They are all immutable, being
different forms of the self-same transcendental
truth, manifestations of the divine will. What
would be the result if these noble moral precepts
were practised at large ? It should be noted that
Gandhi, like a true prophet, delivers his message
to the masses. That is the most important point
to be borne in mind while examining Gandhism.
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
Addressed to the masses, the spiritual and moral
message of Gandhi means a direct support for its
antithesis, for what it pretends to combat, namely,
for vulgar materialism. Love, goodness, sacrifice,
simplicity, absolute non-violence all these admirable
virtues practised by the masses would strengthen
the position of power and privilege of those who
personify the love of lucre. The faith in the bene-
volence of God, the belief that the inequities of
the established social order are all for the good,
would simply enable the masses to bear their cross
of sorrow and suffering cheerfully. Those who are
making profit out of these ungodly conditions of
the God's world would thrive. The practice of the
virtues preached by Gandhi would mean voluntary
submission of the masses to the established system
of oppression and exploitation. If the workers
could be taught to love their employers, capitalism
would be spared labour troubles which aggravate
in proportion as it decays. Wage-slaves performing
labour of love, wealth would freely accumulate in
the hands of the employers. Social peace would
secure the position of capitalism. The ideal of
goodness would keep the masses away from the
evil of envying the rich as well as of the desire to
harm those who thrive at their expense. Inspired
by the noble spirit of sacrifice, the masses would
readily offer themselves at the altar of capitalist
greed ; they would not then resent and revolt
214
INDIA'S MESSAGE
against their lot ; they would not look upon their
privations and poverty as the result of the estab-
lished social relations, but as token of their own
sublimation. Simplicity on the part of the masses
will be a guarantee for the unequal distribution
of wealth, the lion's share accruing to the upper
classes. Finally, non-violence the piece de resis-
tance of Gandhism. This is the central pivot of the
entire philosophy, holding its quaint dogmas and
naive doctrines together into a comprehensive
system of highly reactionary thought.
The cult of non-violence is exactly the opposite
of what it appears to be. It offers a direct aid to
violence in practice. Every form of class-ridden
society is maintained by indirect violence. There-
fore, those who preach non-violence, to be scrupu-
lously observed at all cost by the exploited and
oppressed masses, are defenders of violence in
practice. Non-violence, practised by the oppressed
and exploited, would offer the surest guarantee to
any social system maintained by violence, directly
or indirectly. It would mean disappearance of all
opposition to capitalism. In the absence of all
opposition, all desire and effort to overthrow it,
capitalism would become permanent. India's spiri-
tual message delivered by Gandhi, if accepted by
the West, would thus keep the latter tied for ever
to the wheels of the chariot of the Juggernauth of
vulgar materialism. Love, the sentimental counter-
215
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
part of the cult of non-violence, thus is exposed as
a mere cant.
It might be argued that absolute non-violence,
in thought as well as in deed, on the part of the
masses, would obviate the necessity of the use of
violence by the ruling classes. Indeed, Gandhi's
proposition to overcome violence by non-violence
must have some such idea behind it. Non-violence,
then, means absolute submission of the masses to
the established order of oppression and exploitation.
The ruling class might possibly lay aside the wea-
pon of coercion when the very least danger to their
position of privilege would disappear. Even then
they would not be converted to the divine doctrine
of non-violence ; they would simply suspend active
application of violence in the absence of any neces-
sity thereof. The weapons would not be discarded;
they would be laid aside, to be put to use whenever
there would be the slightest suspicion of danger.
As long as the slave revels in his slavery, being
utterly incapacitated either by his own ignorance
or by a subtle propaganda, even to dream of
freedom, the knout need not be used. But the
slave remains a slave ; the existence of slavery im-
plies the parallel existence of the slave-owner ; and
the knout is an integral part of the slave-owner,
just as teeth and claws are that of the tiger.
Owning slaves out of love is a Utopian dream,
which will never be realised.
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INDIA S MESSAGE
The Gandhist Utopia thus is a static society
a state of absolute social stagnation. It is an Utopia
because it can never be realised. Absolute stagna-
tion is identical with death. To begin with, all
resistance to the established order must cease.
That would offer absolute guarantee to the status
quo. The ruling classes would refrain from using
force simply because it would not be necessary.
Their power and privilege, being completely un-
disputed, would require no active defence. But
this idyllic picture can be drawn only by the cold
hand of death. Life expresses itself as movement
individually, in space, and collectively, in time.
And movement implies overwhelming of obstacles
on the way. Disappearance of all resistance to the
established order would mean extinction of social
life. Perfect peace reigns only in the grave.
Neither the preachers nor the proselytes of
Gandhism, however, would have the consistency
of carrying their cult to the nihilistic extreme.
There would be a certain macabre majesty in such
a boldness. But with all the absoluteness of its
standards, Gandhism remains ori the ground of the
relative. After all, it prescribes a practical cure for
the evils of the world. Philosophically, it is prag-
matic. And the remedy suggested is the re-
actionary programme of forcibly keeping society in
a relatively static condition. Gandhism offers this
programme because it is the quintessence of an
217
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
ideology which developed on the background of a
static society.
But India's spiritual message, while still find-
ing an echo in the ruins of the native society, can
have no standing appeal to the world of modern
civilisation. There, the society is armed with
potentialities which preclude its falling into a state
of stagnation. Modern civilisation is a dynamic
process. It must go forward. Not only the masses,
but even the capitalist rulers of the West must
reject the ideology of social stagnation. And pre-
cisely in this dynamic nature of the civilisation,
developed under its aegis, does the Nemesis of
capitalism lie. It cannot carry civilisation farther,
nor can it hold it back in a static state permanently
as a guarantee for its continued existence. The
perspective, therefore, is an advance of modern
civilisation over the boundaries of capitalism.
The materialist philosophy throws a flood of light
on that perspective of the future of mankind.
India's spiritual message, on the contrary, would
teach the West to turn back upon the goal within
reach, and relapse into mediaeval barbarism.
A detailed critique of Gandhism is not a part
of our present purpose. The point sought to be
made here is the social significance of the spiritual
message of India. That will be done by looking a
little more closely at a few the more prominent
of the gods of Gandhism. This critical examina-
218
INDIA'S MESSAGE
tion will reveal their clay-feet. The vulgar-mate-
rialist implication of the spiritual message will be
evident. It will be seen that, in this age of
rationalist thought and scientific knowledge, spiri-
tualist philosophy, be it western or Indian, has but
one social role to play, namely, to defend the estab-
lished order of class domination. In its zeal to
perform this none too glorious role, spiritualism
falls foul of modern civilisation, the great accom-
plishments of which have brought man face to face
with spiritual emancipation, not as a fantasy but
as a reality. Hitherto it has been an illusion.
In order to appreciate a system of thought
properly, it is necessary to go down to the concrete
points made by it, to discuss its positive proposi-
tions. Gandhism talks ad nauseum of love, truth,
goodness, etc. These are propagated as abstract
categories which defy definition. They may mean
any thing or nothing. Besides, they have been
preached in all ages, and never have these noble
virtues been in theory rejected by man, individu-
ally or collectively, in the East or in the West.
They have always been the ideals of man. Since
they have never been defined so as to command a
common acceptance, it is not fain to accuse any
man or community of discrepancy between profes-
sion and practice. Therefore, it would be dogma-
tic to charge western civilisation of having aban-
doned these traditional ideals, just as it would be
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
gratuitous to claim that Gandhism represents their
practical application to life. We must either give
both the parties the credit of following those
ideals, or suspect them alike of hypocrisy. These
elusive shibboleths do not take us anywhere. They
do not enlighten us as to what exactly is the world
message of Gandhism this typical product of
India's spiritual genius.
But there are other points of Gandhism which
can be examined with greater success. In examin-
ing them, we find ourselves on the solid ground of
the concrete. They are not mere abstractions,
empty of any content of reality. They are pre-
cepts whose real meaning can be easily read by
putting them into practice. For one thing, there
is faith, which has played such an important part
in the spiritual development of man. The basis
of modern civilisation, scientific knowledge, is in-
compatible with faith ; whereas Gandhism proudly
declares its faith in the divine will. Mankind
begins its journey towards real spiritual liberation
by leaving the traditional ground of faith. Faith
is born of ignorance. If the world remained in
the mental state evidenced by the Gandhist con-
fession of faith, it would make no progress. The
faithful, unless their profession is hypocritical, arc
debarred from doing anything to change a given
condition of the world. For, otherwise, they would
be violating the divine will, interfering with provi-
220
INDIA'S MESSAGE
dential arrangement. They cannot have such anti-
thetical ideas as good and evil, right arid wrong,
love and hatred, so on and so forth. God being
benevolent, the embodiment of goodness, justice,
love, everything in the world happening in the
world must be good and right. Can there be any-
thing more convenient to those who enjoy worldly
power and privilege, than this divine philosophy of
truth ? The masses accepting the established order
as divinely ordained, as willed by a benevolent God,
its security is guaranteed by the religious view of
life. The upper classes can enjoy their power and
privileges without any anxiety. Such is the social
significance of the spiritual value called faith. And
faith is the corner-stone of Gandhism. The whole
body of orthodox Hindu philosophy rests upon the
self-same corner-stone. It starts from the assump-
tion of a super-natural spiritual being, and sets itself
the impossible task of knowing the unknowable.
Naturally, it traces knowledge to revelation. Illu-
sion is the source of illumination.
India's message to the world is, therefore, a
message of faith. Gandhi has acquired the proud
distinction of the acknowledged bearer of this mess-
age, because he has the honesty to deliver it in all
its nakedness. He has the courage of the fanatic.
He is not ashamed of professing a mediaeval faith,
because the bliss of his ignorance is undisturbed by
the modern Indian intellectual's zeal to be fashion-
221
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
ably scientific. The message of faith, however, is the
message of medievalism the call of the wild. For
centuries, Europe remained fascinated by this call.
Finally, it found a way out of the wilderness, and
remade the world with scant regard for the Provi-
dence. The foundation of faith has been irrepar-
ably shaken by science. It has been discovered that
the conditions of life are not providentially
ordained ; that they are created by man and there-
fore can be altered by man. This epoch-making
lesson of modern civilisation will enable humanity
to overcome the present crisis. It is a guarantee
against the civilised peoples of the West relapsing
under the spell of mediaeval faith.
Now, for more concrete points of the message
of Gandhism, let us hear the prophet himself. In
the interview referred to above, he said : " The
strongest impression I am carrying home from
Europe is that Europe cannot for any length of
time sustain the artificial life its people are living
to-day, because that life is too materialistic. There
must be a return to simplicity and proper propor-
tions. The flesh has gained precedence over the
spirit. The machine age is ruling western civilisa-
tion. Over-production and lack of the means of
proper distribution may finally spell the doom of
capitalist society. The only solution I see is a re-
turn to hand industry and the emancipation of the
individual from factory slavery. It would be an
222
INDIA'S MESSAGE
eventful day in the life of great countries like
England and the U.S.A. to adopt the spinning
wheel."
There we have a clear and concise statement of
all the practical points of Gandhism from the
sublime to the ridiculous. The sublime is the
vision of a life free from the vulgar-materialistic
extravagances of the capitalist society ; the ridicu-
lous is the prescription of the patent medicine of
the spinning wheel. Anyone with the least under-
standing of the economic problems of the world
to-day and some knowledge of their background
can see that the prescribed solution is ridiculous.
Let us make a careful note of the fact that the
evangelical zeal of this statement runs counter to
the equally fervent confession of faith made in the
same interview. The belief in a benevolent God
must not permit the Mahatma to look upon the
world with an eye of criticism or even of uneasi-
ness. He must not only take the things as they
are, but believe that they are " getting better even
though I see evidence to the contrary ". But vanity
often overwhelms the piety of the prophet. The
message of India claims universal application, and
disregards the limit of time on the strength of being
inspired. Once it deviates from the fountain of
faith, it loses its peculiarity, and must be submitted
to the criteria of human reason. The message of
the Mahatma is obviously contrary to his faith.
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
The world is always getting better by the grace of
God, if not thanks to the creative genius of man ;
then, how could the Mahatma maintain that the
mediaeval world was better than the modern ? To
hold this view, as the Mahatma expressly does, is
to discard the article of faith preached by himself.
According to the fundamental principle of
Gandhism, indeed of the spiritualist philosophy of
all shapes and colour, namely, the belief in a super-
natural force as the guiding factor of the Universe,
capitalism is providentially ordained. It is not per-
missible to tinker with the God's world. The
pretension to improve upon the work of God is
blasphemous. Gandhi irreverently sits in judgment
on the wisdom of God, while proclaiming to the
world that faith in the benevolent God is the safest
guide in life ! His censure of modern civilisation
and the prophetic view that Europe is doomed un-
less it goes back several hundred years, amounts to
this. He appears to declare that God made a mis-
take in allowing events that took place in Europe
during the last two-hundred years, and presumes to
rectify the lamentable mistake committed by the
infallible divine intelligence. And this irreverent
task he sets to himself as the prophet to whom has
been revealed the path to the salvation of the
modern world. A message vitiated with such hope-
less internal contradiction can hardly claim a seri-
ous consideration.
