Industrial engineering, a handbook of useful information for managers, engineers, superintendents, designers, draftsmen and others engaged in constructive work

M«ch. dept.

- -eering
Library

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

PART ONE

INDUSTRIAL
ENGINEERING

A HANDBOOK

OF

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR MANAGERS,
ENGINEERS, SUPERINTENDENTS, DESIGN-
ERS, DRAFTSMEN AND OTHERS ENGAGED
IN CONSTRUCTIVE WORK

BY

WILLIAM M. BARR

Author of "Pumping Machinery," "Boilers and Furnaces," etc.

PART I

NEW YORK

W. M. BARR COMPANY, INC.

116 WEST 39TH STREET
1918

Engineering
Library

Copyright, 1918

by
WILLIAM M. BARE

COMPOSITION, ELECTROTYPING AND PRINTING BY
PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK CITY

PREFACE

IN the preparation of this handbook the writer attempts a systematic arrangement
of a considerable volume of useful information for engineers, much of which has not
been readily accessible to the public. The collection includes separate specifications
relating to the chemical and physical properties of practically all of the materials
entering into engineering work for the U. S. Government. The importance and economic
value of the data thus presented will be recognized by manufacturers and engineers
engaged in Government work not only, but this value extends into every department
in industrial engineering.

The usefulness of this handbook will not rest so much upon the extent of the compila-
tion as upon the practical nature of the data presented ; a feature made possible through
the free use of working drawings contributed for insertion in these pages. Selections
from these drawings appear throughout the entire work in carefully prepared illustrations
accompanied in most cases by tables of working dimensions; these cover a wider range
of detail than is common in books of this class. It has been the constant aim of the
writer that such data shall be so complete that principal dimensions given in any table
may, with suitable adaptations, be used directly in the preparation of shop drawings,
and without the labor of recalculating.

Correct proportions, in series, cannot be had by selecting PH acceptable detail and
making one of its dimensions a unit, and then assigning proportional values to the
other dimensions, except within very narrow limits. Suppose a series of strap joints as
in the table, page 601; diameters ranging from a 3-inch to a 12-inch pin; the writer's
method is to complete two designs similar in detail, one for the smallest and the other
for the largest diameter of pin, then measuring the proportional differences graphically
obtained for intermediate sizes.

There are numerous machine details which are now designed to be complete in
themselves, and with very slight changes made to fit into any machine where such a
detail is demanded; many examples of this kind are included in this work; in all cases
the nature of the design and the properties of materials entering into it are fully con-
sidered and the proportions fixed once for all. Pulleys are a familiar example; they
are designed for single or double belts, as also double extra heavy for very severe service,
but once designed and patterns made, no further changes occur; the pulley becomes
one of many units in a plant requiring no further attention on the part of the designer
than the mere selection of size and strength.

So-called empiricism, or the reliance on direct observation and experience to the
exclusion of theories, or assumed principles in machine design, if it ever existed, is no
longer in use; many of the so-called empirical or practical rules are in reality founded
upon carefully conducted experiments, or the result of long and methodical observation
in the working of machines, the ultimate proportions being fixed to safely carry the
load regardless of conventional factors of safety; the latter are not believed to be "factors
of ignorance" so much as they are generous allowances made to withstand the effect of
forces too complex to be dealt with mathematically or physically. Rigidity depends
largely upon the form and details of construction. The chemical and physical properties
of any material used in engineering is now known with precision. The data relating
to strength of materials in this work are wholly those obtained by direct experimept,
mainly in testing machines owned and operated by the U. S. Government.

There will be noticed throughout the book a general tendency toward steam-engine
details, due in large measure to the writer's long familiarity with that subject. Two
satisfactory types of steam-engines are now in use — the modern locomotive engine and

[v]

PREFACE

the triple expansion marine engine; both of these use steam pressures, seldom less than
165 pounds per square inch. In locomotive design the present proportions are the
outcome of a practical acquaintance with the success or failure of each and every detail,
covering experiences hi thousands of locomotives with every peculiarity of design,
operating on road-beds of every conceivable variety, often under conditions that would
seem to invite failure, and through it all the locomotive stands the test with an economic
margin that invites confidence and places upon its design and proportions the seal of
approval. Similarly the success of the modern triple expansion marine steam-engine,
the designs for which are based upon accurate knowledge of the strength and elasticity
of materials employed, to which is added an increment in size, based upon experience,
to resist stresses occurring at irregular intervals with a suddenness that would seem
to imperil the safety of the engine; the proportioning of parts that will completely
absorb such shocks without harm and without stoppage in service, is one of the results
of thorough technical training supplemented by experiences which can only be had
at sea.

There has been no attempt — in fact, the writer disavows any intention of making
this a text-book in engineering. The designs illustrated and accompanied by tables
of working dimensions are based mainly upon marine and railroad practice, than which
no severer working tests occur; the proportions given have long since passed the experi-
mental stage and are known to be ample for the controlling unit, in any given case.
Machine design in its narrowest applications is all that is attempted in this work; it
has been his opinion throughout that the theory of machines, applied kinematics or
machines considered as modifying motion, applied dynamics or machines considered
as modifying both motion and force, are subjects requiring special mathematical treats
ment, and therefore foreign to the present purpose: he contents himself with the simple
presentation of some acceptable details in machine construction.

The writer is under obligations to many professional friends contributing and
assisting in the selection of material for these pages. His thanks are especially due
officials of the Navy Department, the Bureau of Mines, the Bureau of Standards,
Examiners in several of the Departments in the U. S. Patent Office; for courtesies in
the Library of Congress, the Smithsonian Institution, etc. Extended use has been
made of official reports on materials forming the basis of engineering specifications
now used in Government contracts, especially those relating to the Navy. Free use
has also been made of the Records of Tests made at the Watertown Arsenal, the Wash-
ington Navy Yard, and other Governmental Laboratories. In this connection it will
be understood that the official reports and specifications appearing in this book are
for the information of the reader, and not herein officially published.

As to the apparent exclusion of excellent work done by several Societies in Testing
Materials, as well as to results of tests made public by railroads, steel works, forges,
foundries, and other industrial plants, it occurs only through lack of space; preference
is given the Government Specifications based upon extended chemical and physical
investigations because, as presented, they are more or less mandatory in their application.

Free use has been made of Valuable contributions to the various engineering societies,
magazines, and trade papers covering almost every department of technology. The
writer's collection of such material is large, and as most of the papers have been pre-
pared by experts their value is correspondingly great; the collection thus serves to sup-
plement some of the more recent books authoritatively.

With the development of the subjects selected for this book it has become necessary
to divide the work into two parts. The present volume, Part I, deals mostly with
the chemical and physical properties of the materials used in engineering, particularly
such as are called for in Government specifications; these specifications are so numerous
and conform so minutely to the official terms, that the space occupied by them is more
than double that originally assigned. This has been the case in other sections as well,
but the expansion of the work is believed to be wholly in the interest of and will prove
doubly useful to, the reader.

Part II is in active preparation for early publication.

The long delay after the preliminary announcement regarding its preparation for
early publication has been due to the industrial changes which have taken place through-

[vi].

PREFACE

out our country because of the European War, an occurrence which has made neces-
sary many changes in the book, including the rearrangement and rewriting of whole
sections, the preparation of new drawings, the calculating of new tables, all of which
has taken much time, but it has greatly increased the value and importance of the book.
Complete accuracy is not expected in a work involving so much detail as does this,
and the writer can only say with respect to this detail that the present work represents
an extended and thoroughly earnest effort on his part to secure perfectly reliable ma-
terial, arranging it in convenient sequence, presenting it in clearly printed pages and
carefully indexing the whole for ready reference.

WILLIAM M- BARE.
NEW YORK,
September, 1918.

[vii]

CONTENTS

SECTION 1

UNITS AND STANDARDS

Unit of Time — Standard of Length — Unit of Mass — C. G. S. System — Me-
chanical and Geometrical Quantities — Units of Measurement and De-
rived Units in use in Great Britain and the United States — Fundamental
and Derived Units of Length, Mass, Time, and Temperature — Geometric
and Dynamic Units — Air as a Standard — Water as a Standard — Physical
Constants of Metals — Melting Points of Chemical Elements — Specific
Gravity of Metals, Minerals, and other substances — Horsepower —
Kilowatt as a Unit of Power — Table of Horsepowers to Kilowatts — Table
of Kilowatts to Horsepowers 1-38

•SECTION 2

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Measures of Length — Measures of Surface — Measures of Volume — Measures
of Capacity — Avoirdupois Weight — Troy Weight — Apothecaries' Weights
and Measures — United States Money — Value of Foreign Coins in United
States Money— Measures of Time — Longitude and Time Compared —
Metric System of Weights and Measures — Tables for Interconversion of
Metric and United States Weights and Measures — Table of Admiralty
Knots to Statute Miles and Kilometers — Tables: Pounds per Square
Inch to Kilograms per Square Centimeter; Cubic Feet per Second to Cubic
Meters per Second. Tables: Wire Gauges in use in the United States —
United States Standard Gauge for Sheet and Plate Iron and Steel— Legal
Weights (in pounds) per Bushel of Various Commodities 39-

SECTION 3

MENSURATION AND MECHANICAL TABLES

Mensuration of Surfaces — Table of Useful Functions of Pi (TT) — Tables: Diame-
ter, Circumference, Area of Circles, and Side of Equal Square — Diameters
and Areas of Circles, with Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots —
Reciprocals of Numbers — Lengths of Circular Arcs — Areas of Circular
Segments — Area of an Irregular Figure — Plane Trigonometry — Trigono-
metrical Formulae — Sines, Cosines, Tangents, Cotangents, Secants, and
Cosecants of Angles 0° to 90° — Logarithmic Sines-, Cosines, Tangents, and
Cotangents of Angles from 0° to 90°. Mensuration of Solids — Logarithms

of Numbers 89-197

[ix]

CONTENTS

SECTION 4
PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Acetylene — Acids — Air — Alcohol — Alkalis — Alloys — Aluminum —
Amalgams — Ammonia — Antimony — Arsenic — Asbestos — Austenite
— Barium — Bessemer Steel, Acid and Basic — Bismuth — Blister Steel —
Borax — Boron — Cadmium — Calcium — Carbon — Cementite —
Chromium — Cobalt — Copper — Crucible Steel — Ferrite — Gold —
Graphite — Harvey Steel — Hydrogen — Ingot Iron — Iridium — Iron

— Lead — Lithium — Magnesia — Magnesite — Magnesium — Manga-
nese — Martensite — • Mercury — Molybdenum — Nickel — Nitrogen —
Open-Hearth Steel, Acid and Basic — Talbot Process — Oxides — Oxygen —
Pearlite — Phosphorus — Platinum — Potassium — Semi-Steel — Silica

— Silicon — Silver — Sodium — Tin — Steel — Steel Castings —
Sulphur — Tantalum — Titanium — Tungsten — Vanadium — Wulf en-
ite — Zinc.

Alloy Steels: Simple Tungsten Steel — Simple Chromium Steel — Maganese
Steel — Simple Nickel Steels — Properties of Ordinary Nickel Steel —
Nickel-Chromium Steels — Mayari Steel — Silicon Steels — High-Speed
Tool Steels — Stellite — Chromium-Vanadium Steels — Heat Treatment of
Alloy Steels — Heat Treatment of High Speed Tools — Theory of High
Speed Steels.

Navy Department Requirements for Steel Plates, Shapes, and Bars — Rivet
Steel — Steel Castings — Wrought Iron — Steel Forgings — Reinforcement
Steel for Concrete— Hull Plating— Boiler Plates— Special Treatment Steel
Plates for Protective Hull Plating — Drill Rod Steel — Hot Rolled or
Forged Carbon Steel for use by the Naval Gun Factory — Cold-Rolled and
Cold-Drawn Machinery Steel, Rods and Bars — Extra Soft Steel for use
as a Wrought Iron Substitute— Steel Rods and Bars for Stanchions, Da-
vits, and Drop and Miscellaneous Forgings — Spring Steel — Tool Steel.

Fire Clays and Fire Bricks: Nature of Refractory Clays — Effect of the Acces-
sory Constituents of Fire Clays upon the Softening Temperatures, such
as Quartz, Alumina, Iron Oxide, Feldspar, Mica, Lime — Effect of Fluxes
upon Refractoriness — Load Tests of Fire Brick — Effect of Chemical
Composition — Fire Brick and Clay Analysis — Chemical Formulae —
Results of Physical Tests at 1,300° C, and with a load of 75 pounds per
square inch — Influence of Cold-Crushing Strength.

Structural Timbers Used hi Engineering: Southern Yellow Pines: Longleaf
Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Loblolly Pine — Timbers of the Pacific Coast: Doug-
las Fir, Western Hemlock, Western Larch, Redwood — Timbers of the
New England and Lake States: Norway Pine, Tamarack, Spruce —
Timber Tests 199-302

SECTION 5

%.

STEEL BARS, PLATES, SHAPES, BOLTS, RIVETS

Requirements for Navy Department: Physical and Chemical Properties of
Boiler Plates— Steel Plates for Hulls and Hull Construction— Steel
Shapes for Hulls and Hull Construction — Black and Galvanized Sheet
Steel— Corrugated Galvanized Sheet Steel— Floor Plates— Terneplate
Roofing Tin — Standard Steel Hull Rivets and Rivet Rods — Specifications
for Manufactured Rivets— Small Rivets for Sheet Metal Work— Tables:
Weight of Rectangular Steel Plates— Weight of Circular Steel Plates-
Weight of Square and Round Steel Bars— Strength of Round Steel Bars.

[x]

CONTENTS

Screw Threads: Franklin Institute Standard; United States Standard; Table
of U. S. Standard Bolts and Nuts from Y± inch to 12 inches — Maximum
Working Load for Tabular Tensile Strength — Weight of Hexagon Bolt-
Heads and Nuts— Round Slotted Nuts, U. S. N.— Box Wrenches, U. S. N.
— Lock Nuts and Split Pins, U. S. N. — Spring-Cotters, U. S. N. — Acme
Thread Screws, U. S. N.— Square Thread Screws, U. S. N.— Multiple
Thread Screws — Buttress Thread Screws — Knuckle Thread Screws —
Sharp V-Thread Screws— S. A. E. Standard Screws— Whitworth Standard
Screws — British Association Standard Thread — International Standard
Screw Threads (System International) — Castle Nuts — Cap Nuts — Com-
mercial Steel Bolts and Nuts for U. S. N.— Bolts and Nuts, U. S. Standard,
Weight per 100 — -Machinery Bolts and Nuts and Material for the same,
U. S. N.— Iron Bolts and Nuts, U. S. N.— Deck Bolts and Nuts, U. S. N.
— Holding Down Bolts for Gun Mounts, Torpedo Tubes, and Turret
Tracks, U. S. N. — Bolts of Steel or Composition Metals, and Nuts of Iron,
Steel, or Composition Metals — Studs and Nuts and Bars for Bolts and
Nuts, U. S. N.— Standard Taper Bolts and Reamers— Machine Bolts,
Manufacturer's Standard — Bolts of Uniform Strength — Collar Screws —
Set Screws — Cap Screws — Studs — Hook Bolts — Coach Screws — Bolt
Head Dimensions — Upset Bolt Ends — Turnbuckles — Sleeve Nuts —
Washers— Foundation Bolts— Eye Bolt Heads— Eye Bolt Pins— Eye
Bolts for Flanges — Bolt Ends with Slot and Cotter — Bolt End with
Slot, Gib and Key — Wrenches, Open End — Box Wrenches, Socket
Wrenches— Spikes ..'...- .. .303-420

SECTION 6

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSPECTION OF MATERIAL. NAVY

DEPARTMENT

General Quality — Chemical Properties — Analysis by Manufacturer — Analysis
by Government — Physical Tests and Test Pieces — Pulling Speed — Types
of Test Pieces — Standard Size for Test Pieces — Standard Size for Test
Pieces for Boiler Plates and Steam Pipes — Length of Test Pieces— Flaws
in Text Pieces — Bending Test Pieces— Special Heat Treatment — Material
Exempt from Tests — All Material Subject to Inspection — Annealing —
Weights — Methods of Checking — Contractors' and other Orders for In-
spection of Material — Material which is to be Inspected without Instruc-
tions— Inspection During Manufacture^ — 'Contractors to Supply Blue
Prints — Information to be Furnished by the Manufacturer — Shipment
of Material — Invoices to be prepared by Manufacturers — Inspection
Stamps — Sealing of Cars — Acceptance of Material — Rejection at
Destination.

General Specifications for Inspection of Rubber Material, Navy Department:
Temperature of Room — Tests of Adhesion of Rubber Parts to Cotton or
Fabric Parts — Apparatus — Preparation of Test Pieces — Tests of Rubber
Parts — Making of the Measurements; Taking of Time; Elongation —
Tensile Strength — Pressure Tests — Composition: Friction, Material,
Sample for Chemical Analysis — Average Reading to be based on at least
Four Determinations — Rejections and Replacements — Testing Me-
chanical Rubber Goods, Bureau of Standards: Source of Crude Rubber —
Vulcanizing — Rubber Substitutes — Reclaimed Rubber — Manufacture —
Breaking Down and Washing — Drying — Compounding and Mixing —
Sheeting — Friction — Cutting the Canvas — Rubber Hose: Tubes and
Covers; Making up the Hose, Vulcanizing, Cotton Rubber-lined Hose,
Braided Hose with Rubber Tube and Cover — Rubber Belting — Me-r
chanical Rubber Goods — Physical Testing of Rubber: Tension Test,

[xi]

CONTENTS

Recovery, Friction, Steam Pressure, Packing, Tires, Tension Test, Test
Piece; Influence of Speed on Tensile Strength and Elongation; Influence
of Temperature on Strength, Elongation, and Recovery; Influence of Cross
Section on Tensile Strength and Elongation; Influence of the Direction
in which Specimens are cut on Strength, Elongation, and Recovery;
Influence of Previous Stretching on Strength, Elongation, and Recovery;
Influence of the Form of Test Specimen on the Results of Tension Tests —
Friction Test — Hydraulic Pressure Test — The Chemistry of Rubber 421-442

SECTION 7
IRON AND STEEL CASTINGS

Foundry Pig Iron: Carbon, Silicon, Manganese, Spiegeleisen, Ferromanganese,
Silicon-Spiegel, Oxygen and Manganese, Sulphur, Phosphorus — Grading
Pig Iron — Analysis of Standard Pig Iron — Foundry Pig Iron for U. S. N.:
Grades, Chemical Requirements, Purpose for which used, Sampling,
Method of Analysis, Penalties, Locality, Sow Iron — Chemical Changes
in the Cupola: Foundry Coke, Calorific Value of Coke, Excess of Air,
Temperature of Escaping Gases, Slag, Flux, Limestone, Fluorspar, Fuel
Efficiency of the Cupola Furnace — Iron Castings for U. S. N.: Physical
Properties, Grades, Tensile Strength, Transverse Breaking Load, Pur-
poses for which Intended, Hardness, Quality of Material, Tests, Finish-
Malleable Cast Iron: Composition and Structure, Manganese, Phos-
phorus, Silicon, Open-Hearth Furnace, Cupola Furnace, Annealing —
Specifications: Chemical Properties, Physical Properties, Test Lugs,
Annealing, Finish — Malleable Iron Castings for U. S. N.: Open-Hearth
or Air-Furance, Physical and Chemical Properties, Freedom from Defects,
to have Sufficient Anneal, Test Bars, Appearance after Machining, Pipe
Flanges — Semi-Steel Castings: Chemical Composition, Physical Prop-
erties— Steel Castings: Specifications for Steel Castings — Three Classes:
Hard, Medium, Soft — Physical Properties of Each — Steel Castings for
U. S. N.: Process of Manufacture, Chemical and Physical Properties,
Classification on Special, A, B, and C Classes, Physical Properties of Each:
Treatment (a) All Castings shall be Annealed, (b) Additional or Subse-
quent Treatment, (c) Castings treated without consent of the Inspector,
(d) Cleaning — Test Specimens — Rejection after Delivery — Percussive
Test— Surface Inspection — Welding, when permitted — Chemical Analy-
sis— Casting Record — Annealing Record — Ordnance Castings. — Plum-
bago for U. S. N. Foundry use: Volatile Matter, Ash, Graphite Carbon;
for Foreign Shipment (U. S. N.), for Domestic Shipment (U. S. N.).. . .443^64

SECTION 8

IRON AND STEEL FORCINGS. CARBON AND HIGH-SPEED STEELS. HEAT

TREATMENT

Wrought Iron : Chemistry, Analysis of Pig and Wrought Irons, Wrought Iron
and Steel, Texture of Wrought Iron, Malleability, Tensile Strength, Duc-
tility, Elastic Limit, Safe Load, Compression, Welding, Stiffening, An-
nealing, Effect of Low Temperature' — Wrought Iron for Blacksmith use,
U. S. N.: Process of Manufacture, Physical and Chemical Requirement,
Tests, Nick Test, Drift Test, Completed Forgings, Special Grade of
Wrought Iron, Physical and Chemical Requirements, Blacksmith Grade,
Elongation — Steel Forgings for Hulls, Engines, and Ordnance, U. S. N.:
Material, Process, Discard, Surface and other Defects, Chemical and

[xii]

CONTENTS

Physical Properties, Nickel Steel, Physical Test Specimens, Longitudinal
Test Specimens, Transverse Test Specimens, Individual Tests, (a) Gen-
eral, (b) Special, Test by Lot, List of Forgings Covered by the Foregoing
General Requirements, Testing Miscellaneous Bars, Treatment of Forg-
ings, Treatment of Hollow Forgings, Additional Heat Treatment— Ingots,
Slabs, Blooms, and Billets for U. S. N. : Line between Blooms and Billets
— Ingots, Slabs, Blooms, and Billets to be forged or rolled will require
tests only of finished objects. Physical and Chemical Requirements for
Blooms and Billets for Reforging — General Requirements for Engine
Forgings, U. S. N.: Treatment, Kind of Ingot, Test Pieces for Line,
Thrust, and Propeller Shafts, Test Pieces for Crank Shafts, Test Pieces
for Reverse Shafts — Engine Forgings: Furnace, Size of Ingot, Defects,
Piping, Segregation — Reheating the Ingot — Recalescence — Forging —
Hollow Forgings — Bell's Steam Hammer — Heat Treatment of Carbon
Steel : Carbon and Iron, Molecular Structure, Tempering and Annealing,
Elements other than Carbon, Carbon Theory of Hardening Steel — Solu-
tion Theory-^-Allotropic Theory of Hardening — Sorbite — Heating Carbon
Steel — Three Factors in Heating Steel: Neutral Atmosphere, Uniformity
in Heating, Temperature of the Furnace — Carbon Tool Steel and Heat
Treatment: Color Scale Indicating Temper of Carbon Steel Tools —
Furnaces: Tool Tempering Furnace — Muffle Furnace — Oven Furnace —
Oil Furnace — Gas Furnace — Flameless Combustion Furnace — Electric
Heating Furnace — Heating Baths: The Lead Bath — Cyanide of Potas-
sium Bath — Barium Chloride Bath — Disadvantages of Barium Chloride
Bath — Hardening and Tempering High-Speed Steel Tools — Electric
Hardening — Colors of Heated Steel — Quenching Baths: Water, Brine,
Oil, Tallow, Air Quenching — Quenching and Hardening High-Speed Steel:
Mushet's Self -hardening Steel; Heating and Hardening the Later High-
speed Tool Steels; Double Hardening. — Annealing Mild Steel — Composi-
tion and Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel other than Tool Steels: Compo-
sition, Characteristics and Uses, Heat Treatment — Hardening of Carbon
and Low-Tungsten Steels: Hardening Temperatures, Change Point,
Length of Time of Heating, Previous Annealing, Heating in Two Furnaces,
Change of Length in Hardening, Miscellaneous Results, Effect of Tem-
pering, Tensile Strength — Composition and Heat Treatment of Carbon
and Alloy Steels: Composition, Characteristics and Uses, Heat Treatment,
Chrome-Nickel Steel, Chrome- Vanadium Steel — Case-Hardening: Metals
to be Case-Hardened, Mild Steel, Nickel Steel, Chrome Steel — Carbur-
izing Materials: Bone, Charred Leather, Cyanides, Effect of Nitrogen,
Carburizing Gas, Method of Case-Hardening, Heating, Case-Hardening
Temperatures, Quenching, Cooling and Reheating — Case-Hardening
Mixture — Cyanide Process of Case Hardening — Case Hardening for
Colors 465-504

SECTION 9
NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Non-Ferrous Metals — Copper Group: Copper, Mercury, Lead, Bismuth —
Tin Group: Tin, Antimony, Arsenic — Iron Group: Iron, Ferro-Mangan-
ese, Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt — Zinc Group: Zinc, Cadmium, Mag-
nesium, Aluminum — Alkaline-Earthy Metals: Calcium, Barium,
Strontium — Alkali Metals: Sodium, Potassium — Non-Metals: Boron,
Carbon, Hydrogen, Lime, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Calcium
Sulphate, Silicon, Sulphur — Non-Ferrous Alloys: Physical Properties,
Chemical Nature of Alloys, Specific Gravity, Fusibility, Liquation,
Specific Heat, Eutectic Alloys, Occulsion, Oxygen, Deoxodizing Copper —

[xiii]

CONTENTS

Porosity of Brass Castings — Fluxes used in Melting Non-Ferrous Metals
— Aluminum Alloys — Amalgams.

Chemical and Physical Requirements for use in U. S. Navy: Ingot Copper —
Copper Sheets, Plates, Rods, Bars, and Shapes — Sheet Copper for
Sheathing Bottoms of Wooden Craft — Refined Copper for use in making
Cartridge Cases — Silicon Copper — Phosphor Copper — Ingot Tin —
Phosphor Tin— Slab Zinc— Rolled Zinc Plates— Zinc for Boilers, Salt-
Water Piping, Etc. — Pig Lead — Ingot Aluminum — Gun Metal — Valve
Bronze — Journal Bronze — Torpedo Bronze — Manganese Bronze — Phos-
phor Bronze Castings; Rolled or Drawn Bars — Vanadium Bronze —
Rolled Bronze Plates — Monel Metal Castings; Sheets, Plates, Rods, Bars.
— Benedict Nickel — German Silver — Inspection of Copper, Brass, and
Bronze — Standard Requirements for Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc —
Seamless Brass Pipe — Naval Brass Castings — Rolled Naval Brass Sheets,
Plates, Rods, Bars, Shapes — Muntz Metal Castings — Muntz Metal
Sheets, Plates, Rods, Bars, and Shapes — Commercial Brass: Castings,
Rods, Bars, Shapes, Sheets, Plates, Piping — Brass Castings for Electrical
Appliances — Anti-Friction Metal Castings — Solder: Spelter, Half-and
Half — Crucibles — Kroeschell-Schwartz Crucible Furnace — Composition
of Some Alloys used in Engineering; An Alphabetically Arranged List of
100 Alloys Covering all the Ordinary and most of the Special Needs of
the Engineer— Notes on Metals 505-568

SECTION 10

MACHINE DETAILS, PRINCIPALLY THOSE RELATING TO STEAM

ENGINES

Keyways and Keys: Proportions — Length of Key — Square Sunk Key — Spe-
cial Keys— Gib Head Key, Table— Sliding Key, Table— Maximum Load
on Key — Double Keys, Table to 24 in. Shaft — Kennedy Double Key,
Table— Peters' Double Key, Table to 12-in. Shaft— Keys for Screw
Propellers— Bolt End with Collar and Cotter, Table— Bolt End for Rigid
Frame Connection, Table — Valve Rod End with Bushing, Table — Valve
Rod End with Coupling, Table — Valve Rod End, Boxes with Key Adjust-
ment, Table— Valve Rod Knuckle, Table— Strap Joint with Gun-Metal
Body and Steel Strap, Table — Rod Coupling with Collar and Cotter,
Table — Rod Coupling with Single Taper Socket, Table — Rod Coupling
with Two Abutting Ends and Cotter, Table— Rod Coupling with Two
Taper Ends and Cotter, Table— Screw Coupling, Adjustable, Table-
Cranks, Cast Iron, Table — Crank Pins, Table to 12-in. Diam. — Connect-
ing Rod Box Stub End with Wedge Adjustment for Crank Pin, 1 to 6-in.
Pin, Table— Connecting Rod Stub End with Strap Joint, Gib and Key, 1
to 6-in. Diam., Two Designs, Two Tables — Connecting Rod Stub End
for Crank Pin, with Bolted Strap, Wedge Block and Key, Table to 3-inch
Pin — Another Design continuing Proportions up to 12-inch Crank Pin!
Connecting Rod Stub End for Crank Pin, Two Designs, Forked Pattern
with Back Block, Adjusting Wedge and Liner, Both Sizes for 3 to 8-inch
Crank Pin, Two Tables 569-607

INDEX.. ....609-619

PART II

In Preparation for Early Publication

CONTENTS

ION

11. MACHINE TOOLS.

12. RIVETING AND FLANGING.

13. BOILER DESIGN — CONSTRUCTION DETAILS.

14. BOILERS AND FURNACES — CHIMNEYS.

15. HEAT AND STEAM.

16. FUEL AND COMBUSTION.

17. STEAM ENGINES.

18. STEAM TURBINES.

19. CONDENSING APPARATUS.

20. FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.

21. MEASURING AND RECORDING INSTRUMENTS.

22. WROUGHT PIPES AND TUBES — WELDED AND RIVETED.

23. BRASS, COPPER, AND LEAD PIPES.

24. PIPE FITTINGS — VALVES — TRAPS.

25. INSULATING MATERIALS — PACKINGS.

26. EVAPORATING AND DISTILLING APPARATUS.

27. GASES, PROPERTIES OF — GASOLENE — INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

28. GAS PRODUCERS AND GAS ENGINES — GASOLENE ENGINES.

29. OIL AND OIL ENGINES.

30. SHAFTING — PULLEYS — BEARINGS — COUPLINGS.

31. POWER TRANSMISSION — BELTS — ROPES — GEARS.

32. SCREW PROPELLERS — PADDLE WHEELS.

33. FEED WATER PURIFICATION AND HEATING.

34. WATER WHEELS — TURBINES.

35. PUMPING MACHINERY.

36. CAST-IRON PIPES — VALVES — HYDRANTS.

37. HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

38. COMPRESSED AIR.

39. HEATING AND VENTILATING.

40. PLUMBING FIXTURES.

41. REFRIGERATING MACHINERY.

42. HOISTING AND CONVEYING MACHINERY.

43. COAL HANDLING AND STORAGE.

44. FOUNDATIONS.

45. CONCRETE — CEMENT — MORTARS.

46. INDUSTRIAL RAILWAYS.

47. CHAINS — ANCHORS — HEMP ROPES — WIRE ROPES.

48. CORROSION — PROTECTIVE COATINGS — PAINTS.

49. FIRE PROTECTION.

50. ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.

xv

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

SECTION I

UNITS AND STANDARDS

A unit is an acknowledged or standardized quantity in terms of which other
quantities may be measured, results recorded, comparisons made, and measurements
executed in experimental demonstration. The fundamental units in terms of
which every measurement must be executed are those of Time, Space, and Mass.

Time. — Standards of time are derived from the revolution of the earth about
its axis, which has an inclination of about 23° 28' from a perpendicular to its plane.
The motion of its rotation is from west to east. The Mean Solar Day is the mean
interval which elapses between the sun's crossing the meridian, or being situated
directly south of a place, and the next occasion on which it crosses that line. Be-
sides rotating on its own axis, the earth describes- an ellipse around the sun; the
effect of these combined movements is to alter the length of the solar day, a variation
occurs throughout the year of from 14 ^ minutes fast to 16% minutes slow. A
mean solar day is the average or mean of all the solar days in a year; it is divided
into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds; therefore,
one second represents 24 X 60 X 60 = 86400 part of a solar day; the usual sub-
division of seconds is decimal.

The Unit of Time in engineering is one second of mean solar time. For con-
venience, other and larger units are often used, such as revolutions per minute,
miles per hour, and so forth.

Space is a necessary representation which serves for the foundation of all ex-
ternal intuitions. It is not a conception which has been derived from outward
experiences. We can never imagine the non-existence of space, though we may
easily enough think that no objects are found in it. Intuition lies at the root of
all our conceptions of space. We can only represent to ourselves one space and
that an infinite given quantity; when we talk of divers spaces, we mean only parts
of one and the same space. We conceive of space as having three dimensions,
within which are contained all objects which can appear to us externally. Geometry
is a science which determines the property of space synthetically.

When a single point moves it describes a line and the shortest distance between
two points is a straight line; a representation of space in one direction. Points
are conceived of as having position without magnitude, and lines as having length
without breadth or thickness. A straight line may be divided into any number of
shorter lines and one of these may be chosen as a unit by which other lines may be
measured in terms of that unit.

Standard of Length. — The British standard yard is defined by law as " the
distance between the centers of the transverse lines in the two gold plugs in the
bronze bar deposited in the office of the Exchequer " at the temperature of 62° F.
An authorized copy of this standard is deposited at Washington. This standard
yard has been subdivided into three equal parts, one of which is called a foot; and
into 36 equal parts, one of which is called an inch.

The Metric System is based upon an authorized standard of length called a
meter, which consists in that distance, at the temperature of melting ice, between
the ends of a platinum rod preserved in the French Archives, Paris. An authorized
copy of this standard meter has been deposited at Washington. The metric
system of measurement of length is decimal.

[1]

UNITS AND STANDARDS

The equivalent length of a meter in British measurements as adopted by the
United States is as follows:

Meter = 39 . 37000 inches, or .............. 1 inch = 0 . 02540 meter.

= 3.28083 feet, or ........... . _____ 1 foot = 0 . 30480 meter.

= 1.09361 yards, or ........... ---- 1 yard = 0.91440 meter.

Mass. — The mass of a body is the quantity of matter which it contains; it
must be carefully distinguished from weight. Mass is a constant quantity, whilst
weight varies with the force of gravity which produces it. Weight varies with
the latitude, being greatest at the poles and least at the equator; weight varies
with different elevations above the level of the sea, but the mass of a body is its
own property, it is the same under all circumstances, it is unaffected by change of
latitude or by altitude.

We are accustomed in commercial transactions to employ mass in terms of
weight, and correctly as according to Newton's Law of Gravitation, which tells us
that in any locality whatever the weights of bodies are equal if their masses are
equal. The earth's attraction for a body free to fall in a vacuum is subject to a
constant downward acceleration of about 32.2 feet per second, at the level of the
sea, latitude of London, but it is not the same at all points of the earth's surface.
Inasmuch as gravity varies less than one-half per cent, within the latitudes covered
by engineering practice, weights need not ordinarily be corrected for locations
approximating the level of sea; but for height much above the sea level, such as
mountains, the lesser weight of the atmosphere or barometric changes must be
taken into account.

The Unit of Mass in use by English and American engineers is the British
standard pound avoirdupois, an arbitrary standard consisting of a certain piece
of platinum deposited in the office of the Exchequer, an authorized copy of which is
preserved at Washington. This standard pound contains 7,000 grains, a grain
being the smallest unit employed in British weight.

When used for comparing or verifying other standards, it is directed to be
used when the thermometer is 62° F., and the barometer at 30 inches.

Then™ = =217.39! grains.

g oZ.Z

An avoirdupois ounce = 437.5 grains.

437 5

Then oi>7 onV = 2 . 01 = the British unit of force Poundal, equivalent to one-
J17 . o91

half ounce nearly. This unit of force does not in any way depend on local variations
in the force of gravity.

For all practical purposes, the engineer's Unit of Force is the avoirdupois pound.
A pound-mass equal to 32.2 British Units of Force.

The French standard of weight is the Kilogram (= 1000 grams), made of
platinum, and preserved at the Archives in Paris. This standard is intended to
have the same weight as a cubic decimeter of water at the temperature of its maxi-
mum density — that is, 3* .9 C.

A gram is equal to the 1000th part of a kilogram or the mass of one cubic centi-
meter of water at the temperature of its maximum density.

The gram is chosen as a unit in the C.G.S. System.

C. G. S. SYSTEM

The fundamental units in this system, recommended by the British Association and
accepted as the standards of references throughout the scientific world, are: a definite
length, centimeter (C); a definite mass, gram (G); a definite interval of time, second
(S). These standards of length, mass, and time are permanent and do not change
with lapse of time.

[2]

G. G. S. SYSTEM

The reason for selecting the centimeter and the gram, rather than the meter and
the gram, is that since a gram of water has a volume of approximately one cubic centi-
meter, the selection of the centimeter makes the density of water unity; whereas the
selection of the meter would make it a million, and the density of a substance would
be a million times its specific gravity, instead of being identical with its gravity, as in
the C. G. S. System.

The adoption of one common scale for all quantities involves the frequent use of
very large and very small numbers. Such numbers are most conveniently written
by expressing them as the product of two factors, one of which is a power of 10, and it
is usually advantageous to effect the resolution in such a way that the exponent of the
power of 10 shall be characteristic of the logarithm of this number.

Thus: 3,240,000,000 will be written 3.24 X 109, and 0.00000324 will be written
3.24 X 10-6.

The value of the meter in British inches, adopted by the Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures, is 39.3699. This makes

1 yard = 91.4404 centimeters.
1 foot = 30.4801 centimeters.
1 inch = 2.5400 centimeters.

The standard pound = 453.59 grams, which gives
1 kilogram = 2.20463 pounds.

This is in practical correspondence with the units legalized in the United States.

By Act of Congress, July 28, 1866, the legal equivalent of 1 meter - 39.37 inches.
This makes

1 yard = 91.4402 centimeters.

1 foot = 30.4801 centimeters.

1 inch = 2.54001 centimeters.

A variation from the International Metric System so slight as to make little difference
whether American or European units or products are employed.

MECHANICAL AND GEOMETRICAL QUANTITIES

The fundamental units are abbreviated thus: L = length, M = mass, T = time.
Example, Area = L2, Volume = L3, Velocity = — , Acceleration = — , Momentum

= ~~^T) Density = — , density being defined as mass per unit volume. Force = ,

since a force is measured by the momentum which it generates per unit of time, and
is therefore the quotient of momentum by time. Or, since a force is measured by the
product of a mass by the acceleration generated in this mass.

Work = , being the product of force and distance.

Kinetic Energy = -— being half the product of mass by the square of velocity.
The constant factor y% can be omitted, as not affecting dimensions.

Torque, or Moment of Couple = ~™-, being the product of a force by a length.

The Dimensions of Angle, when measured by — rr— are zero. The same angle will

radius

be denoted by the same number whatever be the unit of length employed. In fact,

arc L

we have — - — = — - = L .
radius L

The work done by a torque in turning a body through any angle is the product of

[3]

C. G. S. SYSTEM

the torque by the angle. The identity of dimensions between work and torque is
thus verified.

Angular Velocity = — .

Angular Acceleration = — .
Moment of Inertia = M L2.

Angular Momentum = Moment of Momentum = , being the product of mo-

ment of inertia by angular velocity, or the product of momentum by length.

Intensity of pressure; or intensity of stress generally, being a force per unit of area,

. , ,. . force ., M

is of dimensions , that is, — — -.

area ' L T2

Intensity of force of attraction at a point, often called simply force at a point, being
force per unit of attracted mass, is of dimensions — — or — . It is numerically equal
to the acceleration which it generates, and has accordingly the dimensions of acceleration.

Curvature (of a curve) = — , being the angle turned by the tangent per unit distance
Li

travelled along the curve.

Tortuosity = — , being the angle turned by the osculating plane per unit distance
Li •

travelled along the curve. — J. D. Everett.

C. G. S. MECHANICAL UNITS

Value of g. Velocity is the rate of motion. It is either uniform or variable. When
variable, the rate at which it changes is called acceleration if the velocity is increasing,
and retardation if it is diminishing. The C. G. S. unit of acceleration is the accelera-
tion of a body whose velocity increases in every second by the C. G. S. unit of velocity
— namely, by a centimeter per second. The apparent acceleration of a body falling
freely under the action of gravity in vacuo is denoted by g. The value of g in C. G. S.
units is about 978 at the equator, about 983 at the poles, and about 981 at Paris or
London. The value at sea level and latitude 45° employed by the Bureau of Standards
is g = 980.665 dynes.

Unit of Force. — The C. G. S. unit of force is called the dyne. It is the force which,
acting upon a gram of matter for a second, generates a velocity of a centimeter per
second. The dyne is about 1.02 times the weight of a milligram at any part of the
earth's surface; and the megadyne is about 1.02 times the weight of a kilogram.

The force represented by the weight of a gram varies from place to place. To com-
pute its amount in dynes at any place where g is known, observe that a mass of one
gram falls in vacuo with acceleration g. The weight (when weight means force) of
one gram is therefore g dynes, and the weight of m grams is m g dynes. The weight of
a gram at any part of the earth's surface is about 980 dynes.

Force is said to be expressed in gravitation measure when it is expressed as equal
to the weight of a given mass. Such specification is inexact unless the value of g is
also given. For purposes of accuracy it must always be remembered that the pound,
the gram, etc., are, strictly speaking, units of mass.

Poundal. — The name poundal has been given to the unit force based on the pound,
foot, and second; that is, the force which, acting on a pound for a second, generates a

velocity of a foot per second. It is — of the weight of a pound, g denoting the accelera-

[4]

C. G. S. SYSTEM

tion due to gravity expressed in foot-second units, which is about 32.2 feet per second,
at the level of the sea, latitude of London.

To compare the poundal with the dyne, let x denote the number of dynes in a poundal;
we then have

_ gm. cm. _ Ib. ft.
sec2 sec2

x = J*L. 1*1= 453.59 X 30.4801 = 13,825.
gm. cm.

Unit of Momentum is the momentum of a gram moving with the velocity of a
centimeter per second.

Unit of Work. — The C. G. S. unit of work is called the erg. It is the amount of
work done by a dyne working through a distance of a centimeter. The gram-centi-
meter is about 980 ergs. The kilogrammeter is about 98,000,000 ergs.

Unit of Energy. — The C. G. S. unit of energy is also the erg, energy being measured
by the amount of work which it represents.

Unit of Power. — The C. G. S. unit of power is the power of doing work at the rate
of one erg per second; and the power of an engine, under given conditions of working,
can be specified in ergs per second.

Gravitation Units of Work. — Work, like force, is often expressed in gravitation
measures, such as the foot, pound and kilogrammeter, these varying with locality,
being proportional to the value of g.

1 gram-centimeter = g ergs.

1 kilogrammeter = 100,000 g ergs.

1 foot-poundal = 453.59 X (30.4801)2 = 421,401 ergs.

1 foot-pound = 13,823 gram-centims., which, if g = 981 = 1.356 X 107 ergs.

1 joule = 107 ergs.

Work-rate, or Activity. — The time rate of doing work in the C. G. S. System is one
erg per second. A horsepower is defined as 550 foot-pounds per second. This is
7.46 X 109 ergs per second. A cheval is defined as 75 kilogrammeters per second.
This is 7.36 X 109 ergs per second. The value of g = 981.

Watt.— A work-rate of 107 C. G. S. is called a watt, and 1,000 watts make a kilowatt.

1 watt = 107 ergs per second = .00134 horsepower = .737 foot-pounds per

second = .1019 kilogrammeters per second.

1 kilowatt = 1.34 horsepower.

1 horsepower = 550 foot-pounds per second = 76.0 kilogrammeters per second =
746 watts = 1.01385 cheval = .746 kilowatt.

1 cheval = 75 kilogrammeters per second = 542.48 foot-pounds per second =
736 watts = .9863 horsepower = .736 kilowatt.

Calorie. Engineers commonly reckon the heat value of fuels in terms of kilogram-
calories. The kilogram calorie represents the energy required to raise the temperature
of one kilogram of cold water one degree Centigrade; this is equivalent to raising one
kilogram to a height of about 427 meters. The kilogram-calorie is sometimes called
the kilogram-degree, as well as the major calorie.

The heat unit employed in physical and chemical laboratories is a metric unit also
called a calorie; it is the heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of cold water
one degree Centigrade. This is the gram-degree or minor calorie.

In the C. G. S. System the primary unit of heat in calorimetry is the erg. In this
system the unit of force is called the dyne; the force which, acting upon a gram for a
second, generates a velocity of a centimeter per second. This work unit is called a
dyne-centimeter, which, for convenience, has been shortened to erg. Since the erg
is a very small unit of work, the joule = 107 ergs is often used. But it is the practice
to employ a secondary rather than the primary unit of heat, and this unit is called
a therm. It has the same value as the gram-degree, or the minor calorie, given above.
The kilogram-degree, or major calorie, is equal to 1,000 therms. The pound-degree
Cent, is 453.6 therms, and the pound-degree Fahr. is 252.0 therms.

The ratio of the secondary to the primary unit of heat is commonly called the

[5]

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT

" mechanical equivalent of heat," quite often "Joule's equivalent," and is denoted
by the symbol J. It is the number of .units of work required to raise the temperature
of unit mass of water 1°. In the C. G. S. System it is the number of ergs in a therm.
The following values of J will be useful for reference. Taking g as 981,

1 kilogram-degree = 1000 therms.

= 426.5 kilogrammeters.
1 pound-degree Cent. = 453.6 therms.

= 1399.4 foot-pounds.
1 pound-degree Fahr. = 252.0 therms.

= 777.4 foot-pounds.

Taking g as 981.2, its value at Greenwich, these values of J are changed to

426.42, 1399.1, 777.3.
At Edinburgh, taking g as 981.6, they will be

426.67, 1399.9, 777.7
In latitude 45°, taking g as 980.62, they will be

426.67, 1399.9, 777.7.

Unit of Heat. The British thermal unit of heat (B.t.u.) is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of water 1° Fahr. when at or near its greatest
density (39.1° F.). This is sometimes called the pound-degree Fahrenheit unit.

In the pound-degree Centigrade unit the avoirdupois pound and the Centigrade
scale of temperature are used.

The mechanical equivalent of heat as experimentally determined by Joule was
found to equal 772 foot-pounds for one degree Fahr., or 1,390 foot-pounds for a degree
Cent., communicated to one pound of water at its greatest density. In honor of Joule,
the mechanical equivalent of heat is usually denoted by the letter J.

Recent investigations by Rowland and others have led to the conclusion that 778
is a more nearly correct value (about f of 1 per cent greater) and that
1 B.t.u. = 778 foot-pounds = J.

In engineering calculations, the former equivalent gives

oo ooo
1 horsepower = ' = 42.74 thermal units.

The later equivalent gives

DO OOO

1 horsepower = ' = 42.42 thermal units.

77o

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND DERIVED UNITS IN USE IN GREAT
BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES

The fundamental units of length and mass employed in engineering work are not
commonly those of the C. G. S. System. In the United States the same units are
employed as in Great Britain; the unit of length being the yard, or, for convenience,
a subdivision of the yard as foot or inch. The unit of mass is the avoirdupois pound.
The unit of tune is the second. The folio whig dimensional formulae are from the
Smithsonian Physical Tables.

Derived Units. Units of quantities depending on powers greater than unity of
the fundamental length, mass and time units, or on combinations of different powers
of these units, are called " derived units." Thus, the units of area and volume are
respectively the area of a square whose side is the units of length and the volume of
a cube whose edge is the unit of length. Suppose that the area of a surface is expressed
in terms of the foot as fundamental unit, and we wish to find the area-number when
the yard is taken as fundamental unit. The yard is three times as long as the foot,
and therefore the area of a square whose side is a yard is 3 X 3 times as great as that
whose side is a foot:

Dimensional Formulae. It is convenient to adopt symbols for the ratio of length
units, mass units and time units, and adhere to their use throughout, and to what

[6]

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

follows the small letters I, m, t, will be used for these ratios. These letters will always
represent simple numbers, but the magnitude of the number will depend upon the
relative magnitude of the units, the ratio of which they represent. When the values
of the numbers represented by I, m, t, are known, and the powers of I, m, t, involved in
any particular are also known, the factor for transformation is at once obtained.

Conversion Factors. In order to determine the symbolic expression for the con-
version factor for any physical quantity, it is sufficient to determine the degree to
which the quantities, length, mass and time are involved in the quantity. Thus, a
velocity is expressed by the ratio of the number representing a length to that repre-
senting an interval of time, or — , an acceleration by a velocity-number divided by

an interval of a time-number, or — , and so on, and the corresponding ratios of units
must, therefore, enter to precisely the same degree. The factors would thus be for

the above cases, — and — . Equations of the form above given for velocity and ac-
t t

celeration which show the dimensions of the quantity in terms of the fundamental units
are called " dimensional equations."

Area. — The unit of area is the square the side of which is measured by the unit
of length. The area of a surface is therefore expressed as S = CL2, where C is a
constant depending on the shape of the boundary of the surface and L a linear dimension.
For example, if the surface be a square and L be the length of a side, C is unity. If

the boundary be a circle and L be a diameter, C = — , and so on. The dimensional

formula is thus L2, and the conversion factor Z2.

Volume. — The unit of volume is the volume of a cube the edge of which is measured
by the unit of length. The volume of a body is therefore expressed a? V = CL3 where,
as before, C is a constant depending on the slope of the boundary. The dimensional
formula is L3 and the conversion factor is Z3.

Density. — The density of a substance is the quantity of matter in the unit of volume.

M

The dimension formula is therefore — or M L~3, and conversion factor ra Z~3.

NOTE. — The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of its density to the density of a
standard substance. The dimension formula and conversion factor are therefore
both unity.

Velocity. — The velocity of a body at any instant is given by the equation v = -r-=,

or velocity is the ratio of a length-number to a time-number. The dimensional formula
L T - J, and conversion factor It"1.

Angle. — Angle is measured by the ratio of the length of an arc to the length of the
radius of the arc. The dimension formula and the conversion factor are therefore
both unity.

Angular Velocity. — Angular velocity is the ratio of the magnitude of the angle
described in an interval of time to the length of the interval. The dimension formula
is therefore T"1, and the conversion factor is t~l.

dv

Linear Acceleration. — Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity or a = 7-. The

at

dimension formula is therefore VT"1 or LT~2, and the conversion factor is lt~z.
Angular Acceleration. — Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular

velocity. The dimensional formula is thus — — or T~2, and the conver-
sion factor is t ~ 2.

Solid Angle. — A solid angle is measured by the ratio of the surface of the portion

m

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

of a sphere inclosed by the conical surface forming the angle to the square of radius
of the radius of the spherical surface, the center of the sphere being at the vertex of

the cone. The dimensional formula is therefore — — or 1, and hence the conversion
factor is also 1.

Curvature. — Curvature is measured by the rate of change of direction of the curve
with reference to distance measured along the curve as independent variable. The

dimension formula is therefore : - - or L""1, and the conversion factor is Z"1.

length

Tortuosity. — Tortuosity is measured by the rate of rotation of the tangent plane
round the tangent, to the curve of reference when length along the curve is independent

variable. The dimension formula is therefore . or L"1, and the conversion

length
factor is l~l.

Specific Curvature of a Surface. — This was denned by Gauss to be at any point of
the surface, the ratio of the solid angle enclosed by a surface formed by moving a normal
to the surface round the periphery of a small area containing the point, to the magnitude

of the area. The dimensional formula is therefore - ; - or L~2. and the con-

surface
version factor is l~\

Momentum. — This is the quantity of motion in the Newtonian sense, and is, at
any instant, measured by the product of the mass-number and the velocity-number for
the body. Thus, the dimension formula is M V or M L T-1 and the conversion factor
mlt~l.

The Moment of Momentum. — The moment of momentum of a body with reference
to a point is the product of its momentum-number and the number expressing the
distance of its line of motion from the point. The dimensional formula is thus M L2 T - *
and hence the conversion factor is m P t~l.

Moment of Inertia. — The moment of inertia of a body round any axis is expressed
by the formula S m r2, where m is the mass of any particle of the body and r its distance
from the axis. The dimension formula for the sum is clearly the same as for each
element and hence is M L2. The conversion factor is therefore m I2.

Angular Momentum. — The angular momentum of a body round any axis is the
product of the numbers expressing the moment of inertia and the angular velocity of
the body. The dimensional formula and the conversion factor are therefore the same
as for moment of momentum given above.

Force. — A force is measured by the rate of change of momentum it is capable of
producing. The dimension formulae for force and " time-rate of change of momentum"
are therefore the same and are expressed by ratio of momentum-number to time-
number or M L T~2. The conversion factor is thus ml t~z.

NOTE. — When mass is expressed in pounds, length in feet, and tune in seconds, the
unit of force is called the poundal. When grams, centimeters, and seconds are the
corresponding units, the unit of force is called the dyne.

Moment of a Couple, Torque or Twisting Motive. — These are different names for a
quantity which can be expressed as the product of two numbers representing a force
and a length. The dimension formula is therefore FL or M L2T~2, and the con-
version factor is m I2 t~2.

Intensity of a Stress. — The intensity of a stress is the ratio of a number expressing
the total stress to the number expressing the area over which the stress is distributed.
The dimensional formula is thus F L~2 or M L-1 T~2, and the conversion factor
isml-H-*.

Intensity of Attraction, or " Force at a Point." — This is the force of attraction per
unit mass on a body placed at the point, and the dimensional formula is therefore
F M"1 or LT~2, the same as acceleration. The conversion factors for acceleration
therefore apply.

[8]

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

Absolute Force of a Center of Attraction, or " Strength of a Center." — This is the
intensity of force at unit distance from the center and is, therefore, the force per unit-
mass at any point multiplied by the square of the distance from the center. The
dimensional formula thus becomes FL2 M"1 or L3T~2. The conversion factor is
therefore l*t~2.

Modulus of Elasticity. — A modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress intensity to
percentage strain. The dimension of percentage strain is a length divided by a length,
and is therefore unity. Hence the dimensional formula of a modulus of elasticity is
the same as that of stress intensity, or M L~1T~2, and the conversion factor is
thus also ml~l t~2.

Work and Energy. — When the point of application of a force acting on a body
moves in the direction of the force, work is done by the force, and the amount is measured
by the product of the force and displacement number. The dimensional formula is
therefore FL or M L2T~2. The work done by the force either produces a change
in the velocity of the body, or a change of shape or configuration of the body, or both.
In the first case it produces a change of kinetic energy, in the second a change of
potential energy. The dimension formulae of energy and work representing quantities
of the same kind are identical and the conversion factor for both is m I2 <"2.

Resilience. — This is the work done per unit-volume of a body in distorting it to
the elastic limit, or in producing rupture. The dimension formula is therefore M L2
X-2 L~3 or M L"1 T~2, and the conversion factor is m l~l t~*.

Power, or Activity. — Power — or, as it is now very commonly called, activity — is

dw

defined as the time-rate of doing work, or, if W represents work and P power, P = - — .

d t

The dimensional formula is therefore W T - l or M L2 T ~ 3 and the conversion factor
m I2 t ~ 3, or for problems in gravitation-units, more conveniently / It ~ l, where /
stands for force factor.

EXAMPLE 1. — Find the number of gram- centimeters in one foot-pound. Here the
units of force are the attraction of the earth on the pound and the gram of matter,
and the conversion factor is / 1, where / is 453.59 and I is 30.48.

Hence the number is 453.59 X 30.48 = 13,825.

NOTE. — It is important to remember that in problems like that here given the terms
"pound " or "gram" refer to force and not to mass.

2. If gravity produces an acceleration of 32.2 feet per second per second, how many
watts are required to make one horse-power?

One horse-power is 550 foot-pounds per second, or 550 X 32.2 = 17,710 foot-
poundals per second. One watt is 107 ergs per second, that is, 107 dyne- centimeters
per second. The conversion factor is ml2t~3, where m = 453.59, I = 30.48, and
t = 1, and the result has to be divided by 107, the number of dyne-centimeters per
second in the watt.

Hence, 17,710 mPt~3 -;- 107 = 17,710 X 453.59 X 30.482 -f- 107 = 746.3.

3. How many gram-centimeters per second correspond to 33,000 foot-pounds per
minute?

The conversion factor suitable for this case is fl t -1, where / is 453.59, I is 30.48,
and t is 60.

Hence, 33,000 It-* = 33,000 X 453.59 X 30.48 + 60 = 7,604,000, nearly.

HEAT UNITS

If heat be measured in dynamical units its dimensions are the same as those of
energy, namely, ML2T~2. The most common measurements, however, are made
in thermal units, that is, in terms of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of unit mass of water one degree of temperature at some stated temperature. This
method of measurement involves the unit of mass and some unit of temperature, and
hence if we denote temperature-numbers by 9 and their conversion factors by d, the
dimensional formula and conversion factor for quantity of heat will be M9 and mO
respectively. The relative amount of heat compared with water as standard substance

[9]

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

required to raise unit mass of different substances one degree in temperature is called
their specific heat and is a simple number.

Unit volume is sometimes used instead of unit mass in the measurement of heat,
the units being then called thermometric units. The dimensional formula is in that
case changed by the substitution of volume for mass and becomes L36, and here the
conversion factor is to be calculated from the formula 1*6.

Coefficient of Expansion. — The coefficient of expansion of a substance is equal to
the ratio of the change of length per unit length (linear) or change of volume per unit
volume (voluminal) to the change of temperature. These ratios are simple numbers,
and the change of temperature is inversely as the magnitude of the unit of tempera-
ture. Hence, the dimensional and conversion-factor formulae are 9 — 1 d~l.

Conductivity, or Specific Conductance. — This is the quantity of heat transmitted
per unit 01 time per unit of surface per unit of temperature gradient. The equation

TT

for conductivity is therefore with H as quantity of heat K = — —

— L2 T and the dimensional
L

formula = T-TT> which gives m I ~ 1 1 ~ l for conversion factor.

9 L 1 LI

In thermometric units the formula becomes L2 T ~ *, which properly represents
diffusivity . In dynamical units H becomes M L2 T ~~ 2 and the formula changes to
M L T - 3 0 — *. The conversion factors obtained from these are I2 1 ~ 1 and mlt"3 6~1
respectively.

Similarly, for emission and absorption we have:

Emissivity and Immissivity. — These are the quantities of heat given off by or
taken in by the body per unit of time per unit of surface per unit difference of tem-
perature between the surface and the surrounding medium. We thus get the equation
EL29T = H = M9. The dimensional formula for E is therefore M L~2 T~l,
and conversion factor ml~zt~l. In thermometric units by substituting I* for m
the factor becomes I t~l, and in dynamical units m t~s 0~l.

Thermal Capacity. — This is the product of the number for mass and the specific
heat, and hence the dimensional formula and conversion factor are simply M and m.

Latent Heat. — Latent heat is the ratio of the number representing the quantity of
heat required to change the state of a body to the number representing the quantity of

M 9
matter in the body. The dimensional formula is therefore, or 9, and hence the

conversion factor is simply the ratio of the temperature units or 6. In dynamical units
the factor isl*t-*.

NOTE. — When 9 is given the dimension formula L2T~2, the formulae in thermal
and dynamical units are always identical. The thermometric units practically suppress
mass.

Joule's Equivalent. — Joule's dynamical equivalent is connected with quantity of
heat by the equation ML2T-2 = JHorJM8.

This gives for the dimensional formula of J the expression L2 T~2 9. The conver-
sion factor is thus represented by Z* 1~2 0. When heat is measured in dynamical units
J is a simple number.

Entropy. — The entropy of a body is directly proportional to the quantity of heat it
contains and inversely proportional to its temperature. The dimensional formula is

ivr 9

thus - — or M, and the conversion factor is m. When heat is measured in dynamical
9

units the factor ismPt~z 6~l.

EXAMPLE. — Find the relation between the British thermal unit, the calorie and
the therm.

Neglecting the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature, or defining
all the units for the same temperature of the standard substance, we have the following
definitions: The British thermal unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the

[10]

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

temperature of one pound of water 1° F. The calorie is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water 1~ O. The therm is the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1° C. Hence:

To find the number of calories in one British thermal unit, we have ra = .45399

and 8 = — ;

m 6 = .45399 X — = .25199.
y

To find the number of therms in a calorie, m = 1,000 and 0 = 1; .". m 0 = 1,000.

It follows at once that the number of therms in one British thermal unit is 1,000
X .25199 = 251.99.

If Joule's equivalent be 776 foot-pounds per pound of water per degree Fahr.,
what will be its value in gravitation units when the meter, the kilogram and the degree
Cent, are units?

The conversion factor in this case is

v It

t ~ 2 6
_ or 1 0, where I = .3048 and 0 = 1.8;

'

:. 776 X .3048 X 1.8 = 425.7.

If Joule's equivalent be 24,832 foot-poundals when the degree Fahr. is unit of
temperature, what will be its value when kilogrammeter-second and degree-Centigrade
units are used?

The conversion factor is Z2£~20, where I = .3048, t = 1, and 6 = 1.8; .'. 24,832
Xl2t~26 = 24,832 X .30482 X 1.8 = 4,152.5.

In gravitation units this would give ' ' = 423.3.

9.ol

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS OF LENGTH,

MASS, TIME, AND TEMPERATURE
Fundamental: Length ......... Symbol: L ...... Conversion factor: I

Mass .................... M ..................... m

Time ____ ... ............. T ...................... t

Temperature ............. 0 ...................... 6

GEOMETRIC AND DYNAMIC UNITS

Derived: Area .............. ........... . . .Conversion factor: P

Volume ......................................... . I3

Angle ............................................

Solid Angle ................ .... _____ ......... ..... .

Curvature ............ .............. .............. ~ l

Tortuosity ..... .- ....... . ............ .............

Specific Curvature of a Surface ..................... - 2

Angular Velocity ..................................

Angular Acceleration ..... ....... ........ ............ It ~ 2

Linear Velocity. . . ........ ......; ........... ..... . I t~l

Linear Acceleration ............................... .. lt~z

Density ................................. . . . ...... m l~ 3

Moment of inertia ...... ................. ......... m P

Intensity of attraction, or " force at a point " . . . ..... It-*

Absolute force of a center of attraction, or "strength of

a center" ..... ................. . ........ ..... I3 1 ~ 2

Momentum ......................... ... .......... mlt~l

Moment of momentum, or angular momentum ........ m Z2 t~l

Force ............................................ ml t~2

Moment of a couple, or torque ...................... mPt~2

Intensity of stress ................................. ml~l t~2

Modulus of elasticity ....................... ........ ml~1t~2

Work and energy ...... ........................... m I'2 1 ~ 2

Resilience ............... . ........................ m l~lt~2

Power, or activity ................................. m I2 1 ~ 3

111]

UNITED STATES UNITS AND STANDARDS

HEAT UNITS

Derived: Quantity of heat (thermal units) . . .Conversion factor: m 0

Quantity of heat (thermometric units) ............... p Q

Quantity of heat (dynamical units) .................. mPt~z

Coefficient of thermal expansion .................... Q - 1

Conductivity (thermal units) ....................... ml~l t~l

Conductivity (thermometric units), or diffusivity ...... I2 t~l

Conductivity (dynamical units) .................. m 1 1~3 0—1

Emissivity and imissivity (thermal units) ............ ml-2t~l

Emissivity and imissivity (thermodynamic units) ...... lt~l

Emissivity and imissivity (dynamical units) .......... mt~3 0~l

Thermal capacity ................................. m

Latent heat (thermal units) ........................ 0

Latent heat (dynamical units) ...................... lzt~2

Joule's equivalent ................................. p t ~ 2 0

Entropy (heat measured in thermal units) ............ m

Entropy (heat measured in dynamical units) .........

UNITED STATES UNITS AND STANDARDS

The weights and measures in common use in the United States are an inheritance
from the Colonial period, therefore in substantial agreement with those of Great
Britain; certain variations occur such as the gallon and the bushel, which will be
explained further on.

Conformably to a resolution passed by the U. S. Senate in 1830, the Secretary of
the Treasury ordered a comparison of the weights and measures in use at the
principal custom houses to be made, and appointed F. R. Hassler, Superintendent of
the U. S. Coast Survey, to make the investigation and report. A preliminary report
was made in 1831, followed by a more complete report the year following. As was
anticipated, large discrepancies were found, but the average value of the different
denominations agreed fairly well with those in use in Great Britain at the time of the
American Revolution. Mr. Hassler was instructed to correct this irregularity by the
construction of uniform weights and measures for the customs service. With the
exception of the troy pound-weight, Congress had legalized no system of units of
weights and measures.

The avoirdupois pound adopted by Mr. Hassler as the standard for the Treasury
Department was derived from the troy pound of the U. S. Mint according to the equiv-

alent 1 avoirdupois pound equals -1-— pounds troy. This was the accepted relation

5,7oO

in this country as well as in England.

The standard yard of 36 inches, copied from the English yard, was incorporated
as the standard unit of length.

Two units of capacity, the wine gallon of 231 cubic inches and the Winchester
bushel of 2,150.42 cubic inches, were adopted because they represented more closely
than any other English standards the average capacity measures in use in the United
States at the date of Mr. Hassler's investigation.

These were the fundamental standards adopted upon the recommendation of Mr.
Hassler by the U. S. Treasury Department, and to which the weights and measures for
the customs service were made to conform.

AIR AS A STANDARD

The atmosphere varies in density from practically nothing, where it shades off into
space, to that produced by a pressure of 14.7 Ibs. at the level of the sea, which we
call atmospheric pressure. The height of the atmosphere has never been measured,
but observations of the duration of twilight, which is due to reflection from particles
of dust and air, give about 50 miles as the limit.

[12J

AIR AS A STANDARD

1 atmosphere
1 pound per square inch
1 pound pressure per sq. in.
1 pound pressure per sq. in.

1 Ib. pressure per sq. in. 32° F.

F. =

1 Ib. pressure per sq. in. 62'
1 atmosphere 32° F.
1 inch height of mercury
1 atmosphere 62° F.

inch height of mercury

atmosphere

pound per square foot

pound pressure per sq. ft.

pound pressure per sq. ft.

1 pound pressure per sq. ft. =

1 atmosphere

1 foot height of water at 62° F.

1 atmosphere

1 foot height of water at 32

Ah-, dry and pure, 32° F.

32° F.

32° F.

62° F.

62° F.

62° F.
1 atmosphere at 32° F.

F.

1 atmosphere

1 short ton per square foot

1 atmosphere

1 long ton per square foot

14.697 pounds per square inch (14.7).

.0680 atmosphere.

27.72 inches or 2.31 feet high of water at 62° F.
1891 feet high of air of uniform density at

sea level and 62° F.

2.035 inches high of mercury or 51.7 milli-
meters.

2.04 inches high of mercury.
29.921 incLes high of mercury.

.0334 atmosphere, 32° F.
30 inches high of mercury.

.0333 atmosphere, 62° F.
2116.35 pounds per square foot.
.000473 atmosphere.
.1925 inches high of water at 62° F.
13.13 feet high of air of uniform density at

sea level and 32° F.

.0141 inch or .359 millimeter of mercury at
sea level and 32° F.
At 62° F. the height is .01417 inch.
= 33.947 feet of water in height at 62° F.
= .0294 atmosphere.

33.901 feet high of water at 32° F.
= .0295 atmosphere.

= 1.0000 specific gravity.
= .080728 weight in pounds, 1 cubic foot.

= 12.387 vol. of 1 pound in cubic feet.
.94263 specific gravity 32° = 1.000.
.076097 weight of 1 cu. ft. pounds.
= 13.141 vol. of 1 pound in cubic feet.
= 27801 feet or 5.265 miles high of uniform dens-

ity, equal to that of air at the level of
the sea.

= 1.0582 short tons per square foot.
.945 atmosphere.
.945 long tons per square foot.
1.0584 atmosphere.

Weight of air compared with water at the level of the sea =

Water at 32° F. = 773.2 times the weight of air at 32° F.
39° 1 = 773.27 times the weight of air at 32°
62° = 772.4 times the weight of air at 32°
62° = 819.4 times the weight of air at 62°
52° 3 = 820.0 times the weight of air at 62°

Weight in pounds of 1 cubic foot of air containing a standard amount of carbonic
acid. English Board of Trade, Standards Department.

Condition

of Air

Temperatures in Degrees Fahrenheit

32°

62°

80°

Dry air. . . .

.08098
.08093
.08080

.07632
.07596
.07578

.07377
.07313
.07281

Ordinary air
Moist air

(saturation
(saturation

= f)

= 1)

The standard amount of carbonic acid mentioned above is 6 volumes of carbonic
acid to 10,000 volumes of air.

[13]

AIR AS A STANDARD

Metric Measurements

1 atmosphere = 10332.9 kilograms per square meter.

1 kilogram per square meter .000097 atmosphere.

1 atmosphere = 760.0000 millimeters of mercury.

1 millimeter of mercury .001316 atmosphere.

1 atmosphere = 10.333 meters high of water.

1 meter high of water .0969 atmosphere.

1 atmosphere = 1.033 kilograms per square centimeter.

1 kilogram per square centimeter = .969 atmosphere.

1 atmosphere 1.013 megadynes per square centimeter.

1 megadyne per square centimeter = .9872 atmosphere.

One liter of air, under one atmosphere of 760 millimeters, at 0° Centigrade, at sea
level, weighs 1.293 grams, or 19.955 grains.

The collected data for dry air as given in C. G. S. System by Professor Everett is:

Expansion from 0° to 100° C. at constant pressure as .... 1 to 1.367

Specific heat at constant pressure 0.238

Specific heat at constant volume 0.170

Pressure-height at 0° C. about 7.99 X 105 cm., or about. . 26210.000 ft.

Standard barometric column, 76 cm 29.922 ins.

Standard pressure = 1033.3 grams per square centimeter,

or 14.7 pounds per square inch,

or 2117.0 pounds per square foot,

or 1.0136 X 106 dynes per square centimeter.

Standard density, at 0° C. = 0.001293 gram per cubic centimeter.

or 0.0807 prunds per cubic foot.

Standard bulkiness 773.0 cubic centimeters per gram,

or 12.39 cubic foot per pound.

Specific Heat of Air. — The specific heat of air is the ratio of the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of air through one degree at 32° F. Air,
in common with other gases, has two specific heats: (1) Specific heat at constant pres-
sure; the application of heat to air expands it: if the air is free to expand, work is done in
heating the air and in overcoming the external pressure of the atmosphere; (2) if the air
is confined so that its volume cannot change and heat is applied, the effect is rise in
temperature, and this is called specific heat at constant volume. The former requires
more hea than the latter because external work is performed in addition to the rise
in temperature. When air is heated at constant volume, only internal work is done.

Regnault found the specific heat at constant pressure to be .2375 water = 1.
Then, one cubic foot of air at 32° F. = .08098 pound, the reciprocal of which = 12.3487
cubic feet under one atmosphere of pressure and 32° F.

The specific heat of air at constant volume = .1689.

Ratio of the specific heats of air:

Constant pressure, .2375 _
Constant volume, .1689 "

which agrees with the values obtained indirectly from the velocity of sound. Assum-
ing that the value 332 meters (1089 feet) per second is good for the velocity of sound,
the ratio of the specific heats must pe near to 1.4063. According to the Smithsonian
Physical Tables, 1.4065 may be taken as fairly representing our present knowledge of
the subject.

[14]

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR WATER

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reduction factors: 1 cubic foot of water at 4° C., or 39° 2 F. = 62.4 pounds.
1 cubic inch of water = 0.0361111 pounds.
1 cubic centimeter of water at 4° C. = 1 gram.

Reciprocal

1 gram of water = 15.432356 grains 0.0647989

=; 0.811532 U. S. Apoth. scruples 1 .232237

= 0 . 270511 U. S. Apoth. dram 3 . 696707

= 0.0610234 cubic inch 16.387163

= 0.0352740 ounce, av 28.349492

= 0 . 0338138 U. S. liquid ounce 29 . 573724

= 0.0321507 ounce, troy 31 . 103521

= 0.00267923 pound, troy. . 373.241566

= 0.00220462 pound, av : . . . 453.592428

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 cubic inch of water = 252.777778 grains 0.00395604

= 16.387163 grams 0.0610234

= 0.577778 ounce, av 1.730769

= 0.554113 U. S. liquid ounce 1 .804688

= 0.526620 ounce, troy 1 .898901

= 0.043885 pound, troy 22.786814

= 0.036111 pound, av 27.692307

= 0.034632 U. S. liquid pint 28.875000

= 0.0288326 English pint 34.683000

= 0.017316 U. S. liquid quart 57.750000

= 0.0163872 liter 61.023378

= 0.0163872 kilogram 61 .023378

= 0.0144163 English quart 69 .366000

= 0.004329 U. S. gallon 231 .000000

= 0.00360408 English gallon 277.463000

= 0.0005787 cubic foot 1728.000000

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 pound of water = 453 .592428 grams 0.00220462

= 27.692307 cubic inches 0.0361111

= 15 .344695 U. S. liquid ounces 0.0651691

= 1 .215278 pounds, troy 0.822857

= 0.959041 U. S. liquid pint 1 .042708

= 0.798440 English pint : 1 .252442

= 0.479520 U. S. liquid quart 2.085417

= 0.453592 liter 2.204622

= 0.453592 kilogram 2.204622

= 0.399220 English quart 2 .504883

= 0.119880 U. S. gallon 8.341667

= 0.0998054 English gallon 10.019497

= 0.0160256 cubic foot^x 62 .400000

= 0.000593542 cubic yard. . . .v. .v. 1684.800000

= 0.00050000 short ton 2000.000000

= 0 . 000453592 cubic meter . 2204 . 622341

= 0.000453592 metric ton 2204.622341

= 0.00044643 long ton 2240.000000

[15]

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR WATER
WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 liter of water = 61 .023378 cubic inches 0.0163872

= 2 . 679228 pounds, troy 0 . 373242

= 2. 204622 pounds, av 0.453592

= 2.113364 U. S. liquid pints 0.473179

= 1 .759464 English pints 0.568354

= 1 .056681 U. S. liquid quarts 0.946359

= 1.000000 kilogram 1.000000

= 0.879732 English quart 1 . 136708

= 0.264170 U. S. gallon 3.785434

= 0.219933 English gallon 4.546831

= 0.0353145 cubic foot 28.317016

= 0.00130793 cubic yard 764.559444

= 0.00110231 short ton 907 . 184872

= 0.00100000 metric ton 1000.000000

= 0.00098421 long ton 1016.047057

WATER AS A STANDARD

United States GaUons

Reciprocal

1 gallon of water = 231 .000000 cubic inches 0.004329

= 10. 137461 pounds, troy. . 0.098644

= 8.341667 pounds, av 0. 119880

= 8.000000 U. S. liquid pints 0.125000

= 6.660324 English pints 0. 150143

= 4.000000 U. S. liquid quarts 0.250000

= 3.785434 liters 0.264170

= 3.785434 kilograms ' 0.264170

= 3.330162 English quarts 0.300286

= 0.832543 English gallon 1.201139

= 0.133681 cubic foot 7.480519

= 0.00495113 cubic yard 201 .974025

= 0.00417083 short ton 239.760231

= 0.00372396 long ton 268.531457

= 0.00378543 cubic meter 264. 170467

= 0.00378543 metric ton 264. 170467

WATER AS A STANDARD

Imperial Gallon of Great Britain

Reciprocal

1 gallon of water = 277.463000 cubic inches 0.00360408

= 12. 176472 pounds, troy 0.0821256

= 10.019497 pounds, av 0.0998054

= 9.609108 U. S. liquid pints 0. 104068

= 8.000000 English pints 0. 125000

= 4.804554 U. S. liquid quarts 0.208136

= 4.546831 liters 0.219933

= 4.546831 kilograms 0 .219933

= 4.000000 English quarts 0.250000

= 1 .201139 U. S. gallons. . 0.832543

= 0.160569 cubic foot 6.227843

= 0.0059470 cubic yard 168.152150

= 0.00500975 short ton 199.610819

= 0.00454477 metric ton 220.033235

= 0.00447299 long ton 223.564117

[161

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR WATER

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 cubic foot of water = 1728.000000 cubic inches 0.000578704

= 75.833333 pounds, troy 0.0131868

= 62.400000 pounds, av . 0.0160256

= 59.844047 U. S. liquid pints 0.0167101

= 49.822679 English pints 0.0200712

= 29.922112 U. S. liquid quarts 0.0334201

= 28.317016 liters 0.0353145

= 28.317016 kilograms 0.353145

= 24.911340 English quarts 0.0401424

7.480495 U. S. gallons 0. 133681

6.227857 English gaUons 0.160569

0.370370 cubic yard 27.000000

0.031200 short ton 32.051282

0.0283170 cubic meters* 35.314455

0.0283042 metric ton 35.330486

0.0278571 long ton 35.897436

This line and the one following show the relation of a cubic foot to a cubic meter
figured in feet and inches, also the relation of a cubic foot of water = 1728 cubic inches
weighing 62.4 pounds — to a metric ton. The figures should in both cases be alike,
the difference is due to the cumulative effect of unending decimals. In the case of the
metric ton we have the fractions: 1 meter = 3.280833333 feet, and 1 kilogram = 2.204-
622341 pounds. Without attempting to adjust fractional differences, the recognized
metric ton = 2204 . 622341 pounds is here employed.

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 cubic yard of water = 1684.800000 pounds 0.000593485

= 764.212640 liters 0.000130854

= 201 .974025 U. S. gallons 0.00495113

= 168. 152150 English gallons 0.00594700

= 27.000000 cubic feet 0.0370370

.842400 short tons 1.187085

= .764213 metric ton 1 .308536

.752143 long ton 1 .329534

WATER AS A STANDARD

1 cubic meter of water at 4° C. = 1 metric ton

Reciprocal

1 cubic meter of water = 2204.622341 pounds 0.000453592

= 1000.000000 liters 0.001000000

= 1000.000000 kilograms 0.001000000

= 264.170467 U. S. gallons 0.00378543

= 219.933389 English gallons 0.00454683

= 35.314455 cubic feet 0.0283170

1 .307943 cubic yards 0.764560

1.102311 short tons 0.907185

1.000000 metric ton 1.000000

= ' 0.984206 long ton 1.0160471

[17]

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR WATER
WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 short ton of water = 2000.000000 pounds 0.0005000

= 907.184872 liters 0.00110231

= 907. 184872 kilograms 0.00110231

= 239.760231 U. S. gallons 0.00417083

= 199.610819 English gallons 0.00500975

= 32.051283 cubic feet 0.031200

1 . 187085 cubic yards 0.842400

0.892858 long ton 1 . 120000

0 . 907185 metric ton . . . 1 . 10231 1

WATER AS A STANDARD

Reciprocal

1 long ton of water = 2240.000000 pounds 0.000446429

= 1016.047057 liters 0.00098421

= 1016.047057 kilograms 0.00098421

= 268.531457 U. S. gallons 0.00372396

= 223.564117 English gallons 0.00447299

= 35.897436 cubic feet 0.0278571

1 .329535 cubic yards 0.752143

1 . 120000 short tons 0.892858

1.016047 metric tons . . 0.984206

[18]

PROPERTIES OF METALS

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF METALS

Metal.

Symbol.

Atomic
Weight.

Atomic
Volume.

Specific
Gravity.

Specific
Heat.

Melt-
ing
Point.
°C.

Coefficient
of Linear
Expansion.

Thermal
Conduc-
tivity in
cal. cm.
sees.

Electrical
Conduc-
tivity.
Ag.=100.

Aluminium .

Al

27'1

10-6

2-56

0-218

657

0-0000231

0-502

57-3

Antimony

Sb

120-2

17-9

6-71

0-051

630-

0-0000105

0-042

4-6

Arsenic .

As

75-0

13-2

5-67

0-081

450

0-0000055

, .

47

Barium .

Ba

137-4

36-3

3-78

0-047

850

. .

. .

13

Bismuth .

Bi

208-0

21-2

9-80

0-031

266

0-0000162

0-019

1-3

Cadmium

Cd

112-4

13-2

8-60

0-056

322

0-0000306

0-219

147

Caesium .

Cs

132-8

71-1

1-87

0-048

26

..

37

Calcium .

Ca

40-1

25-5

1-57

0-170

780

. .

22-1

Cerium .

Ce

140-2

21-0

6'68

0-045

623

% .

•.•

Chromium

Cr

52-0

7-7

6-80

0*120

1482

ff

..

Cobalt .

Co

59-0

6-9

8*50

0-103

1464

0-00*00123

. .

15-6

Columbian! .

Cb

93-5

7'4

1270

0-071

>t

tm

Copper .

Cu

63-6

71

8-93

0-093

1084

0-0000167

0-924

94 :0

Gallium .

Ga

699

11-8

5-90

0-079

30

. .

. .

(ilucinum

Gl

91

4'7

1-93

0-621

..

Gold

Au

197-2

10-2

19-32

0-031

1065

0-0000144

0-700

66-8

Indium •.

In

114-8

15-5

7-42

0-057

155

0-0000417

, .

16-5

Iridium .

Ir

1931

8-6

22-42

0-033

1950

0-0000070

Iron

Fe

55-8

7-1

7-8G

0-110

1505

0-0000121

0-147

16:2

Lanthanum .

La

1390

22-4

6*20

0'045

810

, <

..

Lead

Pb

2071

18-2

11-37

0-031

327

0-0000292

0-084

7'2

Lithium .

Li

6-9

13-0

0-54

0-941

186

17-5

Magnesium .

Mg

24-3

14-0

1-74

0-250

633

0-0000269

0-343

337

Manganese .

Mn

64-9

6-9

8' 00

0'120

1207

. .

. .

Mercury .

Hg

200-6

14-7

13-59

0-032

-39

0-0000610

0-020

1-6

Molybdenum .

Mo

96-0

11-2

8-60

0-072

2500

Nickel .

Hi

58-7

6-7

8-80

0-108

1427

0-0000127

0-141

21-2

Osmium

Os

1909

8-5

22-48

0-031

2500

0-0000065

15-5

Palladium

Pd

1067

9-3

11-50

0-059

1535

0-0000117

0-168

145

Platinum

Pt

195-2

9-1

21-50

0-032

1710

0-0000089

0-1G6

13-4

Potassium

K

39-1

45-5

0-86

0-170

62

0-0000841

..

80-8

Rhodium

Rh

102-9

8-5

12-10

0-058

1660

0-0000085

. .

Rubidium

Rb

85-5

65-9

1-53

0-077

38

..

..

Ruthenium .

Ru

101-7

8-3

12-26

0-061

1800

0-0000096

Silver • •

Ag

107-9

10-2

10-53

0-056

961

0-0000192

0-993

lOO'O

Sodium .

Na

23-0

23-8

0'97

0-290

95

0-0000710

0-365

37'3

Stro'ntium

Sr

87-6

34-5

2-54

t

800

6-7

Taritalum

Ta

181-5

16-7

10-80

0-036

2910

0-0000079

. .

8-9

Tellurium

Te

127-5

20-4

625

0-049

440

0-0000167

. .

6-8

Thallium

Tl

204-0

17-2

11-85

0-033

303

0-0000302

..

8'3

Thorium

Th

232-4

20-9

11 10

0-028

,

. .

..

Tin

Sn

119-0

16-3

7'2'J

0-055

232

0-0000223

0-155

ii-3

Titanium

Ti

48-1

9-9

4-87

0-130

..

Tungsten

W

184-0

9-6

1910

0-034

3100

..

i:7

Uranium

u

238-5

12-8

18-70

0-028

. .

..

Vanadium

V

510

9'3

5-50

0-125

1680

..

•• •

Yttrium .

Yt

89-0

23-4

3-80

. .

..

tf

Zinc

Zn

65-4

9-1

7-15

0-094

419

0-0000291

0-269.

25-2

Zirconium

Zr

90-6

21'8

4-15

0*066

1500

v

••

[19]

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

MELTING POINTS OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Element

P

C

Element

P

C

Helium
Hydrogen
Neon

<-456
-434
—423 •

<-271

-259
-253?

Praseodymium.
Germanium. . .
SILVER. .

1725
1756
1761

940?
958
960 5

Fluorine

—369

— 223

Glucinum. .

>AK

Oxygen.

-360

-218

?

Nitrogen

—346

— 210

GOLD

1945.5

1063.0

Argon

—306

— 188

COPPER

1981 5

1083 0

Krypton

— 272

— 169

Manganese. .

2237

1225

Xenon

— 220

— 140

Yttrium

?

Chlorine

— 150 5

— 101 5

| 2370-

Samarium. . . .

1 1300-1400

MERCURY . . .
Bromine

- 37.7
+ 18 9

— 38.7
— 7 3

Scandium

( 2550

?

Caesium. .

79

26

Silicon

2588

1420

Gallium

86

30

NICKEL

2646

1452

Rubidium.

100

38

Cobalt

2714

1490

Phosphorus. . . .
Potassium

111.4
144

44
62.3

Chromium. . . .
IRON

2750

2768

1510
1520

Sodium

207 5

97 5

PALLADIUM.

2820

1549

Iodine.

236 5

113 5

Zirconium

3100

1700?

fSi 235.0

112.8

Thorium.

f >3090

>1700

Sulphur

j Sn 246 . 6
[Sui 244 2

119.2

106 8

Vanadium

{ <Pt.
3150

<Pt.
1730?

Indium

311

155

PLATINUM .

3191

1755

Lithium

367

186

Beryllium

>3270

> 1800?

Selenium

422-428

217-220

Ytterbium.

?

TIN

449.4

231.9

Titanium

3450

1900?

Bismuth

520

271

Rhodium

3525

1940

Thallium
CADMIUM....
LEAD

576
609.6
621.1

302
320.9
327 4

Ruthenium. . . .
Columbium
(Niobium) . .

>3550
4000

>1950
2200?

ZINC

786 9

419 4

( 4000- ]

Tellurium. . .

846

452

Boron

4500

2200-2500

ANTIMONY...
Cerium. .

1166
1184

630.0
640

Iridium
Uranium.

4170

2300?
?

Magnesium. . . .
ALUMINIUM

1204
1217 7

651

658 7

Molybdenum . .
Osmium

4500
4900

2500?
2700?

Calcium ....

1490

810

Tantalum

5160

2850

Lanthanum ....
Strontium.

1490

810?
>Ca<Ba?

TUNGSTEN. .

5430
[ >6500

3000

Neodymium. . . .
Arsenic

1544
1560

840?
850?

Carbon

for
!p= 1 At.

>3600
forp = lAt.

Barium. .

1560

850

The values of the melting points used by the Bureau of Standards as standard tem-
peratures for the calibration of thermometers and pyrometers are indicated in capitals.
The other values have been assigned after a careful survey of all the available data.

As nearly as may be, all values, in particular the standard points, have been reduced
to a common scale, the thermodynamic scale. For high temperatures, and for use with
optical pyrometers, this scale is satisfied very exactly by taking c2 = 14,500 in the
formula for Wien's law connecting I, monochromatic luminous intensity of wave
length A, and T, absolute temperature: log I/I. = Ci A log e (1/T2 — 1/T). For all
purposes, except the most accurate investigations, the thermodynamic scale is identical
with any of the gas scales.

[20]

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF METALS
WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF METALS

Metal

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Metal

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Cu.
In.

Cu.

Ft.

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

Aluminum
Antimony

2. 56 to 2.80
6. 70 to 6.72
3. 75 to 4.00
9. 70 to 9.90
8. 54 to 8.67

1.88 to 1.90
1.58
6. 62 to 6.72
6. 52 to 6.73
8. 50 to 9.10

7.10to 7.40
8. 80 to 8.95
6.54
5.93
5.46

1.86 to 2.06
19. 26 to 19. 34
7. 27 to 7.42
21. 78 to 22. 42
7.21

7.77
7.8 to 7.9
6. 05 to 6.16
11. 34 to 11.36

.097
.242
.140
.354
.311

.068
.057
.241
.239
.318

.262
.321
.236
.214
.197

.071
.697
.266
.798
.260

.280
.284
.220
.410

167

418
242
612
537

118
99
416
414
549

452
554
408
370
341

122
1,204
459
1,379
450

485
490
381
708

Lithium
Magnesium ....
Manganese ....
Mercury

0.59
1.69 to 1.75
6. 86 to 8.03
13.596
8. 40 to 8.60

8.9 to 9.2
21. 40 to 22. 40
11.0 to 12.0
21. 20 to 21. 70
0.85 to 0.88

11. 00 to 12. 10
11. 00 to 11.40
10. 40 to 10.57
0.97 to 0.99
2.50to 2.58

11.8 to 11. 9
7. 29 to 7.30
5.30
9.4 to 10.1
19.12

18. 33 to 18.65
7.04to 7.16
7.19
4.14

.021
.062
.269
.491
.307

.327
.791
.416

.774
.031

.417
.405

.378
.035
.091

.428
.263
.192
.352
.690

.668
.256
.260
.149

37
107
465
848
530

565
1,366
718
1,338
54

721

699
654
61
158

739
455
331
608
1,193

1,154
443
449
258

Barium

Bismuth

C admium

Molybdenum. . .
Nickel

CsBsium

Calcium

Osmium

C6rium

PaUadium

Chromium

Platinum . .

Cobalt

Potassium
Rhodium

Columbium

Copper

Ruthenium. . . .
Silver

Didymium
Gallium

Sodium
Strontium

Germanium

Glucinium

Thallium

Gold

Tin . ...

Indium
Iridium

Titanium
Thorium

Iron cast

Tungsten ......
Uranium

Iron, wrought. . .
Iron (steel)
Lanthanum
Lead

Zinc, cast

Zinc, wrought . .
Zirconium

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

Substance

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Substance

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

Alabaster

2.76

1.72
1.31
4.50
2.90

2.55
2.20
1.75
1.90
2.51

.100
.062
.042
.163
.105

.092
.079
.063
.069
.091

172

107
82
281
181

159
137
109
119
157

Clay

1.92
2.26
1.60
2.10
4.20

2.90
1.60
1.40
1.90
2.55

.069
.082
.058
.076
.152

.105
.058
.050
.069
.092

120
141
100
131
262

181
100
87
119
159

Alum . .

Concrete, stone
Concrete, cinder. . .
Concrete, slag
Copper ore

Asphaltum

Barytes

Basalt

Bauxite .

Dolomite
Earth, argillaceous.
Earth, light vege . .
Earth, potters' ....
Feldspar

Bluestone

Borax

Brick. . . .

Chalk, air-dried

[21

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERALS
WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES — (Con/.)

Substance

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Substance

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

Cu.
In.

Cu.

Ft.

Flint .

2.63
2.50
2.60
2.66
2.93

2.20

.095
.090
.094
.096
.106

.079
.056
.064
.108
.072

.108
.032
.187
.137
.184

.100
.082
.269
.100
.097

.103
.095
.150
.108
.097

.063
.100
.060
.059
.032

.027
.017

164
156
162
166
183

137
95
110
187
125

187
56
324
237
318

172
141
465
172
168

178
165
259
187
168

109
172
103
102
56

47
29

Phosphate rock. . . .
Phosphorus

3.20
1.80
1.09
2.31
2.75

1.38
2.90
2.18
.64
2.66

2.65
1.92
2.30

2.30
2.30
2.80
2.60

2.80
2.73

.116

.065
.039
.083
.100

.050
.105
.079
.023
.096

.095
.069
.083
.057
.064

.068
.083
.083
.101
.094

.101
.098

200
112
68
144
172

86
181
136
40
166

165
120
144
98
110

118
144
144
175
162

175
170
10
50

168

125
168
75
119
418

170
253

Glass, common . .

Glass, flint

Pitch

Granite, gneiss

Porcelain

Granite, gray

Porphyry

Graphite

Portland cmt., loose
Portland cmt., set .
Potash

Gravel, loose

Gravel, packed
Greenstone

s'oo

2.00

3.00
.90
5.20
3.80
5.09

2.75
2.26
7.45
2.75

2.69

2.86
2.65
4.15
3.00
2.70

1.75
2.75
1.65
1.63

.89

.76
.46

Pumice

Gypsum

Quartz

Hornblende

Rock crystal

Ice melting

Salt, common solid
Salt rock

Iron ore, hematite

Iron ore, limonite
Iron ore, maepietic

Sand, dry, loose. . .
Sand, packed

Sand, wet
Sandstone

Iron slag

Lava. .

Lead ore

Schist, rough
Schist, slate. .

Lime, loose

Limestone carboniferous

Limestone, magnesian . .
Limestone, marble . . .

Serpentine

Shale, slate

Slate

Manganese ore

Snow, loose . .

Magnesite

Snow, compact ....
Soapstone, talc. . . .

Sulphur
Talc, steatite
Tar, bituminous . . .
Tile . . .

2.70

2.00
2.70
1.20
1.90
6.70

2.72
4.05

!097

.072
.097
.043
.069
.242

.098
.146

Marble

Marl

Mica

Mortar

Mud

Paraffine . .

Tin ore

Peat, dense

Trap

Peat, fibrous

Zinc ore

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AMERICAN COALS

Specific
Gravity

Pounds
Cubic Foot

Anthracite, Lehigh Co., Pa

1.57
1.36
1.40

1.41

98

85

87
88

Anthracite, Carbon Co Pa

Semi- Anthracite, Wilkesbarre, Pa

Semi-Bituminous Cumberland Md

[22]

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COALS AND WOOD

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AMERICAN COALS — (Cont.)

Specilc
Gravity

Pounds
Cubic Foot

Semi-Bituminous, Blossburg, Pa

.32

82

Bituminous Pennsylvania

35

84

Block Coal Indiana

29

80

Brown Coal Kentucky

.17

73

Caking Coal short flame

33

83

Caking Coal long flame .

.30

81

Caking Coal gas

.29

80

Cannel Coal Indiana

1 23

77

Coke Connellsville.

1.28

80

Coke, loose per cubic foot

50

Lignite Kentucky ^

1 20

75

Lignite Texas .

1.23

77

Lignite, Colorado

1.28

80

Peat light fibrous . .

20

Peat dense . . . .

41

Peat, comoressed. hard . .

75

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS KINDS OF WOOD

Wood

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Wood

Specific
Gravity

WEIGHT

Cubic
Inch

Cubic
Foot

Cubic
Inch

Cubic
Foot

Apple
Ash

.75
.74
.46
.80
.64

.38
.51
.78
.66
.24

.48
1.21
.58
.54
.83

.51
.99
.53
.75

.53
1.25
.46
.71

.027
.027
.017
.029
.023

.014
.019
.028
.024
.009

.017
.044
.021
.020
.030

.019
.036
.019
.027

.019
.045
.017
.025

47
46
29
50
40

24
32
49
41
15

30
76
36
34
52

32
62
33

47

33

78
29
44

Mahogany, Hond.
Mahogany, Spa. .
Maple

.56

.85
.69
.64
.95

.74
.62
.75
.61
.54

.83
.48
.42

.48

.48

.42
.51
.50

.72

.77
.98
.67
.50

.020
.031
.025
.023
.034

.027
.023
.027
.022
.020

.030
.017
.015
.017
.017

.015
.019
.018
.026

.028
.035 .
.024
.018

35

53
43
40
59

46
39
47
38
34

52
30
26
30
30

26
32
31
45

48
61
42
31

Basswood

Beech..

Oak, red

Birch

Oak, live

Butternut

Oak, white . .

Cedar

Pine, loblolly
Pine, long leaf . . .
Pine, Norway. . . .
Pine, Oregon ....

Pine, pitch

Cherry

Chestnut

Cork

Cvoress .

Ebony
Elm. . .

Pine, red

Pine, white
Pine, yellow
Poplar

Fir, Douglas. . .
Gum, blue. . . r .

Gum, red

Redwood, Cal. . .
Spruce

Gum, water. . . .
Hemlock
Hickory

Sycamore

Tamarack

Larch . .

Teak, Indian ....
Teak, African. . . .
Walnut

Lignum vitae. . .
Linden

Locust

Willow

NOTE. Weights are approximate only. Green timber may have as much as 50% moisture. Well-
seasoned, air-dried timber may have 15 to 20% moisture.

[23]

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS AND GASES
WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS

Liquid

I?:

WEIGHT

Liquid

Gpr;

WEIGHT

U.S.
Gal.

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

U.S.
Gal.

Cu.
In.

Cu.
Ft.

Acetone

0.792
1.207
1.519
1.800
.811

.802
.793
.792
.830
.808

.899
3.187
.960
1.293
1.480

.736
1.260
.840
.665

1.495
1.600
.996

6.55
10.03
12.70
14.97
6.82

6.68
6.55
6.55
6.95
6.68

7.49
26.60
8.02
10.88
12.30

6.15
10.56
6.95
5.48

12.43
13.37
8.34

.028
.043
.055
.065
.030

.029
.028
.028
.030
.029

.032
.115
.035
.047
.053

.027
.046
.030
.024

.054
.058
.036

49
75
95
112
51

50
49
49
52
50

56
199
60
81
92

46
79
52
41

93
100
62

Oil, castor
Oil, cocoanut ....

.969
.925
.926
1.070
.920

.942
.913
918

8.02
7.75

7.75
8.96
7.62

7.89
7.62
7.62
7.49
7.09

7.75
7.62
8.02
7.62
7.22

7.35

6.68
6.68
8.56

10.16
7.22
8.34

.035
.034
.034
.039
.033

.034
.033
.033
.032
.031

.034
.033
.035
.033
.031

.032
.029
.029
.037

.044
.031
.036

60
58
58
67
57

59
57
57
56
53

58
57
60
57
54

55
50
50
64.3

76
54
62.4

Acid, hydrochloric . . .
Acid, nitric

Oil, cottonseed
Oil, creosote
Oil, lard

Acid, sulphuric
Alcohol, amyl

Alcohol, butyl

Oil, linseed
Oil, mineral (lub.)..
Oil olive

Alcohol, ethyl

Alcohol, methyl. . .

Alcohol, octyl

Oil, palm
Oil pine

.905
.855

.924
.914
.955
.920
.873

.878
.800
.800
1.025

1.210

.858
1.000

Alcohol, propyl. .

Benzine . .

Oil, poppy
Oil rapeseed

Bromine

Carbolic acid

Oil, resin
Oil, whale

Carbon disulphide. . .
Chloroform

Oil, turpentine

Ether

Oil, petroleum
Oil, petr. (light) . . .
Pyroligneous acid. .
Sea water

Glycerine

Naphtha (wood)
'Naphtha (petroleum).

Nitroglycol .

Soda lye

Nitroglycerin

Toluene
\Vater pure

Oil, anise-seed

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS GASES

Gases

I?:

WEIGHT

Gases

1?:

WEIGHT

Cu.
Ft.

Cu. Ft.
perLb.

Cu.
Ft.

Cu. Ft.
per Lb.

Ah- (32° F.)
Acetylene C2H2

1.000
.898
.592
1.529
.967
2.422
.967
.400

.0807
.0724
.0478
.1234
.0780
.1955
.0780
.0323

12.387
13.812
20.921
8.104
12.821
5.115
12.821
30.960

Gas natural

.475
.069
.559
.971
1.039
1.527
1.106
2.247

.0383
:0056
.0451
.0784
.0838
.1232
.0893
.1813

26.110
178.571
22.173
12.755
11.933
8.117
11.198
5.516

H y drogen

Ammonia, NHa

Marsh gas, CH

Carbon dioxide, CO2 . .
Carbon monoxide, CO.
Chlorine, C12O

Nitrogen

Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrous oxide, N2O. . .
Oxygen

Ethylene, C2H4 . . .

Gas, illuminating

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 .

[24]

HORSEPOWER AS A UNIT OF POWER

HORSEPOWER

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

James Watt, the inventor of the modern steam engine, adopted the term "horse-
power" as a unit for expressing the power of his steam engines, and defined its value in
gravitational units, viz., foot-pounds per minute. The value was derived from experi-
ments made about the year 1775.

Some heavy horses of Barclay & Perkins's brewery, London, were caused to raise
a weight from the bottom of a deep well by pulling horizontally on a rope passing over
a pulley. It was found that a horse could raise a weight of 100 pounds while walking
at the rate of 2.5 miles per hour. This is equivalent to 22,000 foot-pounds per minute.
Watt added 50 per cent to this value, giving 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or 550
foot-pounds per second. The addition of 50 per cent was an allowance made for friction,
so that a purchaser of one of his engines might have no ground for complaint. The
figure thus arrived at by Watt is admitted to be in excess of the power of an average
horse for continuous work, and is probably at least twice the power of the average horse
working six hours per day.

Since the time of Watt, his value has been in general use in England and the United
States, and 550 foot-pounds per second is known as the English horsepower.

The Pound as a Unit of Force has generally been used as a "gravitational" unit,
the characteristic of the gravitational units being that their magnitudes vary with
locality as g varies. Thus, a pound force is equal to the force of gravity on a pound
mass at any place where measurements happen to be made. The one advantage of
the gravitational system is that a given mass exerts the same number of pounds of
force no matter what its location. But by this mode of definition the magnitude of the
pound force is not constant, as it varies with g. A few writers, on the other hand, have
defined the pound force as a fixed unit, taking it as equal to the force of gravity on a
pound mass at some one particular place — e. g., Paris, or 45° latitude and sea level — thus
destroying the gravitational character of the unit.

The unit of force can be made definite and fixed, however, without abolishing the
gravitational system. This is done by recognizing the difference between the absolute
and the gravitational pound by the use of the terms "standard" and "local," re-
spectively. The principle involved is that contained in the definition of "standard
weight" by the International Conference on Weights and Measures in 1901. The
statement by the conference is given herewith:

The term weight designates a quantity of the same nature as a force; the weight
of a body is the product of the mass of that body, by the acceleration of gravity; in
particular, the standard weight of a body is the product of the mass of that body by
the standard acceleration of gravity.

The number adopted in the International Service of Weights and Measures for the
value of the standard acceleration of gravity is 980.665 centimeters per second (Proces-
Verbaux des Seances, Comite International des Poids et Mesures, p. 172, 1901).

By analogy with "standard weight," the "standard pound force" may be defined
as equal to the force of gravity on a pound mass at a place where g has the standard
value, 980.665 centimeters per second per second or 32.1740 feet per second per second.
Likewise the "local pound force" in any given locality may be defined as equal to the
force of gravity on a pound mass in that given locality.

The Standard Value of g, 980.665 centimeters per second per second, was originally
intended to represent the latitude of 45° and sea level. It has been widely used as a
standard value for barometric reductions, etc., since 1901, and there is no reason why
it should not continue in use as a standard value, although the accepted theoretical
value for 45° and sea level is now a few parts in 100,000 different. The value, 980.665,
is the result of a calculation made by the International Committee on Weights and
Measures (Proces-Verbaux des Seances, p. 165, 1901) from Defforges' absolute deter-
mination (Ibid., p. 181, 1891; Memorial du Depdt General de la Guerre 15, (1), 1894)
of g at the International Bureau in 1888.

In calculating the equivalent of the horsepower in various units for different latitudes,
the following formula is used: g = 978.038 (1 + 0.005302 sin2 ? — 0.000007 sin2 2^),

[25]

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HORSEPOWER

where ^ is the latitude. This formula is accepted by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, and is the result of observations all over the United States with
Hayford's corrections for "isostatic compensation." It is referred to the absolute
determination of g at Potsdam about 1900.

TABLE 1

VARIOUS VALUES ADOPTED FOB THE HORSEPOWER
[Foot-pounds given in terms of the local foot and pound]

Foot-
Pounds per
Second

English
Horse-
power

Kilogram-
meters per
Second

Authority*

England and United States

550

1 0000

76 041

v

Austria (old) .

430

1 0010

76 119

H

Switzerland

500

0 9863

75 000

A

Sweden .

600

0 9856

74 943

N

Russia

550

1 0000

76 041

N

Prussia . .

480

0 9906

75 325

H

Saxony

530

0 9869

75 045

H

Baden

500

0 9863

75 000

jj

Wurtemburg.

525

0 9890

75 204

H

Bavaria

460

0 9888

75 190

K

Modern Germany

Austria

0 9863

75 000

v

France

Italy, etc

*V=various. H=Des Ingenieurs Taschenbuch-HUtte II (Berlin, 1902). A=F. Autenheimer,
Mechanische Arbeit (Stuttgart, 1871), p. 15. N =J. W. Nystrom, Elements of Mechanics (Philadelphia,
1875), p. 63. K=Karnarsch und Heeren's Technisches Worterbuch VI (1883), p. 637; and Alexander's
Weights and Measures (Baltimore, 1850).

After the metric system had come into use in France, Germany and Austria the
values of the horsepower in the various countries were reduced to kilogrammeters per
second, with the results shown in the table. The values range from 75 to 76 kilogram-
meters per second, averaging only a little more than 75. Hence, this round value, 75,
has been adopted generally on the Continent as the value of the horsepower.

The English value, 550 foot-pounds per second, is, however, equivalent to 76.041
kilogrammeters per second, and hence it is that there is a difference of nearly 1.5 per
cent between the value generally used in English and American practice and that used
in continental practice. Reduced to watts, the English horsepower is generally taken
as 746 watts, although the precise equivalent, in watts, of 550 foot-pounds per second
depends on the acceleration of gravity, and hence on the latitude and altitude.

TABLE 2

VALUE OF THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HORSEPOWER (746 WATTS) IN LOCAL FOOT-
POUNDS PER SECOND AT VARIOUS LATITUDES AND ALTITUDES

LATITUDE

Altitude

0°

(Equator)

30°

45°

60°

90°
(Pole)

Sea level

551 70

550.97

550.24

549.52

548.79

5000 feet

551 86

551 13

550 41

549.68

548.95

10,000 feet

552.03

551.30

550.57

549.85

549.12

AV/j \J\J\J IV/dJ ....* • /• J— . \J*J *J*J J. . *J\J W\J . *J I f_^JCcf - <-«-* U^fiS . I *-

The foregoing table may be put in the following approximate form for ease of
remembering.

[26]

CONTINENTAL HORSEPOWER

TABLE 3
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HORSEPOWER (746 WATTS) AT VARIOUS LATITUDES

Latitude

Local Foot-
Pounds per
Second
(Approx.)

90° pole

549

50° London

550

(39° W^ashington) ' .

(550.5)

30° New Orleans

551

0°, equator .

552

The value of the English horsepower may also be given in metric units for various
latitudes and altitudes, as follows:

TABLE 4
VALUE OF THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HORSEPOWER (746 WATTS) IN LOCAL KILO-

GRAMMETERS PER SECOND AT VARIOUS LATITUDES AND ALTITUDES

LATITUDE

0°
Equator

30°

45°

60°

90°
(Pole)

Sea level

76 . 275

76 . 175

76.074

75.973

75.873

1500 meters (= 5000 feet
approximately)

76 . 297

76 . 197

76 . 096

75.995

75.895

3000 meters (= 10,000 feet
approximately)

76.320

76 . 220

76.119

76 . 018

75.918

By interpolation one can take out of these tables the proper value of the horse-
power in gravitation measure (either foot-pounds or kilogrammeters per second) for
any latitude and altitude.

Continental Horsepower. — It is unfortunate that the value of the horsepower on
the Continent of Europe was not taken as 76 kilogrammeters per second instead of
75, in order that it might agree with the English value, as was originally intended. It
is perhaps unlikely that a change of 76 could now be made, or that an agreement could
be reached by which the continental and the English horsepower would correspond
to the same number of watts. It is to some extent customary for continental writers
to distinguish the two horsepowers by the words "English" and "metric." The Bureau
calls the latter the "continental horsepower."

German writers speak of the "Englische Pf erdestarke " and the "metrische Pf er-
destarke." The term " Pf erdestarke " is now the preferred name for the horsepower in
Germany, the old term " Pf erdekraf t " being unsuitable because "Kraft" means "force."

In France, the old term " f orce-de-cheval " has been given up for " cheval-vapeur."

Poncelet. — There is another unit of power which has been used in Europe, the
"poncelet," or 100 kilogrammeters per second. This unit was named in honor of Jean
Victor Poncelet, who introduced the teaching of kinematics at the Sorbonne in 1838.
This unit was adopted in France shortly before 1846. It was adopted as a unit of power
in 1889 by the "Congres international de m£canique appliquee." Its use is still per-
mitted in the electrical regulations issued by the "Association alsacienne des Pro-
prie"taires d'Appareils a Vapeur." It has not, however, been much used in practice.
This is probably due in part to the fact that the horsepower had so firm a hold as the
unit of power, and in part to the very near equivalence of the poncelet to the kilowatt.
The poncelet is open to the same objection as the horsepower when the latter is rigidly
defined as a certain number of foot-pounds or kilogrammeters per second, viz., that
the power it represents varies from place to place.

[27]

HORSEPOWER AN UNSUITABLE UNIT

Equivalents of the Continental Horsepower. — The continental horsepower is generally
given either as 75 kilogrammeters per second or as 736 watts. These two equivalents
are independent definitions and are likely to cause confusion unless one of them is
assigned to some definite place on the earth's surface. The unit, to be definite, should
represent the same rate of work at all places. The continental horsepower, then, should
be taken as 736 watts, which is equivalent to 75 local kilogrammeters per second at
latitude 52° 30', or Berlin. The number of kilogrammeters per second expressing this
amount of power will be smaller than 75 at more northern latitudes and larger at lower
latitudes. The values at various latitudes at sea level are given in Table 5 :

TABLE 5
CONTINENTAL HORSEPOWER (736 WATTS) IN LOCAL KILOGRAMMETERS PER SECOND

LATITUDE

Altitude

0°
Equator

30°

45°

60°

90°
(Pole)

Sea level . . .

75 253

75 153

75 054

74 955

74 856

1500 meters
3000 meters

75.275
75 297

75.175
75 197

75.076
75 098

74.977
74 999

74.878
74 900

Horsepower an Unsuitable Unit. — On account of the variation with g, and because
the equivalents of the horsepower are not decimal multiples of any of the fundamental
units, and, further, because its definition and value are different on the Continent of
Europe from its definition and value in England and America, it has long been felt that
the horsepower is an unsuitable unit for many purposes. Modern engineering practice
is constantly tending away from the horsepower and toward the watt and kilowatt.
In Germany, it has been proposed to call the kilowatt "Neupferd" (new horsepower),
to make its use appeal more strongly to those who have become firmly attached to the
horsepower. The objection to the horsepower has been particularly strong in electrical
engineering. The International Congress of Electricians at Paris, in 1889, recommended
that the power of machines be expressed in kilowatts instead of in horsepower. A more
definite and powerful action with a view to the elimination of the horsepower was taken by
the International Electro-technical Commission at Turin, Italy, in 1911. This body, com-
posed of the representatives of great electrical interests all over the world, recommended
that in all countries electrical machinery, including motors, be rated in kilowatts only.

Kilowatt as the Unit of Power. — It is considered desirable that the watt and kilo-
watt be used as the units of power, whenever possible, for all kinds of scientific, en-
gineering, and other work. It is not unlikely that the unit of horsepower will ultimately
go out of use. In the meantime, however, it is desirable that its definition be uniform.
If the horsepower is to represent the same amount of power at different places, its relation
to the watt must be a constant number, and the number of local foot-pounds or kilogram-
meters per second which it represents must vary from place to place. Table 2 and others
of this circular show clearly this variation with locality.

It might be feared that some confusion could arise because of the independent
definitions of the mechanical watt and the "international" electrical watt. The watt
and kilowatt are defined primarily in purely mechanical terms, and not electrically at
all. That they have been used mainly in electrotechnical work is merely accidental, and
is due to the fact that they are metric units and so fit in naturally with the metric units
in which all electrical quantities are universally expressed. Any kind of power may
properly be measured in kilowatts. For example, in the case of the hydraulic power
furnished by a flowing stream, the power is given in kilowatts by multiplying 0.163
into the product of the head in meters by the flow in cubic meters per minute; the power
is likewise given in kilowatts by multiplying 0.000188 into the product of the head
in feet by the flow in gallons per minute. The watt is defined directly in terms of the
fundamental -units of mass, length, and time, in the "meter-kilogram-second" system,
thus: "The watt is the power developed by the action, with a velocity of 1 meter per
second, of a force capable of giving to a mass of 1 kilogram in one second a velocity

[28]

KILOWATT AS THE UNIT OF POWER

of 1 meter per second." The "international watt," however, is defined in terms of
concrete electrical standards, which electrical standards represent practically, as nearly
as the limitations of experiment allow, the absolute electrical quantities in terms of
their theoretical relations to length, mass, and time. The international watt thus
defined is the closest concrete realization of the theoretical absolute or mechanical watt
which we have. We cannot at the present time say whether the international watt
is greater or less than the absolute or mechanical watt, but the difference is probably
not greater than a few parts in 10,000. Consequently, there is in reality no confusion
between the mechanical watt and the international electrical watt.

It is recommended that engineering societies and other interests concerned recognize
the value of the "English and American horsepower" as 746 watts (or 550 foot-pounds
per second at 50° latitude and sea level, approximately the latitude of London), em-
ploying Table 2 to obtain the value in foot-pounds per second at other places. It is
likewise recommended that the value of the "continental horsepower" be taken uni-
formly as 736 watts (or 75 kilogrammeters per second at latitude 52° 30', the latitude
of Berlin), and that the value in kilogrammeters per second at other places be obtained
from such a table as Table 5.

It is probably not generally known that these values were adopted by a committee
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1873. This was a com-
mittee which recommende4 the C. G. S. System, and on it were Sir W. Thomson, Carey
Foster, Clerk Maxwell, J. D. Everett, and others (B. A. Report, 1873, p. 222). The
committee in its report said: "One horsepower is about three-fourths of an erg-ten per
second. More nearly, it is 7.46 erg-nines per second; and one force-de-cheval is 7.36
erg-nines per second." (One erg-nine = 100 watts.)

The Standards Committee of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers adopted,
on May 16, 1911, the following rule, which was inserted in the Standardization Rules
of the Institute:

In view of the fact that a horsepower defined as 550 foot-pounds per second repre-
sents a power which varies slightly with the latitude and altitude (from 743.3 to 747.6
watts), and also in view of the fact that different authorities differ as to the precise
value of the horsepower in watts, the standards committee has adopted 746 watts as
the value of the horsepower. The number of foot-pounds per second to be taken as one
horsepower is, therefore, such a value at any given place as is equivalent to 746 watts;
the number varies from 552 to 549 foot-pounds per second, being 550 at 50° latitude
(London), and 550.5 at Washington. The Standards Committee, however, recommends
that the kilowatt instead of the horsepower be used generally as the unit of power.

The same value, 746 watts, is used by the Bureau of Standards as the exact equivalent
of the English and American horsepower. The Bureau recommends the use, whenever
possible, of the kilowatt instead of the horsepower.

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS
Reduction factor: 1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powera watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

0

10= 7.460

20= 14.920

30= 22.380

40= 29.840

50=- 37.300

1= 0.746

1 8.206

1 15.666

1 23.126

1 30.586

1 38.046

2 1.492

2 8.952

2 16.412

2 23.872

2 31.332

2 38.792

3 2.238

3 9.698

3 17.158

3 24.618

3 32.078

3 39.538

4 2.984

4 10.444

4 17.904

4 25.364

4 32.824

4 40.284

5 3.730

5 11.190

5 18.650

5 26.110

5 33.570

5 41.030

6 4.476

6 11.936

6 19.396

6 26.856

6 34.316

6 41.776

7 5.222

7 12.682

7 20.142

7 27.602

7 35.062

7 42.522

8 5.968

8 13.428

8 20.888

8 28.348

8 35.808

8 43.268

9 6.714

9 14 . 174

9 21.634

9 29.094

9 36.554

9 44.014

[29]

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo- Horse- Kilo- Horse- Kilo-
powers watts powers watts powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

60=44.760
1 45.506
2 46.252
3 46.998
4 47.744

100= 74.60
1 75.35
2 76.09
3 76.84
4 77.58

140 = 104.44
1 105 . 19
2 105.93
3 106.68
4 107.42

180.= 134. 28
1 135.03
2 135.77
3 136.52
4 137.26

220 = 164.12
1 164.87
2 165.61
3 166.36
4 167.10

260 = 193.96
1 194.71
2 195.45
3 196.20
4 196.94

5 48.490
6 49.236
7 49.982
8 50.728
9 51.474

5 78.33
6 79.08
7 79.82
8 80.57
9 81.31

5 108.17
6 108.92
7 109.66
8 110.41
9 111.15

5 138.01
6 138.76
7 139.50
8 140.25
9 140.99

5 167.85
6 168.60
7 169.34
8 170.09
9 170.83

5 197.69
6 198.44
7 199.18
8 199.93
9 200.67

70 = 52.220
1 52.966
2 53.712
3 54.458
4 55.204

110= 82.06
1 82.81
2 83.55
3 84.30
4 85.04

150 = 111.90
1 112.65
2 113.39
3 114.14
4 114.88

190 = 141.74
1 142.49
2 143.23
3 143.98
4 144.72

230 = 171.58
1 172.33
2 173.07
3 173.82
4 174.56

270 = 201.42
1 202.17
2 202.91
3 203.66
4 204.40

5 55.950
6 56.696
7 57.442
8 58.188
9 58.934

5 85.79
6 86.54

7 87.28
8 88.03
9 88.77

5 115.63
6 116.38
7 117.12
8 117.87
9 118.61

5 145.47
6 146.22
7 146.96
8 147.71
9 148.45

5 175.31
6 176.06
7 176.80
8 177.55
9 178.29

5 205.15
6 205.90
7 206.64
8 207.39
9 208.13

80 = 59.680
1 60.426
2 61.172
3 61.918
4 62.664

120= 89.52
1 90.27
2 91.01
3 91.76
4 92.50

160 = 119.36
1 120.11
2 120.85
3 121.60
4 122.34

200 = 149.20
1 149.95
2 150.69
3 151.44
4 152.18

240 = 179.04
1 179.79
2 180.53
3 181.28
4 182.02

280 = 208.88
1 209.63
2 210.37
3 211.12
4 211.86

5 63.410
6 64.156
7 64.902
8 65.648
9 66.394

5 93.25
6 94.00
7 94.74
8 95.49
9 96.23

5 123.09
6 123.84
7 124.58
8 125.33
9 126.07

5 152.93
6 153.68
7 154.42
8 155.17
9 155.91

5 182.77
6 183.52
7 184.26
8 185.01
9 185.75

5 212.61
6 213.36
7 214.10
8 214.85
9 215.59

90=67.140
1 67.886
2 68.632
3 69.378
4 70.124

130= 96.98
1 97.73
2 98.47
3 99.22
4 99.96

170 = 126.82
1 127.57
2 128.31
3 129.06.
4 129.80

210 = 156.66
1 157.41
2 158.15
3 158.90
4 159.64

250 = 186.50
1 187.25
2 187.99
3 188.74
4 189.48

290 = 216.34
1 217.09
2 217.83
3 218.58
4 219.32

5 70.870
6 71.616
7 72.362
8 73.108
9 73.854

5 100.71
6 101.46
7 102.20
8 102.95
9 103.69

5 130.55
6 131.30
7 132.04
8 132.79
9 133.53

5 160.39 5 190.23
6 161.14 6 190.98
7 161.88 7 191.72
8 162.63 8 192.47
9 163.37 9 193.21

5 220.07
6 220.82
7 221.56
8 222.31
9 223.05

[30]

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

300 = 223.80
1 224.55
2 225.29
3 226.04
4 226.78

340 = 253.64
1 254.39
2 255.13
3 255.88
4 256.62

380 = 283.48
1 284.23
2 284.97
3 285.72
4 286.46

420 = 313.32
1 314.07
2 314.81
3 315.56
4 316.30

460 = 343.16
1 343.91
2 344.65
3 345.40
4 346.14

500 = 373.00
1 373.75
2 374.49
3 375.24
4 375.98

5 227.53
6 228.28
7 229.02
8 229.77
9 230.51

5 257.37
6 258.12
7 258.86
8 259.61
9 260.35

5 287.21
6 287.96
7 288.70
8 289.45
9 290.19

5 317.05
6 317.80
7 318.54
8 319.29
9 320.03

5 346.89
6 347.64
7 348.38
8 349.13
9 349.87

5 376.73
6 377.48
7 378.22
8 378.97
9 379.71

310=231.26
1 232.01
2 232.75
3 233.50
4 234.24

350 = 261.10
1 261.85
2 262.59
3 263.34
4 264.08

390 = 290.94
1 291.69
2 292.43
3 293.18
4 293.92

430 = 320.78
1 321.53
2 322.27
3 323.02
4 323.76

470 = 350.62
1 351.37
2 352.11
3 352.86
4 353.60

510 = 380.46
1 381.21
2 381.95
3 382.70
4 383.44

5 234.99
6 235.74
7 236.48
8 237.23
9 237.97

5 264.83
6 265.58
7 266.32
8 267.07
9 267.81

5 294.67
6 295.42
7 296.16
8 296.91
9 297.65

5 324.51
6 325.26
7 326.00
8 326.75
9 327.49

5 354.35
6 355.10
7 355.84
8 356.59
9 357.33

5 384.19
6 384.94
7 385.68
8 386.43
9 387.17

320 = 238.72
1 239.47
2 240.21
3 240.96
4 241.70

360= 268.56
1 269.31
2 270.05
3 270.80
4 271.54

400 = 298.40
1 299.15
2 299.89
3 300.64
4 301.38

440 = 328.24
1 328.99
2 329.73
3 330.48
4 331.22

480= 358.08
1 358.83
2 359.57
3 360.32
4 361.06

520=387.92
1 388.67
2 389.41
3 390.16
4 390.90

5 242.45
6 243.20
7 243.94
8 244.69
9 245.43

5 272.29
6 273.04
7 273.78
8 274.53
9 275.27

5 302.13
6 302.88
7 303.62
8 304.37
9 305.11

5 331.97
6 332.72
7 333.46
8 334.21
9 334.95

5 361 81
6 362.56
7 363.30
8 364.05
9 364.79

5 391.65
6 392.40
7 393.14
8 393.89
9 394.63

330=246.18
1 246.93
2 247.67
3 248.42
4 249.16

370= 276.02
1 276.77
2 277.51
3 278.26
4 279.00

410=305.86
1 306.61
2 307.35
3 308.10
4 308.84

450 = 335.70
1 336.45
2 337.19
3 337.94
4 338.68

490= 365.54
1 366.29
2 367.03
3 367.78
4 368.52

530 = 395.38
1 396.13
2 396.87
3 397.62
4 398.36

5 249.91
6 250.66
7 251.40
8 252.15
9 252.89

5 279.75
6 280.50
7 281.24
8 281.99
9 282.73

5 309.59
6 310.34
7 311.08
8 311.83
9 312.57

5 339.43
6 340.18
7 340.92
8 341.67
9 342.41

5 369.27
6 370.02
7 370.76
8 371.51
9 372.25

5 399.11
6 399.86
7 400.60
8 401.35
9 402.09

[31]

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

540=402.84
1 403.59
2 404.33
3 405.08
4 405.82

580=432.68
1 433.43
2 434.17
3 434.92
4 435.66

620=462.52
• 1 463.27
2 464.01
3 464.76
4 465.50

660 = 492.36
1 493.11
2 493.85
3 494.60
4 495.34

700=522.20
1 522.95
2 523.69
3 524.44
4 525.18

740 = 552.04
1 552.79
2 553.53
3 554.28
4 555.02

5 406.57
6 407.32
7 408.06
8 408.81
9 409.55

5 436.41
6 437.16
7 437.90
8 438.65
9 439.39

5 466.25
6 467.00
7" 467.74
8 468.49
9 469.23

5 496.09
6 496.84
7 497.58
8 498.33
9 499.07

5 525.93
6 526.68
7 527.42
8 528.17
9 528.91

5 555.77
6 556.52
7 557.26
8 558.01
9 558.75

550 = 410.30
1 411.05
2 411.79
3 412.54
4 413.28

590=440.14
1 440.89
2 441.63
3 442.38
4 443.12

630=469.98
1 470.73
2 471.47
3 472 22
4 472.96

670=499.82
1 500.57
2 501.31
3 502.06
4 502.80

710 = 529.66
1 530.41
2 531.15
3 531.90
4 532.64

750 = 559.50
1 560.25
2 560.99
3 561.74
4 562.48

5 414.03
6 414.78
7 415.52
8 416.27
9 417.01

5 443.87
6 444.62
7 445.36
8 446.11
9 446.85

5 473.71
6 474.46
7 475.20
8 475.95
9 476.69

5 503.55
6 504.30
7 505.04
8 505.79
9 506.53

5 533.39
6 534.14
7 534.88
8 535.63
9 536.37

5 563.23
6 563.98
7 564.72
8 565.47
9 566.21

560=417.76
1 418.51
2 419.25
3 419.99
4 420.74

600= 447.60
1 448.35
2 449.09
3 449.84
4 450.58

640 = 477.44
1 478.19
2 478.93
3 479.68
4 480.42

680=507.28
1 508.03
2 508.77
3 509.52
4 510.26

720= 537.12
1 537.87
2 538.61
3 539.36
4 540.10

760 = 566.96
1 567.71
2 568.45
3 569.20
4 569.94

5 421.49
6 422.42
7 422.98
8 423.73
9 424.47

5 451.33
6 452.08

7 452 '.82
8 453.57
9 454.31

5 481.17
6 481.92
7 482.66
8 483.41
9 484.15

5 511.01
6 511.76
7 512.50
8 513.25
9 513.99

5 540.85
6 541.60
7 542.34
8 543.09
9 543.83

5 570.69
6 571.44
7 572.18
8 572.93
9 573.67

570=425.22
1 425.97
2 426.71
3 427.46
4 428.20

610= 455.06
1 455.81
2 456.55
3 457.30
4 458.04

650=484.90
1 485.65
2 486.39
3 487.14
4 487.88

690=514.74
1 515.49
2 516.23
3 516.98
4 517.72

730= 544.58
1 545.33
2 546.07
3 546.82
4 547.56

770 = 574.42
1 575.17
2 575.91
3 576.66
4 577.40

5 428.95
6 429.70
7 430.44
8 431.19
9 431.93

5 458.79
6 459.54
7 460.28
8 461.03
9 461.77

5 488.63
6 489.38
7 490.12
8 490.87
9 491.61

5 518.47
6 519.22
7 519.96
8 520.71
9 521.45

5 548.31
6 549.06
7 549.80
8 550.55
9 551.29

5 578.15
6 578.90
7 579.64
8 580.39
9 581.13

[32]

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

HORSEPOWERS TO KILOWATTS

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

Horse- Kilo-
powers watts

780 = 581.88
1 582.63
2 583.37
3 584.12
4 584.86

820 = 611.72
1 612.47
2 613.21
3 613.96
4 614.70

860=641.56
1 642.31
2 643.05
3 643.80
4 644.54

900 = 671.40
1 672.15
2 672.89
3 673.64
4 674.38

940 = 701.24
1 701.99
2 702.73
3 703.48
4 704.22

980 = 731.08
1 731.83
2 732.57
3 733.32
4 734.06

5 585.61
6 586.36
7 587.10
8 587.85
9 588.59

5 615.45
6 616.20
7 616.94
8 617.69
9 618.43

5 645.29
6 646.04
7 646.78
8 647.53
9 648.27

5 675.13

6 675.88
7 676.62
8 677.37
9 678.11

5 704.97
6 705.72
7 706.46
8 707.21
9 707.95

5 734.81
6 735.56
7 736.30
8 737.05
9 737.79

790=589.34
1 590.09
2 590.83
3 591.58
4 592.32

830=619.18
1 619.93
2 620.67
3 621.42
4 622.16

870=649.02
1 649.77
2 650.51
3 651.26
4 652.00

910=678.86
1 679.61
2 680.35
3 681.10
4 681.84

950 = 708.70
1 709.45
2 710.19
3 710.94
4 711.68

990=738.54
1 739.29
2 740.03
3 740.78
4 741.52

5 593.07
6 593.82
7 594.56
8 595.31
9 596.05

5 622.91
6 623.66
7 624.40
8 625.15
9 625.89

5 652.75
6 653.50
7 654.24
8 654.99
9 655.73

5 682.59
6 683.34
7 684.08
8 684.83
9 685.57

5 712.43
6 713.18
7 713.92
8 714.67
9 715.41

5 742.27
6 743.02
7 743.76
8 744.51
9 745.25

800=596.80
1 597.55
2 598.29
3 599.04
4 599.78

840= 626.64
1 627.39
2 628.13
3 628.88
4 629.62

880 = 656.48
1 657.23
2 657.97
3 658.72
4 659.46

920=686.32
1 687.07
2 687.81
3 688.56
4 689.30

960=716.16
1 716.91
2 717.65
3 718.40
4 719.14

1000= 746
2000 = 1492
3000 = 2238
4000=2984
5000=3730

5 600.53
6 601.28
7 602.02
8 602.77
9 603.51

5 630.37
6 631.12
7 631.86
8 632.61
9 633.35

5 660.21
6 660.96
7 661.70
8 662.45
9 663.19

5 690.05
6 690.80
7 691.54
8 692.29
9 693.03

5 719.89
6 720.64
7 721.38
8 722.13
9 722.87

6000=4476
7000 = 5222
8000=5968
9000=6714
10000=7460

810=604.26
1 605.01
2 605.75
3 606.50
4 607.24

850= 634.10
1 634.85
2 635.59
3 636.34
4 637.08

890=663.94
1 664.69
2 665.43
3 666.18
4 666.92

930=693.78
1 694.53
2 695.27
3 696.02
4 696.76

970=723.62
1 724.37
2 725.11
3 725.86
4 726.60

5 607.99
6 608.74
7 609.48
8 610.23
9 610.97

5 637.83
6 638.58
7 639.32
8 640.07
9 640.81

5 667.67
6 668.42
7 669.16
8 669.91
9 670.65

5 697.51
6 698.26
7 699.00
8 699.75
9 700.49

5 727.35
6 728.10
7 728.84
8 729.59
9 730.33

[33]

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS
Reduction factor: 1 kilowatt = 1.3404826 horsepower

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

0
1 1.34
2 2.68
3 4.02
4 5.36

40= 53.62
1 54.96
2 56.30
3 57.64
4 58.98

80= 107.24
1 108.58
2 109.92
3 111.26
4 112.60

120= 160.86
1 162.20
2 163.54
3 164.88
4 166.22

160= 214.48
1 215.82
2 217.16
3 218.50
4 219.84

200= 268.10
1 269.44
2 270.78
3 272.12
4 273.46

5 6.70
6 8.04
7 9.38
8 10.72
9 12.06

5 60.32
6 61.66
7 63.00
8 64.34
9 65.68

5 113.94
6 115.28
7 116.62
8 117.96
9 119.30

5 167.56
6 168.90
7 170.24
8 171.58
9 172.92

5 221.18
6 222.52
7 223.86
8 225.20
9 226.54

5 274.80
6 276.14

7 277.48
8 278.82
9 280.16

10= 13.40
1 14.75
2 16.09
3 17.43
4 18.77

50= 67.02
1 68.36
2 69.71
3 71.05
4 72.39

90= 120.64
1 121.98
2 123.32
3 124.66
4 126.01

130= 174.26
1 175.60
2 176.94
3 178.28
4 179.62

170= 227.88
1 229.22
2 230.56
3 231.90
4 233.24

210= 281.50
1 282.84
2 284.18
3 285.52
4 286.86

5 20.11
6 21.45
7 22.79
8 24.13
9 25.47

5 73.73
6 75.07
7 76.41

8 77.75
9 79.09

5 127.35
6 128.69
7 130.03
8 131.37
9 132.71

5 180.97
6 182.31
7 183.65
8 184.99
9 186.33

5 234.58
6 235.92
7 237.27
8 238.61
9 239.95

5 288.20
6 289.54
7 290.88
8 292.23
9 293.57

20= 26.80
1 28.15
2 29.49
3 30.83
4 32. 17

60= 80.43
1 81.77
2 83.11
3 84.45
4 - 85.79

100= 134.05
1 135.39
2 136.73
3 138.07
4 139.41

140= 187.67
1 189.01
2 190.35
3 191.69
4 193.03

180= 241.29
1 242.63
2 243.97
3 245.31
4 246.65

220= 294.91
1 296.25
2 297.59
3 298.93
4 300.27

5 33.51
6 34.85
7 36.19
8 37.53
9 38.87

5 87.13
6 88.47
7 89.81
8 91.15
9 92.49

5 140.75
6 142.09
7 143.43
8 144.77
9 146.11

5 194.37
6 195.71
7 197.05
8 198.39
9 199.73

5 247.99
6 249.33
7 250.67
8 252.01
9 253.35

5 301.61
6 302.95
7 304.29
8 305.63
9 306.97

30= 40.21
1 41.55
2 42.90
3 44.24
4 45.58

70= 93.83
1 95.17
2 96.51
3 97.86
4 99.20

110= 147.45
1 148.79
2 150.13
3 151.47
4 152.82

150= 201.07
1 202.41
2 203.75
3 205.09
4 206.43

190= 254.69
1 256.03
2 257.37
3 258.71
4 260.05

230= 308.31
1 309.65
2 310.99
3 312.33
4 313.67

5 46.92
6 48.26
7 49.60
8 50.94
9 52.28

5 100.54
6 101.88
7 103.22
8 104.56
9 105.90

5 154.16
6 155.50
7 156.84
8 158.18
9 159.52

5 207.77
6 209.12
7 210.46
8 211.80
9 213.14

5 261.39
6 262.73
7 264.08
8 265.42
9 266.76

5 315.01
6 316.35
7 317.69
8 319.03
9 320.38

[34]

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

240= 321.72
1 323.06
2 324.40
3 325.74
4 327.08

280= 375.34
1 376.68
2 378.02
3 379.36
4 380.70

320= 428.95
1 430.29
2 431.64
3 432.98
4 434.32

360= 482.57
1 483.91
2 485.25
3 486.60
4 487.94

400= 536.19

1 537.53
2 538.87
3 540.21
4 541.55

440= 589.81
1 591.15
2 592.49
3 593.83
4 595.17

5 328.42
6 329.76
7 331.10
8 332.44
9 333.78

5 382.04
6 383.38
7 384.72
8 386.06
9 387.40

5 435.66
6 437.00
7 438.34
8 439.68
9 441.02

5 489.28
6 490.62
7 491.96
8 493.30
9 494.64

5 542.90
6 544.24
7 545.58
8 546.92
9 548.26

5 596.51
6 597.86
7 599.20
8 600.54
9 601.88

250= 335.12
1 336.46
2 337.80
3 339 . 14
4 340.48

290= 388.74
1 390.08
2 391.42
3 392.76
4 394.10

330= 442.36
1 443.70
2 445.04
3 446.38
4 447.72

370= 495.98
1 497.32
2 498.66
3 500.00
4 501.34

410^= 549.60
1 550.94
2 552.28
3 553.62
4 554.96

450= 603.22
1 604.56
2 605.90
3 607.24
4 608.58

5 341.82
6 343.16
7 344.50
8 345.84
9 347.18

5 395.44
6 396.78
7 398.12
8 399.46
9 400.80

5 449.06
6 450.40
7 451.74
8 453.08
9. 454.42

5 502.68
6 504.02
7 505.36
8 506.70
9 508.04

5 556.30
6 557.64
7 558.98
8 560.32
9 561.66

5 609.92
6 611.26
7 612.60
8 613.94
9 615.28

260= 348.53
1 349.87
2 351.21
3 352.55
4 353.89

300= 402.14
1 403.49
2 404.83
3 406.17
4 407.51

340= 455.76
1 457.10
2 458.45
3 459.79
4 461.13

380= 509.38
1 510.72
2 512.06
3 513.40
4 514.75

420= 563.00
1 564.34
2 565.68
3 567.02
4 568.36

460= 616.62
1 617.96
2 619.30
3 620.64
4 621.98

5 355 . 23
6 356.57
7 357.91
8 359.25
9 360.59

5 408.85
6 410.19
7 411.53
8 412.87
9 414.21

5 462.47
6 463.81
7 465.15
8 466.49
9 467.83

5 516.09
6 517.43
7 518.77
8 520.11
9 521.45

5 569.71
6 571.05
7 572.39
8 573.73
9 575.07

5 623.32
6 624.66
7 626.01
8 627.35
9 628.69

270= 361.93
1 363 . 27
2 364.61
3 365.95
4 367.29

310= 415.55
1 416.89
2 418.23
3 419.57
4 420.91

350= 469.17
1 470.51
2 471.85
3 473.19
4 474.53

390= 522.79
1 524.13
2 525.47
3 526.81
4 528.15

430= 576.41
1 577.75
2 579.09
3 580.43
4 581.77

470= 630.03
1 631.37
2 632.71
3 634.05
4 635.39

5 368.63
6 369.97
7 371.31
8 372.65
9 373.99

5 422.25
6 423.59
7 424.93
8 426.27
9 427.61

5 475.87
6 477.21
7 478.55
8 479.89
9 481.23

5 529.49
6 530.83
7 532.17
8 533.51
9 534.85

5 583.11
6 584.45
7 585.79
8' 587.13
9 588.47

5 636.73
6 638.07
7 639.41
8 640.75
9 642.09

[35]

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
Watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

480= 643.43
1 644.77
2 646.11
3 647.45
4 648.79

520= 697.05
1 698.39
2 699.73
3 701.07
4 702.41

560= 750.67
1 752.01
2 753.35
3 754.69
4 756.03

600= 804.29
1 805.63
2 806.97
3 808.31
4 809.65

640= 857.91
1 859.25
2 860.59
3 861.93
4 863.27

680= 911.53
1 912.87
2 914.21
3 915.55
4 916.89

5 650. 13
6 651.47
7 652.82
8 654.16
9 655.50

5 703.75
6 705.09
7 706.43
8 707.77
9 709.12

5 757.37
6 758.71
7 760.05
8 761.39
9 762.73

5 810.99
6 812.33
7 813.67
8 815.01
9 816.35

5 864.61
6 865.95
7 867.29
8 868.63
9 869.97

5 918.23
6 919.57
7 920.91
8 922.25
9 923.59

490= 656.84
1 658.18
2 659.52
3 660.86
4 662.20

530= 710.46
1 711.80
2 713.14
3 714.48
4 715.82

570= 764.08
1 765.42
2 766.76
3 768.10
4 769.44

610= 817.69
1 819.03
2 820.38
3 821.72
4 823.06

650= 871.31
1 872.65
2 873.99
3 875.34
4 876.68

690= 924.93
1 926.27
2 927.61
3 928.95
4 930.29

5 663.54
6 664.88
7 666.22
8 667.56
9 668.90

5 717.16
6 718.50
7 719.84
8 721.18
9 722.52

5 770.78
6 772.12
7 773.46
8 774.80
9 776.14

5 824.40
6 825.74
7 827.08
8 828.42
9 829.76

5 878.02
6 879.36
7 880.70
8 882.04
9 883.38

5 931.64
6 932.98
7 934.32
8 935.66
9 937.00

500= 670.24
1 671.58
2 672.92
3 674.26
4 675.60

540= 723.86
1 725.20
2 726.54
3 727.88
4 729.22

580= 777.48
1 778.82
2 780.16
3 781.50
4 782.84

620= 831.10
1 832.44
2 833.78
3 835.12
4 836.46

660= 884.72
. 1 886.06
2 887.40
3 888.74
4 890.08

700= 938.34
1 939.68
2 941.02
3 942.36
4 943.70

5 676.94
6 678.28
7 679.62
8 680.97
9 682.31

5 730.56
6 731.90
7 733.24
8 734.58
9 735.92

5 784.18
6 785.52
7 786.86
8 788.20
9 789.54

5 837.80
6 839.14
7 840.48
8 841.82
9 843.16

5 891.42
6 892.76
7 894.10
8 895.44
9 896.78

5 945.04
6 946.38
7 947.72
8 949.06
9 950.40

510= 683.65
1 684.99
2 686.33
3 687.67
4 689.01

550= 737.27
1 738.61
2 739.95
3 741.29
4 742.63

590= 790.88
1 792.23
2 793.57
3 794.91
4 796.25

630= 844.50
1 845.84
2 847.19
3 848.53
4 849.87

670= 898.12
1 899.46
2 900.80
3 902.14
4 903.49

710= 951.74
1 953.08
2 954.42
3 955.76
4 957.10

5 690.35
6 691.69
7 693.03
8 694.37
9 695.71

5 743.97
6 745.31
7 746.65
8 747.99
9 749.33

5 797.59
6 798.93
7 800.27
8 801.61
9 802.95

5 851.21
6 852.55
7 853.89
8 855 . 23
9 856.57

5 904.83
6 906.17
7 907.51
8 908.85
9 910.19

5 958.45
6 959.79
7 961.13
8 962.47
9 963.81

[36]

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

720= 965.15
1 966.49
2 967.83
3 969.17
4 970.51

760 = 1018.77
1 1020. 10
2 1021.45
3 1022.79
4 1024.13

800 = 1072.39
1 1073.73
2 1075.07
3 1076.41
4 1077.75

840 = 1126.01
1 1127.35
2 1128.69
3 1130.03
4 1131.37

880=1179.62
1 1180.97
2 1182.31
3 1183.65
4 1184.99

920 = 1233.24
1 1234.58
2 1235.92
3 1237.27
4 1238.61

5 971.85
6 973.19
7 974.53
8 975.87
9 977.21

5 1025.47
6 1026.81
7 1028.15
8 1029.49
9 1030.83

5 1079.09
6 1080.43
7 1081.77
8 1083.11
9 1084.45

5 1132.71
6 1134.05
7 1135.39
8 1136.73
9 1138.07

5 1186.33
6 1187.67
7 1189.01
8 1190.35
9 1191.69

5 1239.95
6 1241.29
7 1242.63
8 1243.97
9 1245.31

730= 978.55
1 979.89
2 981.23
3 982.57
4 983.91

770 = 1032.17
1 1033.51
2 1034.85
3 1036.19
4 1037.53

810 = 1085.79
1 1087.13
2 1088.47
3 1089.81
4 1091.15

850 = 1139.41
1 1140.75
2 1142.09
3 1143.43
4 1144.77

890 = 1193.03
1 1194.37
2 1195.71
3 1197.05
4 1198.39

930 = 1246.65
1 1247.99
2 1249.33
3 1250.67
4 1252.01

5 985.25
6 986.60
7 987.94
8 989.28
9 990.62

5 1038.87
6 1040.21
7 1041.55
8 1042.90
9 1044.24

5 1092.49
6 1093.83
7 1095.17
8 1096.51
9 1097.86

5 1146.11
6 1147.45
7 1148.79
8 1150.13
9 1151.47

5 1199.73
6 1201.07
7 1202.41
8 1203.75
9 1205.09

5 1253.35
6 1254.69
7 1256.03
8 1257.37
9 1258.71

740= 991.96
1 993.30
2 994.64
3 995.98
4 997.32

780 = 1045.58
1 1046.92
2 1048.26
3 1049.60
4 1050.94

820 = 1099.20
1 1100.54
2 1101.88
3 1103.22
4 1104.56

860 = 1152.82
1 1154.16
2 1155.50
3 1156.84
4 1158.18

900 = 1206.43
1 1207.77
2 1209.12
3 1210.46
4 1211.80

940 = 1260.05
1 1261.39
2 1262.73
3 1264.08
4 1265.42

5 998.66
6 1000.00
7 1001.34
8 1002.68
9 1004.02

5 1052.28
6 1053.62
7 1054.96
8 1056.30
9 1057.64

5 1105.90
6 1107.24
7 1108.58
8 1109.92
9 1111.26

5 1159.52
6 1160.86
7 1162.20
8 1163.54
9 1164.88

5 1213.14
6 1214.48
7 1215.82
8 1217.16
9 1218.50

5 1266.76
6 1268.10
7 1269.44
8 1270.78
9 1272.12

750 = 1005.36
1 1006.70
2 1008.04
3 1009.38
4 1010.72

790 = 1058.98
1 1060.32
2 1061.66
3 1063.00
4 1064.34

830 = 1112.60
1 1113.94
2 1115.28
3 1116.62
4 1117.96

870 = 1166.22
1 1167.56
2 1168.90
3 1170.24
4 1171.58

910 = 1219.84
1 1221.18
2 1222.52
3 1223.86
4 1225.20

950 = 1273.46
1 1274.80
2 1276.14
3 1277.48
4 1278.82

5 1012.06
6 1013.40
7 1014.75
8 1016.09
9 1017.43

5 1085.68
6 1057.02
7 1088.36
8 1069.71
9 1071.05

5 1119.30
6 1120.64
7 1121.98
8 1123.32
9 1124.66

5 1172.92
6 1174.26
7 1175.60
8 1176.94
9 1178.28

5 1226.54
6 1227.88
7 1229.22
8 1230.56
9 1231.90

5 1280. 16
6 1281.50

7 1282.84
8 1284.18
9 1285.52

[37]

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

KILOWATTS TO HORSEPOWERS

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

Kilo- Horse-
watts powers

960 = 1286.86

970 = 1300.27

980 = 1313.67

990 = 1327.08

1000= 1340

1 1288.20

1 1301.61

1 1315.01

1 1328.42 1 2000= 2681

2 1289.54

2 1302.95

2 1316.35

2 1329.76

3000= 4021

3 1290.88

3 1304.29

3 1317.69

3 1331.10

4000= 5362

4 1292.23

4 1305.63

4 1319.03

4 1332.44

5000= 6702

5 1293.57

5 1306.97

5 1320.38

5 1333.78

6000= 8043

6 1294.91

6 1308.31

6 1321.72

6 1335.12

7000= 9383

7 1296.25

7 1309.65

7 1323.06

7 1336.46

8000 = 10723

8 1297.59

8 1310.99

8 1324.40

8 1337.80

9000 = 12064

9 1298.93

9 1312.33

9 1325.74

9 1339.14

10000 = 13405

[38]

SECTION 2

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
MEASURES OF LENGTH

Line Measurement is used in measuring distances. Any convenient unit may be
employed, as — inch, foot, yard or mile.

The standard unit of length is the yard.

In 1813 Mr. Hassler obtained for the use of the United States Coast Survey a
standard brass bar 82 inches long, graduated by Troughton, of London. The gradua-
tions of this bar were accepted as corresponding at the temperature of 62° F. to the
standard yard of Great Britain. The standard yard adopted by the United States
Treasury Department was the 36 inches between the 27th and the 63d inches of the
above 82-inch bar.

LINEAR MEASURE

12 inches = 1 foot mi. rd. yd. ft. in.

3 feet = 1 yard 1 = 320 = 1,760 = 5,280 = 63,360

5| yards = 1 rod 1 = 51 = m = 198

320 rods = 1 mile 1=3= 36

The symbols: ' for feet and " for inches are used in dimensioning drawings, often
in books, and in correspondence.

EXAMPLE.— 18' 7" = 18 feet 7 inches.

The foot is commonly divided for civil engineers into tenths and hundredths of a foot.

At the United States Custom Houses, the yard is divided into tenths and hundredths.

A mile of 5,280 ft. is called a statute mile. It is the legal mile of the United States
and Great Britain.

Surveyors' Linear Measure is used in measuring land. The unit of this measure
is Gunter's chain, 66 feet or 4 rods in length, having 100 links, each joined to the adja-
cent one by three smaller links. A square chain is one-tenth of an acre, or 10,000 square
links.

LAND MEASURES

100 links = 1 chain mi. ch. ft. 1. in.

80 chains = 1 mile 1 = 80 = 5,280 = 8,000 = 63,360

1 = 66 = 100 = 792

66 = 1 = 7.92
25 links = 1 rod
1 furlong = £ mile

City surveyors and civil engineers commonly use steel tapes 100 feet long, the feet
divided into tenths and hundredths.

OTHER LINEAR DIMENSIONS IN USE

1 hand = 4 inches. Used in measuring the heights of horses.

1 fathom = 6 feet. Used principally in nautical measurements; depth

of water, length of rope, etc. It approximates
the thousandth part of a nautical mile.

1 cable = 120 fathoms, or 720 feet; commonly written cable-length.

1 knot = 1 nautical mile.

= 1 Admiralty knot = 6080 feet per hour.

NOTE. — A knot is a velocity, not a length. It is used to
express the speed of a ship at sea. EXAMPLE. — 15 knots
per hour.

[39]

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1 geographical mile = 1.1515 statute miles; variously estimated from 6,075 to

6,080 ft.

= 1 minute of longitude at the equator.
= 1/60 degree of latitude.
1 measured mile = English Admiralty " measured mile" is 6,080 feet; used to

ascertain the speed of ships.
1 league = 3 nautical miles.

1 degree = 60 geographical miles; variously estimated from 69.21 to

69.29 statute miles.
= 1/360 part of the earth's circumference.

MEASURE OF SURFACE

A linear unit squared is a corresponding square unit in determining the areas of
surfaces. The side of the square may be an inch, foot, yard, or any other convenient
unit.

SUPERFICIAL MEASURE
144 square inches = 1 square foot

it* square mciies = i square loot
9 square feet = 1 square yard
30 j square yards = 1 square rod
160 square rods = 1 square acre
640 acres = 1 square mile

1 rood = j acre.

With the exception of the acre, the above units of superficial square measure are
derived from the corresponding units of linear measure.

A square inch is the area of a rectangle the side of which is one inch.

A circular inch is the area of a circle one inch in diameter = 0.7854 square inch.

One square inch = 1.2732 circular inches.

One square foot = 144 square inches = 183.35 circular inches.

Slate and other roofing is often reckoned by the square, meaning 100 square feet
of surface.

Plastering and painting are commonly reckoned by the square yard.

SURVEYOR'S SQUARE MEASURE

625 square links = 1 square rod

16 square rods = 1 square chain
10,000 square links = 1 square chain

10 square chains = 1 acre
640 acres = 1 square mile

36 square miles = 1 township

An acre is 208.71 feet square = 43,560 square feet. This is the common unit of
land measure.

The public lands of the United States are divided by north and south meridianal
lines crossed by others at right angles forming Townships of six miles square.

Townships are sub-divided into Sections one mile square.

A section one mile square contains 640 acres. It is divided into half-sections of
320 acres; quarter-sections of 160 acres; half-quarter sections of 80 acres; and quarter-
quarter sections of 40 acres.

Board Measure is used in measuring lumber. The unit is 1 square foot of surface
by 1 inch in thickness, or iV of a cubic foot.

Unless otherwise stated, boards less than an inch thick are reckoned as if they were
of that thickness. Boards over an inch thick are reduced to the inch standard; that
is, for 1^-inch boards add j to the surface measure, for 1^-inch boards add £ to the
surface measure, and so on for any thickness. All sawed timber is measured by board
measure.

1,000 feet board measure = 83.33 cubic feet.

[40]

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

MEASURES OF VOLUME

Cubic measure applies to measurement in the three dimensions of length, breadth,
and depth or thickness. Any convenient linear unit may be employed because quan-
tities are always expressed in cubes of fixed linear measurement, as cubic inch, cubic
foot, or cubic yard.

SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE

1,728 cubic inches — 1 cubic foot
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard
128 cubic feet = 1 cord
24f cubic feet = 1 perch

A perch of masonry is 16| feet long, 1£ feet thick, and 1 foot high = 24| cubic feet.
A cord of wood is 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high = 128 cubic feet.
Timber measured in bulk and not to be computed in cubic feet is reduced to board
measure, that is, in terms of square feet of surface by 1 inch in thickness.

MEASURES OF CAPACITY

The United States gallon corresponds to the British wine gallon of 1707, which was
abolished in 1824, when the Imperial gallon, containing 10 pounds of water, was made
the British standard. This latter measure is not in use in this country.

The unit of liquid measure in the United States is the wine gallon of 231 cubic inches.

TABLE

gal. qt. pt. gi.

4 gills = 1 pint 1 = 4 = 8 = 32

2 pints = 1 quart 1=2=8

4 quarts = 1 gallon 1=4

1 gallon of pure water at 62° F. = 8.34 poiihds.

1 cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons.

Barrels are not uniform in capacity, ranging from 31? to 50 gallons. Their capacity
is found by gauging, actual measurement, or by weight.

Hogshead = 2 barrels. Actual capacity must be determined by gauging or other
measurement.

The British Imperial Gallon is defined as the volume of 10 pounds weight of pure
distilled water at the temperature of 62° F., the height of the barometer being 30 inches.
There is no legal equivalent of the gallon expressed in cubic inches. Until the year
1890 it was usual to take 277.274 cubic inches as the equivalent of the gallon, but from
very careful experiments by Mr. H. J. Chaney, recorded in the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society for 1892, the weight of a cubic inch of water was determined
as 252.286 grains, from which the volume of the gallon is computed to be 277.463
cubic inches.

An Imperial gallon = 1.20114 United States gallons.

A United States gallon =231 cubic inches = .83254 Imperial gallon.

DRY MEASURE

Dry Measure is used in measuring grain, fruits, etc.

The unit in the United States is the Winchester bushel = 2,150.42 cubic inches =
1.244 cubic feet.

TABLE

bu. pk. qt. pt.

2 pints = 1 quart 1 = 4 = 32 = 64

8 quarts = 1 peck 1 = 8 = 16

4 pecks = 1 bushel

1 bushel = 2,150.42 -;- 231 = 9.30 wine gallons
[41]

WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES

The above is what is known as the struck bushel or the bushel measure even full.
The heaped bushel is about one-quarter more, the cone being about 6 inches high.

A bushel measure is 18£ niches diameter by 8 inches deep.

The U. S. Standard Bushel was fixed at 2,150.42 cubic inches. This is the same as
the Winchester bushel, now abolished in the British system, substituting therefor as
the legal bushel one containing 8 Imperial gallons, equivalent to 2,219.704 cubic inches
or 1.284 cubic feet.

It will be seen that neither the gallon nor the bushel adopted by the U. S. Treasury
Department is in accord with the British standards.

Grain in bulk is sold by weight. Commercial usage has established an equivalent
number of pounds per bushel for the various kinds of grain as well as for other com-
modities shipped in bulk; these equivalent weights have been generally legalized
throughout the United States.

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

Commercial weights are always in terms of the Avoirdupois standard.
Troy weights are reserved for gold, silver, and precious stones. Apothecaries'
weight is employed when compounding medicine.

The unit of Avoirdupois weight is the pound containing 7,000 Troy grains.

Table of Tons of 2,000 Pounds

Also known as Short or Net Tons

ton cwt. Ib. oz.

16 ounces < = 1 pound 1 = 20 = 2,000 = 32,000

100 pounds = 1 hundredweight 1 = 100 = 1,600

20 hundredweights = 1 ton 1 = 16

The ounce is divided into halves and quarters.
The ton of 2,000 pounds is the standard ton of commerce.

Table of Tons of 2,240 Pounds

Also known as Long or Gross Tons

ton cwt. Ib. oz.

16 ounces = 1 pound , -" 1 = 20 = 2,240 = 35,840

112 pounds = 1 hundredweight 1 = 112 = 1,792

20 hundredweights = 1 ton 1 = 16

One quarter = 28 pounds

The ton of 2,240 pounds is used for weighing ores, pig iron, steel rails, etc. It is
used in U. S. Custom Houses for estimating ocean freights. It is the standard ton
of Great Britain.

One shipping ton (for measuring cargo) = 40 cubic feet. In England, one shipping
ton (for measuring cargo) = 42 cubic feet.

TROY WEIGHT

The Troy Pound was the first standard to be adopted by Congress and put into
practical use. It was the legalization of a certain brass Troy-pound-weight procured
by the Minister of the United States at London, in the year 1827, for the use of the
Mint, and now hi the custody of the U. S. Mint at Philadelphia. This is the standard
Troy pound, comformably to which the U. S. coinage is regulated. It is an exact copy
of the Imperial Troy pound of Great Britain.

Troy weight is used chiefly in the weighing of gold, silver, and articles of jewelry.

The unit of weight is the Troy pound.

[42]

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Table

Ib. oz. pwt. gr.

24 grains = 1 pennyweight 1 = 12 = 240 = 5,760

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 1 = 20 = 480

12 ounces = 1 pound

Carat is a term employed to express the commercial fineness of gold. An ounce
is divided into 24 equal parts, one of which is called a carat. Pure gold is 24 carats
fine; 18-carat gold is 18 parts pure gold and 6 parts alloy.

A Carat Weight when employed to weigh diamonds = 3.2 Troy grains.

The International 200-milligram carat went into effect in the United States, July 1,
1913, as the standard for weighing all kinds of gems and precious stones. By com-
parison, 1 milligram = .0154 Troy grains. Then .0154 X 200 = 3.08 Troy grains.

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT

The ounce in Apothecaries' weight is the same as the Troy ounce but differently
divided. The grain and the pound are the same as the Troy standards.

There does not appear to be a standard unit in Apothecaries' weight, but from
the fact that it is used in compounding medicines in small quantities, the ounce (Troy)
would appear to be a convenient one inasmuch as chemicals for industrial use, when
sold in large quantities, are commonly by Avoirdupois weight.

Table

Ib. 5 5 9 gr.

20 grains = 1 scruple. . . sc. or 9 1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5,760

3 scruples = 1 dram. . . .dr. or 5 1 = 8 = 24 = 480

8 drams = 1 ounce. ... oz. or 5 1=3= 60

12 ounces = 1 pound. . . .Ib. or Ib

The symbols always precede the number, thus: 54, 52, 91=4 oz., 2 dr.,
1 scruple.

Apothecaries' Fluid Measure

Used by physicians when prescribing and by apothecaries in compounding liquid
medicines.

The gallon is the standard wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, of which the pint is one-
eighth.

Table

Cong.O. f 5 f 5 m

60 minims (m) =1 fluid drachm. f 5 1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440
8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce., .f 5 1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680

16 fluid ounces = 1 pint O. 1 = 8 = 480

8 pints = 1 gallon Cong. 1 = 60

Cong., Latin Congius, gallon; O., Latin octavius, one-eighth.

Medical Signs and Abbreviations

^ (Lat. Recipe), take; aa, of each; Ib, pound; 5, ounce; 5, drachm; 3, scruple;
TIL, minim, or drop; O or o, pint; f 5j fluid ounce; f 5, fluid drachm; as, 5 ss, half
an ounce; 5 i, one ounce; 5 iss, one ounce and a half; 5 ij, two ounces; gr., grain;
Q. S., as much as sufficient; Ft. Mist., let a mixture be made; Ft. Haust., let a draught
be made; Ad., add to; Ad lib., at pleasure; Aq., water; M., mix; Mac., macerate;
Pulv., powder; Pil., pill; Solv., dissolve; St., let it stand; Sum., to be taken; D., dose;
Dil., dilute; Filt., filter; Lot., a wash; Garg., a gargle; Hor. Decub., at bedtime;
Inject., injection; Gtt., drops; ss, one-half; Ess., essence.

The symbols always precede the numbers to which they refer. The International
Metric System has practically displaced the above system in laboratory work as well
as in compounding medicines,

[43]

MEASURES OF TIME

UNITED STATES MONEY

The legal currency of the United States is based on the gold standard. Coins are
of gold, silver, nickel, and copper. Authorized paper money includes gold certificates,
silver certificates, United States notes, Treasury notes of 1890, and National bank
notes.

The unit of value is the gold dollar of 25.8 grains.

Table

E. $ d. c. m.

10 mills = 1 cent 1 = 10

10 cents = 1 dime 1 = 10 = 100

10 dimes = 1 dollar 1 = 10 = 100 = 1,000

10 dollars = 1 eagle 1 = 10 = 100 = 1,000 = 10,000

Gold coins are 90 per cent gold and 10 per cent alloy, consisting of silver and copper.
Denominations, $20, $10, $5, $2.50.

Silver coins are 90 per cent silver and 10 per cent copper alloy. Standard silver
dollar weighs 412.5 grains. Ratio to gold 15.988 to 1. Coinage ceased in 1905.

Subsidiary silver coins weigh 385.8 grains to the dollar. Ratio to gold 14.953 to 1.
Denominations, 50 cents, 25 cents, 10 cents. Legal tender, not to exceed $10. Re-
deemable in " lawful money " at the Treasury in sums or multiples of $20.

Minor coins now consist of the 5-cent and the 1-cent pieces only. The 5-cent
piece weighs 77.16 grains. Alloy consists of 75 per cent copper and 25 per cent nickel.

The 1-cent piece weighs 48 grains. Alloy consists of 95 per cent copper and 5
per cent tin and zinc. They are legal tender not to exceed 25 cents. Redeemable in
" lawful money " at the Treasury in sums or multiples of $20.

" Lawful money " includes gold coin, silver dollars, United States notes, and
Treasury notes.

United States notes (greenbacks) are by regulation receivable for customs so long
as they continue redeemable in coin. Treasury notes were issued for purchase of
silver bullion which was coined into dollars, wherewith the notes are being redeemed.

MEASURES OF TIME

A solar day is the period of one revolution of the earth around its axis in reference
to the sun. It is divided into 24 hours, in two periods of 12 hours each; from 12 o'clock
noon or meridian to 12 o'clock midnight, and from midnight to noon. The change
in the name and number of days and months in the civil calendar occurs at midnight.

Table

day hr. min. sec.

60 seconds = 1 minute 1 = 24 = 1,440 = 86,400

60 minutes = 1 hour 1 = 60 = 3,600

24 hours = 1 day 1 = 60

7 days = 1 week
365 days = 1 calendar year

The length of the solar year is 365 days, 5 hr., 48 min., nearly. A calendar year of
365 days is nearly one-fourth of a day too short, for which one day is added to the month
of February every four years, called leap-year. But this addition makes one day too
much in every 128.866 years, which error is corrected every fourth century, which can
be divided by four without a remainder. Thus, 1884 was leap-year, but not 1900, this
omission of one leap-year in every four centuries being necessary to correct the error
above referred to.

A sidereal day differs from a solar day in taking no account of the sun, but record-
ing that interval of time between the appearance of a fixed star in the meridian and
again returning to the same star the night immediately following. This interval of

[44]

UNITED STATES MONEY EQUIVALENTS

VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY

Country

Standard

Monetary Unit

Value in
U.S. Gold
Dollar

Remarks (a)

Argentina .

Austria-
Hungary .
Belgium. . .

Bolivia. . . .
Brazil

British Col-
onies in
Australia
& Africa. .
Canada. . .
Cent. Ameri-
can States:
B.Hond's.
CostaRica
Guat'ala .

Honduras
Nicaragua
Salvador .

Chile
China

Gold...

Gold...
Gold(b)

Gold...
Gold...

Gold...
Gold...

Gold...
Gold...
Silver. .

Silver. .

Peso

Crown
Franc

$0.9648

.2026
.1930

.3893
.5462

4.8665
1.0000

1.0000
.4653
.3537

.3537
1.0000
.3537

.3650

.5296
.5899
.5780
1.0000

1.0000
.2680
.4867
4.9431

.1930
.1930

.2382
4.8665
.1930

.9647
.3244

Currency: depreciated paper, convertible
at 44 per cent of face value.

Member of Latin Union; gold is the actual
standard.
12^ bolivianos equal 1 pound sterling.
Currency: Government paper. Exchange
rate about $0.25 to the milreis.

Currency: inconvertible paper, exchange
rate 40 pesos = $1.00.
Currency: bank notes.

Currency: convertible into silver on de-
mand.
Currency: inconvertible paper; exchange
rate approximately, $0.14.

Currency: inconvertible paper; exchange
rate, approximately, $105 paper to $1
gold.

The actual standard is the British pound
sterling, which is legal tender for 97 %
piasters.

Member of Latin Union; gold is the actual
standard.

Member of Latin Union; gold is the actual
standard.
Currency: inconvertible paper; exchange
rate, approximately, $0.16.
(15 rupees equal 1 pound sterling.)

Boliviano ....
\lilreis

Pound sterling
Dollar

Dollar

Colon

Peso
Peso

Gold. . .
Silver .

Cordoba

Peso

Gold. . .

Silver. .
Gold...

Gold.

Peso

^ C Shanghai
8 ] Haikwan
"* [Canton..
Dollar

Colombia. .
Cuba

Peso

Denmark. .
Ecuador. . .
Egypt....

Finland . . .
France. . . .

Germany. .
Gt. Britain
Greece

Hayti
India .....

Gold...
Gold. . .
Gold...

Gold...

Gold(b)

Gold...
Gold. . .
Gold(b)

Gold...
Gold. . .

Crown

Sucre

Pound (100 pi-
asters)

Mark

Franc

Mark. .

Pound sterling
Drachma

Gourde ......

Rupee ... .

(a) The exchange rates shown under this heading are recent quotations and given as an indication of
the values of currencies which are fluctuating in their relation to the legal standard. They are not to take.
the place of the Consular certificate where it is available, (b) And silver.

[45]

UNITED STATES MONEY EQUIVALENTS
VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY — (Cont.)

Country

Standard

Monetary Unit

Value in
U.S. Gold
Dollar

Remarks (a)

Italy
Japan.

Gold(b)
Gold.

Lira ....

.1930

.4985
1.0000

.4985
.4020

1.0139
.2680
1.0000
.3537

.1700

4.8665

.5000
1.0806

.1930
.5146
1.0000
.1930
.3709
.1930

.5678
.2680
.1930

.0440
1.0342
.1930

Member of Latin Union; gold is the actual
standard.

Currency: depreciated silver token coins;
customs duties are collected in gold.
Mexican exchange rate fluctuating, ap-
proximately, $0.15.

Currency: depreciated paper; exchange
rate 1.550 per cent.
This is the value of the gold kran. Cur-
rency is silver circulating above its me-
tallic value; exchange value of silver
kran, approximately, $0.0875.

Currency: inconvertible paper; exchange
rate, approximately, $0.70}^.

Valuation is for the gold peseta; currency is
silver circulating above its metallic value;
exchange value, approximately, $0.20.

Member Latin Union; gold is actual stand-
ard.
100 piasters equal to the Turkish £.

Yen

Liberia. . . .
Mexico

Netherlands.
Newfound-
land
Norway. . .
Panama . . .
Paraguay. .

Persia

Peru
Philippine
Islands. . .
Portugal. . .

Roumania.
Russia . . . .
Santo Dom
Serbia
Siam. . . .

Gold...
Gold...
Gold...

Gold...
Gold...
Gold...
Silver. .

Dollar

Peso
Florin

Dollar

Crown

Balboa

Peso

Gold(b)

Gold. . .

Gold. . .
Gold...

Gold...

Kran

Libra

Peso
Escudo

Leu

Gold...
Gold...
Gold...
Gold.

Ruble.......
Dollar

Dinar.

Tical

Spain

Gold(b)

Gold. . .
Gold...
Gold...

Gold...
Gold

Peseta

Straits
Set'm'ts..
Sweden. . .
Switzerl'd .

Turkey....
Uruguay .

Dollar

Crown

Franc ....

Piaster

Peso

Venezuela .

Gold...

Bolivar

(a) The exchange rates shown under this heading are recent quotations and given as an indication of
the values of currencies which are fluctuating in their relation to the legal standard. They are not to take
the place of the Consular certificate where it is available, (b) And silver.

time is divided into 24 hours continuously beginning at 1 p. M. and not into two
periods of 12 hours each. Let there be two clocks, one regulated for mean solar time,
indicating 24 hours from meridian to meridian of a fixed star; the latter clock will
indicate only 23 hr., 56 min., 4 sec., of mean solar time; the fixed star passing the
meridian 3 min., 56 sec., earlier every day.

A sidereal year is the time which elapses during a complete revolution of the earth
around the sun, measured by the recurrence of the same fixed star selected at the begin-
ning of the observation; it is 365 days, 6 hrs., 9 min., 9.3145 sec. of mean solar time.

[46]

MEASURES OF TIME

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Tfl^T^iOtO tototOtOtO tototo • • •

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00 05 0

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M (M S

' (M <M <M CO CO

[47]

LONGITUDE

EXAMPLE. — The number of days from October 18 to the following June 9 = 525 —
291 = 234 days. Method: beginning with the later date in left-hand column, 9 day,
trace across table the June in second year, finding 525; then from 18 day in left-hand
column trace across table to October in first year finding 291, subtracting this number
from the former = 234 days.

EXAMPLE. — To find the date upon which a note given March 11 for 45 days will
become due: Find 11 day in left-hand column; trace across table to March finding 70.
Then 70 + 45 = 115. Find 115 in the table, observe the month at the top of column
(April), then trace to the left-hand column finding 25. The date is April 25.

NOTE. — The above table applies to ordinary years of 365 days. For leap-year add
one day to each number of days after February 28.

Longitude. The time required to make one complete revolution of the earth from
meridian to meridian is not only divided into 24 hours, but it is also divided into 360
degrees. As the 24 hours and 360° are invariable, they bear a constant relation to
each other; for example, 360 -5- 24 = 15° of the great circle in one hour. Further,

— — — = 15' of the great circle in 15 minutes of time, and lastly — — — = 15" of
ou 60

the great circle in 15 seconds of time. The east and west D.°, M/, S.", of the great
circle are called degrees, minutes, and seconds of longitude. The hour, with its sub-
divisions of minutes and seconds, is reckoned as time.

LONGITUDE AND TIME COMPARED

15° in longitude = 1 hour in time
15' in longitude = 1 minute in time
15" in longitude = 1 second in time

1° hi longitude = 4 minutes in time

1' in longitude = 4 seconds in tune

1" in longitude = — = 0.667 in time
lo

Fractions of seconds are expressed decimally.

Longitude is reckoned along the equator from the first meridian. There is no
natural starting-point for longitude as there is for latitude; the latter is reckoned from
both sides of the equator to the north and south poles respectively. A quadrant of
the earth's surface, or the distance from the equator to the pole, is divided into 90°,
and again into minutes and seconds, and decimals of a second — of latitude.

Longitude must have an agreed starting-point; seafaring men have agreed upon,
and commonly reckon, longitude east or west from Greenwich, England. Any other
place would answer equally well, such as the longitude of Paris, or of Washington,
but varying longitudes would result in endless confusion in the use of nautical tables,
coast survey charts, etc.

A navigator's chief reliance is in the accuracy of the ship's chronometer as a tune-
piece which must correctly indicate Greenwich time, by which is meant that his chronom-
eter must point to 12 o'clock when the sun is on the Greenwich meridian. Chronom-
eters, like other trains of mechanism, are subject to variation, and the rate, whether
fast or slow, must be carefully noted when computing daily observations. Suppose a
ship going westward from Europe, and the noon observation to show a variation of
3 h., 36' slower than the chronometer or Greenwich time, the position of the ship would
be 54° west of Greenwich or within 20° of New York, for the difference in time between
the two meridians is the difference in longitude.

[48]

METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

MtETRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Bureau of Standards

Fundamental Equivalents. The fundamental unit of the metric system is the
meter — the unit of length. From this the units of capacity (liter) and of weight
(gram) were derived. All other units are the decimal subdivisions or multiples of these.
These three units are simply related, e.g., for all practical purposes one cubic deci-
meter equals one liter, and one liter of water weighs one kilogram. The metric tables
are formed by combining the words " meter," " gram," and " liter " with six numerical
prefixes as in the following tables:

Prefixes

Meaning

Units

Milli-

= one thousandth xA

v .001

Centi-

= one hundredth y?»<

r .01

Meter for length

Deci-

= one-tenth iV

.1

Unit

= one

1.

Gram for weight or mass

Deka-

= ten \a

10

Hecto-

= one hundred 1r~

- 100

Liter for capacity

Kilo-

= one thousand — r0-

MOOO

All lengths, areas, and cubic measures in the following tables are derived from the
international meter, the legal equivalent being 1 meter = 39.37 inches (law of July
28, 1866). In 1893 the United States Office of Standard Weights and Measures was
authorized to derive the yard from the meter, using for the purpose the relation legal-

3 600

ized in 1866, 1 yard equals ~^z meter. The customary weights are likewise referred
o,9o7

to the kilogram (Executive order approved April 5, 1893). This action fixed the values,
inasmuch as the reference standards are as perfect and unalterable as it is possible for
human skill to make them.

All capacities are based on the practical equivalent 1 cubic decimeter equals 1 liter.
The decimeter is equal to 3.937 inches, in accordance with the legal equivalent of the
meter given above. The gallon referred to in the tables is the United States gallon,
231 cubic inches. The bushel is the United States bushel of 2,150.42 cubic inches.
These units must not be confused with the British units of the same name, which differ
from those used in the United States. The British gallon is approximately 20 per cent
larger and the British bushel 3 per cent larger than the corresponding units used in
this country.

The customary weights derived from the international kilogram are based on the
value 1 avoirdupois pound = 453.5924277 grams. This value is carried out further
than that given in the law, but it is in accord with the latter as far as it is there given.
The value of the troy pound is based upon the relations just mentioned, and also the

5,760

equivalent ^7^:; avoirdupois pound equals 1 troy pound.
7,000

[49]

METRIC AND U. S. MEASURES
EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC, UNITED STATES, AND BRITISH MEASURES

0123 4m.

hlilililililili iliiihlihlih ilihhlihlili tlililiiihlilil

, COMPARISON SCALE: 10 CENTIMETERS AND 4 INCHES. (ACTUAL SIZE.)

LENGTHS

1 millimeter 0.03937 inch

1 inch 25.4001 millimeters

1 centimeter 0.3937 inch

1 inch 2.54001 centimeters

meter 3.28083 feet

foot 0. 304801 meter

meter 1 .093611 U. S. yards

U. S. yard 0.914402 meter

kilometer 0.62137 U. S. mile

U. S. mile 1 .60935 kilometers

AREAS

1 square millimeter 0 . 00155 square inch

1 square inch ' 645 . 16 square millimeters

1 square centimeter 0. 155 square inch

1 square inch 6.452 square centimeters

1 square foot 0 . 0929 square meter

1 square meter 10.764 square feet

1 square yard 0 . 8361 square meter

1 square meter 1 . 196 square yards

1 square kilometer 0 . 3861 square mile

1 square mile 2 . 59 square kilometers

1 acre 0.4047 hectare

1 hectare. 2.471 acres

VOLUMES

1 cubic millimeter 0.000061 cubic inch

1 cubic inch 16387.2 cubic millimeters

1 cubic centimeter 0.061 cubic inch

1 cubic inch 16 . 3872 cubic centimeters

1 cubic foot 0.02832 cubic meter

1 cubic meter 35 . 314 cubic feet

1 cubic yard 0 . 7646 cubic meter

1 cubic meter 1 . 3079 cubic yards

[50]

METRIC AND U. S. MEASURES
CAPACITIES

1 milliliter (c.c.) 0.03381 U. S. liquid ounce

1 U. S. liquid ounce . . . . 29 . 574 milliliters (c.c.)

1 milliliter (c.c.) 0. 2705 U. S. apothecary's dram

1 apothecary's dram 3 .6967 milliliters (c.c.)

1 milliliter (c.c.) 0.8115 U. S. apothecary's scruple

1 U. S. apothecary's scruple 1 .2322 milliliters (c.c.)

1 U. S. liquid quart 0.94636 liter

1 Imperial quart 1 . 1359 liters

1 liter 1 .05668 U. S. liquid quarts

1 liter 0.8804 Imperial quart

1 liter 0.26417 U. S. liquid gallon

1 liter 0.2201 Imperial gallon

1 U. S. liquid gallon 3.78543 liters

1 Imperial gallon 4.5434 liters

1 liter 0.9081 U. S. dry quart

1 U. S. dry quart 1.1012 liters

1 liter 0.11351 U. S. peck

U. S. peck 8.8092 liters

U. S. peck 0.881 dekaliter

dekaliter 1 . 1351 U. S. pecks

U. S. bushel 0.35239 hectoliter

hectoliter 2.83774 U. S. bushels

hectoliter 2.7512 bushels (British)

bushel (British) ... 0.3635 hectoliter

VOLUME, AREA, AND LENGTH

METKIC UNITS U. S. AND BRITISH UNITS

1 cubic meter per lineal meter 1 . 196 cubic yards per lineal yard

1 cubic yard per lineal yard 0 . 836 cubic meter per lineal meter

1 cubic meter per square meter 3 . 281 cubic feet per square foot

1 square foot per square foot 3 . 048 cubic meters per square meter

1 liter per square meter 0.0204 Imperial gallon per square foot

1 Imperial gallon per square foot 48 . 905 liters per square meter

1 liter per square meter 0.0245 U. S. gallon per square foot

1 U. S. gallon per square foot 40. 734 liters per square meter

WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES

1 grain per Imperial gallon 0.014 gram per liter

1 gram per liter 70. 116 grains per Imperial gallon

1 grain per U. S. gallon 0.017 gram per liter

1 gram per liter 58 . 386 grains per U. S. gallon

1 pound per Imperial gallon 0.1 kilogram per liter

1 kilogram per liter 10 . 017 pounds per Imperial gallon

1 pound per U. S. gallon 0. 1198 kilogram per liter

1 kilogram per liter 8 . 345 pounds per U. S. gallon

WEIGHT

1 grain : 0. 0648 gram

1 gram 15.4324 grains

1 avoirdupois ounce 28 . 3495 grams

1 gram 0 . 03527 avoirdupois ounce

1 troy ounce 31.10348 grams

1 gram 0 . 03215 troy ounce

1 avoirdupois pound 0.45350 kilogram

1 kilogram 2.20462 avoirdupois pounds

[51]

METRIC AND U. S. MEASURES

EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC, UNITED STATES, AND BRITISH MEASURES — (Cont.)

WEIGHT— (Cont.~)

1 troy pound

0.37324 kilogram

1 kilogram

2 . 67923 troy pounds

1 troy pound '. . . .

0.00037 metric ton

1 metric ton

2679.23 troy pounds

1 avoirdupois pound

0.00045 metric ton

1 metric ton

2204 . 62 avoirdupois pounds

1 short ton

0.90718 metric ton

1 short ton

907 . 18 kilograms

1 long ton

1 .01605 metric tons

1 long ton

1016 . 05 kilograms

1 metric ton

0.98421 long ton

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1 pound per cubic inch 0 .

1 kilogram per cubic centimeter 36 .

1 pound per cubic foot 16 .

1 kilogram per cubic meter 0.

1 pound per cubic yard 0 .

1 kilogram per cubic meter 1 .

1 short ton per cubic yard 1 .

1 metric ton per cubic meter 0 .

1 long ton per cubic yard 1 .

1 metric ton per cubic meter. . . . 0.

1 cubic inch per pound. ....... rrt 36.

1 cubic centimeter per kilogram D.

1 cubic foot per pound : 0 .

1 cubic meter per kilogram 16 .

1 cubic yard per pound . . 1.

1 cubic meter per kilogram . 0 .

1 cubic yard per shert ton 0.

cubic meter per metric ton 1 .

cubic yard per long ton 0 .

cubic meter per metric ton 1 .

cubic meter per metric ton 29 .

cubic foot per short ton 0.

cubic meter per metric ton 35 .

cubic foot per long ton 0 .

pound per foot 1 .

kilogram per meter 0 .

pound per yard . 0 .

kilogram per meter '...... 2 .

long ton per foot 3333.

kilogram per meter 0 .

short ton per foot . . 2775 .

kilogram per meter

long ton per yard .."... . . .

metric ton per meter

short ton per yard

metric ton per meter

1 long ton per mile

1 metric ton per kilometer

1 short ton per mile

1 metric ton per kilometer.

028 kilogram per cubic centimeter

25 pounds per cubic inch

02 kilograms per cubic meter
062 pounds per cubic foot
593 kilogram per cubic meter
685 pounds per cubic yard

187 metric tons per cubic meter

843 short tons per cubic yard

329 metrie tons per cubic meter

752 long ton per cubic yard

125 cubic centimeters per kilogram

028 cubic inch per pound

062 cubic meter per kilogram

019 cubic foot per pound

685 cubic meters per kilogram

593 cubic yard per pound

903 cubic meters per metric ton

107 cubic yards per short ton

752 cubic, meters per metric ton

329 cubic yard per long ton

879 cubic feet per short ton

0335 cubic meter per metric ton

882 cubic feet per long ton

0279 cubic meter per metric ton

488 kilograms per meter

672 pound per foot

496 kilogram per meter

016 pounds per yard

333 kilograms per meter

0003 long ton per foot
666 kilograms per meter
00036 short tons per foot
111 metric tons per meter
9 long tons per yard
925 metric tons per meter
081 short tons per yard

631 metric tons per kilometer

584 long tons per mile

758 metric tons per kilometer

319 short tons per mile

52

METRIC AND U. S. MEASURES

PRESSURES

1 pound per square inch 0 . 0007

1 kilogram per square millimeter 1422.32

1 pound per square inch 0 . 07

1 kilogram per square centimeter 14.223

1 . 0335 kilograms per square centimeter 14 . 7

14.7 pounds per sq. in. (1 atmosphere) 0.07

1 pound per square foot 4 . 883

1 kilogram per square meter 0.205

1 short ton per square inch 1 . 406

1 kilogram per square millimeter 0.711

1 long ton per square inch 1 . 575

1 kilogram per square millimeter 0 . 635

1 short ton per square foot 9 . 764

1 metric ton per square meter 0 . 102

1 long ton per square foot 10 . 937

1 metric ton per square meter .0914

1 pound per square inch 5.17

1 centimeter of mercury 0 . 193

1 inch of mercury 2 . 54

1 centimeter of mercury 0 . 394

kilogram per square millimeter
pounds per square inch
kilogram per square centimeter
pounds per square inch
pounds per sq. in. (1 atmosphere)
kilograms per square centimeter
kilograms per square meter
pounds per square foot
kilograms per square millimeter
short ton per square inch
kilograms per square millimeter
long tons per square inch
metric ton per square meter
short ton per square foot
metric tons per square meter
long ton per square foot
centimeters of mercury
pound per square inch
centimeters of mercury
inch of mercury

TIME, VELOCITY, SPEED

foot per second

0 . 305 meter per second

meter per second

3 . 281 feet per second

foot per minute

0 . 305 meter per minute

meter per minute

3 . 281 feet per minute

mile per hour

1 . 609 kilometers per hour

kilometer per hour

0 . 621 mile per hour

cubic foot per second

0 . 0283 cubic meter per second

1 cubic meter per second

35 . 316 cubic feet per second

1 cubic yard per minute

0 . 765 cubic meter per minute

1 cubic meter per minute

1 . 308 cubic yard per minute

WORK, ACTIVITY

1 foot pound

1 kilogrammeter

1 horsepower

1 foot-pound per second ....

1 horsepower

1 foot-pound per minute ....

1 horsepower

1 kilegrammeter per second .

1 horsepower

1 cheval

1 horsepower

1 kilowatt

1 cheval

1 kilogrammeter per second. .

1 cheval

1 kilogrammeter per minute .

1 cheval ,

1 foot-pound per second ....

1 pound per horsepower

1 kilogram per cheval

1 square foot per horsepower.

0.138
7.233

550.0

0.0018
33000.0

0.00003
76.0
0.013
1.014
0.986
0.746
1.34
75.0

0.013
4500.0
0.00022

542.48
0.0018
0.447
2.235
0.092

[53]

kilogrammeter

foot-pounds

foot-pounds per second

horsepower

foot-pounds per minute

horsepower

kilogrammeters per second

horsepower

cheval

horsepower

kilowatt

horsepower

kilogrammeters per second

cheval

kilogrammeters per minute

cheval

foot-pounds per second

cheval

kilogram per cheval

pounds per horsepower

square meter per jsheval

METRIC AND U. S. MEASURES

EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC, UNITED STATES, AND BRITISH MEASURES — (Cont.)
WORK, ACTIVITY — (Cont.)

square meter per cheval
cubic foot per horsepower.

10.913
0 028

square feet per horsepower
cubic meter per cheval

cubic meter per cheval

35.806

cubic feet per horsepower

foot-ton (2,240 pounds)

0.31

metric ton-meter

metric ton-meter

3 229

foot-tons (2 240 pounds)

foot-ton (2,000 pounds)

0.276

metric ton-meter

metric ton-meter

3.616

foot-tons (2,000 pounds)

HEAT

1 unit of heat B.t.u

1 calorie

1 mechanical equivalent of heat

(772 foot-pounds)
1 kilogrammeter

1 metric mechanical equivalent 1
(425 kilogrammeters) /

1 heat unit per square foot

1 calorie per square meter

1 heat unit per pound

1 calorie per kilogram

0.252 calorie

3.968 units of heat B.t.u.

10 . 67 kilogrammeters

0.937 mechanical equivalent of heat

(772 foot-pounds)
3074 . 0 foot-pounds = 774 . 7 foot-pounds

per English unit
2.713 calories per square meter
0 . 369 heat units per square foot
0 . 556 calorie per kilogram
1 . 8 heat units per pound

LENGTHS. FRACTIONS OF AN INCH TO MILLIMETERS
Reduction factor: 1 inch = 25.4001 millimeters

INCH

Milli-
meters

INCH

Milli-
meters

INCH

Milli-
meters

Frac-
tion

Decimal

Frac-
tion

Decimal

Frac-
tion

Decimal

A

.015625

.397

H

.34375

8.731

If

.671875

17.066

&

.03125

.794

M

.359375

9.128

H

.6875

17.463

A

.046875

1.191

t

.3750

9.525

n

.703125

17.859

&

.0625

1.588

If

.390625

9.922

ft

.71875

18.256

&

.078125

1.984

if

.40625

10.319

tt

.734375

18.653

•h

.09375

2.381

H

.421875

10.716

f

.7500

19.050

&

.109375

2.778

&

.4375

11.113

If

.765625

19.447

i

.1250

3.175

M

.453125

11.509

If

.78125

19.844

A

.140625

3.572

If

.46875

11.906

M

.796875

20.241

&

.15625

3.969

ti

.484375

12.303

it

.8125

20.638

H

.171875

4.366

1

.5000

12.700

If

.828125

21.034

A

.1875

4.763

If

.515625

13.097

if

.84375

21.431

H

.203125

5.159

H

.53125

13.494

If

.859375

21.828

&

.21875

5.556

M

.546875

13.891

7
J

.875

22.225

M

.234375

5.953

A

.5625

14.288

H

.890625

22.622

i

.2500

6.350

H

.578125

14.684

If

.90625

23.019

H

.265625

6.747

H

.59375

15.081

If

.921875

23 416

&

.28125

7.144

M

.609375

15.478

il

.9375

23.813

H

.296875

7.541

I

.625

15.875

H

.953125

24.209

A

.3125

7.938

li

.640625

16.272

ft

.96875

24.606

H

.328125

8.334

f*

.65625

16.669

If

.984375

25.003

i

1.000

25.400

[54]

INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS

LENGTHS. INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS
Reduction factors: ^ inch = 1 . 5875 millimeters
1 inch =25.40 millimeters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

o

o

0

2i

2.500

63.5

5

127.0

ft

.0625

1.59

^2

2&

2.563

65.1

5^

5.063

128.6

1

.125

3.18

21

2.625

66.7

6|

5.125

130.2

A

.1875

4.76

2H

2.688

68.3

5&

5.188

131.8

i

.25

6.35

2|

2.750

69.9

5J

5.250

133.4

A

.3125

7.94

2H

2.813

71.4

a*

5.313

124.9

I

.375

9.53

21

2.875

73.0

5f

5.375

136.5

ft

.4375

11.11

2H

2.938

74.6

5^

5.438

138.1

*

.5

12.70

3

76.2

5*

5.500

139.7

ft

.5625

14.29

3&

3.063

77.8

5&

5.563

141.3

f

.625

15.88

31

3.125

79.4

5f

5.625

142.9

H

.6875

17.46

3A

3.188

81.0

5H

5.688

144.5

!

.75

19.05

H

3.250

82.6

5f

5.750

146.1

H

.8125

20.64

3&

3.313

84.1

5H

5.813

147.6

1

.875

22.23

3|

3.375

85.7

51

5.875

149.2

H

.9375

23.81

3ft

3.438

87.3

5H

5.938

150.8

i

25.4

3?

3.500

88.9

6

152.4

l*

1.063

27.0

3A

3.563

90.5

6^

6.063

154.0

H

1.125

28.6

3f

3.625

92.1

6|

6.125

155.6

ift

1.188

30.2

3H

3.688

93.7

6&

6.188

157.2

i*

1.250

31.8

3*

3.750

95.3

4

6.250

158.8

ift

.313

33.3

3H

3.813

96.8

6A

6.313

160.3

if

.375

34.9

3|

3.875

98.4

6f

6.375

161.9

ift

.438

36.5

3H

3.938

100.0

6*

6.438

163.5

if

.500

38.1

4

101.6

61

6.500

165.1

iA

.563

39.7

4^

4.063

103.2

"2

6A

6.563

166.7

if

.625

41.3

4i

4.125

104.8

6!