224
INDIA'S MESSAGE
Spiritualist philosophy, however, cannot but be
self-contradictory. It is not worried by this defect,
which can be easily explained by its basic dogma,
that the divine will is inscrutable. A consistent
spiritualist must be a solipsist. If there was really
an absolute being as the origin of the phenomenal
world, the world would never be created. The
very absoluteness of the supreme principle would
preclude it from functioning as the cause of the
world. The very godliness of God would not allow
him to act as the religious believe him to act. If
anyone really believes, as Gandhi with all the spiri-
tualists does, that everything in the world takes
place according to a divine will, mysterious purpose
or super-natural force, then he must sit quiet and
watch the unfolding of the divine drama or con-
template the incomprehensible. Whatever he may
do, his own faith would preclude any activity on
his part. The spiritualist tries to extricate himself
out of this tight corner a position to which he is
driven by the logic of his own philosophy with
the argument that his activity is also caused by the
divine will. But his argument falls to the ground
as soon as he really acts. Because, immediately he
runs counter to his faith. His action or even
thought inevitably clashes with that of some others.
Thus, he runs counter to the divine will. For, the
action or thought of the others is also an expression
of the divine will. Indeed, the faithful must accept
225
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER^ DIARY
every act of God as good. He must be completely
satisfied; and satisfaction precludes all activities.
The faithful cannot appear as a prophet. He can
not be a reformer, because the zeal to reform the
world testifies to a lack of faith in the benevolence
and justness of God. The very idea that the world
needs reform represents a doubt about the omni-
science and infallibility of God. Gandhi is the
classical example of a prophet who claims to act
according to his profession.
This may appear to be a most unfounded cri-
tique of Gandhism. Have not the sworn oppo-
nents of Gandhi admitted his sincerity? The retort
is beside the point. The man Gandhi is not the
subject matter of our examination. We are analy-
sing a philosophy which not only claims superiority
in the past, but proposes to lead the world in the
future. We are not concerned with the sincerity
or otherwise of a person. We are exposing the
fallacy and contradictions of the message delivered
by him. If the message is found to be riddled with
fallacies and vitiated by contradictions, the sincerity
or saintliness of the Messiah would be of no avail.
And we have already detected many flaws ; let us
proceed undeterred by personal considerations.
The awe of authority stands on the way to truth.
Being contrary to his faith in providential
ordinance, Gandhi's message cannot claim the in-
disputable authority of revealed truth. It must
226
INDIA S MESSAGE
then be judged on its own merit. It is the business
of the prophet, if he presumes to know better than
his God. Our concern is to see whether the remedy
suggested by him would really cure the evils of
capitalism. Here we touch the social philosophy
of Gandhi. We have already noted the anti-capi-
talist sentiment prevalent among Indian spiritua-
lists. We have also pointed out the reactionary
nature of the apparently revolutionary sentiment.
Gandhi's view of the conditions of contemporary
Europe, together with his prescription to cure them,
bears out our contention.
While expressing the familiar sentiments re-
garding the Western civilisation, the bearer of
India's spiritual message does not hide his concern
for the security of the capitalist social order. He
deplores "over-production" and lack of the "means
of proper distribution ", because they might " spell
the doom of capitalist society." If Gandhi were for
the abolition of capitalism, why should he be
troubled by the spectre of its doom ? On the con-
trary, he should welcome the perspective. Of
course, the solution he offers is not expressly to save
capitalism from the threatened doom. But capi-
talism is not the object of his denouncement. It
is modern civilisation. Thus, the doctor patheti-
cally fails to lay his finger on the disease which he
undertakes to cure. Instead of curing the patient,
he proposes to kill him. He would not rescue
227
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
modern civilisation from the paralysing grip of
capitalism ; he would wipe out civilisation itself.
Let us suppose that Europe responded to the
call of Gandhism. What would be the result of
that exemplary repentance on the part of the
sinner ? Machines would be replaced by the spin-
ning wheel ; consequently, production would be
reduced so as to eliminate automatically the pro-
blem of distribution. The standard of living
would go down to the level of simplicity. In
plain language, Gandhi would lead the world back
to the Middle-Ages. But what is the guarantee
that society would remain stationary in that idea-
lised state? Then, if "return to simplicity" is the
highest ideal, where are we going to draw the line?
Why should society stop at mediaeval barbarism?
Why should it not go all the way back to primi-
tive savagery ? Hand industry and the holy wheel
are not the token of primitive simplicity. Man
had lived a far simpler life before he reached the
stage at which he wore woven garments and used
other manufactured articles. If simplicity is the
ideal of human nature, then the march back must
not stop until mankind has reverted to the stage
in which its requirements are the most minimum.
That is to say, the ideal human being is the savagp
living on the tree, clothed in his nakedness and
subsisting on roots and fruits.
To avoid being driven to this ridiculous posi-
228
INDIA'S MESSAGE
tion, Gandhi qualifies the ideal of simplicity by
the phrase " proper proportions ". But it does not
help to draw the line arbitrarily. What are the
proper proportions of simplicity ? Who is going
to decide what is the standard of simplicity ? If
you permit mankind to progress from primitive
savagery to mediaeval barbarism, by what logic are
you going to prohibit further progress towards
modern civilisation ? Once you admit that it is
not immoral nor sinful for mankind to progress,
you have no reason to set a limit to that process.
India's message to the world is so fallacious because
the vision of the Indian spiritualist is limited by
the social background of his culture. For historical
reasons, Indian society lingered in the twilight of
medievalism. That unfortunate state of social
stagnation came to be idealised. Indian spiritua-
lists want to impose their false ideal upon the
world which has had the opportunity of realising
higher ideals and of visualising still higher ones.
They want to remake the world on the image of
the backwardness of Indian society.
But to those people who fought their way out
of mediaeval darkness to attain the higher stage
of modern civilisation, the ideal held out by the
Indian spiritualists has no appeal. Having out-
grown it themselves, they cannot look upon medi-
aeval society as the normal state of human exis-
tence. Their vision is not circumscribed by the
229
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
material and cultural backwardness of the medi-
aeval society. It has been widened by modern civi-
lisation. Therefore, dissatisfaction with the con-
ditions of life in the capitalist society impels them
to look ahead to strive to go farther, bursting the
bounds of capitalism. They don't look backwards.
They are precluded from doing so by their own
experience. Experience has taught them that a
dynamic society, a human community healthily
breeding the germs of progress in its own organism,
in course of time outgrov/s mediaeval conditions to
enter the stage of modern civilisation. If they went
back, that would be only to repeat the experience.
That would be only to postpone the solution of the
problems raised by modern civilisation. Their task
is to solve those problems, not to run away from
them, only to be back again in the same position.
The proposal for a return to hand industry
obviously is based upon ignorance of the history of
modern civilisation. The modern machine industry
has grown directly out of the background of the
mediaeval handicrafts. Man has always used tools
to gain his livelihood. The ability to use some sort
of a tool in addition to his own bodily organs
differentiates man from his animal ancestors. To
use tools, therefore, is a normal human function,
and the progressive improvement of the tool with
which he earns his subsistence is the indicator of
the cultural advance of man. When man learns
230
INDIA'S MESSAGE
the use of metal, he reaches a cultural level much
higher than that of his predecessor of the stone
age. Would the Gandhists or any other prophet
of neo-mediaevalism dispute this elementary law
of human evolution ? If the metal-using man is
culturally more advanced than the savage with the
stone-flint, the man of the machine age must be
proportionately superior to the artisan of the
Middle-Ages. Machine is but the most highly
developed tool. It is a part of normal human
existence, just as much as the tools of hand indus-
try. You cannot advise mankind to discard the
machine without declaring by implication, if not
in so many words, that the use of tools is incom-
patible with humanness. Because, then you would
be identifying humanness with animalness ; for,
the use of tools is the line of demarcation between
animal and man.
Again, to avoid taking up this fantastic posi-
tion, an arbitrary line is drawn. It is permissible
to use tools up to a certain fixed level of develop-
ment. But thus far and no farther. The advance
from the tak}i to the charf(ha takes place within
the bounds of normal humanness. But the road
from the charfya to the spinning Jenny is the road
to perdition. The journey on that road corrupts
the humanity in man, makes an abominable mate-
rialist of him, his spirit is overwhelmed by the flesh!
This absurd theory of culture has regard neither
231
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
for logic nor for the very elementary principles of
economy.
The advocates of this theory maintain that
modern machine makes a slave of man; a return to
hand industry would restore man to his individual
freedom. Another illusion! The function of the
tool is to help man earn his subsistence with the
minimum of effort and time. In modern industry,
man can earn a living in return for eight hours
work a day. The amount of daily labour could be
easily reduced by half. On the contrary, in handi-
crafts, man must work twelve hours or more to get
the same result. And if a limit is set to the deve-
lopment of tools, he will have no prospect of ever
getting out of the drudgery. To attend to one or
several fly-shuttles for eight hours a day in a modern
factory turns a man into the slave of the machine ;
but plying the spinning wheel for twelve hours, he
becomes a free man, able to soar high spiritually 1
The change in his mode of occupation would place
him on a higher cultural level, although it would
lower the standard of his material existence! But
that exactly is the desired result. Freed from
materialistic temptations, back to simplicity, man
would recover his humanness. A remarkable
theory of culture the more man labours, the less
he eats, the higher is his moral worth !
Distressed capitalism, however, is not likely to
take the advice of Gandhi, and retire into medi-
232
INDIA S MESSAGE
aeval wilderness to practise banaprastha in thfese
years of its decay. With all the neo-mysticism
and rationalist religion preached by its philoso-
phers, capitalism does not appear to be the least
disposed to don the gairic of bairagya, and regu-
late its conduct by the venerable dictum plain
living and high thinking. But it enthusiastically
applauds the preaching of the dictum to the masses.
It would welcome the propagation of the Gandhist
doctrine of simplicity and proper proportions. That
is why the spiritualist message of India, delivered
by Gandhi, finds some response in the West. Those
who welcome it find in it a possible means to arrest
the imminent collapse of capitalism. Spiritualism
and vulgar materialism have been inseparable allies
throughout the ages. To-day they do not stand in
any different relation. Gandhi condemns the West
for living a life which is too materialistic. But the
spiritualist advice given by him means that the
masses should so modify their mode of living as
would suit the purpose of capitalism in decay. They
should return to simplicity and observe self-con-
trol the basic principles of Sanatan Dharma.
Gandhi returned from his last visit to Europe
with the impression as if the masses of people there
were rolling in degenerating luxury. He must
think that every European is a millionaire. Other-
wise, how could he make the statement quoted
above ? How could he imagine that Europe as a
233
FRAGMENTS OP A PRISONERS DIARY
whble was living an artificial life which was too
materialistic ? How could he assert that the entire
European people was dominated by carnal desires?
Evidently, the divine doctor has no knowledge of
the disease he wishes to cure by magic. When he
visited Europe and gained his remarkable impres-
sion, there were millions of unemployed workers,
who were living an ideally simple life. Their life
was artificial not in the sense meant by Gandhi ;
it was artificial because it was burdened with the
want of the most minimum necessities in the midst
of an abundance. Others, also to be counted in
millions, though fortunate to the extent of being
employed, were hardly any better off. Their wages
had been forced down to the level of a mere sub-
sistence. Since then the conditions have grown
worse. Capitalism in decay has reduced the bulk
of the western people to such an intolerably miser-
able condition of life as makes a cataclysmic up-
heaval almost inevitable, unless some way was found
to make the masses be reconciled to their condi-
tion. Idealisation of simplicity might serve the
purpose. If the masses could be persuaded to feel
ennobled in the degradation of their poverty, if
the illusion of a spiritual life could make them bear
the mortification of the flesh with a pious resig-
nation, then the imminent social revolution might
be headed off. Thus, it is as a possible prop for
the decayed capitalist society that the spiritualist
234
INDUS MESSAGE
message finds a response in the West.
The plea that India's message is meant for the
western capitalists also would not be convincing.
For them, it would be an advice to commit suicide,
and no sane person could believe that such an
advice would ever be accepted, safe by the insane.
If the desire was to reform capitalism, some prac-
tical proposal to that effect should be made parallel
to the moral sermons addressed to the masses.
Gandhi deplores over-production and lack of the
means of distribution. Why does he not advise the
capitalists to give away their goods to those who
are in need instead of sermonising the latter to
practise moderation ? But he is more concerned
with their souls than with the physical well-being
of the masses. And as long as anybody disregards
their physical well-being and advises them to prac-
tise mortification of the flesh, he only serves the
interests of those who grow rich out of the poverty
of the masses.
The false cry of over-production is raised in the
interest of capitalism. Gandhi repeats the cry like
a parrot. That may be explained by his ignorance
of economics. But there is a logic in his blunder-
ing condemnation of the imaginary evil of over-
production. Restricted production of goods fits in
with his moralising social philosophy. In his opi-
nion, the more goods are produced, the wider be-
comes the scope of enjoyment, and in consequence
235
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
the greater is the corruption of human nature.