6.625

168.3

1H

1.688

42.9

4A

4.188

106.4

U

1.750

44.5

4i

4.250

108.0

6H

6.688

169.9

m

1.813

46.0

*&

4.313

109.5

61

6.750

171.5

U

1.875

47.6

4f

4.375

111.1

6H

6.813

173.0

in

1.938

49.2

4^

4.438

112.7

61

6.875

174.6

2

50.8

4|

4.500

114.3

6||

6.938

176.2

2A

2.063

52.4

^•2

4A

4.563

115.9

"16

7

177.8

2*

2.125

54.0

•^16

4f

4.625

117.5

7&

7.063

179.4

2&

2.188

55.6

4H

4.688

119.1

7|

7.125

181.0

at

2.250

57.2

4f

4.750

120.7

7A

7.188

182.6

2&

2.313

58.7

4H

4.813

122.2

71

7.250

184.2

2|

2.375

60.3

41

4.875

123.8

7A

7.313

185.7

2&

2.438

61.9

4M

4.938

125.4

7f

7.375

187.3

[55]

INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS
LENGTHS. INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS — (Cont.)

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

7*

7.438

188.9

101

10.250

260.4

13*

13.063

331.8

7i

7.500

190.5

10*

10.313

261.9

131

13.125

333.4

7&

7.563

192.1

10f

10.375

263.5

13*

13 . 188

335.0

7f

7.625

193.7

10*

10.438

265.1

131

13.250

336.6

7H

7.688

195.3

iei

10.500

266.7

13*

13.313

338.1

7f

7.750

196.9

10*

10.563

268.3

13|

13.375

339.7

7H

7.813

198.4

10f

10.625

269.9

13*

13.438

341.3

71

7.875

200.0

IOH

10.688

271.5

I3|

13.500

342.9

7M

7.938

201.6

10}

10.750

273.1

10*

13.563

344.5

8

203.2

ion

10.813

274.6

131

13.625

346.1

8&

8.063

204.8

»w i s

101

10.875

276.2

*v 8

13H

13.688

347.7

81

8.125

206.4

IOH

10.938

277.8

13f

13.750

349.3

8A

8.188

208.0

11

279.4

13H

13.813

350.8

*-* 1 6

8*

8.250

209.6

11*

11.063

281.0

•*-*J 1 6

131

13.875

352.4

8&

8.313

211.1

ill

11.125

282.6

13M

13.938

354.0

81

8.375

212.7

llyt

11.188

285.2

14

355.6

^-*8

8&

8.438

214.3

•*• •*• 16

111

11.250

285.8

H*

14.063

357.2

81

8.500

215.9

11*

11.313

287.3

141

14.125

358.8

8A

8.563

217.5

HI

11.375

288.9

14*

14.188

360.4

8f

8.625

219.1

it&

11.438

290.5

141

14.250

362.0

8H

8.688

220.7

11*

11.500

292.1

14*

14.313

363.5

8f

8.750

222 3

11*

11.563

293.7

14!

14.375

365.1

8H

8.813

223.8

HI

11.625

295.3

14*

14.438

366.7

81

8.875

225.4

lift

11.688

296.9

141

14.500

368.3

8H

8.938

227.0

111

11.750

298.5

14*

14.563

369.9

g

228.6

11H

11.813

300.0

141

14.625

371.5

»*

9.063

230.2

x x 1 6

ill

11.875

301.6

A 8

14H

14.688

373.1

9|

9.125

231.8

lift

11.938

303.2

14f

14.750

374.7

9A

9.188

233.4

12

304.8

14H

14.813

376.2

47 16

91

9.250

235.0

12*

12.063

306.4

•*•••• 1 6

141

14.875

377.8

9A

9.313

236.5

12|

12.125

308.0

14H

14.938

379.4

91

9.375

238.1

12*

12.188

309.6

15

381.0

9&

9.438

239.7

12J

12.250

311.2

15*

16 ! 063

382.6

9*

9.500

241.3

12*

12.313

312.7

151

15.125

384.2

9&

9.563

242.9

12|

12.375

314.3

15*

15.188

385.8

9f

9.625

244.5

12*

12.438

315.9

151

15.250

387.4

9H

9.688

246.1

12|

12.500

317.5

15*

15.313

388.9

9!

9.750

247.7

12*

12.563

319.1

16|

15.375

390.5 -

9H

9.813

249.?

12f

12.625

320.7

15*

15.438

392.1

91

9.875

250.8

12ft

12.688

322.3

15|

15.500

393.7

9H

9.938

252.4

12f

12.750

323.9

ISA

15.563

395.3

10

254.0

1244

12.813

325.4

151

15.625

396.9

10*

10.063

255.6

*-f 16

121

12.875

327.0

•*-'-' 8

158

15.688

398.5

io»

10.125

257.2

12H

12.938

328.6

15}

15.750

400.0

10*

10.188

258.8

13

330.2

15H

15.813

401.6

[56]

INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS

LENGTHS. INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS — (Cont.)

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

15|

15H
16

1«A

16|

16A

161
16A
16f
16|

16J

16A

16f

16H

16f

16H
161
16H
17

1*4*

171
17A
17J
17A

17|

17*

17|

17A
17f

17H

17!
17H
17|
17H

18

ISA

18|
ISA

181

ISA

18|

ISA

18|
ISA

18f

15.875

15.938

403.2
404.8
406.4
408.0
409.6

411.2
412.8
414.3
415.9
417.5

419.1
420.7
422.3
423.9
425.5

427.0
428.6
430.2
431.8
433.4

435.0
436.6
438.2
439.7
441.3

442.9
444.5
446.1
447.7
449.3

450.9
452.4
454.0
455.6
457.2

458.8
460.4
462.0
463.6
465.1

466.7
468.3
469.9
471.5
473.1

tan

18|
18H

181

ISM

19

H>A

19|

19A

m

19A

19f

ISA
19|

19A

19f

19H
19f

19B
191

19M
20
20^
201
20A

20i

20A
20f
20^

18.688
18.750
18.813
18.875
18.938

474.7
476.3
477.8
479.4
481.0

482.6

484.2
485.8
487.4
489.0

490.5
492.1
493.7
495.3
496.9

498.5
500.1
501.7
503.2
404.8

506.4
508.0
509.6
511.2
512.8

514.4
515.9
517.5
519.1

21A
21f

21A

21f
21H

21f
21H

211
21M
22

22^
22i

22^
221
22A

22f

22^
22*

22^

22f

22^
22f
22M
221
22H

23

23A
231
23A
23i

23A
23|

23A
23J
23&

23f

23H

23|
23H
231

23M
24

24^
241
24^

21.438

21.500
21.563
21.625

21.688

21.750
21.813
21.875
21.938

544.5
546.1
447.7
549.3
550.9

552.5
554.0
555.6
557.2

558.8

560.4
562.0
563.6
565.2
566.7

568.3
569.9
571.5
573.1
574.7

576.3
577.9
579.4
581.0
582.6

584.2
585.8
587.4
589.0
590.6

592.1
593.7
595.3
596.9
598.5

600.1
601.7
603.3
604.8
606.4

608.0
609.6
611.2
612.8
614.4

16.063
16.125

16.188
16.250
16.313
16.375
16.438

16.500
16.563
16.625
16.688
16.750

16.813
16.875
16.938

19.063
19.125
19.188
19.250

19.313
19.375
19.438
19.500
19.563

19.625
19.688
19.750
19.813
19.875

19.938

22.063
22.125
22.188
22.250
22.313

22.375
22.438
22.500
22.563
22.625

22.688
22.750
22.813
22.875
22.938

17.063

17.125
17.188
17.250
17.313
17.375

17.438
17.500
17.563
17.625
17.688

17.750
17.813
17.875
17.938

20.063
20.125

20.188

20.250
20.313
20.375
20.438

23.063
23 . 125
23.188
23.250

23.313
23.375
23.438
23.500
23.563

23.625
23.688
23.750
23.813
23.875

23.938

20£
'20&
20f
20H
20|

20M
201
20i£
21
21A

aij

21A
21*
21A
21f

20.500
20.563
20.625
20.688
20.750

20.813
20.875
20.938

520.7
522.3
523.9
525.5
527.1

528.6
530.2
531.8
533.4
535.0

536.6
538.2
539.8
541.3
542.9

18.063
18.125
18.188
18.250
18.313

18.375
18.438
18.500
18.563
18.625

21.063

21.125
21.188
21.250
21.313
21.375

24.063
24.125
24.188

[57]

INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS
LENGTHS. INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS — (Cord.)

IN

CHB3

Milli-

IN

CHES

Milli-

IN(

:HES

Milli-

Fractions

Decimals

meters

Fractions

Decimals

meters

Fractions

Decimals

meters

241

24.250

616.0

27&

27.063

687.4

291

29.875

758.8

24&

24.313

617.5

27i

27.125

689.0

29H

29.938

760.4

241

24.375

619.1

27 A

27 . 188

690.6

30

762.0

w» 8

24£

24.438

620.7

Arf* 16

271

27.250

692.2

30^

30.063

763.6

24*

24.500

622.3

27A

27.313

693.7

30|

30.125

765.2

24&

24.563

623.9

27|

27.375

695.3

30^

,30.188

766.8

24f

24.625

625.5

27&

27.438

696.9

301

30.250

768.4

24H

24.688

627.1

27*

27.500

698.5

30&

30.313

769.9

24f

24.750

628.7

27&

27.563

700.1

30|

30.375

771.5

24H

24.813

630.2

27f

27.625

701.7

30^

30.438

773.1

341

24.875

631.8

27H

27.678

703.3

30*

30.500

774.7

24H

24.938

633.4

27|

27.750

704.9

30&

30.563

776.3

25

635.0

27 U

27.813

706.4

301

30.625

777.9

25^

25.063

636.6

**« 1 $

271

27.875

708.0

w 8

30H

30.688

779.5

25|

25.125

638.2

27H

27.938

709.6

30|

30.750

781.1

25A

25.188

639.8

28

711.2

30H

30.813

782.6

251

25.250

641.4

28^

28.063

712.8

301

30.875

784.2

25&

25.313

642.9

28|

28.125

714.4

30H

30.938

785.8

251

25.375

644.5

28A

28.188

716.0

31

787.4

,*rf«_r 5

25&

25.438

646.1

*j<*j 16

281

28.250

717.6

31A

31.063

789.0

25*

25.500

647.7

28&

28.313

719.1

3U

31.125

790.6

25&

25.563

649.3

28f

28.375

720.7

31&

31.188

792.2

25f

25.625

650.9

28&

28.438

722.3

311

31.250

793.8

25H

25.688

652.5

28*

28.500

723.9

31A

31.313

795.3

25|

25.750

654.1

28&

28.563

725.5

31f

31.375

796.9

25H

25.813

655.5

28f

28.625

727.1

31&

31.438

798.5

25f

25.875

657.2

28H

28.688

728.7

31*

31.500

800.1

25H

25.938

658.8

28|

28.750

730.3

31A

31.563

801.7

26

660.4

28M

28.813

731.8

31f

31.625

803.3

26&

26.063

662.0

281

28.875

733.4

31H

31.688

804.9

26|

26.125

663.6

28H

28.938

735.0

31f

31.750

806.5

26A

26.188

665.2

29

736.6

31H

31.813

808.0

A^VF 1$

261

26.250

666.8

29&

29.063

738.2

*^ 1 6

311

31.875

809.6

26&

26.313

668.3

29i

29.125

739.8

31H

31.938

811.2

261

26 . 375

669.9

29 A-

29.188

741.4

32

812.8

Mpg

26&

26.438

671.5

^^ 16

291

29.250

743.0

32^

32.063

814.4

26*

26.500

673.1

29&

29.313

744.5

32*

32.125

816.0

26&

26.563

674.7

29f

29.375

746.1

32^

32.188

817.6

26f

26.625

676.3

29&

29.438

747.7

321

32.250

819.2

26H

26.688

677.9

29*

29.500

749.3

32^

32.313

820.7

26f

26.750

679.5

29&

29.563

750.9

32|

32.375

822.3

26H

26.813

681.0

29f

29.625

752.5

32^

32.438

823.9

261

26.875

682.6

29H

29.688

754.1

32*

32.500

825.5

26M

26.938

684.2

29f

29.750

755.7

32&

32.563

827.1

27

685.8

29 H

29.813

757.2

32f

32.625

828.7

••«» 1 6

[58]

INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS
LENGTHS. INCHES AND FRACTIONS TO MILLIMETERS — (Con/.)

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

INCHES

Milli-
meters

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

Fractions

Decimals

32H

32.688

830.3

35^

35.188

893.8

37H

37.688

957.3

32f

32.750

831.9

351

35.250

895.4

37f

37.750

958.9

32H

32.813

833.4

35&

35.313

896.9

37M

37.813

960.4

32|

32.875

835.0

35|

35.375

898.5

871

37.875

962.0

32f|

32.938

836.6

35&

35.438

900.1

8TH

37.938

963.6

33

838.2

354

35.500

901.7

38

965.2

33^

33.063

839.8

*-"-*2

35&

35.563

903.3

38^

38.063

966.8

33i

33.125

841.4

35f

35.625

904.9

38i

38.125

968.4

33&

33.188

843.0

35H

35.688

906.5

38A

38.188

790.0

331

33.250

844.5

35|

35.750

908.1

381

38.250

971.6

33&

33.313

846.1

35ff

35.813

909.6

38 A

38.313

973.1

33|

33.375

847.7

35|

35.875

911.2

38|

38.375

974.7

33^

33.438

849.3

35U

35.938

912.8

38&

38.438

976.3

331

33.500

850.9

36

914.4

384

38.500

977.9

uu 2

33&

33.563

852.5

36^

36.063

916.0

VF«-*2

38&

38.563

979.5

33|

33.625

854.1

36i

36.125

917.6

38f

38.625

981.1

33H

33.688

855.7

36^

36.188

919.2

38H

38.688

982.7

33|

33.750

857.3

361

36.250

920.8

38f

38.750

984.3

33H

33.813

858.8

36&

36.313

922.3

38H

38.813

985.8

33|

33.875

860.4

36|

36.375

923.9

38f

38.875

987.4

33H

33.938

862.0

36^

36.438

925.5

38H

38.938

989.0

34

863.6

364

36 . 500

927.1

39

990.6

34^

34.063

865.2

<-*v/2

36&

36.563

928.7

39^

39.063

992.2

34i

34.125

866.8

36f

36.625

930.3

39i

39.125

993.8

34&

34.188

868.4

36H

36.688

931.9

39&

39.188

995.4

341

34.250

870.0

36|

36.750

933.5

391

39.250

997.0

34^

34.313

871.5

36H

36.813

935.0

39&

39.313

998.5

34f

34.375

873.1

36|

36.875

936.6

39|

39.375

1000.1

34&

34.438

874.7

36M

36.938

938.2

39&

39.438

1001.7

344

34.500

876.3

37

939.8

39|

39.500

1003.3

v-r -»-2

34&

34.563

877.9

37&

37.063

941.4

39A

39.563

1004.9

34|

34.625

879.5

37|

37.125

943.0

39f

39.625

1006.5

34H

34.688

881.1

37^

37.188

944.6

39H

39.688

1008.1

34|

34.750

882.7

371

37.250

946.2

39f

39.750

1009.7

34ff

34.813

884.2

37^

37.313

947.7

39H

39.813

1011.2

34|

34.875

885.8

37|

37.375

949.3

39|

39.875

1012.8

34H

34.938

887.4

37ft

37.438

950.9

39H

39.938

1014.4

35

889.0

374

37.500

952.5

40

1016.0

35^

35:063

890.6

*** *

37^

37.563

954.1

35i

35.125

892.2

37f

37.625

955.7

[59]

MILLIMETERS TO INCHES

LENGTHS. MILLIMETERS TO INCHES. FROM 1 TO 1,000 UNITS
Reduction factor: 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch

Mflli- Milli- Milli- Milli- Milli- Milli-
meters Ins. meters Ins. meters Ins. meters Ins. meters Ins. meters Ins.

Milli- Milli-
meters Ins. meters Ins.

0

5 1.77

90 = 3.54

5 5.32

180 = 7.09

5 8.86!270 =10.63

5 12.40

1 = .039

6 1.81

1 3.58

6 5.35

1 7.13

6 8.90

1 10.67 6 12.44

2 .079

7 1.85

2 3.62

7 5.39

2 7.17

7 8.94

2 10.71 7 12.48

3 .118

8 1.89

3 3.66

8 5.43

3 7.20

8 8.98

3 10.75 8 12.52

4 .157

9 1.93

4 3.70

9 5.47

4 7.24

9 9.02

4 10.79! 9 12.56

5 .197

50 = 1.97

5 3.74

140 = 5.51

5 7.28

230 = 9.06

5 10.83^20 =12.60

6 .236

1 2.01

6 3.78

1 5.55

6 7.32

1 9.09

6 10.87! 1 12.64

7 .276

2 2.05

7 3.82

2 5.59

7 7.36

2 9.13

7 10.91! 2 12.68

8 .315

3 2.09

8 3.86

3 5.63

8 7.40

3 9.17

8 10.94 3 12.72

9 .354

4 2.13

9 3.90

4 5.67

9 7.44

4 9.21

9 10.98 4 12.76

10 = .394

5 '2.17

100 = 3.94

5 5.71

190 = 7.48

5 9.25J280 =11.02! 5 12.80

1 .433

6 2.20

1 3.98

6 5.75

1 7.52

6 9.29

1 11.06; 6 12.83

2 .472

7 2.24

2 4.02

7 5.79

2 7.56

7 9.33

2 11.10; 7 12.87

3 .512

8 2.28

3 4.06

8 5.83

3 7.60

8 9.37

3 11.14| 8 12.91

4 .551

9 2.32

4 4.09

9 5.87

4 7.64

9 9.41

4 11.18

9 12.95

5 .591

60 = 2.36

5 4.13

150 = 5.91

5 7.68

240 = 9.45

5 11.22

330 =12.99

6 .630

1 2.40

6 4.17

1 5.95

6 7.72

1 9.49

6 11.26

1 13.03

7 .669

2 2.44

7 4.21

2 5.98

7 7.76

2 9.53

7 11.30

2 13.07

8 .709

3 2.48

8 4.25

3 6.02

8 7.80 3 9.57

8 11.34

3 13.11

9 .748

4 2.52

9 4.29

4 6.06

9 7.83

4 9.61

9 11.38

4 13.15

20 = .79

5 2.56

110 = 4.33

5 6.10

200 = 7.87 5 9.65

290 =11.42

5 13.19

1 .83

6 2.60

1 4.37

6 6.14

1 7.91: 6 9.69

1 11.46 6 13.23

2 .87

7 2.64

2 4.41

7 6.18

2 7.95

7 9.72

2 11.50

7 13.27

3 .91

8 2.68

3 4.45

8 6.22

3 7.99

8 9.76

3 11.54

8 13.31

4 .94

9 2.72

4 4.49

9 6.26

4 8.03

9 9.80

4 11.57

9 13.35

5 .98

70 = 2.76

5 4.53

160 = 6.30

5 8.07

250 = 9.84

5 11.61

340 =13.39

6 .02

1 2.80

6 4.57

1 6.34

6 8.11

1 9.88

6 11.65 1 13.43

7 .06

2 2.83

7 4.61

2 6.38

7 8.15

2 9.92

7 11.69 2 13.46

8 .10

3 2.87

8 4.65

3 6.42

8 8.19

3 9.96

8 11.73

3 13.50

9 .14

4 2.91

9 4.69

4 6.46

9 8.23

4 10.00

9 11.77

4 13.54

30 = .18

5 2.95

120 = 4.72

5 6.50

210 = 8.27

5 13.04300 =11.81

5 13.58

1 .22

6 2.99

1 4.76

6 6.54

1 8.31

6 10.08

1 11.85

6 13.62

2 .26

7 3.03

2 4.80

7 6.57

2 8.3£

7 10.12

•2 11.89

7 13.66

3 .30

8 3.07

3 4.84

8 6.61

3 8.39

8 10.16

3 11.93! 8 13.70

4 .34

9 3.11

4 4.88

9 6.65

4 8.43

9 10.20

4 11.97 9 13.74

5 1.38

80 = 3.15

5 4.92

170 = 6.69

5 8.46260 =10.24

5 12.01350 =13.78

6 1.42

1 3.19 6 4.96

1 6.73

6 8.50: 1 10.28

6 12.05 1 13.82

7 1.46

2 3.23! 7 5.00

2 6.77

7 8.54

2 10.31

7 12.09 2 13.86

8 1.50

3 3.27

8 5.04

3 6.81

8 8.58

3 10.35

8 12.13

3 13.90

9 1.54

4 3.31

9 5.08

4 6.85

9 8.62

4 10.39

9 12.17

4 13.94

40 = 1.57

5 3.35

139 = 5.12

5 6.89

220 = 8.66

5 10.43310 =12.20

5 13.98

1 1.61

6 3.39

1 5.16

6 6.93

1 8.70

6 10.47

1 12.24

6 14.02

2 1.65

7 3.43

2 5.20

7 697

2 8.74

7 10.51

2 12.28

7 14.06

3 1.69

8 3.46

3 5.24

8 7.01

3 8.78

8 10.55

3 12.32 8 14.09

4 1.73

9 3.50

4 5.28

9 7.05

4 8.82

9 10.59

4 12.36

9 14.13

[60]

MILLIMETERS TO INCHES

LENGTHS. MILLIMETERS TO INCHES — (Cont.)

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli- Milli-
meters Ins. meters Ins.

360 =14.17

5 15.94

450 =17.72

5 19.49

540 =21.26

5 23.03

630 =24.80

5 26.57

1 14.21

6 15.98

1 17.76

6 19.53

1 21.30

6 23.07

1 24.84

6 26.61

2 14.25

7 16.02

2 17.80

7 19.57

2 21.34

7 23.11

2 24.88

7 26.65

3 14.29

8 16.06

3 17.83

8 19.61

3 21.38

8 23.15

3 24.92

8 26.69

4 14.33

9 16.10

4 17.87

9 19.65

4 21.42

9 23.19

4 24.96

9 26.73

5 14.37

410 =16.14

5 17.91

500 =19.69

5 21.46

590 =23.23

5 25.00

680 =26.77

6 14.41

1 16.18

6 17.95

1 19.72

6 21.50

1 23.27

6 25.04

1 26.81

7 14.45

2 16.22

7 17.99

2 19.76

7 21.54

2 23.31

7 25.08

2 26.85

8 14.49

3 16.26

8 18.03

3 . 19.80

8 21.57

3 23.35

8 25.12

3 26.89

9 14.53

4 16.30

9 18.07

4 19.84

9 21.61

4 23.39

9 25.16

4 26.93

370 =14.57

5 16.34

460 =18.11

5 19.88

550 =21.65

5 23.43

640 =25.20

5 26.97

1 14.61

6 16.38

1 18.15

6 19.92

1 21.69

6 23.46

1 25.24

6 27.01

2 14.65

7 16.42

2 18.19

7 19.96

2 21.73

7 23.50

2 25.28

7 27.05

3 14.69

8 16.46

3 18.23

8 20.00

3 21.77

8 23.54

3 25.31

8 27.09

4 14.72

9 16.50

4 18.27

9 20.04

4 21.81

9 23.58

4 25.35

9 27.13

5 14.76

420 =16.54

5 18.31

510 =20.08

5 21.85

600 =23.62

5 25.39

690 =27.17

6 14.80

1 16.57

6 18.35

1 20.12

6 21.89

1 23.66

6 25.43

1 27.20

7 14.84

2 16.61

7 18.39

2 20.16

7 21.93

2 23.70

7 25.47

2 27.24

8 14.88

3 16.65

8 18.43

3 20.20

8 21.97

3 23.74

8 25.51

3 27.28

9 14.92

4 16.69

9 18.46

4 20.24

9 22.01

4 23.78

9 25.55

4 27.32

380 =14.96

5 16.73

470 =18.50

5 20.28

560 =22.05

5 23.82

650 =25.59

5 27.36

1 15.00

6 16.77

1 18.54

6 20.31

1 22.09

6 23.86

1 25.63

6 27.40

2 15.04

7 16.81

2 18.58

7 20.35

2 22.13

7 23.90

2 25.67

7 27.44

3 15.08

8 16.85

3 18.62

8 20.39

3 22.17

8 23.94

3 25.71

8 27.48

4 15.12

9 16.89

4 18.66

9 20.43

4 22.20

9 23.98

4 25.75

9 27.52

5 15.16

430 =16.93

5 18.70

520 =20.47

5 22.24

610 =24.02

5 25.79

700 =27.56

6 15.20

1 16.97

6 18.74

1 20.51

6 22.28

1 24.06

6 25.83

1 27.60

7 15.24

2 17.01

7 18.78

2 20.55

7 22.32

2 24.09

7 25.87

2 27.64

8 15.28

3 17.05

8 18.82

3 20.59

8 22.36

3 24.13

8 25.91

3 27.68

9 15.31

4 17.09

9 18.86

4 20.63

9 22.40

4 24.17

9 25.94

4 27.72

390 =15.35

5 17.13

480 =18.90

5 20.67

570 =22.44

5 24.21

660 =25.98

5 27.76

1 15.39

6 17.17

1 18.94

6 20.71

1 22.48

6 24.25

1 26.02

6 27.80

2 15.43

7 17.20

2 18.98

7 20.75

2 22.52

7 24.29

2 26.06

7 27.83

3 15.47

8 17.24

3 19.02

8 20.79

3 22.56

8 24.33

3 26.10

8 27.87

4 15.51

9 17.28

4 19.06

9 20.83

4 22.60

9 24.37

4 26.14

9 27.91

5 15.55

440 =17.32

5 19.09

530 =20.87

5 22.64

620 =24.41

5 26.18

710 =27.95

6 15.59

1 17.36

6 19.13

1 20.91

6 22.68

1 24.45

6 26.22

1 27.99

7 15.63

2 17.40

7 19.17

2 20.94

7 22.72

2 24.49

7 26.26

2 28.03

8 15.67

3 17.44

8 19.21

3 20.98

8 22.76

S3 24.53

8 26.30

3 28.07

9 15.71

4 17.48

9 19.25

4 21.02

9 22.80

4 24.57

9 26.34

4 28.11

400 =15.75

5 17.52

490 =19.29

5 21.06

580 =22.83

5 24.61

670 =26.38

5 28.15

1 15.79

6 17.56

1 19.33

6 21.10

1 22.87

6 24.65

1 26.42

6 28.19

2 15.83

7 17.60

2 19.37

7 21.14

2 22.91

7 24.68

2 26.46

7 28.23

3 15.87

8 17.64

3 19.41

8 21.18

3 22.95

8 24.72

3 26.50

8 28.27

4 15.91

9 17.68

4 19.45

9 21.22

4 22.99

9 24.76

4 26.54

9 28.31

[611

MILLIMETERS TO INCHES

LENGTHS. MILLIMETERS TO INCHES — (Cont.)

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

Milli-
meters Ins.

720 =28.35

5 29.72

790 =31.10

5 32.48

860 =33.86

5 35.24

930 =36.61

5 37.99

1 28.39

6 29.76

1 31.14

6 32.52

1 33.90

6 35.28

1 36.65

6 38.03

2 28.43

7 29.80

2 31.18

7 32.56

2 33.94

7 35.31

2 36.69

7 38.07

3 28.46

8 29.84

3 31.22

8 32.60

3 33.98

8 35.35

3 36.73

8 38.11

4 28.50

9 29.88

4 31.26

9 32.64

4 34.02

9 35.39

4 36.77

9 38.15

5 28.54

760 =29.92

5 31.30

830 =32.68

5 34.06

900 =35.43

5 36.81

970=38.19

6 28.58

1 29.96

6 31.34

1 32.72

6 34.09

1 35.47

6 36.85

1 38.23

7 28.62

2 30.00

7 31.38

2 32.76

7 34.13

2 35.51

7 36.89

2 38.27

8 28.66

3 30.04

8 31.42

3 32.80

8 34.17

3 35.55

8 36.93

3 38.31

9 28.70

4 30.08

9 31.46

4 32.83

9 34.21

4 35.59

9 36.97

4 38.35

730 =28.74

5 30.12

800 =31.50

5 32.87

870 =34.25

5 35.63

940 =37.01

5 38.39

1 28.78

6 30.16

1 31.54

6 32.91

1 34.29

6 35.67

1 37.05

6 38.43

2 28.82

7 30.20

2 31.57

7 32.95

2 34.33

7 35.71

2 37.09

. 7 38.46

3 28.86

8 30.24

3 31.61

8 32.99

3 34.37

8 35.75

3 37.13

8 38.50

4 28.90

9 30.28

4 31.65

9 33.03

4 34.41

9 35.79

4 37.17

9 38.54

5 28.94

770 =30.31

5 31.69

840 =33.07

5 34.45

910 =35.83

5 37.20

980=38.58

6 28.98

1 30.35

6 31.73

1 33.11

6 34.49

1 35.87

6 37.24

1 38.62

7 29.02

2 30.39

7 31.77

2 33.15

7 34.53

2 35.91

7 37.28

2 38.66

8 29.06

3 30.43

8 31.81

3 33.19

8 34.57

3 35.94

8 37.32

3 38.70

9 29.09

4 30.47

9 31.85

4 33.23

9 34.61

4 35.98

9 37.36

4 38.74

740 =29.13

5 30.51

810 =31.89

5 33.27

880 =34.65

5 36.02

950 =37.40

5 38.78

1 29.17

6 30.55

1 31.93

6 33.31

1 34.68

6 36.06

1 37.44

6 38.82

2 29.21

-7 30.59

2 31.97

7 33.25

2 34.72

7 36.10

2 37.48

7 38.86

3 29.25

8 30.63

3 32.01

8 33.39

3 34.76

8 36.14

3 37.52

8 38.90

4 29.29

9 30.67

4 32.05

9 33.43

4 34.80

9 36.18

4 37.56

9 38.94

5 29.33

780 =30.71

5 32.09

850 =33.46

5 34.84

920 =36.22

5 37.60

990=38.98

6 29.37

1 39.75

6 32.13

1 33.50

6 34.88

1 36.26

6 37.64

1 39.02

7 29'. 41

2 30.79

7 32.17

2 33.54

7 34.92

2 36.30

7 37.68

2 39.06

8 29.45

3 30.83

8 32.20

3 33.58

8 34.96

3 36.34

8 37.72

3 39.09

9 29.49

4 30.87

9 32.24

4 33.62

9 35.00

4 36.38

9 37.76

4 39.13

750 =29.53

5 30.91

820 =32.28

5 33.66

890 =35.04

5 36.42

960 =37.80

5 39.17

1 29.57

6 30.94

1 32.32

6 33.70

1 35.08

6 36.46

1 37.83

6 39.21

2 29.61

7 30.98

2 32.36

7 33.74

2 35.12

7 36.50

2 37.87

7 39.25

3 29.65

8 31.02

3 32.40

8 33.78

3 35.16

8 36.54

3 37.91

8 39.29

4 29.68

9 31.06

4 32.44

9 33.82

4 35.20

9 36.57

°7.95

9 39.33

1000 39.37

1000 millimeters = 1 meter =39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.09 yards.

[62]

CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METFJC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10

Reduction factors: 1 meter = 39.37 inches

1 inch = 25 . 4001 millimeters

LENGTHS

Inches Millimeters

Ins. Centimeters

Feet Meters

U.S.Yds. Meters

U.S. Miles. Kilom.

0.039 = 1
.079=2
.118 = 3
.157=4
.197 = 5

0.394= 1
.787= 2
1 = 2.540
1.181= 3
1.575= 4

1 =0.305
2 = .610
3 = .914
3.281 = 1
4 =1.219

1 =0.914
1.094 = 1
2 =1.829
2.187=2
3 =2.743

0.621= 1
1 = 1.609
1.243= 2
1.864= 3
2 = 3.219

.236 = 6
.276 = 7
.315=8
.354=9

1.969= 5
2 = 5.080
2.362= 6
2.756= 7

5 =1.524
6 =1.829
6.562 = 2
7 =2.134

3.281=3
4 =3.658
4.374=4
5 =4.572

2.485= 4
3 = 4.828
3.107= 5
3.728= 6

1= 25.400
2= 50.800
3= 76.200
4 = 101.600
5 = 127.000

3 = 7.620
3.150= 8
3.543= 9
4 =10.160
5 =12.700

8 =2.438
9 =2.743
9.843=3
13.123=4
16.404=5

5.468 = 5
6 =5.486
6.562 = 6
7 =6.401
7.655 = 7

4 = 6.437
4.350= 7
4.971= 8
5 = 8.047
5.592= 9

6 = 152.400
7 = 177.800
8=203.200
9=228.600

6 =15.240
7 =17.780
8 =20.320
9 =22.860

19.685=6
22.966 = 7
26.247=8
29.528 = 9

8 =7.315
8.749=8
9 =8.230
9.843=9

6 = 9.656
7 =11.265
8 =12.875
9 =14.484

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10

Reduction factors:

1 sq. meter = 1 . 196 sq. yard 1 sq. yard =

1 sq. meter = 10 . 764 sq. foot 1 sq. foot =

1 sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inch 1 sq. inch

0.836 sq. meter
0. 0929 sq. meter
6 . 452 sq. centimeter

1 sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inch 1 sq. inch = 6.452 sq. centimeter

1 sq. millimeter = 0.00155 sq. inch 1 sq. inch = 645.16 sq. millimeter

AREAS

Square
Inches

Square
Millimeters

Square Square
Inches Centimeters

Square
Feet

Square
Meters

Square Square
Yards Meters

Square Square
Mil^s Kilometers

0.002

= 1

0.155= 1

1

=0.093

1 =0.836

0.386= 1

.003

= 2

.310= 2

2

= .186

1.196 = 1

.772= 2

.005

= 3

.465= 3

3

= .279

2 =1.672

1 = 2.59

.006

= 4

.620= 4

4

= .372

2.392=2

1.158= 3

.008

= 5

.775= 5

5

= .465

3 =2.508

1.544= 4

.009

= 6

.930= 6

6

= .557

3.588 = 3

1.931= 5

.011

= 7

1 = 6.452

7

= .650

4 =3.345

2 = 5.18

.012

= '8

1.085= 7

8

= .743

4.784=4

2.317= 6

.014

= 9

1.240= 8

9

= .836

5 =4.181

2.703= 7

[63]

CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS
COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO
AREAS — (Cont.)

Square Square
Inches Millimeters

Square Square
Inches Centimeters

Square Square
Feet Meters

Square Square
Yards Meters

Square Square
Miles Kilometers

1 = 645.16
2 = 1290.33
3 = 1935.49
4 = 2580.65
5 = 3225.81

1.395 = 9
2 = 12.903
3 = 19.355
4 = 25.807
5 = 32.258

10.764 = 1
21.528 = 2
32.292 = 3
43.055 = 4
53.819 = 5

5.980 = 5
6 =5.017
7 =5.853
7.176 = 6

8 =6.689

3 = 7.77
3.089= 8
3.475= 9
4 =10.36
5 =12.95

6 = 3870.98
7 = 4516.14
8 = 5161.30
9 = 5806.46

6 = 38.710
7 = 45.161
8 = 51.613
9 = 58.065

64.583 = 6
75.347 = 7
86.111 = 8
96.875 = 9

8.372 = 7
9 =7.525
9.568=8
10.764 = 9

6 =15.54
7 =18.13
8 =20.72
9 =23.31

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10

Reduction factors:

1 cu. meter = 1.308
1 cu. meter = 35.314
1 cu. centimeter = 0.061

cu. yd
cu. ft.
cu. HI.

1 cu. millimeter = 0.000061 cu. in.

1 cu. yd. = 0. 765 cu. meter
1 cu. ft. = 0. 028 cu. meter
1 cu. in. = 16.387 cu. centimeters
1 cu. in. = 16.387 cu. millimeters

VOLUMES

Cubic Cubic
Inches Millimeters

Cubic Cubic
Inches Centimeters

Cubic Cubic
Feet Meters

Cubic Cubic
Yards Meters

Acres Hectares

.000061=1

0.061 = 1

1=0.028

1 =0.765

1 =0.405

.000122 = 2

.122 = 2

2= .057

1.308 = 1

2 = .809

.000183=3

.183=3

3= .085

2 =1.529

2.471 = 1

.000244=4

.244 = 4

4= .113

2.616=2

3 =1.214

.000305 = 5

.305=5

5= .142

3 =2.294

4 =1.619

.000366 = 6

.366 = 6

6= .170

3.924=3

4.942 = 2

.000427 = 7

.427=7

7= .198

4 =3.058

5 =2.023

.000488=8

.488=8

8= .227

5 =3.823

6 =2.428

.000549=9

.549 = 9

9= .255

5. 232 ='4

7 =2.833

1= 16387

. 1= 16.387

35.314 = 1

6 =4.587

7.413=3

2= 32774

2= 32.774

70.629 = 2

6.540 =5

8 =3.238

3= 49162

3= 49.162

105.943=3

7 =5.352

9 =3.642

4= 65549

4= 65.549

141.258=4

7.848 =6

9.884 = 4

5= 81936

5= 81.936

176.572=5

8 =6.117

12.355=5

6= 98323

6= 98.323

211.887=6

9 =6.881

14.826=6

7 = 114710

7 = 114.710

247.201=7 9.156 =7

17.297 = 7

8 = 131097

8 = 131.097

282.516=8 110.464 =8

19.768 = 8

9 = 147485

9 = 147.485

317.830 = 9

11.772 =9

22.239 = 9

AREAS —
Continued

[64]

CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10
Reduction factors are as given in first line of each measure

CAPACITIES

U. S. Milli-
Liquid liters
Ounces (cc.)

U. S. Milli-
Apoth liters
Drams (cc.)

U. S. Milli-
Apoth, liters
Scruples (cc.)

U.S.
Liquid Liters
Quarts

U.S.
Liquid
Gallons

Liters

0.03381=1

0.2705= 1

0.8115= 1

1 =0.94636

0.26417

= 1

.068 = 2

.541 = 2

1 = 1.2322

1.057 = 1

.528

= 2

.101 =3

.812 = 3

1.623 = 2

2 =1.893

.793

= 3

.135 = 4.

1 = 3.6967

2 = 2.465

2.113=2

1

= 3.78543

.169 =5

1.082 = 4

2.435 = 3

3 =2.839

1.057,

= 4

.203 =6

1.353 = 5

3 = 3.697

3.170 = 3

1.321

= 5

.237 = 7

1.623 = 6

3.246 = 4

4 =3.785

1.585

= 6

.271 =8

1.894 = 7

4 = 4.929

4.227=4

1.849

rj

.304 =9

2 = 7.393

4.058 = 5

5 =4.732

2

= 7.571

1= 29.574

2.164 = 8

4.869 = 6

5.283=5

2.113

0

— o

2= 59.147

2.435 = 9

5 = 6.161

6 =5.678

2.378

= 9

3= 88.721

3 =11.090

5.681 = 7

6.340 = 6

3

= 11.356

4 = 118.295

4 =14.787

6 = 7.393

7 =6.625

4

= 15.142

5 = 147.869

5 =18.484

6.492 = 8

7.397=7

5

= 18.927

6 = 177.442

6 =22.180

7 = 8.626

8 =7.571

6

=22.713

7=207.016

7 =25.877

7.304 = 9

8.453=8

7

= 26.498

8 = 236.590

8 =29.574

8 = 9.858

9 =8.517

8

= 30.283

9 = 266.163

9 =33.270

9 =11.090

9.510=9

9

= 34.069

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10

CAPACITIES — (Cont.)

U.S.
Dry Liters
Quarts

§£ "-

U. S. Deka-
Pecks liters

U. S. Hecto-
Bushels liters

U. S. Hectoliters
Bushels per
per Acre Hectare

0.9081=1

0.11351= 1

1 =0.8810

1 =0.35239

1 =0.87078

1 =1.1012

.227 = 2

1.1351 = 1

2 = .705

1.14840 = 1

1.816 =2

.341 = 3

2 =1.762

2.838 = 1

2 =1.742

2 =2.203

.454 = 4

2.270 =2

3 =1.057

2.967 =2

2.724 =3

.568 = 5

3 =2.643

4 =1.410

3 =2.612

3 =3.304

.681 = 6

3.405 =3

5 =1.762

3.445 =3

3.632 =4

.795 = 7

4 =3.524

5.675=2

4 =3.483

4 =4.405

.908 = 8

4.540 =4

6 =2.114

4.594 =4

4.540 =5

1 = 8.810

5 =4.405

7 =2.467

5 =4.354

5 =5.506

1.022 = 9

5.676 =5

8 =2.819

5.742 =5

5.449 =6

2 =17.620

6 =5.286

8.513=3

6 =5.225

6 =6.607

3 =26.429

6.811 =6

9 =3.172

6.890 =6

6.357 =7

4 =35.239

7 =6.167

11.351=4

7 =6.095

7 =7.709

5 =44.049

7.946 =7

14.189=5

8 =6.966

7.265 =8

6 =52.859

8 =7.048

17.026=6

8.039 =7

8 =8.810

7 =61.669

9 =7.929

19.864 = 7

9 =7.837

8.173 =9

8 =70.479

9.081 =8

22.702=8

9.187 =8

9 =9.911

9 79.288

10.216 =9

25.540 = 9

10.336 =9

[65]

CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS

COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND METRIC UNITS FROM 1 TO 10
Reduction factors are as given in first line of each measure

MASSES

Grains Grains

Avoir-
dupois Grams
Ounces

Su^ces Grams

Avoir-
dupois
Pounds

Kilograms

Troy
Pounds

Kilograms

1=0.06480

0.03527 = 1

0.03215 = 1

1

=0.45359

1

=0.37324

2 = .130

.071 =2

.064 =2

2

= .907

2

= .746

3= .194

.106 =3

.096 =3

2.20462

= 1

2.67923

= 1

4= .259

.141 =4

.129 =4

3

= 1.361

3

= 1.120

5= .324

.176 =5

.161 =5

4

= 1.814

4

= 1.493

6= .389

.212 =6

.193 =6

4.409

=2

5

= 1.866

7 = .454

.247 =7

.225 =7

5

=2.268

5.358

= 2

8= .518

.282 =8

.257 =8

6

=2.722

6

=2.239

9= .583

.317 =9

.289 =9

6.614

=3

7

=2.613

15.4324 = 1

1= 28.3495

1= 31.10348

7

=3.175

8

=2.986

30.865 =2

2= 56.699

2= 62.207

8

=3.629

8.038

= 3

46.297 =3

3= 85.049

3= 93.310

8.818

=4

9

=3.359

61.729 =4

4 = 113.398

4 = 124.414

9

=4.082

10.717

=4

77.162 =5

5 = 141.748

5 = 155.517

11.023

= 5

13.396

= 5

92.594 =6

6 = 170.098

6 = 186.621

13.228

= 6

16.075

=6

108.027 =7

7 = 198.447

7 = 217.724

15.432

= 7

18.755

=7

123.459 =8

8=226.796

8=248.828

17.637

=8

21.434

=8

138.891 =9

9 = 255.146

9=279.931

19.842

= 9

24.113

=9

[66]

CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS

COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS TONS AND POUNDS IN
USE IN THE UNITED STATES.

FROM i TO 10 UNITS.

LONO TONS.

SHORT TONS.

METRIC TONS.

KILOGRAMS.

AVOIRDUPOIS
POUNDS.

TROT POUNDS.

.00036735

.00041143

.00037324

.37324

.822857

1

.00044643

.00050000

.00045359

.45369

1

1.21528

.00073469

.00082286

.00074648

.74648

1.64571

2

.00089286

.00100000

.00090718

.90718

2

2.43066

.00098421

.00110231

.00100000

1

2.20462

2.67923

.00110204

.00123429

.00111973

.11973

2.46857

3

.00133929

.00150000

.00136078

.36078

3

3.64683

.00146939

.00164571

.00149297

.49297

3. 29143

4

.00178571

.00200000

.00181437

.81437

4

4.86111

.00183673

.00205714

.00186621

.86621

4. 11429

5

.00196841

.00220462

.00200000

2

4.40924

6.35846

.00220408

.00246857

.00223945

2.23945

4.93714

6

.00223214

.00250000

.00226796

2.26796

5

b. 07639

.00257143

.00288000

.00261269

2.61269

6.76000

7

.00267857

.00300000

.00272165

2.72155

6

7.29167

.00293878

.00329143

.00298593

2.98593

6.58286

8

.00295262

.00330693

.00300000

3

6.61387

8.03769

.00312500

.00350000

.00317515

3. 17515

7

8.50694

.00330612

.00370286

.00335918

3.35918

7.40571

9

.00357143

.00400000

.00362874

3. 62874

8

9.72222

.00393683

.00440924

.00400000

4

8.81849

10.71691

.00401786

.00450000

.00408233

4.08233

9

10.93750

.00492103

.00551156

.00500000

5

11.0231

13.39614

.00590524

.00661387

.00600000

6

13.2277

16.0763T

.00688944

.00771618

.00780000

7

15.4324

18.75460

.00787365

.00881849

.00800000

8

17.6370

21.43383

.00885786

.00992080

.0090000

9

19.8416

24. 11306

.89287

1

.90718

907.18

2,000.00

2,430.66

.98421

1:10231

1

1,000.00

2,204.62

2,679.23

1

1.12000

1.01605

1,016.05

2,240.00

2,722.22

1.78571

2

1.81437

1,814.37

4,000.00

4,861.11

1.96841

2.20462

2

2,000.00

4,409.24

6,358.46

2

2.24000

2.03209

2,032.09

4,480.00

6,444.44

2.67857

3

2.72155

2,721.55

JB.000.00

7,291.67

2.95262

3.30693

3

3,000.00

'6,613.87

8,037.69

3

3.36000

3.04814

3,048.14

6,720.00

8,166.67

3.57143

4

3. 62874

3,628.74

8,000.00

9,722.22

3.93683

4.40924

4

4,000.00

8,818.49

10,716.91

4

4.48000

4.06419

4,064.19

8,960.00

10,888.89

4.46429

5

4.53592

4,536.92

10,000.00

12,152.78

4.92103

6.51156

5

6,000.00

11,023.11

13, 3%. 14

5

6.60000

5.08024

6,080.24

11,200.00

13,611.11

6.35714

6

6.44311

6,443.11

12,000.00

14,683.33

6.90524

6.61387

6

6,000.00

13,227.73

16,075.37

6

6.72000

6.09628

6,096.28

13,440.00

16,333.33

6.25000

1

6.35029

6,350.29

14,000.00

17,013.89

6.88944

7.71618

7

7,000.00

15,432.36

18,764.60

7.14286

7.84000
8

7.11232
7.25748

7,112.32
7,257.48

15,680.00
16,000.00

19,065.66
19,444.44

7.87365

8.81849

8

8,000.00

17,636.98

21,433.83

8

8.96000

8. 12838

8,128.38

17,920.00

21,777.78

8.03571

9

8. 16466

8,164.66

18,000.00

21,876.00

8.85786

9.92080

9

9,000.00

19,841.60

24,113.06

9

10.08000

9. 14442

9,144.42

20,160.00

24,600.00

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

[67]

ADMIRALTY KNOTS TO STATUTE MILES AND KILOMETERS

LENGTHS. ADMIRALTY KNOTS TO STATUTE MILES AND KILOMETERS

Conversion factors: 1 Admiralty knot = 6080 feet
1 statute mile = 5280 feet
1 kilometer = 3280.833 feet

statute mile = Admiralty knot X 1. 151515
kilometer = Admiralty knot X 1.8531877

Knots
Hour

Miles

Kilo-
meters

SPEED

Knots
per
Hour

Miles

Kilo-
meters

SPEED

Feet per
Minute

Feet per
Second

Feet per
Minute

Feet per
Second

1

1.152

1.853

101.3

1.69

9%

11.227

18.069

988.

16.47

IH

1.439

2.316

126.7

2.11

10

11.515

18.532

1013.3

16.89

VA

1.727

2.780

152.0

2.53

10%

11.803

18.995

1038.7

17.31

IX

2.015

3.243

177.3

2.96

10^

12.091

19.458

1064.

17.73

2

2.303

3.706

202.7

3.38

10%

12.379

19.922

1089.3

18.16

2%

2.591

4.170

228.

3.80

11

12.667

20.385

1114.7

18.58

VA

2.879

4.633

253.3

4.22

11%

12.955

20.848

1140.

19.00

2%

3.167

5.096

278.7

4.64

ny2

;3.242

21.312

1165.3

19.42

3

3.455

5.560

304.

5.07

11%

13.530

21.775

1190.7

19.84

3%

3.742

6.023

329.3

5.49

12

13.818

22.238

1216.

20.27

&A

4.030

6.486

354.7

5.91

12%

14.106

22.702

1241.3

20.69

3%

4.318

6.949

380.

6.33

12^

14.394

23.165

1266.7

21.11

4

4.606

7.413

405.3

6.76

12%

14.682

23.628

1292.

21.53

4%

4.894

7.876

430.7

7.18

13

14.970

24.091

1317.3

21.96

4H-

5.182

8.339

456.

7.60

13%

15.258

24.555

1342.7

22.38

4%

5.470

8.803

481.3

8.02

13H

15.545

25.018

1368.

22.80

5

5.758

9.266

506.7

8.44

13%

15.833

25.481

1393.3

23.22

5%

6.045

9.729

532.

8.87

14

16.121

25.945

1418.7

23.64

51A

6.333

10.193

557.3

9.29

14%

16.409

26.408

1444.

24.07

5%

6.621

10.656

582.7

9.71

UM

16 697

26.871

1469.3

24.49

6

6.909

11.119

608.

10.13

14%

16.985

27.335

1494.7

24.91

6%

7.197

11.582

633.3

10.56

15

17.273

27.798

1520.

25.33

Q1A

7.485

12.046

658.7

10.98

15%

17.561

28.261

1545.3

25.76

6%

7.773

12.509

684.

11.40

15^

17.848

28.724

1570.7

26.18

7

8.061

12.972

709.3

11.82

15%

18.136

29.18S

1596.

26.60

7%

8.348

13.436

734.7

12.24

16

18.424

29.651

1621.3

27.02

?1A

8.636

13.899

760.

12.67

16%

18.712

30.114

1646.7

27.44

7%-

8.924

14.362

785.3

13.09

16M

19.000

30.578

1672.

27.87

8

9.212

14.826

810.7

13.51

16%

19.288

31.041

1697.3

28.29

8%

9.500

15.289

836.

13.93

17

19.576

31.504

1722.7

28.71

m

9.788

15^752

861.3

14.36

17%

19.864

31.967

1748.

29.13

8%

10.076

16.215

886.7

14.78

V1A

20.152

32.431

1773.3

29.56

9

10.364

16.679

912.

15.20

17%

20.439

32.894

1798.7

29.98

9%

10.652

17.142

937.3

15.62

18

20.727

33.357

1824.

30.40

9^

10.939

17.605

962.7

16.04

18%

21.015

33.821

1849.3

30.82

[68]

ADMIRALTY KNOTS TO STATUTE MILES AND KILOMETERS

LENGTHS. ADMIRALTY KNOTS TO STATUTE MILES AND KILOMETERS — (Cont.)

Knots
per
Hour

Miles

Kilo-
meters

SPEED

Knots
Hour

Miles

Kilo-
meters

SPEED

Feet per
Minute

Feet per
Second

Feet per
Minute

Feet per
Second

18H

21.303

34.284

1874.7

31.24

29^

33.970

54.669

2989.3

49.82

18%

21.591

34.747

1900.

31.67

29%

34.258

55.132

3014.7

50.24

19

21.879

35.211

1925.3

32.09

30

34.545

55.596

3040.

50.67

19%

22.167

35.674

1950.7

32.51

30M

34.833

56.059

3065.3

51.09

•19H

22.455

36.137

1976.

32.93

30^

35.121

56.522

3090.7

51.51

19%

22.742

36.600

2001.3

33.36

30^

35.409

56.986

3116.

51.93

20

23.030

37.064

2026.7

33.78

31

35.697

57.449

3141.3

52.36

20M

23.318

37.527

2052.

34.20

31%

35.985

57.912

3166.7

52.78

20^

23.606

37.990

2077.3

34.62

31H

36.273

58.375

3192.

53.20

20%

23.894

38.454

2102.7

35.04

31%

36.561

58.839

32_7.3

53.62

21

24.182

38.917

2128.

35.47

32

36.848

59.302

3242.7

54.04

21%

24.470

39.380

2153.3

35.89

32M

37.136

59.765

3268.

54.47

21^

24.758

39.844

2178.7

36.31

32^

37.424

60.229

3293.3

54.89

21%

25.045

40.307

2204.

36.73

32M

37.712

60.692

3318.7

55.31

22

25.333

40.770

2229.3

37.16

33

38.000

61 . 155

3344.

55.73

22M

25.621

41.233

2254.7

37.58

33M

38.288

61.618

3369.3

56.16

22^

25.909

41.697

2280.

38.00

33^

38.576

62.082

3394.7

56.58

22M

26.197

42.160

2305.3

38.42

33%

38.864

62.545

3420.

57.00

23

26.485

42.623

2330.7

38.84

34

39.152

63.008

3445.3

57.42

23M

26.773

43.087

2356.

39.27

34M

39.439

63.472

3470.7

57.84

23^

27.061

43.550

2381.3

39.69

34^

39.727

63.935

3496.

58.27

23^

27.348

44.013

2406.7

40.11

34^

40.015

64.398

3521.3

58.69

24

27.636

44.477

2432.

40.53

35

40.303

64.862

3546.7

59.11

24^

27.924

44.940

2457.3

40.96

35^

40.591

65.325

3572.

59.53

24^

28.212

45.403

2482.7

41.38

35^

40.879

65.788

3597.3

59.96

24%

28.500

45.866

2508.

41.80

35%

41.167

66.251

3622.7

60.38

25

28.788

46.330

2533.3

42.22

36

41.455

66.715

3648.

60.80

25M

29.076

46.793

2558.7

42.64

36M

41.742

67.178

3673.3

61.22

25H

29.364

47.256

2584.

43.07

36^

42.030

67.641

3698.7

61.64

25%

29.652

47.720

2609.3

43.49

36^

42.318

68.105

3724.

62.07

26

29.939

48.183

2634.7

43.91

37

42.606

68.568

3749.3

62.49

26M

30.227

48.646

2660.

44.33

37K

42.894

69.031

3774.7

62.91

26^

30.515

49.109

2685.3

44.76

37^

43 . 182

69.495

3800.

63.33

26M

30.803

49.573

2710.7

45.18

37M

43.470

69.958

3825.3

63.76

27

31.091

50.036

2736.

45.60

38

43.758

70.421

3850.7

64.18

27M

31.379

50.499

2761.3

46.02

38M

44.045

70.884

3876.

64.60

27^

31.667

50.963

2786.7

46.44

38^

44.333

71.348

3901.3

65.02

27^

31.955

51.426

2812.

46.87

38%

44.621

71.811

3926.7

65.44

28

32.242

51.889

2837.3

47.29

39

44.909

72.274

3S52.

65.87

28M

32.530

52.353

2862.7

47.71

39^

45.197

72.738

3977.3

66.29

28^

32.818

52.815

2888.

48.13

39^

45.485

73.201

4002.7

66.71

28%

33.106

53.279

2913.3

48.56

39M

45.773

73.664

4028.

67.13

29

33.394

53.742

2938.7

48.98

40

46.061

74.128

4053.3

67.56

29M

33.682

54.206

2964.

49.40

[69]

PRESSURES, POUNDS TO KILOGRAMS

PRESSURES. POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH TO KILOGRAMS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER
Conversion factor : 1 pound per square inch = 0 . 0703027 kilograms per square centimeter

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

0

40 = 2.812

80 = 5.624

120 = 8.436

1 = .0703

1 = 2.882

1 = 5.695

1 = 8.507

2 = .1406

2 = 2.953

2 = 5.765

2 = 8.577

3 = .2109

3 = 3.023

3 = 5.835

3 = 8.647

4 = .2812

4 = 3.093

4 = 5.905

4 = 8.718

5 = .3515

5 = 3.164

5 = 5.976

5 = 8.788

6 = .4218

6 = 3.234

6 = 6.046

6 = 8.858

7 = .4921

7 = 3.304

7 = 6.116

7 = 8.928

8 = .5624

8 = 3.375

8 = 6.187

8 = 8.999

9 = .6327

9 = 3.445

9 = 6.257

9 = 9.069

10 = .703

50 = 3.515

90 = 6.327

130 = 9.139

1 = .773

1 = 3.585

1 = 6.398

1 = 9.210

2 = .844

2 = 3.656

2 = 6.468

2 = 9.280

3 = .914

3 = 3.726

3 = 6.538

3 = 9.350

4 = .984

4 = 6.608

4 = 9.421

4 = 3.796

5 = 1.055

5 = 3.867

5 = 6.679

5 = 9.491

6 = 1.125

6 = 3.937

6 = 6.749

6 = 9.561

7 = 1.195

7 = 4.007

7 = 6.819

7 = 9.631

8 - 1.265

8 = 4.078

8 = 6.890

8 = 9.702

9 = 1.336

9 = 4.148

9 = 6.960

9 = 9.772

20 = 1.406

60 = 4.218

100 = 7.030

140 = 9.842

1 = 1.476

1 = 4.288

1 = 7.101

1 = 9.913

2 = 1.547

2 = 4.359

2 = 7.171

2 = 9.983

3 = 1.617

3 = 4.429

3 = 7.241

3 = 10.053

4 = 1.687

4 = 4.499

4 = 7.311

4 = 10.124

5 = 1.758

5 = 4.570

5 = 7.382

5 = 10.194

6 = 1.828

6 = 4.640

6 = 7.452

6 = 10.264

7 = 1.898

7 = 4.710

7 = 7.522

7 = 10.334

8 = 1.968

8 = 4.781

8 = 7.593

8 = 10.405

9 = 2.039

9 = 4.851

9 = 7.663

9 = 10.475

30 = 2.109

70 = 4.921

110 = 7.733

150 = 10.545

1 = 2.179

1 = 4.991

1 = 7.804

1 = 10.616

2 = 2.250

2 = 5.062

2 = 7.874

2 = 10.686

3 = 2.320

3 = 5.132

3 = 7.944

3 = 10.756

4 = 2.390

4 = 5.202

4 = 8.015

4 = 10.827

5 = 2.461

5 = 5.273

5 = 8.085

5 = 10.897

6 = 2.531

6 = 5.343

6 = 8.155

6 = 10.967

7 = 2.601

7 = 5.413

7 = 8.225

7 = 11.038

8 = 2.672

8 = 5.484

8 = 8.296

8 = 11.108

9 * 2.742

9 = 5.554

9 = 8.366

9 = 11.178

[70]

PRESSURES, POUNDS TO KILOGRAMS
PRESSURES. POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH TO KILOGRAMS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER — (Cont.)

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds -Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

Pounds Kilograms
per per
Sq. In. Sq. Cm.

160 = 11.248

1 = 11.319
2 = 11.389
3 = 11.459
4 = 11.530

200 = 14.061

1 = 14.131
2 = 14.201
3 = 14.271
4 = 14.342

240 = 16.873
1=16.943
2 = 17.013
3 = 17.084
4 = 17.154

280= 19.685
1= 19.755
2= 19.825
3= 19.896
4= 19.966

5 = 11.600
6 = 11.670
7 = 11.741
8 = 11.811
9 = 11.881

5 = 14.412
6 = 14.482
7 = 14.553
8 = 14.623
9 = 14.693

5 = 17.224
6 = 17.294
7 = 17.365
8 = 17.435
9 = 17.505

5= 20.036
6= 20.107
7= 20.177
8= 20.247
9= 20.317

170 = 11.951
1 = 12.022
2 = 12.092
3 = 12.162
4 = 12.233

210 = 14.764
1=14.834
2 = 14.904
3 = 14.974
4 = 15.045

250 = 17.576
1=17.646
2 = 17.716
3 = 17.787
4 = 17.857

290= 20.388
1= 20.458
2= 20.528
3= 20.599
4= 20.669

5 = 12.303
6 = 12.373
7 = 12.444
8 = 12.514
9 = 12.584

5 = 15.115
6 = 15.185
7 = 15.256
8 = 15.326
9 = 15.396

5 = 17.927
6 = 17.997
7 = 18.068
8 = 18.138
9 = 18.208

5= 20.739
6= 20.810
7= 20.880
8= 20.950
9= 21.021

180 = 12.654
1=12.725
2 = 12.795
3 = 12.865
4 = 12.936

220 = 15.467
1 = 15.537
2 = 15.607
3 = 15.678
4 = 15.748

260 = 18.279
1=18.349
2 = 18.419
3 = 18.490
4 = 18.560

300= 21.091
400= 28.121
500= 35.151
600= 42.182
700= 49.212

5 = 13.006
6 = 13.076
7 = 13.147
8 = 13.217
9 = 13.287

5 = 15.818
6 = 15.888
7 = 15.959
8 = 16.029
9 = 16.099

5 = 18.630
6 = 18.701
7 = 18.771
8 = 18.841
9 = 18.911

800= 56.242
900= 63.272
1000= 70.303
1100= 77.333
1200= 84.363

190 = 13.358
1 = 13.428
2 = 13.498
3 = 13.568
4 = 13.639

230 = 16.170
1 = 16.240
2 = 16.310
3 = 16.381
4 = 16.451

270 = 18.982
1=19.052
2 = 19.122
3 = 19.193
4 = 19.263

1300= 91.393
1400= 98.424
1500 = 105.454
1600 = 112.484
1700 = 119.515

5 = 13.709
6 = 13.779
7 = 13.850
8 = 13.920
9 = 13.990

5 = 16.521
6 = 16.591
7 = 16.662
8 = 16.732
9 = 16.802

5 = 19.333
6 = 19.404
7 = 19.474
8 = 19.544
9 = 19.614

1800 = 126.545
1900 = 133.575
2000 = 140.605
2100 = 147.636
2200 = 154.666

[71]

SPEED OR FLOW, CUBIC FEET TO CUBIC METERS

SPEED OR FLOW. CUBIC FEET PER SECOND TO CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Reduction factor: 1 cubic foot per second = 0.0283170 cubic meter per second

Cubic
Feet
per
Second

Cubic
Meters
per
Second

Cubic Cubic
Feet Meters
per per
Second Second

Cubic Cubic
Feet Meters
per per
Second Second

Cubic Cubic
Feet Meters
per per
Second Second

Cubic Cubic
Feet Meters
per per
Second Second

0

40= 1.133

80=2.265

300= 8.495

700= 19.822

1 =

.028

1= 1.161

1=2.294

310= 8.778

710= 20.105

2 =

.057

2= 1.189

2=2.322

320= 9.061

720= 20.388

3 =

.085 •

3= .218-

3=2.350

330= 9.345

730= 20.671

4 =

.113

4= .246

4=2.379

340= 9.628

740= 20.955

5 =

.142

5= .274

5=2.407

350= 9.911

750= 21.238

6 =

.170

6= .303

6 = 2.435

360 = 10.194

760= 21.521

7 =

.198

7= .331

7=2.464

370 = 10.477

770= 21.804

8 =

.227

8= .359

8=2.492

380 = 10.760

780= 22.087

9 =

.255

9= .388

9=2.520

390 = 11.044

790= 22.370

10 =

.283

50= .416

90 = 2.549

400 = 11.327

800= 22.654

1 =

.311

1= .444

1=2.577

410 = 11.610

810= 22.937

2 =

.340

2= 1.472

2 = 2.605

420 = 11.893

820= 23.220

3 =

.368

3= 1.500

3 = 2.633

430 = 12.176

830= 23.503

4 =

.396

4= 1.529

4=2.662

440 = 12.459

840= 23.786

5 =

.425

5= 1.557

5 = 2.690

450 = 12.743

850= 24.069

6 =

.453

6= 1.5S6

6 = 2.718

460 = 13.026

860= 24.353

7 =

.481

7= 1.614

7=2.747

470 = 13.309

870= 24.636

8 =

.510

8= 1.642

8=2.775

480 = 13.592

880= 24.919

9 =

.538

9= 1.671

9 = 2.803

490 = 13.875

890= 25.202

20 =

.566

60= 1.699

100=2.832

500 = 14.159

900= 25.485

1 =

.595

1= 1.727

110 = 3.115

510 = 14.442

910= 25.768

2 =

.623

2= 1.756

120 = 3.398

520 = 14.725

920= 26.052

3 =

.651

3= 1.784

130=3.681

530 = 15.008

930= 26.335

4 =

.680

4= 1.812

140 = 3.964

540 = 15.291

940= 26.618

5 =

.708

5= 1.841

150=4.248

550 = 15.574

950= 26.901

6 =

.736

6= 1.869

160=4.531

560 = 15.858

960= 27.184

7 =

.765

7= 1.897

170=4.814

570 = 16.141

970= 27.467

0

.793

8= 1.926

180 = 5.097

580 = 16.424

980= 27.751

9 =

.821

9= 1.954

190 = 5.380

590 = 16.707

990= 28.034

30 =

.850

70= 1.982

200 = 5.663

600 = 16.990

1000= 28.317

1 =

.878

1= 2.011

210 = 5.947

610 = 17.273

2000= 56.634

2 =

.906

2= 2.039

220=6.230

620 = 17.557

3000= 84.951

3 =

.934

3= 2.067

230 = 6.513

630 = 17.840

4000 = 113.268

4 =

.963

4= 2.095

240 = 6.796

640 = 18.123

5000 = 141.585

5 =

.991

5= 2.124

250 = 7.079

650 = 18.406

6 =

1.019

6= 2.152

260 = 7.362

660 = 18.689

7 =

1.048

7= 2.180

270 = 7.646

670 = 18.972

8 =

1.076

8= 2.209

280 = 7.929

680 = 19.256

9 =

1.104

9= 2.237

290 = 8.212

690 = 19.539

[72]

CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRE GAUGES

WIRE GAUGES

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Wire gauges are in use now less than formerly, two only are used extensively in
this country, viz., the "American Wire Gauge" (Brown & Sharpe) and the "Steel
Wire Gauge" (variously called the Washburn & Moen, Roebling, and American Steel
& Wire Company's). Three other gauges are still used to some extent, viz., the Bir-
mingham Wire Gauge (Stubs), the Old English Wire Gauge (London), and the Stubs'
Steel Wire Gauge. There are in addition certain special gauges, such as the Music
Wire Gauge, the drill and screw gauges, and the United States Standard Sheet-Metal
Gauge. In England one wire gauge has been made legal and is in use generally, viz.,
the "Standard Wire Gauge." The diameters of the six general wire gauges mentioned
are given in mils in Table 4, and in millimeters in. Table 5. In Germany, France,
Austria, Italy, and other continental countries practically no wire gauge is used; size
of wires is specified directly by the diameter in millimeters. This system is sometimes
called the "millimeter wire gauge."

The American Wire Gauge was devised by J. R. Brown, one of the founders of the
Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., in 1857. It speedily superseded the Birmingham
Wire Gauge in this country, which was then in general use. It is, perhaps, more gener-
ally known by the name " Brown & Sharpe Gauge," but this name is not the one pre-
ferred by the Brown & Sharpe Co. In their catalogues they regularly refer to the gauge
as the "American Standard Wire Gauge." The word "Standard" is probably not a
good one to retain in the name of this gauge, since it is not the standard gauge for all
metals in the United States; and, further, since it is not a legalized gauge, as are the
(British) Standard Wire Gauge and the United States Standard Sheet-Metal Gauge.
The abbreviation for the name of this ga*uge has usually been written "A. W. G."
The American Wire Gauge is now used for more metals than any other in this country,
and is practically the only gauge used for copper and aluminum wire, and in general for
wire used in electrical work. It is the only wire gauge now in use whose successive sizes
are determined by a simple mathematical law.

Characteristics of the American Wire Gauge. — The gauge is formed by the spec-
ification of two diameters and the law that a given number of intermediate
diameters are formed by geometrical progression. Thus, the diameter of No.
0000 is defined as 0.4600 inch and of No. 36 as 0.0050 inch. There are 38
sizes between these two, hence the ratio of any diameter to the diameter of the

39 / 4600 39

next greater number = \l '- = \/92 = 1.122 932 2. The square of this ratio =

\ .0050

1.2610. The sixth power of the ratio, i.e., the ratio of any diameter to the diameter of
the sixth greater number = 2.0050.

The law of geometrical progression on which the gauge is based may be expressed
in either of the three following manners: (1) the ratio of any diameter to the next
smaller is a constant number; (2) the difference between any two successive diameters
is a constant per cent of the smaller of the two diameters; (3) the difference between
any two successive diameters is a constant ratio times the next smaller difference
between two successive diameters.

The " Steel Wire Gauge " is the same gauge which has been known by the names
of Washburn & Moen gauge and American Steel & Wire Co.'s gauge. This gauge
also, with a number of its sizes rounded off to thousandths of an inch, has been known
as the Roebling gauge. The gauge was established by Ichabod Washburn about the
year 1830, and was named after the Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Co. This
company is no longer in existence, having been merged into the American Steel & Wire
Co. The latter company continued the use of the Washburn & Moen Gauge for steel
wire, giving it the name "American Steel & Wire Co.'s gauge." The company specifies
all steel wire by this gauge, and states that it is used for fully 85 per cent of the total

[73]

WIRE GAUGES

production of steel wire. This gauge was also formerly used by the John A. Roebling's
Sons Co., who named it the Roebling gauge, as mentioned above. However, the
Roebling company, who are engaged in the production of wire for electrical purposes,
now prefer to use the American Wire Gauge.

The name "Steel Wire Gauge" was suggested by the Bureau of Standards, in its
correspondence with various companies, and it met with practically unanimous ap-
proval. It was necessary to decide upon a name for this gauge, and the three names
which have been used for it in the past were all open to the objection that they were
the names of particular companies. These companies have accepted the new name.
The abbreviations of the name of the gauge should be "Stl. W. G.," to distinguish it
from "S. W. G." the abbreviation for the (British) Standard Wire Gauge. When it
is necessary to distinguish the name of this gauge from others which may be used for
steel wire, e.g., the (British) Standard Wire Gauge, it may be called the United States
Steel Wire Gauge.

Decimal Measurement. — The trend of practice in the gaging of materials is increas-
ingly toward the direct specification of the dimensions in decimal fractions of an inch,
without use of gauge numbers. This has been, for a number of years, the practice of
some of the large electrical and manufacturing companies of this country. The United
States Navy Department also, hi June, 1911, ordered that all diameters and thicknesses
of materials be specified directly in decimal fractions of an inch, omitting all reference
to gauge numbers. The War Department, in December, 1911, issued a similar order, for
all wires. The American Society for Testing Materials, in their Specifications for Cop-
per Wire, recommend that diameters instead of gauge numbers be used. This is sim-
ilar to the practice on the Continent of Europe, where sizes of wire are specified directly
by the diameters in millimeters. The practice of specifying the diameters themselves
and omitting gauge numbers has the advantages that it avoids possible confusion with
other gauge systems and states an actual property of the wire directly.

Stock Sizes of Wire. — When gauge numbers are not used, it is necessary that a cer-
tain set of stock sizes be considered standard, so that the manufacturers would not be
required to keep in stock an unduly large number of different sizes of wire. The large
companies who have ceased to use gauge numbers have recognized this, having taken
as standard the American Wire Gauge sizes, to the nearest mil, for the larger diam-
eters and to a tenth of a mil for the smaller. (See list of sizes, Table IV.) These sizes
were adopted, in December, 1911, by the United States War Department for all wires.
It seems likely that this system of sizes, based on the American Wire Gauge, will be
perpetuated.

Micrometer Gauges. — The objection is often raised that the use of diameters re-
quires the employment of a micrometer; and that the wire gauge as an instrument
marked in gauge numbers is a very rapid means of handling wires and is indispensable
for use by unskilled workmen. However, the use of the wire gauge as an instrument is
consistent with the practice of specifying the diameters directly, provided the wire
gauge is marked in mils. Wire gauges marked both in the A. W. G. numbers and in
thousandths of an inch can be obtained from the manufacturers. One thus reads off
directly from the wire gauge 81 mil, 64 mil, etc., just as he would No. 12, No. 14, etc.
(Of course, the diameters in millimeters could be marked on the gauge for those who
prefer the metric system.) It should not be forgotten, however, that a wire gauge
gradually wears with use, and that for accurate work a micrometer should always
be used.

Birmingham Wire Gauge. — Of the three wire gauges which have remained in use
but are now nearly obsolete, the one most frequently mentioned is the Birmingham,
sometimes called the Stubs' Wire Gauge. Its numbers were based upon the reduction
of size made in practice by drawing wire from rolled rod. Thus, rod was called No. 0,
first drawing No. 1, and so on. Its gradations of size are very irregular, as shown in
the table of "Wire Gauges in Use in the United States," given on the page following;
by simply comparing the several decimal equivalents of the Birmingham gauge with
the equivalents of the American, or Brown & Sharpe gauge, as they appear directly
opposite in the first column of the table. The Birmingham gauge is typical of most
wire gauges, and the irregularity of its steps is shown in marked contrast to the

[74]

WIRE GAUGES

regularity of the steps of the American Wire Gauge. The Birmingham gauge was
used extensively both in Great Britain and in the United States for many years. It
has been superseded, however, and is now nearly obsolete.

The principal outstanding exception to the abandonment of the Birmingham gauge
is that the Treasury Department, with certain legislative sanction, still specifies the
Birmingham gauge for use in the collection of duty on imports of wire. This gauge was
prescribed by the Treasury Department in 1875, after it had been ascertained that it
was the standard gauge "not only throughout the United States, but the world." This
reason for the use of this gauge does not now exist, inasmuch as the gauge is now used
very little in the United States, and even less in other countries, but the Treasury De-
partment considers that it can not change its practice, since legislative approval has
been given the Birmingham gauge by the tariff acts with a provision for assessment of
duty according to gauge numbers, and further since a change would alter the rate of
duty on certain sizes of wire. These facts have been brought to the attention of the
congressional committees which have charge of tariff legislation, and it is possible that
when the tariff act is next amended the gauge numbers will be stricken out and the
diameters themselves specified.

The Stubs' Steel Wire Gauge has a somewhat limited use for tool steel wire and
drill rods. This gauge should not be confused with the Birmingham, which is some-
times known as Stubs' Iron Wire Gauge.

English Standard. — The "Standard Wire Gauge," otherwise known as the New
British Standard, the English Legal Standard, or the Imperial Wire Gauge, is the legal
standard of Great Britain for all wires, as fixed by order in Council, August 23, 1883. It
was constructed by modifying the Birmingham Wire Gauge, so that the differences
between successive diameters were the same for short ranges, i.e., so that a graph rep-
resenting the diameters consists of a series of a few straight lines.

WIRE GAUGES IN USE IN THE UNITED STATES
Dimensions are hi decimal parts of an inch

Steel Wire

Gauge

Number
of "Wire

American

Birmingh'm

rvr Q-HiKcx*

Washburn
& Moen

British
Imperial
Wire

Stubs'

Qfo^l

United
States

Gauge

& Sharpe

or otuos
Iron Wire

Roebling

Gauge

Ot-661

Wire

Standard
for Plate

American

S. W. G.

Steel &

^ .

Wire Co.

0000000

.4900

.500

.500

000000

.58000

.4615

.464

....

.46875

00000

.51650

....

.4305

.432

....

.4375

0000

.46000

.454

.3938

.400

.40625

000

.40964

.425

.3625

.372

....

.375

00

.36480

.38

.3310

.348

.34375

0

.32486

.34

.3065

.324

.3125

1

.28930

.3

.2830

.300

!227

.28125

2

.25763

.284

.2625

.276

.219

.265625

3

.22942

.259

.2437

.252

.212

.25

4

.20431

.238

.2253

.232

.207

.234375

5

.18194

.22

.2070

.212

.204

.21875

6

.16202

.203

.1920

.192

.201

.203125

7

.14428

.18

.1770

.176

.199

.1875

8

.12849

.165

.1620

.160

.197

.171875

9

.11443

.148

.1483

.144

.194

. 15625

[75]

WIRE GAUGES ,
WIRE GAUGES IN USE IN THE UNITED STATES — (Cont.,

Number
of Wire

American
or Brown
& Sharpe

Birmingh'm
or Stubs'
Iron Wire

Steel Wire
Gauge

British
Imperial
Wire

Stubs'

United

States

for Plate

Washburn
& Moen

Roebling

S. W. G.

American
Steel &
Wire Co.

10

. 101897

.134

.1350

.128

.191

. 140625

11

.090742

.12

.1205

.116

.188

.125

12

.080808

.109

.1055

.104

.185

. 109375

13

.071961

.095

.0915

.092

.182

.09375

14

.064084

.083

.0800

.080

.180

.078125

15

.057068

.072

.0720

.072

.178

.0703125

16

.050821

.065

.0625

.064

.175

.0625

17

.045257

.058

.0540

.056

.172

.05625

18

.040303

.049

.0475

.048

.168

.05

19

.035890

.042

.0410

.040

.164

.04375

20

.031961

.035

.0348

.036

.161

.0375

21

.028462

.032

.03175

.032

.157

.034375

22

.025347

.028

.0286

.028

.155

.03125

23

.022571

.025

.0258

.024

.153

.028125

24

.020101

.022

.0230

.022

.151

.025

25

.017900

.02

.0204

.020

.148

.021875

26

.015941

.018

.0181

.018

.146

.01875

27

.014195

.016

.0173

.0164

.143

.0171875

28

.012641

.014

.0162

.0149

.139

.015625

29

.011257

.013

.0150

.0136

.134

.0140625

30

.010025

.012

.0140

.0124

.127

.0125

31

.008928

.01

.0132

.0116

.120

.0109375

32

.007950

.009

.0128

.0108

.115

.01015625

33

.007080

.008

.0118

.0100

.112

.009375

34

.006304

.007

.0104

.0092

.110

.00859375

35

.005614

.005

.0095

.0084

.108

.0078125

36

.005000

.004

.0090

.0076

.106

.00703125

37

.004453

....

.0085

.0068

.103

.006640625

38

.003965

.0080

.0060

.101

.00625

39
40

.003531
.003144

....

.0075
.0070

.0052
.0048

.099
.097

NOTE. — Reference to Tables 4 and 5, page 69, are Copper Wire Tables issued by the Bureau of
Standards. These tables will be found in the Electrical Section of this book. When it is remembered
that a mil is a unit of length used in measuring the diameter of wire equal to one thousandth of an
inch, it is only necessary when diameters are given in decimal parts of an inch to move the decimal point
to correspond, thus, reading across the table given above: No. 1 American wire gauge is .28930 inch
diameter, or 289 mils. No. 1 Birmingham gauge = .3 inch diameter, or 300 mils. No. 1 Steel wire
gauge = .2830 inch diameter, or 283 mils.

,76]

U. S. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET IRON AND STEEL

U. S. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET AND PLATE IRON AND

STEEL

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That for the purpose of securing uniformity, the fol-
lowing is established as the only standard gauge for sheet and olate iron and steel in the
United States of America, namely:

Number
of Gauge

Approxi-
mate
Thickness,
in Frac-
tions of an
Inch

Approximate
Thickness,
in Decimal
Parts of an
Inch

Approximate
Thickness,
in Milli-
meters

Weight
per
Square
Foot, in
Ounces
Avoir-
dupois

Weight
per Square
Foot, in
Pounds
Avoir-
dupois

Weight
per
Square
Foot, in
Kilo-
grams

Weight
per
Square
Meter, in
Kilo-
grams

Weight
per
Square
Meter, in
Pounds
Avoir-
dupois

0000000

1-2

.5

12.7

320

20.00

9.072

97.65

215.28

000000

15-32

.46875

11.90625

300

18.75

8.505

91.55

201.82

00000

7-16

.4375

11.1125

280

17.50

7.983

85.44

188.37

0000

13-32

.40625

10.31875

260

16.25

7.371

79.33

174.91

000

3-8

.375

9.525

240

15

6.804

73.24

161.46

00

11-32

.34375

8.73125

220

13.75

6.237

67,13

148.00

0

5-16

.3125

7.9375

200

12.50

5.67

61.03

134.55

1

9-32

.28125

7.14375

180

11.25

5.103

54.93

121.09

2

17-64

.265625

6.746875

170

10.625

4.819

51.88

114.37

3

w

.25

6.35

160

10

4.536

48.82

107.64

4

15-64

,234375

5.953125

150

9.375

4.252

45.77

100.91

5

7-32

.21875

5.55625

140

8.75

3.969

42.72

94.18

6

13-64

.203125

5.159375

130

8.125

3.685

39.67

87.45

7

3-16

.1875

4 . 7625

120

7.5

3.402

36.62

80.72

8

11-64

.171875

4.365625

110

6.875

3.118

33.57

74.00

9

5-32

.15625

3.96875

100

6.25

2.835

30.52

67.27

10

9-64

.140625

3.571875

90

5.625

2.552

27.46

60.55

11

i-8

.125

3.175

80

5

2.268

24.41

53.82

12

7-64

. 109375

2.778125

70

4.375

1.984

21.36

47.09

13

3-32

.09375

2.38125

60

3.75

1.701

18.31

40.36

14

5-64

.078125

1.984375

50

3.125

1.417

15.26

33.64

15

9-128

.0703125

1.7859375

45

2.8125

1.276

13.73

30.27

16

1-16

.0625

1.5875

40

2.5

1.134

12.21

26.91

17

9-160

.05625

1.42875

36

2.25

1.021

10.99

24.22

18

1-20

.05

1.27

32

2

.9072

9.765

21.53

19

7-160

.04375

1.11125

28

1.75

.7988

8.544

18.84

20

3-80

.0375

.9525

24

1.50

.6804

7.324

16.15

21

11-320

.034375

.873125

22

1.375

.6237

6.713

14.80

22

1-32

.03125

.793750

20

1.25

.567

6.103

13.46

23

9-320

.028125

.714375

18

1.125

.5103

5.493

12.ll

24

1-40

.025

.635

16

1

.4536

4.882

10.76

25

7-320

.021875

.555625

14

.875

.3969

4.272

9.42

26

3-160

.01875

.47625

12

.75

.3402

3.662

8.07

27

11-640

.0171875

.4365625

11

.6875

.3119

3.357

7.40

28

1-64

.015625

.396875

10

.625

.2835

3.052

6.73

[77]

U. S. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET IRON AND STEEL
U. S. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET AND PLATE IRON AND STEEL — (Cont.)

Number
of Gauge

Approxi-
mate
Thickness,
in Frac-
tions of an
Inch

Approximate
Thickness,
in Decimal
Parts of an
Inch

Approximate
Thickness,
in Milli-
meters

Weight
per
Square
Foot, in
Ounces
Avoir-
dupois

Weight
per Square
Foot, in
Pounds
Avofr-
dupois

Weight
per
Square
Foot, in
Kilo-
grams

Weight
per
Square
Meter, in
Kilo-
grams

Weight
per
Square
Meter, in
Pounds
Avoir-
dupois

29

9-640

.0140625

.3571875

9

.5625

.2551

2.746

6.05

30

1-80

.0125

.3175

8

.5

.2268

2.441

5.38

31

7-640

.0109375

.2778125

7

.4375

.1984

2.136

4.7i

32

13-1280

.01015625

.25796875

6^

.40625

.1843

1.983

4.37

33

3-320

.009375

.238125

6

.375

.1701

1.831

4.04

34

11-1280

.00859375

.21828125

5H

.34375

.1559

1.678

3.70

35

5-640

.0078125

.1984375

5

.3125

1.417

1.526

3.36

36

9-1280

.00703125

. 17859375

4K

.28125

.1276

1.373

3.03

37

17-2560

.006640625

. 168671875

4M

.265625

.1205

1.297

2.87

38

1-160

.00625

.15875

4

.25

.1134

1.221

2.69

And on and after July 1, 1893, the same and no other shall be used in determining
duties and taxes levied by the United States of America on sheet and plate iron and steel.
But this act shall not be construed to increase duties upon any articles which may be
imported.

SEC. 2. That the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and required to prepare
suitable standards in accordance herewith.

SEC. 3. That in the practical use and application of the standard gauge hereby
established a variation of 2^ per cent either way may be allowed.

Approved, March 3, 1893.

NOTE. — A variation of 2| per cent either way is permitted, so that the excessive
number of decimal places in the "approximate" equivalents is undue refinement for
the practical purposes for which the act was established. Moreover, the values in some
cases are beyond the limits of measurement of the highest precision. For these reasons
and greater convenience in use, the figures not usually required in view of the tolerance
are printed in smaller type.

S. W. STRATTON, .
Director Bureau of Standards.

[78]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL OF VARIOUS

COMMODITIES

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

I. Introduction. — The legal weights per bushel of various commodities, as given
in the following tables, have been fixed by national legislation mainly for customs pur-
poses or by the State legislatures for purposes of commerce within the States. In many
cases these weights differ considerably in the different States, and in the cases of only a
few commodities, such as wheat, oats, and pease, are the legal weights uniform through-
out the entire country. It should not be assumed that the legal weights herein given
represent a volume e.qual to the bushel of 2,150.42 cubic inches (United States bushel).
On account of the variations in the densities of commodities in different localities and in
different seasons, it is impossible to fix with any degree of certainty the weight of a
given volume. The best that could be done would be to give the average of all localities
for a number of years. Inasmuch, however, as the weight of a given volume of any
commodity, such as potatoes, apples, coal, corn, etc., can only be approximately fixed,
it is important in transactions involving such measures that it be distinctly understood
which bushel is meant, viz., the volume of 2,150.42 cubic inches or a certain number
of pounds called a bushel, which might be quite a different amount. On account of the
impossibility of reconciling these two definitions of the bushel, it is recommended that
all sales be made by weight, as is now the practice in wheat transactions.

II. Commodities for Which Bushel Weights Have Been Adopted in But One or Two

States

Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 pounds (Md.
and Okla.).

Beggarweed seed, 62 pounds (Fla.).
Bermuda grass seed, 40 pounds (Okla.).
Blackberries, 30 pounds (Iowa) ; 48 pounds

(Tenn.); dried, 28 pounds (Term.).
Blueberries, 42 pounds (Minn.).
Bromus inermus, 14 pounds (N. Dak.).
Burr clover, in hulls, 8 pounds (N. C.).

Cabbage, 50 pounds (Tenn.).

Canary seed, 60 pounds (Tenn.); 50

pounds (Iowa).

Cantaloupe melon, 50 pounds (Tenn.).
Caster seed, 50 pounds (Md.).
Cement, 80 pounds (Tenn.).
Cherries, 40 pounds (Iowa) ; with stems, 56

pounds (Tenn.); without stems, 64

pounds (Tenn.).
Chufa, 54 pounds (Fla.).
Cotton seed, staple, 42 pounds (S. C.).
Culm, 80 pounds (Md.).
Currants, 40 pounds (Iowa and Minn.).

Feed, 50 pounds (Mass.).
Fescue, seed of all the, except the tall and
meadow fescue, 14 pounds (N. C.).

Fescue, tall and meadow fescue

seed, 24 pounds (N. C.).
Grapes, 40 pounds (Iowa) ; with stems, 48

pounds (Tenn.); without stems, 60

pounds (Tenn.).
Guavas, 54 pounds (Fla.).

Hominy, 60 pounds (Ohio); 62 pounds

(Tenn.).
Horseradish, 50 pounds (Tenn.).

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 pounds (Tenn.).

Japan clover in hulls, 25 pounds (N. C.).
Johnson grass, 28 pounds (Ark.); 25
pounds (N. C.).

Kale, 30 pounds (Tenn.).

Land plaster, 100 pounds (Tenn.).
Lentils, 60 pounds (N. C.).
Lucerne, 60 pounds (N. C.).
Lupines, 60 pounds (N. C.).

Meadow seed, tall, 14 pounds (N. C.).
Meal (?), 46 pounds (Ala.); unbolted, 48

pounds (Ala.).
Middlings, fine, 40 pounds (Ind.); coarse

middlings, 30 pounds (Ind.).

[791

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 pounds

(Mass, and N. H.).
Mustard, 30 pounds (Tenn.).
Mustard seed, 58 pounds (N. C.).

Oat grass seed, 14 pounds (N. C.).

Plums, 40 pounds (Fla.); 64 pounds
(Tenn.); dried, 28 pounds (Mich.).

Prunes, dried, 28 pounds (Idaho); green,
45 pounds (Idaho).

Radish seed, 50 pounds (Iowa).
Raspberries, 32 pounds (Iowa and Kan.);

48 pounds (Tenn.).
Rhubarb, 50 pounds (Tenn.).

Sage, 4 pounds (Tenn.).

Salads, 30 pounds (Tenn.).

Sand, 130 pounds (Iowa).

Seed of brome grasses, 14 pounds (N. C.).

Spinach, 30 pounds (Tenn.).

Strawberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48

pounds (Tenn.).
Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 pounds

(N. J.).
Sunflower seed, 24 pounds (N. C.).

Teosinte, 59 pounds (N. C.).

Velvet grass seed, 7 pounds (Tenn.).
Vetches, 60 pounds (N. C.).

In the following pages is given an alphabetical list of commodities for which legal
weights (in pounds) per bushel have been more generally adopted by States. Special
explanations or conditions affecting the definition are printed in foot-notes to these tables.

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted.

u. s...

Ala

| Alfalfa Seed

Apples

jj

Beans

!

3

1

c

Buckwheat

a
0

o

Clover Seed

Coal

o.

i

Q

m

ii
I1

1

|

te

90
80

1
.1

Stone Coal

48
47
45

48
50

60

2 55
2 60

50

4?

24

Ariz . . .

Ark ...
Cal . . .

3 50

24

14

20

48

52

40

52

48

60

80

80

Colo . . .
Conn

48

25

48
48

60
60

4 60

14

20

50

20

20

60
60

Del

D. C.

Fla....
Ga .

3 48

24
24

48

47
48

6 60
6 60

48

20
720

14

...

52

60

80

Hawaii .
Idaho19

...

111

24
25

24
24
24

48
48

48
48
47
48
48

6 60
60

8 60
60
6 60

46
46

46
' 46

56
56

14
14

14
9 14

14

20

20
20
20

50

52
50

52
50
56

50
50

20

60
60

60
60
60

80

80

80
80
76

Ind

Iowa. . .
Kans . .
Ky. .

60
60

48
3 48

76

76

76

La

Me....

...

44

60

60

48

"iH

[80]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted. — Cont.

•3

Apples

|

«

Beans

i

Blue-grass Seed

\\

la
PQ

w

1
f

Carrots

Charcoal

Clover Seed

Coal

i

t
<

09

1

i

Q

I

PQ

Castor Beans
(Shelled)

1

o

1 Bituminous
Coal

§

?

Md...

Mass . .
Mich . .
Minn. .
Miss. . .

60

48
48
3 50

48
45

3 48

* 48
48

50

28
25
22

28
26

24

24
24
25

25

48
48
48
48
48

4S
48
48
48
48

48

60
"60
60
60
6 60

12 60
60
6 60
60

2 11

60

10 50

46
12 46

46

46
46

60
50

50

56
60

60

14

14
14
14

14
14
14

9

20
20

50
50

20

60
60
60

60
60

60
60
60
60
60

64

80

48
48

80

...

80

20

20
20
20
20
20

57

50

48

52
52
52
50

48

50

45

50
50

50
50

50

20

80
76

80
80

Mo....
Mont. .
Nebr . .

Nev. . .
N. H

60
60

N.J....

N Mex

N. Y

48
3 48
50

50

48
45

25

24
24

28

48
48
48

48
48
46
47

48

60
13 60
60

60
60

20
20

46
30

48
50
42

50
52
4?

50

50
50

60

60
. 60

N. C. . .
N. Dak.

Ohio.. .
Okla...
Oreg.

60
60

*46
46

60

56
60

14
14

80

80
80

60

60
60
60

60

80

20

30

Pa

48

14 15 18

20

16 75
80

76

R. I. ..

S. C .

...

48

25

60

46

50

20

48

50

S. Dak.

48

48

48

60
12 n60

6 60

46

60
50

14

20
20

20

30

42

42
50

42

60

18 60

60

80
80

80

Tenn . .
Tex

...

3 50
45

24
28

50

22
22

Ut-ah.

Vt
Va....

Wash..
W. Va.
Wis....

...

46

3 45
50

28*

28
25
25

48

48

48
48
48

62
6 60

60
60

60

14

....

48
52

4?

50

60
60

60
60
60

80

80

5?

...

50

20

50

50

Wyo...

1 Not defined.

2 Small white beans, 60 pounds.

3 Green apples.

4 Sugar beets and mangel-wurzeU

•> Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds.
« White beans.
? Wheat bran.

s Green unshelled beans, 56 pounds.
s English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-
grass seed, 14 pounds.

10 Also castor seed.

11 Soy beans, 58 pounds.

12 Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.

13 Soy beans.

14 Commercially dry, for all hard woods.

15 Fifteen pounds commercially dry, for all soft woods.
18 Standard weight in borough of Greensburg.

" Dried beans.

18 Red and white.

'» Idaho law repealed in 1905.

[81

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted. — Cord.

Corn"

Corn Meal

Cotton Seed

Flaxseed (Linseed)

(Plastering) Hair

Hemp Seed

Herds Grass

Hungarian Grass
Seed ||

Indian Corn or Maize
I1

U

*g

•S-S

J*

SI

I1

Shelled Corn

1

Q

II
Is

il
-1

^

6

SS

wO

Upland Cotton
Seed

u. s

Ala

56

48

56

70

75

56

32

Ariz

54

Ark

70

74

56

48

33|

56

Cal

52

56
56
56

Colo ....

70

50
50

44

Conn

44

30

55

45

Del

44

48

D C

Fla

70

56
56

48
48

32
30

46

Ga

70

56

8

44

Hawaii. . .

56

Idaho16

111

70

2

4 70
5 70

75

56
56

56
56
56

48
50

50

56

8

44
44

Ind

Iowa
Kans
Ky
La .

38

3 50

7 70
56
56

56
56
56

68

8

44
44
44

...

50
50
50

....

50

Me

8 50

11

44

44
50
44

44
44
44

48

45

45
45

45

50

50

48
50

48
50
50
50

10 56

"56
56

Md

4 70

56
9 50
56
56
56

56
56
56
56

48
50
50

48

50
50
50

48
50

56

Mass.

44

30

55
56

68
8

Mich....
Minn

4 70
70

72

70

Miss

44

48

32
33

56

56
56
56
56
56

Mo

Mont ....

70
70

...

...

Nebr . .

Nev

6 70

...

•••

...

N. H

9 50

N. J

55

N Mex

N. Y

50

48

...

30

44
44

30

55
55
56

44

45

...

56
56

N. C

70
70

68
70

N. Dak.

72

56

56
56

Ohio
Okla.....

40

56

44

50

50

32

...

56

44

56
56

Oree

Pa

40

58

'821

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted. — Cont.

s

Corn"

Corn Meal1

Cotton Seed

|

(Plastering) Hair

i

a

Herds Grass

o

bfl'S
3C/2

«.

S

2

S

^"S

II

Corn in Ear,
Unhusked

1

Corn Meal1

II

GO
g«

Corn Meal
Unbolted

Cotton Seed1

Sea Island
Cotton Seed

5

tj-j

p

R. I
S. C

40

70

56

50

"48

48

48

12 30

44

30

56

44

...

50

S. Dak...

70
70

70

13 74

72

56
56

56

56

Tenn
Tex . .

40

50

48

28
32

56
56

8

44
\\

•v

48
48

Utah

Vt

45

56
56

Va

70

56

50

32

56
56

8

44

12

48

Wash....

W. Va. . .
Wis

...

56

56

50

44

30

56

8

44

48

56

Wyo

1 Not denned.

2 Corn in ear, 70 pounds until Dec. 1 next after

grown; 68 pounds thereafter.

3 Sweet corn.

4 In the cob.

5 Indian corn in ear.

8 Unwashed plastering hair, 8 pounds: washed plas-
tering hair, 4 pounds.

7 Corn in ear, from Nov. 1 to May 1 following, 70

pounds, 68 pounds from May 1 to Nov. 1.

8 Indian-corn meal.

9 Cracked corn,
w Shelled.

11 Standard weight bushel corn meal, bolted or un-

unbolted, 48 pounds.

12 Except the seed of long staple cotton, of which the

weight shall be 42 pounds.

13 Green unshelled corn, 100 pounds.

14 See also " Popcorn," "Indian corn," and

corn."
» Idaho law repealed in 1905.

Kaffir

[83]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS
III. Commodities for which bushel

PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES

weights have been more widely adopted. — Cont.

Li

me

1

Peache

s

1

1

a

Unslaked
Lime

75

3

S

m

o

Onions1

Orchard Grass S

1
o

.§•

PH

£

1

Dried Peaches,
Unpeeled

Peanuts (or " Gi
Peas")*

!

I

u. s

34

3?,

60

Ala

32

38

33

fio

Ariz ....

32

Ark

50

3?,

57

14

33

33

60

Cal

32

Colo

80

32

57

Conn

70

32

52

45

33

33

60

Del

D.C

Fla

50

32

56

2 54

33

22

60

•

Ga

80

32

57

38

33

*25

60

Hawaii

32

Idaho29....

Ill

80

38

32

57

33

Ind....

4 35

50

3?

48

14

33

55

33

Iowa

80

50

32

57

14

32

42

48

33

20

Kans. .

80

32

50

32

57

52

48

33

7 go

Ky
La

...

35

50

8 32

57

14

39

*24

60

Me

32

52

45

60

Md

80

4 34

10 50

11 32

57

14

12 40

22

13 60

Mass. . .

70

32

52

45

48

33

14 20

58

60

Mich

70

50

32

54

14

33

28

60

Minn . .

80

48

32

52

14

42

15 28

60

Miss
Mo

80

38
38

50
50

32
32

57
57

14

36

44

48

33
33

*24

48

60
17 60

Mont

80

30

32

57

50

45

60

Nebr. .

80

30

50

32

57

39

33

60

Nev
N. H

70

32

50

32
32

57
52

50
45

48

48

15 33
5 33

14 20

58

7 60
60

N. J

30

57

50

33

33

60

N. Mex

60

N. Y

70

32

57

33

N. C

50

32

57

14

22

60

N. Dak . . .

80

50

32

52

60

Ohio

70

34

50

32

55

48

33

60

Okla
Oreg

80

38

50

32
32

57

14

36

44

48

28

33

22

48
45

60

Pa

32

50

[84]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted.— Cont.

Lime

s

3

1
o

Onions1

0

o

1 Osage Orange Seed

.&

Peaches

O

k

Pears1

j

1

Unslaked
Lime

Peaches1

Dried Peaches,
Peeled

Dried Peaches,
Unpeeled

R. I

S. C

70

38

50

32

50

50

48

33

3 60

S. Dak....
Tenn .

Tex

80

19

80

20 50
50

32
32

32

52

21 56

57

2*56

60
60

14

33

50

23 50
50

26

28

23

Utah

Vt

38

50
50

32
30

32
32
32

52
57

14

34

60

25 60

Va
Wash

80

....

40

28
33
33

32

22

3 45

W Va

26 34

Wis

70

80

57

44

60

Wyo

1 Not denned.

2 Green peaches,
s Green.

4 Malt rye.

6 Top sets; bottom sets 32 pounds,
s Shelled, 56 pounds.

7 Shelled, dry.

8 Strike measure.

9 Bottom onion sets.

10 German and American.

11 Shelled.

12 Peaches (peeled) ; unpeeled 32 pounds.

13 Cowpeas.

14 Roasted; green 22 pounds.

16 Not stated whether peeled or unpeeled.

16 Top onion sets.

17 Including split peas.
» In the ear.

19 Slaked lime, 40 pounds.

20 German, Missouri, and Tennessee millet seeds.

21 Matured onions.

22 Bottom onion sets, 32 pounds.

23 Matured.

24 Matured pears, 56 pounds; dried pears, 26 pounds.

25 Black-eyed pease.

26 Barley malt.

27 Includes "Rice corn."

28 " Rive corn."

29 Idaho law repealed in 1905.

[85]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted. — Cont*

Pot

atoes

i

Salt

I

Sweet Potatoes

White Potatoes

Quinces

I

1
1

8
S
ja

Rutabagas

I
1

V

£

a

•a

OT

Fine Salt

Coarse Salt

1

Timothy Seed

Tomatoes

.1

H

•w

U.S. . .

60

56

60

Ala

"55

60

56

55

60

Ariz

56

60

Ark

60

50

14

56

50

50

60

57

60

Cal

54

60

Colo

60

56

80

45

60

Conn

60

54

45

60

50

56

50

70

60

Del

60

D.C.

60

Fla

60

60

48

56

60

56

54

60

Ga

55

60

43

56

45

55

60

Hawaii. .

56

60

Idaho8

111

50

60

56

55

50

45

55

60

Ind ....

60

55

56

50

45

55

60

Iowa

60

46

48

50

14

50

56

80

2 50

45

50

55

60

Kans ....

60

50

56

80

50

45

56

55

60

Ky

6 60

55

56

50

55

45

60

60

La . .

56

60

Me

60

60

50

50

60

70

60

Md

60

60

50

3 14

56

56

70

50

45

60

60

60

Mass
Mich

60

54

56

60

48

4 14

45

...

50

56
56

56

50

70

45
45

56

55

58

60
60

Minn

55

60

50

4 14

5?

56

57

45

60

Miss

60

60

56

50

4?,

45

55

60

\
Mo

56

60

4 14

50

56

50

42

45

45

60

Mont

60

56

50

45

50

60

Nebr

50

60

56

50

50

45

55

60

Nev

60

50

56

SO

50

45

56

56

60

N H

6 60

54

48

50

56

50

70

45

56

55

60

N. J

54

60

56

45

60

N Mex

N. Y .

54

60

45

50

56

56

70

45

60

N.C

N. Dak

6 56

56
46

60
60

50

4 14

44

56
56

80

50

45
45

50
60

60

60

Ohio

6 60

50

56

45

56

60

60

Okla

55

60

50

4 14

50

56

SO

50

45

45

60

60

Oree

60

56

60

Pa

56

56

6 62

85

60

[86]

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF COMMODITIES
III. Commodities for which bushel weights have been more widely adopted. — Cont.

Pol

atoe

B

Salt

Potatoes1

I

w

White Potatoes

'3

cy

Rape Seed

Red Top

•S

Rutabagas

Rye Meal

1

1

Fine Salt

Coarse Salt

Sorghum Seed

Timothy Seed

Tomatoes

t
I

1
£

R. I

54

60

50

56

50

70

45

56

50

60

S. C

_

S. Dak

46

60

56

SO

42

60

60

Tenn

50

60

18

4 14

56

50

50

45

56

50

60

Tex

55

60

56

50

45

55

55

60

Utah

Vt

60

56

70

45

60

7 60

Va ... .

56

56

12

56

50

45

55

60

Wash

60

56

60

W. Va

60

56

45

60

Wis
Wyo

60

54

...

50

45

56

50

56

50

70

45

...

42

60

1 Not denned.

2 Sorghum saccharatum seed.

3 Red top grass seed (chaff) ; fancy 32 pounds.
< Seed.

5 Irish potatoes.

6 Ground salt, 70 pounds.

7 India wheat, 46 pounds.

s Idaho law repealed in 1905.

[87]

SECTION 3
MENSURATION AND MATHEMATICAL TABLES

MENSURATION OF SURFACES

To Find the Area of a Parallelogram ; whether it be a square, a rectangle, a rhombus,
or a rhomboid. — Rule: Multiply the length by the
height; or, multiply the product of two contiguous
sides by the natural sine of the included angle.

NOTE. — The perpendicular height of the parallelo-
gram is equal to the area divided by the base.

The area of a parallelogram which is not right
angled can be converted into a rectangle by cutting
off a triangle at one end and putting it on the other.

Its area is the length multiplied into the
breadth measured perpendicularly, or, as
it is commonly stated, — Area = base X
altitude.

To Find the Area of a Triangle. —
Rule: Multiply the base by the perpen-
dicular height and take half the product.
Or, multiply half the product of \ two
contiguous sides by the natural sine of
the included angle.

NOTE. — A triangle is half a parallelogram of the same
base and altitude.

The perpendicular height of the triangle is equal to
twice the area divided by the base.

To Find the Area of a Triangle Whose Three Sides
Only Are Given. — Rule 1. From half the sum of the three
sides subtract each side severally.

Multiply half the sum and the three remainders

continually together, and the square root of
the product will be the area required.

Rule 2. Any two sides of a triangle being
multiplied together and the product again by
half the natural sine of their included angle will
give the area of the triangle.

That is, AC multiplied by CB X natural
sine of the angle C = twice area.

Any Two Sides of a Right Angle Triangle Being
Given to Find the Third Side.— Rule 1. When the
two legs are given to find the hypotenuse. Add the
square of one of the legs to the square of the other,
and the square root of the sum will be equal to the
hypotenuse.

Rule 2. When the hypotenuse and one of the legs
are given to find the other leg. From the square of
the hypotenuse take the square of the given leg, and the £~~ B

square root of the remainder will be equal to the other leg.

To Find the Area of a Trapezium. — Rule: Multiply the diagonal by the sum of
the two perpendiculars falling upon it from the opposite angles, and half the product
will be the area.

[89]

MENSURATION

NOTE. — If the trapezium can be inscribed in a circle; that is, if the sum of two of
its opposite angles is equal to two right angles, or 180°, the area may be found thus:

Rule: From half the sum of the four sides sub-
tract each side severally; then multiply the four
remainders continually together, and the square
root of the product will be the area.

To Find the Area of a Trapezoid, or a Quad-
rangle, Two of Whose Opposite Sides Are Parallel.
— Rule: Multiply the sum of the parallel sides by
the perpendicular distance between them, and half
the product will be the area.

To Find the Area of a Regular Polygon. —
Rule: Multiply half the perimeter of the figure by
the perpendicular falling from its center upon one
of the sides, and the product will be the area.

NOTE. — Every regular polygon is composed of as
many equal triangles as it has sides, consequently
the area of one of those triangles being multiplied
by the number of sides must give the area of the
whole figure.

To Find the Area of a Regular Polygon When
the Side Only Is Given. — Rule: Multiply the square

of the side of the polygon by the number standing opposite
its name in the following table and the product will be
the area.

NOTE. — The multipliers in the table are the areas of
the polygon to which they belong when the side is unity
or one. The table is formed by trigonometry, thus:

As radius = 1 : tang. Z O B P : : BP (f ) : P O =
BPXtang. ZOPB
radius

Whence O P X B P = £ tang. Z O B P = area of the
O B P X number of sides = tabular number, or the area

= £tang. ZOBP:

tang.

A A 0 B; and
of the polygon.

The angle O B P, together with its tangent, for any polygon of not more than twelve
sides is shown hi the following table:

No. of
Sides

Names

Multipliers

Angle
OBP

Tangents

3

4

Trigon or equil. A
Tetragon or square

0.433013-
1 000000+

30°

45°

.57735+ = W3
1 00000+ =1X1

5

Pentagon

1 720477+

54°

1 37638+ = V1 + H5

6

Hexagon

2 598076+

60°

1 73205+ = V3

7

Heptagon . . . . ;

3.633912+

64°

2.07652 +

8

Octagon

4 828427+

67°f

2 41421+ = 1 + V2

9

Nonagon

6 181824+

70°1

2.74747+

10

Decagon . .

7 694209 —

72°

3 07768+ = V5+2V5

11

Undecagon

9 365640 —

73°tV

3.40568+

12

Duodecagon

11.196152+

75°

3.73205+ = 2+V3

To Find the Area of Any Polygon. — Rule: Divide the polygon into triangles and
trapezoids by drawing diagonals' find the area of these as above shown, fo** the area.

[90]

MENSURATION

To Find the Area of Any Quadrilateral Figure. — Rule: Divide the quadrilateral
into two triangles; the sum of the areas of the triangles is the area.

Or, multiply half the product of the two
diagonals by the natural sine of the angle of
their intersection.

NOTE. — As the diagonal of a square and a
rhombus intersect at right angles (the natural
sine of which is 1), half the product of their
diagonals is the area.

To Find the Area of an Irregular Polygon or
Figure of Any Number of Sides. — Rule : Divide
the figure into triangles and trapeziums, and
find the area of each separately.

Add these areas together and the sum will
be the area of the whole polygon.

CIRCLES

The proportion of the diameter of a circle to its circumference has never yet been
exactly ascertained. Nor can a square or any other right lined figure be found that
shall be equal to a given circle.

Though the relation between the diameter and circumference cannot be accurately
expressed in known numbers, it may yet be approximated to any assigned degree of
exactness. Van Ceulen, a Dutchman, in his book, "De Circulo et Adscriptis" showed
that if the diameter of a circle was 1, the circumference would be 3.141592653589793 and
so on to thirty-six places of decimals. This is commonly abbreviated as 1 to 3.1416.

When the diameter = 1, the area is equal to .785398+, commonly abbreviated
to .7854.

In these ratios, the diameter and circumference are taken lineally and the area
superficially. If the diameter is in inches, the circumference will be in lineal inches,
the area in square inches.

The circumference of a circle is commonly signified by the Greek letter TT, which
indicates the length of the circumference when the diameter is 1.

D = diameter of circle, TT = circumference of circle, A = area of circle,

A =— D2 = .7854 D2.

=^--= 1.1284 VA

If the diameter be multiplied or divided by any number, the area must be multiplied
or divided by the square of that number. Thus:

Diameter = nD. Area = n2A.

Diameter = — .
n

Area = — .

The Diameter of a Circle Being Given to Find the Circumference; or, the circum-
ference being given to find the diameter. — Rule: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416,
and the product will be the circumference, or, divide the cir-
cumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the diameter.

NOTE. — 1. As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the circumfer-
ence; or, as 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter.

2. As 113 is to 355, so is the diameter
to the circumference; or, as 355 is to 113,
so is the circumference to the diameter.

To Find the Area of a Circle.— Rule 1.
Multiply half the circumference by half the
diameter, and the product will be the area.
Or, taKe one-fourth the product of the whole circumference
and diameter.

NOTE. — A circle may be considered as a regular polygon of
an infinite number of sides, the circumference being equal to the perimeter, and the
radius to the perpendicular. But the area of a regular polygon is equal to half the

[91]

MENSURATION

perimeter multiplied by the perpendicular, and consequently the area of a circle is
equal to half the circumference multiplied by the radius, or half the diameter.

Rule 2. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product will be the
area; or, multiply the square of the circumference by .07958, and the product will be
the area.

NOTE. — All circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters.
The following proportions are those of Metius and Archimedes:
As 452 : 355 :: square of the diameter : area.
As 14 : 11 :: square of the diameter : area.

If the circumference be given instead of the diameter, the area may be found as
follows:

The square of the circumference X .07958 = area.
As 88 : 7 : : square of the circumference : area.
As 1420 : 113 :: square of the circumference : area.

The following table will show most of the useful problems relating to the circle
and its equal or inscribed square:

Diameter X .8862 = side of an equal square.
Circumference X .2821 = side of an equal square.

Diameter X .7071 = side of an inscribed square.
Circumference X .2251 = side of the inscribed square.
Area X .6366 = side of the inscribed square.
Side of a square X 1.4142 = diameter of its circumscribing circle.
Side of a square X 4.443 = circumference of its circumscribing circle.
Side of a square X 1.128 = diameter of an equal circle.
Side of a square X 3.545 = circumference of an equal circle.

Radius X 6.2832 = circumference.
Circumference X .3183 = diameter.
Circumference = 3.5449 A/area of a cirde.

Diameter = 1.1283 Varea of a circle.

Length of arc = number of degrees X .0175 radius,

arc of 1° to radius 1 = 0.017453.
arc of 1' to radius 1 = 0.000291.
arc of 1" to radius 1 = 0.00000485.
Degrees in arc whose length = radius = 57° .2958.

[921

MENSURATION

USEFUL FUNCTIONS OF ir

= ratio of circumference to diameter
= 3.1415926536

N

2N

3N

4N

5N

6N

7N

8N

9N

v = 3.1416

6.2832

9.4248

12.5664

15.7080

18.8496

21.9911

25.1327

28.2743

—-= 1.5708

3.1416

4.7124

6.2832

7.8540

9.4248

10.9956

12.5664

14.1372

-~= 1.0472

2.0944

3.1416

4.1888

5.2360

6.2832

7.3304

8.3776

9.4248

-f-= .7854

1.5708

2.3562

3.1416

3.9270

4.7124

5.4978

6.2832

7.0686

1T= .5236

1.0472

1.5708

2.0944

2.6180

3.1416

3.6652

4.1888

4.7124

-—= .4488

.8976

1.3464

1.7952

2.2440

2.6928

3.1416

3.5904

4.0392

~j- = .1963

.3927

.5890

.7854

.9817

1 . 1781

1.3744

1.5708

1.7671

-j±= .1309

.2618

.3927

.5236

.6545

.7854

.9163

1.0472

1.1781

7T

.1964

.2945

.3927

.4909

.5890

.6872

.7854

.8836

iio= -0175

.0349

.0524

.0698

.0873

.1047

.1222

1396

.1571

7T2 = 9.8696

19.7392

29.6088

39.4784

49.3480

59.2176

69.0872

78.9568

88.8264

7T3 = 31.0063
— -= .3183

-~= .1013
-~= .0323

62.0126
.6366

.2026
.0645

93.0188
.9549

.3040
.0968

124.0251
1.2732

.4053
.1290

155.0314
1.5915

.5066
.1613

186.0377
1.9099

.6079
.1935

217.0439

2.2282

.7092

.2258

248.0502
2.5465

.8106
.2580

279.0565

2.8648

.9119
.2903

V^= 1.7725
V~r= 1.4646

3.5449
2.9292

5.3174
4.3938

7.0898
5.8584

8.8623
7.3230

10.6347

8.7876

12.4072
10.2521

14.1796
11.7167

15.9521
13.1813

Jl= .5642

1 . 1284

1.6926

2.2568

2.8209

3.3851

3.9493

4.5135

5.0777

3^= .6828

1.3656

2.0484

2.7311

3.4139

4.0967

4.7795

5.4623

6.1451

Log TT = . 4971499

.9943

1.4915

1.9886

2.4857

2.9829

3.4800

3.9772

4.4743

[93]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, AND SIDE OF EQUAL SQUARE FROM 1 TO 120

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
. (Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

3

9.4248

7.0686

2.6586

A

.1963

.00307

.0553

3&

9.6211

7.3662

2.7140

H

.3927

.01227

.1107

3K

9.8175

7.6699

2.7694

A

.5890

.02761

.1661

3A

10.014

7.9798

2.8248

M

.7854

.04909

.2215

3M

10.210

8.2957

2.8801

A

.9817

.07670

.2770

3A

10.406

8.6180

2.9355

H

1.1781

.1104

.3323

3K

10.6C2

8.9462

2.9909

A

1.3744

.1503

.3877

3^

10.799

9.2807

3.0463

1A

1.5708

.1963

.4431

3M

10.995

9.6211

3.1017

&

1.7771

.2485

.4984

3&

11.191

9.9680

3.1571

»

1.9635

.3068

.5539

3K

11.388

10.320

3.2124

tt

2.1598

.3712

.6092

3H

11.584

10.679

3.2678

3/*

2.3562

.4417

.6646

3M

11.781

11.044

3.3232

H

2.5525

.5185

.7200

3H

11.977

11.416

3.3786

K

2.7489

.6013

.7754

3K

12.173

11.793

3.4340

if

2.9452

.6903

.8308

3H

12.369

12.177

3.4894

i

3.1416

.7854

.8862

4

12.566

12.566

3.5448

iA

3.3379

.8866

.9416

4^

12.762

12.962

3.6002

IK

3.5343

.9940

.9969

4K

12.959

13.364

3.6555

1ft

3.7306

.1075

1.0524

4&

13.155

13.772

3.7109

iM

3.9270

.2271

1.1017

4M

13.351

14.186

3.7663

1A

4.1233

.3530

1.1631

4A

13.547

14.606

3.8217

iK

4.3197

.4848

1.2185

4K

13.744

15.033

3.8771

iA

4.5160

.6229

1.2739

4^

13.940

15.465

3.9325

l«

4.7124

1.7671

1.3293

4K

14.137

15.904

3.9880

*A

4.9087

1.9175

1.3847

4&

14.333

16.349

4.0434

if*

5.1051

2.0739

1.4401

4K

14.529

16.800

4.0987

ltt

5.3014

2.2365

.4955

4H

14.725

17.257

4.1541

iK

5.4978

2.4052

.5508

4M

14.922

17.720

4.2095

lit

5.6941

2.5800

.6062

4H

15.119

18.190

4.2648

IK

5.8905

2.7611

.6616

4K

15.315

18.665

4.3202

m

6.0868

2.9483

.7170

4M

15.511

19.147

4.3756

2

6.2832

3.1416

1.7724

5

15.708

19.635

4.4310

2A

6.4795

3.3380

1.8278

5^

15.904

20.129

4.4864

2K

6.6759

3.5465

1.8831

5K

16.100

20.629

4.5417

2A

6.8722

3.7584

1.9385

5&

16.296

21 . 135

4.5971

2M

7.0686

3.9760

1.9939

5M

16.493

21.647

4.6525

2&

7.2649

4.2000

2.0493

5A

16.689

22.166

4.7079

2K

7.4613

4.4302

2.1047

5K

16.886

22.690

4.7633

2&

7.6576

4.6664

2.1601

5^

17.082

23.221

4.8187

2K

7.8540

4.9087

2.2155

5K

17.278

23.758

4.8741

2&

8.0503

5.1573

2.2709

5&

17.474

24.301

4.9295

2K

8.2467

5.4119

2.3262

5K

17.671

24.850

4.9848

2H

8.4430

5.6723

2.3816

5H

17.867

25.406

5.0402

2M

8.6394

5.9395

2.4370

5M

18.064

25.967

5.0956

2H

8.8357

6.2126

2.4924

5H

18.231

26.535

5.1510

2K

9.0321

6.4918

2.5478

5K

18.457

27.108

5.2064

2H

9.2284

6.7772

2.6032

5H

18.653

27.688

5.2618

[94

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Cont.)

Diame-
ter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

6

18.849

28.274

5.3172

H^

36.128

103.869

10.191

Ql/s

19.242

29.464

5.4280

11^

36.521

106.139

10.302

VA

19.635

30.679

5.5388

11%

36.913

108.434

10.413

W/8

20.027

31.919

5.6495

W/s

37.306

110.753

10.523

V/2

20.420

33.183

5.7603

Q5/8

20.813

34.471

5.8711

12

37.699

113.097

10.634

6%

21.205

35.784

5.9819

12^

38.091

115.466

10.745

V/8

21.598

37.122

6.0927

12^

38.484

117.859

10.856

12^

38.877

120.276

10.966

7

21.991

38.484

6.2034

12^

39.270

122.718

11.077

7l/8

22.383

39.871

6.3142

12%

39.662

125.184

11.188

7%

22.776

41.282

6.4350

12%

40.055

127.676

11.299

1H

23.169

42.718

6.5358

12ft

40.448

130.192

11.409

7H

23.562

44.178

6.6465

1Y*

23.954

45.663

6.7573

13

40.840

132.732

11.520

1%

24.347

47.173

6.8681

13H

41.233

135.297

11.631

1%

24.740

48.707

6.9789

I3H

41.626

137.886

11.742

13%

42.018

140.500

11.853

8

25.132

50.265

7.0897

133^

42.411

143.139

11.963

8^

25.515

51.848

7.2005

13%

42.804

145.802

12.074

8%

25.918

53.456

7.3112

13%

43.197

148.489

12.185

m

26.310

55.088

7.4220

13%

43.589

151.201

12.296

V/2

26.703

56.745

7.5328

8%

27.096

58.426

7.6436

14

43.982

153.938

12.406

8%

27.489

60.132

7.7544

14%

44.375

156.699

12.517

S7/8

27.881

61.862

7.8651

14%

44.767

159.485

12.628

14%

45.160

162.295

12.739

9

28.274

63.617

7.9760

14%

45.553

165.130

12.850

9H

28.667

65.396

8.0866

14%

45.945

167.989

12.960

9%

29.059

67.200

8.1974

14%

46.338

170.873

13.071

9%

29.452

69.029

8.3081

14%

46.731

173.872

13.182

9^

29.845

70.882

8.4190

9%

30.237

72.759

8.5297

15

47.124

176.715

13.293

9%

30.630

74.662

8.6405

15%

47.516

179.672

13.403

$7/8

31.023

76.588

8.7513

15%

47.909

182.654

13.514

15%

48.302

185.661

13.625

10

31.416

78.540

8.8620

15%

48.694

188.692

13.736

10%

31.808

80.515

8.9728

15%

49.087

191.748

13.847

10%

32.201

82.516

9.0836

15%

49.480

194.828

13.957

10%

32.594

84.540

9.1943

15%

49.872

197.933

14.068

10%

32.986

86.590

9.3051

10%

33.379

88.664

9.4159

16

50.265

201.062

14.179

10%

33.772

90.762

9.5267

16%

50.658

204.216

14.290

10K

34.164

92.885

9.6375

16%

51.051

207.394

14.400

16%

51.443

210.597

14.511

11

34.557

95.033

9.7482

16%

51.836

213.825

14.622

11H

34.950

97.205

9.8590

16%

52.229

217.077

14.732

11%

35.343

99.402

9.9698

16%

52.621

220.353

14.843

11%

35.735

101.623

10.080

16%

53.014

223.654

14.954

[95]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE,. AREA, ETC. — (Cont.)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

17

53.407

226.980

15.065

22%

70.686

397.608

19.939

WH

53.799

230.330

15.176

22%

71.078

402.038

20.050

17H

54.192

233.705

15.286

22%

71.471

406.493

20.161

17%

54.585

237.104

15.397

22y8

71.864

410.972

20.271

17H

54.978

240.528

15.508

i7H

55.370

243.977

15.619

23

72.256

415.476

20.382

im

55.763

247.450

15.730

23%

72.649

420.004

20.493

17%

56.156

250.947

15.840

23%

73.042

424.557

20.604

23%

73.434

429.135

20.715

18

56.548

254.469

15.951

23%

73.827

433.731

20.825

18%

56.941

258.016

16.062

23%

74.220

438.363

20.936

mi

57.334

261.587

16.173

23%

74.613

443.014

21.047

18%

57.726

265.182

16.283

23%

75.005

447.699

21.158

18^

58.119

268.803

16.394

1SH

58.512

272.447

16.505

24

75.398

452.390

21.268

18%

58.905

276.117

16.616

24%

75.791

457.115

21.379

18%

59.297

279.811

16.727

24%

76.183

461.864

21.490

24%

76.576

46'6.638

21.601

19

59.690

283.529

16.837

24H

76.969

471.436

21.712

19%

60.083

287.272

16.948

24%

77.361

476.259

21.822

19%

60.475

291.039

17.060

24%

77.754

481 . 106

21.933

19%

60.868

294.831

17.170

24%

78.147

485.978

22.044

19%

61.261

298.648

17.280

19%

61.653

302.489

17.391

25

78.540

490.875

22.155

19%

62.046

306.355

17.502

25%

78.932

495.796

22.265

19%

62.439

310.245

17.613

25%

79.325

500.741

22.376

25%

79.718

505.711

22.487

20

62.832

314.160

17.724

25^

80.110

510.706

22.598

20%

63.224

318.099

17.834

25%

80.503

515.725

22.709

20%

63.617 •

322.063

17.945

25%

80.896

520.769

22.819

20%

64.010

326.051

18.056

25%

81.288

525.837

22.930

20%

64.402

330.064

18.167

20%

64.795

334.101

18.277

26

81.681

530.930

23.041

20%

65.188

338.163

18.388

26%

82.074

536.047

23.152

20%

65.580

342.250

18.499

26%

82.467

541 . 189

23.262

26%

82.859

546.356

23.373

21

65.973

346.361

18.610

26^

83.252

551.547

23.484

21%

66.366

350.497

18.721

26%

83.645

556.762

23.595

21M

66.759

354.657

18.831

26%

84.037

562.002

23.708

21H

67.151

358.841

18.942

26%

84.430

567.267

23.816

21H

67.544

363.051

19.053

21%

67.937

367.284

19.164

27

84.823

572.556

23.927

21%

68.329

371.543

19.274

27%

85.215

577.870

24.038

21%

68.722

375.826

19.385

27%

85.608

583.208

24.149

27%

86.001

588.571

24.259

22

69.115

380.133

19.496

27^

86.394

593.958

24.370

22%

69.507

384.465

19.607

27%

86.786

599.370

24.481

22%

69.900

388.822

19.718

27%

87.179

604.807

24.592

22%

70.293

393.203

19.828

27%

87.572

610.268

24.703

[96]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA

CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Cont.)

:

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

28

87.964

615.753 '

24.813

33%

105.243

881.41

29.687

28 y8

88.357

621.263

24.924

33%

105.636

888.00

29.798

28%

88.750

626.798

25.035

33%

106.029

894.61

29.909

28%

89.142

632.357

25.146

33%

106.421

901.25

30.020

28%

89.535

637.941

25.256

28%

89.928

643.594

25.367

34

106.814

907.92

30.131

28%

90.321

649.182

25.478

34%

107.207

914.61

30.241

28%

90.713

654.839

25.589

34%

107.599

921.32

30.352

34%

107.992

928.06

30.463

29

91.106

660.521

25.699

34%

108.385

934.82

30.574

29%

91.499

666.227

25.810

34%

108.777

941.60

30.684

29%

91.891

671.958

25.921

34%

109.170

948.41

30.795

29%

92.284

677.714

26.032

34%

109.563

955.25

30.906

29%

92.677

683.494

26.143

29%

93.069

689.298

26.253

35

109.956

962.11

31.017

29%

93.462

695.128

26.364

35%

110.348

968.99

31 . 128

29%

93.855

700.981

26.478

35%

110.741

975.90

31.238

35%

111.134

982.84

31.349

30

94.248

706.860

26.586

35%

111.526

989.80

31.460

30%

94.640

712.762

26.696

35%

111.919-

996.78

31.571

30%

95.033

718.690

26.807

35%

112.312

1003.78

31.681

30%

95.426

724.641

26.918

35%

112.704

1010.82

31.792

30^

95.818

730.618

27.029

30%

96.211

736.619

27.139

36

113.097

1017.87

31.903

30%

96.604

742.644

27.250

36%

113.490

1024.95

32.014

30%

96.996

748.694

27.361

36%

113.883

1032.06

32.124

36%

114.275

1039.19

32.235

31

97.389

754.769

27.472

36%

114.668

1046.35

32.349

31%

97.782

760.868

27.583

36%

115.061

1053.52

32.457

31M

98.175

766.992

27.693

36%

115.453

1060.73

32.567

31K

98.567

773.140

27.804

36%

115.846

1067.95

32.678

31H

98.968

779.313

27.915

31%

99.353

785.510

28.026

37

116.239

1075.21

32.789

31%

99.745

791.732

28.136

37%

116.631

1082.48

32.900

31%

100.138

797.978

28.247

37%

117.024

1089.79

33.011

37%

117.417

1097.11

33.021

32

100.531

804.249

28.358

37%

117.810

1104.46

33.232

32%

100.924

810.545

28.469

37%

118.202

1111.84

33.343

32%

101.316

816.865

28.580

37%

118.595

1119.24

33.454

32%

101.709

823.209

28.691

37%

118.988

1126.66

33.564

32%

102.102

829.578

28.801

32%

102.494

835.972

28.912

38

119.380

1134.11

33.675

32%

102.887

842.390

29.023

38%

119.773

1141.59

33.786

32%

103.280

848.833

29.133

38%

120.166

1149.08

33.897

' 38%

120.558

1156.61

34.008

33

103.672

855.30

29.244

38%

120.951

1164.15

34.118

33%

104.055

861 . 79

29.355

38%

121.344

1171.73

34.229

33%

104.458

868.30

29.466

38%

121.737

1179.32

34.340

33%

104.850

874.84

29.577

38%

122.129

1186.94

34.451

[97]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Cont,)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

39

122.522

1194.59

34.561

44%

139.801

1555.28

39.436

39%

122.915

1202.26

34.672

44%

140.193

1564.03

39.546

39M

123.307

1209.95

34.783

44%

140.586

1572.81

39.657

39%

123.700

1217.67

34.894

44%

140.979

1581.61

39.768

39%

124.093

1225.42

35.005

39%

124.485

1233.18

35.115

45

141.372

1590.43

39.879

39%

124.878

1240.98

35.226

45%

141.764

1599.28

39.989

39%

125.271

1248.79

35.337

45K

142.157

1608.15

40.110

45^

142.550

1617.04

40.211

40

125.664

1256.64

35.448

45^

142.942

1625.97

40.322

40%

126.056

1264.50

35.558

45%

143.335

1634.92

40.432

40%

126.449

1272.39

35.669

45M

143.728

1643.89

40.543

40%

126.842

1280.31

35.780

45^

144.120

1652.88

40.654

40%

127.234

1288.25

35.891

40%

127.627

1296.21

36.002

46

144.513

1661.90

40.765

40%

128.020

1304.20

36.112

46K

144.906

1670.95

40.876

40%

128.412

1312.21

36.223

46M

145.299

1680.01

40.986

46%

145.691

1689.10

41.097

41

128.805

1320.25

36.334

46^

146.084

1698.23

41.208

41%

129.198

1328.32

36.445

46%

146.477

1707.37

41.319

41%

129.591

1336.40

36.555

46M

146.869

1716.54

41.429

41%

129.983

1344.51

36.666

46%

147.262

1725.73

41.540

41%

130.376

1352.65

36.777

41%

130.769

1360.81

36.888

47

147.655

1734.94

41.651

41%

131.161

1369.00

36.999

47%

148.047

1744.18

41.762

41%

131.554

1377.21

37.109

47M

148.440

1753.45

41.873

47%

148.833

1762.73

41.983

42

131.947

1385.44

37.220

47%

149.226

1772.05

42.094

42%

132.339

1393.70

37.331

47%

149.618

1781.39

42.205

42%

132.732

1401.98

37.442

47%

150.011

1790.76

42.316

42%

133.125

1410.29

37.552

47%

150.404

1800.14

42.427

42%

133.518

1418.62

37.663

42%

133.910

1426.98

37.774

48

150.796

1809.56

42.537

42%

134.303

1435.36

37.885

48%

151.189

1818.99

42.648

42%

134.696

1443.77

37.996

48M

151.582

1828.46

42.759

48%

151.974

1837.93

42.870

43

135.088

1452.20

38.106

48%

152.367

1847.45

42.980

43%

135.481

1460.65

38.217

48%

152.760

1856.99

43.091

43%

135.874

1469.13

38.328

48%

153.153

1866.55

43.202

43%

136.266

1477.63

38.439

48%

153.545

1876.13

43.313

43%

136.659

1486.17

38.549

43%

137.052

1494.72

38.660

49

153.938

1885.74

43.423

43%

137.445

1503.30

38.771

49%

154.331

1895.37

43.534

43%

137.837

1511.90

38.882

49M

154.723

1905.03

43.645

49%

155.116

1914.70

43.756

44

138.230

1520.53

38.993

49%

155.509

1924.42

43.867

44%

138.623

1529.18

39.103

49%

155.901

1934.15

43.977

44%

139.015

1537.86

39.214

49%

156.294

1943.91

44.088

44%

139.408

1546.55

39.325

49%

156.687

1953.69

44.199

[98]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Coni.)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum- [;
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

50

157.080

1963.50

44.310

60

188.496

2827.44

53.172

50%

157.865

1983.18

44.531

60%

189.281

2851.05

53.393

50^

158.650

2002.96

44.753

60^

190.066

2874.76

53.615

' 50%

159.436

2022.84

44.974

60%

190.852'

2898.56

53.836

51

160.221

2042.82

45.196

61

191.637

2922.47

54.048

51%

161.007

2062.90

45.417

61%

192.423

2946.47

54.279

5iy2

161.792

2083.07

45.639

61H

193.208

2970.57

54.501

51%

162.577

2103.35

45.861

MX

193.993.

2994.77

54.723

52

163.363

2123.72

46.082

62

194.779

3019.07

54.944

52%

164.148

2144.19

46.304

62%

195.564

3043.47

55.166

52^

164.934

2164.75

46.525

62^

196.350

3067.96

55.387

52%

165.719

2185.42

46.747

62%

197.135

3092.56

55.609

53

166.504

2206.18

46.968

63

197.920

3117.25

55.830

53%

167.290

2227.05

47.190

63%

198.706

3142.04

56.052

53^

168.075

2248.01

47.411

63^

199.491

3166.92

56.273

53%

168.861

2269.06

47.633

63%

200.277

3191.91

56.495

54

169.646

2290.22

47.854

64

201.062

3216.99

56.716

54%

170.431

2311.48

48.076

64%

201.847

3242.17

56.938

54^

171.217

2332.83

48.298

64^

202.633

3267.46

57.159

54%

172.002

2354.28

48.519

64%

203.418

3292.83

57.381

55

172.788

2375.83

48.741

65

204.204

3318.31

57.603

55%

173.573

2397.48

48.962

65M

204.989

3343.88

57.824

55^

174.358

2419.22

49.184

65^

205.774

3369.56

58.046

55%

175.144

2441.07

49.405

65%

206.560

3395.33

58.267

56

175.929

2463.01

49.627

66

207.345

3421.20

58.489

56%

176.715

2485.05

49.848

66M

208.131

3447.16

58.710

56^

177.500

2507.19

50.070

66^

208.916

3473.23

58.932

56%

178.285

2529.42

50.291

66%

209.701

3499.39

59.154

57

179.071

2551.76

50.513

67

210.487

3525.66

59.375

57%

179.856

2574.19

50.735

67%

211.272

3552.01

59.597

57^

180.642

2596.72

50.956

67^

212.058

3578.47

59.818

57%

181.427

2619.35

51.178

67%

212.843

3605.03

60.040

58

182.212

2642.08

51.399

68

213.628

3631.68

60.261

58%

182.998

2664.91

51.621

68%

214.414

3658.44

60.483

58^

183.783

2687.83

51.842

68^

215.199

3685.29

60.704

58%

184.569

2710.85

52.064

68%

215.985

3712.24

60.926

59

185.354

2733.97

52.285

69

216.770

3739.28

61 . 147

59%

186.139

2757.19

52.507

69%

217.555

3766.43

61.369

59H

186.925

2780.51

52.729

69^

218.341

3793.67

61.591

59%

187.710

2803.92

52.950

69%

219.126

3821.02

61.812

[99]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Cont.)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Side of
Equal
Square
(Square
Root
of Area)

70

219.912

3848.46

62.034

80

251.328

5026.56

70.896

70%

220.697

3875.99

62.255

80%

252.113

5058.00

71.118

70^

221.482

3903.63

62.477

80^

252.898

5089.58

71.339

70%

222.268

3931.36

62.698

80%

253.683

5121.22

71.561

71

223.053

3959.20

62.920

81

254.469

5153.00

71 . 782

71 %

223.839

3987.13

63.141

81 %

255.254

5184.84

72.004

ny2

224.624

4015.16

63.363

81^

256.040

5216.82

72 . 225

71%

225.409

4043.28

63.545

81%

256.825

5248.84

72.447

72

226.195

4071.51

63.806

82

257.611

5281.02

72.668

72%

226.980

4099.83

64.028

82%

258.396

5313.28

72.890

72H

227.766

4128.25

64.249

82^

259.182

5345.62

73.111

72%

228.551

4156.77

64.471

82%

259.967

5378.04

73.333

73

229.336

4185.39

64.692

83

260.752

5410.62

73.554

73%

230.122

4214.11

64.914

83%

261.537

5443.24

73.776

73^

230.907

4242.92

65.135

83^

262.323

5476.00

73.997

73%

231.693

4271.83

65.357

83%

263.108

5508.84

74.219

74

232.478

4300.85

65.578

84

263.894

5541.78

74.440

74%

233.263

4329.95

65.800

84^

264.679

5574.80

74.662

74^

234.049

4359.16

66.022

84^

265.465

5607.95

74.884

74%

234.834

4388.47

66.243

84%

266.250

5641 . 16

75.106

75

235.620

4417.87

66.465

85

267.036

5674.51

75.327

75%

236.405

4447.37

66.686

85M

267.821

5707.92

75.549

75^

237.190

4476.97

66.908

85^

268.606

5741.47

75.770

75%

237.976

4506.67

67.129

85%

269.392

5775.09

75.992

76

238.761

4536.47

67.351

86

270.177

5808.81

76.213

76%

239.547

4566.36

67.572

86M

270.962

5842.60

76.435

76^

240.332

4596.35

67.794

86^

271.748

5876.55

76.656

76%

241.117

4626.44

68.016

86%

272.533

5910.52

76.878

77

241.903

4656.63

68.237

87

273.319

5944.69

77.099

77%

242.688

4686.92

68.459

87%

274.104

5978.88

77.321

77^

243.474

4717.30

68.680

87^

274.890

6013.21

77.542

77%

244.259

4747.79

68.902

87%

275.675

6047.60

77.764

78

245.044

4778.37

69.123

88

276.460

6082.13

77.985

78%

245.830

4809.05

69.345

88%

277.245

6116.72

78.207

78^

246.615

4839.83

69.566

88^

278.031

6151.44

78.428

78%

247.401

4870.70

69.788

88%

278.816

6186.20

78.650

79

248.186

4901.68

70.009

89

279.602

6221.15

78.871

79%

248.971

4932.75

70.231

89%

280.387

6256.12

79.093

79^

249.757

4963.92

70.453

89^

281 . 173

6291.25

79.315

79%

250.542

4995.19

70.674

89%

281.958

6326.44

79.537

100]

CIRCLES— DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE *A jtEA i
CIRCLES — DIAMETER, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA, ETC. — (Cont.)

Side of

Side of

Equal

Equal

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Square
(Square

Diameter

Circum-
ference

Area

Square
(Square

Root

Root

of Area)

of Area)

90

282.744

6361.74

79.758

101

317.301

8011.84

89.509

90%

283.529

6399.12

79.980

101**

318.872

8091.36

89.952

90**
90%

284.314
285.099

6432.62
6468.16

80.201
80.423

102

102**

320.442
322.014

8171.28
8251.60

90.395
90.838

91

285.885

6503.89

80.644

103

323.584

8332.29

91.282

91%

286.670

6539.68

80.866

103*6

325.154

8413.40

91.725

91**

287.456

6573.56

81.087

91%

288.242

6611.52

81.308

104

326.726

8494.87

92.168

104**

328.296

8576.76

92.611

92

92%
92**

289.027
289.812
290.598

6647.62
6683.80
6720.07

81.530
81.752
81.973

105
105**

329.867
331.438

8659.01
8741.68

93.054
93.497

92%

291.383

6756.40

82.195

106

333.009

8824.73

93.940

106**

334.580

8908.20

94.383

93

292.168

6792.92

82.416

93%

292.953

6829.48

82.638

107

336.150

8992.02

94.826

293.739

6866.16

82.859

107**

337.722

9076.24

95.269

93%

294.524

6882.92

83.081

108

339.292

9160.88

95.713

94

295.310

6939.79

83.302

108**

340.862

9245.92

96.156

94%

296.095

6976.72

83.524

109

342.434

9331.32

96.599

94^

296.881

7013.81

83.746

109**

344.004

9417.12

97.042

94%

297.666

7050.92

83.968

110

345.575

9503.32

97.485

95

298.452

7088.23

84.189

110**

347.146

9589.92

97.928

95%
95**
95%

299.237
300.022
300.807

7125.56
7163.04
7200.56

84.411
84.632

84.854

111
HI**

348.717
350.288

9676.89
9764.28

98.371
98.815

96

96%

301.593

302.378

7238.24
7275.96

85.077
85.299

112
112**

351.858
353.430

9852.03
9940.20

99.258
99.701

96**

302.164

7313.84

85.520

113

355.000

10028.75

100.144

96%

303.948

7351.82

85.742

113*^

356.570

10117.68

100.587

97

304.734

7389.80

85.963

114

358.142

10207.03

101.031

97%

305.520

7427.96

86.185

114**

359.712

10296.76

101.474

97**
97%

306.306
307.090

7474.20
7504.52

86.407
86.628

115

361.283
362.854

10386.89
10477.40

101.917
102.360

98
98%
98**

307.876
308.662
309.446

7452.96

7581.48
7620,12

86.850
87.072
87.293

116
116**

364.425
365.996

10568.32
10659.64

102.803
103.247

98%

310.232

7658.80

87.515

117

367.566

10751.32

103.690

117**

369.138

10843.40

104.133

99

311.018

7697.68

87.736

99%

311.802

7736.60

87.958

118

370.708

10935.88

104.576

99**

312.588

7775.64

88.180

118**

372.278

11028.76

105.019

99%

313.374

7814.76

88.401

119

373.849

11122.02

105.463

100

314.159

7854.00

88.623

119*6

375.420

11215.68

105.906

100**

315.730

7932.72

89.066

120

376.991

11309.73

106.350

[101

GIRDLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE AND CUBE

ROOTS FROM 1 TO 1,000

Number
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

1

3.1416

0.7854

1

1

1.000

1.000

1.000000

2

6.28

3.14

4

8

1.414

.259

.500000

3

9.42

7.07

9

27

1.732

.442

.333333

4

12.57

12.57

16

64

2.000

.587

.250000

5

15.71

19.63

25

125

2.236

.709

.200000

6

18.85

28.27

36

216

2.449

.817

.166667

7

21.99

38.48

49

343

2.645

.912

.142857

8

25.13

50.26

64

512

2.828

2.000

.125000

9

28.27

63.61

81

729

3.000

2.080

.111111

10

31.42

78.54

100

1,000

3.162

2.154

.100000

11

34.55

95.03

121

1,331

3.316

2.223

.090909

12

37.69

113.09

144

1,728

3.464

2.289

.083333

13

40.84

132.73

169

2,197

3.605

2.351

.076923

14

43.98

153:93

196

2,744

3.741

2.410

.071429

15

47.12

173.71

225

3,375

3.872

2.466

.066667

16

50.26

201.06

256

4,096

4.000

2.519

.062500

17

53.40

226.98

289

4,913

4.123

2.571

.058824

18

56.54

254.46

324

5,832

4.232

2.620

.055556

19

59.69

283.52

361

6,859

4.358

2.668

.052632

20

62.83

314.15

400

8,000

4.472

2.714

.050000

21

65.97

346.36

441

9,261

4.582

2.758

.047619

22

69.11

380.13

484

10,648

4.690

2.802

.045455

23

72.25

415.47

529

12,167

4.795

2.843

.043478

24

75.39

452.38

576

13,824

4.898

2.884

.041667

25

78.54

490.87

625

15,625

5.000

2.924

.040000

26

81.68

530.02

676

17,576

5.099

2.962

.038462

27

84.82

572.55

729

19,683

5.196

3.000

.037037

28

87.96

615.75

784

21,952

5.291

3.036

.035714

29

91.10

660.52

841

24,389

5.385

3.072

.034483

30

94.24

706.85

900

27,000

5.477

3.107

.033333

31

97.38

754.76

961

29,791

5.567

3.141

.032258

32

100.53

804.24

1,024

32,768

5.656

3.174

.031250

33

103.67

855.29

1,089

35,937

5.744

3.207

.030303

34

106.81

907.92

1,156

39,304

5.830

3.239

.029412

35

109.95

962.11

1,225

42,875

5.916

3.271

.028571

36

113.09

1017.87

1,296

46,656

6.000

3.301

.027778

37

116.23

1075.21

1,369

50,653

6.082

3.332

.027027

38

119.38

1134.11

,444

54,872

6.164

3.361

.026316

39

122.52

1194.59

,521

59,319

6.244

3.391

.025641

40

125.66

1256.63

,600

64,000

6.324

3.419

.025000

41

128.80

1320.25

,681

68,921

6.403

3.448

.024390

42

131.94

1385.44

,764

74,088

6.480

3.476

.023810

43

135.08

1452.20

,849

79,507

6.557

3.503

.023256

44

138.23

1520.52

,936

85,184

6.633

3.530

.022727

45

141.37

1590.43

2,025

91,215

6.708

3.556

.022222

[102]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC,
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

M

1 s

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

46

144.51

1661.90

2,116

97,336

6.782

3.583

.021739

47

147.65

1734.94

2,209

103,823

6.855

3.608

.021277

48

150.79

1809.55

2,304

110,592

6.928

3.634

.020833

49

153.93

1885.74

2,401

117,649

7.000

3.659

.020408

50

157. Q8

1963.49

2,500

125,000

7.071

3.684

.020000

51

160.22

2042.82

2,601

132,651

7.141

3.708

.019608

52

163.36

2123.71

2,704

140,608

7.211

3.732

.019231

53

166.50

2206.18

2,809

148,877

7.280

3.756

.018868

54

169.64

2290.21

2,916

157,464

7.348

3.779

.018519

55

172.78

2375.82

3,025

166,375

7.416

3.802

.018182

56

175.92

2463.09

3,136

175,616

7.483

3.825

.017857

57

179.07

2551.75

3,249

185,193

7.549

3.848

.017544

58

182.21

2642.08

3,364

195,112

7.615

3.870

.017241

59

185.35

2733.97

3,481

205,379

7.681

3.892

.016949

60

188.49

2827.43

3,600

216,000

7.745

3.914

.016667

61

191.63

2922.46

3,721

226,981

7.810

3.936

.016393

62

194.77

3019.07

3,844

238,328

7.874

3.957

.016129

63

197.92

3117.24

3,969

250,047

7.937

3.979

.015873

64

201.06

3216.99

4,096

262,144

8.000

4.000

.015625

65

204.20

3318.30

4,225

274,625

8.062

4.020

.015385

66

207.34

3421.18

4,356

287,496

8.124

4.041

.015152

67

210.48

3525.65

4,489

300,763

8.185

4.061

.014925

68

213.62

3631.68

4,624

314,432

8.246

4.081

.014706

69

216.77

3739.28

4,761

328,509

8.306

4.101

.014493

70

219.91

3848.45

4,900

343,000

8.366

4.121

.014286

71

223.05

3959.19

5,041

357,911

8.426

4.140

.014085

72

226.19

4071.50

5,184

373,248

8.485

4.160

.013889

73

229.33

4185.38

5,329

389,017

8.544

4.179

.013699

74

232.47

4300.84

5,476

405,224

8.602

4.198

.013514

75

235.61

4417.86

5,625

421,875

8.660

4.217

.013333

76

238.76

4536.45

5,776

438,976

8.717

4.235

.013158

77

241.90

4656.62

5,929

456,533

8.744

4.254

.012987

78

245.04

4778.36

6,084

474,552

8.831

4.272

.012821

79

248.18

4901.66

6,241

493,039

8.888

4.290

.012658

80

251.32

5026.54

6,400

512,000

8.944

4.308

.012500

81

254.46

5153.00

6,561

531,441

9.000

4.326

.012346

82

257.61

5281.01

6,724

551,368

9.055

4.344

.012195

83

260.75

5410.59

6,889

571,787

9.110

4.362

.012048

84

263.89

5541.77

7,056

592,704

9.165

4.379

.011905

85

267.03

5674.50

7,225

614,125

9.219

4.396

.011765

86

270.17

5808.80

7,396

636,056

9.273

4.414

.011628

87

273.31

5944.67

7,569

658,503

9.327

4.431

.011494

88

276.46

6082.11

7,744

681,472

9.380

4.447

.011364

89

279.60

6221 . 13

7,921

704,969

9.433

4.461

.011236

90

282.74

6361.72

8,100

729,000

9.486

4.481

.011111

[103]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

91

285.88

6503.87

8,281

753,571

9.539

4.497

.010989

92

289.02

6647.61

8,464

778,688

9.591

4.514

.010870

93

292.16

6792.90

8,649

804,357

9.643

4.530

.010753

94

295.31

6939.78

8,836

830,584

9.695

4.546

.010638

95

298.45

7088.21

9,025

857,375

9.746

4.562

.010526

96

301.59

7238.23

9,216

884,736

9.797

4.578

.010417

97

304.73

7389.81

9,409

912,673

9.848

4.594

.010309

98

307.87

7542.96

9,604

941,192

9.899

4.610

.010204

99

311.01

7697.68

9,801

970,299

9.949

4.626

.010101

100

314.15

7853.97

10,000

1,000,000

10.000

4.641

.010000

101

317.30

8011.86

10,201

1,030,301

10.049

4.657

.009901

102

320.41

8171.30

10,404

1,061,208

10.099

4.672

.009804

103

323.58

8332.30

10,609

,092,727

10.148

4.687

.009709

104

326.72

8494.88

10,816

,124,864

10.198

4.702

.009615

105

329.86

8659.03

11,025

,157,625

10.246

4.717

.009524

106

333.00

8824.75

11,236

,191,016

10.295

4.732

.009434

107

336.15

8992.04

11,449

,225,043

10.344

4.747

.009346

108

339.29

9160.90

11,664

,259,712

10.392

4.762

.009259

109

342.43

9331.33

11,881

,295,029

10.440

4.776

.009174

110

345.57

9503.34

12,100

1,331,000

10.488

4.791

.009091

111

348.71

9676.91

12,321

1,367,631

10.535

4.805

.009009

112

351.85

9852.05

12,544

1,404,928

10.583

4.820

.008929

113

355.01

10028.77

12,759

1,442,897

10.630

4.834

.008850

114

358.14

10207.05

12,996

1,481,544

10.677

4.848

.008772

115

361.28

10386.91

13,225

1,520,875

10.723

4.862

.008696

116

364.42

10568.34

13,456

1,560,896

10.770

4.876

.008621

117

367.56

10751.34

13,689

1,601,613

10.816

4.890

.008547

118

370.70

10935.90

13,924

1,643,032

10.862

4.904

.008475

119

373.81

11122.04

14,161

1,685,159

10.908

4.918

.008403

120

376.99

11309.76

14,400

1,728,000

10.954

4.932

.008333

121

380.13

11499.04

14,641

1,771,561

11.000

4.946

.008264

122

383.27

11689.89

14,884

1,815,848

11.045

4.959

.008197

123

386.41

11882.31

15,129

1,860,867

11.090

4.973

.008130

124

389.55

12076.31

15,376

1,906,624

11.135

4.986

.008065

125

392.70

12271.87

15,625

1,953,125

11.180

5.000

.008000

126

395.84

12469.01

15,876

2,000,376

11.224

5.013

.007937

127

398.98

12667.71

16,129

2,048,383

11.269

5.026

.007874

128

402.12

12867.99

16,384

2,097,152

11.313

5.039

.007c?13

129

405.26

13069.84

16,641

2,146,689

11.357

5.052

.007752

130

408.10

13273.26

16,900

2,197,000

11.401

5.065

.007692

131

411.54

13478.24

17,161

2,248,091

11.445

5.078

.007634

132

414.69

13694.80

17,424

2,299,968

11.489

5.091

.007576

133

417.83

13892.94

17,689

2,352,637

11.532

5.104

.007519

134

420.97

14102.64

17.956

2,406,104

11.575

5.117

.007463

135

424.11

14313.91

18^225

2,460,375

11.618

5.129

.007407

[104]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number
or
Diameter '

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

136

427.25

14526.75

18,496

2,515,456

11.661

5.142

.007353

137

430.39

14741.17

18,769

2,571,353

11.704

5.155

.007299

138

433.54

14957.15

19,044

2,620,872

11.747

5.167

.007246

139

436.68

15174.71

19,321

2,685,619

11.789

5.180

.007194

140

439.82

15393.84

19,600

2,744,000

11.832

5.192

.007143

141

442.96

15614.53

19,881

2,803,221

11.874

5.204

.007092

142

446.10

15836.80

20,164

2,863,288

11.916

5.217

.007042

143

449.24

16060. <?4

20,449

2,924,207

11.958

5.229

.006993

144

452.39

16286.05

20,736

2,985,984

12.000

5.241

.006944

145

455.53

16513.03

21,025

3,048,625

12.041

5.253

.006897

146

458.67

16741.58

21,316

3,112,136

12.083

5.265

.006849

147

461.81

16971.70

21,609

3,176,523

12.124

5.277

.006803

148

464.95

17203.40

21,904

3,241,792

12.165

5.289

.006757

149

468.09

17436.66

22,201

3,307,949

12.206

5.301

.006711

150

471.24

17671.50

22,500

3,375,000

12.247

5.313

.006667

151

474.38

17907.90

22,801

3,442,951

12.288

5.325

.006623

152

477.52

18145.88

23,104

3,511,808

12.328

5.336

.006579

153

480.66

18385.42

23,409

3,581,577

12.369

5.348

.006536

154

483.80

18626.54

23,716

3,652,264

12.409

5.360

.006494

155

486.94

18869.23

24,025

3,723,875

12.449

5.371

.006452

156

490.08

19113.49

24,336

3,796,416

12.489

5.383

.006410

157

493.23

19359.32

24,649

3,869,893

12.529

5.394

.006369

158

496.37

19606.72

24,964

3,944,312

12.569

5.406

.006329

159

499.51

19855.69

25,281

4,019,679

12.609

5.417

.006289

160

502.65

20106.24

25,600

4,096,000

12.649

5.428

.006250

161

505.79

20358.35

25,921

4,173,281

12.688

5.440

.006211

162

508.93

20612.03

26,244

4,251,528

12.727

5.451

.006173

163

512.08

20867.20

26,569

4,330,747

12.767

5.462

.006135

164

515.22

21124.11

26,896

4,410,944

12.806

5.473

.006098

165

518.36

21382.51

27,225

4,492,125

12.845

5.484

.006061

166

521.50

21642.48

27,556

4,574,296

12.884

5.495

.006024

167

524.64

21904.02

27,889

4,657,463

12.922

5.506

.005988

168

527.78

22167.12

28,224

4,741,632

12.961

5.517

.005952

169

530.93

22431.80

28,561

4,826,809

13.000

5.528

.005917

170

534.07

22698.06

28,900

4,913,000

13.038

5.539

.005882

171

537.31

22965.88

29,241

5,000,211

13.076

5.550

.005848

172

540.35

23235.27

29,584

5,088,448

13.114

5.561

.005814

173

543.49

23506.23

29,929

5,177,717

13.152

5.572

.005780

174

546.03

23778.77

30,276

5,268,024

13.190

5.582

.005747

175

549.78

24052.87

30,625

5,359,375

13.228

5.593

.005714

176

552.92

24328.55

30,976

5,451,776

13.266

5.604

.005682

177

556.06

24605.79

31,329

5,545,233

13.304

5.614

.005650

178

559.20

24884.61

31,684

5,639,752

! 13. 341

5.625

.005618

179

562.34

25165.00

32,041

5,735,339

13.379

5.635

.005587

180

565.48

25446.96

32,400

5,832,000

13.416

5.646

.005556

[105]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

1

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

181

568.62

25730.48

32,761

5,929,741

13.453

5.656

.005525

182

571.77

26015.58

33,124

6,028,568

13.490

5.667

.005495

183

574.91

26302.26

33,489

6,128,487

13.527

5.677

.005464

184

578.05

26590.50

33,856

6,229,504

13.564

5.687

.005435

185

581.19

26880.31

34,225

6,331,625

13.601

5.698

.005405

186

584.33

27171.69

34,596

6,434,856

13.638

5.708

.005376

187

587.47

27464.65

34,969

6,539,203

13.674

5.718

.005348

188

590.62

27759.17

35,344

6,644,672

13.711

5.728

.005319

189

593.76

28055.27

35,721

6,751,269

13.747

5.738

.005291

190

596.90

28352.94

36,100

6,859,000

13.784

5.748

.005263

191

600.04

28652.17

36,481

6,967,871

13.820

5.758

.005236

192

603.18

28952.98

36,864

7,077,888

13.856

5.768

.005208

193

606.32

29255.36

37,249

7,189,057

13.892

5.778

.005181

194

609.47

29559.31

37,636

7,301,384

13.928

5.788

.005155

195

612.61

29864.83

38,025

7,414,875

13.964

5.798

.005128

196

615.75

30171.92

38,416

7,529,536

14.000

5.808

.005102

197

618.89

30480.60

38,809

7,645,373

14.035

5.818

.005076

198

622.03

30790.82

39,204

7,762,392

14.071

5.828

.005051

199

625.17

31102.52

39,601

7,880,599

14.106

5.838

.005025

200

628.32

31416.00

40,000

8,000,000

14.142

5.848

.005000

201

631.46

31730.94

40,401

8,120,601

14.177

5.857

.004975

202

634.60

32047.46

40,804

8,242,408

14.212

5.867

.004950

203

637.74

32365.54

41,209

8,365,427

14.247

5.877

.004926

204

640.88

32685.20

41,616

8,489,664

14.282

5.886

.004902

205

644.02

33006.43

42,025

8,615,125

14.317

5.896

.004878

206

647.16

33329.23

42,436

8,741,816

14.352

5.905

.004854

207

650.31

33653.60

42,849

8,869,743

14.387

5.915

.004831

208

653.45

33979.54

43,264

8,998,912

14.422

5.924

.004808

209

656.59

34307.05

43,681

9,123,329

14.456

5.934

.004785

210

659.73

34636.14

44,100

9,261,000

14.491

5.943

.004762

211

662.87

34966.79

44,521

9,393,931

14.525

5.953

.004739

212

666.01

35299.01

44,944

9,528,128

14.560

5.962

.004717

213

669.16

35632.81

45,369

9,663,597

14.594

5.972

.004695

214

672.30

35968.17

45,796

9,800,344

14.628

5.981

.004673

215

675.44

36305.11

46,225

9,938,375

14.662

5.990

.004651

216

678.58

36643.62

46,656

10,077,696

14.696

6.000

.004630

217

681.72

36983.70

47,089

10,218,313

14.730

6.009

.004608

218

684.86

37325.34

47,524

10,360,232

14.764

6.018

.004587

219

688.01

37668.56

47,961

10,503,459

14.798

6.027

.004566

220

691.15

38013.36

48,400

. 10,648,000

14.832

6.036

.004545

221

694.29

38359.72

48,841

10,793,861

14.866

6.045

.004525

222

697.43

38707.65

49,284

10,941,048

14.899

6.055

.004505

223

700.57

39037.51

49,729

11,089,567

14.933

6.064

.004484

224

703.71

39408.23

50,176

11,239,424

14.966

6.073

.004464

225

706.86

39760.87

50,625

11,390,625

15.000

6.082

.004444

[106]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number II
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

226

710.00

40115.09

51,076

11,543,176

15.033

6.091

] .004425

227

713.14

40470.87

51,529

11,697,083

15.066

6.100

.004405

228

716.28

40828.23

51,984

11,852,352

15.099

6.109

.004386

229

719.42

41187.16

52,441

12,008,989

15.132

6.118

.004367

230

722.56

41547.66

52,900

12,167,000

15.165

6.126

.004348

231

725.70

41909.72

53,361

12,326,391

15.198

6.135

.004329

232

728.85

42273.36

53,824

12,487,168

15.231

6.144

.004310

233

731.99

42638.58

54,289

12,649,337

15.264

6.153

.004292

234

735.13

43005.36

54,756

12,812,904

15.297

6.162

.004274

235

738.27

43373.71

55,225

12,977,875

15.329

6.171

.004255

236

741.41

43743.63

55,696

13,144,256

15.362

6.179

.004237

237

744.55

44115.11

56,169

13,312,053

15.394

6.188

.004219

238

747.68

44488.19

56,644

13,481,272

15.427

6.197

.004202

239

750.88

44862.83

57,121

13,651,919 '

15.459

6.205

.004184

240

753.98

45239.04

57,600

13,824,000

15.491

6.214

.004167

241

757.12

45616.81

58,081

13,997,521

15.524

6.223

.004149

242

760.26

45996.16

58,564

14,172,488

15.556

6.231

.004132

243

763.40

46377.08

59,049

14,348,907

15.588

6.240

.004115

244

766.52

46759.57

59,536

14,526,784

15.620

6.248

.004098

245

769.92

47143.63

60,025

14,706,125

15.652

6.257

.004082

246

772.83

47529.26

60,516

14,886,936

15.684

6.265

.004065

247

775.97

47916.46

61,009

15,069,223

15.716

6.274

.004049

248

779.11

48305.24

61,504

15,252,992

15.748

6.282

.004032

249

782.25

48695.58

62,001

15,438,249

15.779

6.291

.004016

250

785.40

49087.50

62,500

15,625,000

15.811

6.299

.004000

251

788.54

49480.98

63,001

15,813,251

15.842

6.307

.003984

252

791.68

49876.04

63,504

16,003,008

15.874

6.316

.003968

253

794.82

50272.66

64,009

16,194,277

15.905

6.324

.003953

254

797.96

50670.86

64,516

16,387,064

15.937

6.333

.003937

255

801.10

51070.63

65,025

16,581,375

15.968

6.341

.003922

256

804.24

51471.96

65,536

16,777,216

16.000

6.349

.003906

257

807.39

51874.88

66,049

16,974,593

16.031

6.357

.003891

258

810.53

52279.36

66,564

17,173,512

16.062

6.366

.003876

259

813.67

52685.41

67,081

17,373,979

16.093

6.374

.003861

260

816.81

53093.04

67,600

17,576,000

16.124

6.382

.003846

261

819.95

53502.23

68,121

17,779,581

16.155

6.390

.003831

262

823.09

53912.99

68,644

17,984,728

16.186

6.398

.003817

263

826:24

54325.33

69,169

18,191,447

16.217

6.406

.003802

264

829.38

54739.23

69,696

18,399,744

16.248

6.415

.003788

265

832.52

55154.71

70,225

18,609,625

16.278

6.423

.003774

266

835.66

55571.76

70,756

18,821,096

16.309

6.431

.003759

267

838.30

55990.38

71,289

19,034,163

16.340

6.439

.003745

268

841.94

56410.56

71,824

19,248,832

16.370

6.447

.003731

269

845.09

56832.32

72,361

19,465,109

16.401

6.455

.003717

270

848.23

57255.66

72,900

19,683,000

16.431

6.463

.003704

[107]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC:
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number ||
or

Diameter) 1

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

271

851.37

57680.56

73,441

19,902,511

16.462

6.471

.003690

272

854.51

58107.03

73,984

20,123,648

16.492

6.479

.003676

273

857.65

58535.07

74,529

20,346,417

16.522

6.487

.003663

274

860.79

58964.69

75,076

20,570,824

16.552

6.495

.003650

275

863.94

59393.87

75,625

20,796,875

16.583

6.502

.003636

276

867.08

59828.63

76,176

21,024,576

16.613

6.510

.003623

277

870.22

60262.95

76,729

21,253,933

16.643

6.518

.003610

278

873.36

60698.85

77,284

21,484,952

16.673

6.526

.003597

279

876.50

61136.32

77,841

21,717,639

16.703

6.534

.003584

280

879.64

61573.36

78,400

21,952,000

16.733

6.542

.003571

281

882.78

62015.96

78,961

22,188,041

16.763

6.549

.003559

282

885.93

62458.14

79,524

22,425,768

16.792

6.557

.003546

283

889.07

62901.90

80,089

22,665,187

16.822

6.565

.003534

284

892.21

63347.22

80,656

22,906,304

16.852

6.573

. 003522

285

895.35

63794.11

81,225

23,149,125

16.881

6.580

.003509

286

898.49

64242.57

81,796

23,393,656

16.911

6.588

.003497

287

901.63

64692.61

82,369

23,639,903

16.941

6.596

.003484

288

904.78

65144.21

82,944

23,887,872

16.970

6.603

.003472

289

907.92

65597.39

83,521

24,137,569

17.000

6.611

.003460

290

911.06

66052.14

84,100

24,389,000

17.029'

6.619

.003448

291

914.20

66508.45

84,681

24,642,171

17.059

6.627

.003436

292

917.34

66966.34

85,264

24,897,088

17.088

6.634

.003425

293

920.48

67425.80

85,849

25,153,757

17.117

6.642

.003413

294

923.63

67886.83

86,436

25,412,184

17.146

6.649

.003401

295

926.77

68349.43

87,025

25,672,375

17.176

6.657

.003390

296

929.91

68813.60

87,616

25,934,336

17.205

6.664

.003378

297

933.05

69279.34

88,209

26,198,073

17.234

6.672

.003367

298

936.19

69746.66

88,804

26,463,592

17.263

6.679

.003356

299

939.33

70215.54

89,401

26,730,899

17.292

6.687

.003344

300

942.48

70686.00

90,000

27,000,000

17.320

6.694

.003333

301

945.62

71158.02

90,601

27,270,901

17.349

6.702

.003322

302

948.76

71631.62

91,204

27,543,608

17.378

6.709

.003311

303

951.90

72106.78

91,809

27,818,127

17.407

6.717

.003301

304

955.04

72583.52

92,416

28,094,464

17.436

6.724

.003289

305

958.18

73061.83

93,025

28,372,625

17.464

6.731

.003279

306

961.32

73541 . 71

93,636

28,652,616

17.493

6.739

.003268

307

964.47

74023.16

94,249

28,934,443

17.521

6.746

.003257

308

967.61

74506.18

94,864

29,218,112

17.549

6.753

.003247

309

970.75

74990.77

95,481

29,503,629

17.578

6.761

.003236

310

973.89

75476.94

96,100

29,791,000

17.607

6.768

.003226

311

977.03

75964.67

96,721

30,080,231

17.635

6.775

.003215

312

980.17

76453.93

97,344

30,371,328

17.663

6.782

.003205

313

983.32

76944.85

97,969

30,664,297

17.692

6.789

.003195

314

986.45

77437.29

98,596

30,959,144

17.720

6.797

.003185

315

989.60

77931.31

99,225

31,255,875

17.748

6.804

.003175

[108]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number ||
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

316

992.74

78426.89

99,856

31,554,496

17.776

6.811

.003165

317

995.88

78924.06

100,489

31,855,013

17.804

6.818

.003155

318

999.02

79422.78

101,124

32,157,432

17.832

6.826

.003145

319

1002.17

79923.08

101,761

32,461,759

17.860

6.833

.003135

320

1005.31

80424.96

102,400

32,768,000

17.888

6.839

.003125

321

1008.45

80928.40

103,041

33,076,161

17.916

6.847

.003115

322

1011.59

81433.41

103,684

33,386,248

17.944

6.854

.003106

323

1014.73

81939.99

104,329

33,698,267

17.972

6.861

.003096

324

1017.47

82448.15

104,976

34,012,224

18.000

6.868

.003086

325

1021.02

82957.87

105,625

34,328,125

18.028

6.875

.003077

326

1024.16

83469.17

106,276

34,645,976

18.055

6.882

.003067

327

1027.30

83982.60

106,929

34,965,783

18.083

6.889

.003058

328

1030.44

84496.47

107,584

35,287,552

18.111

6.896

.003049

329

1033.58

85012.48

108,241

35,611,289

18.138

6.903

.003040

330

1036.72

85530.06

108,900

35,937,000

18.166

6.910

.003030

331

1039.86

86049.20

109,561

36,264,691

18.193

6.917

.003021

332

1043.01

86569.92

110,224

36,594,368

18.221

6.924

.003012

333

1046.15

87092.22

110,889

36,926,037

18.248

6.931

.003003

334

1049.29

87616.08

111,556

37,259,704

18.276

6.938

.002994

335

1052.43

88141.51

112,225

37,595,375

18.303

6.945

.002985

336

1055.57

88668.51

112,896

37,933,056

18.330

6.952

.002976

337

1058.71

89197.09

113,569

38,272,753

18.357

6.959

.002967

338

1061.86

89727.23

114,244

38,614,472

18.385

6.966

.002959

339

1065.02

90258.95

114,921

38,958,219

18.412

6.973

.002950

340

1068.14

90792.24

115,600

39,304,000

18.439

6.979

.002941

341

1071.28

91327.09

116,281

39,651,821

18.466

6.986

.002933

342

1074.27

91863.52

116,964

40,001,688

18.493

6.993

.002924

343

1077.56

92401.15

117,649

40,353,607

18.520

7.000

.002915

344

1080.71

92941.09

118,336

40,707,584

18.547

7.007

.002907

345

1083.85

93482.23

119,025

41,063,625

18.574

7.014

.002899

346

1086.99

94024.94

119,716

41,421,736

18.601

7.020

.002890

347

1090.35

94569.22

120,409

41,781,923

18.628

7.027

.002882

348

1093.07

95115.08

121,104

42,144,192

18.655

7.034

.002874

349

1096.41

95662.50

121,801

42,508,549

18.681

7.040

.002865

350

1099.56

96211.50

122,500

42,875,000

18.708

7.047

.002857

351

1102.70

96762.06

123,201

43,243,551

18.735

7.054

.002849

352

1105.84

97314.20

123,904

43,614,208

18.762

7.061

.002841

353

1108.98

97867.90

124,609

43,986,977

18.788

7.067

.002833

354

1112.62

98423.18

125,316

44,361,864

18.815

7.074

.002825

355

1115.26

98980.03

126,025

44,738,875

18.842

7.081

.002817

356

1118.40

99538.45

126,736

45,118,016

18.868

7.087

.002809

357

1121.55

100098.43

127,449

45,449,293

18.894

7.094

.002801

358

1124.69

100660.00

128,164

45,882,712

18.921

7.101

.002793

359

1127.83

101223.13

128,881

46,268,279

18.947

7.107

.002786

360

1130.97

101787.84

129,600

46,656,000

18.974

7.114

.002778

[109] .

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

361

1134.11

102354.11

130,321

47,045,881

19.QOO

7.120

.002770

362

1137.25

102921.95

131,044

47,437,928

19.026

7.127

.002762

363

1140.40

103491.31

131,769

47,832,147

19.052

7.133

.002755

364

1143.54

104062.35

132,496

48,228,544

19.079

7.140

.002747

365

1146.68

104634.91

133,225

48,627,125 .

19.105

7.146

.002740

366

1149.82

105209.04

133,956

49,027,896

19.131

7.153

.002732

367

1152.96

105784.74

134,689

49,430,863

19.157

7.159

.002725

368

1156.10

106362.00

135,424

49,836,032

19.183

7.166

.002717

369

1159.25

106940.84

136,161

50,243,409

19.209

7.172

.002710

370

1162.39

107521.26

136,900

50,653,000

19.235

7.179

.002703

371

1165.53

108103.22

137,641

51,064,811

19.261

7.185

.002695

372

1168.67

108686.79

138,384

51,478,848

19.287

7.192

.002688

373

1171.81

109271.91

139,129

51,895,117

19.313

7.198

.002681

374

1174.95

109858.62

139,876

52,313,624

19.339

7.205

.002674

375

1178.10

110446.87

140,625

52,734,375

19.365

7.211

.002667

376

1181.24

111036.71

141,376

53,157,376

19.391

7.218

.002660

377

1184.38

111628.11

142,129

53,582,633

19.416

7.224

.002653

378

1187.52

112221.09

142,884

54,010,152

19.442

7.230

.002646

379

1190.66

112815.64

143,641

54,439,939

19.468

7.237

.002639

380

1193.80

113411.76

144,400

54,872,000

19.493

7.243

.002632

381

1196.94

114009.46

145,161

55,306,341

19.519

7.249

.002625

382

1200.09

114608.70

145,924

55,742,968

19.545

7.256

.002618

383

1203.23

115209.54

146,689

56,181,887

19.570

7.262

.002611

384

1206.37

115811.94

147,456

56,623,104

19.596

7.268

.002604

385

1209.51

116415.91

148,225

57,066,625

19.621

7.275

.002597

386

1212.65

117021.45

148,996

57,512,456

19.647

7.281

.002591

387

1215.79

117628.57

149,769

57,960,603

19.672

7.287

.002584

388

1218.94

118237.25

150,544

58,411,072

19.698

7.294

.002577

389

1222.08

118846.51

151,321

58,863,869

19.723

7.299

.002571

390

1225.22

119453.94

152,100

59,319,000

19.748

7.306

.002564

391

1228.36

120072.73

152,881

59,776,471

19.774

7.312

.002558

392

1231.50

120687.70

153,664

60,236,288

19.799

7.319

.002551

393

1234.64

121304.24

154,449

60,698,457

19.824

7.325

.002545

394

1237.79

121922.43

155,236

61,162,984

19.849

7.331

.002538

395

1240.93

122542.03

156,025

61,629,875

19.875

7.337

.002532

396

1244.07

123163.28

156,816

62,099,136

19.899

7.343

.002525

397

1247.21

123786.10

157,609

62,570,773

19.925

7.349

.002519

398

1250.35

124412.10

158,404

63,044,792

19.949

7.356

.002513

399

1253.49

125036.46

159,201

63,521,199

19.975

7.362

.002506

400

1256.64

125664.00

160,000

64,000,000

20.000

7.368

.002500

401

1259.78

126293.10

160,801

64,481,201

20.025

7.374

.002494

402

1262.92

126923.88

161,604

64,964,808

20.049

7.380

.002488

403

1266.06

127556.02

162,409

65,450,827

20.075

7.386

.002481

404

1269.20

128189.84

163,216

65,939,264

20.099

7.392

.002475

405

1272.34

128825.23

164,025

66,430,125

20.125

7.399

.002469

i

110]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

406

1275.48

129462.19

164,836

66,923,416

20.149

7.405

.002463

407

1278.63

130100.71

165,649

67,419,143

20.174

7.411

.002457

408

1281.77

130740.82

166,464

67,911,312

20.199

7.417

.002451

409

1284.91

131382.49

167,281

68,417,929

20.224

7.422

.002445

410

1288.05

132025.74

168,100

68,921,000

20.248

7.429

.002439

411

1291.19

132670.55

168,921

69,426,531

20.273

7.434

.002433

412

1294.32

133316.93

169,744

69,934,528

20.298

7.441

.002427

413

1297.48

133964.89

170,569

70,444,997

20.322

7.447

.002421

414

1300.62

134614.41

171,396

70,957,944

20.347

7.453

.002415

415

1303.76

135265.51

172,225

71,473,375

20.371

7.459

.002410

416

1306.90

135918.18

173,056

71,991,296

20.396

7.465

.002407

417

1310.04

136572.42

173,889

72,511,713

20.421

7.471

.002398

418

1313.18

137228.22

174,724

73,034,632

20.445

7.477

.002392

419

1316.32

137885.69

175,561

73,560,059

20.469

7.483

.002387

420

1319.47

138544.56

176,400

74,088,000

20.494

7.489

.002381

421

1322.61

139205.08

177,241

74,618,461

20.518

7.495

.002375

422

1325.75

139867.17

178,084

75,151,448

20.543

7.501

.002370

423

1328.89

140530.83

178,929

75,666,967

20.567

7.507

.002364

424

1332.03

141196.07

179,776

76,225,024

20.591

7.513

.002358

425

1335.18

141862.87

180,625

76,765,625

20.615

7.518

.002353

426

1338.32

142531.25

181,476

77,308,776

20.639

7.524

.002347

427

1341.46

143201.19

182,329

77,854,483

20.664

7.530

.002342

428

1344.60

143872.71

183,184

78,402,752

20.688

7.536

.002336

429

1347.74

144545.80

184,041

78,953,589

20.712

7.542

.002331

430

1350.88

145220.46

184,900

79,507,000

20.736

7.548

.002326

431

1354.02

145696.68

185,761

80,062,991

20.760

7.554

.002320

432

1357.17

146574.48

186,624

80,621,568

20.785

7.559

.002315

433

1360.33

147253.85

187,489

81,182,737

20.809

7.565

.002309

434

1363.45

147934.80

188,356

81,746,504

20.833

7.571

.002304

435

1366.59

148617.31

189,225

82,312,875

20.857

7.577

.002299

436

1369.73

149301.39

190,096

82,881,856

20.881

7.583

.002294

437

1372.87

149987.05

190,969

83,453,453

20.904

7.588

.002288

438

1376.02

150674.27

191,844

84,027,672

20.928

7.594

.002283

439

1379.16

151362.87

192,721

84,604,519

20.952

7.600

.002278

440

1382.30

152053.44

193,600

85,184,000

20.976

7.606

.002273

441

1385.44

152745.37

194,481

85,766,121

21.000

7.612

.002268

442

1388.58

153438.88

195,364

86,350,388

21.024

7.617

.002262

443

1391 . 72

154133.96

196,249

86,938,307

21.047

7.623

.002257

444

1394.87

154830.61

197,136

87,528,384

21.071

7.629

.002252

445

1398.01

155528.83

198,025

88,121,125

21.095

7.635

.002247

446

1401 . 15

156228.62

198,916

88,716,536

21.119

7.640

.002242

447

1404.29

156929.98

199,809

89,314,623

21 . 142

7.646

.002237

448

1407.43

157632.92

200,704

89,915,392

21 . 166

7.652

.002232

449

1410.57

158337.42

201,601

90,518,849

21.189

7.657

.002227

450

1413.72

159043.50

202,500

91,125,000

21.213

7.663

.002222

[111]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES. CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.~)

Number ||
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

. Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

451

1416.86

159751 . 14

203,401

91,733,851

21.237

7.669

.002217

452

1420.00

160460.36

204,304

92,345,408

21.260

7.674

.002212

453

1423.14

161171.14

205,209

92,959,677

21.284

7.680

.002208

454

1426.28

161883.50

206,106

93,576,664

21.307

7.686

.002203

455

1429.42

162597.43

207,025

94,196,375

21.331

7.691

.002198

456

1432.56

163312.93

207,936

94,818,816

21.354

7.697

.002193

457

1435.71

164030.20

208,849

95,443,993

21.377

7.703

.002188

458

1438.85

164748.64

209,764

96,071,912

21.401

7.708

.002183

459

1441.99

165468.85

210,681

96,702,579

21.424

7.714

.002179

460

1445.13

166190.64

211,600

97,336,000

21.447

7.719

.002174

461

1448.27

166913.99

212,521

97,972,181

21.471

7.725

.002169

f462

1451.41

167638.91

213,444

98,611,128

21.494

7.731

.002165

463

1454.56

168365.41

214,369

99,252,847

21.517

7.736

.002160

464

1457.70

169093.47

215,296

99,897,345

21.541

7.742

.002155

465

1460.84

169823.11

216,225

100,544,625 ,

21.564

7.747

.002151

466

1463.98

170554.32

217,156

101,194,696

21.587

7.753

.002146

467

1467.12

171287.10

218,089

101,847,563

21.610

7.758

.002141

468

1470.26

172021.44

219,024

102,503,232

21.633

7.764

.002137

469

1473.41

172757.36

219,961

103,161,709

21.656

7.769

.002132

470

1476.55

173494.86

220,900

103,823,000

21.679

7.775

.002128

471

1479.69

174233.92

221,841

104,487,111

21.702

7.780

.002123

472

1482.83

174974.55

222,784

105,154,048

21.725

7.786

.002119

473

1485.97

175716.75

223,729

105,823,817

21.749

7.791

.002114

474

1489.11

176460.45

224,676

106,496,424

21.771

7.797

.002110

475

1492.26

177205.87

225,625

107,171,875

21.794

7.802

.002105

476

1495.36

177952.79

226,576

107,850,176

21.817

7.808

.002101

477

1498.54

178701.27

227,529

108,531,333

21.840

7.813

.002096

478

1501.68

179451.33

228,484

109,215,352

21.863

7.819

.002092

479

1504.82

180202.96

229,441

109,902,239

21.886

7.824

.002088

480

1507.96

180956.16

230,400

110,592,000

21.909

7.830

.002083

481

1511.10

181712.92

231,361

111,284,641

21.932

7.835

.002079

482

1514.25

182467.26

232,324

111,980,168

21.954

7.840

.002075

483

1517.39

183225.18

233,289

112,678,587

21.977

7.846<

.002070

484

1520.53

183984.66

234,256

113,379,904

22.000

7.851

.002666

485

1523.67

184745.71

235,225

114,084,125

22.023

7.857-

.002062

486

1526.81

185508.33

236,196

114,791,256

22.045

7.862

.002058

487

1529.95

186272.53

237,169

115,501,303

22.069

7.868

.002053

488

1533.90

187038.29

238,144

116,214,272

22.091

7.873

.002049

489

1536.24

187805.63

239,121

116,936,169

22.113

7.878

.002045

490

1539.38

188574.54

240,100

117,649,000

22.136

7.884

.002041

491

1542.52

189345.01

241,081

118,370,771

22.158

7.889

.002037

492

1545.66

190117.06

242,064

119,095,488

22.181

7.894'

.002033

493

1548.80

190890.68

243,049

119,823,157

22.204

7.899

.002028

494

1551.95

191665.87

244,036

120,553,784

22.226

7.905

.002024

495

1555.09

192442.63

245,025

121,287,375

22.248

7.910

.002020

[112]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number II
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

496

1558.23

193220.96

246,016

122,023,936

22.271

7.915

.002016

497

1561.37

194000.86

247,009

122,763,473

22.293

7.921

.002012

498

1564.51

194782.34

248,004

123,505,992

22.316

7.926

.002008

499

1567.55

195565.38

249,001

124,251,499

22.338

7.932

.002004

500

1570.80

196350.00

250,000

125,000,000

22.361

7.937

.002000

501

1573.94

197136.18

251,001

125,751,501

22.383

7.942

.001996

502

1577.08

197923.94

252,004

126,506,008

22.405

7.947

.001992

503

1580.22

198713.26

253,009

127,263,527

22.428

7.953

.001988

504

1583.36

199504.16

254,016

128,024,864

22.449

7.958

.001984

505

1586.50

200296 . 63

255,025

128,787,625

22.472

7.963

.001980

506

1589.64

201090.67

256,036

129,554,216

22.494

7.969

.001976

507

1592.79

201886.28

257,049

130,323,843

22.517

7.974

.001972

508

1595.93

202683.46

258,064

131,096,512

22.539

7.979

.001969

509

1599.07

203487.70

259,081

131,872,229

22.561

7.984

.001965

510

1602.21

204282.54

260,100

132,651,000

22.583

7.989

.001961

511

1605.35

205064.43

261,121

133,432,831

22.605

7.995

.001957

512

1608.49

205887.84

262,144

134,217,728

22.627

8.000

.001953

513

1611.64

206692 . 93

263,169

135,005,697

22.649

8.005

.001949

514

1614.78

207499.53

264,196

135,796,744

22.671

8.010

.001946

515

1617.92

208307.71

265,225

136,590,875

22.694

8.016

.001942

516

1621.06

209117.46

266,256

137,388,096

22.716

8.021

.001938

517

1624.20

209928.78

267,289

138,188,413

22.738

8.026

.001934

518

1627.34

210741.66

268,324

138,991,832

22.759

8.031

.001931

519

1630.49

211556.12

269,361

139,798,359

22.782

8.036

.001927

520

1633.63

212372.16

270,400

140,608,000

22.803

8.041

.001923

521

1636.77

213189.76

271,441

141,420,761

22.825

8.047

.001919

522

1639.93

214008.93

272,484

142,236,648

22.847

8.052

.001916

523

1643.05

214829.67

273,529

143,055,667

22.869

8.057

.001912

524

1646.19

215651.99

274,576

143,877,824

22.891

8.062

.001908

525

1649.34

216475.87

275,624

144,703,125

22.913

8.067

.001905

526

1652.48

217301.33

276,676

145,531,576

22.935

8.072

.001901

527

1655.62

218128.35

277,729

146,363,183

22.956

8.077

.001898

528

1658.76

218956.95

278,784

147,197,952

22.978

8.082

.001894

529

1661.90

219787.12

279,841

148,035,889

23.000

8.087

.001890

530

1665.04

220618.86

280,900

148,877,000

23.022

8.093

.001887

531

1668.18

221452.16

281,961

149,721,291

23.043

8.098

.001883

532

1671.33

222287.04

283,024

150,568,768

23.065

8.103

.001880

533

1674.47

223123.50

284,089

151,419,437

23.087

8.108

.001876

534

1677.61

223961.52

285,156

152,273,304

23.108

8.113

.001873

535

1680.75

224801.11

286,225

153,130,375

23.130

8.118

.001869

536

1683.80

225642.27

287,296

153,990,656

23.152

8.123

.001866

537

1687.04

226487.01

288,369

154,854,153

23.173

8.128

.001862

538

1690.18

227329.31

289,444

155,720,872

23.195

8.133

.001859

539

1693.32

228175.19

290,521

156,590,819

23.216

8.138

.001855

540

1696.46

229022.64

291,600

157,464,000

23.238

8.143

.001852

113]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

* s

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

>541

1699.60

229871.65

292,681

158,340,421

23.259

8.148

.001848

542

1702.74

230722.24

293,764

159,220,088

23.281

8.153

.001845

543

1705.88

231574.40

294,849

160,103,007

23.302

8.158

.001842

544

1709.03

232428.13

295,936

160,989,184

23.324

8.163

.001838

545

1712.17

233283.43

297,025

161,878,625

23.345

8.168

.001835

546

1715.31

234140.30

298,116

162,771,336

23.367

8.173

.001832

547

1718.45

234998.74

299,209

163,667,323

23.388

8.178

.001828

548

1721.59

235858.76

300,304

164,566,592

23.409

8.183

.001825

549

1724.73

236720.34

301,401

165,469,149

23.431

8.188

.001821

550

1727.88

237583.50

302,500

166,375,000

23.452

8.193

.001818

551

1731.02

238448.22

303,601

167,284,151

23.473

8.198

.001815

552

1734.16

239314.52

304,704

168,196,608

23.495

8.203

.001812

553

1737.30

240182.38

305,809

169,112,377

23.516

8.208

.001808

554

1740.44

241051.82

306,916

170,031,464

23.537

8.213

.001805

555

1743.58

241922.83

308,025

170,953,875

23.558

8.218

.001802

556

1746.72

242795.41

309,136

171,879,616

23.579

8.223

.001799

557

1749.77

243669.56

310,249

172,808,693

23.601

8.228

.001795

558

1753.09

244545.28

311,364

173,741,112

23.622

8.233

.001792

559

1756.15

245422.57

312,481

174,676,879

23.643

8.238

.001789

560

1759.29

246301.44

313,600

175,616,000

23.664

8.242

.001786

561

1762.43

247181.87

314,721

176,558,481

23.685

8.247

.001783

562

1765.57

248063.87

315,844

177,504,328

23.706

8.252

.001779

563

1768.72

248947.45

316,969

178,453,547

23.728

8.257

.001776

564

1771.86

249832.59

318,096

179,406,144

23.749

8.262

.001773

565

1775.00

250719.31

319,225

180,362,125

23.769

8.267

.001770

566

1778.14

251607.60

320,356

181,321,496

23.791

8.272

.001767

567

1781.28

252497.36

321,489

182,284,263

23.812

8.277

.001764

568

1784.42

253388.88

322,624

183,250,432

23.833

8.282

.001761

569

1787.57

254281.88

323,761

184,220,009

23.854

8.286

.001757

570

1790.71

255176.64

£24,900

185,193,000

23.875

8.291

.001754

571

1793.85

256072.60

326,041

186,169,411

23.896

8.296

.001751

572

1796.99

256970.31

327,184

187,149,248

23.916

8.301

.001748

573

1800.13

257869.59

328,329

188,132,517

23.937

8.306

.001745

574

1803.27

258770.45

329,476

189,119,224

23.958

8.311

.001742

575

1806.42

259672.87

330,625

190,109,375

23.979

8.315

.001739

576

1809.56

260576.87

331,776

191,102,976

24.000

8.320

.001736

577

1812.80

261482.43

332,929

192,100,033

24.021

8.325

.001733

578

1815.84

262388.57

334,084

193,100,552

24.042

8.330

.001730

579

1818.98

263298.28

335,241

194,104,539

24.062

8.335

.001727

580

1822.12

264208.56

336,400

195,112,000

24.083

8.339

.001724

581

1825.26

265120.46

337,561

196,122,941

24.104

8.344

.001721

582

1828.41

266033.82

338,724

197,137,368

24.125

8.349

.001718

583

1831.55

266948.82

339,889

198,155,287

24.145

8.354

.001715

584

1834.69

267865.38

341,056

199,176,704

24.166

8.359

.001712

585

1837.83

268783.57

342,225

200,201,625

24.187

8.363

.001709

[114]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

1 1
* s

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

586

1840.97

269703.21

343,396

201,230,056

24.207

8.368

.001706

587

1844.11

270624.49

344,569

202,262,003

24.228

8.373

.001704

588

1847.26

271547.33

345,744

203,297,472

24.249

8.378

.001701

589

1850.40

272471.75

346,921

204,336,469

24.269

8.382

.001698

590

1853.54

273397.74

348,100

205,379,000

24.289

8.387

.001695

591

1856.68

274325.29

349,281

206,425,071

24.310

8.392

.001692

592

1859.82

27 5254 .42

350,464

207,474,688

24.331

8.397

.001689

593

1862.96

276185.12

351,649

208,527,857

24.351

8.401

.001686

594

1866.11

277117.39

352,836

209,584,584

24.372

8.406

.001684

595

1869.25

278051.23

354,025

210,644,875

24.393

8.411

.001681

596

1872.39

278986.64

355,216

211,708,736

24.413

8.415

.001678

597

1875.53

279923.62

356,409

212,776,173

24.433

8.420

.001675

598

1878.67

280862.18

357,604

213,847,192

24.454

8.425

.001672

599

1881.81

281802.30

358,801

214,921,799

24.474

8.429

.001669

600

1884.96

282744.00

360,000

216,000,000

24.495

8.434

.001667

601

1888.10

283687.26

361,201

217,081,801

24.515

8.439

.001664

602

1891.24

284632.10

362,404

218,167,208

24.536

8.444

.001661

603

1894.38

285578.50

363,609

219,256,227

24.556

8.448

.001658

604

1897.52

286526.48

364,816

220,348,864

24.576

8.453

.001656

605

1900.66

287476.03

366,025

221,445,125

24.597

8.458

.001653

606

1903.80

288426.15

367,236

222,545,016

24.617

8.462

.001650

607

1906.. 95

289379.84

368,449

223,648,543

24.637

8.467

.001647

608

1910.09

290334.10

369,664

224,755,712

24.658

8.472

.001645

609

1913.23

291289.93

370,881

225,886,529

24.678

8.476

.001642

610

1916.37

292247.34

372,100

226,981,000

24.698

8.481

.001639

611

1919.51

293206.31

373,321

228,099,131

24.718

8.485

.001637

612

1922.65

294166.85

374,544

229,220,928

24.739

8.490

.001634

613

1925.80

295128.97

375,769

230,346,397

24.758

8.495

.001631

614

1928.94

296092.65

376,996

231,475,544

24.779

8.499

.001629

615

1932.08

297057.91

378,225

232,608,375

24.799

8.504

.001626

616

1935.22

298024.74

379,456

233,744,896

24.819

8.509

.001623

617

1938.36

298993.14

380,689

234,885,113

24.839

8.513

.001621

618

1941.50

299963.00

381,924

236,029,032

24.859

8.518

.001618

619

1944.65

300934.64

383,161

237,176,659

24.879

8.522

.001616

620

1947.79

301907.76

384,400

238,628,000

24.899

8.527

.001613

621

1950.93

302882.44

385,641

239,483,061

24.919

8.532

.001610

622

1954.07

303858.69

386,884

240,641,848

24.939

8.536

.001608

623

1957.21

304836.51

388,129

241,804,367

24.959

8.541

.001605

624

1960.35

305815.91

389,376

242,970,624

24.980

8.545

.001603

625

1963.50

306796.87

390,625

244,140,625

25.000

8.549

.001600

626

1966.64

307779.41

391,876

245,314,376

25.019

8.554

.001597

627

1969.78

308763.41

393,129

246,491,883

25.040

8.559

.001595

628

1972.92

309749.19

394,384

247,673,152

25.059

8.563

.001592

629

1976.06

310736.44

395,641

248,858,189

25.079

8.568

.001590

630

1979.20

311725.26

396,900

250,047,000

25.099

8.573

.001587

[115]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number ||
or
Diameter]

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

631

1982.34

312715.64

398,161

251,239,591

25.119

^8.577

.001585

632

1985.49

313707.58

399,424

252,435,968

25.139

8.582

.001582

633

1988.63

314701.14

400,689

253,636,137

25.159

8.586

.001580

634

1991 . 77

315696.64

401,956

254,840,104

25.179

8.591

.001577

635

1994.91

316692.91

403,225

256,047,875

25.199

8.595

.001575

636

1998.05

317691 . 15

404,496

257,259,456

25.219

8.599

.001572

637

2001.19

318690.97

405,769

258,474,853

25.239

8.604

.001570

638

2004.34

319692.35

407,044

259,694,072

25.259

8.609

.001567

639

2007.48

320695.31

408,321

260,917,119

25.278

8.613

.001565

640

2010.62

321699.84

409,600

262,144,000

25.298

8.618

.001563

641

2013.76

322705.93

410,881

263,374,721

25.318

8.622

.001560

642

2016.90

323713.60

412,164

264,609,288

25.338

8.627

.001558

643

2020.04

324722.84

413,449

265,847,707

25.357

8.631

.001555

644

2023.19

325733.65

414,736

267,089,984

25.377

8.636

.001553

645

2026.33

326746.03

416,025

268,836,125

25.397

8.640

.001550

646

2029.47

327759.98

417,316

269,586,136

25.416

8.644

.001548

647

2032.61

328775.50

418,609

270,840,023

25.436

8.649

.001546

648

2035.76

329792.60

419,904

272,097,792

25.456

8.653

.001543

649

2038.89

330811.26

421,201

273,359,449

25.475

8.658

.001541

650

2042.04

331831 . 50

422,500

274,625,000

25.495

8.662

.001538

651

2045.18

332853.40

423,801

275,894,451

25.515

8.667

.001536

652

2048.32

333876.68

425,104

277,167,808

25.534

8.671

.001534

653

2051.46

334901.62

426,409

278,445,077

25.554

8.676

.001531

654

2054.60

335928.14

427,716

279,726,264

25.573

8.680

.001529

655

2057.74

336956.23

429,025

281,011,375

25.593

8.684

.001527

656

2060.88

337985.89

.430,336

282,800,416

25.612

8.689

.001524

657

2064.03

339017.12

431,649

283,593,393

25.632

8.693

.001522

658

2067.17

340049.92

432,964

284,890,312

25.651

8.698

.001520

659

2070.31

341084.29

434,281

286,191,179

25.671

8.702

.001517

660

2073.45

342120.24

435,600

287,496,000

25.690

8.706

.001515

661

2076.59

343157.75

436,921

288,804,781

25.710

8.711

.001513

662

2079.73

344196.33

438,244

290,117,528

25.720

8.715

.001511

663

2082.88

345237.49

439,569

291,434,247

25.749

8.719

.001508

664

2086.02

346279.71

440,896

292,754,944

25.768

8.724

.001506

665

2089.16

347323.51

442,225

294,079,625

25.787

8.728

.001504

666

2092.30

348368.88

443,556

295,408,296

25.807

8.733

.001502

667

2095.44

349416.40

444,889

296,740,963

25.826

8.737

.001499

668

2098.58

350464.32

446,224

298,077,632

25.846

8.742

.001497

669

2101.73

351514.30

447,561

299,418,309

25.865

8.746

.001495

670

2104.87

352566.06

448,900

300,763,000

25.884

8.750

.001493

671

2108.01

353619.28

450,241

302,111,711

25.904

8.753

.001490

672

2111.15

354674.07

451,584

303,464,448

25.923

8.759

.001488

673

2114.29

355730.43

452,929

304,821,217

25.942

8.763

.001486

674

2117.43

356788.37

454,276

306,182,024

25.961

8.768

.001484

675

2120.58

357847.87

455,625

307,546,875

25.981

8.772

.001481

[116]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number II
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

676

2123.72

358908.95

456,976

308,915,776

26.000

8.776

.001479

677

2126.86

359971.59

458,329

310,288,733

26.019

8.781

.001477

678

2130.00

361035.81

459,684

311,665,752

26.038

8.785

.001475

679

2133.14

362101.60

461,041

313,046,839

26.058

8.789

.001473

680

2136.28

363168.96

462,400

314,432,000

26.077

8.794

.001471

681

2139.42

364237.88

463,761

315,821,241

26.096

8.798

.001468

682

2142.57

365308.38

465,124

317,214,568

26.115

8.802

.001466

683

2145.71

366380.40

466,489

318,611,987

26.134

8.807

.001464

684

2148.85

367454.10

467,856

320,013,504

26.153

8.811

.001462

685

2151.99

368529.31

469,225

321,419,125

26.172

8.815

.001460

686

2155.13

369600.60

470,596

322,828,856

26.192

8.819

.001458

687

2158.27

370684.45

471,969

324,242,703

26.211

8.824

.001456

688

2161.42

371764.37

473,344

325,660,672

26.229

8.828

.001453

689

2164.56

372845.87

474,721

327,082,769

26.249

8.832

.001451

690

2167.70

373928.94

476,100

328,509,000

26.268

8.836

.011449

691

2170.84

375013.57

477,481

329,939,371

26.287

8.841

.001447

692

2173.98

376099 . 78

478,864

331,373,888

26.306

8.845

.001445

693

2177.12

377187.56

480,249

332,812,557

26.325

8.849

.001443

694

2180.27

378276.91

481,636

334,255,384

26.344

8.853

.001441

695

2183.41

379367.83

483,025

335,702,375

26.363

8.858

.001439

696

2186.55

380460.32

484,416

337,153,536

26.382

8.862

.001437

697

2189.69

381554.38

485,809

338,608,873

26.401

8.866

.001435

698

2192.83

382650.02

487,204

340,068,392

26.419

8.870

.001433

699

2195.97

383747.22

488,601

341,532,099

26.439

8.875

.001431

700

2199.12

384846.00

490,000

343,000,000

26.457

8.879

.001429

701

2202.26

385949.52

491,401

344,472,101

26.476

8.883

.001427

702

2205.40

387048.26

492,804

345,948,088

26.495

8.887

.001425

703

2208.54

388151.74

494,209

347,428,927

26.514

8.892

.001422

704

2211.68

389256.80

495,616

348,913,664

26.533

8.896

.001420

705

2214.82

390363.43

497,025

350,402,625

26.552

8.900

.001418

706

2217.96

391471.63

498,436

351,895,816

26.571

8.904

.001416

707

2221.11

392581.40

499,849

353,393,243

26.589

8.908

.001414

708

2224.25

393692.74

501,264

354,894,912

26.608

8.913

.001412

709

2227.39

394805.65

502,681

356,400,829

26,627

8.917

.001410

710

2230.53

395920.14

504,100

357,911,000

26.644

8.921

.001408

711

2233.67

397036.19

505,521

359,425,431

26.664

8.925

.001406

712

2236.81

398151.81

506,944

360,944,128

26.683

8.929

.001404

713

2239.96

399273.01

508,369

362,467,097

26.702

8.934

.001403

714

2243.10

400393.73

509,796

363,994,344

26.721

8.938

.001401

715

2246.24

401516.11

511,225

365,525,875

26.739

8.942

.001399

716

2249.38

402640.02

512,656

367,061,696 r

26.758

8.946

.001397

717

2252.52

403765.50

514,089

368,601,813

26.777

8.950

.001395

718

2255.66

404892.54

515,524

370,146,232

26.795

8.954

.001393

719

2258.81

406021 . 16

516,961

371,694,959

26.814

8.959

.001391

720

2261.95

407151.36

518,400

373,248,000

26.833

8.963

.001389

[117]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cant.)