Gandhi's social philosophy is thus opposed to an
economy of abundance, and backs up the economy
of scarcity which suits the interests of capitalism
in decay. The economy of abundance, that is in-
creased consumption to keep pace with production,
has become a social necessity in consequence of
technological advance. But it tends to burst the
bounds of capitalism. Therefore, to-day the more
conservative section of capitalists take up the para-
doxical position of advocating the mediaeval eco-
nomy of scarcity. They advocate restricted pro-
duction, and Gandhism is caught with a strange
bed-fellow. But it is not an accidental encounter.
It results logically. The spiritualist doctrine of
self-control, simple living, voluntary poverty, fits
in with the requirements of unsocial capitalism.
236
CHAPTER VI
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN
RENAISSANCE
THE spiritualist revivalism, mystic extrava-
gances and religious atavism in the recent and con-
temporary intellectual life of the West are inter-
preted as indications of repentance on the part of
the sinner, and have a galvanising effect on our
prejudices in India. A necessary condition for the
Renaissance of India, that is to say, for India's
coming into the inheritance of the blessings of
modern civilisation, is the liberation of the objec-
tively progressive forces from this prejudice. The
idle vanity of the would-be saviour of a repenting
materialist world turns our vision to the imaginary
Golden Age of India's past, which is supposed to
hold the cure for all the evils of modern civilisa-
tion. Looking backwards in the foolish zeal of a
self-arrogated mission, we ironically forget our
journey forward and, as a blind-folded herd, go
round and round in the vicious circle of our ideo-
logical confusion.
Even a cursory glance at the cultural back-
ground of modern Europe will convince all but the
hopeless fanatics that it would not be necessary
237
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
for western civilisation to wait for the medicineman
from India, were its malady really curable by the
magic elixir of spiritualism. Europe could find
plenty of that drug in the dusty cellars of its own
past. As a matter of historical fact, the roots of
all the exuberant spiritualist growth on the decay-
ing body of the bourgeois society can all be traced
to the subsoil of Christianity and of the pagan
speculative thought and religious views that went
into the making of the ideology of the western
civilisation.
Once it is seen that India has little to offer
even in the field which is supposed to be her
speciality, the crusading spirit of the forces objec-
tively making for her Renaissance will be dampened
and they will begin to act according to the good
old dictum : Doctor, heal thyself. What young
India needs is the conviction of Hu Shih, the
greatest Chinese philosopher living, who is called
the father of the Chinese Renaissance, and the
courage with which he expressed his conviction :
" China has nothing worth preserving. If she has
anything, it will preserve itself. You foreigners,
who tell China that she has something worth pre-
serving, are doing her a disservice, for you are only
adding to our pride. We must make a clean sweep,
and adopt western culture and outlook." Young
India may also be referred to the address of
Sir C. V. Raman at the Convocation of the Bombay
238
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
University in 1932,* which contained a message
immensely more valuable than the reactionary con-
fusion and lyrical futility of all those who are woe-
fully misleading India by the nose, away from the
road of progress. The deplorable intellectual stag-
nation of young India is evidenced by the singular
fact that an epoch-making message of one of the
greatest living Indians goes practically unnoticed,
while petty platitudes and reactionary rigmaroles
pronounced by demagogues, charlatans and muddle-
heads are applauded as the acme of wisdom.
But there are a few Indians who raise their
voice of reason and wisdom from time to time.
Speaking at the Ravenshaw College at Cuttack in
January 1934, Dr. R. P. Paranjpye, Vice-Chanceller
of the Lucknow University, for example, said :
" Our old literature, philosophy and civilisation in
general serve for serious study and appreciation, but
we find many directions in which we have lost a
real hold over the kernel of that civilisation and are
often clinging to its mere shell. There is an
aggressive kind of nationalism which considers
everything worthy of retention simply because it
is old. But the present state of our country is
mainly due to our not having moved with the time,
not having learned from the progress made by
other nations. Some of the greatest evils from
which the world is suffering at the present moment
See Vol. I, "Philosophical Revolution."
239
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
are due to this intense feeling of aggressive
nationalism and racialism as exemplified in the
case of Germany and Italy."
* * * *
To visualise others in their greatness, measured
by the standards of spiritualism, should cure the
vanity of Indians, and enable them to look at the
world with a reasonable desire to learn from others,
and approach their own problems with a sense of
realism. The doctrine of the spiritual superiority
of Indian culture disregards the history of Europe
from the downfall of the Greco-Roman antiquity
to the sixteenth century of the Christian era,
when rationalism and scientific knowledge began
to dispel the depressing darkness of the Middle-
Ages and claimed predominance over human
thought. The life and culture of the European
peoples throughout that long period were intensely
spiritualistic, completely dominated by priests, lay
or professional those purveyors of spiritual power
as against the temporal. It was strikingly possessed
of all the features which are fondly believed by
the Hindus to be their proud heritage the special
genius of their race. For more than a thousand
years, since the conclusion of the period of
Alexandrian learning, faith completely dominated
the European mind ; revealed knowledge com-
pletely eclipsed reason. The materialist philosophy
of ancient Greece had been eclipsed by the meta-
240
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
physics and moral philosophy of the Athenian era ;
this, in its turn, having laid down the philosophical
foundation of Christian theology, was itself eclipsed
by the new religion.
An acquaintance with the European history
of that long period shows that the religious form
of thought is not the special genius of any chosen
people, but is associated with certain forms of
social relations irrespective of the geographical
location of peoples living under such relations. As
a matter of fact, at a certain stage of his intellec-
tual development, man can think only in terms of
religion, and can express his striving for progress
only in terms of a moralising mysticism. In those
conditions, religion, mysticism, metaphysical specu-
lation, become a social necessity. Every people in
such a stage of social evolution must necessarily
think in religious, mystic, metaphysical terms.
The contents of their thought are identical ; its
basic forms are analogous ; difference of geogra-
phical environment may create only superficial
peculiarities. As long as ignorance prevents man
from being conscious of the endless potentialities
inherent in his own being, man must seek the
support of a super-natural power in the hope of
rising above his limitations and overcoming the
obstacles to his aspirations. In proportion as the
knowledge of nature and of his own self as a part
of nature dissipates his ignorance, man gains con-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
fidence in himself. Spiritualism ceases to be an
intellectual necessity. But it subsists as a prejudice.
While stubbornly resisting new forms of thought,
while combatting the co-ordination of the ever
increasing varieties of empirically acquired
knowledge, into a rationalist and scientific philo-
sophy, spiritualism becomes a powerful ally of re-
action as against the human urge for freedom and
progress. It provides the moral sanction to the
vulgarest forms of materialism in practice.
In Europe, spiritualism attained such a socially
reactionary and ideologically enslaving significance
already in the early Middle-Ages after Christianity
had played out its revolutionary role in the history
of civilisation and established itself as the power-
ful Catholic Church, had transformed itself into an
ally of feudal barbarism. The following character-
isation of the Middle-Ages by an orthodox historian
shows antiquated spiritualism in its true colour.
"Ferocious and sensual, that age worshipped
humanity and asceticism ; there has never been a
purer ideal of love nor a grosser profligacy of life."
(Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire).
In the history of India, the Buddhist revolu-
tion draws the dividing line between the period
when the religious form of thought was a neces-
sary intellectual phenomenon, served a positive
social purpose, and the period in which spiritualism
became an instrument of reaction, a bulwark
242
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
against higher civilisation. The growth of rational
and quasi materialist systems of thought (Vaishe-
shik, Sankhya, Nayaya, etc.), which went into the
revolutionary philosophy of Buddhism, indicated
that the older form of religious thought as con-
tained in the Upanishads had outlived their social
utility. Their continuation as the predominating
ideology meant a dark period of intellectual re-
action, to which Bryce's characterisation of the
European Middle-Ages is equally applicable. A
critical historian would find post-Buddhist India
(including the period of Buddhist decline and
degeneration) just as full of incongruous contradic-
tions as the Middle-Ages in Europe. A
study of the history of India, not with
the preconceived notion of vindicating her
past greatness, as an apology for the present
shame, not with the purpose of rewriting
it to prove a thesis, but in quest of historical truth,
will discover ample material showing that the
spiritualist extravagances of Mahajana Buddhism
as well as of triumphant Hinduism, as finally re-
established by Sankaracharya were closely asso-
ciated with the vulgarest material practices of life.
When the patriarchal, feudal and priestly ruling
classes revelled in corruption, sensualism, luxury
and barbarian chivalry, sanctimonious religiosity,
moralising mysticism and spiritualist philosophical
doctrines were the characteristic features of the
243
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
prevailing ideology. The history of the European
Middle-Ages might serve as a mirror to many who
lack the courage of directly facing the ugly realities
of India's past, and inspire them to cast a critical
look at their own idealised background. Then,
the fascinating rainbow of imagination will dis-
appear, many bubbles of beautiful dreams will
burst, freeing young India from cherished illusions,
clearing its vision of the mist of preconceived
notions, enabling it finally to look boldly ahead and
march with determination on the road of progress,
casting off the shackles of the past and the unneces-
sary ballasts of hoary tradition.
With a superficial knowledge of the subject
(often without that), the average Hindu intellec-
tual regards Christianity with a lofty contempt.
He finds the Biblical doctrines to be crude and
childish in comparison with the subtlety and what
he considers to be deepness of his ancestral faith.
He is amused, for example, by the doctrine of crea-
tion as contained in the Genesis, forgetful or
ignorant of the fact that the Vedic cosmology,
not to mention the ludicrous Pauranic tales,
appear no less fantastic in the light of knowledge
subsequently acquired by mankind. According to
the Upanishads, the creation takes place in the
following manner : In the beginning, there was
the One, which wished to be many, and the world
with all animate and inanimate things came into
244
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
existence ; when the time of creation comes, the
absolute, unmoved, immaterial state of the Supreme
Being is disturbed by the generation of conscious-
ness (AhamJ(ar) ; the desire of the One to be many
causes the disruption of the unitary primal state,
and there appear in succession space (Afyish), air,
heat, water and earth.
This doctrine of creation has of late been in-
terpreted and rationalised so as to make it appear
as anticipating the most modern scientific theories.
The old popular saying that what is not mentioned
in the Vedas does not exist, has come to be a
serious article of Hindu faith. It is claimed that
the Hindu scriptures contain the maximum of
human knowledge. Modern science and philoso-
phy have nothing to say about what was not
known to the inspired Rishis. But this practice
of pouring new wine in old bottles is simply ridi-
culous, because the scientific view of things knows
no sudden beginning of the world. It dispenses
with the primitive notion of creation. There is no
difference whatever between those who believe
that God said " Let there be light, etc., and there
was light, etc.," and those who believe that in the
beginning there was One who became many simply
because he wished to do so. In any case, the point
of departure in either case is a super-natural will,
which conjures up the ; Universe out of nothing.
This magical power, again, can only be assumed.
245
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
It can never be known, its existence cannot be
proved, since in that case it would cease to be
what it is imagined to be. Then, the Hindu Scrip-
tures contain other doctrines of creation still more
incredible. For instance, the God creates the
Prajapati and the Prajapati creates the original
specimen of the Various human and animal species
as if he were a skilled potter. Further, there is
the doctrine of the four castes issuing forth from
the different parts of the Brahma's body.
Prima facie, Christianity as well as the other
great monotheistic religion, namely, Islam, possesses
a rather simple conception of God. The
conception of a personal God is naturally
simpler than the conception of God as a pure
conception. This was the case in older reli-
gions which evolved, in a long process, a sort of
mystic, monotheistic cult out of the background
of the natural religion (Polytheism), which was
not discarded but retained as the concrete form of
the mystic cult, limited only to the higher priest-
hood. Hinduism belongs to this category, together
with the religious systems of ancient Egypt and
Babylon. The difference, however, does not alter
the fact that all religions visualise original creation
as something coming out of nothing. The best
defence of this absurd notion common to all reli-
gions was put up by Christianity, which boldly set
up the dogma out of nothing arises omnipotence
246
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
as against the old Greek rationalist dictum out
of nothing comes nothing.
No religion is really born in a particular
moment of time, revealed to a particular prophet.
The doctrines and dogmas of any religion crystal-
lise themselves in a process, over a whole period
of time, determined by the social conditions of the
given period. In certain stages of human evolu-
tion, religion, in some form or other, is a social
necessity, and as all other social phenomena, it is
changeable and transitory. No religion is based
upon any eternal, immutable and absolute truths.
The basis of all religions being the material con-
ditions of life, not only are their forms bound to
change from time to time, but religion itself, that
is, faith in some super-natural agency, becomes use-
less when the spiritual development of man attains
a sufficiently high level. The advance of positive
knowledge, as distinct from speculative thought
and the socalled revealed wisdom, enables man to
depend on himself. If is no longer necessary for
him to seek some super-human support.
The ancient materialist philosophy of Greece
indicated the way to the spiritual liberation of man.
But it was limited to a small class of people ; its
general acceptance was impossible under the
material conditions of the time. Nevertheless, it
shook the foundation of the established faith in
the anthropomorphic gods of natural religipn.
247
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
Moral codes based upon the old faith lost their
meaning in consequence of the disruption of its
foundation ; society was thrown into a state of
spiritual chaos. A new religion became a historic
necessity. The philosophical foundation of the
new religion was laid by the rise of individualism
a product of the dissolution of the old social
relations. Its doctrines and dogmas gradually
crystallised as the sanction for new moral codes
and social relations.
A change in the material conditions of life
brings about a corresponding readjustment of ideal
standards. The disruption of an established set
of social relations shakes the foundation of the
traditional form of faith. Man's relation to the
God or gods, as the case may be, is determined by
the relation amongst men themselves. Natural
religion, as for example of the Vedas, or of the
Greek mythology deification of the diverse pheno-
mena of nature as objects of worship originally
was the religion of decentralised tribal society.
Monotheism the belief in one God rose as the
ideological reflex of the striving for the political
organisation of society under a centralised State.
The worship of a glittering gallaxy of gods, all
equally powerful idealised super-human beings,
was the spiritual expression of man living in the
conditions of primitive democracy. The concep-
tion of a Super-God became a spiritual .necessity
248
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
when monarchist States began to rise out of the
ruins of tribal republics. An over-lord in Heaven
is postulated as the moral sanction for the over-
lordship on earth.
The development of the religion of a parti-
cular group of human beings, from polytheism to
monotheism, is influenced by the intensity of the
social crisis which promotes it. There may be a
complete break with the old form of religion and
worship, the new monotheistic faith operating as
a mighty lever to unhinge the decayed social
structure ; or the conception of one God may
grow gradually out of the background of poly-
theism, not to repudiate it, but to stabilise its
decayed structure as an agency of compromise
between the old and the new. The first process
heralds a social revolution : The old priesthood
is driven from the position of traditional power
and privileges ; spiritual leadership is assumed by
laymen, often hailing from the lower strata of
society. The second process takes place in the
conditions of a social stagnation, being the
ideological reflex of a perennial social crisis. The
old social order decays, but not to the extent of
throwing the multitude in a state of complete des-
pair ; therefore the urge for revolt is weak and
halting. Nevertheless, the miseries of life in the
midst of the conditions of social dissolution, and
the ineffectiveness of the appeal to the ancestral
249
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
gods for redress, weaken the traditional faith ; the
power and position of the priesthood are shaken,
though not openly challenged. The ministership
of discredited gods having become a social function
of doubtful and diminishing importance, the
priestly class looks for a new authority for its supre-
macy. That is found in the claimed ability to
commune with some inscrutable cosmic force to
which even the gods are subordinated, and the
knowledge of whose mystic ways is beyond the
reach of all mortals ; only the priesthood, by virtue
of heredity and the practice of esoteric rites, is
specially equipped for the divine role.
The vicissitudes of life are no longer ascribed
to the old familiar deities, who could be propitiated
by rituals and sacrifices. They are now explained
as the realisation of the inscrutable cosmic purpose
which operates through the mortal human beings.
Thus, man is made responsible for his sorrows and
sufferings. The spiritual revolt generated by the
chaotic conditions of the dissolution of tribal society
is nipped in the bud. The alluring but chimerical
vista of a state of eternal peace and blissfulness is
opened up before the victims of social chaos to
divert their restless minds from the torments and
incertitudes of life. The illusion of possessing an
immortal soul persuades man to look upon the
realities of his mortal existence as illusion.
This second type of monotheism establishes it-
250
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
self as the ideology of a social reaction. The
subtlety of its form is no evidence for its spiritual
superiority. It is evolved by the priesthood the
only class in the given type of society possessing
sufficient leisure to develop the capacity of specu-
lation and abstract thought ; and this capacity is
no evidence of spiritual or intellectual superiority.
It is the product of freedom from manual labour.
When the notion is evolved by the priesthood, the
Supreme Being necessarily appears as an abstract
conception. Otherwise, it could not remain an
esoteric cult, a mystic knowledge, a monopoly of
the priestly elite.
This process of involved religious development
from the polytheistic faith to a mystic cult took
place in ancient India, also in Egypt and Assyria.
The Vedantic monotheism the evolution of which
is to be traced in the tales of the Upanishads was
a creation of the Brahmans, and became a force
for the stabilisation of society under sacerdotal
supremacy. It did not replace the Vedic natural
religion, which had partially lost its hold on the
people under the conditions of the decay of the
tribal social order. It did not appear as a revolt
against the established rites and rituals. The priest-
hood could not advocate the abolition of a form
of faith and worship which had placed it at the
head of the society. Therefore, the speculation
about the First Cause of things the conception
251
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
of a self-operating cosmic force could not become
the philosophical background of a popular mono-
theistic faith like Christianity or Islam. It grew
as a mystic cult, confined to the priestly class, and
consequently reinforced the theocratic structure of
society Whatever the priesthood had lost in
prestige as the ministers of the anthropomorphic
gods, was more than compensated by the divine
authority derived from the claim to have insight
into the mysteries of the Universe. The specula-
tive conception of a super-natural cosmic force did
not depose the discredited gods of natural religion.
On the contrary, the doctrine of an inscrutable
divine will rehabilitated their impaired position.
Their palpable failure to perform their functions,
in consideration of the offerings and sacrifices of
man, was explained by the law of \arma. It incon-
sistently made man responsible for his own
miseries, in a world believed to be subject to a
divine will which knew no law but its own whim,
and which could never be comprehended by the
human mind. The curious combination of the
doctrine of free will, as implied in the law of \arma,
with that of absolute divine dispensation, kept man
tied to the rites and rituals of the old faith, while
jjt taught hijn not to expect any reward for hip
acts of virtue.
An airy structure of a mystical monotheistic
cult was thus reared upon the foundation of a
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
decayed natural religion, which was preserved, oil
the authority of the new cult, as the faith suitable
for the vulgar multitude. It became a new weapon
in the hands of the sacerdotal rulers of society. It
fortified the shaken position of the anthropo-
morphic deities by placing them in a Pantheon the
inner mysteries of which were accessible only to
the privileged Brahmans.
Christian monotheism triumphed as the ideo-
logy of a whole period of human progress, because
it rose out of a background of complete social
dissolution, advocating the establishment of new
social relations to be governed by revealed spiritual
standards. Being the creation largely of the
oppressed multitude, as the ideological expression
of their striving for the betterment of social con-
ditions, this type of monotheistic faith is based
upon the simple conception of a personal God a
conception accessible to the ordinary man's mind.
It is a democratic faith, which, by establishing a
direct personal relation between the meanest
devotee and the august ruler of the Universe, tears
down the established social structure. By dispens-
ing with the old rites and rituals, which postulate
a class of intermediary between God and the ordi-
nary worshipper, the priesthood is dislodged from
the leadership of society. It is a social revolution.
Christianity originally was a standard of revolt
6f the misses against injustice and oppression. But
253
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
the oppressed multitude of that time was so placed
socially as not to be able to feel in themselves the
power to overthrow the established order of oppres-
sion and injustice, and built in its place a new
one of brotherhood and equality. Therefore, the
spirit of revolt was necessarily expressed in a reli-
gious form. The new social order was to be crea-
ted, not by the efforts of man, but by the dispen-
sation of an almighty God, visualised as the personi-
fication of justice, who would punish the rich evil-
doers and reward the virtuous poor. The idea of
a Supreme Being was born of the necessity to alter
the conditions of the social existence of man.
Therefore, God could not be a mere conception only
to be contemplated. He had to be visualised in a
concrete form. He had to be endowed with all the
attributes of man, only in infinitely greater propor-
tions, so that nothing could be impossible for him
to do.
The personal God of Christianity, as well as
of the other two strictly monotheistic religions,
namely, Judaism and Islam, was the creation of the
dynamic force of social revolt and progress ; where-
as the Hindu conception of the Supreme Being as a
state without any attribute is the outcome of the
desire to maintain the social status quo by dis-
couraging all struggle for the improvement of the
conditions of life.
The Christian idea of personal God was of
254
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
Jewish origin, so also was the belief in the coming
of the Messiah. On the other hand, the giddy
theological structure raised eventually on the
simple notion of a God of Justice and his
Messiah was rooted in the metaphysical digression
of Greek philosophy. The fighting social-revolu-
tionary character of early Christianity was also of
the Jewish tradition, born of the struggle of an
oppressed people for freedom. The so-called
Christian spirit of resignation and meekness, a spirit
unknown to original Christianity, was of Greek
(Stoic) heritage, generated in the conditions of
social dissolution. The root of that spirit could be
traced in the Sophist philosophy of individualism,
which represented a democratic protest against the
destruction of the freedom of the City Republics
by the aristocratic confederation led by Sparta.
According to the social position and cultural
level of the class of people who set forth basic
dogmas and doctrines of any particular religion,
these may have a simple or subtle form and termi-
nology. A learned, sophisticated, priestly caste
can naturally dress up the absurdity in mystic
speculative form ; when a religion is the creation
of the common people, the new faith is stated
simply and directly, making no compromise with
the old which it seeks to abolish. But in any case,
the impossibility of creation out of nothing can
ever be performed only by magic. The subtlety
255
OF A PRISONER S DIARY
or simplicity of the performance of the magical
feat is of secondary importance. Faith, the essence
of religion, is necessarily based upon magic and
miracle which, in course of time, may shroud their
native naivete in an intriguing veil of mysticism,
or buttress the weakness of their foundation by
the stout bulwark of a complicated theology.
The simplicity of the Christian faith as stated
in the Bible, however, had, on the one hand, a
background of the profound speculative thought
of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics ; while, on the
other hand, it was subsequently embellished with
the most intricate theological doctrines. While the
Biblical stories are not more primitive and incre-
dible than the Vedic lores or the tales of the
Upanishads, or again the fantastic legends of
Hindu mythology, the philosophical foundation of
the Christian faith is more profound and its theo-
logical super-structure more subtle than com-
monly known or conceded by the spiritualist
snobbishness of the Hindu intellectuals.
The western civilisation, being even to-day
largely dominated by the moral principles and
'spiritual standards of Christianity, cannot be
-charged of materialism, in the philosophical sense.
'Europe has been all along, and even to-day is, true
to its Christian faith, just as much as India has
'abided by the spiritual principles of Hinduism.
The spiritual principles in either case being essen-
256
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
tially identical, there is absolutely no reason to
assume that they degenerated in one place, whereas
in the other they retained their pristine purity. In
both the cases, they degenerated necessarily, having
outlived their historical usefulness. In the case of
Europe, a new mode of thought developed to dis-
pute the authority of spiritualist dogmas and to
replace them as the determining factor of human
life and progress. The new revolutionary philosophy
steadily gained ground as the embodiment of all
the positive outcome of the preceding forms of
culture. In that prolonged struggle, antiquated
spiritualism was forced to cast off, one after another,
the deceptive trappings of philosophical forms,
rationalist terminology and pseudo-scientific pro-
fessions.
In India, religious ideology retained its domi-
nation of culture even after its historical usefulness
had been exhausted. Not subjected to the criti-
cism born of scientific knowledge, in India, spiri-
tualism was not exposed in all its absurdities, nor
was it forced to rationalise its forms (as modern
idealist philosophy), in order to adapt itself to
changing social conditions, destroying itself in the
process. Consequently, it appeared to retain its
pristine purity as the special genius of Indian cul-
ture. The domination of religious ideology was
the result of a prolonged period of social stagnation.
If it is true that the decaying materialist civi-
257
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
lisation of the West is appealing to India to come
to its aid with the panacea of spiritualism, which
she has preserved in pristine purity at the cost of
several centuries of social progress, let those who
thrive on the prostrate and putrid body of Indian
society be proud of this disgraceful mission. The
impending Renaissance of India, however, will take
place, not under the leadership of the "great men"
who, consciously or unconsciously, champion re-
action, but in spite of their moralising mysticism
and stale spiritualist dogmas. The Renaissance of
India will take place under the banner of a revolu-
tionary philosophy. Those who will not be able to
rise above the spiritualist prejudice, will be thrown
into oblivion by the inexorable logic of historical
development, however great they may appear to
be to-day.
* * * *
The religious thought of western civilisation,
in the earlier days, might have been to some ex-
tent influenced by India, as it was also by the earlier
culture of other eastern peoples such as the
Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, Persians and finally the
Arabs. It is precisely for this reason that the
modern civilisation, which developed in Europe, is
the common heritage of the entire mankind, it
having incorporated the positive outcome of all pre-
vious cultures. Whatever historical usefulness those
earlier modes and forms of thought still possessed
258
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
for the progress of mankind further ahead (their
respective world missions) went into the making of
the initial stages of the modern civilisation. In
the person of their common child, Christianity,
they were eventually liquidated by the modern
scientific thought.
The structure of the Christian religion was
raised upon three imposing pillars: the monotheis-
tic morality of the Hebrews, Hellenic speculative
thought, particularly Platonic and Stoic, and ori-
ental pantheistic mysticism. In the earlier stages,
the basic factor was the Jewish ethical doctrines
and the unitary conception of God. The Gospel
and the Biblical texts are based mainly upon the
Hebrew tradition.
Meant for the common people, the Biblical
texts were couched in a popular idiom ; the ideas,
often expressed quaintly, are nevertheless spiritua-
listic and possess a high tone of morality. While
reading the biblical texts, one historical fact should
be borne in mind. The Gospels were originally
preached with the purpose of a revolutionary agi-
tation to incite the lower strata of society in a
revolt against the Roman ruling classes. To serve
their purpose, they had to be couched in the popu-
lar language and bear forms of expression which
appealed to popular imagination. The original
preachers of the Christian Gospel themselves be-
longed to the lower starta, and as such were of
259
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
little education, some most probably illiterate.