Number 1 {

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

721

2265.09

408283.32

519,841

374,805,361

26.851

8.967

.001387

722

2268.23

409416.45

521,284

376,367,048

26.870

8.971

.001385

723

2271.37

410551.25

522,729

377,933,067

26.889

8.975

.001383

724

2274.51

411687.93

524,176

379,503,424

26.907

8.979

.001381

725

2277.66

412825.87

525,625

381,078,125

26.926

8.983

.001379

726

2280.80

413965.24

527,076

382,657,176

26.944

8.988

.001377

727

2283.94

415106.06

528,529

384,240,583

26.963

8.992

.001376

728

2287.08

416249.43

529,984

385,828,352

26.991

8.996

.001374

729

2290.22

417393.76

531,441

387,420,489

27.000

9.000

.001372

730

2293.36

418539.66

532,900

389,017,000

27.018

9.004

.001370

731

2296.50

419687.12

534,361

390,617,891

27.037

9.008

.001368

732

2299.65

420836.14

535,824

392,223,168

27.055

9.012

.001366

733

2302.79

421986.78

537,289

393,832,837

27.074

9.016

.001364

734

2305.93

423138.96

538,756

395,446,904

27.092

9.020

.001362

735

2309.07

424292.71

540,225

397,065,375

27.111

9.023

.001361

736

2312.21

425442.03

541,696

398,688,256

27.129

9.029

.001359

737

2315.35

426604.93

543,169

400,315,553

27.148

9.033

.001357

738

2318.50

427763.39

544,644

401,947,272

27.166

9.037

.001355

739

2321.64

428923.43

546,121

403,583,419

27.184

9.041

.001353

740

2324.78

430085.04

547,600

405,224,000

27.203

9.045

.001351

741

2327.92

431248.21

549,081

406,869,021

27.221

9.049

.001350

742

2331.06

432412.96

550,564

408,518,488

27.239

9.053

.001348

743

2334.20

433579.28

552,049

410,172,407

27.258

9.057

.001346

744

2337.35

434747.17

553,536

411,830,784

27.276

9.061

.001344

745

2340.49

435916.63

555,025

413,493,625

27.295

9.065

.001342

746

2343.63

437087.66

556,516

415,160,936

27.313

9.069

.001340

747

2346.77

438260.26

558,009

416,832,723

27.331

9.073

.001339

748

2349.91

439434.48

559,504

418,508,992

27.349

9.077

.001337

749

2353.05

440610.18

561,001

420,189,749

27.368-

9.081

.001335

750

2356.20

441787.50

562,500

421,875,000

27.386

- 9.086

.001333

751

2359.34

442966.38

564,001

423,564,751

27.404

9.089

.001332

752

2362.48

444146.84

565,504

424,525,900

27.423

9.094

.001330

753

2365.62

445328.86

567,009

426,957,777

27.441

9.098

.001328

754

2368.76

446512.46

568,516

428,661,064

27.459

9.102

.001326

755

2371.90

447697.63

570,025

430,368,875

27.477

9.106

.001325

756

2375.04

448884.37

571,536

432,081,216

27.495

9.109

.001323

757

2378.19

450072.68

573,049

433,798,093

27.514

9.114

.001321

758

2381.33

451262.56

574,564

435,519,512

27.532

9.118

.001319

759

2384.47

452454.01

576,081

437,245,479

27.549

9.122

.001318

760

2387.61

453647.04

577,600

438,976,000

27.568

9.126

.001316

761

2390.75

454841.63

579,121

440,711,081

27.586

9.129

.001314

762

2393.89

456037.87

580,644

442,450,728

27.604

9.134

.001312

763

2397.04

457235.53

582,169

444,194,947

27.622

9.138

.001311

764

2400.18

458435.83

583,696

445,943,744

27.640

9.142

.001309

765

2403.32

459635.71

585,225

447,697,125

27.659

9.146

.001307

[118]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Numberl
or

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

766

2406.46

460838.16

586,756

449,455,096

27.677

9.149

.001305

767

2409.60

462042.18

588,289

451,217,663

27.695

9.154

.001304

768

2412.74

463247.76

589,824

452,984,832

27.713

9.158

.001302

769

2415.98

464454.92

591,361

454,756,609

27.731

9.162

.001300

770

2419.03

465663.66

592,900

456,533,000

27.749

9.166

.001299

771

2422.17

466873.96

594,441

458,314,011

27.767

9.169

.001297

772

2425.31

468085.83

595,984

460,099,648

27.785

9.173

.001295

773

2428.45

469299.27

597,529

461,889,917

27.803

9.177

.001294

774

2431.59

470514.29

599,076

463,684,824

27.821

9.181

.001292

775

2434.74

471730.87

600,625

465,484,375

27.839

9.185

.001290

776

2437.88

472949.03

602,176

467,288,576

27.857

9.189

.001289

777

2441.02

474168.75

603,729

469,097,433

27.875

9.193

.001287

778

2444.16

475396.05

605,284

470,910,952

27.893

9.197

.001285

779

2447.40

476612.92

606,841

472,729,139

27.910

9.201

.001284

780

2450.44

477837.36

608,400

474,552,000

27.928

9.205

.001282

781

2453.58

479063.36

609,961

476,379,541

27.946

9.209

.001280

782

2456.73

480290.94

611,524

478,211,768

27.964

9.213

.001279

783

2459.87

481520.10

613,089

480,048,687

27.982

9.217

.001277

784

2463.01

482750.82

614,656

481,890,304

28.000

9.221

.001276

785

2466.15

483983.11

616,225

483,736,025

28.017

9.225

.001274

786

2469.29

485216.97

617,796

485,587,656

28.036

9.229

.001272

787

2472.43

486452.41

619,369

487,443,403

28.053

9.233

.001271

788

2475.48

487689.73

620,944

489,303,872

28.071

9.237

.001269

789

2478.72

488927.99

622,521

491,169,069

28.089

9.240

.001267

790

2481.86

490168.14

624,100

493,039,000

28.107

9.244

.001266

791

2485.00

491409.85

625,681

494,913,671

28.125

9.248

.001264

792

2488.14

492653 . 14

627,264

496,793,088

28.142

9.252

.001263

793

2491.28

493898.20

628,849

498,677,257

28.160

9.256

.001261

794

2494.43

495144.43

630,436

500,566,184

28.178

9.260

.001259

795

2497.57

496392.43

632,025

502,459,875

28.196

9.264

.001258

796

2500.71

497648.40

633,616

504,358,336

28.213

9.268

.001256

797

2503.85

498893.14

635,209

506,261,573

28.231

9.271

• .001255

798

2506.99

500145.86

636,804

508,169,592

28.249

9.275

.001253

799

2510.13

501400.14

638,401

510,082,399

28.266

9.279

.001251

800

2513.28

502656.00

640,000

512,000,000

28.284

9.283

.001250

801

2516.42

503913.42

641,601

513,922,401

28.302

9.287

.001248

802

2519.56

505172.43

643,204

515,849,608

28.319

9.291

.001247

803

2522.70

506432.98

644,809

517,781,627

28.337

9.295

.001245

804

2525.84

507655.52

646,416

519,718,464

28.355

9.299

.001244

805

2528.98

508958.83

648,025

521,660,125

28.372

9.302

.001242

806

2532.12

510224.11

649,636

523,606,616

28.390

9.306

.001241

807

2535.27

511490.96

651,249

525,557,943

28.408

9.310

-.001239

808

2538.41

512759.38

652,864

527,514,112

28.425

9.314

.001238

809

2541.55

514029.37

654,481

529,474,129

28.443

9.318

.001236

810

2544.09

515300.94

656,100

531,441,000

28.460

9.321

.001235

119]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

1 Number II
or

| Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular .
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

811

2547.83

516574.07

657,721

533,411,731

28.478

9.325

.001233

812

2550.97

517848.77

659,344

535,387,328

28.496

9.329

.001232

813

2554.12

519125.05

660,969

537,366,797

28.513

9.333

.001230

814

2557.26

520402.85

662,596

539,353,144

28.531

9.337

.001229

815

2560.40

521682.31

664,225

541,343,375

28.548

9.341

.001227

816

2563.54

522663.30

665,856

543,338,496

28.566

9.345

.001225

817

2566.68

524245.86

667,489

545,338,513

28.583

9.348

.001224

818

2569.82

525529.98

669,124

547,343,432

28.601

9.352

.001222

819

2572.97

526815.68

670,761

549,353,259

28.618

9.356

.001221

820

2576.11

528102.96

672,400

551,368,000

28.636

9.360

.001220

821

2579.25

529391.80

674,041

553,387,661

28.653

9.364

.001218

822

2582.39

530682.21

675,684

555,412,248

28.670

9.367

.001217

823

2585.53

531974.39

677,329

557,441,767

28.688

9.371

.001215

824

2588.64

533267.75

678,976

559,476,224

28.705

9.375

.001214

825

2591.82

534562.87

680,625

561,515,625

28.723

9.379

.001212

826

2594.96

535859.57

682,276

563,559,976

28.740

9.383

.001211

827

2598.10

537159.83

683,929

565,609,283

28.758

9.386

.001209

828

2601.24

538457.62

685,584

567,663,552

28.775

9.390

.001208

829

2604.38

539759.08

687,241

569,722,789

28.792

9.394

.001206

830

2607.52

541062.06

688,900

571,787,000

28.810

9.398

.001205

831

2610.66

542366.60

690,561

573,856,191

28.827

9.401

.001203

832

2613.81

543672.72

692,224

575,930,368

28.844

9.405

.001202

833

2616.95

544980.52

693,889

578,009,537

28.862

9.409

.001200

834

2620.09

546289.68

695,556

580,093,704

28.879

9.413

.001199

835

2623.23

547600.51

697,225

582,182,875

28.896

9.417

.001198

836

2626.37

548912.91

698,896

584,277,056

28.914

9.420

.001196

837

2629.51

550226.89

700,569

586,376,253

28.931

9.424

.001195

838

2632.64

551542.43

702,244

588,480,472

28.948

9.428

.001193

839

2635.80

552859.58

703,921

590,589,719

28.965

9.432

.001192

840

2638.94

554178.24

705,600

592,704,000

28.983

9.435

.001190

841

2642.08

555498.49

707,281

594,823,321

29.000

9.439

.001189

842

2645.22

556820.32

708,964

596,947,688

29.017

9.443

.001188

843

2648.35

558143.72

710,649

599,077,107

29.034

9.447

.001186

844

2651.51

559468.69

712,336

601,211,584

29.052

9.450

.001185

845

2654.65

560795.23

714,025

603,351,125

29.069

9.454

.001183

846

2657.79

562123.34

715,716

605,495,736

29.086

9.458

.001182

847

2660.93

563456.82

717,409

607,645,423

29.103

9.461

.001181

848

2664.07

564784.28

719,104

609,800,192

29.120

9.465

.001179

849

2667.21

566117.10

720,801

611,960,049

29.138

9.469

.001178

850

2670.36

567451.59

722,500

614,125,000

29.155

9.473

.001176

851

2673.50

568787.46

724,201

616,295,051

29.172

9.476

.001175

852

2Q76.64

570125.00

725,904

618,470,208

29.189

9.480

.001174

853

2679.78

571464.10

727,609

620,650,477

29.206

9.483

.001172

854

2682.92

572804.78

729,316

622.835,864

29.223

9.487

.001171

855

2686.06

574147.03

731,025

625,026,374

29.240

9.491

.001170

120]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number 1 1
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

856

2689.20

575490.85

732,736

627,222,016

29.257

9.495

.001168

857

2692.35

576836.24

734,449

629,422,793

29.274

9.499

.001167

858

2695.49

578183.20

736,164

631,628,712

29.292

9.502

.001166

859

2698.63

579531.73

737,881

633,839,779

29.309

9.506

.001164

860

2701.77

580881.84

739,600

636,056,000

29.326

9.509

.001163

861

2704.91

582233.51

741,321

638,277,381

29.343

9.513

.001161

862

2708.05

583586.75

743,044

640,503,928

29.360

9.517

.001160

863

2711.20

584941 . 57

744,769

642,735,647

29.377

9.520

.001159

864

2714.34

586297.95

746,496

644,972,544

29.394

9.524

.001157

865

2717.48

587655.91

748,225

647,214,625

29.411

9.528

.001156

866

2720.66

589015.41

749,956

649,461,896

29.428

9.532

.001155

867

2723.76

590376.54

751,689

651,714,363

29.445

9.535

.001153

868

2726.90

591739.20

753,424

653,972,032

29.462

9.539

.001152

869

2730.05

593103.44

755,161

656,234,909

29.479

9.543

.001151

870

2733.19

594469.26

756,900

658,503,000

29.496

9.546

.001149

871

2736.33

595836.44

758,641

660,776,311

29.513

9.550

.001148

872

2739.87

597205.59

760,384

663,054,848

29.529

9.554

.001147

873

2742.61

598576.91

762,129

665,338,617

29.546

9.557

.001145

874

2745.75

599948.21

763,876

667,627,624

29.563

9.561

.001144

875

2748.90

601321.87

765,625

669,921,875

29.580

9.565

.001143

876

2752.04

602697.11

767,376

672,221,376

29.597

9.568

.001142

877

2755.18

604073.91

769,129

674,526,133

29.614

9.572

.001140

878

2758.32

605451.49

770,884

676,836,152

29.631

9.575

.001139

879

2761.46

606832.24

772,641

679,151,439

29.648

9.579

.001138

880

2764.60

608213.76

774,400

681,472,000

29.665

9.583

.001136

881

2767.74

609596.84

776,161

683,797,841

29.682

9.586

.001135

882

2770.89

610981.50

777,924

686,128,968

29.698

9.590

.001134

883

2774.03

612367.74

779,689

688,465,387

29.715

9.594

.001133

884

2777.17

613755.54

781,456

690,807,104

29.732

9.597

.001131

885

2780.31

615144.91

783,225

693,154,125

29.749

9.601

.001130

886

2783.45

616535.85

784,996

695,506,456

29.766

9.604

.001129

887

2786.59

617928.37

786,769

697,864,103

29.782

9.608

.001127

888

2789.75

619322.45

788,544

700,227,072

29.799

9.612

.001126

889

2792.88

620718.11

790,321

702,595,369

29.816

9.615

.001125

890

2796.02

622115.34

792,100

704,969,000

29.833

9.619

.001124

891

2799.16

623514.13

793,881

707,347,971

29.850

9.623

.001122

892

2802.30

624914.50

795,664

709,732,288

29.866

9.626

.001121

893

2805.44

626316.44

797,449

712,121,957

29.883

9.630

.001120

894

2808.59

627719.95

799,236

714,516,984

29.900

9.633

.001119

895

2811.73

629120.35

801,025

716,917,375

29.916

9.637

.001118

896

2814.87

630531.68

802,816

719,323,136

29.933

9.640

.001116

897

2818.82

631939.90

804,609

721,734,273

29.950

9.644

.001115

898

2821.15

633349.70

806,404

724,150,792

29.967

9.648

.001114

899

2824.29

634768.13

808,201

726,572,699

29.983

9.651

.001112

900

2827.44

636174.00

810,000

729,000,000

30.000

9.655

.001111

121

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number II
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

901

2830.58

637588.50

811,804

731,432,701

30.017

9.658

.001110

902

2833.72

639004.58

813,604

733,870,808

30.033

9.662

.001109

903

2836.86

640422.22

815,409

736,314,327

30.050

9.666

.001107

904

2840.00

641841.44

817,216

738,763,264

30.066

9.669

.001106

905

2843.14

643262.23

819,025

741,217,625

30.083

9.673

.001105

906

2846.28

644684.74

820,836

7^3,677,416

30.100

9.676

.001104

907

2849.43

646108.52

822,649

746,142,643

30.116

9.680

.001103

908

2852.57

647534.02

824,464

748,613,312

30.133

9.683

.001101

909

2855.71

648961.09

826,281

751,089,429

30.150

9.687

.001100

910

2858.85

650389.74

828,100

753,571,000

30.163

9.690

.001099

911

2861.99

651819.95

829,921

756,058,031

30.183

9.694

.001098

912

2865.13

653251.73

831,744

758,550,528

30.199

9.698

.001096

913

2868.29

654689.09

833,569

761,048,497

30.216

9.701

.001095

914

2871.42

656120.81

835,396

763,551,944

30.232

9.705

.001094

915

2874.56

657556.51

837,225

766,060,874

30.249

9.708

.001093

916

2877.70

658994.58

839,056

768,575,296

30.265

9.712

.001092

917

2880.84

660432.22

840,880

771,095,213

30.282

9.715

.001091

918

2883.98

661875.42

842,724

773,620,632

30.298

9.718

.001089

919

2887.13

663318.20

844,561

•776,151,559

30.315

9.722

.001088

.920

2890.27

664762.56

846,400

778,688,000

30.331

9.726

.001087

921

2893.41

666208.48

848,241

781,229,961

30.348

9.729

.001086

922

2896.55

667655.97

850,084

783,777,448

30.364

9.733

.001085

923

2899.69

669101.61

851,929

786,330,467

30.381

9.736

.001083

924

2902.83

670555.67

853,776

788,889,024

30.397

9.740

. 101082

925

2905.98

672007.87

855,625

791,453,125

30.414

9.743

.001081

926

2909.12

673461.65

857,476

794,022,776

30.430

9.747

.001080

927

2912.26

674916.99

859,329

796,597,983

30.447

9.750

.001079

928

2915.40

676373.91

861,184

799,178,752

30.463

9.754

.001078

929

2918.54

677832.40

863,041

801,765,089

30.479

9.757

.001076

930

2921.68

679292.46

864,900

804,357,000

30.496

9.761

.001075

931

2924.82

680754.08

866,761

806,954,491

30.512

9.764

.001074

932

2927.97

682217.30

868,624

809,557,568

30.529

9.768

.001073

933

2931.11

683682.06

870,489

812,166,237

30.545

9.771

.001072

934

2934.25

685148.40

872,356

814,780,504

30.561

9.775

.001071

935

2937.39

686616.31

874,225

817,400,375

30.578

9.778

.001070

936

2940.53

688085.79

876,096

820,025,856

30.594

9.783

.001068

937

2943.67

689556.85

877,969

822,656,953

30.610

9.785

.001067

938

2946.82

691029.47

879,844

825,293,672

30.627

9.789

.001066

939

2949.96

692503.67

881,721

827,936,019

30.643

9.792

.001065

940

2953.10

693979.44

883,600

830,584,000

30.659

9.796

.001064

941

2956.24

695456.77

885,481

833,237,621

30.676

9.799

.001063

942

2959.38

696935.68

887,364

835,896,888

30.692

9.803

.001062

943

2962.43

698416.14

889,249

838,561,807

30.708

9.806

.001060

944

2965.67

699898.21

891,136

841,232,384

30.724

9.810

.001059

945

2968.81

701381.83

893,025

843,908,625

30.741

9.813

.001058

[122]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.
NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

I_J

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

C-ibe

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

946

2971.95

702867.02

894,916

846,590,536

30.757

9.817

.001057

947

2975.09

704350.25

896,809

849,278,123

30.773

9.820

.001056

948

2978.23

705841.80

898,704

851,971,392

30.790

9.823

.001055

949

2981.37

707332.02

900,601

854,670,349

30.806

9.827

.001054

950

2984.52

708023.50

902,500

857,375,000

30.822

9.830

.001053

951

2987.66

710316.54

904,401

860,085,351

30.838

9.834

.001052

952

2990.72

711811.16

906,304

862,801,408

30.854

9.837

.001050

953

2993.94

713307.34

908,209

865,523,177

30.871

9.841

.001049

954

2997.08

714805.10

910,116

868,250,664

30.887

9.844

.001048

955

3000.22

716304.43

912,025

870,983,875

30.903

9.848

.001047

956

3003.36

717805.33

913,936

873,722,816

30.919

9.851

.001046

957

3006.51

719307.80

915,849

876,467,493

30.935

9.854

.001045

958

3009.65

720811.84

917,764

879,217,912

30.951

9.858

.001044

959

3012.79

722317.45

919,681

881,974,079

30.968

9.861

.001043

960

3015.90

723824.64

921,600

884,736,000

30.984

9.865

.001042

961

3019.07

725333.39

923,521

887,503,681

31.000

9.868

.001041

962

3022.21

726843.71

925,444

890,277,128

31.016

9.872

.001040

963

3025.36

728355.61

927,369

893,056,347

31.032

9.875

.001038

964

3028.50

729869.07

929,296

895,841,344

31.048

9.878

.001037

965

3031.64

731384.11

931,225

898,632,125

31.064

9.881

.001036

966

3034.78

732900.72

933,156

901,428,696

31.080

9.885

.001035

967

3037.92

734418.90

935,089

904,231,063

31.097

9.889

.001034

968

3041.06

735938.64

937,024

907,039,232

31.113

9.892

.001033

969

3044.21

737459.96

938,961

909,853,209

31.129

9.895

.001032

970

3047.35

738982.86

940,900

912,673,000

31.145

9.899

.001031

971

3050.49

740507.32

942,841

915,498,611

31.161

9.902

.001030

972

3053.63

742033.35

944,784

918,330,048

31.177

9.906

.001029

973

3056.77

743560.95

946,729

921,167,317

31.193

9.909

.001028

974

3059.91

745090.13

948,676

924,010,424

31.209

9.912

.001027

975

3063.06

746620.87

950,625

926,859,375

31.225

9.916

.001026

976

3066.20

748153.19

952,576

929,714,176

31.241

9.919

.001025

977

3069.36

749687.07

954,529

932,574,833

31.257

9.923

.001024

978

3072.48

751222.53

856,484

935,441,352

31.273

9.926

.001022

979

3075.62

752759.56

958,441

938,313,739

31.289

9.929

.001021

980

3078.76

754298.16

960,400

941,192,000

31.305

9.933

.001020

981

3081.90

755838.32

962,361

944,076,141

31.321

9.936

.001019

982

3085.05

757380.06

964,324

946,966,168

31.337

9.940

.001018

983

3088.19

758923.38

966,289

949,862,087

31.353

9.943

.001017

984

3091.33

760468.26

968,256

952,763,904

31.369

9.946

.001016

985

3094.47

762014.71

970,225

955,671,625

31.385

9.950

.001015

986

3097.61

733562.73

972,196

958,585,256

31.401

9.953

.001014

987

3100.75

765119.33

974,169

961,504,803

31.416

9.956

.001013

988

3103.96

766663.49

976,144

964,430,272

31.432

9.960

.001012

989

3107.04

768216.23

978,121

967,361,669

31.448

9.963

.001011

990

3110.18

769770.54

980,100

970,299,000

31.464

9.966

.001010

[123]

CIRCLES— AREAS, SQUARES, CUBES, ETC.

NUMBERS, DIAMETERS AND AREAS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Number II
or
Diameter

Circum-
ference

Circular
Area

Square

Cube

Square
Root

Cube
Root

Reciprocal

991

3113.32

771326.41

982,081

973,242,271

31.480

9.970

.001009

992

3116.46

772883.86

984,064

976,191,488

31.496

9.973

.001008

993

3119.60

774442.88

986,049

979,146,657

31.512

9.977

.001007

994

3122.75

776003.47

988,036

982,107,784

31.528

9.980

.001006

995

3125.89

777565.63

990,025

985,074,875

31.544

9.983

.001005

996

3129.03

779129.36

992,016

988,047,936

31.559

9.987

.001004

997

3132.17

780694.66

994,009

991,026,973

31.575

9.990

.001003

998

3135.11

782261.54

996,004

994,011,992

31.591

9.993

.001002

999

3138.45

783829.98

998,001

997,002,999

31.607

9.997

.001001

1,000

3141.60

785400.00

1,000,000

1,000,000,000

31.623

10.000

.001000

To Find the Length of Any Arc of a Circle. — Rule 1. When the chord of the arc and

the versed sine of half the arc are given. To fifteen times the square of the chord, add
thirty-three times the square of the versed sine, and reserve the number. To the square
of the chord, add four times the square of the versed sine,
and the square root of the sum will be twice the chord of
half the arc.

Multiply twice the chord of half the arc by ten times
the square of the versed sine, divide the product by the re-
serve number, and add the quotient to twice the chord of
half the arc : the sum will be the length of the arc very nearly.
When the Chord of the Arc and Chord of Half the Arc
are Given. — From the square of the chord of half the arc
subtract the square of half the chord of the arc, the re-
mainder will be the square of the versed sine; then proceed
as above.

Rule 2. When the Diameter and the Versed Sine of

Half the Arc Are Given. — From sixty times the diameter subtract twenty-seven times
the versed sine, and reserve the number.

Multiply the diameter by the versed sine, and the square root of the product will
be the chord of half the arc.

Multiply twice the chord of half the arc by ten times the versed sine, divide the
product by the reserve number, and add the quotient to twice the chord of half the arc;
the sum will be the length of the arc very nearly.

NOTE. — 1. When the diameter and chord of the arc are given, the versed sine may
be found thus: From the square of the diameter subtract the square of the chord,
and extract the square root of the remainder. Subtract this root from the diameter
and half the remainder will give the versed sine of half the arc.

2. The square of the chord of half the arc being divided by the diameter will give
the versed sine, or being divided by the versed sine will

give the diameter.

3. The length of the arc may also be found by multi-
plying together the number of degrees it contains, the
radius and the number .01745329.

To Find the Area of a Sector of a Circle. — Rule: Multi-
ply half the length of the arc of the sector by the radius.

Or, multiply the number of the degrees in the arc by
the square of the radius, and by .008727.

NOTE. — If the diameter or radius is not given, add the

[124]

MENSURATION

square of half the chord of the arc to the square of the versed sine of half the arc;
this sum being divided by the versed sine will give the diameter.

To Find the Area of a Segment of a Circle. — Rule 1 : Find the area of the sector which
has the same arc as the segment; also the area of the triangle formed by the radial
sides of the sector and the chord of the arc; the difference
or the sum of these areas will be the area of the segment,
according as it is less or greater than a semicircle.

NOTE. — The difference between the versed sine and
radius, multiplied by half the chord of the arc, will give
the area of the triangle. •' *x*% !„'''' \

Rule 2. Divide the height, or versed sine, by the diame- ***TQ'

ter, and find the quotient in the table of versed sines. » /

Multiply the number on the right hand of the versed ^ /

sines by the square of the diameter, and the product will \ /

be the area. N^--J ~*'

NOTE 1. — When the quotient arising from the versed sine E~

divided by the diameter has a remainder or fraction after

the third place of decimals; having taken the area answering to the first three figures
subtract it from the next following area, multiply the remainder by the said fraction,

and add the product to the first area: the sum will
be the area for the whole quotient.

NOTE 2. — The table to which this rule refers is
formed of the areas of the segments of a circle
whose diameter is 1; and which is supposed to
be divided by perpendicular chords into 1000 equal
parts.

The rule depends upon this property — that the
versed sine of similar segments are as the diameters
of the circles to which they belong, and the area of
those segments as the squares of the diameter; which
may be thus demonstrated:

Let A D B A and adb a be any two similar
segments, cut off from the similar sectors A D B C A

and adb ca, by the chords A B and a b, and let the perpendicular C D bisect them.
Then by similar triangles, DB: db :: B C : 6 c and DB: db :: ~Dm:dn', whence,
by equality, Bc:6c::Dw:dn, or2BC:26c::Dm:dw.

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS FROM 1° TO 180°
Given the Degrees. Radius = 1

In this table, the lengths of circular arcs are given proportionately to that of
radius = 1, as determined by the following formula:

Length of arc = ' X radius X number of degrees. The numbers of degrees in

the arc are given in the first column, and the length of the arc, as compared with the
radius, is given decimally in the second column.

To use this table: Find the proportional length of the arc corresponding to the
degrees in the arc, and multiply it by the actual length of the radius; the product is
the length of the arc.

Example: Required the length of a circular arc corresponding to 62°, the radius
= 36.

From the table, 62° = 1.0821.

Then 1.0821 X 36 = 38.9556, the required length.

[125]

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS

LENGTHS OP CIRCULAB ARCS FROM 1° TO 180°. GIVEN THE DEGREES.

Radius = 1.

Degrees

Length

Degrees

Length

Degrees

Length

Degrees

Length

1

.0174

46

.8028

91

.5882

136

2.3736

2

.0349

47

.8203

92

.6057

137

2.3911

3

.0524

48

.8377

93

.6231

138

2.4085

4

.0698

49

.8552

94

.6406

139

2.4260

5

.0873

50

.8727

95

.6581

140

2.4435

6

.0147

51

.8901

96

.6755

141

2.4609

7

.0222

52

.9076

97

.6930

142

2.4784

8

.0396

53

.9250

98

.7104

143

2.4958

9

.0571

54

.9424

99

.7279

144

2.5133

10

.1745

55

.9599

100

.7453

145

2.5307

11

.1920

56

.9774

101

.7628

146

2.5482

12

.2094

57

.9948

102

.7802

147

2.5656

13

.2269

58

1.0123

103

.7977

148

2.5831

14

.2443

59

1.0297

104

.8151

149

2.6005

15

.2618

60

1.0472

105

.8326

150

2.6180

16

.2792

61

1.0646

106

.8500

151

2.6354

17

.2967

62

1.0821

107

.8675

152

2.6529

18

.3141

63

.0995

108

.8849

153

2.6703

19

.3316

64

.1170

109

.9024

154

2.6878

20

.3491

65

.1345

110

.9199

155

2.7053

21

.3665

66

.1519

111

.9373

156

2.7227

22

.3840

67

.1694

112

.9548

157

2.7402

23

.4014

68

.1868

113

.9722

158

2.7576

24

.4189

69

.2043

114

.9897

159

2.7751

25

.4363

70

.2217

115

2.0071

160

2.7925

26

.4538

71

.2392

116

2.0246

161

2.8100

27

.4712

72

.2566

117

2.0420

162

2.8274

28

.4887

73

.2741

118

2.0595

163

2.8449

29

.5061

74

.2915

119

2.0769

164

2.8623

30

.5236

75

.3090

120

2.0944

165

2.8798

31

.5410

76

.3264

121

2.1118

166

2.8972

32

.5585

77

.3439

122

2.1293

167

2.9147

33

.5759

78

.3613

123

2.1467

168

2.9321

34

.5934

79

.3788

124

2.1642

169

2.9496

35

.6109

80

.3963

125

2.1817

170

2.9670

36

.6283

81

.4137

126

2.1991

171

2.9845

37

.6458

82

.4312

127

2.2166

172

3.0020

38

.6632

83

.4486

128

2.2304

173

3.0194

39

.6807

84

.4661

129

2.2515

174

3.0369

40

.6981

85

1.4835

130

2.2689

175

3.0543

41

.7156

86

1.5010

131

2.2864

176

3.0718

42

.7330

87

1.5184

132

2.3038

177

3.0892

43

.7505

88

1.5359

133

2.3213

178

3.1067

44

.7679

89

1.5533

134

2.3387

179

3.1241

45

.7854

90

1.5708

135

2.3562

180

3.1416

[126]

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS, UP TO A SEMICIRCLE
Given the Height. Chord = 1

In this table the chord is taken = 1, and the rise or height of the arc, expressed
decimally as compared with the chord, is given in the first column. The length of the
arc relatively to the chord is given in the second column.

To use this table, divide the height of the arc by the chord for the proportional
height of the arc, which find in the first column of the table. The proportional length
of the arc corresponding to it, being multiplied by the actual length of the chord, gives
the actual length of the arc.

NOTE. — The length of an arc of a circle may be found nearly thus: Subtract the
chord of the whole arc from eight times the chord of half the arc, one-third of the
remainder is the length nearly.

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS, UP TO A SEMICIRCLE. GIVEN THE HEIGHT.

Chord = 1.

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

.100

1.02645

.101

.02698

.131

1.04515

.161

1.06775

.191

.09461

.102

.02752

.132

1.04584

.162

1.06858

.192

.09557

.103

.02806

.133

1.04652

.163

1.06941

.193

.09654

.104

.02860

.134

1.04722

.164

1.07025

.194

.09752

.105

.02914

.135

1.04792

.165

1.07109

.195

.09850

.106

.02970

.136

1.04862

.166

1.07194

.196

1.09949

.107

.03026

.137

1.04932

.167

1.07279

.197

1.10048

.108

.03082

.138

1.05003

.168

1.07365

.198

1.10147

.109

.03139

.139

1.05075

.169

1.07451

.199

1.10247

.110

.03196

.140

1.05147

.170

1.07537

.200

1.10348

.111

.03254

.141

1.05220

.171

1.07624

.201

1.10447

.112

.03312

.142

1.05293

.172

1.07711

.202

1.10548

.113

.03371

.143

.05367

.173

1.07799

.203

1.10650

.114

.03430

.144

.05441

.174

1.07888

.204

1.10752

.115

.03490

.145

.05516

.175

1.07977

.205

1.10855

.116

.03551

.146

.05591

.176

1.08066

.206

.10958

.117

.03611

.147

.05667

.177

1.08156

.207

.11062

.118

.03672

.148

.05743

.178

1.08246

.208

.11165

.119

.03734

.149

.05819

.179

1.08337

.209

. 11269

.120

.03797

.150

1.05896

.180

1.08428

.210

.11374

.121

.03860

.151

1.05973

.181

1.08519

.211

1.11479

.122

.03923

.152

1.06051

.182

1.08611

.212

1.11584

.123

.03987

.153

1.06130

.183

1.08704

.213

1.11692

.124

.04051

.154

1.06209

.184

1.08797

.214

1.11796

.125

.04116

.155

1.06288

.185

1.08890

.215

1.11904

.126

.04181

.156

1.06368

.186

1.08984

.216

1.12011

.127

.04247

.157

1.06449

.187

1.09079

.217

1.12118

.128

.04313

.158

1.06530

.188

1.09174

.218

1.12225

.129

.04380

.159

1.06611

.189 \

1.09269

.219

1 . 12334

.130

1.04447 ,

.160

1.06693

.190 j

1.09365

.220

1.12445

127]

LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS
LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS — (Cont.)

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

.221

1.12556

.266

.17912

.311

1.24070

.356

.30954

.222

1.12663

.267

.18040

.312

1.24216

.357

.31115

.223

1.12774

.268

. 18162

.313

1.24360

.358

.31276

.224

1.12885

.269

.18294

.314

1.24506

.359

.31437

.225

1.12997

.270

.18428

.315

1.24654

.360

.31599

.226

.13108

.271

. 18557

.316

1.24801

.361

.31761

.227

.13219

.272

.18688

.317

1.24946

.362

.31923

.228

.13331

.273

1 . 18819

.318

1.25095

.363

.32086

.229

.13444

.274

1.18969

.319

1.25243

.364

.32249

.230

.13557

.275

1.19082

.320

1.25391

.365

.32413

.231

1 . 13671

.276

1 . 19214

.321

1.25539

.366

.32577

.232

1.13786

.277

1.19345

.322

1.25686

.367

.32741

.233

1.13903

.278

1.19477

.323

1.25836

.368

.32905

.234

1.14020

.279

1.19610

.324

1.25987

.369

.33069

.235

1.14136

.280

1.19743

.325

1.26137

.370

.33234

.236

1 . 14247

.281

1.19887

.326

1.26286

.371

.33399

.237

1.14363

.282

1.20011

.327

1.26437

.372

.33564

.238

. 14480

.283

1.20146

.328

1.26588

.373

.33730

.239

.14597

.284

1.20282

.329

1.26740

.374

.33896

.240

.14714

.285

1.20419

.330

1.26892

.375

.34063

.241

.14831

.286

1.20558

.331

1.27044

.376

.34229

.242

.14949

.287

1.20696

.332

1.27196

.377

.34396

.243

.15067

.288

1.20828

.333

1.27349

.378

.34563

.244

.15186

.289

1.20967

.334

.27502

.379

.34731

.245

.15308

.290

1.21202

.335

.27656

.380

1.34899

.246

.15429

.291

1.21239

.336

.27810

.381

1.35068

.247

.15549

.292

1.21381

.337

.27864

.382

1.35237

.248

.15670

.293

.21520

.338

.28118

.383

1.35406

.249

. 15791

.294

.21658

.339

.28273

.384

1.35575

.250

.15912

.295

.21794

.340

.28428

.385

1.35744

.251

.16033

.296

.21926

.341

.28583

.386

1.35914

.252

.16157

.297

.22061

.342

.28739

.387

1.36084

.253

. 16279

.298

.22203

.343

.28895

.388

1.36254

.254

.16402

.299

.22347

.344

.29052

.389

1.36425

.255

1.16526

.300

.22495

.345

1.29209

.390

1.36586

.256

1.16649

.301

.22635

.346

1.29366

.391

.36767

.257

1.16774

.302

.22776

.347

1.29523

.392

.36939

.258

1 . 16899

.303

1.22918

.348

1.29681

.393

.37111

.259

1.17024

.304

1.23061

.349

1.29839

.394

.37283

.260

1.17150

[305

1.23205

.350

1.29997

.395

.37455

.261

1.17275

.306

1.23349

.351

1.30156

.396

1.37628

.262

1.17401

.307

1.23494

.352

1.30315

.397

1.37801

.263

1 . 17527

.308

1.23636

.353

1.30474

.398

1.37974

.264

1.17655

.309

1.23780

.354

1.30634

.399

1.38148

.265

1.17784

.310

1.23925

.355

1.30794

.400

1.38322

[128]

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS
LENGTHS OP CIRCULAR ARCS — (Cont.)

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

Height

Length

.401

1.38496

.426

1.42945

.451

1.47565

.476

1.52346

.402

1.38671

.427

1.43127

.452

1.47753

.477

1.52541

.403

1.38846

.428

1.43309

.453

.47942

.478

1.52736

.404

1.39021

.429

1.43491

.454

.48131

.479

1.52931

.405

1.39196

.430

1.43673

.455

.48320

.480

1.53126

.406

1.39372

.431

1.43856

.456

.48509

.481

1.53322

.407

1.39548

.432

1.44039

.457

.48699

.482

1.53518

.408

1.39724

.433

1.44222

.458

.48889

.483

1.53714

.409

1.39900

.434

1.44405

.459

.49079

.484

1.53910

.410

1.40077

.435

1.44589

.460

.49269

.485

1.54106

.411

.40254

.436

1.44773

.461

1.49460

.486

1.54302

.412

.40432

.437

1.44957

.462

1.49651

.487

1.54499

.413

.40610

.438

1.45142

.463

1.49842

.488

1.54696

.414

.40788

.439

1.45327

.464

1.50033

.489

1.54893

.415

.40966

.440

1.45512

.465

1.50224

.490

1.55090

.416

.41145

.441

1.45697

.466

1.50416

.491

1.55288

.417

.41324

.442

1.45883

.467

1.50608

.492

1.55486

.418

.41503

.443

1.46069

.468

1.50800

.493

1.55685

.419

1.41682

.444

1.46255

.469

1.50992

.494

1.55854

.420

1.41861

.445

1.46441

.470

1.51185

.495

1.56083

.421

1.42041

.446

1.46628

.471

1.51378

.496

1.56282

.422

1.42222

.447

1.46815

.472

1.51571

.497

1.56481

.423

1.42402

.448

1.47002

.473

1.51764

.498

1.56680

.424

1.42583

.449

1.47189

.474

1.51958

.499

1.56879

.425

1.42764

.450

1.47377

.475

1.52152

.500

1.57079

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS

The areas of circular segments are given, in proportional superficial measure, the
diameter of the circle of which the segment forms a portion being = 1. The height of
the segment, expressed decimally in proportion to the diameter, is given in the first
column, and the relative area in the second column.

To use the table, divide the height by the diameter, find the quotient in the table,
and multiply the corresponding area by the square of the actual length of the diameter;
the product will be the actual area.

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS, UP TO A SEMICIRCLE
Diameter of Circle = 1

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

.001

.00004

.006

.00062

.011

.00153

.016

.00268

.002

.00012

.007

.00078

.012

.00175

.017

.00294

.003

.00022

.008

.00095

.013

.00197

.018

.00320

.004

.00034

.009

.00114

.014

.00220

.019

.00347

.005

.00047

.010

.00133

.015

.00244

.020

.00375

129]

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS — (Cont.)

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

.021

.00403

.066

.02215

.111

.04763

.156

.07819

.022

.00432

.067

.02265

.112

.04826

.157

.07892

.023

.00461

.068

.02315

.113

.04889

.158

.07965

.024

.00492

.069

.02366

.114

.04953

.159

.08038

.025

.00523

.070

.02417

.115

.05016

.160

.08111

.026

.00555

.071

.02468

.116

.05080

.161

.08185

.027

.00587

.072

.02520

.117

.05145

.162

.08258

.028

.00619

.073

.02571

.118

.05209

.163

.08332

.029'

.00653

.074

.02624

.119

.05274

.164

.08406

.030

.00687

.075

.02676

.120

.05338

.165

.08480

.031

.00721

.076

.02729

.121

.05404

.166

.08554

.032

.00756

.077

.02782

.122

.05469

.167

.08629

.033

.00792

.078

.02836

.123

.05535

.168

.08704

.034

.00828

.079

.02889

.124

.05600

.169

.08778

.035

.00864

.080

.02943

.125

.05666

.170

.08854

.036

.00901

.081

.02997

.126

.05733

.171

.08929

.037

.00939

.082

.03053

.127

.05799

.172

.09004

.038

.00977

.083

.03108

.128

.05866

.173

.09080

.039

.01015

.084

.03163

.129

.05933

.174

.09155

.040

.01054

.085

.03219

.130

.06000

.175

.09231

.041

.01093

.086

.03275

.131

.06067

.176

.09307

.042

.01133

.087

.03331

.132

.06135

.177

.09383

.043

.01173

.088

.03385

.133

.06203

.178

.09460

.044

.01214

.089

.03444

.134

.06271

.179

.09537

.045

.01255

.090

.03501

.135

.06339

.180

.09613

.046

.01297

.091

.03538

.136

.06407

.181

.09690

.047

.01340

.092

.03616

.137

.06476

.182

.09767

.048

.01382

.093

.03674

.138

.06545

.183

.09845

.049

.01425

.094

.03732

.139

.06614

.184

.09922

.050

.01468

.095

.03790

.140

.06683

.185

.10000

.051

.01512

.096

.03850

.141

.06753

.186

.10077

.052

.01556

.097

.03909

.142

.06822

.187

.10153

.053

.01601

.098

.03968

.143

.06892

.188

.10233

.054

.01646

.099

.04028

.144

.06963

.189

.10317

.055

.01691

.100

.04087

.145

.07033

.190

.10390

.056

.01737

.101

.04148

.146

.07103

.191

.10469

.057

.01783

.102

.04208

.147

.07174

.192

.10547

.058

.01830

.103

.04269

.148

.07245

.193

.10626

.059

.01877

.104

.04330

.149

.07316

.194

.10705

.060

.01924

.105

.04391

.150

.07387

.195

.10784

.061

.01972

.106

.04452

.151

.07459

.196

.10864

.062

.02020

.107

.04514

.152

.07530

.197

.10943

.063

.02068

.108

.04576

.153

.07603

.198

.11023

.064

.02117

.109

.04638

.154

.07675

.199

.11102

.065

.02166

.110

.04701

.155

.07747

.200

.11182

[130]

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS
AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS — (Cont.)

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

.201

.11262

.246

.15009

.291

.18996

.336

.23169

.202

.11343

.247

.15096

.292

.19086

.337

.23263

.203

.11423

.248

.15182

.293

.19177

.338

.23358

.204

.11504

.249

.15268

.294

.19268

.339

.23453

.205

.11584

.250

.15355

.295

.19360

.340

.23547

.206

.11665

.251

.15442

.296

.19451

.341

.23642

.207

.11746

.252

.15528

.297

.19543

.342

.23737

.208

.11827

.253

.15615

.298

.19634

.343

.23832

.209

.11908

.254

.15702

.299

.19725

.344

.23927

.210

.11990

.255

.15789

.300

.19817

.345

.24025

.211

.12071

.256

.15876

.301

.19908

.346

.24117

.212

.12153

.257

.15964

.302

.20000

.347

.24212

.213

.12235

.258

.16051

.303

.20092

.348

.24307

.214

.12317

.259

.16139

.304

.20184

.349

.24403

.215

.12399

.260

.16226

.305

.20276

.350

.24498

.216

.12481

.261

.16314

.306

.20368

.351

.24593

.217

.12563

.262

.16402

.307

.20460

.352

.24689

.218

.12646

.263

.16490

.308

.20553

.353

.24784

.219

.12729

.264

.16578

.309

.20645

.354

.24880

.220

.12811

.265

.16666

.310

.20738

.355

.24976

.221

.12894

.266

.16755

.311

.20830

.356

.25071

.222

.12977

.267

.16843

.312

.20923

.357

.25167

.223

.13060

.268

.16932

.313

.21015

.358

.25263

.224

.13144

.269

.17020

.314

.21108

.359

.25359

.225

.13227

.270

.17109

.315

.21201

.360

.25455

.226

.13311

.271

.17198

.316

.21294

.361

.25551

.227

.13395

.272

.17287

.317

.21387

.362

.25647

.228

.13478

.273

.17376

.318

.21480

.363

.25743

.229

.13562

.274

.17465

.319

.21573

.364

.25839

.230

.13646

.275

.17554

.320

.21667

.365

.25936

.231

.13731

.276

.17644

.321

.21760

.366

.26032

.232

.13815

.277

.17733

.322

.21853

.367

.26128

.233

.13899

.278

.17823

.323

.21947

.368

.26225

.234

.13984

.279

.17912

.324

.22040

.369

.26321

.235

.14069

.280

.18002

.325

.22134

.370

.26418

.236

.14154

.281-

.18092

.326

.22228

.371

.26514

.237

.14239

.282

.18182

.327

.22322

.372

.26611

.238

.14324

.283

.18272

.328

.22415

.373

.26708

.239

.14409

.284

.18362

.329

.22509

.374

.26805

.240

.14494

.285

.18452

.330

.22603

.375

.26901

.241

. 14580

.286

.18542

.331

.22697

.376

.26998

.242

.14665

.287

.18633

.332

.22792

.377

.27095

.243

.14752

.288

.18723

.333

.22886

.378

.27192

.244

.14837

.289

.18814

.334

.22980

.379

.27289

.245

.14923

.290

.18905

.335

.23074

.380

.27386

[131

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS
AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS — (Cont.)

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

Height

Area

.381

.27483

.406

.29926

.431

.32392

.462

.35474

.382

.27580

.407

.30024

.432

.32491

.464

.35673

.383

.27678

.408

.30122

.433

.32590

.466

.35873

.384

.27775

.409

.30220

.434

.32689

.468

.36072

.385

.27872

.410

.30319

.435

.32788

.470

.36272

.386

.27969

.411

.30417

.436

.32887

.471

.36371

.387

.28070

.412

.30516

.437

.32987

.473

.36571

.388

.28164

.413

.30614

.438

.33086

.475

.36771

.389

.28262

.414

.30712

.439

.33185

.477

.36971

.390

.28359

.415

.30811

.440

.33284

.479

.37170

.391

.28457

.416

.30910

.441

.33384

.482

.37470

.392

.28554

.417

.31008

.442

.33483

.484

.37670

.393

.28652

.418

.31107

.443

.33582

.486

.37870

.394

.28750

.419

.31205

.444

.33682

.488

.38070

.395

.28848

.420

.31304

.445

.33781

.490

.38270

.396

.28945

.421

.31403

.446

.33880

.491

.38370

.397

.29043

.422

.31502

.447

.33980

.492

.38470

.398

.29141

.423

.31600

.448

.34079

.493

.38570

.399

.29239

.424

.31699

.449

.34179

.494

.38670

.400

.29337

.425

.31798

.450

.34278

.495

.38770

.401

.29435

.426

.31897

.451

.34378

.496

.38870

.402

.29533

.427

.31996

.453

.34577

.497

.38970

.403

.29631

.428

.32095

.455

.34776

.498

.39070

.404

.29729

.429

.32194

.457

.34975

.499

.39170

.405

.29827

.430

.32293

.459

.35175

.500

.39270

To Find the Area of a Ring Included Between the Circumferences of Two Concen-
tric Circles. — Rule 1. The difference between the areas of two circles will be the area
of the ring.

Or, multiply the sum of the diameters by their difference, and by .7854.

Rule 2. Multiply half the sum of the circumferences by half the difference of the
diameter, and the product will be the area.

This rule will also serve for any part of the ring, using half the sum of the inter-
cepted arc for half the sum of the circumference.

[132]

MENSURATION

To Find the Length of the Whole Arc of a Cycloid. — Rule: Multiply the diameter
of the generating circle by 4.

To Find the Area of a Cycloid. — Rule: Multiply the area of the generating circle
by 3.

To Find the Area of a Parabola. — Rule: Multiply the base by the height; two-
thirds of the product is the area.

To Find the Length of an Arc of a Parabola, cut off by a double ordinate to the axis.
Rule: To the square of the ordinate add four-
fifths of the square of the abscissa; twice the
square root of the sum is the length nearly.

NOTE. — This rule is an approximation which
applies to those cases only in which the abscissa
does not exceed half the ordinate.

To Find the Circumference of an Ellipse. —
Multiply the square root of half the sum of the
squares of the two axes by 3.1416.

To Find the Area of an Ellipse. — Multiply the
product of the two axes by .7854.

NOTE. — The area of an ellipse is equal to the area of a circle of which the diameter
is a mean proportional between the two axes.

To Find the Area of an Elliptic Segment, the base of which is parallel to either axis
of the ellipse. Rule: Divide the height of the segment by the axis of which it is a
part, and find the area of a circular segment as given in the table relating to circular

segments, of which the height is equal to this quotient; multiply the area thus found
by the two axes of the ellipse successively ; the product is the area.

To Describe an Elliptic Figure, When One Diameter A B is given:

Divide A B into four equal parts. From C and D, with radius C A, or D B, de-
scribe circles touching each other in E. From C and D, with radius C D, describe arcs
cutting each other in F G.

Draw lines G C, G D, F C, F D, and produce them until they cut the circles in
H IJ and K.

From F and G, with radius F K or G I, draw arcs uniting H with I and J with K,
which will complete the figure.

[133]

MENSURATION

To Describe an Ellipse with Arcs of Three Radii. — On the transverse axis A B draw
the rectangle B G, on the height O C; to the diagonal AC draw the perpendicular
G H D; set off O K equal to O C, and describe a semi-circle on A K, and produce O C
to L; set off O M equal to C L, and on D describe an arc with radius DM; on A,

with radius O L, cut this arc at a. Thus the five centers D, a, 6, H, H' are found, from
which the arcs are described to form the ellipse.

NOTE. — This process works well for nearly all proportions of ellipses. It is em-
ployed in striking out vaults, stone bridges, etc.

To Find the Length of an Arc of a Hyperbola, beginning at the vertex. Rule 1.
To nineteen times the transverse axis add twenty-one times the parameter to this axis,
and multiply the sum by the quotient of the abscissa divided
by the transverse.

2. To nine times the transverse add twenty-one times the
parameter, and multiply the sum by the quotient of the
abscissa divided by the transverse,.

3. To each of these products add fifteen times the pa-
rameter and then, as the latter sum : is to the former sum : : so
is the ordinate : to the length of the arc, nearly.

To Find the Area of a Hyperbola. — Rule: To the product
of the transverse and abscissa add five-sevenths of the square
of the abscissa, and multiply the square root of the sum by 21;
to this product add four times the square root of the product
of the transverse and abscissa; multiply the sum by four times
the product of the conjugate and abscissa, and divide by seventy-five times the trans-
verse. The quotient is the area nearly.

To Find the Areas of Lunes, or the spaces between the intersecting arcs of two
eccentric circles. Rule: Find the areas of the two segments from which the lune is
formed, and their difference will be the area required.

NOTE. — A lune is a space included between the arcs of two unequal circles inter-

secting each other in two points, and having their centers on the same side of the straight
line which joins these points of intersection.

The lune was the first curvilinear space that was shown to be exactly equal to a

[134]

MENSURATION

rectilinear one, and this was first effected by Hippocrates. The following property is
one of the most curious:

If A B C be a right-angled triangle, and semicircles be described on the three sides
as diameters, then will the said triangle be equal to the two lunes D and F taken together.
For the semicircles described on A C and B C = the one described on A B, from each
take the segments cut off by A C and B C, then will the lune A F C E and B D C G
= the triangle A C B.

AREA OF AN IRREGULAR FIGURE

The area of an irregular figure, as D E C B, in which the base is a straight line,
and the perpendiculars at D and E also straight lines, the line B C, being an irregular

I i i fc

line, may be obtained by dividing the base line into a number of equal parts as indi-
cated by full lines, and erecting an ordinate in each as shown by .dotted lines.

The length of each ordinate is to be carefully measured and all are added together;
the sum so obtained is divided by the number of ordinates; the quotient is the mean
height, D F. Draw F G parallel to D E. Produce D B to F, and E C to G.

The parallelogram D E F G is equal in area to the irregular figure: then Area' =
Base X Height.

Case 2. A Non-Symmetrical Figure. — When the area is not symmetrical about a

line, the figure should be enclosed by drawing a base line and erecting perpendiculars,
each touching the projecting curves at that side.

Draw A B parallel to C D; this line must also touch the highest curve at the top
of the figure. The parallelogram A B C D is thus formed around the figure.

The base C D is to be divided into any number of equal parts, and in the center
of each draw ordinates, efgh, etc.

Measure the ordinates, add them together, and divide the sum by the number of
ordinates, the quotient will be the equivalent height for a parallelogram of which' the
base is C D.

Simpson's Rule. — Divide the base line A B into a number of equal parts. This
ensures that the number of ordinates is an odd number. Draw the ordinates from the
base line to the boundary line.

[135]

TRIGONOMETRY

Add together the first and last ordinates and call the sum A.

Add together the even ordinates and call that sum B.

Add together the odd ordinates, except the first and last, and call the sum C.

Let D be the common distance, then

A + 4B -f 2C x D

= Area of Figure.

3

Rule: Add together the extreme ordinates, four times the sum of the even ordinates,
and twice the sum of the odd ordinates (omitting the first and the last). Multiply the
result by one-third the common interval between the consecutive ordinates.

The end ordinates, as c and fc, may both be zero, as in the illustration, the curve
commencing from the base line A B. In this case A is zero, and the above rule expressed
as formula becomes,

Area = - (O + 4 B = 2 C),
o

in which S denotes the common distance or space between the ordinates.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

The circumference of a circle is supposed to be divided into 360° or divisions, and
as the total angularity about the center is equal to four right angles, each right angle
contains 90 degrees, or 90°, and half a right angle contains 45°. Each degree is divided

into 60 minutes, or 60'; and, for the sake of

\still further minuteness of measurement, each
c«./,^«,/ minute is divided into 60 seconds, or 60". In

~~! — a whole circle there are, therefore, 360 X 60 X

60 = 1,296,000 seconds. The annexed diagram
exemplifies the relative positions of the sine,
cosine, versed sine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant of an angle. It may be stated,
generally, that the correlated quantities, name-
ly, the cosine, cotangent, and cosecant of an
angle, are the sine, tangent, and secant, re-
spectively, of the complement of the given

angle, thecomplement being the difference between the given angle and a right angle.
The supplement of an angle is the amount by which it is less than two right angles.

When the sines and cosines of angles have been calculated (by means of formulas
which it is not necessary here to particularize) the tangents, cotangents, secants, and
cosecants are deduced from them according to the following relations:

rad2 rad2 rad2

rad X sin
tan = ; cotan

tan

rad2

sec = ; cosec

cos

sin

For these the values will be amplified in tabular form.

A triangle consists of three sides and three angles. When any three of these are
given, including a side, the other three may be found by calculation :
Case 1. — When a side and its opposite angle are two of the given parts.
Rule 1. To find a side, work the following proportion:

as the sine of the angle opposite the given side

is to the sine of the angle opposite the required side,

so is the given side

to the required side.

[136]

TRIGONOMETRY

• Rule 2. To find an angle:

as the side opposite to the given angle
is to the side opposite to the required angle,
so is the sine of the given angle
to the sine of the required angle.

Rule 3. In a right-angled triangle, when the angies and one side next the right angle are
given, to find the other side:
as radius

is to the tangent of the angle adjacent to the given side,
so is this side
to the other side.

Case 2. — When two sides and the included angle are given.
Rule 4. To find the other side:

as the sum of the two given sides
is to their difference,

so is the tangent of half the sum of their opposite angles
to the tangent of half their difference —

add this half difference to the half sum to find the greater angle, and subtract the
half difference from the half sum to find the less angle. The other side may then be
found by Rule 1.

Rule 5. When the sides of a right-angled triangle are given, to find the angles:
as one side
is to the other side,
so is the radius

to the tangent of the angle adjacent to the first side.
Case 3. — When the three sides are given.

Rule 6. To find an angle. — Subtract the sum of the logarithms of the sides- which
contain the required angle from 20, and to the remainder add the logarithm of half the
sum of the three sides, and that of the difference between this half sum and the side
opposite to the required angle. Half the sum of these three logarithms will be the
logarithmic cosine of half the required angle. The other angles may be found by
Rule 1.

Rule 7. Subtract the sum of the logarithms of the two sides which contain the
required angle from 20, and to the remainder add the logarithms of the differences
between these two sides and half the sum of the three sides. Half the result will be
the logarithmic sine of half the required angle.

NOTE. — In all ordinary cases either of these rules gives sufficiently accurate results.
It is recommended that Rule 6 should be used when the required angle exceeds 90°;
and Rule 7 when it is less than 90°.

TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMULA

The diagram shows the different trigonometrical expressions in terms of the angle
A. In the following formulae Radius = 1.

Complement of an angle = its difference from 90°.
Supplement of an angle = its difference from 180°.

sin = = — - = V (1 — cos2)

cosec cot

sin 1

tan = — =

cos cot

sec = V rad2 + tan2 = — = -7—
cos sin

cos = V (1 — sin2) = - - = sin X cot =

tan sec

cos 1 1

cot = -r- = . cosec = -r-

sin tan sin

[137]

TRIGONOMETRY

versin = rad — cos coversin = rad — sin
rad = tan X cot = V sin2 + cos2

Solution of Right-Angled Triangles. —

hyp2 = base2 + perp2
base2 = (hyp + perp) X (hyp - perp)
perp2 = (hyp + base) X (hyp - base)
A

sin

cos

tana=A

cosec a = —
A

seca=lf

cot a = — -

A.

A
cosb=-

b = 90° - a
A = B tan a
A = C sin a

B = C cos a = A cot a = V (C + A) (C - A)

C =

+ B2 =

sin a cos a

Solution of Oblique- Angled Triangles. — Value of any side C is:

C =
C =

A sin c _ B sin c _ A

sin a sin b cos b + sin b cot c
B

= A cos b + A

cos a -f- sin a cot c
C = V A2 + B2 - 2 A B cos c = B cos a + B sin a cot b
Value of any angle a is:

A sin c A sin b

sui a =

sin (b + c)

sin a = sin b cos c -f cos b sin c.
cos a = sin b sin c — cos b cos c.

cos a

tan a

C2 + B2 - A2
2BC

A sin c A sin b

B — A cos c ~ C — A cos b
[138]

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, COTANGENTS, SECANTS, AND COSECANTS
OF ANGLES FROM 0° TO 90°

This table is constructed for angles of from 0° to 90°, advancing by 10', or one-sixth
of a degree. The length of the radius is equal to 1, and forms the basis for the relative
lengths given in the table, and which are given to six places of decimals. Each entry
in the table has a duplicate significance, being the sine, tangent, or secant of one angle,
and at the same time the cosine, cotangent, or cosecant of its complement. For this
reason, and for the sake of compactness, the headings of the columns are reversed at
the foot; so that the upper headings are correct for the angles named in the left-hand
margin of the table, and the lower headings for those named in the right-hand margin.

To Find the Sine, or Other Element, to Odd Minutes. — Divide the difference between
the sines, etc., of the two angles greater and less than the given angle, in the same
proportion that the given angle divides the difference of the two angles, and add one
of the parts to the sine next it.

By an inverse process the angle may be found for any given sine, etc., not found
in the table.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, COTANGENTS, SECANTS AND COSECANTS FOR ANGLES

0° TO 90°

Advancing by 10' or one-sixth of a Degree. Radius = 1

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent-

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

0° 0'

.000000

Infinite

.000000

Infinite

1.00000

1.000000

90° 0'

10

.002909

343.77516

.002909

343.77371

1.00000

.999996

50

20

.005818

171.88831

.005818

171.88540

1.00002

.999983

40

30

.008727

114.59301

.008727

114.58865

1.00004

.999962

30

40

.011635

85.945609

.011636

85.939791

1.00007

.999932

20

50

.014544

68.757360

.014545

68.750087

1.00011

.999894

10

1° 0'

.017452

57.298688

.017455

57.289962

.00015

.999848

89° 0'

10

.020361

49.114062

.020365

49.103881

.00021

.999793

50

20

.023269

42.975713

.023275

42.964077

.00027

.999729

40

30

.026177

38.201550

.026186

38.188459

.00034

.999657

30

40

.029085

34.382316

.029097

34.367771

.00042

.999577

20

50

.031992

31.257577

.032009

31.241577

.00051

.999488

10

2° 0'

.034899

28.653708

.034921

28.636253

.00061

.999391

88° V

10

.037806

26.450510

.037834

26.431600

.00072

.999285

50

20

.040713

24.562123

.040747

24.541758

1.00083

.999171

40

30

.043619

22.925586

.043661

22.903766

1.00095

.999048

30

40

.046525

21.493676

.046576

21.470401

1.00108

.998917

'20

50

.049431

20.230284

.049491

20.205553

1.00122

.998778

10

3° 0'

.052336

19.107323

.052408

19.081137

1.00137

.998630

87° 0',

10

.055241

18.102619

.055325

18.074977

1.00153

.998473

50

20

.058145

17.198434

.058243

17.169337

1.00169

.998308

40

30

.061049

16.380408

.061163

16.349855

1.00187

.998135

30

40

.063952

15.636793

.064083

15.604784

1.00205

.997857

20

50

.066854

14.957882

.067004

14.924417

1.00224

.997763

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

[139]

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

4° 0'

.069756

14.335587

.069927

14.300666

1.00244

.997564

86° 0'

10

.072658

13.763115

.072851

13.726738

1.00265

.997357

50

20

.075559

13.234717

.075776

13 . 196888

1.00287

.997141

40

30

.078459

12.745495

.078702

12.706205

1.00309

.996917

30

40

.081359

12.291252

.081629

12.2505505

1.00333

. 996685

20

50

.084258

11.868370

.084558

11.826167

1.00357

.996444

10

5° 0'

.087156

11.473713

.087489

11.430052

1.00382

.996195

85° 0'

10

.090053

11.104549

.090421

11.059431

1.00408

.995937

50

20

.092950

10.758488

.093354

•10.711913

1.00435

.995671

40

30

.095846

10.433431

.096289

10.385397

1.00463

.995396

30

40

.098741

10.127522

.099226

10.078031

1.00491

.995113

20

50

.101635

9.8391227

. 102164

9.7881732

1.00521

.994822

10

6° 0'

. 104528

9.5667722

. 105104

9.5143645

1.00551

.994522

84° 0'

10

. 107421

9.3091699

. 108046

9.2553035

1.00582

.994214

50

20

.110313

9.0651512

.110990

9.0098261

1.00614

.993897

40

30

.113203

8.8336715

.113936

8.7768874

1.00647

.993572

30

40

.116093

8.6137901

.116883

8.5555468

1.00681

.993238

20

50

.118982

8.4045586

.119833

8.3449558

1.00715

.992896

10

7° 0'

. 121869

8.2055090

. 122785

8.1443464

1.00751

.992546

83° 0'

10

. 124756

8.0156450

.125738

7.9530224

1.00787

.992187

50

20

.127642

7.8344335

. 128694

7.7703506

1.00825

.991820

40

30

. 130526

7.6612976

. 131653

7.5957541

1.00863

.991445

30

40

.133410

7.4957100

. 134613

7.4287064

1.00902

.991061

20

50

. 136292

7.3371909

.137576

7.2687255

1.00942

.990669

10

8° 0'

. 139173

7.1852965

. 140541

7.1153697

1.00983

.990268

82° 0'

10

.142053

7.0396220

. 143508

6.9682335

1.01024

.989859

50

20

. 144932

6.8997942

. 146478

6.8269437

1.01067

.989442

40

30

.147809

6.7654691

. 149451

6.6911562

1.01111

.989016

30

40

.150686

6.6363293

. 152426

6.5605538

1.01155

.988582

20

50

.153561

6.5120812

. 155404

6.4348428

1.01200

.988139

10

9° 0'

.156434

6.3924532

. 158384

6.3137515

1.01247

.987688

81° 0'

10

. 159307

6.2771933

. 161368

6.1970279

1.01294

.987229

50

20

. 162178

6.1660674

. 164354

6.0844381

1.01332

.986762

40

30

. 165048

6.0588980

. 167343

5.9757644

1.01391

.986286

30

40

. 167916

5.9553625

. 170334

5.8708042

1.01440-

.985801

20

50

.170783

5.8553921

. 173329

5.7693688

1.01491

.985309

10

10° 0'

.173648

5.7587705

. 176327

5.6712818

1.01543

.984808

80° 0'

10

.176512

5.6653331

. 179328

5.5763786

1.01595

.984298

50

20

. 179375

5.5749258

.182332

5.4845052

1.01649

.983781

40

30

.182236

5.4874043

. 185339

5.3955172

1.01703

.983255

30

40

. 185095

5.4026333

. 188359

5.3092793

1.01758

.982721

20

50

.187953

5.3204860

.191363

5.2256647

1.01815

.982178

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

140]

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

11° 0'

. 190809

5.2408431

. 194380

5.1445540

.01872

.981627

79° 0'

10

. 193664

5.1635924

. 197401

5.0658352

.01930

.981068

50

20

.196517

5.0886284

.200425

4.9894027

.01989

.980500

40

30

. 199368

5.0158317

.203452

4.9151570

.02049

.979925

30

40

.202218

4.9451687

.206483

4.8430045

.02110

.979341

20

50

.205065

4.8764907

.209518

4.7728568

.02171

.978748

10

12° 0'

.207912

4.8097343

.212557

4.7046301

.02234

.978148

78° 0'

10

.210756

4.7448206

.215599

4.6382457

.02298

.977539

50

20

.213599

4.6816748

.218645

4.5736287

.02362

.976921

40

30

.216440

4.6202263

.221695

4.5107085

.02428

.976296

30

40

.219279

4.5604080

.224748

4.4494181

.02494

.975662

20

50

.222116

4.5021565

.227806

4.3896940

.02562

.975020

10

13° 0'

.224951

4.4454115

.230868

4.3314759

.02630

.974370

77° 0'

10

.227784

4.3901158

.233934

4.2747066

.02700

.973712

50

20

.230616

4.3362150

.237004

4.2193318

.02770

.973045

40

30

.233445

4.2836576

.240079

4.1652998

.02842

.972370

30

40

.236273

4.2323943

.243158

4.1125614

.02914

.971687

20

50

.239098

4.1823785

.246241

4.0610700

.02987

.970995

10

14° 0'

.241922

4.1335655

.249328

4.0107809

1.03061

.970296

76° 0'

10

.244743

4.0859130

.252420

3.9616518

1.03137

.969588

50

20

.247563

4.0393804

.255517

3.9136420

1.03213

.968872

40

30

.250380

3.9939292

.258618

3.8667131

1.03290

. 968148

30

40

.253195

3.9495224

.261723

3.8208281

1.03363

.967415

20

50

.256008

3.9061250

.264834

3.7759519

1.03447

.966675

10

15° 0'

.258819

3.8637033

.267949

3.7320508

1.03528

.965926

75° 0'

10

.261628

3.8222251

.271069

3.6890927

1.03609

.965169

50

20

.264434

3.7816596

.274195

3.6470467

1.03691

.964404

40

30

.267238

3.7419775

.277325

3.6058835

1.03774

. 963630

30

40

.270040

3.7031506

.280460

3.5655749

1.03858

.962849

20

50

.272840

3.6651518

.283600

3.5260938

1.03944

.962059

10

16° 0'

.275637

3.6279553

.286745

3.4874144

.04030

.961262

74° 0'

10

.278432

3 . 5915363

.289896

3.4495120

.04117

.960456

50

20

.281225

3.5558710

.293052

3.4123626

.04206

.959642

40

30

.284015

3 . 5209365

.296214

3.3759434

.04295

.958820

30

40

.286803

3.4867110

.299380

3.3402326

.04385

.957990

20

50

.289589

3.4531735

.302553

3.3052091

.04477

.957151

10

17° 0'

.292372

3.4203036

.305731

3.2708526

.04569

.956305

73° 0'

10

.295152

3.3880820

.308914

3.2371438

.04663

.955450

50

20

.297930

3.3564900

.312104

3.2040638

.04757

.954588

40

30

.300706

3.3255095

.315299

3.1715948

1.04853

.953717

30

40

.303479

3.2951234

.318500

3.1397194

1.04950

.952838

20

50

.306249

3.2653149

.321707

3.1084210

1.05047

.951951

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

141

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

18° 0'

.309017

3.2360680

.324920

3.0776835

1.05146

.951057

72° 0'

10

.311782

3.2073673

.328139

3.0474915

1.05246

.950154

50

20

.314545

3.1791978

.331364

3.0178301

1.05347

.949243

40

30

.317305

3.1515453

.334595

2.9886850

1.05449

.948324

30

40

.320062

3.1243959

.337833

2.9600422

1.05552

.947397

20

50

.322816

3.0977363

.341077

2.9318885

1.05657

.946462

10

19° 0'

.325568

3.0715535

.344328

2.9042109

1.05762

.945519

71° 0'

10

.328317

3.0458352

.347585

2.8769970

1.05869

.944568

50

20

.331063

3.0205693

.350848

2.8502349

1.05976

.943609

40

30

.333807

2.9957443

.354119

2.8239129

1.06085

.942641

30

40

.336547

2.9713490

.357396

2.7980198

1.06195

.941666

20

50

.339285

2.9473724

.360680

2.7725448

1.06306

.940684

10

20° 0'

.342020

2.9238044

.363970

2.7474774

1.06418

.939693

70° 0'

10

.344752

2.9006346

.367268

2.7228076

.06531

.938694

50

20

.347481

2.8778532

.370573

2.6985254

.06645

.937687

40

30

.350207

2.8554510

.373885

2.6746215

.06761

.936672

30

40

.352931

2.8334185

.377204

2.6510867

.06878

.935650

20

50

.355651

2.8117471

.380530

2.6279121

.06995

.934619

10

21° 0'

.358368

2.7904281

.383864

2.6050891

.07115

.933580

69° 0'

10

.361082

2.7694532

.387205

2.5826094

.07235

.932534

50

20

.363793

2.7488144

.390554

2.5604649

.07356

.931480

40

30

.366501

2.7285038

.393911

2.5386479

.07479

.930418

30

40

.369206

2.7085139

.397275

2.5171507

.07602

.929348

20

50

.371908

2.6888374

.400647

2.4959661

.07727

.928270

10

22° 0'

.374607

2.6694672

.404026

2.4750869

.07853

.927184

68° 0'

10

.377302

2.6503962

.407414

2.4545061

.07981

.926090

50

20

.379994

2.6316180

.410810

2.4342172

.08109

.924989

40

30

.382683

2.6131259

.414214

2.4142136

.08239

.923880

30

40

.385369

2.5949137

.417626

2/3944889

.08370

.922762

20

50

.388052

2.5769753

.421046

2.3750372

.08503

.921638

10

23° 0'

.390731

2.5593047

.424475

2.3558524

.08636

.920505

67° 0'

10

.393407

2.5418961

.427912

2.3369287

.08771

.919364

50

20

.396080

2.5247440

.431358

2.3182606

.08907

.918216

40

30

.398749

2.5078428

.434812

2.2998425

.09044

.917060

30

40

.401415

2.4911874

.438276

2.2816693

.09183

.915896

20

50

.404078

2.4747726

.441748

2.2637357

.09323

.914725

10

24° O7

.406737

2.4585933

.445229

2.2460368

1.09464

.913545

66° 0'

10

.409392

2.4426448

.448719

2.2285676

1.09606

.912358

50

20

.412045

2.4269222

.452218

2.2113234

1.09750

.911164

40

30

.414693

2.4114210

.455726

2.1942997

1.09895

.909961

30

40

.417338

2.3961367

.459244

2.1774920

1 . 10041

.908751

20

50

.419980

2.3810650

.462771

2.1608958

1 . 10189

.907533

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

142]

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

25° 0'

.422618

2.3662016

.466308

2.1445069

1 . 10338

.906308

65° 0'

10

.425253

2.3515424

.469854

2.1283213

1.10488

.905075

50

20

.427884

2.3370833

.473410

2.1123348

1.10640

.903834

40

30

.430511

2.3228205

.476976

2.0965436

1.10793

.902585

30

40

.433135

2.3087501

.480551

2.0809438

1.10947

.901329

20

50

.435755

2.2948685

.484137

2.0655318

1.11103

.900065

10

26° 0'

.438371

2.2811720

.487733

2.0503038

1.11260

.898794

64° 0'

10

.440984

2.2676571

.491339

2.0352565

1.11419

.897515

50

20

.443593

2.2543204

.494955

2.0203862

1.11579

.896229

40

30

.446198

2.2411585

.498582

2.0056897

1.11740

.894934

30

40

.448799

2.2281681

.502219

.9911637

1.11903

.893633

20

50

.451397

2.2153460

.505867

.9768050

1.12067

.892323

10

27° 0'

.453990

2.2026893

.509525

.9626105

1.12233

.891007

63° 0'

10

.456580

2.1901947

.513195

.9485772

1.12400

.889682

50

20

.459166

2.1778595

.516876

.9347020

1.12568

.888350

40

30

.461749

2.1656806

.520567

1.9209821

1 . 12738

.887011

30

40

.464327

2.1536553

.524270

1.9074147

1.12910

.885664

20

50

.466901

2.1417808

.527984

1.8939971

1.13083

.884309

10

28° 0'

.469472

2.1300545

.531709

1.8807265

1.13257

.882948

62° 0'

10

.472038

2.1184737

.535547

1.8676003

1.13433

.881578

50

20

.474600

2.1070359

.539195

1.8546159

1 . 13610

.880201

40

30

.477159

2.0957385

.542956

1.8417409

1.13789

.878817

30

40

.479713

2.0845792

.546728

1.8290628

1.13970

.877425

20

50

.482263

2.0735556

.550515

1.8164892

1 . 14152

.876026

10

29° 0'

.484810

2.0626653

.554309

1.8040478

1 . 14335

.874620

61° 0'

10

.487352

2.0519061

.558118

1.7917362

1.14521

.873206

50

20

.489890

2.0412757

.561939

1.7795524

1.14707

.871784

40

30

.492424

2.0307720

.565773

1.7674940

1 . 14896

.870356

30

40

.494953

2.0203929

.569619

1.7555590

1.15085

.868920

20

50

.497479

2.0101362

.573478

1.7437453

1.15277

.867476

10

30° 0'

.500000

2.0000000

.577350

1.7320508

1.15470

.866025

60° 0'

10

.502517

1.9899822

.581235

1.7204736

1 . 15665

.864567

50

20

.505030

1.9800810

.585134

1.7090116

1 . 15861

.863102

40

30

.507538

1.9702944

.589045

1.6976631

. 16059

.861629

30

40

.510043

1.9606206

.592970

1.6864261

. 16259

.860149

20

50

.512543

1.9510577

.596908

1.6752988

. 16460

.858662

10

31° 0'

.515038

1.9416040

.600861

1.6642795

.16663

.857167

59° 0'

10

.517529

1.9322578

.604827

1.6533663

.16868

.855665

50

20

.520016

1.9230173

.608807

1.6425576

. 17075

.854156

40

30

.522499

1.9138809

.612801

1.6318517

. 17283

.852640

30

40

.524977

1.9048469

.616809

1.6212469

. 17493

.851117

20

50

.527450

1.8959138

.620832

1.6107417

. 17704

.849586

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

143 n

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

32° 0'

.529919

1.8870799

.624869

1.6003345

1 . 17918

.848048

58° 0'

10

.532384

1.8783438

.628921

1.5900238

1.18133

.846503

50

20

.534844

1.8697040

.632988

1.5798079

1.18350

.844951

40

30

.537300

1.8611590

.637079

1.5696856

1 . 18569

.843391

30

40

. 539751

1.8527073

.641167

1.5596552

1 . 18790

.841825

20

50

.542197

1.8443476

.645280

1.5497155

1 . 19012

.840251

10

33° 0'

.544639

1.8360785

.649408

. 5398650

1 . 19236.

.838671

57° 0'

10

.547076

1.8278985

.653531

.5301025

1 . 19463

.837083

50

20

.549509

1.8198065

.657710

.5204261

1 . 19691

.835488

40

30

.551937

1.8118010

.661886

.5108352

1 . 19920

.833886

30

40

.554360

1.8038809

.666077

.5013282

1.20152

.832277

20

50

.556779

1.7960449

.670285

.4919039

1.20386

.830661

10

34° 0'

.559193

1.7882916

.674509

.4825610

.20622

.829038

56° 0'

10

.561602

1.7806201

.678749

.4732983

.20859

.827407

50

20

.564007

1.7730290

.683007

.4641147

.21099

.825770

40

30

.566406

1.7655173

.687281

.4550090

.21341

.824126

30

40

.568801

1.7580837

.691573

.4459801

.21584

.822475

20

50

.571191

1.7507273

.695881

.4370268

.21830

.820817

10

35° 0'

.573576

1.7434468

.700208

.4281480

.22077

.819152

55° 0'

10

.575957

1.7362413

. 704552

.4193427

.22327

.817480

50

20

.578332

1.7291096

.708913

.4106098

1.22579

.815801

40

30

.580703

1.7220508

.713293

.4019483

1.22833

.814116

30

40

.583069

1.7150639

.717691

.3933571

1.23089

.812423

20

50

.585429

1.7081478

.722108

.3848355

1.23347

.810723

10

36° 0'

.587785

.7013016

.726543

.3763810

1.23607

.809017

54° 0'

10

.590136

.6945244

.730996

.3679959

1.23869

.807304

50

20

.592482

.6878151

.735469

.3596764

1.24134

.805584

40

30

.594823

.6811730

.739961

.3514224

1.24400

.803857

30

40

.597159

.6745970

.744472

.3432331

1.24669

.802123

20

50

.599489

.6680864

.749003

.3351075

1.24940

.800383

10

37° 0'

.601815

.6616401

.753554

.3270448

1.25214

.798636

53° 0'

10

.604136

.6552575

.758125

.3190441

1.25489

.796882

50

20

.606451

.6489376

.762716

.3111046

1 . 25767

.795121

40

30

.608761

.6426796

.767627

.3032254

1.26047

.793353

30

40

.611067

.6364828

.771959

.2954057

1.26330

.791579

20

50

.613367

.6303462

.776612

.2876447

1.26615

.789798

10

38° 0'

.615661

1.6242692

.781286

.2799416

1.26902

.788011

52° 0'

10

.617951

1.6182510

.785981

.2722957

1.27191

.786217

50

20

.620235

1.6122908

.790698

.2647062

1.27483

.784416

40

30

.622515

1.6063879

.795436

.2571723

1.27778

.782608

30

40

.624789

1.6005416

.800196

.2496933

1.28075

.780794

20

50

.627057

1.5947511

.804080

.2422685

1.28374

.778973

10

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

[144]

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Cosecant

Tangent

Cotangent

Secant

Cosine

39° 0'

.629320

1.5890157

.809784

1.2348972

.28676

.777146

51° 0'

10

.631578

1.5833318

.814612

1.2275786

.28980

.775312

50

20

.633831

1.5777077

.819463

1.2203121

.29287

.773472

40

30

.636078

1.5721337

.824336

1.2130970

.29597

.771625

30

40

.638320

1.5666121

.829234

1.2059327

.29909

.769771

20

50

.640557

1.5611424

.834155

1.1988184

.30223

.767911

10

40° 0'

.642788

1.5557238

.839100

1 . 1917536

1.30541

.766044

50° 0'

10

.645013

1.5503558

.844069

1.1847376

1.30861

.764171

50

20

.647233

1.5450378

.849062

1.1777698

1.31183

.762292

40

30

.649448

1.5397690

.854081

1 . 1708496

1.31509

.760406

30

40

.651657

1.5345491

.859124

1.1639763

1.31837

.758514

20

50

.653861

1.5293773

.864193

1.1571495

1.32168

.756615

10

41° 0'

.656059

1.5242531

.869287

.1503684

1 . 32501

.754710

49° 0'

10

.658252

1.5191759

.874407

. 1436326

1.32838

.752798

50

20

.660439

1.5141452

.879553

. 1369414

1.33177

.750880

40

30

.662620

1.5091605

.884725

. 1302944

.33519

.748956

30

40

.664796

1.5042211

.889924

. 1236909

.33864

.747025

20

50

.666966

1.4993267

.895151

.1171305

.34212

.745088

10

42° 0'

.669131

1.4944765

.900404

1.1106125

.34563

.743145

48° 0'

10

.671289

1.4896703

.905685

1 . 1041365

.34917

.741195

50

20

.673443

1.4849073

.910994

1.0977020

1.35274

.739239

40

30

.675590

1.4801872

.916331

1.0913085

1.35634

.737277

30

40

.677732

1.4755095

.921697

1.0849554

1.35997

.735309

20

50

.679868

1.4708736

.927091

1.0786423

1.36363

.733335

10

43° 0'

.681998

.4662792

.932515

.0723687

1.36733

.731354

47° 0'

10

.684123

.4617257

.937968

.0661341

.37105

.729367

50

20

.686242

.4572127

.943451

.0599381

.37481

.727374

40

30

.688355

.4527397

.948965

.0537801

.37860

.725374

30

40

.690462

.4483063

.954508

.0476598

.38242

.723369

20

50

.692563

1.4439120

.960083

.0415767

.38628

.721357

10

44° 0'

.694658

1.4395565

.965689

1.0355303

.39016

.719340

46° 0'

10

.696748

1.4352393

.971326

1.0295203

.39409

.717316

50

20

.698832

1.4309602

.976996

1.0235461

1.39804

.715286

40

30

.700909

1.4267182

.982697

1.0176074

1.40203

.713251

30

40

.702981

1.4225134

.988432

1.0117088

1.40606

.711209

20

50

.705047

1.4183454

.994199

1.0058348

1.41012

.709161

10

45° 0'

.707107

1.4142136

1.000000

1.0000000

1.41421

.707107

45° -0'

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

Cosecant

Sine

Angle

[145]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, AND COTANGENTS OF
ANGLES FROM 0° TO 90°

-This table is constructed similarly to the table of natural sines, etc., preceding.
To avoid the use of logarithms with negative indices, the radius is assumed, instead of
being equal to 1, to be equal to 1010, or 10,000,000,000; consequently, the logarithm of
the radius = 10 log 10 = 10. Whence, if to log sine of any angle, when calculated for
a radius = 1, there be added 10, the sum will be the log sine of that angle for a radius
= 1010.

For example, to find the logarithmic sine of the angle 15° 50':
Nat. sine 15° 50' = .272840; its log = 1.435908

add = 10

Logarithmic sine of 15° 50' = 9.435908

When the logarithmic sines and cosines have been found in this manner, the loga-
rithmic tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants are found from those by addition
or subtraction, according to the correlations of the trigonometrical elements already
given, and here repeated in logarithmic form:

log tan = 10 + log sin — log cosin

log cotan = 20 — log tan

log sec =20 — log cosin

log cosec = 20 — log sin

To Find the Logarithmic Sine, Tangent, etc., of Any Angle. — When the number of
degrees is less than 45°, find the degrees and minutes in the left-hand column headed
angle, and under the heading sine or tangent, etc., as required, the logarithm is found
in a line with the angle.

When the number of degrees is above 45°, and less than 90°, find the degrees and
minutes in the right-hand column headed angle, and in the same line, above the title
at the foot of the page, sine or tangent, etc., find the logarithm in a line with the angle.

When the number of degrees is between 90° and 180°, take their supplement to
180°; when between 180° and 270°, diminish them by 180°; and when between 270°
and 360°, take their complement to 360°, and find the logarithm of the remainder as
before.

If the exact number of minutes is not found in the table, the logarithm of the nearest
tabular angle is to be taken and increased or diminished, as the case may be, by the
due proportion of the difference of the logarithms of the angles greater and less than
the given angle.

[146]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, AND COTANGENTS OF ANGLES FROM 0° TO 90°
Advancing by 10', or one-sixth of a Degree

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

0°

0.000000

0.000000

Infinite

10.000000

90°

10'

7.463726

7.463727

12.536273

9.999998

50'

20

7.764754

7.764761

12.235239

9.999993

40

30

7.940842

7.940858

12.059142

9.999983

30

40

8.065776

8.065806

11.934194

9.999971

20

50

8.162681

8.162727

11.837273

9.999954

10

1°

8.241855

8.241921

11.758079

9.999934

89°

10'

8.308794

8.308884

11.691116

9.999910

50'

20

8.366777

8.366895

11.633105

9.999882

40

30

8.417919

8.418068

11.581932

9.999851

30

40

8.463665

8.463849

11.536151

9.999816

20

50

8.505045

8.505267

11.494733

9.999778

10

2°

8.542819

8.543084

11.456916

9.999735

88°

10'

8.577566

8.577877

11.422123

9.999689

50'

20

8.609734

8.610094

11.389906

9.999640

40

30

8.639680

8.640093

11.359907

9.999586

30

40

8.667689

8.668160

11.331840

9.999529

20

50

8.693998

8.694529

11.305471

9.999469

10

3°

8.718800

8.719396

11.280604

9.999404

87°

10'

8.742259

8.742922

11.257078

9.999336

50'

20

8.764511

8.765246

11.234754

9.999265

40

30

8.785675

8.786486

11.213514

9.999189

30

40

8.805852

8.806742

11.193258

9.999110

20

50

8.825130

8.826103

11.173897

9.999027

10

4°

8.843585

8.844644

11.155356

9.998941

86°

10'

8.861283

8.862433

11.137567

9.998851

50'

20

8.878285

8.879529

11.120471

9.998757

40

30

8.894643

8.895984

11.104016

9.998659

30

40

8.910404

8.911846

11.088154

9.998558

20

50

8.925609

8.927156

11.072844

9.998453

10

5°

8.940296

8.941952

11.058048

9.998344

85°

10'

8.954499

8.956267

11.043733

9.998232

50'

20

8.968249

8.970133

11.029867

9.998116

40

30

8.981573

8.983577

11.016423

9.997996

30

40

8.994497

8.996624

11.003376

9.997872

20

50

9.007044

9.009298

10.990702

9.997745

10

6°

9.019235

9.021620

10.978380

9.997614

84°

10'

9.031089

9.033609

10.966391

9.997480

50'

20

9.042625

9.045284

10.954716

9.997341

40

30

9.053859

9.056659

10.943341

9.997199

30

40

9.064806

9.067752

10.932248

9.997053

20

50

9.075480

9.078576

10.921424

9.996904

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

[147]

LOGARITHMIC 'SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

7°

9.085894

9.089144

10.910856

9.996751

83°

10'

9.096062

9.099468

10.900532

9.996594

50'

20

9.105992

9.109559

10.890441

9.996433

40

30

9.115698

9.119429

10.880571

9.996269

30

40

9.125187

9.129087

10.870913

9.996100

20

50

9.134470

9.138542

10.861458

9.995928

10

8°

9.143555

9.147803

10.852197

9.995753

82°

10'

9.152451

9.156877

10.843123

9.995573

50'

20

9.161164

9.165774

10.834226

9.995390

40

30

9.169702

9.174499

10.825501

9.995203

30

40

9.178072

9.183059

10.816941

9.995013

20

50

9.186280

9.191462

10.808538

9.994818

10

9°

9.194332

9.199713

10.800287

9.994620

81°

10'

9.202234

9.207817

10.792183

9.994418

50'

20

9.209992

9.215780

10.784220

9.994212

40

30

9.217609

9.223607

10.776393

9.994003

30

40

9.225092

9.231302

10.768698

9.993789

20

50

9.232444

9.238872

10.761128

9.993572

10

10°

9.239670

9.246319

10.753681

9.993351

80°

10'

9.246775

9.253648

10.746352

9.993127

50'

20

9.253761

9.260863

10.739137

9.992898

40

30

9.260633

9.267967

10.732033

9.992666

30

40

9.267395

9.274964

10.725036

9.992430

20

50

9.274049

9.281858

10.718142

9.992190

10

11°

9.280599

9.288652

10.711348

9.991947

79°

10'

9.287048

9.295349

10.704651

9.991699

50'

20

9.293399

9.301951

10.698049

9.991448

40

30

9.299655

9.308463

10.691537

9.991193

30

40

9.305819

9.314885

10.685115

9.990934

20

50

9.311893

9.321222

10.678778

9.990671

10

12°

9.317879

9.327475

10.672525

9.990404

78°

10'

9.323780

9.333646

10.666354

9.990134

50'

20

9.329599

9.339739

10.660261

9.989860

40

30

9.335337

9.345755

10.654245

9.989582

30

40

9.340996

9.351697

10.648303

9.989300

20

50

9.346779

9.357566

10.642434

9.989014

10

13°

9.352088

9.363364

10.636636

9.988724

77°

10'

9.357524

9.369094

10.630906

9.988430

50'

20

9.362889

9.374756

10.625244

9.988133

40

30

9.368185

9.380354

10.619646

9.987832

30

40

9.373414

9.385888

10.614112

9.987526

20

50

9.378577

9.391360

10.608640

9.987217

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

148]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

14°

9.383675

9.396771

10.603229

9.986904

76°

10'

9.388711

9.402124

10.597876

9.986587

50'

20

9.393685

9.407419

10.592581

9.986266

40

30

9.398600

9.412658

10.587342

9.985942

30

40

9.403455

9.417842

10.582158

9.985613

20

50

9.408254

9.422974

10.577026

9.985280

10

15°

9.412996

9.428052

10.571948

9.984944

75°

10'

9.417684

9.433080

10.566920

9.984603

50'

20

9.422318

9.438059

10.561941

9.984259

40

30

9.426899

9.442988

10.557012

9.983911

30

40

9.431429

9.447870

10.552130

9.983558

20

50

9.435908

9.452706

10.547294

9.983202

10

16°

9.440338

9.457496

10.542504

9.982842

74°

10'

9.444720

9.462242

10.537758

9.982477

50'

20

9.449054

9.466945

10.533055

9.982109

40

30

9.453342

9.471605

10.528395

9.981737

30

40

9.457584

9.476223

10.523777

9.981361

20

50

9.461782

9.480801

10.519199

9.980981

10

17°

9.465935

9.485339

10.514661

9.980596

73°

10'

9.470046

9.489838

10.510162

9.980208

50'

20

9.474115

9.494299

10.505701

9.979816

40

30

9.478142

9.498722

10.501278

9.979420

30

40

9.482128

9.503109

10.496891

9.979019

20

50

9.486075

9.507460

10.492540

9.978615

10

18°

9.489982

9.511776

10.488224

9.978206

72°

10'

9.493851

9.516057

10.483943

9.977794

50'

20

9.497682

9.520305

10.479695

9.977377

40

30

9.501476

9.524520

10.475480

9.976957

30

40

9.505234

9.528702

10.471298

9.976532

20

50

9.508956

9.532853

10.467147

9.976103

10

19°

9.512642

9.536972

10.463028

9.975670

71°

10'

9.516294

9.541061

10.458939

9.975233

50'

20

9.519911

9.545119

10.454881

9.974792

40

30

9.523495

9.549149

10.450851

9.974347

30

40

9.527046

9.553149

10.446851

9.973897

20

50

9 . 530565

9.557121

10.442879

9.973444

10

20°

9.534052

9.561066

10.438934

9.972986

70°

10'

9.537507

9.564983

10.435017

9.972524

50'

20

9.540931

9.568873

10.431127

9.972058

40

30

9.544325

9.572738

10.427262

9.971588

30

40

9.547689

9.576576

10.423424

9.971113

20

50

9.551024

9.580389

10.419611

9.970635

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

149]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

21°

9.554329

9.584177

10.415823

9.970152

69°

10'

9.557606

9.587941

10.412059

9.969665

50'

20

9.560855

9.591681

10.408319

9.969173

40

30

9.564075

9.595398

10.404602

9.968678

30

40

9.567269

9.599091

10.400909

9.968178

20

50

9.570435

9.602761

10.397239

9.967674

10

22°

9.573575

9.606410

10.393590

9.967166

68°

10'

9.576689

9.610036

10.389964

9.966653

50

20

9.579777

9.613641

10.386359

9.966136

40

30

9.582840

9.617224

10.382776

9.965615

30

40

9.585877

9.620787

10.379213

9.965090

20

50

9.588890

9.624330

10.375670

9.964560

10

23°

9.591878

9.627852

10.372148

9.964026

67°

10'

9.594842

9.631355

10.368645

9.963488

50'

20

9.597783

9.634838

10.365162

9.962945

40

30

9.600700

9.638302

10.361698

9.962398

30

40

9.603594

9.641747

10.358253

9.961846

20

50

9.606465

9.645174

10.354826

9.961290

10

24°

9.609313

9.648583

10.351417

9.960730

66°

10'

9.612140

9.651974

10.348026

9.960165

50'

20

9.614944

9.655348

10.344652

9.959596

40

30

9.617727

9.658704

10.341296

9.959023

30

40

9.620488

9.662043

10.337957

9.958445

20

50

9.623229

9.665366

10.334634

9.957863

10

25°

9.625948

9.668673

10.331328

9.957276

65°

10'

9.628647

9.671963

10.328037

9.956684

50'

20

9.631326

9.675237

10.324763

9.956089

40

30

9.633984

9.678496

10.321504

9.955488

30

40

9.636623

9.681740

10.318260

9.954883

20

50

9.639242

9.684968

10.315032

9.954274

10

26°

9.641842

9.688182

10.311818

9.953660

64°

10'

9.644423

9.691381

10.308619

9.953042

50'

20

9.646984

9.694566

10.305434

9.952419

40

30

9.649527

9.697736

10.302264

9.951791

30

40

9.652052

9.700893

10.299107

9.951159

20

50

9.654558

9.704036

10.295964

9.950522

10

27°

9.657047

9.707166

10.292834

9.949881

63°

10'

9.659517

9.710282

10.289718

9.949235

50'

20

9.661970

9.713386

10.286614

9.948584

40

30

9.664406

9.716477

10.283523

9.947929

30

40

9.666824

9.719555

10.280445

9.947269

20

50

9.669225

9.722621

10.277379

9.946604

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

11501

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.— (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

28°

9.671609

9.725674

10.274326

9.945935

62°

10'

9.673977

9.728716

10.271284

9.945261

50'

20

9.676328

9.731746

10.268254

9.944582

40

30

9.678663

9.734764

10.265236

9.943899

30

40

9.680982

9.737771

10.262229

9.943210

20

50

9.683284

9.740767

10.259233

9.942517

10

29°

9.685571

9.743752

10.256248

9.941819

61°

10'

9.687843

9.746726

10.253274

9.941117

50'

20

9.690098

9.749689

10.250311

9.940409

40

30

9.692339

9.752642

10.247358

9.939697

30

40

9.694564

9.755585

10.244415

9.938980

20

50

9.696775

9.758517

10.241483

9.938258

10

30°

9.698970

9.761439

10.238561

9.937531

60°

10'

9.701151

9.764352

10.235648

9.936799

50'

20

9.703317

9.767255

10.232745

9.936062

40

30

9.705469

9.770148

10.229852

9.935320

30

40

9.707606

9.773033

10.226967

9.934574

20

50

9.709730

9.775908

10.224092

9.933822

10

31°

9.711839

9.778774

10.221226

9.933066

59°

10'

9.713935

9.781631

10.218369

9.932304

50'

20

9.716017

9.784479

10.215521

9.931537

40

30

9.718085

9.787319

10.212681

9.930766

30

40

9.720140

9.790151

10.209849

9.929989

20

50

9.722181

9.792974

10.207026

9.929207

10

32°

9.724210

9.795789

10.204211

9.928420

58°

10'

9.726225

9.798596

10.201404

9.927629

50'

20

9.728227

9.801396

10.198604

9.926831

40

30

9.730217

9.804187

10.195813

9.926029

30

40

9.732193

9.806971

10.193029

9.925222

20

50

9.734147

9.809748

10.190252

9.924409

10

33°

9.736109

9.812517

10.187483

9.923591

57°

10'

9.738048

9.815280

10.184720

9.922768

50'

20

9.739975

9.818035

10.181965

9.921940

40

30

9.741889

9.820783

10.179217

9.921107

30

40

9.743792

9.823524

10.176476

9.920268

20

50

9.745683

9.826259

10.173741

9.919424

10

34°

9.747562

9.828987

10.171013

9.918574

56°

10'

9.749429

9.831709

10.168291

9.917719

50'

20

9.751284

9.834425

10.165575

9.916859

40

30

9.753128

9.837134

10.162866

9.915994

30

40

9.754960

9.839838

10.160162

9.915123

20

50

9.756782

9.842535

10.157465

9.914246

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

[151]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

35°

9.758591

9.845227

10.154773

9.913365

55°

10'

9.760390

9.847913

10.152087

9.912477

50'

20

9.762177

9.850593

10.149407

9.911584

40

30

9.763954

9.853268

10.146732

9.910686

30

40

9.765720

9.855938

10.144062

9.909782

20

50

9.767475

9.858602

10.141398

9.908873

10

36°

9.769219

9.861261

10.138739

9.907958

54°

10'

9.770952

9.863915

10.136085

9.907037

50'

20

9.772675

9.866564

10.133436

9.906111

40

30

9.774388

9.869209

10.130791

9.905179

30

40

9.776090

9.871849

10.128151

9.904241

20

50

9.777781

9.874474

10.125516

9.903298

10

37°

9.779463

9.877114

10.122886

9.902349

53°

10'

9.781134

9.879741

10.120259

9.901394

50'

20

9.782796

9.882363

10.117637

9.900433

40

30

9.784447

9.884980

10.115020

9.899467

30

40

9.786089

9.887594

10.112406

9.898494

20

50

9.787720

9.890204

10.109796

9.897516

10

38°

9.789342

9.892810

10.107190

9.896532

52°

10'

9.790854

9.895412

10.104588

9.895542

50'

20

9.792557

9.898010

10.101990

9.894546

40

30

9.794150

9.900605

10.099395

9.893344

30

40

9.795733

9.903197

10.096803

9.892536

20

50

9.797307

9.905785

10.094215

9.891523

10

39°

9.798872

9.908369

10.091631

9.890503

51°

10'

9.800427

9.910951

10.089049

9.889477

50'

20

9.801973

9.913529

10.086471

9.888444

40

30

9.803511

9.916104

10.083896

9.887406

30

40

9.805039

9.918677

10.081323

9.886362

20

50

9.806557

9.921247

10.078753

9.885311

10

40°

9.808067

9.923814

10.076186

9.884254

50°

10'

9.809569

9.926378

10.073622

9.883191

50'

20

9.811061

9.928940

10.071060

9.882121

40

30

9.812544

9.931499

10.068501

9.881046

30

40

9.814019

9.934056

10.065944

9.879963

20

50

9.815485

9.936611

10.063389

9.878875

10

41°

9.816943

9.939163

10.060837

9.877780

49°

10'

9.818392

9.941713

10.058287

9.876678

50'

20

9.819832

9.944262 10.055738

9.875571

40

30

9.821265

9.946808

10.053192

9.874456

30

40

9.822688

9.949353

10.050647

9.873335

20

50

9.824104

9.951896

10.048104

9.872208

10

Cosine

Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

[152]

LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC.
LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS, ETC. — (Cont.)

Angle

Sine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

42°

9.825511

9.954437

10.045563

9.871073

48°

10'

9.826910

9.956977

10.043023

9.869933

50'

20

9.828301

9.959516

10.040484

9.868785

40

30

9.829683

9.962052

10.037948

9.867631

30

40

9.831058

9.964588

10.035412

9.866470

20

50

9.83242S

9.967123

10.032877

9.865302

10

43°

9.833783

9.969656

10.030344

9.864127

47°

10'

9.835134

9.972188

10.027812

9.862946

50'

20

9.836477

9.974720

10.025280

9.861758

40

30

9.837812

9.977250

10.022750 9.860562

30

40

9.839140

9.979780

10.020220

9.859360

20

50

9.840459

9.982309

10.017691

9.858151

10

44°

9.841771

9.984837

10.015163

9.856934

46°

10'

9.843076

9.987365

10.012635

9.855711

50'

20

9.844372

9.989893

10.010107

9.854480

40

30

9.845662

9.992420

10.007580

9.853242

30

40

9.846944

9.994947

10.005053

9.851997

20

50

9.848218

9.997473

10.002527

9.850745

10

45°

9.849485

10.000000

10.000000

9.849485

45°

Cosine Cotangent

Tangent

Sine

Angle

MENSURATION OF SOLIDS

To Find the Solidity of a Cube.— Rule: Multiply the side of the cube by itself
and that product again by the side.

NOTE. — The surface of the cube is equal to six times the square of its side.

To Find the Solidity of a Parallelepipedon.— Rule: Multiply the length by the
breadth and that product by the depth or altitude.

NOTE. — The surface of the parallelepipedon is equal to the sum of the areas of
each of its sides or ends.

To Find the Solidity of a Prism. — Rule: Multiply the area of the base into the
perpendicular height of the prism.

NOTE. — The surface of a prism is equal to the sum of the areas of the two ends and
each of its sides.

[153]

MENSURATION

To Find the Convex Surface of a Cylinder. — Rule: Multiply the circumference of
the base by the height of the cylinder.

NOTE. — If twice the area of either of the ends be added to the convex surface, it
will give the whole surface of the cylinder.

To Find the Solidity of a Cylinder. — Rule: Multiply the area of the base by the
perpendicular height.

NOTE. — The four following cases contain all the rules for finding the superfices and
solidities of cylindric ungulas.

Case 1. When the Section is Parallel to the Axis of the Cylinder.— Rule 1. Multiply
the length of the arc line of the base by the height of the cylinder, the product will be
the curve surface.

Rule 2. Multiply the area of the base by the height of the cylinder, the product
will be the solidity.

Case 2. When the Section Passes Obliquely Through the Opposite Sides of the
Cylinder. — Rule 1. Multiply the circumference of the base of the cy Under by half
the sum of the greatest and least lengths of the ungula, the product will be the curve
surface.

Rule 2. Multiply the area of the base of the cylinder by half the sum of the greatest
and least lengths of the ungula, the product will be the solidity.

H

Case 3. When the Section Passes Through the Base of the Cylinder, and One
of its Sides.— -Rule 1. Multiply the sine of half the arc of the base by the diameter of
the cylinder, and from this product subtract the product of the arc and cosine.

Rule 2. Multiply the difference thus found, by the quotient of the height divided
by the versed sine, the product will be the curve surface.

[1541

MENSURATION

Rule 3. From two-thirds of the cube of the right sine of half the arc of the base,
subtract the product of the area of the base and the cosine of the said half arc.

Multiply the difference thus found by the quotient arising from the height divided
by the versed sine, the product will be the solidity.

Case 4. When the Section Passes Obliquely Through Both Ends of the Cylinder. —
Rule 1. Conceive the section to be continued till it meets the side of the cylinder
produced; then as the difference of the versed sine of half the arcs of the two ends of the
ungula is to the versed sine of half the arc
of the less end, so is the height of the
cylinder to the part of the side produced.

Rule 2. Find the surface of each of the
ungulas, thus formed, by Case 3, and their
difference will be the surface required.

Rule 3. In like manner find the solidi-
ties of each of the ungulas, and their
difference will be the solidity required.

To Find the Convex Surface of a Cone. — Rule: Multiply the circumference of the
base by the slant height, or the length of the sides of the cone, and half the product
will be the surface required.

To get the complete surface of the above cone the area of the base must be added.

The Convex Surface of a Cone is a Sector of a Circle. — To construct such a sector:
Let the circumference of the base of the cone be divided into any number of equal

parts. Then with A C as a radius describe the arc C E. Set off as many equal spaces
on C E as are contained in the circumference of the base of the cone.

Draw C A and E A, the sector will equal the convex surface of the cone.

To Find the Convex Surface of the Frustum of a Cone. — Rule : Multiply the sum

[155]

MENSURATION

of the perimeters of the two ends by the slant height of the frustum, half the product
will be the surface required.

To Find the Solidity of a Cone. — Rule: Multiply the area of the base by one-
third of the perpendicular height of the cone, the product will be the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of a Frustum of a Cone. — Rule: For the frustum of a cone,
the diameters, or circumferences, of the two ends and the height being given. Add
together the square of the diameter of the greater end, the square of the diameter of the
less ends, and the product of the two diameters; multiply the sum by .7854, and the
product by the height; one-third of
the last product will be the solidity.

Or, add together the square of the
circumference of the greater end, the
square of the circumference of the less
end, and the product of the two cir-
cumferences; multiply the sum by
.07958, and the product by the height;
one-third of the last product will be
the solidity.

To Find the Surface of a Pyramid.

— Rule: Multiply the perimeter of the base by the length of the side, or slant height
of the pyramid, and half the product will be the surface required.

NOTE. — By slant height is meant the distance Q O at the center of one of the slant
sides. The development of the side would be a triangle A O D of which Q O is the
height.

To Develop the Convex Surface of a Pyramid. — In this case hexagonal.

The pyramid BAG stands upon a hexagonal base, shown below it.

With A C as a radius, draw an arc, and from a central point as at G, with one of
the sides of the hexagonal base as a unit, measure off three lengths to B, and three
lengths to D.

Draw B A and D A, also draw through the intermediate points E, F, G, H, I, radial
lines meeting in A.

Draw the perimeter lines D E, E F, F G, etc., to B.

This diagram represents the convex surface of the pyramid.

To Find the Surface of the Frustum of a Pyramid. — Rule: Multiply the sum of the
perimeters of the ends by the slant height, and half the product will be the surface
required.

Demonstration: Let A B, a 6, represent one of the sides of the frustum of the
pyramid, having the height Q t. By construction draw the diagonal A b, dividing the
figure into two triangles. Let a g be drawn perpendicular to A 6, and B / perpendicular
to A 6.

Then the triangle A a b = % (A 6 X a g\ and the triangle AB6 = HA6XB/).

The area of the four-sided figure A a 6 B equals the area of the two triangles into

[156]

MENSURATION

which the figure was divided by the line A 6; therefore the area of a trapezium may
be found by multiplying the sum of the parallel sides by half the perpendicular distance
between them.

To Find the Solidity of a Pyramid. — Rule: Multiply the area of the base by one-
third of the perpendicular height.

Let A B represent one edge of a cube, and lines be drawn from each of the four
corners of the base A, B, C, D, to the center of the cube, a square pyramid will be

formed, the base of which will be equal to the base of the cube, and its height equal
to one-half the height of the cube.

A cube consists of six sides, therefore a cube will contain six such pyramids; hence
the volume of the pyramid is one-sixth that of the cube. Inasmuch as the pyramid
is only one-half the height of the cube, two such pyramids can be contained within
it to equal the same height; hence the volume of any pyramid is equal to f (area of
base X height).

To Find the Solidity of a Frustum of a Pyramid Whose Sides Are Regular Poly-
gons.— Add together the square of a side of the greater end, and the square of a side
of the less end, and the product of these two sides; multiply the sum by the proper
number in the table under " To find the area of a regular polygon, when the side only

is given," and the product by the height; one-third
of the last product will be the solidity.

NOTE. — When the ends of the pyramids are not

regular polygons, add together the areas of the two ends and the square root of
their product; multiply the sum by the height, and one-third of the product will
be the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of a Wedge.— Rule: Add twice the length of the base to the
length of the edge, and reserve the number.

Multiply the height of the wedge by the breadth of the base, and this product by
the reserved number; one-sixth of the last product will be the solidity.

NOTE. — When the length of the base is equal to half of the wedge, the wedge is
evidently equal to half a prism of the same base and altitude,

[157]

MENSURATION

To Find the Solidity of a Prismoid.— Rule: To the sum of the areas of the two
ends, add four times the area of a section parallel to and equally distant from both
ends, and this last sum multiplied by one-sixth of the height will give the solidity.

NOTE. — The length of the middle of the rectangle is equal to half the sum of the
length of the rectangle of the two ends, and its breadth equal to half the sum of the
breadths of those rectangles.

To Find the Convex Surface of a Sphere. — Rule: Multiply the diameter of the
sphere by its circumference, the product will be the convex superfices required.

NOTE. — The curve surface of any zone or segment will also be found by multiplying
its height by the whole circumference of the sphere.

Cor. 1. The surface of a sphere is also equal to the curve surface of its circumscribing
cylinder.

Cor. 2. The surface of a sphere is also equal to four times the area of a great circle
of it.

Lunar Surface. — To find the lunar surface included between two great circles of
the sphere. Rule: Multiply the diameter into the breadth of the surface in the middle,
the product will be the superfices required. Or,

as one right angle is to the great circle of the sphere,
so is the angle made by the two great circles
to the surface included by them.

Spherical Triangle. — To find the area of a spherical triangle, or the surf ace included
by the intercepting arcs, of three great circles of the sphere. Rule:
As two right angles, or 180°,
is to a great circle of the sphere,

so is the excess of the three angles above two right angles
to the area of a triangle.

To Find the Solidity of a Sphere. — Rule: Multiply the cube of a diameter by .5236,
the product will be the solidity.

Cor. — A sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circumscribing cylinder.

A cone, hemisphere, and cylinder of the same base and altitude are to each other J,
J, and 1; or, as 1, 2, and 3. All spheres are to each other as the cubes of their diam-

[158]

MENSURATION

eters. For cylinders of the same altitude are to each other as the cubes of their diam-
eters; and a sphere is two-thirds of a cy Under whose diameter and altitude are equal
to the diameter of the sphere.

To Find the Solidity of the Segment of a Sphere.— Rule: To three times the square
of the radius of its base add the square of its height; and this sum multipUed by the
height, and the product again by .5236, will give the soUdity. Or,

From three times the diameter of the sphere subtract twice the height of the seg-
ment, multiply by the square of the height, and that product by .5236; the last product
will be the soUdity.

To Find the Solidity of a Frustum or Zone of a Sphere. — Rule: To the sum of
the squares of the radii of the two ends, add one-third of the square of their distance,
or of the breadth of the zone, and this sum multipUed by the said breadth, and the
product again by 1.5708, will give the soUdity.

To Find the Solidity of a Spheroid. — Rule: Multiply the square of the revolving
axe by the fixed axe, and this product again by .5236, and it will given the solidity
required.

Where note that .5236 = £ of 3.1416.

To Find the Content of the Middle Frustum of a Spheroid, Its Length, the Middle
Diameter, and That of Either of the Ends Being Given.

Case 1. When the Ends are Circular, or Parallel to the Revolving Axis. Rule:
To twice the square of the middle diameter, add the square of the diameter of either
of the ends, and this sum multiplied by the length of the frustum, and the product
again by .2618, will give the solidity.

Where note that .2618 = & of 3.1416.

Case 2. When the Ends are Elliptical or Perpendicular to the Revolving Axis. —
Rule 1. Multiply twice the transverse diameter of the middle section by its conjugate

diameter, and to this product add the product of the transverse and conjugate diameters
of either of the ends.

2. Multiply the sum thus found by the distance of the ends or the height of the
frustum, and the product again by .2618, and it will give the solidity required.

To Find the Solidity of the Segment of a Spheroid.— Case 1. When the Base is
Parallel to the Revolving Axis.

[159]

MENSURATION

Rule 1. Divide the square of the revolving axis by the square of the fixed axe, and
multiply the quotient by the difference between three times the fixed axe and twice
the height of the segment.

2. Multiply the product, thus found, by the square of the height of the segment,
and this product again by .5236, and it will give the solidity required.

Case 2. When the Base is Perpendicular to the Revolving Axis. — Rule 1. Divide

the fixed axe by the revolving axe, and multiply the quotient by the difference between
three times the revolving axe and twice the height of the segment.

2. Multiply the product, thus found, by the square of the height of the segment,
and this prociuct again by .5236, and it wiU give the solidity required.

To Find the Solidity of a Parabolic Conoid. — Rule: Multiply the area of the base
by half the altitude, and the product will be the content.

NOTE. — The parabolic conoid = \ its circumscribing cylinder.

The rule given above will hold for any segment of the paraboloid, whether the base
be perpendicular or oblique to the axe of the solid.

To find the Solidity of the Frustum of a Paraboloid, When Its Ends are Perpen-
dicular to the Axe of the Solid. — Rule: Multiply the sum of the squares of the diameters
cf the two ends by the height of the frustum, and the product again by .3927, and it
will give the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of an Hyperboloid. — Rule: To the square of the radius of the

[160]

MENSURATION

base add the square of the middle diameter between the base and the vertex; and
this sum multiplied by the altitude, and the product again by .5236 will give the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of the Frustum of an Hyperbolic Conoid.— Rule: Add together
the squares of the greatest and least semi-diameters, and the square of the whole
diameter hi the middle, then this sum being multiplied by the altitude, and the product
again by .5236 will give the solidity.

NOTE. — The content of any spindle formed by the revolution of a conic section
about its axis may be found by the following rule:

Add together the squares of the greatest and least diameters, and square of double
the diameter in the middle between the two, and this sum multiplied by the length,
and the product again by .1309 will give the solidity.

And the rule will never deviate much from the truth when the figure revolves about
any other line which is not the axis.

REGULAR BODIES

The whole number of regular bodies which can possibly be formed is five:

1. The tetrahedron, or regular pyramid, which has four triangular faces.

2. The hexahedron, or cube, which has six square faces.

3. The octahedron, which has eight triangular faces.

4. The dodecahedron, which has twelve pentagonal faces.

5. The icosahedron, which has twenty triangular faces.

NOTE. — There are only three kinds of equilateral and equiangular plane figures
which, when joined together, will form a solid angle, and these are triangles, squares,

or pentagons; and there are no more than five different solids, given above, which
are bounded by equilateral and equiangular plane figures.

Tetrahedron. — The solid angles of a tetrahedron are formed by three equilateral
plane triangles, and the solid is bounded by four equal and equilateral plane triangles,
therefore, it is a pyramid.

Hexahedron. — The solid angles of a hexahedron are formed by three equal squares,
and the solid is bounded by six equal squares, therefore, it is a cube.

Octahedron. — The solid angles of an octa-
hedron are formed by four equal and equi-
lateral plane triangles, and the solid is bounded
by eight equal and equilateral plane triangles;
consequently it is formed by two equal square
pyramids joined together at their bases, the
sides whereof are equilateral triangles.

Dodecahedron. — The solid angles of a do-
decahedron are formed by three equal, equilateral,
and equiangular pentagons; and the solid is
bounded by twelve equal, equilateral and
equiangular pentagons. This solid may be con-
ceived to consist of twelve equal pentagonal pyramids, whose vertices meet in the
center of a sphere circumscribing it.

[161]

W\A

MENSURATION

Icosahedron. — The solid angles of an icosahedron are formed by five equal and
equilateral plane triangles, and the solid is bounded by twenty equal and equilateral
plane triangles. The solid may be conceived to consist of twenty equal triangular
pyramids, whose vertices meet in the center of a sphere circumscribing it.

To Find the Solidity of a Tetrahedron. — Rule: Multiply one-twelfth of the cube of
the linear side by the square root of 2, and the product will be the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of a Hexahedron. — Rule: Multiply the side of the cube by
itself, and that product again by the side, and it will give the solidity required.

NOTE.— When the number denoting the length of the edge of the cube is known,
the volume is obtained by cubing the given number.

The converse operation, i. e., given the volume to find the length of an edge, re-
quires the extraction of the cube root.

To Find the Solidity of an Octahedron. — Rule: Multiply one-third of the cube of the
linear side by the square root of 2, the product will be the solidity.

To Find the Solidity of a Dodecahedron. — Rule: To twenty-one times the square

root of 5, add 47, and divide the sum by 40; then the square root of the quotient being
multiplied by five times the cube of the linear side will give the solidity required.

To Find the Solidity of a Icosahedron. — Rule: To three times the square root of 5
add 7, and divide the sum by 2; then the square root of this quotient being multiplied
by five-sixths of the cube of the linear side will give the solidity required.

[102]

MENSURATION

That is, S3 X

V

(7 +

solidity when S is = to the linear side.

NOTE. — The superfices and solidity of any of the five regular bodies may be found
as follows: Rule 1. Multiply the tabular area by the square of the linear edge, and
the product will be the superfices.

2. Multiply the tabular solidity by the cube of the linear edge, and the product will
be the solidity.

SURFACES AND SOLIDITIES OF THE REGULAR BODIES

No. of
Sides

Names

Surfaces

Solidities

4

Tetrahedron

1 73205

0.11785

6

Hexahedron

6.00000

1.00000

8

Octahedron

3 46410

0 47140

12

Dodecahedron . ....

20 64578

7.66312

20

Icosahedron

8.66025

2.18169

CYLINDRIC RINGS

To Find the Convex Superfices of a Cylindric Ring.— Rule: To the thickness of
the ring add the inner diameter, and this sum being multiplied by the thickness and
the product again by 9.8696 will give the superfices required.

NOTE. — A solid ring of this kind is only a bent
cylinder, and therefore the rules for obtaining its
superfices or solidity are the same as those already
given. For, let A c be any section of the solid per-
pendicular to its axis o n, and then A c X 3.1416 =
circumference of that section, and A c + cd (on) X . ......

3.1416 = length of the axis on. 1WHI 1111311113

To Find the Solidity of a Cylindric Ring. — Rule
1. To the thickness of the ring add the inner diame-
ter, and this sum being multiplied by the square of
half the thickness and the product again by 9.8696
will give the solidity.

Hule 2. Add together the inner diameter and the

thickness of the ring for a mean diameter. Multiply the mean diameter by 3.1416,
and the product by the area of the cross-section of the ring will give the solidity.

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

Logarithms are useful in shortening and facilitating the arithmetical operations
of multiplication and division. The sum of the logarithms of two numbers is the
logarithm of the product of those numbers; and since logarithms are the indices of
powers of the same basis, the difference of the logarithms of two numbers is the logarithm
of the quotient; also the multiple of the logarithm of a number is the logarithm of the
power of that number, and a fraction of the logarithm of a number is the logarithm
of the corresponding root. Hence, a complete table of logarithms would enable one
to perform multiplication by addition, division by subtraction, involution by multi-
plication, and evolution by division.

There are two systems of logarithms in use: The common system, in which the
base is 10, and the Naperian system, in which the base (denoted by e) is 2.718281828.
Naperian logarithms are also called natural, but commonly hyperbolic logarithms.

[163]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

The common system of logarithms is generally referred to as the Briggs' system,
after their inventor. In this system the logarithm of every number between 1 and
10 is some number between 0 and 1, that is, it is a fractional number. As all numbers
are to be regarded as powers of 10, we have

10° = 1, and 0 is the logarithm of 1

101 = 10, and 1 is the logarithm of 10

102 = 100, and 2 is the logarithm of 100

103 = 1000, and 3 is the logarithm of 1000

104 = 10000, and 4 is the logarithm of 10000

The logarithm, therefore, of every number between 10 and 100 is some number
between 1 and 2, that is, it is 1+ a fraction; similarly, every number between 100 and
1000 is some number between 2 and 3, that is, 2+ a fraction.

This principle is extended to fractions by means of negative exponents, thus
lO — i =o.l, and —1 is the logarithm of 0. 1
10—2 =0.01, and —2 is the logarithm of 0.01
10 — 3 = 0.001, and —3 is the logarithm of 0.001
10-4 = 0.0001, and -4 is the logarithm of 0.0001

The logarithm of every number between 1 and 0.1 is some number between 0 and
— 1, *or may be represented by —1+ a fraction; the logarithm of every number be-
tween 0.1 and .01 is some number between —1 and —2, or may be represented by — 2 +
a fraction, and so on. The negative sign is commonly placed over the figure, 2" rather
than —2. Writing the minus sign over the characteristic, and not before it, indicates
that the characteristic only is 'negative, and not the whole expression.

The Logarithm of a Number Consists of Two Parts, an integral part and a fractional
part. The integral part is called the characteristic, and the fractional part the mantissa.

The Characteristic of the Logarithm of any number greater than unity is one less
than the number of integral figures in the given number. Thus, the logarithm of 385
is 2+ a fraction; that is the characteristic of the logarithm of 385 is one less than the
number of integral figures, or 2.

The characteristic of the logarithm of a decimal fraction is a negative number, and
is equal to the number of places by which its first significant figure is removed from
the place of units. Thus, the logarithm of .0047 is —3+ a fraction; that is, the char-
acteristic of the logarithm is —3 (3 ), the first significant figure 4 being removed three
paces from the unit.

To Add Two Negative Characteristics, take their sum and make it negative. Thus
5+2 = 7.

To Add a Positive to a Negative Characteristic, take their difference and make its
sign the sign- of the greater; thus, 3 + 5 =2, and 3+5 = 2.

To Subtract a Negative Characteristic^ changejts sign _to plus and proceed as in
addition; thus, 4-3 = 4 + 3=7, and 4-3 = 4 + 3 = 1.

To Subtract a Positive Characteristic^change rts sign to minus and proceed as in
addition; thus, 4-3 = 4+3=1, and 4-3 =4+3 = 7.

To Multiply a Negative Characteristic, multiply as if positive and make the product
negative; thus, 2X3=6.

The Mantissa of a logarithm is its decimal part. The mantissa is always positive,
the minus sign being usually written over the characteristic and not before it, to in-
dicate that the characteristic only and not the whole expression is negative; thus,
1.4084604 stands for -1+ .4084604.

Multiplication. — The logarithm of the product of two or more factors is equal to
the sum of the logarithm of those factors. If it is required to multiply two or more
numbers by each other, we have only to add their logarithms: the sum will be the
logarithm of their product. Then look in the table for the number answering to that
logarithm and obtain the required product.

Division. — The logarithm of the quotient of one number divided by another is
equal to the difference of the logarithm of those numbers. If it is required to divide
one number by another, we have only to subtract the logarithm of the divisor from
that of the dividend; the difference will be the logarithm of the quotient.

[164J

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

The Decimal Part of the Logarithm of any number is the same as that of the number
multiplied or divided by 10, 100, 1000, etc. That is, if any number be multiplied or
divided by 10, its logarithm will be increased or diminished by 1; and as this is an
integer, it will only change the characteristic of the logarithm, without affecting the
decimal part.

Thus, -the logarithm of 47,630 = 4.677881

4,763 = 3.677881

476.3 = 2.677881

47.63 = 1.677881

4.763 = 0.677881

.4763 = L677881

.04763 =2.677881

.004763 = 3.677881

To Divide a Logarithm Having a Negative Characteristic. — If the characteristic is
divisible by the divisor without a remainder, write _the quotient with a negative sign
and divide the decimal part in the usual way; 6.458938 -=- 2 = 3.229469. If the
characteristic is not divisible by the divisor without a remainder, add such a negative
number to it as will make it divisible without a remainder and prefix an equal positive
number to the decimal part of the logarithm, then divide the increased negative char-
acteristic and the other part of the logarithm separately; thus

7.135718 -r- 3 = (2+7+2.135718) ^ 3 = (9 + 2.135718) -=-!} = 3.711906.

To Find the Logarithm of a Vulgar Fraction. — Reduce the vulgar fraction to a deci-
mal, and find its logarithm; or, since the value of a fraction is equal to the quotient of
the numerator divided by the denominator, we may subtract the logarithm of the
denominator from that of the numerator; the difference will be the logarithm of the
fraction.

Involution by Logarithm. — On the principle that the logarithm of any power of a
number is equal to the logarithm of that number multiplied by the exponent of the
power, we have the following rule. Multiply the logarithm of the number by the
exponent of the power required.

Example, required the square of 428:

The logarithm of 428 is 2.631444

2

Square 183184, log 5 .262888

It should be remembered, that what is carried from the decimal part of the logarithm,
is positive, whether the characteristic is positive or negative.
Example, required the cube of .07654:

Cube, .0004484, log 4.651664

Evolution by Logarithm. — The logarithm of any root of a number is equal to the
logarithm of that number divided by the index of the root. To extract the root of a
number by logarithm we have the following rule:

Divide the logarithm of the number by the index of the root required.

Example, required the cube root of 482.38.

The logarithm of 482.38 is 2.683389.

Dividing by 3, we have 0.894463 which corresponds to 7.842, which is the root
required.

When the characteristic of the logarithm is negative, and is not divisible by the
given divisor, we may increase the characteristic by any number which will make it
exactly divisible, provided we prefix an equal positive number to the decimal part of
the logarithm.

Example, required the seventh root of 0.005846.

[165]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

The logarithm of 0.005846 is 3~.766859, which may be written 1 + 4.766859.
To Find the Reciprocal of a Number. — Subtract the decimal part of the logarithm
of the number from 0.000000; add 1 to the index of the logarithm, and change the
sign of the index. This completes the logarithm of the reciprocal.
Example, to find the reciprocal of 230:

0.000000
Log 230 = 2.361728

3.638272 = log 0.004348 the reciprocal.

Inversely, to find the reciprocal of the decimal .00438 :

0.000000
Log .004348 = 3.638272

2.361728 = log 230 the reciprocal.

TO FIND THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER BY THE TABLES

To find the logarithm of a number containing one or two digits, look for the number
in the preliminary table, which gives all numbers from 1 to 100; the logarithm will be
found in the adjoining column. For example, required the logarithm of 84. In the
preliminary table, opposite 84, is 1.924279, which includes the integer. Or, annex a
cipher to it, making the number 840 and find that number hi the larger table; opposite
will be the decimal .924279, to which is to be prefixed the integer 1, included hi the pre-
liminary table. As 84 was multiplied by 10, the base of the system, the decimal was
not changed, nor would it have been if multiplied by 100, 1000, or any other multiple
of 10.

The logarithm of any number between 100 and 10000 can be found in the larger
table by locating the number, if less than 1000, in column N; the logarithm will be in
the adjoining column under O. If the number be over 1000 and less than 10000,
say 6849, find the first three of the numbers (684) in column N; in the adjoining column
will be found .83, which is to be prefixed to the figures 5627, found on the same line
under heading 9; the mantissa of logarithm is .835627, to which must be added the
integer 3, then 3.835627 is the logarithm of 6849.

To fine the logarithm of a number consisting of five or more digits, find the logarithm
for the first four as above; multiply the difference, in column D, by the remaining
digits, and divide by 10, if there be only one digit more, or by 100, if there be two more,
and so on; add the quotient to the logarithm for the first four. The sum is the decimal
part of the required logarithm, to which the index is to be prefixed. For example,
take 3.1416. The logarithm of 3141 is .497068, decimal part; and the difference 138
times 6 -^ 10 = 83, is to be added, thus

0.497068
83

Making the complete logarithm 0.497151

To Find the Number Corresponding to a Given Logarithm, look for the logarithm
without the index. If it be found exactly, or within two or three units of the right-hand
digit, then the first three figures of the indicated number will be found in the number
column, in a line with the logarithm, and the fourth figure at the top or the foot of
the column containing the logarithm. Annex the fourth figure to the first three, and
place the decimal point in its proper position, on the principles already explained.
If the given logarithm differs by more than two or three units from the nearest in the
table, find the number for the next less tabulated logarithm, which will give the first
four digits of the required number. To find the fifth and sixth digit, subtract the
tabulated logarithm from the given logarithm, add two ciphers and divide by the
difference found in column D, opposite the logarithm. Annex the quotient to the four

[166]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

digits already found, and place the decimal point. For example, to find the number
represented by the logarithm 2.564732:

2.564732 given logarithm,
Logarithm 367.0 = 2.564666 nearest less

.056

D 118)6600(56 nearly
590

367.056

700
708

showing that the required number is 367.056.

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
From 1 to 1000

No.

Log.

No.

Log.

No.

Log.

No.

Log.

- 1

0.000000

26

.414973

51

1.707570

76

1.880814

. .,2

0.301030

27

.431364

52

1.716003

77

1.886491

3

0.477121

28

.447158

53

1.724276

78

1.892095

4

0.602060

29

.462398

54

1.732394

79

1.897627

5

0.698970

30

.477121

55

1.740363

80

1.903090

6

0.778151

31

1.491362

56

.748188

81

1.908485

ii,7

0.845098

32

1.505150

57

.755875

82

1.913814

•;-s

0.903090

33

1.518514

58

.763428

83

1.919078

9

0.954243

34

1.531479

59

.770852

84

1.924279

10

1.000000

35

1.544068

60

.778151

85

1.929419

11

.041393

36

1.556303

61

1.785330

86

.934498

12

.079181

37

1.568202

62

1.792392

87

.939519

13

.113943

38

1.579784

63

1.799341

88

.944483

14

. 146128

39

1.591065

64

1.806180

89

.949390

15

. 176091

40

1.602060

65

1.812913

90

.954243

16

1.204120

41

.612784

66

1.819544

91

1.959041

17

1.230449

42

.623249

67

1.826075

92

1.963788

18

1.255273

43

.633468

68

1.832509

93

1.968483

19

1.278754

44

.643453

69

1.838849

94

1.973128

20

1.301030

45

.653213

70

1.845098

95

1.977724

21

.322219

46

.662758

71

1.851258

96

1.982271

22

.342423

47

.672098

72

1.857332

97

1.986772

23

.361728

48

.681241

73

1.863323

98

1.991226

24

.380211

49

.690196

74

1.869232

99

1.995635

25

.397940

50

.698970

75

1.875061

100

2.000000

[167]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

100
101
102

00-
00-
00-

0000
4321
8600

0434
4751
9026

0868
5181
9451

1301
5609
9876

1734
6038

2166
6466

2598
6894

3029
7321

3461

7748

3891
8174

432

428
4?5

102

01-

0300

0724

1147

1570

1993

2415

424

103
104

01-
01-

2837
7033

3259
7451

3680

7868

4100

8284

4521
8700

4940
9116

5360
9532

5779
9947

6197

6616

420
417

104

02-

0361

0775

416

105
106
107

02-
02-
02-

1189
5306
9384

1603
5715

9789

2016
6125

2428
6533

2841
6942

3252
7350

3664

7757

4075
8164

4486
8571

4896
8978

412
408
405

107
108
109

03-
03-
03-

3424
7426

3826

7825

0195
4227

8223

0600
4628
8620

1004
5029
9017

1408
5430
9414

1812
5830
9811

2216
6230

2619
6629

3021
7028

404
400

398

109

04-

0207

0602

0998

397

110
111
112

04-
04-
04-

1393
5323
9218

1787
5714
9606

2182
6105
9993

2576
6495

2969

6885

3362
7275

3755
7664

4148
8053

4540
8442

4932
8830

393

389

388

11?

05-

0380

0766

1153

1538

1924

2309

2694

386

113
114
114

05-
05-
06-

3078
6905

3463

7286

3846
7666

4230
8046

4613
8426

4996
8805

5378
9185

5760
9563

6142
9942

6524
0320

383
383
37Q

115
116
117

06-

06-
06-

0698
4458
8186

1075

4832
8557

1452
5206
8927

1829
5580
9298

2206
5953
9668

2582
6326

2958
6699

3333
7071

3709
7443

4083
7815

376
373

380

117

07-

0038

0407

0776

1145

1514

370

118
119

120

07-
07-

07-

1882
5547

9181

2250
5912

9543

2617
6276

9904

2985
6640

3352
7004

3718
7368

4085
7731

4451
8094

4816
8457

5182

8819

366
363

36?

1?0

08-

0266

0626

0987

1347

1707

2067

2426

360

121
122
123

08-
08-
08-

2785
6360
9905

3144
6716

3503
7071

3861
7426

4219

7781

4576
8136

4934
8490

5291

8845

5647
9198

6004
9552

357
355
355

123
124

125
125

09-
09-

09-
10-

3422
6910

0258
3772

7257

0611
4122

7604

0963
4471

7951

1315

4820

8298

1667
5169

8644

2018
5518

8990

2370
5866

9335

2721
6215

9681

3071
6562

0026

353
349

348
346

126
127
128

128

10-
10-
10-
11-

0371
3804
7210

0715
4146
7549

1059

4487
7888

1403

4828
8227

1747
5169
8565

2091
5510
8903

2434
5851
9241

2777
6191
9579

3119
6531
9916

3462

6871

0253

343
341
338
337

129

130
131
131

11-

11-
11-

12-

0590

3943
7271

0926

4277
7603

1263

4611
7934

1599

4944
8265

1934

5278
8595

2270

5611

8926

2605

5943
9256

2940

6276
9586

3275

6608
9915

3609
6940
0245

335

333
331
330

N

o

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[168]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (ConO

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

132

12-

0574

0903

1231

1560

1888

2216

2544

2871

3198

3525

328

133

12-

3852

4178

4504

4830

5156

5481

5806

6131

6456

6781

325

134

12-

7105

7429

7753

8076

8399

8722

9045

9368

9690

....

323

134

13-

0012

323

135

13-

0334

0655

0977

1298

1619

1939

2260

2580

2900

3219

321

136

13-

3539

3858

4177

4496

4814

5133

5451

5769

6086

6403

318

137

13-

6721

7037

7354

7671

7987

8303

8618

8934

9249

9564

316

138

13-

9879

315

138

14-

0194

0508

0822

1136

1450

1763

2076

2389

2702

314

139

14-

3015

3327

3639

3951

4263

4574

4885

5196

5507

5818

311

140

14-

6128

6438

6748

7058

7367

7676

7985

8294

8603

8911

309

141

14-

9219

9527

9835

308

141

15-

0142

0449

0756

1063

1370

1676

1982

307

142

15-

2288

2594

2900

3205

3510

3815

4120

4424

4728

5032

305

143

15-

5336

5640

5943

6246

6549

6852

7154

7457

7759

8061

303

144

15-

8362

8664

8965

9266

9567

9868

302

144

16-

0168

0469

0769

1068

301

145

16-

1368

1667

1967

2266

2564

2863

3161

3460

3758

4055

299

146

16-

4353

4650

4947

5244

5541

5838

6134

6430

6726

7022

297

147

16-

7317

7613

7908

8203

8497

8792

9086

9380

9674

9968

295

148

17-

0262

0555

0848

1141

1434

1726

2019

2311

2603

2895

293

149

17-

3186

3478

3769

4060

4351

4641

4932

5222

5512

5802

291

150

17-

6091

6381

6670

6959

7248

7536

7825

8113

8401

8689

289

151

17-

8977

9264

9552

9839

287

151

18-

0126

0413

0699

0986

1272

1558

287

152

18-

1844

2129

2415

2700

2985

3270

3555

3839

4123

4407

285

153

18-

4691

4975

5259

5542

5825

6108

6391

6674

6956

7239

283

154

1&-

7521

7803

8084

8366

8647

8928

9209

9490

9771

281

154

19-

0051

281

155

19-

0332

0612

0892

1171

1451

1730

2010

2289

2567

2846

279

156

19-

3125

3403

3681

3959

4237

4514

4792

5069

5346

5623

278

157

19-

5900

6176

6453

6729

7005

7281

7556

7832

8107

8382

276

158

19-

8657

8932

9206

9481

9755

275

158

20-

0029

0303

0577

0850

1124

274

159

20-

1397

1670

1943

2216

2488

2761

3033

3305

3577

3848

272

160

20-

4120

4391

4663

4934

5204

5475

5746

6016

6286

6556

271

161

20-

6826

7096

7365

7634

7904

8173

8441

8710

8979

9247

269

162

20-

9515

9783

....

....

268

162

21-

....

0051

0319

0586

0853

1121

1388

1654

1921

267

163

21-

2188

2454

2720

2986

3252

3518

3783

4049

4314

4579

266

164

21-

4844

5109

5373

5638

5902

6166

6430

6694

6957

7221

264

165

21-

7484

7747

8010

8273

8536

8798

9060

9323

9585

9846

262

166

22-

0108

0370

0631

0892

1153

1414

1675

1936

2196

2456

261

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[169]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

LOGABITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 (Cont.)

N

0

1

2

3

4 .

5

6

7

8

9

D

167

168
169
169

22-
22-
22-
23-

2716
5309

7887

2976
5568
8144

3236

5826
8400

3496
6084
8657

3755
6342
8913

4015
6600
9170

4274

6858
9426

4533
7115
9682

4792
7372
9938

5051
7630

0193

259
258
257

2cifi

170
171
172
173
173

23-
23-
23-
23-

24r-

0449
2996

5528
8046

0704
3250
5781
8297

0960
3504
6033

8548

1215
3757
6285
8799

1470
4011
6537
9049

1724
4264
6789
9299

1979
4517
7041
9550

2234
4770
7292
9800

2488
5023
7544

0050

2742
5276
7795

0300

255
253
252
251
250

174

175
176
177
177

24-

24-
24-
24-
25-

0549

3038
5513
7973

0799

3286
5759
8219

1048

3534
6006
8464

1297

3782
6252
8709

1546

4030
6499
8954

1795

4277
6745
9198

2044

4525
6991
9443

2293

4772
7237
9687

2541

5019

7482
9932

2790

5266

7728

0176

249

248
246
246
245

178
179

180
181
182
183
184

185
186

25-
25-

25-
25-
26-
26-
26-

26-
26-

0420
2853

5273
7679
0071
2451

4818

7172
9513

0664
3096

5514
7918
0310
2688
5054

7406
9746

0908
3338

5755
8158
0548
2925
5290

7641
9980

1151
3580

5996
8398
0787
3162
5525

7875

1395
3822

6237
8637
1025
3399
5761

8110

1638
4064

6477
8877
1263
3636
5996

8344

1881
4306

6718
9116
1501
3873
6232

8578

2125
4548

6958
9355
1739
4109
6467

8812

2368
4790

7198
9594
1976
4346
6702

9046

2610
5031

7439
9833
2214
4582
6937

9279

243

242

241
239
238
237
235

234
?34

186

27-

0213

0446

0679

0912

1144

1377

1609

233

187
188
189

190

27-
27-

27-

27-

1842
4158
6462

8754

2074
4389
6692

8982

2306
4620
6921

9211

2538
4850
7151

9439

2770
5081
7380

9667

3001
5311
7609

9895

3233
5542

7838

3464
5772
8067

3696
6002
8296

3927
6232
8525

232
230
229

??8

190

28-

0123

0351

0578

0806

??8

191
192
193
194

195
196
197
198
199

28-
28-
28-
28-

29-
29-
29-
29-
29-

1033
3301
5557

7802

0035
2256
4466
6665
8853

1261
3527

5782
8026

0257

2478
4687
6884
9071

1488
3753
6007
8249

0480
2699
4907
7104
9289

1715
3979
6232

8473

0702
2920
5127
7323
9507

1942
4205
6456
8696

0925
3141
5347
7542
9725

2169
4431
6681
8920

1147
3363
5567
7761
9943

2396
4656
6905
9143

1369
3584

5787
7979

2622

4882
7130
9366

1591
3804
6007

8198

2849
5107
7354
9589

1813
4025
6226
8416

3075
5332

7578
9812

2034
4246
6446
8635

227
226
225
223

222
221
220
219
218

199

30-

0161

0378

0595

0813

218

200
201
202
203

30-
30-
30-
3O-

1030
3196
5351
7496

1247
3412
5566
7710

1464
3628
5781
7924

1681
3844
5996
8137

1898
4059
6211
8351

2114
4275
6425
8564

2331
4491
6639

8778

2547
4706
6854
8991

2764
4921
7068
9204

2980
5136

7282
9417

217
216
215
213

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[170J

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N'

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

?04

30-

9630

9843

•

?13

?04

31-

0056

0268

0481

0693

0906

1118

1330

1542

21?

205
206
207
208
209

210
211
212
?13

31-
31-
31-
31-
32-

32-
32-
32-
32-

1754
3867
5970
8063
0146

2219
4282
6336
8380

1966
4078
6180

8272
0354

2426

4488
6541
8583

2177
4289
6390
8481
0562

2633
4694
6745

8787

2389
4499
6599
8689
0769

2839
4899
6950
8991

2600
4710
6809

8898
0977

3046
5105
7155
9194

2812
4920
7018
9106
1184

3252
5310
7359
9398

3023
5130

7227
9314
1391

3458
5516
7563
9601

3234
5340
7436
9522
1598

3665
5721
7767
9805

3445
5551
7646
9730
1805

3871
5926
7972

3656
5760
7854
9938
2012

4077
6131
8176

211
210
209
208
207

206
205
204
?04

213

33-

0008

0211

?03

214

215
216
217
?18

33-

33-
33-
33-
33-

0414

2438
4454
6460
8456

0617

2640
4655
6660
8656

0819

2842
4856
6860

8855

1022

3044
5057
7060
9054

1225

3246
5257
7260
9253

1427

3447
5458
7459
9451

1630

3649
5658
7659
9650

1832

3850
5859

7858
9849

2034

4051
6059
8058

2236

4253
6260

8257

202

202
201
200
?00

218

34-

0047

0246

19P

219

220
221
222
223
223

34-

34-
34-
34-
34-
35-

0444

2423
4392
6353
8305

0642

2620
4589
6549
8500

0841

2817
4785
6744
8694

1039

3014
4981
6939

8889

1237

3212
5178
7135
9083

1435

3409
5374
7330
9278

1632

3606
5570
7525
9472

1830

3802
5766
7720
9666

2028

3999
5962
7915
9860

2225

4196
6157
8110

0054

198

197
196
195
194
1<H

224

225
226
227

228
229

35-

35-
35-
35-
35-
35-

0248

2183
4108
6026
7935
9835

0442

2375
4301
6217
8125

0636

2568
4493
6408
8316

0829

2761
4685
6599
8506

1023

2954
4876
6790
8696

1216

3147
5068
6981

8886

1410

3339
5260
7172
9076

1603

3532
5452
7363
9266

1796

3724
5643
7554
9456

1989

3916
5834
7744
9646

193

193
192
191
190
189

229

230
231
232
233
234

36-

36-
36-
36-
36-
36-

1728
3612
5488
7356
9216

0025

1917
3800
5675
7542
9401

0215

2105

3988
5862
7729
9587

0404

2294
4176
6049
7915
9772

0593

2482
4363
6236
8101
9958

0783

2671
4551
6423

8287

0972

2859
4739
6610
8473

1161

3048
4926
6796
8659

1350

3236
5113
6983

8845

1539

3424
5301
7169
9030

189

188
188
187
186
186

234

37-

0143

0328

0513

0698

0883

185

235
236
237
238
239
239

37-
37-
37-
37-
37-
38-

1068
2912

4748
6577
8398

1253
3096
4932
6759
8580

1437
3280
5115
6942
8761

1622
3464
5298
7124
8943

1806
3647
5481
7306
9124

1991
3831
5664

7488
9306

2175
4015
5846
7670

9487

2360
4198
6029

7852
9668

2544
4382
6212
8034
9849

2728
4565
6394
8216

0030

184
184
183
182
182
181

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[171

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.}

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

240

38-

0211

0392

0573

0754

0934

1115

1296

1476

1656

1837

181

241

38-

2017

2197

2377

2557

2737

2917

3097

3277

3456

3636

180

242

38-

3815

3995

4174

4353

4533

4712

4891

5070

5249

5428

179

243

38-

5606

5785

5964

6142

6321

6499

6677

6856

7034

7212

178

244

38-

7390

7568

7746

7923

8101

8279

8456

8634

8811

8989

178

245

38-

9166

9343

9520

9698

9875

177

245

39-

0051

0228

0405

0582

0759

177

246

39-

0935

1112

1288

1464

1641

1817

1993

2169

2345

2521

176

247

3&-

2697

2873

3048

3224

3400

3575

3751

3926

4101

4277

176

248

3&-

4452

4627

4802

4977

5152

5326

5501

5676

5850

6025

175

249

39-

6199

6374

6548

6722

6896

7071

7245

7419

7592

7766

174

250

39-

7940

8114

8287

8461

8634

8808

8981

9154

9328

9501

173

251

39-

9674

9847

173

251

40-

0020

0192

0365

0538

0711

0883

1056

1228

173

252

40-

1401

1573

1745

1917

2089

2261

2433

2605

2777

2949

172

253

40-

3121

3292

3464

3635

3807

3978

4149

4320

4492

4663

171

254

40-

4834

5005

5176

5346

5517

5688

5858

6029

6199

6370

171

255

40-

6540

6710

6881

7051

7221

7391

7561

7731

7901

8070

170

256

40-

8240

8410

8579

8749

8918

9087

9257

9426

9595

9764

169

257

40-

9933

169

257

41-

0102

0271

0440

0609

0777

0946

1114

1283

1451

169

258

41-

1620

1788

1956

2124

2293

2461

2629

2796

2964

3132

168

259

41-

3300

3467

3635

3803

3970

4137

4305

4472

4639

4806

167

260

41-

4973

5140

5307

5474

5641

5808

5974

6141

6308

6474

167

261

41-

6641

6807

6973

7139

7306

7472

7638

7804

7970

8135

166

262

41-

8301

8467

8633

8798

8964

9129

9295

9460

9625

9791

165

263

41-

9956

165

263

42-

0121

0286

0451

0616

0781

0945

1110

1275

1439

165

264

42-

1604

1768

1933

2097

2261

2426

2590

2754

2918

3082

164

265

42-

3246

3410

3574

3737

3901

4065

4228

4392

4555

4718

164

266

42-

4882

5045

5208

5371

5534

5697

5860

6023

6186

6349

163

267

42-

6511

6674

6836

6999

7161

7324

7486

7648

7811

7973

162

268

42-

8135

8297

8459

8621

8783

8944

9106

9268

9429

9591

162

269

42-

9752

9914

162

269

43-

0075

0236

0398

0559

0720

0881

1042

1203

161

270

43-

1364

1525

1685

1846

2007

2167

2328

2488

2649

2809'

161

271

43-

2969

3130

3290

3450

3610

3770

3930

4090

4249

4409

160

272

43-

4569

4729

4888

5048

5207

5367

5526

5685

5844

6004

159

273

43-

6163

6322

6481

6640

6799

6957

7116

7275

7433

7592

159

274

43-

7751

7909

8067

8226

8384

8542

8701

8859

9017

9175

158

275

43-

9333

9491

9648

9806

9964

158

275

44-

0122

0279

0437

0594

0752

158

276

44-

0909

1066

1224

1381

1538

1695

1852

2009

2166

2323

157

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

172]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

277

44-

2480

2637

2793

2950

31t)6

3263

3419

3576

3732

3889

157

278

44-

4045

4201

4357

4513

4669

4825

4981

5137

5293

5449

156

279

44-

5604

5760

5915

6071

6226

6382

6537

6692

6848

7003

155

280

44-

7158

7313

7468

7623

7778

7933

8088

8242

8397

8552

155

281

44-

8706

8861

9015

9170

9324

9478

9633

9787

9941

. . . .

154

281

45-

0095

154

282

45-

0249

0403

0557

0711

0865

1018

1172

1326

1479

1633

154

283

45-

1786

1940

2093

2247

2400

2553

2706

2859

3012

3165

153

284

45-

3318

3471

3624

3777

3930

4082

4235

4387

4540

4692

153

285

45-

4845

4997

5150

5302

5454

5606

5758

5910

6062

6214

152

286

45-

6366

6518

6670

6821

6973

7125

7276

7428

7579

7731

152

287

45-

7882

8033

8184

8336

8487

8638

8789

8940

9091

9242

151

288

45-

9392

9543

9694

9845

9995

151

288

46-

0146

0296

0447

0597

0748

151

289

46-

0898

1048

1198

1348

1499

1649

1799

1948

2098

2248

150

290

46-

2398

2548

2697

2847

2997

3146

3296

3445

3594

3744

150

291

46-

3893

4042

4191

4340

4490

4639

4788

4936

5085

5234

149

292

46-

5383

5532

5680

5829

5977

6126

6274

6423

6571

6719

149

293

46-

6868

7016

7164

7312

7460

7608

7756

7904

8052

8200

148

294

46-

8347

8495

8643

8790

8938

9085

9233

9380

9527

9675

148

295

46-

9822

9969

147

295

47-

0116

0263

0410

0557

0704

0851

0998

1145

147

296

47-

1292

1438

1585

1732

1878

2025

2171

2318

2464

2610

146

297

47-

2756

2903

3049

3195

3341

3487

3633

3779

3925

4071

146

298

47-

4216

4362

4508

4653

4799

4944

5090

5235

5381

5526

146

299

47-

5671

5816

5962

6107

6252

6397

6542

6687

6832

6976

145

300

47-

7121

7266

7411

7555

7700

7844

7989

8133

8278

8422

145

301

47-

8566

8711

8855

8999

9143

9287

9431

9575

9719

9863

144

302

48-

0007

0151

0294

0438

0582

0725

0869

1012

1156

1299

144

303

48-

1443

1586

1729

1872

2016

2159

2302

2445

2588

2731

143

304

48-

2874

3016

3159

3302

3445

3587

3730

3872

4015

4157

143

305

48-

4300

4442

4585

4727

4869

5011

5153

5295

5437

5579

142

306

48-

5721

5863

6005

6147

6289

6430

6572

6714

6855

6997

142

307

48-

7138

7280

7421

7563

7704

7845

7986

8127

8269

8410

141

308

48-

8551

8692

8833

8974

9114

9255

9396

9537

9677

9818

141

309

48-

9958

140

309

4£-

0099

0239

0380

0520

0661

0801

0941

1081

1222

140

310

49-

1362

1502

1642

1782

1922

2062

2201

2341

2481

2621

140

311

49-

2760

2900

3040

3179

3319

3458

3597

3737

3876

4015

139

312

49-

4155

4294

4433

4572

4711

4850

4989

5128

5267

5406

139

313

49-

5544

5683

5822

5960

6099

6238

6376

6515

6653

6791

139

314

49-

6930

7068

7206

7344

7483

7621

7759

7897

8035

8173

138

315

49-

8311

8448

8586

8724

8862

8999

9137

9275

9412

9550

138

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[173]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

316

49-

9687

9824

9962

.

137

316

50-

0099

0236

0374

0511

0648

0785

0922

137

317

50-

1059

1196

1333

1470

1607

1744

1880

2017

2154

2291

137

318

50-

2427

2564

2700

2837

2973

3109

3246

3382

3518

3655

136

319

50-

3791

3927

4063

4199

4335

4471

4607

4743

4878

5014

136

320

50-

5150

5286

5421

5557

5693

5828

5964

6099

6234

6370

136

321

50-

6505

6640

6776

6911

7046

7181

7316

7451

7586

7721

135

322

5O-

7856

7991

8126

8260

8395

8530

8664

8799

8934

9068

135

323

50-

9203

9337

9471

9606

9740

9874

134

323

51-

0009

0143

0277

0411

134

324

51-

0545

0679

0813

0947

1081

1215

1349

1482

1616

1750

134

325

51-

1883

2017

2151

2284

2418

2551

2684

2818

2951

3084

133

326

51-

3218

3351

3484

3617

3750

3883

4016

4149

4282

4415

133

327

51-

4548

4681

4813

4946

5079

5211

5344

5476

5609

5741

133

328

51-

5874

6006

6139

6271

6403

6535

6668

6800

6932

7064

132

329

51-

7196

7328

7460

7592

7724

7855

7987

8119

8251

8382

132

330

51-

8514

8646

8777

8909

9040

9171

9303

9434

9566

9697

131

331

51-

9828

9959

131

331

52-

0090

0221

0353

0484

0615

0745

0876

1007

131

332

52-

1138

1269

1400

1530

1661

1792

1922

2053

2183

2314

131

333

52-

2444

2575

2705

2835

2966

3096

3226

3356

3486

3616

130

334

52-

3746

3876

4006

4136

4266

4396

4526

4656

4785

4915

130

335

52-

5045

5174

5304

5434

5563

5693

5822

5951

6081

6210

129

336

52-

6339

6469

6598

6727

6856

6985

7114

7243

7372

7501

129

337

52-

7630

7759

7888

8016

8145

8274

8402

8531

8660

8788

129

338

52-

8917

9045,

9174

9302

9430

9559

9687

9815

9943

....

128

338

53-

0072

128

339

53-

0200

0328

0456

0584

0712

0840

0968

1096

1223

1351

128

340

53-

1479

1607

1734

1862

1990

2117

2245

2372

2500

2627

128

341

53-

2754

2882

3009

3136

3264

3391

3518

3645

3772

3899

127

342

53-

4026

4153

4280

4407

4534

4661

4787

4914

5041

5167

127

343

53-

5294

5421

5547

5674

5800

5927

6053

6180

6306

6432

126

344

53-

6558

6685

6811

6937

7063

7189

7315

7441

7567

7693

126

345

53-

7819

7945

8071

8197

8322

8448

8574

8699

8825

8951

126

346

53-

9076

9202

9327

9452

9578

9703

9829

9954

126

346

54-

0079

0204

125

347

54-

0329

0455

0580

0705

0830

0955

1080

1205

1330

14&4

125

348

54-

1579

1704

1829

1953

2078

2203

2327

2452

2576

2701

125

349

54-

2825

2950

3074

3199

3323

3447

3571

3696

3820

3944

124

350

54-

4068

4192

4316

4440

4564

4688

4812

4936

5060

5183

124

351

54-

5307

5431

5555

5678

5802

5925

6049

6172

6296

6419

124

352

54-

6543

6666

6789

6913

7036

7159

7282

7405

7529

7652

123

353

54-

7775

7898

8021

8144

8267

8389

8512

8635

8758

8881

123

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[174]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cord.)

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

354

54-

9003

9126

9249

9371

9494

9616

9739

9861

9984

123

354

55-

0106

123

M

355

55-

0228

0351

0473

0595

0717

0840

0962

1084

1206

1328

122

356

55-

1450

1572

1694

1816

1938

2060

2181

2303

2425

2547

122

357

55-

2668

2790

2911

3033

3155

3276

3398

3519

3640

3762

121

358

55-

3883

4004

4126

4247

4368

4489

4610

4731

4852

4973

121

359

55-

5094

5215

5336

5457

5578

5699

5820

5940

6061

6182

121

360

55-

6303

6423

6544

6664

6785

6905

7026

7146

7267

7387

120

361

55-

7507

7627

7748

7868

7988

8108

8228

8349

8469

8589

120

362

55-

8709

8829

8948

9068

9188

9308

9428

9548

9667

9787

120

363

55-

9907

120

363

56-

0026

0146

0265

0385

0504

0624

0743

0863

0982

119

364

56-

iioi

1221

1340

1459

1578

1698

1817

1936

2055

2174

119

365

56-

2293

2412

2531

2650

2769

2887

3006

3125

3244

3362

119

366

56-

3481

3600

3*718

3837

3955

4074

4192

4311

4429

4548

119

367

56-

4666

4784

4903

5021

5139

5257

5376

5494

5612

5730

118

368

56-

5848

5966

6084

6202

6320

6437

6555

6673

6791

6909

118

369

56-

7026

7144

7262

7379

7497

7614

7732

7849

7967

8084

118

370

56-

8202

8319

8436

8554

8671

8788

8905

9023

9140

9257

117

371

56-

9374

9491

9608

9725

9842

9959

117

371

57-

0076

0193

0309

0426

117

372

57-

0543

0660

0776

0893

1010

1126

1243

1359

1476

1592

117

373

57-

1709

1825

1942

2058

2174

2291

2407

2523

2639

2755

116

374

57-

2872

2988

3104

3220

3336

3452

3568

3684

3800

3915

116

375

57-

4031

4147

4263

4379

4494

4610

4726

4841

4957

5072

116

376

57-

5188

5303

5419

5534

5650

5765

•5880

5996

6111

6226

115

377

57-

6341

6457

6572

6687

6802

6917

7032

7147

7262

7377

115

378

57-

7492

7607

7722

7836

7951

8066

8181

8295

8410

8525

115

379

57-

8639

8754

8868

8983

9097

9212

9326

9441

9555

9669

114

380

57-

9784

9898

114

380

58-

0012

0126

0241

0355

0469

0583

0697

0811

114

381

58-

0925

1039

1153

1267

1381

1495

1608

1722

1836

1950

114

382

58-

2063

2177

2291

2404

2518

2631

2745

2858

2972

3085

114

383

58-

3199

3312

3426

3539

3652

3765

3879

3992

4105

4218

113

384

58-

4331

4444

4557

4670

4783

4896

5009

5122

5235

5348

113

385

58-

5461

5574

5686

5799

5912

6024

6137

6250

6362

6475

113

386

58-

6587

6700

6812

6925

7037

7149

7262

7374

7486

7599

112

387

58-

7711

7823

7935

8047

8160

8272

8384

8496

8608

8720

112

388

58-

8832

8944

9056

9167

9279

9391

9503

9615

9726

9838

112

389

58-

9950

112

389

59-

0061

0173

0284

0396

0507

0619

0730

0842

0953

112

390

59-

1065

1176

1287

1399

1510

1621

1732

1843

1955

2066

111

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[175J

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

391

59-

2177

2288

2399

2510

2621

2732

2843

2954

3064

3175

111

392

59-

3286

3397

3508

3618

3729

3840

3950

4061

4171

4282

111

393

59-

4393

4503

4614

4724

4834

4945

5055

5165

5276

5386

110

394

59-

5496

5606

5717

5827

5937

6047

6157

6267

6377

6487

110

395

59-

6597

6707

6817

6927

7037

7146

7256

7366

7476

7586

110

396

59-

7695

7805

7914

8024

8134

8243

8353

8462

8572

8681

110

397

59-

8791

8900

9009

9119

9228

9337

9446

9556

9665

9774

109

398

59-

9883

9992

109

398

60-

0101

0210

0319

0428

0537

0646

0755

0864

109

399

60-

0973

1082

1191

1299

1408

1517

1625

1734

1843

1951

109

400

60-

2060

2169

2277

2386

2494

2603

2711

2819

2928

3036

108

401

60-

3144

3253

3361

3469

3577

3686

3794

3902

4010

4118

108

402

60-

4226

4334

4442

4550

4658

4766

4874

4982

5089

5197

108

403

60-

5305

5413

5521

5628

5736

5844

5951

6059

6166

6274

108

404

60-

6381

6489

6596

6704

6811

6919

7026

7133

7241

7348

107

405

60-

7455

7562

7669

7777

7884

7991

8098

8205

8312

8419

107

406

60-

8526

8633

8740

8847

8954

9061

9167

9274

9381

9488

107

407

60-

9594

9701

9808

9914

107

407

61-

0021

0128

0234

0341

0447

0554

107

408

61-

0660

0767

0873

0979

1086

1192

1298

1405

1511

1617

106

409

61-

1723

1829

1936

2042

2148

2254

2360

2466

2572

2678

106

410

61-

2784

2890

2996

3102

3207

3313

3419

3525

3630

3736

106

411

61-

3842

3947

4053

4159

4264

4370

4475

4581

4686

4792

106

412

61-

4897

5003

5108

5213

5319

5424

5529

5634

5740

5845

105

413

61-

5950

6055

6160

6265

6370

6476

6581

6686

6790

6895

105

414

61-

7000

7105

7210

7315

7420

7525

7629

7734

7839

7943

105

415

61-

8048

8153

8257

8362

8466

8571

8676

8780

8884

8989

105

416

61-

9093

9198

9302

9406

9511

9615

9719

9824

9928

....

105

416

62-

0032

104

417

62-

0136

0240

0344

0448

0552

0656

0760

0864

0968

1072

104

418

62-

1176

1280

1384

1488

1592

1695

1799

1903

2007

2110

104

419

62-

2214

2318

2421

2525

2628

2732

2835

2939

3042

3146

104

420

62-

3249

3353

3456

3559

3663

3766

3869

3973

4076

4179

103

421

62-

4282

4385

4488

4591

4695

4798

4901

5004

5107

5210

103

422

62-

5312

5415

5518

5621

5724

5827

5929

6032

6135

6238

103

423

62-

6340

6443

6546

6648

6751

6853

6956

7058

7161

7263

103

424

62-

7366

7468

7571

7673

7775

7878

7980

8082

8185

8287

102

425

62-

8389

8491

8593

8695

8797

8900

9002

9104

9206

9308

102

426

62-

9410

9512

9613

9715

9817

9919

102

426

63-

0021

0123

0224

0326

102

427

63-

0428

0530

0631

0733

0835

0936

1038

1139

1241

1342

102

428

63-

1444

1545

1647

1748

1849

1951

2052

2153

2255

2356

101

429

63-

2457

2559

2660

2761

2862

2963

3064

3165

3266

3367

101

N

0

1

2

3

4

6

6

7

8

9

D

U761

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS PROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cord.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

430

63-

3468

3569

3670

3771

3872

3973

4074

4175

4276

4376

101

431

63-

4477

4578

4679

4779

4880

4981

5081

5182

5283

5383

101

432

63-

5484

5584

5685

5785

5886

5986

6087

6187

6287

6388

100

433

63-

6488

6588

6688

6789

6889

6989

7089

7189

7290

7390

100

434

63-

7490

7590

7690

7790

7890

7990

8090

8190

8290

8389

100

435

63-

8489

8589

8689

8789

8888

8988

9088

9188

9287

9387

100

436

63-

9486

9586

9686

9785

9885

9984

100

436

64-

0084

0183

0283

0382

99

437

64-

0481

0581

0680

0779

0879

0978

1077

1177

1276

1375

99

438

64-

1474

1573

1672

1771

1871

1970

2069

2168

2267

2366

99

439

64-

2465

2563

2662

2761

2860

2959

3058

3156

3255

3354

99

440

64-

3453

3551

3650

3749

3847

3946

4044

4143

4242

4340

99

441

64-

4439

4537

4636

4734

4832

4931

5029

5127

5226

5324

98

442

64-

5422

5521

5619

5717

5815

5913

6011

6110

6208

6306

98

443

64-

6404

6502

6600

6698

6796

6894

6992

7089

7187

7285

98

444

64-

7383

7481

7579

7676

7774

7872

7969

8067

8165

8262

98

445

64-

8360

8458

8555

8653

8750

8848

8945

9043

9140

9237

97

446

64-

9335

9432

9530

9627

9724

9821

9919

97

4461

65-

0016

0113

0210

97

447

65-

0308

0405

0502

0599

0696

0793

0890

0987

1084

1181

97

448

65-

1278

1375

1472

1569

1666

1762

1859

1956

2053

2150

97

449

65-

2246

2343

2440

2536

2633

2730

2S26

2923

3019

3116

97

450

65-

3213

3309

3405

3502

3598

3695

3791

3888

3984

4080

96

451

65-

4177

4273

4369

4465

4562

4658

4754

4850

4946

5042

96

452

65-

5138

5235

5331

5427

5523

5619

5715

5810

5906

6002

96

453

65-

6098

6194

6290

6386

6482

6577

6673

6769

6864

6960

96

454

65-

7056

7152

7247

7343

7438

7534

7629

7725

7820

7916

96

455

65-

8011

8107

8202

8298

8393

8488

8584

8679

8774

8870

95

456

65-

8965

9060

9155

9250

9346

9441

9536

9631

9726

9821

95

457

65-

9916

95

457

66-

0011

0106

0201

0296

0391

0486

0581

0676

0771

95

458

66-

0865

0960

1055

1150

1245

1339

1434

1529

1623

1718

95

459

66-

1813

1907

2002

2096

2191

2286

2380

2475

2569

2663

95

460

66-

2758

2852

2947

3041

3135

3230

3324

3418

3512

3607

94

461

66-

3701

3795

3889

3983

407$

4172

4266

4360

4454

4548

94

462

66-

4642

4736

4830

4924

5018

5112

5206

5299

5393

5487

94

463

66-

5581

5675

5769

5862

5956

6050

6143

6237

6331

6424

94

464

66-

6518

6612

6705

6799

6892

6986

7079

7173

7266

7360

94

465

66-

7453

7546

7640

7733

7826

7920

8013

8106

8199

8293

93

466

66-

8386

8479

8572

8665

8759

8852

8945

9038

,9131

9224

93

^67

66-

9317

9410

9503

9596

9689

9782

9875

9967

93

467

67-

0060

0153

93

468

67-

0246

0339

0431

0524

0617

0710

0802

0895

0988

1080

-93

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

•[•177!]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (ConJ.)

N

o

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

2

469

67-

1173

1265

1358

1451

1543

1636

1728

1821

1913

2005

93

470

67-

2098

2190

2283

2375

2467

2560

2652

2744

2836

2929

92

471

67-

3021

3113

3205

3297

3390

3482

3574

3666

3758

3850

92

472

67-

3942

4034

4126

4218

4310

4402

4494

4586

4677

4769

92

473

67-

4861

4953

5045

5137

5228

5320

5412

5503

5595

5687

92

474

67-

5778

5870

5962

6053

6145

6236

6328

6419

6511

6602

92

475

67-

6694

6785

6876

6968

7059

7151

7242

7333

7424

7516

91

476

67-

7607

7698

7789

7881

7972

8063

8154

8245

8336

8427

91

477

67-

8518

8609

8700

8791

8882

8973

9064

9155

9246

9337

91

478

67-

9428

9519

9610

9700

9791

9882

9973

91

478

68-

0063

0154

0245

91

479

68-

0336

0426

0517

0607

0698

0789

0879

0970

1060

1151

91

480

68-

1241

1332

1422

1513

1603

1693

1784

1874

1964

2055

90

481

68-

2145

2235

2326

2416

2506

2596

2686

2777

2867

2957

90

482

68-

3047

3137

3227

3317

3407

3497

3587

3677

3767

3857

90

483

68-

3947

4037

4127

4217

4307

4396

4486

4576

4666

4756

90

484

68-

4845

4935

5025

5114

5204

5294

5383

5473

5563

5652

90

485

68-

5742

5831

5921

6010

6100

6189

6279

6368

6458

6547

89

486

68-

6636

6726

6815

6904

6994

7083

7172

7261

7351

7440

89

487

6&-

7529

7618

7707

7796

7886

7975

8064

8153

8242

8331

89

488

68-

8420

8509

8598

8687

8776

8865

8953

9042

9131

9220

89

489

68-

9309

9398

9486

9575

9664

9753

9841

9930

89

489

69-

0019

0107

89

490

69-

0196

0285

0373

0462

0550

0639

0728

0816

0905

0993

89

491

69-

1081

1170

1258

1347

1435

1524

1612

1700

1789

1877

88

492

69-

1965

2053

2142

2230

2318

2406

2494

2583

2671

2759

88

493

69-

2847

2935

3023

3111

3199

3287

3375

3463

3551

3639

88

494

69-

3727

3815

3903

3991

4078

4166

4254

4342

4430

4517

88

495

69-

4605

4693

4781

4868

4956

5044

5131

5219

5307

5394

88

496

69-

5482

5569

5657

5744

5832

5919

6007

6094

6182

6269

87

497

69-

6356

6444

6531

6618

6706

6793

6880

6968

7055

7142

87

498

69-

7229

7317

7404

7491

7578

7665

7752

7839

7926

8014

87

499

69-

8101

8188

8275

8362

8449

8535

8622

8709

8796

8883

87

500

60-

8970

9057

9144

9231

9317

9404

9491

9578

9664

9751

87

501

69-

9838

9924

87

501

70-

0011

0098

0184

0271

0358

0444

0531

0617

87

502

70-

0704

0790

0877

0963

1050

1136

1222

1309

1395

1482

86

503

70-

1568

1654

1741

1827

1913

1999

2086

2172

2258

2344

86

504

70-

2431

2517

2603

2689

2775

2861

2947

3033

3119

3205

86

505

70-

3291

3377

3463

3549

3635

3721

3807

3893

3979

4065

86

506

70-

4151

4236

4322

4408

4494

4579

4665

4751

4837

4922

86

507

70-

5008

5094

5179

5265

5350

5436

5522

5607

5693

5778

86

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

1178]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

508

70-

5864

5949

6035

6120

6206

6291

6376

6462

6547

6632

85

509

70-

6718

6803

6888

6974

7059

7144

7229

7315

7400

7485

85

510

70-

7570

7655

7740

7826

7911

7996

8081

8166

8251

8336

85

511

70-

8421

8506

8591

8676

8761

8846

8931

9015

9100

9185

85

512

70-

9270

9355

9440

9524

9609

9694

9779

9863

9948

....

85

512

71-

0033

85

513

71-

0117

0202

0287

0371

0456

0540

0625

0710

0794

0879

85

514

71-

0963

1048

1132

1217

1301

1385

1470

1554

1639

1723

84

515

71-

1807

1892

1976

2060

2144

2229

2313

2397

2481

2566

84

516

71-

2650

2734

2818

2902

2986

3070

3154

3238

3323

3407

84

517

71-

3491

3575

3659

3742

3826

3910

3994

4078

4162

4246

84

518

71-

4330

4414

4497

4581

4665

4749

4833

4916

5000

5084

84

519

71-

5167

5251

5335

5418

5502

5586

5669

5753

5836

5920

84

520

71-

6003

6087

6170

6254

6337

6421

6504

6588

6671

6754

83

521

71-

6838

6921

7004

7088

7171

7254

7338

7421

7504

7587

83

522

71-

7671

7754

7837

7920

8003

8086

8169

8253

8336

8419

83

523

71-

8502

8585

8668

8751

8834

8917

9000

9083

9165

9248

83

524

71-

9331

9414

9497

9580

9663

9745

9828

9911

9994

• • • •

83

524

72-

0077

83

525

72-

0159

0242

0325

0407

0490

0573

0655

0738

0821

0903

83

526

72-

0986

1068

1151

1233

1316

1398

1481

1563

1646

1728

82

527

72-

1811

1893

1975

2058

2140

2222

2305

2387

2469

2552

82

528

72-

2634

2716

2798

2881

2963

3045

3127

3209

3291

3374

82

529

72-

3456

3538

3620

3702

3784

3866

3948

4030

4112

4194

82

530

72-

4276

4358

4440

4522

4604

4685

4767

4849

4931

5013

82

531

72-

5095

5176

5258

5340

5422

5503

5585

5667

5748

5830

82

532

72-

5912

5993

6075

6165

6238

6320

6401

6483

6564

6646

82

533!

72-

6727

6809

6890

6972

7053

7134

7216

7297

7379

7460

81

534

72-

7541

7623

7704

7785

7866

7948

8029

8110

8191

8273

81

535

72-

8354

,8435

8516

8597

8678

8759

8841

8922

9003

9084

81

536

72-

9165

9246

9327

9408

9489

9570

9651

9732

9813

9893

81

537

72-

9974

81

537

73-

0055

0136

0217

0298

0378

0459

0540

0621

0702

81

538

73-

0782

0863

0944

1024

1105

1186

1266

1347

1428

1508

81

539

73-

1589

1669

1750

1830

1911

1991

2072

2152

2233

2313

81

80

540

73-

2394

2474

2555

2635

2715

2796

2876

2956

3037

3117

80

541

73-

3197

3278

3358

3438

3518

3598

3679

3759

3839

3919

80

542

73-

3999

4079

4160

4240

4320

4400

4480

4560

4640

4720

80

543

73-

4800

4880

4960

5040

5120

5200

5279

5359

5439

5519

80

544

73-

5599

5679

5759

5838

5918

5998

6078

6157

6237

6317

80

545

73-

6397

6476

6556

6635

6715

6795

6874

6954

7034

7113

80

546

73-

7193

7272

7352

7431

7511

7590

7670

7749

7829

7908

79

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[179

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

-N

ft

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

547

73-

7987

8067

8146

8225

8305

8384

8463

8543

8622

8701

79

:548

73-

8781

8860

8939

9018

9097

9177

9256

9335

9414

9493

79

549

73-

9572

9651

9731

9810

9889

9968

79

0047

0126

0205

0284

79

r.S

&K

!

550

74-

036&

0442

0521

0600

0678

0757

0836

0915

0994

1073

79

551

74-

1152

1230

1309

1388

1467

1546

1624

1703

1782

1860

79

552

74-.

1939

2018

2096

2175

2254

2332

2411

2489

2568

2647

79

953

74-

2725

2804

2882

2961

3039

3118

3196

3275

3353

3431

78

554

74-

3510

3588

3667

3745

3823

3902

3980

4058

4136

4215

78

555

74-

4295

437t

4449

4528

4606

4684

4762

4840

4919

4997

78

556

74?*

5075

5153-

5231

5309

5387

5465

5543

5621

5699

5777

78

557

74-

5855

593$

6011

6089

6167

6245

6323

6401

6479

6556

78

558

1&~

6634

6712

6790

6868

6945

7023

7101

7179

7256

7334

78

559

74-

7412

7489

7567

7645

7722

7800

7878

7955

8033

8110

78

560

74-

8188

8266

8343

8421

8498

8576

8653

8731

8808

8885

77

561

74r-

8963

9040

9118

9195

9272

9350

9427

9504

9582

9659

77

562

74-

9736

9814

9891

9968

77

562

75-

0045

0123

0200

0277

0354

0431

77

563

75-

0508

0586

0663

0740

0817

0894

0971

1048

1125

1202

77

564

75-

1279

1356

1433

1510

1587

1664

1741

1818

1895

1972

77

565

75-

2048

2125

2202

2279

2356

2433

2509

2586

2663

2740

77

566

75-

2816

2893

2970

3047

3123

3200

3277

3353

3430

3506

77

567

75-

3583

3660

3736

3813

3889

3966

4042

4119

4195

4272

77

568

75-

4348;

4425

4501

4578

4654

4730

4807

4883

4960

5036

76

569

75-

5112

5189

5265

5341

5417

5494

5570

5646

5722

5799

76

£8

570

75-

5875

5951

6027

6103

6180

6256

6332

6408

6484

6560

76

571

75-

6636

6712

6788

6864

6940

7016

7092

7168

7244

7320

76

572

7&-

7396

7472

7548

7624

7700

7775

7851

7927

8003

8079

76

573

75tr

8155;

8230

8306

8382

8458

8533

8609

8685

8761

8836

76

574

75-

8912

8988

9063

9139

9214

9290

9366

9441

9517

9592

76

?3 '

i

1575:

i75~-

9668;

9743*

9819

9894

9970

76

575

76-

0045

0121

0196

0272

0347

75

55761

76-,

0422

0498

0573

0649

0724

0799

0875

0950

1025

1101

75

577;

76-

1176

1251

1326

1402

1477

1552

1627

1702

1778

1853

75

578!

76-

1928

2003

2078

2153

2228

2303

2378

2453

2529

2604

75

579

76-

2679

2754

2829

2904

2978

3053

3128

3203

3278

3353

75

580

76-

3428

3503

3578

365'3

3727

3802

3877

3952

4027

4101

75

;581

7J>-*

4176

4251

4326

4400

4475

4550

4624

4699

4774

4848

75

;S82

76H

4923

4998

5072

5147

5221

5296

5370

5445

5520

5594

75

583

76-

5669

5743

5818

5892

5966

6041

6115

6190

6264

6338

74

584;

76-

6413

S6487

6562

6636

6710

6785

6859

6933

7007

7082

74

<K3 •

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585

76-

715$

7230

7304

7379

7453

7527

7601

7675

7749

7823

74

B

z

0

1-

2

3'

4

5:

6

7

8

9

D

11801

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.]

N

o

i

1

3

4

5,

6

7

8

9

D

586

76-

7898

7972

8046

8120

8194

1 8268

8342

8416

8490

8564

74

587

7B-

8638

8712

8786

8860

8934

9008

9082

9156

9230

9303

74

588

76-

9377

9451

9525

9599

9673

9746

9820

9894

9968

....