Viewed in the light of the historical facts, the
merits of the Biblical texts appear toweringly high.
The founders of Christianity two thousand years
ago preached Gandhism, which aspires to save the
world to-day. The difference is that, at that time,
their moral doctrines had a revolutionary signifi-
cance, whereas to-day they are dull platitudes posi-
tively harmful as the ideological bulwark of re-
action.
The Hebrew Prophets were the forerunners of
Christianity as a revolutionary movement. They
all thundered against the rich, lived the life of
recluses, preached renunciation, praised poverty and
heralded the advent of an Avatar to save the world.
Their doctrine of the Messiah was exactly the same
as the Avatarbad of the Gita. Amos, for example,
cried in indignation: "They know not to do right
who store up violence and robbery." The revolu-
tionary significance of this moral outburst is not to
be found in Gandhism the patent medicine of
Hindu culture for all maladies. The Hebrew Pro-
phets did not condemn violence perse. They con-
demned violence because it was the means for
oppressing the poor. They categorically declared
that to do right to practise moral principles like
goodness, justice, etc. was not in the nature of the
upper classes, because the latter maintained them-
selves in power and luxury by "violence and
260
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
robbery". The spiritual culture of ancient India,
on the contrary, was based frankly upon the doc-
trine that worldly power, pomp and greatness were
of divine ordinance; "all worldly bibhutis are the
bibhuti of God" (Gita). As a matter of fact, the
division of society into castes, the form which the
system of exploitation assumed in by-gone days,
was declared to be the creation of God (Gita).
The moral principles of Gandhism, that is, of the
"spiritualist" Hindu culture, seek to persuade the
poor, oppressed and exploited to be reconciled to
their lot. That is the practical implication of the
Gandhist doctrine of "suffering, sacrifice, love and
voluntary poverty".
Amos also preached : "Seek good and not evil.
Hate the evil and love the good." And Amos was
not a solitary voice, but one of a whole succession
of Hebrew Prophets, who preached equally exalted
moral concepts which all went into the making of
the new religion of Christianity. And the latter,
in its turn, even to-day yields a powerful influence
on the western society. If Christianity shook off
its original revolutionary character in proportion as
it was taken under protection by the upper classes,
and in course of time underwent a metamorphosis
in form as well as in essence, the Hindu religion
and philosophy have been equally affected by his-
tory. They can no more claim to have defended
their primitive purity^ against the powerful impact
261
FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER S DIARY
of time than Christianity. The one as well as the
other has long ago outlived its historical usefulness.
Neither of them, therefore, can be of any value for
the future progress of mankind.
The social and moral principles of Christianity
are formulated in the Sermon on the Mount and
the Revelation of St. John. In one instance, the
truth came to the suffering earth from the Supreme
Being through the intermediary of his incarnation;
and in the other, it was revealed through a devotee.
The Ten Commandments equally were reflections
of the "divine truth", because they were also "re-
vealed". The Sermon on the Mount teaches :
"Blessed are the poor. Blessed are the meek.
Blessed are the persecuted. Blessed are the pure in
heart. Resist not evil. Love thy enemies. Be ye
perfect as your Father in Heaven. Lay not up
treasures upon earth. You cannot serve God and
Mammon." One must be more than a blind fanatic
to claim that Hindu culture was ever actuated by
any higher ideal of morality, sacrifice, suffering, re-
nunciation and belief in the life after. Why should
the western world pine for the stale platitudes of
Gandhism when any modest Christian clergyman
can utter equally highsounding moral precepts with
no inferior spiritual authority ?
If Christianity could not save the accursed
West, Gandhism obviously stands no greater
chance. If the moralising mysticism of Christi-
262
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
anity could not spiritualise the vulgar materialism
of the barbarous Middle-Ages as well as of the
capitalist modern civilisation, similar doctrines
preached by Gandhi can logically be no more effec-
tive for the purpose. If Christian piety and other
worldliness could not keep European society away
from the "corrupting" influence of scientific
knowledge, the " spiritual " message of India
cannot do the impossible. If Christianity, with its
subtle theology and its really imposing superstruc-
ture of an idealist philosophy, failed in the historic
fight against the progressive spiritual liberation
of man, no more glorious a fate awaits Hinduism,
with its Vedanta philosophy interpreted however
ecclectically by the prophets of India's spiritual
mission to mean anything, including the very
latest theories of science, even those of the future.
As a matter of fact, the defeat of Christianity and
the debacle of western idealist philosophy histori-
cally signify the failure of spiritualism as a world
force. The western idealist philosophy, in its pan-
theistic culmination (Spinoza and Hegel), does not
leave anything for the Vedanta to add. Having
attained its climax, it was liquidated by its own
internal logic, all its positive elements being ab-
sorbed by the philosophy of materialism. Therefore,
ancient Hindu culture has already contributed its
quota to the common heritage of humanity the
philosophy of a new civilisation. What is
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pompously paraded now as "India's message to the
world" is a dry shell discarded by history. To
rattle this dead skeleton, disregarding the fact that
the soul lives as an inseparable part of the collective
creation of the entire human history, ,indicates
the inability to appreciate the real value of the
culture of ancient India. The noisy defenders of
India's culture are singularly incapable of appre-
ciating their charge, and consequently insult it by
their reactionary glorification of it.
The exclamation : "What does it profit a man
if he gains the whole world and he loses his own
soul" contains the gist of the Christian Gospel.
The salvation of the soul is not only the highest
ideal, but the only concern of life. A religion
based on such a principle is not to be dismissed
as crude and childish. On this showing, it
measures itself up equally, if indeed not favour-
ably, with the Sanatan Dharma, in its purest form.
Christianity is the only religion which has been
subjected to a critical examination from all sides.
Its history has been diligently investigated, and
freed from legends and falsifications. Its doc-
trines have been critically analysed to give out
their social meaning. The outcome of such an all-
round criticism is historical truth "Christianity
distinguishes itself from other religions in that no
other religion gives so much importance to the
salvation of mankind. Salvation is not earthly
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
temporal happiness or well-being. The Christian
holds that earthly happiness draws man away
from God, whereas misfortune, suffering leads man
back to God." (Feuerbach, The Essence of Chris-
tianity).
The profoundest critic of Christianity, Feur-
bach, cannot be suspected of exaggeration. Besides,
he revealed the social causes of this distinguishing
feature of Christianity. It was not the mysterious
result of the special genius of any individual or race.
It was the outcome of certain specific social condi-
tions which would produce analogous effects where-
ever they obtained. Should any indignant Indian
patriot maintain that the statement betrays
Feurbach's ignorance of Hinduism, we need not
enter into an argument, but simply retort that,
granted the charge of ignorance, theoretically,
Feurbach's statement remains unshaken. If Hindu-
ism or Buddhism for that matter, possessed the dis-
tinguishing features equally or even to a greater ex-
tent, that would not prove any special genius or
racial superiority. It would simply prove that the
social conditions which placed the distinguishing
mark on Christianity obtained also in India, per-
haps in an acuter form.
An intense aversion to the enjoyments of life,
and consequently renunciation of everything earthly
was the highest Christian virtue. This was carried
to the extent of an utter disregard even for the bare
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necessities of life. Such a state of mind was the
result of the conviction that spiritual existence was
the real existence, which was obscured by the mate-
rial being of man. To rise above the bondage of
material being was, therefore, the condition for the
return to the consciousness of spiritual reality the
highest ideal of life.
"The ascetic" Christians, as distinguished from
the "vulgar" renounced all the pleasures of life and
duties of society. They practised chastity no
marriage was allowed. Natural inclinations of the
body as well as of the mind were condemned as
vice. Thousands and thousands ascetics fled from
a profane and degenerate world to perpetual soli-
tude or religious society. They resigned the use
and the property of their temporal possessions.
They soon acquired the respect of the world
which they despised. And the loudest appalause
was bestowed upon their divine philosophy which
surpassed, without the aid of science or reason,
the laborious virtues of the Greek schools."
(Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire).
Christianity inherited this negative attitude
towards worldly life from the Hebrew Prophets as
well as for/n the Cynic and Stoic philosophers of
Greece. The Jewish Prophets, who heralded the
advent of the Messiah, were all ascetics. They
shunned the world as futile and transitory ; con-
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
demned its vices and allurements. Christianity was
immediately preceded by a numerous Jewish sect,
the Essenians, which adopted the creed of renun-
ciation and asceticism. Those virtuous fore-runners
of Christianity preached the doctrines of goodness,
godliness and righteousness. Their guiding prin-
ciples were love of God, of virtue and humanity.
The basic doctrine of the Cynics was : "Enjoy-
ment is unworthy of men ; there are higher and
purer things for men to seek." They preached
complete renunciation of earthly things, and sub-
jugation of all sensual desires, which were de-
clared to be the impediment to pure happiness.
The founder of this school, Antithenes, cried
passionately : "I would rather go mad than be a
slave of the senses". The history of the world
has scarcely seen any parallel to the Cynics in
respect of the contempt for sensual enjoyment.
The most famous representative of the school,
Diogenes, held that the condition of pure life was
annihilation of the Body ; the nearer one ap-
proached that perfect mortification, the closer he
was to the ideal of perfect virtue. The body was
looked upon as something vile, filthy, degraded
and degrading.
The Stoics also despised worldly life, and lived
with the hope of a mysterious better existence.
According to their philosophy, the badge of a wise
man was contempt for earthly fortune, pain and
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\
death. All the enjoyments of this world are empty
and vain. Happiness is to be found not in enjoy-
ment, but in virtue. The Stoics were equally in-
different to the good as well as to the evil of this
world. The preparation for the other life is more
worthwhile than the well-being of this worldly
existence. These doctrines were very widespread
throughout the Roman Empire in the first cen-
turies of the Christian era. They not only affected
the masses, destitute and pauperised by the col-
lapse of the antique social order. The spirit of
renunciation disdain for this world penetrated
even the upper classes. Intellectual leaders of the
period like Sallust, Horace, Virgil, the Senecas, were
all ardent Stoics.
Inspired by those teachings and examples, the
Christians went further than their pagan predeces-
sors. "The votaries of divine philosophy aspired to
initiate a purer and more perfect model. They trod
in the footsteps of the Prophets who had retired to
the desert, and they resorted to the devout and
contemplative life." (Gibbon). The Christian
world was swayed by this intense spirit of renun-
ciation throughout the Middle-Ages.
The Hindu cult of Sanyas does not go any
further, and Varnashram Dharma lags far behind;
for, according to the latter, man is to retire from
the worldly life after having enjoyed it, only when
his faculties of enjoyment were dulled. Christi-
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
anity would make no compromise with the well-
being of earthly life, and looked upon it as the deci-
sive obstacle to the salvation of the soul. Christ,
for example, exclaimed when a repentent rich man
failed to comply with the injunction to give up
his riches and take the beggar's bowl : " How
hardly shall they that have riches enter into the
Kingdom of God !" To say that " it is easier for a
camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for
a rich man to enter the Kingdom of God," is to
hold that worldly well-being is utterly incom-
patible with the ideals of a return to spiritual con-
sciousness. So, if it were a question of curing the
disease of vulgar materialism, the West could find
the remedy in its own religion. It need not wait
for the "message of the spiritual East ", particularly
in view of the fact that the pretentious doctor
has not been able to protect himself any better.
Instead of listening to Gandhi's injunction to ply
the holy wheel as the panacea of all its disorders,
or receiving from the modern Swamis and per-
ambulating prophets the watery portion of a
hackneyed mysticism, the western ruling class could,
if they would, with immensely greater benefit
follow their own Prophet. For, Christ thundered:
"Go now, ye rich men, to weep and howl for your
miseries that shall come upon you. Your riches
are corrupted and your garments are moth-eaten.
Your gold and silver are cankered ; and the rest
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of them shall be witness against you. Ye have
lived in pleasure on the earth, and been wanton.
Ye have nourished your heart as in a day of
slaughter ; you have denounced and killed the
just." Vulgar materialism could not be denounced
any more scathingly.
St. John, the divine light having been revealed in
him, predicted the destruction of Rome, the oppres-
sor of mankind, for riches, power and vanity. He
preached : " For all that is in the world, the lust
of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride
of life, is not of the Father, but is of the world.
And the world passeth away, and the best there-
of ; but he that doeth the will of God abideth for
ever." (Epistle).
Evidently, the Christian West has no need to
turn to a Gandhi for learning the quaint cult of
voluntary poverty ; nor is the reactionary Utopia
of teaching the rich to be noble and righteous of
spiritualising the right of property a monopoly of
India's special genius.
Speaking in the Franciscan Study Circle
during his last visit to London (September 1931),
Gandhi said : "The justification for voluntary
poverty is that wealth for all is impossible, but all
can share in non-possession. And the less one
possesses, the less one desires. Great national eco-
nomic problems can be more easily solved if those
who have wealth are willing to adopt voluntary
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
poverty." Apart from the sinister social signifi-
cance of the cult of voluntary poverty, it is like
carrying coal to Newcastle. Gandhi's message was
but a feeble echo of a doctrine preached from the
very dawn of western civilisation. The founder
of the Christian sect in the meeting of which
Gandhi's message was delivered had gone down
in history as the classical personification of the cult
of poverty. Then, there are other great figures of
the Christian Middle-Ages. St. Augustin, for
example, held : "Private property is not an evil
in itself, but evil lay in the passionate chase after
riches, the accumulation of property, the elevation
of material possession over truth, justice, wisdom,
faith, love of God and man, or even placing pro-
perty on the same level as the ideal values." St.
Thomas Aquinas also taught : " It is incumbent
upon the rich, according to the divine natural law,
to give generous alms to the poor, for the super-
fluity of one signifies the deficiency of the other."
Finally, at the fountain-head of all these! cur-
rents of Christian thought, are the teachings of
Plato, who proclaimed : " The community which
has neither poverty nor riches will always have
the noblest privileges ; in it, there is no insult or
injustice, nor are again any contentions or envy-
ings. And therefore they are good, and also be-
cause they are what is called the simple-minded."
Again : "I can never assent to the doctrine that
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the rich man will be happy. A man who spends
on noble objects and acquires wealth by just
means only, can be hardly remarkable for riches,
more than he could be very poor. The very rich
are not good." Taking his cue from the master,
Aristotle also held : "It is not possession, but the
desire of mankind which requires to be equalised."
# # * *
Speculating about the "self-existing, necessary
First Cause of the Universe", the genius of Plato
had conceived of a unitary divine essence an im-
personal God. But the problem how the diverse
physical phenomena of nature could come out of
the simple unity of the divine essence, puzzled and
baffled him. How could a purely incorporeal be-
ing execute the perfect scheme of the Universe?
Of course, Plato had conceived the universal
scheme as of ideas, which were models, or moulds
for material things. The variety of ideal models
could conceivably have a common origin the
Universal Idea. Individual souls could lose them-
selves in the Universals Soul. But even then the
problem was not solved. How could the basic uni-
tary being diversify itself without losing its sim-
plicity and unity, that is, ceasing to be itself ? In
order to be what it was conceived to be, the
divine essence must be simple, immutable and
eternal. The process of diversification would
mean negation of the essential nature of its be-
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
ing. On the other hand, individual ideal models
could not be of divine spiritual nature unless they
were actual diversifications of the Universal Idea
the self-existing First Cause. Plato found a way
out of the difficulty in the conception of the Triad.
But the problem was not solved. It was simply
evaded. Because, as Gibbon remarks, it was "a diffi-
culty which must ever defy the possibilities of
human mind."
The Platonic doctrine of Triad constituted the
philosophical foundation of the Trinity of Chris-
tian theology. The rationalist tradition of the
ancient Greek philosophy (Ionian and Doric
schools) did not permit Plato to deny outright the
material existence of nature. Nevertheless, an im-
permissible dualism threatened to viciate his philo-
sophy. He made it disappear in his speculative
conception of an unbreakable connection between
the divine essence and the phenomenal world.
Thus, Platonic philosophy subsequently enabled
Christian theology to dissolve the Jewish God into
an impersonal, incorporeal being, without throwing
away the Mosaic doctrine of creation, that is, with-
out liquidating Christianity as a religion. The
dualism of the Platonic speculation rationalised the
absurdity of the creation out of nothing, without
depriving the Christian God of his godliness-
omnipotence and absolute freedom. Matter exists,
but it cannot become anything tangible except by
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fitting into the ideal model. These models being
diversifications of the Universal Divine Essence,
nature cannot have an existence independent of
that essence. Conceive the divine essence as a
personal God, and the world is explained as his
creation out of a substance that really does not
exist unless the God is there to create the world.
The pure spirituality of the divine essence is never
contaminated by any contact with matter ; matter
appears as the physical world by fitting itself into
the mould of the Universal Idea. Thus, no desire
to create is attributed to God ; but on the other
hand, matter having no real being, except in the
ideal mould, the divine essence remains the cause
of the world. The God creates without being in
any way affected or influenced by his creation.
God is the cause of the material Universe ; but the
root substance of this latter is not in God who is
a purely spiritual being.
The subtlety of the idea of the origin of things
is thus not an Indian monopoly. Platonic specu-
lations on this question were subtle to the extreme
limit ; they were too subtle for the comprehen-
sion of all but the e'lite prepared for the purpose.
And those subtleties all went into the making of
the Christian theology and the religious philo-
sophy of mediaeval Europe.
So very highly esoteric was the Platonic doc-
trine of divinity that it remained confined to the
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
innermost circle of the Academy a matter of
profound contemplation, which elevated state of
abstraction could be reached after thirty years of
special preparation and training. The Christian
conception of divinity as well as the mystic-meta-
physical principles of western idealism are thus
found to have originated in environments very
similar to the ashrams of the Vedic Rishis that
cradle of Hindu speculative thought. Brahmajnan
was not attainable by anybody ; it was the object
of earnest sadhana and rigorous tapashya.
Having translated into Latin Plato's Timaeus,
which contains his speculations about the Divine
First Cause, Cicero confessed that he could never
comprehend the doctrine, so bafflingly subtle was
the concept of God of the Christian theology.
The force of Cicero's confession is fully appreciated
when it is recalled that not only he was one of the
greatest intellects of the age, but as a Stoic he was
predisposed towards the Christian conception of
God Jewish monotheism mystified by Hellenic
speculation. When the mind of man is to be di-
verted from the realities of life, and focussed upon
a divine postulate, whether in the East or in the
West, the postulate must be placed behind thick
veils of mystification, so as to hide its absur-
dity The less comprehensible it is, the more fas-
cinating it appears to be, and the more effectively
does it perform its duty.
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To fill up the unbridgeable gulf between the
material Universe and. its spiritual First Cause,
Plato conceived the divine essence as subject to
threefold manifestation the First Cause, the
Logos (or reason) and the Universal Soul. The
Platonic Triad is closer to the Hindu trimurti in
that it conceived the three entities as three Gods,
united in the mysterious source of their common
generation the divine essence. The Logos, which
eventually became the Son of the Christian Trinity,
corresponds to the Hiranyagarva or Uhu/ar of
Hindu theology. He has a mysterious sort of spi-
ritual corporeality, so that he can create and govern
the Universe. Not to come too close to matter,
the Logos presumably creates the ideal or spiritual
models, which in their totality constitute the Uni-
versal Soul. The ordinary mind cannot see how
the fatal gulf between spirit and matter is bridged
by this mystic and mythical hierarchy. Precisely
for this reason, Platonic theology remained an eso-
teric cult confined to the elite of the Academy.
The gulf can be ignored only by faith, which wafts
one across it. But the magic could not be per-
formed in the rationalist atmosphere of Athens.
On the fall of Greece, the seat of Hellenic learn-
ing moved across the Mediterranean to Alexandria.
There, Platonic theology came into contact with
Gnosticism, that colourful product of oriental mys-
tic cults. The Jewish philosopher Philo elaborated
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
the basic doctrines of Christian theology out of
the mystic speculations of Plato. He lived a hun-
dred years before Jesus. Logos assumed a human
form so as to perform the functions incompatible
with the nature and attributes of the spiritual be-
ing of the First Cause ; and to convince man of
the reality of its being, the Logos was made to
appear visibly on earth as the Son of God. It was
not an echo of the Hindu avatarbad formulated in
the Gita, which was composed four hundred
years later.
# * # #
The existence of God cannot be established
until and unless faith replaces reason ; primitive
cosmology is based upon speculative deductions
from a postulate, instead of inductions from the
observations of nature. Contrary to current belief,
the primitive man's mind knows no teleology.
Magic represents the primitive conception of causa-
lity. In the process of the intellectual develop-
ment of man, it precedes animism which is the
lowest stage of spiritualism. The idea of soul and
of super-natural forces develops at a much later
period. This sequence in the process of the evolu-
tion of human thought has been established by
extensive researches and observations of the cus-
toms and habits of savage races. The fact, in short,
is that man is rather a rational than a believing
being. Therefore, no religion can be firmly estab-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
lished as the prevalent form of ideology of a given
period except on the strength of an imposture. A
prophet or a divinely inspired apostle can alone
bear convincing testimony to the existence of a
super-natural power which transcends the law of
causality, and thereby induce man to abandon his
native allegiance to reason in favour of faith.
The mystical theology of Plato, originally in-
comprehensible because of its precarious attach-
ment to rationalism, nevertheless prepared the way
for the imposture. St. John post factum proved
the divinity of the legendary person of 'Christ
with the help of Platonic theology as expounded
by Philo. With the early Christians, Jesus was the
Messiah heralded by the Jewish Prophets. But
the frankly revolutionary significance of the mora-
lising mysticism of the early Christians was repul-
sive to the orthodox Jews. They would not re-
cognise the divinity of a rebel sentenced to death
for inciting the poor against the rich, the oppressed
against the oppressor. Disov/ned by his own peo-
ple, for whom he had sacrificed his life, the repu-
diated Messiah had to find adherents among the
gentles.
Social chaos had created among the masses of
the Hellenic world a predisposition for receiving
a Saviour. But with them the crude dogma of
the Hebrew Prophets would not carry conviction.
So, the Jewish doctrine of Messiah was rationalised
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
with the help of Platonic theology ; and the
Messiah took up the Greek epithet of Christ
"the Saviour". The basic dogma of Christian
revelation formulated by the apostle John is that
Jesus was the incarnation of the Logos who is
always with God, being himself God, in essence,
who makes all things and from whom all things
are made. Thus, the Christian doctrine of Trinity
was reared upon the mystic theology of Plato.
Rationalist anxiety to visualise a unity of being
had compelled Plato to identify matter with spirit,
although the same scruple did not permit him to
deny the existence of matter out-right. That
paradox contained the germ of pantheism which
passed on to fructify in Christian theology, and
made it hardly distinguishable from the Hindu
theology of the Upanishads and Vedanta. Finally,
the pantheist element inherent in it overwhelmed
the conditional dualism, that is, the religious sub-
stance of Christian theology, and pulled down its
imposing structure.
Pantheism, which is supposed to be the spe-
cial feature of Indian philosophy, is the negation
of religion, being materialism standing on its head.
So long as it remains in that paradoxical posture,
everything naturally appears to it as upside down.
As soon as it is placed in a normal position, it
ceases to be itself. The highest consummation of
pantheism is its self-destruction. That is the long
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belated fate awaiting Vedantism. Its dream of
world mission will be realised in its self -consumma-
tion.
The eagerness to penetrate the mystery of the
Plat9nic Triad gave birth to a vast body of specu-
lative thought, characterised by dogmatism as well
as by extreme subtlety. The doctrine of Logos
assumed, the baffling problem of creation dis-
appeared. Christianity was freed from the biblical
cosmology inherited from the Jews, which was too
naive and irrational to be accepted in the sophisti-
cated rationalist atmosphere of the Hellenic world.
The personal God of Israel became an impersonal
deity an imaginary object of endless speculation.
But the problem re-appeared in a new form. What
is the relation between the impersonal First Prin-
ciple and the Logos ? Were the two identical ?
That could not be admitted, because then either
the Logos could not be the creator and the gov-
ernor of the world, or the impersonality of the
First Principle would be affected. Were they
then different ? That also could not be assumed,
for in that case the Logos would be deprived of
divinity. These questions regarding the nature of
the Supreme Being and the mode of its operation
opened up a fertile field of speculation. The
result was a system of mystic theology in no way
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
inferior to its Indian prototype either in form or
in content.
The extreme abstractness of the object of that
speculation is evidenced by the candid confession
of the great Athanasius. "Whenever he forced
his understanding to meditate upon the divinity of
the Logos, the toilsome and unavailing efforts re-
coiled on themselves ; that the more he thought,
the less he comprehended, and the more he wrote,
the less capable was he of explaining his thought.
In every stage we are compelled to feel and ac-
knowledge the immeasurable disproportion be-
tween the size of the object and the capacity of
human mind." (Gibbon). Obviously, at the time
of Athanasius, three-hundred years after its birth,
Christianity was far far away from the simple,
purely religious, ideas preached to the fishing folk
of Judea. It had outgrown its concern for worldly
things, and was soaring higher and higher in
search of a purely spiritual existence. It had given
up its original mission of establishing the kingdom
of Heaven on earth, of establishing new human
relations to be governed by spiritual standards. It
had dissolved the Kingdom of Heaven into an im-
material abstraction. Turning back upon its ori-
ginal revolutionary mission, which was essentially
mundane, it had flown up to the high altitude of
pure spiritualism, and had thus qualified itself to
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be established as the State Religion of the Roman
Empire.
The metaphysical speculations of Plato had
been adulterated with oriental mysticism before it
went into the making of Christian theology.
The mysterious doctrine of the Logos had not
found much favour in the rationalist atmosphere
of Athens, even in the days of its intellectual de-
cline. After the fall of Athens, the centre of
Hellenic culture and learning moved across the Le-
vant to Alexandria. There, the divine doctrines
of Plato thrived luxuriantly in the new atmosphere
charged with oriental mysticism.
In the century preceding the rise of Christi-
anity, a mystic cult called Gnosticism spread far
and wide throughout the Levantine countries.