74

588

77-

0042

74

589

77-

0115

0189

0263

0336

0410

0484

0557

0631

0705

0778

74

590

77-

0852

0926

0999

1073

1146

1220

1293

1367

1440

1514

74

591

77-

1587

1661

1734

1808

1881

1955

2028

2102

2175

2248

73

592

77-

2322

2395

2468

2542

2615

2688

2762

2835

2908

2981

73

593

77-

3055

3128

3201

3274

3348

3421

3494

3567

3640

3713

73

594

77-

3786

3860

3933

4006

4079

4152

4225

4298

4371

4444

73

595

77-

4517

4590

4663

4736

4809

4882

4955

5028

5100

5173

73

596

77-

5246

5319

5392

5465

5538

5610

5683

5756

5829

5902

73

597

77-

5974

6047

6120

6193

6265

6338

6411

6483

6556

6629

73

598

77-

6701

6774

6846

6919

6992

7064

7137

7209

7282

7354

73

599

77-

7427

7499

7572

7644

7717

7789

7862

7934

8006

:8079

72

600

77-

8151

8224

8296

8368

8441

8513

8585':

8658;

8730"

'8802

!'72

601

77-

8874

8947

9019

9091

9163

9236

9308

9380

9452

9524

'&

602

77-

9596

9669

9741

9813

9885

9957

602

78-

0029

0101

0173

0245

72

603

78-

0317

0389

0461

0533

0605

0677

0749

0821

0893

0965

72

604

78-

1037

1109

1181

1253

1324

1396

1468

1540

1612

1684

72

605

78-

1755

1827

1899

1971

2042

2114

2186

2258

2329

2401

72

606

78-

2473

2544

2616

2688

2759

2831

2902

2974

3046

3117

-3%

607

78-

3189

3260

3332

3403

3475

3546

3618

3689

3761

3832

^*fi

608

78-

3904

3975

4046

4118

4189

4261

4332

4403

4475

454S

.'. tp^

609

78-

4617

4689

4760

4831

4902

4974

5045

5116

5187

5259

:n

610

78-

5330

5401

5472

5543

5615

5686

5757

5828

5899

5970

°fl

611

78-

6041

6112

6183

6254

6325

6396

6467

6538

6609

6680

iff

612

78-

6751

6822

6893

6964

7035

7106

7177

7248

7319

7390

%

613

78-

7460

7531

7602

7673

7744

7815

7885

7956

8027

8098

71

614

78-

8168

8239

8310

8381

8451

8522

8593

8663

8734

8804

m

615

78-

8875

8946

9016

9087

9157

9228

9299

9369

9440

9510

71

616

78-

9581

9651

9722

9792

9863

9933

70

616

79-

0004

0074

0144

0215

70

617

79-

0285

0356

0426

0496

0567

0637

0707

0778

0'848

0918

70

618

79-

0988

1059

1129

1199

1269

1340

1410

1480

1550

1620

70

619

79-

1691

1761

1831

1901

1971

2041

2111

2181

2252

2322

70

620

79-

2392

2462

2532

2602

2672

2742

2812

2882

2952

3022

70

621

79-

3092

3162

3231

3301

3371

3441

3511

3581

3651

3721

70

622

79-

3790

3860

3930

4000

4070

4139

4209

4279

4349

4418

70

623

79-

4488

4558

4627

4697

4767

4836

4906

4976

5045

5115

70

624

79-

5185

5254

5324

5393

5463

5532

560'2

5672

5741

5811

70

625

79-

5880

5949

6019

6088

6158

6227

6297

6366

6436

6505

69

N

o

l

2

3

4

5

6

7 ..

8

9

D

[181

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4.

5

6

7

8

9

D

626

79-

6574

6644

6713

6782

6852

6921

6990

7060

7129

7198

69

627

7&-

7268

7337

7406

7475

7545

7614

7683

7752

7821

7890

69

628

79-

7960

8029

8098

8167

8236

8305

8374

8443

8513

8582

69

629

79-

8651

8720

8789

8858

8927

8996

9065

9134

9203

9272'

69

630

79-

9341

9409

9478

9547

9616

9685

9754

9823

9892

9961

69

631

80-

0029

0098

0167

0236

0305

0373

0442

0511

0580

0648

69

632

80-

0717

0786

0854

0923

0992

1061

1129

1198

1266

1335

69

633

80-

1404

1472

1541

1609

1678

1747

1815

1884

1952

2021

69

634

80-

2089

2158

2226

2295

2363

2432

2500

2568

2637

2705

69

635

80-

2774

2842

2910

2979

3047

3116

3184

3252

3321

3389

68

636

80-

3457

3525

3594

3662

3730

3798

3867

3935

4003

4071

68

637

80-

4139

4208

4276

4344

4412

4480

4548

4616

4685

4753

68

638

80-

4821

4889

4957

5025

5093

5161

5229

5297

5365

5433

68

639

80-

5501

5569

5637

5705

5773

5841

5908

5976

6044

6112

68

640

80-

6180

6248

6316

6384

6451

6519

6587

6655

6723

6790

68

641

80-

6858

6926

6994

7061

7129

7197

7264

7332

7400

7467

68

642

80-

7535

7603

7670

7738

7806

7873

7941

8008

8076

8143

68

643

80-

8211

8279

8346

8414

8481

8549

8616

8684

8751

8818

67

644

80-

8886

8953

9021

9088

9156

9223

9290

9358

9425

9492

67

645

80-

9560

9627

9694

9762

9829

9896

9964

67

645

81-

0031

0098

0165

67

646

81-

0233

0300

0367

0434

0501

0569

0636

0703

0770

0837

67

647

81-

0904

0971

1039

1106

1173

1240

1307

1374

1441

1508

67

648

81-

1575

1642

1709

1776

1843

1910

1977

2044

2111

2178

67

649

81-

2245

2312

2379

2445

2512

2579

2646

2713

2780

2847

67

650

81-

2913

2980

3047

3114

3181

3247

3314

3381

3448

3514

67

651

81-

3581

3648

3714

3781

3848

3914

3981

4048

4114

4181

67

652

81-

4248

4314

4381

4447

4514

4581

4647

4714

4780

4847

67

653

81-

4913

4980

5046

5113

5179

5246

5312

5378

5445

5511

66

654

81-

5578

5644

5711

5777

5843

5910

5976

6042

6109

6175

66

655

81-

6241

6308

6374

6440

6506

6573

6639

6705

6771

6838

66

656

81-

6904

6970

7036

7102

7169

7235

7301

7367

7433

7499

66

657

81-

7565

7631

7698

7764

7830

7896

7962

8028

8094

8160

66

658

81-

8226

8292

8358

8424

8490

8556

8622

8638

8754

8820

66

659

81-

8885

8951

9017

9083

9149

9215

9281

9346

9412

9478

66

660

81-

9544

9610

9676

9741

9807

9873

9939

66

660

82-

0004

0070

0136

66

661

82-

0201

0267

0333

0399

0464

0530

0595

0661

0727

0792

66

662

82-

0858

0924

0989

1055

1120

1186

1251

1317

1382

1448

66

663

82-

1514

1579

1645

1710

1775

1841

1906

1972

2037

2103

65

664

82-

2168

2233

2299

2364

2430

2495

2560

2626

2691

2756

65

665

82-

2822

2887

2952

3018

3083

3148

i
3213

3279

3344

3409-

65

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

182]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

666

82-

3474

3539

3605

3670

3735

3800

3865

3930

3996

4061

65

667

82-

4126

4191

4256

4321

4386

4451

4516

4581

4646

4711

65

668

82-

4776

4841

4906

4971

5036

5101

5166

5231

5296

5361

65

669

82-

5426

5491

5556

5621

5686

5751

5815

5880

5945

6010

65

670

82-

6075

6140

6204

6269

6334

6399

6464

6528

6593

6658

65

671

82-

6723

6787

6852

6917

6981

7046

7111

7175

7240

7305

65

672

82-

7369

7434

7499

7563

7628

7692

7757

7821

7886

7951

65

673

82-

8015

8080

8144

8209

8273

8338

8402

8467

8531

8595

64

674

82-

8660

8724

8789

8853

8918

8982

9046

9111

9175

9239

64

675

82-

9304

9368

9432

9497

9561

9625

9690

9754

9818

9882

64

676

82-

9947

64

676

83-

0011

0075

0139

0204

0268

0332

0396

0460

0525

64

677

83-

0589

0653

0717

0781

0845

0909

0973

1037

1102

1166

64

678

83-

1230

1294

1358

1422

1486

1550

1614

1678

1742

1806

64

679

83-

1870

1934

1998

2062

2126

2189

2253

2317

2381

2445

64

680

83-

2509

2573

2637

2700

2764

2828

2892

2956

3020

3083

64

681

83-

3147

3211

3275

3338

3402

3466

3530

3593

3657

3721

64

682

83-

3784

3848

3912

3975

4039

4103

4166

4230

4294

4357

64

683

83-

4421

4484

4548

4611

4675

4739

4802

4866

4929

4993

64

684

83-

5056

5120

5183

5247

5310

5373

5437

5500

5564

5627

63

685

83-

5691

5754

5817

5881

5944

6007

6071

6134

6197

6261

63

686

83-

6324

6387

6451

6514

6577

6641

6704

6767

6830

6894

63

687

83-

6957

7020

7083

7146

7210

7273

7336

7399

7462

7525

63

688

83-

7588

7652

7715

7778

7841

7904

7967

8030

8093

8156

63

689

83-

8219

8282

8345

8408

8471

8534

8597

8660

8723

8786

63

690

83-

8849

8912

8975

9038

9101

9164

9227

9289

9352

9415

63

691

83-

9478

9541

9604

9667

9729

9792

9855

9918

9981

....

63

691

84-

0043

63

692

84-

0106

0169

0232

0294

0357

0420

0482

0545

0608

0671

63

693

84-

0733

0796

0859

0921

0984

1046

1109

1172

1234

1297

63

694

84-

1359

1422

1485

1547

1610

1672

1735

1797

1860

1922

63

695

84-

1985

2047

2110

2172

2235

2297

2360

2422

2484

2547

62

696

84-

2609

2672

2734

2796

2859

2921

2983

3046

3108

3170

62

697

84-

3233

3295

3357

3420

3482

3544

3606

3669

3731

3793

62

698

84-

3855

3918

3980

4042

4104

4166

4229

4291

4353

4415

62

699

84-

4477

4539

4601

4664

4726

4788

4850

4912

4974

5036

62

700

84-

5098

5160

5222

5284

5346

5408

5470

5532

5594

5656

62

701

84-

5718

5780

5842

5904

5966

6028

6090

6151

6213

6275

62

702

84-

6337

6399

6461

6523

6585

6646

6708

6770

6832

6894

62

703

84-

6955

7017

7079

7141

7202

7264

7326

7388

7449

7511

62

704

84-

7573

7634

7696

7758

7819

7881

7943

8004

8066

8128

62

705

84-

8189

8251

8312

8374

8435

8497

8559

8620

8682

8743

62

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[183]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6-

7

8

9

D

706

84-

8805

8866

8928

8989

9051

9112

9174

9235

9297

9358

61

707

84-

9419

9481

9542

9604

9665

9726

9788

9849

9911

9972

61

708

85-

0033

0095

0156

0217

0279

0340

0401

0462

0524

0585

61

709

85-

0646

0707

0769

0830

0891

0952

1014

1075

1136

1197

61

710

85-

1258

1320

1381

1442

1503

1564

1625

1686

1747

1809

61

711

85-

1870

1931

1992

2053

2114

2175

2236

2297

2358

2419

61

712

85-

2480

2541

2602

2663

2724

2785

2846

2907

2968

3029

61

713

85-

3090

3150

3211

3272

3333

3394

3455

3516

3577

3637

61

714

85-

3698

3759

3820

3881

3941

4002

4063

4124

4185

4245

61

715

85-

4306

4367

4428

4488

4549

4610

4670

4731

4792

4852

61

716

85-

4913

4974

5034

5095

5156

5216

5277

5337

5398

5459

61

717

85-

5519

5580

5640

5701

5761

5822

5882

5943

6003

6064

61

718

85-

6124

6185

6245

6306

6366

6427

6487

6548

6608

6668

60

719

85-

6729

6789

6850

6910

6970

7031

7091

7152

7212

7272

60

720

85-

7332

7393

7453

7513

7574

7634

7694

7755

7815

7875

60

721

85-

7935

7995

8056

8116

8176

8236

8297

8357

8417

8477

60

722

85-

8537

8597

8657

8718

8778

8838

8898

8958

9018

9078

60

723

85-

9138

9198

9258

9318

9379

9439

9499

9559

9619

9679

60

724

S5-5

9739

9799

9859

9918

9978

60

724

86-

0038

0098

0158

0218

0278

60

725

86-

0338

0398

0458

0518

0578

0637

0697

0757

0817

0877

60

726

86-

0937

0996

1056

1116

1176

1236

1295

1355

1415

1475

60

727

86-

1534

1594

1654

1714

1773

1833

1893

1952

2012

2072

60

728

86-

2131

2191

2251

2310

2370

2430

2489

2549

2608

2668

60

729

86-

2728

2787

2847

2906

2966

3025

3085

3144

3204

3263

60

730

86-

3323

3382

3442

3501

3561

3620

3680

3739

3799

3858

59

731

86-

3917

3977

4036

4096

4155

4214

4274

4333

4392

4452

59

732

86-

4511

4570

4630

4689

4748

4808

4867

4926

4985

5045

59

733

86-

5104

5163

5222

5282

5341

5400

5459

5519

5578

5637

59

734

86-

5696

5755

5814

5874

5933

5992

6051

6110

6169

6228

59

735

86-

6287

6346

6405

6465

6524

6583

6642

6701

6760

6819

59

736

86-

6878

6937

6996

7055

7114

7173

7232

7291

7350

7409

59

737

86-

7467

7526

7585

7644

7703

7762

7821

7880

7939

7998

59

738

86-

8056

8115

8174

8233

8292

8350

8409

8468

8527

8586

59

739

86-

8644

8703

8762

8821

8870

8938

8997

9056

9114

9173

59

740

86-

9232

9290

9349

9408

9466

9525

9584

9642

9701

9760

59

741

8&-

9818

9877

9935

9994

59

741

87-

0053

0111

0170

0228

0287

0345

59

742

87-

0404

0462

0^1

0579

0638

0696

0755

0813

0872

0930

58

743

87-

0989

1047

1106

1164

1223

1281

1339

1398

1456

1515

58

744

87-

1573

1631

1690

1748

1806

1865

1923

1981

2040

2098

58

745

87-

2156

2215

2273

2331

2389

2448

2506

2564

2622

2681

58

N

S

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[184]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000— (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

746

87-

2739

2797

2855

2913

2972

3030

3088

3146

3204

3262

58

747

87-

3321

3379

3437

3495

3553

3611

3669

3727

3785

3844

58

748

87-

3902

3960

4018

4076

4134

4192

4250

4308

4366

4424

58

749

87-

4482

4540

4598

4656

4714

4772

4830

4888

4945

5003

58

750

87-

5061

5119

5177

5235

5293

5351

5409

5466

5524

5582

58

751

87-

5640

5698

5756

5813

5871

5929

5987

6045

6102

6160

58

752

87-

6218

6276

6333

6391

6449

6507

6564

6622

6680

£737

58

753

87-

6795

6853

6910

6968

7026

7083

7141

7199

7256

7314

58

754

87-

7371

7429

7487

7544

7602

7659

7717

7774

7832

7889

58

755

87-

7947

8004

8062

8119

8177

8234

8292

8349

8407

8464

57

756

87-

8522

8579

8637

8694

8752

8809

8866

8924

8981

9039

57

757

87-

9096

9153

9211

9268

9325

9383

9440

9497

9555

9612

57

758

87-

9669

9726

9784

9841

9898

9956

57

758

88-

0013

0070

0127

0185

57

759

88-

0242

0299

0356

0413

0471

0528

0585

0642

0699

0756

57

760

88-

0814

0871

0928

0985

1042

1099

1156

1213

1271

1328

57

761

88-

1385

1442

1499

1556

1613

1670

1727

1784

1841

1898

57

762

88-

1955

2012

2069

2126

2183

2240

2297

2354

2411

2468

57

763

88-

2525

2581

2638

2695

2752

2809

2866

2923

2980

3037

57

764

88-

3093

3150

3207

3264

3321

3377

3434

3491

3548

3605

57

765

88-

3661

3718

3775

3832

3888

3945

4002

4059

4115

4172

57

1766

88-

4229

4285

4342

4399

4455

4512

4569

4625

4682

4739

57

767

88-

4795

4852

4909

4965

5022

5078

5135

5192

5248

5305

57

768

88-

5361

5418

5474

5531

5587

5644

5700

5757

5813

5870

57

769

88-

5926

5983

6039

6096

6152

6209

6265

6321

6378

6434

56

770

88-

6491

6547

6604

6660

6716

6773

6829

6885

6942

6998

56

771

88-

7054

7111

7167

7223

7280

7336

7392

7449

7505

7561

56

772

88-

7617

7674

7730

7786

7842

7898

7955

8011

8067

8123

56

773

88-

8179

8236

8292

8348

8404

8460

8516

8573

8629

8685

56

774

88-

8741

8797

8853

8909

8965

9021

9077

9134

9190

9246

56

775

88-

9302

9358

9414

9470

€526

9582

9638

9694

9750

9806

56

776

88-

9862

9918

9974

56

776

89-

0030

0086

0141

0197

02^3

OQnq

rjofic

Cfi

777

89-

0421

0477

0533

0589

0645

0700

0756

v**vO

0812

\JC)\J\J

0868

uooo
0924

Ovl

56

778

89-

0980

1035

1091

1147

1203

1259

1314

1370

1426

1482

56

779

89-

1537

1593

1649

1705

1760

1816

1872

1928

1983

2039

56

780

89-

2095

2150

2206

2262

2317

2373

2429

2484

2540

2595

56

781

89-

2651

2707

2762

2818

2873

2929

2985

3040

3096

3151

56

782

89-

3207

3262

3318

3373

3429

3484

3540

3595

3651

3706

56

783

89-

3762

3817

3873

3928

3984

4039

4094

4150

4205

4261

55

784

89-

4316

4371

4427

4482

4538

4593

4648

4704

4759

4814

55

785

89-

4870

4925

4980

5036

5091

5146

5201

5257

5312

5367

55

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[185

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Con/.)

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

786

89-

5423

5478

5533

5588

5644

5699

5754

5809

5864

5920

55

787

89-

5975

6030

6085

6140

6195

6251

6306

6361

6416

6471

55

788

89-

6526

6581

6636

6692

6747

6802

6857

6912

6967

7022

55

789

89-

7077

7132

7187

7242

7297

7352

7407

7462

7517

7572

55

790

89-

7627

7682

7737

7792

7847

7902

7957

8012

8067

8122

55

791

89-

8176

8231

8286

8341

8396

8451

8506

8561

8615

8670

55

792

89-

8725

8780

8835

8890

8944

8999

9054

9109

9164

9218

55

793

89-

9273

9328

9383

9437

9492

9547

9602

9656

9711

9766

55

794

89-

9821

9875

9930

9985

55

794

90-

0039

0094

0149

0203

0258

0312

55

795

90-

0367

0422

0476

0531

0586

0640

0695

0749

0804

0859

55

796

90-

0913

0968

1022

1077

1131

1186

1240

1295

1349

1404

55

797

90-

1458

1513

1567

1622

1676

1731

1785

1840

1894

1948

54

798

•90-

2003

2057

2112

2166

2221

2275

2329

2384

2438

2492

54

799

90-

2547

2601

2655

2710

2764

2818

2873

2927

2981

3036

54

800

90-

3090

3144

3199

3253

3307

3361

3416

3470

3524

3578

54

801

90-

3633

3687

3741

3795

3849

3904

3958

4012

4066

4120

54

802

90-

4174

4229

4283

4337

4391

4445

4499

4553

4607

4661

54

803

90-

4716

4770

4824

4878

4932

4986

5040

5094

5148

5202

54

804

90-

5256

5310

5364

5418

5472

5526

5580

5634

5688

5742

54

805

90-

5796

5850

5904

5958

6012

6066

6119

6173

6227

6281

54

806

90-

6335

6389

6443

6497

6551

6604

6658

6712

6766

6820

54

807

90-

6874

6927

6981

7035

7089

7143

7196

7250

7304

7358

54

808

90-

7411

7465

7519

7573

7626

7680

7734

7787

7841

7895

54

809

90-

7949

8002

8056

8110

8163

8217

8270

8324

8378

8431

54

810

90-

8485

8539

8592

8646

8699

8753

8807

8860

8914

8967

54

811

90-

9021

9074

9128

9181

9235

9289

9342

9396

9449

9503

54

812

90-

9556

9610

9663

9716

9770

9823

9877

9930

9984

....

54

812

91-

0037

53

813

91-

0091

0144

0197

0251

0304

0358

0411

0464

0518

0571

53

814

91-

0624

0678

0731

0784

0838

0891

0944

0998

1051

1104

53

815

91-

1158

1211

1264

1317

1371

1424

1477

1530

1584

1637

53

816

91-

1690

1743

1797

1850

1903

1956

2009

2063

2116

2169

53

817

91-

2222

2275

2328

2381

2435

2488

2541

2594

2647

2700

53

818

91-

2753

2806

2859

2913

2966

3019

3072

3125

3178

3231

53

819

91-

3284

3337

3390

3443

3496

3549

3602

3655

3708

3761

53

820

91-

3814

3867

3920

3973

4026

4079

4132

4184

4237

4290

53

821

91-

4343

4396

4449

4502

4555

4608

4660

4713

4766

4819

53

822

91-

4872

4925

4977

5030

5083

5136

5189

5241

5294

5347

53

823

91-

5400

5453

5505

5558

5611

5664

5716

5769

5822

5875

53

824

91-

5927

5980

6033

6085

6138

6191

6243

6296

6349

6401

53

825

91-

6454

6507

6559

6612

6664

6717

6770

6822

6875

6927

53

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[186]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

826

91-

6980

7033

7085

7138

7190

7243

7295

7348

7400

7453

53

827

91-

7506

7558

7611

7663

7716

7768

7820

7873

7925

7978

52

828

91-

8030

8083

8135

8188

8240

8293

8345

8397

8450

8502

52

829

91-

8555

8607

8659

8712

8764

8816

8869

8921

8973

9026

52

830

91-

9078

9130

9183

9235

9287

9340

9392

9444

9496

9549

52

CQ1

Q1_

Q601

QAPJQ

Q706

9758

9810

9862

9914

9967

52

oOJL

831

t/J.

92-

*7VMJ1.

t/VIUO

*74 \J\J

0019

0071

52

832

92-

0123

0176

0228

0280

0332

0384

0436

0489

0541

0593

52

833

92-

0645

0697

0749

0801

0853

0906

0958

1010

1062

1114

52

834

92-

1166

1218

1270

1322

1374

1426

1478

1530

1582

1634

52

835

92-

1686

1738

1790

1842

1894

1946

1998

2050

2102

2154

52

836

92-

2206

2258

2310

2362

2414

2466

2518

2570

2622

2674

52

837

92-

2725

2777

2829

2881

2933

2985

3037

3089

3140

3192

52

838

92-

3244

3296

3348

3399

3451

3503

3555

3607

3658

3710

52

839

92-

3762

3814

3865

3917

3969

4021

4072

4124

4176

4228

52

840

92-

4279

4331

4383

4434

4486

4538

4589

4641

4693

4744

52

841

92-

4796

4848

4899

4951

5003

5054

5106

5157

5209

5261

52

842

92-

5312

5364

5415

5467

5518

5570

5621

5673

5725

5776

52

843

92-

5828

5879

5931

5982

6034

6085

6137

6188

6240

6291

51

844

92-

6342

6394

6445

6497

6548

6600

6651

6702

6754

6805

51

845

92-

6857

6908

6959

7011

7062

7114

7165

7216

7268

7319

51

846

92-

7370

7422

7473

7524

7576

7627

7678

7730

7781

7832

51

847

92-

7883

7935

7986

8037

8088

8140

8191

8242

8293

8345

51

848

92-

8396

8447

8498

8549

8601

8652

8703

8754

8805

8857

51

849

92-

8908

8959

9010

9061

9112

9163

9215

9266

9317

9368

51

850

92-

9419

9470

9521

9572

9623

9674

9725

9776

9827

9879

51

851

92-

9930

9981

51

851

93-

0032

0083

0134

0185

0236

0287

0338

0389

51

852

93-

0440

0491

0542

0592

0643

0694

0745

0796

0847

0898

51

853

93-

0949

1000

1051

1102

1153

1203

1254

1305

1356

1407

51

854

93-

1458

1509

1560

1610

1661

1712

1763

1814

1865

1915

51

855

93-

1966

2017

2068

2118

2169

2220

2271

2322

2372

2423

51

856

93-

2474

2524

2575

2626

2677

2727

2778

2829

2879

2930

51

857

93-

2981

3031

3082

3133

3183

3234

3285

3335

3386

3437

51

858

93-

3487

3538

3589

3639

3690

3740

3791

3841

3892

3943

51

859

93-

3993

4044

4094

4145

4195

4246

4296

4347

4397

4448

51

860

93-

4498

4549

4599

4650

4700

4751

4801

4852

4902

4953

50

861

93-

5003

5054

5104

5154

5205

5255

5306

5356

5406

5457

50

862

93-

5507

5558

5608

5658

5709

5759

5809

5860

5910

5960

50

863

93-

6011

6061

6111

6162

6212

6262

6313

6363

6413

6463

50

864

93-

6514

6564

6614

6665

6715

6765

6815

6865

6916

6966

50

865

93-

7016

7066

7117

7167

7217

7267

7317

7367

7418

7468

50

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[187]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

866

93-

7518

7568

7618

7668

7718

7769

7819

7869

7919

7969

50

86V

93-

8019

8069

8119

8169

8219

8269

8319

8370

8420

8470

50

868

93-

8520

8570

8620

8670

8720

8770

8820

8870

8920

8970

50

869

93-

9020

9070

9120

9170

9220

9270

9320

9369

9419

9469

50

870

93-

9519

9569

9619

9669

9719

9769

0819

9869

9918

9968

50

871

94-

00'18

0068

0118

0168

0218

0267

0317

0367

0417

0467

50

872

94-

0516

0566

0616

0666

0716

0765

0815

0865

0915

0964

50

873

94-

1014

1064

1114

1163

1213

1263

1313

1362

1412

1462

50

874

94-

1511

1561

1611

1660

1710

1760

1809

1859

1909

1958

50

875

94-

2008

2058

2107

2157

2207

2256

2306

2355

2405

2455

50

876

94-

2504

2554

2603

2653

2702

2752

2801

2851

2901

2950

50

877

94-

3000

3049

3099

3148

3198

3247

3297

3346

33%

3445

49

878

94-

3495

3544

3593

3643

3692

3742

3791

3841

3890

3939

49

879

94-

3989

4038

4088

4137

4186

4236

4285

4335

4384

4433

49

880

94-

4483

4532

4581

4631

4680

4729

4779

4828

4877

4927

49

881

94-

4976

5025

5074

5124

5173

5222

5272

5321

5370

5419

49

882

94-

5469

5518

5567

5616

5665

5715

5764

5813

5862

5912

49

883

94-

5961

6010

6059

6108

6157

6207

6256

6305

6354

6403

49

884

94-

6452

6501

6551

6600

6649

6698

6747

6796

6845

6894

49

885

94-

6943

6992

7041

7090

7140

7189

7238

7287

7336

7385

49

886

94-

7434

7483

7532

7581

7630

7679

7728

7777

7826

7875

49

887

94-

7924

7973

8022

8070

8119

8168

8217

8266

8315

8364

49

888

94-

8413

8462

8511

8560

8609

8657

8706

8755

8804

8853

49

8891

94-

8902

8951

8999

9048

9097

9146

9195

9244

9292

9341

49

89Q

94-

9390

9439

9488

9536

9585

9634

9683

9731

9780

9829

49

891

94-

9878

9926

9975

49

891

95-

0024

0073

0121

0170

0219

0267

0316

49

892

95-

0365

0414

0462

0511

0560

0608

0657

0706

0754

0803

49

893

95-

0851

0900

0949

0997

1046

1095

1143

1192

1240

1289

49

894

95-

1338

1386

1435

1483

1532

1580

1629

1677

1726

1775

49

895

95-

1823

1872

1920

1969

2017

2066

2114

2163

2211

2260

48

896

95-

2308

2356

2405

2453

2502

2550

2599

2647

2696

2744

48

897

95-

2792

2841

2889

2938

2986

3034

3083

3131

3180

3228

48

898

95-

3276

3325

3373

3421

3470

3518

3566

3615

3663

3711

48

899

95-

3760

3808

3856

3905

3953

4001

4049

4098

4146

4194

48

900

95-

4243

4291

4339

4387

4435

4484

4532

4580

4628

4677

48

901

95-

4725

4773

4821

4869

4918

4966

5014

5062

5110

5158

48

902

95-

5207

5255

5303

5351

5399

5447

5495

5543

5592

5640

48

903

95-

5688

5736

5784

5832

5880

5928

5976

6024

6072

6120

48

904

95-

6168

6216

6265

6313

6361

6409

6457

6505

6553

6601

48

905

95-

6649

6697

6745

6793

6840

6888

6936

6984

7032

7080

48

906

95-

7128

7176

7224

7272

7320

7368

7416

7464

7512

7559

48

N

0

l -

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

188]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — -(Cant.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

907

95-

7607

7655

7703

7751

7799

7847

7894

7942

7990

8038

48

908

95-

8086

8134

8181

8229

8277

8325

8373

8421

8468

8516

48.

909

95-

8564

8612

8659

8707

8755

8803

8850

8898

8946

8994

48

910

95-

9041

9089

9137

9185

9232

9280

9328

9375

0423

9471

48

911

95-

9518

9566

9614

9661

9709

9757

9804

0852

9900

9947

48"

912

95-

9995

48 -i

912

96-

0042

0090

0138

0185

0233

0280

0328

0376

0423

48

913

96-

0471

0518

0566

0613

0661

0709

0756

0804

0851

0899

48.

914

96-

0946

0994

1041

1089

1136

1184

1231

1279

1326

1374

47

915

96-

1421

1469

1516

1563

1611

1658

1706

1753

1801

1848

47

916

96-

1895

1943

1990

2038

2085

2132

2180

2227

2275

2322

47

917

96-

2369

2417

2464

2511

2559

2606

2653

2701

2748

2795

47

918

96-

2843

2890

2937

2985

3032

8079

3126

3174

3221

32Q8

47

919

96-

3316

3363

3410

8457

i ,

3504

3552

3599

i

3646

3693

3741

47

920

96-

3788

3835

3882

3929

3977

4024

4071

4118

4165

42^2

47

-921

96-

4260

4307

4354

4401

4448

4495

4542

4590

4637

4684

47

922

96-

4731

4778

4825

4872

4919

4966

5013

5061

5*08

5155

47

923

96-

5202

5249

5296

5343

5390

5437

5484

5531

5578

5625

47

924

96-

5672

5719

5766

5813

5860

5907

5954

6001

6048

6095

47

925

96-

6142

6189

6236

6283

6329

6376

6423

6470

6517

6564

i 4%

926

96-

6611

6658

6705

6752

6799

6845

6892

6939

6986

7033

47;

927

96-

7080

7127

7173

7220

7267

7314

7361

7408

7454

7501

47

928

96-

7548

7595

7642

7688

7735

7782

7829

7875

7922

7969

.';»

929

96-

8016

8062

8109

8156

8203

8249

8296

8343

8390

8436

47

930

96-

8483

8530

8576

8623

8670

8716

8763

8810

8856

8903

47

931

96-

8950

8996

9043

9090

9136

9183

9229

9276

9323

9369

47

932

96-

9416

9463

9509

9556

9602

9649

9695

9742

9789

9835

47

933

96-

9882

9928

9975

47

933

97-

0021

0068

0114

0161

0207

0254

0300

47

934

97-

0347

0393

0440

0486

0533

0579

0626

0672

0719

0765

46

935

97-

0812

0858

0904

0951

0997

1044

1090

1137

1183

1229

46

936

97-

1276

1322

1369

1415

1461

1508

1554

1601

1647

1693

46

937

97-

1740

1786

1832

1879

1925

1971

2018

2064

2110

2157

46

938

97-

2203

2249

2295

2342

2388

2434

;2481

2527

2573

2619

46

939

97-

2666

2712.

2758

2804

2851

;2897

2943

2989

3035

3082

46

940

97-

3128

3174

3220

3266

3313

3359

3405

3451

3497

3543

,46

941

97-

3590

3636

3682

3728

3774

3820

3866

3913

3959

4005

46

942

97-

4051

4097

4143

4189

4235

4281

4327

4374

4420

4466

46

943

97-

4512

4558

4604

4650

4696

4742

:4788

4834

4880

4926

,46

944

97-

4972

5018

5064

5110

5156

;5202

5248

5294

5340

5386

46

945

97-

5432

5478

5524

5570

5616

5662

5707

5753

5799

584,5

-46

946

97-

5891

5937

5983

6029

6075

6121

6167

6212

6258

6304

<46

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[189]

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

0

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

947

97-

6350

6396

6442

6488

6533

6579

6625

6671

6717

6763

46

948

97-

6808

6854

6900

6946

6992

7037

7083

7129

7175

7220

46

949

97-

7266

7312

7358

7403

7449

7495

7541

7586

7632

7678

46

950

97-

7724

7769

7815

7861

7906

7952

7998

8043

8089

8135

46

951

97-

8181

8226

8272

8317

8363

8409

8454

8500

8546

8591

46

952

97-

8637

8683

8728

8774

8819

8865

8911

8956

9002

9047

46

953

97-

9093

9138

9184

9230

9275

9321

9366

9412

9457

9503

46

954

97-

9548

9594

9639

9685

9730

9776

9821

9867

9912

9958

46

955

98-

0003

0049

0094

0140

0185

0231

0276

0322

0367

0412

45

956

98-

0458

0503

0549

0594

0640

0685

0730

0776

0821

0867

45

957

98-

0912

0957

1003

1048

1093

1139

1184

1229

1275

1320

45

958

98-

1366

1411

1456

1501

1547

1592

1637

1683

1728

1773

45

959

98-

1819

1864

1909

1954

2000

2045

2090

2135

2181

2226

45

960

98-

2271

2316

2362

2407

2452

2497

2543

2588

2633

2678

45

961

98-

2723

2769

2814

2859

2904

2949

2994

3040

3085

3130

45

962

98-

3175

3220

3265

3310

3356

3401

3446

3491

3536

3581

45

963

98-

3626

3671

3716

3762

3807

3852

3897

3942

3987

4032

45

964

98-

4077

4122

4167

4212

4257

4302

4347

4392

4437

4482

45

965

98-

4527

4572

4617

4662

4707

4752

4797

4842

4887

4932

45

966

98-

4977

5022

5067

5112

5157

5202

5247

5292

5337

5382

45

967

98-

5426

5471

5516

5561

5606

5651

5696

5741

5786

5830

45

968

9&-

5875

5920

5965

6010

6055

6100

6144

6189

6234

6279

45

969

98-

6324

6369

6413

6458

6503

6548

6593

6637

6682

6727

45

970

98-

6772

6817

6861

6906

6951

6996

7040

7085

7130

7175

45

971

98-

7219

7264

7309

7353

7398

7443

7488

7532

7577

7622

45

972

98-

7666

7711

7756

7800

7845

7890

7934

7979

8024

8068

45

973

98-

8113

8157

8202

8247

8291

8336

8381

8425

8470

8514

45

974

98-

8559

8604

8648

8693

8737

8782

8826

8871

8916

8960

45

975

98-

9005

9049

9094

9138

9183

9227

9272

9316

9361

9405

45

976

98-

9450

9494

9539

9583

9628

9672

9717

9761

9806

9850

44

977

98-

9895

9939

9983

44

977

99-

0028

0072

0117

0161

0206

0250

0294

44

978

99-

0339

0383

0428

0472

0516

0561

0605

0650

0694

0738

44

979

99-

0783

0827

0871

0916

0960

1004

1049

1093

1137

1182

44

980

99-

1226

1270

1315

1359

1403

1448

1492

1536

1580

1625

44

981

99-

1669

1713

1758

1802

1846

1890

1935

1979

2023

2067

44

982

99-

2111

2156

2200

2244

2288

2333

2377

2421

2465

2509

44

983

99-

2554

2598

2642

2686

2730

2774

2819

2863

2907

2951

44

984

99-

2995

3039

3083

3127

3172

3216

3260

3304

3348

3392

44

985

99-

3436

3480

3524

3568

3613

3657

3701

3745

3789

3833

44

986

99-

3877

3921

3965

4009

4053

4097

4141

4185

4229

4273

44

987

99-

4317

4361

4405

4449

4493

4537

4581

4625

4669

4713

44

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

[190]

LOGARITHMS OF^ NUMBERS
LOGARITHMS OP NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1000 — (Cont.)

N

o

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

988

99-

4757

4801

4845

4889

4933

4977

5021

5065

5108

5152

44

989

99-

5196

5240

5284

5328

5372

5416

5460

5504

5547

5591

44

990

99-

5635

5679

5723

5767

5811

5854

5898

5942

5986

6030

44

991

99-

6074

6117

6161

6205

6249

6293

6337

6380

6424

6468

44

992

99-

6512

6555

6599

6643

6687

6731

6774

6818

6862

6906

44

993

99-

6949

6993

7037

7080

7124

7168

7212

7255

7299

7343

44

994

99-

7386

7430

7474

7517

7561

7605

7648

7692

7736

7779

44

995

99-

7823

7867

7910

7954

7998

8041

8085

8129

8172

8216

44

996

99-

8259

8303

8347

8390

8434

8477

8521

8564

8608

8652

44

997

99-

8695

8739

8782

8826

8869

8913

8956

9000

9043

9087

44

998

99-

9131

9174

9218

9261

9305

9348

9392

9435

9479

9522

44

999

99-

9565

9609

9652

9696

9739

9783

9826

9870

9913

9957

43

N

0

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

D

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS

In the Naperian or hyperbolic system of logarithms, the base is 2.718281828.

The Naperian base is commonly denoted by e, as in the equation ey = x, in which
y is the Naperian logarithm of x. The abbreviation log* is commonly used to denote
the Naperian logarithm.

In any system of logarithms, the logarithm of 1 is 0; the logarithm of the base
taken in that system is 1. In any system the base of which is greater than 1, the
logarithms of all numbers greater than 1 are positive, and the logarithms of all numbers
less than 1 are negative.

The modulus of any system is equal to the reciprocal of the Naperian logarithm
of the base of that system. The modulus of the Naperian system is 1, that of the
common system, 0.4342945.

The logarithm of a number in any system equals the modulus of that system X the
Naperian logarithm of the number.

The hyperbolic or Naperian logarithm of any number equals the common logarithm
X 2.3025851.

Base of Naperian system e = constant 0.718281828

logarithm 0.4342945.

Reciprocal of modulus k = constant 2.302585093.

logarithm 0.3622216.

TABLE OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS

The hyperbolic logarithms of numbers, or Naperian logarithms, as they are some-
times called, are calculated by multiplying the common logarithm of the given numbers
in the table of common logarithms by the constant multiplier, 2.302585.

The hyperbolic logarithms of numbers intermediate between those which are given
in the table may be readily obtained by interpolating proportional differences.

[191]

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 30

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

1.01

.0099

1.46

.3784

1.91

.6471

2.36

.8587

1.02

.0198

1;47

. .3853

1.92

.6523

2.37

.8629

1.03

.0296

1.48

.3920

1.93

.6575

2.38

.8671

1.04

.0392

1.49

.3988

1.94

.6627

2.39

.8713

1.05,

.0488

1.50

.4055

1.95

.6678

2.40

.8755

1.06

.0583

1.51

.4121

1.96

.6729

2.41

.8796

1.07

.0677

1.52

.4187

1.97

.6780

2.42

.8838

1.08

.0770

1.53

.4253

1.98

.6831

2.43

.8879

1.09

.0862

1.54

.4318

1.99

.6881

2.44

.8920

1.10

.0953

1.55

.4383

2.00

.6931

2.45

.8961

1.11

.1044

1.56

.4447

2.01

.6981

2,46

.9002

1.12

.1133

1.57

.4511

2.02

.7031

2.47

.9042

1.13

.1222

1.58

.4574

2.03

.7080

2.48

.9083

1.14

i .1310

1.59

.4637

2.04

.7129

2.49

.9123

1.15

.1398

1.60

.4700

2.05

; \7178

2.50

.9163

1.16

.1484

1.61

.4762

2.06

.7227

2.51

.9203

1.17

.1570

1,62

.4824

2.07

.7275

2.52

.9243

1.18

.1655

1.63

.4886

2.08

.7324

2.53

.9282

1.19

.1740

1.64

.4947

2.09

.7372

2.54

.9322

1.20

.1823

1.65

.5008

2.10

.7419

2.55

.9361

1.21

.1906

1.66

.5068

2.11

.7467

2.56

.9400

1.22

.1988

1.67

.5128

2.12

.7514

2.57

.9439

1.23

' .2070

1.68

.5188

2.13

.7561

2.58

.9478

1.24

, .2151

1.69

.5247

2.14

.7608

2.59

.9517

1.25

.2231

1.70

.5306

2.15

.7655

2.60

.9555

1.26

.2311

1.71

.5365

2.16

.7701

2.61

.9594

1.27

.2390

1.72

.5423

2.17

.7747

2.62

.9632

1.28

.2469

1,73

.5481

2.18

.7793

2.63

.9670

1.29

. .2546

1.74

.5539

2.19

.7839

2.64

.9708

1.30

• 2624

1.75

,5596

2.20

.7885

2.65

.9746

1.31

.2700

1.76

.5653

2.21

.7930

2.66

.9783

1.32

.2776

1.77

.5710

2.22

.7975

2.67

.9821

1.33

.2852

1.78

.5766

2.23

.8020

2.68

.9858

1.34

.2927

1.79

.5822

2.24

.8065

2.69

.9895

1.35

.3001

1.80

.5878

2.25

.8109

2.70

.9933

1.36

.3075.

1.81

.5933

2.26

.8154

2.71

.9969

1.37

.3148

1.82

.5988

2.27

.8198

2.72

1.0006

1.38

.3221

1.83

.6043

2.28

.8242

2.73

1.0043

1.39

.3293

1.84

.6098

2.29

.8286

2.74

1.0080

1.40

.3365

1.85 ,

.6152

2.30

.8329,

2.75

1.0116

i.4!

.3436

1.86

,6206

2.31

.8372

2.76

1.0152

1.42

3507

1.87

.6259

2.32

.8416

2.77

1.0188

1.43

•3577

1.88

.6313

2.33

.8458

2.78

1.0225

1.44

.3646

1.89

.6366

2.34

.8502

2.79

1.0260

1.45

.3716

1.90

.6419

2.35

.8544

2.80

1.0296

[192]

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 30 — (Cont.)

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

2.81

.0332

3.26

1.1817

3.71

.3110

4.16

1.4255

2.82

.0367

3.27

1.1848

3.72

.3137

4.17

1.4279

2.83

.0403

3.28

1.1878

3.73

.3164

4.18

1.4303

2.84

.0438

3.29

1 . 1909

3.74

.3191

4.19

1.4327

2.85

.0473

3.30

1.1939

3.75

.3218

4.20

1.4351

2.86

.0508

3.31

1.1969

3.76

.3244

4.21

1.4375

2.87

.0543

3.32

il. 1999

3.77

.3271

4.22

1.4398

2.88

.0578

3.33

1.2030

3.78

.3297

4.23

1.4422

2.89

.0613

3.34

1.2060

3.79

.3324

4.24

1.4446

2.90

.0647

3.35

1.2090

3.80

.3350

4.25

1.4469

2.91

.0682

3.36

1.2119

3.81

.3376

4.26

1.4493

2.92

.0716

3.37

1.2149

3.82

.3403

4.27

1.4516

2.93

.0750

3.38

1.2179

3.83

.3429

4.28

1.4540

2.94

I .Q784

3.39

1.2208

3.84

.3455

4.29

1.4563

2.95

1.0818

3.40

1.2238

3.85

.3481

4.30

1.4586

2.96

1.0852

3.41

1.2267

3.86

.3507

4.31

1.4609

2.97

1.0886

3.42

1.2296

3.87

.3533

4.32

1.4633

2.98

1.0919

3.43

1.2326

3.88

.3558

4.33

1.4656

2.99

1.0953

3.44

1.2355

3.89

.3584

4.34

1.4679

3.00

1.0986

3.45

1.2384

3.90

.3610

4.35

1.4702

3.01

1.1019

3.46

1.2413

3.91

.3635

4.36

1.4725

3.02

1.1053

3.47

1.2442

3.92

.3661

4.37

1.4748

3.03

1.1086

3.48

1.2470

3.93

.3686

4.38

1.4770

3.04

1.1119

3.49

1.2499

3.94

.3712

4.39

1.4793

3.05

1.1151

3.50

1.2528

3.95

.3737

4.40

1.4816

3.06

1.1184

3.51

1.2556

3.96

1.3762

4.41

1.4839

3.07

1.1217

3.52

1.2585

3.97

1.3788

4.42

1.4861

3.08

1.1249

3.53

1.2613

3.98

1.3813

4.43

1.4884

3.09

1 . 1282

3.54

1.2641

3.99

1.3838

4.44

1.4907

3.10

1.1314

3.55

1.2669

4.00

1.3863

4.45

1.4929

3.11

1.1346

3.56

1.2698

4.01

1.3888

4.46

1.4951

3.12

1.1378

3.57

1.2726

4.02

1.3913

4.47

1.4974

3.13

1.1410

3.58

1.2754

4.03

1.3938

4.48

1.4996

3.14

1 . 1442

3.59

1.2782

4.04

.3962

4.49

1.5019

3.15

1.1474

3.60

1.2809

4.05

.3987

4.50

1.5041

'3.16

.1506

3.61

1.2837

4.06

.4012

4.51

1.5063

3.17

.1537

3.62

1.2865

4.07

.4036

4.52

1.5085

3.18

.1569

3.63

1.2892

4.08

.4061

4.53

1.5107

3.19

.1600

3.64

1.2920

4.09

.4085

4.54

1.5129

3.20

: .1632

3.65

1.2947

4.10

.4110

4.55

1.5151

3.21

i 1.1663

3.66

1.2975

4.11

1.4i34

4.56

1.5173

3.22

i 1.1694

3.67

1.3002

4.12

! 1.4159

4.57

1.5195

3.23

i 1.1725

3.68

1.3029

4.13

1.4183

4.58

1.5217

3.24

1 . 1756

3.69

1.3056

4.14

1.4207

4.59

1.5239

3.25

1.1787

3.70

1.3083

4.15

1.4231

4.60

1.5261

[193]

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 30 — (Cont.)

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

4.61

1.5282

5.06

.6214

5.51

.7066

5.96

1.7851

4.62

1.5304

5.07

.6233

5.52

.7084

5.97

1.7867

4.63

1.5326

5.08

.6253

5.53

.7102

5.98

1.7884

4.64

1.5347

5.09

.6273

5.54

.7120

5.99

1.7901

4.65

1.5369

5.10

.6292

5.55

.7138

6.00

1.7918

4.66

1.5390

5.11

.6312

5.56

.7156

6.01

1.7934

4.67

1.5412

5.12

.6332

5.57

.7174

6.02

1.7951

4.68

1.5433

5.13

.6351

5.58

.7192

6.03

1.7967

4.69

1.5454

5.14

.6371

5.59

.7210

6.04

.7984

4.70

1.5476

5.15

.6390

5.60

.7228

6.05

.8001

4.71

1.5497

5.16

1.6409

5.61

.7246

6.06

.8017

4.72

.5518

5.17

1.6429

5.62

.7263

6.07

.8034

4.73

.5539

5.18

1.6448

5.63

.7281

6.08

.8050

4.74

.5560

5.19

1.6467

5.64

.7299

6.09

.8066

4.75

.5581

5.20

1.6487

5.65

.7317

6.10

.8083

4.76

.5602

5.21

1.6506

5.66

.7334

6.11

.8099

4.77

.5623

5.22

1.6525

5.67

.7352

6.12

.8116

4.78

.5644

5.23

1.6544

5.68

1.7370

6.13

.8132

4.79

.5665

5.24

1.6563

5.69

1.7387

6.14

.8148

4.80

.5686

5.25

1.6582

5.70

1.7405

6.15

.8165

4.81

.5707

5.26

1.6601

5.71

1.7422

6.16

.8181

4.82

.5728

5.27

1.6620

5.72

1.7440

6.17

.8197

4.83

.5748

5.28

1.6639

5.73

1.7457

6.18

.8213

4.84

.5769

5.29

1.6658

5.74

1.7475

6.19

.8229

4.85

1.5790

5.30

1.6677

5.75

1.7492

6.20

.8245

4.86

1.5810

5.31

1.6696

5.76

1.7509

6.21

.8262

4.87

1.5831

5.32

1.6715

5.77

1.7527

6.22

.8278

4.88

1.5851

5.33

.6734

5.78

1.7544

6.23

.8294

4.89

1.5872

5.34

.6752

5.79

1.7561

6.24

.8310

4.90

1.5892

5.35

.6771

5.80

1.7579

6.25

.8326

4.91

1.5913

5.36

.6790

5.81

1.7596

6.26

.8342

4.92

1.5933

5.37

.6808

5.82

1.7613

6.27

.8358

4.93

1.5953

5.38

.6827

5.83

1.7630

6.28

.8374

4.94

1.5974

5.39

.6845

5.84

1.7647

6.29

.8390

4.95

1.5994

5.40

1.6864

5.85

1.7664

6.30

.8405

4.96

.6014

5.41

1.6882

5.86

.7681

6.31

.8421

4.97

.6034

5.42

1.6901

5.87

.7699

6.32

.8437

4.98

.6054

5.43

1.6919

5.88

.7716

6.33

.8453

4.99

.6074

5.44

1.6938

5.89

.7733

6.34

.8469

5.00

.6094

5.45

1.6956

5.90

.7750

6.35

1.8485

5.01

1.6114

5.46

1.6974

5.91

1.7766

6.36

1.8500

5.02

1.6134

5.47

1.6993

5.92

1.7783

6.37

1.8516

5.03

1.6154

5.48

1.7011

5.93

1.7800

6.38

1.8532

5.04

1.6174

5.49

1.7029

5.94

1.7817

6.39

1.8547

5.05

1.6194

5.50

1.7047

5.95

1.7834

6.40

1.8563

[194]

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS PROM 1 TO 30— (Cont.)

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

6.41

1.8579

6.86

1.9257

7.31

1.9892

7.76

2.0490

6.42

1.8594

6.87

1.9272

7.32

1.9906

7.77

2.0503

6.43

1.8610

6.88

1.9286

7.33

1.9920

7.78

2.0516

6.44

1.8625

6.89

1.9301

7.34

1.9933

7.79

2.0528

6.45

1.8641

6.90

1.9315

7.35

1.9947

7.80

2.0541

6.46

1.8656

6.91

1.9330

7.36

1.9961

7.81

2.0554

6.47

1.8672

6.92

1.9344

7.37

1.9974

7.82

2.0567

6.48

1.8687

6.93

1.9359

7.38

1.9988

7.83

2.0580

6.49

1.8703

6.94

1.9373

7.39

2.0001

7.84

2.0592

6.50

1.8718

6.95

1.9387

7.40

2.0015

7.85

2.0605

6.51

1.8733

6.96

1.9402

7.41

2.0028

7.86

2.0618

6.52

1.8749

6.97

1.9416

7.42

2.0042

7.87

2.0631

6.53

1.8764

6.98

1.9430

7.43

2.0055

7.88

2.0643

6.54

1.8779

6.99

1.9445

7.44

2.0069

7.89

2.0656

6.55

1.8795

7.00

1.9459

7.45

2.0082

•7.90

2.0669

6.56

1.8810

7.01

1.9473

7.46

2.0096

7.91

2.0681

6.57

1.8825

7.02

1.9488

7.47

2.0109

7.92

2.0694

6.58

1.8840

7.03

1.9502

7.48

2.0122

7.93

2.0707

6.59

1.8856

7.04

1.9516

7.49

2.0136

7.94

2.0719

6.60

1.8871

7.05

1.9530

7.50

2.0149

7.95

2.0732

6.61

1.8886

7.06

1.9544

7.51

2.0162

7.96

2.0744

6.62

1.8901

7.07

1.9559

7.52

2.0176

7.97

2.0757

6.63

1.8916

7.08

1.9573

7.53

2.0189

7.98

2.0769

6.64

1.8931

7.09

1.9587

7.54

2.0202

7.99

2.0782

6.65

1.8946

7.10

1.9601

7.55

2.0215

8.00

2.0794

6.66

1.8961

7.11

1.9615

7.56

2.0229

8.01

2.0807

6.67

1.8976

7.12

1.9629

7.57

2.0242

8.02

2.0819

6.68

1.8991

7.13

1.9643

7.58

2.0255

8.03

2.0832

6.69

1.9006

7.14

1.9657

7.59

2.0268

8.04

2.0844

6.70

1.9021

7.15

1.9671

7.60

2.0281

8.05

2.0857

6.71

1.9036

7.16

1.9685

7.61

2.0295

8.06

2.0869

6.72

1.9051

7.17

1.9699

7.62

2.0308

8.07

2.0882

6.73

1.9066

7.18

1.9713

7.63

2.0321

8.08

2.0894

6.74

1.9081

7.19

1.9727

7.64

2.0334

8.09

2.0906

6.75

1.9095

7.20

1.9741

7.65

2.0347

8.10

2.0919

6.76

1.9110

7.21

1.9755

7.66

2.0360

8.11

2.0931

6.77

1.9125

7.22

.9769

7.67

2.0373

8.12

2.0943

6.78

1.9140

7.23

.9782

7.68

2.0386

8.13

2.0956

6.79

1.9155

7.24

.9796

7.69

2.0399

8.14

2.0968

6.80

1.9169

7.25

.9810

7.70

2.0412

8.15

2.0980

6.81

1.9184

7.26 .

.9824

7.71

2.0425

8.16

2.0992

6.82

1.9199

7.27

.9838

7.72

2.0438

8.17

2.1005

6.83

1.9213

7.28

.9851

7.73

2.0451

8.18

2.1017

6.84

1.9228

7.29

1.9865

7.74

2.0464

8.19

2.1029

6.85

1.9242

7.30

1.9879

7.75

2.0477

8.20

2.1041

[195]

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 30 — (Cont.}

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm . Number

Logarithm

8.21

2.1054

8.66

2.1587

9.11

2.2094

9,56

2.2576

8.22

2.1066

8.67

2.1599

9.12

2.2105

9.57

2.2586

$.23

2.1078

8,68

2.1610

; 9.13

2.2116

9.58

2.2597

8.24

2.1090

8. §9

2.1622

9.14

2.2127

9.59

2.2607

8.25

2.1102

8.70

2.1633

945

2.2138

9.60

2.2618

8-26

2.1114

8.71

2.1645

9.16

2.2148

9.61

2.2628

8.27

12.1126

8.72

2.1656

947

2.2159

9.62

2.2638

8.28

2.1138

8-73

2.1668

948

2.2170

9.63

J2.2649

8.29

2.1150

8.74

2.1679

949

2.2181

9.64

2.2659

8.30

!2.U63

3.75

24691

9.20

2.2192

9-65

2.2670

8.31

24175

8.76

2.1702

9.21

2.2203

9.66

2.2680

8.32

2.1187

8.77 j

2.1713

9.22

2.2214

9.67

2.2690

8.33

2.1199

$.78

2.1725

9.23

2.2225

9.68

2.2701

8.34

2. 1211

i 8.79

2.1736

9.24

2.2235

9.69

2.2711

8,3$

24223

i 8.80

24748

9.25

2.2246

9.70

2.2721

8.36

2.1235

8.81

2.1759

9.26

2.2257

9.71

2.2732

8.37

2.1247

8.82

2.1770

9,27

2.2268

: 9.72

2.2742

8.38

2.1258

8,83

2.1782

9.28

'2.2279

9.73

2.2752

8.39

2.1270

8.84

'2.1793

9.29

2.2289

9.74

2.2762

8.40

J24282

8.85

12.1804

! 9. 30

2.2300

9.75

2.2773

8.41

b.1294

8.86

i24815

9.31

2.2311

! 9.76

2.2783

8.42

'2.1306

8.87

i'24827

; 9.32

2.2322

i 9.77

2.2793

8.43

12.1318

8.88

2.J838

9.33

2.2332

9.78

2.2803

8.44

2.1330

; 8.89

2.1849

j 9.34

2.2343

9.79

2.2814

8.45

'2.1342

; 8.90

S.1861

i 9.35

2.2354

9.80

2.2824

8.46

2.1353

8.91

2.1872

9.36

2.2364

9.81

2.2834

8.47

24365

8.92

2.1883

9.37

2.2375

9.82 2.2844

8.48

2.1377

8.93

2.1894

9.38

2.2386

9.83

2.2854

8.49

2.1389

8.94

2.1905

9.39

2.2396

9.84

2.2865

8,50

2.1401

8.95

2.1917

9.40

2.2407

9.85

2.2875

8.51

2.1412

8.96

2.1928

9.41

2.2418

9.86

2.2885

8.52

2.1424

8.97

2.1939

9.42

2.2428

9.87

2.2895

8.53

2.1436

8.98

24950

9.43

2.2439

9.88

2.2905

8.54

2.1448

: 8.99

24961

9.44

2.2450

9.89

2.2915

8.55

2.1459

9.00

12.1972

; 9.45

2.2460

; 9.90

2.2925

j

\

8.56

J2.1471

9.01

b.1983

; 9.46

2.2471

9.91

2.2935

8.57

52.1483

i 9.02

£4994

9.47

2.2481

9.92

2.2946

8.58

2.1494

1 9.03

2.2006

9.48

2.2492

9.93

2.2956

8.59

J2.1506

; 9.04

2.2017

; 9.49

2.2502

9.94

2.2966

8.60

£.1518

: 9.05

2.2028

9.50

2.2513

9.95

2.2976

i

i

8.61

2.1529

9.06

2.2039

9.51

2.2523

9.96

2.2986

8.62

2.1541

9.07

2.2050

9.52

2.2534

9.97

2.2996

8.63

24552

9.08

2.2061

9.53

2.2544

9.98

2.3006

8.64

2.1564

9.09

2.2072

9.54

2.2555

9.99

2.3016

8.65

2.1576

9.10

2.2083

9.55

2.2565

10.00

2.3026

[1961

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 30 — (Ctmt.)

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

Number

Logarithm

10.25

2.3279

12.75

2.5455

15.5

2.7408

21.0

3.0445

10.50

2.3513

13.00

2.5649

16.0

2.7726

22.0

3.0911

10.75

2.3749

13.25

2.5840

16.5

2.8034

23.0

3.1355

11.00

2.3979

13.50

2.6027

17.0

2.8332

24.0

3.1781

11.25

2.4201

13.75

2.6211

17.5

2.8621

25.0

3.2189

11.50

2.4430

14.00

2.6391

18.0

2.8904

26.0

3.2581

11.75

2.4636

14.25

2.6567

18.5

2.9173

27.0

3.2958

12.00

2.4849

14.50

2.6740

19.0

2.9444

28.0

3.3322

12.25

2.5052

14.75

2.6913

19.5

2.9703

29.0

3.3673

12.50

2.5262

15.00

2.7081

20.0

2.9957

30.0

3.4012

[197]

SECTION 4
PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

This section does not include all of the materials used in engineering; the list relates
more particularly to the common metals, and of these iron and steel have been given
the larger space because of their commercial importance and extended use in machine
construction and structural work. Brief consideration has been given to the non-
ferrous metals and the non-metallic substances which so profoundly influence the
chemical and physical properties of iron during its conversion into steel. There are
commercially available many materials used in engineering which are not included in
this section : a considerable number of these are given in the United States Navy Specifi-
cations included in this volume; these specifications are so complete in themselves that
repetition in this section would serve no useful purpose. The subjects have been arranged
in alphabetical order, to which have been added certain artificial products, as well as
definitions of some of the terms used in metallurgy.

Acetylene, C2H2. Specific gravity 0.92. At 0° C., 32° F., acetylene weighs 0.0807
pound per cubic foot, or 1 pound = 12.392 cubic feet. At 62° F. it weighs 0.070 pound
per cubic foot, or 1 pound = 14.286 cubic feet. Acetylene is a hydrocarbon gas, which
may be formed by passing an electric current between carbon poles in an atmosphere
of hydrogen, the carbon and the hydrogen combining directly. The resultant gas
is colorless, has a peculiar pungent odor, and burns with a luminous, smoky flame.

Commercial acetylene is not thus produced, but by bringing water into contact with
calcium carbide. The gas thus given off while not strictly pure is nearly so; the pun-
gent odor of crude acetylene made from calcium carbide is greatly modified by puri-
fication, its pungency disappears and the purified gas has a not unpleasant ethereal
odor. An analysis of acetylene from calcium carbide by Vivian B. Lewes was found
to consist of 92.3% carbon and 7.7% hydrogen.

Weight of acetylene from calcium carbide. Under standard British conditions
(60° F. and 760 mm. barometric pressure) 1,000 cubic feet of acetylene weigh 69.18
pounds dry and 68.83 pounds saturated. Unless the gas has been passed through
a chemical drier, it is always saturated with aqueous vapor, the amount of water present
being governed by the temperature and pressure. Under average conditions 1,000
cubic feet of acetylene weigh 69 pounds, or one cubic foot weighs 0.069 pounds, or
1 pound = 14.493 cubic feet.

Acetylene has the highest candle-power and heat unit content of any gas yet pro-
duced. A few of the hydrocarbons in the acetylene series have been grouped by J. M.
Morehead, progressively from methane to acetylene, thus:

1. Methane CH4 5.2 candle power 4. Ethylene C2H4 70.0 candle power

2. Ethane C2H6 37.7 candle power 5. Butylene C6H8 123.0 candle power

3. Propane C3H8 56.7 candle power 6. Acetylene C2H2 240.0 candle power

It is impossible to go further than acetylene in this direction, as the two elements in
the combination do not unite.

Acid. — A salt of hydrogen in which the hydrogen can be replaced by a metal, or
can, with a basic metallic oxide, form a salt of that metal and water: — Differently
expressed by Hiorns, an acid is a salt whose base is water, a definition which becomes
apparent when separating the acid from a salt in which the acid appears to be left
without having any substitute for the removed alkali; such is not the case, however,
because water is found to enter into union instead of the base. Every true acid con-
tains hydrogen, and if the hydrogen is displaced by a metal, salts are formed directly;
therefore, an acid is a salt whose metal is hydrogen.

All acids have one essential property, viz., that of combining chemically with an
alkali or base, forming a new compound that has neither acid nor alkaline character.
The new bodies formed in this way are salts. Every acid is therefore capable of pro-

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

ducing as many salts as there are basic substances to be neutralized; and this salt-
forming power is the best definition of an acid substance. The secondary properties
common to most acids are: solubility in water; a sour taste; the power of turning
vegetable blues, litmus, for example, to red; the power of destroying more or less com-
pletely the characteristic properties of alkalies, at the same time losing their own dis-
tinguishing characters, forming salts. All these secondary properties are variable;
and if we attempted to base a definition on any one of them, many important acids
would be excluded. Take the case of a "body like silica, so widely diffused in nature: —
Siliceous sand or flint is insoluble in water; devoid of taste; and does not act on vege-
table coloring matters; yet this substance is a true acid, because, when heated along
with soda or lime, it forms a new body commonly called glass, which is chemically a
salt of silicic acid. Other acids having properties similar to silica might easily be
mistaken for neutral bodies if the salt-forming power was overlooked.

Acidic. — This term is applied to the acid element, as silicon, in certain salts; it is
opposed to basic. The term is also used to denote a large amount of the acid elements:
as, for example, the acidic feldspars, which contain 60% or more of silica.

Acidific. — That which produces acidity or an acid: — said of the elements (oxygen,
sulphur, etc.) which in a ternary compound are considered as uniting the basic and
acidic elements. Thus in calcium silicate, calcium is called the basic, silicon the acidic,
and oxygen the acidific element.

The oxides of metals are usually basic in character, but this property is only rela-
tive, as an oxide which is basic in one compound may become acid when allied with
a stronger base. Oxides, as the compounds of oxygen with other elements are termed,
may be roughly divided into two groups:

1. Those which have an acid character, chiefly oxides of the non-metals and are
often termed acids, such as carbonic acid CO2 and silica SiO2.

2. Those of a basic character, chiefly oxides of the metals, which are termed bases.
These two classes are opposite in character, and, when united in equivalent proportions,
generally neutralize each other, forming what are termed neutral bodies, which do not
possess the characteristic properties of either kind. Thus silica SiO2 will neutralize
oxide of iron FeO, forming a silicate, which is neither acid nor basic. If any com-
pound contain an excess of acid or base, it is classified either as an acid or as a basic
substance according to the kind which predominates, thus, 3FeO.SiO2 is a basic
silicate, and FeO.SiO2 an acid silicate, because in the former there is more FeO than
is required to neutralize the acid SiO2, and hi the latter less than is necessary for the
purpose.

Iron forms three oxides: ferric oxide, Fe2O3, ferroso-ferric oxide, FesO,i, and ferrous
oxide, FeO. The lower oxides are converted into the higher by oxidation and the
higher into the lower by reduction. The higher oxides of several of the metals are
acidic. This is markedly so in the case of chromium and manganese.

Acid oxides of the same element are distinguished by the termination of -ous and
•4c as sulphurous and sulphuric — the latter containing the most oxygen; they are
also called anhydrides. They unite with water and form acids having the same termi-
nations. By replacement of the hydrogen by a metal they form salts distinguished by
the terminations -die and -ate respectively. These acids are called oxygen acids ; formerly
it was thought that all acids contained oxygen, this element being regarded as the
acidifying principle. But many acids are formed by direct union of hydrogen with
an element, as hydrochloric acid (HC1), hydrosulphuric acid (H2S), or with an organic
radical, as hydrocyanic acid, H(CN).

Acids are said to be monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, etc., according as one, two, or
three atoms of hydrogen can be replaced by a metal.

Air consists essentially of the two elements nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion
of 79 volumes of nitrogen to 21 volumes of oxygen, or, by weight, of 77% of nitrogen
and 23% of oxygen. Besides nitrogen and oxygen, the air contains a little ozone, car-
bon dioxide, a trace of ammonia, and a variable proportion of aqueous vapor depending
on the temperature, direction of the wind, etc. The oxygen and nitrogen are in a
state of mechanical mixture, and not in chemical combination, their ratio is always
uniform. The ozone occurs in country air only; the carbon dioxide is much influenced

[200]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

by local causes, therefore varies considerably. The ammonia in the atmosphere is in
too small a quantity for direct estimation.

The atmospheric pressure at the level of the sea is 14.7 pounds per square inch;
one pound of dry ah- occupies a space 12.387 cubic feet at 32° F., equivalent to 0.0807
pound per cubic foot. At 62° F. there are 13.141 cubic feet per pound, equivalent to
0.0761 pound per cubic foot. *At the surface of the sea the mean pressure of the atmos-
phere is sufficient to balance a column of mercury 29.92 inches (760 millimeters), or
one of water 33.90 feet hi height. Air at 62° F. = 30 inches of mercury.

The density of air at 62° F. fixed as 1.000 is made the standard with which the
specific gravity of other gases is compared. If water be made unity, then the specific
gravity of dry air is 0.001293. At 62° F. air is 819.4 times lighter than water.

The specific heat of air at constant pressure is 0.2375, water = 1.0000. The specific
heat of air at constant volume = 0.1689. The ratio of the specific heat of air, or con-
stant pressure divided by constant volume = 1 .406.

Air being an elastic gas may be compressed and when compressed heat is evolved;
when compressed air is used as power it is expanded and cold is produced. In a per-
fect machine the heat of compression and the cold of expansion would equal each
other, but there are no perfect machines and losses inevitably occur. The compression
of air may be carried out in two ways: isothermally, with constant temperature through
some refrigerating device; adiabatically, in which the temperature is allowed to increase
according to the pressure, the containing vessel being protected to keep in the accumu-
lated heat. In engineering practice the production of compressed air is by machines,
which combine both isothermic and adiabatic compression.

Alcohol. — Ethyl alcohol, C2H6O3, when pure is a colorless, limpid liquid of pungent
and agreeable taste and odor; its specific gravity, at 15.5° C. (60° F.) is 0.7938, and
that of its vapor referred to air 1.613. Specific heat at 0° C., 0.5475. It is very in-
flammable, burning with a pale bluish flame, free from smoke. It boils at 78.4° C.
(173° F.) when in the anhydrous state; in a diluted state, the boiling point is higher,
being progressively raised by each addition of water. It mixes with water in all pro-
portions with evolution of heat and contraction of volume; it readily absorbs moisture
from the air, and from substances immersed in it. The solvent powers of alcohol
are very extensive. It dissolves many organic 'substances, as the vegeto-alkalies,
resins, essential oils, and various other bodies, hence its extended use in the arts.

Alcohol is obtained by the fermentation of sugars, when a solution of them is mixed
with yeast. It is extracted from spirituous liquors by distillation, but in commerce
the strongest is known as spirit of wine, and contains about 90% alcohol. The remain-
ing 10% of water must be removed by some chemical agent that will combine with
water and retain it at the boiling point of the spirit, and be without any specific action
on the alcohol. The most efficient dehydrating agent is caustic lime or caustic baryta.
Lime is generally used in making the absolute alcohol of commerce.

Industrial alcohol is the name given to an alcohol denatured in order that it may
not be used for other than technical purposes. The formula for completely denaturing
alcohol given by the regulations of the U. S. Internal Revenue is as follows: To 100
parts of ethyl alcohol add 10 parts of approved methyl alcohol and one-half of 1 part
of approved benzine.

When used for lighting, it must be burned in a state of gas and the heat produced
by the combustion utilized to produce incandescence in the ordinary mantle which
surrounds the common gas flame for the same purpose. Alcohol motors, especially
in the smaller sizes, will become quite common as soon as the technique of construc-
tion is practically complete and the price of alcohol is sufficiently low. As compared
with gasolene, which becomes volatile at 98.5° F., alcohol requires from 158° to 176° F.
to volatilize rapidly enough for motor purposes.

Tests, made by R. M. Strong and Lanson Stone, on the comparative values of
gasolene and denatured alcohol in internal-combustion engines, for the Bureau of
Mines, showed that for tests on the gasolene engine: Specific gravity of the gasolene
at 60° F. was 0.7122. Heating value: High, 20,581; low, 19,292 B.t.u. per pound.
Per cent alcohol by weight 94.3. The engine used was rated at 10 HP. In round
numbers the compression of gasolene in the cy Under was 72 pounds per square inch;

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

the brake horsepower 11.41; gasolene consumed per brake horsepower-hour was 1
pound; B.t.u. per brake horsepower-hour was 12.540; compression in alcohol cylinder
126 pounds per square inch, the brake horsepower 12.98; alcohol consumed per brake
horsepower-hour was 1.005 pounds; B.t.u. per brake horsepower-hour was 10620.
As a net result of this series of tests no definite conclusions were reached, but the alcohol
engine was throughout found to be relatively less efficient than the gasolene engine.

Alkali. — This term is used to denote a strong base, which is capable of neutralizing
acids, so that the salts formed are either completely neutral, or, if the acid is weak, give
alkaline reactions. Alkalies turn reddened litmus blue, they have a soapy taste, act
on the skin and form soaps with fats. The volatile alkalies are ammonia and the
amines of organic chemistry, which have a strong alkaline reaction like ammonia and
unite with acids to form salts.

The alkaline metals are potassium, sodium, caesium, rubidium, and lithium. They
are soft, easily fusible, volatile at high temperatures, combine very energetically with
oxygen; decompose water at all temperatures; and form strongly basic oxides, which
are very soluble in water, yielding powerfully caustic and alkaline hydrates, from
which the water can not be expelled by heat.

Alkaline earths are oxides of the metals barium, strontium, and calcium. They
are less soluble in water than the true alkalies, but exhibiting similar taste, causticity,
and action on vegetable colors.

Allotropy. — The capacity of an element to exhibit different properties, although
its conditions are identical as regards chemical composition, physical state, and ex-
ternal influences, such as pressure, temperature, etc., Roberts- Austen describes as a
change of internal energy occurring in an element at a critical temperature, unaccom-
panied by change of state. The allotropic theory as related to iron assumes three
critical points, or evolutions of heat, as shown in cooling a piece of very mild steel
from a temperature of 1000° C.

1. A slight evolution of heat at about 890° C., termed Arz.

2. A disengagement of heat at about 765° C., termed Ar2.

3. Another point at about 690° C., small in very mild steel and highly accentuated
in steels high in carbon, termed An.

The presence of dissolved cementite lowers the temperature at which these changes
occur, in precisely the same manner as the presence of dissolved carbon in cast iron
lowers the temperature of its freezing point. Iron in the gamma form will dissolve
about 1% of carbon as cementite, at about 890° C., but beta iron will scarcely dissolve
any carbon, so that the beta iron, being practically free from combined iron, undergoes
the change to alpha iron at the normal temperature of 765° C. Meanwhile as the
iron falls out, the residual solution becomes richer in cementite until at 690° C.
it is saturated, forming an eutectic solid solution, and the cementite and iron (in the
alpha form) separate out, side by side, to form the well-known pearlite. The evolu-
tion of heat at 690° C. marks the point known as An.

Alloy. — A mixture of two or more metals united by melting the more refractory
metal and dissolving the less refractory metal in it; forming a new composite metal
with characteristics of its own differing from either of its constituents. Gun metal
composed of copper, tin, and zinc may be used as an illustration; copper is a red metal
with chemical and physical properties all its own, it melts at 1083° C.; tin is a white
metal of less specific gravity and a much lower melting point, viz., 232° C.; zinc is
wholly different from either, its melting point is 419° C.; when these are fused into
an alloy: 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn, the melting point is 995° C. The tensile strength
of copper is about 27,800 pounds per square inch; that of tin 12,760 pounds; that of
zinc 5,400 pounds. The tensile strength of the alloy is about 32,000 pounds per square
inch. By changing the above proportions of tin and zinc to copper, a bronze is ob-
tained of different qualities, differing in color, hardness, and tensile strength, thus:
60% Cu, 15% Sn, 25% Zn, has a tensile strength of about 18,000 pounds per square
inch. A few per cent of tin causes copper to be hard and more tenacious. A brass
casting of 60% Cu, 40% Zn, will have a tensile strength of about 46,000 pounds per
square inch. The addition of 2.5% lead will improve the working qualities, while
a large addition, say 10% lead, will make it brittle.

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Metallic elements do not at first sight appear to combine in certain ratios and
form definite compounds; it is probable, however, that some metals do unite in definite
proportions; by the general law of affinity, all metals ought to combine chemically.
As a general rule metals which form alkalies have a particular tendency to unite with
those which form acids. Potassium, which is one of the alkali metals, combines readily
with antimony, which is both an acid-forming and a base-fopming element; it also
combines with arsenic, especially when present as arsenic oxide or arsenic acid, the
latter being a very powerful acid.

When two metals are near in the series of affinities for oxygen, they do not com-
bine very readily; and they may often be separated, by crystallization only, when
their degree of fusibility is sufficiently distinct. This happens when both metals
absorb the same, or nearly the same, quantity of oxygen in forming oxide. All chem-
ical combinations liberate heat; silver and platinum, when melted together, produce
a high temperature, so do zinc and copper. In most cases, we obtain a mere mechanical
mixture of metals in an alloy; this is always characterized by forming distinct crystals
with one metal, between which the other metal is visible. When an alloy is formed
which contains equivalents, no such disconnected crystals are observed. The number
of definite compounds is very large, and in all cases a metal is never obtained pure
whenever another is present. In cooling a melted alloy, that composition which is
most refractory crystallizes first; and that which is most fluid is compelled to occupy
the spaces between the crystals of the most refractory. Thus, copper and tin are
very fusible; but in cooling, copper-tin crystallizes first and the tin-copper last; which
latter occupies the spaces between the first.

Alloys are more fusible than the mean temperature at which the metals melt singly.
This is an important law and affords, when properly applied, the most valuable results.
When an alloy of two metals is fusible at a lower heat than the mean of the two, a
composition of three metals is still more fusible than their various degrees of melting
indicate. If an alloy is more fusible than a single metal, it follows that, when one
or the other constituent is removed, the fusibility of the alloy is impaired.

When metals are melted together and form an alloy there is produced a remarkable
change in their specific gravity; which is sometimes greater and at other times less
than the mean. A condensation of volume occurs and the specific gravity of the
compound is greater than the mean of the constituents in the case of copper with tin,
zinc, or antimony; lead with zinc, bismuth, or antimony. An expansion takes place
when iron is combined with antimony, bismuth, or tin; also copper and lead, tin and
zinc, lead or antimony, zinc and antimony.

The hardness of alloys is generally greater than may be inferred from the nature
of the constituents; still there, are exceptions to this rule. Copper and tin, two very
soft metals, may be made extremely hard by melting them together in certain pro-
portions. Hard zinc and copper make soft brass. Antimony causes all metals to
become hard.

The ductility of alloys is in some cases greater than the elements indicate, that
of lead and zinc being very tenacious. On the contrary, some alloys are more brittle
than the original metals; thus lead and antimony are very brittle. Two or more brittle
metals melted together are always brittle. Any alloy, when slowly heated and gradu-
ally cooled, annealed, is softer than an alloy which is suddenly chilled. Heat here, as
everywhere, weakens affinity.

In the case of iron when combined with carbon to form steel, we have a metal com-
bined with a non-metal; this also is called an alloy. Metals dissolved in mercury
are called amalgams.

Aluminium, Al. — Atomic weight, 27. Specific gravity: Molten metal, 2.54; cast
metal, 2.66. This latter may be increased by hammering or rolling. Weight per cubic
foot, 165 pounds = 0.096 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 659° C., 1,218° F.,
depending on its purity. Small amounts of silicon and iron, which are always present,
have a considerable effect on its behavior, both physically and in contact with reagents.
Volatilization of aluminium does not take place at temperatures commonly had in
carbon fired furnaces, but it should not on this account be long subjected to temperatures
much above its melting point, as the molten metal readily absorbs gases which affect

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

unfavorably the quality of the castings. Specific heat at 0° C. = 0.2098, at 100° =
0.2236, at 300° C. = 0.2434, at 500° C. = 0.2739, at 650° C. = 0.3200. Latent heat
of fusion, 51.30 B.t.u. per pound. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0.00002312 at 40° C.,
104° F. At 600° C., 1,112° F., the coefficient is 0.00003150. Heat conductivity, 35,
silver = 100. In Smithsonian Physical Tables the conductivity is given as 0.3435 at
0° C. and 0.3619 at 100° C. The electrical conductivity is 57, silver = 100. Taking
copper as 100, aluminium with purity 98.5% = 55; at 99% purity = 59; at 99.5%
purity = 61; at 100% purity = 66. Its elastic modulus (i.e., load in kilograms pet-
square millimeter, divided by its alteration in length) is 7,462 as compared with 11,350
for copper, and the torsion moduli of these metals are 3,350 and 4,450 respectively.

Color: Pure aluminium is nearly as white as silver, but the commercial metal
has a bluish white cast intermediate between the colors of tin and zinc.

The hardness of aluminium varies with its purity, the purest metal being the softest.
In relative hardness, the diamond = 1,000.0; aluminium is 272.8, that is, softer than
gold and harder than tin. The ordinary commercial aluminium is about as hard as
copper, which, on the same scale, is 451.8. This increase in hardness is due to the
fact that aluminium commonly contains small amounts of some other metals. Alu-
minium hardens considerably when it is worked; mechanical processes such as pressing,
forging, rolling, etc., will harden the metal; castings not subject to mechanical treat-
ment, as above, should contain some alloying metal if hardness is particularly desired.

In malleability, aluminium ranks next after gold, but its malleability is impaired
by the presence of silicon and iron. Aluminium of over 99% purity is rolled into sheets
of only 0.0005 to 0.0007 of an inch in thickness, and such sheets are hammered into
leaf nearly as thin as gold leaf. Aluminium leaf is largely used in decorative work,
and has almost entirely superseded the use of silver leaf because of the softness of
tone and non-tarnishing qualities when in contact with gases which blacken silver.
Aluminium bronze paint is the leaf ground into powder and mixed with oil and drier.

The ductility of aluminium is next after that of copper; it has been drawn into a
very fine wire, but, as in the case of malleability, the ductility is impaired by the presence
of silicon and iron. Aluminium wire has a tensile strength of 30,000 to 45,000 pounds
per square inch. It has been largely used for overhead electrical transmission and it
possesses many advantages for such purposes owing to its lightness; for the same
diameter, the weight of aluminium wire is only about one-third that of copper, while
its electrical conductivity is 60% that of copper.

The tensile strength of aluminium castings is from 12,000 to 15,000 pounds per
square inch, but this varies with the " temper" of the metal. Sheet aluminium varies
between 22.000 to 38,000 pounds per square inch, depending on the amount of hammer-
ing or other work done upon the ingot before the final rolling. The elastic limit ap-
proximates one-half the tensile strength. The physical properties of bars are about
the same as given for sheets. Wire has a tensile strength of 30,000 to 45,000 pounds
per square inch. The above figures are for nearly pure metal; a higher tensile strength
can be had if suitably alloyed. When compared with equal weights, aluminium bars are
as strong as steel bars of 80,000 pounds per square inch.

The compressive strength of aluminium in short columns, length equaling twice
the diameter, xis not very much different from its tensile strength when the metal is
nearly pure, but in the case of high or hard alloys it may be twice as much. The
elastic limit is somewhat less than half the compressive strength when the metal is
nearly pure, but is gradually lowered with increasing hardness of the alloy until it is
barely more than one-quarter the compressive strength for the hardest alloys.

Under transverse tests nearly pure aluminium is not very rigid; the metal will
bend nearly double before breaking.

Corrosion: The resistance of aluminium to oxidation is one of its most marked
qualities. Pure aluminium is not acted upon by air, wet or dry, and not at all by sulphur
fumes; it does not tarnish from the influence of illuminating gas. or of the weather.
If silicon is present to any great extent, say 2 to 3%, aluminium will not so well with-
stand atmospheric corrosion. Boiling water or steam does not affect it. Organic
secretions have less effect upon it than is the case with silver; it is, therefore, used for
dental plates, surgical instruments, suture wires, and in places subject to carbolic acid

[2041

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

and other antiseptic solutions, Salt water has little effect upon it, and it withstands
the action of sea water better than iron, steel, or copper. It is not acted upon by carbonic
acid, or carbonic oxide, or sulphuretted hydrogen, at any temperature below 600° F.

Solubility: Hydrochloric acid, weak or concentrated, is the true solvent for alu-
minium. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves the metal on heating, with evolution of
sulphurous acid gas; dilute sulphuric acid acts only slowly on the metal. The presence
of any chloride in the solution, however, allows the metal to be rapidly decomposed.
Nitric acid, either concentrated or dilute, has very little action on the metal. Sulphur
has no action on it at a temperature less than red heat. Solutions of caustic alkalies,
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine rapidly corrode aluminium. Aqua ammonia
acts slowly on aluminium; ammonia gas does not appear to act upon the metal.

Hydrogen is absorbed by aluminium to the extent of about equal volumes, and this
is expelled on heating.

Oxygen does not attack aluminium in bulk at ordinary temperatures, but if the
aluminium is finely divided it undergoes considerable oxidation at 400° C., 752° F.,
or even, though less rapidly, at lower temperatures. This affinity which finely divided
aluminium possesses for oxygen has been made use of by Goldschmidt in the application
of " thermit " as a means of reducing oxides, having used it successfully in the pro-
duction of iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, titanium, boron, molybdenum,
tungsten, vanadium, and other metals.

The sonorous qualities of pure aluminium are very pronounced, but the tone seems
to be improved by alloying with a few per cent of silver or German silver.

The non-magnetic quality of aluminium is useful in electrical work where a magnetic
material would be useless.

The electrical conductivity of pure aluminium is about 62 in the Matthiessen
Standard Scale. As in the case with other metals of good electrical conductivity, the
conducting power of aluminium is greatly decreased by the presence of alloying metals.

Impurities commonly found in aluminium are silicon and iron. Silicon exists in
two forms, one seemingly combined with the metal, much as combined carbon exists
in pig iron, and the other as an allotropic graphitic modification. Pure aluminium is
soft and not so strong as the alloyed metal; it is only where extreme malleability, duc-
tility, sonorousness, and non-corrodibility are required that the purest metal should
be used.

The alloying metals added to produce hardness, rigidity, and strength, constituents
that will not detract from the lightness of the metal and also will riot affect its non-
corrosive qualities are, commonly, copper, nickel, and zinc.

The purity of commercial aluminium varies from about 94 to 99.75%, the balance
being made up of impurities, such as silicon, iron, copper, etc. The approximate com-
position of No. 1 grade of aluminium by the Aluminium Company of America is 99.55%
aluminium, 0.15% iron, 0.30% silicon.

The fracture of pure aluminium is slightly fibrous, uneven, rough and very close.
Metal 96 to 97% pure is feebly crystalline, breaks short with a tolerably level surface.
When less than 95% pure the fracture is crystalline. The presence of a small percentage
of silicon will change the fibrous to crystalline structure, and thus unfit it for stamping
or working cold.

Alloys: Aluminium added to certain metals, such as copper or iron, even in small
quantities, has a profound effect in modifying their properties; so also the addition of
small quantities of metals, such as iron, manganese, or the metalloid silicon, effects
considerable change in the properties of aluminium. The alloys of aluminium may
be classed as bronzes, casting alloys, and rolling alloys, according to their properties.

Amalgams. — Alloys of mercury with other metals are termed amalgams, mercury
dissolves the metals gold, silver, tin, lead, etc., but not iron or platinum. In some
cases the union takes place with considerable evolution of heat and large modification
of the mean properties of the components. Thus, for instance, sodium when rubbed
up with mercury unites with it with deflagration and formation of an alloy which,
if it contains more than 2% sodium, is hard and brittle, although sodium is as soft
as wax and mercury a liquid.

Liquid amalgams of gold and silver are employed in gilding and silvering objects

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

of copper, bronze, etc. The amalgam is spread out on the surface of the object by
means of a brush, and the mercury is then driven off by the application of heat, when
a polishable, firmly adhering film of the dissolved metal remains. Gold forms with
mercury a compound AuHgs, and the amalgam remaining after squeezing the excess
of mercury through chamois leather contains 33% gold. Silver and mercury form
a definite compound Ag2Hg2; by squeezing the excess of mercury through chamois
leather an amalgam of fairly uniform composition is obtained Ag2Hg2 + 4.6% mercury.

Tin amalgams are made by adding mercury to molten tin. The amalgam of equal
parts of mercury and tin is a brittle solid; but with more mercury a plastic mass is
obtained, which becomes hard in the course of a few days. The amalgams are used
in a plastic condition, and harden with little or no expansion. The amalgam of tin
is used in silvering looking-glasses.

Copper amalgam containing 25 to 33% of the solid metal, when worked in a mortar
at 100° C., becomes highly plastic, but on standing hi the cold for 10 or 12 hours be-
comes hard and crystalline. It may be softened again by immersing it in boiling
water or by simply pounding it; and it is capable of being hammered, rolled, and
polished. It hardens without expanding or contracting. It is used as a cement for
metals and is also used for cementing china and porcelain.

The fluidity of an amalgam depends on there being an excess of mercury above
that necessary to form a definite compound.

Ammonia, NH3. — Specific gravity of ammonia gas at 0° C., and 76 centimeters
(atmospheric) pressure relative to air at 0° C. and the same pressure, is 0.597, equalling
0.048 pound per cubic foot. The mean specific heat of ammonia gas for temperatures
23° to 216° C., the pressure constant, is 0.5228. The latent heat of vaporization of
ammonia when temperature of vaporization is 16° C. is 297.4 calories per kilogram,
or therms per gram (Regnault). The critical temperature of ammonia gas according
to Dewar is 130° C., under pressure of 115.0 atmospheres, 1,691 pounds per square
inch. Nitrogen and hydrogen have not by any commerical process been combined
so as to yield ammonia directly; it has been done in small quantity in an experimental
way, but the practical difficulties are very great.

One of the chief sources of ammonia at the present tune is ammoniacal liquor of
gas works obtained through the distillation of bituminous coal. The gaseous mate-
rials which pass over from the retort are partly uncondensable and truly gaseous;
these pass into the gas holder for service; but there are other gaseous materials pass-
ing over which are condensable, and during the process of washing the gas these are
condensed into a mixed tarry and watery liquid. After this gas liquor has settled,
the water portion containing ammonia is drawn off. By one method hydrochloric
acid is added to the liquor, forming a compound of ammonia and hydrochloric acid
called chloride of ammonium. Pure ammonia can be obtained from this impure chloride
of ammonium by mixing it with its own weight of slaked lime in a retort and applying
a gentle heat; the ammonia gas passes over and is received in a vessel containing water,
from which the gas may be liberated by a further application of heat.

Ammonia gas is colorless, has a strong pungent odor, and possesses marked alkaline
properties, turning reddened litmus to blue, and combining readily with acids, neu-
tralizing them completely. It does not support combustion or respiration. It does
not burn in the ah*, but does burn in oxygen with a pale yellowish flame.

Ammonia as generally obtained, even in the gaseous condition, is in combination
with the vapor of water, the gas containing 1 part nitrogen, 4 of hydrogen, and 1 of
oxygen as NH4O. Dry ammonia gas can be had by passing this mixed ammonia
vapor over fused chloride of calcium, when the water is abstracted and true gaseous
ammonia is left, having the composition 1 nitrogen and 3 hydrogen, NH8.

Ammonia gas can be liquefied under pressure and cold, yielding a colorless, clear,
mobile liquid, with the characteristics of ammonia much intensified. When the pres-
sure is removed from the liquefied ammonia it passes back to the gaseous form and in
so doing it absorbs heat, and this is the property taken advantage of for the artificial
preparation of ice.

The solubility of ammonia gas in water is very great, 1 volume of water at ordinary
temperature dissolving about 670 volumes of ammoniacal gas, increasing in bulk, and

[206]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

forming a liquid which is lighter than water, its density being 0.875, water = 1.000.
At 0° C. (32° F.) water will take up about 1,000 volumes of gas. This liquid solution'
of ammonia is transparent, colorless, and strongly alkaline; it has the power to neu-
tralize acids and form salts. This solution is commonly known as spirits of hartshorn.
If this liquid be heated to the boiling point nearly all of the gas may be expelled from it.

Antimony, Sb. — Atomic weight, 120. Specific gravity, 6.71. Melting point, 630°
C. (1,166° F.). Specific heat, 50.03. Antimony is a brilliant silver-gray metal, having
a foliated texture and a strong tendency to assume a crystalline structure. It is brittle,
and can be reduced to powder with ease. It is not oxidized by the air at common
temperatures; when heated to redness it takes fire, burning with a brilliant white
flame. It is dissolved by hydrochloric acid. Nitric acid oxidizes it to antimonic acid.
Antimony is valuable for the alloys it yields with other metals. Britannia metal is an
alloy largely used, containing usually about 81 parts of tin, 16 of antimony, 2 of copper,
and 1 of zinc. Babbitt's anti-friction metal for the bearings of machinery is com-
posed of 83.3 parts of tin, 8.3 parts of copper, and 8.3 parts of antimony. Antimony
combines with lead or tin, separately or in combination, and such alloys are much
used in place of gun metal for lining bearings and for bushings of both light and heavy
machinery.

Arsenic, As. — Atomic weight, 74.9. Specific gravity, 5.73 in the solid state. Its
vapor density, compared with that of hydrogen, is 150, which is twice its atomic weight.
Melting point, 850° C. (1,562° F.). Specific heat, 0.081. Arsenic is sometimes found
native; it occurs 'in considerable quantity as a constituent of many minerals, combined
with metals, sulphur, and oxygen. The largest proportion is derived from the roast-
ing of natural arsenides of iron, nickel, and cobalt. Arsenic has a steel-gray color
and high metallic luster; it is crystalline and very brittle; it tarnishes in the air, but
it may be preserved unchanged in pure water. When heated it volatilizes without
fusion, and if air be present, oxidiaes to arsenious oxide. At red heat it burns with
a bluish flame, and the vapor given off has the odor of garlic. Arsenic combines with
metal in the same manner as sulphur and phosphorus; it resembles the latter in many
respects, and it is often regarded as a metalloid. It is used for mixing with lead in
the manufacture of small shot, the alloy dropping in rounder forms than pure lead.
An alloy of copper and arsenic produces a brittle gray metal of a brilliant silvery hue.

Asbestos. — A variety of the mineral hornblende. It contains a considerable per-
centage of magnesia in its composition, with an almost equal percentage of silica.

Amianthus is one variety of asbestos characterized by long flexible fibers of flaxen
aspect; these fibers are so easily separated and so soft that they may easily be spun
into yarn and woven into a cloth. The fibers of common asbestos are shorter and
much less flexible. It is also heavier than the amianthus variety. It has a dull green
color, sometimes pearly luster, and unctuous to the touch.

The composition of asbestos is practically the same wherever found, as illustrated
in the following comparative analyses of Italian and Canadian samples, given by J. T.
Donald :

Italian

Broughton,
Canada

Silica

SiO2

40.30%

40 57%

Magnesia

MgO

43 37

41 50

Ferrous oxide

FeO

.87

2 81

AlaOs

2 27

90

Water

H2O

13.72

13 55

100.53%

99.33

Chemical analysis throws light upon an important point in connection with
i.e., the cause of the harshness of the fiber of some varieties. From the

[207]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

analyses just given it may 'be seen that asbestos is principally a hydrous silicate of
magnesia, i.e., silicate of magnesia combined with water. When harsh fiber is analyzed
it is found to contain less water than the soft fiber. In fiber of very fine quality from
Black Lake, analysis showed 14.38% of water, while a harsh-fibered sample gave only
11.70%. It is well known that if soft fiber be heated to a temperature that will drive
off a portion of the combined water, there results a substance so brittle that it may
be crumbled between thumb and finger. There is evidently some connection between
the consistency of the fiber and the amount of water in its composition. It is probable
that the harsh fiber was, as originally deposited, soft and flexible, and has been ren-
dered harsh by having a portion of its water driven off by heat, either produced by
movement of the associated rocks or resulting from the injection of molten matter
through volcanic action.

Austenite. — This term is applied by Osmond to a constituent of high carbon steels
which is developed by very sudden quenching from a high temperature. It is softer and
less magnetic than martensite, with which it is generally associated. It is found in steels
containing more than 1.2% carbon which have been quenched from a temperature
above 1,000° C. in water cooled to 0° C., or, better, in a freezing mixture. Owing
to the fact that it is only stable at high temperatures, it has been suggested that
it may be a solution of elementary carbon in iron. It is not of frequent occurrence
in steel.

Barium, Ba. — Atomic weight, 137. Specific gravity, 3.78. Weight per cubic foot,
236 pounds = 0.13 pound per cubic inch, Melting point, 850° C., 1,560° F., and com-
mences to volatilize at 950° C., 1,742° F. Specific heat, 0.037. When pure, barium
is a silver-white metal. It is slightly harder than lead. Barium is never found native,
but occurs principally as the sulphate BaSO4, barytes or heavy-spar, and is generally
found associated with metallic ores containing sulphur. It also occurs in nature as
witherite, BaCO3, and in certain varieties of the ores of manganese; also in certain
silicates. Guntz states that molten barium attacked all the metals he tried, iron
and nickel being the most resistant. Barium decomposes water and alcohol in the
cold, yielding in the latter case barium ethoxide. Barium oxidizes rapidly in the air,
yielding principally the monoxide BaO. Barium peroxide, or dioxide BaO2, is formed
when baryta is heated to a dull red in a stream of oxygen or of air freed from carbonic
acid; the barium peroxide is a gray, impalpable powder, slightly more fusible than the
monoxide. Goldschmidt has used the peroxide in his " thermit " process to start the
reaction in a mixture of finely granulated aluminium with a solid oxide. A fuse of
aluminium and barium peroxide is Used which is ignited by burning a piece of magnesium.

Base.— A metallic oxide which is alkaline, or capable of forming with an acid a
salt, water being also formed, the metal replacing the hydrogen in the acid.

Basic.— Having the base in excess; having the base atomically greater than that
of the acid or that of the related neutral salt; a direct union of a basic oxide with an
acid oxide.

Bessemer Process. — A process invented by Henry Bessemer (1856) by which steel
is made directly from a special pig iron low in both sulphur and phosphorus, first melting
the pig iron in a cupola and then pouring a certain quantity of this molten metal into
a vessel called a converter; after which atmospheric air at a pressure of 20 to 25 pounds
per square inch is blown into and through this molten iron in numerous fine jets through
tuyeres placed at the bottom of the converter; the tuyere openings communicate with
an air supply chamber directly underneath.

The process is essentially a chemical one in which the atmospheric oxygen is the
active element, the numerous openings in the tuyeres combined with the high air pres-
sure break up the air into a mass of bubbles in the molten iron, thus offering a large
surface of contact for chemical reaction, the effect of which is to oxidize the carbon,
manganese, silicon, and other oxidizable constituents originally contained in the pig
iron, leaving only a decarburized iron with its unoxidizable constituents in the converter;
this metal is then recarburized by dissolving in it as much of a special iron known as
spiegeleisen or ferromanganese as will supply the needed carbon and manganese to
give the steel the desired chemical and physical properties. Two methods are employed
in making Bessemer steel: The acid process, in which the converter is lined with

[208]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

acid material, the product being Acid Bessemer Steel; in the other process the lining
of the converter is of basic material, and this product is called Basic Bessemer Steel.

The lining in an acid Bessemer converter is made of the most refractory acid mate-
rials procurable; in England, ganister is used; this is a siliceous rock in which the silica
is cemented together by a species of clay; a typical composition is: 92.0% silica, 3.5%
alumina, 2.7% ferric oxide, together with small amounts of lime and magnesia. Canister
is also used in this country. Mica-schist forms a good lining, this mineral is an aggre-
gate of quartz and mica in widely varying proportions, the mica occurs in thin plates
or layers between the quartz layers. Sometimes the quartz may retain a granular
character like that of quartz-rock. When mica-schist is placed in a converter it should
be so laid as to present its laminar section to the action of the metal, the joints between
the blocks should be completely filled with a refractory fire clay. A good refractory
lining may be made by the use of old silica fire bricks and remnants, after crushing the
bricks to the equivalent of one-half inch cubes; mixing these with a finely crushed
quartz, or with a refractory fire sand, cementing all by a good quality of fire clay suffi-
ciently moistened to make a stiff mixture that will stand driving into place.

Acid Bessemer pig is a gray iron which is specially made for conversion into steel
by the acid process. The composition is by no means uniform, the following composi-
tion is to be regarded as approximate only:

Silicon, not over 2.00%

Carbon, total 3.50
Manganese, not over 1 . 00
Phosphorus, less than 0 . 10
Sulphur, less than 0 . 10

In regard to the phosphorus and sulphur neither of these is reduced during the
blow because the slag is too acid, they therefore remain in solution in the iron to be
corrected after the blow. Phosphorus is not removed in the acid Bessemer process
because ferrous phosphide is not decomposed during the blow and the phosphorus in
the manganese phosphide passes over to the iron. It is for this reason a special pig iron
is made for the acid Bessemer process.

Carbon in the molten iron is oxidized by the air blown up through it in the con-
verter. The rate at which carbon is eliminated in the converter depends mainly upon
the percentage of silicon in the pig iron and the initial temperature. Hoffman states
that with high silicon (2 to 3%) pig iron, and a low initial temperature, at first only
silicon will burn, and when the iron is heated to a certain point (assisted by the oxidation
of manganese), carbon begins to burn to a carbonic oxide; the English method. With
low silicon (0.6 to 1.3%) pig iron, and a low initial temperature, silicon will be almost
completely eliminated before the carbon begins to be much oxidized. This means
quick blowing, and at short intervals; the American method.

Silicon is oxidized upon forcing of air into the molten metal, its oxidation is very
rapid in the earlier parts of the blow, and unless the percentage of silicon be very high
or the temperature of the blow too high, the removal of the silicon is practically com-
plete. Silicon is best removed at a moderate temperature. No fuel is required during
this process of conversion because the heat generated by the oxidation of silicon ac-
companied by that of the carbon is such that the iron is not only kept in a molten
condition, but increases in temperature as well; a temperature of 1,640° C. (2,984° F.)
has been noted by Le Chatelier, which is 120° C. (248° F.) above the melting point of
iron.

Manganese contained in the Bessemer pig oxidizes readily in the converter during
the blow; if it be present in quantity such as obtains in Sweden, for example, where it
may reach 2.0% or even more, the manganese may oxidize before there is enough silica
formed to produce a slag with the oxide. In such a case the blow is not continued until
all the carbon is burned off, but the blast is stopped when the metal contains the desired
amount of carbon as determined by spectrum analysis of the flame, as well as by the
color of the slag. A blow thus controlled, according to Hiorns, results in from 0.1 to
0.3% manganese remaining in the iron. American Bessemer pig, containing less

[209]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

manganese than the above, does not require a shortening of the blow; by its presence
it assists as a heat producer, shields the iron from oxidation, combines with the silicon
and passes off with the slag.

The object of the blow is to supply ah- for the elimination of the foreign constituents
in the molten pig iron, but the elimination is not wholly complete; when the flame drops
at the mouth of the converter, out of a probable 3.50% hi the pig, there yet remains
about 0.10% carbon in the iron; so also, out of a probable 1.00 to 1.50% silicon there
may be as much as 0.10% still present in the metal. The temperature of the molten
pig iron in the converter must be such as to keep both the metal and the slag in a fluid
state; the heat generated by the oxidation of silicon, in the acid process, is sufficient
for this purpose. If the silicon be. too high the blow will be too hot, and if the metal
be too hot the carbon will oxidize more rapidly than the silicon, an excess of silicon
occurs, and the quality of the steel will be low; to prevent this, it is the common practice,
when the blow seems to be too hot, to add cold scrap to the metal in the converter,
or steam is admitted into the air-supply chamber, whence it passes with the air into
the molten metal and effects through its dissociation a reduction in temperature;
when the temperature of the metal has been sufficiently reduced the steam is shut
off; if, however, through low silicon, the temperature be too low, the general effect is
unsatisfactory; Howe considers that as far as convenience of blowing is concerned,
1.25% silicon is the best proportion.

The effect of the blow is to oxidize every thing oxidizable in the converter: Iron
is oxidized and becomes FeO, this oxide will combine with manganese Mn, forming a
new compound, Fe + MnO. Iron, and silicon, Si, will combine thus, 2 FeO + Si =
2 Fe + SiO2. Iron and carbon will combine thus, FeO + C = Fe + CO. These
compounds react upon each other during the blow until chemical equilibrium is estab-
lished; if this occurs before the end of the blow the carbon will be practically eliminated,
as will the manganese also; the silicon becomes silica associated with manganese oxide
and ferrous oxide; these with alumina and other impurities constitute the slag. As
the sulphur and phosphorus are not oxidized in the acid Bessemer process they remain
in the converter in practically the same proportion as in the pig; some of the sulphur
passes into the slag, but none of the phosphorus.

Length of blow: The Bessemer process is a very rapid one: in an 8-ton converter
the time interval between charging the converter with molten iron from the cupola
and the blast turned on, until the appearance of the carbon flame from the mouth of
the converter, is about 3 minutes, the full carbon flame developing within a minute.
About 5 minutes thereafter the converter is turned down, the blast is shut off, and
melted spiegeleisen is added, or, in the case of ferro-manganese being used, it is shovelled
into the stream of metal pouring from the converter into the ladle. After the pouring,
it requires less than a minute to empty the converter of slag and place it in position to
receive another charge of metal from the cupola. The total time from start to finish
is about 20 minutes, half of which is taken up by the blow.

The record of a 15-ton converter at the Carnegie works, as summarized, is as follows:
Charge 33,000 pounds of direct metal and 2,500 pounds of scrap. Spiegeleisen added,
3,000 pounds. Time between heats, less than 18 minutes; time of blowing, about 14 min-
utes. Slag formed, about 12% on the weight of pig iron. The loss of iron, about 10%.

After the blow, when all the oxidizable constituents in the iron have been removed,
there remains in the converter a mass of molten iron low in carbon with oxide of iron
sufficiently in excess to give it properties resembling " burnt " iron; it is spongy, red-
short, and non-malleable. Manganese is now added to the molten metal either in the
form of spiegeleisen in the case of mild steel, or as ferro-manganese when a higher
carbon and manganese content are required; this addition corrects the objectionable
properties enumerated above, and converts the molten iron into a product both homo-
geneous and malleable, some of the sulphur may be eliminated but the phosphorus
remains. Of the manganese added in the spiegeleisen, 70% enters the steel, while
30% is oxidized and enters the slag. Of the carbon added by the spiegeleisen, 80%
enters the steel. Carbon is added to the molten metal in the converter through that
contained in the spiegeleisen; mild steel such as used for structural purposes contains
about 0.25% carbon, steel rails from 0.40 to 0.60%.

[210J

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Ingot steel made by the acid Bessemer process varies somewhat in composition,
partly through incomplete oxidation during the blow, and partly through lack of uni-
formity in composition of the spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese added after the blow.
The variation may not be much, but it is enough to require analysis or physical tests
before working. With the exception of the maximum limitation of 0.10% on phosphorus
in acid Bessemer steel, less attention is given than formerly to the chemical properties.
For ordinary structural steel, such as shapes, bars, or plates, the tensile strength is
usually all that is required, it being understood that the elastic limit is one-half that
amount. There are no sharp limitations as to tensile strength in this grade of steel;
it may vary anywhere between 55,000 and 65,000 pounds per square inch, subject also
to a cold bending test through 180° to a diameter of one thickness. Any steel that
will pass such a physical test, with maximum 0.10% phosphorus, will be suitable for
structural work, or any other service in which ordinary wrought iron would be used
that does not require welding. The chemical problem is to produce such a steel, and
when this is attained, the physical requirements are all that enter into ordinary
specifications.

The loss of iron during its conversion from pig iron into steel is occasioned by the
rapid oxidation of the molten iron by the passage of the numerous finely divided jets
of air through it; this oxidation begins very early in the blow and continues to the
end. Silicon is a source of heat and especially useful in the early part of the blow,
but silicon unites with iron, and leaves the converter as a silicate of iron in the slag;
the greater the percentage of silicon thus converted the greater the loss of iron. The
total loss of iron by the acid Bessemer process is about 10%, but this is by no means
uniform.

Slag: — Manganese combines with oxygen in four well-defined oxides, of which the
monoxide MnO is the only one to be here considered. This oxide is isomorphic with
magnesia MgO ; it combines with both iron and carbon, forming a double carbide. In
the presence of sulphur, it decomposes the iron sulphide, forming manganese sulphide,
liberating the iron; this sulphide is not as soluble in iron as iron sulphide, it therefore
tends to float to the surface, and thus pass into the slag. In the first stages of the
blow manganese oxide predominates largely, but as the blow goes on, the proportion
of iron oxide increases rapidly. The proportion of manganese present in the slag is
nearly the same in amount as that present in the molten iron from the cupola.

Silicon is always present in pig iron, chiefly as silicide of iron FeSi; this silicide
dissolves readily in molten iron; its effect upon the carbon also present in the iron is
to change it from the combined to the graphitic form, in which form it is readily oxidized.

Average composition of acid Bessemer slag at the end of the blow, before the addition
of the spiegeleisen:

Silicon, SiO2 48.8%

Lime, CaO 1.4

Alumina, A12O3 3.1

Manganese oxide, MnO 33 . 8

Ferrous oxide, FeO 12 . 5

The amount of slag is approximately 12% on the weight of pig iron used.

Basic Bessemer Process. — When a Bessemer converter is lined with a basic material,
the slag produced will have the characteristics of the lining and will also be basic;
such a slag will take up elements whose oxides are of an acid character. When in
contact with a basic lining, or with basic slag, the phosphorus in the molten metal is
oxidized and becomes phosphoric oxide, which readily unites with bases such as lime
and magnesia, passing into the slag, leaving a purer iron. This application of a basic
lining such as lime and magnesian limestone in a converter was patented by Snelus
in 1872. Thomas and Gilchrist later reduced the principles of the Snelus patent to
practical operation in the use of a basic lining of crushed limestone and sodium silicate,
as well as magnesian limestone bricks to the converter, and by the further addition
of a small amount of lime, or lime mixed with " blue billy " (burnt pyrites) or some other
form of iron oxide such as mill scale, to the charge, together with the continuance of
the blow for some short period after the decarbonization is complete, the elimination

[211]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

of phosphorus could be very largely effected, some 80 or 90% of the total phosphorus
present becoming oxidized and converted into phosphates, this action chiefly taking
place during the afterblow.

The pig iron best suited to the basic Bessemer process is a white iron which contains
less silicon than gray pig iron. White irons show no trace of graphite in the fractured
pig; they are also likely to be much more phosphoric than gray irons; the percentage
of sulphur is commonly higher than in gray irons. The presence of much silicon oper-
ates against the success of the basic process because an extra amount of lime will be
necessary to effect removal of the phosphorus from the iron; inasmuch as the oxidation
of the phosphorus produces sufficient heat to keep the iron liquid, no loss of heat occurs
during the blow.

The basic blow is divided into two distinct periods, the foreblow and the after-
blow. The foreblow is distinguished by the same phenomena which occur in the
acid blow, viz., the pale flame and sparks during the first combustion of the manganese
and silicon, the white flame increasing in length as the carbon burns out and the abrupt
drop of the flame when the carbon combustion of the flame is completed. A few seconds
after the drop of the flame the manganese lines in the green portion of the flame spectrum
disappear, and the afterblow begins. In the foreblow, carbon, silicon, manganese,
and some phosphorus are oxidized; in the afterblow the remainder of the phosphorus
and sometimes sulphur are oxidized.

The fundamental principle of the basic blow, according to F. E. Thompson, is to
calculate the amount of air and lime required to oxidize the silicon, manganese, and
phosphorus estimated or known to be contained in the iron.

Theoretically the molten iron comes to the converter at a good regular temperature,
successive heats having a uniform chemical composition for certain periods. Often
the iron comes irregular in both temperature and composition from heat to heat. This
is especially true as regards iron from a melting cupola carrying steel scrap, and applied
in some measure to iron direct from the blast furnace.

Some design of mixer, however, drawing molten iron from the blast furnace offers
the best means of delivering regularly hot and uniform basic iron to the converter.

CONVERTER METAL AT CONCLUSION OF BLOW BEFORE RECARBURIZING — BASIC

BESSEMER PROCESS

(F. E. Thompson)

l

2

3

4

Carbon

0 03%

0 04%

0 04%

0 04%

Silicon .

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

Sulphur

0.058

0.028

0.053

0.036

Phosphorus ....

0.035

0.030

0.020

0.025

Manganese. .

0.060

0.050

0.120

0.032

The only regular additions to the afterblow are scrap, lime, and recarburizers.
Scrap is added, as in the acid process, to lower the bath temperature sufficiently to
yield a quiet steel at the casting pit. Part of the total lime charge may be added
during the afterblow, but most works now prefer to add the lime all at once before
the converter is turned up for the blow. Lime may be added also during the afterblow
instead of scrap, in order to cool the bath and thicken the slag. This action will increase
the percentage of iron in the slag, and also increase the amount of metallic shot mechani-
cally inclosed in the slag, leading to increased loss by conversion. ,

In blowing metal of normal composition the blow lasts from 12 to 18 minutes,
according to the analysis of the iron and according to the blast pressure. The propor-
tions of time to each period is about 10 minutes for the foreblow and five minutes for
the afterblow. Air delivered at converter = 28 to 32 Ibs. per aq. in. The quantity

[2121

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

of air is about 8,928 cubic feet per ton during the foreblow and 4,960 cubic feet during
the afterblow.

The overblow in basic work is similar to that in acid work, in that it begins when
the usual combustibles in the bath are consumed and the iron itself begins to burn.
Overblowing in the basic converter in presence of excess of lime conduces to a more
complete elimination of phosphorus and to a more rapid elimination of sulphur, ac-
companied by an increase in the amount of oxide of iron going with the slag. Over-
blowing without excess of lime in the slag, on the other hand, increases the phosphorus
in the metal bath by rephosphorization, makes the slag thin and wild, and forces oxide
of iron into the metal bath. The steel produced is brittle when cold; and shows a
characteristic oxide glitter in the fracture.

It is an open question when the overblow begins. The whole matter rests upon
the final phosphorus content of the steel. If we say that the steel of a completed basic
blow should contain 0.08% phosphorus, then the overblow begins when the phosphorus
in the metal bath has been reduced to that point. But if we say that normal basic
steel should contain 0.04% phosphorus, then the overblow begins at that point. Should
we place the phosphorus limit below 0.01%, most blows would have no overblow because
the metal bath would probably contain that much phosphorus as long as there remained
any metal in the converter.

Mr. Thompson determined the average conversion loss accompanying different
values of phosphorus in the steel in order to see what value gives the most economical
results consistent with good soft steel. He found that basic steel containing 0.04 to
0.06% phosphorus is most economically produced. Tnis grade of steel is also better
suited for structural work than that containing either very low phosphorus or phosphorus
above 0.06%.

Temperature: There are no phenomena accompanying the basic afterblow by which
the bath temperature can be judged with the extreme nicety attained in acid practice.
Close observation of the brown fumes is the best temperature guide. In an exceedingly
hot blow the flame will be almost entirely obscured shortly before the completion of the
blow; but the hotter the blow the lower is the conversion loss, unless a large excess of
lime be present. It is not the oxide. of iron going up the stack during the hot blow
which causes heavy conversion loss, but the oxide of iron and metallic iron going into
the slag during a cold blow, which usually results either from excess of lime or over-
scrapping.

Very hot blows generally result from excess of combustibles in the iron. When
lime is normal and not greatly in excess, very hot blows often produce phosphoric steel
owing to the fact that phosphorus, toward the end of the blow, does not pass readily
into the slag, at a high temperature. Lowering the temperature of the bath by scrap
additions serves the double purpose of cooling off the steel and f acilitating the elimination
of phosphorus.

Mr. Thompson's estimate is that scrapped hot heats yield an average conversion
loss of 14.83%, compared with 12.81% loss in unscrapped heats.

BASIC BESSEMER SLAG — AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FOUR HEATS
(F. E. Thompson)

i

2

3

4

Silica,

SiO2

5 12%

6 10%

7 28%

8 14%

Ferrous oxide,

FeO

16 85

15 42

19 89

19 68

Manganese oxide,

MnO

3.82

3.89

4 17

4 00

Lime,

CaO... .

50 04

48 96

48 46

47 28

Phosphorus pentoxide,
Magnesia ,

P206
MgO.

20.30
1 21

19.92
1 02

16.62

0 68

16.81
0 52

Aluminium oxide,

A12O3

1 40

2 10

2 40

2 50

Sulphur,

S....

0 34

0 29

0 41

0 41

Moisture. .

0.91

2.33

0.11

0.68

[213

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Mr. Thompson's experience with phosphoric iron (about 2.5% phosphorus) is that
in normal blows the phosphorus is about one-half burned out at the conclusion of the
ioreblow. In very hot or long foreblow the phosphorus may be reduced much more
than one-half before the af terblow begins, while in a generally cold blow the phosphorus
may remain practically unchanged until the afterblow has progressed well toward the
middle. The whole phosphorus reaction depends upon the melting of the lime, and
when this occurs phosphorus begins to be oxidized, whether or not carbon be present
in the bath.

Sulphur in the basic converter is more of a fixture than the other elements. In a
normal blow, the iron of which contains about 0.10% sulphur, about 50% of the sulphur
may be removed by overblowing. When the sulphur in the iron exceeds 0.10%, from
50 to 90% may be removed in the converter.

Bismuth, Bi. — Atomic weight, 208. Specific gravity, 9.8. Melting point, 271° C.,
(520° F.). Specific heat, .0303. Bismuth is a hard, brittle metal, the fracture is
highly crystalline and white, with a perceptible red tinge by reflected light. Its elec-
tric conductivity, according to Matthiessen, is 1.19 at 14° C., silver being 100 at 0° C.
It is the most strongly diamagnetic of all metals. It does not change in dry air, but
in moist air it oxidizes superficially; when melted at a red heat it oxidizes, and the
oxide, by a higher temperature, melts to a glassy substance, in which property it re-
sembles lead, the oxide, like litharge, exerting a corrosive action upon earthen crucibles
or substances containing silica at a red heat. Bismuth is but slightly acted upon by
hydrochloric or sulphuric acids in the cold; but the latter dissolves it more readily
when heated. The best solvent is nitric acid, which attacks it readily.

Bismuth unites readily with other metals, the alloys being remarkable for their
ready fusibility and their property of expanding on solidification. Fusible alloys
containing bismuth are used to some extent as safety plugs for steam boilers, as an
accessory to the safety valve.

Blister Steel is the common name for steel made by the cementation process, from
the blistered appearance of the bars when taken from the converting pot. These
bars are often simply cut into pieces, piled, heated to a welding heat, and forged, when
it is converted into shear steel; if this process is repeated it becomes double shear steel;
but when a perfectly homogeneous product is required it is melted in crucibles, when
it becomes cast steel.

The nature of the chemical changes taking place during cementation has been
often regarded as somewhat uncertain, but is probably due to the occlusion of carbon
oxide in the iron and its decomposition by the metal into carbon and an iron oxide,
which is subsequently again reduced by a second portion of carbon oxide, the two
changes going on simultaneously. The escaping carbon dioxide, which penetrates
through the metal less readily than does carbon oxide, and hence is apt to accumulate
in certain parts, is probably the cause of the blistering of the surface of the steel, especially
with puddled bars containing small quantities of ferrous silicate disseminated through
them; Percy has shown that fused homogeneous metal free from interspersed slag does
not give rise to blisters upon cementation.

Many cyanogen compounds, especially ferrocyanide of potassium, when applied
to iron in a heated state convert it exteriorly into steel, such as case hardening, and
it has in consequence been supposed that nitrogeneous substances are essential to the
carbonization of iron by cementation and that nitrogen is an essential constituent of
steel. The evidence in behalf of this is, however, at present unsatisfactory; on the
other hand, charcoal rich in alkalies, or a mixture of charcoal powder with a little lime
and soda, will carbonize iron submitted to cementation more rapidly than charcoal
more free from alkalies.

In order to carry out the process of cementation, the bars of iron are placed in a
fire-brick box or chest several feet long, layers of charcoal and iron being alternately
piled in until the chest is filled, when a luting of fire clay, or of the sandy ferruginous
mud produced in grinding and polishing steel articles after manufacture termed " wheel-
swarf," is applied so as to close up the upper part of the box and prevent access of air;
two or more such chests are then arranged under the arched roof of a chamber erected
over a fireplace in such a way that the flames of the fire pass under and lap round

[214)

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

the sides of the chest, and impinge upon the roof; the gases escaping through orifices
in the roof into a conical chimney built over the whole. Trial bars are arranged in the
mass of charcoal in such positions that they can be withdrawn from time to time, and
the progress of the operation examined by fracturing the bars after cooling, and seeing
when the core of the wrought iron disappears; from 7 to 10 days' heating, according
to the amount of carbonization required (averaging about 1.0%), is generally allowed,
with a total charge of some 10 to 20 tons of iron in the furnace. When the requisite
carbonization is attained the fire is raked out and the chests are allowed to cool; the
blister steel is then melted down into cast steel, or converted into shear steel by piling
and forging, etc.

A slight lowering of sulphur content in the iron is said to occur during cementation;
experimentally, the quantity has been about 0.007% in Swedish bar iron, but no notice-
able effect is produced on the silicon, phosphorus, or manganese originally present,
so far as the irregular way in which traces of cinder, always interspersed throughout
the bars of wrought iron, will permit conclusions to be drawn. Analysis of Dannemora
bar iron and its resultant steel by the cementation process:

Fe

C

Mn

Si

3

P

Iron

99.471

0.352

0.075

0.050

0.027

0.025

Steel

98.603

1.250

0.072

0.035

0.0222

0.018

A difference of 0.007% phosphorus will be noted, but this is without significance,
as the permissible quantity of phosphorus in steel of any grade, high or low, is 0.03%.
Some irons contain a great deal of phosphorus; as practically none of it disappears
during the process of conversion into steel, the practice is to select the purest bar irons
for this purpose.

Borax. — A sodium salt derived from boric acid. Its chemical formula is NaJB^Tj
its specific gravity is 1.7 = 106 pounds per cubic foot. Its melting point is 561° C.
When heated, borax puffs up, and at red heat it melts, forming a transparent, colorless
liquid. In its molten condition it combines with and dissolves many metallic oxides;
it is used in the process of soldering metals, its action consisting in rendering the sur-
faces to be joined metallic by dissolving the oxides. In the manufacture of alloys,
to prevent oxidation as far as possible, the metals are melted in graphite crucibles
and covered with a layer of charcoal or other carbonaceous material. In some cases
borax is used as a covering, as it melts easily and forms a protecting layer, while at
the same time it combines with any metallic oxides present and keeps the molten
metal clean.

Boron, B. — Atomic weight, 10.9. Specific gravity, 2.68 = 167 pounds per cubic
foot. Melting point, 2,200° C. (4,000° F.). This element belongs to the same family
as aluminium, and in the composition of its compounds it is undoubtedly similar to
aluminium; but, on the other hand, its oxide is distinctly acidic, while that of alumin-
ium is basic. Its occurrence in nature is chiefly in the form of boric acid, or the salts
of this acid, from which boron is obtained in amorphous form; it is a dull, greenish-
brown powder, which burns in the air when heated, producing boric oxide. Boron
is used as a deoxidizer for copper in the production of copper castings for electrical
work. Unlike many other deoxidizers, boron does not alloy with copper, so that the
addition of a slight excess does not impair the electrical conductivity of copper.

Cadmium, Cd. — Atomic weight, 112. Specific gravity, 8.6. Melting point, 321° C.
(610° F.). Specific heat, 0.0548. Cadmium is a white metal with a slight bluish
tinge by reflected light; it is whiter than lead or zinc, but less so than silver, has a
high luster and polish, and breaks under a gradually increasing strain with the fibrous
fracture characteristic of the soft, tough metals. It is somewhat harder than tin,
but less so than zinc, and like tin it emits a peculiar crackling sound when bent. It is
malleable and may be rolled into thin sheets. Its electric conductivity is 22.10, or
somewhat lower than that of zinc. It unites readily with most of the heavy metals,

[215]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

forming alloys, which with gold, copper, and platinum are brittle, while those with
lead and tin are malleable and ductile. An alloy of two parts of cadmium, two of
lead, and four of tin, known as Wo9d's fusible metal, melts at a somewhat lower point
than the similar alloy where bismuth takes the place of cadmium. It forms several
amalgams, among which those containing equal parts of mercury and cadmium and
two of mercury to one of cadmium are remarkable for their cohesive power and malle-
ability; whereas that containing 22% of cadmium is hard and brittle. When exposed
to damp air cadmium becomes rapidly covered with a dull film of suboxide, but as
with zinc the oxidation is only superficial. When heated to redness in air, it burns,
forming a yellowish-brown oxide. It is soluble in sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and
acetic acids.

Calcium, Ca. — Atomic weight, 40. Specific gravity, 1.54. Melting point, 810° C.
(1,490° F.). Specific heat, 0.1804. Calcium is one of the most abundant and widely
diffused of the metals, though it is never found in the free state. Calcium is a light
yellow metal, about as hard as gold, very ductile and may be cut, filled, or hammered
out into thin plates. It tarnishes slowly in dry, more quickly in damp air; calcium
decomposes the water quickly, and is still more rapidly acted upon by dilute acids.
Heated on platinum foil over a spirit lamp, it burns with a bright flash; with a brilliant
light also when heated in oxygen or chlorine gas.

Calcium Carbide, CaC2, specific gravity 2.22; 138.5 pounds per cubic foot, is now
made in quantity by fusing an intimate mixture of finely powdered carbon and pure
lime in the electric furnace, in the proportion of about 60 parts of lime to 40 parts
of carbon, by weight. The carbon may be either powdered coke, charcoal, or anthra-
cite, but coke running low in ash is commonly used. The temperature required to
fuse the mixture of powdered coke and lime into carbide is given by Lewes as 2,700° C.
when made directly by arc-carbons, which is the commercial method. The chemical
reaction being CaO + C3 = CaO2 -f CO. Pure carbide fresh from the furnace bears
a resemblance to crushed granite, it is of crystalline appearance, very dark in color
and with a purple tinge. It is a safe substance to store or transport, but it must be
properly packed to exclude the smallest trace of moisture. It cannot explode, take
fire, or otherwise do harm.

Carbon, C. — Atomic weight, 12. Specific gravity: diamond, 3.50, graphite, 2.25,
charcoal, 1.80. Specific heat of diamond, 0.366. Carbon is one of the most important
of the chemical elements. It occurs pure in the diamond, and nearly pure as graphite;
it is a constituent of all animal and vegetable tissues and of coal. The diamond is
the hardest substance known, and has a relatively high specific gravity. Graphite,
or plumbago, appears to consist essentially of pure carbon, although most specimens
contain iron. In the electric arc carbon appears to be converted into vapor; but
the temperature which is required to volatilize it is extremely high. Graphite is used
for making crucibles, for lubricating machinery, and is the so-called black lead used
in making pencils. In the electrotype process it is used for coating the surfaces of
wood, plaster of Paris, and other non-conducting materials so as to render them con-
ductive. The purest amorphous carbon ordinarily met with is lampblack, which is
prepared by the imperfect combustion of highly carbonized bodies, such as resin. An
amorphous carbon of considerable purity, known as gas-retort carbon, is obtained in
the manufacture of coal gas. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and burns
with difficulty, and is therefore employed in producing the electric light. Wood char-
coal and coke are impure forms of amorphous carbon, and animal charcoal is a still
more impure form. There are two direct inorganic compounds of carbon and oxygen
called carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide; their composition by weight may be thus
stated:

Carbon monoxide CO = carbon 12 + oxygen 16 = 28.
Carbon dioxide CO2 = carbon 12 + oxygen 32 = 44.

Cementation Process. — The conversion of wrought iron bars into steel by direct
carbonization is accomplished when the bars are enveloped in powdered charcoal in a
converting pot from which air is carefully excluded, heated to redness for several days,
during which time the bars gradually become carbonized and converted into steel;

[216]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

the deposition of the carbon commencing at the outside of the bars and gradually
penetrating inward, a longer time being consequently requisite for the carbonization
of thicker than of thinner bars. This process is called cementation; the powdered
substance, in this case charcoal, is called the cement and the wrought iron is said to
have undergone cementation.

Cementite.— The carbide of Fe3C, so named by Howe; it was first discovered
in steel made by the cementation process, and has been variously described as cement
carbon, or as carbide carbon, to distinguish it from other forms of carbon found in
iron and steel. According to the atomic weights of iron (56) and of carbon (12) cemen-

12 X 100
tite must contain - , 10 = 6.67% carbon.

o /\ OO ~r" -«-^

It therefore contains 93.33% iron and 6.67% carbon, which corresponds to the chemical
formula FeaC.

Cementite is an intensely hard carbon, being, in fact, the hardest of all the con-
stituents occurring in iron and steel; it will scratch glass and feldspar, but not quartz.
It has therefore a hardness of about 6.5.

Cementite may also contain small amounts of silicon and sulphur dissolved in it
possibly as silicide and sulphide of iron respectively. When containing much man-
ganese it has been called manganiferous cementite. Manganese and sulphur appar-
ently increase the stability of cementite while silicon decreases it.

Steel containing more than 0,9% carbon, if cooled slowly from a high temperature,
will have its carbon all in the form of cementite; the percentage of carbon multiplied
by 15 will give the percentage of cementite, and the difference between this and 100
will be the percentage of ferrite. The ferrite will all be present as pearlite; the per-
centage of cementite in the pearlite will be the percentage of ferrite divided by 6.4,
and the pearlite will of course be the sum of the two. The metal will thus consist
of pearlite and free or excess cementite. Free cementite does not occur in normal
mild steel, and is practically absent from highly hardened steels.

Chromium, Cr. — Atomic weight, 52. Specific gravity, 6.7. Melting point, 1510° C.
(2,750° F.). Specific heat, 0.120. Chromium is one of the metallic chemical elements,
so called in allusion to the fine color of its compound. It does not occur in the free
state or very abundantly in nature. It is a constituent of the minerals chrome iron-
stone, chrome ocher, chrome garnet, etc. It is the cause of the color of green serpen-
tine, pyrope, and the emerald. The alloy termed chromeisen, containing about three
parts by weight of chromium to one of iron, is hard enough to serve for cutting glass.
An extremely soft steel can be made by employing it instead of spiegeleisen in Siemens'
steel process.

Cobalt, Co. — Atomic weight, 59. Specific gravity, 8.79 at 17° C. for unannealed
metal; 8.81 at 14.5° C. after annealing. Melting point, 1,490° C. (2,714° F.). Spe-
cific heat, 0.103. It has a tensile strength of about 34,100 pounds per square inch,
and a compressive strength of about 122,000 pounds per square inch as cast; after
annealing the tensile strength was 36,980 pounds, the compressive strength was
117,200 pounds per square inch respectively. Cast cobalt containing 0.06% carbon
has a tensile strength of 61,000 pounds and a compressive strength above 175,000 per
square inch respectively. The reduction of area and elongation are low for pure cobalt,
but rise to 20% in the case of commercial cobalt (96.5 to 99.6 Co) containing carbon
and other impurities.

Pure cobalt is a white metal, resembling nickel in appearance, but when electro
deposited and polished it has a slightly bluish cast. In hardness, by Brinnell test,
it was about 124 for specimen cast in an iron mold. Under similar conditions cast
nickel showed 83 and cast iron about 102. It is unchanged in the air, but feebly
attacked by dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. It combines most readily with
arsenic or antimony, forming the highly crystalline compound known by the general
name speiss, which can scarcely be considered an alloy. With gold and silver it forms
brittle compounds, with mercury a silver-white magnetic amalgam. With copper and
zinc the alloy is white, resembling the corresponding compound of the same metal
with nickel and manganese; with tin it forms a somewhat ductile alloy of a violet color.

[217]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Copper, Cu. — Atomic weight, 63.6. Specific gravity, 8.93. Melting point, 1,083° C.
(1,981.5° F.). Specific heat, 0.093. Copper is a metal of a peculiar red color; it
takes a brilliant polish, is in a high degree malleable and ductile, and in tenacity it
only falls short of iron. Copper castings have an ultimate tensile strength of about
25,000 pounds with an elastic limit of 6,000 pounds. Its ultimate strength under
compression is about 40,000 pounds and the ultimate shearing strength is 30,000 pounds.
The modulus of elasticity of annealed copper averages 10,000,000 pounds. Copper
plates, rods, and bolts have an ultimate tensile strength of about 33,000 pounds with
an elastic limit of about 10,000 pounds. In electric conductivity it is equal to silver.
Copper undergoes no change in dry air; exposed to a moist atmosphere, it becomes
covered with a strongly adherent green crust, consisting in a great measure of car-
bonate. Heated to redness in the air, it is quickly oxidized, becoming covered with
a black scale. Dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid scarcely act upon copper;
boiling oil of vitriol attacks it; nitric acid, even dilute, dissolves it readily. Copper
unites with facility with almost all other metals; indeed, it is much more important
and valuable as a constituent element in numerous alloys than it is as a pure metal.
The principal alloys in which it forms a leading ingredient are [brass, bronze, German
silver, nickel, silver, etc.

Crucible Steel. — This method of steel making consists in charging a crucible with
small pieces of wrought iron or of mild steel, with ferro-manganese and the addition of
such other substances as will give the final product the desired chemical and physical
properties; these are packed in powdered charcoal; the covered and luted crucible
is placed in a suitable furnace; when the steel is melted it is poured into an ingot to
be hammered, rolled, or otherwise prepared for future use. Metals melted in a crucible
undergo little or no change except that incident to the chemical changes in the mixture.
Wrought iron readily absorbs carbon, and mild steel takes up additional carbon from
the incandescent powdered charcoal in which it is embedded; one effect of the ferro-
manganese in the mixture is its union with oxygen and the formation of oxides of both
iron and manganese. The addition of alloy metals such as chromium, nickel, alumin-
ium, vanadium, is through the ferro compounds of the metals; they may be included
in the crucible charge or added in metallic form, as would probably be the case with
nickel, after the melting and before the pouring. The material of which the crucible
is composed is not without its influence on the chemical changes which occur within
it at high temperatures. In regard to the charge: the wrought iron or mild steel may
be covered with rust and, perhaps, a certain amount of free moisture; gases such as
oxygen, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, are known to be readily absorbed by iron, and these
influence somewhat the chemical changes which take place in the crucible during the
process of melting.

Crucible steel is practically restricted in its manufacture to tool steels, and most of
these are alloy steels. A crucible carbon steel, 0.60% carbon; 0.52% manganese;
0.16% silicon; 0.03% sulphur; 0.03% phosphorus; when tested had a tensile strength
of about 100,000 pounds per square inch, with elongation of 12% in 2 inches, and
30% reduction of area. Increasing the carbon only in this steel had the effect of
increasing the tensile strength, but the percentages of elongation and reduction of
area were both lowered.

A carbon steel by the American Vanadium Co. containing 0.969% carbon; 0.448%
manganese; 0,139% silicon; when heat treated yielded the following:

Treatment: Tensile strength 155,000 pounds per square inch

850° —600° C. Elastic limit 101,000 pounds per square inch

Oil tempered. Elongation in 2 inches 8 . 0%

Reduction of area 10.5%

Ferrite is a microscopical constituent of iron and steel; it consists of practically
pure iron, or iron free from carbon; it would be the chief constituent of wrought iron
and mild steel if they could be made wholly free from carbon, which is not the case;
it is found in low-carbon or mild steels as made for structural work; it does not occur

[218]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

in hard steels. This is the " free iron "described by Sorby in his microscopical researches
on the structure of iron and steel.

Gold, Au.— Atomic weight, 197. Specific gravity, 19.3. Melting point, 1,063° C.
(1,945.5° F.). Specific heat, 0.0316. Gold is the only metal of a yellow color. It is
nearly as soft as lead. When pure, gold is the most malleable of all metals. It is
extremely ductile and may be drawn into very fine wire. The electric conductivity
is 73.99 at 15.1° C., pure silver being 100. (Matthiessen.) The specific resistance of
the metal in electromagnetic measure, according to the C. G. S. system, is 2,154. Its
conductivity for heat is 53.2, silver being 100. Its coefficient of expansion for each
degree between 0° C. and 100° C. is 0.000014661. The specific magnetism of the
metal is 3.47. Finely divided gold dissolves when heated with strong sulphuric acid
and a little nitric acid. It is also attacked when strong sulphuric acid is submitted
to electrolysis with a gold positive pole. The most important alloys are those with
silver and copper. The density of the alloys of gold and silver is greater than that
calculated from the density of the constituent metals; these alloys are harder, more
fusible, and more sonorous than pure gold. Certain metals, even when present in
small quantities, render gold brittle and unfit for rolling; these metals are bismuth,
lead, antimony, arsenic, and zinc.

Graphite. — A crystallized form of carbon, known also as plumbago, and popularly
known as black lead. It occurs usually in compact and crystalline masses, but occa-
sionally in six-sided tabular crystals which cleave into flexible laminae parallel to the
basal plane, iron black or steel gray in color, with metallic luster.

Graphite is a kind of mineral carbon, its specific gravity is 2.2. It can be con-
verted into carbon dioxide by the action of nitric acid. As the carbon is usually asso-
ciated with more or less iron, the older mineralogists described the mineral as a car-
buret of iron — but Vanuxen demonstrated that the iron is present as ferric oxide and
not as a carbide. The ash left on the combustion of graphite usually contains, in
addition to the ferric oxide, silica, alumina, and lime.

Exposed on platinum foil to the flame of the blow-pipe, graphite burns, but often
with more difficulty than diamond. When heated with a mixture of potassium dichro-
mate and sulphuric acid, it disappears.

In order to obtain perfectly pure graphite, the mineral is first ground and washed
to remove earthy matter, and then treated, according to Brodie's method, with potas-
sium chlorate and sulphuric acid; on subjecting the resulting product to a red heat,
pure carbon is obtained in a remarkably fine state of division.

The following analyses are selected from a large number by C. Mene (Compt.
rend. 64.1091):

1

2

3

4

Carbon

91.55

81.08

79.40

78.48

Volatile matters

1.10

7.30

5.10

1.82

Ash

7.35

11.62

15 50

19.70

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

1. Very fine Cumberland graphite, specific gravity, 2.345.

2. Graphite from Passau, Bavaria, specific gravity, 2.303.

3. Crystallized graphite, from Ceylon, specific gravity, 2.350.

4. Graphite from Buckingham, Canada, specific gravity, 2.286.

Excellent graphite is found in Siberia, in the Tunkinsk Mountains, Irkutsk. This
deposit occurs in gneiss, associated with diorite. It has been largely worked to supply
Faber's pencil factory.

The best quality of graphite found in large quantities is that from Ceylon.

In the United States, graphite is widely diffused, but rarely in sufficient quantity

[219]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

to be worked. The principal locality is Ticonderoga, N. Y., where the Dixon Crucible
Co. have worked a schist containing about 10% graphite.

In consequence of its refractory character, graphite is largely used in the manu-
facture of crucibles, retorts, tuyeres, and other objects required to withstand high
temperatures.

Harvey Steel. — The conversion of mild or low carbon steel into a higher grade
having the characteristic qualities of crucible steel is possible by Harvey's method,
the essential conditions being the subjection of the ingot or the body of steel to the
presence of carbon, the absence of oxygen, and a high temperature, the latter varied
according to the degree of hardness which the product is required to be capable of
taking in the subsequent process of tempering; the higher the temperature during the
conversion the higher will be the temper which the resultant steel is rendered capable
of taking.

The ingots or other bodies of steel which are to be treated are embedded, preferably
in finely powdered, hard-wood charcoal, contained in crucibles, boxes, or receptacles
made of refractory material, and provided with covers to prevent the charcoal from
being consumed. No special kind of furnace is required, but in practice a furnace of
the regenerative type may be preferred. The shape and dimensions of the furnace cham-
ber will be governed by the shapes and sizes of the ingots or other bodies of steel to be
treated. For example, ingots, say, 2 X 3 X 18 inches long may be treated in recep-
tacles which will serve to contain 6 ingots separated from each other and from the
walls of the receptacle by a thickness of one inch of powdered charcoal, the same thick-
ness from the bottom, and a layer of 3 inches of powdered charcoal at the top. The
boxes or other receptacles for the charcoal may be heated by direct contact with a
body of incandescent fuel, in which they are embedded; or they may be deposited in
a heating-chamber and be heated by contact with or radiation from the flames con-
ducted through it. The tune required for the heating operation will depend upon
the dimensions of the bodies of steel under treatment; the object to be accomplished
is the uniform heating throughout of the steel under treatment. For large masses of
steel the heating operation will have to be conducted more slowly that the interior
of the mass may be raised to the required temperature without melting the crucible
or box in which it is packed. Mild steel thus embedded in powdered charcoal may
be raised slightly above its melting point without being melted; when the desired
temperature has been reached, the crucible or other receptacle containing the steel is
allowed to cool off either in, or after removal from, the furnace. By this treatment
a steel is produced which may be welded or tempered; its tensile strength is increased,
and it^has acquired the characteristics of a crucible steel of higher grade.
I If the steel under treatment is to be made capable of taking a temper of a high
degree of hardness, its temperature will be raised to about (1,650° C.) 3,000° F., and
allowed to cool off to a temperature of, say. (94° to 149° C.) 200° to 300° F., before being
removed from the powdered charcoal in which it has been embedded; the steel will on
removal be found very soft, will exhibit a clean surface of dull gray or zinc color, and
will be capable of taking a temper so high that tools made from it and hardened will
cut chilled iron. By lowering the limit of temperature to about (820° C.) 1,500° F.
the steel under treatment, when cooled, will exhibit a surface of dark-purple color,
but will be capable of taking a low temper. Between these two temperatures all the
characteristic temper-colors may be had together with the characteristic properties in
the steel corresponding to the same shades of color in steels produced by the crucible
process. The time required will depend upon the size and number of pieces to be
treated; a single ingot, say, 2 X 3 X 18 inches long, deposited in powdered charcoal
in a crucible, say, 5 in. diam. X 24 in. long, can be successfully treated by keeping such
a crucible embedded in a free burning coke fire hi four to six hours. A larger ingot
or a number of ingots contained in a larger crucible will require, say, 12 to 20 hours.

Armor plates require to be homogeneous in large masses, sufficiently tough as not
to crack or break under impact of projectiles, yet soft enough to be worked with steel
tools. By the Harvey process the face is cemented, i.e., animal or wood charcoal is placed
next the face of the plate (two plates being usually dealt with together, face to face),
and the whole is covered in with bricks and run into a gas furnace, where it remains

[220]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

two or three weeks, seven days or so being allowed for cooling. In this way the propor-
tion of carbon on the face is increased, and the front is then capable of being hardened.
The plate is first cemented as above, and then bent to the required shape and all neces-
sary holes made in the surface. It is then heated and the face douched with cold
water, which makes the front of the plate exceedingly hard. The object attained is a
steel plate, without welds, having such a proportion of carbon in the surface that
water cooling would produce a very hard face. As the thickness of the hard steel
is practically constant for all thicknesses of plate, it follows that thin plates obtain
relatively higher values of the figure of merit than thicker plates. That is, a 12 in.
plate is not twice as good as a 6 in. plate.

Krupp armor plates, when first introduced, had a much higher tensile strength
before treatment than had the earlier Harvey plates; the Krupp steel in addition to
the usual small proportion of carbon contained, also, nickel, chromium, and manganese.
Plates 3 inches and below were not cemented; after completion of the machine work
they were simply heated and water-cooled. Plates thicker than 3 inches underwent
cementation as by the Harvey process, but in the final face hardening the plate was
not heated bodily as in the Harvey process, but the heat was graduated from the face
to the back. After heating the face was cooled by placing under the cold water douche.

Hydrogen, H.— Atomic weight, 1.000. Specific gravity, 0.069, air =•= 1.000. Weight
per cubic foot, 0.0056 pound, cubic feet per pound, 177.94. It is the lightest sub-
stance known. Specific heat at constant pressure, 3.406; at constant volume, 2.412;
the specific heat rises with rise of temperature .. Coefficient of thermal expansion at
constant pressure, 0.366; at constant volume, 0.367. Specific inductive capacity,
1.0013, vacuum at 5 mm. pressure, 1.0015, when air = 1.0000. Specific inductive
capacity, 0.9998. Heat of combination at constant pressure, 62,000 B.t.u.j an average
of seven tests gave 34,417 cals. = 61,950 B.t.u. The critical temperature as deter-
mined by Olszewski is — 220° C. under a pressure of 20 atmospheres.

Hydrogen is colorless, tasteless, and inodorous when pure. It is only slightly
soluble in water ;' 100 volumes of water take up 1.93 volumes of hydrogen. It is in-
flammable and burns, when kindled, with a pale, yellowish flame, evolving much heat,
but very little light. Water is the only product of combustion when hydrogen is
burnt in the air or in oxygen, the formula being H2O; if we regard the atomic weight
of oxygen as 16 and that of hydrogen as 1, the total weight is 18, so that hydrogen
forms one-ninth the weight of water. The volume of water thus formed is so very
small as compared with that of the two gases as to appear almost negligible; yet
this decrease in volume truly represents the total volume of the gases, oxygen and
hydrogen, which combined to form it.

The diffusive power of hydrogen is very great. Suppose a vessel to be divided
into two portions by a diaphragm or partition of porous earthenware and each half
filled, one with oxygen, the other with hydrogen; diffusion will at once commence
through the pores of the dividing diaphragm, and will continue until an equilibrium
is established. The rate of penetration is not the same for both gases; four cubic
inches of hydrogen will pass into the oxygen side, while one cubic inch of oxygen passes
into the hydrogen side. The atomic weights of the two gases are to each other as
16 to 1; the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the square roots of these
numbers, or as 4 to 1; thus the diffusive power of hydrogen is four times that of
oxygen.

The coefficient of diffusion for hydrogen into another gas or vapor is thus presented
in the Smithsonian Physical Tables, on the authority of Obermayer. The tempera-
ture is 0° C. or 32° F. in all cases. Air, 0.6340; carbon dioxide, 0.5384; carbon monox-
ide, 0.6488; ethane, 0.4593; ethylene, 0.4863; methane, 0.6254; nitrous oxide, 0.5347;
oxygen, 0.6788. According to Loschmidt, the coefficient of oxygen diffusing into
hydrogen at 0° C. is 0.7217.

Ingot Iron is of molten origin; it is, in fact, a nearly carbonless steel; a good illus-
tration is that by the American Rolling Mill Co., which is marketing under the trade
name "Armco Ingot Iron" a product averaging the following composition: 0.011%
carbon; 0.002% silicon; 0.019% manganese; 0.025% copper; 0.020% sulphur; 0.003%
phosphorus, The tensile strength is from 38,000 to 44,000 pounds per square inch,

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

with elastic limit of about one-half the tensile strength. It is claimed for this product
that it will resist corrosion better than any other grade of iron or steel. By reason of
its low tensile strength it does not enter into structural work in competition with mild,
low-carbon, or soft steels, which have a tensile strength of 55,000 to 65,000 pounds
per square inch. Its manufacture is confined principally to sheets.

Ingot Steel is of molten origin; it may be made of the crucible, Bessemer, or open
hearth processes, but not by puddling, or any cementation process. It is immaterial
whether it will harden or not; the name indicates its molten origin without reference
to its carbon content. Commonly, however, it applies to Bessemer or open hearth
ingots intended for structural shapes, bars, plates, etc., in wliich the tensile strength
will vary from 55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch, and for forgings from 60,000 to
70,000 pounds. High tensile steel such as open hearth carbon, nickel, or silicon steel
may have a tensile strength of 80,000 pounds per square inch, or even higher in the
case of vanadium, or other alloy steels.

Iridium, Ir.— Atomic Weight, 193. Specific gravity, 22.42. Melting point, 2,300° C.
(4,170° F.). Specific heat, 0.0323. Iridium is a white brittle metal, fusible with
great difficulty before the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. It has acquired importance from
its employment in alloy with platinum in the construction of the international stand-
ards of length and weight. Iridium is almost indestructible, and has extreme rigidity,
especially in the tube form; its coefficient of elasticity is very great; and a most beau-
tifully polished surface can be obtained upon it. An iridio-platinum alloy containing
about 20% of iridium has also a very high coefficient of elasticity, while its malleability
and ductility are almost without limit.

Iron, Fe. — Atomic weight, 56. Specific gravity^, pure, 7.8. Gray cast, average,
7.08; white cast, average, 7.66; wrought, average, 7.85. Melting point, 1,520° C.
(2,768° F.). Specific heat, 0.116. Heat conductivity, 16. Electrical conductivity,
17. In magnetic characters it is superior to all other substances. Wrought iron has
a tensile strength of 48,000 min. to 53,000 max. pounds per square inch, with elastic
limit in no case less than one-half the tensile strength.

Pure metallic iron is rarely found in nature; nearly all specimens examined have
been meteoric iron containing about 63% of metallic iron, always associated with
nickel and small quantities of cobalt, phosphorus, sulphur, etc. The irons of com-
merce are reduced from ores in which the iron occurs chiefly as an oxide. The prin-
cipal oxides of iron are ferrous oxide, FeO, ferric oxide, Fe2O3, and the magnetic or black
oxide, Fe3O4. The ferrous oxide is a very powerful base, neutralizing acids, and iso-
morphous with magnesia, zinc oxide, etc.; it is very unstable, readily passing into
the sesquioxide in the presence of oxygen. Ferric oxide is a feeble base isomorphous
with alumina, it occurs native in iron ores, especially hematite. The magnetic or
black oxide of iron is well known as the product of the oxidation of iron at high tem-
peratures in the air or in watery vapor. The magnetic iron ore is known as magnetite,
which, when pure, contains nearly 75% iron. Spathic iron ore is a carbonate of iron,
FeCO3, which, when pure, contains nearly 50% iron.

Commercial, irons are extracted from ores and marketed in the form of pig iron,
which consists of iron in combination with graphitic and combined carbon, silicon,
sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese.

Lead, Pb. — Atomic weight, 207. Specific gravity: cast, 11.25 = 702 pounds per
cubic foot = 0.406 pound per cubic inch; sheet or rolled lead, 11.42 = 713 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.412 pound per cubic inch. The heaviest of the common metals.
Melting point, 327° C. (621° F.). Specific heat, 0.0311. Lead boils at a white heat,
1,500° C. to 1,600° C. (2,732° to 2,912° F.), but it cannot be distilled. It is, however,
sensibly volatile at much lower temperatures, and there is always loss when the metal
is melted. Latent heat of fusion, 9.86. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0.0000292.
Heat conductivity, 8.5; silver = 100.0. Electrical conductivity, 7.2; silver = 100.0.
Properties of commercial lead, probably slightly alloyed; tensile strength, cast 1,920
pounds per square inch; rolled or sheet lead 2,000 pounds per square inch. Crushing
weight, cast lead, 6,950 pounds per square inch.

Lead, when pure, is a feebly lustrous bluish-white metal, very soft, plastic, and
almost entirely devoid of elasticity. In the air, at ordinary temperature, it is quickly

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

tarnished in consequence of the formation of a suboxide of the composition Pb2O, but
the thin, dark film thus formed is very slow in increasing.

Pure water acts upon lead when free oxygen, air for example, has access to it, and
some of the lead dissolves, with formation of hydrated oxide, which is appreciably
soluble in water, forming an alkaline liquid. When carbonic acid is present, the dis-
solved oxide is precipitated as basic carbonate, fresh, hydrated oxide is formed, and
the corrosion of lead progresses. All soluble lead compounds are strong cumulative
poisons, hence the danger involved in using lead-lined cisterns for the storage of pure
water for culinary purposes. Hie word pure is emphasized because the presence
in water of even small proportions of bicarbonate or sulphate of lime prevents its action
on lead. Natural waters are more or less impure, that is, they contain something
in solution. In contact with the earth, earthy substances are dissolved; for example,
water which flows over limestone dissolves some of this and becomes hard. Among the
substances met with in solution in natural waters are carbonic acid, sodium carbonate,
sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate, carbonate of iron, and sul-
phuretted hydrogen. Waters which contain considerable quantities of sulphuric acid
in the form of sulphates have a corroding action on lead; but the product of corro-
sion in this case is a practically insoluble compound, lead sulphate, which forms a coat-
ing on the surface of the metal and effectually prevents further corrosion, either by
sulphates or by the water itself. The use of lead pipe in domestic water supply is
almost universal; inasmuch as natural waters are never absolutely pure, the inside
of the pipe is quickly coated with insoluble compounds, therefore the water flowing
through the pipes does not come in contact with the lead and its use is generally con-
sidered harmless.

Liquation. — The separation of metals differing considerably in fusibility by sub-
jecting them, when contained in an alloy or mixture, to a degree of heat sufficient
to melt the most fusible only, which then flows away, or liquates, from the unmelted
mass. A homogeneous liquid alloy, when solidified suddenly, yields an equally homo-
geneous solid. But it may not be so when it is allowed to freeze gradually. If, in
this case, we allow the process to go a certain way, and then pour off the still liquid
portion, the frozen part generally presents itself in the shape of more or less distinct
crystals; whether this happens or not, the rule is that its composition differs from
that of the mother liquor, and consequently from that of the original alloy. This
phenomena of liquation is occasionally utilized in metallurgy for the approximate
separation of metals from one another; but in the manipulation of alloys made to
be used as such it may prove inconvenient.

The existence of crystallized alloys, as observed in the phenomenon of liquation,
strongly suggests the idea that alloys generally are mixtures, not of their elementary
components, but of chemical compounds of these elements with one another, associated
possibly with uncombined remnants of these.

Lithium, Li. — Atomic weight, 7. Specific gravity, 0.54; the lightest of solid and
liquid bodies. Melting point, 186° C. (367° F.). It is volatile at a high temperature,
burning with a white flame. It manifests but little tendency to combine with hydro-
gen. Specific heat, 0.941. Electrical conductivity, 16; silver = 100.0. It attracts
oxygen with avidity on exposure to air. Only one oxide of lithium has been obtained, Li2O.

Lithium is one of the metals of the alkalies, of which sodium and potassium are
also in the same grouping. It is a white metal having the luster of silver. It is a soft
metal, softer than lead. In many of its properties it is more closely allied to magnesium
and calcium than to sodium. Lithium salts communicate a beautiful red color to flame.

Magnesia, MgO, is an oxide of magnesium, it is a product of the combustion of
magnesium in air or oxygen. It is also formed when the carbonate or nitrate is heated
in the air. As thus obtained, it is a white amorphous powder, but may be obtained
crystallized in cubes and octahedra by heating the amorphous form in a current of
hydrogen chloride.

Calcined magnesia is a fine bulky powder, specific gravity, 3.07 to 3.20. The specific
gravity is increased to 3.61 by heating in a pottery furnace. It is fusible only at the
temperature of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe flame. It is alkaline to litmus but is
not caustic.

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

On account of its infusibility, magnesia is now extensively used in the manufacture
of firebricks, especially for use in the basic Bessemer steel process. The bricks are
made of crushed dead-burnt magnesite, mixed with sufficient gently calcined magnesite
to give plasticity to the paste formed by mixing the materials with water to permit
of molding. The bricks are fired at a red heat before use. Dolomite has been exten-
sively used for this purpose.

Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 occurs native as magnesite. It is found in large
compact or granular masses, and, combined with calcium carbonate, as dolomite
(MgCa) CO3, in immense quantities all over the world. Magnesium carbonate dis-
solves in water saturated with carbon dioxide.

Magnesite. — This mineral is a magnesium carbonate MgC03. Specific gravity of
the crystals 3.1. It crystallizes in a number of different forms, the most common
being in rhombohedrons, but the crystals are not of common occurrence; it more
often occurs as dull white, compact, or earthy masses, with the appearance of unglazed
porcelain or chalk. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in water containing carbon
dioxide in solution.

An average analysis of uncalcined magnesite gives the following:

Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 95.00%

Alumina A^Os „• .50

Silica SiO2 1 .50

Lime CaO. 1.25

Iron oxide.. FeO. . 1.75

100.00%

During the calcining process a loss of 3 to 9% of MgOs occurs. Calcined magnesite
is made into refractory bricks for lining basic steel and electric furnaces. It is also
used as non-conducting coverings for boilers, steam-pipes, etc.

Magnesium, Mg. — Atomic weight, 24.3. Specific gravity, 1.74. Melting point,
651° C. (1,204° F.). Specific heat, 0.250. Its heat conductivity is 34.3, its electrical
conductivity is 34.0, in which silver = 100.

Magnesium occurs abundantly in nature; among the minerals which contain it
are magnesite, which is the carbonate. Mg . CO3; dolomite, a double carbonate of
magnesium and calcium, commonly known as magnesium limestone. Magnesium
also occurs as silicate, combined with other silicates, in a variety of minerals.

Magnesium fuses and volatilizes at a red heat.

It is a malleable, ductile metal of the color and brilliancy of silver. Magnesium in
the form of wire or ribbon takes fire at a red heat, burning with a dazzling bluish-white
light. The flame of a candle or spirit lamp is sufficient to inflame it, but to insure
continuous combustion the metal must be kept in contact with the flame. For this
purpose lamps are constructed provided with a mechanism which continually pushes
three or more magnesium wires into a small spirit flame. The magnesium flames pro-
duce a continuous spectrum, containing a very large proportion of the more refrangible
rays: hence it is well adapted for photography.

In dry air, it undergoes little change, and is much less oxidizable than the other
metals of the same group in which it belongs chemically. It does not decompose
cold water; but if the water be heated to about 90° C. there is a slight evolution of
hydrogen.

Magnesium Carbonate, MgCO3. — Magnesium shows a marked tendency to form
basic salts with carbonic acid. When a neutral magnesium salt is treated with a soluble
carbonate, a basic carbonate is precipitated, the composition of which varies according
to the conditions under which it is prepared.

Normal magnesium carbonate occurs in nature as magnesite. It crystallizes in
the same form as calcium carbonate or is isomorphous with it. It is insoluble
in water, but like calcium carbonate it dissolves in water containing carbon dioxide in
solution. As a non-conductor of heat, carbonate of magnesia has all the desirable
qualities of heat insulation to a greater degree than any other known substance, but

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

it is not adhesive, and would therefore not be durable if it were used exclusively. As-
bestos in fibrous form is fireproof, light and practically indestructible, but it is not a
thorough non-conductor of heat; by combining the two materials in proper proportions
the asbestos fiber acting as a binder and holding the magnesia in form, on the same
principle that hair is used in ordinary plaster, is the method employed in the construc-
tion of pipe coverings for high-pressure steam-heated surfaces; it is claimed that heat
insulation composed of approximately 85% pure carbonate of magnesia and 15%
fibrous asbestos is the lightest, most efficient, durable, and economical covering.

Manganese, Mn. — Atomic weight, 55. Specific gravity, 8.00 = 499 pounds per
cubic foot. Melting point, 1,225° C. (2,237° F.). Specific heat, 0.120. Manganese
is a soft, brittle, grayish-white metal, which oxidizes quickly on exposure to the air,
decomposes water slowly at ordinary temperatures, and dissolves easily in acids; it
is fully magnetic. Manganese occurs in nature principally in the form of pyrolusite
or manganese dioxide, MnO2, also known as the black oxide of manganese, which is
so intimately associated with iron in nature that few iron ores are free from that ele-
ment, consequently nearly all commercial iron and steel contain manganese.

Manganese will combine with iron through a wide range of proportions, ferro-man-
ganese, for example, containing as much as 80% manganese. It is always present
in pig iron, it acts as a hardener, and makes iron white, crystalline, and brittle. In
the foundry the direct effect of combined iron and manganese is less important than
the effect of the manganese on the non-metallic elements carbon, silicon, and sulphur
in the iron. The hardness of iron castings is attributed to the presence of combined
carbon; Hiorns, referring to the fact that manganese causes the iron to go into the
combined form, that would naturally point to its having a hardening effect on cast
iron; although manganese, by forming an alloy with iron, would harden iron inde-
pendently of the indirect effect due to carbon.

Carbon is always present in pig iron, and the manganese also present increases the
power of iron to combine with carbon at very high temperatures, say 1,400° C. (2,552° F.)
so that the higher the manganese the higher is the quantity of combined carbon, hence
manganese tends to the production of white pig iron. Manganese prevents the sep-
aration of carbon as graphite at temperatures lower than given above. Manganese
combines with iron and carbon, forming a double carbide, which is much more stable
than carbide of iron, less easily broken up by silicon; the carbon being in the com-
bined state, the presence of manganese has the effect of hardening the iron; but the
manganese is readily removed from iron by oxidation, and in this way restrains the
oxidation of iron while sometimes permitting the oxidation of other elements combined
with it. Silicon combines with manganese to form manganese silicate. Silicon forms
a solid solution with iron, and manganese appears to go into solution in the form of
a silicide, FeSi. In steel-making a certain amount of silicon is found in the form of
silicate slag. Ordinary chemical analysis does not distinguish between silicate and
silicide, only the total content of silicon being returned.

Sulphur opposes the formation of graphitic carbon in iron, and thus tends to make
iron hard and brittle. It is present as ferrous sulphide, FeS, which is readily soluble
in molten iron. Manganese counteracts the bad effects of sulphur, and this, together
with its power of reducing oxide of iron, prevents red-shortness. When manganese
is added to or is already present in an iron containing sulphur, the manganese decom-
poses the iron sulphide, forming manganese sulphide, MnS, and liberating iron; thus
FeS + Mn = MnS + Fe. By mixing pig iron high in manganese with pig iron high
in sulphur, a sulphide of manganese is formed, which rises to the surface of the molten
metal in virtue of its lower specific gravity and passes into the slag. Hiorns states
that it requires 2.6 parts of manganese to remove 1 part of sulphur. If this MnS does
not rise to the surface and pass off with the slag, it then remains as intermixed glob-
ules scattered through the mass, and if there is enough manganese present all the
sulphur will be present as manganese sulphide, and since sulphur, as sulphide of iron,
has a strong tendency to keep carbon in the combined condition, the addition of man-
ganese by converting the sulphur into manganese sulphide, tends to soften the iron.

Phosphorus is present in pig iron as phosphide. In steel-making this phosphide
is largely removed from iron by a strong, basic slag, in the composition of which is

[225]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

included oxide of manganese. In the foundry, the brittleness of castings, caused by
the presence of phosphorus in the pig iron, is not counteracted by the use of ferro-
manganese in the ladle.

Martensite. — This micro-structure occurring hi all hardened steels is not a con-
stituent but a crystalline development hi high carbon steel; 0.4% carbon, for example,
quenched at a temperature above 765° C., 1,409° F. Freshly broken, such a steel pre-
sents a fine granular appearance and is apparently structureless, but under the micro-
scope it is seen to consist of three systems of fibers respectively parallel to the three
sides of a triangle and crossing each other frequently. When the metal contains less
carbon the needles are longer and more clearly differentiated. With the carbon content
at or about the eutectoid proportion, 0.89%, the whole structure consists of this crystal-
line formation if the quenching has been from a temperature of 800° C., 1,472° F., or
thereabout. This characteristic does not follow a definite composition of steel since
it is found hi all steels with carbon content varying from 0.15 to 2.20% which have
been thus heated and quickly quenched.

The exact nature of martensite has been the subject of much discussion. That it
is the chief constituent of ordinary hardened steels, that is, of steels quenched from
above the critical temperature in water or in an iced solution, is agreed.

Osmond's theory is that in martensite, iron is present chiefly in its beta condition,
holding carbon in solution, hence the great hardness of that constituent. Since mar-
tensite is magnetic, it must also contain an appreciable quantity of magnetic alpha iron.

Edwards and Carpenter contend that austenite and martensite are in reality the
same constituent, namely, a solid solution of carbon in gamma iron, differing only in
structural aspect, the needles of martensite resulting from the twinning of austenite
caused by the severe pressure exerted upon it during rapid cooling.

Arnold's theory is that martensite, like austenite, is the carbide Fe24C, holding
hi solution ferrite hi hypo-eutectoid steel and cementite in hyper-eutectoid steel.

Sauveur, after careful consideration of the evidences at hand, adopts Osmond's
theory as the one best supported.

Sexton and Primrose regard martensite as a transition product in the decomposition
of austenite, varying in hardness according to its carbon content, being, in fact, a solid
solution of iron carbide in one of the allotropic modifications of iron, probably beta.
On annealing a steel showing this martensitic structure, the needlelike shapes gradually
disappear.

On dissolving the hardened steel in dilute acid, a dense black residue is left which
is quite different from the plates of Abel's iron carbide left on dissolving the unhardened
steel. High power magnifications show the characteristic martensite structure to be
made up of two differently etching portions in almost all cases, except that of the
0.89% or eutectoid steel, when the structure is very minute and practically homogeneous.
To this saturated martensite, Professor Howe has given the name of Hardenile, which
term is often now used synonymously with martensite, which should always be named
by its carbon content to indicate its variable nature and physical properties.

Mercury, Hg. — Atomic weight, 200. Specific gravity, 13.59. Weight per cubic
foot, 848 pounds = 0.49 pound per cubic inch. At ordinary temperatures mercury is
liquid; it solidifies at —39° C., —38° F. The specific gravity of the frozen metal is
14.39. Mercury is distinctly volatile at all temperatures above 190° C. It boils at
357° C., 675° F., and is converted into a colorless vapor, which is very poisonous.
The specific heat of liquid mercury is 0.033; that of the frozen metal is 0.0319. Ex-
pansion of mercury from 0° to 100° C., 32° to 212° F., is 1.018153 volume at 100° C.,
212° F., Regnault. Heat conductivity, 1.3; silver = 100.0. Electrical conductivity,
1.5; silver = 100.0. The electric conductivity of pure mercury at 0° C., based on
the definition of the international ohm, is 0.017720 times that of copper. The resistivity
of mercury is 56.4327 times that of copper.

Mercury has a nearly silver-white color, and a very high degree of luster. When
pure, it is quite unalterable in the air at common temperatures, but when heated to
near its boiling point it slowly absorbs oxygen and becomes converted into a crystalline,
dark-red powder, which is the highest oxide HgO. This monoxide is commonly known
as red oxide of mercury or red precipitate, which is slightly soluble hi water, com-

[226]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

municating to the latter an alkaline reaction and metallic taste; it is highly poisonous.
When strongly heated, this oxide is decomposed into metallic mercury and oxygen gas.

Mercury is not acted upon by hydrochloric acid? and is almost unaffected by dilute
sulphuric acid, but with hot concentrated sulphuric acid it forms HgSO4, a mercuric sul-
phate. Mercury is dissolved even by cold dilute nitric acid, and is rapidly dissolved in
hot nitric acid. It is dissolved by aqua regia with formation of mercuric chloride,
HgC]2.

The mercury of commerce, when it comes directly from the furnace, is in most
instances nearly pure, but is sometimes contaminated by holding small quantities of
other metals in solution. Pure mercury will roll down an inclined surface without
forming a pronounced " tail " and without leaving any streak behind it. If a blackish
film is left behind, the mercury requires purification. To separate the mercury from
its impurities, it is often distilled from an iron retort and again condensed in a vessel
containing cold water; a certain portion of the impurities is, however, generally carried
over into the receiver.

Certain difficulties are encountered in the use of mercury in the extraction of gold.
Sir T. K. Rose enumerates particularly when mercury is agitated with oil, fats, tur-
pentine, many organic substances, sulphur, etc., it is split into minute globules, not
easily reunited. This is known as the " flouring " of mercury. Vegetable or animal
oils cause more flouring than mineral oils. Coalesence of floured mercury is effected
by the action of certain reducing agents, such as water and sodium, the passage of an
electric current, or with some loss by the action of nitric acid.

Floured mercury is perfectly white in appearance, like flour, sickened mercury being
blackish. The " flouring " of mercury, or minute mechanical subdivision, is due to
excessive stamping or grinding.

The " sickening " of mercury is an extreme subdivision caused by chemical means,
in which a coating of some impurity is formed over the minute globules of mercury,
which are thereby prevented from coalescing, from taking up gold and silver, or from
being caught by the plates and wells in the amalgamating machines, as the coating,
prevents contact between the mercury and other bodies. The impurity may be an
oxide, sulphate, sulphide, or arsenide of some base metal.

The base metals usually present in mercury are. rapidly oxidized in the air, especially
in contact with water; the oxidation is made much more rapid by the presence of any
acid in the water, and this acidity is rarely quite absent from battery and mine waters,
although it is often neutralized by lime. The metallic oxides thus formed are not soluble
in mercury, and they float on its surface in the form of little black scales, which soon
form a coating.

Lead is one of the impurities in mercury most to be feared, as the amalgam of this
metal tends to separate out of the bath of mercury in which it is dissolved.

Amalgam is the term applied to any mixture of which mercury is the chief con-
stituent. Mercury unites readily with gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, tin, bismuth,
cadmium, palladium, magnesium, potassium, sodium; mercury does not combine
readily with nickel, manganese, cobalt, platinum; iron is acted upon very slightly even
when hot.

Molybdenum, Mo. — Atomic weight, 96.0. Specific gravity, 8.6. Melting point,
2,500° C. (4,500° F.). Specific heat, 0.072. Molybdenum occurs in Molybdenite, MoS2,
Wulfenite, PbMoO4, and Molybdic ochre, MoO3, usually containing a considerable
amount of Fe2O3.

The purest molybdenum metal is produced from Wulfenite, but practically the whole
of the world's supply of the metal and its compounds is obtained from molybdenite.

When pure and free from more than a trace of carbon, it is softer than steel, mal-
leable, and capable of being forged and welded.

It is attacked by the halogens and by most acids and fused salts, and has not so
far been applied to any practical use, except in alloy with other metals.

Ferro-molybdenum and other alloys are produced by the direct electric furnace
reduction of molybdenite in admixture with oxide of iron, chromium nickel, or tung-
sten, the only metals with which it is at present alloyed for technical use.

The addition of molybdenum to steel in the form of the pure metal or one of the

[227]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

above alloys largely increases its tensile strength, toughness, and fineness of grains
and its retention of magnetism.

For the production of high-grade tool steel, it has a value similar to, but greater
than, that of tungsten. At present it is mainly employed in crucible steel, and, like
many of the steels now being prepared for special purposes, molybdenum steels and
molybdenum alloys must be regarded as still on trial as compared with others, although
the fact that they are of great value is beyond doubt; molybdenum is now prepared
for addition to steel, as 90 to 98% molybdenum powder or fused lump practically free
from carbon, as ferro-molybdenum containing 10, 25, 50 and 80 to 85% molybdenum,
as an alloy with tungsten, chromium, or nickel.

The following are typical analyses of ferro-molybdenum as now made by the electric
furnace:

Molybdenum Mo 85.80 80.00 85.00 50.00

Iron Fe 10.96 16.50 14.20 49.30

Carbon C 3.07 3.24 0.50 0.35

Silicon Si 0.11 0.21 0.25 0.30

Sulphur S 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03

Phosphorus P 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02

The two low-carbon alloys were probably produced by the refining of crude cast
ferro-molybdenum by a modification of the process of Moissan, which removes the
excess of carbon by heating the powdered metal with molybdenum dioxide or calcium
molybdate, with the addition of alumina for production of slag.

Molybdenum combines with the halogens to form a large variety of compounds,
including many double halogen salts and various oxy-salts. It forms compounds with
phosphorus, boron, silicon, and sulphur, which are of no technical interest except
in so far as their presence in molybdenum or ferro-molybdenum is objectionable.
— G. T. Holloway.

Nickel, Ni.— Atomic weight, 58.56. Specific gravity, 8.9 = 550 pounds per cubic
foot = 0.317 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 1,452° C. (2646° F.). Specific
heat, 0.10916, Regnault, for temperatures, 14° to 97° C. Pionchon gives the following:
at 100° C. = 0.1128, at 300° C. = 0.1403, at 500° C. = 0.1299, at 800° C. = 0.1484,
at 1,000° C. = 0.1608.

Nickel is a gray-white metal capable of receiving a high polish; it is about the same
hardness as iron, and, like that metal, malleable and ductile. It has about the same
fusibility as wrought iron, but is less readily oxidized than that metal. It is slightly
magnetic, but loses its magnetic power at about 350° C. The metal in its ordinary
condition is brittle, but when it contains a small quantity of magnesium or phosphorus
it becomes very malleable. Nickel can be welded, not only to nickel, but also to cer-
tain alloys, and to iron and steel. Nickel takes up carbon like iron by cementation,
and the carbon may exist both in the combined and in the graphitic form by fusing
the cemented metal. It does not possess the property of hardening and tempering
like iron. It unites with sulphur, forming nickel sulphide, NiS, which is brass-yellow
in color and with arsenic, forming nickel arsenide, NiAs. Nickel is used for the manu-
facture of various small articles and for coinage. It is largely used for making the
alloy known as nickel silver, and it is used for alloying with steel to produce .the well-
known nickel steel. It is also largely used for covering other metals by the process
of electroplating. Commercial nickel was formerly very impure, due to the presence
of iron, copper, silicon, sulphur, arsenic, and carbon, which make it hard and brittle.
Nickel of very great purity is now made by the Mond process. Nickel unites readily
with most metals forming alloys, some of which are of great commercial utility. The
most important of these is German silver, for which there is a wide range of propor-
tions; a metal which is to be rolled, pressed, or stamped, the alloy must be tough and
malleable; and as whiteness in color is an important consideration, it follows that the
metals nickel and zinc must be present in considerable quantity in order to overcome
the red color of the copper. Founders whose specialty is the manufacture of German

[228]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

silver have agreed that the best alloy for beauty, luster, and working properties con-
sists of the following proportions: 46% copper, 34% nickel, 20% zinc.

Nitrogen, N.— Atomic weight, 14.01. Specific gravity, 0.971. Air = 1.000.
Weight per cubic foot, 0.0784 pound at 0° C., 32° F. = 12.755 cubic feet per pound.
Specific gravity (H = 1) = 14.00. The density of atmospheric nitrogen, containing
the inert gases, is 0.972. Specific gravity of liquid nitrogen at —194° C. is 0.8084;
at -198° C. it is 0.8297. The specific gravity of solid nitrogen at -211° C. is 0.8792;
at 253° C. it is 1.0265. Specific heat of liquid nitrogen at -196° to 208° C. is 0.430.
Specific heat of gaseous nitrogen between 0° and 200° C., 32° to 392° F., is 0.2348.
Critical pressure of nitrogen is 35 atmospheres; critical temperature — 146 °C.; critical
volume 42.6 c.c.; critical density, 0.0236. (Thorpe.) Increase of pressure of nitrogen
under constant volume, and final pressure at 100° C., 212° F., when initial pressure
at 0° C., 32° F. = 1.0000 is 1.3688. (Regnault.)

The specific heat of nitrogen, water at 0° C., 32° F. = 1.000, is: For equal weights
at constant pressure, 0.2440. At constant volume, 0.1740; this is the real specific
heat. For equal volumes at constant pressure, water at 0° C., 32° F. = 1.0000; air =
0.2377; nitrogen = 0.2370. At constant volume, water at 0° C., 32° F. = 1.0000;
air = 0.1688; nitrogen = 0.1690. (D. K. Clark.)

Latent heat of vaporization at boiling point is 50.4 cal.

Coefficient of expansion of liquid nitrogen varies from 0.002996 at 11° C. —132° abs.
under 6 mm. to 0.003574 at 100° abs. under 1000 mm.

Solubility: Liquid oxygen at —195.5° C. dissolves 458 times its volume, or 50.7%
of its weight of gaseous nitrogen. Solubility in water:

Temperature 0° C. 10° C. 20° C. 30° C. 40° C. 50° C.

C.c. per liter 23.00 18.54 15.54 13.55 12.15 11.02

Wood charcoal absorbs ten times as much nitrogen at —185° C. as at 0° C.

Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It is found in the free state in
the atmosphere, of which it constitutes about four-fifths by volume. It is a permanent
gas in that no pressure will liquefy it, at any temperature lying above the "critical point"
of —146° C. At or a little below this temperature, 35 atmospheres of pressure will
reduce it to a liquid. Nitrogen plays no active part in the processes of combustion
and of animal respiration; in either case it appears to act only as an inert diluent of
the oxygen. In the case of respiration, no animal could live healthily for any con-
siderable period of time in pure oxygen, and we know of no other diluent which could
be substituted for the nitrogen without poisonous effects.

Atmospheric nitrogen, in an indirect way, contributes toward the building up of
nitrogenous organic matter. Every process of ordinary combustion probably, and
every electric discharge in the atmosphere certainly, induces the formation of some
nitric acid, which by combining with the atmospheric ammonia becomes nitrate of
ammonia. The compounds of nitrogen may be arranged under the heads of ammonia,
nitrates, nitro-compounds, organic nitrogen compounds, and cyanides.

Occlusion is the process of absorption or condensation of gases within the pores
of a substance. Metals have the power of absorbing gases; thus, hydrogen is capable
of penetrating platinum and iron tubes at a red heat. Platinum wire or plate, at a
low, red heat, can take up 3.8 volumes of hydrogen measured cold, and palladium foil
condenses as much as 643 times its volume of hydrogen at a temperature below 100° C.
In the form of sponge, platinum absorbed 1.48 times its volume of hydrogen and
palladium 90 volumes. The occlusion of gases by metals is well known, and the im-
portance of this action on iron, especially in regard to oxygen, is thus pointed out by
Hiorns in the effects of various elements on steel: The absorption and retention of
oxygen at the conclusion of the Bessemer blow is a powerful factor that has to be reck-
oned with, owing to its intimate association with the iron and its profound influence
on the properties. The precise manner in which it exists, whether as a dissolved gas
or an oxide, is not yet ascertained ; at any rate, oxygen may be readily removed from
iron by means of manganese and other deoxidizers. Carbonic oxide is another gas
readily absorbed by iron, and its decomposition and recomposition are supposed to
play an important part in the process of cementation. Silicon and manganese appear
to be able to keep carbonic oxide in solution in iron. The quantity of oxygen retained

;.[229]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

by iron is probably small, seldom more than 1.0%, and often very much less, but this
small quantity is very powerful in affecting its physical properties.

Open-Hearth Process. — In this process for making steel a regenerative furnace
hearth is used of the reverberatory type. A feature of this design of furnace is that
the waste heat is employed to heat up both the gaseous fuel and the air requisite to
burn it before they are introduced into the furnace or chamber where they undergo
combustion. This is effected by making the exit gases pass through regenerators con-
sisting of piles of fire bricks stacked loosely together so as to expose as much surface
as possible. Four such piles of fire bricks, in separate chambers, are employed, two
being heated up by the waste gases escaping from the melting furnace, while the other
two are in use, the one for heating the gaseous fuel supplied by a gas producer, the
other for heating the ah* requisite for the combustion of the gas. By suitable valves
the waste gases are shunted from the first to the second pair of regenerators, while
simultaneously the gas and air are changed from the second to the first pair; as the
temperature at which the gas and air enter is close to that at which the products of
combustion leave the furnace, while the regenerators are being heated up, the tem-
perature of the combustion chamber continually rises with each reversal of the currents
through the regenerators; so that ultimately the only limit to the temperature attain-
able is the refractoriness of the materials of which the furnace is constructed; as the
melting point of iron is 1,520° C., and that of the best quality of bauxite fire bricks
about 1,820° C., there is a working margin of 300° C. between melting the iron and
fusing the exposed surface of the lining having equivalent resistance to bauxite
brick.

The furnace hearth is not unlike a shallow concave dish with sloping sides carried
up to the level of the charging door. The depth of the hearth below the level of the
charging doors is such as to provide for a depth of about 12 inches of molten metal for
furnaces 6 to 12 tons capacity, up to about 24 inches for 50-ton furnaces, or larger. An
acid open-hearth furnace will have a silica fire-brick lining with a top coating of refrac-
tory sand and clay rammed into place, the furnace to be afterward gradually brought
to full furnace heat. The roof is lined with silica fire brick.

The Acid Open-Hearth Furnace is principally a melting furnace, and none of the
impurities hi the metal are removed except carbon and silicon. The consequence is
that the quality of the steel made is dependent upon the quality of the metal used.
Pig iron for acid open-hearth use may follow the composition prescribed for the acid
Bessemer process, that is, not over 2.0% silicon, total carbon about 3.5%, with less
than 0.10% phosphorus and sulphur, because neither of these two is reduced in the
process. In making a steel suitable for boiler plate, in a small furnace, about 25%
of the entire charge was melted in the hearth and brought to a high heat when wrought
iron and mild steel scrap previously heated to a bright red was then immersed in the
bath and allowed to dissolve in it. When the carbon in the whole mixture had been
brought to the desired point, i.e., practically eliminated, the silicon had also been
reduced, either by fusion or by chemical action to the minimum amount, say from
0.01 to 0.05%. Ferro-manganese previously heated was put into the bath, the
whole mass of metal thoroughly stirred and then run out into a large ladle, from
which it was poured into ingot molds. During this process silicon and carbon were
oxidized together with any other oxidizable impurities and passed into the slag, but
most of the sulphur and practically all of the phosphorus remained in the metal. As
this steel was made on a silica or acid bottom, the slag was therefore necessarily acid,
and would not combine with the phosphorus as it oxidized in the steel, the latter element
therefore immediately recombined with the metal.

The Basic Open-Hearth Furnace differs from the acid hearth mainly in the character
of its lining. As its name indicates, the metal is melted on a basic bottom, which may
be formed of lime or magnesia. In either case additions of lime are made to the bath
to insure a highly basic slag, which will be sure to hold all the phosphorus as fast as it
is oxidized from the metal. Pig iron for basic open-hearth use should contain not more
than 1.0% silicon; the sulphur should always be low, not more than 0.10% if possible;
phosphoric irons may contain up to 3.0% phosphorus, depending upon the locality;
usually, however, it is below 1.5%. The basic process works the practical elim-

[230]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

ination of phosphorus in iron, it matters little therefore what its percentage is in the
pig so long as this is accurately known at the time of charging the furnace.

The reactions involved in oxidation of phosphorus in general consist, first, in the
formation of P2O5, and second, the combination of this oxide with lime, forming calcium
phosphate, which latter is held in a slag high in iron oxide. The oxygen for the removal
of phosphorus comes largely through the medium of iron oxide and furnace gases; but
not from lime, and the lime itself cannot prevent the reduction of phosphorus back
into the metal out of the slags from which iron oxide is largely reduced. The tem-
perature of the furnace is maintained by combustion of the gas in the furnace chamber,
and this atmosphere is oxidizing to a greater or less extent. Any control over the
reducing conditions must therefore come from reducing agents in the metal, and limited
control, if any, can be had over the action of agents such as silicon or dissolved carbon.
Since iron oxide cannot be kept from forming in the slag under influence of the furnace
atmosphere, the silicon and carbon in the metal are the agents to be relied upon to
prevent oxidation. To hold the strongly acid oxide of phosphorus in the slag requires
a fluxing agent having strong affinity for phosphorus and strongly basic in chemical
nature, like lime. Calcium phosphate can be reduced from the slag back into the
metal when the conditions of equilibrium between the iron oxides in the slag are such
as to reduce the amount of iron oxide below a certain limit. Silicon is such a strong
reducing agent that it must be oxidized out of the metal before the phosphorus is
attacked. The influence of carbon, an important reducing agent in the metal, is largely
dependent on the temperature, its affinity for oxygen being less than that of phosphorus
at low temperatures, and greater at temperatures above 1,450° C. Lime is necessary
to hold the phosphorus in the slag. Combustion is the source of heat and iron oxide
is always present and usually in large amounts; silicon oxidizes before phosphorus,
and the oxidation of carbon before or after phosphorus is determined by the temperature.
—Albert E. Greene.

The various reactions in the removal of phosphorus from iron have been thus sum-
marized by Mr. Greene:

1. At temperatures below 1,450° C., phosphorus in pig iron has greater affinity
for oxygen than has the carbon in the pig iron, but less affinity for oxygen than solid
carbon in the presence of pig iron.

2. At temperatures above 1,450° C., the affinity of the carbon dissolved in iron
for oxygen becomes greater than the affinity of phosphorus in the iron, and the dissolved
carbon can reduce calcium phosphate in the slag.

3. Phosphorus oxidizes in presence of lime, and iron oxide to calcium phosphate
in absence of silicon or solid carbon.

4. Silicon reduces calcium phosphate nearly always, but there may be a range
of temperature below 1,450° C. where phosphorus oxidizes to calcium phosphate more
easily than silicon to calcium silicate.

5. Solid carbon will reduce calcium phosphate contained in a slag or bath of iron,
and phosphorus will go into the metal.

6. Calcium phosphate can form without oxidation of iron in presence of carbon
dissolved in pig iron at low temperature.

7. Calcium phosphate can form without oxidation of iron in absence of carbon
and silicon at high temperatures, that is, above 1,450° C.

8. Iron oxide can be reduced without reduction of calcium phosphate contained in
the same slag.

The Talbot Process is a continuous basic open-hearth process developed by Benjamin
Talbot (1899). The general practice in open-hearth working is to charge solid pig iron
and scrap into the furnace in which hours of valuable time are consumed before the
furnace contains the necessary heat to enable the ordinary slag additions to be made
ia order to purify the charge and convert the metal into steel of the desired quality.
In the Bessemer process what is gained in time and labor is lost in yield; the gain in
yield in the open-hearth practice is largely annulled by loss in time and cost of labor.
To approach in any way the rapidity of Bessemer practice on the one hand, and the
yield of the open hearth on the other, Mr. Talbot considers the following conditions
essential to success:

[231]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

1. The use of fluid metal from blast furnace, mixer or cupola, direct.

2. The oxidation of the metalloids should be effected entirely by means of solid
oxides of iron, and not by the action of the air.

3. Maintaining by some suitable means a large reserve of heat to keep the oxidizing
slags and metal in a fluid condition, and to insure the rapid removal of the metalloids
from the molten pig iron.

A trouble with hearth and bottoms of furnaces, both acid and basic, is due to the
action of the slag, and not to the metal. If after considerable work the face of a basic
hearth is examined, it will be found to be nearly of the same composition as the slag;
the effect is to render the hearth less refractory, therefore less able to withstand the
heat of the finished steel when hot enough to pour. To overcome this drawback the
slag must be prevented from washing and impregnating the lower portion of the hearth
every time the furnace is tapped. This is accomplished by flowing the slag off from
the surface of the bath through a slag spout at the foreplate level. A tilting furnace
permits any quantity of metal or slag to be poured out when desired. The furnace
tilts in both directions, so that slag can be poured off from the opposite side to the
metal. This tilting furnace permits the withdrawal of metal or of slag at any time,
and as the slag does not come in contact with the lining of the hearth, the latter is
not softened and the refining operations can be made continuous, the usual runs extend
through a period of six days.

Oxides. — An oxide is the product of the combination of oxygen with a metal or
metalloid. In the former case a base is formed, in the latter an acid radical. An
acid contains hydrogen in its composition; a base contains a metal. When the acid
acts upon a base the hydrogen and the metal exchange places. The products of the
action of an acid upon a base are first water, and, second, a neutral substance called
a salt. Oxides may therefore be divided into three classes: acid, neutral, and basic;
the first and third being capable of uniting with one another in definite proportions
and forming compounds called salts. To distinguish between different oxides, the
name of the element with which the oxygen is in combination is prefixed; thus, iron
oxide, zinc oxide, etc.

For chemical action to take place between two bodies it is necessary that they
be in contact, and, generally speaking, that one of them should be in the state of liquid
or gas. Oxidation is the chemical change which gives rise to the formation of oxides
brought about by the action of oxygen acids, water, or free oxygen. In all cases of
oxidation heat is developed, but it depends altogether upon the rapidity with which
the oxidation is effected whether light is also produced, that is to say, whether what
is termed combustion takes place, such as the burning of coal, or a slow oxidation, such
as the rusting of iron.

Protoxides are compounds each having one equivalent of oxygen with another
element; thus, protoxide of iron or ferrous oxide, FeO, is composed of one equivalent
of iron and one of oxygen.

Sesquioxides require three equivalents of oxygen to two of a metal; thus, sesqui-
oxide of iron or ferric oxide, Fe2O3, is composed of two equivalents of iron with three
equivalents of oxygen.

When an element forms more than one compound with oxygen, suffixes are used to
distinguish between them; thus, among the oxides of copper there are two represented
by the symbols Cu2O and CuO. The first of these symbols, Cu2O, is that of copper or
cuprous oxide, the suffix ous being added to show that it contains for a given quantity
of the other element a smaller quantity of oxygen. The second symbol, CuO, stands for
copper or cupric oxide, the suffix ic indicates that the proportion of oxygen is larger.

Metallic oxides are the most important of all the compounds of the metals; in
many cases these occur naturally as ores, most of which are readily fusible; those of
lead and bismuth at a low red heat; those of copper and iron at a white heat; those
of aluminium are fused in the electric furnace; while calcium oxide does not fuse at
any temperature at our command.

There are three oxides of iron of metallurgical importance: The ferrous oxide FeO,
a monoxide, basic in its properties and which will neutralize acids; it is isomorphous
with magnesia, zinc oxide, etc, It is almost unknown in a separate state from its

[232]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

readiness to absorb oxygen and pass into the sesquioxide. This oxide is the principal
base in all iron slags produced in the refining of iron.

Ferric oxide, Fe2O3, or the sesquioxide of iron, is feebly basic; it is isomorphous
with alumina. It occurs native, crystallized, as specular iron ore, it also occurs as
hematite, forming one of the most valuable ores of iron. As hematite, it is a black,
crystallized substance with a high luster; otherwise, it has a red or reddish-brown
color. It is easily reduced at a high temperature by carbon or hydrogen. Ferric
oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent; like alumina, it can act as an acid in combination
with a stronger base, such as lime.

Magnetic oxide, Fe3O4, a ferrous-ferric oxide; also called black oxide of iron. It is
found in nature as the mineral magnetite and lodestone. Chemically, it may be
regarded as a compound of ferrous oxide, FeO, with ferric oxide, Fe2O3, in which the
ferrous oxide plays the part of a base and the ferric oxide that of the acid.

Oxides of the non-metals are of considerable importance in the arts. Among famil-
iar examples occur carbon monoxide, CO, and carbon dioxide, CO2, both products of
combustion, the former of incomplete and the latter of complete combustion. Sulphur
combines in two proportions, forming the oxides SO2, sulphur dioxide, and SO 3, sulphur
trioxide. Sulphur dioxide, or sulphurous oxide, is the only product formed when sul-
phur is burned in dry air or in oxygen; with water it forms sulphurous acid, SO3H2 =
SO2 -f- OH2, much used as a bleaching agent; it is also used as a disinfectant.

Oxygen, O. — Atomic weight, 15.96 (formerly 16). Specific gravity, 1.106, air =
1.000. Weight per cubic foot, 0.089 pound; 1 pound = 11.202 cubic feet.