It was also pantheistic. It conceived God as the
root cause of everything which pervades the phe-
nomenal world. The divine root cause was the
source of light which shone in the world as Good-
ness and Love. The farther the rays of that divine
light went from the source, the less became their
brightness and purity. This process was divided
into stages which were called aeons. The more
distant aeons were less divine and more hylic
(material). From these grew the phenomenal
world. In other words, matter exists from the
beginning of time as the antithesis of spirit. The
material world is not created by God directly.
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The creative will demiurgus appears in the outer
aeons. Thus, the world is created not directly by
God, but by a subsidiary force emanating from the
divine root cause which pervades everything. The
creative will is a spiritual force, but it becomes less
godly in proportion to the distance that separates
it from its pure origin. Consequently, in the
world there is brightness as well as darkness, good
as well as evil. The opposing forces are perpetual.
The object of life is to make brightness dispel dark-
ness, to have the good in man triumph over the
evil. Pure brightness and goodness are identical
with God. They are inherent in everybody. The
realisation of the God in man is the object of life.
The birthplace of Gnosticism was the cradle
of the antique civilisations. The collapse of the
splendourous and mighty empires of Egypt,
Assyria, Babylon, Persia, created an atmosphere
charged with despair and pessimism. Mysticism
grew as the ideological reflex of that insurmountable
social crisis. The natural desire to escape the mise-
ries of life, lived by the great masses of people in
the dismal conditions of a social chaos, makes man
come more under the temptation of a higher level
of existence, above the insurmountable difficulties
of this world. A glittering hallucination consoles
man in the midst of the sordid realities of life.
Worldly happiness having become impossible and
unattainable, the striving for it is given up. The
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attainment of a better life which will be unaffect-
ed by earthly cares and worries becomes the new
ideal But the earthly life is still there to be lived.
The hallucination of the eternal bliss of the spiri-
tual existence does not turn the sordid realities
into nothingness. They are now regarded with
indifference, as necessary evils which must be lived
through preparatory to attainment of the emanci-
pation from them.
In such an atmosphere, philosophy forgets its
native function the quest for the knowledge of
nature. It becomes indifferent to realities, and
wanders into the imaginary region of extra-physi-
cal existence. Fantasy runs wild. Specious doc-
trines are preached about the mysteries of the spi-
ritual being. Subtle theories about the nature of
the mysterious force are spun out of imagination.
But eventually, a difficult problem has to be faced.
How could the philosopher convince his disciples
of the reality of the spiritual existence. How could
he prove that his views about it are correct ? By
its very nature, as described by its apostles, by the
admission of those who testify to its reality, the
spiritual being is beyond the reach of senses ; it is
not to be conceived by human mind. How is it
then to be proved that the whole thing is not a
mere figment of imagination ? The way out of
the dilemma is found in the doctrine of reveala-
tion. The solution, however, is a swindle. It is
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
held that none can return from the realm of the
pure spirit. Yet, the experience of prophets and
seers is advanced as the testimony to the reality
of the spiritual being. The spiritual being, estab-
lished by such obviously questionable method,
necessarily requires an impenetrable veil of mystery.
To know the unknowable, to experience the im-
perccptable, to realise the unrcalisable that is the
greatest mystery. That supreme magic is per-
formed through mysticism.
The Gnostics held that the forces of evil could
be over-come. Spirit and matter, light and dark-
ness, good and evil, exist and struggle eternally.
In course of the struggle, the spirit is over-shadow-
ed by its antithesis matter, darkness, evil and
this latter, appears to be a sovereign force. There-
fore, in order to return to the purity of the spi-
ritual being, one must flee from the earthly things,
and seek refuge in renunciation and asceticism.
This pessimistic and defeatist view of life grew out
of the spiritual confusion produced by the collapse
of the antique culture.
Analogous ideas are created by similar social
conditions. The decay of the antique society of
the Vedic age produced a cultural crisis also in
India, out of which grew the pessimistic view of
life, which is proudly proclaimed as the spiritual
genius of India. But history teaches us that this
specific form of thought, determined by the con-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONER'S DIARY
ditions of a severe social crisis, is not an Indian
monopoly. As a matter of fact, it marks the
exhaustion of a flourishing era which did not ger-
minate in its decayed organism the incentive for
a further progress.
Plato's theology, promiscuously mixed with
the pantheistic doctrine of the Gnostics, produced
the extravagant and extremely colourful cult of
neo-Platonism which was incorporated in Chris-
tian theology. The Platonic doctrine of Logos was
too abstract to lend itself directly to the belief in
a divine incarnation. Yet, without this contri-
vance of spiritual swindle, no tangible connection
could be established between the absolute First
Cause and the phenomenal world. The fatal gulf
was eventually bridged by the neo-Platonists.
About a hundred years before the obscure rebel
leader of Judea died on the cross, to be immorta-
lised as the incarnation of God, the Alexandrian
philosopher Philo had transformed the metaphy-
sical category of Logos into the Son of God, who
descends upon this mortal earth in a finite human
form to perform deeds which cannot be attributed
to the spiritual Universal Cause. This avaiarbad,
expounded by the founder of neo-Platonism, was
the central pivot of Christian theology. The
basic doctrine of the philosophy of Gita runs
through the entire fabric of Christian mysticism,
theology and religious philosophy. Until the six-
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teenth century, that spiritualist doctrine com-
pletely dominated all the currents of western
thought.
A few quotations from Philo and his followers
will show the striking similarity between the basic
ideas of Christian mysticism and the Hindu spiri-
tualist philosophy.
" If human knowledge is an illusion, we must
seek for truth in some higher sphere. The senses
may deceive ; reason may be powerless ; but there
is still another faculty in man there is Faith.
Real knowledge is the gift of God, its name is
faith ; its origin is the goodness of God." (Philo).
The father of Christian mysticism, which
differs so very little from Hindu philosophy, was in-
tellectually honest. He had the courage to think
out his thoughts to their logical conclusion. He
did not resort to the subterfuge of inventing a half-
way house between knowledge and faith. He saw
quite clearly that, as soon as sense perceptions
were rejected, all effort to explain the world must
be abandoned. Mysticism is predicated on the in-
explicability of the world. The inability to explain
the world or the refusal to be guided by sense per-
ceptions, as the reflex of objective truth, necessarily
leads to the notion of a mysterious cause of things.
Mysticism thus is inseperable from faith ; and the
faith in a mystic Supreme Being, no matter in
whatever form it is conceived, is the decisive check
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upon a rationalist investigation into the causes of
natural phenomena. Mysticism, therefore, is an
enemy of science as well as of philosophy in the
strict sense.
Philo's mysticism was so pure that it openly
declared its identity with faith. His conception
of God was just the same as the Hindu idea of
Brahma. But his spiritualism was purer. He did
not tinker with the pure immateriality of the
Supreme Being by the illogical, irreverent and
quasi-spiritualist view that human mind can com-
prehend it otherwise than in faith. There was
nothing mystic in the logic of Philo's mysticism.
"God is incomprehensible ; his existence may be
known, but his nature can never be comprehended.
The nature of God is incomprehensible because he
is one, simple, perfect, immutable, without any
attribute, But to know this about God is not to
know in what his perfection consists. We can
never penetrate the mystery of his existence ; we
can only believe."
An admirably straight-forward statement of
the mystic view of things. But it does not satisfy
the incorrigible sceptic who would ask : If sense
knowledge is deceptive, if reason cannot be relied
upon, how can we accept as the final standard
a God whose existence is assumed in faith, and
whose nature must always remain beyond compre-
hension ?
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
Plotinus, a disciple of Philo, boldly took the
hurdle. He met the Sceptics' objection by eman-
cipating . mysticism from all logical scruples. Like
a typical Hindu sage, the Christian mystic
declared : The God can be perceived in ecstasy,
that is, through the complete forgetfulness of the
individual existence." The vain effort >to place
faith on a foundation of reality raises delusion to
the dignity of truth. Perception presupposes a
consciousness which perceives. "The complete
forgetfulness of the individual existence" means,
if it means anything, the disappearance of indivi-
dual consciousness. That may be the state of ecs-
tasy. But whatever it may be, perception is not
possible in that state. The "experience" in that
sublime state of beatitude is a delusion. Mysti-
cism must fall back upon this contrivance of self-
deception or downright charlatanery in order to do
the impossible. The magic that mysticism claims
to perform is graphically described by Plotinus :
" I am a finite being ; but how can I compre-
hend the Infinite ? As soon as I do so, I am in-
finite myself ; that is to say, I am no longer myself,
no longer that finite being having a consciousness
of its own. If I attain to a knowledge of the In-
finite, it is not by my reason which is finite. The
Finite, as finite, can never know the Infinite. To
attempt to know the Infinite through reason is'
futile ; it can be known only by immediate pre-
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FRAGMENTS OF A PRISONERS DIARY
scnce ecstasy. In ecstasy, the soul becomes loosen-
ed from its material prison, separated from indi-
vidual consciousness, and becomes absorbed in the
Infinite Intelligence, from which it emanates. In
ecstasy, it contemplates real existence, it identifies
itself with that which it contemplates." (Lewis,
History oj Philosophy).
The Finite, naturally, can never know the In-
finite. Yet, it does know, and that is the magic
of mysticism. Knowledge presupposes a knowing
subject. But disappearance of the knowing sub-
ject is the condition for the knowledge of the In-
finite. How can there be knowledge without a
knower ? But such petty questions do not dis-
turb the spiritual calm of the mystic. He ex-
periences God from "immediate presence." In
ecstasy, he contemplates God. So, even in that
state, duality is not abolished. Consequently, the
impassable gulf between the Finite and the Infinite
is still there. But we are told that in ecstasy the
soul is absorbed in the Infinite Intelligence, the
contemplator identified with the contemplated.
This contradictory description of the state of ecs-
tasy does not improve the situation. If persistence
of duality makes knowledge impossible, owing to
the unbridgeable gulf between the Finite and the
Infinite, the disappearance of the subject makes
knowledge equally out of question. Thus, ecstasy
is exposed to a mere figment of imagination.
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
Each would-be seer can choose his desert accord-
ing to his taste. The phantoms seen in delirium
may be real for the diseased. But they have no
reality for the normal. Even for the diseased,
they must disappear as soon as they regain their
senses. Besides, ecstasy being an imaginary state,
or a product of nervous disorder, visions seen in
that state are mere illusions.
The existence of the unknowable, incompre-
hensible, is proved by transferring faith from God
to the godly man. God exists on the testimony
of dreamers or charlatans. The reliability of this
palpably incredible testimony is to be taken for
granted. God is no longer the object of faith.
The mystic takes his place. Mysticism thus liqui-
dates religion. Yet, it is the logical outcome of
the religious mode of thought.
Christian mysticism, as expounded by Plotinus,
fully coincides with the orthodox schools of Hindu
philosophy. The absurdities and internal contradic-
tions are common to both. The similarity is fur-
ther proved by the following quotation :
" God in his absolute state is neither existence,
nor thought, neither moved nor mutable ; he is
the simple unity. Although dialectics raise us
to some conviction of the existence of God, we
cannot speak of his nature otherwise than nega-
tively. We are forced to admit his existence. To
say that he is superior to existence and thought, is
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not to define him. It is only to distinguish him
from what he is not. What he is, we cannot know.
It would be ridiculous to endeavour to comprehend
him."
Christianity also believes in atmadarshan as
the only way to true knowledge. It also rejects
scientific knowledge as imperfect and unreliable.
It also places introspective speculation above em-
pirical investigation or rationalist thought as the
key to truth. Another neo-Platonist prophet
preached :
"Know thyself that you may know from
which source you are derived. Know the divinity
that is within you so that you may know the
divine one of which your soul is but a ray. Know
your own mind and you will have the key to all
knowledge. The science that descends into the
soul from above is more perfect than any science
obtained by investigation ; that which is excited
in us by other men is far less perfect. The science
which descends from above fills the soul with the
influence of the Higher Cause. (Proclus).
Until three-hundred years ago, western philo-
sophy grew under the shadow of this spiritualist
tradition. Even to-day Christianity is a living
force with the large mass of the western people.
The modern idealist philosophy is a mere rationali-
sation of Christian spiritualism. Contemporary
mystcism, thriving in the atmosphere of a cultural
292
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
crisis, is also inspired by Christian traditions. But
the western world of to-day is entirely different
from what it was when Christianity rose out of
the ruins of the ancient society. Powerful forces
are in operation to overcome the present social
crisis. Science has destroyed the foundation of
mysticism. Therefore, contemporary mysticism in
Europe appears to be an exotic phenomenon in the
midst of a rationalist world. But it is not a mes-
sage from the East ; its roots are struck deep in
the history of the western culture.
The high-brow Hindu intellectual sneers at
the Christian conception of a personal God,
although the poly-pantheistic hotch-potch of his
own religion gives him little reason to do so. The
idea of a personal God is the very essence of reli-
gion, and monotheism is the highest form of reli-
gion. The doctrine of creation out of nothing is
an essential element of religious thought. It is set
forth in the Bible in the most logical as well as
orthodox form. The fullest play is given to the
notion of omnipotence. There is no attempt to
allow reason to tamper with it. The very notion
being absurd, its absurdity must be manifest in its
practical expression, unless its pristine purity was
adulterated ; and then, the faithful would be so
much less religious because of the imperfectness
of their faith in the basic dogma of religion.