Specific heat: For equal weights at constant pressure, 0.2182, water = 1.00. At
constant volume, 0.1559, water = 1.000 (real specific heat). For equal volumes at
constant pressure, 0.2412, air = 0.2377. At constant volume, 0.1723, air = 0.1688.

Oxygen exists in a free and uncombined state in atmospheric air, which consists
of a mixture of 23 parts of oxygen, 77 parts of nitrogen by weight; or 21 parts oxygen
and 79 parts of nitrogen by volume. When pure, oxygen is colorless, tasteless, and
inodorous. It is the sustaining principle of animal life and of all the ordinary phe-
nomena of combustion.

Oxygen forms a large proportion of the solid crust of the earth, which has been
variously estimated at from 44 to 48%; it forms eight-ninths of water and about
one-fifth of the ah*. It occurs in combination with carbon and hydrogen, or with
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in the substances which go to make up the structure
of living things, whether vegetable or animal. The compounds formed by the direct
union of oxygen with other bodies bear the general name of oxides; these are very
numerous and important.

Oxygen was liquefied by Wroblewski in 1883. The following data for oxygen is
from Comptes Rendus, Vol. XCVI:

At temperature of - 131.6° C. (- 204.9° F.) begins to liquefy at 25.5 atmospheres,
375 pounds per square inch.

At temperature of - 133.4° C. (-208.1° F.) begins to liquefy at 24.8 atmospheres,
365 pounds per square inch.

At temperature of — 135.8° C. (— 212.4° F.) begins to liquefy at 22.5 atmospheres,
331 pounds per square inch.

The liquid oxygen was colorless and transparent, very mobile, and giving a sharp
meniscus.

Pearlite. — When a steel having about 0.9% carbon is brought to a temperature
above red heat and allowed to cool slowly and a prepared section of this steel is exam-
ined under the microscope, there will be exhibited a structure made up usually of
alternate plates of ferrite and cementite paralleling each other; this structure is called
pearlite because the display of colors, especially under oblique illumination, shows
a definite pearly luster. The cementite plate in the structure of pearlite consists
chiefly of carbide of iron, Fe3C; the other plate is ferrite, or practically pure iron; ferrite
is the softest constituent of iron.

Pearlite is the eutectic of iron and carbide of iron, Fe3C, and contains about 0.85%
carbon. Cementite and ferrite usually unite in definite proportions to form pearlite,
and any excess of cementite or ferrite remains uncombined. Pearlite may therefore

[233]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

be considered an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite; but steel containing 0.89%
carbon is practically all pearlite.

The amount of pearlite in low-carbon steel increases progressively with the carbon
contents. Doubling the amount of carbon doubles the proportion of the iron carbide
in the steel, and since the amount of pearlite is apparently also doubled it follows
that iron carbide and ferrite must unite with each other in fixed ratio to form pearlite;
in other words, that pearlite always contains the same proportion of carbide and hence
also of carbon. — Sauveur.

In the case of steel containing 0.9% carbon, as above, all the carbon is combined
with the iron to form cementite, the percentage of cementite will be the percentage
of carbon multiplied by 15, in this case .9 X 15 = 13.5; the difference, 100 — 13.5 =
86.5, is the ferrite, and the amount of ferrite in the pearlite is the amount of cementite
multiplied by 6.4.

Suppose steel to contain less than 0.9% carbon, which has also been cooled from
a high temperature, its structure will be different. Pearlite will be present, but it will
not occupy the whole area. If there be 0.1% carbon, the area occupied by the pearlite
will be 11.1%, and this pearlite will contain all the carbon. The remainder of the
mass will be carbon, free iron, or ferrite, so that in this case (0.1% carbon) the amount
of cementite containing all the carbon will be 1.5%, and this will be associated with
9.6% of ferrite to make up the pearlite, and there will be 88.9% of excess or free fer-
rite; that is, ferrite not in the pearlite.

White cast iron consists of about two-thirds pearlite and one-third cementite;
while spiegeleisen contains about equal quantities of each.

Phosphorus, P. — Atomic weight, 30.96. Specific gravity, 1.80. Melting point,
44° C. (111.4° F.), and boils at 280° C. (536° F.). Specific heat, 50° to 86° F., 0.189,
from 32° to 212° F., 0.250. In the smelting of iron, the phosphorus present in either
the ore, the flux, or the fuel, is almost entirely taken up by the pig iron whether it
be white or gray. Foundry irons contain from 0.25% to 1.25% phosphorus. It has
little effect on the condition of the carbon, but it makes the metal harder and dimin-
ishes the color of gray irons. It increases the fluidity of cast iron, and renders the
metal more suitable for the production of fine castings. For good strong castings
the amount of phosphorus should not exceed 0.50%, and less for those of the highest
quality. For fine castings, where strength is not of first importance, 1.50% phos-
phorus may be present with advantage. A moderate amount of phosphorus, while
increasing the fluidity, also lessens the shrinkage of a casting. As a rule the amount
of phosphorus should not exceed 1.0%. — Hiorns.

Platinum, Pt. — Atomic weight, 194.3. Specific gravity, 21.50. In the shape of
foil and wire, the density of platinum varies from 21.2 to 21.7, and that of platinum
sponge from 16.32 to 21.24. Melting point, 1,755° C. (3,191° F.). Specific heat,
0.032, between 0° and 100° C. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0.0000089. The coef-
ficient of expansion of platinum is given as 0.00000907 at 50° C., and as 0.00001130
at 1,000° C. This is less than that of any other metal. The tensile strength of plati-
num (hard) is given as 265,000 pounds per square inch. Its thermal conductivity,
silver = 100, is 0.166. Electrical conductivity, silver = 100, is 13.5 at 0° C. The
metal is not so white as silver, having a grayish tinge, but its luster is very little less
brilliant in polished specimens. The color of finally divided platinum, however, is
black. It is harder than copper, silver or gold, being 4.3. Its tenacity is between
those of silver and copper. It is malleable and ductile, but the presence of certain
impurities decreases the quality; for instance, 0.03% silicon makes platinum hard
and brittle, while small quantities of the metals generally associated with platinum,
such as palladium, irridium, etc., reduce its ductility.

Platinum is not changed by air, water, or steam at any temperature. Unit of
light: The unit called the platinum standard of light, sometimes improperly called an
absolute unit, is the light emitted perpendicularly from a square centimeter of surface
of melted platinum at the temperature of its solidification. It is often called the
viotte. This was virtually adopted by an International Congress, but never came into
use, and seems to have been abandoned. Its value is not known definitely, but is
approximately 20 candles. — Bering.

[234]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Potassium, K. — Atomic weight, 39. Specific gravity, 0.86. Weight per cubic
foot, 54 pounds = 0.031 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 62° C., 144° F. It
volatilizes at a red heat. Specific heat, 0.1662. Heat conductivity, 45; electrical
conductivity, 17; silver = 100 in each case. Potassium is one of the metals of the al-
kalies; it is a brilliant white metal with a high degree of luster; at the common tem-
perature of the air it is soft, and may be easily cut with a knife, but at 0° C., 32° F.,
it is brittle and crystalline. It melts completely at 62.5° C., 144° F., and distills at a red
heat, about 700° C., 1,292° F. Exposed to the air it oxidizes instantly, a tarnish cover-
ing the surface of the metal, which quickly thickens to a crust of caustic potash.

It attracts oxygen with avidity on exposure to the air, but when thrown upon water
it decomposes it with sufficient energy to ignite the liberated hydrogen, burning with
a purple flame, yielding an alkaline solution. The heat developed in the decomposition
of water by potassium is 43,000 B.t.u. In contact with any combustible body it under-
goes decomposition with great rapidity; five-sixths of the oxygen being available for
the oxidation of the combustible substance, the nitrogen is evolved in a free state.

It occurs as a constituent of many minerals; orthoclase or ordinary feldspar is an
aluminium potassium salt; when vegetable material is burned, the potassium originally
taken up by the plants remains behind, in the ashes, as potassium carbonate. Enormous
quantities are obtained from carnellite, a double chloride of potassium and magnesium
found at Stassfurt, Prussia, in a layer about 140 feet thick. The Stassfurt potassiferous
minerals owe their industrial importance to their solubility in water and consequent
ready amenability to chemical operations.

Potassium hydroxide, OKH, commonly called caustic potash, is a brittle white
substance, very deliquescent, and soluble in water. The solution of this substance
possesses, in the very highest degree, the properties termed alkaline; it restores the
blue color to litmus which has been reddened by an acid; it neutralizes completely the
most powerful acids. It rapidly absorbs carbonic acid from the air, hence it must be
kept in closely stoppered bottles. It is not decomposed by heat, but volatilizes unde-
composed at a very high temperature. It is the strongest of the bases. It decomposes
the salts of all other bases.

Potassium oxide: Potassium combines with oxygen in three proportions, forming
a monoxide OK2j a dioxide, O2K2; and a tetroxide, O4K2; besides a hydrate, OKH,
corresponding to the monoxide.

Potassium nitrate, KNO3, commonly called saltpeter, crystallizes in six-sided prisms;
it is soluble in seven parts of water at 62° F., and in its own weight of boiling water.
It is saline to the taste, and is without action on vegetable colors. It fuses at about
334° C., 633° F., to a colorless liquid, which solidifies on cooling to a translucent, brittle,
crystalline mass. If instead of being allowed to cool, the heat is continued and increased
in temperature the molten mass will be completely decomposed, yielding a large volume
of oxygen at the expense of the oxygen of the nitric acid.

As an oxidizing agent, in metallurgy, potassium nitrate, when thrown upon the
surface of many metals in a state of fusion, is instantly decomposed, and rapid oxidation
of the molten metal occurs, the sulphur of the metallic sulphides is converted into
sulphurous acid and the metals into oxides.

Gunpowder consists of 75% potassium nitrate; 15% charcoal; 10% sulphur; when
these are intimately mixed and otherwise prepared, the compound forms a stable
commercial article, the chief value of which is due to the fact that upon ignition by a
spark combustion begins, the necessary oxygen being supplied by the powder itself,
independently of the oxygen of the air, and this oxidation is so rapid, and the evolution
of gases so sudden, that a violent explosion occurs. This has been explained in the
whole of the oxygen of the potassium nitrate being transferred to the carbon, forming
carbon dioxide, the sulphur combining with the potassium, and the nitrogen being
set free; but analysis of the actual products of the combustion of gunpowder shows
the reaction to be much more complicated than this.

Potassium chlorate, KC1O3, is soluble in about twenty parts of cold and two of boil-
ing water; the crystals are anhydrous, flat and tabular. When heated it gives off the
whole of its oxygen gas and leaves potassium chloride. Its melting point is 354°
C., 669° F. In consequence of the ease with which it gives up its oxygen, the chlorate

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

is an excellent oxidizing agent, especially in assaying. Its chief use is in the preparation
of oxygen and in the manufacture of matches and fireworks.

Potassium chloride, KC1, is a salt which is commonly known as muriate of potash.
It closely resembles common salt in appearance, assuming the cubic form of crystalli-
zation. The crystals dissolve in three parts of cold, and in a much smaller quantity of
boiling water; it melts at 734° C., 1,353° F., and volatilizes at a much higher temperature.
Analysis of potassium chloride: 98.58% KC1; 0.22% NaCi; 0.07% MgCl,; 0.12%
MgSO4; 0.24% CaSO4; 0.31% insoluble; 0.46% water.

Potassium cyanide, KCN. Carbon and nitrogen do not, under ordinary circum-
stances, combine, but when brought together at very high temperatures in the presence
of metals they combine to form compounds known as cyanides. Potassium cyanide is
formed when nitrogen is passed over a highly heated mixture of carbon and potassium
carbonate. Potassium cyanide forms colorless cubic or octohedral crystals, deliquescent
in the air, and exceedingly soluble in water. It is readily fusible, and undergoes no
change at a red heat when excluded from the air.

As a flux, potassium cyanide is valuable on account of the facility with which it
fuses and the readiness with which it reduces many metallic compounds when mixed
with carbonate of soda. Common cyanide is preferable as a reducing agent because
it contains carbonate of potash.

Amalgam: Potassium combines directly with mercury with evolution of heat.
When containing 70 to 96 parts of mercury to 1 part of potassium, the amalgam is
crystalline. With 30 parts of mercury it is hard and brittle. When heated to 440° C.,
824° F., they all leave a crystalline amalgam of the composition HgK2, spontaneously
inflammable on exposure to air, but all the mercury is evolved below a red heat. A
crystalline amalgam of the composition Hg24K2 has been prepared.

It is the most electro-positive element known with the exception of caesium and
rubidium, and is an extremely powerful reducing agent. Hence the use of potassium
for the preparation of less electro-positive elements, such as boron, silicon, magnesium/
aluminium, etc., for the reduction of gases containing oxygen out of organic and other
compounds.

Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a compound; it is the opposite of oxida-
tion. A reducing agent is any substance which has the power to abstract oxygen.
Such an agent may act by adding hydrogen to an organic body, thus: Ethene oxide,
C2H4O -f- HH = C2H6O, alcohol; or by removing oxygen without introducing any-
thing in its place, thus: Benzoic acid, C7H6O2 .+ HH = OH2 + C7H6O, benzoic alde-
hyde. Any substance which has the power to add oxygen to a substance, or to decom-
pose it by the action of oxygen, is called an oxidizing agent.

Semi-steel is a variety of cast iron; it is usually made by placing on top of the
regular charge of pig and scrap iron in the cupola an additional charge of 15 to 25%
of mild steel scrap; then melting all down into a common mixture. The tbtal carbon
in the resultant semi-steel is only slightly different from that which would have resulted
by melting the iron unmixed by steel; but a change does occur during the melting in
the conversion of much of the graphitic carbon into the combined state. The silicon
in the iron will be much reduced by its admixture with the molten steel. Crushed
ferro-manganese should be strewn in the ladle and the molten metal from the cupola
allowed to flow upon it. The resultant metal will be harder and tougher than cast
iron, and will also be of higher tensile strength.

Silica, SiO2, is a non-metallic oxide of silicon. It contains 28 parts silicon and
32 parts oxygen; it is the only known oxide. This oxide is much used in the reduc-
tion of metals from their ores, being the chief slag-forming substance. It is essen-
tially an acid oxide, forming salts with basic metallic oxides. When heated with
bases, especially those which are capable of undergoing fusion, it unites with them
and forms salts. The various slags in steel making are chiefly composed of silicon, SiO2,
together with lime, CaO; alumina, AUOs; manganese oxide, MnO; ferrous oxide, FeO.

The list of oxides, both metallic and non-metallic, is very large, but the above will
serve to show the general characteristics of familiar examples.

Silicon, Si. — Atomic weight, 28. Specific gravity, 2.25 = 140 pounds per cubic
foot. Melting point, 1,429° C. (2,588° F.). Specific heat, 0.177. Silicon does not

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

occur in nature in a free state. It occurs chiefly in the form of the dioxide SiO2, com-
monly called silica, or silicon dioxide; and in combination with oxygen and several
of the common metallic elements, particularly with sodium, potassium, aluminium,
and calcium, in the form of silicates. Next to oxygen, it is the most abundant element
in nature.

Silicon is ordinarily described as a non-metal, very hard, dark brown in color, a
non-conductor of electricity, lustrous, not readily oxidized, and soluble in all ordinary
acids, with the exception of hydrofluoric.

In foundry practice silicon pig irons have always had the reputation of imparting
fluidity to other brands, and naturally this was at first supposed to be owing to the
silicon added. Hadfield shows that this is not directly so, and that it is from the
fact that the silicon present causes an increase in the quantity of graphite, and conse-
quently a more fluid cast iron. Silicon is not, therefore, directly the cause, except
by its indirect action on the carbon.

Silicon is said to resemble carbon in its general properties; it was formerly believed
to exist like carbon in a graphitic, amorphous, and combined form. Holgate, after
making many analyses, states that he has never found any evidence as to the existence
of graphitic silicon in ferrosilicon alloys.

Pig iron, with a certain amount of silicon, is necessary for the acid Bessemer proc-
ess, as by far the greater part of the heat required for the conversion must come from
the silicon contained in the iron. The higher the percentage of silicon the hotter the
charge.

Silver, Ag. — Atomic weight, 107.9. Specific gravity, 10.53. Weight per cubic
foot, 657.07 = 0.380 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 960.5° C. (1,761° F.).
It volatilizes appreciably at a full red heat; in the oxyhydrogen flame it boils, with
formation of blue vapor. Specific heat, 0.056. Latent heat of fusion, 21.07 cals.,
37.93 B.t.u. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0.00001079 C. (0.00001943 F.). Heat
conductivity, 100. Electrical conductivity, 100. It is the best conductor of both
heat and electricity known. The tensile strength of silver (wire) is about 42,000
pounds per square inch.

Silver is a white metal with a high luster. It is exceedingly malleable and ductile.
It is harder than gold and softer than tin. It does not tarnish by air and moisture,
but in air contaminated with ever so little sulphuretted hydrogen it gradually draws
a black film of sulphide. It does not oxidize at any temperature, but the fused metal
readily absorbs oxygen if exposed in the air; upon solidification, however, the oxygen
thus absorbed is disengaged, excepting a trace, perhaps, which remains permanently
in the metal. The addition of 2% copper is sufficient to prevent the absorption of
oxygen.

Water and ordinary non-oxidizing aqueous acids generally do not attack silver
in the least, hydrochloric acid excepted — which, in the presence of air, dissolves the
metal very slowly as chloride.

Aqueous nitric acid dissolves the metal readily as nitrate; hot vitriol converts
it into a magma of crystalline sulphate with evolution of sulphurous acid.

Silver is proof against the action of caustic alkali-lyes, and almost so against that
of fused caustic alkalies even in the presence of air. It ranks in this respect next to
gold, and is much used to make vessels for chemical operation involving the use of
fused caustic potash or soda.

Sodium, Na. — Atomic weight, 23. Specific gravity, 0.9735. Weight per cubic
foot, 60.75, or 0.035 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 97.5° C., 207.5° F. Boiling
point, 825° C., 1,517° F. Specific heat at -28° C., -18°.4 F., 0.290. Heat con-
ductivity, 36.5. Electrical conductivity, 28; silver = 100, in both cases. It occurs in
nature in large quantities as chloride, constituting the mineral rock salt; as sodium
nitrate or Chile saltpeter; as a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium called cryolite.
It also occurs as the sulphate glauberite, and as borax or tincal; sea water contains
about 2.6% of sodium chloride.

Sodium is an alkaline metal; freshly cut it exhibits a silvery metallic luster, which
rapidly disappears on exposure to air. At a temperature of— 20 °C., — 4°F., sodium
is hard; at 0° C., 32° F., it becomes ductile; and at the ordinary temperature it is

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

soft like wax. It oxidizes rapidly when exposed to moist air, but can be distilled un-
changed in air or even oxygen provided all traces of moisture be excluded. Heated in
the air, sodium takes fire and burns with a yellow flame, forming a mixture of oxides.
Thrown on cold water it swims on the surface, disengaging hydrogen and dissolving,
but not evolving; sufficient heat to ignite the gas. If water at 60° C., 140° F., be used,
or the free motion of the metal be hindered by increasing the viscosity of the liquid by
the addition of gum or starch, the evolved hydrogen ignites, burning with a characteristic
yellow flame.

Sodium is used for the purpose of isolating some elements whose oxides can not easily
be reduced, such as aluminium, magnesium, boron, and silicon.

Alloys of sodium with different metals have been prepared, the most important
being those with potassium. These are liquid at ordinary temperatures and resemble
mercury in appearance.

Oxides: Only two well-defined oxides of sodium are known, a monoxide and a
dioxide.

Sodium monoxide, Na2O, or anhydrous soda, is produced, together with dioxide,
when sodium burns in the air, and may be obtained pure by exposing the dioxide to
a very high temperature. Sodium monoxide is a white hygroscopic substance of specific
gravity 2.27, and melts at a red heat. Hydrogen reduces it to a metal at 170° to 180° C.
338° to 356° F.

Sodium dioxide, or peroxide Na2O2, also known as caustic soda, is obtained when
the metal is burned in an excess of air or oxygen. Pure sodium dioxide is yellow. It
absorbs carbon dioxide with formation of sodium carbonate and liberation of oxygen;
a mixture of this dioxide with potassium peroxide is used in life-saving apparatus to
regenerate air contaminated by respiration. Charcoal and the alkaline earth carbides
reduce it to metallic sodium at a temperature of 300 to 400° C.

Sodium carbonate, Na6CO3, or soda, is made from sodium chloride, NaCl, or com-
mon salt. The anhydrous sodium carbonate usually presents itself in the form of a
white, opaque, porous solid, with specific gravity of 2.65. It fuses at 818° C., 1,504° F.,
into a colorless liquid. On fusing it loses some of its carbonic acid, and at a bright
red heat it volatilizes. The porous salt absorbs water from the air, and dissolves in
water very readily with evolution of heat; its maximum solubility is at temperatures
between 33° C., 91° F., and 70° C., 158° F. It is used in the manufacture of glass, and
in the preparation of caustic soda, which is used in the manufacture of soap. Sodium
carbonate has the property of oxidizing many metals, such as tin, iron, zinc, etc., by the
action of its carbonic acid, and as a consequence of this action it acts as a desulphurizer.
It forms fusible compounds with silica and many metallic oxides; it also melts at a mod-
erate temperature, absorbing many infusible substances, such as lime, alumina, charcoal,
etc. In some cases it acts as a reducing agent, as in the case of chloride of silver.
When mixed with carbonate of potash a double salt is formed, which fuses at a lower
temperature than either taken alone, a property very useful in the fusion of silicate,
etc. (Hiorns.)

Sodium chloride, NaCl, or common salt, occurs in nature in a nearly pure state.
Rock salt has a specific gravity of 2.35. Weight per cubic foot, 147 pounds, or 0.084
pound per cubic inch. The solubility of pure salt in water is almost independent of
temperature. Its melting point is 772° C., 1,421° F. It volatilizes at a red heat.
Sodium chloride is the starting point in the preparation of all sodium compounds.

Sodium fluoride, NaF, occurs abundantly as cryolite, a so-called double fluoride
of aluminium and sodium, represented by the formula Na3Al Fe. Sodium fluoride
crystallizes in colorless cubes, having a specific gravity of 2.766. Weight per cubic
footj 173 pounds, or 0.10 pound per cubic inch. It melts at about 900° C., 1,652° F.,
but volatilizes at a lower temperature.

Sodium amalgam is made by bringing sodium and mercury together. It is best
prepared by adding successive small pieces of sodium to gently warmed mercury; as
each piece dissolves it produces a flash of light and emits a hissing noise. With one
part of sodium to 100 of mercury the amalgam formed has an oily consistency, but
with 80 parts of mercury to one of sodium a pasty mass results, and with smaller ratios
of mercury to sodium hard crystalline amalgams are obtained. This amalgam is used

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

in the preparation of other amalgams. Metallic chlorides, such as those of silver and
gold, for example, are decomposed by sodium-amalgam, and the reduced metal then unites
with the mercury. Metals which do not readily unite directly with mercury may be
amalgamated by the action of sodium-amalgam on certain solutions of their salts.
Thus: Iron-amalgam is obtained by immersing sodium-amalgam, containing 1% of
sodium, in a clear saturated solution of ferrous sulphate. (Hiorns.) It is also used
in the extraction of gold and silver from their ores instead of mercury. It is said to
facilitate the amalgamation and to prevent " flouring " of the mercury; that is, it
prevents the formation of oxide, sulphide, arsenide, etc., which would form a coat on
the mercury and prevent contact with the gold or silver.

Steel. — Cast steel is of molten origin; it is distinguished from cast iron as contain-
ing less carbon, and in being malleable enough to be rolled into bars, shapes or plates,
forged into shapes, or drawn into wire. It is distinguished from wrought iron in being
homogeneous and not fibrous, and for its freedom from intermingled slag, which always
accompanies wrought iron, due to the method of its manufacture by the puddling
process. Steel welds readily and satisfactorily with wrought iron, less readily and
less satisfactorily with steel. When alloyed with carbon, steel will harden upon quench-
ing from a red heat, but steel may contain so little carbon as to be incapable of harden-
ing by heating and quenching; this is true of the great mass of structural shapes and
plates classed as mild steel.

Steel Castings, when of any considerable size, are commonly of open-hearth steel,
which may be of any desired composition; inasmuch as they are made to take the
place of forgings, the tensile strength of castings will approximate that of forgings
perhaps higher. The tensile strength of castings for general purposes will vary from
60,000 to 75*000 pounds per square inch. The tensile strength of the steel suitable for
locomotive frames is about 75,000 pounds as compared with 53,000 to 54,000 pounds
per square inch for the best hammered iron. For warships the tensile strengths are
graded from 60,000 to 80,000 pounds per square inch, with special castings of 90,000
pounds. The United States Navy castings contain 0.20 to 0.30% carbon. Steel cast-
ings shrink more than iron castings; the hotter the metal at time of pouring the greater
the shrinkage. Patterns should have an allowance of about \ inch per foot for shrinkage.
To stand the same stress as iron castings, steel castings need be but one-third to one-
half as heavy, for medium thickness, such as heavy machine parts. Blow-holes can
be prevented by the use of manganese and silicon, but in mild steel a small quantity
of aluminium may be beneficial. Annealing is very important where the casting is
subject to great strains or shocks, as it eliminates internal strains and tends to increase
the ductility of the casting.

Sulphur, S. — Atomic weight, 31.98. Specific gravity, 2 = 125 pounds per cubic
foot. Melting point, 114.5° C. (238° F.). Specific heat, 0.203. Latent heat, 17
B.t.u. Pure sulphur is a pale yellow brittle solid; it melts when heated, and distills
over unaltered, if air be excluded. Sulphur is insoluble in water, and slightly soluble
in alcohol and ether. Sulphur is a much less active element chemically than oxygen;
it combines readily with most metals, forming compounds called sulphides, which are
analogous to the oxides. Thus when heated together with iron, copper, or lead, com-
bination takes place readily with evolution of heat. The only product of the combus-
tion of sulphur in dry air or oxygen gas is sulphur dioxide, SO2, or sulphurous oxide,
a colorless gas, having the peculiar suffocating odor of burning brimstone; it instantly
extinguishes flame, and is quite iirespirable.

Tantalum, Ta. — Atomic weight, 182. Specific gravity, 10.80. Melting point,
2,850° C. (5,160° F.). Specific heat, 0.036. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0.0000079.
Electrical conductivity, 8.9, silver = 100. Tantalum occurs in the minerals colum-
bite and tantalite, accompanied by niobium. In these minerals tantalum exists as a
tantalate of iron and manganese. Metallic tantalum is obtained by heating the fluotanta-
late of potassium or sodium with metallic sodium hi a well-covered iron crucible and
washing out the soluble salts with water. It is a black powder, which, when heated in
the air, burns with a bright light and is converted, though with difficulty, into tantalic
oxide. Tantalum is used in steel making, but the utility of tantalum-steel alloys
is as yet undetermined; at least its metallurgy may be said still to be in the experi-

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

mental stage. Iron alloyed with 5 to 10% tantalum is hard, but is ductile. Scientific
investigators have experimented with a number of tantalum-steel alloys, but have
thus far found them of no commercial value. It is thought that possibly had the
steel contained a higher percentage of carbon more satisfactory results might have
been obtained.

Tin, Sn. — Atomic weight, 119. Specific gravity, 7.29 = 455 pounds per cubic foot =
0.263 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 231.9° C. (449.4° F.). Specific heat,
0.0551. Latent heat of fusion, 25.6 B.t.u. The boiling point has been variously
placed: the Smithsonian Physical Tables give 1,450 to 1,600° C.; the " Metal Indus-
try Handbook for 1916 " gives 2,270° C. as a recent and reliable determination. Coeffi-
cient of linear expansion 0.0000209° C. and 0.0000116° F. temperatures. Heat conduc-
tivity 15.2, silver = 100.0. Electrical conductivity, 11.3, silver = 100.0. The tensile
strength of tin is about 3,500 pounds per square inch; the crushing strength about
6,000 pounds per square inch.

Tin is a white metal not unlike silver in its general appearance. It is a soft metal,
less hard than zinc, and harder than lead. It is malleable and ductile, but quite low
in tenacity. Though seemingly amorphous, tin has a crystalline structure; when a
bar or small ingot is bent or twisted it emits a characteristic crackling sound. This
crystalline structure must account for the striking fact that the ingot, when exposed
for a sufficient time to a very low temperature (to — 39° C. for 14 hours), becomes
so brittle that it falls into powder under a pestle or hammer; it, indeed, sometimes
crumbles into powder spontaneously. This behavior of the metal may probably be
explained by assuming that in any tin crystal the coefficient of thermic expansion has
one value in the direction of the principal axis and another in that of either of the
subsidiary axes. From 0° to 100° C. the coefficients are practically identical; below
— 14° C. and from somewhere considerably above 100° C. they assume different values
and as the several crystals are differently oriented, this must tend to disintegrate
the mass.

The ductility of tin under the hammer, at ordinary temperatures, is fairly good,
the ductility seems to increase as the temperature rises up to about 100° C. (212° F.);
above this temperature and near the fusing point (approximately 200° C. — 392° F.)
the metal becomes brittle, and still more brittle from — 14° C. (6.8° F.), downward.
This property of brittleness is taken advantage of by heating ingots of tin to this crit-
ical temperature, and, dropping from a considerable height, the effect of the fall ia
to break up the ingot into small granular pieces which are marketed as grain-tin.*

Hydrochloric acid dissolves tin, forming stannous chloride, SnCl2. When it is
dissolved in sulphuric acid, stannous sulphate SnSO4 is formed. Nitric acid oxidizes
it, the product being a compound of tin, oxygen, and hydrogen known as metastannic
acid; a white powder insoluble in nitric acid and in water. Tin does not form a com-
pound with hydrogen.

As pure tin does not tarnish in the air and is proof against acid liquids, such as
vinegar, lime juice, etc., it is utilized for culinary and domestic utensils. It is an ex-
pensive metal and vessels must be made heavy to give them stability of form; hence
tin is generally employed merely as a protective coating for utensils made essentially
of copper and iron.

Tinstone or cassiterite is the principal source of tin. The ores are roasted for
getting rid of the sulphur and arsenic, the oxide is then heated with coal in a furnace
and, after the reduction is complete, the tin is drawn off and cast in bars. This tin
is impure and, when again slowly melted, that which first melts is purer. The com-
mercial variety of tin known as Banco, tin is the purest. It receives its name from
Banca, in the East Indies, where it is made. Block tin is made in England and is also
comparatively pure.

Tin is very largely used for coating iron, and special sheets of iron are manufac-
tured for tinning and termed tinplate. The iron plates, having been carefully cleaned
with sand and muriatic or sulphuric acid, and lastly with water, are plunged into heated

* When heated above its molting point, tin oxidizes rapidly, becoming converted into a whitish powder,
used in the arts for polishing under the name of putty powder.

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PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

tallow to drive away the water without oxidation of the metal. They are next steeped
in a bath, first of molten ferruginous, then of pure tin. They are then taken out and
kept suspended in hot tallow to enable the surplus tin to run off. The tin of the sec-
ond bath dissolves iron gradually and becomes fit for the first bath.

To tin cast-iron articles they must be decarburetted superficially by ignition within
a bath of ferric oxide (powdered hematite or similar material), then cleaned with acid,
and tinned by immersion as explained above.

By far the greater part of the tin produced metallurgically is used for making tin
alloys.

Titanium, Ti. — Atomic weight, 48.1. Specific gravity, 4.8. Weight per cubic foot,
300 pounds or 0.17 pound per cubic inch. Melting point, 1,800° to 1,850° G. (3,272°
to 3,362° F.). Specific heat, 0.130. Silver-white color, hard and brittle when cold,
but can be readily forged when red hot.

Titanium is not found in a free state, but occurs as oxide in three minerals of different
crystalline form, rutile, anatase, and brookite. Rutile occurs as a black or reddish-
brown mineral having a specific gravity of about 4.3, and containing 98 to 99% of titanic
oxide, TiO2, together with 1 to 2% ferric oxide, Fe2O3. Ilmenite, or titaniferous iron
ore, is an iron-black mineral having a specific gravity .of about 4.5 and containing a
maximum of 52.7% titanic oxide, and 47.3% ferrous oxide, corresponding to a formula
FeO, TiO2.

Ferro Alloys: One of the most important uses of titanium minerals is for the
production of ferro alloys, which are used in the final purification of steel and cast
iron. For the industrial production of ferro-titanium, two general processes are in use,
one in which the finely pulverized titaniferous iron ore is mixed with charcoal and
heated in an electric furnace of the Siemens type to a temperature of not less than
1,927° C. (3,500° F.). This yields an alloy containing 15 to 18% titanium, 5 to 8%
carbon, and the balance iron. In the second type of process, if an alloy free from
carbon is desired, the reduction is performed by some substance other than carbon,
and for this purpose aluminium is frequently employed.

Ferro-titanium. The efficiency of ferro-titanium as a purifying agent is said to
be due to the great affinity which titanium has for nitrogen and oxygen at temperatures
above 800° C. (1,472° F.). Nitrogen in steel tends to cause brittleness and segregation
of sulphur and phosphorus in the finished product. Titanium is not added to steel
to give the latter new properties, but only as a cleanser, and in the finished steel prac-
tically no titanium remains. The alloy which finds most frequent use for this purpose
is one containing 15 to 18% titanium. For low carbon steels, such as for wire or
plate, from 2 to 4 pounds ferro-carbon titanium is used per ton of steel, for rail steel
15 to 20 pounds per ton is used. From 4 to 8 pounds of the alloy is added to each ton
of steel castings. From 8 to 10 pounds per ton is used for axle steels.

Metallic titanium, other than in the form of its ferro alloys, has, so far, been put
to but few uses. When heated to 600° C. (1,112° F.) in oxygen it readily burns to the
oxide TiO2, as it also does in nitrogen at 800° C. (1,472° F.), yielding in the latter case
several nitrides, and this property has been suggested as a means of fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen, as the nitrides are stated to yield ammonia on treatment with steam
or acids. Titanium carbide produced in the electric furnace was used for the production
of incandescent electric lamp filaments, but is now displaced by the more economical
filaments, tantalum and tungsten.

Pig iron sometimes contains titanium, but as it is only reduced at very high tem-
peratures it is usually found only in gray irons. Professor Turner mentions a sample
of pig iron containing 0.28% titanium; it had a peculiar black mottled fracture char-
acteristic of titanium, particularly at the bottom of the pig, and at the upper side
there were blow holes. The titanium in this case was present probably as a carbide,
and a carbide, TiC, has been isolated.

Titaniferous iron ores have been held in high esteem because the iron and steel
produced was of excellent quality, but the excellence was probably due to the fact
that such ores contain little or no phosphorus. Titanium is most abundant in gray
pig irons, seldom in white irons, and none at all in puddled irons, as the titanium passes
into the slag-during the process of refining.

[241]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Tungsten, W. — Atomic weight, 184.0. Specific gravity, 19.10. Specific heat,
0.034. Melting point, 3,000° C. (5,430° F.). Specific heat, 0.034. Tungsten is found
as a tungstate of iron and manganese in wolframite, FeWO4, as tungstate of calcium,
CaWO4, and also as tungstate of lead, PbWO4.

Tungsten is obtained in the state of a lustrous dark-gray powder or as a black
powder by heating tungstic oxide in a stream of hydrogen, but for fusion an exceedingly
high temperature is required. Heated to redness in the air, it takes fire and reproduces
tungstic oxide. Tungsten forms three oxides, WO2, WO3, and W2O5, neither of which
exhibits basic properties, so that there are no tungsten salts in which the metal re-
places the hydrogen of an acid or takes the electro-positive part. The trioxide ex-
hibits decided acid tendencies, uniting with basic metallic oxides and forming crystal-
lizablc salts called tungstates. The pentoxide may be regarded as a compound of the
other two.

In a very general way ductile tungsten is made as follows: The carefully purified
tungsten trioxide is reduced to metallic tungsten by passing pure hydrogen over the
heated oxide. The resulting metal is in a fine powder, which is squeezed under a
hydraulic press into a stick strong enough to stand careful handling. This stick is
then heated to a very high temperature in a fuel-using furnace and later further sin-
tered by heating under an electric current. It is then hammered, rolled, or drawn
into the forms desired.

Tungsten is favorably known as a filament of incandescent lamps. The great
improvements in drawing tungsten wire, and further improvements in the size of globe
and in other mechanical details that add efficiency, have made the tungsten lamp
far superior to the carbon-filament lamp and the arc lamp; it is much superior to
the tantalum lamp, which was the first good metallic-filament incandescent
lamp.

Diamonds are said to be used for dies in drawing tungsten wire. At first it did
not seem possible to drill small enough holes through the diamonds to make wire suf-
ficiently fine for lamps of small candle power, but wire 0.0006 inch in diameter can
now be drawn in quantity.

The properties of pure wrought tungsten are entirely different from those of the
powdered or ordinary cast metal. It is white, lustrous, tough and non-magnetic, and
can be rolled, like steel, into a thin sheet, welded at a yellow heat, and drawn into a
wire considerably thinner than 0.001 inch.

Hard-drawn tungsten wire "has an electrical resistivity of 6.2 michroms per cubic
centimeter at 25° C., the temperature coefficient for 0° C. to 170° C. being 0.0051. The
corresponding figure for annealed wire is 5.0. Tungsten is unaffected by water or
air at ordinary temperature, but both air and steam oxidize it at a red heat. Molten
sulphur or phosphorus attacks it slowly, while at a red heat their vapors rapidly con-
vert it into the sulphide or phosphide. It does not combine directly with nitrogen.
Tungsten is one of the most important metals other than those commonly spoken
of as commercial metals; the saving which has been introduced by its employment in
steel manufacture and in the electric-light industry shows very remarkable figures.
The patents of Mushet (1859) for the manufacture of steel, etc., containing tungsten,
following a patent by Oxland (1857) for the production of certain alloys of tungsten
with iron and steel, nickel, etc., and the earlier and more important patent of Oxland
(1847) for the manufacture of sodium tungstate, tungstic acid, and metallic tungsten
from tin-wolfram ores, may be considered to form the basis of all present commercial
methods of treating tungsten ores and of practically all the technical uses of the metal
and its compounds.

Ferro-tungsten is now being made by direct reduction of the ore in the electric
furnace; the old difficulty, due to the large proportion of carbon formerly always
present in directly made ferro-tungsten, has been largely overcome, but metallic tung-
sten and its alloys are still mainly prepared by the reduction of tungstic acid prepared
from sodium tungstate, which has been obtained by fusion of wolfram with sodium
carbonate.

Vanadium, V. — Atomic weight, 51.1. Specific gravity, 5.5. Melting point, 1730°
C. (3150° F.). Specific heat, 0.125. It is grayish white in appearance, is non-magnetic,

[242]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

has a high electrical resistivity, it is the hardest of the metallic elements and the most
difficult to reduce. It has not yet been produced in the pure metallic state.

Vanadium alloys readily with iron, silicon, copper, nickel, and manganese, producing
alloys with a relatively low melting point.

Vanadium acts on steel in the same manner as carbon, but to a much more decided
extent, so that the carbon content must be carefully controlled. Arnold considers
that vanadium combines with carbon to form a double carbide of iron and vanadium.

Vanadium seems to promote the even distribution of carbon and retards segrega-
tion, hence it largely prevents the deterioration of steel under constant vibration and
its liability to brittleness. The only vanadium steels capable of application are those
with less than 0.7% of vanadium.

The function of vanadium is to harden steel, increase its tenacity and elastic limit,
without greatly lowering its elongation and reduction of area.

Vanadium steels are very sensitive to thermal and mechanical treatment and should
not be used until they have been annealed at 900° C. and slowly cooled. — Hiorns.

The alloy of vanadium and iron is known as ferro-vanadium and when properly
made with a content of from 30% to 40% vanadium and as little carbon as possible
melts and dissolves readily at a temperature considerably below the fusing point of iron
or steel.

The strong affinity of vanadium for carbon makes it impossible to produce ferro-
vanadium with carbon as a reducing agent without obtaining a large percentage in
the finished alloy. Ferro-vanadium reduced in this manner generally contains from
6% to 7% of carbon, an amount sufficient to combine with from 25% to 30% of vanadium.

Carbide of vanadium is a very stable compound, decomposed or broken up with
difficulty. Added to molten steel, it goes into solution without decomposition and
becomes practically an inert constituent. For this reason a ferro-vanadium containing
any considerable amount of carbon will not produce the reaction combinations and
physical results, when added to molten steel, that are obtained from ferro-vanadium
containing little or no carbon, because the vanadium is not available to react with
the other constituents of the steel. It is therefore necessary to reduce the vanadium
by a process that will give a ferro-vanadium as free as possible from carbon.

Alloys of vanadium and iron can be made without great difficulty by reducing agents
other than carbon and, by means of these, ferro-vanadium practically free from car-
bon can be produced.

The greater the degree of fusibility and solubility possessed by the ferro-vanadium,
the more satisfactorily it should react when added to steel, other things being equal.

The melting point of a ferro-vanadium containing practically nothing besides vana-
dium and iron is about 1480° C. for a 40% alloy. The melting point gradually lowers
with decreasing percentage of vanadium until 35% is reached, when the point remains
practically constant at 1425° C. until 30% is reached, when the melting point again
rises, and reaches about 1450° C. for a 25% alloy.

The presence of some of the other elements in the alloy, especially such as silicon
and manganese, besides in other ways being beneficial, has a marked effect in lowering
the melting point.

It is Professor Arnold's opinion that vanadium is undoubtedly the element which,
together with carbon, acts with the greatest intensity in the way of improving alloys
of iron, that is to say, in very small percentages. He was of the opinion that vana-
dium combines to form a double carbide of iron and vanadium, and that it has not
only a chemical but a physical influence in promoting the even distribution of the car-
bon and retarding constitutional segregation. In this manner it renders steel particu-
larly susceptible to the highly important improvement due to heat treatment, and,
in addition, is a powerful factor in the production of steels that are very resistant to
wear, erosion, and fatigue.

Vanadium is the most powerful metal yet discovered for alloying with steel. Its
intensifying effect on the other elements generally used in the alloys, chromium, nickel,
silicon, tungsten, and molybdenum, and even carbon, is so great, that although these
elements preponderate the alloy is improved and changed to such a degree that it
is designated as chrome-vanadium steel, nickel-vanadium steel, etc.

[243]

PROPERTIES OF SOME MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING

Wulfenite. — A mineral consisting of lead molybdate, PbMoO4, crystallizing in the
tetragonal system, and isomorphous with scheelite. Next to molybdenite it is the
most abundant of the few minerals containing molybdenum. It has been found in
some quantity at Bleiberg in Carinthia, and at several places in Arizona, Nevada and
Utah. To obtain ferro-molybdenum of low carbon content, the wulfenite is smelted
in the electric furnace with suitable quantities of coke and magnesium carbonate, the
lead which is liberated being collected. The magnesian slag is pulverized and treated
with boiling water, and the solution cooled, whereupon it deposits crystals of magnesium
molybdate. These are dehydrated by calcination, powdered, mixed with the requisite
amount of 50% ferro-silicon, and briquetted by means of tar or pitch. When these
briquettes are heated in a furnace, the following reaction occurs:

4MgMoO4 + 3FeSi2 = Mo4Fe3 + 4MgSiO3 + 2SiO2.

If the magnesium molybdate is heated with molybdenum silicide, pure molybdenum
is obtained.

Zinc, Zn. — Atomic weight, 65.2. Specific gravity, 7.15. Weight per cubic foot,
446.16 pounds = 0.258 pound per cubic inch. The specific gravity of zinc is not
constant; that of pure ingot is 6.915, and rises to 7.191 after rolling. Melting point,
419.4° C. (786.9° F.). Boiling point, 906° C. (1663° F.). Specific heat, 0.094. The
coefficient of linear expansion is .00002918 between 0 and 100° C.

Metallic zinc is not met with hi nature; the ores of zinc from which the metal is
extracted are: Red zinc ore, an impure oxide, ZnO; Calamine, a native carbonate,
ZnCO3, and Blende, a zinc sulphide, ZnS. The ore is first roasted to expel water and
carbonic acid, then mixed with fragments of coke or charcoal, and distilled at a full
red heat in a large earthen retort; carbon monoxide escapes, while the reduced metal
volatilizes and is condensed by suitable means, generally with one or more impurities.
Of the several metallic impurities in zinc ores, iron is at once the most common and the
least objectionable, because it is absolutely non-volatile at the temperature of a zinc
retort. As indicated, the zinc thus obtained is not pure but contains lead, iron, and
sometimes arsenic and cadmium. This crude metal is called spelter.

Regarding the impurities, zinc made from oxidized ores is usually free from arsenic;
that derived from blende is almost sure to contain it. Traces of arsenic do. not, how-
ever, interfere with any of the technical applications of the metal. Cadmium and ar-
senic, being more volatile than zinc itself, if present, accumulate in the first fractions
of the distillate, but may pervade it in traces to the end.

Zinc is a bluish-white metal, which slowly tarnishes in the air; it has a lamellar,
crystalline structure, and is, under ordinary circumstances, brittle. Between 120° C.
(248° F.) and 150° C. (300° F.) it is, on the contrary, malleable, and may be rolled or ham-
mered without danger of fracture; and, what is very remarkable, after such treatment it
retains its malleability when cold; the sheet zinc of commerce is thus made. At 210° C.
(410° F.) it is so brittle that it may be reduced to powder. At 412° C. (773° F.) it
melts; at a bright red heat it boils and volatilizes, and, if air be admitted, burns with
a splendid greenish light, generating the oxide. Dilute acid dissolves zinc very readily,
it is constantly employed in this manner for preparing hydrogen gas. Zinc forms
with other metals a most important class of alloys, the chief being with copper to
make brass; it is also used in the composition of white metals, German silver, etc.
It is used hi the form of sheets worked into a variety of shapes; it is used as a coating
to protect iron from rusting, as in galvanized Iron; it forms the electro-positive element
in many batteries; and in the form of fine dust it is obtained in large quantities mixed
with zinc oxide, and forms a valuable reducing agent.

The tensile strength of castings is about 5,600 pounds per square inch. The ten-
sile strength of sheet zinc is about 17,920 pounds per square inch.

Zinc is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, its heat conductivity being about
26 and its electrical conductivity 25.5, silver being taken as 100 in each case.

Zinc is dissolved by vegetable acids; this metal should not, therefore, be used for
cooking utensils.

[244]

ALLOY STEELS

BUREAU OF MINES

" Manufacture and Uses of Alloy Steels," by Henry D. Hibbard, prepared for the
Bureau of Mines, gives briefly information of present value relating to the manufac-
ture and uses of various commercial alloy steels, with the hope of stimulating the
demand for such steels and extending their practical use. The following abstract is
limited to the physical properties and uses of alloy steels.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS RELATING TO ALLOY STEELS

Simple Steel, often called " carbon steel," consists chiefly of iron, carbon, and
manganese. Other elements are always present, but are not essential to the forma-
tion of the steel, and the content of carbon or manganese, or both, may be very small.

Alloy Steel is steel that contains one or more elements other than carbon in suffi-
cient proportion to modify or improve substantially and positively some of its useful
properties.

Simple Alloy Steel is alloy steel containing one alloying element, as for example,
simple nickel steel.

Ternary Steel is alloy steel that contains one alloying element, the term being
synonymous with " simple alloy steel."

Quaternary Steel is an alloy steel that contains two alloying elements, such as
chromium-vanadium steel.

Complex Steel is an alloy steel containing more than two alloying elements, such
as high-speed tool steel.

Alloy-Treated Steel is a simple steel to which one or more alloying elements have
been added for curative purposes, but in which the excess of the element or elements
is not enough to make it an alloy steel.

Raw Steel is steel as cast, either an ingot or casting.

Natural Steel is steel in the condition left by a hot-working operation, and cooled
in the open air.

Normalized Steel is steel that has been given a normalizing heat treatment intended
to bring all of a lot of samples under consideration into the same condition.

Annealed Steel is steel that has been subjected to an annealing operation.

Hardened Steel is steel that has been hardened by quenching from or above the
hardening temperature.

Tempered Steel is steel that has been hardened and subsequently tempered by a
second lower heating.

These definitions are based on the definition of steel that states that steel must
be usefully malleable. The definitions of alloy steels do not include effects which
are negative, or the prevention or cure of ills which the steel might possess were the
alloying element or elements not added.

An iron alloy is not considered as useful unless it presents some useful property
or modification of a property not offered to the same degree by a simple steel.

Useful Alloy Steels. — The eight alloy steels named below in the chronological order
of their introduction include all the regular commercial varieties:

1. Simple tungsten steels 5. Nickel-chromium steels

2. Simple chromium steels 6. Silicon steels

3. Manganese steels 7. High-speed tool steels

4. Simple nickel steels 8. Chromium-vanadium steels

The first four and the sixth of these are ternary steels, the fifth and eighth are quater-
nary, and the seventh is of complex composition. Alloy steels are considered as regards
their value for structural, cutting, or electrical purposes.

[245]

SIMPLE TUNGSTEN STEEL

Steel used for structural purposes is taken to include that used for the stationary
as well as the moving parts of structures and machines. Steel used for cutting purposes
includes that employed to form an actual cutting edge and that used in projectiles for
war. Steel for electrical purposes is used in magnets, core steel, non-magnetic articles,
and electrical-resistance devices.

SIMPLE TUNGSTEN STEEL

Mushet's air-hardening steel (1868), the first of the alloy steels, may be considered
as a simple tungsten steel though it contained so much manganese (about 2%) that
it might with some reason be classed as a quaternary steel, as it contained also about
2% of carbon and 6% of tungsten. The manganese was essential to give the self-
hardening property.

Tungsten is very heavy, its specific gravity being, according to recent determina-
tions, about 19.3, and it is the most infusible substance known except carbon and,
perhaps, boron. These properties have some effect on the production of tungsten steel.

Tungsten steel is generally, if not always, made by the crucible process. Good
tungsten steel makes remarkably sound solid ingots, except for the pipe, though tung-
sten itself is not considered to aid in removing or controlling either the oxides or the
gases. It is added solely for its effect on the finished and treated steel.

Simple tun sten steel is at present chiefly used in permanent magnets for electric
meters, in small dynamos, and hand use. This steel contains about 0.6% of carbon
and 6% of tungsten.

To make permanent magnets retain their magnetism as much as possible they
are made very hard by heating and quenching. They are then magnetized, and if
they are to be used for electric meters, they are seasoned by a treatment involving
protracted heating to 100° C. (212° F.) to make their magnetism as nearly constant
as possible.

SIMPLE CHROMIUM STEEL

Simple chromium steels, though one of the earliest if not the first of the alloy steels
to be made, are not now largely used. In combination with other alloying elements,
however, chromium is still one of the most important constituents of alloy steels. It is
made by either the acid open-hearth or crucible process.

The effect of a chromium content up to a maximum of 2J% in steel is to increase
the hardness moderately when the steel is in the natural state, and particularly when
it is in the hardened condition after having been quenched.

Chromium steels are cast, forged, and rolled by the same methods as simple steels
of the same or slightly higher carbon contents. Castings are annealed, or heat

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF HEAT-TREATED SIMPLE CHROMIUM STEELS

CONSTITUENTS

HEAT TREATMENT

Con-

Elon-

Tempera-

Tempera-

Sample
No.

C

Mn

Si

S

P

Cr

Tensile
Strength

Elastic
Limit

trac-
tion
of
Area

tion
in 2
Inch-

Ball
hard-
ness

ture at
Which
Steel
Was

ture at
Which
Hard-
ness

Quench-

Was

ed in

Drawn

Water

in Air

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

Of
70

%

°c.

°c.

1

070

054

009

001

D01

070

129,000

121,700

60

21

235

816

593

2

.70

.54

.09

.01

.01

.70

110,900

105,300

63

26

195

816

649

3

70

54

09

01

01

70

88,000

73,000

68

36

168

816

754

4. . .'. .

40

78

54

02

01

92

143,500

131,600

56

18

242

816

538

5

40

78

54

0?

01

92

103,200

90,200

69

26

201

816

714

6

.91

.35

.08

.03

.01

.91

96,800

69,300

63

28

175

[246]

MANGANESE STEEL

treated* as the conditions warrant or require to give the most suitable"properties for the
proposed use.

Chromium steels are perhaps never used in the untreated condition, and their
properties in that state are therefore .not given.

The longest established use of chromium steels now current is in stamp shoes and
dies for pulverizing certain gold and silver ores. These shoes and dies contain 0.8
to 0.9% of carbon, with 0.4 to 0.5% of chromium. They are preferably annealed to
destroy ingotism and so impart some toughness to the metal, which increases their
durability in an important degree.

Another long-established use of chromium steel is in five-ply plates for the manu-
facture of safes. These plates are made of five alternate layers, two of chromium
steel and three of soft steel or wrought iron, and after having been hardened offer
great resistance to the drilling tools employed by burglars.

Hardened chromium-steel rolls having 0.9% of carbon and 2% of chromium are
used for cold-rolling metals. They are glass hard so that the ball hardness can not
be determined, the ball making no impression. The hardness, as determined by the
sclerescope, is 107.

Files of chromium steel are excellent, the carbon content being 1.3 to 1.5% and
the chromium content about 0.5%.

An important use of chromium steel is in balls and rollers for bearings. One large
maker uses steel containing carbon, 1.10%; chromium, 1.40%; manganese, 0.35%;
sulphur, 0.025%; and phosphorus, 0.025%. Sizes smaller than one-half inch diameter
are heat-treated by being quenched in water from 774° C. (1,425° F.) and then drawn
to 190° C. (375° F.) for half an hour. For larger balls the quenching temperature is
802° C. (1,475° F.). The second heating does not produce an oxide color, but is enough
to let down in some degree the internal stresses due to the irregular cooling of quench-
ing so that the balls are less liable to crack spontaneously or to be broken in use.

The strength of a good, well-treated ball is prodigious, a ball three-fourths of an
inch diameter, tested by the three-ball method, sustaining a load of 52,000 pounds.
On the small area of contact the intensity of the pressure amounts to over one million
pounds per square inch.

MANGANESE STEEL

Manganese steel in the commercial meaning of the name is a variety of iron con-
taining 11 to 14% of manganese and 1.0 to 1.3% of carbon. The bulk of the man-
ganese steel made at present is put into castings.

Manufacture. — Manganese steel is still made in the ladle according to Hadfield's
expired patents by the mixture of decarburized iron and 80% ferromanganese. The
decarburized iron is prepared either by the pneumatic process, being blown in some
one of the many modified pneumatic converters or in the Siemens furnace. As ferro-
manganese forms such a large proportion of the charge, about one-seventh, it must
be melted or nearly so before being added to or mixed with the decarburized iron, or
the resulting steel would be too cold. After the manganese steel has been made in the
ladle it should be cast as soon as practicable if it is to be used for castings, but if it
is to be used for ingots a little time should be allowed for the silicate formed within
the metal to collect and float to the top.

The quantity of manganese is proportioned to the size of the charge of decarbur-
ized iron with allowance for loss through oxidation of an amount equal to about 1£%
of^the steel. Thus 14% is added to yield 12.5% in the steel.

Because of its large content of carbon, silicon, and manganese, the latter fusing
at 1,260° C., manganese steel melts at about 1,325° C., a temperature lower than that
of simple steel, and one that favors the running of intricate castings. For the same
reason manganese steel, containing so much gas solvent, is usually free from gas holes;
but if the decarburized iron of which it is made is too hot, and therefore too heavily
charged with gases, the solvent powers of the silicon and manganese may be exceeded
and the steel be saturated with gases, the ingots or castings being consequently infested
with blowholes by the gases liberated in cooling.

[247]

MANGANESE STEEL

Composition. — In making manganese steel one composition is practically standard.
The usual analyses of manganese steel lie between the following limits: Carbon, 1.0
to 1.3%; silicon, 0.3 to 0.8%; manganese, 11.0 to 14.0%; phosphorus, 0.05 to 0.08%.
The sulphur content is so low as to be negligible in manganese steel as in other iron-
manganese alloys, from which any sulphur that may get in is quickly eliminated by
the manganese, probably as sulphide, which rises to the surface or enters the slag.

Low-manganese steels with 7 to 8% of manganese are finding some use, having
a higher and better defined elastic limit than the regular grade and yet with consid-
erable though much less ductility. Manganese-iron alloys containing 3 to 10% of
manganese and 1% of carbon are martensitic. With the manganese over 10% the
structure is austenitic. The steels having 7 to 10% of manganese are so different
from commercial manganese steel that another name should be given them to avoid
confusion. The name " loman steel," an abbreviation of " low-manganese steel,"
has been applied to them and seems to be suitable as a short distinctive name.

Properties. — Manganese steel is a hard self-hardening steel, owing this property
to its composition and not to treatment. It can not be softened by heating followed
by slow cooling. It is, for a metal, a poor conductor of electricity.

Manganese steel has a high coefficient of expansion, small patterns being made
with a shrinkage of five-sixteenths of an inch to 1 foot, which sometimes is not quite
enough. A shrinkage of five-sixteenths of an inch to 1 foot gives a mean coefficient
of expansion of about 0.000024 per degree Centigrade.

In respect to specific gravity, manganese steel is not to be distinguished from simple
steels of the same carbon content, as all have, generally speaking, about the same.

Perhaps the most remarkable property of manganese steel is its almost total lack
of magnetic permeability and susceptibility. This metal, containing 85% of iron
in a metallic form, is so slightly attracted by a magnet that the pull can not be felt
with the hand.

The properties of manganese steel in the raw state are much like those of other
raw high-carbon steels, the metal being very hard, but its ductility being practically
negligible. The steel, because non-magnetic, may be used for purposes requiring a hard
non-magnetic metal, if it is not liable to shock.

Heat Treatment. — Although the composition of manganese steel is extremely im-
portant in determining its properties, the heat treatment to which it is subjected to
develop in it its great toughness or ductility is even more so.

As used, it is almost universally water-toughened according to the method Had-
field set forth, which treatment consists in heating the whole article to about 1,050° C.
and then cooling it as quickly as possible by immersing it in cold water, the colder
the water and the more of it the better. It will not do to heat only a part of the piece
for quenching, and if a part of a toughened article becomes heated to redness or near
it by accident or design the whole piece should be reheated and again quenched to
give it proper qualities for use. No time should be lost in completing the heating and
quenching after the piece has become red-hot to avoid oxidation as completely as possible.

Manganese steel is a poor conductor of heat, a factor that interferes with its heat
treatment and tends to limit the thickness of the steel that may be profitably treated.
This limit of thickness is generally taken as 4 inches, though somewhat thicker pieces
in which the presence of internal cracks in the central parts would not be ruinous are
treated in particular instances.

The hardness of toughened manganese steel is unique, and it may be termed a
tough hardness and not a flinty hardness. Such steel may easily be dented with a
hammer or marked with a file or chisel, but cutting it to a useful extent is almost im-
practicable, so that such finishing as is necessary is usually done by grinding with
abrasive wheels.

The water toughening of manganese steel gives it great ductility — greater as to
elongation, perhaps, than that of any other steel and exceeding sometimes 50% in
8 inches, although its high degree of hardness is not greatly altered. This high duc-
tility in combination with the great hardness of manganese steel gives it great resis-
tance to abrasive wear as well as safety from breakage. Practically all manganese
steel is used in the toughened state.

[248]

MANGANESE STEEL

In the pulling test the percentage of contraction of area is less than the elonga-
tion, a result directly opposite to that with simple as well as most alloy steels, in which
the percentage of contraction is usually twice or more than of the elongation. The
pulled test piece has a rather uniform stretch throughout its length, whereas simple
steels, as is well known, have a largely increased amount of stretch near the point
of fracture. A recent pulling test of forged, heat-treated manganese steel gave the
results following. The steel was cast in a test bar 3 inches square, forged down to
a test piece of about the dimensions given, and finished by grinding.

Diameter of piece, inches 0.823

Length, inches

Tensile strength per square inch, pounds 152,840

Elastic limit per square inch, pounds 56,400

Elongation, per cent ,
Contraction, per cent .

Carbon, per cent

Manganese, per cent . .

Silicon, per cent

Phosphorus, per cent .

51
39.5
1.10
12.4
0.15
0.06

The length of the pulled section of a manganese-steel test piece does not affect
the elongation as much as is the case with simple steels because the stretch is so much
more nearly uniform, as described above.

The elastic limit of manganese steel is unexpectedly low and not well defined,
as the steel yields at a gradually increasing rate when pulled, as in testing, giving no
point that, strictly speaking, can be said to be the elastic limit or even yield point.

Owing to its lack of elastic limit and to its high ductility, manganese steel is prone
to flow under stress, and it does not have high resistance to compression or to con-
tinually repeated blows of a hard mineral or other material that will gradually batter
it out of shape.

COMPRESSION TESTS OF CAST MANGANESE STEEL
(Watertown Arsenal)

Number
of Test Piece

ANALYSIS

PERMANENT SET AT A PRESSURE PER
SQUARE INCH OP —

Total
Load

C.

Si.

Mn.

Cr.

40,000
Pounds

50,000
Pounds

60,000
Pounds

70,000
Pounds

1. .. .

%
1.23
1.26
1.31
1.22

%
0.95
.54
.43

.72

%

12.6
12.8
12.7
11.7

%

CK86

Ins.
0.0006
.0020
.0010
.0002

Ins.
0.0036
.0046
.0036
.0009

Ins.
0.0213
.0182
.0204
.0038

Ins.
0.0981
.0899
.0998
.0220

Lbs.

190,100
180,100
172,300
175,200

2

3

4

All test pieces were cast and finished by grinding to 4 inches long and 1.129 inches
in diameter, giving 1 square inch of cross-sectional area. At the total load the pieces
•buckled. The permanent set at a pressure of 40,000 pounds per square inch shows
that the limit of elasticity was passed in every case.

The hardness by Brinell's ball test of manganese steel is low, running usually about
190.

Manganese-steel Castings are made in dry sand, in green sand, and in some in-
stances in iron molds, the considerations leading to the adoption of any particular
material being much the same as with ordinary simple steel castings, such as danger
of pulling apart or cracking in cooling, misrunning, or failure to fill the mold properly,
and breaking or washing of the mold, and numerous others. The high coefficient of

[249]

MANGANESE STEEL

expansion of manganese steel must be considered, as it increases the liability of a cast-
ing to be cracked or pulled apart by shrinkage in cooling.

Manganese steel is prone to settle, as it solidifies, demanding, for a given massive-
ness of design, larger sink heads than simple steels to feed the casting properly and
prevent settle holes.

Even more than with other steel castings, it is important that manganese-steel
castings be so designed that the mass is fairly uniform throughout, or in particular
that no part is much thicker than the rest. If a thick part is unavoidable, it should be
connected with a sink head by metal as thick or nearly so. Thus, bosses and heavy
fillets, often advisable in iron and simple steel castings, should be avoided because of
the local increase of the mass they cause. The trouble is that a heavy part incom-
pletely fed will be unsound in its central parts. A hole or recess cored in, if permis-
sible, may prevent the central cavity, or an iron or soft steel core may be imbedded
in the thick part, which, by hastening the solidification of the metal, may prevent
the formation of holes or loose metal there.

Uses. — Manganese steel resists admirably abrasion under slow speeds of impact,
as in Blake crushers, rolls, gyratory crushers, and similar machines; but results in
high-speed grinders, such as the various centrifugal mills, are, if not poor, at least
such as will not often warrant the expense of manganese-steel wearing parts, especially
if such parts require some finishing, which must be done by slow and expensive
grinding.

For railway-track work, manganese-steel cast frogs, switches, curved rails, and
other special work are most excellent, and they are extensively used.

The properties of the metal were early seen to make it an ideal material of which
to make burglar-proof safes and vaults; that is, it is too hard to be cut and too strong
to be broken even by considerable charges of dynamite and nitroglycerin.

The non-magnetic property of manganese steel has found an important use in the
cover plates of lifting magnets for handling heavy iron and steel articles where it is
subjected to hard blows from the pieces jumping to meet the magnets. It offers little
or no obstruction to the passage of the magnetic attraction. It is also used in the
structure about the compasses on some ships because it does not affect the compass
needle.

Hot Working. — Manganese «teel is, like simple steel, or even more so, improved
in its physical properties by forging or rolling. Cast test pieces usually give mislead-
ing results because of imperfections due to casting. A steel that, cast and heat-treated,
may show a tensile strength of 80,000 pounds per square inch with 20% elongation
may have, when well worked by forging and rolling and then heat treated, a tensile
strength of 140,000 pounds per square inch and 50% of elongation in 8 inches.

Cold working, such as stretching or cold rolling, rapidly raises its tensile strength
and elastic limit but destroys most of its ductility. Cold-rolled manganese steel on
test has shown a tensile strength of 250,000 pounds per square inch and an elastic
limit of 230,000 pounds.

The largest demand for hot-worked manganese steel is in rails for railroads. The
rails are rolled on ordinary rail mills and are heat treated by being quenched imme-
diately after rolling. The service rendered by the rails is excellent and their use is
extending. Some railroad men think their durability at least five times that of ordi-
nary rails.

SIMPLE NICKEL STEELS

Nickel steel was chronologically the fourth alloy steel to be introduced; the useful
nickel-iron alloys range, with large intervals, from 2 to 46% of nickel, a greater com-
pass than is covered by any other element alloyed with iron.

Nickel in untreated ordinary nickel steel raises the tensile strength and, in a greater
proportion, the elastic limit for a given content of carbon without decreasing the ductility.

Nickel steels with the different percentages of nickel present about the same range
of internal microscopic structures as do manganese-iron alloys. With low nickel content,
as in the great bulk of nickel steels made, the unhardened steel is pearlitic. Higher
nickel content gives martensitic structure, and still higher austenitic.

[250]

SIMPLE NICKEL STEEL

Manufacture. — Nickel steel is made by any of the steel-making processes, but most
of it is produced in the open-hearth furnace. The operations are similar to those
followed in the production of simple steels, the nickel being either in the materials
of the original charge or added in the metallic form at any time long enough before
the heat is cast for the nickel to be melted and thoroughly mixed with the metal of
the charge. Nickel is negative to iron at steel-melting temperatures, and the iron
protects it from oxidation and even reduces it from its oxide, so that it is not wasted
to any considerable extent in melting or working even when iron ore is added to the
bath. On the other hand, it does not deoxidize the metal or decompose carbonic oxide
or keep the hydrogen and other gases in solution. It is not added, therefore, for cura-
tive purposes, as it gives no aid in rendering steel sound or free from holes. In fact,
nickel steel is prone to have seams and surface defects after it has been rolled, which
is one reason against its wider use. The service of nickel is merely as an alloying
element, to improve the physical properties of the finished steel either in its natural
or heat-treated condition.

Hot Working. — Ordinary simple nickel steel (3 to 4% nickel) is worked hot by the
usual forging and rolling operations much as simple steel is worked. The higher nickel
steels are more difficult to work, having narrower ranges of temperature at which they
may be hot-worked without showing signs of redshortness.

Although molten iron protects molten nickel from oxidation, iron can not protect
nickel from oxidation in scale formed on nickel steel, as in the heating furnace. The
scale formed sticks much more firmly to the metal than that of simple steel, both hot
and cold, and requires particular measures for its removal.

Steels containing useful quantities of nickel are liable to contain seams that appear
as dark-colored lines in the metal. The seams doubtless come, sometimes at least,
from " skin " gas holes which become oxidized on their walls. It is held by some
persons that seams develop in rolling without being caused by gas holes, and that this
tendency is lessened by rolling at a high temperature, about 1,300° C. (2,372° F.).

Structural Steel. — The great bulk of simple nickel steels contains from 2 to 4%
of nickel, a proportion that affords the most suitable physical properties for nearly
all structural purposes, and the nickel content usually aimed at in steels for structural
purposes is 3.25%.^ This grade might be called ordinary nickel steel, as it is usually
meant when nickel steel is mentioned without further specification. It has high value
for structural purposes such as bridges, gun forgings, machine parts, engine and auto-
mobile parts; and any similar line of service that is too severe for simple steels.

Steel with 2% of nickel is used in seamless tubes such as are used for bicycles. They
are not heat treated, but higher properties than those of the steel in its natural state
are imparted by the cold-drawing operations by which these tubes are finished. The
ordinary grade with 3.5% nickel is used in cannon, being always heat treated for this
use. It is also used in many automobile parts, the variety of high properties obtain-
able in it by modifying its heat treatment rendering it fit for almost any service de-
manding a strength and security from breakage that a simple steel will not meet.

In some large dynamos the revolving fields are connected by nickel-steel rings having
3% nickel, the metal being particularly well suited for the purpose both by its strength
and its magnetic efficiency, the permeability being high and the hysteresis losses low.

PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY NICKEL STEEL

All the samples consisted of small test pieces, and elongations were measured on
2 inches except as noted.

One per cent of nickel in ordinary nickel steel in the natural state raises the ten-
sility about 6,000 to 8,000 pounds per square inch.

Castings. — The properties of one grade of nickel-steel castings made for special
purposes are as follows: Composition, C 0.20%, Mn 0.50%, Si 0.35%, Ni 2.50%;
tensile strength, 85,000 pounds per square inch; elongation, 25%; contraction, 40%.
This steel was not given treatment involving quenching but was merely annealed.

Arnold and Read's Alloy. — The 13% nickel-iron alloy with 0.55% carbon discov-
ered recently by Arnold and Read is noteworthy, as it seems to possess the highest

[251]

SIMPLE NICKEL STEEL

strength of any of the nickel steels. It is so hard as to be unmachinable, and investi-
gators were not able to drill it even to get some drillings for analysis, the composition
mentioned being what they aimed at when making the steel. It has a yield point
of about 134,000 pounds per square inch, a tensile strength of about 195,000 pounds,
with 12% of elongation in 2 inches.

Hadfield's experiments showed that low-carbon steels with 11.4 and 15.5% of nickel
each had a tensility of 210,560 pounds, which was more than was possessed by the
steels next above and below. The curve therefore should have reached a maximum
between them with a nickel content of about 13.5%.

Arnold and Read's steel should, of course, have a higher tensility, or about 215,000
pounds, to harmonize with Hadfield's, and further tests are needed to establish the

Sam-
ft

COMPOSITION

Condition

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

C

Mn

Si

S

P

Ni

Tensile
Strength

Elastic

Limit

Elonga-
tion

Con-
trac-
tion

Ball
Hard-
ness

1«

2C

y
¥

5*
6«

r

S*
9*
10'
11*
12*

%
0.28
.40
.40
.20
.20
.20
.30
.30
.30
.30
.25
.25

%

0.57
.64
.55
.65
.65
.6$
.65
.65
.65
.65
.74
.74

%

0.21
.21

%
0.03
.02
.03
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.01
.01

%
0.02
.01
.01
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.01
.01

%
3.44
3.43
3.70
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.55
3.55

Natural state. . .
Annealed

Lbs.
95,420
98,800
93,180

Lbs.

56,670
51,400
56,060
43,000
95,000
140,000
63,000
87,000
123,000
187,000
177,000
117,000

%
*21.2
d!2.4
d!5.8
27
20
14
27
25
15
13
14
20

%

50
33
40
62
72
61
63
68
57
57
60
67

170

216
330
163
207
269
405
395
267

Annealed .

Annealed

(/)

(«)

Annealed

(h)

(0

U)

(/)

207,000
135,000

(»»)

a Sample represented untreated steel for Quebec bridge.
6 In 8 inches.

c Full size eyebars for St. Louis Municipal Bridge,
d In 18 feet.

e Figures taken from Fourth report of Iron and Steel Division: Bull. Soc. Automobile Eng., vol. 4, 1913,
p. 168.

lenched in water at 850° C.
;hed in water at 800° C.
inched in water at 800° C.
iched in water at 800° C.
)uenched in water at 800° C.

gures furnished by Halcomb Steel Co.

I Quenched in water at 843° C.
TO Quenched in water at 843° C.

hardness drawn in air at 538° C.
hardness drawn in air at 316° C.
hardness drawn in air at 593° C.
hardness drawn in air at 399° C.
hardness drawn in air at 316° C.

hardness drawn in air at 316° C.
hardness drawn in air at 538° C.

exact path of the curve. Arnold and Read note that the composition of this steel
nearly corresponds with the formula Fe?Ni.

Properties of Nickel Steels. — Before Arnold and Read's discovery of the 13%
grade, 15% nickel steel was thought to have the greatest strength of all the nickel
steels — that is, hi the natural state. It is hard to machine, and heating followed by
slow cooling does not soften it, though heating and quenching do enough to allow
it to be machined slowly. It has a tensility of about 170,000 pounds and an elastic
limit of 150,000 pounds per square inch, according to one observer, though, as stated
above, Hadfield obtained 210,560 pounds tensility, with little ductility.

Eighteen per cent nickel-iron alloy, although not useful, is worthy of note here
because of its anomalous action when cooled from 200° C. (392° F.). At first it con-
tracts uniformly until its temperature falls to 130° C. (266° F.). Then it expands
while cooling to 60° C. (140° F.), when it again contracts as the temperature falls
farther.

Twenty-two per cent nickel steel is used when resistance to rusting or corrosion

[252]

NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEI/

is desired. It is also used sometimes for the spark poles in the spark plugs of internal-
combustion engines, including automobiles, though commercial nickel wire is more
commonly used.

High-nickel steels having 25% or more of nickel and low carbon content (about 3%)
are austenitic in structure and in the natural state are softer and tougher than the
medium-nickel martensitic steels.

Steels containing more than 24% of nickel are practically non-magnetic in their
ordinary condition, a rather remarkable fact when the high magnetic susceptibility
of both iron and nickel alone is considered. The explanation that the critical point
marking the change from the non-magnetic to the magnetic state of iron is lowered
by the nickel from about 700° C. (1,292° F.) to below ordinary atmospheric tempera-
tures is, no doubt, sound as far as it goes. When 25% nickel steel is cooled to — 40° C.
(— 40° F.) it becomes magnetic, and retains its magnetism at ordinary atmospheric
temperatures. On being heated to 580° C. (1,076° F.), however, the alloy reverts to
the non-magnetic state. This separation of 620° C. between the critical points marking
the magnetic states in heating and cooling is great in comparison with the 25° to 50° C.
of simple steels, and because of it this steel is classed as irreversible.

Boiler Tubes. — Nickel steel with 30% of nickel is used in boiler tubes, particularly
in marine boilers, for which it is admirable. These tubes are in the natural, not heat-
treated state. They resist corrosion better than simple steel tubes and last three times
as long. Hence their use is sometimes economical in spite of the much higher cost.

Invar. — The 36% nickel steel known as invar is used to the extent of perhaps a
few hundred pounds a year in clock pendulums, rods for measuring instruments, and
such parts for which its exceedingly slight expansion and contraction when heated and
cooled within the atmospheric range give it a particular value. Nevertheless, its co-
efficient of expansion, even though small, is not negligible, and compensating means
must be used in invar clock pendulums and in the invar balance-wheels of watches.

Some invar has as low a coefficient of expansion as 0.0000008 per degree centigrade,
and samples have been made that contracted slightly when warmed. The coefficient
given indicates an expansion of 0.05 inch in a mile per degree C.

When invar is heated to about 300° C. (572° F.) and higher its coefficient of expan-
sion is greatly increased and its lack of expansion at ordinary temperatures appears to
be merely a belated and not destroyed function. With excessive cold there is likewise,
a resumption of contraction.

Platinite. — Forty-six per cent nickel steel with 0.15% carbon, known as platinite,
has about the same coefficient of expansion as platinum and glass, and for that reasoij
may be imbedded in glass without breaking the latter by a difference in expansion.
It has been used in leading wires in the glass bases of electric incandescent lamp bulbs
as a substitute for platinum, which was formerly held to be indispensable. In those
lamp bulbs the preservation of the vacuum is necessary and the joint between the
wire and glass must be kept tight. Platinite has not been found wholly suitable for
this purpose, and is not now so used, a compound wire with a 38% nickel-steel core
encased in copper and sometimes coated with platinum being now generally employed.
The nickel-steel core if free will expand less than the glass and the copper more, so
that each resists the other and the wire as a whole will have the desired rate of expansion.

NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEELS

Nickel-chromium steels, known in the trade as chrome-nickel steels, are perhaps
the most important of the structural alloy steels. Their field of usefulness is contin-
ually being enlarged by their application for new purposes and also by encroachment
on the premises of some of the other alloy steels, notably of simple nickel steel, and they
have almost wholly displaced nickel-vanadium and nickel-chromium-vanadium steels,
which several years ago were in some considerable demand.

Nickel-chromium steels are seldom used in any but a heat-treated condition. By
suitable treatment pieces of small mass can be made to have as high physical prop-
erties as any steels known, accompanied by ductility that is high as compared with its
strength, as the ductility naturally lessens as the elastic limit increases.

[253]

NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL

Nickel-chromium steels can be made somewhat more cheaply than simple nickel
steel of the same strength and ductility containing a smaller total of the alloying ele-
ments, and chromium is less costly than nickel.

Composition and Properties. — The upper limit of nickel in useful chrome-nickel
steels is about 3.5%, and all useful steels of this class are pearlitic. When a chrome-
nickel steel is case-hardened, the case is harder than that of a simple nickel steel.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEELS IN NATURAL OR

UNTREATED STATE

COMPOSITION

TENSILE PROPERTIES

Sample
No.

C

Mn

Si

s

P

Ni

Cr

Tensile
Strength

Elastic

Limit

Con-
trac-
tion
of

Elon-

tion
in 2

Ball
hard-
ness

Remarks

Area

Ins.

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

1

0.55

0.41

0.22

0.03

0.02

1.53

1.14

96,000

75,000

66

31

185

Annealed

2

.18

.27

.05

.04

.02

1.28

1.59

72,000

51,000

71

37

134

Annealed

3

1R

34

13

0?

01

1 ?8

37

59,000

42,000

64

38

115

Annealed

4

.29

.42

.07

.06

.02

3.86

1.48

Natural

5

.25

.32

.10

.03

.02

1.45

1.20

96,500

81,500

68

25

Test piece

6

.25

.32

.10

.03

.02

1.45

1.20

97,100

80,900

49

°7

Eyebar;

full size

In 21 feet.

It

Sample 4 is from a plate similar to that used in the mast of the yacht Vanitie.
was not heat treated, but was used as rolled.

Samples 5 and 6 represent the same steel and show the relative properties of the
small test piece and the full-size eyebar for a bridge the section of which was 14 X 2
inches. The difference in elongation is particularly noticeable, the great local stretch
near the point of rupture being only a small part of the total length of the bar.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEELS IN HEAT-TREATED

CONDITION

COMPOSITION

TENSILE PROPERTIES

HEAT TREATMENT

Sample
No.

C

Mn

Si

S

P

Ni

Cr

Ten-
sility

Elastic
Limit

Con-
trac-
tion
of
Area

Elon-

tion
in 2
Ins.

Ball
hard-
ness

Temper-
ature at
Which
Steel Was
Quenched
in Water

Temper-
ature at
Which

Twffr

Drawn
in Air

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

°c.

°C.

1

0.40

0.74

0.24

0.03

0.02

3.45

1.20

187,000

175,000

43

10

352

830

371

2

.36

.53

.11

.04

.01

1.55

.70

145,000

125,000

65

20

233

830

566

3....

.21

.41

.22

.03

.02

3.52

1.11

110,000

75,000

66

24

215

830

682

4

.48

.44

.16

.01

.01

2.02

.98

212,000

186,000

46

10

445

843

427

5

.48

.44

.16

.01

.01

2.02

.98

140,000

120,000

61

18

287

843

649

6....

.38

.28

.27

.02

.01

3.01

.65

114,000

90,000

69

25

266

843

649

Any one of the first three samples could be given substantially the properties of
either of the other two by varying the temperature of the second heating.

[254]

NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL

For Automobiles — and the practice might be advantageously extended to other
fields — three grades of nickel-chromium steel are used. They are called low, medium,
or high according to their contents of nickel and chromium. The carbon content may
be varied for each grade within the limits shown in the following table:

COMPOSITION OP NICKEL-CHROMIUM AUTOMOBILE STEELS

Grade

C

Mn

Si

s

P

Ni

Cr

Low.. .

0.20 to 0.40

0.65

Low

0.045

0.04

1.25

0.6

Med...

.20 to .40

.65

Low

.045

.04

1.75

1.10

High . .

.20 to .40

.65

Low

.045

.04

3.50

1.50

These steels are almost invariably heat-treated for use in automobiles, a wide range
of properties being attainable by varying the heat treatment with each steel. The
properties overlap those of steels of both harder and softer grades, so that a wide choice
of properties is afforded as well as a choice of steels for the set of properties
desired.

Armor Plate. — An important use .for chrome-nickel steel is in both thick and medium
armor plate for war-vessels. The thick, heavy side armor, 6 to 14 inches thick, is
face-hardened. A recent analysis of the body of a plate gave: C 0.33%, Mn 0.32%,
Si 0.06%, S 0.03%, P 0.014%, Ni 4%, Cr 2%, and its tensile properties after treatment

Tensile strength, pounds per square inch 101,000

Elastic limit, pounds per square inch 77,500

Elongation in 2 inches, per cent 24

Contraction of area, per cent 60

The results from such a great mass of metal were excellent.

Medium armor, between 3 to 5 inches thick, is rather similar in composition. It is
not face-hardened, but is given high properties as a whole by the heat treatment to
which it is subjected. An analysis lately made gave: C 0.30%, Mn 0.34%, Si 0.13%,
S 0.03%, P 0.03%, Ni 3.66%, Cr 1.45%.

Its physical properties were those given below as Sample 1. Sample 2 represented
another chrome-nickel steel made for the same purpose, containing 3|% of nickel.

Sample 1 Sample 2

Tensile strength, pounds per square inch 119,000 138,000

Elastic limit, pounds per square inch 106,000 119,000

Elongation in 2 inches, per cent 22 22

Contraction of area, per cent 61 49

Such steel is most excellent for use on war-ships to form protective decks and bar-
riers to protect from secondary battery fire. Chrome-nickel-vanadium steel is also
used for this purpose.

Projectiles. — Nickel-chromium steel is used in the manufacture of most armor-
piercing projectiles.

Cubillo cites a steel for projectiles having 0.48% C, 0.58% Mn, 0.75% Cr, 2.55%
Ni, 0.40% Si, 0.04% P. A test piece quenched in oil and tempered "had an elastic
limit of 129,400 pounds per square inch, a tensile strength of 150,300 pounds per square
inch, and an elongation of 19%.

For large projectiles Girod prefers chromium-tungsten steel having 0.50% C, 4%
Ni, 0 to 1.5% Cr, and 0.25% W.

It is curious that nickel is considered to improve the quality of shot although gen-

[255]

NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL

erally held to injure the quality of high-speed tool steels. In use there seems to be a
parallel between the requirements of the two, except for the important and vital dif-
ference as to the required speed at which they respectively meet the metal to be pene-
trated. The speed of impact of the shot enables it to enter when no amount of pressure
will effect the same result.

Hollow Shaft. — Following is a description of the manufacture of a large shaft of
mild chrome-nickel steel for marine purposes. A corrugated 35-ton ingot 45 inches
in diameter was made of basic open-hearth steel having 0.24% C, 0.70% Mn, 0.013%
P, 0.015% S, 0.18% Si, 1.60% Ni, and 0.32% Cr. A few hundredths per cent of ti-
tanium was added in the ladle, but did not appear in the steel. The shaft when fin-
ished was 14^ inches in diameter, with an 8-inch hole through the center line.

The steel was melted without the addition of ore late in the heat, a method that
favored soundness and tended to allow the steel to clean itself of insoluble impuritiea
such as oxides and silicates. The ingot was forged, annealed at 866° C. (1,590° F.),
bored, rough-turned, heated to 750° C. (1,382° F.), quenched in oil, and drawn at
593° C. (1,100° F.).

The shaft was merely raised to the drawing temperature, 593° C., when firing
at once ceased, the furnace was closed, and the shaft allowed to cool with the furnace.

The averages of the tests, which were longitudinal, were as follows: Tensile strength,
83,300 pounds per square inch; elastic limit, 52,500 pounds per square inch; elongation
in 2 inches, 26%; contraction, 60%. The results were excellent, though seemingly a
lower drawing temperature, which would have resulted in a higher elastic limit, would
have been justified.

Castings are made also of chrome-nickel steel and may be used hi the annealed
or heat-treated condition.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF CHROME-NICKEL STEEL CASTINGS

COMPOSITION

TENSILE PROPERTIES

Sample
No.

C

Mn

Si

s

P

Ni

Cr

Tensile
Strength

Elastic

Limit

Contrac-
tion of
Area

Elonga-
tion in
2 Ins.

Condition

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

1

0.30

0.41

....

0.04

0.03

3.64

1.49

91,500

45,500

24

16.5

Annealed

2

.33

,39

.04

.03

3.58

1.61

90,500

46,500

27

18.5

Annealed

3

.30

.20

0.35

2.50

.50

110,000

80,000

30

20

Heat-treated

Mayari Steel. — A so-called natural chrome-nickel steel is now made from certain
ores mined at Mayari, Cuba. The ores carry enough nickel to give 1.3 to 1.5% of
nickel, and enough chromium to give 2 £ to 3% of chromium in the crude iron smelted
therefrom. When the iron is converted into steel by the pneumatic or open-hearth
processes, the nickel is practically all present in the steel, but the chromium is of neces-
sity largely wasted by being oxidized.

Steel made in part of Mayari iron is giving good service in rails, and particularly
in track bolts, which are heat-treated to give the metal an elastic limit of 75,000 pounds
per square inch.

Why these rails are satisfactory when other chrome-nickel steels were not has not
been explained. The chief differences seem to be (1) that these Mayari steel rails
have less of the alloying elements because Mayari iron is used only in part in them,
and (2) that the steel is made in the open-hearth furnace.

The use of steel containing Mayari iron is increasing, and the demand is enough
to induce the production synthetically of steels of the same composition by adding
nickel and chromium to simple steels in the Mayari proportions.

[256]

SILICON STEEL

SILICON STEELS

Silicon steels are generally made in the open-hearth furnace, preferably on an
acid hearth, as the acid slag does not waste the silicon in the final additions as rapidly
as does a basic slag that contains free oxide of iron, and therefore the final content of
silicon desired may be more closely controlled.

Silicon in true silicon steels must be added to the charge only a short time before
teeming, as any oxygen that reaches the metal will largely be taken up by the silicon
which will be wasted by burning to silicic acid (SiO2). When so added to a bath in
proper condition as to temperature and amount of dissolved oxygen or oxides the silicon
will overwhelm the gases in solution, and the steel as cast will be free from blow-holes
and with a maximum tendency to pipe.

Because of the large proportion of silicon in silicon steels and because of the short
time allowable after the silicon has been added to the bath, it should be added in the
heated or molten state.

Properties. — Silicon steel containing 0.20% of carbon may be rolled if the silicon
content is less than 7%. With 0.90% carbon it may be rolled if the silicon is less than
5%. With a silicon content higher than 5% the metal is useless. In structural steels the
effect of the silicon is to raise the elastic limit to a moderate degree. Silicon lowers
the coefficient of expansion of steel somewhat as nickel does.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL SILICON ("SILICO-MANGANESE") STEELS

Sample
No.

1

Description

C

Si

Mn

s

P

Tensile
Strength

Elastic

Limit

Elon-
tion

Con-
trac-
tion

Ball
Hard-
ness

Automobile springs. . .
Springs treated

%
0.50
.47
.50

.48
.48
.50
.36
.36
.31

%
2.00
1.83
1.90

1.40
1.40
1.75
1.27
1.27
2.39

%
0.70
.70
.70

.45
.45
.65

.57
.57

.48

%
0.04
.01
.04

.03
.03
.03

%
0.03
.01
.04

.02
.02
.05

Lbs.
254,000

113,760
177,750

94,500
182,200
134,750

Lbs.
230,000

71,100
149,310
198,700
59,750
160,850
104,700

%
9*'

17
14

8.5
25
12.5

22

%

40

...

2

3 . . .

Carriage axles
Test piece, natural
condition
Test piece, treated . . .
Test, treated
Annealed

4

5

6

21
48
34
55

418

7

8

Drawn at 427° C
Drawn at 427° C

9

The treated test piece comprising sample 5 was heated to 954° C. (1,750° F.),
quenched in water, and drawn at 427° C. (800° F.). The hardening temperature of
samples 8 and 9 was probably about the same as that of sample 5.

Uses. — The chief structural use of silicon-alloy steel is in springs of the leaf type
for automobiles and other vehicles. The silicon is considered to make the springs
somewhat tougher so that they are less liable to break in service than springs of simple
steel. In the trade this steel is called silico-manganese steel, though its content of
manganese is usually no more than is common in simple steels.

In electricity, an important use for silicon-alloy steel is in the cores of static trans-
formers. With the exception of manganese, most of the elements employed in making
alloy steels, although not greatly decreasing the magnetic susceptibility of the iron
that contains them, lower its hysteresis loss. Silicon is the element most used for
that purpose because it is the cheapest, but aluminium, phosphorus, nickel
and tungsten have a similar effect.

The silicon content in silicon transformer metal is usually between 3| and
or, more exactly, 4 to 4£ %. The steel is rolled into thin sheets which, for one large

[257]

HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL

user, are 0.014 inch thick; the transformer cores are built up of these sheets, which
are cut to shape separately by stamping. For low induction the permeability of this
steel is nearly as great if not greater than that of any other variety of iron or iron alloy
known, and its hysteresis loss is less than that of any other of nearly as low cost.

The results of an analysis of a transformer core made of silicon-alloy steel are as
follows: C, 0.08%; Si, 4.18%; Mn, 0.11%; S, 0.06%; P, 0.01%; Al, 0.01%.

Case-hardening. — Silicon steels can not be case-hardened, as the silicon retards the
absorption of carbon; the silicon content must therefore be low, not over 0.04%, in
steel intended to be so treated.

HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEELS

High-speed tool steels, also called rapid steels, have worked a revolution in the
machine-shop business of the whole world, affording largely increased outputs and
commensurate lower costs. The revolutionary feature wherein tools made of these
steels differ from and exceed in service the tools formerly used is their ability to main-
tain a sharp strong cutting edge while heated to a temperature far above that which
would at once destroy the cutting ability of a simple steel tool. Because of this prop-
erty a tool made of high-speed tool steel can be made to cut continuously at speeds
three to five times as great as that practicable with other tools, and when, as the result
of the friction of the chip on the tool, it may be red-hot at the point on top where the
chip rubs hardest, and the chip itself may, by its friction on the tool and the internal
work done on it by upsetting it, be heated to a blue heat of 296° C. (565° F.) or even
hotter, to perhaps 340° C. (644° F.).

Manufacture. — High-speed tool steels are all made by the crucible or electric-fur-
nace process. The crucibles or pots are made of graphite. The average Hie of the
crucibles or pots varies hi different works from six to nine melts. In packing a pot
with a charge for rapid steel the tungsten must be placed on top of the charge — as
with simple tungsten steel — to guard as far as possible against the tendency of the
tungsten to settle because of its high specific gravity. That tendency seems to be
less with the rapid steels than with the simple tungsten steels.

High-speed tool steel as cast has a coarse structure and dark color as compared
with the structure and color of simple steels of the same carbon content. A corner
is broken from the top of each ingot, to show the grain, and the ingots when hand-
poured directly from the pots are classified by the eye as in the production of simple
crucible steels. If the ingots are cast from the large ladle a test is taken for analysis
which determines the disposition of the whole ladleful of steel.

The ingots run from 3| by 3£ niches to 16 by 16 inches, but most of them are from
5 by 5 inches to 9 by 9 inches. For hot-working they are heated in a furnace chamber
having a temperature of about 1,180° C. (2,156° F.). At this high heat the steel may
be worked satisfactorily under the hammer or press and may be quickly worked down
to the dimension desired.

Composition. — The tendency of the makers is toward a somewhat uniform com-
position as regards the contents of the alloying elements, whose benefits have become
fairly well known, and whose use as a consequence may be considered as established.
Specifically, these alloying elements are tungsten and chromium. The addition of
vanadium and cobalt in important proportions is considered by some makers to give
distinct improvement to high-speed steel, and some vanadium is almost always present.

The analyses on following page are of steels recently made, most of which are
considered to be good commercial steels.

Samples D — 1 and E — 1 gave excellent results in a competitive test, whereas sam-
ples D — 2, D — 3, E — 2, and E — 3, manufactured by the same makers, gave distinctly
inferior results in the same shop.

The occurrence of nickel hi four of the samples may have been accidental, having
been due to nickel in some of the scrap steel used in the charge. Most makers now
put in vanadium, and steel like that represented by sample G, which had the highest
vanadium content of all the samples represented in the table, was the winner in a
recent competitive test.

[258]

HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL

The average specific gravity of the steels represented in the table was about 8.8,
the increase over the specific gravity of iron being due chiefly to the tungsten content.

There are so many factors besides the ultimate composition that affect the value
of rapid tool steels that no conclusion can be drawn from the analysis alone.

Carbon. — The proportion of carbon aimed at in high-speed tool steels is about
0.65%, which in a simple steel would not be enough to give the maximum hardness
even if the steel were heated above the critical point and quenched in water, and still

RESULTS OF ANALYSES OP HIGH-SPEED STEELS MADE IN 1913 OK 1914

Sample o

C

Mn

Si

8

P

Cr

W

V

Co

Ni

Mo

Remarks

A

%
0.65

%
0.15

%
0.20

%
0.02

%
0.03

%
4.75

%
17.50

%
0.90

%

%

%

B— 1....
B— 2....

.66

.74

.27
.31

.14
.13

.04
.04

.05
.02

4.51
4.20

17.48
15 63

.70
.67

4.22
2 70

0.17

• K.

B— 3....
B— 4....

.63
69

.14
34

.07
.14

.04
.03

.05
.04

4.26
5.28

17.16
16.35

.45
.64

3.80

5.28

.20

C— 1....

.66

.22

.17

.03

.02

3.44

16.51

.73

C— 2....

.64

.21

.16

.03

.03

3.30

16 06

.66

4 02

C— 3....

67

.33

.25

.02

.02

3.85

16.06

.70

D— 1...
D— 2...

.75
.68

.28
.38

.36
.40

.03
.03

4.10
4.65

19.00
17 85

.75
53

Good
Inferior

D— 3...

.69

.36

.38

.04

4.67

17.90

.50

Inferior

D— 4...

57

20

.26

.02

.03

4.82

15.38

.50

Inferior

E— 1....

.61

.23

.35

.04

4 10

17 20

1 00

Good

E— 2....

.68

.45

.40

.04

4.00

14 26

1.09

Inferior

E— 3....

70

.50

.39

.05

4.08

14.50

1.07

Inferior

E— 4....

,60

23

.12

.03

.02

3.90

17.27

.90

Inferior

F. .. .

64

2 29

12

02

01

4 39

16 09

59

28

G

79.

.37

.18

.03

.02

4.50

13.30

2!50

H— 1....

.77

,16

21

.02

.02

4.05

18.64

1.35

H— 2....

.67

.16

.20

02

.02

4.66

13.86

1.08

I

.64

.23

.29

.02

.02

4.57

19.10

54

J— 1....

.64

,30

26

.02

.01

2.93

18.71

1.22

J— 2....

.71

.14

.26

.03

.03

2.97

18.21

.97

K— 1....
K— 2....
K— 3....

.55
.70

.74

Tr.
Tr.
.31

.23

.18
.13

.02
.01
.04

.04
.02
.02

4.46
4.25
4.20

16.05
15.50
15.63

.80
.88
.67

4.72
4.72
2.70

!l8

0.72
.67

a Samples A to I represented American steels, the numerals indicating different samples from the same
maker; sample J represented an English steel; sample K represented a German steel.

less so when the steel is cooled as slowly as these steels are in their treatment. This
shows that the carbon acts in a different way from what it does in simple steels.

Tungsten is well established as a most important if not indispensable ingredient
of commercial tool steels, being almost or quite universally used in quantity therein.
The best proportion of tungsten, all things considered, seems to lie between 16 and
20%, the tungsten content in 95% of all the American steels coming within these
limits. Some published analyses of European high-epeed tool steels show a higher
content of tungsten than this, but American makers generally agree that any tungsten
in excess of 20% adds nothing to the usefulness of the steel, and they therefore make
that proportion the upper limit of the amount added. One effect of the tungsten is that
the best percentage of carbon in rapid steel is but about half that required in simple
tool steels intended for the same kind of service.

Chromium. — The effect of chromium in high-speed tool steel, as in other steels, is un-
doubtedly, as a hardener, entering into the double carbide of tungsten and chromium which
gives or causes the proper cutting edge. Although the proportion of this element present

[259]

HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL

in these steels varies considerably, it is always large, perhaps never less than 2% or
more than 6% in American steels, and in European steels the upper limit is at least 9%.

Molybdenum. — The use of molybdenum in high-speed tool steels is being generally
discontinued. Some makers for years manufactured molybdenum tool steels, but as
a rule they have either wholly discontinued its use or use a much smaller proportion
than formerly, employing it as an auxiliary rather than a major constituent.

The effect of molybdenum is similar to that of tungsten, but is more intense in that
1% molybdenum is currently considered to give about the same or greater hardening
effect than 2% of tungsten. It gives a fine cutting edge.

Various reasons are assigned for-^Ke discontinuance of the use of molybdenum
in these steels. Taylor found that molybdenum in rapid steels caused irregular per-
formance; that steels of nearly the same composition and having had seemingly the
same treatment gave large variations in the cutting speeds tKey would stand. One
user specifies no molybdenum because it causes the tools to crack in quenching. A
maker objected to molybdenum because molybdenum steel was apt to be seamy and
to contain physical imperfections.

Vanadium is used for high-speed tool steel in varying amounts, most makers using
at least 0.5%, although some run the vanadium content up to 1| or lf%, or even
more, considering that such an addition increases in an important degree the value
of the steel for tools.

The effect of vanadium is considered to resemble in some ways that of chromium
in increasing the hardness or red-hardness of the cutting edge.

High-speed steels containing vanadium are generally classed as " superior " steels,
and many, though not all, makers and users consider them distinctly better than the
" standard " steels containing no vanadium, both on account of their actual cutting
qualities at high speeds and on account of the length of time a tool will cut before
it needs regrinding. The true value of vanadium in rapid steels must probably be
held as not yet fully determined.

Cobalt now threatens to change tool-steel manufacture because of the properties
it imparts. The recent great decline in price following the increase of the supply
from the silver ores of the cobalt district in Ontario naturally led to its trial as a steel-
alloying element, and some most excellent high-speed steels containing, in addition
to the usual ingredients, about 4% of cobalt, have been obtained. This result was
hardly to have been expected in view of the experience with nickel, which cobalt much
resembles, as nickel has been condemned by nearly every manufacturer as not being
a desirable ingredient of high-speed tool steels, because of the effect it has of making
the edge soft or " leady." The cobalt steel, however, has shown, in some products
at least, increased ability to hold its edge in work.

One user of cobalt steel found it better suited for turning manganese steel than any
other steel he tried, his success being so marked as to make it practically a commercial
operation. Manganese steel, as noted elsewhere, is so hard as to be considered practically
unmachinable, the usual practice having been to finish it by grinding when necessary.

The valuable effect of cobalt is claimed to be that it increases the red-hardness of
high-speed tool steel, enabling the steel to cut at a higher speed.

Copper has been considered to be highly injurious in high-speed tool steel, even
as little as 0.05% being inadmissible; and it is thought to be particularly harmful
if much sulphur is present in the steel; also the higher the carbon content the more
harmful is the copper.

Sulphur and phosphorus, which are so deleterious in simple tool steels, are consid-
ered to be somewhat less so in high-speed steels, in which the effect is either modified
or else masked by the large quantities of other ingredients. Some commercial brands
of high-speed steels have as much as 0.05% of each of these impurities, to which no
inferior quality is attributable.

STELLITE

Stellite, though a competitor of high-speed steels, is not within the scope of our
subject, but a recent analysis is given of a sample for such interest as it may have
in relation to cutting steels.

[2601

CHROMIUM-VANADIUM STEEL

ANALYSIS OF STELLITE
Constituent Per cent

Cobalt 59.50

Chromium 10.77

Molybdenum 22.50

Carbon 87

Silicon 77

Manganese 2.04

Sulphur. . . . 084

Phosphorus .- 040

Iron 3.11

Tungsten 0

Nickel.. 0

99.684

CHROMIUM-VANADIUM STEELS

Chromium-vanadium steels, usually called in the trade chrome-vanadium steels,
are the latest development in structural alloy steels that have gained an extensive
market. These steels are almost all made in the open-hearth furnace, the chromium
and vanadium alloys being added shortly before casting.

The hot working of chrome-vanadium steels presents no especial difficulties. The
total amount of alloying elements is not large in the commercial grades, and the steel
acts in the press and rolls much like simple steels with somewhat higher carbon contents.

Chrome-vanadium steels are in their physical properties much like chrome-nickel
steels, but they have a greater contraction of area for a given elastic limit than the
latter.

This higher contraction of area in the pulling test seems in some way to be asso-
ciated with machinability, as chrome-vanadium steel with an elastic limit of 150,000
pounds per square inch may be machined rapidly, whereas a chrome-nickel steel having
such an elastic limit would quickly dull the cutting tool if cut at the same speed.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF CHROME-VANADIUM STEELS IN NATURAL STATE

COMPOSITION

TENSILE PROPERTIES

Sample

No.

C

Mn

Si

s

p

V

Cr

Tensile
Strength

Elastic
Limit

Con-
traction
of Area

Elonga-
tion in
2 Ins.

Ball
Hard-
ness

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

1

0.57

0.84

0.27

0.03

0.01

0.31

1.36

98,000

75,750

68.5

28.1

175

2

.46

.48

.20

.02

.01

.14

1.17

82,250

52,500

71.0

34.0

160

3.....

.18

.32

.18

.02

.01

.20

.74

60,500

42,900

75.0

43.0

133

4

.30

.65

.10

.04

.04

.18

.90

45,000

69.0

35.0

°155

° Annealed.

The greater part of the chrome- vanadium steels made goes into automobiles. They
are preferred by some because of their greater freedom from surface imperfections,
notably seams, which steels containing nickel are prone to have if the ingots are at
all unsound. Vanadium is a deoxidizer, whereas nickel is not, so that vanadium, when
present, favors quality, and the smaller proportion required enables it to compete
with nickel even though its cost is five or six times as great.

Chrome-vanadium steels are nearly always used in the heat-treated condition, but
there are exceptions even in automobiles, as some frames, forgings, and shafts are
made of the steel in its natural state. When heat treated these steels are both hardened
and drawn at slightly higher temperatures than are used with nickel-chromium steels

[261]

CHROMIUM- VANADIUM STEEL

to get similar properties. These temperatures are given in the table of heat-treated
chrome-vanadium steels..

Some chrome-vanadium steel is said to be used in armor plate of medium thickness
(4 inches), which is not face-hardened but has high properties imparted by heat treat-
ment. Some such steel is used in high-duty forgings and structural parts of machines.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF CHROME- VANADIUM STEELS IN HEAT-TREATED STATE

COMPOSITION

TENSILE PROPERTIES

6

fc

"ft

Con-

Elon-

1

C

Mn

Si

S

P

Cr

V

Tensile
Strength

Elastic
Limit

trac-
tion
of

ga-
tion
in 2

BaH
Hard-
ness

Treatment °

Area

Ins.

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

1

0.30

0.65

0.10

0.04

0.04

0.90

0.18

101,000

64

20

255

899° W; 704° A.

2

.30

.65

.10

.04

.04

.90

.18

180,400

43

10

430

899° W; 454° A.

3

.30

.65

.10

.04

.04

.90

.18

200,000

52

10

429

899° W; 315° A.

4

.28

.45

.26

.02

.01

1.00

.18

96,500

79,000

75

34

187

899° O; 676° A.

5

.40

.75

.26

.01

.01

1.00

.17

148,000

120,000

53

20

270

926° O; 676° A.

6

.40

.75

.26

.01

.01

1.00

.17

221,000

200,000

48

11

435

926° O; 426° A.

7

.57

.37

.20

.02

.01

.69

.22

188,200

177,500

57

14

330

; 426° A.

8

1.06

.36

.22

.02

.02

.95

.11

135,550

126,750

49

21

248

; 648° A.

9

.41

.49

.12

.03

.03

1.09

.11

86,900

77,250

70

33

152

;754°A.

10

.25

.50

.10

.03

.02

.95

.75

131,700

113,100

56

18

° The first temperature given for each sample is that at which the steel .was quenched, and the second
the drawing temperature; W, O, and A represent water, oil, and air, the three cooling media used.
Samples 8, 9, and 10 were hardened before being drawn at the temperatures given.

EXAMPLE OF SATISFACTORY USE OF CHROME- VANADIUM STEEL

A hydroelectric plant had shafts 6£ inches in diameter, which transmitted 3,000
kilowatts each at 480 revolutions per minute, and all broke in service. The shafts
were made of untreated nickel steel having an elastic limit of about 40,000 pounds
per square inch. To make stronger shafts by increasing their size not being practicable,
other shafts were made under the specification that the elastic limit of the steel should
be at least 105,000 pounds per square inch, its contraction of area 40%, and its ball
hardness uniform within 5%. Shafts to meet such qualifications were made of chro-
mium-vanadium steel containing 0.33% C, 0.54% Mn, 0.022% P, 0.030% S, 0.89% Cr,
and 0.24% V. The ingot, which was 30 by 25 inches in section, was rolled to an 18 by
18 inch bloom or billet, and the shafts were forged therefrom. The shafts were heat-
treated, and a test from one of them, about the average of all those made, pulled at
Watertown Arsenal on a 2-inch by 0.505 diameter section, gave results as follows:

RESULTS OF TESTS OF HEAT-TREATED CHROME-VANADIUM STEEL SHAFT

Elastic
Limit

Tensile
Strength

Elonga-
tion

Contrac-
tion

Ball
Hardness

Pounds
105,260

Pounds
127,310

Per Cent
15

Per Cent
46.2

278

283

278

These shafts met the specifications and proved satisfactory in service.

[262]

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS

With few exceptions all alloy steels are heat treated for use, the treatment devel-
oping in them the high physical properties they are capable of possessing. No general
law regarding the effects of heat treatment of alloy steels can be laid down. Some
steels when quenched from a high heat are hardened and others are softened, the latter
being generally those with the higher contents of certain of the alloying elements.
In respect to the effects of heat treatment each steel is considered by itself.

For making small parts that must be true and well finished the structural alloy
steels are generally heat-treated before they are machined, and this requirement pre-
vents the use in such parts of steel of the highest strength attainable because steel
having that strength is not commercially machinable. Generally speaking, any part
that is to have an elastic limit of more than 100,000 pounds per square inch must be
treated after having been machined, not before, because most steels having a higher
elastic limit than that are too hard to allow machining by commercial processes, though
chromium-vanadium steels with an elastic limit of 150,000 pounds per square inch
are claimed to be machinable, that is, they may be cut with high-speed steels at a
profitable rate. An elastic limit of 100,000 pounds or more per square inch can be
imparted to steel only by heat treatment, as no untreated steel of a commercial grade
will have so high a limit.

The modulus of elasticity of many, if not all, structural alloy steels in common
with other steels is not changed much by heat treatment or variations in composition,
and is usually between 28,000,000 and 30,000,000 pounds per square inch; that is,
the modulus of the steel in its annealed, hardened, and tempered condition remains
practically unchanged. The following table was compiled from data given by Landau:0

MODULI OF ELASTICITY OP SOME ALLOY STEELS

C

IOMPOSITIO

* OP STEE.

L

c

Si

Mn

P

s

Cr

Ni

V

Modulus

0.50

0.13

0.82

0.01

0.02

1.25

;*

0.14

29,240,000

.47

1.83

.70

.01

.01

28950000

.48

.16

.44

.01

.01

.98

2.02

28,840,000

.30

.19

.64

.01

.01

....

3.25

.18

28,260,000

.25

.21

.74

.01

.01

....

3.55

....

28,170,000

.24

.21

.46

.01

.02

.96

2.02

....

28,200,000

.25

.16

.50

.01

1.05

.16

30,158,000

Because of the unchangeability of the modulus of elasticity the stiffness or rigidity
of steel within the elastic limit is not changed either by heat treatment or the presence
of any of the alloying elements, except perhaps manganese in manganese steel and
nickel in high-nickel steels.

Heat treatment does increase the elasticity, however, so that a piece of heat-treated
steel may return to its original form after having endured a stress that would have
permanently deformed it in its untreated condition; that is, it is given some of the
springiness of heat-treated springs.

HEAT TREATMENT OF HIGH-SPEED TOOLS

The heat treatment given to high-speed steels for the commoner uses, as lathe and
planer tools, has generally been simplified to heating to incipient fusion and quenching

« Landau, David, Influences affecting the fundamental deflection of leaf springs: Bull. Soc. Automobile
Eng., vol. 5, March, 1914, p. 430.

[263]

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

in oil. Cooling by an air blast and double treatment, which were formerly recom-
mended, are now not common, except that a second (drawing) heating is given to
milling cutters and similar tools, the temperature imparted to the tool depending
on the material to be cut.

The treatment is usually done by the blacksmith who heats the tool in his forge
fire and then immerses it in a tank containing enough oil so that its temperature does
not rise materially. Ten gallons of oil is a common quantity to use when the size
and number of the tools are moderate, as hi most shops. The fire is a deep compact
coal fire, the coal in the center where the tool is heated being pretty thoroughly coked,
that is, most of its volatile matter distilled out. This manner of heating has the advan-
tage that free oxygen does not get at the tool to oxidize it, but its environment is non-
oxidizing or even reducing, owing to the presence of an excess of burning carbon sur-
rounding the tool. Any flame is more or less oxidizing, at least unless heavily charged
with smoke or free carbon, and a piece of steel heated directly by a flame as in the
ordinary heating chamber of a furnace is likely to be somewhat oxidized on its surface,
the depth to which the oxygen penetrates varying according to the conditions, particu-
larly the temperature, the access of air, and the length of time. Heating in a muffle
will also result in oxidizing the steel unless extraordinary precautions are taken to
keep out oxygen or to consume all that enters. The temperature of quenching, usually
about 1,260° C. (2,300° F.), is determined by the fusion of the scale and its visible
collection into drops or beads on the surface of the tool.

Quenching is done by quickly plunging the heated tool into the oil as soon as it
has reached the desired temperature and moving it about in the oil until cold. Cooling
in oil is thought by some to give a better tool than cooling in the air blast, one reason
seemingly being the protection of the steel from free oxygen while it is hot enough
to be oxidized thereby. The oxygen of the air blast forms a scale of oxide on the hot
steel and the oxygen probably penetrates the metal below the scale to some extent,
injuring the quality as deep as it goes. A tool on its second grinding, when the oxi-
dized metal is removed, may then give better service than on the first, unless the first
grinding has for that reason been heavy enough to remove the oxidized metal.

In some shops, however, the original treatment recommended by Taylor and White
is given, the cutting edge of the tool being heated to incipient fusion and then im-
mersed in a bath of melted lead at about 565° C. (1,050° F.). The heating is done
in a small furnace over a deep coke fire, blown by an air blast, so that the environ-
ment of the tool while being heated is substantially non-oxidizing. Flames of carbonic
oxide play out of the openings through which the tools are inserted, indicating little,
if any, free oxygen within. In these shops, however, milling cutters and other tools
that are machined to a particular form are treated by heating them to a slightly lower
temperature, in order not to damage the cutting edges, and then plunging them into
cold oil.

When cooled to the temperature of the lead it is taken out and placed in an air
blast to complete the cooling. Some tools desired to be especially tough so as not
to break in service are given a second heating to 565° C. and then cooled in the open
air or air blast if saving time is important.

Rapid steel when well annealed will bend considerably without breaking, even
in as large a section as 2| by 1J inches, the bending being edgewise, as in a tool
at work.

Whether a rapid steel is made harder by the heat treatment given it depends some-
what on the condition of the bar before treatment. If it has previously been annealed,
the treatment hardens it, whereas heat treatment may not harden a piece in the nat-
ural state. Taylor found that some tools having useful red-hardness could be filed
rather readily. Edwards, on the other hand, found treated high-speed steels to be
exceedingly hard — as hard as any steel could be made by quenching. Gledhill found
that high-speed steel was good for turning chilled rolls, which are extremely hard and
require the hardest kind of tool to cut them.

The hardness of the steel when cold is not the determining factor of usefulness
in any case. It is the hardness when heated under conditions of work.

The cutting edge of a rapid-steel tool at work is probably never as hot as the metal

[264]

THEORY OF HIGH-SPEED STEEL

just back of it, where the heating caused by the friction of the chip, as it is deflected
and rubs hard on the tool, is most intense. The edge itself is kept relatively cool by
the cold metal flowing upon it.

THEORY OF HIGH-SPEED STEELS

The researches of Carpenter and Edwards on the heating and cooling of high-speed
steels have shown that such steels have an extraordinary stability of composition after
they have been heated to 1,200° C. (2,192° F.) or more, and that a second heating
of 550° C. (1,022° F.) has no softening or drawing effect. It seems fairly evident
that red-hardness depends on or is the natural result of these facts.

At a temperature higher than 1,200° C. (2,192° F.) a double carbide of chromium
and tungsten is formed, which persists largely even when the steel is cooled slowly as
in the open air, and more so when cooling is accelerated. This double carbide imparts
to the steel a high degree of hardness and is stable at all temperatures up to 550° C.
(1,022° F.) or somewhat higher. At 550° C. the steel has a low red color visible in the
dark.

If the above theory be true, then at a temperature of 1,200° C. (2,192° F.) the chro-
mium and tungsten must have a stronger affinity for carbon than iron has, whereas
at lower temperatures, say from around 930° C. down to the critical point, the affinity
of carbon for iron is slightly stronger than that of either chromium or tungsten or
both, and the carbon then exists who.lly or in part as carbide of iron, or a complex
carbide of iron with one or both of the other elements.

Carbide of iron, or hardening carbon which causes the hard condition of iron in
simple steel that has been quenched from a temperature higher than the critical point,
is unstable at even slight elevations of temperature above atmospheric temperature,
its unstableness increasing with the degree of heat, though not being proportional
thereto. Boynton has shown that between 400° C. (752° F.) and 500° C. (952° F.)
the amount of change and consequent softening is much greater than at other tem-
peratures, either lower or higher.

The proportion of carbon in rapid steel should perhaps be only as much as will
combine with the chromium and tungsten at 1,200° C. (2,192° F.) and leave none to
exist as unstable hardening carbon of hardened simple steel.

Testing. — A reliable and inexpensive method of quickly testing high-speed steels
to show their value is much needed, as Taylor has explained. Herbert and Edwards
have used and recommended machines and methods that lessen the time and trouble
of testing, but no test seems to take the place of a trial at actual work because the
performance of a tool in one line of work with certain conditions may not be foretold
positively by its performance in another with different conditions. Among the reasons
are that (1) sometimes greater durability is obtained by changing, that is, increasing
or lessening, the speed of the cut, thus changing also the temperature of the tool, or
(2) a given tool when used at its best speed may be excellent for cutting a certain ma-
terial, yet prove inferior to another tool for cutting a different material. Thus if se-
lected as the best by trial for cutting a 0.20% carbon steel it may be surpassed by'
others in cutting a 0.70% carbon steel.

Physical tests of rapid steels at different temperatures up to 800° C. (1,472° F.)
are needed to show the effect of heat on the physical properties of those steels. New
uses would probably be suggested by the results of such a series of tests.

A rapid-steel tool does not finish the piece being cut as nicely as does a simple steel
tool, as the rapid steel does not keep a fine edge with a light cut and slow speed of, say,
20 feet per minute. The durability of such a tool taking a light cut is much greater
at a higher cutting speed, at which the tool is hotter, showing that the strength or the
toughness of the steel or both are augmented by the higher temperature. Unhardened
simple steels with 0.6 to 0.7% carbon get stronger but less ductile with a rise of tem-
perature up to about 300° C. (572° F.). If, as the temperature rises, high-speed steels
get stronger without loss of ductility but perhaps with an increase, within limits of
course, a physical reason for their great durability is provided.

In 1910, Herbert announced the discovery that any rapid-steel tool and some simple

[265]

THEORY OF HIGH-SPEED STEEL

steel tools may have two rather widely separated cutting speeds at which the tool
is more durable than at speeds above, below, or between. Thus out of many cases
described, one tool cooled in an air jet had nearly equal maximum durability at two
speeds — 50 and 90 feet per minute, whereas at 65 feet the durability was less than
one-half of that at either of the other speeds. This discovery no doubt accounts for
some of the anomalies encountered in tool steels as well as other steels, the properties
or performances of which are not what would be expected from their composition and
other attributes. Thus a tool may be condemned when an increase of its cutting
speed would cause it to give satisfactory service and durability.

Rapid steel will do its best cutting when hot. A desirable practice followed in
some shops, is to heat a tool to near redness before putting it to work.

[266]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

Covering Structural Steel, Reinforcement Steel for Concrete, Boiler Plating, Hull
Plating, Wrought Iron, Steel Castings, Steel Forgings, Cast-iron and Malleable

Castings.

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Mill Orders. — The contractor shall furnish the Bureau of Yards and Docks,
Navy Department, with complete copies of mill orders in triplicate. When so specified,
the contractor shall arrange with the mill that no material shall be made or rolled until
the inspection is arranged.

2. Steel shall be made by the open-hearth process.

3. Chemical qualities and physical properties shall conform to the following table:

ELEMENTS CONSIDERED

Phosphorus,
Maximum

Elongation

Sul-

Maximum

Basic

(per
Cent)

Acid

(per
Cent)

phur,

Maxi-
mum

(SS)

Tensile
Strength
(Pounds
perSauare

Mini-
mum

Cent
in 8

Mini-
mum

Cent
in 2

Character of
Fracture

Cold Bends Without
Fracture

Ins.

Ins.

Plates, shapes,
and bars

0.04
.04

0.06
.04

0.05
.04

/ 55,000
1 65,000
/ 46,000-
\ 54,000

}-

J30

••

Silky....!
Do. j

180° flat without
fracture on out-
side of bend.

Rivet steel

Steel castings. . .

.05

.08

.05

1 65, 000

15

Silky or fine

90° d = 3t.

granular.

Wrought iron

148,000

15

90 per cent

fibrous

135° d = 2t.

Steel forgings . . .

.04

.06

.05

/ 60,000-
170,000

}20

Silky.... f

180° around a bar
of the same diam-

1

eter.

Reinforcement

,_

steel for con-

crete:
Medium

.04
.04

.06
.06

.05
.05

f 55,000-
165,000
/ 80,000-
\ 90,000

1"

}io

• •

Do.
Dov |

Do.
135° around a bar
of the same diam-
eter.

High carbon. .

Cast iron . . .

1 18,000

Gray cranu-

ular.

(

180° flat on itself

Hull plating ....

.04

.06

.04

/ 55,000-
\ 65,000

}25

Silky.... 1

without fracture
on outside of bent

Boiler plating.. .

.04

.06

.04

/ 55,000-
\ 65,000

}25

••

I
Do.

portion.
Do.

* Minimum.

Rivet steel, when nicked slightly on one side and bent around a bar of the same
diameter as the rivet rod, shall give a uniform fracture. Wrought iron, when nicked
all around and bent, shall show a fracture at least 90 per cent of which is fibrous.

4. Allowable Variation in Physical Properties. — If first test shows maximum strength
for plates, shapes, bars, or rivet steel to' be outside of prescribed limits, two additional
tests shall be made from material of the same gauge, and if both comply with the specified
requirements the material will be accepted.

[267]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

5. Allowable Variation in Weight. — A variation of more than 2£ per cent from
the specified cross-section or weight of any piece of rolled steel shall be sufficient cause
for rejection, except in case of sheared plates, which shall be governed by the following
permissible variations applying to single plates : Plates will be accepted if they measure
not more than 0.01 inch below the ordered thickness; an excess over the nominal weight,
corresponding to the dimensions as shown in the following table*:

WIDTH c

F PLATE

Thickness Ordered

Nominal
Weights

Up to 75
Inches

75
Inches
and Up
to 100
Inches

100
Inches
and Up
to 115
Inches

Over 115
Inches

j-inch

Pounds
10 20

Per Ct.
10

Per Ct.
14

Per Ci.

1C

PerCL

i^r-inch. .

12 75

8

12

16

f -inch

15 30

7

10

13

17

i^-inch

17 85

6

8

10

13

|-inch

20 40

5

7

9

12

A-inch

22 95

4i

fit

81

11

f-inch. . . .-•; . .

25 50

4

6

°2

8

10

Over f-inch

31

5

Qi

9

6. Finish. — Finished material shall be free from injurious seams, flaws, cracks,
defective edges, or other defects and have a smooth, uniform, and workmanlike finish.
Plates 36 inches in width and under shall have rolled edges unless otherwise specified
by the bureau.

7. Steel Castings. — All steel castings shall be true to drawing and shall be annealed
to remove all internal stresses. Castings shall be free from cold shuts, sand holes,
blow-holes, and any other defects which would tend to make them unsuitable for the
service contemplated.

8. Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron shall be double-rolled, tough, fibrous, uniform
in character, entirely free from steel scrap, thoroughly welded in rolling, and free from
surface defects.

9. Malleable Castings. — Castings shall be true to drawing, free from blemishes,
scale, or shrinkage cracks. They shall be Well decarbonized without being burned or
overheated. Test specimens shall bend 90° around three times their least diameter
without fracture. In case of important castings, tension tests shall be furnished when
required.

10. Steel Forgings. — Fo gings shall be free from cracks, flaws, seams, or other
injurious imperfections, and shall conform to dimensions shown on drawings and be
made and finished in a workmanlike manner.

11. Cast Iron. — Cast iron shall be of tough, gray iron, free from cold shuts and blow-
holes. A hammer blow on a sharp edge of the casting shall produce an indentation
without flaking the metal.

12. Stamping. — Every finished piece of steel shall have the melt number and the
name of the manufacturer stamped or rolled upon it. Steel and pins for rollers shall
be stamped on the end. Rivet and lattice steel and other small parts may be bundled
with the above marks on an attached metal tag.

13. Rules Governing Physical Tests. — (a) Specimens for tensile and bending tests
for plates, shapes, and bars shall be cut from the finished product, and shall have both
faces rolled and both edges milled to the form shown by Fig. 1, or have both edges
parallel throughout; or they may be turned to a diameter of f inch for a length of at
least 9 inches, with enlarged ends.

(b) Test specimens of rivet steel shall be of the full size of the rod.

[268]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

(c) For pins and rollers test specimens shall be cut from the finished bar, in such a
manner that the center of the specimen will be one-fourth of the diameter from the
surface of the bar. The specimens for tensile tests shall be turned to the form shown by
Fig. 2. The specimens for bending tests shall be 1 inch by \ inch in section. Specimens
taken from pins and rollers over \\ inches in diameter shall be taken in such a manner
that the center of the specimen shall be one-fourth of the diameter of the bar from the
surface. For bars under \\ inches in diameter, the specimen shall be taken from as
near the surface as possible.

(d) Specimens representing steel castings shall be made from coupons which are
molded, cast, and annealed as integral parts of the castings and which are not cut from
the castings until after the completion of the annealing process.

Individual coupon tests and reports will be made for each heat unless otherwise
elsewhere specified.

14. Tests and Test Reports. — -Chemical determinations of the percentages of carbon,
phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese shall be made by the manufacturer and certified
copies in triplicate of such analysis shall be furnished the inspector (or the "Bureau of
Yards and Docks in case no inspector has been detailed).

The manufacturer shall also make at least one set of physical tests from each melt
of steel and each lot of iron as rolled or cast. In case steel differing f inch and more in
thickness is rolled from one melt, a test shall be made from the thickest and thinnest
material rolled. Each set of tests will include the determination of maximum tensile
strength, elongation, character of fracture, cold bending, and yield point as indicated
by drop of beam.

In case the Government may desire check analyses at any time, such analyses shall
be made at the expense of the Government, and an excess of 25 per cent will be allowed
for such results, as compared with the limits prescribed in the table.

15. Mill Tests and Inspections. — Mill analyses, tests, inspections, and reports shall
be made entirely by the manufacturer, or by the manufacturer subject to the super-
vision and direction of a Government inspector, as may be elected by the Bureau of
Yards and Docks.

The contractor shall ascertain from the Bureau of Yards and Docks if the presence
of a Government inspector is desired and arrange with the mill accordingly.

The manufacturer, at his own expense, shall furnish all facilities for inspecting and
testing the weight and quality of all material at place of manufacture, and shall furnish
suitable laboratory and testing machines and prepare samples and specimens for testing.

The inspector shall have free access at all times to all parts of the mill where material
to be inspected by him is being manufactured or tested.

Analyses, tests, and inspections shall be made in accordance with recognized standard
methods.

The manufacturer shall prepare and furnish the inspector, in triplicate (or the
Bureau of Yards and Docks in case no inspector has been detailed), with complete
certified copies of reports of tests. The manufacturer shall guarantee and be held
responsible for the accuracy of all analyses, tests, inspections, and reports.

16. Defective Material. — Material which, subsequent to the prescribed tests at the
mills and its acceptance there, develops weak spots, brittleness, cracks, or other imper-
fections, or is found to have injurious defects, will be rejected and shall be replaced by
the manufacturer at his own epqpense.

17. Shipping Invoices. — Complete copies, in triplicate, of shipping invoices for each
shipment shall be furnished the inspector, or be forwarded to the Bureau of Yards and
Docks in case there has been no inspector detailed.

SHOPWORK

18. Shop Orders. — The contractor shall furnish the Bureau of Yards and Docks
with complete copies of the shop orders, in triplicate, and shall also notify the bureau
at least 10 days before shopwork is to be commenced, in order that proper arrangements
may be made for shop inspection.

19. General Requirements. — All members forming a structure shall be built in

[269]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

accordance with approved drawings. Workmanship and finish shall be equal to the
best practice in modern bridge work.

No material less than TS inch in thickness shall be used, except for fillers, beams,
and channels, unless specifically required by contract.

Lattice bars shall have neatly rounded ends, unless otherwise specified.

Stiff eners shall fit neatly between flanges of girders, and where tight fits are called
for the end of stiffener shall be faced and be brought to a true contact bearing with
flange angles.

Web splice, plates, and fillers under stiffeners shall be cut to fit within |- inch of

The clearance between ends of spliced web plates shall not exceed £ inch.

Finished members shall be free from twists, bends, of open joints.

Compression joints, depending upon contact bearing, shall have surfaces truly
faced, so as to have full contact bearing when perfectly aligned and riveted up com-
plete. All faces and surfaces shall be truly planed when so required by the contract.

The abutting ends and the bases of all columns shall be milled.

Pinholes shall be bored after members are riveted; they shall be true to gauge,
smooth, straight, at right angles to the axis of the member, parallel to each other, and
unless otherwise specified shall be accurately spaced to within -^ inch.

Pins and rollers shall be accurately turned to gauge, and shall be straight, smooth,
and entirely free from flaws. Diameter of pinholes shall not exceed diameter of pins
by more than ^ inch. Screw threads shall make tight fits in the nuts and shall be
United States standard, except above the diameter of If inches, when they shall be
made with six threads per inch.

Steel, except in minor details, which has been partially heated, shall be annealed.

Welds in steel will not be allowed.

Expansion bedplates shall be planed, true and smooth. Cast wall plates shall be
planed on top. Cut of planing tool shall correspond with the direction of the expansion.

Pins, nuts, bolts, rivets, and other small details shall be boxed or crated. The
weight of every piece and vox shall be marked on it in plain figures. In the case of
boxed material both gross and net weight shall be marked.

20. Preparation of Material Before Assembling. — Material shall be thoroughly
straightened in the shop by methods which will not injure it, and be cleaned of rust
and dirt, if such exist, before being laid off o*r worked in any way.

Shearing shall be neatly done, and all portions of the work which will be exposed
to view after completion shall be neatly finished.

Sheared edges of material over f inch in thickness shall be planed to a depth of
ik inch.

Surfaces in contact after assembling shall be painted before being assembled.

21. Rivets, Rivet Holes, Riveting, and Bolts. — Size of rivets as designated on plans
shall be understood, to mean the actual size of the cold rivet before heating.

Pitch of rivets shall not be less than three times the diameter of the rivet, nor greater
than 6 inches or 16 times the thickness of the thinnest outside section. All punching
shall be accurately done. Drifting to enlarge unfair holes will not be allowed. If the
'holes must be enlarged to admit the rivet, they shall be reamed. Poor matching up of
holes will be cause for rejection.

When general reaming is not required the diameter of the punch shall not be more
than t*& inch greater than the diameter of the rivet, nor the diameter of the die more than
| inch greater than the diameter of the punch. Material more than £ inch thick shall
be subpunched and reamed, or drilled from the solid. Riveted members shall have
all parts well pinned up and firmly drawn together with bolts before riveting is com-
menced. Rivets shall be given by pressure tools whenever possible, and pneumatic
hammers shall be used in preference to hand driving.

Completed rivets shall look neat and finished, with heads of approved shape, full,
and of equal size. They shall be central on shank and grip the assembled pieces firmly.
Recupping and calking will not be allowed. Loose, burned, or otherwise defective
rivets shall be cut out and replaced. In cutting out rivets great pare shall be taken not
to injure the adjacent metal. If necessary, they shall be drilled out.

[270]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

Whenever bolts are used in place of rivets which transmit shear or when used in
compression members, the holes shall be reamed parallel and the bolts turned to a
driving fit. A washer not less than & inch thick shall be used under nut.

22. Reamed Work. — When reaming is required by the contract, the punch
used shall have a diameter not less than & inch smaller than the nominal diameter
of the rivet. Reaming shall be done after the pieces forming one built member are
assembled and firmly bolted together, using twist drills having diameter & inch
larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet. Outside burrs on reamed holes shall
be removed.

23. Eye-bars. — Eye-bars shall be straight and true to size, and shall be free from
twists, folds in the neck or head, or any other defect. Heads shall be made by upsetting,
rolling, or forging. Welding will not be allowed. The form of heads will be determined
by dies in use at the works where the eye-bars are made, if satisfactory to the inspector;
but the manufacturer shall guarantee the bars to break in the body when tested to
rupture. The thickness of head and neck shall not vary more than & inch from that
specified.

Before boring, each eye-bar shall be properly annealed and carefully straightened.
Pinholes shall be in the center line of bars and in the center of the heads. Bars of
the same length shall be bored so accurately that, when placed together, pins ^ inch
smaller in diameter than the pinholes can be passed through the holes at both ends of
the bars at the same time without forcing.

24. Shop Paint and Painting. — All steel work, except reinforcement steel for con-
crete, shall be given one coat of paint before leaving the shop.

It shall be cleaned of all moisture, scale, rust, grease, dirt, chips, and other foreign
matter before being painted.

Surfaces coming in contact shall be cleaned and given one coat of paint on each
surface before assembling.

Parts not accessible for painting after erection, but not in riveted contact, shall
be given a second coat of. paint at the shop. The first coat must be dry before the
second coat is applied.

No painting shall be done in wet or freezing weather except under cover.

Machine-finished surfaces shall be coated with white lead and tallow before being
exposed to the weather.

Paint for shop coats shall be composed of red lead, white zinc, raw Unseed oil, and
turpentine Japan drier, mixed in proportions of 100 pounds of lead, 20 pounds of zinc,
5 gallons of oil, and 3f pints of drier.

Paint shall be freshly mixed in small quantities and be well stirred before using.

The Navy standard specifications for paint material shall be adhered to so far as
applicable.

25. Shop Inspection. — The manufacturer shall furnish all facilities for inspecting
and testing the weight and quality of workmanship at the shop where material is
manufactured.

Shop inspection will be made by an inspector assigned by the Bureau of Yards and
Docks, unless such inspection shall not be considered warranted by the bureau because
of the location, magnitude, or the character of the work, in which case inspection for
workmanship will be made by the officer in charge at the place of erection.

The inspector shall have full access at all times to all parts of the shop where material
under his inspection is being manufactured.

The inspector may stamp each piece which is accepted with a private mark.

It shall be distinctly understood that shop inspection shall not operate in any manner
to relieve the manufacturer from full responsibility for the accuracy and character of
the work in all of its details, and that errors or faults which may be discovered after
delivery or during erection shall be satisfactorily corrected by the manufacturer in
accordance with the requirements of the contract and without any increase in the
contract price.

26. Loading and Shipping Invoices. — Material shall be so prepared for shipment
and be so loaded that it will suffer no distortion or damage during transportation.
Complete copies of shipping invoices for each shipment in triplicate shall be furnished

[271]

MILL AND FOUNDRY PRODUCTS

the inspector or be forwarded to the Bureau of Yards and Docks in case there has been
no inspector detailed.

FIELD WORK

27. Unloading, Storing, and Handling. — Material shall be unloaded, stored, and
handled in such manner and with such appliances and care as to prevent distortion and
injury of the members. Material which is injured shall be replaced if necessary, as
may be required by the officer in charge, and at the expense of the contractor.

28. Erecting. — All field connections shall be riveted. The various members form-
ing part of a completed frame or structure after being assembled shall be accurately
aligned and adjusted before riveting is begun. All requirements specified for shop-
work which are applicable shall apply to field work.

29. Painting Steel Work After Erection.— Steel for reinforcing concrete shall not
be painted.

Surfaces which are to remain in free contact with air, but which are to be covered
in or incased by brickwork, fireproofing, or framing, shall be given two coats of paint.

All surfaces which are to remain exposed upon the completion of the structure,
both exterior and interior, shall be given two coats of paint.

Surfaces which have been chafed or imperfectly covered shall be properly retouched
and allowed to dry before applying any final coat of paint.

Freshly painted surfaces shall be allowed to dry before being enclosed.

After erection, the heads of field rivets and parts where the paint has been rubbed
off in transportation or during erection shall be repainted. The painting of the field
rivet heads shall be done promptly after their acceptance.. The rivets shall be cleaned
of all mill scale before painting.

Both coats of paint used for finishing exposed surfaces shall be composed of white
lead, white zinc not greater than 50 per cent, and boiled linseed oil, which conform
to the requirements of the latest specifications for the same issued by the Navy Depart-
ment, mixed in proportions and colored to the satisfaction of the officer in charge.

Paint used for enclosed surfaces shall be the same as required for shop coat.

Painting shall be done only at such times as may be approved by the officer in
charge and subject to the same restrictions as to weather and preparation of surfaces
as specified for shop coats.

Succeeding coats of paint shall be mixed so as to vary somewhat in color in order
that there may be no confusion as to the surfaces which have been painted.

30. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete. — Steel shall be stored under shelter. It
shall be cleaned of all loose scale, oil, grease, and dirt before being embedded and shall
be secured in place to the satisfaction of the officer in charge.

[272

SPECIAL TREATMENT STEEL PLATES

SPECIAL-TREATMENT STEEL PLATES FOR PROTECTIVE HULL

PLATING

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Test. — "Specifications for the Inspection of Steel and Iron Material
(General Specifications, Appendix I)," issued by the Navy Department (C. and R.),
June, 1912, form a part of these specifications and must be complied with in all respects.

2. Requirements for Protective Deck Plates. — Plates for protective decks and for
similar uses shall be furnished in accordance with the following requirements.

3. Heat Treatment. — All tests are to be made after heat treatment.

4. Statement as to Heat Temperature. — The manufacturer shall furnish a state-
ment showing to what temperature each plate may be subjected in working without
risk of diminishing its ballistic qualities.

5. Test Pieces. — (a) WHEN ROLLED. — From each plate there shall be taken two
specimens cut in the direction of rolling — one for tensile and one for bending. Location
of the test pieces shall be determined by the inspector, but shall not be such as to inter-
fere with cutting the plate to its proper size.

(b) WHEN FORGED. — From each plate there shall be taken three specimens cut
in a longitudinal direction, two of these to be for tensile tests and one for bending.
One tensile test specimen shall be taken from each end of the plate.
Tensile specimens shall be standard 2-inch type.
Bending test specimens shall be \ inch square.

6. Tensile Test. — The tensile test for plates under 120 pounds shall show a yield
point of not less than 105,000 pounds per square inch; an ultimate tensile strength
not less than 120,000 pounds per square inch, and an elongation in 2 inches of not less
than 17 per cent. For plates 120 pounds and above, the tensile test shall show a yield
point of not less than 95,000 pounds per square inch, an ultimate tensile strength not
less than 112,000 pounds per square inch,, an elongation in 2 inches of not less than
20 per cent.

7. Bending Test. — The specimens for bending test shall be bent cold through an
angle of 180° over a diameter equal to the thickness of the specimen without fracture.

8. Chemical Analysis. — The chemical composition shall be determined from time
to tune, and shall show reasonable uniformity.

9. Ballistic Tests. — The inspector shall select at least one plate for each 250 tons
of material manufactured, the plates to be selected with a view to representing the
various gauges that may be ordered, and these shall be subjected to ballistic test at
the Naval Proving Ground, Indian Head, Md. Where small or miscellaneous orders
for protective material are involved, one plate may be selected or ballistic test waived at
the option of the bureau. Such plates as may be required for ballistic test shall be
delivered at the Proving Ground without expense to the Government, -and these plates
shall become the property of the Government if they pass the test. Plates that fail
remain the property of the manufacturer.

Test plates must be at least 54 inches wide, and will be attacked at the angle specified
below. They wiU be supported on edge by clamps securing them to two horizontal
backing pieces whose nearest edges will not be less than 36 inches apart.

10. Shell Tests. — One round of uncapped shell will be fired at each plate using the
following caliber and estimate striking velocity of projectile:

Weight
of Plate
per Square
Foot

Caliber

Estimated
Striking
Velocity

Angle
of
Attack

Weight
of Plate
per Square
Foot

Caliber

Estimated
Striking
Velocity

Angle
of

Attack

Feet-

Feet-

Pounds

Inches

Seconds

Pounds

Inches

Seconds

40

6

1,330

9

120

8

2,020

15

60

6

1,910

9

160

12

1,490

15

80

8

1,695

9

200

12

1,875

15

100

8

2,170

9

200

14

1,480

15

273

DRILL ROD STEEL

Plates up to and including those weighing 70 pounds per square foot will be tested
with a 6-inch projectile; plates above 70 pounds up to 140 pounds will be tested with an
8-inch projectile; plates above 140 pounds up to 200 pounds will be tested with a 12-inch
projectile.

For thickness of plates other than the above, the square of the test velocity is to be
obtained by interpolating between the squares of the velocities given in the table.

If the plate is not pierced and develops no through cracks, the test will be considered
satisfactory. If the plate is not pierced but develops a small amount of through cracks,
the Bureau of Construction and Repair will then consider the characteristics of the
plate, as shown by the several tests to which it has been subjected, and after such
consideration may accept or reject the material represented by the plate or make such
additional tests as may be deemed necessary.

For thickness of plates other than the above, the square of the test velocity is to
be obtained by interpolating between the squares of the velocities given in the table.

If the plate is not pierced and develops no through cracks, the test will be con-
sidered satisfactory. If the plate is not pierced but develops a small amount of through
cracks, the Bureau of Construction and Repair will then consider the characteristics
of the plate, as shown by the several tests to which it has been subjected and, after such
consideration, may accept or reject the material represented by the plate or make such
additional tests as may be deemed necessary.

11. Weight Tolerance. — Plates of special-treatment steel may be accepted:

(a) WHEN ROLLED, if they vary between the specified weights and 2 per cent above
or 3 per cent below the weights as estimated from the ordered dimensions.

(b) WHEN FORGED, if thickness at edges does not vary more than £ inch above or
£ inch below the nominal thickness ordered, and if thickness inside the edges is in no
place less than £ inch below or | inch above the thickness ordered. Edges whose upper
limits exceed the amount allowed shall be ground down to the nominal thickness ordered,
for a distance extending not less than 3 inches back from edges, when directed by the
inspector.

E3

DRILL ROD STEEL

NAVY DEPARTMENT

The material shall be known as "Drill Rod Steel," and shall conform to the following
analysis:

Per Cent Limit

Carbon 1.25 to 1.15

Chromium Optional.

Manganese 35 to .15

Phosphorus 015 to .00

Silicon..; 40 to .10

Sulphur 02 to .00

Vanadium Optional.

Iron Remainder.

The rods shall be smooth and polished, or unpolished, as specified, and cut to lengths
as ordered, and shall have smooth ends and be in strict accordance with the sizes called
for." A variation of more than 0.0005 inch on sizes -fa inch in diameter or less and 0.001
inch on sizes larger than ^ inch shall be sufficient cause for rejection of the rods showing
such variation. *

A sample rod will be selected at random from each of the sizes ordered, and after
proper treatment shall be given a thorough practical test, and must prove equal in all
respects to rods of similar analysis in Government stock.

[274J

HOT-ROLLED OR FORGED CARBON STEEL

HOT-ROLLED OR FORGED CARBON STEEL

(For Use by the Naval Gun Factory)

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — The general specifications for the inspection of material,
issued by the Navy Department, and the requisitions for the material shall form a part
of these specifications.

2. Method of Manufacture. — Carbon steel bought under this specification must be
manufactured by the crucible or open-hearth process, depending on which process is
specified in the requisition. This material shall be delivered in the annealed condition.

3. Slabs, Blooms, and Billets. — Contractors must satisfy the Government that all
slabs, blooms, billets, or other forgings of carbon steel have been rolled or forged from
ingots whose cross-section is at least four times that of the finished slab, bloom, or
billet, and from ingots from which a discard of at least 5 per cent of the total weight has
been taken from the bottom and 30 per cent from the top, if top poured; and 5 per cent
from the bottom and 20 per cent from the top, if the ingot has been bottom poured or
fluid compressed.

4. Surface Inspection. — All slabs, blooms, billets, or forgings of any kind bought
under this specification must be free from cracks, seams, slivers, flaws, or other injurious
imperfections and must have a workmanlike finish and must conform with the dimensions
given on the drawing or in the requisition, to within the tolerance specified.

5. Rejection of Defective Material. — Material may be rejected at the place of
delivery for defects which were not manifest upon original inspection, but develop
during the process of forging or machining. In such cases the manufacturer must
make good any material rejected. This liability on the part of the contractor to expire
six months after the delivery of the material in question, except in special cases where
certain material has been provisionally accepted with the understanding that its final
acceptance depends on certain conditions which have been mutually agreed upon by
the contractor and the Government.

6. Chemical Composition. — The various classes of carbon steel are to conform
to the chemical composition given in the following table:

IDENTIFICATION
(Class)

CARBON

MANGANESE

PHOS-
PHORUS

SULPHUR

Limits

Desired

Limits

Desired

Not to
Exceed —

Not to
Exceed—

C-10

Per Cent
1.05 to 0.90
.90 to .75
.65 to .55
.55 to .45
.45 to .35
.35 to .25
.25 to .15

.15 to .05

Per Ct.
0.95
.80
.60
.50
.40
.30
.20

.10

Per Cent
0.50 to 0.25
.50 to .25
.80 to .50
.80 to .50
.80 to .50
.80 to .50
.80 to .50
f Not to ex- \
\ceed 0.60 /

Per Ct.
0.35
.35
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65

Per Ct.
0.025
.025
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04

.04

Per Ct.
0.025
.025
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04

.04

C-8 .

C-6

C-5

C-4. .

C-3

C-2

C-l

[275]

COLD-ROLLED OR COLD-DRAWN STEEL

COLD-ROLLED OR COLD-DRAWN MACHINERY STEEL RODS

AND BARS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — The "General Specifications for Inspection of Steel and
Iron Material, General Specifications, Appendix I," issued by the Navy Department
(C. and R.), June, 1912, shall form a part of these specifications, and must be complied
with as to material, method of inspection, and all other requirements therein.

2. Physical and Chemical Requirements.— '(a) All material shall be free from in-
jurious defects and have a smooth and workmanlike finish.

(b) The physical and chemical requirements of oold-rolled or cold-drawn steel
shall be in accordance with the following table:

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength

Minimum
Elastic
Limit

Types
of Test
Pieces

Minimum
Elonga-
tion

Under | inch in diameter or thick-
ness

Pounds per
Square Inch

Per Ct.

Per Ct.

| inch to | inch inclusive, in diame-
ter or thickness

80000-110000

75 Ult

3

8 in 8"

Over % inch to 1| inches, inclusive,
in diameter or thickness

Over 1| inches in diameter or
thickness .

75,000-100,000
70,000- 90,000

75 Ult.
70 Ult.

3
3

1

3

12 in 2"
10
16

14

1

18

- r;-""tv-.- •:.--—- • .—-:-- .;_.-.. _::-__- ...

MAXIMUM
AMOUNT OF —

Cold Bend

P

s

Under j inch in diameter or thickness

Per Ct.
0.06

.06

.06
.06

Per Ct.
0.06

.06

.06

.06

180° to 3 diam.
180° to 3 diam.

180° to 3 diam.
180° to 3 diam.

i inch to £ inch inclusive, in diameter or
thickness ,

Over ^ inch to 1| inches, inclusive, in diameter
or thickness . '.

Over 1 5 inches in diameter or thickness

Elongation: For type 3 test pieces, measure in 8 inches except for sizes
elongation may be measured in 2 inches.
For type 1 test pieces, measure in 2 inches.

inch and less, for which

3^ Tests. — For test purposes each melt of material submitted shall be grouped into
lots conforming to the sizes specified in the above table. For material TJ inches diameter
and under, two test specimens, one for tensile and one for bending, shall be taken,
both from the smallest and from the largest sizes in each lot submitted. Over 1| inches
diameter, tensile and bending test specimens shall be taken from each size of each melt
submitted for inspection. Type 1 test pieces and bending test specimens shall be taken
as nearly as possible at a distance from the longitudinal axis of the bar equal to one-
quarter of the diameter.

4. Steel Cold-Rolled or Cold-Drawn, — Steel may be cold-rolled or cold-drawn at

[276]

SOFT STEEL AS A WROUGHT IRON SUBSTITUTE

the option of the manufacturer, and rods or bars shall be reduced from the hot-rolled
state, by either process, about -^ inch in diameter or thickness and width for rods or bars
up to a finished diameter or thickness of ^ inch. For rods or bars greater in finished
diameter or thickness than k inch, a reduction in diameter or thickness and width of not
less than ^ inch shall be required. The following variation in the finished diameter
or thickness and width is permissible:

Allowable
Variation

Up to and including 1 inch

Above 1 inch and including 2£ inches
Above 2 £ inches

Inch

0.003

.004

.005

EXTRA SOFT STEEL FOR USE AS A WROUGHT-IRON SUBSTITUTE

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Quality. — The material shall be known as extra soft steel and shall be used
wherever in the opinion of the officer concerned it can be used to greater advantage
than wrought iron. This material should not contain more than T£7 of 1 per cent of
phosphorus, not more than T$7 of 1 per cent of sulphur, and not more than ^^ of 1
per cent of carbon.

2. Test Pieces. — Two test specimens, one for tensile and one for bending test, shall
be taken as specified below, the classification being based on size (diameter or thickness)
of material.

(a) Up to and including £ inch.

(b) From J inch up to and including % inch.

(c) From £ inch up to and including 1£ inches.

(d) For all sizes over 1£- inches, two test pieces shall be taken for each size.
Whenever the material offered represents more than one heat, the material from

each heat shall for test purposes be considered a separate lot, and shall be so tested.
The two test specimens provided for shall be taken, if possible, from different sizes in-
cluded in the class; not more than one test specimen shall be taken from any one bar.

3. Tensile Strength, Elastic Limit, Elongation, Contraction of Area. — The test
specimens must show a tensile strength of not less than 45,000 pounds nor more than
55,000 pounds per square inch, and an elongation of not less than 28 per cent, a con-
traction in area of not less than 48 per cent, and an elastic limit of not less than one-half
the ultimate strength. The elongation for rods or bars \ inch or less in diameter or
thickness will be measured on a length equal to 8 times the diameter or thickness of
section tested; for sections over \ inch and less than f inch in diameter or thickness
the elongation will be measured on a length of 6 inches; above £ inch in diameter or
thickness the elongation will be taken on a. length of 8 inches.

4. Bending at the Weld. — Each class of material (size, classification paragraph 2)
in each heat shall be tested for bending at the weld as follows: The bending specimen
provided for in paragraph 2 shall be cut in two pieces which shall, then, be scarf welded
together. After welding and subjecting to cold-bending tests at the center of the weld,
the specimen shall show no cracks or flaws on the outer curves of the bends upon being
bent flat to 180°.

[277]

STEEL RODS AND BARS FOR STANCHIONS, DAVITS, ETC.

STEEL RODS AND BARS FOR STANCHIONS, DAVITS, AND DROP
AND MISCELLANEOUS FORCINGS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions.— "Specifications for the Inspection of Steel and Iron
Material, General Specifications, Appendix I," issued June, 1912, shall form a part
of these specifications and must be complied with in all respects.

2. Physical and Chemical Requirements.— The material shall be free from injurious
defects and shall have a workmanlike finish.

The physical and chemical requirements are to be in accordance with the following
table:

MAXIMUM

Class

Material

Size

Minimum
Tensile
Strength

Minimum
Elongation

AMOUNT OF —

P

S

Pounds per

Per

Per

Square Inch

Cent

Cent

Med. steel. .

Open-hearth

1$ inches di-

58,000

28 per cent in

0.04

0.045

carbon steel

ameter or

8 inches (Type

thickness or

3 test piece to

less.

be used).

Above 1£ in-

60,000

30 per cent in

.04

.045

ches in dia-

^

2 niches (Type

meter or

1 test piece to

thickness.

be used).

(a) ELONGATION. — For rounds, squares, or hexagons £ inch or less in thickness or
diameter, the elongation will be measured on a length equal to eight times the thickness
or diameter of section tested; for sections over \ inch and less than f inch in thickness or
diameter the elongation will be taken on a length of 6 inches. For flat bars less than
\ inch in thickness, the elongation will be measured on a length equal to 24 times the
thickness. In the preceding cases the required percentage of elongation shall be that
specified for the Type No. 3 test piece.

3. Finished Material. — The material shall be free from all injurious defects and shall
have a workmanlike finish. All bars must be true to section; round bars must have
practically perfect circular section and any considerable difference in the largest and
smallest diameter of a bar will be sufficient cause for rejection. All bars must be
straight and out of wind.

4. Tensile Tests. — From each melt and size and (if annealed) from each furnace
charge there shall be taken from different objects, if practicable, and from material
uppermost in the ingot, two specimens for tensile test. In case it is not practicable
to identify in the finished object the material uppermost in the ingot, the inspector will
take a sufficient number of additional tests to satisfy himself fully as to the uniformity of
the material.

5. Bending Tests. — Two specimens for making cold-bending tests shall be selected
in the same manner as prescribed for the specimens selected for tensile tests. These
cold-bend specimens shall be bent over flat on themselves without showing any cracks
or flaws on the convex surface of the bend.

[278]

STEEL RODS AND BARS FOR STANCHIONS, DAVITS, ETC.
6. Tolerances. —

STANDARD ALLOWABLE VARIATIONS IN THE SIZES OF HOT-ROLLED BARS
(a) Rounds, squares, and hexagons

Variation in Size

Under

Over

Up to and including i inch

Inch
0 007

Inch
0 007

Over 5 inch up to and including 1 inch

010

010

Over 1 inch up to and including 2 inches

016

031

Over 2 inches up to and including 3 inches

.031

.047

Over 3 inches up to and including 5 inches

031

094

Over 5 inches up to and including 8 inches

.063

.125

(b) Flats

Width of Plata

VARIATION m
WIDTH

VARIATION IN THICKNESS, UNDER
AND OVER THICKNESS OF FLATS

Under

Over

A Inch
and
Under

Over
A Inch
up to
i Inch

Over
J Inch
up to
llnch

Over
1 Inch
up to 2
Inches

Up to and including 1 inch

Inch
0.016

.031
.047
.063

Inch
0.031

.047
.063
.094

Inch
0.006

.008
.010
.010

Inch
0.008

.012
.015
.015

Inch
0.010

.016
.020
.020

Inch
0.031

.031
.031
.031

For 1 inch up to and including 2
inches .

For 2 inches up to and including 4
inches

For 4 inches up to and including 6
inches

[279]

SPRING STEEL

SPRING STEEL

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — The "General Specifications for Inspection of Steel and
Iron Material, General Specifications, Appendix I," issued by the Navy Department
(C. & R.) June, 1912, shall form a part of these specifications, and must be complied
with as to material, method of inspection, and all other requirements therein.

2. Process of Manufacture. — Spring steel shall be manufactured by either the
open-hearth or crucible process.

3. Chemical Requirements. — Chemical properties of spring steel shall be in accord-
ance with the following table:

Carbon, per
Cent

Manganese,
per Cent

Silicon, per
Cent

Other Alloys

Phosphorus,
per Cent

Sulphur-, per
Cent

Not less than
0.70; not more
than 1.10

Not less than
0.25; not more
than 0.50

Not over
0.25

(See note)

Not over
0.05

Not over
0.05

NOTE. — Vanadium or other elements may be used to obtain the necessary physical characteristics.

4. Physical Requirements. — From each lot of twenty bars, or fraction thereof of
the same size, made from the same open-hearth melt or crucible furnace charge, three
bars will be selected at random and subjected to tests as described below. Bars that
do not vary in their cross-sectional dimensions more than £ inch will be considered of
one size. The nick test and deflection test will be made with the full-size specimen.
Tensile tests will be made with the full-size specimen when practicable; when not
practicable "Type No. 1" test piece will be allowed. Each test specimen will be
taken from a different bar.

(a) TENSILE TESTS. — A specimen bar after being tempered shall have an ultimate
tensile strength of at least 180,000 pounds per square inch, with an elastic limit of at
least 75 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength.

(b) NICK TEST. — A specimen when nicked and broken shall present a fine, uniform
grain.

(c) DEFLECTION TEST. — A specimen bar after being tempered, resting upon supports
24 inches between centers, shall not take a permanent set of more than 0.05 inch after
the first application of a load corresponding to a fiber stress of 135,000 pounds per
square inch, nor a permanent set of more than 7.5 per cent of the total deflection under
a load producing a fiber stress of 160,000 pounds per square inch, nor any further set
after five additional applications of a load giving a fiber stress of 150,000 pounds per
square inch.

5. Surface Defects. — Spring steel shall be free from all injurious defects. The bars
shall be thoroughly cleaned by pickling or other approved method.

6. Tolerances. — In the case of round bars a variation of 0.02 inch in diameter is
allowable. In the case of rectangular bars an allowance of 0.02 inch in thickness and
0.03 inch in width from the sizes ordered will be allowed.

[280]

TOOL STEEL

TOOL STEEL

NAVY DEPARTMENT
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

. _—

CLASS 1, PER

CENT LIMIT

CLASS 2, PER

CENT LIMIT

TUNGSTEN TOOL STEEL

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Carbon

0.75

0.55

1.50

1.35

Chromium ...»

5.00

2.50

.00

.00

IVlanganese

.30

.05

.20

.10

Phosphorus

.015

.00

.015

.00

Silicon

.30

.00

.20

.00

Sulphur

.02

.00

.02

.00

Tungsten

20.00

16.00

3.50

2.00

Vanadium

1.50

.35

(2)

(2)

Iron

C)

0)

0)

C)

CLASS 1, PER

CENT LIMIT

CLASS 2, PER

CENT LIMIT

CARBON TOOL STEEL

- r •

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Carbon . . •.

1.25

1.15

1.15

1.05

IVlanganese

.35

.15

.35

.15

Nickel

.10

.00

.00

Phosphorus ........

.015

.00

.015

.00

Silicon

.40

.10

.40

.10

Sulphur . ; • •

.02

.00

.02

.00

Tungsten

.00

.00

.00

.00

Iron

(i)

(i)

(l)

0)

CLASS 3, PEB

CENT LIMIT

CLASS 4, PEB

CENT LIMIT

CARBON TOOL STEEL

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Carbon

0 95

0.85

0.85

0.75

M anganese

35

15

35

.15

Nickel

00

00

.00

.00

Phosphorus

.02

.00

.02

.00

Silicon

40

10

40

.10

Sulphur

02

.00

.025

.00

Tungsten

(2)

(2)

00

.00

Iron ....

(1)

(1)

(i)

(*)

1 Remainder.

'• Optional.

PHYSICAL TESTS

1. Tungsten Tool Steel. — CLASS 1. — The sample bar will be forged into five tools,
treated and ground to the No. 30 form of the Sellers system of lathe tool forms. Each
tool will be tested on a nickel-steel forging of about 100,000 pounds tensile strength,
with a cut & inch deep, 0.044 inch feed, and a cutting speed of 65 feet per minute.
Each tool will be twice reground and retested. A record will be made of the length
of time each tool cuts without a lubricant or cutting compound before it is ruined.

[281]

TOOL STEEL

2. CLASS 2. — Five flinch diameter 4-tooth facing mills will be made from the
sample rod and tested on a piece of f-inch ship's plate without lubricant. Each mill
will be run until it is so dull that it breaks either in the teeth or in the shank. The
depth of cut will be 0.08 inch, the revolutions per minute of the mill will be 370 and the
feed of material 20 inches per minute. A record will be made of the length of time each
mill operates.

3. Carbon Tool Steel. — CLASS 1. — Five &-inch diameter 4-tooth facing mills will
be made from the sample rod and tested on a piece of f-inch ship's plate without lubri-
cant. Each mill will be run until it is so dull that it breaks either in the teeth or in
the shank. The depth of cut will be 0.08 inch, the revolutions per minute of the mill
will be 370 and the feed of material 20 inches per minute. A record will be made of
the length of time each mill operates.

4. CLASS 2. — Five ^-inch diameter 4-tooth facing mills will be made from the
sample rod and tested on a piece of f-inch ship's plate without lubricant. Each mill
will be run until it is so dull that it breaks either in the teeth or in the shank. The
depth of cut will be 0.08 inch, the revolutions per minute of the mill will be 370, and the
feed of material 20 inches per minute. A record will be made of the length of time each
mill operates.

5. CLASS 3. — Five £-inch pneumatic chisels will be made from the sample bar.
Each chisel will be tested on a nickel-steel plate with a cut ^ inch deep. A record
will be made of the distance each chisel cuts with a lubricant before it is ruined.

6. CLASS 4. — Two |-inch rivet sets will be made from the sample bar. A record
will be made of the condition of the sets after a certain number of rivets have been
driven. •

7. Modification of Tests. — Any or all of the above tests may be modified at the
discretion of the Engineer officer.

GENERAL

8. Method of Manufacture. — The tool steels must be made in either the electric or
crucible fornace, and must be of homogeneous composition. The bars or rods shall
be forged or rolled accurately to the dimensions specified, and must be free from seams,
checks, and other physical defects. They must be delivered annealed and, unless
otherwise specified, in commercial lengths. Short pieces will not be accepted. Drill
rods must be coated with a rust preventive.

9. Stamps on Material. — Each bar or rod of tool steel, excepting drill rods, whether
sample for "selective test" or material delivered under contract, shall be legibly
stamped with the manufacturer's name, his trade name, heat number, and temper
index of the tool steel, also the classification stamps as given in these specifications.
The tungsten tool steels, Classes 1 and 2, shall be stamped "T-l" and "T-2," respec-
tively, and the carbon tool steels, Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4, "C-l," "C-2," "C-3," and
"C-4," respectively. The letters and figures of these classification stamps should
be about & inch high. If the bars or rods are longer than about 4 feet and larger
than f inch diameter, square, hexagon, octagon, etc., the above stamps should be
placed at intervals of about 3 feet along the bar. On bars f inch diameter and smaller,
square, hexagon, octagon, etc., the above stamps should be placed on one end only.
Each drill rod shall be stamped with the tool-steel classification stamp only on one end,
and the stamp for the identification of heat number on the other end.

10. Acceptance Test. — Samples for chemical analyses for "acceptance test" will
be taken from the material delivered by the contractor to the general storekeeper,
navy yard, Philadelphia, Pa., or if the material is inspected at place of manufacture,
the inspector will forward samples for chemical analysis to the general storekeeper,
navy yard, Philadelphia, Pa., who will forward them to the engineer officer for him to
arrange for the analyses and recommend the acceptance or rejection of the material.
If the analysis proves that the composition of the material does not correspond to
that of the sample bar or rod submitted for "selective test," or if the sulphur or phos-
phorus content exceeds the specification limits, the material will be rejected. Physical
tests similar to the "selective test" may also be made, at the discretion of the Engineer

[282]

TOOL Sf EEL

officer. The contractor shall replace the rejected shipment within two weeks, if prac-
ticable, after receipt of notice of rejection.

11. Place of Manufacture. — Bidders must state in their proposals, on the blank
lines provided under each class, the name of the manufacturer, as well as the place
where the material will be manufactured, giving the exact address.

If this information can not be furnished in his bid, the contractor must, within
five days after receipt of notice of award, furnish the Bureau of Steam Engineering
with the foregoing information.

All handling of material necessary for purposes of inspection shall be performed
and all test specimens necessary for the determination of the qualities of material used
shall be prepared and tested at the expense of the contractor.

If inspection is authorized at the place of manufacture, shipment made without
authority from the Government inspector may result in return, at contractor's expense,
of material to place of manufacture for inspection.

If contract is sublet, the contractor shall furnish the Bureau of Steam Engineering
with four copies of his order to the subcontractor for comparison with the specifications
of the contract.

In connection with the inspection of the material, if incorrect information is given,
thereby causing one or more useless trips by the inspectors, the Government reserves
the right to charge the expense of such useless trips to the contractor, and further
inspection at the mills may be denied the contractor at the option of the bureau.

12. Defective Material. — If material, when being manufactured into tools, develops
physical defects which could not be detected by inspection, such as "cracks," "pipes,"
etc., the manufacturer of this steel shall replace, without cost to the Government, such
defective material.

PROPOSALS

13. Reservation and Alternate Proposals. — The right is reserved to reject any or all
proposals.

Bidders may submit proposals on tool steel which differs from the composition and
method of manufacture specified, provided this is clearly stated in their proposals,
and provided they furnish the engineer officer with a statement of the exact chemical
composition and method of manufacture of the tool steel. This information will
be considered confidential by the engineer officer if the bidder requests it. The tool
steel will be tested if, in the opinion of the engineer officer, it is considered suitable for
the purpose intended.

14. Selective Test. — Each bidder shall furnish with his proposal sample bars of tool
steel, stamped as called for under heading "Stamps on Material," for the "selective
test." The relation of the results obtained from the tests conducted as provided for
under the heading "Physical Tests" and the price of the material determine the
selective factor. The dimensions of the sample bars shall be as follows:

Tungsten tool steel:

CLASS 1. — £ by 1 inch by 5 feet long.

CLASS 2. — ^-inch diameter rod, 1\ feet long.

Carbon tool steel:

CLASS 1. — H-inch diameter rod, 2| feet long*

CLASS 2. — H~mch diameter rod, 2£ feet long.

CLASS 3. — f-inch octagon rod, 5 feet long.

CLASS 4 — 2-inch diameter rod, 2 feet long.

15. Treatment of Samples. — Each bidder will state hi his proposal, if he considers
it necessary to do so, the treatment to which the material must be subjected in order
to get, in his opinion, the best results.

16. Delivery of Sample Bars. — All sample bars, stamped as called for under the
heading "Stamps on Material," must be delivered to the General Storekeeper, Building
No. 4, Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa., prior to the time fixed for opening of proposals.
Sample bars delivered late will not be received. Failure to comply with the above
requirements will eliminate the proposal from consideration. All sample bars will be

[2831

TOOL STEEL

delivered by the general storekeeper to the Engineer officer for him to conduct the
"selective tests."

17. Award of Contract. — The Engineer officer will, after the prescribed tests have
been made, recommend the award of contract for the tool steel or tool steels which,
in his opinion, it is to the best interest of the Government to purchase. The selective
factor will be the basis for selection.

18. Intermediate Sizes. — Intermediate sizes not specified when required will be
ordered and paid for at the price of the next higher size.

PURPOSE FOR WHICH THE STEEL IS INTENDED

19. Tungsten Tool Steel. — CLASS 1. — Drill rods, lathe and planer tools, milling-
machine tools, and in general all tools for which high-speed steel is used.

20. CLASS 2. — Lathe and planer tools and general machine-shop tools which require
a keen and durable" cutting edge,

21. Carbon Tool Steel. — CLASS 1. — Drill rods, lathe, and planer tools, and tools
requiring keen-cutting edge combined with great hardness, such as drills, taps, reamers,
and screw-cutting dies.

22. CLASS 2. — Milling cutters, mandrels, trimmer dies, threading dies, and general
machine-shop tools requiring a keen- cutting edge combined with hardness.

23. CLASS 3. — Pneumatic chisels, punches, shear blades, etc., and in general tools
requiring hard surface with considerable tenacity.

24. CLASS 4. — Rivet sets, hammers, cupping tools, smith tools, hot drop-forge
dies, etc., and in general tools which require great toughness combined with the necessary
hardness.

[284|

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

The testing of clay refractories, with special reference to their load-carrying capacity
at furnace temperatures, by A. V. Bleninger and G. H. Brown, form the subject matter
of Technologic Paper No. 7 of the Bureau of Standards.

From the results of the work done by the above chemists in, the laboratory of the
Bureau, much valuable information relating to fire bricks made from American clays
is available.

SUGGESTED DATA FOR SPECIFICATIONS BASED ON RESULTS OF LOAD TESTS FOR A
STANDARD BRICK 9 INCHES LONG

LOAD FOR 1 INCH

Compressive

COMPRESSION —

Strength-

Fire Brick

Softening
Temperature

BRICK TESTED ON END —

Tested on End —
Atmospheric
Temperature —

Temperature

Pounds per
Square Inch

Pounds per
Square Inch

No. 1-A

1690° C.

1350° C.

50

1,000

No. 1-B

1690° C.

1350° C.

30

800

No. 2

1630° C.

1300° C.

25

Definition of Clays. — Clays may be defined as mixtures of minerals of which the
representative members are hydrous silicates of aluminum, iron, the alkalies, and the
alkaline earths, of which the most characteristic is the hydrated aluminum silicate
(A12O3, 2SiO2, 2H20). Some quartz, mica, and feldspar are usually present; the grains
of these minerals may show crystal faces (especially in the case of china clays), but
commonly they are of irregular shapes.

•Upon most of the grains of the constituent minerals there is an enveloping coating
of colloidal material, which consists of silicates, silicic acid with hydroxides of alumi-
nium, iron, and manganese, and usually contains some organic matter.

Almost any mineral, as well as various soluble salts, may be present in clays and
modify the properties somewhat. The combination of granular and colloidal material
is, or should be, in such proportion that when reduced to proper size (by crushing, sifting,
washing, or other means) and moistened with an appropriate amount of water plasticity
is developed. If too much colloidal material is present, the clay is considered very
sticky, strong, or fat; if too little, the clay is called sandy, weak, lean, or non-plastic.
The term " non-plastics," for granular materials, requires qualification, since most plastic
bodies would lose plasticity and become sticky if the granular constituent were removed.
The highly colloidal clays are as non-plastic as the clays containing little colloidal
material. In one case, the clay is too sticky to work; in the other case, it is too weak
and sandy. Plasticity depends on a proper ratio between colloidal and granular mat^
ter, but within limits it varies with the amount of colloidal material present; the
proportion of colloidal material in a clay is usually small and rarely exceeds 1.5 per
cent; a clay containing 0.5 per cent is lean.

Origin of Clays. — Clays have been formed by the decomposition of feldspars, though
the exact mode of formation is not yet established. That kaolinite (the crystalline
mineral of the composition A12O3, 2SiO2, 2H2O) is the chief residual . product of feld-
spathic decay is the commonly accepted view, but some writers hold that it is not formed
by ordinary weathering, and, is only produced by pneumatolytic action — that is, by
the operation of thermal waters and gaseous emanations. , . . Probably different
crystalline silicates yield different residues of this ill-defined class (of hydrous silicates
of aluminium and iron), and any or all of them may exist in residuary clays.

Whatever be the exact process by which feldspars are transformed into clays, this
much is certain, that the main agency in the removal of the alkalies and silica is water

[285]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

(or dilute aqueous solutions). This removal may be effected by simple solution for,
we know that in the lapse of time water dissolves the constituents of alkaline silicate
out of feldspar; the process is probably furthered by mechanical factors.

General Properties of Clays. — Clays exhibit their characteristic properties only in
presence of water; indeed, that water is present is implicit in the definition of clay,
for the behavior of the dried-out clay substance differs largely from that which we or-
dinarily associate with clays. The principal properties of day, besides its absorptive
power, are plasticity, binding power, and shrinkage on drying or burning.

The plasticity of a clay is due to the colloidal substance which it happens to contain.
When clays have been completely dried, plasticity disappears (and with it the other
characteristic properties); when the material is again wetted, the plasticity is initially
not so great as it was before drying out, but in the lapse of time increases slowly again.
The ability of a clay to take up and to hold relatively large amounts of foreign material
(such as sand, powdered minerals, etc.) without destroying its other properties is also
to be attributed to the presence of colloidal material, which surrounds the foreign
particles, and thus binds them together.

The shrinkage on burning is closely related to the plasticity, being greater as the
plasticity is greater, for on drying there is a contraction around each individual grain
due to the destruction of the colloidal material as such and the consequent formation
of a multitude of cracks. It is practically impossible to dry a mass of pure clay so that
it shall be free from cracks. But by suitable admixture of sand or other non-plastic
material with the clay these cracks may be rendered small and separated one from
another. In order to accomplish this, it is essential that the drying process be uniform
throughout the mass. To insure uniformity, the drying must be conducted very slowly,
and more slowly in proportion as the material used was more plastic.

The shrinkage must not be too much reduced by the addition of foreign material;
otherwise the hardness will suffer. Pure clay becomes very hard on drying, while sandy
pastes always remain more or less friable. This correlation does not obtain if the burning
is performed at a temperature such that a partial fusion of the material may occur; but
it does hold for bricks, tiles, and other refractory materials, which are burned at tem-
peratures between 1,000° and 1,200° C.

Viscosity is an important factor in the behavior of fire brick and other clay refractories
under the load conditions which prevail in industrial furnaces. While the loads imposed
may be slight and would be insignificant as far as the strength of the product in the cold
condition is concerned, they become an important factor at elevated temperatures.
Thus, while a fire brick may show a compressive strength of from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds
per square inch at atmospheric temperature, it will possess but a small part of this
strength at a temperature of, say, 1,300° C.

This decrease in resistance to deformation has a more important bearing upon the
durability of refractories than is generally realized. Conditions of strain prevail in
almost any part of a furnace, especially in crowns, bridge walls and bags, checkerwork,
retort benches, muffles, etc. To these must be added the strains imposed by expansion
and contraction due to temperature changes and those due to other causes. The loss
in resistance to compression is evidently due to the lowered viscosity, caused by the
gradual softening of the clay due to vitrification and incipient fusion. This viscous
state becomes more and more prominent as the temperature rises until the point is
reached when the material can no longer support its own weight. The rate at which
a clay approaches this semi-liquid state with increasing temperature may be said to be
roughly proportional to the rate of vitrification, i.e., the speed with which the pore
space closes up due to partial fusion. The contraction is the result of surface forces
tending to reduce the area of the body to a minimum.

A fire-clay body low in fluxes, i.e., titanium oxide, ferric or ferrous oxide, lime,
magnesia, potash and soda, showing a low rate of vitrification will consequently be
affected less under furnace conditions with increasing temperatures than one higher in
basic constituents.

Nature of Refractory Clays. — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. — The principal ingredient
of fire clay is a hydrous silicate of alumina, of the formula AljOs . 2SiOz . 2H2O, correspond-
ing to the following percentage composition:

[286]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

Hydrous

Dehydrated

Silica '. . . .

Per Cent
46.3

Per Cent
53.8

39.8

46.2

13.9

While this substance, commonly called kaolin, does not correspond to the most
refractory mineral combination of silica and alumina found in nature, it is at least the
most commonly distributed material, since it may be assumed to be the fundamental
constituent of all fire clays. Other minerals, such as sillimanite, cyanite, and andalusite,
corresponding to the general formula Al2O3.SiO2, are far more infusible, but are of
comparatively rare occurrence in clays.

The so-called melting point of pure clays is close to that of platinum; that is, about
1,755° C. Substances whose softening temperatures differ too greatly from that of
kaolin should not be considered as fire clays. Though the chemical composition of fire
clays approaches more or less closely that of kaolinite, Al2Os . 2SiO2 . 2H2O, they differ
widely as regards their physical structure, varying through all stages from the well-
defined crystalline state to that of a typical colloid. The fusion of even the purest clay,
both in the crystalline and the amorphous condition, proceeds gradually, and it is
erroneous to speak of a definite melting point for clay. In technical work the deforma-
tion and collapse of a specimen is usually employed as the criterion of the fusion point.
Although this has no theoretical meaning, it answers the purposes of practice. From
the technical standpoint, roughly, three classes of refractory clays may be distinguished,
viz., kaolin clays, flint clays, and plastic clays.

KAOLINS. — The first class of materials, usually of geologically primary origin,
consists, in the purified state of white clayey matter, containing both the crystalline
and amorphous varieties of clay base. In some of these clays the crystalline con-
stituents predominate, as hi the North Carolina kaolins. These clays, on account of
their whiteness, are used in the pottery industries.

There are, however, kaolins which possess a good degree of plasticity, as the Georgia
kaolins and some of the English china clays. These, as long as they maintain good
whiteness, are highly valued in the manufacture of white ware and porcelain products.
Frequently, however, increased plasticity is coincident with increased content of fluxes
and consequent reduction in refractoriness. While marked plasticity in itself, of
course, does not mean reduced refractoriness, it indicates -geological conditions which
tend to incorporate impurities in the clay.

Owing to their purity (absence of basic oxides) the kaolins are the most refractory
clays.

FLINT CLAYS. — The so-called flint clays embrace many materials of a grade of
purity corresponding closely in composition to the best grade of kaolins. Like the
latter, they may, of course, deteriorate into clays of comparatively low refractory
value. Physically they are unlike the soft and chalky kaolins in possessing a hard, dense
amorphous structure, showing a peculiar well-defined conchoiclal fracture. The color
is usually gray. The initial plasticity is exceedingly feeble, though if exposed to the
weather or if ground either dry or wet the condition of colloidal "set" may be partially
overcome and sufficient plasticity developed for molding purposes. Owing to the weak
plasticity possessed by flint clays, their drying shrinkage when ground and made up
with water is very slight. On the other hand, in burning these clays undergo a con-
siderable shrinkage. The volume shrinkage characteristic of these clays subjects
the structure of the product into which they enter to a severe strain, which, owing to
the low tensile strength, may cause serious difficulty due to cracking and checking, so
that it may be necessary either to calcine the flint clay before incorporating it in the
body or to replace it in part by ground waste bricks (grog).

The burning shrinkage in the case of flint clays cannot be entirely attributed to the
contraction accompanying vitrification. Considering the purity of these clays it is

[287]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

evident that part of the shrinkage is independent of this factor and must be due to a
molecular change of another kind, that peculiar to many typical amorphous substances
like alumina, magnesia, zirconia, etc. We may, therefore, ascribe the high-burning
shrinkage of flint clays to colloidal volume changes.

HIGH-GRADE PLASTIC CLAYS. — Clays, combining good plasticity and refractoriness,
are not of common occurrence. While there are some examples of this type, the majority
of the deposits usually show plasticity at the expense of heat-resisting power, and in
addition show variations in quality which render their use hi the industries more or
less uncertain. Some plastic clays of high grade are known as kaolins, such as the white
clays from Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. Outside of these the bulk of the plastic
fire clays are of carboniferous and tertiary origin. While the kaolin-like clays are not
at present used to any extent in the refractory industries they could be made available
as bond clays most successfully. Owing to the higher content of impurities, the plastic
clays necessarily show distinct evidence of vitrification at considerably lower temper-
atures than the pure fire clays.

Pure clays, up to temperatures approaching the softening point, should show no
marked tendency to become dense, i.e., the porosity should remain high. The lower
the temperature at which the porosity of the clay becomes practically nil, the more
inferior is its refractory quality. The ideal fire-clay would thus be represented by a
straight line along its initial porosity, beyond a temperature of about 1,000° C., from
which line impure materials depart, according to their content of fluxes.

Manufacture of Refractories. — The simplest case of fire-brick manufacture is that
in which a highly refractory clay of sufficient plasticity can be molded into the desired
shape, dried, and burnt. Since, however, this is not possible when the material is either
lacking in refractory or working quality, a condition which is the rule rather than the
exception, mixtures of different clays must be employed. One of the most common
cases is the use of flint clay with plastic clay as the cementing agent, which produces
the required working condition. A very common proportion is that of 85 per cent of
flint and 15 per cent of bond clay. Such a mixture possesses sufficient plasticity to be
worked by the so-called slop-mold process, but could not be molded by means of the
auger machine. There is, of course, no difficulty in pressing the bricks by the dry-press
process.

EFFECT OF THE ACCESSORY CONSTITUENTS OF FIRE CLAYS UPON THE
SOFTENING TEMPERATURES

Owing to the fact that clays may contain natural admixtures of various minerals
and rock debris, it is necessary to consider the effect of such minerals as quartz, SiO2;
alumina, rutile, TiO2; ferric oxide and other iron compounds, orthoclase, K2O, A12O3,
6SiO2; muscovite, H2KAl3 (SiO^s; calcite, CaCO3; magnesite, MgCO3; and other sub-
stances. Finally an attempt must be made to estimate the joint fluxing effect of at
least the basic oxides with sufficient accuracy for technical purposes.

Quartz. — It was realized early in the study of fire clays that any addition of free
silica to pure clay substance lowered the softening temperature. Siliceous clays hence
possess an inferior ultimate refractoriness, per se, a fact which must be recognized in
the selection of refractories. The addition of quartz also brings about a more or less
pronounced increase in volume, which may show itself either by neutralizing the fire
shrinkage of the clay portion or by an actual expansion. This is a fact well known in
the industry. The so-called silica brick invariably expands upon being fired in the kiln,
and usually still further when in actual use.

Alumina. — As a general proposition, it may be said that this compound improves
the refractoriness of fire clays markedly. Bischof, in his well-known researches upon
European fire clays, recognized this fact in his so-called refractory quotient, a value
intended to indicate the relative heat-resisting property of these clays expressed by
the relation a2 -f- b, where a = molecular equivalents of alumina to one molecular
equivalent of total fluxes, RO, and b equals the corresponding molecular ratio between
the silica and the fluxes. According to this, the refractoriness of a clay is proportional
to the square of the alumina content. Richters also recognized the value of alumina

[288]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

in this connection. In his experiments, additions of alumina raised the spftening tem-
perature of kaolin. Upon continuing the increase in alumina, the fusion temperature
of sillimanite, 1,810° C., is reached, and, finally, the melting point of alumina, ap-
proximately 2,000° C.

The viscosity of silicate fusions is increased most decidedly by additions of alumina.
From the practical standpoint, the addition of alumina, in the form of bauxite, to fire-
clay has been practised for some years with satisfactory results as far as refractoriness
is concerned, but the continued contraction of the bauxite upon reheating makes it a
difficult material to work. For high temperature work, fused alumina (purified bauxite)
is now being introduced where the conditions warrant its use.

Titanium Oxide. — This compound, which may be present as rutile, TiO2, ilmenite,
FeTiOs, or in other forms, tends to lower the softening temperature of clays distinctly.

Iron Oxide. — This substance in the finely divided condition is one of the most
potent fluxes, and hence its presence in fire clays is very injurious as regards their
behavior when subjected to higher temperatures. When present, in the form of coarser
particles, occurring as siderite or pyrite, its effect is not so marked, since evidently the
action is proportional to the surface factor, i.e., the fineness. At the high temperatures
to which refractories are exposed, the ferric oxide of the clay dissociates to one of its
lower forms. According to Le Chatelier, this dissociation takes place at 1,300°; accord-
ing to White and Taylor, at 1,200°, and to P. T. Walden, at 1,350° C. The last-named
value represents probably the most reliable result. At this temperature, the dissociation
pressure reaches 160 millimeters, which is equal to the oxygen pressure of the air.
Ferric oxide hence cannot exist above this temperature. The reduction very likely
results in FeO, which at the temperatures involved would at once combine with silica
to form ferrous silicate, and, owing to the low fusion temperature of ferrous silicate, the
resulting slag is very corrosive and attacks the clay vigorously. From the work of
Cramer, it appears that iron oxide is an active flux with clays of the formula Al2O32.5SiO2,
while it is less active in fire clays approaching more closely the kaolin formula. Ferrous
silicate, FeSiOs, has been estimated to fuse at 1,110° C. in a reducing atmosphere; this
value is probably too low. The viscosity of the ferrous silicates is quite low, while
ferric oxide acts in the opposite direction and increases the viscosity of silicate fusions.
The softening temperatures given by Hofman for various ferrous silicates are as follows:

4FeO.SiO 1,280° C.

3FeO.SiO2. 1,220° C.

2FeO.SiO2 1,270° C.

3FeO.2SiO2 1,140° C.

4FeO.3SiO2. 1,120° C.

Alkalies (Feldspar). — The alkalies present in clays occur predominatingly in the
form of feldspar, orthoclase, or albite, although materials of the plastic type may con-
tain absorbed salts in noticeable amounts. Orthoclase, K2O.Al2O3.6Si02, in which some
of the potash may be replaced by soda, is probably the most common feldspar. The
potash feldspar is less fusible than the albite, but neither has a definite melting point.
Doelter approximates that of orthoclase to be 1,190°, and the one for albite at 1,120° C.

The feldspars are so-called neutral fluxes, inasmuch as apparently they do not react
chemically with the constituents of clay, like lime or magnesia. They seem to play
the role of a .solvent, and reduce the refractoriness of a fire clay in a decided manner.
Zoellner states that at about 1,400° C feldspar may dissolve as much as 3.5 per cent of
alumina, 14 per cent of clay substance, and 60-70 per cent of fine-grained quartz. The
eutectic mixture of orthoclase and quartz consists practically of 75 per cent feldspar
and 25 per cent silica. Owing to the decided viscosity of feldspar mixtures their softening
point is very uncertain and has no direct connection with the effect upon vitrification.

The presence of feldspar in fire clays, while depressing the softening point, is not as
detrimental to the refractory quality of the material as might appear at first. Its
influence, however, upon the load-carrying ability is far more marked, since the solution
effect is great enough to reduce the viscosity sufficiently to prevent the body from
carrying heavier loads, though not enough to cause deformation under its own weight.

[289]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

Mica. — This mineral, represented principally by muscovite, HtKAUCSiOOs, while
depressing the softening point of a pure clay, behaves as a less effective flux than ortho-
clase, due both to its composition and to its physical structure.

Lime. — The potency of lime, as a fluxing agent in acid silicates, is well known.
Cramer found that additions of calcium carbonate, from 0 to 10 per cent, to Zettlitz
kaolin lowered the softening temperatures of the resulting mixtures steadily, practically
in proportion to the increase in the lime content.

Rieke found that the observation of Cramer, mentioned above, held in that additions
of lime to kaolin decrease the softening temperature according to a linear relation up
to a mixture containing 11 per cent CaO in the calcined condition, corresponding to
the formula CaO.2Al2Os.4SiO2. Beyond this point, lime no longer reacts in a continuous
manner, but shows maxima and minima, indicating the existence of at least two com-
pounds.

The viscosity of the calcium silicates of the more acid type is quite low, as is shown
by practical experience in the working of calcareous clays. It is a well-known fact that
such materials deform and flow when heated hi the kiln beyond the vitrification tem-
perature more readily than other clays.

Joint Effect of Fluxes Upon the Refractoriness.— RICHTERS' LAW. — Many attempts
have been made to correlate the effect of the basic fluxes upon the softening temperature
of fire clays. Thus Richters, in 1868, enunciated the rule that molecularly equivalent
amounts of the bases exert the same effect in depressing the softening temperature of
fire clays. According to this rule, 40 parts, by weight, of magnesia would lower the
refractoriness to the same extent as 56 parts of lime or 94 of potash. This statement
is supposed to apply only to small amounts of these substances added to the purer
type of clays.

Bischof s Refractory Quotient. — Bischof proposed a so-called refractory quotient
calculated from the formula obtained from the chemical analysis. Letting the molecular
equivalents of Al^Oa = a, those of the SiO2 = b, and of the fluxing oxide = c, and
expressing the ratio a -5- c by A, and the ratio b -j- a by B, the refractory quotient is
represented by the expression.

A a -r c a2

B b -f- a be

According to this, the refractoriness would be proportional to the square of the alumina
and inversely proportional to the silica and flux contents.

Vitrification. — Vitrification as related to refractory behavior of clays. It is agreed
by workers in this field that the fluxes bring about a large part of the contraction suffered
by clays upon being heated to elevated temperatures. While the action due to this cause,
as measured by the contraction in volume, is but slight at lower temperatures, it is
accelerated as the temperature rises. This is due to the fact that solution is in progress.
Starting from the initial temperature of activity, such a selective solution of the fluxes,
alumina and silica, tends to take place which softens at this point. With the rise in
temperature, the composition of this softened portion changes by the incorporation
and solution of more of the clay body, and evidently the mass of the softened portion
increases correspondingly. Thus with every advance in temperature the softened por-
tion constitutes a larger percentage of the whole, until finally it possesses the composition
of the body, i.e., when all of it softens and the so-called melting point has been reached.

Decrease in Density During Vitrification. — It is interesting to note that during the
solution process going on throughout vitrification the density of the clay mass itself
decreases proportionally to the contraction in pore space. The more fluxes a clay
contains — i.e., the more deficient in refractoriness it is — the lower must be the tem-
perature at which all pore space has been filled by the softened matter; in other words,
the lower its temperature of vitrification.

LOAD TESTS OF FIRE BRICK

In the course of the experiments more than 35 brands of fire brick were tested, as
well as specimens made in the clay-products laboratory from different fire clays. Samples

[290]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

were obtained from manufacturers located in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, New
Jersey, Missouri, Kentucky, and Colorado. For obvious reasons, the names of the
brands cannot be given. The number of each material remains the same for all of the
different tests.

Load Test. — In carrying out the load test, the beam is first raised as the temperature
rises, due to the expansion of the furnace bottom and the brick; a quiescent stage is then
reached, after which, from 1,130° to 1,290° C., a well-defined deflection begins, caused
by the contraction of the brick. In some bricks, this deflection continues at a very
slow rate or reaches a state of equilibrium some time after the temperature has been
raised to 1,300° C. This kind does not fail under the conditions of the test, and the
later deflection starts the more apt is the brick to stand up. The materials failing under
the test show a more or less early start in settling, and the rate at which this takes place
increases with the temperature, till finally it becomes so rapid that it is impossible
to keep the beam level. Failure then is merely a matter of minutes and takes place
very suddenly. In every case, softening precedes failure.

Accessory Tests. — In addition to the load tests, the following determinations were
made: 1, chemical analysis; 2, crushing strength of the bricks on end in the cold con-
dition; 3, softening temperature; 4, porosity; 5, true density. Twenty bricks of each
brand were secured and check determinations made.

Results of the Load Test Series, 75 Pounds per Square Inch at 1,300° C.— The
results of the physical tests of this series are arranged in Table III. The typical failures
show that where the bricks were badly distorted and crushed in each case a certain
degree of softening took place, as was clearly indicated by their curved surfaces. It is
evident that these bricks attained a viscous condition, in which they were not able to
carry the load imposed upon them, though the latter is small as compared with the
crushing strength at the atmospheric temperature, which for the 26 samples tested
averaged 1,520 pounds per square inch. Inspection of the failures showed plainly that
the more refractory flint clay had not softened to the slightest extent. The grams had
lost none of their original identity. They seemed to have slid upon each other, the
bond clay behaving analogously to a lubricant. From this it follows that no matter
how excellent the major constituent of the brick may be as to refractoriness, if the bond
clay is too deficient in this respect the load-carrying power of the product is impaired.