Miracle-mongering is another feature of
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Christianity which is usually laughed at by the
advocates of a " scientific religion ", and Hinduism
is dogmatically claimed to be the only religion
which possesses that distinction. If this claim had
any basis of historical reality, then the distinction
would mean the extinction of Hinduism as a reli-
gion. Because, science and faith are mutually exclu-
sive, and there can be no religion without a faith.
The fantastic claim, however, is utterly unfounded,
advanced by irreligious spiritualists that queer
breed of modern intellectuals who pompously deride
scientific knowledge while possessing no faith, who
hover blindly in the twilight of the borderland of
darkness and light.
Miracle-mongering is the practical expression
of the faith in God, in God as God the Almighty.
Since the world is the creation of an almighty
power, not bound by the laws of nature, anything
can happen anywhere. This belief is the breath
of religion. Untrammelled by the zeal of re-
writing history to fit it into preconceived notions,
anybody could see that every Hindu even to-day
believes in miracles. Otherwise, the face of Mother
India would have been unrecognisably changed
long ago.
The stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata
are full of miracles. The epic heroes are miracles
personified. Not only do the Hindu masses impli-
citly believe in these stories, it being sinful to doubt
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
their truthfulness ; even the modern intellectual
ardently defends the theory of an ancient glory on
the evidence of "historical facts" contained in
the epics. The miraculous actions and movements
of the epic heroes are pointed out as indisputable
evidence in support of the utterly unhistorical con-
tention that several thousand years ago India
reached a level of scientific and technological deve-
lopment, not yet attained by the modern civilisa-
tion. In the utter absence of social conditions
which are requisite for any advance in that direc-
tion, the supposed, rather imagined, scientific and
technological attainments would be possible only
as a miracle. The faith in the super-natural powers
of the Yogi is a faith in miracles. There are few
even among the modern educated Indians who
would not look upon the usual feats of any ordi-
nary magician as evidence invalidating scientific
theories ; who would not find the hand of God in
any natural phenomenon which cannot be as yet
explained. As regards the masses of the Hindu,
population, even to-day their faith in miracles is as
implicit as it was with the Christians hundreds
of years ago. For example, overtaken by an epi-
demic, the vast bulk of the rural population would
much rather seek relief in some sort of religious
ceremony than rely upon the curative value of
medicine and other hygienic agencies. The super-
natural power of Sadhus and Sanyasis is a matter
295
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of general belief. Gandhi's phenomenal popularity
among the masses is .only to a very small extent
due to an awakening of political consciousness. It
is mostly due to a widespread belief in his power
to do what ordinary mortals cannot, that is to say,
in his power to do miracles. The belief in miracles
is the result of a lack of self-confidence. Had the
modern Indians been less addicted to the faith in
miracles than the earlier mediaeval Christians, they
should have shown greater ability to change their
dismal position.
If one did not stand firmly and unconditionally
by the belief that God created the world somehow,
by virtue of his omnipotence, out of nothing, with-
out any material substance ; if one did not impli-
citly believe, as the corollary to this faith, in the
almightiness of God, in all sorts of magic and
miracles ; then, there would arise inevitably the
fatal question : How did God create the world ?
SL question which at once transcends the bound-
ary of religion and leads sooner or later, directly
or indirectly, to naturalism, atheism and material-
ism, that is, to real philosophy.
Provoked by the germs of doubt imbedded in
the mystical speculation of the Upanishads, the
earlier systems of Indian philosophy (Vaisheshik,
Sankhya and Nyaya) tired to answer the dangerous
question, though without having raised it expli-
citly. The result was Buddhist atheism, for the
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
suppression of which disruptive doctrine all the
heavy artillery of Vedic Fundamentalism had to
be brought into action. Sankaracharya himself
found that his interpretation of the Vedanta
Sutras could not serve the purpose of combatting
Buddhism and the semi-materialist systems of phi-
losophy that had gone into its making, except by
contradicting itself by the postulation of a perso-
nal God. Otherwise, even the hallucination of
the world could not be explained within the limits
of religious thought. Indeed, the pantheism of
Vendanta itself, carried to its logical conclusion,
leads to materialism, as any system of absolute
idealism must. Sankaracharya evaded that logical
consequence of his system by the inglorious return
to the anthropomorphic concept of God, the retreat
being covered by a mass of sophistry and hopeless
confusion all serving the one purpose of self-
deception.
Christianity also headed towards the slippery
path of idealist philosophy as soon as it left the
strictly religious ground to wander into theology.
But to begin with, it was a phenomenon of pure
spiritualism, owing to its uncompromising concep-
tion of a personal God and firm attachment to the
virgin faith associated with such a pure religious
concept.
The personal God is the real God, because all
the super-natural and unnatural attributes attribu-
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ted to the Supreme Being by spiritualism can be
logically associated only with the anthropomorphic
concept. The Supreme Being is supposed to be
beyond all limitations. In order to fit into the
role allotted to him by his creators (God is the
creation of the religious man), the Supreme Being
must be unconditionally free. The creation of the
physical Universe out of no available material is
the highest conception of freedom, and omni-
potence is born of unlimited freedom. The two
concepts can never be separated without losing
force ; and they can assume the appearance of
reality only in a personal God. Super-natural
powers and attributes must remain empty concep-
tions, unrealities, so long as they are not conceived
as the powers and attributes of a subject. That is
to say, spiritual (super-natural) categories become
conceivable only when they arc associated with a
personal God. One possessed of the extremely un-
bounded freedom of creating endless things out of
no given substance is really above, beyond and un-
circumvented by the material being. He is the
real spiritual existence par excellence. Creation
out of nothing is an act by which the creator
is not bound, because there is no causal con-
nection between the two. The personal God
does not create out of necessity. He docs
it out of sheer whim or arbitrariness the
corollary to his omnipotence. The freedom of his
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
will is altogether unbounded. Since he creates, not
out of necessity, but out of a sweet will, he may
or may not create. He is not bound to create.
Thus, he is absolutely free of any material exis-
tence an absolutely pure spiritual being. The
personal God of strictly monotheistic religions,
like Christianity and Islam, therefore, is not a
sign of childishness, crudity, spiritual inferiority ;
on the contrary, the concept represents the highest
pitch of religious thought. The absurdity is not
hidden behind subtle doctrines, nor made to
appear plausible in a mirage of mysticism, but
boldly and faithfully carried to its logical climax.
A religion should be measured by religious
standards. Spiritualism must be judged by the
pureness of its spirituality. A body of religious
thought which can attain the point of culmination,
indicated by itself, without ceasing to be strictty
religious, that is, without deviating from the
straight path of faith, is spiritualism of the purest
water. So long as religion can stand frankly as
itself, on its own merit, without being ashamed
of its absurdity, without finding the necessity of
hiding its naked beauty of barbarism, in illfitting
draperies of deception, so long it should be consi-
dered as performing a useful social function.
After that, it can stand only as an artificial struc-
ture obstructing the further spiritual progress of
mankind.
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contradictions. The religious conception of God
as a super-natural being contradicts reason. On
the other hand, a God conceived logically as the
Universal Spirit, a synthetic God, so to say, is no
God. For, by its very nature, such a God is the
creation of human reason.
The Hindu pantheist doctrine of emanation
or evolution, which claims spiritual superiority to
the strictly religious doctrine of creation, either
identifies the Supreme Being with his absolute
attributes, or denudes him of all attributes. But in
any case, it divests him of omnipotence and un-
bounded freedom. Because, the doctrine of emana-
tion robs God of the prerogative to create at will.
This doctrine does not allow God the freedom to
create or not to create, as he pleases. At this ruin-
ous price of his absolute power, and unbounded
freedom, God is cleansed of the human blemish
of desire to create ; but the doctrine that places
him in this light of doubtful advantage, hopelessly
compromises his pure spirituality.
According to this damaging doctrine, creation
does not take place in consequence of a desire on
the part of God ; it makes emanation of the pheno-
menal world a process inherent in the Supreme
Being. The Supreme Being is thus eternally and
inseparably associated with matter. Indeed, matter
is inherent in its very being. And the insistence
on the pure spirituality of the Supreme Being com-
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PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
pels the admission that parallel to it, there exists
eternally a non-spiritual substance, in a germinal
state.
If the Supreme Being is guaranteed against any
directive, controlling or intiative function in con-
nection with the evolution and involution of the
material substance, then the doctrine of creation
comes back surreptitiously. The difference is that
the stature of God is reduced at least by half ; for,
he may still have the freedom to create or not to
create, but he can create only with the material
which exists independent of, at any rate, parallel
to, himself. Then, actually, he does not possess
the freedom. He must create ; otherwise, the pro-
cess inherent in the eternally existing material
substance would go on, and the function of the
Supreme Being would become obsolete.
To evade this catastrophe, pantheism does not
admit the parallel existence of matter. It is iden-
tified with the spirit. But the pantheist doctrine
of emanation destroys the spirituality of the uni-
tary primal existence. Since the material world
grows out of it, it must contain matter in embryo.
So, either the problem of dualism comes back to
make of God an useless fixture, or the unity can
be preserved only as a material unity. Even the
most fantastic extravagance of pantheism the
Mayavad does not guarantee the pure spiritua-
lity of the Supreme Being. For, the doctrine of
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emanation implies determinism. To unfold itself
in the form of the phenomenal world, be it real
or a hallucination, is inherent in the Supreme
Being. That is to say, its movements are determin-
ed by laws ; they are laws of the Supreme Being,
but laws just the same. There is no freedom in a
strictly law-governed system. And existence sub-
jected to determinism is conditioned ; therefore, it
cannot be spiritual.
Then, there still remains the most elementary
difficulty. Existence means extension in space.
That which is limited by the material concept of
space cannot be spiritual, which, to be itself, must
transcend the limitations of space, time and cau-
sality. In the attempt of theology and religious
philosophy to free religion of its native irration-
ality, to camouflage the primitive doctrine of crea-
tion out of nothing, God is shorn of his unbounded
freedom, of his arbitrary will, completely unres-
ricted by anything else existing outside himself,
and is placed in the disgraceful position of sub-
ordination, if not directly of matter, but in any
case, of the law of determinism which obliges him
to bring forth the physical phenomenon of the
Universe, which again, obeying the imperious laws
of determinism, go their own way, disregarding
the v/ill of the Supreme Being.
To blow up God into nothingness is atheism,
even if this iconoclastic process take place as a
304
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
higher form of spiritualism. To debase spirit to
the level of matter by subordinating it to deter-
minism, is the height of irreligiousity, is the nega-
tion of spiritualism, although this devastating pro-
cess of self -consummation takes place as an attack
upon materialism. But this development is a neces-
sary process. Religion necessarily leads to theo-
logy the futile speculative attempt to describe
the nature of God. Theology is futile speculation,
because it can never perform the task it sets to it-
self. As soon as the human mind can describe
him, God ceases to be God. Therefore, the histori-
cal function of theology is to destroy religion as
religion. Having destroyed its own origin, theology
destroys itself. Consistently developed, theology
culminates into pantheism. Vcdantic pantheism
is the logical consequence of the theism of the
Upanishads. In the pantheistic form, theology
consumes itself, because consistent pantheism leads
to atheism.
Thus goes on the endless process of ideologi-
cal development. It is not possible to fix any one
point in this process as its climax, and stop it
there. Christian spiritualism, having reached the
pantheistic stage, consumed itself in the philosophy
of Spinoza and Hegel which, in its turn, found
its logical development in the modern materialist
philosophy. (A similar liquidation of the Vcdantic
pantheism would be the real contribution of India
305
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to world cultured Owing to historical reasons,
Indian thought failed to advance further. A long
period of social stagnation, which followed the
unfortunate defeat of the Buddhist revolution,
arrested the development of Hindu pantheism into
its logical conclusion. One misfortune bred
another in succession, and Indian thought re-
mained in a state of stagnation. But the world
went ahead. As soon as the prolonged social stag-
nation will be broken, Indian thought will go
rapidly ahead from the point at which it stopped
temporarily, and catch up with the progress made
by others. European thought remained entangled
in mystic, pantheistic spiritualism for more than a
thousand years since the revolutionary role of early
Christianity had been played out. Finally, it came
out of the vicious circle. It has been India's fate
to linger much longer in the twilight of decayed
spiritualism. She also must come out of that 'dark-
ness if she desires to join the progressive march of
mankind* /The world does not need her message
of mystic, pantheistic spiritualism A The western
civilisation has had the experience or that bliss, and
has finally produced something superior. India
herself should be able to learn the true message of
her ancient culture. The correct evaluation of her
mystic-pantheist philosophy is to discern, the germ
of materialism embedded in it. In order to draw
practical inspkation from her old ; culture, India
306,
PRECONDITIONS OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE
must learn to appreciate its positive outcome, which
amounts to the liquidation of the religious mode
of thought and an incentive for the acquisition of
scientific knowledge. The highest appreciation of
the ancient culture of India would be to find out
how it could help us out of the vicious circle of
decayed spiritualism, and indicate the way to real
spiritual freedom offered by the materialist
philosophy.
END
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