Effect of Chemical Composition. — Assuming that the fire brick body consists of a
refractory constituent corresponding in composition to the kaolin formula and of a
more fusible cementing component, the following method might be pursued to show
theoretically the make-up of the mixture. Taking, for example, one of the failures,
say sample No. 4, and calculating the empirical formula, the latter is found to be:
0.019 NazO, 0.030 K2O, 0.036 MgO, 0.026 CaO, 0.14 FeO, 0.054 TiO2, 1.00 A12O3,
2.485 SiO2. Upon the assumption that the alkalies are derived from orthoclase feldspar,
the molecular equivalents of the latter would be 0.019 + 0.030 = 0.049. Deducting
the alumina belonging to the feldspar from 1, we obtain 0.951 equivalent A12O3 present
as clay substance, which corresponds to 1.902 equivalent of SiO2. Subtracting this
from 2.485 leaves 0.583 equivalent silica. Multiplying the equivalents by the respective
molecular weights and reducing to the percentage basis we find the following distribution
of clay substance, feldspar and free silica:

Per Cent

Clay substance 77. 23

Feldspar 10.06

Fluxes and free silica 12. 71

This shows an excessive amount of fluxing material in proportion to the clay base,
but the case is still more striking, since the composition of the fluxes and the free silica
upon calculation reduces to the formula (using RO = 1, as is customary for slags
and glasses) : RO 1.43 SiO2 . 0.267 TiO2. This represents a slag which is not saturated
with silica at the temperatures involved, and hence it is certain to attack the clay sub-
stance, thus bringing into solution still more material and increasing the proportion
of fusible to refractory constituents.

[291J

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

TABLE 1
FIRE BRICK AND CLAY ANALYSES

No.

SiO2

AlzOs

PeOs

Ti02

CaO

MgO

Na2O

K2O

S03

H2O
at
100°C

Igni-
tion
Loss

Total

1

81.60

14.55

.15

0 49

0.37

0.27

0.67

1.08

100 18

2

79.20

17.42

.19

.49

.21

.38

.37

.91

100 17

3

77.02

18.35

.32

.52

.48

.28

.67

.49

100 13

4

54.58

37.35

.10

1.57

.54

.53

42

02

100 11

5

54.70

39.72

32

1.86

.29

.52

.64

.07

100 12

6

54.69

38.86

.41

1.92

.35

.52

91

.57

100 23

7

54.25

38.90

.83

1 92

.41

.78

.78

.26

100 13

8

52.30

41.52

.28

2.46

1.02

.45

28

.94

100 25

9

63.89

29.28

2.05

2.40

.27

.29

.40

1.71

100 29

10

60.37

34.83

1.37

2.05

.39

.31

.20

.67

100 19

11

61.35

32.65

2.15

1.98

.46

.50

17

86

100 12

12

55.66

36.52

2.59

2.40

.49

.61

.18

1.73

100 18

13

68.73

25.12

2.26

1.32

.36

.49

25

1 62

100 15

14

60.77

32.63

2.89

1.94

1.12

.26

.26

.46

100 33

15

56.55

36.64

2.84

1.90

1.34

.22

32

43

100 25

16

50.76

44.24

1.45

2.03

.33

29

34

60

100 04

17

62.14

32.29

2.65

1.42

.71

.50

.13

.38

100 22

18

62.74

31.80

2.45

1 53

75

56

18

18

100 19

19

35.46

57.98

1.40

2.70

.29

.29

75

1.30

100 17

20

52.89

43.41

.90

2.12

.16

.13

.36

.27

100 24

21
22

65.41
66.53

29.50
28.66

2.75
2.35

1.38
1.36

.45
.58

.25
.42

.10

28

.34
19

100.18
100 37

23
24

66.28

77.82

29.12
19.00

1.55
1.01

1.79
1.65

.59
22

.23
06

.27
10

.30

28

100.13
100 14

25
26

56.62
54.51

39.19
40.42

1.95
1.90

1.69
2.46

.36
.35

.08
.17

.18
16

.19
.20

100.26
100 17

27

65.59

28.95

1.45

.93

.35

.60

.63

1.21

0.45

100.16

28
29

62.81
68.15

31.85
26.30

1.27
1.97

.33
.10

.28
11

tr
23

.53
56

1.72
1 53

tr

0.05

.30
25

100.14
100 20

30

65.34

30.01

1.45

.88

.18

.52

.38

1.21

28

100 25

31

72.74

17.77

.80

.55

.13

tr

13

27

18

6 55

100 12

32
33
34
35

36
37

56.69
53.27
66.05

58.88

64.70
85.00

29.48
31.72
25.45
26.41

21.90
10.55

1.20
1.16
1.06
1.35

1.47
FeO

2 85

.87
.93
.40
.22

.86
.42

.25
.21
.20
.35

.45
.40

.12
.08
.37

.42

.60
43

.36
.30
.30
.34

. 42
16

1.21
.97
1.05
1.64

2.16

tr
tr
tr
.01

.02

.82
.83
.23

.72

.65

8.20
9.72
4.05

8.85

6.96

100.20
100.19
100.16
100.19

100.19
99.81

38

85.30

11.95

1.85

.30

.20

.29

.24

100.13

60 39

52.64

41.12

1.28

.74

1.23

.77

.55

.78

1.15

100.26

80 A German fire brick of good quality.
[292] '

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

TABLE 2
CHEMICAL FORMULAS

No.

AhOs

SiO2

Ti02

FeO

CaO

MgO

NazO

K20

Total RO

1

1.0

9.180

0.041

0.098

0.045

0.046

0.074

0.079

0.342

2

1.0

7.732

.036

.087

.022

.056

.035

.057

.257

3

1.0

7.140

.036

.092

.037

.038

.060

.088

.315

4

1.0

2.485

.054

.140

.026

.036

.019

.030

.251

5

1.0

2.343

.057

.042

.013

.033

.038

.043

.169

6

1.0

2.386

.064

.046

.016

.034

.038

.044

.178

7

1.0

2.365

.064

.060

.019

.051

.033

.035

.198

8

1.0

2.142

.075

.039

.045

.028

.011

.025

.148

9

1.0

3.710

.105

.089

.017

.025

.022

.063

.216

10

1.0

2.947

.075

.050

.020

.023

.009

.021

.123

11

1.0

3.196

.077

.064

.026

.039

.009

.029

.167

12

1.0

2.591

.085

.090

.024

.043

.008

.051

.216

13

.0

4.651

.067

.115

.026

.050

.002

.070

.263

14

.0

3.168

.076

.113

.063

.020

.013

.015

.224

15

.0

2.634

.066

.099

.067

.015

.014

.013

.208

16

.0

1.952

.059

.042

.014

.017

.013

.015

.101

17

.0

3.294

.051

.104

.040

.039

.007

.013

.203

18

.0

3.354

.061

.100

.043

.037

.009

.006

.195

19

.0

1,040

.059

.031

.009

.013

.021

.014

.088

20

.0

2.072

.062

.003

.004

.076

.016

.007

.106

21

1.0

3.770

.060

.119

.003

.022

.006

.013

.163

22

1.0

3.930

.060

.104

.037

.037

.016

.007

.201

23

1.0

3.871

.078

.069

.037

.020

.015

.011

.152

24

1.0

6.953

.111

.068

.021

.008

.009

.016

.122

25

1.0

2.458

.055

.063

.019

.005

.008

.005

.100

26

.0

2.293

.078

.060

.016

.011

.007

.005

.099

27

.0

3.850

.041

.064

.022

.052

.036

.045

.219

28

.0

3.251

.052

.049

.015

tr

.027

.057

.148

29

.0

4.410

.053

.095

.008

.022

.035

.063

.223

30

.0

3.693

.037

.061

.011

.044

.021

.044

.181

31

.0

7.000

.112

.058

.013

tr

.012

.017

.100

32

.0

3.270

.081

.052

.015

010

.020

.045

.142

33

.0

2.854

.077

.047

.012

.006

.016

.033

.114

34

.0

4.413

.070

.052

.014

.037

.019

.045

.167

35

.0

3.789

.059

.065

.024

.040

.021

.067

.217

36

.0

4.320

.043

.074

.037

.060

.032

.107

.310

37

.0

13.680

.051

.377

.069

.103

.025

.574

38

.0

12.130

.032

.216

.030

.061

.033

....

.340

39

.0

2.18

.022

.040

.055

.047

.022

!620

.184

[293

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS
TABLE 3

RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS AT 1,300° C AND WITH A LOAD OF 75 POUNDS

PER SQUARE INCH

No.

Dimensions, in
Inches, Before

Dimensions, in
Inches, After

Linear
Com-
pres-
sion,
in
Inches

Defor-
ma-
tion
Started

Cold
Crush-
Strength

Per

Cent
Poros-
ity

Soft-
ening
Point
in
Cones

Spe-
cific
Grav-
ity

°c

1

9 by 4| by 2£

Crushed

1213

1464

30.2

28

2.671

2

9 by 4f by 2£

Crushed

1247

1289

30.1

28

2.638

3

8| by 41 by 2£

Crushed

1210

989

32.4

28

2.635

4

9 by 4£ by 2£

Crushed

1180

495

25.8

29

2.755

5

8| by 41 by 2f

8i by 4£ by 2 A

"\

1191

1160

23.0

31|

2.732

6

9 by 4£ by 2f

81 by 4A by 2 A

I

1213

931

22.9

31

2.691

7

9 by 4£ by 2£

7f by 4 A by 2|

11

1215

674

20.7

31

2.717

8

8| by 41 by 2£

8fby41by2f

I

1295

1082

17.1

34

2.712

9

8| by 4f by 2f

Crushed

1191

612

29.4

29*

2.674

10

81 by 41 by 1\

8* by 4 A by 2£

I

1179

946

27.5

33

2.702

11

9 by 4| by 1\

1\ by 4f by 2*

ii

1133

480

25.1

28

2.678

12

9 by 4| by 2£

Crushed

1142

2614

24.5

24|

2.724

13

8f by 4£ by 2£

Crushed

1130

843

22.5

28£

2.664

14

8f by 4| by 2£

8A by 41 by 2 A

A

1211

2226

25.5

311

2.725

15

8f by 41 by 21

71 by 4f by 2 A

1

1234

1638

23.1

31

2.705

16

9 by 4| by 1\

8 by 4| by 2A

1

1205

971

24.3

34

2.712

17

8f by 41 by 2f

8Aby4fby2£

H

1233

2578

23.9

31—

2.712

18

81 by 41 by 2£

8 A by 4 A by 2|

H

1274

955

21.0

32

2.647

19

9i by 4i by 2|

8| by 4 A by 2£

!

1235

2071

33.3

33+

2.975

20

8iby41by2£

8£ by 4 A by 2*

1

1213

2005

26.8

31

2.738

21

8| by 4i by 2£

8A by 4| by 2 A

A

1231

3174

22.2

31

2.668

22

81 by 41 by 2*

81 by 4f by 2 A

I

1234

2191

26.8

31

2.676

23

8| by 4f by 2£

8Aby4Aby2£

A

1264

4234

23.9

31

2.677

24

9 by 4f by 2£

8f by 4| by 2£

1

0

2551

27.5

29

2.622

25

9 by 4i by 2|

8| by 41 by 2 A

1

1291

1241

26.3

3H

2.702

26

81 by 4i by 2*

7| by 4| by 2*

U

1207

1138

22.3

31

2.744

27

8 by 3f by 21

Crushed

1168

4042

18.1

26

2.682

28

9 by 4| by 2f

8| by 4£ by 2f

1

1215

2509

27.4

3H

2.643

Influence of the Cold- Crushing Strength. — A comparison of the initial, cold, crushing
strength and the load behavior shows no apparent connection, but the fact is brought
out that low initial strength is a handicap. Bricks Nos. 4 and 11 are examples of this
kind. While No. 4 would have failed irrespective of its cold-crushing strength, the
failure was more complete on account of its weakness, and No. 11 in all probability
would have shown a very much smaller condensation; in fact, it might have stood the
test.

The hardness of burning, in general, is a factor worthy of consideration. Although
firing to a high temperature cannot, in the nature of the case, effect any fundamental
change, and cannot convert a low-grade material into a good one, the work of the

[294]

FIRE CLAYS AND FIRE BRICKS

bureau has shown that well-burnt bricks stand up better than soft-burnt products.
This is due, not only to the greater compactness of the body, but also the change hi
the composition of the bonding material where such is used. In other words, hard
burning will cause the usually decidedly less refractory, plastic clay to dissolve some
of the fine part of the better material (flint clay), thus increasing its own refractoriness,
and hence its resistance to load conditions. For instance, No. 26 would have shown
up better if it had been burnt harder.

RESULTS OF THE TESTS AT 1,350° C. AND WITH A LOAD OF 50 POUNDS

PER SQUARE INCH

Comparison with Results of 1,300° Test. — The results of this series are compiled
in Table 4. Not all of the 1,300-degree load tests were repeated, but only a sufficient
number to establish the relative severity of each condition. In comparing the data
obtained hi the two series it was found that the results were approximately the same,

TABLE 4

RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS AT 1,350° C AND WITH A LOAD OP 50 POUNDS

PER SQUARE INCH

No.

Dimensions, in
Inches, Before

Dimensions, in
Inches, After

Linear
Com-
pres-
sion,
in
Inches

Defor-
mation
Started

Cold
Crush-
Strength

Per
Cent
Poros-
ity

Soft-
ening
Point
in
Cones

Spe-
cific
Grav-
ity

°C

2B

9 by 4f by 2f

Crushed

1220

1289

30.1

28

2.638

4B

81 by 4| by 2*

Crushed

1175

495

25.8

29

2.755

7B

81 by 4f by 2f

8i by 4f by 2*

i

1218

674

20.7

31

2.717

9B

9 by 4i by 2*

Crushed

1238

612

29.4

29*

2.674

11B

8| by 4| by 2|

Crushed

...

1165

480

25.1

28

2.678

12B

9 by 4| by 2|

Crushed

1175

2614

24.5

24|

2.724

13 B

8| by 4* by 2*

Crushed

1150

843

22.5

28*

2.664

15 B

81 by 4i by 2*

7| by 4* by 2*

H

1245

1638

23.1

31

2.705

19 B

9iVby4^by2^

8* by 4* by 2&

A

1200

2071

33.3

33+

2.975

20B

81 by 4i by 2*

Note: 4 hours at

1

....

2005

26.8

31

2.738

1350°

23B

81 by 4f by 2|

8| by 4* by 2*

i

4

1290

4234

23.9

31

2.677

26 B

9 by 4£ by 2*

8 by 4| by 2*

1

1220

1138

22.3

31

2.744

29

9 by 4* by 2*

Crushed

. . .

1230

4714

22.2

29

2.627

30

8* by 4* by 2*

Crushed

1180

1585

27.9

26*

2.653

31

81 by 4| by 2|

8| by 4* by 2f

Y

1250

1054

30.6

30

2.654

32

8 by 3f by 2*

7* by 31 by 2*

i

1330

2829

32.5

31

2.565

33

71 by 3f by 2

7f by 3| by 2

i

1330

9008

12.4

32

2.655

34

81 by 4 by 2*

Crushed

1180

7819

7.4

25

2.521

35

8^ by 4 by 2i

7^ by 4 by 2|

Y

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[295

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

with the exception that the 1,350-degree 50-pound tests appeared to be somewhat
more sensitive and differentiated more bharply between the various kinds of refractories.

The compression effect in the second test was found to be somewhat greater than
in the first test. Both tests, however, condemned inferior materials with practically
equal ceitainty. •• •-

The pressure effect appears to be more prominent in the 1,300-degree 75-pound
series, while under the second conditions the softening due to heat is more pronounced.
There is more deformation in the sense of flow in the 50-pound series. In considering
furnace conditions it is at once evident that everywhere pressures are to be resisted,
and not only those due to loads, but also the compression and tension stresses caused
by thermal expansion and contraction. The higher the furnace temperature the more
rapidly is the load-carrying ability reduced until finally the refractory is unable to
support its own weight.

The load test, therefore, measures the viscosity of the fire-clay bodies at a certain
temperature. Since any good refractory should possess sufficient rigidity at the tem-
perature at which it is to be used to carry the load or to resist the pressure it is called
upon to meet, it is, evident that a fire-brick lacking in this respect is as inferior as a
material showing a low softening temperature.

STRUCTURAL TIMBERS USED IN ENGINEERING

Timber is a general term applied to wood of suitable size and quality for structural
purposes; it is practically unchangeable in the direction of its length; it is both inex-
tensible and incompressible in that direction, being readily wrought and easily combined
with other timber as a valuable structural material, but it shrinks and swells in the
direction of its thickness; it is subject to rapid decay when exposed to alternations of
moisture and dryness. In many varieties timber is durable and unchangeable in form
if free from moisture or always wholly wet. Timber offers comparatively slight resis-
tance to compressing power; the comparative ease with which its fibrous structure is
torn asunder limits its employment in that direction, since it cannot be grasped or other-
wise held in any degree proportioned to its strength; it readily absorbs moisture by the
ends of the fiber, and with a more mischievous effect than in the direction in which it
is compressible; hence, timber rots more rapidly by the ends than by the sides. The
characteristics of some American woods used in structural work are here given, based
on the records of the United States Forest Products Laboratory.

SOUTHERN YELLOW PINES

The term Southern yellow pine is applied collectively to practically all of the pines of
the Southern States which are manufactured into lumber. These pines are often roughly
divided into three classes: Longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly pines. The wood of all the
Southern pines is very much alike in appearance. The sapwood and heartwood are
distinctly marked, the sapwood being yellowish white and the heartwood reddish brown.

The specific gravity of the springwood is about 0.40, while that of the summerwood
is about 0.95, so that the weight of the wood increases with the larger proportion of
eummerwood, which generally forms less than half of the total volume of the whole log.

Summerwood varies somewhat in proportion, according to age, and" is generally
greatest in early middle life and least in extreme youth and old age. On an average,
the amount of summerwood is greater in longleaf than in shortleaf or loblolly.

The grain of the Southern pines is generally straight, but some trees have a spiral
growth which causes "cross-grained" lumber; the fibers or cells running lengthwise
with the trunk form about 90 per cent of the wood by volume, and the pith rays placed
at right angles to them and lying radially form about 8 per cent. The remaining
2 per cent is made up of the resin ducts. :

Annual rings, or layers of growth, show distinctly in the wood of these pines, and the
width of the annual rings generally varies with the age period of the tree, being great-
est when the tree is young and vigorous and least in the sapwood of mature trees. The

[296]

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

two bands of dark summerwood and lighter colored springwood in each year's growth
are distinct in the Southern pines.

Sap wood contains less resinous matter than does the heart wood. The heart wood of
old logs is generally heavier than the sapwood on account of being formed when the tree
was comparatively young and vigorous. Of the three principal pines, longleaf has the
least sapwood and loblolly the most, while shortleaf occupies an intermediate position.

Shrinkage of Southern pines, as when a piece of green or wet wood is dried, does not
change its dimensions until the fiber-saturation point is passed; the wood then begins
to shrink in cross-sectional area until no further moisture can be extracted from the
cell walls, the contraction varying uniformly with the removal of moisture. Generally,
the heaviest wood shrinks the most, and sapwood shrinks about 25 per cent more than
heartwood of the same specific gravity.

The use of Southern pines is not confined to building operations, but furnishes some
twenty million railroad ties annually; a considerable portion of these ties is treated with
either creosote oil or zinc chloride. The average life of the untreated sap tie is about
three years, while that of a properly treated sap tie is about fifteen years. Loblolly
and shortleaf are used to a large extent in mining operations as both round and sawed
timber; the conditions in mines are such as to cause timber to decay very rapidly.

Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) has long been a standard construction timber, not
only on account of its strength, hardness, and durability, but also on account of the good
lengths of heartwood that can be obtained free from knots.

Characteristics: Longleaf pine has a fine and even grain; annual rings uniformly
narrow, generally 12 to 20 rings per inch. Color is generally even; dark-reddish yellow
to reddish brown. Sapwood rarely over 2 to 3 inches of radius in trees 12 inches diameter.
Resin very abundant, pitchy throughout.

In the markets at present any heart pine, whether longleaf, shortleaf, or loblolly,
which shows a close-ringed, hard texture, is sold under the name of longleaf pine, while
the wider ringed, more rapid and sappy growth is sold as shortleaf pine. The names
" Georgia pine " and " Alabama pine " are often used to designate timber coming from
the tracts of longleaf pine in those States.

Specific gravity of kiln-dried longleaf pine has a possible range of 0.50 to 0.90;
the most frequent range is 0.55 to 0.65; averaging about 37.5 pounds per cubic foot.

In weight, the average per cubic foot of dry Georgia pine is 42.9 pounds as against
36.2 pounds for the South Carolina material. The strength ratio of the large to the small
sticks is 0.77 for the fiber stress at elastic limit, 0.79 for the modulus of rupture, and
1.01 for the modulus of elasticity.

Moisture hi longleaf pine timber, 10 X 12 inches in cross-section, after air-drying
for one year yet contained 35 per cent. In large beams air-dried for two years, the
drying did not penetrate to the center.

In ordinary seasoning, the strength of large sticks changes very little for the range of
moisture usually met with in practice. Small pieces when kiln-dried increase in strength
as much as 300 per cent, but large beams can not be dried out to the same extent.
Moreover, the drying process often produces checks and ring shakes, the weakening
effects of which more than counterbalance any gain in strength due to seasoning.

Bending strength: Longleaf pine; South Carolina; size 6x8 niches; span 15 feet;
partially air dry; averaged: Moisture, 25 per cent; rings per inch, 14; specific gravity,
dry 0.58; weight per cubic foot, as tested, 45.6 pounds; oven dry, 36.2 pounds; fiber
stress at elastic limit, 3,800 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 7,160 pounds
per square inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,560,000 pounds per square inch; elastic
resilience, 0.53 inch-pounds per cubic inch.

The crushing strength parallel to grain for longleaf pine is 4,800 pounds per square
inch. The material tested contained 26.3 per cent moisture.

The compressive strength at elastic limit at right angles to grain is 572 pounds
per square inch.

The shearing strength parallel to gram for small specimens is 973 pounds per square
inch.

Longleaf pine finds a wide use in bridge, trestle, warehouse, and factory construc-
tion in the form of dimension timbers, posts, piles, and joists,

[2971

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

Inspection and grading: All lumber must be sound; commercial longleaf yellow
pine shall be free from: Unsound, loose, and hollow knots, worm-holes and knot-holes,
through shakes or round shakes that show on the surface, and shall be square edge
unless otherwise specified.

A through shake is defined to be through or connected from side to side, edge to
edge, or side to edge.

Where terms one-half or two-thirds heart are used they shall be construed as refer-
ring to the area of the face on which measured.

Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) has a variable, medium coarse grain; rings wide near
the heart, followed by zone of narrow rings, mostly 10 to 15 to the inch; often fine
grained. Color whitish to reddish brown. Sapwood is commonly about 4 inches of
radius in trees 12 inches diameter. Resin moderately abundant; least pitchy; only
near stumps, knots, and limbs.

Specific gravity of shortleaf pine has a possible range from 0.40 to 0.80 but more
frequently between 0.43 to 0.53, averaging about 30 pounds per cubic foot.

Bending strength: Shortleaf pine; Arkansas; size, 8X12 inch; span, 15.0 feet;
green; averaged: Moisture, 50 per cent rings per inch, 12; specific gravity, dry, 0.51;
weight per cubic foot, as tested, 48 pounds; oven dry, 32 pounds; fiber stress at elastic
limit, 3,420 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 6,060 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,630,000 pounds per square inch.

Dry shortleaf pine; cross section 8X16 inches; span, 180 inches; averaged: Mois-
ture, 17%; rings per inch, 12; fiber stress at elastic limit, 4,220 pounds per square inch;
modulus of rupture, 6,030 pounds per square inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,517,000
pounds per square inch; calculated shear 398 pounds per square inch.

The effect of seasoning on the strength of large beams is well shown. Three sets of
green North Carolina pine beams were dried in the open air in sunlight, in a kiln, and in
a shed, respectively. The wood in the outer portion of the two sets of beams listed
first was no doubt stronger than in the green condition. The beams failed in hori-
zontal shear, however, before the added strength could be brought out, because of the
presence of checks and shakes. A marked increase in strength was shown by the beams
of select material that were carefully dried in a shed.

Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) occurs in a belt along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf
of Mexico, from Virginia to eastern Texas, extending inland from 50 to 300 miles. It
is commonly sold in New York, Philadelphia, and other Eastern markets as North
Carolina pine; it is generally forest grown timber of large size, with a large proportion
of heartwood, fairly free from knots, and possessing a high order of structural value.

The gram of loblolly pine is variable, mostly very coarse, from 3 to 12 rings to the
inch in structural lumber. Color is yellowish to reddish and orange-brown. Sap-
wood variable, 3 niches and upward of the radius in trees 12 inches or more in diameter.
Resin abundant, more than shortleaf, less than longleaf.

Specific gravity of loblolly pine has a possible range of 0.40 to 0.80, but more fre-
quently between 0.45 to 0.55, averaging about 31 pounds per cubic foot.

Bending strength of loblolly pine: cross-section, 8X16 inches; span, 180 inches;
green; averaged: Moisture, 46 per cent; rings per inch, 6; fiber stress at elastic
limit, 3,094 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 5,394 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,406,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 383 pounds
per square inch.

Dry specimens of loblolly pine in cross-section, 8X16 inches; span, 180 inches;
averaged: Moisture, 20.5 per cent; rings per inch, 7.4; fiber stress at elastic limit,
4,195 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 6,734 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,619,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 462 pounds
per square inch.

Shortleaf and loblolly pines are used principally for building lumber, such as ulterior
finish, flooring, ceiling, frames, and sashes, wainscoting, weather-boarding, joists, lath,
and shingles; they are also used for construction purposes, in bridge and trestle work,
and heavy building operations where the conditions are not such as to require longleaf.
The introduction of preservative processes, which prevents or retards decay, has increased
the use of shortleaf and loblolly for structural purposes.

[298]

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

Virginia pine is the timber cut in the northern portion of this loblolly belt; it is
generally in small sticks, 8 by 8 inches or 10 by 10 inches in cross-section, almost entirely
sapwood and of so rapid a growth that sometimes only four rings occur in 3 inches.
This is second-growth timber, usually very knotty and of an inferior grade.

TIMBERS OF THE PACIFIC COAST

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the most important timber of the Northwest,
and is more extensively used for structural purposes than any other single species. In
the production of lumber it ranks second to the Southern yellow pines. Dimension
timbers find a market throughout the Great Lake region and as far east as the Atlantic
seaboard, for mining, dock, and dredging work, and for spars. It is also known com-
mercially as yellow fir, red fir, Oregon pine, and Douglas spruce.

Its range extends from Lower California to central British Columbia, and from
the Pacific Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. This timber reaches its best development
in western Washington and Oregon, between the summit of the Cascade Mountains
and the Pacific. Almost pure forests are found here in which the tree will average
5 or 6 feet in diameter at the butt, with a height up to 300 feet. It is possible, there-
fore, to obtain exceptionally large and long pieces for structural purposes. Sticks
24 inches square and up to 100 feet long are regularly listed and obtainable in the
merchantable grades.

Small trees varying from 1 to 3 feet in diameter are unsurpassed for spars, owing
to the straightness of the trunk, the small taper, and the great length obtainable.
Douglas fir is almost exclusively used on the Pacific coast for piling for docks and founda-
tions for heavy structures in soft ground. The standard dimensions for this purpose
are 12 inches in diameter and from 60 to 70 feet long.

The sapwood in green logs from mature trees forms a narrow, light-colored ring,
extending usually not more than 2 inches beneath the bark. In the seasoned timber,
however, it can seldom be distinguished by color.

The color of the wood ranges from a light yellow to a pronounced red; the grain
varies from as few as 4 or 5 rings per inch, in small trees or in heartwood, to a fine, even
grain with upward of 40 rings per inch. The rings are usually strongly marked, the sum-
merwood being very dense and dark, and the springwood much softer. The wide-ringed
wood is somewhat spongy. Owing to the marked difference in the texture of the alternate
rings and to the long, regular fiber, the wood splits easily, especially when dry.

Bending test: From an average of 216 tests of all grades, in sizes 8X16 to 5X8 inches
in cross-section, on spans of 7 and 16 feet; 22 per cent moisture; 15 rings per inch;
specific gravity, dry, 0.45; weight per cubic foot, as tested, 33.8 pounds (oven dry 28
pounds); the fiber stress at elastic limit was 4,859 pounds per square inch; modulus
of rupture, 6,975 pounds per square inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,600,000 pounds
per square inch; elastic resilience, 0.85 inch-pounds per cubic inch. The calculated
shear is 269 pounds per square inch.

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) reaches its best development in Washington,
in the region lying between the summit of the Cascade Mountains and the Pacific
coast, but is also found from Alaska to central California and as far east as Idaho and
Montana. The tree, where conditions best favor its development, reaches 4 feet in
diameter at the butt and 200 feet in height. The trunk is straight and cylindrical, but
does not readily clear itself of branches. This causes small knots in the timber and
makes it impossible to obtain much clear lumber except from large trees.

The wood of the mature tree is hard, straight, and even grained, and nearly white
in color. The wood does not split readily, and is light and tough. Knots are rather
frequent, often dark brown to almost black in color, but usually tight and sound. The
regular and even structure of the wood and the total absence of pitch render it capable
of rapid kiln-drying at high temperature without injury. For flooring, molding, paneling,
and all inside finish Western hemlock makes a superior lumber, not easily scratched,
susceptible of a high polish, and of excellent wearing qualities.

Bending strength of Western hemlock from an average of 64 tests, of wood grown in
Oregon and Washington: size 8 X 16 and 6X8 inches cross-section; span, 7 and 16 feet;

[2991

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

partially air-dried; averaged: Moisture 28 per cent ; rings per inch, 13 ; specific gravity,
dry, 0.42; weight per cubic foot, as tested, 33.2 pounds, oven dry, 26 pounds; fiber
stress at elastic limit, 3,856 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 5,992 pounds
per square inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,351,000 pounds per square inch.

The crushing strength of partially air-dry Western hemlock averages 3,705 pounds
per square inch.

The compressive strength at elastic limit, at right angles to the grain, partially air-
dry, averaged 477 pounds per square inch.

The shearing strength parallel to the grain, in small pieces (3 X 1.5 inch area)
averaged 746 pounds per square inch.

Western hemlock as a building material has met with much opposition. A strong
prejudice exists against the name of hemlock, based upon the qualities of the Eastern
species; large quantities of the timber are cut and sold under false or fictitious names,
such as Alaska pine and Washington pine, spruce, or fir.

Western larch (Larix ocddentalis) has not yet won a very important place among
structural timbers. It has a limited range and will probably not be able to compete
with the yellow pines and Douglas fir outside of the region in which it grows, principally
Montana, Idaho, and Washington.

Bending strength: Western larch; cross-section, 8 X 16 inches; span, 180 inches;
green; averaged: Moisture, 51 per cent; rings per inch, 25; fiber stress at elastic limit,
3,276 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 4,632 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,272,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 298 pounds
per square inch.

Average strength values for compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular
to gram, and shearing tests on green material. Western larch: cross-section, 8 X 16
niches; span, 180 niches; averaged: Moisture, 18 per cent; rings per inch, 22; fiber stress
at elastic limit, 3,343 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 5,440 pounds per
square inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,409,000 pounds per square inch; calculated
shear, 349 pounds per square inch.

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is one of the most desirable species from which
heavy structural timbers may be secured, and the wood is also very slow-burning. The
bulk of the material is cut in Humboldt and Mendocino counties, Cal. It is shipped
in cargo lots to San Francisco and Southern California points and is distributed through
these ports.

Redwood is a coniferous tree which grows to great size, aside from the famous
group known as the "Mammoth Grove of Calaveras," to which redwood is related;,
it attains a diameter of 4 to 6 feet and upward, and a height of more than 200 feet.
The wood has an even grain, of deep red color, cedar-like in appearance; it splits readily
and evenly; it planes and polishes well. When cut radially the medullary plates give
the wood a fine satiny luster.

Bending strength in 14 tests of redwood in cross-section 8 X 16 inches; span, 180
inches; green; averaged: Moisture, 86 per cent; rings per inch, 20; fiber stress at elastic
limit, 3,734 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 4,492 pounds per square
inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,016,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 300
pounds per square inch.

Average strength values for compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular
to grain, and shearing tests on air-dried redwood, 6 specimens of cross-section 8 X 16
inches; span, 180 inches; averaged: Moisture, 26.3 per cent; rings per inch, 22.4; fiber
stress at elastic limit, 3,797 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 4,428 pounds
per squa* inch; modulus of elasticity, 1,107,000 pounds per square inch; calculated
shear, 294 pounds per square inch.

TIMBERS OF THE NEW ENGLAND AND LAKE STATES

Norway pine (Pinus resinosa) reaches its best development in the United States
in the northern parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, usually forming groves
of a few hundred acres in extent on light, sandy loam or dry, rocky ridges. It ordinarily
reaches a height of 75 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. The trunk is straight and cfear

[300]

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

of branches. The wood is rather close-grained, is pale red when air-dried, and has
a thin ring of sap wood. Norway pine is cut and sold with white pine hi the Lake
States under the name of Northern pine. It probably makes up about one-third of
the present pine Cut in this region.

Bending strength: Norway pine; Minnesota; size, 6 X 12 niches; span, 13.5 feet;
green; averaged : Moisture, 48 per cent ; rings per inch, 14 ; specific gravity, dry, 0.41 ; weight
per cubic foot, as tested, 37 pounds; oven dry; 25 pounds; fiber stress at elastic limit,
2,550 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 3,975 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,189,000 pounds per square inch; elastic resilience, 0.52 inch-
pounds per cubic inch.

Tests of dry Norway pine: cross-section, 6 X 12 inches; span, 162 inches; averaged:
Moisture, 17 per cent; rings per inch, 8; fiber stress at elastic limit, 2,968 pounds per
square inch; modulus of rupture, 5,204 pounds per square inch; modulus of elasticity,
1,123,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 286 pounds per square inch.

Tamarack (Larix laricina) reaches its best development north of the United States
boundary, in Canada. It extends southward to northern Pennsylvania, northern
Indiana and Illinois, and central Minnesota. In the United States tamarack occurs hi
cold, deep swamps, which it often clothes with forests of densely crowded trees rarely more
than 40 or 50 feet in height. The maximum height of 60 feet and the maximum diameter
of 20 inches are rarely attained in the United States. The trunk is straight and tapers
rather rapidly; it clears itself readily of branches even when growing in fairly open
stands. Tamarack lumber is cut principally in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota.

Bending strength: Tamarack; Minnesota; size, 6 X 12 inches; span, 162 inches;
green; averaged: Moisture, 50 per cent; rings per inch, 14; specific gravity, dry, 0.48;
weight per cubic foot, as tested, 45 pounds; oven dry, 30 pounds; fiber stress at elastic
limit, 2,810 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 4,562 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,219,000 pounds per square inch; elastic resilience, 0.62 inch-
pounds per cubic inch.

Air-dried tamarack; cross-section, 6 X 12 inches; span, 162 inches; averaged:
Moisture, 23 per cent; rings per inch, 15; fiber stress at elastic limit, 3,434 pounds per
square inch; modulus of rupture, 5,640 pounds per square inch; modulus of elasticity,
1,330,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 318 pounds per square inch.

Tamarack is at present a structural timber of minor importance and is used only
locally in the Northern States.

Spruce is one of the trees of the genus Picea, of the pine family. It is found in
British America, the northern United States, and in the AUeghanies to North Carolina.
Its light, soft wood is largely made into lumber, and is used in construction, in ship-
building, for piles, etc. Black spruce (Picea nigra) is a light, straight-grained wood used
for building lumber, and is much used for masts and spars of ships. Red spruce (Picea
rubens) is a stunted variety of black spruce, growing in swamps. White spruce (Picea
alba or canadensis) is the commonest native spruce of the United States, having an
extended range and utility. It is abundant in Canada, extending into northern New
England, and reputed to be at its best in northern Montana. Its timber in commerce
is not distinguished from that of the black spruce. It is used for joists and small forms
of structural timbers. Spruce has a high value for paper pulp, and as a structural
timber will doubtless never be of more than local importance.

Bending strength: Red spruce; cross-section, 2X10 inches; span, 144 inches j green;
averaged: Moisture, 33 per cent; rings per inch, 22; fiber stress at elastic limit,
2,394 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 3,566 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,180,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 181 pounds
per square inch.

Bending strength: White spruce; cross-section, 2X10 inches; span, 144 inches;
green; averaged: Moisture, 41 per cent; rings per inch, 9; fiber stress at elastic limit,
2,239 pounds per square inch; modulus of rupture, 3,288 pounds per square inch;
modulus of elasticity, 1,081,000 pounds per square inch; calculated shear, 166 pounds
per square inch.

[301

STRUCTURAL TIMBER

TIMBER TESTS

In bending tests the specimens were supported near the ends, and the load applied
at two points, each located at one-third of the length of the span from the end sup-
ports; a method which reproduces closely the conditions to which a beam is subjected
in structural work. Four factors were calculated from the data derived, all in terms
of pounds per square inch:

(a) Fiber stress at elastic limit: This is the greatest stress that can occur in a beam
loaded with an external load from which it will recover without permanent deflection.

(b) Modulus of rupture: This is the greatest computed stress in a beam loaded with
a breaking load.

(c) Modulus of elasticity: This is a factor computed from the relation between
load and deflection within the elastic limit, and represents the stiffness of the wood fiber.

(d) Longitudinal shear: This is the stress tending to split the beam lengthwise
along its neutral plane when under maximum load.

Compression Parallel to Grain. — The specimens were set upright on the platform
of the testing machine and crushed endwise. Observations of amount of load and
deflection, or compression, were made as in the bending tests.

Compression Perpendicular to Grain. — The tests were made by laying each block on
its side on the platform of the machine, and applying pressure to an iron plate resting
on the block's upper side. The test corresponds to the action of a rail on a cross-tie, or a
floor joist on a supporting beam. Readings of the load and the corresponding deflection
or crushing were taken up to and slightly beyond the elastic limit. From these data
the compressive strength at elastic limit in pounds per square inch was calculated.

Shearing.: — These tests were made on small, clear blocks with a projecting lip 2 by
3 inches in section. The blocks were held firmly, and the lip sheared off parallel to the
grain. The load required to shear off the lip was calculated in pounds per square inch.

[302]

SECTION 5
STEEL BARS, PLATES, SHAPES, BOLTS, RIVETS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form a part of these specifications.

2. Ingots. — Ingots will be divided into three clssses: (a) Top poured; (b) Bottom
poured; (c) Fluid compressed.

3. Bored Ingots. — If bored ingots are ordered, the wall of the ingot must be at least
one and one-half times the thickness of the wall of the forging to be made therefrom.

4. Discards. — (a) From class (a) ingots only so much will be used as remains after
at least 5 per cent of the total weight has been discarded from the bottom, and at least
30 per cent of the total weight from the top.

(b) From class (b) ingots only so much will be used as remains after at least 5 per
cent of the total weight has been discarded from the bottom, and at least 20 per cent
of the total weight from the top.

(c) From class (c) ingots, when parts are forged solid, only so much will be used as
remains after at least 5 per cent of the total weight has been discarded from the bottom,
and at least 20 per cent of the total weight from the top.

(d) When forgings are to be made from bored fluid compressed ingots at least 3
per cent of the total weight of the ingot shall be discarded from the bottom and at
least 10 per cent of the total weight from the top.

(e) If ingots are cast in any unusual manner, the amount of minimum discard from
them will be determined by the bureau concerned.

5. Test. — Ingots made by steel manufacturers and to be forged or rolled into finished
objects by establishments other than those manufacturing them will be subjected to
chemical test.

6. Slabs, Blooms, and Billets. — The line between blooms and billets to be drawn
at 36 square inches cross-section. Rounds shall be classed as blooms or billets if they
are to be reforged or retreated.

7. Ordering. — Slabs, blooms, and billets will be ordered by grade with reference
to the classifications as contained in the Navy Department's latest specifications for
hull and engine forgings.

8. Material. — Slabs, blooms, and billets for the use of the Navy Department shall
be manufactured from open-hearth, crucible, or electric-furnace steel, and shall be
rolled or forged from ingots of at least four times the cross-section of the finished slab,
bloom, or billet.

9. Tests When Material is Not to be Reforged. — Slabs, blooms, and billets of carbon,
nickel, and alloy steel and which are not to be reforged or retreated shall be tested at the
place of manufacture, and shall comply with the chemical and physical requirements
of then* grades, as contained in the Navy Department's latest specifications for hull
and engine forgings. For identification this material shall be stamped with the number
of the heat or ingot.

10. Tests When Material is to be Reforged.— (a) Slabs, blooms, and billets of carbon
and nickel steel and which are to be reforged or retreated by establishments other than
those manufacturing them shall be accepted on the chemical requirements for the grade
as specified. In case of ordering same according to the requirements of forgings for
which they are intended a reduction of 10 per cent on the required percentage of elonga-
tion and reduction of area shall be allowed by the inspector and the bending test will
not be required. This material shall be plainly stamped with the forgings and grade
number and the words "For reforging."

[303]

BOILER PLATES

(b) Slabs, blooms, and billets of alloy steel and which are to be reforged or retreated
by establishments other than those manufacturing them shall be accepted on the
chemical requirements for the grade as specified. This material shall be plainly stamped
with the forging and grade number and the words "For reforging." The manufacturer
shall furnish the inspector with a description of the heat treatment necessary to produce
the physical requirements of the grade ordered.

11. Surface Inspection. — All slabs, blooms, and billets shall be free from injurious
surface defects, shall be reasonably straight and free from twist, and shall not vary
from the transverse dimensions specified more than 3 per cent, under or over.

12. Test Bars. — (a) The standard tensile-test bar, 0.505 inch in diameter and 2
inches between measuring points, will be used.

(b) The standard bar for the cold-bending test shall be of rectangular cross-section,
0.5 inch by 1 inch. The edges may be rounded off to a radius of ^ of an inch.

13. Location of Test Bars. — Tensile and cold-bending test pieces shall be taken in
the direction of the greatest working of the slab, bloom, or billet and on the line of
greatest width, at one-half the distance from the center to the edge of the slab, bloom,
or billet.

14. Tests. — In all cases where physical tests are required at the place of manu-
facture the slabs, blooms, and billets shall be tested by heats (if treated together; other-
wise from each lot of each heat so treated), four longitudinal tensile and two longitudinal
cold-bending test pieces being selected, each from a different object; but if less than
sixteen pieces are made from one heat, then one cold-bending and two tensile test pieces
shall be selected; but if there is one slab, bloom, or billet from a heat, one longitudinal
textile and one longitudinal cold-bending test piece will suffice, either or both of which
to be taken from the upper or lower end, at discretion of the inspector.

15. Chemical Analysis. — A chemical analysis will be made by the contractor of each
heat and the sample may be taken from a physical test piece or drilled from the slab,
bloom, or billet at the point designated in paragraph 13 as the location for the test
piece.

BOILER PLATES

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Physical and Chemical Properties. — The physical and chemical characteristics
of steel boiler plate are to be in accordance with the table on opposite page.

TESTS

3. Number of Tests. — One longitudinal tensile test piece and one bending test
piece (transverse for Class "A" and Class "B" and longitudinal for Class "C" boiler
plate) shall be cut from each plate as rolled at such points as may be designated by
the inspector. The cold-bending test pieces may have their corners rounded to a curve
the radius of which is equal to one-fourth the thickness of the plate.

4. Additional Tests. — The inspector may require from time to time such additional
tests as he may deem necessary to determine the uniformity of the material.

5. Rejection on Delivery. — Boiler plate may be rejected at a navy yard or other
places of delivery for surface or other defects either existing on arrival or developed in
working or storage, even though the material may have passed the required inspection
at the place of manufacture.

FINISH

6. Surface Inspection. — Boiler plates shall be free of all slag, foreign substances,
brittleness, laminatibns, hard spots, brick or scale marks, scabs, snakes, or other
injurious defects.

[304]

BOILER PLATES

-

«l

1

MAXIMUM

bog

1 1

0)

o

PERCENTAGE

/if

OP —

•09

•H

b

Material

*" t«
W ft

e|

gx

jl

Without Showing Cracks or Flaws
Must Cold Bend About an Inner
Diameter —

1

ill

s^"

f

P

s

Equal to thickness of plate

and through 180° for plates

1 inch in thickness and un-

A

Open - hearth
steel

( 65,000
to

UT.
a

}22

0.04

0.035

der and equal to one and
one-half times the thick-

I 75,000

j

ness through 180° for

plates over 1 inch in thick-

ness.

Flat back through 180° for

(KO AHO

plates under 1 inch in

B

Do.

oo,uuu
to
CK. nnn

IT.

S.

}25

.04

.035

thickness and equal to
thickness of plate through

DOjUUU

.

180° for plates 1 inch and

over in thickness.

C

Open - hearth

To be in accordance with specifications for flange and boiler steel

or Besse-

adopted by the Association of American Steel Manufacturers,

mer steel

revised 1903.

NOTES. — When the finished plate is ? inch or less the elongation shall be measured
on an original length of sixteen times the thickness of the plate tested.

When plates are ordered to gauge, United States standard gauge will be used.

7. Shearing. — Boiler plates shall not be sheared closer to finished dimensions than
once the thickness of the plate along each end and one-half the thickness of the plate
along each side. This allowance shall be made by the contractor in his order, and the
manufacturer shall shear to the ordered dimensions.

8. Variation in Thickness. Tolerance. — A tolerance of 0.01 inch below the ordered
gauge will be permitted for plates up to and including 100 inches in width, and for
plates over 100 niches in width a tolerance of 0.015 inch will be allowed, measured in
each case at the thinnest point.

9. Weight Variation Tolerance. — For all plates ordered to gauge there will be per-
mitted an average excess of weight over the calculated weight equal in amount to that
specified in the table on the following page.

10. Marking and Stamping. — Each plate shall be stamped with heat number
figures to be not less than \ inch long, and shall have size and order number plainly
marked with white paint.

11. Inspection Stamps. — Plates which have passed inspection must show the U. S.
anchor and other stamps necessary for identification, encircled by white paint marks.

REHEATING

12. Boiler-Drum Tube Sheets, Drumheads, Etc. — Boiler-drum tube sheets, drum-
heads, headers, nozzles, and man- and hand-hole plates which are formed from boiler
plate shall be formed hot.

13. temperatures of Reheating. — The inspector shall see that the proper temper-
ature is used for forming boiler parts from material and that the material is not
overheated.

[305]

BOILER PLATES
ALLOWANCES FOB OVERWEIGHT FOE PLATES WHEN ORDERED TO GAUGE

Thickness of Plate,
in Inches

WIDTH OF PLATE IN INCHES

vti°

50 to
70

Over
70

Up to

75

75 to
100

100 to
115

Over
113

PERCENTAGE ALLOWED

Under &..

10

8£

7

15

131

10

20

17
15

10

8
7
6
5
4*
4
3|

14
12
10
8
7
6£
6
5

18
16
13
10
9
8*
8
6£

17
13
12
11
10
9

JW UD to A

A UD tO T .

i

A .

|

A .

i

A

f

Over |

The weight of 1 cubic inch of rolled steel is assumed to be 0.2833 pound.

14. Flanges. — All flanges must be carefully examined for defects before and during
the pressure test of the boiler.

INSPECTION FACILITIES

15. Mill Inspection. — The material shall be inspected at the mill unless special
authority to the contrary is given.

16. Access to Manufacturing Plant. — The Navy Department shall have the right
to keep inspectors at the place of manufacture, and these inspectors shall have free
access at all times to all parts of the manufacturing plant and be permitted to examine
the raw material and to witness the process of manufacture.

17. Testing Machine and Other Appliances. — The manufacturer shall furnish all
facilities for inspecting and testing the weight and quality of all material at the mill
where it is manufactured. He shall furnish a suitable testing machine for testing the
specimens as we"! as prepare the specimens for the machine free of cost.

18. Inspection Office, Etc. — The manufacturer shall furnish free of cost the in-
spectors with such facilities as may be necessary for the proper transaction of their
business as agents of the Government.

STEEL PLATES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION FOR
THE UNITED STATES NAVY

1. General Requirements. — The "General Specifications for the Inspection of
Material," of latest issue by the Navy Department, shall form a part of these speci-
fications, and must be complied with as to material, method of inspection, and all
other requirements therein.

2. Finish. — Plates shall be flat, free from all injurious defects, and shall have a
workmanlike finish.

3. Physical and Chemical Requirements. — The physical and chemical requirements
and kind of material for plates shall be in accordance with the table on opposite
page.

[306]

STEEL PLATES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

Grade

Material

Minimum
Tensile
Strength

Minimum
Elongation

MAXIMUM
AMOUNT OF —

Cold Bend

P.

s.

Pounds

per Sq.

Per

Per

Inch

Cent

Per Ct.

Cent

Soft or
flange

•

f Open-hearth
\carbon steel

} 50,000

30 1

0.05 acid .
.04 basic

}o.05

180° flat on itself.

steel

For test specimens be-

low f inch in thickness,

•

180° flat on itself for

longitudinal, and 180°

to diameter of one thick-

Medium
steel

( Open-hearth
\ carbon steel

} 60,000

25{

0.05 acid.
.04 basic

} 0.05

ness for transverse. For
test specimens f inch
thickness and above,

the bends will be 180°

to a diameter of one

thickness for longitudi-

nal, and two thicknesses

for transverse specimens.

High ten-
sile steel

Open-hearth
carbon,

80,000

20{

0.05 acid .
.04 basic

}o.05

180° to a diameter of one
and one-half thicknesses

nickel, or

for longitudinal, and

silicon steel

180° to a diameter of

two and one-half thick-

nesses for transverse.

Common

Open-hearth

55,000

22

No chei

nical

180° to a diameter of one

steel (c)

or Besse-

analysis re-

thickness.

mer steel

quired

4. Test Specimens. — (a) ELONGATION. — For plates up to and including 5.1 pounds
per square foot, the elongation shall be measured on a length of 2 inches; over 5.1 pounds
per square foot, up to and including 7.65 pounds, in 4 inches; over 7.65 pounds per
square foot, up to and including 10.2 pounds, in 6 inches; over 10.2 pounds per square
foot, and under 60 pounds per square foot in 8 inches. The test specimens may be
either Type II or Type III.

(b) For plates 60 pounds per square foot and over the elongation shall be measured
in 2 inches, using the standard 2-inch turned specimen (Type I), in which case the
minimum shall be 27 per cent for medium steel and 22 per cent for high tensile steel.

(c) BENDING. — The bending test specimens shall conform to "General Specifica-
tions," paragraph 21.

(d) PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS. — In melt and individual tests of plates under 60
pounds per square foot the specimens for tensile tests shall be required to average tho
requirements of the grade of steel they represent; but no test shall fall more than 3,000
pounds in tensile strength, or 2 units of per cent in elongation below the requirements
for steel of the grade. An additional allowance for transverse specimens shall be a
deduction of 1 unit of per cent in elongation for each increase of | inch in thickness
above f inch; provided that the minimum elongation for any such transverse specimen
shall be 20 per cent for medium steel and 16 per cent for high tensile steel.

(e) For plates 60 pounds per square foot and over, a variation in tensile strength
only, of 3,000 pounds below the requirement for steel of the grade, will be allowed.

- , [307]

STEEL PLATES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

5. Common Steel. — (a) Common steel may be rolled from any stock on hand, and
the stamping of serial numbers on separate pieces may be omitted, provided that all
other information required by these specifications, such as melt and charging records,
etc., be supplied to the inspector, to enable him to select test specimens.

(b) Two test specimens shall be taken from each melt of finished material — one
for tension and one for bending.

(c) Common steel plates shall, in addition to other marks prescribed, have painted
conspicuously on each plate the letter "C," not less than 12 inches in height. All
invoices or reports of material shipped shall be plainly marked "Common."

6. Material Presented for Test. — (a) Plates under 60 pounds per square foot may
be tested as individual plates or by melts. Plates 60 pounds per square foot and over
shall be tested as individuals. On individual test the plate is accepted or rejected on
the result of the tests representing that plate only. On melt test all the material
from the same melt is accepted or rejected on the result of the tests representing the
melt, subject, however, to such special tests as may be considered necessary by the
inspector.

(b) When a melt is rolled and presented for test as a melt, six plates shall be selected
by the inspector for test, each plate from a different ingot, if practicable. The plates
shall be so selected as to represent the topmost and bottommost parts of the ingots.
When the difference in gauge of the plates rolled is such that six plates will not properly
represent the melt, sufficient additional plates shall be selected for test to give satis-
factory information of the physical characteristics of all the gauges rolled.

(c) When a melt is presented for test preliminary to rolling, six plates shall be
rolled from slabs or ingots which may be selected by the inspector, each plate being
from a different slab, and when practicable from a different ingot. The plates shall be
selected to represent the topmost and bottommost parts of the ingots. Plates rolled
for such a test shall not vary from the maximum to the minimum gauge — more than
2.7 pounds per square foot for plates 10.2 pounds per square foot and under; more
than 5 pounds per square foot for plates above 10.2 pounds, including 30.6 pounds per
square foot; more than 10 pounds per square foot for plates over 30.6 pounds per square
foot. Plates subsequently rolled from such a melt shall be of the gauges tested or
intermediate gauges, except that the inspector may authorize the rolling of gauges
not more than 25 per cent above and below the gauges tested in the case of plates 10.2
pounds per square foot and under, and not more than 5 pounds per square foot above
and below in the case of plates over 10.2 pounds per square foot. The inspector shall
satisfy himself that the material rolled has received practically the same treatment as
the test plates, especially as to the amount of working temperature during finishing,
and amount of discard from the ingot.

(d) Plates rolled to gauges other than those authorized on the melt test will be
tested as individuals.

7. Number of Tests. — (a) MELT TESTS. — One tensile test specimen shall be located
by the inspector on each of four of the plates submitted for test. Two of the test
specimens shall be cut longitudinally, that is, in the direction of greatest working, and
two transversely, that is, in the direction of least working. These four test specimens
shall be selected so as to represent the upper and lower and intermediate gauges rolled,
as specified in paragraph 6 (c). Two bending test specimens shall be located by the
inspector on each of the two remaining plates, one test specimen on each plate being
cut longitudinally and one transversely. These bending test specimens shall be taken
from a plate representing the topmost part of the ingot.

(b) INDIVIDUAL TESTS. — When a plate under 60 pounds per square foot is sub-
mitted for individual test, three test specimens shall be located by the inspector. Two
of these shall be tensile specimens, one to be taken longitudinally, and one transversely,
one being from each end of the plate. The third, a transverse cold bend, shall be taken
from the opposite end from which the transverse tensile specimen is taken.

(c) For plates 60 pounds per square foot and over two test specimens shall be
located by the inspector. One of these will be a tensile specimen, which will represent
the material nearest the bottom of the ingot; the other will be a cold-bend specimen,
which will be taken from the opposite end of the plate from the tensile specimen. The

[308]

STEEL PLATES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

tensile test specimen shall be cut longitudinally and the bend test specimen shall be
cut transversely. Both specimens shall be cut from the ends of the plate midway
between the center and the outer edge.

, 8. Universal Plates. — (a) Universal plates shall be in accordance with the fore-
going requirements for steel of the grade specified except that the melt and individual
tests shall be as given in the following.

(b) MELT TESTS. — One tensile test specimen shall be located by the inspector
on each of four of the plates submitted for test. All of the test specimens shall be cut
longitudinally, that is, in the direction of greatest working. One cold-bending test
specimen, cut longitudinally, shall be located by the inspector on each of the two
remaining plates.

If practicable, both cold-bending test specimens shall be cut from the end repre-
senting the top of the ingot.

(c) INDIVIDUAL TESTS. — When a plate is submitted for individual test, one tensile
and one cold-bending test specimen, both cut longitudinally, shall be located by the
inspector. The tensile test specimen shall be located to represent the material nearest
the bottom of the ingot, and the cold-bending test specimen will be taken from the
opposite end of the plate.

9. Figured Plates. — (a) CLASS A. — These plates shall conform in all respects to the
requirements of medium steel as outlined above.

(b) CLASS B. — These plates shall conform in all respects to the requirements of
common steel as called for above.

10. Galvanized Plates. — (a) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS. — Plates to
be galvanized shall meet the requirements for steel of the grade specified before gal-
vanizing and shall conform to the permissible variations in weight and gauge before
galvanizing.

(b) FREEDOM FROM SURFACE DEFECTS. — Galvanized plates must be thoroughly
and evenly galvanized; of a bright appearance; free from pits, blisters, and other defects;
and must be commercially flat. No rerolling of the plates after leaving the galvanizing
bath will be permitted, except for the purpose of straightening. The coating must
not break off when scraped with a knife or if the plate is bent 90°.

(c) SAMPLES FROM GALVANIZING BATH. — The galvanizing material must show at
least 98 per cent pure zinc, determined from a sample taken at random by the inspector,
from the upper half of the galvanizing bath. The sample may be taken at any time,
provided the manufacturer agrees to have the sample represent the coating for the
order; otherwise, when the inspector has been unable to secure a sample of the bath
used for the order, the purity of the bath may be established by a sample of galvanized
plate taken at random from the finished material.

(d) AMOUNT OF COATING. — The increase in weight due to galvanizing shall not
exceed 2f ounces nor shall it be less than 2 ounces per square foot of surface coated.
The determination of the amount of coating per square foot shall preferably be made
by establishing the practice of the firms, at convenient intervals, by weighing plates as
follows: First, weight in bulk of selected plates in the black, after pickling. Second,
weight of the same selected plates after galvanizing. If this course cannot be pursued,
a selected sample from the galvanized plates for the order, of 2 square feet of surface,
will be sent to a Government laboratory, at the expense of the contractor, where
determination will be made of the amount of zinc coating per square foot.

11. Permissible Variations in Weight and Gauge. — The maximum permissible
variations in weight and gauge, applicable to single plates, will be in accordance with
the tables on following page.

12. Character of Material for Certain Purposes. — (a) Narrow plates, or flats,
intended for seam straps or similar purposes may be rolled on universal or bar mill and
tested in accordance with requirements for universal plates.

(b) The use of universal rolled plates will not be permitted for butt straps or for
any purpose where the transverse strength of the material is of particular importance.

Note for General Storekeepers. — Plates or sheets 0.141 inch and under in thickness
should be ordered under these specifications only when they are for structural purposes
where strength and gauge are important; otherwise such plates should be ordered under

[309]

STEEL SHAPES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

the latest issue of specifications for black and galvanized sheet steel, No. 47S8, of
latest sub-letter.

(a) PLATES LESS THAN 10 POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT

the

ALLOWABLE UNDERGAUGE AT EDGE (Per Cent)

Allow-

able

8

II

if

2 $

Js

If

1

•

WEIGHT ORDERED
(Pounds per Square Foot)

Varia-
tion in

Weight

1j

Is

||

«1

in

fi

1

o£

HH jB

H-4 g.

«">

M g>

Mt

(Per
Cent)

II

J3

*3

13

*3

*si

|o1

feol

E4HM

1

£

°

0

°

°

0

0

0

Up to 5. (

3 over.
5 under

}l2

15

18

21

24

..

..

..

5 inclusive to 7| exclu-

sive..

tt

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

7^ inclusive to 10 exclu-

sive

K

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

(b) PLATES 10 POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT AND OVER

ALLOWABLE UNDERGAUGE AT EDGE (Per Cent)

Allowable

I

|s

If

|s

|s

s«

m

WEIGHT ORDERED
(Pounds per Square Foot)

Varia-
tion in
Weight
(Per Cent)

h
sj

l|e

H ^

}j|

lls

IJ

ssl

1

§

|l

fcol

(J+il-t

id

n*"13

|o|

i

o

°

0

o

°

0

10 inclusive to 12| exclusive \

3 over...
5 under. .

}10

11

12

13

14

18

-.

12| inclusive to 15 exclusive, j

2 over . . .
3 under. .

I8

9

10

11

12

14

16

15 inclusive to 17| exclusive . .

u

6

7

8

9

10

11

13

17£ inclusive to 20 exclusive. . .

tt

5

5

6

• 7

8

9

10

20 inclusive to 25 exclusive . . .

"

4

5

5

5

6

7

8

25 inclusive to 30 exclusive . . .

it

3

3

3

4

5

5

6

30 inclusive to 40 exclusive. . .

"

3

3

3

3

3

4

5

40 and up

"

2

2

2

3

3

3

4

STEEL SHAPES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Requirements. — "General Specifications for Inspection of Steel and
Iron Material, General Specifications, Appendix I," issued June, 1912, shall form a
part of these specifications, and must be complied with in all respects.

2. Finish. — All shapes shall be true to section, free from injurious defects, and shall
have a workmanlike finish.

3. Physical and Chemical Requirements. — (a) All shapes shall be of uniform
quality. The physical and chemical requirements of the various grades of material
for shapes shall be in accordance with the following table:

[310]

STEEL SHAPES FOR HULLS AND HULL CONSTRUCTION

Grade

Material

Minimum
Tensile
Strength
per
Square
Inch

Minimum
Elonga-
tion in
8 Inches
(b)

MAXIMUM AMOUNT

OF —

Cold Bend

P.

S.

Pounds

Per Ct.

Per Ct.

Per Ct.

Soft or
flange
steel

f Open -hearth
\ carbon
I steel

1 48,000

30

{Acid
0.05
Basic
.04

i 0.05

180° flat on itself.

1 For test pieces

below f inch in

thickness, 180°

flat on itself.

Medium
steel

( Open -hearth
] carbon
I steel

i 60,000

25

f Acid
1 0.05
] Basic

,/\ J

).
0.05

For test pieces f
. inch or more in
thickness the

•

I .04

bends will be

180° to a diam-

eter of one

thickness.

Open - hearth

i

{Acid

("180° to a diam-

High ten-
sile steel

carbon
nickel, or
silicon

steel

80,000

20

0.05
Basic
.04

0.05

I eter of one and
| one-half thick-
l nesses.

Common
steel (c)

f Open - hearth
j or Besse-
l mer steel

i 56,000

22

( No chemical an-
\ alysis required

("180° to a diam-
•| eter of one
I thickness.

(b) ELONGATION. — For shapes, the legs or webs of which have a nominal thickness
| inch or less, elongation will be measured in 2 inches; over £ inch nominal thickness,
to and including ^ inch, in 4 inches; over & inch nominal thickness, to and including
J inch, in 6 inches; and over \ inch nominal thickness, in 8 inches.

4. Tensile Tests (Except for Common Steel). — Shapes shall be tested by lots (or
singly) ; a lot consisting of all the shapes rolled from a particular melt at a continuous
rolling into sections, the nominal gauges of the webs or legs of which do not vary more
than \ inch from the maximum to the minimum gauge. Four longitudinal test pieces
shall be prepared from each lot, each specimen being from a separate shape, and, if
practicable, from different ingots. All of these specimens must meet the requirements
for the grade of steel specified. No lot will be accepted if there is a difference of more
than 10.000 pounds in tensile strength between any two of the four specimens.

5. Bending Tests (Except for Common Steel). — Two cold-bend specimens shall be
taken from each lot, each from a different shape. These specimens shall meet the
requirements of the specified grade of steel without sign of fracture on the outer curve.
If one of these specimens fail, each shape rolled from the lot must pass the cold-bending
test before being cut to ordered length.

6. Physical Tests for Common Steel. — Common steel may be rolled from any
stock on hand, but all information! required by these specifications, such as melt and
charging records, etc., shall be supplied to the inspector to enable him to select test
specimens. Two specimens shall be taken from each melt of finished material — one
for tension test and one for bending test.

7. Opening and Closing Tests. — Opening and closing tests will be made at the
option of the inspector on individual angles, Zee bars, Tee bars, I beams and channels
which show evidence of mechanical defects or overheating, if in the opinion of the
inspector the nature and extent of the defects need confirmation by such tests. The
opening test shall consist of opening the section out flat while cold and the closing test

[311]

BLACK AND GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL

shall consist of closing the section down flat on itself while cold. Under these tests
the material shall not crack or tear.

8. Test of a Single Shape. — In case of a single shape one tensile and one cold-
bending test will be made. These tests must meet the requirements for the grade of
steel specified.

9. Tolerances. — Shapes of 6 pounds per linear foot or less will be accepted if the
weights vary 3 per cent above and 5 per cent below the specified weight. Shapes
over 6 pounds per linear foot will be accepted if the weights vary 2 per cent above
or 3 per cent below the specified weights.

10. Marking Common Shapes. — Common shapes shall, in addition to the other
marks prescribed, have painted conspicuously on each shape the word "Common."
All invoices or "Reports of Material Shipped," covering this class of material, shall
be plainly marked with the word "Common."

BLACK AND GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. These specifications cover sheets of 0.141 inch in thickness and thinner.

3. General Requirements. — Sheets shall be made of the very best soft sheet steel;
to stand double-seam purposes.

4. (a) To be free from all injurious defects, and to be free also from excessive scale
and to be commercially flat and reasonably free from waves and buckles.

(b) To be of the finest working quality and meet the allowances for thickness and
weights given below.

(c) BUNDLING. — Sheets 0.063 inch thick or thicker, weighing 60 pounds each or
over, are not to be bundled. All other sheets to be delivered in commercial bundles
fastened with three iron or steel straps not to exceed 1 j inches in width and not thicker
than | inch. When sheets exceed 120 inches in length, an extra strap may be required
by the inspector.

(d) PAYMENT. — Gross weight will be paid for.

(e) MARKING. — Outside surface of the top sheet of each bundle (or single sheet
when not bundled) shall be plainly marked to show the number and size of sheets,
weight per square foot, and gross weight.

(f) Tolerances. — When not otherwise specified, allowance over the width and
length ordered will be permitted, as shown in the table below. Sheets required to be
closer in dimensions will be ordered as "resquared."

(g) The agreement with thickness ordered is to be established by the weight. Each
sheet shall be of practically uniform thickness.

(h) A variation in weight of sheets of 5 per cent, plus or minus, will be allowed.

5. Regular Sizes. — (a) Regular sizes of sheets are as follows, those italicized being
most used.

Thickness, in Inches

Width

Length

Maximum
Variation
in Length
(Plus)

Maximum
Variation
in Width
(Plus)

0 141 to 0 063, inclusive

Inches
24, 26, 28,

Inches
72, 84, 96,

Inch
i

Inch
4

0. 056 to 0.025, inclusive

30, 36, 40,
42, 48
24, 26, 28,

120, 144

72, 84, 96,

i

1

0 . 022 to 0 . 016, inclusive

30, 86
24, 26, 28,

120, 144

72, 84, 96,

I

J

0 . 014 to 0 . 013, inclusive

30

24, 26, 28,

120, 144
72, 84, 96,

|

1

30

120

[312]

BLACK AND GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL
(b) MAXIMUM SIZES. — Maximum sizes of sheets are as follows:

BLACK

GALVANIZED, AND BLACK THINNER THAN 0.063 INCH

Thickness

Dimensions

Thickness

Dimensions

Inch
0 141

Inches
24 x 240 or
66 x 180
24 x 228 or
66 x 180
54 x 156

54 x 156

Inch
0.141 to 0.038, inclusive

0.034 to 0.025, inclusive
0 022 and 0 019

Inches
48x144

28 x 144 or
48 x 120
28 x 144 or
44 x 120
28 x 144 or
42 x 120
28 x 144 or
36 x 120

0.125 and 0.109...
0.094 and 0.078...
0.070 and 0.063...

0 017

0.016 to 0.013, inclusive

6. Weights for black and galvanized sheets:

(a) These weights are the weights adopted commercially for sheets of corresponding
thicknesses and are approximate weights.

Thick-
ness, in
Inches

WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT

Thick-
ness, in
Inches

WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT

Galvanized

Black

Galvanized

Black

Us.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Ozs.

0.141

(5.781)

92.5

(5.625)

90

0.034

(1.531)

24.5

(1.375)

22

.125

(5.156)

82.5

(5.00 ) .

80

.031

(1.406)

22.5

(1.25 )

20

.109

(4.531)

72.5

(4.375)

70

.028

(1.281)

20.5

(1.125)

18

.094

(3.906)

62.5

(3.75 )

60

.025

(1.156)

18.5

(1.0 )

16

.078

(3.281)

52.5

(3.125)

50

.022

(1.031)

16.5

( .875)

14

.070

(2.968)

47.5

(2.812)

45

.019

( .906)

14.5

( -75 )

12

.063

(2.656)

42.5

(2.50 )

40

.017

( .843)

13.5

( .687)

11

.056

(2.406)

38.5

(2.25 )

36

.016

( .781)

12.5

( .625)

10

.050

(2.156)

34.5

(2.00 )

32

.014

( -718)

11.5

( .562)

9

.044

(1.906)

30.5

(1.75 )

28

.013

( .656)

10.5

( .50 )

8

.038

(1.656)

26.5

(1.50 )

24

NOTE FOR GENERAL STOREKEEPERS. — Requisitions should state the material
desired, black or galvanized, the width, length, and weight per square foot. In ordering
material, where possible, regular sizes will be asked for, and where special sizes are
required the maximum limits will not be exceeded.

7. Galvanized Sheets, Freedom from Defects. — Galvanized sheets must be thor-
oughly and evenly galvanized, of a bright appearance, devoid of blisters, ragged edges
or other defects, reasonably free from buckles, and commercially flat. The zinc coating
must not flake or peel off when scraped with a knife or when the sheet is bent sharply
at right angles.

[313]

CORRUGATED GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL

8. Thickness.-

Thickness, in Inches

Maximum
Sizes

Minimum
Zinc Coating
per Square
Foot for
Galvanized
Plates

0 141 to 0. 038, inclusive

Inches
48 x 144

Ounces
1 65

0. 034 to 0 . 025, inclusive

/28xl44\

1ff\

0 022 and 0.019

\48x 120 /
/ 28 x 144 \

.ou

1Af\

0 017

1 44 x 120 /

/ 28 x 144 \

.4U

IOC

0 016 to 0 013, inclusive . . .

\42xl20J
/ 36 x 120 \

.OO
Ioe

\28xl44J

.OO

9. Samples from Galvanizing Bath. — No rerolling of sheets after leaving the gal-
vanizing bath will be permitted, except for the purpose of straightening. The galvanizing
material must show 98 per cent pure zinc, determined from a sample taken at random
by a Government inspector from the upper half of the galvanizing bath. These samples
may be taken at any time, provided the manufacturer agrees to have the sample repre-
sent the galvanizing for the order; otherwise, when the inspector has been unable to
secure a sample of the bath used for the order, the purity of the bath may be established
by a Government laboratory from a sample of galvanized sheet taken at random from
the order.

10. Determination of Amount of Zinc Coating. — The determination of the amount
of coating per square foot to be obtained by establishing the practice of the firm at
convenient intervals, by weighing plates, as follows: First, weight in bulk of selected
plates in the black, after pickling. Secondly, weight of the same selected plates after
galvanizing. If this course cannot be pursued, the following method may be used : A
selected sample from a galvanized sheet for the order, of two square feet of surface, will
be sent to a Government laboratory at the expense of the manufacturer, where determi-
nation will be made of the amount of zinc coating per square foot.

CORRUGATED GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. General Quality. — Corrugated sheet steel to be of a good grade of steel. Sheets
to be thoroughly and uniformly galvanized and of a bright appearance; to be free from
ragged edges, deep pits, or other defects. Gross weight, including steel straps for
bundling, will be paid for. Weight of flat plates after galvanizing to conform to table
following, with a tolerance of 5 per cent either way, provided the weight of coating
is not reduced.

3. Types of Corrugation. — Corrugations will be of three types, A, B, or C, as re-
quired, in accordance with sketch incorporated in and forming a part of these specifica-
tions. Corrugations shall be approximately parallel to each other and to edges of
sheet, and ends of sheet shall be approximately square. Requisitions must state type
of corrugation required.

(a) For type A, width of sheet shall be sufficient to allow 9 full corrugations,
covering width of 24 inches, finishing both edges down, as shown on sketch.

(b) For type B, width of sheets shall be sufficient to allow 9| corrugations, covering
width of 24 inches, finished one edge up and one edge down, as shown on sketch.

[314]

CORRUGATED GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL

(c) For types A and B, depth of corrugations to be from \ to f inch, inclusive,
pitch center to center of corrugations being between 2£ and 2H inches.

(d) For type C, the width stated should be in multiples of 8 inches, measured between

TYPE- A

9 CORRUGATIONS , COVERING WIDTH ABOUT 24

]" SHEET WIDTH- ABOUT Z6' (lO CORRUGATIONS LESS ABTif ON EACH EDGE)

4

TYPE-B

9 CORRUGATIONS , COVERING WIDTH ABOUT 24!

SHEET WIDTH ABOUT Z7% (\Ok CORRUGATIONS LESS ABT. a-"oN EACH EDGC)

the centers of the outside corrugations. This type is to be used only where absolutely
necessary.

4. Sizes and Variations Allowed. — All sheets to be cut full to length specified and
not to exceed this length by more than f inch.

5. Data for Preparing Requisition. — Sheets should be specified by type, length, and
weight per square foot of flat galvanized plate, as given in the second column of the
following table.

Standard lengths are 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 feet. Maximum length 12 feet.

The third column of the following table gives approximate weights per square foot
of corrugated galvanized sheets, types A and B corresponding to the weights of flat
sheets noted:

United
States
Gauge
No?

WEIGHT PER SQUARE
FOOT, POUNDS

Minimum
Zinc Coating
per Square
Foot,
Ounces

United
States
Gauge
No?

WEIGHT PER SQUARE
FOOT, POUNDS

Minimum
Zinc Coating
per Square
Foot,
Ounces

Flat,
Galvanized

Corrugated,
Galvanized

Flat,
Galvanized

Corrugated,
Galvanized

12

4.531

4.88

1.65

23

1.281

1.38

1.50

14

3.281

3.54

1.65

24

1.156

1.24

1.50

16

2.656

2.86

1.65

25

1.031

1.11

1.40

18

2.156

2.32

1.65

26

.906

.98

1.40

20

1.656

1.78

1.65

27

.844

.91

1.35

21

1.531

1.65

1.50

28

.781

.85

1.35

22

1.406

1.51

1.50

••

.....

6. Samples from Galvanizing Bath. — The galvanizing material must show 98 per
cent pure zinc, determined from a sample taken at random by a Government inspector
from the upper half of the galvanizing bath. These samples may be taken at any
time, provided the manufacturer agrees to have the sample represent the galvanizing
for the order; otherwise, when the inspector has been unable to secure a sample of the

[315]

FLOOR PLATES

bath used for the order, the purity of the bath may be established by a Government
laboratory from a sample of galvanized sheet taken at random from the order.

7. Determination of the Amount of Zinc Coating.— The determination of the amount
of coating per square foot to be obtained by establishing the practice of the firm at
convenient intervals, by weighing plates, as follows: First, weight in bulk of selected
plates in the black, after pickling. Secondly, weight of the same selected plates after
galvanizing. If this course cannot be pursued the following method may be used:
A selected sample from a galvanized sheet for the order, or 2 square feet of surface,
will be sent to a Government laboratory at the expense of the manufacturer, where
determination will be made of the amount of zinc coating per square foot.

FLOOR PLATES

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Floor plates to be made from steel plates of domestic manufacture. They will
be free from surface defects and conform to dimensions ordered. Unless ordered
with planed edges, plates will be shop sheared, and a variation of | inch in dimensions
will be allowed.

2. They will be of ribbed pattern.

3. Ribs will be symmetrical, well denned, approximately flat tops, and the axes of
patterns shall be parallel with longest dimensions. The ribs shall cover approximately
half the surface.

4. The under side of the plates shall be flat and reasonably free from marks of rolls.

TABLE V

Thickness
at Bottom
of Pattern:
Minimum

Height of
Rib

Weight:
Maximum
per Square
Foot

Thickness
at Bottom
of Pattern:
Minimum

Height of
Rib

Weight:
Maximum
per Square
Foot

Inch

Inch

Pounds

Inch

Inch

Pounds

\

A

9

t

&

i7i

i

4

A

i

is'

i

A

22f

6. Plates exceeding weight in table by not more than 5 per cent may be accepted,
but excess weight will not be paid for. A minus variation in height of rib will be allowed
as follows:

Plates up to 36 inches wide 0.01 inch.

Plates 36 inches wide and over 0.03 inch.

No upper limit is placed on the height.

7. Inspection will be made at place of manufacture.

[316]

TERNEPLATE ROOFING TIN

TERNEPLATE ROOFING TIN

NAVY DEPARTMENT

All roofing tin to be made of best quality soft open-hearth steel as a basis, plates
resquared, 112 sheets to the box, unless otherwise specified.

1C 14 by
20 Inches

1C 28 by
20 Inches

IX 14 by
20 Inches

IX 28 by
20 Inches

Black. plate from which made to weigh
per 1 12 sheets net in the black

Pounds
100 to 107

Pounds
200 to 2 14

Pounds
125 to 135

Pounds
250 to 270

Tin when finished to weigh per 112
sheets net

120 to 127

240 to 254

145 to 155

290 to 3 10

1. Coating on all roofing tin to be a mixture of pure new tin and pure new lead
thoroughly mixed, and having a proportion of not less than 20 per cent of tin and the
remainder lead; coating to be thoroughly amalgamated with the black plate by the
palm-oil process.

2. This coating must be applied so that the sheets be evenly and equally coated
on both sides and the coating distributed equally over each sheet.

3. After the plate has been cleansed in a weak acid solution it is to be thoroughly
washed with water, after which nothing is to be brought in contact with the black
plate but pure palm oil, pure new tin, and pure new lead.

4. Every sheet so coated must be free from all defects, blisters, bad edges and
corners, and bare or imperfectly coated spots.

Each sheet to be stamped with the brand, thickness of the plate, and name of the
manufacturer.

5. The weight of coating in pounds per 112 sheets of 20 inches by 28 inches net
shall not be less than 40 pounds.

6. Terneplate (Roofing Tin) with Charcoal-Iron Base. — In case a plate with a
charcoal-iron base is specified, the foregoing specifications shall apply as regards weights
of coatings and the process of manufacture.

The base or black plate shall be rolled and made from absolutely genuine charcoal
iron, and no steel in the form of scrap or otherwise, or any other foreign matter, shall
enter into the manufacture of the base or black plate.

7. An affidavit to the above must be furnished by the contractor, which affidavit
must accompany the delivery of the roofing tin.

8. Tinned Plate (Bright Tin).— All tin to be made of best quality soft open-hearth
steel as a basis, 112 sheets to the box, unless otherwise specified.

1C 14 by
20 Inches

IX 14 by
20 Inches

IXX 14 by
20 Inches

IXXXX
14 by 20
Inches

Black plate from which made to weigh
per 112 sheets net in the black

Pounds
102 to 107

Pounds
129 to 135

Pounds
148 to 156

Pounds
187 to 197

Tin when finished to weigh per 112
sheets net

107 to 112

134 to 140

153 to 161

192 to 202

9. The coating shall weigh not less than 5 pounds per 1 12 sheets of 14 by 20 inch size.

10. The tin is to be of the best quality of commercially pure pig tin. If other size
sheets are required the same proportions of black plate and tin should be observed.

11. The coating is to be thoroughly amalgamated with the black plate. This
coating must be applied so that the sheets be evenly and equally coated on both sides
and the coating distributed equally over each sheet. Every sheet so coated must be
free from all defects, blisters, bad edges, and corners, and bare or imperfectly coated
spots.

[317]'

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT
Reduction factor: 1 cubic inch of steel = 0.283333 pound

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

ness,

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

1.000

1.083

1.167

1.250

1.333

1.417

1.500

1.583

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

2.55

2.76

2.98

3.19

3.40

3.61

3.83

4.04

1

5.10

5.53

5.95

6.38

6.80

7.23

7.65

8.08

&

7.65

8.29

8.93

9.56

10.20

10.84

11.48

12.11

I

4

10.20

11.05

11.90

12.75

13.60

14.45

15.30

16.15

&

12.75

13.81

14.88

15.94

17.00

18.06

19.13

20.19

!

15.30

16.58

17.85

19.13

20.40

21.68

22.95

24.23

A

17.85

19.34

20.83

22.31

23.80

25.29

26.78

28.26

k

20.40

22.10

23.80

25.50

27.20

28.90

30.60

32.30

&

22.95

24.86

26.78

28.69

30.60

32.51

34.43

36.34

1

25.50

27.63

29.75

31.88

34.00

36.13

38.25

40.38

tt

28.05

30.39

32.73

35.06

37.40

39.74

42.08

44.41

I

30.60

33.15

35.70

38.25

40.80

43.35

45.90

48.45

tt

33.15

35.91

38.86

41.44

44.20

46.96

49.73

52.49

1

35.70

38.68

41.65

44.63

47.60

50.58

53.55

56.53

H

38.25

41.44

44.63

47.81

51.00

54.19

57.38

60.56

i

40.80

44.20

47.60

51.00

54.40

57.80

61.20

64.60

I*

43.35

46.96

50.58

54.19

57.80

61.41

65.03

68.64

li

45.90

49.73

53.55

57.38

61.20

65.03

68.85

72.68

l*

48.45

52.49

56.53

60.56

64.60

68.64

72.68

76.71

ii

51.00

55.25

59.50

63.75

68.00

72.25

76.50

80.75

i&

53.55

58.01

62.48

66.94

71.40

75.86

80.33

84.79

if

56.10

60.78

65.45

70.13

74.80

79.48

84.15

88.83

1*

58.65

63.54

68.43

73.31

78.20

83.09

87.98

92.86

li

61.20

66.30

71.40

76.50

81.60

86.70

91.80

96.90

i&

63.75

69.06

74.38

79.69

85.00

90.31

95.63

100.94

11

66.30

71.83

77.35

82.88

88.40

93.93

99.45

104.98

itt

68.85

74.59

80.33

86.06

91.80

97.54

103.28

109.01

H

71.40

77.35

83.30

89.25

95.20

101.15

107.10

113.05

Ill

73.95

80.11

86.28

92.44

98.60

104.76

110.93

117.09

if

76.50

82.88

89.25

95.63

102.00

108.38

114.75

121.13

itt

79.05

85.64

92.23

98.81

105.40

111.99

118.58

125.16

2

81.60

88.40

95.20

102.00

108.80

115.60

122.40

129.20

[318]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

ness,

m

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

1.667

1.750

1.833

1.917

2.000

2.083

2.167

2.250

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

4.25

4.46

4.58

4.89

5.10

5.31

5.53

5.74

i

8.50

8.93

9.35

9.78

10.20

10.63

11.05

11.48

A

12.75

13.39

14.03

14.66

15.30

15.94

16.58

17.21

\

17.00

17.85

18.70

19.55

20.40

21.25

22.10

22.95

A

21.25

22.31

23.38

24.44

25.50

26.56

27.63

28.69

i

25.50

26.78

28.05

29.33

30.60

31.88

33.15

34.43

A

29.75

31.24

32.73

34.21

35.70

37.19

38.68

40.16

\

34.00

35.70

37.40

39.10

40.80

42.50

44.20

45.90

A

38.25

40.16

42.08

43.99

45.90

47.81

49.73

51.64

I

42.50

44.63

46.75

48.88

51.00

53.13

55.25

57.38

tt

46.75

49.09

51.43

53.76

56.10

58.44

60.78

63.11

1

51.00

53.55

56.10

58.65

61.20

63.75

66.30

68.85

H

55.25

58.01

60.78

63.54

66.30

69.06

71.83

74.59

1

59.50

62.48

65.45

68.43

71.40

74.38

77.35

80.33

II

63.75

66.94

70.13

73.31

76.50

79.69

82.88

86.06

i

68.00

71.40

74.80

78.20

81.60

85.00

88.40

91.80

l*

72.25

75.86

79.48

83.09

86.70

90.31

93.93

97.54

i|

76.50

80.33

84.15

87.98

91.80

95.63

99.45

103.28

1A

80.75

84.79

88.83

92.86

96.90

100.94

104.98

109.01

i|

85.00

89.25

93.50

97.75

102.00

106.25

110.50

114.75

1A

89.25

93.71

98.18

102.64

107.10

111.56

116.03

120.49

H

93.50

98.18

102.85

107.53

112.20

116.88

121.55

126.23

1A

97.75

102.64

107.53

112.41

117.30

122.19

127.08

131.96

U

102.00

107.10

112.20

117.30

122.40

127.50

132.60

137.70

1A

106.25

111.56

116.88

122.19

127.50

132.81

138.13

143.44

H

110.50

116.03

121.55

127.08

132.60

138.13

143.65

149.18

iH

114.75

120.49

126.23

131.96

137.70

143.44

149.18

154.91

if

119.00

124.95

130.90

136.85

142.80

148.75

154.70

160.65

iH

123.25

129.41

135.58

141.74

147.90

154.06

160.23

166.39

if

127.50

133.88

140.25

146.63

153.00

159.38

165.75

172.13

itt

131.75

138.34

144.93

151.51

158.10

164.69

171.28

177.86

2

136.00

142.80

149.60

156.40

163.20

170.00

176.80

183.60

[319]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

2.333

2 An

2.500

2.583

2.667

2.750

2.833

2.917

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

5.95

6.16

6.38

6.59

6.80

7.01

7.23

7.44

I

11.90

12.33

12.75

13.18

13.60

14.03

14.45

14.88

A

17.85

18.49

19.13

19.76

20.40

21.04

21.68

22.31

£

23.80

24.65

25.50

26.35

27.20

28.05

28.90

29.75

A

29.75

30.81

31.88

32.94

34.00

35.06

36.13

37.19

1

35.70

36.98

38.25

39.53

40.80

42.08

43.35

44.63

A

41.65

43.14

44.63

46.11

47.60

49.09

50.58

52.06

i

47.60

49.30

51.00

52.70

54.40

56.10

57.80

59.50

A

53.55

55.46

57.38

59.29

61.20

63.11

65.03

66.94

I

59.50

61.63

63.75

65.88

68.00

70.13

72.25

74.38

tt

65.45

67.79

70.13

72.46

74.80

77.14

79.48

81.81

1

71.40

73.95

76.50

79.05

81.60

84.15

86.70

89.25

H

77.35

80.11

82.88

85.64

88.40

91.16

93.93

96.69

i

83.30

86.28

89.25

92.23

95.20

98.18

101.15

104.13

89.25

92.44

95.63

98.81

102.00

105.19

108.38

111.56

i

95.20

98.60

102.00

105.40

108.80

112.20

115.60

119.00

1A

101 . 15

104.76

108.38

111.99

115.60

119.21

122.83

126.44

H

107.10

110.93

114.75

118.58

122.40

126.23

130.05

133.88

1A

113.05

117.09

121.13

125.16

129.20

133.24

137.28

141.31

If

119.00

123.25

127.50

131.75

136.00

140.25

144.50

148.75

1A

124.95

129.41

133.88

138.34

142.80

147.26

151.73

156.19

U

130.90

135.58

140.25

144.93

149.60

154.28

158.95

163.63

ITS

136.85

141.74

146.63

151.51

156.40

161.29

166.18

171.06

If

142.80

147.90

153.00

158.10

163.20

168.30

173.40

178.50

1A

148.75

154.06

159.38

164.69

170.00

175.31

180.63

185.94

U

154.70

160.23

165.75

171.28

176.80

182.33

187.85

193.38

til

160.65

166.39

172.13

177.86

183.60

189.34

195.08

200.81

l|

166.60

172.55

178.50

184.45

190.40

196.35

202.30

208.25

if!

172.55

178.71

184.88

191.04

197.20

203.36

209.53

215.69

if

178.50

184.88

191.25

197.63

204.00

210.38

216.75

223.13

iff

184.45

191.04

197.63

204.21

210.80

217.39

223.98

230.56

2

190.40

197.20

204.00

210.80

217.60

224.40

231.20

238.00

[320]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

3.000

3.083

3.167

3.250

3.333

3.417

3.500

3.583

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

7.65

7.86

8.08

8.29

8.50

8.71

8.93

9.14

i

15.30

15.73

16.15

16.58

17.00

17.43

17.85

18.28

A

22.95

23.59

24.23

24.86

25.50

26.14

26.78

27.41

i

30.60

31.45

32.30

33.15

34.00

34.85

35.70

36.55

38.25

39.31

40.38

41.44

42.50

43.56

44.63

45.69

I

45.90

47.18

48.45

49.73

51.00

52.28

53.55

54.83

ft

53.55

55.04

56.33

58.01

59.50

60.99

62.48

63.96

^

61.20

62.90

64.60

66.30

68.00

69.70

71.40

73.10

A

68.85

70.76

72.68

74.59

76.50

78.41

80.33

82.24

t

76.50

78.63

80.75

82.88

85.00

87.13

89.25

91.38

tt

84.15

86.49

88.83

91.16

93.50

95.84

98.18

100.51

i

91.80

94.35

96.90

99.45

102.00

104.55

107.10

109.65

u

99.45

102.21

104.98

107.74

110.50

113.26

116.03

118.79

i

107 . 10

110.08

113.05

116.03

119.00

121.98

124.95

127.93

H

114.75

117.94

121.13

124.31

127.50

130.69

133.88

137.06

i

122.40

125.80

129.20

132.60

136.00

139.40

142.80

146.20

IT¥

130.05

133.66

137.28

140.89

144.50

148.11

151.73

155.34

U

137.70

141.53

145.35

149.18

153.00

156.83

160.65

164.48

I*

145.35

149.39

153.43

157.46

161.50

165.54

169.58

173.61

If

153.00

157.25

161.50

165.75

170.00

174.25

178.50

182.75

1A

160.65

165.11

169.58

174.04

178.50

182.96

187.43

191.89

if

168.30

172.98

177.65

182.33

187.00

191.68

196.35

201.03

175.95

180.84

185.73

190.61

195.50

200.39

205.28

210.16

H*

183.60

188.70

193.80

198.90

204.00

209.10

214.20

219.30

iA

191.25

196.56

201.88

207.19

212.50

217.81

223.13

228.44

H

198.90

204.43

209.95

215.48

221.00

226.53

232.05

237.58

1H

206.55

212.29

218.03

223.76

229.50

235.24

240.98

246.71

U

214.20

220.15

226.10

232.05

238.00

243.95

249.90

255.85

IT!

221.85

228.01

234.18

240.34

246.50

252.66

258.83

264.99

If

229.50

235.88

242.25

248.63

255.00

261.38

267.75

274.13

1±£

237.15

243.74

250.33

256.91

263.50

270.09

276.68

283.26

2

244.80

251.60

258.40

265.20

272.00

278.80

285.60

292.40

[321

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

3.667

3.750

3.833

3.917

4.000

4.083

4.167

4.250

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

9.35

9.56

9.78

9.99

10.20

10.41

10.63

10.84

i

18.70

19.13

19.55

19.98

20.40

20.83

21.25

21.68

A

28.05

28.69

29.33

29.96

30.60

31.24

31.88

32.51

i

37.40

38.25

39.10

39.95

40.80

41.65

42.50

43.35

A

46.75

47.81

48.88

49.94

51.00

52.06

53.13

54.19

I

56.10

57.38

58.65

59.93

61.20

62.48

73.75

65.03

A

65.45

66.94

68.43

69.91

71.40

72.89

74.38

75.86

i

74.80

76.50

78.20

79.90

81.60

83.30

85.00

86.70

A

84.15

86.06

87.98

89.89

91.80

93.71

95.63

97.54

f

93.50

95.63

97.75

99.88

102.00

104.13

106.25

108.38

H

102.85

105.19

107.53

109.86

112.20

114.54

116.88

119.21

i

4

112.20

114.75

117.30

119.85

122.40

124.95

127.50

130.05

H

121.55

124.31

127.08

129.84

132.60

135.36

138.13

140.89

1

130.90

133.88

136.85

139.83

142.80

145.78

148.75

151.73

H

140.25

143.44

146.63

149.81

153.00

156.19

159.38

162.56

i

149.60

153.00

156.40

159.80

163.20

166.60

170.00

173.40

1A

158.95

162.56

166.18

169.79

173.40

177.01

180.63

184.24

if

168.30

172.13

175.95

179.78

183.60

187.43

191.25

195.08

iA

177.65

181.69

185.72

189.76

193.80

197.84

201.88

205.91

U

187.00

191.25

195.50

199.75

204.00

208.25

212.50

216.75

1A

196.35

200.81

205.28

209.74

214.20

218.66

223.13

227.59

if

205.70

210.38

215.05

219.73

224 .40

229.08

233.75

238.43

1A

215.05

219.94

224.83

229.71

234.60

239.49

244.38

249.26

H

224.40

229.50

234.60

239.70

244.80

249.90

255.00

260.10

1*

233.75

239.06

244.38

249.69

255.00

260.31

265.63

270.94

H

243.10

248.63

254.15

259.68

265.20

270.73

276.25

281.78

itt

252.45

258.19

263.93

269.66

275.40

281.14

286.88

292.61

U

261.80

267.75

273.70

279.65

285.60

291.55

297.50

303.45

1H

271.15

277.31

283.48

289.64

295.80

301.96

308.13

314.29

if

280.50

286.88

293.25

299.63

306.00

312.38

318.75

325.13

1H

289.85

296.44

303.03

309.61

316.20

322.79

329.38

335.96

2

299.20

306.00

312.80

319.60

326.40

333.20

340.00

346.80

[322]"

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

ness,

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an
Inch

4.333

4.417

4.500

4.583

4.667

4.750

4.833

4.917

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

11.05

11.26

11.48

11.69

11.90

12.11

12.33

12.54

22.10

22.53

22.95

23.38

23.80

24.23

24.65

25.08

A

33.15

33.79

34.43

35.06

35.70

36.34

36.98

37.61

i

44.20

45.05

45.90

46.75

47.60

48.45

49.30

50.15

A

55.25

56.31

57.38

58.44

^59.50

60.56

61.63

62.69

I

66.30

77.58

68.85

70.13

71.40

72.68

73.95

75.23

77.35

78.84

80.33

81.81

83.30

84.79

86.28

87.76

f

88.40

90.10

91.80

93.50

95.20

96.90

98.60

100.30

A

99.45

101.36

103.28

105.19

107.10

109.01

110.93

112.84

f

110.50

112.63

114.75

116.88

119.00

121.13

123.25

125.38

ft

121.55

123.89

126.23

128.56

130.90

133.24

135.58

137.91

f -

132.60

135.15

137.70

140.25

142.80

145.35

147.90

150.45

ft

143.65

146.41

149.18

151.94

154.70

157.46

160.23

162.99

154.70

157.68

160.65

163.63

166.60

169.58

172.55

175.53

ft

165.75

168.94

172.13

175.31

178.50

181.69

184.88

188.06

i

176.80

180.20

183.60

187.00

190.40

193.80

197.20

200.60

1JL

187.85

191.46

195.08

198.69

202.30

205.91

209.53

213.14

U

198.90

202.73

206.55

210.38

214.20

218.03

221.85

225.68

209.95

213.99

218.03

222.06

226.10

230.14

234.18

238.21

H

221.00

225.25

229.50

233.75

238.00

242.25

246.50

250.75

Ml

232.05

236.51

240.98

245.44

249.90

254.36

258.83

263.29

H

243.10

247.78

252.45

257.13

261.80

266.48

271.15

275.83

254.15

259.04

263.93

268.81

273.70

278.59

283.48

288.36

if

265.20

270.30

275.40

280.50

285.60

290.70

295.80

300.90

iA

276.25

281.56

286.88

292.19

297.50

302.81

308.13

313.44

if

287.30

292.83

298.35

303.88

309.40

314.93

320.45

325.98

iff

298.35

304.09

309.83

315.56

321.30

327.04

332.78

338.51

if

309.40

315.35

321.30

327.25

333.20

339.15

345.10

351.05

iif

320.45

326.61

332.78

338.94

345.10

351.26

357.43

363.59

il

331.50

337.88

344.25

350.63

357.00

363.38

369.75

376.13

iif

342.55

349.14

355.73

362.31

368.90

375.49

382.08

388.66

2

353.60

360.40

367.20

374.00

380.80

387.60

394.40

401.20

[323]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

ness,

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

5.000

-5.083

5.167

5.250

5.333

5.417

5.500

5.583

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

12.75

12.96

"13.18

13.39

13.60

13.81

14.03

14.24

i

25.50

25.93

26.35.

26.78

27.20

27.63

28.05

28.48

A

38.25

38.89

39.53

40.16

40.80

41.44

42.08

42.71

i

51.00

51.85

52.70

53.55

54.40

55.25

56.10

56.95

A

63.75

64.81

,65.88

66.94

68.00

69.06

70.13

71.19

I

76.50

77.78

79.05

80.33

81.60

82.88

84.15

85.43

A

89.25

90.74

92.23

93.71

95.20

96.69

98.18

99.66

i

102.00

103.70

105.40

107.10

108.80

110.50

112.20

113.90

*

114.75

116.66

118.58

120.49

122.40

124.31

126.23

128.14

i

127.50

129.63

131.75

133.88

136.00

138.13

140.25

142.38

ft

140.25

142.59

144.93

147.26

149.60

151.94

154.28

156.61

i

153.00

155.55

158.10

160.65

163.20

165.75

168.30

170.85

H

165.75

168.51

171.28

174.04

176.80

179.56

182.33

185.09

1

178.50

181.48

184.45

187.43

190.40

193.38

196.35

199.33

H

191.25

194.44

197.63

200.81

204.00

207.19

210.38

213.56

i

204.00

207.40

210.80

214.20

217.60

221.00

224.40

227.80

i*

216.75

220.36

223.98

227.59

231.20

234.81

238.43

242.04

H

229.50

233.33

237.15

240.98

244.80

248.63

252.45

256.28

i&

242.25

246.29

250.33

254.36

258.40

262.44

266.48

270.51

H

255.00

259.25

263.50

267.75

272.00

276.25

280.50

284.75

i*

267.75

272.21

276.68

281.14

285.60

290.06

294.53

298.99

if

280.50

285.18

289.85

294.53

299.20

303.88

308.55

313.23

14

293.25

298.14

303.03

307.91

312.80

317.69

322.58

327.46

H

306.00

311.10

316.20

321.30

326.40

331.50

336.60

341.70

i*

318.75

324.06

329.38

334.69

340.00

345.31

350.63

355.94

if

331.50

337.03

342.55

348.08.

353.60

359.13

364.65

370.18

1H

344.25

349.99

355.73

361.46

367.20

372.94

378.68

384.41

U

357.00

362.95

368.90

374.85

380.80

386.75

392.70

398.65

iff

369.75

375.91

382.08

388.24

394.40

400.56

406.73

412.89

if

382.50

388.88

395.25

401.63

408.00

414.38

420.75

427.13

in

395.25

401.84

408.43

415.01

421.60

428.19

434.78

441.36

2

408.00

414.80

421.60

428.40

435.20

442.00

448.80

455.60

[3241

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cant.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

1

Inch

5.667

5.750

5.833

5.917

6.000

6.083

6.167

6.250

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

14.45

14.66

14.88

15.09

15.30

15.51

15.73

15.94

1

28.90

29.33

29.75

30.18

30.60

31.03

31.45

31.88

A

43.35

43.99

44.63

45.26

45.90

46.54

47.18

47.81

i

57.80

58.65

59.50

60.35

61.20

62.05

62.90

63.75

A

72.25

73.31

74.38

75.44

76.50

77.56

78.63

79.69

I

86.70

87.98

89.25

90.53

91.80

93.08

94.35

95.63

A

101.15

102.64

104.13

105.61

107.10

108.59

110.08

111.56

1

115.60

117.30

119.00

120.70

122.40

124.10

125.80

127.50

A

130.05

131.96

133.88

135.79

137.70

139.61

141.53

143.44

I

144.50

146.63

148.75

150.88

153.00

155.13

157.25

159.38

H

158.95

161.29

163.63

165.96

168.30

170.64

172.98

175.31

i

4

173.40

175.95

178.50

181.05

183.60

186.15

188.70

191.25

H

187.85

190.61

193.38

196.14

198.90

201.66

204.43

207.19

1

202.30

205.28

208.25

211.23

214.20

217.18

220.15

223.13

**

216.75

219.94

223 . 13

226.31

229.50

232.69

235.88

239.06

i

231.20

234.60

238.00

241.40

244.80

248.20

251.60

255.00

i*

245.65

249.26

252.88

256.49

260.10

263.71

267.33

270.94

H

260.10

263.93

267.75

271.58

275.40

279.23

283.05

286.88

I*

274.55

278.59

282.63

286.66

290.70

294.74

298.78

302.81

li

289.00

293.25

297.50

301.75

306.00

310.25

314.50

318.75

1*

303.45

307.91

312.38

316.84

321.30

325.76

330.23

334.69

if

317.90

322.58

327.25

331.93

336.60

341.28

345.95

350.63

l*

332.35

337.24

342.13

347.01

351.90

356.79

361.68

366.56

11

346.80

351.90

357.00

362.10

367.20

372.30

377.40

382.50

1A

361.25

366.56

371.88

377.19

382.50

387.81

393.13

398.44

if

375.70

381.23

386.75

392.28

397.80

403.33

408.85

414.38

tit

390.15

395.89

401.63

407.36

413.10

418.84

424.58

430.31

u

404.60

410.55

416.50

422.45

428.40

434.35

440.30

446.25

i»

419.05

425.21

431.38

437.54

443.70

449.86

456.03

462.19

H

433.50

439.88

446.25

452.63

459.00

465.38

471.75

478.13

1H

447.95

454.54

461 . 13

467.71

474.30

480.89

487.48

494.06

2

462.40

469.20

476.00

482.80

489.60

496.40

503.20

510.00

[325]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

1

Inch

6.333

6.417

6.500

6.583

6.667

6.750

6.833

6.917

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

16.15

16.36

16.58

16.79

17.00

17.21

17.43

17.64

i

32.30

32.73

33.15

33.58

34.00

34.43

34.85

35.28

A

48.45

49.09

49.73

50.36

51.00

51.64

52.28

52.91

i

64.60

65.45

66.30

67.15

68.00

68.85

69.70

70.55

A

80.75

81.81

82.88

83.94

85.00

86.06

87.13

88.19

I

96.90

98.18

99.45

100.73

102.00

103.28

104.55

105.83

A

113.05

114.54

116.03

117.51

119.00

120.49

121.98

123.46

*

129.20

130.90

132.60

134.30

136.00

137.70

139.40

141.10

A

145.35

147.26

149.18

151.09

153.00

154.91

156.83

158.74

i

161.50

163.63

165.75

167.88

170.00

172.13

174.25

176.38

H

177.65

179.99

182.33

184.66

187.00

189.34

191.68

194.01

I

193.80

196.35

198.90

201.45

204.00

206.55

209.10

211.65

H

209.95

212.71

215.48

218.24

221.00

223.76

226.53

229.29

1

226.10

229.08

232.05

235.03

238.00

240.98

243.95

246.93

H

242.25

245.44

248.63

251.81

255.00

258.19

261.38

264.56

i

258.40

261.80

265.20

268.60

272.00

275.40

278.80

282.20

1*

274.55

278.16

281.78

285.39

289.00

292.61

296.23

299.84

U

290.70

294.53

298.35

302.18

306.00

309.83

313.65

317.48

1A

306.85

310.89

314.93

318.96

323.00

327.04

331.08

335.11

H

323.00

327.25

331.50

335.75

340.00

344.25

348.50

352.75

1A

339.15

343.61

348.08

352.54

357.00

361.46

365.93

370.39

if

355.30

359.98

364.65

369.33

374.00

378.68

383.35

388.03

1A

371.45

376.34

381.23

386.11

391.00

395.89

400.78

405.66

U

387.60

392.70

397.80

402.90

408.00

413.10

418.20

423.30

1A

403.75

409.06

414.38

419.69

425.00

430.31

435.63

440.94

if

419.90

425.43

430.95

436.48

442.00

447.53

453.05

458.58

1H

436.05

441.79

447.53

453.26

459.00

464.74

470.48

476.21

H

452.20

458.15

464.10

470.05

476.00

481.95

487.90

493.85

i«

468.35

474.51

480.68

486.84

493.00

499.16

505.33

511.49

if

484.50

490.88

497.25

503.63

510.00

516.38

522.75

529.13

itt

500.65

507.24

513.83

520.41

527.00

533.59

540.18

546.76

2

516.80

523.60

530.40

537.20

544.00

550.80

557.60

564.40

[326]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

7.000

7.083

7.167

7.250

7.333

7.417

7.500

7.583

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

17.85

18.06

18.28

18.49

18.70

18.91

19.13

19.34

I

35.70

36.13

36.55

36.98

37.40

37.83

38.25

38.68

A

53.55

54.19

54.83

55.46

56.10

56.74

57.38

58.01

i

71.40

72.25

73.10

73.95

74.80

75.65

76.50

77.35

A

89.25

90.31

91.38

92.44

93.50

94.56

95.63

96.69

1

107.10

108.38

109.65

110.93

112.20

113.48

114.75

116.03

ft

124.95

126.44

127.93

129.41

130.90

132.39

133.88

135.36

i

142.80

144.50

146.20

147.90

149.60

151.30

153.00

154.70

A

160.65

162.56

164.48

166.39

168.30

170.21

172.13

174.04

I

178.50

180.63

182.75

184,88

187.00

189.13

191.25

193.38

H

196.35

198.69

201.03

203.36

205.70

208.04

210.38

212.71

i

214.20

216.75

219.30

221.85

224.40

226.95

229.50

232.05

H

232.05

234.81

237.58

240.34

243.10

245.86

248.63

251.39

1

249.90

252.88

255.85

258.83

261.80

264.78

267.75

270.78

H

267.75

270.94

274.13

277.31

280.50

283.69

286.88

290.06

i

285.60

289.00

292.40

295.80

299.20

302.60

306.00

309.40

i*

303.45

307.06

310.68

314.29

317.90

321.51

325.13

328.74

H

321.30

325.13

328.95

332.78

336.60

340.43

344.25

348.08

I*

339.15

343.19

347.23

351.26

355.30

359.34

363.38

367.41

li

357.00

361.25

365.50

369.75

374.00

378.25

382.50

386.75

1ft

374.85

379.31

383.78

388.24

392.70

397.16

401.63

406.09

U

392.70

397.38

402.05

406.73

411.40

416.08

420.75

425.43

I*

410.55

415.44

420.33

425.21

430.10

434.99

439.88

444.76

H

428.40

433.50

438.60

443.70

448.80

453.90

459.00

464.10

lA

446.25

451.56

456.88

462.19

467.50

472.81

478.13

483.44

if

464 . 10

469.63

475.15

480.68

486.20

491.73

497.25

502.78

i»

481.95

487.69

493.43

499.16

504.90

510.64

516.38

522.11

if

499.80

505.75

511.70

517.65

523.60

529.55

535.50

541.45

1H

517.65

523.81

529.98

536.14

542.30

548.46

554.63

560.79

li

535.50

541.88

548.25

554.63

561.00

567.38

573.75

580.13

1H

553.35

559.94

566.53

573.11

579.70

586.29

592.88

599.46

2

571.20

578.00

584.80

591.60

598.40

605.20

612.00

618.80

[327]

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF RECTANGULAR STEEL PLATES PER LINEAL FOOT — (Cont.)

WIDTH, IN INCHES

Thick-

92

93

94

95

96

97

—

98

99

ness,

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE FEET

teenths

of an

Inch

7.667

7.750

7.833

7.917

8.000

8.083

8.167

8.250

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

19.55

19.76

19.98

20.19

20.40

20.61

20.83

21.04

i

39.10

39.53

39.95

40.38

40.80

41.23

41.65

42.08

*

58.65

59.29

59.93

60.56

61.20

61.84

62.48

63.11

i

4

78.20

79.05

79.90

80.75

81.60

82.45

83.30

84.15

A

97.75

98.81

99.88

100.94

102.00

103.86

104.13

105.19

t

117.30

118.58

119.85

121.13

122.40

123.68

124.95

126.23

A

136.85

138.34

139.83

141.31

142.80

144.29

145.78

147.26

1

156.40

158.10

159.80

161.50

163.20

164.90

166.60

168.30

A

175.95

177.86

179.68

181.69

183.60

185.51

187.43

189.34

I

195.50

197.63

199.75

201.88

204.00

206.13

208.25

210.38

H

215.05

217.39

219.73

222.06

224.40

226.74

229.08

231.41

1

234.60

237.15

239.70

242.25

244.80

247.35

249.90

252.45

H

254.15

256.91

259.68

262.44

265.20

267.96

270.73

273.49

*

273.70

276.68

279.65

282.63

285.60

288.58

291.55

294.53

if

293.25

296.44

299.63

302.81

306.00

309.19

312.37

315.56

i

312.80

316.20

319.60

323.00

326.40

329.80

333.20

336.60

i&

332.35

335.96

339.58

343.19

346.80

350.41

354.03

357.64

H

351.90

355.73

359.55

363.38

367.20

371.03

374.85

378.68

1A

371.45

375.49

379.53

383.56

387.60

391.64

395.68

399.71

II

391.00

395.25

399.50

403.75

408.00

412.25

416.50

420.75

1A

410.55

415.01

419.48

423.94

428.40

432.86

437.33

441.79

if

430.10

434.78

439.45

444.13

448.80

453.48

458.15

462.83

1ft

449.65

454.54

459.43

464.31

469.20

474.09

478.98

483.86

li

469.20

474.30

479.40

484.50

489.60

494.70

499.80

504.90

1*

488.75

494.06

499.38

504.69

510.00

515.31

520.63

525.94

if

508.30

513.83

519.35

524.88

530.40

535.93

541.45

546.98

1H

527.85

533.59

539.33

545.06

550.80

556.54

562.28

568.01

H

547.40

553.35

559.30

565.25

571.20

577.15

583.10

589.05

1H

566.95

573.11

579.28

575.44

591.60

597.76

603.93

610.09

If

586.50

592.88

599.25

605.63

612.00

618.38

624.75

631.13

itt

606.05

612.64

619.23

625.81

632.40

638.99

645.58

652.16

2

625.60

632.40

639.20

646.00

652.80

659.60

666.40

673.20

[328]

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OP CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES
Reduction factor: 1 cubic inch of steel = 0.283333 pound

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

LThick-
ness,

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

113.10

132.73

153.94

176.72

201.06

226.98

254.47

283.53

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

ft

2.00

2.35

2.73

3.13

3.56

4.02

4.51

5.02

i

4.01

4.70

5.45

6.26

7.12

8.04

9.01

10.04

JL

6.01

7.05

8.18

9.39

10.68

12.06

13.52

15.06

1

8.01

9.40

10.90

12.52

14.24

16.08

18.02

20.08

10.01

11.75

13.63

16.65

17.80

20.10

22.53

25.10

1

12.02

14.10

16.36

18.78

21.36

24.12

27.04

30.13

14.02

16.45

19.08

21.91

24.92

28.14

31.54

35.15

|

16.02

18.80

21.81

25.03

28.48

32.16

36.05

40.17

A

18.02

21.15

24.53

28.16

32.04

36.18

40.56

45.19

I

20.03

23.50

27.26

31.29

35.60

40.19

45.06

50.21

B

22.03

25.86

29.99

34.42

39.17

44.21

49.57

55.23

f

24.03

28.21

32.71

37.55

42.73

48.23

54.07

60.25

H

26.04

30.56

35.44

40.68

46.29

52.25

58.58

65.27

I

28.04

32.91

38.16

43.81

49.85

56.27

63.09

70.29

30.04

35.26

40.89

46.94

53.41

60.29

67.59

75.31

i1*

32.04

37.61

43.62

50.07

56.97

64.31

72.10

80.33

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

314.16

346.36

380.13

415.48

452.39

490.88

530.93

572.56

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

ft

5.56

6.13

6.73

7.36

8.01

8.69

9.40

10.14

I

11.13

12.27

13.46

14.71

16.02

17.39

18.80

20.28

16.69

18.40

20.19

22.07

24.03

26.08

28.21

30.42

i

22.25

24.53

26.93

29.43

32.04

34.77

37.61

40.56

A

27.82

30.67

33.66

36.79

40.06

43.46

47.01

50.70

f

33.38

36.80

40.39

44.14

48.07

52.16

56.41

60.83

ft

38.94

42.93

47.12

51.50

56.08

60.85

65.81

70.97

1

44.51

49.07

53.85

58.86

64.09

69.54

75.22

81.11

T$

50.07

55.20

60.58

66.22

72.10

78.23

84.62

91.25

1

55.63

61.33

67.32

73.57

80.11

86.93

94.02

101.39

H

61.20

67.47

74.05

80.93

88.12

95.62

103.42

111.53

1

66.76

73.60

80.78

88.29

96.13

104.31

112.82

121.67

it

72.32

79.74

87.51

95.65

104.14

113.00

122.22

131.81

i

77.89

85.87

94.24

103.00

112.16

121.70

131.63

141.95

H

83.45

92.00

100.97

110.36

120.17

130.39

-141.03

152.09

i

89.01

98.14

107.70

117.72

128.18

139.08

150.43

162.22

[329]

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES
WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (CW.)

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

615.75

660.52

706.86

754.77

804.25

855.30

907.92

962.11

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

10.90

11.70

12.52

13.37

14.24

15.15

16.08

17.04

1

21.81

23.39

25.03

26.73

28.48

30.29

32.16

34.07

A

32.71

35.09

37.55

40.10

42.73

45.44

48.23

51.11

i

43.62

46.79

50.07

53.46

56.97

60.58

64.31

68.15

A

54.52

58.48

62.59

66.83

71.21

75.73

80.39

85.19

I

65.42

70.18

75.10

80.19

85.45

90.88

96.47

102.22

A

76.33

81.88

87.62

93.56

99.69

106.02

112.54

119.26

*

87.23

93.57

100.14

106.93

113.94

121.17

128.62

136.30

A

98.14

105.27

112.66

120.29

128.18

136.31

144.70

153.34

f

109.04

116.97

125.17

133.66

142.42

151.46

160.78

170.37

tt

119.94

128.66

137.69

147.02

156.66

166.61

176.86

187.41

1

130.85

140.36

150.21

160.39

170.90

181.75

192.93

204.45

H

141.75

152.06

162.73

173.75

185.15

196.90

209.01

221.49

1

152.66

163.75

175.24

187.12

199.39

212.04

225.09

238.52

H

163.56

175.45

187.76

200.49

213.63

227.19

241 . 17

255.56

l

174.46

187.15

200.28

213.85

227.87

242.34

257.24

272.60

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

1017.87

1075.21

1134.11

1194.59

1256.64

1320.25

1385.44

1452.20

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

18.02

19.04

20.08

21.15

22.25

23.38

24.53

25.72

*

36.05

38.08

40.17

42.31

44.51

46.76

49.07

51.43

A

54.07

57.12

60.25

63.46

66.76

70.14

73.60

77.15

i

72.10

76.16

80.33

84.62

89.01

93.52

98.14

102.86

A

90.12

95.20

100.42

105.77

111.27

116.90

122.67

128.58

I

108.15

114.24

120.50

126.93

133.52

140.28

147.20

154.30

A

126.17

133.28

140.58

148.08

155.77

163.66

171.74

180.01

*

144.20

152.32

160.67

169.23

178.02

187.04

196.27

205.73

A

162.22

171.36

180.75

190.39

200.28

210.42

220.81

231.44

1

180.25

190.40

200.83

211.54

222.53

233.79

245.34

257.16

H

198.27

209.44

220.92

232.70

244.78

257.17

269.87

282.88

I

216.30

228.48

241.00

253.85

267.04

280.55

294.41

308.59

tt

234.32

247.52

261.08

275.01

289.29

303.93

318.94

334.31

1

252.35

266.56

281 . 17

296.16

311.54

327.31

343.47

360.03

H

270.37

285.60

301.25

317.31

333.80

350.69

368.01

385.74

i

288.40

304.64

321.33

338.47

356.05

374.07

392.54

411.46

[330]

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES
WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (Cont.)

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

1520.53

1590.43

1661.90 | 1734.94

1809.56

1885.74

1963.50

2042.82

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

26.93

28.16

29.43

30.72

32.01

33.39

34.77

36.18

53.85

56.33

58.86

61.45

64.09

66.79

69.54

72.35

A

80.78

84.49

88.29

92.17

96.13

100.18

104.31

108.53

I

107.70

112.66

117.72

122.89

128.18

133.57

139.08

144.70

A

134.63

140.82

147.15

153.61

160.22

166.97

173.85

180.88

I

161.56

168.98

176.58

184.34

192.27

200.36

208.62

217.05

A

188.48

197.15

206.01

215.06

224.31

233.75

243.39

253.23

i

215.41

225.31

235.44

245.78

256.35

267.15

278.16

289.40

A

242.34

253.48

264.87

276.51

288.40

300.54

312.93

325.58

1

269.26

281.64

294.30

307.23

320.44

333.93

347.70

361.75

H

296.19

309.80

323.73

337.95

352.49

367.33

382.47

397.93

t

323.11

337.97

353.15

368.68

384.53

400.72

417.24

434.10

H

350.04

366.13

382.58

399.40

416.58

434.11

452.02

470.28

1

376.97

394.30

412.01

430.12

448.62

467.51

486.79

506.45

H

403.89

422.46

441.44

460.84

480.67

500.90

521.56

542.63

i

430.82

450.62

470.87

491.57

512.71

534.29

556.33

578.80

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

52

53

54

55

56

57 58

59

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

2123.72

2206.18

2290.22

2375.83

2463.01

2551.76 | 2642.08

2733.97]

WEIGHT,

IN POUNDS

A

37.61

39.07

40.56

42.07

43.62

45.19

46.79

48.41

1

75.22

78.14

81.11

84.14

87.23

90.38

93.57

96.83

A

112.82

117.20

121.67

126.22

130.85

135.56

140.36

145.24

i

150.43

156.27

162.22

168.29

174.46

180.75

187.15

193.66

A

188.04

195.34

202.78

210.36

218.08

225.94

233.93

242.07

I

225.65

234.41

243.34

252.43

261.70

271.13

280.72

290.48

A

263.25

273.48

283.89

294.50

305.31

316.31

327.51

338.90

\

300.86

312.54

324.45

336.58

348.93

361.50

374.30

387.31

A

338.47

351.61

365.00

378.65

392.54

406.69

421.08

435.73

I

376.08

390.68

405.56

420.72

436.16

451.88

467.87

484.14

H

413.68

429.75

446.12

462.79

479.77

497.06

514.66

532.56

I

451.29

468.81

486.67

504.87

523.39

542.25

561.44

580.97

H

488.90

507.88

527.23

546.94

567.01

587.44

608.23

629.38

7
I

526.51

546.95

567.79

589.01

610.62

632.63

655.02

677.80

H

564.11

586.02

608.34

631.08

654.24

677.81

701.80

726.21

i

601.72

625.09

648.90

673.15

697.85

723.00

748.59

774.63

[331]

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES
WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (Cont.)

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

2827.44

2922.47

3019.07

3117.25

3216.99

3318.31 1 3421.20

3525.66

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

ft

50.07

51.75

53.46

55.20

56.97

58.76

60.58

62.43

i

100.14

103 50

106.93

110.40

113.94

117.52

121.17

124.87

150.21

155.26

160.39

165.60

170.90

176.29

181.75

187.30

i

200.28

207.01

213.85

220.81

227.87

235.05

242.34

249.73

ft

250.35

258.76

267.31

276.01

284.84

293.81

302.92

312.17

I

300.42

310.51

320.78

331.21

341.81

352.57

363.50

374.60

350.49

362.27

374.24

386.41

398.77

411.33

424.09

437.04

, .*

400.55

414.02

427.70

441.61

455.74

470.10

484.67

499.47

450.62

465.77

481.17

496.81

512.71

528.86

545.26

561.90

V

500.69

517.52

534.63

552.01

569.68

587.62

605.84

624.34

H

550.76

569.27

588.09

607.22

626.64

646.38

666.42

686.77

1

600.83

621.03

641.55

662.42

683.61

705.14

727.01

749.20

H

650.90

672.78

695.02

717.62

740.58

763.90

787.59

811.64

700.97

724.53

748.48

772.82

797.55

822.67

848.17

874.07

if

751.04

776.28

801.94

828.02

854.51

881.43

908.76

936.51

i

801.11

828.04

855.41

883.22

911.48

940.19

969! 34

998.94

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

3631.68

3739.28

3848.46

3959.20

4071.51

4185.39

4300.85

4417.87

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

*

64.31

66.22

68.15

70.11

72.10

74.12

76.16

78.23

128.62

132.43

136.30

140.22

144.20

148.23

152.32

156.47

ft

192.93

198.65

204.45

210.33

216.30

222.35

228.48

234.70

257.24

264.87

272.60

280.44

288.40

296.47

304.64

312.93

%

321.56

331.08

340.75

350.56

360.50

370.58

380.81

391.17

1

385.87

397.30

408.90

420.67

432.60

444.70

456.97

469.40

*

450.18

463.52

477.05

490.78

504.70

518.82

533 . 13

547.63

514.49

529.73

545.20

560.89

576.80

592.93

609.29

625.87

&

578.80

595.95

613.35

631.00

648.90

667.05

685.45

704.10

I

643.11

662.17

681.50

701.11

721.00

741.16

761.61

782.33

H

707.42

728.38

749.65

771.22

793.10

815.28

837.77

860.57

771.73

794.60

817.80

841.33

865.20

889.40

913.93

938.80

tt

836.04

860.82

885.95

911.44

937.30

963.51

990.09

1017.0

900.36

927.03

954.10

981.55

1009.4

1037.6

1066.3

1095.3

H

964.67

993.25

1022.2

1051.7

1081.5

1111.7

1142.4

1173.5

l

1029.0

1059.5

1090.4

1121.8

1153.6

1185.9

1218.6

1251.7

[332

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (Cont.)

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

4536.47

4656.63

4778.37

4901.68

5026.56

5153.00

5281.02

5410.62

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

ft

80.33

82.46

84.62

86.80

89.01

91.25

93.52

95.81

i

160.67

164.92

169.23

173.60

178.02

182.50

187.04

191.63

A

241.00

247.38

253.85

260.40

267.04

273.75

280.55

287.44

1

321.33

329.85

338.47

347.20

356.05

365.01

374.07

383.25

A

401.67

412.31

423.09

434.00

445.06

456.26

467.59

479.07

I

482.00

494.77

507.70

520.80

534.07

547.51

561.11

574.88

ft

562.33

577.23

592.32

607.61

623.09

638.76

654.63

670.69

1

642.67

659.69

676.94

694.41

712.10

730.01

748.15

766.51

ft

723.00

742.15

761.55

781.21

801.11

821.26

841.66

862.32

I

803.34

824.61

846.17

868.01

890.12

912.51

935.18

958.13

H

883.67

907.07

930.79

954.81

979.13

1003.8

1028.7

1053.9

i

964.00

989.54

1015.4

1041.6

1068.1

1095.0

1122.2

1149.8

H

1044.3

1072.0

1100.0

1128.4

1157.2

1186.3

1215.7

1245.6

1

1124.7

1154.5

1184.6

1215.2

1246.2

1277.5

1309.3

1341.4

H

1205.0

1236.9

1269.3

1302.0

1335.2

1368.8

1402.8

1437.2

l

1285.3

1319.4

1353.9

1388.8

1424.2

1460.0

1496.3

1533.0

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

5541.78

5674.51

5808.81

5944.69

6082.13

6221.15

6361.74

6503.89

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

&

98.14

100.49

102.86

105.27

107.70

110.17

112.66

115.17

1

196.27

200.97

205.73

210.54

215.41

220.33

225.31

230.35

A

294.41

301.46

308.59

315.81

323.11

330.50

337.97

345.52

i

392.54

401.95

411.46

421.08

430.82

440.67

450.62

460.69

A

490.68

502.43

514.32

526.35

538.52

550.83

563.28

575.87

I

588.82

602.92

617.19

631.62

646.23

661.00

675.94

691.04

ft

686.95

703.40

720.05

736.90

753.93

771.17

788.59

806.21

*

785.09

803.89

822.92

842.17

861.64

881.33

901.25

921.39

A

883.22

904.38

925.78

947.44

969.34

991.50

1013.9

1036.6

!

981.36

1004.9

1028.6

1052.7

1077.0

1101.7

1126.6

1151.7

H

1079.5

1105.3

1131.5

1158.0

1184.8

1211.8

1239.2

1266.9

I

1177.6

1205.8

1234.4

1263.2

1292.5

1322.0

1351.9

1382.1

H

1275.8

1306.3

1337.2

1368.5

1400.2

1432.2

1464.5

1497.3

1

1373.9

1406.8

1440.1

1473.8

1507.9

1542.3

1577.2

1612.4

H

1472.0

1507.3

1543.0

1579.1

1615.6

1652.5

1689.8

1727.6

i

1570.2

1607.8

1645.8

1684.3

1723.3

1762.7

1802.5

1842.8

[333

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (Cont.)

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of aii
Inch

6647.62

6792.92

6939.79

7088.23

7238.24

7389.80

7542.96

7697.68

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

£

117.72

120.29

122.89

125.52

128.18

130.86

133.57

136.31

|

235.44

240.58

245.78

251.04

256.35

261.72

267.15

272.63

A

353.16

360.87

368.68

376.56

384.53

392.58

400.72

408.94

i

470.87

481.17

491.57

502.08

512.71

523.45

534.29

545.25

A

588.59

601.46

614.46

627.61

640.89

654.31

667.87

681.57

1

706.31

721.75

737.35

753.13

769.06

785.17

801.44

817.88

tV

824.03

842.04

860.25

878.65

897.24

916.03

935.01

954.19

I

941.75

962.33

983.14

1004.2

1025.4

1046.9

1068.6

1090.5

A

1059.5

1082.6

1106.0

1129.7

1153.6

1177.8

1202.2

1226.8

1

1177.2

1202.9

1228.9

1255.2

1281.8

1308.6

1335.7

1363.1

H

1294.9

1323.2

1351.8

1380.7

1410.0

1439.5

1469.3

1499.4

f

1412.6

1443.5

1474.7

1506.3

1538.1

1570.3

1602.9

1635.8

H

1530.3

1563.8

1597.6

1631.8

1666.3

1701.2

1736.5

1772.1

i

1648.1

1684.1

1720.5

1757.3

1794.5

1832.1

1870.0

1908.4

H

1765.8

1804.4

1743.4

1882.8

1922.7

1962.9

2003.6

2044.7

l

1883.5

1924.7

1966.3

2008.3

2050.8

2093.8

2137.2

2181.0

<, DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

7854.00

8011.84

8171.28

8332.29

8494.87

8659.01

8824.73

8992.02

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

139.08

141.88

144.70

147.55

150.43

153.34

156.27

159.23

1

278.16

283.75

289.49

295.10

300.86

306.67

312.54

318.47

417.24

425.63

434.10

442.65

451.29

460.01

468.81

477.70

1

556.33

567.51

578.80

590.21

601.72

613.35

625.09

636.94

A

695.41

709.38

723.50

737.76

752.15

766.68

781.36

796.17

1

834.49

851.26

868.20

885.31

902.58

920.02

937.63

955.40

973.57

993.14

1012.9

1032.9

1053.0

1073.4

1093.9

1114.6

i

1112.7

1135.0

1157.6

1180.4

1203.4

1226.7

1250.2

1273.9

^

1251.7

1276.9

1302.3

1328.0

1353.9

1380.0

1406.4

1433.1

f

1390.8

1418.8

1447.0

1475.5

1504.3

1533.4

1562.7

1592.3

H

1529.9

1560.6

1591.7

1623.1

1654.7

1686.7

1719.0

1751.6

1669.0

1702.5

1736.4

1770.6

1805.2

1840.0

1875.3

1910.8

tt

1808.1

1844.4

1881.1

1918.2

1955.6

1993.4

2031.5

2070.0

1

1947.1

1986.3

2025.8

2065.7

2106.0

2146.7

2187.8

2229.3

H

2086.2

2128.2

2170.5

2213.2

2256.5

2300.1

2344.1

2388.5

1

2225.3

2270.0

2315.2

2360.8

2406.9

2453.4

2500.4

2547.7

[334]

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES

WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR STEEL PLATES — (Cont.)

DIAMETER IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

108

109

110

ill

112

113

114

115

in
Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

9160.88

9331.32

9503.32

9676.89

9852.03

10028.75

10207.03

10386.89

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

162.22

165.24

168.29

171.36

174.76

177.59

180.75

183.93

i

324.45

330.49

336.58

342.72

348.93

355.19

361.50

367.87

A

486.67

495.73

504.87

514.09

523.39

532.78

542.25

551.80

i

648.90

660.97

673.15

685.45

697.85

710.37

723.00

735.74

A

811.12

826.21

841.44

856.81

872.32

887.96

903.75

919.67

1

973.35

991.46

1009.7

1028.2

1046.8

1065.6

1084.5

1103.6

&

1135.6

1156.7

1178.0

1199.5

1221.2

1243.2

1265.2

1287.5

4

1297.8

1321.9

1346.3

1370.9

1395.7

1420.7

1446.0

1471.5

A

1460.0

1487.2

1514.6

1542.3

1570.2

1598.3

1626.7

1655.4

I

1622.2

1652.4

1682.9

1713.6

1744.6

1775.9

1807.6

1839.3

H

1784.5

1817.7

1851.2

1885.0

1919.1

1953.5

1988.2

2023.3

3
4

1946.7

1982.9

2019.5

2056.3

2093.6

2131.1

2169.0

2207.2

H

2108.9

2148.2

2187.7

2227.7

2268.0

2308.7

2349.7

2391.2

1

2271.1

2313.4

2356.0

2399.1

2442.5

2486.3

2530.5

2575.1

H

2433.4

2478.6

2524.3

2570.4

2617.0

2663.9

2711.2

2759.0

i

2595.6

2643.9

2692.6

2741.8

2791.4

2841.5

2892.0

2943.0

DIAMETER, IN INCHES

Thick-
ness,

116

117

118

119

120

in

Six-

AREA, IN SQUARE INCHES

teenths

of an
Inch

10568.32

10751.32

10935.88

11122.02

11309.73

WEIGHT, IN POUNDS

A

187.15

190.39

193.66

196.95

200.28

i

374.30

380.78

387.31

393.91

400.55

A

561.44

571.17

580.97

590.86

600.83

i

4

748.59

761.55

774.63

787.81

801.11

A

935.74

951.94

968.28

984.76

1001.4

1

1122.9

1142.3

1161.9

1181.7

1201.7

&

1310.0

1332.7

1355.6

1378.7

1401.9

i

1497.2

1523.1

1549.3

1575.6

1602.2

A

1684.3

1713.5

1742.9

1772.6

1802.5

I

1871.5

1903.9

1936.6

1969.5

2002.8

H

2058.6

2094.3

2130.2

2166.5

2203.0

2245.8

2284.7

2323.9

2363.4

2403.3

H

2432.9

2475.0

2517.5

2560.4

2603.6

1

2620.1

2665.4

2711.2

2757.3

2803.9

H

2807.2

2855.8

2904.9

2954.3

3004.2

i

2994.4

3046.2

3098.5

3151.2

3204.4

[335]

WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND STEEL BARS

WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND STEEL BARS.
Reduction Factor : 1 cubic inch of steel = 0.28333 pound.

Size

SQUARI

3 BARS

ROUND

BARS

Size

SQUARI

3 BARS

ROUND

BARS

in
Inches

Per
Foot

Per
Inch

Per
Foot

Per
Inch

in
Inches

Per
Foot

Per

Inch

Per
Foot

Per
Inch

1

.213

018

167

.014

21

25 71

2 14

20 20

1 68

A..

.332

.028

.261

.022

2*|..

26 90

2 24

21 12

1 76

478

040

376

031

21

28 10

2 34

22 07

1 84

A.

.651

.054

.511

.043

2r!..

29 34

2 45

23.04

1 92

.850

.071

.668

.056

3

30.60

2.55

24.03

2.00

JL

1.076

.090

.845

.070

SJL

31 89

2 66

25.05

2 08

[f

1.328

.111

1.043

.087

3|

33.20

2.77

26.08

2.17

11

1 607

134

1 262

105

3A

34 54

2 88

27 13

2 26

1.913

.159

1.502

.125

3i .

35.91

2.99

28.21

2.35

T£

2 245

187

1 763

147

3JL

37 31

3 11

29 30

2 44

1 •

2 603

.217

2.044

.170

31 .

38.73

3.23

30.42

2.53

if..

2.988

.250

2.347

.195

3;&

40.18

3.35

31.55

2.63

1

3 40

28

2 67

.22

3| .

41 65

3 48

32.71

2 72

ITS..

3.84

.32

3.02

.25

3^

43.15

3.60

33.89

2.82

li .

4.30

.35

3.38

.28

3f

44.68

3.72

35.09

2.92

1A..

4.79

.40

3.77

.31

3H-.

46.23

3.85

36.31

3.02

11
ITS

5.31
5 86

.44
49

4.17
4 60

.35

.38

31
3H..

47.81
49.42

3.98
4.12

37.55
38.81

3.13
3.23

H •

6.43

.54

5.05

.42

3f

51.05

4.25

40.10

3.34

ITS

7 03

59

5 52

.46

3H..

52.71

4.39

41.40

3.45

11

7 65

64

6 01

50

4

54 40

4 53

42.73

3.56

ITS

8 30

69

6 52

.54

4tv .

56.11

4.68

44.07

3.67

If

8 98

.75

7.05

.39

4|

57.85

4.82

45.44

3.78

iii

9.68

.81

7.60

.63

4^

59.62

4.97

46.83

3.90

1 1

10 41

87

8.18

.68

4x .

61.41

5.12

48.23

4.01

IT!

11 17

93

8 77

.73

4A

63.23

5.27

49.66

4.13

11

11 95

1 00

9 39

78

41

65 08

5 42

51.11

4 25

1*1,

12.76

1.06

10.02

.83

4^

66.95

5.58

52.58

4.38

2

13 60

13

10 68

.89

4£

68.85

5.74

54.07

4.50

2rir

14 46

.21

11.36

.94

4&

70.78

5.90

55.59

4.63

24

15 35

28

12.06

.00

4f

72.73

6.06

57.12

4.75

2rV

16 27

36

12 78

.06

4H. .

74.71

6.23

58.67

4.88

2£

17 21

43

13 52

13

41 .

76.71

6 39

60.25

5.01

2A

18 18

52

14 28

.19

4f£..

78.74

6.56

61.85

5.15

21

19 18

60

15 06

25

4*

80 80

6 73

63.46

5.28

2tk. .

20.20

.68

15.87

.33

4H

82.89

6.91

65.10

5.42

2l

21 25

.77

16.69

.39

5

85.00

7.08

66.76

5.56

2JL.

22 33

86

17 53

46

Si1*..

87.14

7.26

68.44

5.70

21

23.43

.95

18.40

.53

5i

89.30

7.44

70.14

5.84

2H..

24.56

2.05

19.29

.61

5fV

91.49

7.62

71.86

5.98

[336]

WEIGHTS OF ROUND STEEL BARS
WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND STEEL BARS — (Cont.)

Size

SQUARI

2 BARS

ROUND

BARS

Size

SQUARI

3 BARS

ROUND

BARS

in
Inches

Per

Foot

Per
Inch

Per
. Foot

Per
Inch

in
Inches

Per
Foot

Per
Inch

Per
Foot

Per
Inch

61

93 71

7.81

73.60

6.13

81 .

231.41

19.28

181.75

15.15

5^-

95 96

8.00

75.36

6.27

81 .

238.48

19.87

187.30

15.61

51

98 23

8 19

77 15

6 42

81

245 65

20.47

192.93

16 08

100 53

8 38

78 95

6.57

8| .

252.93

21.08

198.65

16 55

51

102 85

8.57

80.78

6.72

81 .

260.31

21.69

204.45

17.04

105 . 20

8 77

82.62

6.88

81 .

267.80

22.32

210.33

17.55

gi

107 58

8.97

84.49

7.03

9

275.40

22.95

216.30

18.03

gfi

109 98

9 17

86 38

7 19

91

283 10

23 59

222 35

18 53

51

112 41

9 37

88 29

7.35

91 .

290.91

24.24

228.48

19.04

5H

114.87

9.57

90.22

7.51

91 .

298.83

24.90

234.70

19.56

51

117 35

9 78

92 17

7.67

94 .

306.85

25.57

241.00

20.08

119 86

9.99

94.14

7.84

91 .

314.98

26.25

247.38

20.62

6

122 40

10 20

96 13

8 00

91

323 21

26 93

253 85

21.15

61

127 55

10 63

100 18

8.34

91 .

331 . 55

27 63

260.40

21.87

61 .

132.81

11.07

104.31

8.68

10

340.00

28.33

267.04

22.25

61

138 18

11.52

108 53

9.03

101

348 . 55

29.05

273.75

22.81

143 . 65

11.97

112.82

9.39

101 .

357.21

29.77

280.55

23.38

61

149 23

12 44

117 20

9 76

101

365 98

30 50

287 44

23 95

61

154 91

12 91

121 67

10.14

374 85

31 24

294 41

24.53

61 .

160.70

13.39

126.22

10.52

101 .

383.83

31.99

301.46

25,12

7 . .

166 60

13 88

130 85

10 90

101

392.91

32 74

308 59

25.72

71 .

172.60

14.38

135 . 56

11.30

101 .

402.10

33.51

315.81

26.32

71

178 71

14 89

140 36

11 70

11

411 40

34 28

323 11

26 93

71

184 93

15 41

145 24

12 10

111

420 80

35 07

330 50

27.54

191.25

15.94

150.21

12.52

111 .

430 . 31

35,86

337.97

28.16

71 .

197 68

16 47

155 26

12 94

439 93

36 66

345 52

28.79

71

204 21

17 02

160 39

13 37

m. .

449 65

37 47

353 16

29 43

71

210 85

17 57

165 60

13 80

459 48

38 29

360 87

30 07

8

217 60

18 13

170 90

14 24

Ill

469 41

39 12

368 68

30 72

81 .

224.45

18.70

176.29

14.69

479 45

39 95

376 56

31.38

m. .
12

489.60

40.80

384.53

32.04

STRENGTH OP ROUND STEEL BARS

Breaking Strength, 51,000 Pounds per Square Inch. Proof Strength, One-half Ultimate
Strength. Working Loads Are Percentages of the Proof Strength.

WORKING LOAD AT

Diam.,
Inches

Area,
Sq. In.

Breaking
Strength,
Pounds

Load,
in
Pounds

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

1

0.049

2,499

1,250

313

375

438

500

563

625

A

.077

3,927

1,964

491

589

687

785

884

982

I

.110

5,610

2,805

701

842

982

1,122

1,262

1,403

A

.150

7,650

3,825

956

1,148

1,339

1,530

1,721

1,913

1

.196

9,996

4,998

1,250

1,499

1,749

1,999

2,249

2,499

[337]

STRENGTH OF ROUND STEEL BARS
STRENGTH OF ROUND STEEL BARS — (Cont.)

Diam.,
Inches

Area,
Sq. In.

Breaking
Strength,
Pounds

Proof
Load,
in
Pounds

WORKING LOAD AT

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

A

.249

12,699

6,350

1,588

1,905

2,223

2,540

2,858

3,175

f

.307

15,657

7,829

1,957

2,349

2,740

3,131

3,523

3,914

H

.371

18,921

9,460

2,365

2,838

3,311

3,784

4,257

4,730

i

.442

22,542

11,271

2,818

3,381

3,945

4,508

5,072

5,636

H

.519

26,469

13,235

3,309

3,970

4,632

5,294

5,956

6,617

1

.601

30,651

15,326

3,832

4,598

5,364

6,130

6,897

7,663

if

.690

35,190

17,595

4,399

5,279

6,158

7,038

7,918

8,798

i

.785

40,035

20,018

5,005

6,005

7,007

8,007

9,008

10,009

1^

.887

45,237

22,619

5,655

6,786

7,917

9,048

10,179

11,310

H

.994

50,694

25,347

6,337

7,604

8,871

10,139

11,406

12,674

1A

1.108

56,508

28,254

7,064

8,476

9,889

11,302

12,714

14,127

H

1.227

62,577

31,289

7,822

9,387

10,951

12,516

14,080

15,645

1ft

1.353

69,003

34,502

8,626

10,351

12,076

13,801

15,526

17,251

H

1.485

75,735

37,868

9,467

11,360

13,254

15,148

17,041

18,934

i&

1.623

82,773

41,387

10,347

12,416

14,485

16,555

18,624

20,694

H

1.767

90,117

45,059

11,265

13,518

15,771

18,024

20,277

22,530

ift

1.918

97,818

48,909

12,227

14,673

17,118

19,564

22,009

24,455

H

2.074

105,774

52,887

13,222

15,866

18,510

21,155

23,799

26,444

1H

2.237

114,087

57,044

14,261

17,113

19,965

22,818

25,670

28,522

if

2.405

122,655

61,328

15,332

18,398

21,465

24,531

27,598

30,664

itt

2.580

131,580

65,790

16,448

19,737

23,027

26,316

29,606

32,895

U

2.761

140,811

70,406

17,602

21,122

24,642

28,162

31,683

35,203

1H

2.948

150,348

75,174

18,794

22,552

26,311

30,070

33,828

37,587

2

3.142

160,242

80,121

20,030

24,036

28,042

32,048

36,054

40,061

2&

3.341

170,391

85,196

21,299

25,559

29,819

34,078

38,338

42,598

2*

3.547

180,897

90,449

22,612

27,135

31,657

36,180

40,702

45,225

2&

3.758

191,658

95,829

23,957

28,749

33,540

38,332

43,123

47,915

2i

3.976

202,776

101,388

25,347

30,416

35,486

40,555

45,625

50,694

2A

4.200

214,200

107,100

26,775

32,130

37,485

42,840

48,195

53,550

•21

4.430

225,930

112,965

28,241

33,890

39,538

45,186

50,834

56,483

2A

4.666

237,966

118,983

29,746

35,695

41,644

47,593

53,542

59,492

2*

4.909

250,359

125,180

31,295

37,554

43,813

50,072

56,331

62,590

2&

5.157

263,007

131,504

32,876

39,451

46,026

52,602

59,177

65,752

2!

5.412

276,012

138,006

34,502

41,402

48,302

55,202

62,103

69,003

2H

5.673

289,323

144,662

36,166

43,399

50,632

57,865

65,098

72,331

2!

5.940

302,940

151,470

37,868

45,441

53,015

60,588

68,162

75,735

2H

6.213

316,863

158,432

39,608

47,530

55,451

63,373

71,294

79,216

n

6.492

331,092

165,546

41,387

49,664

57,941

66,218

74,496

82,773

2&

6.777

345,627

172,814

43,204

51,844

60,485

69,126

77,766

86,407

3

7.069

360,519

180,260

45,065

54,078

63,091

72,104

81,117

90,130

3A

7.366

375,666

187,833

46,958

56,350

65,742

75,133

84,525

93,917

H

7.670

391,170

195,585

48,896

58,676

68,455

78,234

88,013

97,793

3ft

7.980

401,880

200,940

50,235

60,282

70,329

80,376

90,423

100,470

31

8.296

423,096

211,548

52,887

63,464

74,042

84,619

95,197

105,774

3A

8.618

439,518

219,759

54,940

65,928

76,916

87,904

98,892

109,880

[338]

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

STRENGTH OF ROUND STEEL BARS — (Cont.)

Breaking

Proof

WORKING LOAD AT

Diam.,
Inches

Area,
Sq. In.

Strength,
Pounds

in
Pounds

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

at

8.946

456,246

228,123

57,031

68,437

79,843

91,249

102,655

114,062

3A

9.281

473,331

236,666

59,167

71,000

82,833

94,666

106,500

118,333

3*

9.621

490,671

245,336

61,334

73,601

85,868

98,134

110,401

122,668

3A

9.968

508,368

254,184

63,546

76,255

88,964

101,674

114,383

127,092

3|

10.321

526,371

263,186

65,797

78,956

92,115

105,274

118,434

131,593

3H

10.680

544,680

272,340

68,085

81,702

95,319

108,936

122,553

136,170

3!

11.045

563,295

281,648

70,412

84,494

98,577

112,659

126,742

140,824

3H

11.416

582,216

291,108

72,777

87,332

101,888

116,443

130,999

145,554

31

11.793

601,443

300,722

75,181

90,217

105,253

120,289

135,325

150,361

3H

12.177

621,027

310,514

77,629

93,154

108,680

124,206

139,731

155,257

4

12.566

640,866

320,433

80,108

96,130

112,152

128,173

144,195

160,217

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — The latest issue of " General Specifications for Inspection
of Steel and Iron Material" shall form a part of these specifications, and must be com-
plied with as to material, methods of inspection, and all other requirements therein.

2. Physical and Chemical Requirements. — The physical and chemical requirements
for- each grade of material shall be in accordance with the following table:

Tensile
Strength,

Minimum Elonga-

MAXIMUM
AMOUNT

Grade

Material

Pounds per

tion (b)

OP~~*

Square Inch

p.

s.

P. Ct.

P. Ct.

Medium steel

Open-hearth carbon.

58,000

28 per cent in 8 inches ;

0.04

0.04

to

30 per cent in 2

68,000

inches when type 1

specimen is used.

High - tensile

Open-hearth carbon,

75,000

23 per cent in 8 inches ;

.04

.04

steel.

silicon, or nickel

to

25 per cent in 2

• steel.

90,000

inches when type 1

specimen is used.

RIVET RODS

3. Elongation. — For rods f inch or less in thickness or diameter, the elongation
shall be measured on a length equal to eight times the thickness or diameter of section
tested; for sections over \ inch and less than \ inch in thickness or diameter, the elonga-
tion shall be taken on a leng'h of 6 inches. In both the preceding cases the required
percentage of elongation shall be that specified for the type 3 test piece.

4. Type of Test Piece. — Type of test piece to be type 1 or type 3, depending on size of
rod; type 1 will be used only when capacity of testing machine prevents the use of type 3.

5. Tensile Tests. — Bars rolled from any melt shall be tested by sizes, one tensile
test to be taken from each ton or less of each size. If the results of such tests from
the various sizes indicate that the material is of uniform quality, not more than eight
such specimens shall be taken to represent the melt. In such cases the eight specimens
shall be fully representative of the various sizes in the melt offered for test.

[339]

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

6. Bending Tests for Medium Steel.— From each size of each melt one cold-bend
test shall be taken as finished in the rolls, but not less than two such bends shall be made
from any melt. These cold-bend specimens shall be bent 180° flat on themselves without
showing any cracks or flaws in the outer round.

TYPE 1 TEST PIECE

A BO in 18 IN- OVERALL
8 INCHBS

1

1 1

1

Mf/i 5 t/ftJAf c FONTS, \

1 2 o

1 — , (* W>

• -Jjj-o*
i 7

K

9 INCHES

1

TYPE 3 TEST PIECE

7. Upsetting Tests for Medium Steel.— Specimens shall be cut about one and one-
fourth times the diameter of the round in length, and shall be required to stand ham-
mering down cold in a longitudinal direction to about one-half the original length of
the specimen without showing seams or other defects which would, in the judgment of
the inspector, tend to produce defects in the manufactured rivet.

The number of upsetting-test pieces shall equal the number of tensile-test pieces,
but in no case shall it be less than two for each size.

8. Tolerances in Diameter Under the Nominal Gauge Ordered. —

Up to and including | inch 0.010 inch.

Over I inch, up to and including £ inch 014 inch.

Over £ inch, up to and including f inch 016 inch.

Over | inch, up to and including 1 inch 020 inch.

Over 1 inch, up to and including 1| inches 024 inch.

Over U inches 030 inch.

MANUFACTURED RIVETS

9. Manufactured Rivets, Form and Surfaces. — (a) Rivets shall be true to form,
concentric, and free from scale, fins, seams, and all other injurious or unsightly defects.
Tap rivets shall be milled under the head if necessary. They shall conform to the
dimensions and form as shown on table incorporated in and forming a part of these
specifications.

10. Medium Steel Rivets, Hammer Tests.— (a) From each lot of rivets of each
size kegged and ready for shipment there shall be taken at random 6 rivets, to be tested
as follows: ^,

'(b); Three riyets shall be flattened out cold under the hammer to a thickness of
one-half' the diameter of the part flattened without showing cracks or flaws. Rivets
of over an inch' in diameter shall >be flattened to three-fourths of the original diameter.
«i- (c) Three rivets shall be flattened out hot under hammer to a thickness not exceeding
on^-fourth of the original diameter of part flattened without showing cracks; heat to
- be ordinary driving heat.

11. High-Tensile Steel Rivets. — High-tensile steel rivets shall be made of rivet rods

[340]

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

conforming to the requirements of these specifications for high-tensile steel rods and shall
in addition meet the following requirements:

12. Shearing Strength. — From each lot of each size kegged and ready i or shipment
there shall be taken at random three rivets for shearing test. These rivets shall be driven
hot for test under double shear. The shearing strength when so tested shall not be less
than 64,000 pounds per square inch, computed on the actual shearing area of the rivet
as driven; i.e., the area corresponding to the area of the rivet hole, not the nominal
diameter of the rivet.

13. Quality Test. — When for any reason the shearing test described above cannot
be made, the following test shall be made: From each lot of each size kegged ready for
shipment there shall be taken at randon three rivets. These rivets shall be heated to
the driving temperature, when the point shall be quickly hammered down to a thickness
of | inch and the rivet immediately cooled by quenching in cold water. It will then be
hammered over the edge of an anvil in an effort to bend the flattened portion. The
rivet shall break short without appreciable bend.

14. Marking and Packing. — (a) Medium rivets shall be marked on top or side
of head with a plain cross f by f inch for larger sized rivets, suitably reduced for the
smaller rivets. This cross is to be in relief.

(b) High-tensile pan or button-head rivets shall have fluted heads.

(c) Unless otherwise specified, to be delivered in 100-pound boxes or kegs, marked
as given below.

(d) All boxes or kegs to be strongly made and plainly marked with the manu-
facturer's name and contract number.

Boxes or kegs to be neatly stenciled on one end only with the net weight, size, and
name of contents, as —

100 pounds

High-Tensile Steel
Button-Head Rivets.

zi— *5

STANDARD RIVETS FOR SHIP AND TORPEDO-BOAT WORK. NAVY DEPARTMENT

K— s-*

Type A. Pan Head. Straight Neck

f \ "t

Rivet, Diam. D. .

i

A

1

I

f

f

i

1

H

if

r \! v

Hole, Diam. A. . .

A

H.

A

A

tt.

H

if

1A

1A

1H

c \>L

1

M

Head, High B...
Head, Diam. C. .

A

i

A

A

1
H

A

i

1A

1A

f
H

H
if

f
1H

Head, DiamD...

i

A

t

i

f

f

1

l

H

2

[341

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

STANDARD RIVETS FOR SHIP AND TORPEDO-BOAT WORK. NAVY DEPARTMENT

(Continued)

vf

Type B. Pan Head. Conical Neck

Rivet, Diam. D..
Neck, Diam. Dl .
Neck, Cone E . . .
Head, High B . . .

J

A

f

t

A
f

f

A
A
i

f

1
f

1A
f

1

if
A
A
1A

1

1

1A

f
H

i

H
1A
A
H
if
it

H
1A

1
f
1H
H

a

>

-^4

m

T

^

Head, Diam. C. .
Head, Diam. D..

••

±ZSs

^P^

Type C. Button Head. Straight Neck

Rivet, Diam. D. .
Hole, Diam. A. . .
Head, High B...
Head, Diam. C..

i

4
&

A
A

t

f

A
A
A

i

A

f
if

f
H

A

i

1
1A

1
if
A
1A

i
1A
f
l*

H
i&
H
if

H
IB
f
IB

m,

-A :

*— P->

^^ **T*^

m

&

C I \'

Type D. Button Head. Conical Neck

Rivet, Diam. D .
Neck, Diam. Dl .
Neck, ConeE...
Head High B .

*

"

f

A

f

f
B
A
A

i

if
f

1A

I
if
A
A
1A

i
1A
*
f
It

H
1A
A
B
if

it

1A
f
f
IB

W.SJP

tiSs

Head, Diam. C..

-•

• •

• •

r^'-i,.

Type E. Countersunk Head

a

Rivet, Diam. D. .
Head, Diam. Kl.
Head, Cone Bl . .
Cone Angle

i

4
f

60°

\

60°

f
f
A

60°

\
I
A

60°

f
1A
f

60°

f
i&

A

45°

7
8

li
f

45°

i

IB

37°

H
iff

7
8

37°

ft

IB

1

37°

^

The cone angle of 45° in sketch is for f and £ rivets only.

k Kl_*

Type F. Countersunk Head

ik li

Rivet, Diam. D. .
Head, Diam. K2
Head, Cone B2. .
Cone Angle

*

*

f

t

f

if

60°

f
It

A

45°

1

1H
A

45°

1
H
f
37°

H

it

\ *
\ /

\ /

V

^^^^

The cone angle of 45° in sketch is for f and | rivets only.

[342

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

STANDARD RIVETS FOR SHIP AND TORPEDO-BOAT WORK. NAVY DEPARTMENT

(Continued)

„ to_t

Type G. Countersunk Head

Rivet, Diam D. .
Head, Diam K3
Head, ConeB3..
Cone Angle

*;

A

t

*

1

i

4
1

45°

7
8

H

A

45°

1

If

37°

!!.

r4 im.

».!. ^^^

The cone angle of 45° in sketch is for f and 1 rivets only.

I

Type H. Tap Rivets

.%1

Rivet, Diam. D. .
Head Diam . K4 .
Head, Cone B4. .

1

A

t

If
A

60°

1

i

f
If

60°

A

f

i

4

1A

1

45°

f

7
8

1H

A

45°

If

1
Iff

H

37°
if

If

1
37°
f
if

H
1H

1

37°

H
H

HL 1 J!

\

t-A

•*•*

-45*

t

r&-+
\ 1
-*&

^

->

3

Stud, Square R

Stud, Height S

The cone angle of 45° in sketch is for f and f rivets only.

!«—

-K5-

"t"

CO

Type K. Tap Rivets

Rivet, Diam. D .
Head, Diam. K5
Head, Cone B5

1

A

f

i

f

f

1

U

A

45°

A

If

1

If

37°

f
If

If
If
f
37°

f
If

H

is

1

M

Cone Angle

* _ /

$ — ^— jD—r

V

^•p -*«SS

/
V/

->
S

T

to

Stud, Square R

Stud, Height S.

The cone angle of 45° in sketch is for | rivets only.
Studs for Tap Rivets

Rivet, Diam
Stud, Square R. .
Stud, Heights...

1

A

1

f

f

A
f

f
If

1
A
If

1

1
If

If

f
If

U
H
If

3 /

K I

—M

•n i^

.1

Template for Countersink

Rivet, Diam. . . .
Angle *

60°
2f
3^

A

60°
2f

"Ff

f
60°

i

60°
2f

"64

1

f

60°

1
45°
3

f

1

45°
3

21
f

1
37°
3

If

37°
3
2f

H
37°
3

Height L

Width M . ..

Width N . . . .

[343]

STEEL HULL RIVETS AND RIVET-RODS

STANDARD RIVETS FOR SHIP AND TORPEDO-BOAT WORK. NAVY DEPARTMENT

(Continued)

g

^fT22>

p

Snap Points

*- 3>->

Rivet, Diam.D..
Point, Height B.
Point, Diam.C. .

I

A
A

A
i

f
A
A

i

1
H

1
A

i

f
1A

1
A
1A

1
1
H

H
H
if

11

f

!t-

4§2

w /••

p

Hammered Points. F-| D

Rivet, Diam.D..
Point, Height F .
Point, Diam.G..

*

A
A

1

1
A
f

i

i

f
A
U

a

4:
f

1A

1

7
T6

1

If

A

H

f

llTJ

1

1*-

<3>?^
Q^*-^ ,

Countersunk points to be the same taper and depth as count-
ersunk heads, but are to be driven with slightly convex tops.

ri

trD >

i

Liverpool Points. Y-2 D

Rivet, Diam. D. .
Point, Height T.
Point, Diam. Y .

i

A

1

i

i

1
i
U

*

A

1
1
If

1

A

2

H
1

ii

*->

*-£ ^J

Countersunk Liverpool points to be the same taper as count-
ersunk heads, but to be only one-half the thickness of plate.

'

/

<

\

r~j_

\

T\

/T\

/T 1

\

/ j

j,

^ ^r?7l

<&&

^f*&

. I LJ

ICMGTH OP RIVETS ANOTAPS MEASURED

SMALL RIVETS, FLAT OR COUNTERSUNK, FOR SHEET-METAL

WORK

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. "General Instructions and Specifications, General Specifications, Appendix I.
for Iron and Steel Material," issued June, 1912, shall form a part of these specifications
and must be complied with.

2. To be soft steel, black or tinned, as specified. The flat-head rivets shall conform
in size and weight to the following table:

[344]

SMALL RIVETS

Size

Limit

Size of
Wire

Length
Under
Head

Diame-
ter of
Head

Thick-
ness of
Head

4 OUI1C6S

0 072

0.068

|

0.156

0.020

6 ounces

.083

.078

•&

.180

.024

8 ounces

095

.090

&

.206

.027

10 ounces

.090

.094

ii

.214

.029

12 ounces

.106

.100

TS

.230

.031

14 ounces

.110

.104

A

.239

.032

1 pound

.115

.109

H

.249

.033

lj pounds
1| pounds

.120
.126

.113
.120

&
tt

.260
.273

.034
.036

If pounds
2 pounds

.134
.144

.128
.136

1

H

.290
.312

.038
.041

2 4 pounds

.148

.141

&

.323

.043

3 pounds.

.160

.151

&

.346

.046

gi pounds •-

165

.156

n

.357

.047

4 pounds . . .

.176

.167

&

.381

.050

5 pounds

189

.180

|

.409

054

6 pounds . ...

.205

.195

H

.444

.058

7 pounds

.221

.211

H

.479

.063

8 pounds

.229

.219

A

496

065

9 pounds

.238

.227

H

.515

.068

10 pounds

241

.230

522

070

12 pounds

.254

.242

£

.550

.074

14 pounds

.284

.272

M

.616

.081

16 pounds

.300

.288

H

650

086

3. The countersunk rivets shall conform to the sizes given in the following table:

Size of Rivet,
Diameter
of Wire

Diameter
of Head

Angle of
Counter-
sink

Lengths

Size of Rivet,
Diameter
of Wire

Diameter
of Head

Angle of
Counter-
sink

Lengths

Inch

Inch

Degrees

Inch

Inch

Inch

Degrees

Inch

A 0.189

0.345

80

1 and!

A -144

.259

80

*, t, and *

& .160

.287

80

i, *, and *

1 .125

.230

80

&, i, and &

4. The rivets to be put up in packages of 1,000 rivets, or in boxes of not less than
50 pounds each, as required.

TESTS FOR SOFT-STEEL RIVETS

5. A number of rivets, at the discretion of the inspector, shall be selected from
each size of each delivery, enough to satisfy the inspector of the quality of the entire lot.

6. Cold Test. — One-half of these shall be flattened to one-eighth of their original
diameter, and then bent through 180° flat on themselves, and shall show no signs of
cracks, flaws, or any other defects.

7. Hot Test. — The remaining rivets shall be heated to a red heat and flattened,
then reheated and bent through 180° and flattened on themselves without showing
any signs of flaws, cracks, or any other defects,

[345]

SCREW THREADS

Previous to the action of the Franklin Institute in 1864 there had been no uniformity
in the diameters of taps and dies or in the number of threads per inch, for bolts and
studs. Bolt iron was seldom rolled strictly to gauge; in consequence, taps and dies
j$ inch over size were in general use.

Aside from variation in diameter, there was a lack of uniformity in number of threads
per inch. The shape of screw threads then in use was the sharp or V-thread as in the
illustration.

Screw threads with sharp edges are objected to because the threads are liable to
injury in the ordinary course of handling. The sharp edges of taps and dies soon
disappear in service, making it difficult to maintain interchangeable work.

Formula

pitch

No. thrds. per in.
d = depth = p X .866

An occasional American manufacturer adopted the Whitworth standard for screw
threads, but this was exceptional. An investigation of the whole subject was made by
William Sellers, of Philadelphia, and presented to the Franklin Institute in a paper read
by him in April, 1864. Mr. Sellers disapproved the V-thread; his objections to the
Whitworth thread were, first, that the angle of 55° is a difficult one to verify; secondly,
the curve at the top and bottom of the thread of the screw will not fit the corresponding
curve in the nut, and the wearing surface on the thread will be thus reduced to the
straight sides merely. Thirdly, the increased cost and complication of cutting tools
required to form this kind of thread in a lathe.

The necessity of guarding the sharp edge of a V-thread from accidental injury
was a fact recognized by sometimes finishing such bolts with a small flat on the top of the
thread. The flat angular sides being necessary, there remained to choose between a
rounded or a flat top. As the sides of a thread are the only parts to be fitted, the cutting
tool employed having an angle of 60°, the width of flat at top of thread will be determined
by the depth to which the thread is cut. The flat at the top of the thread serves to

-A

7W

A

f

\ /

6

\f—

R

Formula

P = pitch = No. thrds. per in
d = depth = p X .6495

/^>

protect it from injury, a similar shape at the bottom gives increased strength to the
bolt by increasing its diameter at the root of thread.

The angle of thread is 60°, the same as the sharp thread, it being more easily obtained
than 55°. Divide the pitch, or, which is the same thing, the side of the thread, into
eight equal parts, take off one part from the top and fill in one part in the bottom of the
thread, then the flat top and bottom will equal one-eighth of the pitch, the wearing

[346]

FRANKLIN INSTITUTE SCREW THREADS

surface will be three-quarters of the pitch, and the diameter of the screw at bottom of

the thread will be expressed by the formula diameter = ~- '- rr-r- - These

No. threads per inch

proportions will give the depth of the thread almost precisely the same as the English,
and as the wearing surface on all screws will be confined practically to the flat sides,
this will be 36 per cent greater than on the English.

FRANKLIN INSTITUTE STANDARD SCREW THREAD
Constants for finding diameter at bottom of thread

1.299

Sellers' formula: Diam. bolt =

No. threads per inch

Threads
per Inch

Constant

Threads
per Inch

Constant

Threads
per Inch

Constant

Threads
per Inch

Constant

20
18
16
14

13

.06495
.07217
.08119
.09279
09992

10
9

8
7
6

. 12990
. 14433
. 16238
. 18557
21650

4£
4
3*

31
3

.28867
.32475
.37114
.39969
43300

2f
2£
2|

21

.49486
.51960
.54695
.57733

12

10825

51

- 23618

21

45183

11

.11809

5

.25980

2|

.47236

Example. To find the diameter at bottom of a Franklin Institute thread for a bolt
1£ inches diameter we have: 1£ mch diameter = 6 threads per inch. The constant
for 6 threads is .21650.

Then: 1.50000 - .21650 = 1.2835 = 1& inch nearly.

Mr. Sellers also presented a system of uniform dimensions for bolt heads and nuts.

The committee of the Institute to whom this paper was referred handed in their
final report December 15, 1864, and offered in part the following resolution, which was
adopted.

" RESOLVED, That the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania recommend, for
the general adoption by American engineers, the following forms and proportions for
screw threads, bolt heads, and nuts, viz.:

"That screw threads shall be formed with straight sides at an angle to «ach other
of 60°, having a flat surface at the top and bottom equal to one-eighth of the pitch.
The pitches shall be as follows, viz. :

Diameter of bolt. . . .

1

A

i

A

i

A

f

f

1

1

u

11

If

H

If

H

H

Threads per inch . . .

20

18

16

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

7

6

6

5*

5

5

Diameter of bolt. . . .

2

21

2£

21

3

31

3*

3f

4

41

4£

4|

5

51

5*

51

6

Threads per inch. . .

4*

4£

4

4

3£

3£

31

3

3

2|

21

2f

2£

2*

2|

2f

21

"Bolt Head and Nut. The distance between the parallel sides of a bolt head and nut,
for a rough bolt, shall be equal to one and a half diameters of the bolt plus one-eighth of
an inch. The thickness of the heads for a rough bolt shall be equal to one-half the
distance between its parallel sides. The thickness of the nut shall be equal to the
diameter of the bolt. The thickness of the head for a finished bolt shall be equal to the
thickness of the nut. The distance between the parallel sides of a bolt head and nut,
and the thickness of the nut, shall be one-sixteenth of an inch less for finished work than
for rough."

The foregoing is what is known as the Franklin Institute Standard, or as the Sellers'
Standard, so named after its originator.

[347]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY STANDARD

United States Standard. — The Navy Department appointed a Board to recommend
a standard gauge for bolts, nuts, and screw threads for the United States Navy. On
May 15, 1868, the Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering submitted to the Secretary
of the Navy the report of the Hoard indorsing the Sellers' system, but recommending
certain modifications. Its recapitulation expresses the formula thus:

Let

D = nominal diameter of bolt. d = effective diameter of bolt = diameter

p = pitch of thread. under root of thread,

n = number of threads per inch. s = depth of thread.

H = depth of nut. h = depth of head.

dn = short diameter of hexagonal or square dh = short diameter of head,
nut.

Then

p = 0.24 VD + 0.625 -0.175. H = D.

n = (No. of threads per inch)"^ • dn = f D + |"

s =0.65 p. dh = |D + |"

d = D — 2s =D~ 1.3p. h = 10 + ^"

It then gives a table of screw threads the same as that recommended by the Franklin
Institute, with the one difference and that regarding the size of finished or unfinished bolt
heads and nuts. The Navy report makes no difference in the size of either — that is, for
finished work the forgings must be made larger than for rough; their idea being to use the
same wrench on either black or finished work. In reference to their tables: The only
instance where the values in the table differ from those given by the formula is in the
number of threads per inch, which is so far modified as to use the nearest convenient
aliquot part of a unit, so as to avoid, as far as practicable, troublesome combinations in
the gear of screw-cutting machines.

The Secretary of the Navy, in a communication to the Chief of Bureau of Steam
Engineering, May 16, 1868, writes: "The standard for the dimensions of bolts and nuts,
as determined by the Board, is, upon your recommendation, authorized for the naval
service."

This constitutes what is known as the United States Standard ; it corresponds in all
respects to the Franklin Institute Standard for screw threads, but no difference in
dimensions as between rough and finished bolt heads and nuts is made, one wrench
serving for both.

This is the standard now in general use in the United States, but attention is drawn
to the table of Standard Dimensions of Bolts and Nuts for the United States Navy, as
given below. It will be observed that, beginning with 3 inches diameter of screw, the
threads do not follow the authorized standard of 1868, inasmuch as all screw threads for
bolts are uniformly 4 threads per inch from 3 inches up to and including 12 inches
diameter.

[348]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY STANDARD
BOLTS AND NUTS
—c-

Standard Dimensions for United States Navy

DIAMETERS

Effective
Area
Sq. Inches

Threads
Inch

Long
Diam.
Hex. Nut
and
Bolt-head

Long
Diam.
Sq. Nut
and
Bolt-head

Short
Diam.
Hex. & Sq.
Nut and
Bolt-head

Bolt-
head,
Depth

Nut,
Depth

Out-
side,
Ins.

Root of
Thread,
Inches

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

i

0.185

0.026

20

A

M

i

I

4

1

4

A

.240

.045

18

tt

if

M

H

A

I

.294

.067

16

If

H

H

»

f

A

.345

.093

14

If

i&

M

H

A

i

.400

.125

13

1

li

• i.

7
T5

f

A

.454

.162

12

H

if

M

M

A

f

.507

.202

11

IA

U

1A

H

f

I

.620

.302

10

IA

U

H

f

f

1

.731

.419

9

m

2^

1A

If

1

i

.837

.550

8

u

2A

H

M

i

if

.940

.694

7

2&

2A

m

If

U

U

1.065

.891

7

2A

2M

2

i

U

1!

1.160

1.057

6

2H

3^

2^

1A

if

II

1.284

1.294

6

2f

3M

2f

1A

l|

if

1.389

1.515

5i

2M

3|

2&

i*

if

1!

1.491

1.746

5

3&

31

2!

if

if

11,

1.616

2.051

5

3M

4^

2M

1H

U

2

1.712

2.302

4£

3M

4M

3i

1A

2

2i

1.962

3.023

41

4^

4H

3^

if

2|

2|

2.176

3.719

4

4M

5M

31

lit

2f

2f

2.426

4.622

4

4|f

6

4£

21

2f

3

2.676

5.624

4

5&

6H

4f

2A

3

3i

2.926

6.724

4

5»

7^

5

2^

ai

31

3.176

7.922

4

6&

7H

5f

2H

3|

31

3.426

9.219

4 '

6f

si

51

21

3f

4

3.676

10.613

4

7^

8fi

61

3^

4

41

3.926

12.106

4

7*

9A

6£

3|

4i

4*

4.176

13.696

4

7H

9||

61

3A

41

4f

4.420

15.635

4

81

10J

7|

31

4f

5

4.676

17.173

4

8H

IOH

7f

3H

5

64

4.926

19.058

4

91

HA

8

4

51

5£

5.176

21.042

4

9H

1W

8f

4^

5£

51

5.426

23.123

4

10^-

12|

H

4f

5f

6

-5.676

25.303

4

IOH

12ft

9i

4A

6

[349]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY STANDARD
BOLTS AND NUTS

Standard Dimensions for United States Navy. Sizes Over 6 Inches

DIAMETERS

Aresir
Sq. Inches

Threads
per
Inch

Long
Diam.
Hex. Nut
and
Bolt-head

Long
Diam.
Sq. Nut
and
Bolt-head

Short
Diam.
Hex. & Sq.
Nut and
Bolt-head

Bolt-
head
Depth

Depth

Out-
side,
Ins.

Root of
Thread,
Inches

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

61

5.926

27.58

4

10H

13**

91

.. 43

61

6.176

29.95

4

HH

14

91

4 if

65

6!

6.426

32.43

4

ill*

14*

101

51

6! .

7

6.676

35.00

4

121

15|

lOf

5^

7

71

6.926

37.68

4

12**

15**

11

5*

71

7|

7.176

40.44

4

131

161

lit

5H

71

7!

7.426

43.30

4

13*

16**

ii!

51

7!

8

7.676

46.27

4

14

17f

12|

6rS

8

81

7.926

49.35

4

14*

17*f

12*

61

81

8.176

52.52

4

14**

188

121

6A

81

8!

8.426

55.76

4

15*

w*

131

6*

8!

9

8.676

59.90

4

15**

19**

13f

6H

9

91

8.926

62.57

4

16*

19**

14

7

91

9.176

66.13

4

16H

20^

14f

7*

91

9!

9.426

69.77

4

17*

20H

14!

n

9!

10

9.676

73.52

4

17H

21|

I5i

7&

10

101

9.926

77.38

4

17!

21!

15*

7H

101

10*

10.176

81.33

4

18**

22^

151

7 if

10i

10!

10.426

85.34

4

18«

161

81

10!

n

10.676

89.52

4

1ft*

23 £

16f

8A

n

ill

10.926

93.76

4

19f

24&

17

8*

Hi

11.176

98.10

4

20^

24*

171

8ii

11}

ill

11.426

102.53

4

20^

25&

17!

81

n!

12

11.676

107.07

4

21*

25H

181

91

12

MAXIMUM WORKING LOAD FOR TABULAR TENSILE STRENGTH

UNITED STATES NAVY

Forgings. High grade. Minimum tensile strength 95,000

Forgings. High grade Class A. Minimum tensile strength 80,000

Forgings. High grade Class B. Minimum tensile strength 60,000

Bolts and boiler braces.
Bolts and boiler braces.

Class A. Minimum tensile strength 75,000

Class B. Minimum tensile strength 58,000

Rolled manganese and Tobin bronze and naval brass. Minimum tensile strength . 50,000
Phosphor bronze and Muntz metal. Minimum tensile strength 40,000

[350]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY STANDARD

MAXIMUM WORKING LOAD FOR TABULAR TENSILE STRENGTH

UNITED STATES NAVY

BOLT DETAILS

MAXIMUM WORKING LOAD FOR TENSILE STRENGTH F =

Factor
of
Safety

Out-
side
Diam.,
Ins.

Diam.
at
Root of
Thread

Effec-
tive
Area,
S.q. Ins.

40,000

50,000

58,000

60,000

75,000

80,000

95,000

I

0.185

0.026

111

138

160

166

206

221

261

9.4

*

.240

.045

198

•247

287

297

370

396

470

9.1

1

.294

.067

301

376

435

451

560

601

714

9.0

ft

.345

.093

415

519

600

623

775

830

986

8.9

i

.400

.125

564

704

818

845

1,055

1,125

1,340

8.9

&

.454

.162

730

912

1,060

1,095

1,370

1,460

1,730

8.9

f

.507

.202

913

1,140

1,300

1,370

1,700

1,870

2,170

8.8

i

.620

.302

1,380

1,725

2,000

2,070

2,580

2,760

3,280

8.8

1

.731

.419

1,930

2,410

2,800

2,900

3,600

3,860

4,580

8.7

i

.837

.550

2,530

3,170

3,670

3,800

4,700

5,060

6,010

8.7

if

.940

.694

3,190

3,990

4,600

4,790

5,980

6,380

7,570

8.7

ii

.065

.891

4,140

5,180

6,000

6,210

7,760

8,280

9,830

8.6

If

.160

1.057

4,890

6,110

7,080

7,330

9,150

9,780

11,600

8.7

H

.284

1.294

6,040

7,540

8,760

9,060

11,300

12,050

14,300

8.6

If

.389

1.515

7,060

8,820

10,200

10,600

13,200

14,100

16,750

8.6

If

.491

1.746

8,120

10,150

11,770

12,200

15,200

16,200

19,250

8.6

II

.616

2.051

9,600

12,000

13,900

14,400

18,000

19,200

22,800

8.5

2

.712

2.302

10,750

13,400

15,500

16,100

20,100

21,500

25,500

8.6

21

.962

3.023

14,200

17,800

20,600

21,400

26,700

28,500

33,800

8.5

3i

2.176

3.719

17,500

21,900

25,300

26,300

32,800

35,000

41,500

8.5

2f

2.426

4.622

22,000

27,500

31,900

33,000

41,200

44,000

52,200

8.4

3

2.676

5.624

26,800

33,500

38,800

40,200

50,200

53,600

63,600

8.4

3|

2.926

6.724

32,200

40,200

46,700

48,400

60,400

64,400

76,400

8.3

3£

3.176

7.922

38,100

47,600

55,100

57,200

71,200

76,200

90,400

8.3

3f

3.426

9.219

44,500

55,600

64,300

66,700

83,200

89,000

105,500

8.3

4

3.676

10.613

51,400

64,200

74,500

77,000

96,400

102,800

122,000

8.3

41

3.926

12.106

58,700

73,400

85,100

88,100

110,000

117,400

139,300

8.2

4)

4.176

13.696

66,600

83,200

96,500

100,000

124,900

133,000

158,000

8.2

4|

4.420

15.635

75,000

93,700

108,400

112,000

140,200

150,000

178,000

8.2

5

4.676

17.173

83,800

105,000

121,500

126,000

157,100

167,500

199,000

8.2

5|

4.926

19.058

93,200

116,500

135,000

140,000

174,800

186,000

221,000

8.2

51

5.176

21.042

103,000

129,000

149,000

154,500

193,100

206,000

244,500

8.2

51

5.426

23.123

113,500

142,000

164,000

170,000

212,600

227,000

269,000

8.2

6

5.676

25.303

124,000

155,000

179,800

186,000

232,500

248,000

295,000

8.1

[351

WEIGHT OF BOLT-HEADS AND NUTS

WEIGHT OP HEXAGON BOLT-HEADS AND NUTS

United States Standard Dimensions

BAR

HEAD

NUT

Diam.
A

Area

Weight

Sh't
Dia.
B

Area
Hexagon
Square
In.

Hgh,

Content
Cubic
Inch

Weight
Head

Sh't
Dia.
B

Hght.

Hole
Dia.
£

Weight

Inch

Foot

i

.049

.014

.167

i

.217

1

.054

.015

i

1

A

.014

A

.077

.022

.261

ft

.305

H

.091

.026

II

A

i

.022

f

.110

.031

.375

ft

.409

H

.141

.040

H

f

R

.036

A

.150

.043

.511

If

.529

If

.207

.059

If

A

IF

.053

i

.196

.056

.667

1

.663

A

.290

.082

1

i

If

.075

A

.249

.070

.845

ii

.813

ft

.394

.112

H

A

If

.100

f

.307

.087

1.043

IA

.979

H

.520

.147

1A

f

H

.139

\

.442

.125

1.502

u

1.353

f

.846

.240

H

f

fi

.223

i

.601

.170

2.044

i*

1.791

ft

1.287

.365

IA

1

H

.353

l

.785

.222

2.670

if

2.287

H

1.858

.526

if

i

M

.490

li

.994

.282

3.379

itt

2.847

H

2.580

.731

itt

I*

M

.676

li

1.227

.348

4.173

2

3.464

i

3.464

.981

2

n

1^

.962

11

1.485

.421

5.049

2&

4.156

1A

4.546

1.288

2^

u

1A

1.220

«

1.767

.501

6.008

21

4.885

1A

5.801

1.644

21

H

1A

1.515

if

2.074

.588

7.051

2A

5.689

1A

7.289

2.065

2A

If

iff

1.852

if

2.405

.681

8.18

2f

6.549

If

9.005

2.551

2f

If

H

2.272

H

2.761

.782

9.39

2M

7.475

itt

10.979

3.111

m

if

if

2.817

2

3.142

.890

10.68

3|

8.457

1A

13.214

3.744

3f

2

IB

3.333

2*

3.976

1.127

13.52

3£

10.609

if

18.566

5.260

3£

21

Hi

4.823

2*

4.909

1.391

16.69

31

13.004

itt

25.195

7.138

31

2£

2&

6.549

2!

5.940

1.683

20.20

4J

15.642

2|

33.239

9.418

4|

2f

2^

8.552

3

7.069

2.002

24.03

4|

18.524

2&

42.837

12.137

4f

3

2H

10.924

31

8.296

2.350

28.20

5

21.650

2£

54.125

15.335

5

31

2H

13.695

3|

9.621

2.726

32.71

5f

25.019

2H

67.239

19.051

5f

3*

3^

16.897

3|

11.045

3.130

37.56

5f

28.632

2|

82.317

23.323

5f

3f

3^

20.560

4

12.566

3.561

42.73

6|

32.488

3^

99.495

28.190

6|

4

3H

24.715

[352

ROUND SLOTTED NUTS

ROUND SLOTTED NUTS
NAVY DEPARTMENT

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

c

D

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

C

D

1

If

A

1

f

5f

9f

H

1

5f

1

U

A

i

1

6

101

11

i

6

1

2

f

&

1

61

10f

11

\

61

11

2f

f

A

li

6*

11

If

A

61

u

2|

I

A

If

61

HI

If

A

6f

If

2|

A

A

if

7

HI

If

A

7

i|

21

ft

A

t|

71

121

II

A

71

l!

31

A

A

if

7|

12f

II

7|

if

3|

i

A

H

*i

13

H

1

7f

if

31

1

i

4

If

8

I3|

U

f

8

2

3f

i

i

2

81

131

if

f

81

21

4i

A

I

4

21

8^

141

if

H

8|

21

*i

f

i

2£

8|

14|

if

H

81

2|

41

f

A

2|

9

15J

U

H

9

3

51

ii

A

3

91

15|

if

H

91

3i

5f

f

A

81

9i

16

if

f

9|

3£

61

f

A

3*

91

16|

H

3

4

9f

3f

61

H

f

31

10

161

H

f

10

4

61

1

f

4

101

17|

H

if

101

41

7f

tt

f

41

i(H

17|

11

if

10|

4|

71

i

f

4£

10|

18

2

if

lOf

41

81

i

A

41

11

18f

2

7
8

11

5

8*

if

A

5

1H

191

21

1

11*

si

9

if

A

51

12

20

21

1

12

5£

9f

H

7
16

5£

[353]

BOX WRENCHES

BOX WRENCHES FOR HEXAGON AND ROUND SLOTTED NUTS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Tprv

D

deaTcmc e ,

rf

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

I

U

*

2|

U

1

f

f

12"

A

A

11

If

1

H

1

2A

If

1

f

f

13$"

A

A

1A

1H

1

2

A

2|

Ii

1

f

A

157/

A

f

if

2

If

21

A

21

if

1

f

A

16*"

A

f

lit

2i

11

2*

A

3

U

1

7
8

A

18"

A

f

2

2f

If

2|

A

3f

if

1

7
8

i

19*"

A

A

2A

2f

ii

21

I

3|

il

1

1

i

21"

A

7
IT

2f

21

H

3i

I

3!

H

1

1

A

22*"

A

A

2A

3

it

3i

A

4|

2

u

H

A

24"

i

*

2|

31

ii

3*

A

4f

2

H

H

f

2'!*"

i

*

2M

3*

2

31

}

4|

2*

ii

H

f

2'3"

i

*

31

3f

21

41

i

5

2i

u

U

f

2'6"

- i

4

A

3*

4

2*

41

A

5*

2f

it

ii

H

2'9"

i

f

31

4f

2|

41

f

6

2£

it

if

f

3'0"

i

f

4i

4f

3

5i

ii

6f

2f

it

if

H

3'2"

A

H

4f

51

31

5f

H

7

21

H

ii

1

3'5"

A

f

5

5f

3*

6|

I

7*

3

H

2

1

3'8"

A

f

5f

6

3f

6|

i

4

7|

31

ii

2i

if

3'10"

A

H

5f

61

4

61

1

81

«

if

2i

i

4'1"

f

1

61

61

41

71

1

9

3|

if

2f

i*

4'4"

f

if

6*

71

4f

7|

1

9f

31

if

2^

H

4'6"

f

i

61

7f

4f

81

1

10

3f

if

2i

M

4'9"

f

i

7i

8

5

8|

i*

10f

31

H

2|

1A

5'0"

A

H

71

81

51

9

I*

11

4

if

2f

ii

5'3"

A

ii

8

81

5|

9|

1*

11*

4*

2

21

ii

5'6"

A

a

8f

91

[354]

BOX WRENCHES

BOX WRENCHES FOR HEXAGON AND ROUND SLOTTED NUTS

(Continued)
NAVY DEPARTMENT

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

5!

M

M

Hi

4*

2

3

1A

5'9"

A

H

81

9f

6

lot

U

12f

4|

2f

3f

if

6'0"

i

it

91

101

8|

10f

it

13

4f

2|

3t

1*

....

i

it

91

101

6*

11

if

131

4f

2|

3f

1*

....

i

if

91

101

6|

Hi

if

14

5

2i

8|

l\

i

if

lot

lit

7

111

i*

141

si

21

3f

i*

A

if

10f

111

9

121

i*

151

51

21

3f

if

A

*i

11

12|

7*

12f

i*

15f

5|

21

81

if

A

tf

HI

13J

7|

13

1*

16

5f

21

31

1H

A

u

HI

121

8

13*

if

161

5f

2|

4

if

f

ii

12|

131

9f

13|

if

17

5f

21

41

1H

f

if

121

131

if

141

if

171

6

21

4t

1H

f

if

12|

14|

8f

14|

if

18

6t

21

4f

if

f

if

131

14|

9

15|

if

181

6f

2f

41

iH

H

if

131

15

w

15|

if

191

ei

2|

41

2

H

if

14

151

H

16

1H

19f

6f

2f

4f

2

H

if

141

15f

9f

16|

i«

20

6f

2f

4f

2^

H

if

141

161

10

161

2A

201

7

3

5

21

•H

151

161

1(4

tn

2A

211

7i

3

5f

2A

I

if

151

17

10|

m

si

211

7t

31

5t

21

i

4

if

151

17f

10|

18

21

22

71

31

5f

2|

f

2

161

17|

11

181

21

221

7f

3t

5*

2&

....

H

2

161

181

111

19i

2A

231

7f

31

5f

2f

H

21

171

19

12

20

2A

241

81

3^

6

2|

f

21

18|

191

[355]

LOCK NUTS

LOCK NUTS AND SPLIT PINS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

CQPl

/* *\ * — ^*™ ^--^v^ %. ft

Diam.
Bolt

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

K

L

M

i

1

i

i

A

4

1

8

i

4

A

f

4

i

8

i

16

A

8

4
1

8

\

1 6

A

i

4

i

8

i

1 6

A

o

1

2f

ii

H

1

IA

f

A

4

1
4

8
1

16
\

H

21

it

H

1

iA

f

A

1

1

A

H

2B

it

!

A

iA

f

A

f

A

f

if

3

2|

it

A

if

A

A

f

A

H

ii

8J

21

if

H

ii

A

A

f

A

f

if

3£

2|

1

f

if

A

A

|

A

if

«

3H

2|

7
8

1

if

A

A

A

1

ii

3|

2H

if

if

U

i

A

I

A

if

2

41

3

if

1*

2

i

A

A

1

i

21

4A

3f

1

H

21

1

1

A

i

4

H

2£

5

3|

ii

H

2|

A

1

A

1

4

H

21

5A

4|

H

if

2f

A

i

4

i

A

if

3

51

4|

H

if.

3

f

i

\

A

H

31

6|

41

H

2

31

f

A

\

A

if

31

6tt

51

H

21

3£

f

A

\

A

if

«3f

n

5f

if

2|

3f

f

A

f

f

H

<t

7tt

6

1}

2£

4

f

A

f

f

2

H

81

6|

if

2f

41

f

A

f

f

21

41

8A

6!

it

21

4|

f

f

f

f

21

4f

9

71

if

31

4f

7
8

f

f

f

2f

5

9^

71

if

31

5

1

f

H

A

21

51

91

71

H

3*

51

1

f

H

A

2f

5£

10|

81

H

31

5^

1

f

H

A

2f

51

10H

8f

2

3f

5f

1

f

f

i

21

6

HI

9

2

4

6

1

A

f

\

3

61

"tt

9f

2&

4&

61

1

A

f

i

31

«

12i

91

21

4f

H

1

A

f

\

31

a

12|

10|

2&

4^

6f

U

A

f

i

3f

[356]

SPRING COTTERS

LOCK NUTS AND SPLIT PINS

(Continued)
NAVY DEPARTMENT

Diam.
Bolt

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

K

L

M

7

13ft

10|

21

4|

7

U

ft

1

4

1

3£

71

13|

101

2ft

4H

7*

1|

ft

1

2

3f

7£

13H

ill

2|

5|

7*

1|

A

I

i

3f

7f

U|

iif

2ft

5ft

71

II

ft

I

1

3|

8

14H

12

2|

5£

8

H

1

1

ft

4

81

15|

12f

2ft

5H

81

H

i

1

ft

41

8*

15f

12|

2|

51

8£

ii

i

1

ft

4|

8f

16ft

13J

2H

6ft

8f

if

i

1

ft

4|

9

16f

13|

2f

6*

9

if

i

1

ft

4*

SPRING COTTERS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General. — To be made of high-grade material, of good workmanship, and be
free from defects which may affect the serviceability of the cotters.

2. Material. — Cotters to be made of either spring brass or spring steel, as specified.

3. Finish. — Surface to be finished smooth and the diameter to be uniform. The
ends to be slightly rounded, beveled, or pointed to permit easy entering.

4. Sizes. — The following table of commercial sizes shows the various lengths for
the different diameters:

Diameter,
in Inches

Length, in Inches *

ft

1

I

i

H

H

if

2

ft

1

f

i

H

H

if

2

i

}

I

i

H

H

H

2

2|

2*

ft

1

f

i

H

H

if

2

2J

2*

ft

i

I

i

H

H

if

2

21

2*

H

1

1

i

H

H

if

2

21

2*

ft

f

i

H

H

if

2

2*

2|

2f

3

tt

t

i

H

li

if

2

21

2*

2f

3

£s

i

H

H

lz

2

2i

2i

2f

3

i

i

H

u

11

2

2i

91

91

3

31

31

4

ft

i

H

H

1x

9

2i

2i

22

3

31

31

4

H

1l

?

2i

91

91

3

31

31

4

ft

If

2

2i

2i

21

3

31

32

4

5

9

2i

2i

2f

3

3t

31

4

5

6

I

3

3^

3f

4

5

6

5. Packing and Marking. — To be delivered in cardboard boxes containing 50 or 100
cotters each, marked with the name of the material, size, quantity, and name of the
manufacturer.

[357]

ACME THREAD SCREWS

ACME THREAD SCREWS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

p = pitch =

No. threads per in.
d = depth = ~ -T- .010
f = flat = p X .3707

BOLT

SCREW THREADS

Nut
Depth

Outside
Diam.

Area
Sq. In.

Threads
Per
Inch

Pitch
p

Depth
d

Width of Flat

Diam.
at
Root of
Thread

Effective
Area
Sq. In.

Top

Bottom

f

0.196

8

.125

.073

.046

.041

0.355

0.099

!

I

.307

7

.143

.082

.053

.048

0.462

0.168

1

I

.442

6

.167

.094

.062

.057

0.563

0.249

l

1

.601

6

.167

.094

.062

.057

0.688

0.372

H

1

.785

5

.200

.110

.074

.069

0.780

0.478

H

1*

.994

5

.200

.110

.074

.069

0.905

0.643

H

U

1.227

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

0.980

0.754

if

if

1.485

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.105

0.959

H

H

1.767

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.230

1.188

2

H

2.074

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.355

1.442

2|

if

2.405

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.480

1.720

2|

H

2.761

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.605

2.023

2|

2

3.142

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.730

2.351

2f

2J

3.976

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

1.980

3.079

3

2|

4.909

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

2.230

3.906

3*

2|

5.940

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

2.480

4.600

3f

3

7.069

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

2.730

5.853

4

3i

8.296

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

2.980

6.975

4f

3*

9.621

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

3.230

8.194

4f

3f

11.045

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

3.480

9.511

5

4

12.566

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

3.730

10.927

5f

4i

14.186

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

3.980

12.441

5f

4*

15.904

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

4.230

14.053

6

41

17.721

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

4.480

15.763

6f

5

19.635

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

4.730

17.572

6f

5*

23.758

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

5.230

21.483

71

6

28.274

4

.250

.135

.093

.088

5.730

25.787

8*

[358]

ACME SCREW THREADS
ACME SCREW THREADS

This form of screw thread is much in favor as a substitute for square thread screws
required in machine construction.

/'» . tfQ°."»

I I * Ar7— > | ^

I I *

.!_

I1

P= pitch = :r= -i j : r

No. threads per inch
d = depth = | +.010
f =flat = p X .3707

Each side of an Acme thread is at an angle of 14|°, or 29° in the included angle
between threads. The screw itself is measured by standard, or any given outside
diameter suited to the work. Whatever the diameter, the thread hi the nut is 0.02
inch over the standard or given diameter, to provide a clearance space at the top of the
screw thread ; similarly a reduction in diameter of 0.02 is provided at the bottom of the
screw thread as clearance for the nut.

The depth of thread is nominally the same as for a square thread screw of equivalent
diameter, to which is added 0.01 inch on each side, for clearance. This allowance for
clearance at both top and bottom of HIT

thread is shown in the accompanying ^ N U 1

sketch. As compared with a square
thread screw, greater strength results
from the Acme form of thread be-
cause its bottom is much wider than
that of a square thread of equal
pitch.

Recapitulation. — The various
parts of the 29° Screw Thread,

Acme Standard, are obtained as follows:

Width of point of tool for screw or tap thread = ^ j—r1 — -5 : — t

No. of threads per inch

Width of screw or nut thread = ^ ^— =J — 3 : — r

No. of threads per inch

Diameter of tap = diameter of screw + .020.
Diameter of tap or screw at root

- .0052.

diameter of screw

\No. of li

linear threads per inch

+ .020.

Depth of thread = 0 'XT j-r ^ r— 7 + .010.

2 X No. of threads per inch

TABLE OF THREAD PARTS

No. of Thds.
per In.
Linear

Depth
of
Thread

Width at
Top of
Thread

Width at
Bottom
of Thread

Space at
Top of
Thread

Thickness
at Root
of Thread

1

.5100

.3707

.3655

.6293

.6345

H

.3850

.2780

.2728

.4720

.4772

2

.2600

.1853

.1801

.3147

.3199

3

.1767

.1235

.1183

.2098

.2150

4

.1350

.0927

.0875

.1573

.1625

5

.1100

.0741

.0689

.1259

.1311

6

.0933

.0618

.0566

.1049

.1101

7

.0814

.0529

.0478

.0899

.0951

8

.0725

.0463

.0411

.0787

.0839

9

.0655

.0413

.0361

.0699

.0751

10

.0600

.0371

.0319

.0629

.0681

[359]

BASTARD THREAD SCREWS

BASTARD THREAD SCREWS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

BOLT

SCREW THREADS

Nut
Depth

Outside
Diam.

Area
Sq. In.

Threads
Per
Inch

Pitch
P

Depth
d

Width
f

Diam.
at
Root of
Thread

Effective
Area
Sq. In.

i

0.196

6

.167

.083

.042

0.333

0.087

I

I

.307

5

.200

.100

.050

.425

.142

1

3.

4

.442

5

.200

.100

.050

.550

.238

1

.601

4£

.222

.111

.056

.653

.335

if

1

.785

4

.250

.125

.063

.750

.442

U

H

.994

4

.250

.125

.063

.875

.601

ii

H

1.227

3f

.286

.143

.071

.964

.730

if

if

1.485

31

.286

.143

.071

1.090

.933

H

if

.767

3

.333

.167

.083

1.167

1.070

2

if

2.074

3

.333

.167

.083

1.290

1.307

2|

if

2.405

3

.333

.167

.083

1.417

1.577

2f

if

2.761

?|

.400

.200

.100

1.475

1.709

3

2

3.142

2*

.400

.200

.100

1.600

2.011

2|

2i

3.976

21

.400

.200

.100

1.850

2.688

3

2£

4.909

2

.500

.250

.125

2.000

3.142

31

2|

5.940

2

.500

.250

.125

2.250

3.976

3f

3

7.069

2

.500

.250

.125

2.500

4.909

4

3|

8.296

2

.500

.250

.125

2.750

5.940

41

81

9.621

2

.500

.250

.125

3.000

7.069

41

3f

11.045

2

.500

.250

.125

3.250

8.296

5

4

12.566

1J

.667

.333

.167

3.335

8.736

51

41

14.186

1|

.667

.333

.167

3.580

10.066

51

4|

15.904

H

.667

.333

.167

3.830

11.520

6

4|

17.721

H

.667

.333

.167

4.080

13.074

6|

5

19.635

li

.667

.333

.167.

4.330

14.725

61

5*

23.758

1J

.667

.333

.167

4.580

16.475

7f

6

28.274

11

.667

.333

.167

4.830

18.323

81

BASTARD THREAD SCREWS

As the name implies, these screws are somewhat irregular, therefore, difficult of
standardization. In general, they serve as substitutes for square thread screws. A
coarse pitch of thread gives rapid movement, and the tapering sides of thread facilitate
the operation of a closing and disengaging nut.

[360]

SQUARE THREAD SCREWS

The proportions are always assumed by the designer, who adapts each screw to the
service for which it is intended. The accompanying table, prepared for the use of the
Navy Department, is intended to supply its own needs without reference to commercial
application.

SQUARE THREAD SCREWS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

BOLT

SCREW THREADS

Nut
Depth

Outside
Diam.

Area
Sq. In.

Threads
per
Inch

Pitch
P

Depth
d

Width
£

Diam.
at
Root of
Thread

Effective
Area
Sq. In.

\

0.196

6

.167

.083

.083

0.333

0.087

1

1

.307

5

.200

.100

.100

.425

.142

1

.442

5

.200

.100

.100

.550

.238

H

!

.601

4£

.222

.111

.111

.653

.335

U

i

.785

4

.250

.125

.125

.750

.442

11

U

.994

4

.250

.125

.125

.875

.601

if

If

1.227

81

.286

.143

.143

.964

.730

U

H

1.485

31

.286

.143

.143

1.090

.933

2

U

1.767

3

.333

.167

.167

1.167

1.070

2*

if

2.074

3

.333

.167

.167

1.290

1.307

2|

if

2.405

3

.333

.167

.167

1.417

1.577

2f

H

2.761

2|

.400

.200

.200

1.475

1.709

2f

2

3.142

2|

.400

.200

.200

1.600

2.011

3

*\

3.976

2£

.400

.200

.200

1.850

2.688

3|

2|

4.909

2

.500

.250

.250

2.000

3.142

3f

2f

5.940

2

.500

.250

.250

2 . 250

3.976

4*

3

7.069

2

.500

.250

.250

2.500

4.909

4£

3J

8.296

2

.500

.250

.250

2.750

5.940

41

3|

9.621

2

.500

.250

.250

3.000

7.069

5i

3|

11.045

2

.500

.250

.250

3.250

8.296

5f

4

12.566

H

.667

.333

.333

3.335

8.736

6

4*

14.186

if

.667

.333

.333

3.580

10.066

6|

41

15.904

If

.667

.333

.333

3.830

11.520

6f

4|

17.721

i*

.667

.333

.333

4.080

13.074

71

5

19.635

H

.667

.333

.333

4.330

14.725

7£

5%

23.758

H

.667

.333

.333

4.580

16.475

8i

6

28.274

li

.667

.333

.333

4.830

18.323

9

[361

SQUARE THREAD SCREWS

SQUARE THREAD SCREWS

This form of screw thread is much used in machine construction by reason of the large
bearing surface presented by the sides of the screw; its coarser pitch, than a standard
screw, permits rapid motion to the piece requiring to be moved. The absence of oblique
pressure tending to burst a solid nut, or to open a disengaging nut, is in its favor.

The number of threads per inch is commonly half that of a standard screw of the
same diameter, but this proportion is not closely followed; see table of Square Thread
Screws, Navy Department. The thickness of thread and width of face are generally
half the pitch, but this is subject to modification, for the required pitch may be greatly
in excess of these proportions.

Rules for square thread screws for ordinary service as given by Unwin are:

Pitch =p =0.16 + 0.08

Threads per inch = n = ~
Diameter at bottom of thread
Depth of thread = ^

d1=d — — = 0.85d — 0.075
n

To protect the sharp corners of square thread screws from injury, they are some-
times slightly rounded, varying with the amount of protection afforded by the machine
in which the screw is to be used. Some designers give the side of thread a slight angle;
this facilitates manufacture, as also the entrance of jaws of a disengaging nut.

The bearing pressure allowable on a square thread is subject to wide variation. In
general the problem is not one of strength of material, as it is of lubrication. Slow
moving screws, intermittent in action, well lubricated, may carry a pressure of 1,000
pounds per square inch. If the service is continuous, the speed moderately high, say
300 feet per minute, the pressure should in no case exceed 150 pounds per square inch of
surface contact. Thrust bearin s for torpedo boats are analogous in some respects to
square thread screws; the allowable pressure for naval vessels approximates 50 pounds
per square inch of collar surface.

MULTIPLE THREAD SCREWS

Screws having double or triple threads are chiefly used to transmit motion. When
the pitch of a screw is required to be much greater than the customary proportions a
serious loss of strength may result through an unnecessary reduction of its diameter.

|<-prr<W* TRIPLE

This is overcome hi practice by making such a screw double or triple threaded without
change of pitch. A deep thread weakens a screw because the effective diameter at
root of thread is less than would be the case with a shallow thread. The progressive
depths for three screws of the same pitch are shown in the sketch.

[362]

BUTTRESS THREAD SCREWS

BUTTRESS THREAD SCREWS

This form of screw thread is a modification of both the triangular and square threads;

the intent being to combine the smaller friction of a square thread with the greater

strength of a triangular thread.

Like the square thread, it has one surface normal to the axis of the screw, and this is the

surface which receives the thrust. Designed for resisting a force acting in one direction

only, this form of thread is well adapted
for breech blocks in heavy ordinance.
The shearing strength for a given length
of nut is twice that of a square thread.

As to pitch and depth of thread they
may follow the tabular dimensions for
U. S. standard threads, or, as usually is
the case, specially designed for the work.
The rear angle of a section of the thread
is 45°. Tops and bottoms of threads are
cut off and filled in as shown at b in the

sketch. In amount b may be one-sixth to one-eighth of the total depth A. If points

and roots are not left flat, as in the U. S. threads, they may be slightly rounded, but less

in amount than shown for Whitworth threads.

KNUCKLE THREAD SCREWS

This form of thread is sometimes employed in the manufacture of screw jacks in-
tended for the use of contractors, builders, etc. Screw jacks are commonly subjected
to rough usage and receive but little

care at best; the excessive rounding u w y

of the outer corners of the threads is J j '

thought to lessen the possible injury ^~~ --*'- -
to the screw in service. The half-
round bottom of the thread, as shown 'V>^^jy ' 'fot^Jy ' '^^^/^
in the sketch, serves only to make '?/9w' ''%&/ 4%W"
the screw symmetrical in appear-
ance, inasmuch as the bottom of a

screw thread is not liable to injury. Threads per inch are commonly the same as for
square thread screws of corresponding diameter.

KNUCKLE THREADS

AREA IN SQUARE INCHES

Diameter

Threads

Diameter

Depth

in
Inches

Imsh

at Bottom
of Thread

Bottom

Outside

of

Nut

of Thread

Diameter

2

2£

1.60

2.01

3.14

3

2*

2£

1.85

2.69

3.98

3|

2*

2

2.00

3.14

4.91

31

2i

2

2.25

3.98

5.94

41

3

2

2.50

4.91

7.07

ii

8i

2

2.75

5.94

8.30

41

31

2

3.00

7.07

9.62

5J

3*

2

3.25

8.30

11.05

5f

4

ti

3.34

8.74

12.57

6

[363

SHARP V-THREAD SCREWS

SHARP V-THREAD SCREWS

These screws are not in general use and are not standardized. The following table
relating to V-thread screws indicates the number of threads per inch for taps and dies
meeting ordinary commercial requirements. The dimensions of bolt heads and nuts
are Manufacturers' Standard.

No. threads per inch

d = depth = p X .866

SHARP V-THREAD SCREWS

This Table is not United States standard

Diam.
Screw
A

Thds.

Im:h
C

Thread
Const.

Diam.
at
Root of
Thread
B

SQUARE HEAD AND NUT

HEXAGON HEAD AND NUT

Long
Diam.
E

Short
Diam.
F

Head
Thick.
C

Nut
Thick.
H

Long
Diam.

Short
Diam.

Head
Thick.

Nut
Thick.

1

20

.0866

.1634

ft

I

ft

ft

ft

t

ft

ft

&

18

.0962

.2163

If

it

H

i

H

H

M

i

I

16

.1083

.2667

Ii

ft

ft

ft

Ii

ft

ft

ft

ft

14

.1236

.3139

tt

li

fi

f

f

Ii

H

1 '

i

12

.1443

.3557

i&

i

t

ft

1

f

f

ft

ft

12

.1443

.4182

ift

H

H

1

B

M

H

i

1

11

.1575

.4675

an

H

H

ft

1ft

M

if

ft

I

10

.1732

.5768

m

11

ft

H

Ml

H

ft

H

i

9

.1924

.6826

iff

ift

Ii

H

II!

i*

Ii

H

i

8

.2165

.7835

2|

ii

I

H

m

U

1

if

i|

7

.2474

.8776

2H

1H

H

H

iii

1H

M

H

it

7

.2474

.0026

2ft

H

H

n

2H

U

H

U

H

6

.2887

.0863

2H

2ft

ift

If

2|f

2ft

Ift

H

ii

6

.2887

.2113

3ft

21

H

H

2M

21

H

ii

it

5

.3465

.2785

3*i

2ft

1ft

l|

2H

2ft

1ft

If

1!

5

.3465

.4035

3ff

2f

ift

l!

3^

2|

1ft

If

11

4i

.3849

.4901

3ft

2H

1H

II

31

2M

1H

Ii

2

4*

.3849

.6151

41

3

H

2

3M

3

H

2

2i

4i

.3849

.7401

4i

3ft

1H

21

3H

3ft

IH

a*

21

4|

.3849

.8651

4ff

3|

1H

21

3H

31

iH

21

2f

4|

.3849

1.9901

5^

3^

1M

2f

4^

3ft

iff

2|

2i

4

.4330

2.0670

5H

31

H

21

4H

3f

if

2|

2f

4

.4330

2.1920

5ft

3H

IB

2f

4ff

m

i»

21

2!

4

.4330

2.3170

5H

41

2ft

21

4H

4i

2ft

2f

2|

4

.4330

2.442

6&

4A

2A

21

4H

4ft

2&

21

3

3|

.4949

2.5051

6H

41

21

3

6M

4i

21

3

[364]

S. A. E. STANDARD SCREWS

S. A. E. STANDARD SCREWS

The form of screw thread adopted by the Society of Automobile Engineers is the
same as in the Franklin Institute Standard, that is, the contained angle of the flat
sides of the thread is 60°, with a flat top and flat bottom equal to one-eighth of the
pitch. The number of threads per inch is greater than in the Franklin Institute
Standard.

The threaded portion of the bolt equals one and a half times the diameter of screw.

Bolts and nuts to be made of steel, not less than 100,000 pounds tensile strength,
with an elastic limit of 60,000 pounds per square inch.

Screw threads, bolt heads, and plain nuts are to be left soft; castle nuts are to be
case-hardened.

Standard details and corresponding dimensions relating to head, nut, and castle
nut are given in the accompanying illustration and table.

S. A. E. STANDARD SCREWS

SCREW

BOLT HEAD AND NUT DETAILS

Diam.
A

Thds.
per
Inch

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

K

L

M

Diam.
Drfi

t

I

28

A

I

A

&

&

A

A

A

A

^6

A

A

24

i

li

H

A

A

B

li

ft

X

A

H

1

24

A

&

A

A

1

li

H

1

i

A

li

&

20

I

-B

li

A

i

1

i

1

1

A

t

i

20

I

H

I

A

1

A

*

A

1

A

A

&

18

1

IA

li

A

1

li

M

A

A

1

i

I

18

H

IA

H

A

1

If

ft

i

&

l

li

»

16

i

1*

H

A

1

B

I

i

A

i

If

1

16

1A

l&

A

A

1

B

H

i

A

1

H

1

14

li

1A

B

A

1

If

If

i

A

1

If

l

14

IA

IB

i

A

1

1

l

i

A

i

If

li

12

if

u

H

&

A

H

1A

A

A

li

1A

if

12

1«

IA

H

A

&

IA

li

A

A

H

1A

H

12

2

1A

IA

A

L

4

IB

IB

1

i

H

IB

M

12

2&

IB

II

A

i

1A

li

f

1

H

IB

WfflTWORTH STANDARD THREADS

The form of thread proposed by Sir J. Whitworth and adopted by English engineers
is one with flat sides, at an angle to each other of 55°, with a rounded top and bottom.
The proportions for the rounded top and bottom are obtained by dividing the depth of a
sharp thread having sides of 55° into six equal parts, and within the lines formed by

[3651

WHITWORTH STANDARD SCREW THREADS

the sides of the thread and the top and bottom dividing lines, inscribing a circle, which
determines the form of top and bottom of thread, thus:

p = pitch =

1

No. threads per inch

d = depth = pX .6403
r = radius = p X .1373

WHITWORTH STANDARD SCREW THREADS, NUTS, AND BOLTS

Diameter
of
Bolt

HEAD AND NUT
OVER

Height
Nut

Height
of Head
for
Bolts

Threads
Inch

Area at
Bottom of
Thread

Thick,
of Check

Nut

Size of
Split Pin
L. S. G.

Flats

Angles

i

4

\

1

i

A

20

0.027

A

No. 14

I

H

if

1

A

16

.068

1

13

\

if

1ft

i

ft

12

.121

f

12

I

If

t|

f

£

11

.203

ft

11

I

ift

II

i

H

10

.303

A

10

i

It

Hi

1

i

9

.421

f

9

1

lit

IH

1

7
1

8

.554

f

8

U

H

21-

li

1

7

.697

H

7

H

2ft

2f

H

&

7

.894

H

6

if

2ft

2ft

H

1&

6

1.059

Ift

5

ri

2ft

2H

If

Ift

6

1.300

H

4

it

2ft

3

H

tft

5

1.471

11

3

if

21.

3A

U

i*

5

1.752

i&

2

11

3

3^

U

if

4*

1.986

if

1

2

3i

3f

2

if

4£

2.311

H

1

2*

3ft

4^

2|

2

4

2.925

A

2*

31

^

2i

2A

4

3.732

A

21

4ft

4H

2f

2^

3*

4.463

. . .

f

3

4

54

3

2f

3|

5.449

f

31

41

5f

31

2H

31

6.406

...

f

3*

5ft

6

3^

3^6

31

7.572

A

3f

5ft

6f

3|

31

3

8.656

A

4

5H

61

4

3^

3

10.026

. . .

1

41

61

7f

41

3f

21

11.370

i

4|

6M

71

4^

3H

21

12.913

...

ft

4f

71

8&

4!

4|

2f

14.413

ft

5

7H

9

5

4f

2f

16.145

...

f

The above table is from Seaton and Rounthwaite's " Pocket-Book of Marine En-
gineering," as is also the following table on the strengths of studs and bolts. The
table is based on the relation:

Working stress per sq. in. = (Area at bottom of thread)^ X C; where C = 5,000
,for iron or mild steel, and 1,000 for Muntz or gun-metal. For iron or steel bolts above

[366]

WHITWORTH STANDARD SCREW THREADS

2 inches diameter, and gun-metal or bronze ones above 3£ inches diameter, the moment
of the twisting stress is so small, proportionately, that it may be neglected.

Studs and bolts may be loaded to the figures given in the table whether the load
is daad (as in the case of a joint), or live (as in the case of a connecting-rod bolt), as in
the latter case mild steel will always be used, and the shearing stress due to tightening
up is practically absent.

Mild steel studs and bolts should always be fitted with iron nuts, as steel ones have a
much greater tendency to seize, and so greatly increase the twisting stress; for the same
reason Muntz metal or naval brass studs should always have iron nuts if possible.

Gun-metal and the various bronzes are unsatisfactory materials for small studs and
bolts, not because of any lack of tensile strength — which is often high — but because
of their very low elastic limit under a shearing stress.

When iron or steel studs are used in connection with gun-metal steam or water
valves, etc., they must not be allowed to penetrate into the steam or water space, or
they will apidly corrode and come loose.

The part of a stud that is screwed into the work should be: Not less than 1£ diame-
ters long when screwed into cast iron, and 1| diameters when not inconvenient.

Nor less than 1 diameter long when screwed into gun-metal, wrought iron, or cast steel.

STRENGTH OF STUDS AND BOLTS. WHITWORTH THREADS

Diameter
Stud or
Bolt

IRON OR MILD STEEL

MUNTZ OK GUN-METAL

Working Stress
in Pounds per
Square Inch

Effective Strength
of 1 Bolt or Stud
in Pounds

Working Stress
in Pounds per
Square Inch

Effective Strength
of 1 Bolt or Stud
in Pounds

f

2,000

250

400

50

I

2,500

500

500

100

1

3,000

900

600

180

1

3,400

1,450

680

290

1

3,900

2,150

780

430

tj

4,300

3,000

860

600

t|

4,700

4,200

940

840

If

5,100

5,400

1,020

1,080

1*

5,500

7,100

1,100

1,420

H

5,800

8,500

1,160

1,700

H

6,300

11,000

1,260

2,200

if

6,600

13,100

1,320

2,620

2

7,000

16,100

1,400

3,220

2i

7,000

20,400

1,560

4,560

2|

7,000

26,100

1,730

6,450

2f

7,000

31,200

1,860

8,300

3

7,000

38,100

2,030

11,000

3i

7,000

44,800

2,170

13,900

3|

7,000

53,000

2,350

17,800

3!

7,000

60,500

2,500

21,600

4

7,000

70,100

2,500

25,000

4J

7,000

79,500

2,500

28,400

4*

7,000

90,300

2,500

32,200

4|

7,000

100,800

2,500

36,000

5

7,000

113,000

2,500

40,300

51

7,000

124,600

2,500

44,500

5£

7,000

138,000

2,500

49,200

[367]

BRITISH ASSOCIATION SCREW THREADS

BRITISH ASSOCIATION STANDARD THREAD

This standard has been adopted in England by manufacturers of small screws used
by electrical and other instrument makers.

The form of thread is similar to Whitworth's, the angle of the V is 47|°, the top
and bottom of threads are rounded off to two-elevenths of the pitch thus:

I

p = pitch =

No. thrds. per mm.
depth = p X .6
2 Xp

r = radius

11

From Unwin: Let d = diameter of screw, and p = pitch in millimeters. Then
for screws less than 6 mm. in diameter a series of pitches are assumed 0.9°, 0.91, 0.92
. . . and each screw pitch is characterized by a number which is the index of 0.9 in
that series. For each of these pitches a standard diameter is selected, given by the
equation d = 6 pf . The rounding at top and bottom of threads is j2T of the pitch;
the depth of thread is | of the pitch. The dimensions being in millimeters.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION STANDARD SCREW THREADS

DIMENSIONS i

NT MILLIMETERS

DIMENSIONS

IN INCHES

Threads

Number

Diameter

Pitch

Diameter

Pitch

per Inch

0

6.0

1.00

.236

.0394

25.4

1

5.3

.90

.209

.0354

28.2

2

4.7

.81

.185

.0319

31.4

3

4.1

.73

.161

.0287

34.8

4

3.6

.66

.142

.0260

38.5

5

3.2

.59

.126

.0232

43.0

6

2.8

.53

.110

.0209

47.9

7

2.5

.48

.098

.0189

52.9

8

2.2

.43

.087

.0169

59.1

9

1.9

.39

.075

.0154

65.1

10

.7

.35

.067

.0138

72.6

11

.5

.31

.059

.0122

81.9

12

.3

.28

.051

.0110

90.7

13

.2

.25

.047

.0098

101.0

14

.0

.23

.039

.0091

110.0

15

.90

.21

.035

.0083

121.0

16

.79

.19

.031

.0075

134.0

17

.70

.17

.028

.0067

149.0

18

.62

.15

.024

.0059

169.0

19

.54

.14

.021

.0055

181.0

20

.48

.12

.019

.0047

212.0

21

.42

.11

.017

.0043

231.0

22

.37

.098

.015

.0039

259.0

23

.33

.089

.013

.0035

285.0

24

.29

.080

.011

.0031

317.0

25

.25

.072

.010

.0028

353.0

[368]

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SCREW THREADS

p - pitch - NQ threads per inch

d = depth = p X .6403
r = radius = p X .1373

Diameter,
Inches

Threads
per Inch

Diameter,
Inches

Threads
per Inch

Diameter,
Inches

Threads
per Inch

Diameter,
Inches

Threads
per Inch

i

25

u

9

2

7

3f

4*

&

22

1A

9

2|

7

3|

4*

1

20

11

9

2i

6

4

4*

&

18

1A

9

2|

6

4*

4

1

16

H

8

2|

6

4|

4

&

16

l*

8

2|

6

4|

4

I

14

l|

8

2|

6

5

4

H

14

1A

8

2|

6

5*

3|

!

12

U

8

3

5

5*

3*

H

U

HI

8

3*

5

51

H

i

11

If

7

3*

5

6

3*

if

11

in

7

31

5

l

10

u

7

3*

41

l&

10

IH

7

3f

4*

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SCREW THREADS

SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL

The form of thread used is similar to the Franklin Institute Standard; that is, the
thread has flat sides, the contained angle between any two threads is 60°; the width
of flat at top and bottom of thread is one-eighth of the pitch. A clearance at the
bottom of thread — not exceeding one-sixteenth of the height of the original triangle — is
included in the specifications — and it is recommended that the clearance occurring at
the bottom of the screw shall be rounded. The clearance is obligatory, but the bottom
of the screw may or may not be flat, inasmuch as the rounded bottom is left to the
discretion of the manufacturer.

This standard differs in some respects from the French Standard, and the later
French Standard differs from that formulated by Armengaud.

In the following table the standard dimensions are in terms of the Metric System;
English equivalents are supplied in parallel columns for reference only.

INTERNATIONAL AND FRENCH STANDARD THREAD — (Metric System)

J/V

T^

/ \

S-i

/

\ i

z=4 a

_/

\ /

6 8

v~

— 8 ^

/->>

pitch

No. threads per inch
d = depth = p X .6495

f=flat =|

r369

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SCREW THREADS

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SCREW THREADS

System International
Dimensions in millimeters and inches

OUTSIDE

Pitch

Root Diameter

Root Area

Diameter

Area

Mm.

Inches

Mm.

Inches

Mm.

Threads
per
Inch

Mm.

Inches

Mm.

Inches

3

0.1181

7.07

0.011

0.55

46.18

2.29

0.090

4.12

0.006

4

.1575

12.57

.019

.70

36.29

3.09

.122

7.50

.012

5

.1968

19.63

.030

.85

29.88

3.90

.153

11.95

.019

6

.2362

28.27

.044

.00

25.40

4.70

.185

17.35

.027

7

.2756

38.48

.060

.00

25.40

5.70

.225

25.52

.040

8

.3150

50.27

.078

.25

20.32

6.38

.251

31.97

.050

9

.3543

63.62

.099

.25

20.32

7.38

.290

42.78

.066

10

.3937

78.54

.122

.50

16.93

8.05

.317

50.90

.079

11

.4331

95.03

.147

.50

16.93

9.05

.356

C4.33

1.100

12

.4724

113.10

.175

1.75

14.51

9.73

.383

74.36

.115

14

.5512

153.94

.239

2.00

12.70

11.40

.449

102.07

.158

16

.6299

201.06

.312

2.00

12.70

13.40

.528

141.03

.219

18

.7087

254.47

.394

2.50

10.16

14.75

.581

170.87

.265

20

.7874

314.16

.487

2.50

10.16

16.75

.660

220.35

.342

22

.8661

380.13

.589

2.50

10.16

18.75

.738

276.12

.428

24

.9449

452.39

.701

3.00

8.47

20.10

.792

317.31

.493

27

1.0630

572.56

.887

3.00

8.47

23.10

.910

419.10

.650

30

1.1811

706.86

1.096

3.50

7.26

25.45

1.002

508.71

.789

33

1.2992

855.30

1.326

3.50

7.26

28.45

1.120

635.70

.985

36

1.4173

1017.88

1.578

4.00

6.35

30.80

1.213

745.06

1.155

39

1.5354

1194.59

1.852

4.00

6.35

33.80

1.331

897.27

1.391

42

1.6535

1385.44

2.147

4.50

5.64

36.15

1.423

1026.38

1.591

45

1.7716

1590.43

2.465

4.50

5.64

39.15

1.541

1203.80

1.866

48

1.8898

1809.56

2.805

5.00

5.08

41.51

1.634

1353.31

2.098

52

2.0472

2123.72

3.292

5.00

5.08

45.51

1.792

1626.69

2.521

56

2.2047

2463.01

3.818

5.50

4.62

48.86

1.924

1874.99

2.906

60

2.3622

2827.43

4.383

5.50

4.62

52.86

2.081

2194.55

3.402

64

2.5197

3216.99

4.986

6.00

4.23

56.21

2.213

2481.52

3.846

68

2.6772

3631.68

5.629

6.00

4.23

60.21

2.371

2847.27

4.413

72

2.8346

4071.50

6.311

6.50

3.91

63.56

2.502

3172.92

4.918

76

2.9921

4536.46

7.032

6.50

3.91

67.56

2.660

3584.84

5.557

80

3.1497

5026.55

7.791

7.00

3.63

70.91

2.792

3949.17

6.121

[370]

CASTLE NUTS

CASTLE NUTS

Diatn
Bolt
A

Threads
Inch

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Depth
D

Depth
E

Width
F

Diam.
G

Diam.
Hole in
Blank
Nut
H

i

13

8

1

I

A

i

i

If

A

12

ft

H

«|

1

6

A

H

I

11

I*

i*

H

A

A

A

If

f

10

H

iA

»

H

A

A

If

7
8

9

1A

ill

i*

If

A

A

ti

1

8

U

if

U

A

i

1

If

U

7

ill

2&

m

1

A

A

If

i\

7

2

2A

1A

A

A

A

1A

if

6

2&

2H

iff

If

H

H

IA

i*

6

2|

2|

if

H

1

1

1A

if

5*

2&

2ft

2^

If

H

H

i|f

if

5

2f

3A

2A

If

A

A

if

if

5

2H

3M

2^

H

H

H

if

2

4|

3*

3M

2^

« 1

i

i

m

2i

4|

3£

4^

2M

i

A

A

m

2*

4

31

4M

3|

it

!

1A

CAP NUTS

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

K

Diam.
Hole
U. S. Th.

\

A

f

1

H

IA

U
1A

l
II
IA
IA
ift

7

¥

1
1A
H
1A

A

A

\
A

i
A
f
f
1

?

H

7
8

1

A

A
A
A
A

1
H
1A

H

i^

H
H
H
U
iH

If
If
If
If
H

[371

STEEL BOLTS AND NUTS

CAP NUTS — (Continued)

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

K

Diam.
Hole
U. S. Th.

1

H

ii

iH

H

1

H

1

if

2A

H

U

iH

2&

H

1

H

U

I

if

21

H

H

2

2A

2A

H

It

if

A '

lit

2^

iA

if

2A-

2M

2i

1

if

H

A

2A

2f

1A

H

2f

2|

2A

if

l|

IH

A

2A

3

iA

if

2A

2&

2f

1

if

IH

A

2A

31

lit

H

2|

3A

2H

1A

if

1«

H

2f

3A

ii

i|

2H

3H

aft

1A

if

2f

H

2H

3H

if

2

3i

3H

3i

H

2

21

f

3

31

iff

STEEL BOLTS AND NUTS

NAVY DEPARTMENT
BOLTS

Bolts shall be made of a good quality of medium steel, and shall conform to the
United States standard for both heads and threads, unless otherwise specified as given
in Table I below.

All threads are to be United States standard, and where blanks are not specially
called for bolts will be threaded, and nuts will be tapped and fitted thumb-tight to the
bolt.

The length of the bolt will be measured from under the head to the first thread at
the end of the bolt.

Heads of bolts will be square, hexagonal, or button head, and plain or chamfered,
as specified in requisition. The nuts will be square or hexagon, either plain or cupped,
or double-cupped, as specified in requisition.

Unless otherwise specified, to be delivered in 100-pound boxes.

All kegs, boxes, or commercial packages to be plainly marked with the manufac-
turer's name and contract number.

Boxes to be made of new pine or spruce, planed on the outside, f inch when finished.
Boxes to be exactly 17 inches long, 10 inches high, 11 inches wide, outside measurements,
and must be securely put together.

Boxes to be neatly stenciled on one end only with the net weight, size, and name of
contents, as:

100 pounds

| by 1| inches

Bolts and nuts, steel

Hexagon heads and nuts.

The manufacturer's name, contract number, and any other marks to be on one
only; one side, one end, top, and bottom to be free from marks.

[372J

STEEL BOLTS AND NUTS

TABLE I

STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BOLTS AND NUTS FOR THE UNITED STATES NAVY

Diameter

Area

Thrds

Long Diam.

Short
Diam.

Depth

Diam-
eter of
Holes In
Blank
Nuts

Norn.

Eflf.

Eflf.

No.

Hex.

Sq.

W.

Head

Nut

I

0.185

0.026

20

A

ft

.i

1

1

A

A

.240

.045

18

H

tt

H

if

A

1

f

.294

.067

16

If

H

H

H

f

H

A

.345

.093

14

f*

**

M

If

A

H

i

.400

.125

13

i

H

f

A

1

If

A

.454

.162

12

i|

H

B

H

A

H

f

.507

.202

11

1*

H

ia

H

f

H

.620

.302

10

1*

if

H

f

f

M

1

.731

.419

9

m

2^

i*

H

1

H

l

.837

.550

8

n

2A

If

if

i

If

IJ

.940

.694

7

2&

2A

iH

M

H

H

U

1.065

.891

7

2A

2M

2

i

11

1A

if

1.160

1.057

6

2M

3&

2A

I*

if

i&

IJ

.284

1.294

6

2|

3H

2f

!A

If

1*

if

.389

1.515

51

m

3f

2A

1*

if

iff

U

.491

1.746

5

3A

31

2|

if

H

H

H

.616

2.051

5

3ft

4&

2H

Itt

H

if

2

.712

2.302

4£

OJJ

4M

3*

1*

2

m

21

.962

3.023

4i

4&

4H

3*

if

21

1H

2*

2.176

3.719

4

m

5M

31

m

2|

i*

2|

2.426

4.622

4

4ff

6

41

2|

2f

2A

All bolts 3 inches in diameter and above to have four threads per inch of standard
form, except in special cases, which will be submitted for approval.

Variations of Blank Bolts. — The variations in size of blank bolts shall not exceed
that allowed under Table II below:

TABLE II

Nominal
Diam.

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

Nominal
Diameter

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

Inch

Inch

Inch

Inch

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inch

A

0.1925

0.1825

0.010

tt

.9465

.9285

0.018

1

.2550

.245

.010

1

1.0095

.9905

.019

A

.3180

.307

.011

14

1.1350

1.115

.020

f

.3810

.369

.012

U

1.2605

1.2395

.021

ft

.444

.431

.013

if

1.3855

1.3645

.021

i

.507

.493

.014

II

1.5105

1.4895

.021

A

.570

.555

.015

if

1.6355

1.6145

.021

f

.633

.617

.016

if

1.7605

1.7395

.021

H

.6955

.6795

.016

H

1.886

1.864

.022

f

.7585

.7415

.017

2

2.011

1.989

.022

H

.821

.804

.017

21

2.261

2.239

.022

1

.8840

.866

.018

2*

2.511

2.489

.022

[373]

STEEL BOLTS AND NUTS

Form and Surface. — Bolts must be true to form, concentric, and free from scale,
fins, seams, and all other injurious or unsightly defects.

Tests. — A number of bolts, at the discretion of the inspector, will be taken from each
size of each delivery, enough to satisfy the inspector as to the quality of the entire
lot, and will be subjected to the following tests:

One-half of these bolts shall be bent cold on unthreaded portion through 180° around
a diameter equal to one-half the diameter of the bolts, and they must stand this test
without breaking, and only a slight fracture of the skin on one side will be allowed.

The remainder of the. bolts will be tested hot. They will be heated to redness and
hammered out flat to one-half their original thickness. They will then be reheated
to redness and bent around flat to an angle of 180°, and they must stand this test without
breaking off.

When bolts are not of sufficient length in the plain part to admit of being bent cold,
the threaded part must stand bending cold without fracture as follows :

If of £ inch diameter or less 35°

If above £ inch diameter and under 1 inch 30

If 1 inch diameter or over 25

Bolts and Nuts Ordered Together. — When bolts and nuts are ordered together the
nuts shall conform to the requirements for medium steel or wrought-iron nuts, as stated
hereinafter. The threads must be clean and sharp; the nuts must fit thumb-tight,
and be delivered on bolts.

NUTS

Nuts shall be hot pressed or cold punched and of a good quality of medium steel or
wrought iron. They shall conform, unless otherwise specified, to the United States
standard dimensions as given in Table I under "Bolts." The allowable variations
from these dimensions shall not exceed those given in Table II. When nuts are ordered
separately they shall be threaded unless otherwise specified in the contract.

Form and Surface. — Nuts shall be true to form, concentric, and free from scale,
fins, seams, and all other injurious or unsightly defects.

Hammer Test. — A number of nuts, at the discretion of the inspector, to be taken
from each size of each delivery, enough to satisfy the inspector as to the quality of the
entire lot.

One-half of these shall be placed on their sides and hammered out cold, so that
they break. The fracture on steel nuts must indicate medium steel of good quality.
The fracture in the case of wrought-iron nuts must show the grain to run normally to
the plane through the hole.

• The remaining nuts shall be heated to redness and hammered under a power hammer
to one-sixth their original thickness, and there must be few cracks around the edges,
and no signs of large splits or flaws.

TENSILE TEST OF BOLTS AND NUTS COMBINED

When practicable, tensile test of bolts and nuts combined shall be made. In making
the tensile test, the head and nut shall, without previous reduction of sectional area of
bolt, be held in opposite jaws of the testing machine and pulled to fracture.

Bolts so tested, to be satisfactory, must in every case fracture at threads, and not
at juncture with head, and shall withstand a tensile stress of at least 58,000 pounds,
find have an elastic limit of not less than 30,000 pounds per square inch sectional area.

[374

BOLTS AND NUTS— WEIGHT

BOLTS AND NUTS. ROUGH SIZES

United States Standard
Weight in pounds per 100 bolts

Length
in
Inches

SQUARE HEADS AND SQUARE NUTS

HEXAGON HEADS AND HEXAGON NUTS

1

I

i

i

l

i

I

1

1

1

2

27

45

67

101

144

24

40

63

93

132

a*

30

49

74

109

155

27

45

69

101

143

3

33

54

80

117

167

30

49

75

109

154

3£

35

58

86

126

178

33

54

82

118

165

4

38

62

92

134

189

35

58

88

126

176

4|

41

66

98

142

198

38

62

94

134

186

5

43

71

104

151

209

41

66

100

143

197

51

46

75

111

159

220

44

71

106

151

208

6

49

79

117

168

232

46

75

112

160

219

6*

52

84

123

176

243

49

79

119

168

230

7

55

88

129

185

254

52

84

125

177

241

7*

57

92

136

193

265

55

88

131

185

252

8

60

97

142

202

276

58

92

137

194

264

8*

63

101

148

210

287

60

96

143

202

274

9

65

105

154

218

298

63

100

149

210

285

9*

68

110

161

227

309

66

105

156

219

296

10

71

114

167

235

320

68

109

162

227

307

10|

74

118

173

244

331

71

114

168

236

318

11

77

123

180

252

343

74

118

174

244

329

iH

79

127

186

261

354

77

122

181

253

341

12

82

131

192

269

364

80

127

187

261

352

13

88

140

205

285

387

85

135

199

278

374

14

93

148

217

303

409

91

144

212

295

396

15

99

157

230

320

432

96

152

225

312

418

16

104

165

242

337

451

102

161

237

329

441

17

110

174

255

354

476

107

170

250

346

463

18

116

183

267

371

499

113

177

262

364

485

19

121

192

280

388

521

119

187

275

381

507

20

127

200

292

405

543

124

196

287

398

530

21

132

209

305

422

565

130

205

300

415

552

22

138

218

317

439

588

136

213

313

432

575

23

143

226

330

456

610

141

222

325

449

597

24

149

236

342

473

632

147

231

338

466

619

[375]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY SPECIFICATIONS

MACHINERY BOLTS AND NUTS AND MATERIAL FOR THE SAME

NAVY DEPARTMENT

NOTE. — These specifications are to be used only when finished or semi-finished bolts
and nuts are required, as around machinery or for flanges.

1. Machinery bolts and nuts to be of two grades: Semi-finished (faced under head
and nut, body trued); finished (machined throughout). Material to be of domestic
manufacture. For use on machinery, Class A rods; for minor purposes, Class B rods;
for anti-corrosive purposes, rolled naval brass, manganese bronze, or monel metal rods,
as stated on the order.

STEEL RODS

2. The physical and chemical characteristics of steel rods for bolts are to be in
accordance with the following table:

Class

Material

Mini-
mum
Tensile
Strength

Mini-
mum
Elastic
Limit

Mini-
mum
Elonga-
tion^

Maximum
Amount of —

Bends'

P.

s.

Pounds

Pounds

Per Cent

per

per

in 8

Sq. In.

Sq. In.

Inches

A....

Open-hearth

75,000

40,000

23

0.04

0.035

Cold bend 180° about

nickel or

an inner diameter

carbon

equal to one-half the

steel.

thickness of the test

piece for diameters

up to and including

1 inch, and equal to

the thickness for di-

ameters over 1 inch;

quench bend 180°

about an inner di-

ameter equal to the

thickness of the test

piece for diameters

up to and including

1 inch, and equal to

1£ times the thick-

ness for diameters

over 1 inch.

B....

Open-hearth

58,000

30,000

28

0.04

0.035

Cold bend flat back

carbon

through 180°; quench

steel.

bend 180° through

an inner diameter

equal to one-half the

thickness of the test

piece for diameters

up to and including

1 inch, and equal to

the thickness for di-

ameters over 1 inch.

1 Elongation for rounds J inch and less in diameter shall be measured in an original length equal to 16
times the diameter of the test piece; for material over i inch up to and including 1 inch in diameter, the
elongation shall be measured in a length of 8 inches; and for material over 1 inch in diameter up to and
including 2 inches in diameter, the required percentage of elongation, measured in a length of 8 inches,
shall be reduced by one for each increase in diameter of \ inch or a fraction thereof above 1 inch.

2 Quench test pieces to be heated to a dark cherry red, as seen in daylight, and plunged into fresh,
clean water of 80° to 90° F.

[376]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY SPECIFICATIONS

3. If the contractor desires, and so states on his orders, or if inspection at the place
of manufacture of the rods is considered impracticable to the bureau concerned, the
bureau will direct that the inspection of the rods be made at the place of manufacture
of the bolts, instead of at the place where the rods are rolled.

4. Surface and Other Defects. — The rods must be true to form, free from seams,
hard spots, brittleness, injurious sand, or scale marks, and injurious defects generally.

5. Tensile Test. — One tensile-test piece shall be taken from each ton or fraction
thereof of rods rolled from the same heat. If, however, the rods in one heat are not of
the same diameter, then the inspector will take such additional test pieces as he may
consider necessary according to the number of different sizes of rods in the heat. When
practicable, but one piece will be cut from each rod selected for the test. Should any
test piece be found too large in diameter for the testing machine, the piece may be
prepared for test in the manner prescribed for forgings.

6. Bending Tests. — If the total weight of the rods rolled from the same heat amounts
to 6 tons or more, four cold-bending test pieces and four quench-bending test pieces
will be taken; but if the weight is less than 6 tons, one-half that number of test pieces
will suffice.

7. Upsetting Tests. — From each heat of rounds as rolled there shall be cut six test
specimens about H inches long, which shall stand hammering down cold, longitudinally,
to one-half their original length without showing seams or other defects which would
tend to produce imperfections in the finished product.

FINISHED BOLTS (CLASSES A AND B)

8. After the rods to be made up into bolts have been tested as previously described,
the finished articles shall be tested by lots of 500 pounds or fraction thereof, one piece
being taken to represent the lot. The failure of 10 per cent of the lots of 500 pounds
to stand the specified tests in a satisfactory manner will render the whole of any delivery
liable to rejection.

9. When the bolts are of sufficient length in the plain part to admit of being bent
cold, they must stand bending double to a curve of which the inner radius is equal to
the radius of the bolt without fracture.

10. When bolts are not of sufficient length in the plain part to admit of being bent
cold, the threaded part must stand bending cold without fracture as follows:

If of | inch diameter or less . . 35°

If above ^ inch diameter and under 1 inch 30°

If 1 inch diameter or over , . 25°

11. Where the bending tests cannot be applied the two following hammer tests
must be substituted:

(a) The test piece to stand flattening out, cold, to a thickness equal to one-half its
original diameter without showing cracks.

(b) The test piece to stand flattening out, while heated to a cherry-red heat in
daylight, to a thickness equal to one-third its original diameter without showing cracks.

12. (1) All bolts shall be free from surface defects. (2) All bolts are to be headed
hot, and the heads made in accordance with the United States standard proportions
unless otherwise specified. The head must be concentric with the body of the bolt.
(3) The threads must be of the United States standard unless otherwise specified,
and must be clean and sharp. The threads of classes A and B bolts may be either
chased or cut with a die, but the threads of body-bound bolts must be chased and
must extend far enough down so that when the nut is screwed home there will be not
more than one and one-half threads under it. The plain part of body-bound bolts
must be turned in a lathe to fit accurately in the bolt hole.

STEEL AND IRON NUTS (TO BE USED WITH CLASSES A AND B BOLTS)

13. One tensile and one bending test bar from each lot of 1,000 pounds of material
or less from which nuts are to be made shall be selected by the inspector for test.

[377]

BOLTS AND NUTS— U. S. NAVY SPECIFICATIONS

14. The material, whether steel or iron, shall show a tensile strength of at least
48,000 pounds per square inch and an elongation of at least 26 per cent in 8 inches.
A bar £ inch square or \ inch in diameter shall bend back, cold, through an angle of
180° without showing signs of fracture.

15. The nuts must be free from surface defects, and the threads clean, sharp, and
well fitting.

16. The dimensions of threads must be in conformity with the United States standard
unless otherwise specified.

STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BOLTS AND NUTS FOR THE UNITED STATES NAVY

Diameter

Area

Thrds.

Long Diameter

Short
Diam.

Depth.

Diam-
eter of
Holes in
Blank
Nuts

Norn.

Eff.

Eff.

No.

Hex.

Sq.

W.

Head

Nut

1

4

0.185

0.026

20

A

M

*

\

i

A

A

.240

.045

18

H

H

tt

H

A

i

1

.294

.067

16

If

M

H

H

I

H

*

.345

.093

14

H

i&

If

H

A

H

i

.400

.125

13

l

11

1

ft

^

M

&

.454

.162

12

U

H

H

M

A

H

f

.507

.202

11

1A

i*

ift

8

f

If

f

.620

.302

10

i*

rt

i\

f

f

M

1

.731

.419

9

m

2&

l&

H

1

H

l

.837

.550

8

11

2&

if

H

l

If

H

.940

.694

7

2&

2&

1H

H

U

H

1$

1.065

.891

7

2&

2fJ

2

1

H

l*

if

1.160

1.057

6

m

3&

2&

1*

H

I*

a

1.284

1.294

6

2f

3&

21

1*

H

i&

if

1.389

1.515

$

m

3f

2^

1ft

if

ill

H

1.491

1.746

5

3&

31

2f

U

U

M

II

1.616

2.051

5

3M

4&

2H

1H

H

if

2

1.712

2.302

41

3$

4H

3i

l*

2

m

2*

1.962

3.023

H

4&

4H

3^

U

2i

ifi

2*

2.176

3.719

4

4M

5H

31

m

2*

ift

2f

2.426

4.622

4

41!

6

4i

2i

2f

2&

17. The nuts must be hot-pressed or cold-punched, the latter to be reamed before
threading, the holes to be central and square with the faces. All nuts must fit on the
bolts without shake.

18. Nuts to be used about machinery must fit so tight that it will be necessary
to use a wrench to turn them. All other nuts must be at least thumb-tight.

19. For the purpose of test all nuts which fulfil the preceding requirements will
be divided into lots of 500 pounds or less, and two nuts from each lot selected by the
inspector for test as follows:

(a) One of the two shall stand flattening out, cold, to a thickness equal to one-half
its original thickness without showing cracks.

(b) The other shall stand flattening out, when heated to a cherry-red in daylight,
to a thickness equal to one-third its original thickness without showing cracks.

20. (a) The failure to stand these tests will subject the lot represented by them
to rejection. The failure of 10 per cent of the lot to pass the tests will render the
whole order liable to rejection.

[378]

BOLTS AND NUTS— XT. S. NAVY SPECIFICATIONS

NON-CORROSIVE RODS

21. The composition must be made of such materials as will give the required chem-
ical analysis. Scrap will not be used except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

Let-
ter

Name

COMPOSITION BY PERCENTAGE

Miscellaneous

Cop-
per

Tin

Zinc

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Mn-r.
Mo-r .

N-r...

Manganese bronze
Monel metal.

57-60
Rem.

0.5-1.5

37-40

0.0
.2

2.5
3.5

.06

Manganese, 0.30.
Nickel, 60 (min.) ; alu-
minium, 0.5 (max.).

Rolled naval brass. .

59-63

.5-1.5

Rem.

22. One test piece for every lot of 400 pounds or less shall show the following results:

Name

Ultimate

Let-
ter

Tensile
Strength per
Square Inch

Yield Point
(Minimum)

Elongation
in 2 Inches
(Minimum)

(Minimum)

Pounds

Per Cent

N-r

Naval brass 1

inch and below

62,000

2 ultimate

25

Above 1 inch

60,000

^ ultimate

28

Mn-r.

Manganese bronze, 1 inch and below

72,000

\ ultimate

28

Above 1 inch

70,000

3 ultimate

30

Mo-r .

Monel metal,

1 inch and below

84,000

47,000

25

Above 1 inch

80,000

45,000

28

23. If the contractor desires, and so states on his orders, or if inspection at the
place of manufacture of the rods is considered impracticable to the bureau concerned,
the bureau will direct that the inspection of the rods be made at the place of manufacture
of the bolts instead of at the place where the rods are rolled.

24. Test pieces are to be as nearly as possible of the same diameter as the rounds,
or else they are to be not less than £ inch in diameter and taken at a distance from
the circumference equal to one-half the radius of the rounds.

25. Test specimens for rounds and bars, or N-r, Mn-r, Mo-r, will stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the bars.

(c) The bending bar may be the full-sized bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch width
and \ inch thickness. In the case of bending test pieces of rectangular section, the
edges may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

Fractures of specimens must show throughout uniform color and grain.

26. Various composition materials, otherwise conforming to the specifications,
but manufactured under proprietary processes or having proprietary names, will be
accepted as rolled naval brass provided the ingredients are approved by the bureau.

27. The rods must be free from all surface defects, clean and straight, of uniform
color, quality, and gauge.

28. All requirements of the specifications for steel bolts that are applicable in regard
to surface, material, and threading shall apply to non-corrosive bolts.

29. Non-corrosive nuts shall be made of the same material as the bolts.

NOTE. — All requirements for steel bolts and nuts that are applicable, such as surface,
threads, and fitting, shall apply to non-corrosive bolts and nuts.

[379]

IRON BOLTS AND NUTS

30. Should it be impracticable for the bureau concerned to inspect the rods before
the manufacture of the bolts, the test specified for the stock shall be made on the
finished article as far as practicable.

31. Note for General Storekeepers. — Requisitions will state the material, size,
length over all, whether bolts and nuts are to be semi-finished or finished. If nuts are
to be case-hardened, and if nuts are to fit wrench-tight, it will be so noted on the requisi-
tion. Length of bolt to be measured from under side of the head to the first thread at
the end of bolt. Requisitions should state whether bolts and nuts are to have hexagon
heads or square heads.

32. Correspondence relative to interpretation or modification of specifications
should be addressed to the bureau concerned, via the naval inspector of .material of
the district.

IRON BOLTS AND NUTS
NAVY DEPARTMENT

NOTE. — This specification to be used only when steel bolts and nuts are considered

unsuitable for the purpose.

1. To be of best quality neutral iron and to be bought in three grades, as follows, viz. :

(a) Blanks (not machined).

(b) Semi-finished (face under head and nut, body trued).

(c) Finished (machined throughout).

2. These must conform to the dimensions of the table marked "I," except such small
variations as are allowed by the table marked "II." The value of both hexagon and
square nuts and heads is compiled from the following:

Nuts, Blank or Semi-finished. — D equals one and one-half tunes diameter of bolt
plus | inch. B equals diameter of bolt.

Nuts, Finished. — D equals one and one-half times diameter of bolt, plus ^ inch.
B equals diameter of bolt, less ^ inch.

Heads, Blank or Semi-finished. — D equals one and one-half times diameter of
bolt, plus | inch. B equals one-half short diameter of head.

Heads, Finished. — D equals one and one-half times diameter, plus ^ inch. B
equals diameter of bolt, less ^ inch.

The long diameter of a hexagon nut may be obtained by multiplying the short
diameter by 1.155 and the long diameter of a square nut by multiplying the short
diameter by 1.414.

3. All threads are to be United States standard, and, where blanks are not specially
called for, bolts will be threaded, and nuts will be tapped and fitted thumb-tight to
the bolt to within three threads of the shank.

4. The length of the bolt will be measured from under the head to the first thread
at the end of the bolt.

5. Heads of bolts will be square, hexagonal, or button head, and plain or chamfered.
The nuts will be. square or hexagon, either plain or cupped, or double-cupped. All
nuts to be cold punched or hot pressed as required.

6. All kegs, boxes, or commercial packages to be plainly marked with the
manufacturer's name.

MATERIAL AND TEST FOR MACHINE BOLTS AND NUTS OF WROUGHT IRON

1. The material to be known as a good commercial grade of American refined iron.

2. Tensile Strength. — Material to be tested in full size when practicable. Specimen
bars of not less than ^ square inch sectional area must show an ultimate strength
of not less than 48,000 pounds per square inch, and an elongation of not less than 26
per cent in 2 inches.

3. Test of Bolts. — From each lot of bolts of the same diameter the inspector will
select a sufficient number of test specimens to determine the quality and uniformity
of the material used, and the lot will be accepted or rejected according to the results
obtained

[380]

IRON BOLTS AND NUTS

4. Fiber Test. — One-half of the test specimens thus selected shall be nicked with
a sharp chisel about 20 per cent of the diameter of the specimen, and bent back flat
at this point to an angle of 180°, the fracture showing clean fiber for at least 60 per cent
of the area.

5. Cold Short Test. — A number of the remaining test specimens shall be bent 180°
to a radius of one and one-half times the radius of the hole, without showing a sign of
fracture on outer curve.

When the specimens are not of sufficient length in the plain part of the bolt to
admit of the above test, the following will be substituted: Break the specimen through
the threaded parts without nicking, the result to be the same as required for fiber test.

TABLE I

Diame-
ter of
Finished
Bolt

Nearest
Size Drill
for Use in
Blank.
(Blank
Nuts Must
Not Be
Smaller)

Exact
Dimen-
sions at
Root of
Thread

Threads
per In.
on U.S.
Stand.

HEXAGON OR SQUARE NUTS

HEXAGON OR SQUARE HEADS

Blank or
Semi-finished

Finished

Blank or
Semi-finished

Finished

D

B

D

B

D

B

D

B

7ns.

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

A

No. 25

.1469

32

H

A

H

i

H

if

H

i

1

A

.1850

20

\

i

&

&

1

i

A

A

A

i

.2403

18

H

A

M

i

H

if

H

i

1

H

.2936

16

H

1

f

A

H

H

f

A

A

H

.3447

14

If

£

If

f

If

If

If

f

1

H

.4001

13

I

£

H

tk

1

&

H

A

A

H

.4542

12

&

A

If

1

H

li

If

\

f

H

.5069

11

1A

f

l

&

IA

H

i

A

U

fi

.5694

11

IA

H

i&

f

i*

li

t*

f

f

f

.6201

10

ii

i

1A

H

H

f

1A

H

H

tt

.6826

10

li*

H

i&

i

4

itt

If

1A

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1

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.7307

9

iA

1

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1A

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if

H

tt

li

.7932

9

Ui

H

1M

1

1H

If

1H

1

1

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.8376

8

if

i

1A

H

if

H

IA

H

U

li

.9394

7

m

H

U

i^

iff

If

if

IA

H

**

.0644

7

2

H

1H

1A

2

1

lil

IA

H

itt

.1585

6

2A

if

2i

1A

2fV

i&

2|

1A

li

lit

.2835

6

521

H

2A

1^

2f

1A

2^

IA

H

iff

.3888

5£

2A

if

2f

1A

2&

i&

2

IA

if

U

.4902

5

2f

H

2H

1H

2f

if

2H

1H

U

if

.6152

5

2H

U

21

1H

2H

1H

21

1H

2

iff

.7113

4*

31

2

3A

Itt

at

IA

3^r

iH

2i

Ift

.9613

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3*

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2A

2*

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2.1752

4

31

2*

3H

2^

31

1H

3H

2A

6. Hot Test. — A number of the samples shall be heated to redness and flattened
out to one-half the original thickness, and then reheated to red heat and bent to an
angle of 180°, and the bend must show no sign of fracture.

7. Test of Nuts. — A number of nuts, at the discretion of the inspector, to be taken
from each size of each delivery, to determine the quality and uniformity of the material

The surface of the nuts should be free from defects; the nuts to be of correct

[381]

DECK BOLTS AND NUTS

size and proper finish, and the lot will be accepted or rejected according to the results
obtained.

8. Cold Tests. — A number of nuts, at the discretion of the inspector, shall be tested
cold as follows: The nuts shall be placed on their sides and hammered out so they will
break; the fracture must show the grain or fiber to run normally to the plane through
the hole.

The following table, marked "II," gives the variations in gauge allowed for blank
nuts and bolts:

TABLE II

Nominal
Diam.

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

Nominal
Diameter

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

Inch

Inch

Inch

Inch

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

A-

.1925

.1825

0.010

H

.9465

.9285

0.018

\

.2550

.245

.010

i

.0095

.9905

.019

A

.3180

.307

.011

U

.1350

1.115

.020

I

.3810

.369

.012

U

.2605

1.2395

.021

A

.444

.431

.013

H

.3855

1.3645

.021

i

.507

.493

.014

H

.5105

1.4895

.021

A

.570

.555

.015

H

.6355

1.6145

.021

i

.633

.617

.016

U

.7605

1.7395

.021

H

.6955

.6795

.016

if

1.886

1.864

.022

i

.7585-

.7415

.017

2

2.011

1.989

.022

it

.821

.804

.017

21

2.261

2.239

.022

1

.8840

.866

.018

2|

2.511

2.489

.022

DECK BOLTS AND NUTS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

All deck bolts and nuts to be made of the best quality of neutral iron or mild steel.
The bolts shall be well and evenly galvanized to insure a good fit for the nut; to be
square necked, with round heads, and to have hexagon nuts, galvanized and fitted
thumb-tight to bolts which will be threaded for one-third of their length; bolts and
nuts to conform to the following table of dimensions; lengths of bolts to be measured
over all:

Diameter of
Bolt

Length of Bolt
Over All

Diameter of
Head

Thickness
of Head

Diameter of

Nut

Thickness
of Nut

Inch

Inches

Inches

Inch

Inch

Inch

i

3

1

A

H

A

A

3

1

\

ft

£

A

3*

1

\

ft

\

1

4

li

I

1

A

TESTS OF BOLTS AND NUTS

A number of bolts, at the discretion of the inspector, will be taken from each size
of each delivery, enough to satisfy the inspector as to the quality of the entire lot,
and will be subjected to the following tests:

1. Cold Tests. — One-half of these bolts shall be bent cold through 180° around
a diameter equal to one-half the diameter of the bolts, and they must stand this test
without breaking, and only a slight fracture of the skin on one side will be allowed.

-[382] '

BOLTS FOR ORDNANCE WORK

2. Hot Test. — The remainder of the bolts will be tested hot. They will be heated
to redness and hammered out flat to one-half their original thickness. They will then
be reheated to redness and bent around flat to an angle of 180°, and they must stand
this test without breaking off.

HOLDING-DOWN BOLTS FOR GUN MOUNTS, TORPEDO TUBES,
AND TURRET TRACKS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. The "Specifications for Inspection of Steel and Iron Material, General Speci-
fications, Appendix I," issued June, 1912, shall form a part of these specifications, and
must be complied with as to material, methods of inspection, and all other requirements
therein.

2. Holding-down bolts and their nuts for gun mounts, torpedo tubes, upper and
lower turret roller tracks and holding-down clips, shall be made of either forged or rolled
bafs, and shall conform to the physical and chemical requirements of the following table.

All material shall be free from injurious surface defects and have a workmanlike
finish:

M?^rial

Treatment

Mini-
mum
Tensile
Strength

Mini-
mum
Yield
Point

Mini-
mum
Elonga-
tion
in 2"

MAXIMUM
AMOUNT OF

Cold Bend
Without
Cracking

P.

s.

O.H. nickel
steel.

Annealed,
oil temper-
ing optional

Lbs. per
Sq. In.
80,000

Lbs. per
Sq. In.
50,000

Per Cent
25

PerGt.
.05

PerCt.
.05

180° to inner
diameter of
£ inch.

In 8"
20 Per

Cent

3. At least two test pieces for tensile test and one test piece for bending shall be
tested from different bars from each lot of 50 bars or less made from the same heat and
subjected to the same treatment.

4. Finished bolts shall conform also to the following requirements:

(a) Where the bolts are not turned down from the solid rod, but when the rod is
upset to form the head, the bolts are to be annealed after such working.

(b) In all cases bolts are to have small fillet under head and not to be cut sharp.

(c) Bolts are to have the head rounded by a radius equal to about H diameters
of bolt to insure striking directly over the center of the bolt when driving the same in
position.

(d) The United States standard thread to be used unless otherwise ordered; care to
be taken that the threads shall be slightly flattened at root and point, as required by
said standard.

(e) Threads to be chased, and, in finishing, care to be exercised that the depth of
any one cut taken by the finishing tool shall not be sufficient to injure the bolt.

5. Turret-track bolts shall be body-bound turned bolts, with points rounded to
radius equal to the diameter of the bolt, and must be a driving fit. The thickness and
diameter of turret-track bolt-heads shall be the same as that of the nut; the head to be
faced underneath in all cases.

[383]

STEEL OR COMPOSITION BOLTS AND NUTS

BOLTS OF STEEL OR COMPOSITION METALS, AND NUTS OF

IRON, STEEL, OR COMPOSITION METALS; STUDS AND

NUTS AND BARS FOR BOLTS AND NUTS

NAVY DEPARTMENT SPECIFICATIONS
43B9 September 1, 1914

NOTE. — These specifications do not refer to machine bolts and nuts which are
covered by Specification 43B5 of latest issue.

1. General. — The General Specifications for inspection of material shall form part
of these specifications.

BARS FOR BOLTS AND NUTS

2. Material. — The material from which bolts are manufactured shall be medium or
commercial steel, rolled naval brass, monel metal, manganese bronze, etc., as may be
specified.

3. Tests of Bars for Steel Bolts when Bars are Ordered. — To be in accordance
with the following requirements:

(a) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

MAXIMUM

Material

Minimum
Tensile
Strength

Minimum
Yield Point

Minimum
Elongation

AMOUNT OF

Purpose for Which
Used

P.

s.

Lbs. per

Lbs. per

Per Cent

Open - hearth car-
bon medium steel
Commercial steel.

Sq. In.
58,000

Sq. In.
30,000

in 8 In.1

28

0.04

0.045

JFor general structu-
| ral and machine work.
f For miscellaneous
I work where strength

1 is not important.

1 NOTE. — For bars over li inches in diameter add two (2) units of per cent to figures stated for two-
inch gauge length and type one test specimen; for bars 1 } inches in diameter or less type three test speci-
mens shall be used.

(b) TENSILE TESTS. — Bars rolled from any melt shall be tested by sizes, two tensile
tests to be taken from each ton or less of each size. If the results of such tests from the
various sizes indicate that the material is of uniform quality, not more than eight such
specimens shall be taken to represent the melt. In such cases the eight specimens shall
be fully representative of the various sizes in the melt offered for test. The tensile
strengths specified shall be based on the effective sectional area in the threaded portion
of the bolt given in Table I.

(c) BENDING TESTS FOR MEDIUM STEEL. — From each size of each melt one cold-
bend test shall be taken as finished in the rolls, but not less than two such bends shall
be made from any melt. These cold-bend specimens shall be bent 180° flat on themselves
without showing any cracks or flaws in the outer round.

COMPOSITION RODS

4. General. — (a) All bars shall be clean and straight, of uniform quality, color, and
size, and shall meet the requirements of the latest issue of the leaflet specifications
for the material ordered, i.e., rolled manganese bronze, rolled naval brass, rolled monel
metal, etc.

(b) Bars will not be tested when bolts are ordered. All tests shall be then be made
of the finished product as required by paragraph 6 except when length of bolt is less
than three diameters when tests in the bar shall be made.

[384]

STEEL OR COMPOSITION BOLTS AND NUTS

MANUFACTURED BOLTS

5. Material. — To be manufactured from medium or commercial steel, rolled naval
brass rod, rolled manganese bronze rod, rolled monel metal rod, etc., as specified, and
shall conform to the following:

6. Physical Tests. — (a) BENDING. — From each lot of bolts medium steel having
the same diameter and ready for final inspection, there will be selected not less than
two specimens or one for every 500 pounds or portion thereof. One-half of this number
selected shall be bent cold 180° to an inner diameter equal to one-half the diameter of

TABLE I

DIMENSIONS OF BOLTS AND NUTS

HEADS

NUTS

Nominal
Diameter

Number
of
Threads
per Inch

Effective
Area of
Threaded
Portion

Wrench
Width of
Square and
Hexagonal
Head and

Depth of
Head

Depth of

Nut

Wrench
Width of
Square
and

Diameter
at Bottom
of Thread
of Bolts and

Diameter

Hexagonal

of Hole of

of Round

Nuts

Blank Nuts

Head

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

Inches

Sq. In.

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

i

20

0.037

f

A

&

A

0.185

18

.060

H

if

£

H

.240

f

16

.088

A

A

iV

f

.294

14

.119

¥

li

f

M

.344

i

13

.159

f

A

H

.400

A

12

.203

ii

H

i

If

.454

f

11

.252

H

H

*

i

.507

f

10

.368

H

TS

!A

.620

7
8

9

.506

1A

f^

If

if

.731

1

8

.662

f

H

1A

.837

M

7

.836

itt

ft

H

lit

.940

li

7

1.051

U

U

2

.065

if

6

1.261

2rs

1^

if

2&

.160

U

6

1.522

2£

H

ii

2f

.284

if

5£

1.784

2A

1A

if

2^

.389

if

5

2.061

2f

1A

if

2f

.491

li

5

2.392

2H

IH

if

2if

.616

2

41

2.705

3

H

2

3|

.712

21

4*

3.483

3f

Hi

2i

3^

.962

2|

4

4.293

3f

H

2^

31

2.176

4

5.260

4*

2^

2f

4* .

2.426

J|.

FORMULA

V

_j_ "*

HH

T^ «\

«S-

"c?

^ | ^

V + ^ +

i

3

«{oi

llli

37 |T

1

«

II

a M ^ M

NOTE. The dimensions given in Table I are commercial sizes; they are not
United States standard.

[385]

STEEL OR COMPOSITION BOLTS AND NUTS

the bolt, without fracture on the convex side of the bend. If the bolt is too short to
permit this test to be made on the unthreaded portion of the shank, the bolt shall bo
flattened hot to a thickness equal to one-fourth of its diameter and, when cold, this
specimen shall be bent 180° flat on itself transversely to the direction of the length of
the bolt without fracture.

(b) TENSILE. — The remaining specimens selected as specified in paragraph 6 (a)
shall be subject to a tensile tess with the nut in place, unless the length of the bolt is
less than three diameters the stress to be applied on the bearing faces of the head and
nut. The bolt must meet the tensile strength specified in paragraph 3 (a) and fracture
must in all cases occur in the threaded portion of the bolt. Specimens selected for tensile
test but which are too short to permit this test to be made must satisfy the bending test
specified for short bolts under paragraph 6 (a). Bolts larger than 1£ inches in diameter
shall be tested by turning therefrom If -inch studs. These studs shall be tested in a
like manner as specified for testing bolts by fitting a If -inch nut at each end.

7. Heads. — The heads will be plain, chamfered, faced on their lower side, or faced
and chamfered as specified in the requisition. Chamfering must be at an angle of 30°
with the prolongation of the upper face of the head, leaving a circle on its face, whose
diameter must be equal to the wrench width as illustrated in the sketch accompanying
these specifications. The heads will conform to the dimensions of Table I and must
be concentric with the body of the bolt, and square with the body of the bolt.

8. Dimensions. — Bolts shall conform to the dimensions given in Table I and
shall have United States standard threads. The length of the bolts is to be measured
from under the head to the first thread at the point, and to the end of the cylindrical
shank in blank bolts.

9. Threading. — (a) Unless blanks are specifically called for in the order, the length
of the threaded portion of the shank must be in accordance with Table II, if possible,
and if not, the shank is to be threaded to the head.

(b) Bolts over 20 inches in length and over 1£ inches in diameter are to be threaded
for a length equal to three tunes the diameter, if not otherwise specified.

(c) Bolts shall be provided, unless otherwise specified, with clean, sharp, and well-
fitting tlnited States standard threads, which may be either chased or cut with a die.
Nuts to be used on machinery shall fit wrench-tight. Other nuts must be either thumb-
tight without shake, or a spinning fit, as specified.

10. Workmanship. — Bolts must be hot forged or upset cold; all bolts made by cold
upsetting process must be annealed after the heading operation; all bolts must be free
from scales, abnormal fins, or other unsightly defects and must have clean, smooth
threads, fitting as specified in the requisition.

11. Finish. — Bolts will be specified as rough, semi-finished, or finished.

(a) Semi-finished bolts and nuts require machining only on the under side of the
bolt-head and nut, and the under side of the head shall face square with the body of
the bolt.

[386]

STEEL OR COMPOSITION BOLTS AND NUTS

TABLE II
LENGTH OF THREADED PORTION OF BOLTS

Length of Bolt

DIAMETER

OP BOLT

•

(Inches)

i

A

I

A

i

A

l to H

|

£

|

1

i

i

If to 2

|

1

1

1

i

i

21 to 2| . .

1

i

1

1

i

l

2f to 3

1

1

1

1

i

l

3ito4
4| to 8

1
1

i
1

it
if

H
11

H
li

11
11

8| to 12

1

i

11

u

l|

li

12i to 20

1

i

11

H

2

2

Length of Bolt

DIAMETER

OP BOLT

(Inches)

f

3

A

7

I

1

H

H

1 to H

H

If to 2

u

U

If

2i to 1\
2f to 3

11

li

H

H

U
if

U
2

21

• '•

3i to 4

u

u

11

2

24

24

4| to 8
8i to 12
12|to20

4
H

2

if

2
2

2

21
2|

21
2*
3

21
3
31

3
31
31

(b) Finished bolts and nuts require machining throughout.

12. Variations of Blank Bolts. — The Variations in size of blank bolts shall not exceed
that allowed under Table III below:

TABLE III

Nominal
Diameter

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

Nominal
Diameter

Maximum
Diameter

Minimum
Diameter

Maximum
Variation

IncH

Inch

Inch

Inch

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inch

A

0.1925

0.1825

0.010

H

.9465

.9285

0.018

1

.2550

.245

.010

l

.0095

.9905

.019

A

.3180

.307

.011

H

.1350

1.115

.020

t

.3810

.369

.012

11

.2605

1.2395

.021

A

.444

.431

.013

U

.3855

1.3645

.021

i

.507

.493

.014

A

.5105

1.4895

.021

A

.570

.555

.015

if

.6355

1.6145

.021

.633

.617

.016

if

.7605

1.7395

.021

\

i

.6955

.6795

.016

if

.886

1.864

.022

.7585

.7415

.017

2

2.011

1.989

.022

1

.821

.804

.017

21

2.261

2.239

.022

.8840

.866

.018

2J

2.511

2.489

.022

[3871

STEEL OR COMPOSITION BOLTS AND NUTS

NUTS

13. Manufactured Nuts. — The nuts for use with steel bolts may be either steel or
iron as specified, and shall conform to the following:

14. Workmanship. — Nuts shall be either hot pressed or cold punched from a solid
bar. They must be free from scales, fins, seams, or other injurious or unsightly defects
and must have cleanly and smoothly threaded holes of nominal size, square to the
end faces of the nuts. All cold-punched nuts, whether blank or tapped, must be reamed
square to their endjaces before tapping; this reaming process may be omitted in hot-
pressed nuts.

15. Dimensions. — Nuts shall conform to the dimensions given in Table I above
and shall have United States standard threads, unless blanks are specifically called
for. They shall be square or hexagonal, either plain or chamfered, or double chamfered,
or faced on their lower sides, or counter-bored (recessed), as specified in the requisition.
The chamfering to be as specified in paragraph 7.

16. Tests. — From'each lot of steel or iron nuts having the same size and ready for
final inspection there will be selected not less than two specimens or one for every 200
pounds or fraction thereof. One-half of the number selected shall be drifted cold
until they break, the fracture to indicate either homogeneous steel or wrought iron.
If fracture indicates wrought iron, the fibers must run at right angles to the axis of the
hole. The remaining specimens shall be heated to redness and flattened to one-sixth
of their thickness. Under this test, flaws or splits, due to defective steel or badly welded
wrought iron, must not develop.

17. Composition Nuts. — To be made of the same material as required for com-
position rods under paragraph 4 and to conform as far as applicable to the requirements
for steel nuts, including surface, threads, and fit.

STUDS

18. General. — The length ~of threads on studs, including taper, shall be 1£ times
the diameter of the stud. The length of the taper shall not exceed two threads. The
thread on one end of the stud shall be a steam-tight fit and the end of the stud shall
be faced square with the axis; the thread on the other end of the stud shall be a thumb-
tight nut fit and the end shall be rounded to a radius approximately equal to the
diameter of the bolt. When specified for use on machinery, the nut on the stud shall
be a wrench fit.

19. Split Pin. — When a split pin is required, the diameter and the material of the
pin will be specified.

MISCELLANEOUS REQUIREMENTS

20. Fit. — When bolts and nuts are ordered together, one nut shall be delivered on
each bolt, which must fit the bolt as specified in the requisition (see paragraph 22).
Bolts ordered separately must fit a nut of standard, nominal size, as specified in the
requisition. Nuts ordered separately must be of standard, nominal size.

21. Packing. — Unless otherwise specified, all bolts and nuts must be packed in
100-pound boxes, made of new, sound boards of f-inch thickness, well nailed together
and strapped at both ends with £-inch flat band iron. The boxes must have mill-
dressed outside surfaces. Each box must be clearly stenciled on one end only, show-
ing the net weight, the size, and name of the contents. The manufacturer's name,
contract number, and any other marks may appear on one side only. One side, one end,
the top, and bottom of the box shall be left free from marks.

22. Instructions to General Storekeepers. — The requisition for bolts and nuts should
specify:

(a) The kind and class of material required.

(b) The form of the head, whether square, hexagonal, round, plain, chamfered, etc.

(c) Whether or not the nut, when semi-finished or machined, is to be counter-bored
(recessed). This expression should be used in lieu of the word "cupped."

(d^ Whether the bolts are to be threaded or blank.

[388]

STANDARD TAPER BOLTS

STANDARD TAPER BOLTS
C

American Locomotive Practice

FOR NEW WORK

FOR REPAIR WORK

Bolt
No.

Length C

Diam. Under
HeadB

Bolt
No.

Length C

Diam. Under
HeadB

4

4 in. and less

D _i_ JL jn

4i

4 in and less

D _|_ ^L in

8

8 in. to 4 in. not
including 4 in

D 4. JL. jn

8*

8 in. to 4 in. not
including 4 in

D _L JL in

12

12 in. to 8 in. not
including 8 in

D _i_ s in

12*

12 in. to 8 in. not
including 8 in

D _i_ j_ m>

16

16 in. to 12 in. not
including 12 in

D + | in

16J

16 in. to 12 in. not
including 12 in

D _i_ £. ^

20

20 in. to 16 in. not
including 16 in

D _j_ J& in.

20|

20 in. to 16 in. not
including 16 in

D _i_ ii in.

This table relating to standard taper bolts for locomotives is an adaptation of
dimensions given on drawings in the Locomotive Dictionary. The dimensions in
table of reamers, given below, apply to the above table of taper bolts. As a standard
this table has its limitations, inasmuch as other tapers are in use, notably the bolts
in main and side rods for certain locomotives, Lehigh Valley design, the taper = ^
in. in 12 inches; for similar rods | in. in 12 inches is employed by the American Locomo-
tive Co., and other variations could be given.

[389]

STANDARD TAPER REAMERS
STANDARD TAPER REAMERS
L-

American Locomotive Practice

D

L

A

B

c

E

F

G

s

T

Mark Reamer

i

8

i

f

ft

\

i

a

4

\

\

*No. 4

i

12

\

f

A

i

i

f

' \

\

\ " 8

I

8

f

1

4

A

i

i

!

\

i

1 " 4

1

12

!

1

A

i

i

f

\

\

f " 8

i

8

f

ift

H

i

i

i

I

\

f " 4

i

12

1

ift

H

1

i

i

f

i

I " 8

i

16

f

ift

ii

i

i

i

3.

4

\

f " 12

i

20

i

ift

H

1

i

i

f

1

I " 16

i

8

i

if

if

i

i

H

f

\

1 " 4

i

12

i

H

H

\

i

11

1

\

1 " : 8

i

16

i

H

if

\

\

H

1

\

1 " 12

i

20

i

H

if

i

i

H

1

\

1 " 16

i

8

i

H

if

\

i

H

1

\

1 " 4

i

12

i

H

if

\

1

11

1

\

1 " 8

i

16

i

11

if

1

1

H

1

\

1 " 12

i

20

i

H

if

1

i

U

1

\

1 " 16

li

8

H

H

1ft

i

1

U

1

\

H " 4

ii

12

H

ii

ift

i

i

U

1

\

H " 8

H

16

H

ii

1ft

i

1

H

1

i

li " 12

li

20

ii

H

ift

1

}

11

1

1

li " 16

it

8

11

ii

Wk

i

\

U

1

\

H " 4

H

12

H

ft

ift

i

i

U

1

\

11 " 8

U

16

H

ii

ift

i

i

H

1

\

11 " 12

H

20

li

Ii

ift

i

i

H

1

\

11 " 16

H

8

if

Ii

i&

1

^

11

1

\

If " 4

if

12

if

li

ift

i

i

H

1

\

If " 8

if

16

if

ti

ift

i

i

n

1

\

If " 12

if

20

if

H

ift

i

i

11

1

\

If " 16

Si

8

li

H

ift

i

i

U

1

i

H " 4

i*

12

11

Ii

ift

\

i

11

1

i

H " 8

li

16

li

li

ift

\

i

U

1

1

li " 12

H

20

If

«

ift

i

i

H

1

\

li " 16 .

NOTE.- — 1 inch reamers taper ^ in. per foot.

To allow for grinding, each reamer is made 4 in. longer than longest bolt of its class.
When a No. 12 reamer has been reduced ^ in. in diameter and goes in up to the top
of flutes when reaming for longest bolt of its class, by cutting 4 in. from the small end
it can be used as a No. 8 reamer, and afterwards as a No. 4.

[390]

WEIGHT OF BOLTS AND NUTS

MACHINE BOLTS WITH SQUAKB HEADS AND SQUARE NUTS

Manufacturer's Standard
Average weight per hundred

Lgth.
in
Ins.

DIAMETERS

i

• A

I

1

I

l

H

?M

3

26

38

45

72

106

157

211

286

3*

29

42

49

78

115

167

226

303

4

31

46

53

83

123

176

240

320

4£

34

50

57

89

131

18.

255

337

5

37

54

60

95

139

196

269

354

51

39

58

64

101

148

206

284

371

6

42

61

68

106

156

216

298

388

6|

45

65

72

112

164

225

313

405

7

47

69

75

118

172

235

327

422

7|

50

73

79

124

181

245

342

439

8

53

77

83

129

189

255

356

456

9

58

84

90

141

205

274

385

490

10

63

92

98

152

222

294

414

524

11

69

100

105

164

238

314

443

558

12

74

107

113

175

255

333

472

592

13

79

115

120

187

271

352

501

626

14

84

122

128

198

288

372

530

660

15

89

129

135

210

304

391

559

694

16

95

137

143

221

320

410

588

728

17

100

144

150

233

336

429

617

762

18

105

152

157

244

353

448

646

796

19

110

159

165

256

369

468

675

830

20

115

166

172

267

385

487

704

864

BOLTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

The effective area of a bolt is that corresponding to its diameter at the bottom of
thread. A bolt that is subject to repeated shock or stress suffers a slight temporary
elongation every time the shock occurs. In a solid bolt the smallest area which is under
stress is at the base of the threads between the nut and the body of the bolt and the slight
elongation due to each shock is largely localized at this point, causing the metal to crys-
tallize and give way. By reducing the area of the body of the bolt until it is equal
to or less than the area at the base of the threads the elongation distributes itself more
uniformly through the entire length of the bolt, and thus the strain on each particle of
metal is less than when it is all located between the nut and the body of the bolt.

The area of the bolt can be reduced either by drilling out the center or by turning
off the outside, but as the latter method weakens the bolt more torsionally the drilling
is preferable. C. L. Thompson.

When computing the table on page 392, the nearest ^-inch drill was selected;
in ordinary shop practice a drilled hole is slightly larger than the drill used to make it,
the net area of a hollow bolt at E (see sketch) may, therefore, be slightly less than
given.

391

BOLTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

BOLTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

United States Standard Threads

SCREW

HOLE

WEIGHT PER INCH

Outside

Root of Thread

length

Net

Neck
C

Diam.

Area

Area
of

Solid

Solid

Hollow
Section

Dia.
A

Area

Diam.
B

Area

D

Bolt at
E

A

B

E

1

.785

.837

.550

\

H

.222

.563

.222

.156

.160

It

.994

.940

.694

i

I

.307

.687

.282

.197

.195

U

1.227

1.065

.891

A

H

.338

.889

.348

.252

.252

If

1.485

1.160

1.057

A

1

.442

1.043

.421

^299

.296

H

1.767

1.284

1.294

A

If

.479

1.288

.501

.367

.065

If

2.074

.389

1.515

!

H

.559

1.515

.588

.429

.429

If

2.405

.491

1.746

1

If

.645

1.760

.681

.495

.499

II

2.761

.616

2.051

I

H

.690

2.071

.782

.581

.587

2

3.142

.712

2.302

I

i

.785

2.357

.890

.652

.668

2i

3.976

.962

3.023

1

II

.994

2.982

1.127

.857

.845

2*

4.909

2.176

3.719

!

1A

1.108

3.801

1.391

1.054

1.077

2!

5.940

2.426

4.622

I

1*

1.353

4.587

1.683

1.310

1.300

3

7.069

2.676

5.624

I

I*

1.623

5.446

2.000

1.594

1.543

3i

8.296

2.879

6.509

I

H

1.767

6.529

2.351

1.844

1.850

8|

9.621

3.100

7.549

I

if

2.074

7.547

2.726

2.139

2.138

31

11.05

3.317

8.641

I

H

2.405

8.64

3.131

2.448

2.448

4

12.57

3.567

9.993

i

Itt

2.580

9.99

3.562

2.831

2.831

[392]

HEADLESS SET SCREWS

COLLAR SCREWS WITH SQUARE HEADS

SCREW

WRENCH

Counter

Diam
A

B

C

Square
D

E

F

G

H

i

K

L

bore
M

i

1

i

f

i

f

li

f

1

1
«

H

H

f

1ft

A

f

A

1ft

1ft

H

i

A

1

H

i

11

A

H

f

ii

1ft

f

if

f

H

f

f

1ft

f

M

H

fft

H

i

4

•••»

f

i*

i

i

H

f

Ift

f

li

1»

H

if

ft

U

H

H

1H

ft

1ft

H

m

ft

1

1ft

i

if

n

a

2

A

1ft

1

H

2f

H

1ft

i

3tft

ift

if

2A

i

1ft

H

2

3ft

i

if

Vk

Jft

tft

ii

2f

i

11

1

2i

21

i

if

f

If

i|

HEADLESS SET SCREWS

A set screw with projecting head, such as sometimes seen in a collar or hub of a wheel
fixed upon a revolving shaft, is always to be regarded as a hazard because of the con-
stant liability of the projecting head engaging the clothing of an attendant; to eliminate
this hazard is the purpose of the headless and non-projecting set screw.

NOTE. — By slightly rounding the corners in a square socket a shortening of its long
diameter is had without materially affecting the action of the wrench, provided the
latter snugly fits the socket. Wrenches for hollow set screws are usually furnished by
the manufacturers of the screws.

[393]

CAP SCREWS

HEADLESS SET SCREWS
United States Standard Threads

SCREW

HOLE

SLOT

Outside Diam.

Root of Thread

Diameters

A

Area

Diam.

Area

Thds.

K

Min.
Length

Square

Hexagon

Depth
F

G

H

Short

Long

Short

Long

D

E

D

E

*

.049

.185

.027

20

A

&

&

7
T*

i

A

ft

i

ft

.077

.240

.045

18

A

£

A

A

A

A

ft

A

1

.111

.294

.068

16

I

A

H

A

A

A

A

A

ft

.150

.335

.093

14

A

&

H

i

if

i

4

ft

A

I

.196

.400

.126

13

i

i

If

A

If

A

A

tt

A

.249

.454

.162

12

A

A

if

H

H

A

ft

ft

I

.307

.507

.202

11

I

A

ft

1

A

i

i

A

1

.442

.620

.302

10

I

t

H

n

H

A

A

• A

1

.601

.731

.419

9

1

*

H

if

H

f

A

i

i

.785

.838

.550

8

i

I

H

H

H

H

H

if

H

.994

.939

.694

7

H

A

tt

If

If

f

if

A

if

1.227

1.065

.891

7

H

t

H

f

tt

H

A

A

if

1.485

1.159

1.057

6

if

H

H

H

H

1

&

A

U

1.767

1.284

1.294

6

If

I

Ift

If

ift

i

i

1

CAP SCREWS

Threads, in general, follow the United States Standard; in the case of half-inch
screws, however, there seems to be a preference for 12 threads, rather than 13, the
standard number.

Cap screws are, ordinarily, milled from square or hexagon bars of the dimensions
given for heads in the table. Square and hexagon heads requiring to be finished are

ground and polished from the rough; they are not milled to size, hence, the dimensions
given are approximate only.

Length of thread is ordinarily cut three-fourths of the length under the head for cap
screws 1 inch and less in diameter, when not over 4 inches in length; when longer than
4 inches, the threads are commonly half the length.

[394]

CAP SCREWS

Round head cap screws are milled to dimensions given in the table; the heads are
therefore true to size and accurately centered.

Flat and button head cap screws are milled from bars slightly larger than the diameter
of head; they are not upset heads.

CAP SCREWS
Commercial sizes. Not United States Standard

SCREW

SQUARE HEAD

HEXAGON HEAD

ROUND AND FILJSTER HEAD

Slot

Diam.
A

Thds.
Inch

Short
Diam.
B

Long

Diam.
C

Height
D

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Height

Diam.
B

Height
C

Width

Depth

D

E

I

4

20

1

ii

i

&

i

i

1

i

^

i

A

18

&

f

A

i

H

A

A

A

ft

A

I

16

i

H

f

A

li

1

A

1

A

A

*

14

A

li

&

I

H

A

f

A

A

A

12

f

H

i

f

1

i

1

i

A

ii

A

12

tt

li

A

H

if

A

H

A

A

A

!

11

f

l&

f

1

I*

1

1

f

i

A

f

10

1

HI

f

i

t*

f

l

1

A

A

1

9

H

i»

1

U

1H

1

li

1

A

i

i

8

ii

i

H

1&

i

H

i

H

H

11

7

it

1H

ii

if

lit

ii

U

H

if

A

t|

7

H

2i

li

11

iti

H

H

H

*

A

CAP SCREWS

FLAT HEAD

NEAJLFSI

Commercial Sizes. Not United States Standard

SCREW

FLAT HEAD

BUTTON HEAD

Slot

Slot

Diam.
A

Threada
per

Diam.
B

Height

Diam.

Height

Inch

Width
D

Depth

Width
D

Depth
E

i

40

i

A

&

A

if

A

A

A

A

24

1

A

&

A

4

A

A

A

i

20

if

i

A

i

A

if

A

IT

A

18

f

A

A

A

A

i

A

64

f

16

f

A

A

f

if

A

&

A

14

if

A

A

A

f

If

A

A

12

I

i

A

ii

if

H

A

A

A

12

1

A

A

if

If

A

A

11

H

A

i

A

l

i

i

if

f

10

H

1

A

A

li

m

A

i

395]

SET SCREWS

SET SCREWS

Commercial set screws do not have upset or forged heads. The diameter of screw,
the short diameter of head, and the height of head are the same or nearly so. When

DOG

OVAL

CUP

FLAT

CONICAL

the short diameter of head exceeds that of the screw diameter by more than & inch,
it is not then classed as a set screw but as a cap screw.

Points of set screws vary in shape, depending upon the uses to which the screws
are to be put; the leading varieties of points are shown in the accompanying sketches.
Cup and oval point set screws are regular; others are special and made to order.

Heads are commonly square; should hexagon heads be required they will be made
to order at about 25 per cent advance over the square head net prices.

SET SCREWS

Commercial Sizes. Not United States Standard

SCREW

SQUARE HEAD

HEXAGON HEAD

Diam.
A

Threads
per
Inch

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Height
D

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Height
D

1

20

1

H

i

i

H

i

A

18

A

H

A

&

if

A

I

16

1

H

1

1

A

1

&

14

A

!

A

ft

\ '

A

i

12

*

tt

i

i

H

i

A

12

A

ft

A

A

B

A

I

11

!

H

f

1

H

f

f

10

f

1*

1

f

1

f

1

9

1

a

1

1

l*

7
8

1

8

l

itt

i

i

l*

1

If

7

a

1H

H

H

1H

H

H

7

H

iff

H

a

1ft

U

[396J

STUDS

STUDS

\

«VAVvW

/

\

i/VWWA

I

Commercial Sizes. United States Standard Thr ads

AREAS

Diameter
A

Threads
per
Inch

Diameter
at Root
of Thread
B

Length
of
Tap End
C

Blank
D

Length
of
Nut End
E

Length
of
Stud
F

Outside
Diameter

Root of
Thread

A

B

j

13

.400

.196

.125

i

0

1

If

Jfe

12

.454

.249

.162

H

0

H

iff

|

11

.507

.307

.202

H

0

H

iff

I

10

.620

.442

.302

H

0

I*

2rs

1

9

.731

.601

.419

1A

0

1A

2ff

1

8

.837

.785

.550

H

0

If

2|

i|

7

.940

.994

.694

1H

0

1H

3^

n

7

1.065

1.227

.892

i&

0

if

3^

if

6

1.160

1.485

1.057

iff

0

2j^

3ff

il

6

1.284

1.767

1.294

H

0

21

4i

The distance D in the table is zero, and F = C + O + E. As F is the working
distance, whatever length is added to F is also to be added to D.

HOOK BOLTS

Diam.
A

SQUARE NECK

HEAD

1

H
if
if
H

[397]

COACH AND LAG SCREWS

COACH AND LAG SCREWS
Manufacturers' Standard

"POINT

J4-C-*

Average weight per 100 screws

Diameter A

1

i7s

*

I9e

I

*

i

1

Threads per Inch

8

i

6

6

5

5

4

4

Length

Length
of Thread
C

Head
Axffe

Head
Hxf

Head

IfA

Head

K*

Head

HxH

Head
U*f

Head
lAxf

Head

Hx|

2

H

8

11

15

23

25

2|

H

9

13

18

26

29

43

3

H

11

15

19

29

33

48

75

3*

2

12

17

22

33

37

54

79

90

4

2i

14

19

24

36

41

60

82

99

4£

2£

15

21

27

39

45

66

86

108

5

2f

17

23

29

43

49

72

90

118

5*

3

18

25

32

46

53

78

98

128

6

31

20

27

34

50

57

84

106

138

7

3f

31

39

56

65

96

123

158

8

41

v.

35

44

63

73

108

139

178

9

4f

49

70

81

120

156

198

10

5

. .

. .

54

77

89

131

172

219

11

5

. .

t .

.Vv

84

97

143

189

240

12

5

••

•••:..

•V

91

105

156

205

261

BOLT-HEADS, LENGTH FOR UPSET

BOLT-HEADS

Length oi Bar for Upset. United States Standard Heads

BAR

HEXAGON HEADS

SQUARE HEADS

Diam.
A

Area

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Area
Square
Inches

Height
of
Head
D

Length
of
Bar
E

Short
Diam.
B

Long
Diam.
C

Area
Square
Inches

Height
of
Head
D

Length
of
Bar
E

i

.049

f

iV

.217

1

Mk

f

If

.250

A

1&

ft

.077

If

H

.305

1A

if

If

.353

If

1

.110

ft

If

.409

if

l^

ii

ff

.473

H

If

ft

.150

If

If

.529

H

if

If

.610

n

m

i

.196

1

l

.663

iV

H

1

if

.766

TV

m

A

.249

If

H

.813

!!

iff

If

If

.938

ft

1H

f

.307

Ift

i&

.979

ift

1.129

iff

f

.442

ft

iiV

1.353

t

lM

ft

If

1.563

i

1

.601

Ift

1.791

if

ift

2.066

if

2ff

i

.785

If

i!

2.287

i!

2f

if

2A

2.641

i!

2f

H

.994

113

2^.

2.847

If

2i|

IT!

2^

3.285

If

3

U

1.228

2

2j\

3.464

l

2if

2

2¥

4.000

l

3V

if

1.485

2i^

2if

4.146

l^

3ir

2&

4.785

i&

H

1.767

2f

2f

4.885

ift

3^

2f9

3H

5.641

iiV

3¥

if

2.074

2&

2ff

5.689

3£

3f

6.566

i&

if

2.405

2f

3A

6.549

if

3f

2fs

31

7.563

if

4iV

11

2.761

2H

3|f

7.475

iff

4

8.629

iff

4|f

2

3.142

3|

3|f

8.457

1ft

4^-

3f

4ff

9.766

i&

413

21

3.976

3£

4y?

10.609

if

4H

3f

4if

12.250

ifs

2|

4.909

31

4H

13.004

IM

5&

31

5M

15.016

5il

2f

5.940

41

4ff

15.642

2i

5||

41

6

18.063

21

6M

3

7.069

4f

5H

18.524

2j^

61^

4f

6ff

21.391

7

3|

8.296

5

5M

21.650

2f

6|f

5

7iV

25.000

1\

7|f

3£

9.621

5f

6^-

25.019

2ii

7

5|

7ff

28.891

2H

8y^

3|

11.045

5|

6f

28.632

21

7ff

5f

8i

33.063

21

8fs

4

12.566

61

7^

32.489

7tt

8|f

37.516

[399]

SCREW ENDS, LENGTH FOR UPSET

SCREW ENDS UPSET ROUND AND SQUARE BARS

American Bridge Co. Standard

C « * C

United States Standard Threads

SCREW

ROUND BARS UPSET FOR A

SQUARE BARS UPSET FOR A

Diameter

Length

Weight

Weight

Area at

Area

Area

Root of

Diam.

of

Side

of

A

Root of
Thread
B

Thread
B

Round
C

Square

D

Round
Bar

Screw
End
1st Ft.

Round
Bar per
Foot

£

Square
Bar

Screw
End
1st Ft.

Square
Bar per
Foot

1

.84

.55

4

|

.44

2.00

1.50

H

94

69

4

l

.56

2.55

1 91

U

1.06

.89

4

4

1

.60

2.89

2.04

1

.77

3.36

2.60

1 16

1 05

4

1

79

3.57

2.67

M

1.28

1.29

4

4

U

.99

4.51

3.38

1

1.00

4.53

3.40

H

1.39

1.52

4

4

u

1.23

5.57

4.17

U

1.27

5.56

4.30

If

1.49

1.74

4

if

1.48

6.74

5.05

u

1.62

2.05

•1 •

u

1 56

7.30

531

2

1.71

2.30

4*

*i

H

1.77

6.95

6.01

If

1.89

8.57

6.43

V\

1 84

2.65

4*

if

2 07

9.41

7.05

2i

1.96

3.02

5

5

i!

2.41

10.91

8.18

If

2.25

10.84

7.65

2f

2.09

3.42

5

5

li

2.76

12.51

9.39

if

2.64

12.34

8.98

2*

2.18

3.72

5*

5*

2

3.14

14.24

10.68

if

3.06

14.31

10.41

21

2.30

4.16

5i

2i

3.55

15.58

12.06

2f

2.43

4.62

5*

t|

3.52

16.93

11.95

2J

2.55

5.11

6

6

2J

3.98

18.60

13.52

2

4.00

19.27

13.60

3

2.63

5.43

6

6

2|

4.43

20.71

15.07

2i

4.52

21.11

15.35

3i

2.88

6.51

6*

6*

2*

4.91

24.34

16.69

2J

5.06

25.11

17.21

3*

3.10

7.55

7

7

2i

5.94

29.45

20.20

2|

5.64

29.57

19.18

3*

3.32

8.64

7

7

2|

6.49

33.10

22.07

2|

6.25

33.65

21.25

4

3.57

9.99

7*

7*

3i

7.67

39.11

26.08

2f

7.56

39.63

25.71

[400]

UPSET SCREW END DETAILS

UPSET SCREW END DETAILS
American Bridge Company Standard

United States Standard Threads

ROUND
BARS

SCREW

SQUARE
BARS

SCREW

Diameter

Area

tAddi-

Diameter

Area

Addi-

A.' _

Diam.
A

Area

Out-
side
B

Root
of
Thd.

Root
of
Thd.

Ex.
over
BarA

Lgth.

c

tion.
Lgt.
for
Upset

Side
A

Area

Out-
side
B

Root
of
Thd.

Root
of
Thd.

Excess
over
BarA

Lgth.
C

tion.
Lgt.
for
Upset

4-10%

f

.44

1

.84

.55

24.7

4

4

4

1

.56

lj

.94

.69

23.2

4

4

1

.60

U

1.06

.89

48.0

4

5

1

.77

U

1.06

.89

16.2

4

31

1

.79

U

1.16

1.05

34.2

4

4

1

1.00

U

1.28

1.29

29.4

4

4

li

.99

li

1.28

1.29

30.2

4

4

U

1.27

If

1.39

1.52

19.7

4

31

H

1.23

If

1.39

1.52

23.5

4

4

11

1.56

U

1.62

2.05

31.1

4*

4i

if

1.49

H

1.49

1.74

17.5

4

4

If

1.89

2

1.71

2.30

21.7

41

4

li

1.77

2

1.71

2.30

30.2

41

41

U

2.25

21

1.96

3.02

34.3

5

5

if

2.07

21

1.84

2.65

27.7

41

4

If

2.64

2f

2.09

3.42

29.5

5

4*

if

2.41

21

1.96

3.02

25.6

5

4

If

3.06

2.18

3.72

21.3

51

41

U

2.76

2f

2.09

3.42

23.8

5

4

U

3.52

2f

2.43

4.62

31.4

51

5

2

3.14

21

2.18

3.72

18.3

51

4

2

4.00

21

2.55

5.11

27.7

6

5

2f

3.55

2f

2.30

4.16

17.2

51

31

21

4.52

3

2.63

5.43

20.2

6

41

21

3.98

21

2.55

5.11

28.4

6

21

5.06

31

2.88

6.51

28.6

61

51

2f

4.43

3

2.63

5.43

22.5

6

41

2f

5.64

31

3.10

7.55

33.8

7

6*

2*

4.91

31

2.88

6.51

32.6

61

51

21

6.25

3J

3.32

8.64

38.3

7

7

2f

5.41

31

2.88

6.51

20.3

61

41

2f

6.89

3f

3.32

8.64

25.4

7

51

2f

5.94

31

3.10

7.55

27.1

7

51

2f

7.56

4

3.57

9.99

32.1

71

61

21

6.49

3f

3.32

8.64

33.1

7

6

21

8.27

41

3.80

11.3

37.1

8

71

3

7.07

3f

3.32

8.64

22.2

7

5

3

9.00

41

3.80

11.3

25.9

8

6

31

7.67

4

3.57

9.99

30.3

71

6

31

9.77

41

4.03

12.7

30.5

81

7

31

8.30

4

3.57

9.99

20.5

7*

5

31

10.6

4.26

14.2

34.6

81

71

[401]

TURNBUCKLES

TURNBUCKLES

United States Standard Threads

Diam.
of
Screw
A

LENGTH

Diam.
E

WIDTH

SECTION

Thread
K

Weight

v-

Thread
C

Overall
D

F

G

H

i

|

6

f

7|

1

1*

f

l

f

4

1

A

6

if

7H

1

H

A

f

4

Ii

f

6

H

71

I*

1^

H

A

f

4

Ii

f

6

ii

81

117

If

1ft

ii

1

4

2

1

6

1A

8f

2

t

1

4

3

i

6

ii

9

If

2JL

i&

JL

H

4

4

Is

6

m

9|

ijf

2^

1A

i

U

4

5

11

6

H

2

2 A

1ft

^

ii

4

6

If

6

2A

10|

2j^

2H

1

if

4

7

ii

-6

2i

2|

3

if

f

if

4

8

if

6

2A

101

2A

31

2

f

H

4

10

if

6

2f

HI

2f

3|

2i

f

2

4

11

il

6

2H

Hf

2ft

3A

2A

H

21

4£

12

2

6

3

12

3|

3f

2f

21

4|

14

2i

6

3A

12f

3A

3H

II

4i

17

21

6 '

3|

12f

31

4A

2H

H

2£

5

20

2f

6

3A

131

31

4|

21

2f

5

22

2*

6

3f

13?

31

II

3

5£ 25

2f

6

4?

141

41

5i

31

H

31

5£ 33

21

6

4|

141

41

6f

31

if

31

5i

33

21

6

4A

14f

4|

Bi

3JL

1*

31

6

36

3

6

4|

15

4|

5H

M:

lX

3*

6 40

31

6

41

15f

5

6

31

4

6i i 50

31

6

51

16j

5f

6-H

41

1*

4

7 65

ii

6

5f

171

5f

1*

5

7 95

4

6

6

18

7^

4|

5

7| 108

[402]

SLEEVE NUTS

SLEEVE NUTS

United States Standard Threads

SCREW ENDS

Diam.
Bar
D

Thread
E

Length
F

DIAMETERS

Weight

Diameter
A

Threads
per In.

Length
C

Short
G

L««

Inside

I

1

9

4

f

If

7

If

11

H

3

1

8

4

1

if

7

If

11

u

3

H

7

4

f

if

7£

2

2A

If

4

H

7

4

1

if

7^

2

2^

If

4

If

6

4

1

2

8

2|

21

If

5

if

6

4

H

2

8

2f

2f

If

6

if

5*

4

H

H

81

2f

3^

H

8

if

5

4

if

21

8*

2f

3^

H

9

il

5

4

if

2|

9

3i

3f

2|

10

2

4*

41

if

2|

9

31

3f

H

11

2i

4*

4*

if

2f

91

3*

4^

2|

14

2*

4*

5

if

2f

9*

3*

*&

2f

15

2|

4*

5

if

3

10

31

4*

2f

18

2|

4

5*

2

3

10

31

4^

2f

19

2f

4

51

2i

31

10*

4i

4H

21

23

21

4

6

2|

31

10|

4i

4H

21

23

21

4

6

2|

3*

11

4f

5f

3|

27

3

3*

6

2f

3*

11

4f

5f

3i

28

31

31

6*

2*

3f

HJ

5

5M

3f

35

3*

31

7

2f

4

12

5f

61

3|

40

31

q

7

2|

41

12*

5f

6H

31

47

4

3

n

3|

4*

13

6|

7A

4i

55

[4031

PLATE WASHERS

SPECIFICATIONS FOR WASHERS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Washers to be made of wrought iron or mild steel and to be of the best commercial
grade and quality, and to be so certified to by the manufacturer.

2. Each commercial package to be plainly stamped with the name of the
manufacturer.

3. The diameter of the hole is the necessary requirement, and a slight variation of
the gauge or outside diameter will be tolerated in the discretion of the board of inspection.

TABLE I
PLATE WASHERS

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size
of
Hole

Size
of
Bolt

Approx-
imate
Number
in 100
Pounds

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size
of
Hole

Size
of
Bolt

Approx-
imate
Number
in 100
Pounds

Ins.

No.

Inches

Inch

Inches

No.

Inches

Inches

&

18 (3-64)

I

A

44,075

2|

9 (5-32)

If

H

520

i

16 (1-16)

A

i

13,900

3

9 (5-32)

If

H

400

I

16 (1-16)

1

A

11,250

si

8 (11-64)

a

if

320

1

14 (5-64)

A

t

6,570

3£

8 (11-64)

if

H

275

«

14 (5-64)

i

A

4,300

3|

8 (11-64)

if

if

245

H

12 (3-32)

A

i

2,680

4

8 (11-64)

If

H

220

H

12 (3-32)

I

A

2,250

4i

8 (11-64)

2

U

200

i!

10 (1-8)

H

1

1,300

4*

8 (11-64)

2i

2

180

2

10 (1-8)

H

1

1,010

4f

6 (7-32)

2f

21

110

2i

9 (5-32)

H

1

860

5

6 (7-32)

2f

21

91

2*

9 (5-32)

1A

i

625

TABLE II
PLATE WASHERS (ADDITIONAL SIZES)

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size
of
Hole

Size
of
Bolt

Approx-
imate
Number
in 100
Pounds

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size
of
Hole

Size
of
Bolt

Approx-
imate
Number
in 100
Pounds

In*.

No.

Inch

Inch

Inches

M>.

Inches

Inches

F

18

i

A

45,500

li

12

f

A

3,900

f

16

A

i

21,500

If

12

f

A

3,000

f

16

f

A

16,500

li

12

H

f

4,100

1

14

A

f

11,500

If

12

H

f

3,200

1

14

*

A

7,400

11

10

ii

f

2,150

a

14

*.

A

5,450

H

10

if

i

4

2,200

a

12

A

\

4,800

if

10

H

f

1,400

H

12

A

\

3,650

2

9

M

1

1,150

if

12

A

\

2,000

2i

9

1A

1

940

[404]

&RASS WASHERS

TABLE III
PLATE WASHERS (EXTRA SIZES)

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size of
Hole

Size of
Bolt

Diam-
eter

Thick-
ness,
Wire
Gauge

Size of
Hole

. : i

Size of
Bolt

Inches

No.

Inches

Inches

Inches

No.

Inches

Inches

i

&

16

T6

I

2

9

1ft

1

f

16

ft

f

2

9

H

1|

1

14

i

A

2j

9

it

«

1

14

*

i

2|

9

U

u

1ft

12

i

2|

9

H

i^

it

12

H

1

2f

9

if

ii.

10

H

f

3or3i

9

H

if

10

it

f

3

8

if

li

10

f

3^ or 3£

8

if

10

H

1

3*

8

M

U

10

H

1

3f

8

H

if

if

10

1ft

i

4

8

2i

2

TABLE IV
SQUARE WASHERS

Approx-

Approx-

imate

imate

Wide

Thick.

Hole

Bolt

Number

Wide

Thick.

Hole

Bolt

Number

in 100

in 100

Pounds

Pounds

7ns.

Inch

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inch

Inches

Inches

li

i

ft

f

1,300

4

f

n

H

65

If

i

i

7
TF

1,100

4|

f

H

U

48

2

A

ft

1

500

5

f

if

H

40

21

i

H

f

315

6

f

U

U

28

21

i

H

f

250

6*

f

if

if

24

3

-i

Ii

1

165

7

1

2i

2

21

3|

f

1A

1

87

BRASS WASHERS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. To be made from sheet brass, smoothly punched, without burrs.

2. Sizes to be as specified. The following sizes are those most commonly used:

Outside
Diameter

Inside
Diameter

Thickness

Outside
Diameter

Inside
Diameter

Thickness

Inches

Inch

Inch

Inches

Inch

Inch

1

ft

0.065

H .

ft

.083

ft

i

.042

If

f

.083

f

A

.053

If

H

.106

1

f

.053

2

f

.103

H

i

.063

2*

7
8

.115

[405]

CAST IRON WASHERS

3. To be packed in well-made wooden boxes, one size of washer per box, each box
marked with the name of the material, the quantity, size, and the name of the
manufacturer.

4. Each delivery to be marked with the name of the material, the name of the con-
tractor, and the requisition or contract number under which the delivery is made.

CAST IRON WASHERS
C

Diameter
of
Bolt
A

Diameter
Hole
B

Diameter
Top

Diameter
Bottom
D

Area
Bottom
D

Thickness
E

Approx.
Weight
Each

Approx.
Number
in
100 Pounds

i

f

H

2

3.14

\

0.20

500

I

f

if

2|

4.91

f

.40

250

I

1

2

3

7.07

f

.69

144

1

1

2i

31

9.62

1

1.10

91

1

U

21

4

12.57

1

1.64

61

U

11

2|

4|

15.90

U

2.33

43

U

if

3

5

19.64

n

3.20

31

H

ii

3i

5*

23.76

If

4.25

23

M

if

3*

6

28.27

Ii

5.52

18

if

if

3f

6*

33.18

If

7.02

14

H

if

4

7

38.48

If

8.76

11

U

2

4|

71

44.18

U

10.79

9

2

2|

4*

8

50.27

2

13.10

7

[406]

FOUNDATION BOLTS AND WASHERS

FOUNDATION BOLTS
Upset Screw and Cotter Heads, and Cast Iron Washers

SCREW

Bar
B

Dia.
D

LENGTH

Wdt.
I

COTTER

WASHER

Diam.
A

Lgth.

E

F

G

H

K

L

M

Dia.

N

Dep.

Th'k
P

Dia.
Q

*

1|

4

H

If

6

2

2|

2

A

2

3f,

21

H

3

*

3!

9

U

4

14

H

61

21

2f

2|

£

2T

4

2|

.'2

31

*

4

10

if

4

if

21

71

21

21

21

i

2f

41

2f

21

31

A

41-

11

3

4*

if

21

7f

2|

3

2!

A

2|

41

2|

2|

34

A

4|

11

2

41

H

2|

8i

2*

31

2K

A

2f

4|

3

24

3!

f

4f

12

2|

4*

U

24

81

2|

31

2i

1

21

41

31

2|

31

f

41

13

21

5

U

2|

8f

2f

3*

2f

I

3

5

31

21

4

H

5

14

2|

5

H

2f

94

2f

3f

2|

H

3|

51

31

21

41

H

51

14

2*

5£

2

21

91

2f

3f

2f

H

31

51

34

3

41

i

4

64

15

2f

5*

24

3

9f

21

4

21

f

31

5f

3f

3i

4|

f

5f

16

2}

5|

24

34

101

3

41

3

f

3!

51

31

31

44

f

51

17

2|

6

2*

3J

10f

34

4|

31

H

3f

64

4

3|

4|

H

64

17

3

6

2f

34

ill

31

4f

31

1

4

61

41

31

4f

if

61

18

31

6£

21

3f

11!

3f

5

31

if

41

6f

44

31

5

1

6f

20

31

7

2f

4

12*

31

51

3f

1

4f

74

41

4J

5f

1

61

21

3f

7

2|

41

isi

3f

5!

3f

i&

5

71

51

4f

54

1

71

22

4

7|

3*

41

14

4

6

4

14

51

8

54

4f

6

1

8

24

FOUNDATION BOLTS

Foundation bolts for heavy machinery should not be leaded into cap stones if it can
be avoided, even though the cap stones be of considerable depth or weight and anchored to
foundation below. If such bolts are required merely to fix a self-contained machine in
position, no vibratory strains being transmitted to the bolts, there is no objection to
their use, but foundation bolts proper should extend to bottom of masonry or concrete.
The illustration at top of page 408 shows a bolt with tapering head much wider at the
bottom than at the neck. The cavity in the stone cap is similarly widened at the bot-
tom. The bolt-head is jagged to secure a firmer hold on the lead filling which is poured
into the cavity and around the bolt after the latter has been correctly located* •

(407)

FOUNDATION BOLTS AND WASHERS

FOUNDATION BOLTS

Diam.

i

i
i

i
i

U
H

Square

U

i

U

it

H

if

2

D

2

2*

3

3£

4

5

6

1

u
u

i

•11

H

if
H

21
2|

U

H
H

2

21
2|
2f

FOUNDATION BOLTS AND CAST IRON WASHERS

United States Standard Bolts

SCREW

BOLT-HEAD

WASHEK

Diam.
A

1*2*

Short
Diam.
E

Thick.
F

Side of
Square
G

Side of
Square

Depth

Thickness

Diam.
Hole
M

Side of
Square

K

L

I

fc|

11

1

H

6

U

1

f

1

21

1

2*

i*

I

Ift

6*

H

1

H

1

2A

1

3

U

H

11

7

H

f

f

H

2|

U

31

i«

U

2A

7*

U

i

H

H

2H

tl

3*

2

i

2i

8

H

f

1

if

31

U

3i

2&

U

2A

81

li

f

If

ii

3*

U

4

2|

iH

2|

9

2

i

i

if

3f

II

4

2A

IA

2H

10

H

i

1*

H

3H

U

4

at

if

3

11

21

i

H

H

4

if

4*

2H

II

3&

11

2f

i

I*

2

4&

2

41

31

IA

3f

12

a*

i

U

2|

4f

[408]

EYE BOLT HEAD

EYE BOLT HEAD

BAR

SCREW

EYE BOLT HEAD

Dia.
A

Area

Diam.
Root of
Thread
B

Area

Diam.

Th'k-
ness
E

Width
F

Area
EXF

Diam.

Th'k-

ness
I

Width
K

Area
IXK

C

D

G

H

1

.196

.400

.125

A

1

A

f

.137

A

1

ft

f

.137

A

.249

.454

.162

1

H

i

H

.172

f

«

1
4

H

.172

I

.307

.507

.202

1

U

A

H

.254

H

1A

A

f

.234

I

.442

.620

.302

1

if

I

H

.352

H

1A

f

if

.352

7
8

.601

.731

.419

1

11

&

11

.492

1

i!

A

11

.492

1

.785

.837

.550

H

2|

f

H

.625

1

2

1

H

.625

11

.994

.940

.694

1A

2A

A

if

.773

U

21

A

if

.773

u

1.227

1.065

.891

1A

2if

ii

U

.031

11

2|

H

U

1.031

If

1.485

1.160

1.057

1A

3A

f

1H

.266

if

21

i

itt

1.266

u

1.767

1.284

1.294

H

3f

H

1H

.473

11

3|

itt

1H

1.473

i!

2.074

1.389

1.515

U

3!

1

ill

.695

if

31

1

1H

1.695

if

2.405

1.491

1.746

2

31

H

21

.992

if

3f

if

2|

1.992

l|

2.761

1.616

2.051

2A

4A

1

2i

2.250

U

31

i

21

2.250

2

3.142

1.712

2.302

2A

4A

i&

2|

2.523

2

41

1A

2f

2.523

21-

3.976

1.962

3.023

2f

5|

U

2f

3.281

21

41

U

2|

3.281

2*

4.909

2.176

3.719

21

5f

if

3

4.125

2*

51

if

3

4.125

2f

5.940

2.426

4.622

3i

6*

H

31

4.875

2f

5f

U

31

4.875

3

7.069

2.676

5.624

3|

6f

U

3*

5.688

3

61

if

3*

5.688

[409]

EYE BOLT PINS

EYE BOLT PINS IN DOUBLE SHEAR

Without end thrust

Diameter
A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

K

§

f

A

t

' \

f

i

i

f

1

f

1

A

A

i

1

i

i

f

i

1

4

1

i

4

i

A

1

1

A

H

A

1

*A

If

A

A

1A

1

A

1A

A

1

1A

A

1

f

1A

A

A

H

f

H

|A

A

!

f

IA

A

A

if

f

H

fA

1

f

H

1A

A

A

H

f

H

if

f

f

H

if

A

A

itt

7
Iff

ii

U

A

f

f

H

A

A

1H

A

H

2

A

1

f

2

A

3^

2

i

U

2|

A

1

H

ii

A

i

2|

f

H

21

i

i

H

2i

A

i

2i

i

2

2f

1

i

I

2|

A

i

2A

A

tl

2H

A

H

if

2H

A

A

2f

I

2£

2H

1

H

i

2H

A

A

3

f

2f

3i

H

if

1A

31

i

H

3f

f

3

3J

I

1*

H

3^

i

f

3|

f

[410]

BOLTS FOR FLANGES

EYE BOLTS FOR FLANGES

B.

VR

SCR

EW

HE

AD

c

!ASTIN<

3

Over

Diam.
A

Area

Root of
Thread
B

Area

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

All
M

1

.196

.400

.126

A

1

A

f

tt

i

}

f

f

Itt

I

.307

.507

.202

H

1A

A

f

H

A

H

H

f

Itt

f

.442

.620

.302

H

1A

f

H

l

f

H

tf

H

21

1

.601

.731

.419

1

H

A

H

1A

tt

H

1A

1A

2&

1

.785

.838

.551

1

2

i

li

if

f

1A

H

1A

21

H

.994

.939

.693

H

21

A

if

H

H

1A

1A

1A

31

li

1.227

1.064

.890

li

2|

H

li

if

1

1A

1A

1A

3f

H

1.485

1.158

1.054

if

21

f

itt

1H

tt

1A

if

1A

3tt

H

1.767

.283

1.294

H

31

H

1H

1H

i

if

H

itt

3H

If

2.074

.389

1.515

if

3f

1

1H

2A

1A

if

2

H

4A

U

2.405

.490

1.744

if

3f

H

2|

21

H

itt

2A

2

4|

H

2.761

.615

2.049

li

3f

1

21

2|

1A

2

2|

2i

4f

2

3.142

.711

2.300

2

i|

1A

21

2*

H

2i

2^

21

5

[411]

BOLT ENDS WITH SLOT AND COTTER

BOLT ENDS WITH SLOT AND COTTER

Rigid Connection

BAR

COLLAR

SHANK

SLOT

CAST Boss

Diam.

A

Area

Dia.
B

Thick-
ness
C

Dia.
D

Length

Width
H

Depth
F

Dia.
K

Length

E

p

G

L

M

N

1

.785

H

H

H

1

li

1

A

li

2i

H

li

f

li

.994

2|

1

li

1

itt

li

A

if

2^

li

Itt

f

U

1.227

2i

1

If

If

H

li

f

IA

21

1A

1H

A

H

1.485

2|

H

11

H

2^

if

f

l|i

3|

IA

2

i

li

1.767

21

1A

1»

IA

2i

H

A

il

3|

1H

2i

i

if

2.074

21

If

lit

1A

2A

if

A

2

3f

H

2A

A

if

2.405

3i

if

1«

1A

2f

if

i

2&

4

2

2^

A

if

2.761

31

i&

2^

iH

2M

H

i

2A

4|

2i

2f

A

2

3.142

3*

1A

2|

if

3

2

A

S

4^

21

2|

f

21

3.976

4

if

2£

2

3f

2J

f

2H

5|

2A

3^

H

2*

4.909

41

H

2f

2&

3f

2£

H

31

51

2H

3f

H

2f

5.940

41

2i

3&

2&

«

2f

f

SA

6i

3i

3H

f

3

7.069

Si

24

3A

2f

4|

3

If

31

6f

3f

4

if

31

8.296

5|

21

31

21

41

3J

H

4^

71

3f

4&

1

3|

9.621

6*

2| .

31

3

5i

3^

1

4f

71

3H

4f

if

3f

11.05

6*

21

4f

3i

5f

3f

H

4H

8|

4^

4H

i

4

12.57

7

3

4£

3*

6

4

i

5

9

*i

51

i

Proportions in this table are based on diameter of bar A and corresponding upset
screw ends, for which see special table.

[412]

BOLT ENDS WITH SLOT GIB AND KEY
BOLT ENDS WITH SLOT GIB AND KEY FOR RESISTING TENSION ONLY

'US

T

BAR

Diam.
B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

Diam.
A

Area

1

.785

if

1

if

A

1

2f

If

If

f

U

i

It

.994

u

If

in

A

if

2f

If

Itt

A

If

1

U

1.227

it

it

i!

f

tf

2|

If

H

f

1*

i

if

1.485

if

if

2^

f

if

si

if

2^

1

1«

A

tt

1.767

Hi

if

2i

A

if

3f

1H

21

A

U

A

if

2.074

1H

if

2^

A

if

31

iff

2A

f

2

f

if

2.405

Iff

tf

2f

1

U

4

l«

2f

H

2^

f

if

2.761

2^

U

2H

1

if

4i

2^

2M

H

2^

f

2

3.142

2|

2

3

ft

2

4*

n

3

1

2|

A

2|

3.976

2f

2f

3f

f

2j

5|

2^

3f

1

2H

A

2£

4.909

2|

2i

31

B

2|

5f

2|

3f

H

3|

f

81

5.940

3^

2f

4f

i

4

2f

61

3^

4i

1

3A

f

3

7.069

3&

3

4£

ft

3

6f

3A

4f

ii

3|

A

af

8.296

3f

3f

4|

H

ai

7i

3f

41

ii

4^

f

3f

9.621

3|

3*

51

1

31

71

31

5f

1A

4f

ii

3f

11.05

41

3f

5f

«

3f

8f

4f

5f

t»

4H

H

4

12.57

4f

4

6

1

4

9

*f

6

If

5

f

WRENCHES

The open-end wrench sketched for accompanying table of dimensions has the long
diameter of nut in line with the center of the handle; this is a common but not universal
practice. To meet service requirements, open-end wrenches are made with the center
line of opening ranging from 15° to 45°, as shown in the accompanying sketches; what-
ever the angle, the proportions for the head are not changed.

An open-end wrench, with head at 45°, is frequently used in place of a hammer
during erecting operations, thereby subjecting it to distortion or breakage. The ordinary
proportions are such that the little surplus strength a wrench may have is quickly
dissipated by usage wholly foreign to its design. A wrench to withstand such service
must be more liberal in its dimensions than indicated in the table, and should be specially
forged. Reference may be here made to those special wrenches (sometimes called
flogging wrenches) that are employed in setting with a sledge such nuts as cannot be
properly tightened by means of a standard wrench. In general, such wrenches have the
same dimensions as given in the table for open-end wrenches, excepting only that no

H131

WRENCHES

reduction is made in the thickness of handle; that is, thickness of head C continues
and takes the place of G. This added thickness presents a larger surface for the face of
the sledge when driving a nut to its final adjustment. The handle is always short,
seldom more than half the tabular length.

A wrench with an opening at each end is much used, especially for medium and
small bolts and nuts, but for large work such wrenches are too heavy and otherwise
inconvenient.

For extra heavy work box wrenches are best; a sketch and table of proportions are
given. The eye at the end of handle provides for the use of a rope enabling several men

to assist by pulling, or for the insertion of a tackle hook, if unusual tension is required.
Framed structures requiring dimensioned timber in the larger sizes, such as com-
monly used in the construction of bridges, trestles, framed roofs of wide span, seldom
have other than square nuts; an efficient wrench, easily forged in the field, is shown in
accompanying sketch together with table of working dimensions.

PROPORTIONING A WRENCH FOR A HEXAGON NUT

Describe a hexagon corresponding in size to that of the
nut, A being its short diameter. Draw a line K, from the
center through one corner of hexagon. With the corner L
as a center and B as a radius, describe a short arc inside
the hexagon. Lay off the width D (in the accompanying
table D approximates 0.5 A), and with B as a radius,
describe a short arc inside the hexagon intersecting the
first one at M. With M as a center and B as a radius,
describe the outer curve of the jaw to the line K; the
distance from this intersection to center of hexagon is the
radius E for the lower connecting curve.

[414]

WRENCHES

WRENCHES

Diameter
Bolt

A

B

c

D

E

F

£

G

g

H

I

I

i

i

1

i

ti

\

\

A

i

i

.4

A

if

A

i

A

H

A

A

&

i

A

5

1

H

I

A

&

f

f

f

i

&

6

ft

H

A

f

f

H

H

H

A

&

A

7

i

7
8

1

A

A

if

f

i

4

A

A

\

8

A

&

A

£

i

1A

M

M

H

A

A

9

1

1A

f

A

H

1A

H

if

H

&

f

10

f

H

I

f

f

1A

H

7
¥

f

i

f

Hi

1

1A

H

H

If

1A

1A

H

A

&

1

13i

1

if

If

if

H

if

H

i

A

A

i

15

H

1H

1A

7
8

1!

1M

if

i

A

A

H

17

U

2

H

H

1

2^

1H

1A

H

A

H

19

if

2A

H

1

1A

2f

m

U

*

H

if

21

H

2|

if

1A

1A

2A

2|

H

H

H

H

22£

if

2A

H

1A

H

2f

21

1A

A

H

if

24

if

2|

1A

H

if

3

2A

H

A

f

if

26

H

2H

iH

1A

1A

3|

2A

1A

H

f

H

28

2

3i

1H

if

1A

3f

2f

if

f

f

2

30

2i

3*

2

H

if

3f

21

1A

&

f

2|

32

2*

31

2i

if

m

4A

3

H

B

M

2i

34|

2f

4i

2A

1M

2i

4A

3A

1A

f

if

2f

36f

3

4f

2f

1H

2i

4H

3f

Hi

H

A

2i

39

3i

5

2|

2

2A

5f

3£

if

M

A

2f

41

3*

5f

3A

2i

2f

5f

3H

Hi

ft

if

2f

43|

3|

5f

3A

2f

21

6A

3H

H

&

H

21

45f

4

6i

3*

2^

3

6A

4

2

i

i

3

48

[415]

WRENCHES

WRENCHES FOR STRUCTURAL WORK

For structural work, whether in the mill or in the field, open-end wrenches with a
tang for bringing the bolt holes into line are used to the practical exclusion of every
other kind. When the wrench is flat it is called a Construction Wrench; when the handle
is offset it is called a Structural Wrench. The opening for nut may be either straight
or at an angle; if the latter, the angle is commonly 15 degrees. A table of working
dimensions for sizes in general use is given.

WRENCHES FOR STRUCTURAL WORK

Dia.
Bolt

A

B

c

D

E

p

G

H

i

K

L

M

1

1

*

A

A

H

1

A

i

1

4

1

12

I

1A

f

A

A

1A

i

1

1

i

4|

1|

14

!

11

If

1

f

iH

a

f

i

f

5

U

15

i

1A

H

f

f

1A

a

A

H

f

5J

If

16

1

if

H

1

H

U

a

i

H

1

6

If

18

a

iH

1A

i

i

iH

if

i

H

1

6i

If

20

a

2

1A

ii

l

2A

U

A

U

i

7

If

22

[416]

WRENCHES

FIELD WRENCH FOR SQUARE NUTS

For United States Standard Nuts

Boll,
Diam.
A

Side of
Nut
B

c

D

E

F

G

H

K

1

H

H

1

E

M

1

H

A

15

1|

1H

1

f

1

1

f

&

17

if

2

l

f

1

1

i

A

19

H

2^

H

£

H

H

i

A

21

if

2f

H

i

H

H

i

f

22

if

2&

If

£

H

H

i

f

24

if

2|

if

f

if

U

H

f

26

U

2H

if

f

if

U

H

28

2

3i

H

f

H

if

U

1

30

21

3^

H

f

H

if

H

f

32

2|

3|

2

f

2

H

H

f

34

2|

4i

2

1

2

H

H

f

36

3

4f

2

1

2

if

H

f

39

[417]

WRENCHES
Box WRENCHES FOB HEXAGON NUTS

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

c

D

E

p

G

H

i

K

L

1

H

1

f

H

i

f

l

f

15

li

1H

A

i

4

If

1

f

1

A

16

H

2

f

1

H

A

1

. .

M

A

18

if

2A

f

1

U

A

i

H

A

20

li

21

f

1

2

&

H

••

U

i

22

if

2&

7
T6

1

2|

-i

1A

. .

il

i

24

if

2|

A

if

2i

f

if

il

1

26

11

2M

A

H

2f

5
8

n

if

i

28

2

3|

£

11

2|

ii

If

if

A

30

21

31

1

if

2f

H

H

«

A

33

21

31

i

H

21

f

2

2

1

2

A

36

2|

41

A

if

3

H'

21

2

1

2

A

38

3

4f

A

if

3i

1

2f

21

1|

21

f

40

31

5

f

11

3f

7

I

2f

21

H

21

f

42

31

5f

H

2

3f

If

2H

21

U

21

f

44

3f

5|

H

2i

3!

if

3

21

li

21

f

46

4

6i

i

4

2i

4

1

31

21

If

21

1

48

41

6£

f

2f

41

1

3f

21

li

21

f

51

4|

61

H

2i

4f

1

3f

21

H

21

f

54

41

7f

if

2f

4i

1

31

21

ii

21

f

57

5

7f

1

2|

4f

1

4f

2*

il

2*

H

60

51

8

1

2|

4f

1

41

2*

il

2|

H

63

5£

8f

1

21

5

1

4i

2|

il

2i

H

67

51

8|

H

3

5

1

4f

i

H

2£

H

70

6

9i

1

3

51

1

41

2f

if

2f

f

72

61

9£

1

3i

5i

1

5i

2f

if

2f

f

72

8

91

1

3i

5f

1

5f

2|

if

2|

f

72

61

101

1

3f

51

1

5§

2|

if

2f

f

72

7

10|

1

3|

6

1

5f

2f

If

2i

f

72

7*

11

i

3f

61

1

6

2|

if

2|

f

72

n

111

1

3f

6|

1

61

2f

11

2f

i

4

72

71

Hf

i

31

6f

1

6f

2|

U

2}

f

72

8

12|

H

4

6f

1

6f

3

1}

3

1
4

72

8i

12i

H

4i

7

1

61

3

H

3

f

72

81

121

H

4i

71

H

7

3

H

3

1

4

72

81

131

H

4f

7f

H

71

3

H

3

1

4

72

[418]

WRENCHES
Box WRENCHES FOB HEXAGON NUTS — (Cont.)

Diam.
Bolt

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

K

L

9

13|

1A

«

7|

ii

7f

3

li

3

1

72

9i

14

IA

4f

71

ii

7f

3

u

3

I

72

9£

14|

n

4|

8

ii

7|

3

3

3

1

72

9|

14f

li

4|

8i

H

8

3

li

3

t

72

10

15|

I*

5

8f

if

aft

3

li

3

1

72

10i

15i

1*

5|

81

li

81

3

ii

3

1

72

10*

15|

1*

5i

8|

It

8f

3

H

3

1

72

lOf

16i

If

5f

9

H

81

3

H

3

1

72

11

16f

If

5£

9*

li

9f

3

II

3

1

72

III

17|

n

5!

ft

li

w

3

XI

3

f

72

12

18|

li-

6

10

li

10

3

H

3

I

72

SOCKET WRENCH

When a nut or tap bolt is situated so that an ordinary open-end or box wrench can
not be used, a socket wrench as shown in accompanying sketch may be employed.
The design permits preliminary adjustment of nut by means of an ordinary wrench
applied to the square provided at the free end, the final tightening being accomplished
by means of a long bar inserted in one or other of the holes provided in the square head.
A table of working dimensions is given.

SOCKET WRENCH

Bolt
Dia.

A

B

C

D

E

P

H

I

K

L

M

N

0

1

If

2|

11

11

2^

1

If

H

7
8

If

3i

1

l

H

Itt

w

H

m

2^

1

If

if

f

If

3i

1

1

u

2

2|

ii

1H

3

H

2

l

1

li

3^

H

u

H

2&

2H

if

2

3i

li

2

l

1

If

3^

H

li

H

2f

3^

if

2i

3A

11

2i

«

li

if

3i

u

U

if

2&

3&

2

2A

3M

H

24

ii

li

if

3f

u

if

if

2f

31

2|

2^

4^

ii

2*

ii

li

If

4i

li

U

H

2ft

3!

1

2f

4f

if

2|

1A

ii

if

4f

li

H

2

31

4

2f

2f

H

if

2f

if

if

If

4f

If

U

2i

31

4^

2f

3

51

ii

2f

if

if

H

4f

If

If

[419]

BLACK, GALVANIZED AND COMPOSITION SPIKES
SOCKET WRENCH — (Cant.)

Bolt
Dia.

A

B

c

D

E

F

H

I

K

L

M

N

o

H« «N" i-iN H« «Hi
CM CM CO CO CO CO r*

31
41
4f
5
5f
5f
6|

41
5f
5H
61
6|
7&
7f

21
3i
3f
3f
4
41
4*

3f
3H
4

4&
4f
5
51

5f
6&
6f

71
7f
8&
8H

2
2|
21
2*
2f
2f
3

3]
3
31
31
3*
3f
4

U
If
U
H
if
H
if

H
H
if
if
if
U

2

2i

2|
21

21
2*
2f

2f

41
41
51
51
5f
61
61

H
H
if
if
if
H

2
i

2
2i
21
2i
2f
2f
3*

BLACK, GALVANIZED, AND COMPOSITION SPIKES

NAVY DEPARTMENT
BLACK AND GALVANIZED SPIKES

1. Material. — To be well made of wrought iron or mild steel, and clean-cut.

2. Galvanizing. — Galvanized spikes shall be properly protected by a uniform and
smooth coating of zinc applied by the hot galvanizing process.

3. Heads. — To have diamond-shaped heads l/i inch wider than the width of the spike.

4. Tests. — Spikes shall be capable of being bent through an angle of 180° to a diam-
eter equal to the thickness of the spike without showing signs of cracking.

COMPOSITION SPIKES

5. Material. — To be cast from a good grade of brass and be free from blow-holes,
sand-holes, slag, and dirt.

6. Heads. — To have square countersunk heads with a slightly convex top. Heads
to be % inch wider than the widths of the spike.

7. Tests. — Spikes shall be capable of being bent through an angle of 60° without
showing signs of cracking. When broken, the fracture shall show a homogeneous
structure. "

GENERAL

8. Points. — All spikes shall be made with wedge-shaped points.

9. Sizes. — The following list shows the various lengths of commercial spikes for
the different sizes of stock:

Square
Dimension

Length Over All, Inches

Square
Dimension

Length Over All

, Inches

Inch

Inch

1

3, 3i 4, 4|, 5, 5J, 6, 7, 8

i

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12,

14,16

&

4, 4|, 5, 5|, 6, 7, 8

I

10, 12, 14, 16

t '

4*, 5, 5i, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12

f

14, 16

&

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12

10. Packing and Marking. — All spikes to be packed in kegs containing 100 pounds
net. Each keg to be marked with the name of the manufacturer, the name of the
material, the size, and net weight contained.

11. Deliveries. — All deliveries to be marked with the name of the material, the
quantity, the name of the contractor, and the requisition or contract number under
which delivery is made.

[420J

SECTION 6
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSPECTION OF MATERIAL

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Specifications. — These general specifications form part of leaflet specifi-
cations (when so stated in the leaflet) issued by the Navy Department. Further
instructions to govern special cases may be issued by the bureau concerned.

2. General Inspection and Test Requirements. — All material for which tests are
prescribed shall be inspected and tested by an inspector representing the bureau con-
cerned, subject to restrictions mentioned herein or in the leaflet specifications, before
being finally accepted by the Navy Department, attention being invited to paragraph
57. Shipment in advance of authority from the inspector will be at the risk of the
manufacturer.

GENERAL QUALITY

3. Uniform Quality to be Supplied. — All material shall be of uniform quality through-
out the mass of each object, and free from all injurious defects. The discarding of
inferior portions of ingots, treatment, and manufacture generally shall be so conducted
as to insure uniformity in the quality of the metal of each heat, lot, or object submitted
for inspection.

4. Testing. — All material for which tests are prescribed shall, when practicable
for the bureau so to arrange, be tested and inspected at the place of manufacture, and
shall be passed by the inspector, subject to the restrictions mentioned herein, as having
complied with the particular specifications under which the material was ordered,
before acceptance at the navy-yard or ship-yard.

5. Special Material or Treatment. — With the approval of the bureau concerned,
special material or special treatment, or both, may be used to obtain the qualities speci-
fied in the leaflet specifications.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

6. Chemical Analysis — Analysis by Manufacturer. — Drillings, turnings, or cuttings
for chemical analysis must be fine, clean, and dry, and must be so taken as to repre-
sent fairly the heat, lot, ingot, or other object for which the analysis is taken. The
inspector representing the bureau concerned may have these drillings, turnings, or
cuttings taken from test coupons, or from any part or parts of the material represented
by the analysis, provided in the latter case that by so doing the material will not be
rendered unfit for use. Part of each sample for analysis shall be furnished the manu-
facturer if he desires it, the part retained by the inspector to be sufficient for three
analyses. The inspector may require the manufacturer to furnish him with a chemical
analysis of each sample with satisfactory evidence that such analysis has been prop-
erly and carefully made. A certificate from the party representing the manufacturer
in making this analysis may be required.

7. Analysis by Government. — Chemical analyses which are made at the expense of
the Government will be made as directed by the bureau concerned.

8. All metals of a proprietary nature shall be subjected to a chemical analysis. In
case they differ from the specifications for standard mixtures they shall not be accepted
unless authorized by the bureau concerned.

PHYSICAL TESTS AND TEST PIECES

9. Care and Calibration of Testing Machines. — Tensile tests should be made by
the use of a testing machine of standard make, kept in good condition. All knife edges

[421]

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

should be kept sharp and free from oil and dirt. Such a machine should be sensitive
to a variation of load of one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of the load carried. Testing
machines should be calibrated once in twelve months, and at such other times as may
be considered necessary by the inspector representing the Navy Department.

10. Pulling Speed. — Each tensile test piece shall be subjected to a direct tensile
stress until it breaks, running at a pulling speed of not less than 1 inch and not more
than 6 inches per minute for 8-inch test pieces and not less than £ inch and not more
than 3 inches per minute for 2-inch test pieces. Increasing or decreasing the speed on
the testing machine while the test piece is under stress will not be permitted.

11. Interpretation of Terms. — The elastic limit may be determined by observing
the yield point as found by the drop of the beam or the halt of the gauge of the testing
machine. The elongation is that determined after fracture. In the case of test pieces
of rectangular section the reduction of area is to be measured by the product of the
average width and thickness of the reduced area and not the minimum width and
thickness.

12. Types of Test Pieces. — Tensile test pieces shall have the dimensions shown in
the following figures, which are the standard test pieces. If the manufacturer desires,
he may be permitted to use the turned specimen unthreaded if a proper method of
gripping the test piece is used. When specimens of Type 2 cannot be obtained from

TYPE 1.

JMBT.3l*.->;

1T03)MRAD^

M£ASURl/Y<i FOIWTS

PARALLEL SECTION
NOT

ABOUT \QlNCHES

PJFCE TO BE OF SAMf THKKNS5* AS PtATf •
TYPE 2.

18 IN- OVERALL
9 I/VCHBS °

1 E

1 —. {^ «>
T 1 ~W~O **{

i ^

1* —

TYPE 3.

shapes whose sizes do not permit of making other than straight-sided pieces, the use of
Type 3 may be authorized by the inspector.

13. Boiler Plates and Steam Pipes, Standard Size for Test Pieces.— The width of
tensile test pieces from plates and steam pipes over ^ inch in thickness will be \\ inches,
the thickness the same as the plate or steam pipe, and the length between measuring
points 8 inches; under & inch the width will be not over 2 inches, the thickness the same
as the boiler plate or steam pipe, and the length between measuring points 2 inches.

[422]

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

14. Full Size Test Pieces. — All tests, when practicable, shall be made with pieces
of the full size, thickness, or diameter of the material represented by such, test specimens.

15. Length of Test Pieces Between Measuring Points. — Test pieces from blooms,
large rolled bars exceeding 2 inches in diameter, forgings, and castings are to have a
length between measuring points of 2 inches, as shown in figure 1 of paragraph 12.
Other test pieces are to have a length between measuring points of 8 inches, as shown
in figure 2 of paragraph 12, except as otherwise directed in these, or in the Navy
Department leaflet specifications.

16. Uniform Section of Test Pieces. — Tensile test pieces shall be uniform in cross-
section between measuring points.

17. Variation of Area. — A variation of 5 per cent above or below the standard area
will be allowed in test pieces.

18. Location of Test Pieces. — All test pieces of forgings, and of rolled bars which
are too large to be pulled in their full size, shall, unless otherwise specified, be taken
at a distance from the longitudinal axis of the object equal to one-quarter of the greatest
transverse dimension of the body of the object, not including palms and flanges.

19. Test Pieces for Groups or Lots. — Test pieces which represent heats or lots shall
be taken, as nearly as the case will permit, so as to represent the metal which was nearest
the top and bottom of the ingot; when practicable test pieces shall be taken from dif-
ferent ingots of a melt. Generally speaking, test pieces representing groups of lots
should represent, as nearly as the case will permit, the worst material in that lot.

20. Flaws in Test Pieces. — Test pieces which show defective machining or which
show flaws after breaking may be withdrawn at the request of the manufacturer
and others taken under the direction of the inspector; also, new test pieces may be
selected and tested to replace any which fail by breaking within a distance from the
end measuring points equal to 25 per cent of the length over which the elongation
is measured.

N 21. Bending Test Pieces — Edges Rounded. — Bending test pieces for blooms, large
rolled bars (exceeding 2 inches in diameter), forgings and castings, shall be 1 inch wide
by ^ inch thick. Specimens for cold bends for plates and shapes shall be rectangular
in cross-section of the thickness of the material from which taken, and, when practi-
cable, 12 inches long and of a width of 1^ to 2£ inches. The sheared edges will be removed
to a depth of at least one-eighth of an inch, and the sides will be made smooth with a file,
but no rounding of the edges will be permitted, except the removal of the feather edge.
In the case of heavy ship plates of 60 pounds per square foot and over, specimens
machined to | inch square section, center of section being half-way between outer sur-
faces, will be used for bends.

22. Treatment of Test Pieces. — Test pieces shall be subjected to the same treat-
ment and processes as the material they represent and no other, except machining to
size. They shall not be cut off until the plate or object shall have received final treat-
ment and shall have been stamped by the inspector, except in cases which are specially
mentioned in these or in the Navy Department leaflet specifications.

23. Extra Material for Test Pieces Required Where Special Treatment Is Given.—
In the case of material which may require one or more retreatments, the objects must
have attached sufficient material to enable the cutting of test pieces after each treat-
ment. The manufacturer will be allowed only three official tests. In all cases where
the test specimens fail to meet the requirements on the third test, the material repre-
sented by the specimens shall be rejected, except where the inspector recommends
to the bureau concerned that further treatment or testing be authorized. In special
cases general exceptions to the above may be made by the bureau concerned.

24. Other Special Heat Treatment. — If the material is to be subjected to any special
or general heat treatment to secure physical properties required, the inspector will
make such additional tests as may be required to show that the treatment has left the
material of uniform quality throughout.

25. Material Which May Be Exempt from Tests. — Material called for in Navy
Department leaflet specifications specified to be of ordinary commercial quality will
not be subject to tests or analysis unless there is reason to doubt that it is of suitable
quality. If doubt should arise as to the quality of the material the inspector may

[423]

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

make such tests as he deems necessary to determine the equality, either at the works
of the manufacturer or at the point of delivery.

26. All Material Subject to Inspection. — Material exempt from tests shall be in-
spected for injurious defects, workmanship, and for accuracy of dimensions. This
inspection will be made either at the point of shipment or at point of delivery, as may
be designated.

27. Tests for Special Material. — Tests may be prescibed by the bureau concerned
for the inspection of material for which tests are not specified in the leaflet specifications.

28. Tests for Uniformity of Material. — The inspector may require from time to
time such additional tests as he may deem necessary to determine the uniformity of
the material and to insure material of the desired quality.

29. When Heat Number Is Doubtful. — Manufacturers of steel material desiring
to avail themselves of melt tests for acceptance of material must so arrange their working
and handling of the material that the inspector may at all times identify with perfect
certainty any portion of the melt which is offered for inspection. In case the inspector
cannot definitely determine the identity of the melt from which a plate, forging, casting,
or other object is made, such plate, forging, casting, or other object shall be tested
singly, and, before acceptance, must conform to the chemical and physical requirements
specified for its class.

30. Annealing. — The whole of an object specified to be annealed shall be subject
to the same proper degree of heat at the same time, or, when necessary, to a uniformly
graded degree of heat which will produce a uniform degree of anneal. The number of
hours requisite for raising the object to sufficient temperature, the length of time during
which it shall be soaked at its maximum heat, and the period for slow cooling in the
furnace may be prescribed by the bureau.

31. Treatment of Lots. — Objects tested as a lot after being treated shall be from the
same melt.

32. Weights. — The weights of all materials shall be obtained before shipment and
shall be accurately entered upon the proper invoices. Accurate standard scales which
have been frequently tested shall be used, and an inspector will witness testing and
weighing when possible.

33. Methods of Weighing. — Weighing will be done by one of the following methods:

(a) Weighing each individual piece.

(b) Weighing lots or parts of lots of material of same size which is inspected by lots.

34. Methods of Checking. — Checking of weights will be done frequently, when
practicable, or when ordered by the bureau, by the following methods:

(a) Reweighing individual pieces.

(b) Reweighing lots or parts of lots of material weighed individually or by lots.

(c) Gauging and measuring.

(d) Weighing full car.

35. When the method of checking by weighing the full car is used, the manufacturer
shall furnish the inspector for each carload a statement showing the gross, tare, and
net weights of the car, and the total weights of the individual pieces on the car if it is
practicable to obtain same. If the net weight of the car varies by more than 1 per
cent from the weight obtained by totaling the weight of individual pieces or of the
lots, if weighed by lots, the material, if ordered by the department, shall be paid
for on the basis of the lesser weight, or the manufacturer may run down the error by
removing the material from the car and reweighing, or by other means which will
satisfy the inspector as to the actual weight of the material.

36. Contractors' and Other Orders for Inspection of Material. — At a ship-building
yard the ship-builder shall furnish the bureau's representative at his ship-yard with
quadruplicate copies of every order to manufacturers for all materials which are to be
inspected at the plant of the manufacturer by an inspector representing the bureau
concerned.

37. Material Which Is To Be Inspected Without Instructions. — Any material which
a manufacturer may present to a naval inspector shall be inspected, provided it is with-
out doubt material that is intended for the Navy Department. In such cases the
inspector shall call upon the manufacturer to exhibit the original orders or contracts,

[424]

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

or true copies of such orders or contracts, from the representatives of the Navy De-
partment, showing the object, quantity, specifications, and other details descriptive
of the material. If inspection has not been authorized by the bureau, it should be
reported to the bureau concerned, together with copies of the correspondence involved.

38 (a). Subletting. — A contractor when subletting a part or whole of his contract
shall notify the bureau concerned through the local inspector; shall give the sub-
contractor full information as to the fact that the material is subject to naval inspection,
and the number and the date of the specifications. •

38 (b). The subcontractor shall fully comply with all the requirements of the
contract specifications concerning quality, dimensions, method of inspection, rejection,
replacement, shipment, etc.

38 (c). Orders from Contractors to Subcontractors and Manufacturers. — Con-
tractors and subcontractors shall furnish the inspector representing the bureau con-
cerned in their district quadruplicate copies of all orders placed with manufacturers
for materials, stating, when possible, the purpose of each item ordered and the specifica-
tions for the same. Such orders shall state explicitly what treatment, other than
machining, is to be given the material after leaving the manufacturers' works. In
all cases these orders shall contain the number of the original contract of which these
constitute suborders.

39. Inspection During Manufacture. — The inspector should keep in touch with the
work throughout its manufacture and should make such efforts as are practicable to
secure delivery within the contract time. If at any time it should appear that prefer-
ence is given to commercial work, thereby causing delay in Government work, a special
report of the circumstances should at once be made direct to the bureau concerned.

ORDERS, LISTS, AND INVOICES

40. Contractors to Supply Blue- prints. — Blue-prints or sketches forming part of
contractors' or subcontractors' orders shall be supplied by contractors in triplicate.

41. Matters to be Referred to Inspectors. — Correspondence relating to material
should be carried on directly with the inspector having cognizance of the inspection.
When in cases of rejection contractors consider it necessary to appeal to the bureau
concerned, the correspondence should be forwarded via the inspector.

42. Information to be Furnished by Manufacturer. — Manufacturers shall furnish
the inspector copies of mill orders, which shall be given separately for each vessel and
which shall state the following:

(a) The order or schedule number and name or designation of vessel.

(b) The leaflet number and date of the department's specifications under which
the material is ordered.

(c) The kind or grade of material of each object.

(d) The purpose for which intended, if practicable.

(e) The ship-yard's location mark.

(f) The number and quantity of each item and the essential dimensions.

(g) The estimated weight of each plate, lot of shapes, forgings, castings, or other
objects.

(h) Information as to marking and arranging ingots (the marking to be such as to
make identification easy).

(i) The amount of discard at top and bottom of ingots (when required by inspector),
(j) The number and height of heads and risers (when required by inspector).

43. Shipment of Material. — No material shall be shipped by a manufacturer or sub-
contractor except by direction of the inspector or other authorized representative of
the bureau concerned.

44. Invoices to be Promptly Prepared by Manufacturers. — The manufacturer
shall furnish the inspector, immediately after a shipment of material, with invoices in
quadruplicate covering each shipment. The information called for below may be sub-
mitted on a form furnished by the bureau or inspector concerned, or on a manufac-
turer's approved form. Manufacturers should furnish this information promptly,

[425]

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

as any delay in so doing will cause delay in acceptance of material at destination and
in the preparation of vouchers incident to the payment for the same.

Invoices or shipping reports should contain the following information:

The name of the manufacturer.

The name and location of the navy-yard or ship-yard ordering or receiving the
material.

The name or designation of the vessel or stock concerned, the date of shipment,
car initials, and number.

The order, schedule number, or item number.

The grade or kind of material of each object.

The location marks designated by the navy-yard or ship-yard.

The name of road, car number local, line or steamer, truck, etc.

The number of articles on the item and dimensions of each object in inches, the
gauge for plates in pounds per square foot, and for shapes in pounds per linear foot.

The actual and estimated weight of each plate or lot of like shapes, rivets, or other
objects, and the melt and serial number of each plate or forging, the melt number only
for other objects.

45. Date of Shipping Report. — The date of a shipping report should be the date of
shipment.

46. Inspection Stamps. — Each object accepted shall be clearly and indelibly marked
with four separate stamps: (1) The private stamp of the inspector; (2) stamp of the
manufacturer; (3) identification number; (4) the regulation Government pass stamp.
The last shall not be stamped on any material until it has been inspected and passed
ready for shipment. In case of small articles passed and packed in bulk the above-
mentioned stamps shall be placed on the boxing or packing material of the object.
If the objects are bundled these stamps will be placed on tags securely wired to the
bundles. Exceptions to the above may be made, when considered necessary, at the
discretion of the inspector.

47. Sealing of Cars. — In special cases, where material is shipped in carload lots,
in sealed cars, the inspector will witness the loading of the car and place the regulation
pass stamp on the seals which seal the car. Where the material is of such a nature
that stamping would injure it, the marking will be done with stencils bearing the initials
of the inspector and the regulation pass stamp.

48. Acceptance of Material. — No material will be received at a naval station, navy-
yard, or ship-building yard unless it bears, either on its surface or that of its packing,
these stamps as evidence that it has passed inspection, nor shall it be finally accepted
until after the receipt of a duly certified report of the inspector by whose office the
inspection was made.

49. Removal of Stamps Without Authority. — The removal of any Government stamp
from material without authority of the inspector will be sufficient reason for the rejection
of that material.

50. Stamps on Large, Rough Work. — Each object which has passed inspection
shall be clearly marked with the necessary stamps, and these stamps, on large, rough
work, shall be encircled by a ring of paint.

51. Marking Ingots, Etc. — Ingots, blooms, and other material intended to be cut
up shall have the stamps above-mentioned put on in three places, viz., near each end
and near the middle, and encircled by paint marks.

52. Stamps on Boxes. — In the case of small articles passed and packed in bulk,
or in the case of material which would be injured by stamping, the above-mentioned
stamps shall be applied to the boxing or packing material of the articles, or may be
done with stencils bearing the inspector's initials and the regulation pass stamp.

REJECTION AT DESTINATION

53. Rejection After Having Passed Inspection.— Material may be rejected at a
navy-yard or other place of delivery for defects either existing on arrival or developed
in working or storage for which the contractor is clearly responsible, even though such

[426].

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSPECTION OF MATERIAL

UNDER THE COGNIZANCE OF THE BUREAUS OF CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR,

STEAM ENGINEERING, AND ORDNANCE
Issued by the Navy Department, October, 1913

INDEX OF GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSPECTION OF MATERIAL

PARAGRAPH

Acceptance of material 48

Access to work 56

Analysis, chemical 6

Annealing 30

Area, variation of 17

Bending test pieces 21

Blue-prints, contractors to supply. ... 40
Boiler plates, standard size test pieces 13

Boxes, stamps on 52

Checking, methods of 34

Chemical analysis 6

Contractor, orders to subcontractor . . 38c
Contractors to supply blue-prints. ... 40

Date of shipping report 45

Expense 54

Flaws in test pieces 20

Furniture, office, for inspector 58

General requirements 2

Groups, test pieces for 19

Handling material 54

Heat number, when doubtful 29

Information given by manufacturer. . 42
Information and facilities for inspector 57

Ingots, marking 51

Inspection, all material subject to ... 26
Inspection,contractor'sandotherorders 36

Inspection during manufacture 39

Inspection, rejection after passing.. . . 53

Inspection requirements 2

Inspection stamps 46

Inspector 56

Inspectors, matters to be referred to . 41

Invoices, orders, and lists 42

Invoices prepared by manufacturers. . 44

Lists, orders, and invoices 42

Lots, test pieces for 19

Lots, treatment of 31

Machines, testing 9

Manufacture, inspection during 39

Manufacturer, information from 42

Manufacturers, invoices prepared by . 44
Manufacturers, orders from contrac-
tor to 38c

Marking ingots. . 51

Material, acceptance of 48

Material, extra, for test pieces 23

Material exempt from tests 25

Material, handling 54

Material inspected without instruc-
tions . . .37

PARAGRAPH

Material, inspection of orders for .... 36

Material, shipment of 43

Material, special 5

Material, special, tests for 27

Material, subject to inspection 26

Material, tests for uniformity of 28

Orders from contractor to subcontrac-
tors and manufacturers 38c

Orders for inspection of material .... 36

Orders, lists, and invoices 42

Physical tests 10

Properties, chemical 6

Pulling speed 10

Quality to be supplied, uniform 3

References 60

Rejection 53

Removal of stamps without authority, 49

Report, shipping, date of 45

Sealing cars 47

Shipment 43

Shipping report, date of 45

Specifications, where obtainable 59

Special heat treatment 24

Special material 5

Special material, tests for 27

Special treatment 5

Special treatment, extra mat'l for test 23

Stamps 52

Steam pipes, standard size test pieces 13
Subcontractors, orders from con-
tractor 38c

Subletting 38

Tests 27

Tests, making 55

Tests, material exempt from ........ 25

Tests, physical 10

Test pieces 10, 22

Test pieces, boiler plates and pipes. . . 13

Test pieces, full size, etc 14

Test pieces, treatment of . 22

Test pieces, types of 12

Test requirements 2

Testing 4

Testing machines, calibration of 9

Treatment 22

Treatment, lots 31

Treatment, special 5

Types of test pieces 12

Uniformity of material, tests for 28

Weighing, methods of 33

[427]

INSPECTION OF RUBBER MATERIAL

material may have passed previous inspection by the inspector at the place of manu-
facture. In such cases the manufacturer must make good any material rejected.

EXPENSE

54. Handling Material. — All handling of material necessary for purposes of in-
spection shall be done at the expense of the contractor.

55. Making Tests. — All test specimens necessary for the determination of the
qualities of material shall be prepared and tested at the expense of the contractor.

OFFICE AND INSPECTORS

56. Access to Work. — The department shall have the right to keep inspectors at
the works, who shall have free access at all times to all parts thereof and be permitted
to examine the raw material and to witness the processes of manufacture.

57. Information and Facilities. — Contractors and manufacturers shall furnish all
the information and facilities the inspector may require for proper inspection under
these specifications. The department is at liberty at any time to require additional
information.

58. Office and Furniture. — Inspection and tests shall be made when practicable at
the place of manufacture, and any firm doing work for the Navy that requires inspection
shall furnish the inspectors, free of expense, with such facilities as may be necessary
for the proper transaction of their business as the agents of the Government. When
requested by the bureau, inspectors shall be supplied free with suitable office and
laboratory room, and such plain office and laboratory furniture as may be necessary
for the proper transaction of their business.

59. Specifications, Where Obtainable. — NOTE. — Copies of the above specifications
can be obtained upon application to the various Navy pay offices or to the Bureau of
Supplies and Accounts, Navy Department, Washington, D. C.

60. References.— (Ord., C. & R., and S. E.) C. & R., SPS, May 5, 1913.
S. & A., 380-5.

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSPECTION OF RUBBER

MATERIAL

NAVY DEPARTMENT
September 1, 1914

1. Temperature of Room. — All tests of the rubber parts shall be made in a room
the temperature of which is not below 65° F., and the range of temperature not to
vary beyond the limits of 65° F. to 90° F., if practicable; the tests shall not be made
in the cold, nor shall any tests be made until the article to be tested has been standing
48 hours after vulcanization.

2. Tests of Adhesion of Rubber Parts to Cotton or Fabric Parts.— (a) APPARATUS. —
A standard testing table suitable for the purpose shall be used.

(b) PREPARATION OF TEST PIECE. — In making the test a section of the article
shall be cut.

In testing hose the section shall be cut transversely, unless the diameter of the hose
is too small to be practical for this test, in which case it shall be cut longitudinally.

When testing belting, packing, or gasket material, it may be cut in any direction.

When testing cotton rubber-lined hose the test piece shall be prepared by cutting
directly through the section, so as to lay out upon the table a piece measuring the full
length of the circumference of the hose and 2 inches in width. On this piece two parallel
cuts 1£ inches apart shall be made by cutting through the lining only and not injuring
the cotton cover. This strip shall be started at one end to the extent of about 1£
inches. The cotton cover only shall be fastened in the clamps.

[428]

INSPECTION OF RUBBER MATERIAL

When testing a fabric-plied hose the section shall be 1 inch in width. The piece
shall be separated until the part next to the rubber cover shall be loosened. The section
shall then be placed on a mandrel whose diameter is the same as that of the inside of the
hose to be tested.

When testing packing, the piece shall be prepared as in the case of cotton rubber-
lined hose, unless the thickness of rubber is greater than | inch, under which conditions
the piece shall be prepared in such a way that the rubber part is to be clamped at the
top and held immovable while the weight, as described below, is to be clamped to the
fabric.

When testing belting, the test strip is to consist of 2 plies of fabric only, one ply
being held in the stationary grip, with weights suspended freely from the other ply.

Square Tuck's packing shall be tested in the same manner as is specified for testing
the friction between the plies of a belt.

The friction hi round Tuck's packing shall be tested by the same method as is used
in fabric-plied hose, the core being drilled out to permit the insertion of a mandrel.
Whenever the core is & inch or less in diameter it shall be tested in its original shape.
When it is over & inch in diameter a piece 6 inches long shall be separated from the
fabric and cut and buffed on four opposite sides to form a square section i by | inch
in the center of the test piece. The | inch square shall be at least 1 inch in length.

In testing the friction of belting the load should be applied at right angles to the
plane of separation, or the test strip should consist of only 2 plies of fabric, 1 ply being
held in the stationary grip with the weight suspended freely from the other ply. By
this means the effect of the thickness of the belt may be eliminated.

(c) PERFORMANCE OF THE TESTS. — Having thus fastened the test piece, the clamp
ring shall be slipped upon the mandrel, or in the case of fabric-plied hose, the test piece
shall be slipped upon the mandrel. The free-moving clamp shall be tightly fastened
to the free end and the weight supported upon a movable table hooked over the hook
in the clamp. The weight and the clamp together shall be exactly equal to the weight
called for in the specifications.

The weight then supported by the movable table of the testing machine shall be
lowered until the clamp and free end of the hose are just taut. An indelible pencil
mark shall be placed upon the separating layers of the test piece, and by quickly loosen-
ing the thumb-screw supporting the table, it shall be allowed to fall, leaving the weight
freely suspended. In every case this shall be done without a jerk. The time shall
be read at the moment of freeing the weight and at the moment of re-marking. The
weight shall be allowed to act upon the test piece for ten minutes, at the end of which
time an indelible pencil mark shall be placed again upon the separating layers of the
test piece. The movable table shall then be brought up to hold the weight, the test
piece removed and laid upon the table, and the distance between the pencil marks
shall be measured by means of a certified rule accurately graduated in decimals of an
inch. The distance between the marks shall be recorded as the number of inches of
separation in ten minutes, from which shall be computed the rate in inches per minute.

3. Tests of Rubber Parts. — (a) TEST PIECE PREPARATION. — For hose, a section
1 inch in width shall be cut. For belting, packing, and sheet gaskets a piece 1 inch
in width and 6 inches in length shall be cut in any direction. The rubber parts shall
be carefully separated from the fabric of this piece, using benzine in small amount if
necessary. The benzine used in this case shall always be 76° Baume, free from oil.

In case of articles to be tested, such as washers, ferrules, and moulded gaskets, which
are of such peculiar shape that the above methods do not apply, small sample pieces
shall be sent with each delivery. These sample pieces shall be 8 inches in length, 1£
inches in width, and | inch in thickness, unless otherwise specified. These sample
pieces shall be guaranteed by the manufacturer to truly represent the average com-
position and cure of the article delivered. Test pieces shall be cut from these samples
as described below. From these 1-inch sections, or from sample pieces thus prepared,
a test piece shall be cut by a die. The dimensions of the test piece shall be indicated
in each specification. It is the intention to have the cross-section area at the con-
stricted part approximately ^j square inch. The backing or cloth impression shall be
removed from the test piece by buffing for determining the cross-section area. No

[429]

INSPECTION OF RUBBER MATERIAL

test shall be performed until the piece has been allowed to stand for one hour after
removal from the article, if it has in any way been in contact with benzine.

(b) Testing Machine. — JAWS. — The jaws must tighten automatically and exert a
pressure proportionate to the applied tension. The rate of speed of separation of the
jaws is to be uniformly 20 inches per minute. The jaw must exert a uniform pressure
across the width of the test piece, regardless of any variation in the thickness of the
rubber.

The test machine should be suitable to carry out the necessary tests, and should
be standardized in accordance with the latest approved designs so far as practicable.

(c) Making of the Measurements. — TAKING OF TIME. — All measurements of time
shall be taken by means of a stop watch. The fundamental methods of testing are so
made throughout the entire rubber specifications that the following procedure shall be
uniform: After placing any test piece in the machine ready for stretching the piece shall
be drawn just taut and the stop watch started at the instant of the beginning of the
stretch. The piece shall then be held for ten minutes at a specified distance and the
time shall be again noted at the moment the piece is released. This moment is simul-
taneously the beginning of the period of rest. The measurement is then to be taken at
the instant of expiration of the second ten minutes.

(d) MEASUREMENT OF ELONGATION. — Marks 2 inches apart shall be placed on the
test piece by means of a marker. These marks shall be at right angles to the direc-
tion of pull of the piece in the machine. Great care shall be taken: (1) That the marks
are not too wide, and that (2) at the time of marking the piece shall have been lying for
a sufficiently long time to be completely at rest on a wooden table which has been at
the temperature of the room mentioned in paragraph 1 herein. The marks shall be
placed on the smooth side; that is, in no case on the side which is corrugated due to
its impression taken from the fabric.

After clamping the test piece in the jaws of the machine the movable jaw shall be so
adjusted with the pointer reading zero on the scale that the test piece is just taut, but
not under tension. The operator shall throw on the current to start the screw and
when ready throw in the engaging lever to start the jaws. He shall keep the elongation
scale pointers opposite the outside edges of the marks on the piece. To stop the motion
at the desired elongation or upon the break of the piece, the jaws shall be disengaged
from the screw.

The accuracy with which the elongation measurements are made will depend upon
the accuracy with which the operator keeps the two pointers opposite the outside edge
of the marks on the test piece.

The elongation shall be reported in inches, including the original 2 inches; that is,
if the rupture occurs at 11 inches, or 12 inches, or 13 inches, it will indicate that the
stretch has been 2 to 11, 2 to 12, or 2 to 13. After the piece has been removed from
the machine, the permanent elongation or recovery shall be measured by laying it
upon a wooden table, which is of the temperature of the room, and allowing it to rest
for ten minutes. Immediately upon the expiration of the ten minutes, a rule graduated
to yj inch shall be laid upon the piece and the elongation read in ^ of an inch, measuring
the outside of the marks.

The per cent of elongation of the test piece above the original 2 inches shall represent
its permanent elongation.

(e) TensUe Strength. — The tensile strength shall be determined by stretching a test
piece not previously tested in the tensile machine until it breaks. If the test piece
breaks outside the marks, or in the wider portions of the piece, and the tensile is much
below that called for in the specifications, it is probable that this piece is faulty and
that another would meet the requirements. If the piece breaks outside the marks
and yet shows a tensile above that called for in the specifications, it is probable that the
piece is faulty and that its true tensile strength is higher than indicated. Since its
recorded tensile strength exceeds that called for in the specifications, however, it shall
not be necessary to retest.

Before any tests are made, the width of the test piece shall be determined at 3
points, equidistant between the marks. The backing or irregularities of fabric im-
pression shall be stripped or buffed off and the thickness measured with the backing

[430]

INSPECTION OF RUBBER MATERIAL

removed. It shall be determined at 3 points equidistant between the marks on the
test piece, by means of a standard spring gauge micrometer, the disks of which are £
inch in diameter. The measurements used in the computation of tensile strength
shall be those read nearest the point of break. The disk of the micrometer shall be
£ inch in diameter when measuring thickness of the tube of all hose which has an inside
diameter of 1 inch or under.

(f) INITIAL STRESS. — During the elongation and recovery test the initial stress shall
be taken by connecting a spring balance with the piece under test. The number of
pounds read on the balance at the maximum stretch shall then be computed in pounds
per square inch, and expressed as "initial stress."

4. Pressure Tests. — (a) The hose shall be stretched out for inspection, connected
to the pump, and filled with water, leaving the air cock open to allow the air to escape.
The air cock shall then be closed and a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch applied.
The test is then begun by taking original measurements without releasing the pressure.

(b) All pressure tests shall be made by using a hand or power water pump standard-
ized gauge. The increase in pressure shall be made at the rate of 100 pounds per
minute, and the hose under test shall be held for measurement not more than 2 minutes,
unless otherwise called for in the specifications.

5. Composition. — (a) FRICTION. — Wherever, in the detail specifications, friction is
mentioned, it is understood that it should be made from a compound which will neither
yield to acetone any organic constituent foreign to Hevea rubbers nor contain more
sulphur than is necessary for vulcanizing, so that the percentage of sulphur in the
rubber layers shall not be raised beyond the permissible amount.

(b) MATERIAL. — The shall be properly vulcanized, and be made

(Article.)

from and have all the characteristics of a compound containing not less than per

cent of washed and dried, fine Para rubber, not more than per cent of sulphur,

with the remainder suitable, dry, inorganic, mineral fillers. The mineral fillers may
contain barytes, but shall be practically free from sulphur in other forms and from
any substance likely to have a deleterious effect on the rubber compound. The sulphur
in barytes will not be included in the allowable sulphur content.

(c) SAMPLE FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. — A sample taken for chemical analysis shall
be free from backing.

6. Average Reading. — Since the physical properties of rubber vary noticeably in
any given product, it may occasionally happen that tests are made upon a sample which
will be of poor quality. The hose, belting, or packing will, as a whole, meet the require-
ments of the standard, but the particular piece taken may fall somewhat below it. To
reject or accept a lot of hose because of its failure to meet one test under specifications
would therefore be unfair. For this reason acceptance or rejection of an item offered
for delivery shall be based on the average of at least four determinations for each quan-
tity. In arriving at these averages no weight shall be given to tests which are obvi-
ously in error, and do not represent true average conditions, e.g., cases in which the
tensile strength is low on account of a small flaw in the article or the friction is low on
account of a small flaw in the friction part. In other words, the intent of the specifica-
tions is to insure a high-grade article in every particular, and the intent of the methods
of testing is to see that the article as a whole is of this high standard.

Deliveries of hose, packing, etc., which regularly meet certain provisions of the
specifications, but quite as regularly fail to meet others, are obviously improperly
made and should be rejected.

7. Rejections and Replacements. — All rubber materials shall be inspected and
tested, so far as practicable, at the point of manufacture. In case of rejection the con-
tractor shall be allowed ample opportunity to test the rejected articles before replacing
them. Articles found to be defective within the guaranteed time required in the
specifications under which they were purchased may be examined and tested by the
contractor before replacements are made.

[431]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

THE TESTING OF MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The principal sources of crude rubber are South America, Central America, Africa,
and Asia. The Amazon district of South America is noted for the excellent quality
of its rubber. In addition, much rubber is secured from plantations where rubber-
bearing trees are cultivated according to scientific principles. This is generally known
as "plantation rubber."

Briefly stated, rubber is obtained in the following way: Incisions are made in the
bark of the trees, and receptacles are placed under the incisions to collect the gradual flow
of latex. The custom usually followed by natives is to coagulate or dry the latex by
means of smoke or merely by exposure to the ah*. "Plantation latex" is coagulated
by the addition of acid, after which the rubber is washed, sheeted, dried, and sometimes
smoked. The smoking process has been adopted in an attempt to secure the valuable
properties possessed by the wild rubbers, which are coagulated by smoking.

Crude rubber is greatly affected by changes in temperature, becoming stiff when
cold, and soft and sticky when warm.

Vulcanizing. — Goodyear discovered, in 1839, that if crude rubber to which sulphur
had been added was heated to a temperature above the melting point of sulphur it
combined with the sulphur, became very much less susceptible to temperature changes,
and at the same time gained both in strength and elasticity. This important discovery
may be said to mark the practical beginning of the rubber industry, although crude
rubber had been previously used to a limited extent as a waterproofing material. The
process is popularly known as "vulcanizing."

Rubber Substitutes. — No true rubber substitute — that is, no material possessing
all the properties of rubber — has yet been produced on a commercial scale. There
are a number of so-called substitutes, however, that may be mixed with rubber to
advantage in the production of certain articles. Such materials are produced from
vegetable oils, by processes of vulcanization or oxidation.

Reclaimed Rubber. — On account of the large amount of waste vulcanized rubber
or scrap available, and the high cost of crude rubber, the reclaiming of rubber has
assumed such proportions as to constitute an industry in itself. By "reclaimed rubber"
is not meant devulcanized rubber, although in some cases the free sulphur is removed.
No process has yet been developed by which the process of vulcanization can be reversed
and crude rubber reclaimed.

The old method of reclaiming consisted in grinding the scrap and removing the fibers
and particles of metal, and other waste material, after which the rubber was mixed with
oil, heated in ovens, and sheeted. In a more modern process, the fibrous materials
are destroyed by treatment with acid, after which the scrap is heated in ovens.

A third method, known as the alkali process, which is carried out on an extensive
scale, may be briefly outlined as follows: Old rubber is ground between rollers, particles
of iron are removed by magnets, and the ground material is screened. The rubber
is then heated in iron vessels containing an alkali solution, by which means free sulphur
is removed and the fibrous matter destroyed, after which it is thoroughly washed to
remove the alkali and dried by steam coils. It is then mixed between rollers without
the addition of oil, and sheeted.

It is said that rubber reclaimed by this process from carefully selected scrap is
superior to some of the lower grades of crude rubber.

Manufacture. — Crude rubber as received at the factory is in the form of lumps
of irregular shape and size, and contains varying amounts of impurities which have
to be removed. These lumps are placed in a vat containing water, and boiled in order
that they may become sufficiently soft to be handled by the washing rolls.

Breaking Down and Washing. — The washing rolls consist of two steel cylinders,
about 12 to 18 inches in diameter, which revolve in opposite directions and at different
speeds, their axes being parallel and in the same horizontal plane. These rolls are
corrugated, and as the crude rubber is fed between them their action is such as to

[432]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

masticate the soft lumps and expose the impurities, which are washed out by a series of
water jets and collected in a pan under the rolls. Two sets of rolls are used in this
process. The first set breaks down the lumps while a large part of the impurities is
washed out, and the second set, in which the rolls are closer together, completes the
process of washing. After a sufficient number of passages through the rolls, the washed
rubber has the form of a rough sheet of irregular shape, and contains considerable
water, which must be removed before vulcanization.

Drying. — There are two methods in use for removing the water from washed rubber.
The first is to hang the rubber sheets in a warm dry place — usually the attic — steam-
heated pipes being used to maintain the proper temperature during cold weather. This
method is usually employed, as less skill is required than in the second and quicker
method, in which vacuum heaters are used. The rubber having been dried as described
above, is "broken down" or worked through smooth steam-heated rolls, by which
process it is rendered soft and plastic.

Compounding and Mixing. — The rubber is now in condition to be compounded or
mixed with sulphur and mineral matter, and with reclaimed rubber or rubber sub-
stitutes, if such are used.

The ingredients required for a batch having been weighed out in the definite pro-
portions to produce a compound of the desired quality, the mixing is done with

FIG. l. — DIAGRAM SHOWING OPERATION OP CALENDER ROLLS.

smooth rolls operated as in the washing process. Both steam and water connec-
tions are provided so that the temperature of the rolls may be regulated to suit the
condition of the rubber as it is being worked. The rubber gradually absorbs the sul-
phur and fillers which are added by an attendant. Such material as passes through
without being incorporated with the rubber is collected in a pan and returned to the
rolls. The temperature of the rolls is so regulated that as the operation of mixing
proceeds the compound sticks to one of them in the form of a sheet. This sheet is cut
with a knife, folded upon itself, and passed through the rolls again, the operation being
repeated until the material shows a uniform color and is as nearly homogeneous as it
is practicable to make it.

Sheeting. — The next step in the process of manufacture depends upon the purpose
for which the rubber is intended. If sheet rubber is being made, as for packing or for
the tubes and covers of hose, the compound coming from the mixing rolls :

[433]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

through calender rolls. The calender consists of three steam-heated rolls, one above
the other, which are so geared together that the middle roll revolves in the opposite
direction from that of the other two. The rolls may be adjusted to form sheets of
different thickness. The skeleton diagram in Fig. 1 shows the method of operation.

Rubber is fed between the top and middle rolls, and by a proper regulation of tem-
peratures the sheet adheres to the middle one while the top one remains clean. A
strip of cloth is taken from the reel 1 and passed between the middle and bottom rolls
to the reel 2. The sheeted rubber as it passes between the middle and bottom rolls is
received by the cloth and carried to the reel 2, upon which they are wound together,
the cloth preventing the layers of rubber from adhering. The sheet may be cut into
strips of any desired width by knives which press against the middle roll.

Sometimes several calendered sheets are rolled together to form a single sheet.
The rubber is now ready to be vulcanized or worked into hose or other fabricated articles.

" Friction." — What is known as "friction" in the case of rubber hose, rubber belt-
ing, and other articles, which are made up with superimposed layers of canvas, is the
soft rubber compound which is applied to the canvas and by means of which the differ-
ent layers or plies are held together.

The canvas is first dried by being passed over steam-heated rolls, after which the
friction is applied by means of rolls which are operated in the manner just described,
and illustrated in Fig. 1.

In the case of the friction calender, the bottom roll revolves at about two-thirds
the speed of the middle roll, thus causing a wiping action which forces the friction
well into the meshes of the canvas.

Cutting the Canvas. — Canvas for use in making rubber hose is usually cut on the bias
from strips 40 to 42 inches wide, into pieces long enough so that when placed end to end
and lapped, the resulting strip is just wide enough to produce the necessary number of
plies on the hose. There is no waste when cutting on the bias, and the finished hose is
more flexible than when the canvas is cut straight. On the other hand, when the canvas
is cut straight there is more or less waste on account of the last strip, which is often
too narrow to be used. This method of cutting, however, produces the stronger hose,
and a hose which will not expand as much, and which will elongate under pressure,
avoiding the objectionable feature of longitudinal contraction which is noticed in hose
made with bias-cut duck.

RUBBER HOSE

The ordinary "plied" hose with rubber tube and cover is manufactured as follows:

1. Tubes and Covers. — For low-grade water hose of small diameter it is usual to
form the tubes by passing the rubber compound through a die which may be adjusted
to produce a wall of any desired thickness. The rubber coming from the mixing rolls
must be at a sufficiently high temperature to make it plastic, in which condition it is
forced through the die by means of a worm. The operation is similar to that of a "soft
mud" brick machine, and the tube as it comes from the die is carried away on an end-
less belt. These tubes are placed on steel mandrels by a rather ingenious process, as
follows:

The mandrel, which is about 52 feet long, is placed on an endless belt and held
stationary. Powdered talc is blown into the tube to act as a lubricant and to prevent
it from sticking to the mandrel during vulcanization. One end of the tube having
been placed over the mandrel, air pressure is applied at the other end, sufficient to ex-
pand the tube slightly. The belt is now set in motion, and the tube as it is fed onto the
belt floats over the mandrel on a cushion of air. In the case of high-grade hose and hose
of large diameter, the tube is made from a strip of sheet rubber, cut with a "skive" or
tapering cut, which is wrapped over the mandrel by hand, the edges being lapped and
pressed flat by means of a small hand roller.

In either case, the cover is made from a strip of sheet rubber just wide enough to
pass once around the hose and form a narrow lap.

To ensure firm adhesion between the tube and canvas, the former is cleaned with
gasoline, preparatory to receiving the frictioned canvas.

2. " Making up " the Hose. — Water hose of small diameter is usually wrapped by

[434]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

machinery consisting of three rolls about 2 inches in diameter and slightly more than
50 feet long. The two bottom rolls lie in the same horizontal plane and the top roll,
which is just above and between the other two, may be raised while the mandrel carrying
the tube to be wrapped is being placed on the bottom rolls. The top roll is now lowered
onto the tube, which is held firmly between the three rolls. A rotary motion imparted
to the rolls causes the tube to revolve, and the canvas and rubber cover are wrapped on
in a few seconds. This method has the advantage of consuming very little time, but
unfortunately, it is not applicable to the construction of best-quality hose, which are
made up by hand with the assistance of small rollers having a concave face. The
rollers are run up and down the hose and serve to press each ply of frictioned canvas
onto the next.

Before going to the vulcanizer the hose is wrapped with cloth. First, a long strip
is wrapped lengthwise on the hose, and over this a narrow strip is wrapped spirally.
This is done very rapidly by causing the hose to revolve in roller bearings while the
narrow strip of cloth is held under tension and guided by hand. The operation requires
only a few minutes.

3. Vulcanizing. — The vulcanizer consists of a long cylinder provided with steam
and drip connections, and a pressure gauge. The pressure and time necessary for vul-
canization depend upon the composition of the rubber compound, the thickness, and
the use for which the hose is intended. After vulcanization the wrapping cloth is stripped
off, and the hose is removed from the mandrel by means of compressed ah*, in the same
way that the tube was put on. The couplings are now put on and the hose is ready
for shipment.

4. Cotton Rubber-lined Hose. — In the manufacture of woven cotton hose with
rubber lining, the tube is made in the usual way and partially vulcanized, in order that
it may develop sufficient strength to be drawn through the cover. A long slender rod
is passed through the cover, carrying with it a stout cord. This cord is attached to
the end of the rubber tube, and the rod is withdrawn. The cord is now drawn through
the cover, bringing the tube with it, the tube having been coated with rubber cement.
The hose is now filled with steam under pressure, which expands the tube, thus forcing
the cement well into the meshes of the woven cover, and at the same time vulcanizes
the rubber.

5. Braided Hose with Rubber Tube and Cover. — A form of braided hose which is
claimed to have, and appears to have, decided merit, is made as follows:

The rubber tube passes first through a bath of cement and then to the braiding ma-
chine, where the first ply of fabric is braided over the fresh cement. This operation is
repeated until the desired number of plies have been formed, r/hen the rubber cover is
put on and the hose is vulcanized in a mold. While being vulcanized the hose is sub-
jected to air pressure from within, which forces the rubber well into the meshes of the
loosely braided fabric.

RUBBER BELTING

Duck for rubber belting is passed over steam-heated rolls to remove the moisture,
and frictioned as described in connection with the manufacture of rubber hose.

The frictioned duck is cut lengthwise into strips, the width of which depends not
only upon the size of belt, but also upon the method of manufacture, which is not the
same in all factories. These strips are cut by passing the canvas over a drum against
which knives are held at points necessary to produce the desired widths.

One method is to make the inner plies of the belt with strips which are equal in
width to that of the belt. These strips, stacked one above the other, are placed in the
center of a strip of double the width, and in this position they are drawn through an
opening with flared edges which folds the bottom strip over the top strips and forms
a butt joint on the top face of the belt. The belt then passes between rolls which press
the plies firmly together and at the same time lay and press a narrow strip of rubber
over the joint. When the belt is to have a rubber cover, as is usually the case, this
is calendered onto the outside ply or layer of the canvas before it is put on the belt.
Some of the most expensive belts, however, are made without a rubber cover.

Another method is to cut each strip of canvas twice as wide as the belt. The first

[435]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

strip is folded upon itself, as described above, so that its edges form a butt joint. This
folded strip is placed with its joint down upon the next strip, which is in turn folded
to form a butt joint on the back of the first strip. In this way, the belt is built up with
the desired number of plies, the last joint being covered with a narrow strip of rubber,
which is rolled flush with the surface. The belt is now ready to be vulcanized.

In this process there are two steps. First, the closely coiled belt is wrapped so that
only its edges are exposed, and in this condition it is put in the vulcanizer. After the
edges have been vulcanized the belt is stretched and held under heavy pressure between
the steam-heated faces of a long hydraulic press. This drives the friction into the pores
of the duck and vulcanizes the belt throughout.

As regards the advantage of using a high-grade rubber cover for belting, the con-
sensus of opinion seems to be that the expense thus incurred, except in the case of conveyor
belting, had better be devoted to increasing the quality of friction between the plies of
canvas.

MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS

The term "rubber," as 'commonly employed, does not refer to the commercially
pure gum, but to a vulcanized compound as already described, which consists of gum,
mineral matter or pigments and sulphur, mixed in various proportions, according to the
purpose for which it is intended. Mineral matter or the so-called fillers serve a very
useful purpose, both in cheapening the product and in adding certain desirable properties
which could not otherwise be obtained. Their presence, therefore, should not be looked
upon as an adulteration.

There is a limited demand for pure gum by the medical profession and a very con-
siderable amount is used in the manufacture of stationery bands, elastic thread, etc.,
but the amount of rubber thus consumed is insignificant as compared with the enormous
quantity used in the manufacture of mechanical rubber goods, such as automobile tires,
hose, packing, and footwear. A properly vulcanized compound of high-grade rubber
which is suitable for the best hose and packing, may be stretched to about seven times
its original length and has a tensile strength of about 2,000 pounds per square inch.

The properties that are desirable in rubber depend in a great measure upon the use
for which it is intended. For example, rubber intended for steam hose or steam packing
should be of a composition to withstand high temperatures, while rubber for the tread
of an automobile tire should offer great resistance to abrasion.

The real value of rubber in any case depends upon the length of time that it will
retain those properties which are desirable, and it is a matter of common observation
that rubber often deteriorates less rapidly when in use than when lying idle. Deteriora-
tion, as indicated by loss of strength and elasticity, is considered to be the result of
oxidation, which action is accelerated by heat and very greatly by sunlight. Other
things being equal, the better grades of rubber possess greater strength and elasticity,
and may be stretched to a greater extent than the poorer grades, and they also deteriorate
less rapidly. The physical properties of rubber, however, are subject to variation within
wide limits, depending upon the proportion of gum present, the materials used as fillers,
and the extent of vulcanization.

PHYSICAL TESTING OF RUBBER

Rubber testing in the present stage of its development is not susceptible of very
great refinement as regards measurement. The nature of the material is such that
refinement seems of less importance than uniformity of methods, which is absolutely
essential where the work of different laboratories is to be compared.

Tension Test. — Tension tests in various forms are used to determine the more
important physical properties, such as tensile strength, ultimate elongation, elasticity,
and reduction in tension when stretched to a definite elongation.

Recovery. — Recovery as applied to rubber is in a way synonymous with elasticity,
and is measured by the extent to which the material returns to its original length after
having been stretched. The term "set," as commonly employed, refers to the extension
remaining after a specified interval of rest following a specified elongation for a given
period of time.

[436]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

Friction. — In the case of such materials as rubber hose and rubber belting, which
are built up with layers of duck cemented or frictioned together with rubber, it is
customary to determine the friction or adhesion between the plies of duck as well as
the quality of rubber. It is also usual to subject hose (particularly fire hose and air
hose) to a hydraulic pressure test, in order to detect any imperfections in materials
or workmanship.

Steam Pressure. — An important test in the case of steam hose consists in passing
steam at about 50 pounds pressure through a short length of the hose in order to deter-
mine if the rubber is of suitable composition to withstand the effects of service conditions.
This test usually lasts for about six days, the steam being turned off at night to allow
the rubber to cool. A decided hardening or softening of the rubber, or a large decrease
in the value of friction, as a result of steaming, is an indication of inferior quality.

Packing. — No absolutely reliable test (other than an actual service test) has been
devised for rubber steam packing, but in many cases valuable information may be
obtained by clamping a piece of the packing between metal plates and subjecting it
to the action of steam at a pressure equal to or slightly above that under which it is to
be used. A more satisfactory method is to clamp the packing in the form of a gasket
between pipe flanges and apply the desired steam pressure from within. The test
should last several days, the steam being turned off at night to see if the joint has a
tendency to leak as a result of the cooling effect. This, however, practically constitutes
a service test.

Tires. — The testing of tires, or rather the materials used in their construction, ia
done almost exclusively by manufacturers. Manifestly it would be too expensive for
the consumer, or even the dealer, to sacrifice whole tires for the purpose of securing
test pieces.

The tests which have been outlined above will, in the majority of cases, enable one
to form a fairly accurate judgment as to the quality of rubber.

Tension Test. — When the material is made up with layers of fabric, as in the case
of rubber hose, the first step in preparing specimens for the tension test is to separate
the rubber from the fabric. Unless the frictioning is very poor, this will necessitate the
use of a solvent. If there is more than one layer of fabric, the easiest way is to remove
the first layer along with the rubber. The rubber is then separated from the adjoining
layer of fabric by means of gasoline blown from a wash bottle. Narrow strips are more
easily handled than larger pieces, and there is less danger of injuring the rubber. The
rubber should be allowed to rest for several hours in order that it may recover from the
stretching it has received and that the gasoline may thoroughly evaporate.

Test Piece. — The central portion of the test piece cut with a metal die is straight
for a distance of 2 inches, and the ends are enlarged to prevent tearing in the grips
of the testing machine. The width of the contracted section is usually made either
one-fourth inch or one-half inch. It is impossible to obtain satisfactory specimens one-
half inch wide from hose of small diameter.

Parallel lines 2 inches apart are placed on the specimens, and by means of these
gauge marks elongation and permanent extension are measured. A stamp consisting
of parallel steel blades enables one to mark very fine lines with ink, without cutting the
rubber, and in this way much time is saved and all chance of error eliminated.

Influence of Speed on Tensile Strength and Elongation. — The speed at which rubber
is stretched probably affects the results to a less extent than is often supposed, though
doubtless different rubbers are not equally affected.

Influence of Temperature on Strength, Elongation, and Recovery. — It is generally
recognized that the physical properties of rubber are affected by changes in temperature,
though, of course, to a less extent after vulcanization than before.

The results of tests at 50°, 70° and 90° F., in a room maintained at the specified
temperature for three hours before the tests were made. It was observed that the
rubbers were not all affected to the same extent by equal differences in temperature,
but there was a marked tendency in each case toward decreased strength, decreased
set (increased elasticity), and increased elongation as the temperature is raised. It was
noted that in nearly every case, greater differences were secured between 50° and 70°
than between 70° and 90°.

'[437f

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

The set in each case was measured after one minute stretch and one minute rest,
Of five specimens, Nos. 1 and 2 were stretched 350 per cent, Nos. 3 and 4, 300 per cent,
and No. 6, 250 per cent.

TABLE 1

SHOWING STRENGTH AND ELONGATION OF RUBBER WHEN STRETCHED AT THE RATE OF
30 AND 120 INCHES PER MINUTE

[Gauge length = 2 inches.]

Rubber No.

2

3

4

5

6

Speed in Inches per
Minute

30

120

30

120

30

120

30

120

30

120

Tensile strength

(pounds per

square inch) . .

1,740

1,690

990

1,100

1,710

1,790

750

920

930

1,030

Ultimate elonga-

tion (per cent)

665

670

510

530

460

460

430

430

375

380

These results would indicate that elongation is not appreciably affected by speed,
and that for the lower-grade rubbers greater tensile strength is secured at high speed.

Influence of Cross Section on Tensile Strength and Elongation. — Tensile strength
and ultimate elongation are theoretically independent of sectional area, but as in other
materials there is a tendency for small test pieces to develop higher unit values than
large ones. Complete data on this subject is not at hand, but it is thought that test
pieces one-fourth inch and one-half inch wide will show but little difference in unit
strength and elongation, provided the snrface is uniform and the wider specimens are
sufficiently enlarged at the ends to prevent tearing in the grips.

Influence of the Direction in which Specimens are Cut on Strength, Elongation,
and Recovery. — The tensile properties of sheet rubber are not the same in all directions.
Specimens cut longitudinally or in the direction in which the rubber has been rolled
through the calender show greater strength and (at least for the better grades of rubber)
less elongation than specimens cut transversely or across the sheet. The recovery,
however, is greater in the transverse direction.

TABLE 2

SHOWING THE RELATIVE STRENGTH, ELONGATION, AND RECOVERY OF RUBBER WHEN
TESTED IN THE LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE DIRECTIONS

. Rubber No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

Tensile strength1 (pounds per square inch) :
Longitudinal . ....

2,730

2,070

1,200

1,850

690

880

Transverse

2,575

2,030

1,260

1,700

510

690

Ultimate elongation (per cent) :
Longitudinal

630

640

480

410

320

315

Transverse • • •

640

670

555

460

280

315

Set1 after 300 per cent elongation for 1
minute with 1 minute rest (per cent) :
Longitudinal

11.2

6.0

22.1

34.0

27.5

34.3

Transverse

7.3

5.0

16.3

.24.0

25.0

25.9

The set and tensile strength were determined with different test pieces.

[438]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

Influence of Previous Stretching on Strength, Elongation, and Recovery. — Previous
stretching seems not only to increase the ultimate elongation, as is generally known,
but also the tensile strength, at least in the case of high-grade compounds.

Table 3 gives the tensile strength and ultimate elongation obtained in testing
six samples of rubber, first, with a single stretch, and, second, by repeated stretching,
beginning with 200 per cent and increasing each stretch by 100 per cent until failure.

The recovery after a definite elongation is usually greater if the rubber has been
previously stretched than if determined in the usual way. This is illustrated by the
results shown in Table 4, in which the columns marked " Repeated, stretch " show the
set after repeated stretching, beginning with 100 per cent and increasing 100 per cent
for each subsequent stretch. The results in columns marked "Single stretch" were

TABLE 3

THE INFLUENCE OP REPEATED STRETCHING ON TENSILE STRENGTH AND ULTIMATE

ELONGATION

Rubber No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

Tensile strength (pounds per square inch) :
Single stretch

2,470

1,740

990

1,710

750

930

Repeated stretch

2,610

1,960

1,180

1,790

790

920

Ultimate elongation (per cent) :
Single stretch

645

665

510

460

430

375

Repeated stretch

765

780

645

555

440

465

obtained in the usual way, each specimen being stretched but once. In each case, the
set was measured from the original gauge marks, after one minute stretch and one
minute rest, the tabulated results being the average of a number of observations.

TABLE 4
THE INFLUENCE OF REPEATED STRETCHING ON THE RECOVERY OF RUBBER

Si

3T AFTER

BEING £

>TKETCHI

3D

No.

Method of Testing

100

%

200

% -

300

%

400

%

500

%

/ Repeated stretch

1 0

4 5

9 5

16 0

25 0

1

\ Single stretch

11 7

19 8

29 0

/ Repeated stretch

1.8

4 0

7.7

13 7

21 2

2

\ Single stretch

8 0

14 7

21 5

/ Repeated stretch

3 7

9 0

17 7

27 0

37 0

3

\ Single stretch

21.7

34 0

47.0

( Repeated stretch

4 0

12 3

28 7

48 7

4

\ Single stretch

14 3

33 0

56 0

/ Repeated stretch

8 1

19 4

34 0

0

\ Single stretch

19 3

33 0

/ Repeated stretch

4 3

16 3

34 0

6

\ Single stretch

17 0

35 3

It will be noted that the effect of previous stretching is very marked in the case of
Nos. 1, 3, and 4; that it is very slight hi the case of Nos. 2 and 6; and that in the case of
No. 5 the set is slightly increased by previous stretching.

Influence of the Form of Test Specimen on the Results of Tension Tests. — There
is a wide difference of opinion in regard to the relative merits of the straight and ring-

[439]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

shaped test specimen. The ring, which is highly recommended by some, undoubtedly
possesses certain advantages as regards convenience in testing, and uniform results
may be obtained by this method.

Ring specimens, however, do not show the full tensile strength of rubber, on account
of the uneven distribution of stress over the cross section. This fact is evident from
a simple analysis, and may be verified by comparative tests with straight and ring
shaped test pieces, provided the straight test pieces are sufficiently enlarged at the
ends to prevent failure in the grips, and provided further that the change in width
is not made too abruptly.

Friction Test. — The "friction" or adhesion between the plies of canvas on rubber
hose and between the canvas and the rubber tube and cover, is of great importance;

B

FIG. 2. — Two METHODS OP TESTING THE "FRICTION" OF RUBBER BELTING.

in fact, the life of hose depends in great measure upon the efficiency of this adhesion.
The same is true and to an even greater extent in the case of rubber belting.

The friction of "plied" hose is determined in the following manner: In preparing
test pieces, a short length of hose is pressed tightly over a slightly tapered mandrel.
The mandrel is put in a lathe, and 1-inch rings are cut with a pointed knife. Beginning
at the lap a short length of canvas is separated and the ring is pressed snugly over a
mandrel which is free to revolve in roller bearings. The rate at which the canvas strips
under the action of a specified weight suspended from its detached end is taken as a
measure of the friction.

The "friction" of rubber-lined fire hose is usually determined as follows: A 1-inch
strip is cut and a portion of the tube separated from the jacket. The detached end
of the jacket is clamped in a stationary grip and the weight is suspended from the rubber
tube.

The "friction" between the plies of duck in rubber belting is sometimes measured
in the same way (Fig. 2, B), but some prefer to apply the load in a direction at right
angles to the plane of separation, as in the case of "plied" hose. This is done by cutting
the belt about halfway through along parallel lines 1 inch apart. The belt rests on
horizontal supports just outside of the strip which has been cut, and the weight is sus-
pended from the detached end of the duck (Fig. 2, A). It is found that for a given
weight the rate of stripping is decidedly greater by the former method than by the latter.

Table 6 gives comparative results obtained by the two methods in the case of a
six-ply belt.

Hydraulic Pressure Test. — The pressure test as usually made consists simply in
subjecting a short length of the hose to water pressure created by a force pump of any

[440]

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

convenient type. When testing a full length of hose, or even a short length of large
diameter, a pet cock should be provided to release the air as the hose is being filled.

TABLE 6

SHOWING COMPARATIVE VALUES OF "FRICTION" BY DIFFERENT METHODS
[Inches stripped per minute.]

Weight (Pounds)

12

15

18

21

First ply:
Tested as in Fig. 2, B

0 08

0 26

1 26

3 56

Tested as in Fig. 2, A

0.11

Second ply:
Tested as in Fig. 2, B

0 07

0 48

2 18

7 65

Tested as in Fig. 2, A

0.15

Third ply :
Tested as in Fig. 2, B

0 04

0 32

1 33

7 00

Tested as hi Fig. 2, A

0.16

Requirements of specifications as regards the pressure test vary according to the
kinds of hose, but, as a rule, the test is made, not with a view to developing the ultimate
strength of the hose, but rather to detect defects in workmanship, which are usually
noticeable at a pressure well below that necessary to rupture the hose.

In the case of fire hose, it is usual to specify a certain pressure when the hose is
lying straight or when bent to the arc of a circle of given radius; and the hose must
stand a specified pressure when doubled upon itself. It must not show excessive
expansion, elongation, or twist under pressure, and the twist must be in a direction
tending to tighten the couplings.

THE CHEMISTRY OF RUBBER

Although rubber has been extensively used for a number of years, it is only recently
that we have known very much about its chemical nature. The synthesis of rubber
shows that it belongs with the terpenes, having the formula of (Ci0Hi6)w, but so far
all attempts to show the actual size of this molecule have been unsuccessful. The
synthesis is accomplished by the polymerization of the simple terpene, isoprene, which
has the formula CsHg. Additional proof of the correctness of the above formula is
obtained by means of the various addition products which have been formed, such
as the tetrabromide, nitrosite, ozonide, etc. These latter show that in the rubber
molecule, each group of CioHie is capable of combining with two atoms of sulphur.
It is this adding of sulphur during the process of vulcanization which transforms the
crude, sticky gum into a tough, elastic material.

The crude rubbers, however, contain other substances than the pure rubber just
mentioned; they contain varying proportions of proteids, resins, hydrocarbons, etc.

The mechanical impurities and water-soluble constituents are removed by washing.
The resins remain behind and form one impurity which must be determined by chemical
analysis. The amount and character of these resins are of great assistance in determin-
ing the nature of the rubber used in compounding. In some cases the percentage of
resins is exceptionally high and then the crude rubbers must be subjected to a deresiniz-
ing process before they can be used.

The acetone extraction for the purpose of determining the quantity of such resins
is made by taking a weighed sample of the finely ground material and extracting it
with acetone for a period of from 8 to 15 hours. The acetone is removed by distillation,
the residue weighed, and the latter, consisting of the rubber resins, subjected to a very
careful examination.

If the extraction is made on a vulcanized compound, the acetone also extracts the

[4411

TESTING OF RUBBER GOODS

free sulphur and any mineral oils or waxes that may have been used. The free sulphur
can be readily determined by any of the methods given in the test books, and the
amount so determined must be deducted from the total extract. This gives a corrected
figure called "organic extract" or, sometimes, simply "corrected acetone extract."
For the best grades of Para rubber, this figure should not exceed 5 per cent of the
rubber present. A higher percentage of resins would indicate the presence of other
rubbers than Para, while the presence of mineral oil indicates the possibility of reclaimed
rubber having been used, inasmuch as practically all the reclaimed rubbers are com-
pounded with more or less mineral oil to make them work easier.

The acetone extraction is one of the most promising tests for the examination of
rubber goods.

The process of vulcanization consists simply in the chemical combination of sulphur
and rubber. Varying amounts of sulphur, depending upon the nature of the crude
gum as weil as upon the properties desired in the finished product, are added to the
compound, and, after heating, varying amounts of the sulphur will be found to have
combined chemically with the rubber, giving thus a new chemical compound with
new and desirable properties that are not possessed by the crude material.

It is often desirable to limit the amount of sulphur in a compound, and this calls
for a method of determining the total amount of sulphur present.

In addition to the sulphur combined with the rubber, and the free sulphur already
mentioned, sulphur may be present in the mineral fillers. Barytes is one such com-
pound, and it is permitted in practically all compounds where the amount of sulphur
is specified. Sublimed lead (largely a basic sulphate of lead, of varying composition)
does not yet fulfil the conditions just mentioned, but it is quite probable that we shall
soon be able to determine it accurately, and it will then be merely a question of deciding
whether it is a desirable filler in high-grade compounds.

[442]

SECTION 7
IRON AND STEEL CASTINGS

FOUNDRY PIG IRON

Pig iron is the metal reduced from iron ores in a blast furnace. It is the crudest
form of iron in the market and seldom or never used without remelting. It is often
referred to as an impure iron because there are always contained in the pig metal cer-
tain elements such as carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. The effect
of each of these when combined with iron is substantially as follows:

Carbon. — This element is always present in pig iron either as free graphite in which
thin flakes of graphite are mechanically present between the crystals of iron, as in soft
gray iron; or it may be chemically combined as in white iron, which is much harder.
The quantity of carbon in cast iron is largely dependent upon the temperature of the
furnace. It has been commonly understood that the highest amount of carbon that
can be taken up by pure iron is 4.50%, and at 1100° C. (2012° F.) this percentage is
correct, but E. Adamson found on raising the temperature to 2200° C. (4992° F.), 9.50%
carbon could be absorbed. He further states that iron containing 4.50% carbon when
cooled down under normal conditions made white iron; but with the higher percentage
it was impossible to secure a white iron, because a certain amount of graphite separated
out and made it gray or mottled.

An important point is the time during which the iron is left in contact with the hot
coke in a foundry cupola, also the temperature of melting, as this latter decides the total
amount of carbon taken up. On remelting pig or cast iron, the primary condition
of the carbon is important in influencing the grade and strength of the material pro-
duced. The quicker the cooling, the more closely compacted the form of the carbon,
and therefore the greater the strength and durability of the metal.

Foundry Irons. — The total carbon in No. 1 pig iron is about 3.60%, of which
0.10% will be combined.

In No. 2 pig iron the total carbon is about 3.50%, of which about 0.20% will be
combined.

In No. 3 pig iron the total carbon is about 4.00%, of which about 1.00% will be
combined.

In No. 4 pig iron the total carbon is about 4.00%, of which about 2.00% will be
combined.

Silicon. — This element diminishes the power of carbon to unite with iron, and tends
to cause the separation of carbon as graphite, especially when the metal is slowly cooled
from a white heat. It increases the fluidity of cast iron, while decreasing its strength.
As compared with carbon, the silicide FeSi dissolves readily in the iron, and, like the
carbide, hardens the metal, but to a much less extent than the carbide, approximately
5% silicon being the same as 1% carbon, so that if silicon be added to iron, there
being no other constituents present, the tendency is to give a hard metal, but silicon
has an indirect influence which is of much greater importance in that it expels the
carbon from combination and throws it into the graphitic form.

Gray iron castings, having moderately large crystals, therefore, rich in graphitic
carbon, are commonly those of high silicon content, cast in sand, and slowly cooled.
Silicon in moderate quantity added to cast iron diminishes the hardness, increases the
tensile strength, increases the resistance to crushing, increases the density, prevents
the formation of blow holes, and diminishes the shrinkage.

Shrinkage appears to closely follow the hardness of cast iron, and as both hardness
and shrinkage depend on the proportion of combined carbon they may be regulated by
the addition of silicon.

[443]

PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON

Silicon in No. 1 pig iron will average 2.50% and upwards. No. 2 pig iron will
range between 2.25% and 2.75%, averaging about 2.50%. No. 3 pig iron will range
between 0.75% and 200%, averaging about 1.60%. No. 4 pig iron will range between
0.80% and 2.00%, averaging about 1.60%.

Silicon Pig. — This alloy when made in the blast furnace is from highly silicious ores,
at a temperature much higher than for ordinary foundry irons; the blast must be much
stronger to quickly burn the excess of fuel supplied. Silicon is not reduced by carbonic
oxide or incandescent carbon alone except in the presence of molten iron, with which it
readily enters into combination, the resulting product being a silicon pig, containing
from 3 to 10% silicon, depending upon the quality of the ores. According to Turner
the maximum resistance to tension, bending, and crushing pig iron is attained by
proportions of silicon varying from 1.5 to 3%. Pig iron containing 2 to 3%
of silicon is softer than other irons, hence silicon iron is used in admixture with other
brands of pig iron in the foundry to produce soft gray castings.

Manganese. — This element is always present in pig iron; it increases the power of
carbon to combine chemically with iron at high temperatures, the effect of which is to
change the characteristic coarse grain of gray iron to a finer grain; the percentage of
combined carbon will be greater, the iron will be much harder, and if the percentage of
manganese be sufficiently increased a white iron will result. Manganese is more readily
oxidized than is iron, it therefore unites with oxygen in the liquid iron and acts as a
deoxidizer, it also counteracts the bad effects of sulphur, thus preventing red shortness,
but it does not prevent the cold shortness due to phosphorus. The compounds of iron
and manganese are limited in composition as shown by the crystalline forms so charac-
teristic of spiegeleisen, but with increase in manganese the crystals are greatly modified,
they are much smaller and less brilliant. Sulphur present as iron sulphide in pig iron
will undergo decomposition by manganese and a manganese sulphide formed, thus
liberating the iron which was in combination with the sulphur. The bad effects of
sulphur, which are to render iron red short hard and brittle, as also its power of reducing
oxide of iron, are thus counteracted by the manganese sulphide which, not being as
soluble in iron as in iron sulphide, passes into the slag.

Spiegeleisen. — Manganese combines with iron in nearly all proportions, the two
best known alloys are spiegeleisen and ferro-manganese. This alloy much used in steel
making is not used in foundry practice, except in special cases. Foundry irons do not
often contain more than 4.0% total carbon; spiegeleisen will have 5.0 to 6.0% total
carbon; the manganese content will approximate 15.0% in combination with 5.0%
carbon up to 30.0% with 6.0% carbon.

Ferromanganese. — This alloy differs from spiegeleisen in its having a much higher
percentage of manganese, of which the lower limit is 25 to 30%; its higher limit
extends to 85 or, in some instances, to 90%. Commercial needs cover nearly all pro-
portions up to 80% manganese, in combination with 5 to 7% of iron. An alloy with
40% manganese will have a carbon content of 4.5 to 5.0%, which is more carbon
than ordinary pig iron contains. This higher carbon content over that of ordinary
pig iron is due to the influence of the manganese present which increases the power of
the iron to absorb more carbon.

Silicon-spiegel. — Silicon is always present in ferromanganese as it is a constant
constituent in pig iron; it has a marked effect upon steel in promoting the solubility of
gases and by reducing a part of the iron oxide. In silicon-spiegel, which is an alloy of
iron, manganese, silicon and carbon, notwithstanding the presence of a large amount
of manganese, the silicon prevents carbonization taking place by expelling the carbon
from combination and throwing it into the graphitic form. This alloy is seldom used
in the foundry, but it is useful in the manufacture of steel and steel castings.

Oxygen and Manganese. — Manganese prevents the oxidation of iron when in the
molten state, but as manganese is more oxidizable than iron, the more readily does it
combine with oxygen, passing into the slag with silica, thus protecting the other con-
stituents in the iron from oxidation. Manganese is reduced from its oxide at a white
heat, while silica is unaffected, showing that manganese has a lower affinity for oxygen
than silicon.

Sulphur. — This element is always present in pig iron; its tendency is to make the

[444]

PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON

metal hard, brittle, and weak. The indirect action of sulphur is exactly opposite to that
of silicon; that is, it tends to retain the carbon in the combined condition. When sul-
phur is present in pig iron it lowers the temperature at which solidification begins, and
as the cooling progresses the iron sulphide separates and forms layers or films between
the crystals, preventing them from coalescing and from breaking up into ferrite and
graphite. These sulphide films are very thin, and a very small quantity of sulphur thus
present will make iron brittle. Dr. Moldenke states that, taking the three arbitrary
divisions of gray iron castings, the light, medium and the heavy, a limit should be
placed in the sulphur at 0.08, 0.10, 0.12 respectively.

Sulphur has a well-known influence in increasing the depth of " chill " in solidifying
cast iron against a metal wall, that is the thickness of metal free from graphitic carbon
produced by the cooling action of that wall. Its other influences are harmful as it
increases shrinkage, causes the molten metal to be sluggish and induces unsoundness.

Phosphorus. — When present in iron ores occurs chiefly as phosphate of lime; as but
little phosphorus is oxidized in the blast furnace, nearly all that contained in the ores
finds its way into the pig iron. Phosphorus combines with a carbonless iron to form a
phosphide Fe3P, which is soluble in iron up to 1.7%; beyond this, free phosphide
separates out and forms an eutectic, and this is the form in which it occurs in cast iron.

The percentage of carbon in pig iron containing much phosphorus is lower than in
that containing no phosphorus. Owing to the low melting point of the phosphide,
eutectic iron high in phosphorus is extremely fluid and gives fine castings, but the metal
is brittle. For fine castings in which strength is not important 1.50% phosphorus
may be employed, the metal will not only be very fluid, but the phosphorus lessens the
shrinkage of the castings.

The presence of a large amount of carbon in cast iron is a means of liberating phos-
phorus held in solution, causing it to pass into an eutectic condition in gray cast iron,
even if the metal contains less than the 1.7% phosphorus needed to saturate the
iron. Phosphorus has little effect on the condition of the carbon, but it makes the
metal harder and diminishes the color of gray iron. When phosphorus does not
exceed 1.7% the metal is comparatively strong but an addition of 0.35% reduces
the strength. For strong castings the phosphorus should not materially exceed
0.50%. The general influence of phosphorus is to increase the fluidity of iron and
thus insure castings accurate as to size, because phosphorus lessens the shrinkage on
solidifying, it also produces a sounder casting; but phosphorus in excess of about 1.50%
has another influence, and that is to weaken iron, to diminish its hardness, and to render
it cold short. As a rule pig irons should not, in a cupola mixture, average more than
1.0% phosphorus for the ordinary run of machinery castings, below 0.50% the iron
will not be sufficiently fluid, and with more than 1.50% medium and small castings
will be too brittle.

Foundry Irons. — Phosphorus in No. 1 pig iron ranges from 0.50 to 1.25%, often
higher. No. 2 pig iron ranges from 0.40 to 1.00%. No. 3 pig iron ranges from 0.40 to
0.80%. -No. 4 pig iron contains about 0.40%, or less.

United States Navy specifications require 0.50 to 0.80% in Nos. 1 and 2 pig
irons, and 0.50 to 0.90% in No. 3 iron. For No. 4 charcoal iron the maximum phos-
phorus is 0.30%.

Grading Pig Iron. — Pig iron is sold in the market in five grades, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Besides there are special grades established recently but used extensively, namely:
Low phosphorous and sulphur iron used in the open-hearth and Bessemer process.
Silicized iron containing 4 to 7% of silicon is also made to soften other irons and to make
them run liquid.

The following chemical analysis and physical characteristics of Pennsylvania pig
irons are by John Hartman.

[445]

GRADES OF PIG IRON

ANALYSIS OF STANDARD

No. 1 Pig Iron.

Iron. 92.37% Gray. A large, dark, open grain iron, softest

Graphitic Carbon ..... 3 . 52 of all the numbers and used exclusively in

Combined Carbon 0.13 the foundry. Tensile strength, low. Elastic

Silicon 2 . 44 limit, low. Fracture, rough. Turns soft

Phosphorus 1 . 25 and tough.

Sulphur 0.02

Manganese 0.28

No. 2 Pig Iron

Iron 92.31% Gray. A mixed large and small dark grain,

Graphitic Carbon 2.99 harder than No. 1 iron and used exclusively

Combined Carbon 0.37 in the foundry. Tensile strength and elastic

Silicon 2.52 limit higher than No. 1. Fracture, less

Phosphorus 1.08 rough than No. 1. Turns harder, less tough

Sulphur 0.02 and more brittle than No. 1.

Manganese ' 0 . 72

No. 3 Pig Iron

Iron 94.66% Gray. Small, gray, close grain, harder than

Graphitic Carbon ..... 2.50 No. 2 iron, used either in the rolling mill

Combined Carbon 1 . 52 or foundry. Tensile strength and elastic

Silicon 0.72 limit higher than No. 2. Turns harder, less

Phosphorus 0.26 tough and more brittle than No. 2.

Sulphur Trace

Manganese 0 . 34

No. 4 Pig Iron

A B

Iron. . 94.48% 94.08% Mottled. White background, dotted closely

Graphitic Carbon 2.02 2.02 with small black spots of graphitic carbon,

Combined Carbon 1 . 98 1 . 43 little or no grain. Used exclusively in the

Silicon 0.56 0.92 rolling mill. Tensile strength and elastic

Phosphorus 0.19 0.04 limit lower than No. 3. Turns with dif-

Sulphur 0 . 08 0 . 04 ficulty, less tough and more brittle than

Manganese 0.67 2.02 No. 3. The manganese in this (B) pig

iron replaces part of the combined carbon,
making the iron harder and closing the
grain notwithstanding the lower combined
carbon.

Iron. .

94.68%

Combined Carbon 3 . 83

Silicon 0.41

Phosphorus 0 . 04

Sulphur 0.02

Manganese 0 . 98

Malleable iron contains .
Steely iron contains ....

Steel contains

Hard steel contains ....

No. 5 Pig Iron

White. Smooth, white fracture, no grain,
used exclusively in the rolling mill. Tensile
strength and elastic limit much lower than
No. 4. Too hard to turn and more brittle
than No. 4.

Per Cent
Combined Carbon

0.25

0.35

0.50

. 1 to 1.50

[416]

GRADES OF PIG IRON

Taking the sum of the graphitic and combined carbon in each quality of pig iron
they are practically the same, the softness of pig iron is dependent on the amount of
graphitic carbon in it. Separating the iron in the No. 1 pig from the graphitic carbon
it is a nearly pure iron embedded in the graphitic carbon, and in the absence of
combined carbon, gives it the softness and flexibility that makes it desirable for
machinery and other purposes. The grains of iron are crude crystals. When the iron
is nearly pure and allowed to cool very slowly, regular octahedral crystals of iron are
formed.

No. 1 Pig Iron may be defined as being composed of grains of wrought iron con-
nected together but embedded in graphite.

No. 2 Pig Iron has more combined carbon, which converts the wrought iron into a
soft steel harder to the tool working it.

No. 3 Pig Iron has more combined carbon, and the iron portion is a crude steel
harder to the tool working it.

Nos. 4 and 5 are virtually crude, high-combined carbon steel. The numbers here
given, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are the old standard.

If the impurities in pig iron were uniform, which would be the case if there were only
one kind of ore and fuel, the proper plan would be to buy iron by chemical analysis on a
basis of graphitic and combined carbon, but the impurities so change the character
that the eye is found to be the best guide so far hi fixing the grade. In running the end
of the fingers over a fracture of a pig of iron, if the ends of the grains tear the fingers
the iron is strong.

The analysis (B) of No. 4 Pig Iron shows low in combined carbon, but the manganese
hardens the iron and changes it from gray to mottled iron.

No. 1 Hot-blast Charcoal Iron
Grand Rivers, Ky.

Silicon 1.955%

Sulphur .029

Phosphorus 488

Manganese . 213

Graphitic Carbon 3 . 310

Combined Carbon 460

Iron 93.545

The pigs of this iron bend before breaking. The ends of the grain are sharp and
tear the fingers. On breaking this iron the pig when it strikes the breaking blocks
emits a dull thud like lead. It is an iron of high tensile strength and well adapted for
making car wheels. The bending of pigs is not confined to charcoal iron. Coke and
anthracite irons do the same when using good stock and running the furnace at the
proper temperature.

[447]

FOUNDRY PIG IRON

FOUNDRY PIG IRON

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Grades. — There shall be four grades of pig iron conforming to the requirements
stated below.

3. Chemical Requirements. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Grade

Carbon

(Mini-
mum)

Silicon

Sulphur
(Maxi-
mum)

Phosphorus

Manganese

Remarks

Per Ct.

Per Cent

Per Ct.

Per Cent

Per Cent

No. 1.

3.50

2. 75 to 3. 25

0.04

0.50 to 0.80

0.50 to .90

No. 2.

3.25

2.00to2.50

.05

.50 to .80

.50 to .90

No. 3.

3.25

1.25 to 1.75.

.06

.50 to .90

.50 to .90

No. 4.

3.25

1.50to2.00j

.03

.30 max.

.75 to 1.25

Charcoal iron

4. Purpose for Which Used. — Grade 1 is suitable for general foundry purposes. It
may be used for either heavy or light castings which are to be machined.

Grade 2 is suitable for marine engine cylinders, turbine casings, and work of similar
character.

Grade 3 is suitable for hard, close-grained castings, which are to be machined, where
great strength is required. It may also be used with Grades 1 and 2 in varying propor-
tions as the work requires.

Grade 4 is suitable for use with Grades 1, 2, and 3 where castings of great strength
or high finish are desired.

5. Sampling. — The sample is to be taken as follows:

One pig shall be taken for every 4 tons in the lot, chosen from different locations
so as to represent as nearly as possible the average quality of the iron. The pigs selected
for sampling shall each be drilled with two ^-inch holes, spaced about \ the length of
pig from each end. The holes shall run from bottom to top of the pig, the drillings
of the first j inch to be discarded, and the drill to be stopped about f inch from the top
of the pig. All drillings from the same lot to be thoroughly mixed, and analysis made
from this sample; no resampling to be allowed.

6. Method of Analysis. — The inspector at the place of manufacture shall forward
to the navy-yard requiring the pig iron not less than 6 ounces of the sample, taken and
mixed as above, for analyses and recommendation as to acceptance. In case the
first analysis shows that the material does not conform to the specifications a check
analysis shall be made. The average of these analyses shall be considered final.
Analyses shall be made according to the standard method of the American Foundry-
men's Association, the gravimetric method being used for determination of sulphur.
Each bidder shall state in his proposal the composition of the pig iron he proposes to
furnish if awarded the contract.

7. Penalties. — SILICON. — For each 0.01 per cent below minimum content specified
a penalty of $0.02 per ton to be exacted. If the silicon content is below the specified
content by more than 0.10 per cent the pig iron will be rejected.

SULPHUR. — For each 0.002 per cent above maximum content specified, a penalty of
$0.10 per ton to be exacted. If the sulphur content exceeds the specified content by
more than 0.01 per cent, the pig iron will be rejected.

8. Locality. — When it becomes necessary for a navy-yard to obtain pig iron from a
particular locality to insure the best results in the foundry, the requisition should state
whether Northern, Virginia, or Southern iron is desired.

9. Sow Iron. — Not more than 12 per cent of sow iron will be allowed, and this must
be of size to be easily handled.

[448]

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CUPOLA

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE CUPOLA

The foundry cupola is a melting and not a refining furnace. The chemical changes
which take place in it are of secondary importance to results sought by melting and
mixing irons to produce a metal having properties suited to the work in hand.

Pig irons contain carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, which are chemi-
cally combined with the iron, and these must be dissociated before any oxidation be
begun. In the combustion zone opposite the tuyeres is a mass of burning coke into
which the blast is projected, combustion is quickened, and the heat thus generated
melts the charge of pig iron immediately above. As the metal melts it passes down
through the combustion zone and accumulates in the hearth below. The falling metal
is in small globules or drops, and when these drops pass the tuyeres, where there is
always an abundant supply of free oxygen, there must be more or less of oxidizing
action upon the iron and its contained elements in solution.

Carbon in foundry irons is mostly in the graphitic state and as sucji easily oxidized.
But any such oxidation is offset by the drops of iron coming in contact with red hot coke
and thus taking up additional carbon, so that, instead of diminishing the total carbon,
it happens that the iron flowing from the cupola contains quite as much carbon as was
present in the pig iron, and possibly more.

Silicon undergoes oxidation during the melting process, it is to be expected, there-
fore, that the iron as cast will contain less silicon than the pig, because 0.25 to
0.40% will have been burned out of it during the melting of the iron, and proper
allowance for this wastage must be allowed for in the charge.

Manganese is more oxidizable than iron, it more readily unites with oxygen and thus
retards the oxidation of iron; during the process of cupola melting manganese volatilizes
to some extent, but the quantity present in foundry pig iron is never large and its in-
fluence in the cupola is not important. Its tendency is, however, to counteract the bad
effects of sulphur, and to increase the solvent power for carbon at high temperatures and
to prevent the separation of graphite at lower ones. It also assists in making a more
fusible slag by the readiness with which it unites with silica.

Sulphur is always present in pig iron. Irons high in silicon are usually low in
sulphur; the latter is always present as ferrous sulphide which is readily soluble in
molten iron. The tendency of sulphur is to keep the carbon in the combined condi-
tion, the effect of which is to make castings hard and brittle. Coke always contains
sulphur and during the process of combustion it unites with oxygen forming sulphurous
oxide, which passes off with the other products of combustion into the open air. Sul-
phur in the pig iron as charged is not reduced; during the process of cupola melting,
in fact, the iron may take up 0.02 to 0.03% sulphur from the coke ; castings from
pig irons containing 0 . 08 % sulphur may contain 0. 10% sulphur, especially during the
first of the heat.

Phosphorus passes through the melting process in the cupola unoxidized; whatever
phosphorus is contained in the pig iron as charged will be present in the molten iron
flowing from the cupola.

Foundry Coke. — An excellent quality of coke for foundry use is such as made in the
Connellsville region, Pennsylvania; its characteristics are: steel-gray color, a metallic
luster, columnar, very strong, dense, slightly puffed on the surface, burns free under a
strong blast, and will support any necessary weight of iron above it, in a cupola, without
crushing. Such a coke, after expulsion of moisture, averages about 90.0% fixed car-
bon, no volatile matter, 10.0% ash; the latter consisting of about 58.0% silica,
35.0% alumina, 2.0% sesquioxide of iron, 1.5% lime, 2.0% sulphur, 1.0% other
constituents, such as magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, etc. The quantity of
sulphur in the ash will depend largely upon the quantity of pyrites in the coal before
coking. Pyrites is also the probable source of the oxide of lime in ashes; the greater
part of the sulphur being expelled by heat during the process of coking, its equivalent
of oxygen unites with the iron, with which hydrogen also combines, forming the sesqui-
oxide of iron.

Alumina present in ashes is in the form of a clay or a mixture of the two simple

[449]

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CUPOLA

earths, alumina and silica, generally tinged with iron, it is infusible in the cupola.
Silica is decomposed at a red heat by carbon in presence of iron and at white heat by
carbon monoxide, CO, a metallic silicide being formed ; it plays a very important part
in the formation of slags, and fusion is not necessarily required to produce combination.
The bases which most frequently occur in slags are lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash
in small quantity, and alumina.

Calorific Value of Coke. — The total heat obtained by the combustion of 1 pound of
carbon, in oxygen to carbon dioxide CO2, as determined by calorimeter test, varies in a
slight degree from 14500 B.t.u., that value may, therefore, be accepted as a fan* average.
If the coke is 90.0% carbon we have 14500 X 0.9 = 13050 B.t.u. as the total
calorific value of 1 pound of coke. A result such as this is never realized in practice,
instead of the carbon being burnt to carbon dioxide CO2, yielding 14500 B.t.u., it may
be burnt to carbon monoxide CO, the calorific value of which is 4450 B.t.u., approxi-
mately one-third of the former. Gases escaping from the cupola show about equal
volumes of CO2 and CO, the calorific value of the carbon suffers loss to the extent of:
(14500 X .5) + (4450 X .5) = 9475 B.t.u., equivalent to 65% thermal efficiency.

The temperature at the melting zone in the cupola may be estimated thus: For
perfect combustion 1 pound of carbon will require 2 . 67 pounds of oxygen, yielding 3 . 67
pounds carbon dioxide CO2. In addition there will be 8.94 pounds of nitrogen left
after the separation of the oxygen from the air. The specific heat of carbon dioxide
CO 2 is 0 . 216, and that of nitrogen 0 . 244. We have then :

Specific Heat

Products Pounds Heat Units

Carbon dioxide CO2 3.67 X .216 = .794

Nitrogen 8.94 X .244 = 2. 181

12.61 2.975

heat units absorbed in raising the temperature of the products of combustion of 1
pound of carbon, 1° F. The combined weights of the two products are 12.61 pounds.
Then: 2.975 -J- 12.61 = 0.236, their mean specific heat. Dividing the total heat of
combustion of 1 pound of carbon by the heat units absorbed, as above, we have: 14500
-T- 2.975 = 4874° F.; the highest theoretical temperature attainable by 11.61 pounds
of air, the minimum theoretical limit.

This temperature occurs only opposite the tuyeres and at the time of combination.
As the carbon dioxide CO2 rises in the cupola it passes through a bed of incandescent
coke, some of the gas takes up another equivalent of carbon and carbon monoxide CO
is formed. Upon analyzing the gases escaping from the cupola it is found that carbon
dioxide CO2 and carbon monoxide CO escape in practically equal volumes. The
temperature is greatly affected thereby, and may be estimated per pound of carbon
thus:

\

Specific Heat

Gas Pounds Heat Units

Carbon dioxide C02 1.84 X .216 = .397

Carbon monoxide CO 1.17 X .243 = .284

Nitrogen 6.71 X .244 = 1.637

2.318

The total heat of 1 pound of carbon burnt:
0.5 Ib. burnt to CO2 = 14500 -J- 2 = 7250
0.5 Ib. burnt to CO = 4450 ^ 2 = 2225

9475

Then: 9475 -h 2.318 = 4087° F., about 16% less than in the earlier example.

[450]

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CUPOLA

The heat required to raise 1 pound of iron to its melting point and melt it, and im-
part sufficient heat to the molten metal to keep it fluid for pouring, is about 625 B.t.u.,
or 2240 X 625 = 1,400,000 B.t.u., per ton. The melting of iron is always accompanied
by the production of slag consisting principally of silica and alumina, each having a
higher melting point than iron. The percentage of slag will vary, but we may for the
purpose of illustration take the very low limit of 3.5% of the weight of pig iron
melted, or 78 pounds of slag per ton. The total heat required to melt 1 pound of slag
at furnace temperature approximates 750 B.t.u. Then: 78 X 750 = 58500 B.t.u.,
to be added to 1,400,000 = .1,458,500 total B.t.u. required per ton of pig iron melted.

In estimating the calorific value of coke, it was assumed to be 90.0% carbon,
therefore 14500 X 0.90% = 13050 B.t.u. per pound. There would be required for
2240 pounds of iron 1,458,500 •*• 13,050 = 111.7 pounds of coke. This corresponds
to the melting of 20 pounds of iron per pound of coke. No such rate of melting occurs
in any cupola; reference has already been made to the fact that the escaping gases
consist in practically equal volumes of CO2 and CO, and that the B.t.u. had been
reduced from 14,500 to 9,475 per pound of carbon. We have then 9,475 X 90.0% =
8,527 B.t.u. per pound of coke, and 1,458,500 -5- 8,527 = 171 pounds of coke per ton
of iron melted, or 13 pounds of iron melted per pound of coke, on the carbon basis alone.

Excess of Air. — In estimating the calorific value of 1 pound of carbon in which
14,500 B.t.u. were obtained, it was stated that 11.61 pounds of air were used, a much
smaller quantity than obtains in practice. Probably no less than 18 pounds of air
are blown into the cupola for each pound of coke burnt; this air has to be heated to the
temperature of the escaping gases, and one bad feature about it is that the abstraction
of heat occurs in the melting zone, thus depriving the furnace of heat which otherwise
would be usefully employed in melting iron. This dilution of gases in the cupola re-
duces its efficiency and is one of the reasons for its lower melting capacity, reducing the
ratio of 13 to 1 as given above to 10 to 1, a good working ratio and much better than
obtains in many foundries.

Temperature of Escaping Gases. — This will vary with each cupola; beginning
with the temperature of the melting zone, the gases lose heat in their passage upward
through the successive layers of iron and coke, constituting the cupola charge. A
reduction in temperature occurs during the inevitable breaking down of carbon dioxide
CO 2 and the formation of carbon monoxide CO. There is also an excess of air in the
cupola which carries with it a temperature corresponding to that of the fuel gases, this
excess of air maybe anywhere from 50 to 100% of that necessary for combustion.
The presence of moisture in the air; in the coke; on the surface of the iron to be melted;
the melting of the several constituents which form the slag; the radiation of heat from
the cupola itself, all these tend to reduction of temperature of escaping gases, which
for a well proportioned cupola may, in the absence of pyrometer test, be reckoned at
1600° F.

Slag. — This is a fused compound of silica in combination with lime, or other bases;
slag produced in the cupola will vary in composition with the irons being melted. Silicon
is easily oxidizable and forms silica. Most pig irons are cast in sand and a certain
amount of sand, say 1.0% attaches to the outer surface of the pig; this sand is nearly
all silica. Coke consists of about 50.0% ash, and this ash contains about 50.0% silica.
When iron is oxidized ferrous oxide is formed, and this oxide combines with silica
forming silicate of iron, or slag.

Flux. — In order to promote the fusion of non-metallic substances during the process
of melting iron in a cupola a flux is employed. For foundry use calcium carbonate
CaCO3, or carbonate of lime is commonly used, chiefly as limestone, gray in color, more
or less impure, containing clay, sand, and other substances. If procurable, the white
marble refuse chips from a stone yard are preferable, on account of their greater purity.
When calcium carbonate CaCOa is heated it yields calcium oxide CaO, or lime, a white
amorphous infusible substance, and carbon dioxide CO2, or carbonic acid gas. Pure
carbonate of lime CaO3 = 56% lime CaO -j- 44% carbon dioxide C02. The carbon
dioxide passes off into the open as a gas ; the lime passes into the slag.

Limestone should not contain much silica because of its affinity for lime, forming a
silicate of lime, which reduces the fluxing value of the limestone and increases the

[451]

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CUPOLA

quantity of slag. When the melting has begun, the molten iron is in an atmosphere
containing free oxygen and oxidation of iron takes place; some of the silicon in the iron
is also oxidized, and silica is formed. The oxide of iron will combine with the silica, and
a silicate of iron or slag is formed. The fluid slag finds its way down through the burn-
ing coke and in its course it takes up any ash present in the coke, as well as the sand which
adhered to the pig iron, these, and other impurities, combine in a fluid mass which
floats upon the molten iron at the bottom of the cupola.

If white marble chips are used, the quantity may be, for reasonably clean pig, about
20 pounds per ton of iron. For ordinary limestone the quantity may be 40 pounds or
more to the ton. Much depends upon the purity and cleanliness of the iron and the
quantity as well as the quality of the ash from the coke. If the iron is clean, the weight
of the slag will be about the same as that of the limestone charged. For each 56 parts
of lime that can be put into the slag, 72 parts of iron oxide, or 56 parts of iron will be
liberated. Slag from a cupola contains from 5.0 to 8.0% of iron, partly as oxide,
and partly in small particles held in mechanical suspension.

Fluorspar. — This substance derives its name from its power to effect the liquefaction
of earthy substances. It is a combination of 1 part calcium Ca with 2 parts fluorine F,
the formula being CaF2. This compound occurs in large quantities in nature in crys-
tallized cubes; it is insoluble in water. If it be strongly heated in contact with silica,
the latter takes up the fluorine to form the gas silicon fluoride SiF4, whilst the calcium
and oxygen unite to produce lime, which combines with another portion of the silica to
form a silicate of lime. The silicate of lime would not easily fuse into a slag by itself,
but when clay and oxide of iron are present, a slag is readily produced. It is used in
metallurgical operations for the reason that it melts readily into a transparent liquid
which does not act upon other substances easily; it serves as a liquid medium in which
reactions take place at high temperatures. For foundry use it serves no useful purpose
that cannot be had by the use of white marble chips or first quality limestone except
perhaps to increase the fluidity of the slag.

FUEL EFFICIENCY OF THE CUPOLA FURNACE

The heat balance in melting 80,000 pounds of pig iron in a 60-inch cupola is thus
given by John Jermain Porter, Trans., Am. Inst. Mining Engrs., 1912. The cupola
selected operated under fairly efficient conditions; the data are as follows: Cupola,
60 inches in diameter, 15 feet high to the charging door, with a 9-inch lining. Bed
charge, 2,000 pounds of coke and 4,000 pounds of iron. Subsequent charges, 400
pounds of coke and 4,000 pounds of iron. Total number of charges, 20. There was
800 pounds of coke recovered from the drop, hence the total coke burned is 8,800 pounds,
or 0.11 pound of coke per pound of iron. Coke contains 90 per cent fixed carbon
and 2 per cent of moisture. 300 pounds of kindling wood is used in lighting. 80 pounds
of limestone (95 per cent CaCOs) is used per charge, 0.02 pound per pound of iron.
Melting loss 4 per cent; distributed thus: Fe, 3.5; Si, 0.25; Mn, 0.25 per cent. Aver-
age analysis of top gases: CO2, 15.1; CO, 10.0 per cent. Average temperature of top-
gases, 1,600° F. Temperature of air and stock charged 60° F. Dew-point of air, 50° F.
The items entering into the total heat balance and their calculation are as follows:

1. Heat of Combustion of Fuel. — Total heat evolved = 14,580 X lb. of carbon
burned + 7,200 X lb. of wood burned. Hence B.t.u. per pound of iron charged =
8,800 X 0.9 X 14,580 + 300 X 7,200

80,000 = M7°'4

2. Oxidation of Iron to FeO.— B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.35 X 2,112
= 74.0

3. Oxidation of Silicon to SiO2.— B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.0025 X
12,600 = 31.5

4. Oxidation of Manganese to MnO. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0 . 0025
X 2,975 = 7.4

5. Sensible Heat in Coke.— B.t.u. per pound of iron charged =0.11X60X0.16
= 1.1

6. Sensible Heat in Iron.— B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 1X60X0.12 = 7.2

[452]

FUEL EFFICIENCY OF CUPOLA

7. Sensible Heat in Limestone. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.02 X 60 X
0.21 = 0.252

8. Sensible Heat in Blast. — From the gas analysis, 9 pounds of air is used per
pound of carbon burned, hence B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.11 X 0.9 X 9
X 60 X 0.235 = 12.6.

9. Heat of Formation of Slag. — This is a matter of some uncertainty but is of minor
importance. The heat of formation of CaO + SiO2 is 278 B.t.u. per pound, and of
FeO + giO2 121 B.t.u. per pound, and if we assume that the slag consists of equal parts
of each, and that 0 . 06 pound of slag is made per pound of iron, the heat of the forma-
tion of the slag is in B.t.u. per pound of iron charged 0.06 X 200 = 12.0.

la. Heat in Molten Iron. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.96 X 450 = 432.0.

2a. Heat in Molten Slag.— B.t.u. per pound of slag = 1 X (t X (0. 17 + 0.00004t)
+ latent heat of fusion + (t/— t) X 0.35), where t = the melting point of the slag or
say, 2,000° F., and t' = the temperature at which it issues from the cupola or, say,
2,250° F. Hence B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.06 (2,000 X 0.25 -f- 160 -f
250 X 0.35) = 44.8.

3a. Heat to Decompose Limestone. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.02 X
0.95 X 813 = 15.4.

4a. Heat to Evaporate Moisture in Coke. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged =
11 X 0.02 X 966 = 2.1.

5a. Heat Stored up in Lining. — The weight of the lining below the charging door
figures out approximately 27,400 pounds. Estimating its average temperature to be
1,000° F., the B.t.u. per pound of iron charged =

27,400 X 1,000 X (0.193+0.000043 X 1,000)-= 80.9.
80,000

6a. Heat to Decompose Moisture of Blast. — A dew-point of 50° F. corresponds to
0.0075 pound of water per pound of moist air. Hence the B.t.u. per pound of iron
charged = 9 X 0.9 X 0.11 X 0.0075 X 5,800 + 38.8.

7a. Heat Sensible in Gases. — The weight of the gases per pound of carbon burned
works out as follows: CO2, 2.200; CO, 0.933; N, 6.910; H, 0.007; total, 10.050
pounds. The average specific heat is 0.23 + 0.000023t. Hence the B.t.u. per pound
of iron charged = 0.11 X 0.9 X 10.05 X 1,600 X 2,668 = 424.7.

8a. Heat Potential in Gases. — B.t.u. per pound of iron charged = 0.11 X 0.9
X 0.933 X 4,370 = 403.7.

9a. Heat Lost by Radiation Plus Error and Unaccounted For. — This amount is
found by difference to be 174.2 B.t.u. per pound of iron charged. Summarizing these
items, we get the following heat balance expressed in B.t.u. per pound of iron charged:

Sources of Heat

Heat Used and Lost

1. Combustion of fuel. . . 1470.4

2. Oxidation of iron

3. Oxidation of silicon ....

4. Oxidation of manganese ,

5. Sensible in coke

6. Sensible in iron

7. Sensible in limestone ...

8. Sensible in blast . .

.. 74.0
.. 31.5
7.4
1.1
7.2
0.3

.. 12.6
9. Formation of slag 12.0

1616.5

la. In molten iron 432 . 0

2a. In molten slag 44 . 8

3a. To decompose limestone .... 15 . 4

4a. To evaporate moisture 2.1

5a. To heat up lining 80 . 8

6a. To decompose moisture 38.8

7a. Sensible in gases 424.7

8a. Potential in gases 403 . 7

9a. Radiation and error. . 174.2

1616.5

The great source of wasted heat in the cupola is in the gases escaping at the top.
If these losses could be eliminated it should be possible to charge some 22 pounds of
iron for each pound of coke, have the gases come off from the top perfectly cold and
containing no CO, and the iron satisfactorily melted. Actually this cannot be done.

[453]

IRON CASTINGS

In the cupola there is a deep bed of carbon (coke) which is being replenished from
above as fast as it is consumed. Under these conditions, with carbon always in excess,
the products of combustion depend upon the temperature and time of contact of the
gases with the excess carbon. The tendency is towards the formation of CO at high
temperatures and CO2 at lower temperatures. Now in the cupola there is a zone im-
mediately in front of the tuyeres which is cooled by the inrushing blast of cold air and
in which CO2 is formed, this formation of CO2 being also aided by the fact that in this
space oxygen is supplied faster than the surface of the coke present can combine with
it. Further in and up in the cupola the temperature is much higher and conditions are
such as to favor the reduction of the CO2 to CO, according to the reaction CO2 + C =
2 CO. Time, however, is necessary for this reaction to take place, and since the velocity
of the gases is very great and they are in contact with the hot carbon for only an instant,
more or less CO2 invariably passes through unchanged. On the other hand, it is im-
possible to make the velocity of the gases so great as to prevent entirely the reduction
of CO2 without creating intensely oxidizing conditions inside of the cupola and, hence,
destroying its usefulness as a melting furnace.

The temperature of the top gases depends on the amount of heat absorbed by the
stock in proportion to the total amount generated in the zone of combustion. More
heat is generated when carbon is burned to CO 2, and the rapid rate of blowing necessary
to the formation of a large percentage of CO2 increases the velocity of the gases and
gives less opportunity for the absorption of heat by the stock.

IRON CASTINGS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Physical Properties. — The physical characteristics of cast iron are to be in
accordance with the following table:

Grades
of Iron
Cast-
ings

Tensile strength
(pounds per square
inch) — Length of
test piece not less
than 2 inches

Transverse breaking
load (for bar 1 inch
square loaded at mid-
dle and resting on sup-
ports 1 foot apart)

Purposes for which intended

20,000 (min.).... .

2,200 (min.).
2,800 (max.)

20,000 (min.)

2,500 (min.),

20,000 (min.)

2,200 (min.)

To be inspected to see if they are in all
respects suitable for the purposes for
which they are intended.

Steam cylinder and valve-chest cas-
ings.

Steam turbine casings, steam turbine
parts.

Gas-engine cylinder and valve-chest
casings.

Internal-combustion engine cylinders
and valve-chest casings.

Cylinder liners and valve-chest liners.

Steam, gas and internal-combustion
engines.

Cylinder and valve-chest liners, small
gas engines, and internal-combus-
tion cylinders when cast in one
piece.

Other important parts, such as main
and auxiliary engine parts, etc.

Minor parts, such as furnace fittings,
etc.

[454

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

3. Placing of Order. — The grade and quality of the metal will be specified on
the order.

4. Hardness Requirement. — Great care must be taken to determine that the ma-
chinery specifications for hardness of cylinders, liners, and valve-chest liners are
complied with, and a test piece from the casting should be machined in order to show
the degree of hardness.

5. Quality of Material. — The castings must be of uniform grain, smooth, free from
blow-holes, porous places, shrinkage, and other cracks or defects, and must be well
cleaned.

TESTS

6. Number of Tests. — Sound test pieces shall be taken in sufficient number to
exhibit the character of the metal in the entire piece from all castings requiring physical
test.

7. Additional Tests. — The inspector may require from time to time such additional
tests as he may deem necessary to determine the uniformity of the material.

8. Rejection on Delivery. — Iron castings may be rejected at the place of delivery
for surface or other defects either existing on arrival or developed in working or storage,
even though the material may have passed the required inspection at the place of
manufacture.

FINISH

9. Surface Inspection. — The scale shall be removed from the unfinished parts of
the inside of all cylinders, cylinder covers, and valve-chest covers, and from the un-
finished parts of all cylinder and valve-chest liners, and from ports and passages of
cylinders and valve chests, either by pickling or other approved process as may be
required.

10. Finished Size. — All engine castings must finish to blue-print size.

11. Marking and Stamping. — Each casting, if large enough, shall be stamped with
heat number, figures to be not less than \ inch long, and shall have size and order
number plainly marked with white paint.

12. Inspection Stamps. — Castings which have passed inspection must show the
U. S. anchor and other stamps necessary for identification, encircled by white-paint
marks.

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

The following is an abstract of a paper read by Dr. Richard Moldenke before the
Am. Foundrymen's Ass'n., 1903.

While nominally the composition of a good malleable casting is but little different
from that of a car wheel, the fact that it can be twisted, bent and hammered out hot
or cold and has double the tensile strength shows that the constitution of the casting
is quite different. This difference may be traced to the condition of the carbon. In
the ordinary gray casting we may have some 3 to 3| per cent graphite present. In
malleable castings we have the same amount as graphite in the analysis, but radically
different in characteristics. This form of carbon due to the annealing process has been
called temper carbon by Professor Ledebur, who first described it in connection with
the malleable (Ger. " temper ") process.

The tensile strength of malleable castings should run between 42,000 and 47,000
pounds per square inch; castings showing only 35,000 pounds are serviceable for
ordinary work. It is not advisable to run beyond 54,000 pounds per square inch, for
the resilience is reduced, and one of the most valuable properties of the malleable
casting impaired.

The elongation of a piece of good "malleable" will lie between 2| and 5£%, measured
between points 2 inches apart. The thicker the piece the smaller the elongation. In
making the transverse test, the deflection of an inch square piece, resting upon supports
12 inches apart, should be over \ inch, the breaking weight being at least 3,500 pounds.
Very soft iron often deflects 1\ inches under the test, but this is exceptional and may
not be reproduced continuously.

[4551

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

The high resilience, or resistance to shock, in "malleable" is its most useful char-
acteristic. Only where an exceedingly high tensile strength is required, as in the car
couplers for the heavy modern trains, is the malleable casting being gradually replaced
by steel castings.

Composition and Structure. — Originally cast to be perfectly chilled — that is, with
the carbon all combined — and a contraction of some 1£ inches to the foot, the annealing
process serves to expel the carbon from its state of combination, depositing it between
the crystals of the iron, not in the crystalline graphite of the gray iron, but as an amor-
phous form not unlike lampblack. At the same time an expansion equal to half of
the original contraction takes place, the net result being a shrinkage allowance for
the pattern identical with that for gray iron castings of similar shape and thickness.
Besides this expulsion of the carbon from its combination, there is a removal of some
of it from the outer portions of the casting. This amounts to nearly all in the skin
to nothing £ inch inward.

It will be noted that owing to the removal of varying amounts of carbon from the
skin to the interior no carbon determination of a malleable casting is of any value,
unless the sample is taken before the anneal, and even then it is only good for the total
carbon. For an annealed piece of sample taken from the center of the fracture with
at least f inch untouched around the drill would give a fair indication of the carbon
contents, but cannot claim accuracy.

Formerly charcoal iron about 4% carbon was the rule in malleable castings; in
these days of coke irons and steel additions to reduce the carbon this may run as low
as 2.75% before trouble ensues in the anneal, if not already in the foundry through
excessive cracking and shrinkages. With the modern demand for a high tensile strength
it is well to place the lowest limit at 2.75%, and the upper limit for common work would
be found in the saturation point of this grade of iron, or 4.25%. It is absolutely neces-
sary that the hard casting be free from graphite; even a small amount of this indicates
an open structure with consequent ruin to the work in the anneal from penetrating
oxygen. To keep the carbon in the combined state is the function of the silicon per-
centage arranged for in the mixture, the rate of cooling due to the cross section, the
pouring temperature, sand, etc.

The sulphur content is quite important, the percentage should not be allowed to
go over 0.05, and it is wise to hold the pig iron below 0.04, and to see that the fuel
used is not too rich in sulphur.

Manganese is seldom troublesome, as it does not often exceed 0.40 in the mixture,
which means 0.10 to 0.20 in the casting. Above 0.40 in the casting it begins to give
trouble in the anneal, therefore, manganese should be kept low.

Phosphorus should not exceed 0.225, and is better kept below this.

Silicon. — In general the thicker the casting the lower the silicon allowable in order
to get a white iron in the sand. Thus for the heaviest class of work the silicon of the
casting should not exceed 0.45. For ordinary work 0.65 is the point to be sought
for. Agricultural work may run up to 0.80, while the lightest casting may have 1.25%
without danger, though it is not advisable to exceed this limit for anything.

American practice differs from the European in several respects; we have a com-
paratively short anneal — that is, we aim at a conversion of the carbon rather than
its removal. Over there it is desired to get all carbon out, so that a wrought iron
casting, if it may be so called, may result.

The common American practice is to use the reverberatory, or air-furnace, either
with or without the top blast over the bridge to hasten the melting. While not many
malleable establishments have the open-hearth furnace it is undoubtedly an economical
melter, provided it be kept busy. It also means a man who will push the pigs into
the bath as quickly as they can be cared for, mix his iron well and fire sharp and quick
so that the process becomes one of melting only rather than a refining or burning out
of large quantities of silicon and carbon.

Under fan- conditions, with three heats daily from a 10-ton open-hearth furnace
using producer gas as fuel, the ratio is about one of coal to six of iron. In the rever-
beratory furnace the fuel ration is one to four at best, and often only one to two. It
is not advisable to make larger heats than 15 to 18 tons, as the time consumed in melting,

[456]

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

and especially in pouring from the small ladles after tapping, becomes so great that
the bath is seriously damaged by undue oxidation and overheating.

For making malleable castings, the open-hearth furnace should be pushed very
hard for a time, obtaining a short, sharp heat. The silicon of the heat may be cal-
culated for a loss of 20 to 25 points, whereas from 35 upward is the rule in other processes.

The cupola still turns out a considerable tonnage of malleable castings, but this
process will be gradually superseded by the furnace method, chiefly on account of the
better grade of work turned out by the latter. Cupola iron requires some 200° F.
more than furnace iron to anneal it properly. It seems strange that it should be so,
possibly the structure of cupola iron is so close that it requires more effort to get the
crystals apart and to effect the liberation of the carbon from its state of combination.
Whether this is due to the contact of the metal with the fuel as it trickles down in
thin streams and drops is hard to say, but the difference certainly exists and must be
provided for in the anneal.

In the annealing process we find two extremes leading to about the same results:
A short anneal at a very high heat is as effective as a comparatively long anneal at a
much lower temperature. That is to say, we can change the carbon in a casting, by
placing it overnight in a melting furnace which has cooled below the melting point
of iron, or do the same thing in the annealing oven at a much lower temperature, but
giving it a week's time. Of the two methods the latter is preferable, as it not only
permits the change in the carbon but also gives the carbon time to get out. The result
is a good, reliable casting, while in the hurry-up processes one never knows whether
they are annealed at all.

The annealing process may be described by a curve which runs up quickly, remains
horizontal for a short time and then drops very gradually. That is, a sharp heating
up, in the shortest safe time possible, then a shutting off of the dampers and maintaining
of the temperature evenly for a period of, say, two full days at least, and then a gradual
cooling down to at least a black heat before dumping.

Furnace iron of average thickness must have received over 1,250° F. after coming
up, until cutting off the heat, to be safely annealed. Perhaps even then some of the
work must be put back for another anneal. A safer limit is 1,350° F., and no more is
necessary. This temperature must exist in the coldest part of the furnace, or usually
at the lower part of the middle in the front row pots. As a rule the upper space of an
oven is some 200° F. higher than this.

Translating these temperatures, we find that 660° C. (1,220° F.) is the lowest point
for successful annealing of furnace iron, while 780° C. (1,436° F.) is the safest one.
For cupola iron the temperature should be about 850° C. (1,562° F.).

SPECIFICATIONS FOR MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS

Malleable iron castings may be made by the open-hearth, air furnace or cupola
process. Cupola iron, however, is not recommended for heavy nor for important
castings.

Chemical Properties. — Castings for which physical requirements are specified shall
not contain over .06 sulphur nor over .225 phosphorus.

Physical Properties. — (1) Standard test bar shall be 1 inch square and 14 inches
long, without chills and with ends perfectly free in the mold. Three shall be cast in
one mold, heavy risers insuring sound bars. Where the full heat goes into castings
which are subject to specification, one mold shall be poured two minutes after tapping
into the first ladle, and another mold from the last iron of the heat. Molds shall be
suitably stamped to insure identification of the bars, the bars being annealed with
the castings.

(2) Of the three test bars from the two molds required for each heat, one shall
be tested for tensile strength and elongation, the other for transverse strength and
deflection. The other remaining bar is reserved for either the transverse or tensile
test, in case of the failure of the two other bars to come up to requirements. The
halves of the bars broken transversely may also be used for tensile strength.

(3) Failure to reach the required limit for the tensile strength with elongation, as

[457]

MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS

also the transverse strength with deflection, on the part of at least one test rejects the
castings from that heat.

(4) Tensile Test. — The tensile strength of a standard test bar for castings under
specification shall not be less than 42,000 pounds per square inch. The elongation
measured in 2 inches shall not be less than 2J%.

(5) Transverse Test. — The transverse strength of a standard test bar, on supports
12 inches apart, pressure being applied at center, shall not be less than 3,000 pounds,
deflection being at least % of an inch.

Test Lugs. — Castings of special design or of special importance may be provided
with suitable test lugs at the option of the inspector. At least one of these lugs shall
be left on the casting for his inspection upon his request therefor.

Annealing. — (1) Malleable castings shall neither be over nor under annealed. They
must have received their full heat in the oven at least sixty hours after reaching that
temperature.

(2) The Saggers shall not be dumped until the contents shall at least be black hot.

Finish. — Castings shall be true to pattern, free from blemishes, scale or shrinkage
cracks. A variation of j\ of an inch per foot shall be permissible. Founders shall
not be held responsible for defects due to irregular cross sections and unevenly dis-
tributed metal.

MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form a part of the specifications.

2. Open-Hearth or Air- Furnace. — The malleable iron castings for which physical
requirements are specified may be made either by the open-hearth or air-furnace process.

3. Physical and Chemical Properties. — The physical and chemical characteristics
of malleable iron castings are to be in accordance with the following table:

Material

Tensile
Strength
per Square
Inch (Min.)

Elonga-
tion in
2 Inches

(Min.)

Transverse
Breaking Bar
1 Inch Square,
12 Inches long,
loaded at
Center

Deflec-
tion

MAXIMUM

Sul-
phur

Phos-
phorus

Open-hearth or air-
furnace process. . .

Pounds
36,000

Per Ct.
3

Pounds
3,000

Inch

$

Per Ct.
0.08

Per Ct.
0.225

4. Freedom from Defects. — Castings must be true to pattern, free from scale,
blemishes, shrinkage cracks, or other defects.

5. To Have Sufficient Anneal. — Castings must be neither "over" nor " under" an-
nealed. They must have received their full heat in the oven at least 60 hours after
reaching that temperature, and shall not be dumped until they are at least "black hot."

6. Test Bars; How Cast and Number. — Test bars to be cast accurately 1 inch square,
not less than 14 inches long, and of sufficient number to insure sound ones for all test
purposes.

7. Appearance After Machining. — The castings when machined should show the
annealing process has changed the carbon from the combined carbon to graphite carbon.

8. Pipe Flanges.— For pipe flanges the castings should be made sufficiently malleable
to permit of steel tubing being satisfactorily expanded into them without distorting
the shape or cracking the castings. If more than one casting of any size ordered will
not stand the expanding, they must be replaced with satisfactory castings.

9. Specifications for Malleable- Iron Pipe Fittings. — These specifications are inde-
pendent of Specifications for Malleable-Iron Pipe Fittings, Black or Galvanized, issued
by the Navy Department.

[458]

SEMI-STEEL CASTINGS

SEMI-STEEL CASTINGS

Melting steel with iron in a cupola adds strength to the resultant casting; to what
extent this is so, and the best proportion of steel to use are not clearly understood.
To ascertain definitely in regard to these and to trace if possible the connection between
percentage of total carbon in the iron and its tensile strength, Mr. H. E. Biller made
the tests summarized in the accompanying table:

PROPERTIES OF SEMI-STEEL CASTINGS

JJlCdlkUJg MlCHgUI OICCI
i ».„„-! :__

Phos-

Man-

'Com-

~V^al ULMI —

Graph-

Trans- mixture.

No.

Silicon.

Sulphur.

phorus.

ganese.

bined.

itic.

Total.

Tensile.

verse, percent.

I

1-43

0.047

0.564

0.82

0.67

3-H

3.8l

23,060

2,550

o

2

1.50

.065

>532

•33

.64

344

3-08

30,500

2,840

25

3

1.76

.062

.488

•53

.51

3.12

3.63

22,l8o

2,440

0

4

1.76

•139

.515

•57

43

2.94

3-37

27,090

2,770

\21A

5

1.77

.069

•339

.49

.56

2.87

343

32,500

3,120

12%

6

1.83

.IOO

.610

•55

•51

2.44

2.95

36,860

3,280

25

7

1-75

.089

.598

•35

.74

2.12

2.86

30,160

3,130

37K

8

1.96

.104

.446

•63

3-18

3-8i

21,950

2,230

o

9

2.12

•037

.410

.26

•38

3-26

3-64

21,890

2,470

12^

10

2.16

.060

.315

.20

i. 06

2.30

3.36

26,310

2,670

\2yt

II

1.97

•093

.470

•48

•57

2.83

340

32,530

3,050

37/4

12

2-35

.061

.515

.56

•54

340

3-94

21,990

2,200

o

13

2-53

.104

.490

•54

.60

2.56

3-16

33,390

2,850

25

14

2.36

.064

.327

.24

i. 08

2.15

3-23

31.560

3,200

25

The tensile and transverse strengths given in the table are the average of two, and
in some cases three test bars. For tensile strength a l|-inch round bar was used.
The transverse strength was obtained from a 1-inch square bar placed on supports
12 inches apart.

The object sought in classification into sets was to have the silicon about equal
in the tests of each set; the other elements being as nearly alike in quantity as it was
possible for him to get them.

Set 1. — Test Nos. 1 and 2 show comparatively little difference in chemical content,
except in manganese and graphite. As the manganese in No. 1 should be beneficial
to the strength of the bar, the only way to account for the greater strength of the iron
from No. 2 is the lower percentage of graphite, or the molecular structure resulting
from the 25% of steel in the mixture.

Set 2. — Comparing Nos. 3 to 7 the strength increases with percentage of steel used
and decrease of total carbon, with the exception of No. 7; in this 37^% of steel was
used, and the total carbon was less than in any other test, but it is weaker than either
Nos. 5 or No. 6. This being a solitary case it can hardly be used as proof that 37 £%
of steel is more than it is well to melt in a cupola. But test No. 11, which also con-
tained 37^% of steel and more carbon, was only a little stronger.

Test No. 4 was considerably weaker than No. 5, but its higher percentage of sulphur
with its lower combined carbon would seem to indicate that these bars were either
cooled slower, or poured from duller iron than were the bars from No. 5, which may
account for their being weaker than the No. 5 bars.

Set 3. — Nos. 8 to 11 we note that No. 9, although containing 12|% of steel is no
stronger than No. 8, in which there was no steel. And No. 10 with 1.06 combined
carbon, and 12£% of steel, gives less strength than might be expected. As these tests
are so much lower in manganese than Nos. 8 and 11, it may be that their weakness is
due either to the lower manganese or to the conditions of melting, which reduced the
percentage of manganese so much more than in Nos. 8 and 11. The four charges
each contained about 50% manganese before melting.

[459]

STEEL CASTINGS

Set 4. — Nos. 13 and 14, each from charges containing 25% of steel, show a marked
increase in strength over No. 12.

All the tests from charges containing 25% of steel are stronger than those from
charges containing but 12£%, with the exception of No. 5, which is stronger than two
of the tests which had 25% of steel in the mixture.

These tests were made with pig iron, ferro-silicon, and steel scrap, no cast-iron
scrap being used. This, in order to better control the percentage of the elements in
the iron. In some cases when a large percentage of steel was added, it was necessary
to use ferro-silicon to get the desired amount of silicon, in the charge. Two tests were
taken from No. 13, which contained 1,000 pounds of steel, 400 pounds of ferro-silicon
(8.5% silicon), and 2,600 pounds of pig iron. The charge was tapped from the cupola
into a ladle, and the tests taken at different times, as the iron was being poured from
the ladle. The one sample contained 2.53 and the other 2.54% of silicon. Two tests,
taken in the same way from No. 14, contained 1.97 and 1.94% of silicon. This charge
was made up of 1,500 pounds steel, 450 pounds ferro-silicon, and 2,050 pounds of pig-
iron. Similar tests from charge No. 2, which was made up of 1,000 pounds steel and
3,000 pounds pig iron, contained 1.50 and 1.52% silicon. These three cases offer pretty
strong proof that the pig iron, steel, and ferro-silicon mixed thoroughly.

Although of a limited number, the tests given seem to indicate that 25% of steel
will add about 50% to the strength of the iron; and 12|% of steel, approximately
25%. The tests containing 37|% of steel were hardly as much improved in strength
as those with 25% of steel, from which we may infer that the limit of the amount of steel
it is beneficial to melt with iron in a cupola, is between 25 and 37|%.

STEEL CASTINGS

Steel castings combine in large measure the convenience of gray iron castings with
a strength approximating that of forgings. In structural material construction, such
as bridges, blast furnaces, mills, large buildings, etc., the engineer is specifying steel
rather than iron castings. Maritime construction turns out a vessel composed entirely
of steel plates and castings.

Castings are commonly of open hearth steel which may be produced by the acid
or by the basic process. A resume and condensation of the two processes would be
as follows: The furnace is, in each instance, practically the same, the difference being
in the lining of hearth of furnace. The acid process eliminates manganese, silicon and
carbon only, the phosphorus and sulphur being practically unchanged from the
initial charge. The basic process eliminates all the ingredients above specified, except
silicon, which is very deleterious to this process. But silicon is a subject for the blast
furnace treatment, and can there be kept low. Steel is now being produced of such
chemical and physical structure that no chemical or physical determination will demon-
strate by which process it was made, whether it is a product of an acid or basic open-
hearth furnace. This, then, completely obviates the pertinency of the question by
which process was the steel produced.

In a regenerative or open-hearth furnace, the charge is exposed to the direct action
of the reducing flame, and, when melted, the carbon is also eliminated; to the resultant
bath manganese is added, and the molten iron is recarbonized, thus producing steel.
To obtain the requisite heat, regeneration is practiced; the general practice is with
producer gas and air. The regenerators play a specific part, and that is to preheat
the ingoing gases and air; to accomplish this end the chambers or regenerators should
contain 60 to 100 cubic feet per ton of steel. — L. L. Knox.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL CASTINGS

Ordinary castings, those in which no physical requirements are specified, shall not
contain over 0.40% of carbon, nor over 0.08% of phosphorus.

Castings which are subjected to physical test shall not contain over 0.05% of
phosphorus, nor over 0.05% sulphur.

Tested castings shall be of three classes: Hard, Medium, and Soft. The minimum
physical qualities required in each class shall be as follows:

[460]

STEEL CASTINGS

Hard
Castings

Medium
Castings

Soft
Castings

Tensile strength, Ibs. per sq. in

85,000

70,000

60,000

Yield point, Ibs. per sq. in

38,250

31,500

27,000

Elongation, per cent in two ins

15

18

22

Contraction of area, per cent .

**)

25

30

A test to destruction may be substituted for the tensile test, in the case of small
or unimportant castings, by selecting three castings from a lot. This test shall show the
material to be ductile and free from injurious defects and suitable for the purpose
intended. A lot shall consist of all castings from the same melt or blow, annealed
in the same furnace charge.

Large castings are to be suspended and hammered all over. No cracks, flaws,
defects, nor weakness shall appear after such treatment.

A specimen one inch by one-half inch shall bend cold around diameter of one inch
without fracture on outside of bent portion through an angle of 120° for soft castings
and 90° for medium castings.

The standard turned test specimen one-half inch diameter and two inch gauged
length, shall be used to determine the physical properties specified. It is shown in the
following sketch:

The number of standard test specimens shall depend upon the character and im-
portance of the castings. A test piece shall be cut cold from a coupon to be molded
and cast on some portion of one or more castings from each melt or blow or from the
sink-heads, in case heads of sufficient size are used. The coupon or sink-head must
receive the same treatment as the casting or castings, before the specimen is cut out,
and before the coupon or sink-head is removed from the casting.

One specimen for bending test one inch by one-half inch shall be cut from the coupon
or sink-head of the casting or castings. The bending test may be made by pressure,
or by blows.

The yield point specified shall be determined by the careful observation of the
drop of the beam or halt in the gauge of the testing machine.

Turnings from the tensile specimen, drillings from the bending specimen, or drillings
from the small test ingot, if preferred by the inspector, shall be used to determine
whether or not the steel is within the specified limits in phosphorus and sulphur.

Castings shall be true to pattern, free from blemishes, flaws or shrinkage cracks.
Bearing surface shall be solid, and no porosity shall be allowed in positions where the
resistance and value of the casting for the purpose intended will be seriously affected
thereby.

STEEL CASTINGS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

[461]

STEEL CASTINGS

2. Process of Manufacture. — Castings shall be made by a process approved by
the bureau concerned.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The physical and chemical requirements
of steel castings shall be in accordance with the following table:

Class
Symbol

CHEMICAL
COMPOSI-
TION

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

Not Over—

Minimum
Tensile
Strength

Minimum
Yield
Point

Mini-
mum
Elonga-
tion

Mini-
mum
Reduc-
tion of
Area

Bending Test; Cold
Bend (Not Less
Than)

P.

s.

Special...
A

0.04
.05

.06
.06

0.04
.05

.05
.05

Pounds
per Sq. In.
90,000

80,000

[ Maximum
80,000
! Minimum
{ 60,000

Pounds
per Sq. In.
57,000

35,000
30,000

Per Ct.
in 2 7ns.
20

17
22

Per Ct.
30
20

25

90° about an inner
diameter of 1 inch.
90° about an inner
diameter of 1 inch.

120° about an inner
diameter of 1
inch.

B

c

4. Class C. — Class C castings will not be tested unless there are reasons to doubt
that they are of a quality suitable for the purpose for which they are intended. Tests,
if required, may be made at the building yards. The inspector will select a sufficient
number of castings and have them crushed, bent, or broken, and note their behavior
and the appearance of the fracture.

5. Treatment. — (a) All castings shall be annealed. All annealing shall be done
in a properly constructed pit or furnace. The furnace must be held at the annealing
temperature long enough to insure that all of the interior of the casting or castings
being annealed have been brought to that temperature. After the castings have been
soaked at the proper annealing temperature they must be allowed to cool slowly in the
furnace, carefully protected from drafts of air. Unless otherwise directed by the
inspector, castings must not be removed from the furnace until they have been cooled
down to the temperature at which the color dies (about 700° F.). The number of
hours requisite for raising the castings to the proper temperature, the length of time
during which they should be soaked at that temperature, and the period required for
glow cooling in the furnace or in the air, may be prescribed by the bureau concerned,
if it is so desired.

(b) ADDITIONAL OR SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT. — Castings shall not be subjected to
additional annealing or subsequent treatment without the knowledge and consent
of the inspector, and when this is done the inspector will make such additional tests as
will satisfy him that the retreated castings meet the requirements.

(c) Castings that have received any treatment without the consent of the inspector
shall be rejected.

(d) CLEANING. — All castings shall be thoroughly cleaned before inspection, after
final treatment.

6. Test Specimens, Number, and Location. — (a) Coupons from which test speci-
mens are to be taken shall, whenever practicable, be cast on the body of the casting.
The number and location of the coupons shall be such as to thoroughly exhibit the
character of the metal throughout the casting. When the use of these cast-on coupons
is not practicable, the test bar shall be taken from a coupon cast with and gated to the
casting, or with small runners to the gate. If necessary, coupons may be cast separ-

[462]

STEEL CASTINGS

ately, but in all such cases the approval of the inspector must first be obtained. Coupons
shall not be detached from the casting until it has received its final treatment.

(b) Particular care will be exercised with castings estimated to weigh 200 pounds
or over that the test specimens taken from the castings shall be in sufficient number
and so located as to thoroughly exhibit the character of the metal of the entire casting.

(c) TESTS, INDIVIDUAL AND LOT. — Castings, the estimated weight of which is 200
pounds or over, will be tested by individual tests. Other castings shall be tested by
lots as follows: A lot shall consist of castings from the same heat and annealed in the
same furnace charge. From each lot two tensile and one bending specimen shall be
taken, and the lot shall be passed or rejected on the results shown by these specimens.
Manufacturers, for their own safety, will provide enough coupons for extra tests in
case of flaws showing in the test specimens.

(d) In the case of castings tested by lots, the test pieces may be taken from the
body of a casting from the lot if so desired by the manufacturer. When a number of
small castings have been cast on the same heat with two or more larger castings carrying
test coupons, the small castings may, at the discretion of the inspector, be represented
by the test bars from the large castings. A casting from which an unsound test speci-
men has been taken shall receive particular care to detect porosity or other unsoundness
in the casting itself.

(e) A "lot" or "heat test," provided for in the preceding paragraphs, will not be
permitted unless the manufacturer complies with the instructions hereafter relative
to identification.

7. Rejection After Delivery. — The acceptance of any casting by the inspector will
not relieve the makers thereof from the necessity of replacing the casting should it
fail in proof test or trial or in working or exhibit any defect after delivery.

8. Percussive Test. — (a) Large castings shall be subjected to hammer tests as
follows:

(b) The castings are to be suspended and hammered all over with a hammer weighing
not less than 7£ pounds. If cracks, flaws, defects, or weakness appear after such treat-
ment, castings will be rejected.

9. Surface Inspection. — (a) All castings shall be thoroughly cleaned and, where
practicable, have the gates and heads removed before being submitted to the inspector
for inspection in the green. The removal of heads and gates by burning will not be
permitted. All castings shall be submitted in the green — that is, before they have
received any treatment other than cleaning.

(b) Castings shall be sound and free from all injurious defects. Particular search
will be made at the points where the heads or risers join the castings, as unsoundness
at this jpoint may extend into the castings.

(c) The closing of cracks and cavities by hammering and plugging will not be
tolerated.

(d) WELDING WHEN PERMITTED. — Minor defects that do not impair the structural
value of the casting may be welded up by an approved process if, in the judgment of
the inspector, they are unimportant, but no such burning in or welding the defects
will be permitted except after an inspection by the inspector of the casting in the green,
with the defect thoroughly cleaned out to show its extent. Such welding should always
be performed before annealing, and in no case shall welding be done without being
subsequently annealed. The castings shall be inspected by the inspector after the
defect has been welded up and before being annealed. Surface defects and cavities
which are of more than minor importance shall not be so welded up except by permission
of the inspector in charge of the district or of the bureau concerned. In no case will
any welding be allowed on steam piping or any other casting used in connection with
steam piping or subjected to steam pressure, nor in the following ordnance castings:
Gun yokes and slides in region of the trunnions, elevating gear lugs, and recoil cylinder
and spring cylinder bearings for same. White-lead marks shall be placed about defects
which have been welded up, before shipment, in order that during any machining or
other treatment at the manufacturing plant where used, special attention may be given
this point.

10. Chemical Analysis. — Manufacturers shall furnish a chemical analysis of each

[463]

PLUMBAGO

heat made in an approved manner, the process of analysis to be open to the inspector.
The Government check analysis must show the heat to be in accordance with the
specifications.

11. Casting Record. — (a) For the purpose of identifying castings inspected under
these specifications the manufacturer shall, upon request, furnish the inspector with
true copies of his shop order sheet, molding and pouring record, and a detailed list
of the castings to be inspected, cast in each heat, showing manufacturer's analysis of
the heat, name, pattern number, heat number, serial number, and estimated weight
of each casting.

(b) ANNEALING RECORD. — For castings annealed a "Report of annealing" shall
be furnished the inspector, showing the heat and serial number of each casting to be
inspected in the annealing furnace charge, together with the time of raising to the
soaking temperature, the time of soaking, the time of cooling, and the temperature at
which soaking was done.

The record cards shall be exhibited to the inspector upon request.

(NOTE. — Steel castings for hawse pipe, turret tracks, and all important parts sub-
ject to crushing stresses or surface wear only shall be Class A castings, and those for
stern post, rudder frames, and all parts subject to tension or vibratory strains shall
be Class B castings, unless the bureau concerned otherwise directs.)

SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR ORDNANCE CASTINGS

12. Patterns. — Patterns for all large ordnance castings contracted for will be fur-
nished by the Government, but the responsibility shall rest upon the contractors to
supply castings that will finish to the drawing dimensions within the tolerances specified.
The contractor shall report to the Government any alterations in the patterns that he
may deem necessary to insure castings coming to the finished drawing dimensions, and
shall, H required by the Government, make such alterations of the patterns. The
actual cost of such alterations shall be borne by the Government.

PLUMBAGO FOR FOUNDRY USE

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Plumbago for foundry use shall be finely powdered, dry, free from coal dust or
grit, and conform to the following requirements as to chemical composition:

Volatile Matter. — Not over 5 per cent.

Ash. — Not over 40 per cent.

Graphite Carbon. — Not less than 55 per cent.

For Foreign Shipment. — It must be delivered in good, well coopered, oak barrels,
such as are used in the transportation of oil. Each barrel to be completely filled and
to contain about 400 pounds of material. Barrels must have the bodies lined with
elastic crinkled paper tubes and have sheets of ordinary strong paper properly fitted in
tops and bottoms. The name of material, quantity, and name of manufacturer must
be neatly stenciled on the heads.

At least 10 per cent of the barrels must be opened at random for inspection of
contents.

For Domestic Shipment. — It must be delivered in No. 1 flour barrels, completely
filled and containing about 250 pounds each. Top and bottom heads to be reinforced.
The bodies of the barrels must be lined with elastic crinkled paper tubes and have
sheets of strong ordinary paper properly fitted in bottoms and heads. The name of
material, quantity, and name of manufacturer must be neatly stenciled on the heads.

At least 10 per cent of the barrels must be opened at random for inspection of
contents.

[464]

SECTION 8

IRON AND STEEL FORCINGS. CARBON AND HIGH-SPEED
STEELS. HEAT TREATMENT, FORGE EQUIPMENT

Wrought Iron. — From time immemorial wrought iron has been the principal, al-
most the only, metal employed by the smith at the forge. Its extended use in the arts
has been due to its inherent properties being at once a malleable, ductile, weldable
material of high tensile strength, high elastic limit, and of great reliability under per-
manent and alternating stresses. In recent years it has been, in great measure, super-
seded by mild steel, but only in articles which do not require welding.

Wrought iron is made from white cast iron by a process of elimination known as
puddling, the purpose of which is to eliminate the graphite entirely and the combined
carbon so far as to leave less than 0.20%, a quantity which does not wholly prevent
welding but is sufficient to increase the strength, rigidity, and hardness of the iron.

Puddling by hand is commonly done in a reverberatory furnace. The pigs of white
iron are broken up and placed in the hearth of the furnace, being ultimately mixed with
scales of oxide of iron obtained from the rolling mill. This mixture of iron and scale
is subjected to an oxidizing flame, the temperature of the furnace being so regulated
as to reduce the iron to a pasty condition; while in this condition the iron and the molten
scales or cinder are constantly stirred by hand tools until the whole is thoroughly mixed,
it is then formed into a ball as large as can be conveniently gotten through the furnace
door. This newly converted mass of viscous iron and cinder or slag is then worked
under a hammer, or placed in some form of squeezer, the slag with its contained im-
purities being driven out by pressure; the resulting bloom is then rolled into a muck
bar, which is cut into short pieces, piled into a bundle, reheated to the welding point,
and again hammered and rolled to further cleanse the iron of its impurities, the product
being known as single refined iron; if subjected to a second piling, heating, hammering,
or rolling it is known as double refined iron. This process of piling, reheating, and roll-
ing may be repeated until the desired quality of iron is attained.

Chemistry. — As a chemical process it consists essentially in the elimination of
carbon from pig iron in the action of the furnace flame upon the molten oxide of iron,
the oxygen of which unites with the carbon in the pig iron, carbon dioxide is formed
which passes off as a gas. The quantity of carbon remaining in the puddled iron is very
small, usually between 0 . 05 and 0 . 10%, an amount insufficient to harden the iron by
rapid cooling from a red heat.

The silicon in the pig iron unites with any free oxygen in the furnace, a basic silicate
of iron is formed which passes off with the slag.

Manganese is readily removed from iron by oxidation; while restraining the oxida-
tion of iron it permits oxidation of other elements combined with the iron, thus: Man-
ganese present in pig iron, in which sulphur is also present as iron sulphide, changes the
latter into manganese sulphide, liberating the iron. Manganese sulphide not being
as soluble in iron as iron sulphide readily passes into the slag.

Phosphorus exists in pig iron as phosphide of iron. During the process of refining
or puddling it is reduced to phosphate of iron which may be removed from iron by strong
bases, such as oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, alkaline earths, such as lime, and by
basic silicates in a strongly oxidizing atmosphere, passing oft7 with the other impurities
in the slag. When oxide of iron is reduced in the presence of an earthy phosphate,
phosphorus is separated, and unites with the iron; 0.3% phosphorus in wrought iron
makes it hard and diminishes its tenacity; 0.5% makes the iron cold-short but not
red-short; 1.0% makes iron brittle. Phosphorus imparts to iron a coarse, crystalline
structure, diminishes its strength, increases its fusibility, and makes it cold-short.

[465]

WROUGHT IRON

In the accompanying table a chemical analysis of an average sample of white iron,
such as used in the puddling furnace, is given, together with analysis of plate iron of
55,000 pounds tensile strength. The plate analysis shows 0.80% cinder, of which
only 0.04% is carbon.

Pig Iron
Per Cent.

Wrought Iron
Per Cent.

Iron

89 . 44

99 20

Carbon-graphite

87

Combined

2 45

04

Manganese

2 71

17

Silicon

1.11

.15

Sulphur

2.51

.03

Phosphorus.

.91

.21

Oxvgen. .

.20

100.00

100.00

Wrought iron as distinguished from mild steel is traceable to its method of manu-
facture. Steel is of molten origin, wrought iron is of plastic origin, that is, it is made by
stirring into an intimate mixture white pig iron heated to a pasty but not a molten
condition in a bath of molten cinder, mechanically working it with a rake and after
removal from the furnace squeezing out of the puddled mass much of its contained
cinder, and not separating the molten metal by fusion as in the case of steel. Nearly
all the carbon and most of the other impurities in the pig iron are taken up by the cinder
leaving comparatively pure iron.

Texture of Wrought Iron. — Irons are said to be either fibrous or granular in texture.
When worked directly from a bloom the forging presents a granular appearance; in
large forgings, this grain, is coarser at the center and finest near the surface. Should
the process of hammering be continued, the forging will become, when considerably
reduced in area, uniformly fine grained. If, however, instead of this continued hammer-
ing, the original forged billet be elongated by running it through a train of rolls the
texture of a section cut longitudinally from the bar will have changed from granular
to fibrous; but if the section be cut transversely or at right angles to this direction, the
section will have a wholly different appearance. This is due, as explained by Sauveur :

In longitudinal section the ground mass of the metal consists of ferrite, similar in
every respect to the crystalline grains of pure iron. The ferrite of wrought iron is not
pure iron but rather a solution of iron in which are dissolved small quantities of silicon,
phosphorus, and other minor impurities. Slag which has assumed the shape of fibers, or
streaks, running in the direction of the rolling, imparts a fibrous appearance to the metal.

In transverse section there is a polygonal network indicating that the metal is made
up of crystalline grains of ferrite. The slag, which in the longitudinal section occurred
as fibers running in a direction parallel to the rolling, here assume the shape of irregular
dark areas, corresponding to the cross-sections of the slag fibers. In both the longitu-
dinal and transverse sections the f errite grains are equi-axed, and show no sign of having
been elongated in the direction of rolling.

Certain peculiarities noted by A. L. Hass in connection with Yorkshire iron show
that, if the iron is nicked % inch deep around, say, a 1-inch bar, with a sharp set, and
broken short over the anvil with a single blow, it shows a fracture in which the bar
breaks dead short and square; the fracture is coarsely granular, resembling badly
burned steel, only the granular structure is coarser. The bar nicked on one side only,
and carefully bent with the nick a couple of inches from the edge of the vise or anvil,
shows a beautiful gray, silky, fibrous structure, free from crystals and perfect in every
way. This peculiarity, so perplexing to many iron-workers, is fully covered in the
preceding explanation of the fibrous texture of wrought iron by Professor Sauveur.

[466]

WROUGHT IRON

Iron when pure presents but a single texture, and that the granular one. Puddling,
as already explained, consists in stirring a mass of viscous iron in a bath of cinder; the
latter prevents intimate contact of the particles of iron, it opposes thorough welding,
and favors the production of fibrous texture, since during subsequent working the
grains of iron accompanied by cinder can slide over each other in layers, and this gives
to iron its fibrous texture.

Malleability. — So far as engineering work is concerned there are no restricting
limitations to forgings of wrought iron, either as to size or shape, but soft fibrous irons
are more malleable, that is, more easily worked than are hard granular irons.

Tensile Strength. — Wrought iron bars or plates, as delivered from the mill, should
have a tensile strength not less than 48,000 pounds per square inch, and this should be
accompanied by not less than 15% elongation in an 8-inch specimen. The fracture
should be 90% fibrous. Plates and bars should bend cold without fracture through
135° over two thicknesses of plate and two diameters for bars, in order to meet the
U. S. N. specifications.

Bar irons of good quality should have a tensile strength of about 53,000 pounds per
square inch with an extension of about 20% in 8 inches; such irons must have good
welding qualities; therefore the carbon and the phosphorus should each be less than
0.20%.

Irons which do not require to be welded may have a tensile strength of 60,000
pounds per square inch, with elongation of 18% in 8 inches. Such irons are apt to ,be
hard, steely, and difficult to weld; they should, therefore, be restricted to uses direct
from the bar or simple forging.

When tested across the fiber wrought iron plates and wide bars show a diminution
in tensile strength of about 10% as compared with tests made in the direction of the
fiber.

Ductility. — This property enables a material to be drawn out without breaking.
It is also called elongation or extension in reports on the mechanical tests to which
plates or bars are subjected. Elongation occurs when a ductile material is subjected
to a tensile stress higher than its elastic limit, after which a permanent change of form
takes place. It may be measured in a tensile testing-machine in two ways — by the
actual amount of elongation in inches and parts of an inch, and by reducing the amount
so found to percentage extension of its original length.

Wrought iron plates under 45,000 pounds tensile strength should show a reduction
of area of not less than 12%; 45,000 to 50,000 pounds, 15%; 50,000 to 55,000, 25%; 55,-
000 pounds and over should show 35% reduction of area.

The following data were obtained from Government tests of wrought-iron plates,
which it will be observed are of very high quality. These were short specimens:

Thickness

Tensile Strength
Pounds

Reduction of Area
Per Cent.

j inch with the grain

58373

38

j inch across the grain

53,333

9

Y§ inch with the grain

62,195

43

YS inch across the grain .

60202

10

f inch with the grain

56,270

25

f inch across the grain

56461

17

The behavior of wrought iron under tension will greatly depend upon its inherent
hardness or softness; a hard specimen will elongate but little, while a softer specimen
will be drawn out considerably, the middle part becoming gradually smaller, and fracture
will ultimately take place at the smallest section, and probably at a lower strain than
with a specimen of harder iron.

The stretching of wrought iron is seldom taken into account in engineering work,
and the reason for selecting the softer iron is that it can be used with greater safety,

[467]

WROUGHT IRON

since when subjected to jar or sudden strain it is more likely to be drawn out than
broken asunder, and thus gives timely warning before fracture.

Elastic Limit. — Wrought iron bars rolled, 4 inches diameter, having a tensile strength
of about 46,000 pounds per square inch, will have an elastic limit averaging 50%. Bars
of 2 inches diameter, tensile strength about 48,000 pounds per square inch, will have an
elastic limit about 65%. Bars of 1-inch diameter having a tensile strength of about
51,000 pounds will have an elastic limit of about 70%. The above are adaptations
from Beardslee's tests which were intended primarily to show the effect of continued
working of wrought iron from a comparatively large area through successive operations
to small bars.

For wrought iron, the following physical properties are taken as representing ac-
ceptable material in engineering work:

Bar iron in tension : 50,000 pounds tensile strength, elastic limit 26,000 pounds = 52%,
with 18% elongation in 8 inches.

Shape iron in tension: 48,000 pounds tensile strength, elastic limit 26,000 pounds =
54%, with 15% elongation in 8 inches.

Safe Load. — Wrought-iron bars subject to varying stresses, such as screw bolts in
engineering structures, should have a factor of safety of not less than 8, on the net area.

For chains the proof load up to 2.5 inches diameter is:

Proof load in tons = 18 X (diameter in inches).2

The breaking strengths are placed at 40% above the proof loads. Thus the proof
load on a 2-inch chain would be 18 X 22 = 72 tons (161,280 pounds). The area of a
2-inch bar is 3.14 square inches, then 161,280 -r- 3.14 = 51,363 pounds per square
inch. The safe working load is one-half the proof load, or 25,681 pounds per square
inch of sectional area of bar; accepting this, we have:

Working load in 2

1 6 X D2 for close link

tons of 2240 pounds = , 0 ™T t. -

I 4 X D2 for ordinary chains

In which D = diameter of bar in inches.

Compression. — Of 10 specimens of wrought iron, cut from forgings of high quality,
the softest began to yield with 22,800 pounds, and the hardest with 31,000 pounds, the
average being 26,900 pounds. In each case weight was added until the specimen
became shorter, by the <Kooo °f an inch.

From experiments made with 10 other specimens taken from rolled bar iron of high
quality, the specimens having been reduced in a lathe from 3-inch bars, the softest
specimen required 31,000 pounds, and the hardest 35,000 pounds, or an average of
33,000 pounds.

Structures rarely ever fail from the actual crushing of the material; failure is more
often due to the alteration of form which takes place, disturbing its fitness for the par-
ticular purpose for which it is intended. When a pillar, strut, or frame is long, it
generally yields by flexure rather than actual crushing.

By increasing the stress upon short cylinders 0 . 533 inch diameter, length 1-inch, of
wrought iron or soft steel, they are found to shorten gradually by bulging outwards in
the middle. The effect of this change of form is to slightly stiffen the metal, and this
affects the malleable or flowing property; unless the specimen is extremely soft, it will
soon show symptoms of slight fissures or cracks at the part which is bulging. To pre-
vent this, the annealing process must be resorted to, and with care the pillar can be
flattened down to a thin disk, gradually presenting a larger surface for the machine to
act upon. Reckoning the intensity of the ultimate pressure from the original dimen-
sions, a stress of upwards of 100 tons per square inch is necessary to actually flatten
down wrought iron.

When wrought iron or steel is flattened by compression, it might be supposed that
the specific gravity would be increased; but such does not appear to be the case to any
appreciable extent.

Welding. — Wrought iron possesses the property of welding when the two parts to
be joined are brought up to a white heat. Welded joints are, when well made, scarcely

[468]

WROUGHT IRON

inferior to the original bar; but stays, braces, etc., for boilers should be made from
whole stock if possible, because there is always more or less uncertainty about welded
joints, particularly when the parts to be joined are of considerable diameter or thickness.

The lower grades of wrought iron make an apparent weld at almost a melting
temperature, as well as at low heat. With the better grades of iron, that is, iron of
high tensile strength, this cannot be done, and a heat between closer limits of temperature
is necessary.

Welded chain is one of the principal uses for which wrought iron is still exclusively
employed. In the making of a high-grade chain, reduction of area of the bar iron under
tensile test is of value as affecting the finished chain. The elongation of sample links
under tensile test bears a direct relation to the reduction of area obtained from the bar
iron from which it is made. The greater the reduction of area in the bar, the greater
will be the percentage of elongation in the finished chain. A well-made chain under
tensile test never breaks in the weld, but always at the end of the link which is not
welded, or at the side. A break at the weld proves poor workmanship, no matter
what iron is used.

Stiffening. — This property of wrought iron is particularly valuable in the case of
chains and similar link work. A chain, if of the best quality of iron and workmanship,
will stiffen under breaking stress. Chains from a common grade of iron do not stiffen.
The stiffening of chain links is a certain indication that the chain has been overstrained,
and should be carefully annealed before further use.

Annealing. — When a piece of wrought iron has been subjected to a long series of
blows, or violent jars, a change takes place in the structure of the iron. The change to
rigidity which overtakes iron when worked cold may, according to Anderson, partly
account for some of the frequent fractures of the chains of cranes, and this view is in
some measure supported by the fact that when such chains are annealed at stated
intervals, say annually, the liability to accident is greatly diminished.

A practical example of the value of annealing can be easily obtained from a wrought-
iron chain. A link of a chain known to be in need of annealing can easily be broken
by a single blow of a hammer, with the link held vertically on an anvil. The fracture
is coarsely crystalline and the break is sharp and nearly square. After proper heat-
treatment the next link can be flattened or maltreated in almost any manner short of
actually cutting it, but it will not break.

Temperature. — Experimental research by Professor Rudeloff on the influence of
low temperatures on iron and steel showed that much depends on the chemical com-
position of the material, but generally the ultimate strength is raised rapidly at first
and slowly afterward, the yield point slowly at first and rapidly afterward, while per-
centage of elongation is generally decreased. The material is therefore less capable
of resisting shock at low temperatures. At high temperatures metals decrease both in
strength and ductility.

The effect of intense cold upon wrought iron as tested experimentally showed that
of three pieces of a f-inch bar, one at 64° F. and the other, after having been exposed
overnight to intense frost, were broken at 23° F. At 64° F. the tensile strength was
55,708 pounds, with elongation 24.9%.

At 23° F. the tensile strength was 54,387 pounds, with 23.0% elongation, showing
that at the lower temperature the strength was 1321.6 pounds less.

The general effect of extreme cold upon wrought iron seems to affect its ductility
in greater degree than its tensile strength.

[469]

WROUGHT IRON

WROUGHT IRON FOR BLACKSMITHS' USE

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Process of Manufacture. — The material shall be of the best quality of American
refined iron puddled from all-ore pig metal, and free from any admixture of steel or
scrap. Short pieces must not be used in piling.

Physical and Chemical Requirement. — All material shall be free from injurious de-
fects and have a workmanlike finish.

For sectional areas above 4 square inches a reduction of 1 % in elongation and con-
traction and a reduction of 500 pounds in tensile strength will be allowed for each addi-
tional 2 square inches, and a proportionate amount of reduction for fractional parts
thereof, provided the ultimate strength shall not fall more than 3,000 pounds nor the
elongation more than 3% below the requirements of the grade of iron tested.

Tests. — Material will be tested in sizes rolled, when practicable, and a sufficient
number of tests shall be taken to exhibit thoroughly the character of the material.
When material can not be tested in sizes rolled, test pieces will be prepared to a sectional
area as large as possible within the capacity of the testing machine for tensile tests, and
reduced to suitable size for bending or other physical tests. The number of bending
and other physical tests shall equal the number taken for tensile tests.

Nick Test. — A bar nicked approximately 20% of its thickness and bent back at this
point through an angle of 180 degrees must show a long, clean, silky fiber, free from
slag or dirt, or any coarse crystalline spots. A few crystalline spots may be tolerated,
provided they do not in the aggregate exceed 10% of the sectional area of the bar.

Drift Test. — A rod or bar will be punched and expanded by pointed drifts until a
round hole is formed the diameter of which is not less than nine-tenths the diameter
of the rod or width of the bar. Any indication of fracture, cracks, or flaws developed
by this test will be sufficient cause for rejection of the lot represented by the rod or bar.

Completed Forgings. — Forgings, when of wrought, iron, will be built up either from
the rolled bars themselves or from fagots or slabs previously prepared by shingling
from such rolled bars. No rolled bars of greater cross-section than 1-inch by 4 inches
will be used either directly in the built-up forging or in the preparation of the fagots or
slabs. Bending and tensile tests are to be made from the original bar before reworking
into the forging, fagots, or slabs, where practicable, in accordance with requirements
stated above. Additional tests will be taken from prolongations of the finished forging,
using full-length specimens where practicable. The number of test pieces will be such
as the inspector may consider necessary to insure that the material used is uniform in
character. «

The physical and chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Special Grade. — Minimum tensile strength, 48,000 pounds per square inch with
minimum yield point of one-half ultimate strength. Minimum elongation, 26%. Mini-
mum contraction area 40%. Maximum amount of phosphorus, 0.10%. Sulphur,
0.015%. Bending test: Cold, 180° around a diameter of one thickness. Quenching
test: Heat to 1700° F. and bend 180° around a diameter of one thickness. Tempera-
ture of the water in which the bar is to be quenched should be about 80° F.

Blacksmith Grade. — Minimum tensile strength 45,000 pounds per square inch
with minimum yield point of one-half ultimate strength. Minimum elongation, 25%.
Minimum contraction area, rounds 40%, flats 35%. Maximum amount of phosphorus,
0.15%. Sulphur, 0.020%. Bending test: Cold, flats % inch and less around a
diameter of two thicknesses, all other material to 180° around a diameter of one thick-
ness. Quenching test: Heat to 1700° F. and bend to same requirements as cold bend.
Temperature of the water in which the bar is quenched should be about 80° F.

Elongation. — The elongation will be measured in 8 inches with the following ex-
ceptions: Flats I inch and less in thickness will be measured on a length equal to
twenty-five times the thickness of the material tested.

On all other material less than f-inch diameter or thickness, the elongation will be
measured on a length equal to ten times the diameter or thickness of the material
tested.

[470]

STEEL FORCINGS

STEEL FORCINGS FOR HULLS, ENGINES, AND ORDNANCE

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General Specifications for Inspection of Material issued
by the Navy Department shall form a part of these specifications.

2. Material. — Forgings referred to herein are to be machined as received from the
contractor without reforging or further heat treatment.

The forgings shall conform to sizes and shapes specified by the order.

3. Process. — Forgings must be made by the open-hearth or electric process, except
Class C, which may be made by the Bessemer process. They must be rolled or forged
from ingots, the original cross-section of which is at least four times that of the finished
forging.

4. Discard. — A sufficient discard shall be taken from each ingot to insure freedom
from piping and undue segregation. Such discards shall, unless otherwise approved
by the bureau concerned, be not less than 5 per cent from the bottom in any case,
20 per cent from the top, if bottom poured or fluid compressed, and 30 per cent from
the top, if top poured.

5. Surface and Other Defects. — All forgings shall be free from slag, seams, pipes,
flaws, cracks, blow-holes, hard spots, sand, foreign substances, and all other defects
affecting their value.

6. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The respective classes of forgings shall have
the following properties:

MAXIMUM

VALUES

MINIMUM VALUES

Elonga-

Class

Treatment

Material

tion

Cold Bend
Without

4

Cracking

Ten-

Yield

|

a

C.

s.

P.

sile

Point

2

&

%

%

%

Lbs.

Lbs.

%

%

Alloy

0.45

0.040

0.04

105,000

80,000

20

18

180° to inner
diam. of 1 in.

HG. . . .

Annealed &

Nickel

0.35

0.045

0.04

95,000

65,000

21

18

Do.

oil tempered

steel

An

Annealed. . .

Do.

0.45

.045

.04

80,000

50,000

25

21

Do.

Ac

Annealed &

Carbon

.60

.045

.04

80,000

50,000

25

21

Do.

oil tempered

steel

B-s

Do. optional

Do.

.60

.045

.04

75,000

40,000

22

19

Do.

B

Annealed. . .

Do.

.40

.045

.04

60,000

30,000

30

25

180° to inner
diam. of £ in.

C

Do.

.070

.07

50,000

18

15

7. Nickel steel shall contain not less than 3 per cent nickel.

8. Class C forgings shall not be tested unless there are reasons to doubt that they
are of a quality suitable for the purpose for which they are intended.

9. Physical Test Specimens. — Test specimens shall, in general, be located during
fabrication. Material shall also be provided for possible extra tests. The specimens*
shall fairly represent the average strength of the material and be taken at a point
which has received the average amount of reduction. They should, in general, be
located in that part of the forging which includes the top of the ingot as cast, unless
otherwise specified or requested by the inspector.

10. Longitudinal Test Specimens. — Longitudinal test specimens shall, in general,
be taken from a full-sized prolongation of the forging in the direction in which the

[471]

STEEL FORCINGS

metal is most drawn. For forgings with large palms or flanges this prolongation may
be of the same cross-section as the part back of the palm or flange. The axis of the
longitudinal test specimens shall be located at any point midway between the center
and the surface of solid forgings and at any point midway between the inner and outer
surface of the wall of hollow forgings.

Prolongations from which test specimens are to be taken shall be left on both ends
of each forging.

11. Transverse Test Specimens. — When required, or when, for reasons satisfactory
to the inspector, it is considered impracticable to obtain longitudinal test specimens,
transverse test specimens shall be taken from location selected by the inspector.

12. Test, Individual, General. — From forgings of or above 250 pounds completed
weight, at least, two tensile and one cold bend test shall be made.

13. Test, Individual, Special. — The number and location of test specimens for
special forgings weighing when completed 250 pounds or over shall be as listed in table
or illustrated on plates.

(NOTE. — Letters in the columns of the table indicate the test specimens which
shall be taken: "i" inner, "o" outer, "c" center, "W and X" are between the webs;
"b" indicates bend specimen. The positions of the test specimens are shown in the
plates. One specimen shall be taken for each letter in the column unless otherwise
stated. Round sections in the plates indicate tensile bars, square sections bending
bars. The letters under "Top," "Bottom," and "Intermediate" indicate the part
of ingot to which they apply.) Test specimens for drums and spindle ends shall be
located as indicated in Plate II.

Top

Bottom

Interme-
diate

All shafting 10 inches in diameter or over

All shafting over 5 inches and under 10 inches
in diameter

Shafts, including crank shafts 5 inches in
diameter or less

Additional to above for crank shafts over 5
inches in diameter, from one web or crank
shaft section

Piston rods, connecting rods, eccentric rods,
valve stems, columns, tie-rods, reverse arm
blocks and arms, wrist pins, crossheads,
valve links, guides, forged bolts and nuts,
feathers, keys, collars, sleeves, couplings,
and caps

WandX

NOTE. — For hollow forgings (forged or bored), the inside specimens shall be taken
within the finished section prolonged, but as near the positions indicated as possible.
See Plates I and II.

14. Test by Lot. — Small forgings, including those listed in paragraph 13, weighing
less than 250 pounds each as delivered, may be tested in lots of 1,000 pounds or less,
the forgings in each lot being of one class and kind only, made from the same melt
and heat treated (annealed or oil-tempered) in the same furnace at the same time. In
this case the inspector will select at random two tensile and one cold-bending test
specimens to represent the lot, each from a different object. When the manufacturer
so desires, extra forgings may be made in order to provide for test specimens, which
forgings will be selected by the inspector at random from the lot. When small forgings
as referred to in the foregoing are not tested by lot the tests made to determine the
physical properties thereof shall comply with requirements which may be specified or
shall be as directed by the inspector.

[472]

STEEL FORCINGS

15. Forgings, List of (Partial), Covered by the Foregoing General Requirements.—

Parts of gun recoil system, including recoil and spring cylinders, piston rods; also nuts
and bolts for same. Gun elevating and training gear shafts, worms, pinions, keys,
and feathers, etc., for same. Parts of gun mount requiring high elastic limit, such as
gun yokes, trunnion-bearing caps, floating supports, and other trunnion parts, trunnion
bands, and slides. Parts of torpedo tubes and ordnance appurtenances where high
elastic limit is required, shafting, rammer, links, etc. Turret rollers, turret-turning
pinions, turret racks, and tracks. Armor keys. Holding-down bolts for gun mounts
and turret tracks. Rudder frames and rudder stocks. Anchor crane stocks.

IF THE COUPLINGS ARE FORGED ON THE SHAFT, THE TEST PIECES SHALL BE TAKEN
f ROM A PROLONGATION OF, THE SHAFT WHICH SHALL HAVE RECEIVED THE SAME
REDUCTION AS THE SHAFT AT ITS GREATEST DIAMETER

T

PUATJE 1.

_ j*~ ~~^

\

\
\
\

\

&.

K

$

--...

^

|
i

^— «

^

c

1

i

]
|

W AND X
1

i

....

X

"^v^r-

to

32

JK

04

i
i

L/ m

l$*~

m

3TTED LINES INDICATE FINISHED SHAFT

DRUMS

TOP

BOTTOM

Q AND b
OR MORE

C

OR MORE

IF A COUPLING IS FORGED ON A SPINDLE END, THE
TEST PIECES FROM THAT END SHALL BE TAKEN FROM
A PROLONGATION OFTHE SHAFT WHICH SHALL HAVE
RECEIVED THE SAME REDUCTION AS THE SHAFT AT
ITS GREATEST DIAMETER.

PUATE 1C

SPINDLE ENDS.

WHEEL END

SHAFT END

d OR e

OPTIONAL.

h AND 1

DOT AND DASH LINES INDICATE ADDITIONAL
METAL REQUIRED FOR TEST PIECES.

16. Miscellaneous Bars. — For rolled material not otherwise covered herein, pur-
chased under these specifications, which is not to be reforged, the inspector shall select
four tensile and two cold-bending test specimens from each melt of material annealed
under the same conditions at the same time. If material is to be reforged, it should
not be purchased under these specifications, but under Steel rods and bars for stanchions,
davits, and drop and miscellaneous forgings, or Steel ingots, slabs, blooms, and billets.

[4731

STEEL FORCINGS

16 £. Treatment. — All forgings shall be annealed as a final process, unless otherwise
directed. All tempered forgings, if forged solid, and if more than 5 inches in diameter
in any part of their lengths, not including collars, palms, or flanges, shall be bored
through axially before tempering, and the bore shall be of sufficient size to enable the
manufacturer to get the requisite tempering effect. Forgings, such as crank shafts,
thrust shafts, etc., may, previous to tempering, be machined in a manner best cal-
culated to insure that the tempering effect reaches the desired portions. In this case
the inspector will decide upon the location of the test pieces if they can not be taken
in the manner herein described.

17. Treatment of Hollow Forgings. — In case of hollow forgings, whenever treatment
of any character is specified, this treatment must be given AFTER THE FORCINGS ARE
BORED.

18. Additional Treatment. — On approval by the inspector, forgings which fail to
meet the physical requirements specified in the table, section 6, may be subjected to
additional heat treatment to obtain the specified physical properties. Heat treatment
shall consist of either annealing or quenching, and tempering, and annealing. All
parts of the forging shall be subjected to the same treatment at the same time. No
forging shall be submitted more than three times.

Note for General Storekeepers. — These specifications are not intended to cover
rolled material for ordinary smith use; such material is to be reforged and the annealing
called for in these specifications is not necessary and only results in a higher price for
common material. (See paragraph 16.)

INGOTS, SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS

NAVY DEPARTMENT
(Rounds shall be classed as billets if they are to be reforged.)

Line between blooms and billets to be drawn at size of 5 inches square.

Ingots, slabs, blooms, and billets made by steel manufacturers, and to be forged
or rolled into finished objects by them, will not require inspection or tests; the tests
and inspection will be made of the finished objects.

Ingots made by steel manufacturers, and to be forged into finished objects by
establishments other than those manufacturing the ingot, will be subjected to chemical
test and surface inspection only at place of manufacture. All required physical tests
will be made from the finished objects.

Slabs, blooms, and billets from which small objects are to be machined without
heating, shall be tested by heats, four longitudinal tensile and four longitudinal cold-
bending test pieces being selected, each from a different object; but if less than ten
pieces are made from one heat, then two tensile and two cold-bending test pieces will
be selected; but if there is but one slab, bloom, or billet from a heat, one longitudinal
tensile and one longitudinal cold-bendjng test piece will suffice, either or both test
pieces to be taken from upper or lower end at discretion of the inspector. These slabs,
blooms, and billets may be tempered and annealed, or only annealed, at the discretion
of the manufacturer, to get the physical requirements, and these requirements shall
be the same as for the class of forgings for which the objects are intended.

Slabs, blooms, and billets to be forged into finished objects by establishments other
than those manufacturing them shall be tested by heats, four longitudinal tensile
and two longitudinal cold-bending test pieces being selected, each from a different
object; but, if less than ten pieces are made from a heat, then two tensile and two
bending test pieces will suffice. And if there is but one slab, bloom, or billet from a
heat, test pieces will be taken as in similar case noted in preceding paragraph. The
requirements for slabs, blooms, and billets " for reforging " will be as follows:

High grade or Class A, the same as Class A forgings, except that an elongation of
24 per cent in 2 inches will suffice.

Class B, the same as for Class B forgings, except that an elongation of 24 per cent
in 2 inches will suffice.

[474]

STEEL FORCINGS

Chemical Requirements. — Billets will be accepted on chemical analysis only and
shall be within the requirements of the grade as specified below.

Grade

C.

%

Mn.

%

p.

% max.

s.

% max.

Ni.
% min.

HG

An

0.30-0.45
25- 45

0.40-0.80
40- 80

0.04
04

0.045
045

3.0
3 0

Ac

.40- .60

.40- .80

.04

045

B-s

.40- .60

.40- .80

.04

.045

B

25- 40

45- 70

04

045

c

.07

.07

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ENGINE FORCINGS

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Treatment. — All forgings exce.pt those of Class C shall be annealed as a final process
unless otherwise directed. All tempered forgings, if forged solid, and if more than
5 inches in diameter in any part of their lengths, not including collars, palms, or flanges,
shall be bored through axially before tempering, and the bore shall be of sufficient size
to enable the manufacturer to get the requisite tempering effect. Forgings, such as
crankshafts, thrust shafts, etc., may, previous to tempering, be machined in a manner
best calculated to insure that the tempering effect reaches the desired portions.

Kind of Ingot. — The tests herein laid down are adapted to exhibit the qualities of
forgings made from the ordinary square, cylindrical, or polygonal ingots cast on end.
If ingots are cast in any unusual manner, the amount of the discard from them will be
determined by the bureau concerned with a view to leaving the portion to be used at
least as good as the metal of an ingot cast in the ordinary way, from which a discard
of 30 per cent from the top and 5 per cent from the bottom has been made, or if the
ingot is bottom cast, a discard of 20 per cent from the top and 5 per cent from the
bottom.

Test Pieces for Line, Thrust, and Propeller Shafts. — From each length of rough-
forged shaft and from the end which was uppermost in the ingot one tensile-test piece
shall be taken at a distance from the center equal to the radius of the finished shaft,
and one tensile- and one bending-test piece shall be taken at half that distance from
the center. From the other end of the same length of shaft one tensile-test piece shall
be taken at a distance from the center equal to half the radius of the finished shaft.
If the shaft is 10 or more inches in diameter, three tensile-test pieces shall.be taken
from the upper end of the shaft and two tensile-test pieces from the other end, the
bending-test piece being taken as in the case of the smaller shafts.

In the case of hollow shafting (either forged or bored) the inside pieces shall be
taken within the finished section prolonged, but as near as practicable to one-half
the finished radius from the center. If the couplings are forged on the shaft the test-
pieces shall be taken from a prolongation of the shaft which shall have received the
same reduction as the shaft at its greatest diameter.

Test Pieces for Crankshafts. — Test pieces from such shafts shall be taken in the
same manner and in the same number as described for line, thrust, and propeller shafts.
In addition to those test pieces, two test pieces shall be taken from each crank, one
from the surface of the metal slotted out and one at a distance of one-half the finished
radius of the shaft from the plane, passing through the axis of the shaft and crank-
pin, and both taken in a plane perpendicular to that last mentioned and passing through
the axis of the ingot. In the case of crankshafts having more than one throw in one
forging these test pieces may be taken from one crank only.

Test pieces from piston rods, connecting rods, eccentric rods, valve stems, columns,
tie-rods, wrist pins, crossheads, valve links, guides, forged bolts and nuts, feathers,

[475]

ENGINE FORCINGS

keys, collars, sleeves, couplings, and caps: one longitudinal tensile-test piece shall be
taken from the prolongation of one end of the heads or ends of the rough-forged rod
stem, etc., and one longitudinal cold-bending test piece shall be taken from the pro-
longation at the other end. If, however, the single rough forging weighs less than
100 pounds, the forgings may be tested in lots of 1,000 pounds or less, the pieces in
each lot being one kind only, made from the same heat and annealed in the same furnace
at the same time.

Test Pieces from Reverse Shafts.— If the shaft is 5 inches or less in diameter
one longitudinal tensile-test piece shall be taken from one end and one longitudinal
cold-bending test piece shall be taken from the other end. If the shaft is over 5 inches
in diameter, one tensile- and one cold-bending test piece shall be taken from the end
which was uppermost in the ingot, and one tensile-test piece from the other end.

ENGINE FORGINGS

H. F. J. PORTER

Having carefully considered the service to which a proposed forging is to be put,
the charge of raw material for the furnace is so made up that the finished product
will have the proper chemical composition, which, from previous experience, is found
to be most satisfactory.

Furnace. — The product of the open-hearth furnace is found to give eminent satisfac-
tion, and has been generally adopted for making steel forgings.

Size of Ingot. — In order that the metal of a forging should be thoroughly worked
to give it strength and toughness, an ingot should be cast approximately 50 per cent,
larger in diameter than the finished size. Besides this increase there should be from
10 to 25 per cent added to its length, for reasons which will become apparent.

Defects. — Various defects are inherent in steel ingots, as: (1) When pouring metal
into the mold, air is apt to be entrained and cause " blow-holes." (2) At certain stages
of the cooling process gas is generated, which will also cause blow-holes. There are
several ways of overcoming these two defects; the most efficient is the Whitworth
process of fluid compression, in which the mold, when filled with molten steel, is run
underneath a hydraulic press, which should have a capacity of over 7,000 tons; under
this enormous pressure the air entrained in the pouring is forced out through joints
in the mold, vents having been left for that purpose, and the gases which are apt to
form in the cooling of the mass are prevented from generating.

Piping. — This defect is apt to occur in an ingot, since the metal poured into a mold
cools and solidifies first at its surface; as the solid metal keeps cooling toward the
center, it shrinks and draws away from it. This shrinkage draws principally from the
center and from the top, as these solidify last; to take care of this shrinkage, more
metal is added to the length of the ingot than would otherwise be required. The
hydraulic pressure applied at the top forces fluid metal from this added part down
through the center of the ingot, supplying the latter with fluid steel where, otherwise,
there would be formed a cavity or "pipe."

Segregation. — This defect is apt to occur in ingots of very large size. It is partly
a mechanical and partly a chemical separation of the various ingredients of steel (sulphur,
phosphorus, manganese, silicon, etc.), each of which has its own temperature of cooling.
As the mass cools the tendency of these ingredients is to seek the central and upper
portions which cool last, thus forming a central core of impurities. This does not
occur to great extent in small ingots; in all large ingots it does occur, and fluid com-
pression does not entirely prevent it. But compression does succeed in producing
perfectly solid steel, and the defect of " segregation " in large ingots is otherwise taken
care of, as will be explained. It is necessary to have an absolutely solid ingot at the
beginning, because steel will not weld, if there are defects in the ingot to start with,
they cannot be remedied later by hammering. The extra length of ingot having served
its purpose of supplying metal to fill blow-holes and pipes, and collecting segregation,
is then cut off and returned to scrap. The ingot is then ready for the forging process.

Reheating the Ingot. — This operation is a delicate one, as great care must be taken

[476]

FORGING STEEL UNDER PRESSURE

to make the heat penetrate the metal slowly and uniformly. The cold ingot is in a
condition of strain throughout its interior; if put into a hot furnace to be reheated,
its surface would immediately expand and an additional strain would be put on the
inside metal. In very large ingots cracks are thus apt to be started in the center
and forgings are liable to break in subsequent service.

Recalescence. — If the rate of cooling of a steel ingot from the point of solidification
to coldness is carefully -noted, it will be seen that the temperature falls with regular
retardation in equal divisions of time until, between 1000 and 1200° F., a point (de-
pending on the carbon content) is reached where it suddenly stops and for a time either
remains stationary or perhaps rises for a short time, and then the same rate of cooling
continues as before. This point, where the change of rate takes place, is called the
"recalescent" point, and from chemical and physical tests it is known that a change
in the structure of the steel occurs here. The fluid steel begins to crystallize at the
point of solidification, and the slower the rate of cooling from there down the larger
the crystals will be when the ingot is cold. At the point of recalescence, however, it
would seem as if the crystallization, so to say, locks itself, for, if after the ingot has
become cold it is reheated to a temperature below this point, on again becoming cold
it will be found that the crystallization is not affected, but if reheated a little above
the recalescent point, when it is again cold, the crystallization will be found to be much
smaller than before. If steel is heated slightly above the recalescent point all previous
crystallization is destroyed, and a fine amorphous condition is produced at that tem-
perature. As soon as cooling begins again crystallization sets in, and continues until
the ingot is cold. As, however, the time of cooling from the recalescent point is com-
paratively short, the resultant crystallization is correspondingly small.

Forging. — Certain changes take place in the condition of the metal as it passes through
the forging process. Beginning with the cold ingot which, having cooled slowly, is there-
fore composed of large crystals, it must be reheated to a forging temperature of from
1800 to 2000° F., thus passing through the recalescent point, destroying all crystalliza-
tion and producing an amorphous condition. As soon as it is placed under the forging
press it begins to cool, crystallization at once setting in; at the same time, however,
the press begins to work upon it. The pressure applied in shaping a piece of steel
should be sufficient in amount and of such a character as to penetrate to the center
and cause flowing throughout the mass. This flowing of the metal requires a certain
amount of time, and the requisite pressure should be maintained throughout a cor-
responding period. The hydraulic press fills these requirements exactly. Under the
slow motion of the press time is allowed for the molecules of the metal to move easily,
and the pressure is felt throughout the forging. The center being the hottest, and
therefore softest, is squeezed out, and gives a convex shape to the end of a forging.

The work of forging tends to check crystallization just as disturbing water which
is below freezing point will delay the formation of ice crystals. The work of forging
may or may not continue (depending upon the size and shape of the finished piece)
until the temperature has fallen below the recalescent point, but during this time more
or less crystallization has occurred, and has been disturbed and distorted. The work
of forging has, moreover, proceeded from one end of the piece to the other, the part
last worked upon having crystallized considerably before work was applied to it, so
that the two ends may be entirely different as far as their internal condition is concerned.

In order that the metal should be worked at the proper temperature, it is necessary
to reheat it a number of times, and every time the press descends upon the metal, the
latter is worked under conditions differing from those existing when the press descended
upon it. This character of heat treatment is called "oil tempering," and should be
followed by a mild annealing heat treatment to relieve the metal of any hardening
effect due to the cooling process.

Hollow Forgings. — In order to successfully temper a piece of steel, great care must
be taken both in the process of reheating it and also in cooling it in the bath. In
reheating it, the surface metal is apt to expand away from the center and thus cause
cracks in the latter, and in dropping it into the cold bath the surface metal is apt to
contract on the center to such an extent as to cause cracks in the former. In order,
therefore, to successfully temper a forging, it should be hollow. By taking out the

[477]

STEAM HAMMER

center it can be reheated without danger of cracking, because the center metal is absent
and the heat gets into the interior and expands both it and exterior together.

Also in dropping it into the cold bath there is no solid center on which the metal
is contracted, and in that way the danger of cracking during the cooling process is
eliminated.

There are two ways of making a forging hollow. The ordinary way of getting rid
of the center of a forging is simply to bore it out. After boring, it is tempered, and
thus the strength is restored which was taken away with the material which was in
the center.

Another way of getting rid of the center of large forgings is to forge them hollow.
A person who has not considered the subject carefully would naturally think that the
first thing to do in making a hollow forging would be to cast a hollow ingot. It has
been mentioned that there are various defects which occur in ingots, the most serious
of which are segregation and piping, and that it is in the center and upper portion
where those defects occur. If an ingot were to be cast hollow a solid core of fire-brick
or similar material would replace the center metal, and instead of one on the outside
there would be two cooling surfaces, one on the outside and one around the core, and
the position of last cooling would be transferred to an annular ring midway between
these surfaces where the piping and the segregation would collect. This would not be
satisfactory, because the metal there is what must be depended upon for the strength
of the hollow forging. It is necessary, therefore, to collect the piping and segregation
in the center and at the top, where metal has been added to the original ingot for the
purpose.

After the hole has been bored in the ingot, the next process is to reheat it; this
process is not as delicate as if the ingot were solid, because the heat affects the center
equally with the exterior, and as the two expand together the danger of cracking is
not incurred. When the ingot is reheated a steel mandrel is put through its hollow
center, and subjecting the two to hydraulic pressure, the metal is forced down and
out over the mandrel. Thus an internal anvil is practically inserted into the forging,
and there is, therefore, really much less than one-half the amount of metal to work
on than if the piece were solid.

When the work of shaping is completed the forging is reheated to the proper tem-
perature and then either annealed in the usual manner or plunged into a tempering
bath of oil or brine to set the fine grain permanently that has been established by the
reheating. A mild annealing follows to relieve any surface or other strains that may
have been occasioned by the rapid cooling.

BELL STEAM HAMMER

The hammer shown on the opposite page, designed by David Bell, is rated at 1500
pounds, which represents the weight of the falling parts. The general proportions are
clearly shown and these are further supplemented by leading dimensions.

Operation. — This hammer is double acting, taking steam at top and bottom of
stroke through ports arranged to give maximum force to the blow. Control is main-
tained by the operator either by hand operation of the main lever, or a continuously
sustained automatic action is obtained, with close and sensitive regulation, by operation
of the throttle valve lever, with the main lever stationary on its quadrant.

Valve Motion. — The valve motion is of few working parts and these are so designed
as to give accurate and sensitive control to the blow. The main operating valve is of
the vertical piston type, its motion is obtained by sliding contact of a cam against a
beveled path formed by the surface of a removable plate attached to the back of the
hammer head. The downward movement of the piston valve is by gravity alone;
the upward movement is by the thrust of the cam plate in sliding contact against the
cam. This construction eliminates positive connections in the valve gear ; the sliding con-
tact prevents any shock or jar from the blow being transmitted to the valve gear parts.

The column of this hammer is cast solid with its bed plate; the latter is provided
with heavy vertical ribs cast on its under side.

Cylinder. — The cylinder, and its piston valve and throttle valve chests, are in-

[478]

BELL STEAM HAMMER

Buffalo Foundry & Machine Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
[479J

HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEEL

eluded in one casting. The cylinder is heavily flanged at top and bottom, the latter
flange being reinforced by heavy ribs. The cylinder is dowel pinned and secured to the
main frame by through-going machine fitted bolts. The steam ports cast in the cylinders
are of ample size and arranged to give, through the operation of the valves, a maximum
efficiency and force to the blow. The lower steam port slopes downward from the
cylinder allowing the water of condensation to drain from the bottom of the cylinder
through the piston valve chest into the exhaust pipe outlet, which is always lower
than the bottom of the cylinder and valve chest. This automatic drainage prevents
damage from freezing.

Valves. — The main operating valve is of the vertical balanced piston type, it
operates without friction due to steam pressure, and gives sensitive control in operation.
The piston valve bushing has the steam port edges finished so as to give accurate
admission, cut-off, and exhaust points in the movement of the valve. Reference marks
are provided on the upper end of the valve stem, that the valve may be adjusted with-
out disconnecting any of the other parts of the hammer. The throttle valve is of the
plain circular or rolling type opened and closed by a hand lever.

Falling Parts.— The hammer head is an open-hearth steel forging, hammered from
the ingot or billet and then finished from the solid. The piston rod and head is a single
forging of open-hearth steel, or heat treated and annealed alloy steel. Its lower end
is turned taper to fit the tapered hole in the hammer head; this taper constitutes the
real hold of the rod in place. There is, however, a safety pin to prevent the hammer
head falling, in the event of its coming loose from the rod. The piston head can be
raised above the top flange of the cylinder to examine or replace the piston packing
rings; to do which, it is not necessary to disconnect the piston rod from the hammer
head, but simply to remove the piston rod gland (which is made in halves, bolted to-
gether), and the buffer springs.

Guides. — The guides are of cast iron; this material possesses the best wearing
qualities for sliding contact of the hammer head. The face of these slides has ac-
curately machined " V " projections scraped to a perfect bearing surface correspond-
ing to the recesses in the hammer head. Slides are adjustable by taper keys extending
their full length.

Anvil Block. — The anvil block is in two pieces; the upper part is easily removable
to give additional space, the lower part extends through a cored hole in the bedplate
and is provided with a heavy base resting on a separate foundation, so that the jar of
the blow is not transmitted to the hammer itself.

Buffer Springs. — Spiral springs are fastened either to the under side of cylinder
flange, or to the top of the cylinder, to cushion the up stroke, to prevent injury through
careless handling; ample clearance is provided between the top of the piston and the
cylinder cover, when these springs are compressed solid.

This hammer is suitable for the heavier class of blacksmith work, and will make
forgings from round and square stock up to 6 inches.

HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEEL

The quantity of carbon present in tool steels will vary from about 0.70% for such tools
as sledge hammers to about 1.25% for taps, dies, reamers, lathe tools, etc.; the inter-
mediate grades are very numerous to supply real or fancied needs in shop practice.

Carbon and Iron. — Carbon exists in iron in at least two forms, (1) as cementite, or
Fe3C, which is a definite carbide of iron, and is the non-hardening form in which it
appears in annealed steel; (2) as martensite, or a solid solution of carbon in iron, a
hard brittle substance varying in its characteristics with the amount of carbon. It is
the chief constituent in suddenly cooled and hardened steel.

Molecular Structure. — This will vary with the percentage of carbon, the tem-
perature to which it is subjected, and to the rate of cooling, whether slowly as in anneal-
ing or rapidly as in quenching. The leading crystalline groups have been named
cementite, pearlite, martensite, austenite, troostite, sorbite, etc., but the two important
molecular groups are cementite and martensite. Cementite is the carbide of iron, Fe3C;
when it is distributed uniformly in minute crystals throughout the iron, its fracture is

[480]

.TEMPERING AND ANNEALING STEEL

clean; it strengthens and hardens the mass. Martensite is the chief constituent in
suddenly cooled and hardened steel. It is thought possible that ferrite and cementite
unite to form martensite when the steel is highly heated, and the structure is retained
when the steel is rapidly quenched. Professor Arnold's view is that martensite is not a
constituent, but a crystalline structure developed at high temperatures. Austenite is
obtained by quenching steel containing from 1.1% to 1.6% of carbon, from 1000° C. (1832°
F.) in ice brine. It is not so hard as martensite, can be machined, and is non-magnetic.
Tempering and Annealing. — The effect of temperature on the condition of carbon
is shown in the accompanying diagram after Howe, indicating the influence of tem-
perature on the tendencies to form graphite, hardening, and cement carbon. The
graphite-forming tendencies are at a maximum at N, or at a white heat. The tendency
to form cement carbon is at a temperature of dull redness; and the tendencies to form
hardening carbon seem to reach two corresponding distinct maxima, one at above a
white heat N, and the other at a low yellow heat, the W of Brinnell. The tendency
to form graphite is confined to the range of temperature represented between the points

/CimeAf Carlon ftjC

M0 N 0 W V P X

HOOC tow Uo/i S+raw Cold

Yellow Red

M and O, and, if steel be kept for a long period at the temperature N, it becomes coarse-
grained, due to the crystallization both of graphite and of the iron. The crystalline
structure of steel is generally unfavorable from the point of view of its industrial use,
but this structure may be broken by the mechanical work of forging the steel while hot;
but, if the forging be continued below the point V, the iron is then in a different state
and will possess different properties.

In annealed steel, practically all the carbon is in the cement state unless the anneal-
ing temperature has been too high, so as to approach the temperature represented by
the point N. Moreover, at the point W, and up to the point O, the cement carbon is
in solution in the iron, and, if suddenly cooled, will remain in what has been con-
veniently termed the hardening carbon state. On the other hand, if the steel has
been gradually cooled to below the point V, the hardening carbon will be changed to
cement carbon. At a temperature between W and V, iron undergoes a sudden ex-
pansion, and its thermo-electric behavior is abnormal. Also a change in its magnetic
properties is observed.

Reheating hardened steel to P, a straw color appears on the brightened surface, which
passes to a deep straw, a purple, a blue, and finally a black as the temperature is gradu-
ally raised, all the above temperatures being below the point V, at which the carbon
passes into the cement form on slow cooling, or into the hardening or solution form on
heating up. Now the question arises, Does the hardening carbon, in hardened steel,
pass partially into the cement form during this tempering process ? Howe considers
that, while the tendency exists, it is held in check by what may be termed chemical
inertia or viscosity. That as the temperature rises to a straw heat this viscosity is
released and some of the carbon passes into the cement state, and the steel is therefore
softened. At a blue heat still more of this change occurs. This harmonizes with the
fact that while hardened steel is softened by reheating, annealed steel is not hardened
by being -quenched below V. Hence below this point the cement state is permanent.

Elements Other than Carbon. — Carbon tool steels contain slight percentages of
silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus. Silicon and manganese, being useful
constituents, give improved fusing and working qualities, together with increased

[481]

ALLOTROPIC THEORY OF HARDENING STEEL

ductility and resistance to shocks. Silicon and manganese exert some influence on
the hardening properties of steel. Sulphur and phosphorus are impurities, and affect
the toughness of the material, phosphorus tending to make the steel cold-short or
brittle, and sulphur making it red-short or difficult to forge.

Carbon Theory of Hardening Steel. — Carbon steel is essentially iron and carbon,
each element contributing a well-defined constitution, and characteristic structure.
Pure iron has a definite freezing point, about 1600° C. (2912° F.). Carbon is prac-
tically infusible; it therefore maintains separate existence, but its action is limited
to the influence it exerts upon the iron. In pig iron carbon is present in both the
graphitic and combined states; in steel the carbon is combined with the iron; for this
reason steel is often termed an alloy of iron and carbon; there is also a close analogy
to that class of compounds termed solutions.

Highly carburized steel, if long exposed to a sufficiently high temperature while
cooling, will contain graphite crystals in addition to its chemically combined carbon,
but if the steel be cooled rapidly as in quenching, no graphite crystals are formed; the
whole of the carbon continues in the combined state, giving to steel the quality of
hardness.

The carbon in steel changes form suddenly at the critical temperature. If the steel
contains about 0.90% carbon it remains unchanged in structure until heated to about
738° C. (1360° F.). An increase in temperature beyond this point causes the ferrite
and pearlite to decompose; the reaction is completed at about 793° C. (1460° F.),
which is called the critical point; the ferrite and pearlite change to martensite. By
quenching at this point the martensite grain is preserved and the steel is hardened.
If the steel be again heated to a still higher temperature the martensite in turn will
be decomposed and the original ferrite and pearlite condition will be restored.

Solution Theory. — In the case of pure iron in a state of fusion, cooling to the solidifi-
cation point, say, 1600° C. (2912° F.), the solidified iron is then in a plastic state, to
which the name of "gamma" iron has been given by Osmond. While it is in this form
it is capable of dissolving about 0.90% of carbon at 900° C. (1652° F.), and rather
more at higher temperatures. At 1000° C. (1832° F.) it dissolves 1.50% carbon.
When pure gamma iron cools to 890° C. (1634° F.), it undergoes a change to another
allotropic form, known as " beta " iron, and this change is accompanied by a con-
siderable evolution of heat. This beta iron, like the gamma modification, is non-
magnetic, but it is less capable of holding carbon in solid solution than gamma iron.
As the iron cools down to 770° C. (1418° F.), another molecular change occurs and
the beta iron changes to what is termed "alpha" iron, which is magnetic. Much heat
is evolved, but less suddenly than at the previous change, probably because the iron
is less mobile at the lower temperature. As beta iron dissolves less than 0.10% carbon,
the influence of carbon upon iron is practically eliminated at temperatures below the
point of change from gamma to beta iron. When the metal cools down to about 610° C.
(1130° F.) another critical point is reached, which appears to be the beginning of a
slight molecular change extending over a range of 100° C. (212° F) and is accompanied
by a change in magnetic properties.

Allotropic Theory of Hardening. — The general acceptance of this theory is based
upon results obtained in investigations on the cooling of steel. It is known that molec-
ular change is accompanied with evolution or absorption of heat; if now a bar of
unhardened steel be heated to, say, 500° C. (932° F.) and allowed slowly to cool, no
break in the uniformity of cooling occurs; but if the steel be heated to 900° C. (1652° F.),
or even 750° C. (1382° F.), there are stages where the cooling is arrested. This is due
to some molecular change in the steel that produces heat. Osmond observed that the
effects of cold working and quenching from a high temperature were somewhat similar,
and concluded that they must arise from a common cause. He supposes that the
condition of the carbon is not changed by cold working, and therefore the hardening
effect is due to an allotropic effect in the iron itself. Although the presence of carbon
is essential to the hardening of steel, the change in the mode of existence of the carbon is
less important than was formerly supposed. Howe suggests that it is the hard, strong,
brittle beta modification of the iron that causes hardening, and that the carbon simply
acts in retarding the change from hard beta to soft alpha iron. One argument in

[482J

ALLOTROPIC THEORY OF HARDENING STEEL

favor of allotropy is the sudden disappearance of magnetic properties on heating
caused by the sudden change of specific heat, and the spontaneous retardations that
occur in cooling practically carbonless iron.

The three critical points which occur on cooling a piece of very mild steel from a
temperature of 1000° C. (1832° F.) are shown in the accompanying diagram. Accord-
ing to Osmond these are: (1) A slight evolution of heat at about 890° C. (1634° F.),
termed Ar3. (2) A disengagement of heat at about 765° C. (1409° F.), termed Ar2.
(3) Another point at about 690° C. (1264° F.), small in very mild steel and highly
accentuated in steels high in carbon, termed ATI.

1100

as 0.5" 0-7 0*9 hi

t<s /»7 AS

In pure iron, Oft cooling from 1000° C. (1832° F.), when the iron is in the gamma
state, an evolution of heat is observed at 895° C. (1643° F.), (the point Ar3) when the
iron is said to change from the gamma to the beta form. Another change occurs
in very mild steel at 765° C. (1409° F.), after which the iron is said to be in the alpha
form. The presence of dissolved cementite lowers the temperature at which these
changes occur.

In steel containing less than 0.30% carbon, in which the points Ar3 and Ar2 both occur,
the formation of beta iron from gamma iron occurs at points differing with the content
of carbon. Iron in the gamma form will dissolve about 1.00% carbon as cementite,
at about 890° C. (1634° F.), but beta iron will scarcely dissolve any carbon, so that
the beta iron, being practically free from combined carbon, undergoes the change to
alpha iron at the normal temperature of 765° C. (1409° F.). Meanwhile, as the iron
falls out, the residual solution becomes richer in cementite, until at 690° C. (1274° F.) it
is saturated, forming an eutectic solid solution, and the cementite and iron (in the alpha
form) separate out, side by side, to form the well-known "pearlite." The evolution
of heat at 690° C. (1274° F.) marks the point known as An.

If the steel contains 0.34% of the carbon the point Ar3 occurs at the same tempera-
ture as Ar2, and further additions of carbon result in the lowering of the temperature
of the combined point Arz-s. In such steels the excess of iron separates out in the
alpha form, and the residual solid solution is decomposed as before at the point Art
690° C. (1274° F.).

Sorbite. — This is a transition form, passing into pearlite, intermediate between
troostite and pearlite, probably having the composition Fe9C3, and existing in a solu-
tion of iron. It may be simply unsegregated pearlite. Sorbite is obtained by a
moderately slow cooling, as in the cooling of small samples in air. Also by quenching
in water at the end of the recalescence period.

[483]

HEATING CARBON STEEL

Heating Carbon Steel. — The first effect of heat upon a piece of steel is a physical
one, consisting principally in an increase of size, possibly a change in shape through
mechanical strains which occur in its structure; these changes are not great even
when the steel is hot, they largely but not wholly disappear upon cooling.

Chemical changes take place in steel by altering the condition of the carbon when
the temperature is raised sufficiently high; the greater the percentage of carbon, the
more fusible the steel and the more easily overheated. When a piece of steel, hardened
or unhardened, is heated up to a low-yellow heat, about 996° C. (1825° F.), all previous
crystallization, however coarse, is obliterated and replaced by the finest structure the
metal is capable of assuming. Steel containing 0.90% carbon remains unchanged
in structure until heated to about 738° C. (1360° F.). As the temperature of the
furnace is increased beyond this point the ferrite and pearlite suddenly begin to de-
compose. The reaction is completed at a temperature of about 790° C. (1460° F.),
which is called the critical point or point of recalescence. To obtain the best results
the steel must be heated to a temperature slightly above this point. Otherwise it
fails to harden on quenching. If the heating is carried much above the critical point
the grain is coarser and there are increased weakness and brittleness after quenching.

There are three important factors in the heating of steel:

1. A neutral atmosphere, that is, an atmosphere containing no free oxygen. Par-
ticular attention must be given to the thickness of the fire; steel of whatever kind should
never be heated in a thin fire, especially in one having a force blast, because more air
passes through the fire than is needed for combustion; in consequence, there is a con-
siderable quantity of free oxygen in the fire which will oxidize the steel, or in other
words, burn it.

2. Uniformity in Heating. — The temperature of a heating furnace must be adjusted
to the composition of the steel in process of working, and a further adjustment suited
to forging, hardening, or annealing, as the case may be. Each requires its own tem-
perature, and whatever that temperature, it must be maintained without variation
during the whole process.

3. The temperature of the furnace should be fixed to suit the composition of the
steel and the size of the piece to be heated. For pieces in which the section is not
uniform, the temperature should be carefully graded, as a high heat produces a coarse,
open grain, and irregularity of heating is likely to cause cracking from internal strain.
Any difference in temperature sufficiently great to be seen by color will cause a cor-
responding difference in the grain. Any temperature so high as to open the grain
so that a hardened piece will be coarser than the original bar will cause the hardened
piece to brittle. A temperature high enough to cause the piece to harden through,
but not enough to open the grain, will cause the piece to refine, to be stronger
than the untempered bar. A temperature which will harden and refine the corners
and edges of a bar but will not harden the bar through is just the right heat at
which to harden taps and complicated cutters of any shape, as it will harden the
teeth sufficiently without risk of cracking and will leave the mass of the tool soft
and tough.

Carbon Tool Steel. — An outline of the proper grades and tempers of carbon tool
steel for various uses by Mr. W. B. Sullivan, together with suggestions as to heat treat-
ment, is summarized below:

Grade A steel containing 1.00 to 1.15% carbon is used for lathe tools, taps, dies,
and reamers. Steel with a carbon content of 1.15 to 1.25% is recommended for brass
tools, finishing tools, and machine-shop small tools. Heating temperature should not
exceed 927° C. (1700° F.), a bright cherry to salmon color, for forging. This steel
hardens at 793° C. (1460° F.), a light cherry red. The temper should be drawn to
suit the character of the work, annealing temperature from 705° to 732° C. (1300 to
1350° F.) corresponding to a full cherry red.

Grade B steel containing 0.90 to 1.00% carbon is used for shear blades, and punching
tools. Steel with a carbon content 1.00 to 1.15% carbon is used for machine drills,
counter bores, milling cutters, and general machine-shop tools. Heating temperature
should not exceed 955° C. (1750° F.), a light orange color, for forging. This steel
hardens at 796° C. (1465° F.), a light cherry red. The temper should be drawn to

[484]

COLOR SCALE INDICATING TEMPER

suit the character of the work, annealing temperature from 705 to 732° C. (1300 to
1350° F.) corresponding to a full cherry red.

Grade C steel for sledges and hammers should contain 0.70 to 0.80% carbon. Heat-
ing temperature should not exceed 960° C. (1800° F.), a yellow color inclining to a light
orange, for forging. This steel hardens at 807° C. (1485° F.), a light cherry red. The
temper should be drawn to suit the character of the work, annealing temperature
from 705 to 732° C. (1300 to 1350° F.) corresponding to a full cherry red.

Grade C steel for smith tools, track tools, and boiler-makers' tools, should contain
O.80 to 0.90% carbon. Heat treatment same as above.

Grade C steel for cold chisels, hot chisels, and rock drills, should contain 0.90 to
1.00% carbon. Heating temperature should not exceed 955° C. (1750° F.), a light
orange color, for forging. This steel hardens at 796° C. (1465° F.), a light cherry red.
The temper should be drawn to suit the character of the work, annealing temperature
from 705 to 732° C. (1300 to 1350° F.) corresponding to a full cherry red.

Grade D steel containing 0.70 to 0.80% carbon is used for crow bars, pinch-bars,
pickpoints, and wrenches. Heating temperature should not exceed 960° C. (1800° F.),
a yellow color inclining to a light orange, for forging. This steel hardens at 807° C.
(1485° F.), a light cherry red. The temper should be drawn to suit the character of
the work, annealing temperature from 705 to 732° C. (1300 to 1350° F.) corresponding
to a full cherry red.

The hardness of a piece of steel properly treated is governed by the size, character
of steel, temperature of bath, and character of bath. In general, for small sections
lower temperatures should be used than for large pieces. The degree of hardness
depends on the rapidity with which the heat is extracted from the steel. A bath of
high temperature will produce less hardness. A piece of steel quenched in water will
be harder than one quenched in oil. Tests made by the Carpenter Steel Company
showed that, compared with water on a basis of unity No. 1, mineral oil had a tempering
quality of 0.241; cottonseed oil, 0.161; fish oil, 0.149.

COLOR SCALE INDICATING TEMPER OF CARBON STEEL TOOLS

COLORS INDICATING TEMPER
DRAWN AFTER HARDENING

COMPOSITION AND TEMPERATURES OF MOLTEN
ALLOYS OF LEAD AND TIN

Cent.
Deg.

Fahr.
Deg.

Temper Color

Suitable
for

Parts of
Lead

Parts of
Tin

Fahr.
Deg.

Cent
Deg.

221
227
232
238
243
249
254
260
266
271
277
282
288
293

430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560

Pale yellow
Light yellow

A

15
16
17
19
21
24
28
33
39
48
60
75
100
200

8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560

221
221
232
238
243
249
254
260
266
271
277
282
288
293

Pale straw-yellow. . . .

Straw yellow
Deep straw-yellow

B

Dark yellow

Yellow brown

•

Brown yellow
Spotted red-brown. . .

C

Brown purple

Light purple
Full purple

D

Dark purple

E

Full blue

A. Suitable for: Lathe and planer tools. Profile cutters for milking machines.
Slight turning tools. Scrapers for brass. Hammer faces.

B. Suitable for: Milling cutters. Taps and screw cutting dies. Reamers. Bor-
ing cutters. Hollow mills. Counter bores. Punches and dies. Wire-drawing dies.
Thread chasers. Planing and molding-machine cutters. Inserted saw teeth. Rock
drills. Stone-cutting tools.

[485]

FURNACES FOR TEMPERING STEEL

C. Suitable for: Twist drills. Flat drills for brass. Drifts. Wood-boring cutters.
Gouges. Hand-plane irons.

D. Suitable for: Cold chisels for steel. Axes. Augers.

E. Suitable for: Cold chisels for wrought and cast iron. Circular saws for metal.
Hack saws. Springs. Molding cutters for wood. Circular saws for wood. Wood-
working chisels.

FURNACES

Furnaces for heating, hardening, tempering or annealing steel are made for the use
of coke, oil, gas and electricity. A coke furnace recommended by Mr. R. H. Probert,
so simple that a sketch is not needed, has proportions as follows: The inside of the
furnace proper should be 36 X 60 inches with a door 12 inches high by 24 inches wide;
ash space about 24 inches high and 32 inches wide; grate bars of cast iron, with £-inch
openings, giving an evenly distributed supply of air to the fuel, which should be hard
coke, about the size of a hen's egg. In the clear flame of a coke fire, the whole interior
of a furnace can be seen easily.

Tool Tempering Furnace. — A tool tempering furnace which can be built with about
one hundred standard fire-bricks on any tool temperer's forge is here shown. The
advantages of the type of fire obtained with this furnace, as compared with the ordinary
forge fire, are, that it gives the three most important qualities of a good tempering
fire: First, a deep permanent fire; secondly, an intensely hot fire, when wanted; and
thirdly, a fire in which it is possible to get a very short heat on a tool, the high heat ex-
tending only to the cutting edge or nose of the tool.

ASBESTOS o« *HcrriROM:COVM

As shown in the sectional view, the fire is deep below the nose of the tool, and does
not burn out, as new fuel constantly works down from the hopper. This insures a good
heat continuously, so that tool after tool, or two or three at a time, may be tempered
at a high heat without placing them in contact with the coals.

By resting the tool on a fire-brick with the cutting edge down, a heat is obtained just
where it is wanted, that is, on the cutting edge, and at the same time the heat is confined
to the nose of the tool. For fuel, either coke or hard coal may be used to advantage.

Muffle Furnaces. — In this type of furnace a separate vessel is heated usually by
means of a coal or coke fire located underneath the muffle, the products of combustion
being made to circulate around it with rotary motion, thus distributing the heat evenly
throughout the inclosed space. The work is not heated by contact with or radiation
from the flame, but by radiation from the hot walls of the muffle. For certain classes
of work, such as taps, dies, reamers, milling cutters, etc., where it is desired that the
work be wholly separated from the products of combustion, this type of furnace is
commonly used.

Oven Furnaces. — This type of furnace in which oil or gas is used for fuel is largely
displacing the muffle furnace in which coal or coke is used as fuel. Muffles were then
necessary to keep the products of combustion from coming in contact with the steel

[486]

FURNACES FOR TEMPERING STEEL

under treatment, these products being injurious to hot steel. In the modern oven
furnace using gas or oil as fuel these injurious gases do not come in contact with
the work; instead of a muffle the furnace is equipped with a U-shaped bottom slab,
having extensions up the sides about 1£ inches high; these sides prevent the flame
from coming in direct contact with the work.

Oil Furnaces. — (1) To begin with, oil fuel does not burn as a liquid. It first passes
into the condition of a vapor. (2) This vapor cannot1 burn without mixture with air.
(3) A suitable temperature for combustion must be maintained. Means for vaporizing
the oil, for insuring an adequate air supply, and for producing an intimate mixture
within a chamber kept at a suitable temperature, lie at the foundation of all methods
of oil burning.

The conditions favoring vaporization are fine subdivision; that is, the production
of a large surface for a given weight, together with high temperature. Both of these
are fulfilled by breaking the oil up into a fine spray and forcing it into the furnace in
this condition. When the spraying is done by steam the subdivision into a fine mist
results, in the furnace, in the almost instantaneous vaporization of the oil. The air
which is led in with the spray becomes mechanically mixed with it, and with the high
temperature in the furnace all conditions are fulfilled and combustion ensues.

Gas Furnaces. — With the exception of a few favored localities where natural gas is
to be had, the gas used in the furnaces for heating or tempering steel is either coal gas
or water gas from the city mains, or producer gas made on the premises.

The heating value of natural gas, at Pittsburgh, is about 900 B.t.u. per cubic foot.
Coal gas (illuminating) has a heating value of about 600 B.t.u. per cubic foot. The
gross heating value of carburetted water gas enriched by the addition of oil gas will
average the same, approximately equivalent
to 550 B.t.u. net. Water gas, because of its
convenience, moderate cost, and heating pow-
er, is now largely used in industrial plants,
and its use is constantly extending.

Flameless Combustion Furnace. — The un-
derlying principle of this furnace is much the
same as that of a Welsbach gas mantle; it
consists in burning a mixture of gas and air
in intimate contact with a highly refractory
granulated material surrounding the muffle
to be heated. Common fire-brick begins to
soften at a temperature of about 1300° C.
(2372° F.), and melts at about 1740° C.
(3164° F.).

The accompanying sketch shows a muffle
furnace arranged for the application of gas
heating by this system. The upper limit of
temperature attainable with this system is about 1500° C. (2732° F.). The highest
thermal efficiency (95%) is obtained under these conditions, for the mixture of gas and
air is then almost in theoretical proportions, and there is no unnecessary surplus of air
being raised to this high temperature. The broad advantages of this system of heating
are, that a considerably higher temperature and efficiency are obtained than by the
ordinary methods of heating by gas, and that the control of the temperature and heat-
ing effect is simple and instantaneous.

The thermal efficiency as compared with the ordinary methods of flame heating
is shown in results obtained with a muffle furnace in which the muffle was 9£ inches
long by 5^ inches wide by 3£ inches high, maintained at temperatures between
815 and 1425° C. (1499 to 2597° F.), with coal coal-gas of 540 B.t.u. net. (See table
on page 488.)

The temperature of the escaping products is 300 to 350° C. (572 to 662° F.) lower
than that of the muffle; with a muffle temperature of 1424° C. (2595° F.) there was
no appearance of flame at the top of the furnace. The gas consumptions recorded are
economical in comparison with those required for ordinary heating by flame contact.

[487]

FURNACES FOR TEMPERING STEEL

In a similar test with a muffle of the same size heated by flame contact, the gas con-
sumption to maintain the muffle at 1055° C. (1931° F.) (the maximum temperature
obtainable) was 105 cubic feet per hour, whereas consumption on the flameless com-
bustion furnace at the same temperature would have been about 43 cubic feet per hour.

TEMPERATURE IN MIDDLE OF MUFFLE

Gas Consumption
to Maintain

TEMPERATURE OF PRODUCTS

Temp. Constant

Deg. Cent.

Deg. Fahr.

Cubic Feet per
Hour at 15° C.

Deg. Cent.

Deg. Fahr.

815

1,499

21.0

540

1;004

1,004

1,840

35.3

645

1,193

1,205

2,201

58.0

870

1,598

1,424

2,595

79.0

1,085

1,985

Electric Heating Furnace. — The modern electric furnace, with its perfect heat
control, reducing atmosphere, absence of all products of combustion, and thermo-
electric pyrometer for measuring the temperature, offers a most attractive method
for the heat treatment of tool steel.

Electric heat can be produced by means of the electric arc, as in the arc lamp, or
by the resistance of a conductor, as in the incandescent lamp. It is the latter principle

utilized by Mr. A. L. Marsh in the

electric furnace here described for
the heat-treatment of steel. The
chamber in this furnace is 18 inches
deep (front to back), 12 inches wide
and 8 inches high; the relation of
the various constructional parts is
clearly shown in the illustration, in
which: A represents the fire-clay
insulation; B, the carbon connector
plates; C, the graphite bottom
plates; D, the draft hole; E, the
pyrometer hole; F, the electrodes;
G, the resister plates; H, fire sand;
K, cement filling; L, the inlet for
the water used for cooling the elec-
trode clamps; M, the outlet for this
water; N, the electrode clamps;
and O, the pressure regulating
screws. The electrodes are sur-
rounded by asbestos at P.

The full length of the side walls
and the entire roof of the chamber
are formed by the heating elements;
the walls are composed of a series
of thin carbon plates resting on the
top of a heavy block of the same
material, and the roof of a thick graphite plate connecting these two columns at the
top. One graphite electrode projects up to the middle of each side-wall plate and con-
nects electrically, through water-cooled clamps at the lower end, with the source of
energy. The chamber floor is of cement. Outside of the carbon plates there is a lining
of the same material. This lining, with a carefully designed backing of heat-resisting
material, retains the heat developed within the furnace. A counterweighted door
fitted with a peep-hole serves as a quick access to the chamber, while in the rear
wall are holes for the insertion of a pyrometer tube and for draft regulation. A rigid
enclosing case of steel holds all parts securely.

[488]

BATHS FOR HEATING STEEL

Principle of Operation. — A heavy low-voltage electric current is supplied through
the electrodes to the resister plates forming the side walls of the working chamber.
Heat is generated here, due to the resistance offered by these plates to the passage
of the current. The electrical "resistivity" of the carbon causes each plate to heat
exactly as the carbon filament in the incandescent lamp " lights " when the current
is turned on. In addition to this action, advantage is taken, in the furnace, of a second
form of electrical resistance — that of the contact of one plate with another. This may
be readily varied by altering the mechanical pressure on the plate columns by means
of the hand-screws. The turning of these changes the resistance of the circuit and
hence the resulting temperature produced.

Normal working temperatures are acquired in a little over an hour's time after the
switch has been closed. An average of 12^ kilowatt energy consumption will maintain
the chamber at approximately 1232° C. (2250° F.); higher temperatures, up to 1371° C.
(2500° F.), which is above the requirements of high-speed steels, or lower, as desired,
may be obtained by increasing or decreasing the energy supply.

HEATING BATHS

Crucible furnaces adapted for lead, cyanide of potassium, or barium chloride are
in very general use. The furnace fuel is either gas or oil. The flame from the burners
is projected, tangentially, into the heating chamber and rotates about the crucible,
the products of combustion escaping through an opening in the rear. The temperature
is uniform and easily controlled. Baths are in favor for heating and tempering small
tools and other articles of steel. The temperature of the bath can be continuously
maintained at any degree between the melting and the vaporizing points of the material
used. The work being submerged in the bath soon acquires that temperature and
can go no higher; the work is also protected from the atmosphere, and oxidation does
not take place.

The Lead Bath.— Lead melts at 327° C. (621° F.); it is said to vaporize at about
649° C. (1200° F.); its boiling point is given as about 1480° C. (2700° F.). The avail-
able work temperatures of the bath for carbon tool steel will range from 332° C. (630° F.)
to, say, 870° C. (1600° F.), which can be attained through proper furnace control. A
lead bath operating at high temperatures should be provided with a hood to carry off
the poisonous vapors arising from the crucible. The temperature of the molten metal
«hould be obtained by pyrometer measurement only. A thick coating of powdered
charcoal should be put on top of the molten lead to lessen oxidation, it also assists in
maintaining an even temperature. For hardening purposes the lead bath is mostly
confined to carbon steel tools, which, if of large size, should be slowly preheated before
immersing in the lead bath; a temperature, at least half that of the melted lead in
the crucible, will lessen the risk of breakage through unequal expansion. The specific
gravity of cast lead is 11.25 or 0.406 pound per cubic inch. The specific gravity of
steel is 7.8 or 0.220 pound per cubic inch— nearly one-half lighter than the lead bath.
Steel tools must, therefore, be held down in the bath, as if left free they would float.
For hardening purposes the lead should be free from sulphur or other impurities which
have an injurious effect on the polished surfaces of steel tools.

The sticking of lead to the surface of tools immersed in it is very annoying as it
contributes to uneven hardness during the process of quenching. An efficient protective
coating which does not interfere with heating or hardening is to apply with a paint brush
a thin coating of whiting mixed in denatured alcohol.

Cyanide of Potassium Bath. — The specific gravity of KCN is 1.52; its melting point
is that of a dull red heat, about 540° C. (1000C F.). Furnaces for melting cyanide
of potassium are similar to those for melting lead. The melting pot may be cast iron
or pressed steel, in either case it is suspended in the heating chamber by its flanged top.
The furnace should be provided with a hood to carry off the poisonous fumes from the
melting pot and pass them into the chimney.

Cyanide hardening is employed by bank-note engravers for hardening transfer
rolls and engraved plates, also by manufacturers of cutters, dies, springs, and other
steel work requiring a hard surface without great depth of case

[489]

BATHS FOR HEATING STEEL

When the molten cyanide is raised to the proper temperature the parts to be treated
are entirely immersed by suspending on a wire, or a number of small parts may be
treated at once by placing them in an open mesh-wire basket which is suspended in
the bath. The extreme depth of hardening is obtained in about 20 minutes, a longer
treatment in the bath will not add to the depth of hardness already obtained.

Barium Chloride Bath. — Barium chloride crystallizes in transparent, colorless,
rhombic tables, having a specific gravity 2.66 to 3.05. The crystals have an unpleasant,
bitter, sharply saline taste, exciting nausea, and are very poisonous. The fusing
temperature is 890° C. (1635° F.).

The furnace should preferably be gas fired, the flame encircling the crucible as
already described for melting lead. The crucible should be of graphite and rest upon
fire-bricks so spaced that the hot gases shall pass under as well as around it. To start
the bath: fill the crucible with barium chloride including about 2% of sodium carbonate
(soda ash), heat the crucible until these two substances are melted together, about
1200° C. (2192° F.). The furnace is then ready for use.

High speed steel requires a higher temperature for hardening than does carbon
steel; the barium chloride bath will range from 1000 to 1200° C. (1832 to 2192° F.).
It is expected of the man operating the furnace that the composition of the steel be
known as also the best temperature for its treatment. A pyrometer should be used
in all temperature measurements.

When the bath has been heated to the temperature suited to the composition of
the steel the tool, if a small one, is then placed in the bath and kept there until it has
acquired the same temperature. Large tools should be preheated to a low red in a
muffle or other suitable furnace to prevent chilling the bath. The time required will
vary according to the size and form of the tools. Mr. Becker states that in the case
of small and regularly shaped tools it will range from a few seconds to a minute; those
of |-inch section or less should be ready in less than a minute.

When a tool not preheated is plunged into the bath a coating of barium chloride
immediately solidifies upon its surface; this coating protects the tool until its tem-
perature rises to that of the bath when it melts off. This coating is useful in prevent-
ing blisters on the surface of the steel, and hi preventing the melting down of sharp
corners or points of a tool which sometimes occurs when a cold tool is put into a very
hot oven furnace. This coating also prevents oxidation of the tool by protecting it
from the atmosphere when removing it from the crucible to the cooling bath. Since
the temperature of the bath is no higher than that to which the tool is to be raised,
the latter is not damaged by remaining in the bath for some time longer than would
be required merely to heat it through uniformly; but tools should not be left in the
bath longer than is absolutely necessary.

Sodium carbonate (soda ash), when the quantity exceeds about 2%, affects the liquid
barium chloride by lowering its capacity for heat at the higher temperatures; it also
makes regulation of temperature more difficult. Mr. Becker says the boiling point
of the bath seems to be lowered approximately in proportion to the excess of soda
ash; and since it is very difficult, if indeed it is at all possible, to raise the temperature
above the boiling point, the tools cannot be heated high enough to be properly hardened.
The soda ash gradually becomes exhausted and requires renewal; in renewing, the
soda ash should be intimately mixed with several times its own bulk of barium chloride
before being added to the bath. It is dangerous to throw soda ash crystals into the
melted barium chloride.

Disadvantages of Barium Chloride Bath. — In a leading article published in Machin-
ery, April, 1911, it is stated that tools heated for hardening in a crucible containing
barium chloride have a soft scale or film of soft metal, perhaps about 0.003 to 0.006
inch deep, all over the surface of the tool. Careful experiments have been made to
ascertain as nearly as possible the conditions which contribute to produce such un-
satisfactory results. Comparison has been made between tools made from the same
material of which some were hardened by heating in barium chloride and some in an
oven furnace. The results of these experiments are recorded below.

To make the tests as simple and conclusive as possible, pieces of high-speed steel,
f inch thick, were cut off from one bar of steel. These were hardened, heating some in

[490]

TEMPERING HIGH-SPEED STEEL

a common oven furnace, and others in barium chloride. The pieces were heated from
the room temperature to the hardening temperature without preheating. The barium
chloride was chemically pure. The temperatures were measured by a pyrometer, and
the hardness tests were by scleroscope. After heating, the pieces were immersed in
a cooling bath of cottonseed oil at 38° C. (100° F.). The temper was drawn in an oil
tempering bath at 260° C. (500° F.).

When the pieces were heated in the oven furnace, the operator used his own judg-
ment as to when to remove each piece from the furnace and plunge it into the hardening
bath; the time required for the piece to acquire proper hardening heat was recorded,
and given in the table.

After the pieces had been hardened and tempered as described, an amount equal
to 0.005 inch was ground off from one side of each piece, which we call the face, and
an amount of 0.002 inch was ground off the other side, the back. The surfaces pre-
sented to the scleroscope were thus perfectly smooth and uniform. The results are
given in the table, the values being the average of the several readings.

The pieces heated in barium chloride at 1149 to 1316° C. (2100 to 2400° F.) were
found to be pitted, and small beads of a metallic structure adhered to the pieces. Similar
small pieces were found in the bottom of the crucible after all the test pieces had been
hardened. This residue was chemically analyzed and was found to consist principally
of ferro-tungsten.

Heating in an oven furnace gave results almost uniformly better according to the
heat at which the pieces were hardened. The higher the heat, the higher the sclero-
scopic test number. When the pieces were heated in barium chloride, a result entirely
different was obtained, and at temperatures of 1149 to 1316° C. (2100 to 2400° F.),
the results were, in general, very unsatisfactory. Pieces that were 18 minutes in the
heating bath were almost uniformly softer, the higher the hardening heat, indicating
that some soft scale remained after removal of 0.005 inch by grinding. In almost
every case the back, where 0.002 inch was removed, is softer than the face of the test
piece, due to the fact that the soft scale is deeper than 0.002 inch; whereas the face,
where 0.005 inch had been ground off, shows greater hardness. Tests were next made
to ascertain the influence on the cutting qualities of tools hardened either by heating
in barium chloride or in an oven furnace. These tests proved conclusively that tools
heated in the barium chloride bath did not stand as high a cutting speed as did those
hardened after heating in an oven furnace.

HARDENING AND TEMPERING HIGH-SPEED STEEL TOOLS

A method of preparing such tools is thus given by J. M. Gledhill: After forging
the tools, and when quite cold, grind to shape on a dry stone or dry emery wheel; the
tool then requires heating to a white heat, just short of melting, and afterward com-
pletely cooling in the air blast. This method of first roughly grinding to shape also
lends itself to cooling the tools in oil, which is specially efficient where the retention
of a sharp edge is a desideratum, as in finishing tools, capstan and automatic lathe
tools, brass-workers' tools, etc. In hardening where oil cooling is used, the tools should
be first raised to a white heat, but without melting, and then cooled down either by
air blast or in the open to a bright red heat, say, 927° C. (1700° F.), when they should
be instantly plunged into a bath of rape or whale oil, or a mixture of both.

Specially formed tools of high-speed steel, such as milling and gear cutters, twist
drills, taps, screwing dies, reamers, and other tools that do not permit of being ground
to shape after hardening, and where any melting or fusing of the cutting edges must be
prevented, the method of hardening is as follows: A specially arranged muffle furnace
heated either by gas or oil is employed, and consists of two chambers lined with fire-
clay, the gas and air entering through a series of burners at the back of the furnace,
and under such control that a temperature up to 1204° C. (2200° F.) may be steadily
maintained in the lower chamber, while the upper chamber is kept at a much lower
temperature. Before placing the cutters in the furnace it is advisable to fill up the
hole and keyways with common fire-clays to protect them.

The mode of procedure is as follows: The cutters are first placed upon the top

[491],

TEMPERING HIGH-SPEED STEEL

of the furnace until they are warmed through, after which they are placed in the upper
chamber and thoroughly and uniformly heated to a temperature of about 816° C.
(1500° F.), or, say, a medium red heat, when they are transferred into the lower chamber
and allowed to remain therein until the cutter attains the same heat as the furnace
itself, viz., about 1204° C. (2200° F.), and the cutting edges become a bright yellow
heat, having an appearance of a glazed or greasy surface. The cutter should then be
withdrawn while the edges are sharp and uninjured, and revolved before an air blast
until the red heat has passed away, and then while the cutter is still warm — that is,
just permitting of its being handled — it should be plunged into a bath of tallow at
about 93.3° C. (200° F.) and the temperature of the tallow bath then raised to about
271° C. (520° F.), on the attainment of which the cutter should be immediately with-
drawn and plunged in cold oil.

Electric Hardening. — One method of heating and hardening the point of a high-
speed steel tool and the arrangement of apparatus are shown in the accompanying
sketch.

It consists of a cast-iron tank, of suitable dimensions, containing a strong solution
of potassium carbonate K2CO3 together with a dynamo, the positive cable from which

riEXIBLE CABLE

is connected to the metal clip holding the tool to be heated, while the negative cable
is connected direct on the tank. The tool to be hardened is held in a suitable clip to
insure good contact. To harden the tool: The current is first switched on, and then
the tool is gently lowered into the solution to such a depth as is required to harden
it. The act of dipping the tool into the alkaline solution completes the electric circuit
and at once sets up intense heat on the immersed part. When it is seen that the tool
is sufficiently heated the current is instantly switched off, and the solution then serves
to rapidly chill and harden the point of the tool, so that no air blast is necessary.

Colors of Heated Steel. — The following table by White and Taylor gives results
of extended experiments upon colors of heated steel corresponding to different degrees
of temperatures. Pouillet constructed a table in 1836, which has been published in
various text books; other tables have appeared from time to time, but these differ
so widely among themselves that they lack authoritative standing, a condition due to
defective apparatus used for determining the higher temperatures, and to the fact
that observers have a different eye for color, which leads to quite a range of temperatures
covering the same color. White and Taylor found that the quality or intensity of light
in which color heats are observed — that is, a bright sunny day, or cloudy day, or the
time of day, such as morning, afternoon, or evening, with their varying light — influences
to a greater or less degree the determination of temperatures by the eye.

After many tests with the Le Chatelier pyrometer, and different skilled observers
working in all kinds of intensity of light, they adopted the following nomenclature of
color scale with the corresponding determined values in degrees Fahr. as best suited
to the ordinary conditions met with in the majority of smith's shops:

[492]

QUENCHING BATHS

Fahr.
Deg.

Cent.
Deg.

Dark blood red, black red

990

532

Dark red blood red low red

1,050

566

Dark cherry red ...

,175

635

Medium cherry red

,250

677

Cherry full red .

,375

746

Light cherry, bright cherry, light red (heat at which scale forms) . .
Salmon, orange, free scaling heat

,550
,650

843
899

Light salmon light orange

,725

935

Yellow . . ....

,825

996

Light yellow

,975

1,079

White

2200

1 204

With the advancing knowledge of the heat treatment of steel, the foregoing will
prove of value to those engaged in the handling of steel at various temperatures. The
importance of knowing with close approximation the temperatures used in the treat-
ment of steel cannot be overestimated, as it holds out the surest promise of success
in obtaining desired results.

This demand for more accurate temperatures must eventually lead to the use of
accurate pyrometric instruments; but at present the only available instruments do
not lend themselves readily to ordinary uses, and the eye of the operator must be
largely depended upon; therefore, the training of the eye, by observing accurately
determined temperatures, will prove of much material assistance in the regulation
of temperatures which cannot be otherwise controlled.

QUENCHING BATHS

Carbon tool steels are usually quenched in water, the most efficient of all quenching
fluids, because of its high specific heat and great capacity for taking up heat at any tem-
perature between freezing and boiling points. The bath should be large and supplied
with running water where large pieces are to be hardened. In water quenching, a thin
film of vapor forms on the surface of the tool, checking the absorption of heat from the tool
in still water; a stream of boiling water often hardens more than does still, but cold water.

The temperature at which hardening occurs in carbon tool steel seems to be that
at which the metal begins to exhibit color, a low, barely visible red heat as seen in the
dark. Any treatment which by quickly reducing this temperature, as in water quench-
ing, will harden the steel.

The change which occurs in hardening carbon steel is a physical alteration of struc-
ture at some point between 427 and 538° C. ( 800 and 1000° F.), and is the more complete
as the reduction of temperature of the metal is the more rapid. Cooling should, there-
fore, be moderately rapid, complete, and perfectly regular.

Brine produces the sharpest results, but is severe, and has a greater tendency to
warp the parts. It produces a higher elastic limit than either water or oil. Water is
intermediate between brine and oil in its tendency to warp the parts, nor can so high
an elastic limit be obtained with it as with brine.

• Fish oil, cottonseed, lard, tallow, and paraffine oils are the mildest of the quenching
mediums, and are extensively used. It does not make much difference which oil is
used, but the quenching bath must be sufficiently large that the heat be absorbed
quickly from the tool. Tools cooled in oil are, in general, harder than those cooled by
means of an air blast.

Air quenching is rendered less objectionable as regards oxidation when the high-
speed tool has been heated in a barium chloride bath because a thin film of the chloride
completely covers it and effectually prevents metallic contact with the air. When
tools are air quenched a force blast is necessary in order to carry off the heat quickly.

[493]

ANNEALING STEEL

Tools with delieate edges will require tempering after air quenching, which is usually
accomplished in an oil bath. After the removal of the barium chloride film the tool
will be found to be of its original size, and much the same appearance as before heating.

Quenching and hardening high-speed steel: The methods employed are by no
means uniform, largely depending upon the composition of the steel.

Mushet's self-hardening steel (1868), also known as air-hardening steel, derived its
name from the fact that when heated to an orange color, say, 910° C. (1670° F.) and
allowed to cool slowly in the air it becomes exceedingly hard. The usual composition
of this steel was 2 to 3% manganese; 4 to 6% tungsten, and carbon high. The dis-
tinctive, persistent hardness of manganese steel indicates that it is manganese that
gives this steel its so-called self -hardening property. Air-hardening steel, as a rule,
is not tough, that is to say, if it is made tough it will not be very hard. The edge of
the tool will flow, and when it is so hard that it will not flow then it is so brittle that
it will crumble easily.

Heating and hardening the later high-speed tool steels, a composition such as for
lathe and planer use, it is necessary to almost melt the point of the tool, quench it in
a strong air blast, and then grind to shape. Such tools are made from annealed bars,
differing in this respect from the earlier air-hardening steels. The finished tools are heated
in a lead bath of 982 to 1093° C. (1800 to 2000° F.), and quenched quickly in ordinary
tempering oil which must be kept cool by a coil containing circulating cold water; they
are then tempered in a bath of heavy oil heated to about 232° C. (450° F.), the tools
should come out of the bath bright and clean.

Double Hardening. — This consists of a preliminary hardening, followed by annealing
at a lower or higher temperature, with a view to eliminating strains, and again harden-
ing. This double hardening does not affect the strength and extensibility of the metal,
but it eliminates the yield-point, which is very important in the case of springs, etc.
A spring, hardened in the ordinary way, is completely pressed together when the yield-
point is reached, but with a double hardened spring this is different. As soon as the
limit of elasticity is exceeded, it suffers a slight deformation, but the limit of elasticity
immediately increases again, and the deformation ceases. Double hardening also
decreases brittleness.

ANNEALING

If carbon tool steel is annealed at a temperature where martensite is formed it will
contain a portion of the hardening element. By a judicious application of heat it is
possible to obtain almost any desired combination of ferrite, pearlite, and martensite.
Tools when properly handled should be heated first to the proper temperature or critical
point, and then quenched. Heating above this point tends to produce decarbonization.
If a tool is heated too hot and then allowed to cool slowly before quenching it will,
according to Sullivan, have a grain structure developed by the higher temperature
which is not corrected by allowing the tool to cool before quenching. Tools should not
be allowed to soak too long even at the proper temperature, as this tends to produce
decarbonization on the surface.

Annealing Mild Steel. — The following is an abstract from a communication by
Professor Heyn to the Iron and Steel Institute, 1902:

1. When low carbon mild steel is annealed at 1000° C. there occurs an increase
hi the degree of brittleness if the. annealing period is sufficiently long. By a judicious
adjustment of the annealing temperature and period, it is possible to produce any
desired degree of variation in the brittleness of mild steel within definite limits.

2. Prolonged annealing, say, uninterrupted for fourteen days, at temperatures
between 700° and 890°, produces no increase in the brittleness. In such cases where
the brittleness of the metal in its initial state is not yet at the lowest degree possible,
by this treatment the lowest degree of brittleness will be attained.

3. Between 1100° and 900° there exists a temperature limit, above which, if anneal-
ing is carried on for a longer period and at an increasing temperature, the degree of
brittleness increases. Below these limits, however, this is not the case.

4. Overheating not only occurs at a most extreme white heat, but manifests itself
already at considerably lower temperatures, which must, however, exceed the tem-

[494]

ANNEALING STEEL

perature limit referred to in No. 3, the degree being more marked the longer the anneal-
ing period.

5. By suitable annealing, the brittleness of overheated mild steel can be eliminated.
If annealing is carried on above 900° C., the short period of about half an hour is suffi-
cient. Below 800° an annealing of even five hours is not sufficient to eliminate the
brittleness in overheated mild steel.

6. If mild steel, which has been annealed for a longer period, at a high enough tem-
perature, so that after undisturbed cooling it would show extreme brittleness, is rolled
or forged during cooling at a bright red heat, it will exhibit no brittleness when cold.

7. The fracture of overheated mild steel generally shows a coarse grain, although
it is not necessarily always the case.

8. The single crystal grains of which the structure of the iron is built up, and which
can be detected under the microscope by suitable etching, are often of considerable
dimensions when in the state of overheating. Nevertheless, this is not to be considered
as proof positive that overheating has taken place, since the period of cooling also
exercises a great influence on the size of the ferrite grains. Rapid cooling, from the
temperature causing overheating, produces fine ferrite grains, without appreciably
reducing the brittleness.

COMPOSITION AND HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEEL OTHER THAN

TOOL STEELS

The 30, 80 and 95% carbon steels given below are abstracted from second report
made by the Iron and Steel Division of the Society of Automobile Engineers' Standards
Committee, 1911.

While the steels and methods of heat treating them have been prepared more espe-
cially for automobile construction, they also can be used in a large number of cases for
manufacturing other products.

Carbon Steel— 0.45%

Composition. — Carbon, 0.40 to 0.50% (0.45% desired); manganese, 0.50 to 0.80%
(0.65% desired); silicon, not over 0.20%; phosphorus, not over 0.04%; sulphur, not
over 0.04%.

Characteristics and Uses. — The natural sources of supply of this steel are basic or
acid open hearth, and crucible or electric furnace, the most common being the basic
open hearth. This steel possesses greater strength for structural purposes than 0.30
carbon steel. Its uses, however, are more limited and are confined in a general way to
such parts as demand a high degree of strength and a relatively low degree of toughness.
With proper heat treatment the fatigue resisting qualities are very high. The principal
uses for this steel are: Crankshafts, driving-shafts, propeller-shafts and transmission
gears. It is not hard enough, however, without case-hardening, and is not tough
enough with case-hardening to make safe transmission gears, and should not be used
for case-hardened parts, except in an emergency. In the annealed condition this steel
should have an elastic limit of about 50,000 pounds per square inch, and after heat
treating the elastic limit may be nearly doubled.

Heat Treatment. — After forging or machining; 1. Heat to 1550° F. 2. Quench.
3. Anneal by heating to 1450° F. 4. Cool slowly in furnace, in lime or soft coal.
5. Reheat, 1400 to 1500° F. 6. Quench. 7. Heat, 800 to 1000° F. and cool slowly.

Carbon Steel— 0.80%

Composition. — Carbon, 0.75 to 0.90% (0.80% desired) ; manganese, 0.25 to 0.50%
(0.35% desired); silicon, 0.10 to 0.30%; phosphorus, not over 0.035%; sulphur, not
over 0.035%.

Characteristics and Uses. — This steel is used principally for springs, and, generally
speaking, for springs of light section. Its sources of supply may be the open hearth,
crucible, or elastic furnace.

[495]

HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEEL

Heat Treatment. — It must be understood that the higher the drawing temperature,
the lower will be the elastic limit of the material. On the other hand, if the material
be drawn to too low a temperature it will be brittle. The hardening and drawing of
springs, that is, the heat treatment of them, is as a rule in the hands of the spring-maker,
but for small coil springs, the following treatment is recommended: 1. Coil. 2. Heat,
1400 to 1500° F. 3. Quench in oil. 4. Reheat, 400 to 500 or 600° F. in accordance
with the degree desired, and cool slowly.

Carbon Steel— 0.95%

Composition.— Carbon, 0.90 to 1.05% (0.95% desired); manganese, 0.25 to 0.50%
(0.35% desired); silicon, 0.10 to 0.30%; phosphorus, not over 0.035%; sulphur, not
over 0.035%.

Characteristics and Uses. — This steel is obtained from the same sources as 0.80
carbon steel and is used principally for springs.

Heat Treatment. — Substantially the same remarks apply to this steel as to 0.80
carbon steel. The heat treatment may be reduced slightly because of the increased
carbon content, and possibly the drawing temperature will be different.

HARDENING OF CARBON AND LOW-TUNGSTEN STEELS

A research on the hardening of carbon and low-tungsten tool steels has been con-
ducted by Mr. Shipley N. Brayshaw, of Manchester, England, and the results of his
investigations were presented to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1910.

The paper deals exclusively with the results obtained from two kinds of carbon tool
steel that, except for minute variations, differed only in the fact that one of them con-
tamed about 0.5% of tungsten. The steel contained on an average of 1.16% carbon,
0.15% silicon, 0.36% manganese, 0.018% sulphur, and 0.013% phosphorus. The whole
work of investigation was devoted to questions directly connected with machine-shop
hardening.

Hardening Temperatures. — The hardening point of both low-tungsten and carbon
steel may be located with great accuracy, and the complete change from soft to hard
is accomplished within a range of about 10° F. or less. After the temperature has been
raised more than from 35 to 55° F. above the hardening point, the hardness of the
steel is lessened by further increases in the temperature, provided the heating is suffi-
ciently prolonged for the steel to acquire thoroughly the condition pertaining to the
temperature.

Change Point. — There is a change point at about 879° C. (1615° F.) in low-tungsten
steel and at a somewhat higher temperature in carbon steel. One of the several in-
dications of this change point is the shortening of bars hardened in water at temperatures
below that point, whereas the bar lengthens if this temperature is exceeded at the
time of quenching. Practically the same results are obtained by heating low-tungsten
bars to any temperature from 760 to 940° C. (1400 to 1725° F.) and quenching in oil
as by quenching in water.

Length of Time of Heating. — Prolonged soaking up to 120 minutes at temperatures
at which the hardening change is half accomplished in 30 minutes does not suffice
to complete the change. Prolonged soaking for hardening at a temperature of 760° C.
(1400° F.) has a slightly injurious effect on the steel, but does not materially influence
the hardness. At a temperature of about 810° C. (1490° F.) a great degree of hardness
is attained by quick heating, but the hardness is impaired with 30 minutes' soaking.
Prolonged soaking for hardening at a temperature of about 879° C. (1615° F.) has a
seriously injurious effect upon the steel. A specially great degree of hardness may be
obtained by means of soaking at a high temperature, such as 879° C. (1615° F.) for a
very short time, but even as long a time as 1\ minutes is long enough to seriously impair
the hardness.

The temperature of brine for quenching is of considerable importance. Both low-
tungsten and carbon steel bars quenched at 5° C. (41° F.) were decidedly harder than
bars quenched at 24° C. (75° F.), and quenching at 51° C. (124° F.) rendered the bars
much softer.

[496]

HARDENING CARBON AND TUNGSTEN STEELS

Previous Annealing. — The method of previous annealing affects the hardness of
steel considerably. The elastic limit of low-tungsten bars hardened at either 760° C.
(1400° F.) or 860° C. (1580° F.) varies according to the annealing they have undergone.
The elastic limit is higher after annealing at about 799° C. (1470° F.) for 30 minutes, or
699° C. (1290° F.) for 120 minutes, but it is seriously impaired by annealing at 799° C.
(1470° F.) for 120 minutes. If low-tungsten steel is annealed at 941° C. (1725° F.)
and hardened at 760° C. (1400° F.) the elastic limit is inferior, and the adverse effect
of the previous annealing is much more pronounced if the hardness is done at 860° C.
(1580° F.). The elastic limit of carbon steel annealed at any temperature between
699 and 941° C. (1290 and 1725° F.) and hardened at either 760° or 860° C. (1400 or
1580° F.) does not vary by nearly such great amounts as the elastic limit of the low-
tungsten bars, and the highest annealing temperature given above is not injurious
so far as the elastic limit is concerned.

The hardness of low-tungsten bars hardened at 760° C. (1400° F.) decreases from a
high scleroscope figure to a low one as the temperature of annealing increases from
699 to 941° C. (1290 to 1725° F.). The hardness is increased by prolonging the annealing
at the lower temperature. The hardness of low-tungsten steel hardened at 860° C.
(1580° F.) is fairly constant at a moderately high scleroscope figure, whatever the tem-
perature of annealing.

Heating in Two Furnaces. — Experiments show that low-tungsten and carbon steel
bars heated for half an hour to temperatures between 841 and 899° C. (1545 and 1650°
F.) are not much affected so far as their elastic limit and maximum strength are con-
cerned by a further immediate soaking for half an hour at 760° C. (1400° F.). If,
however, the temperature in first furnace is 941° C. (1725° F.), the low-tungsten steel
is much improved by a further soaking at 760° C. (1400° F.), but the carbon steel is
much injured by the same treatment. Bars of low-tungsten steel heated for 30 minutes
at 880° C. (1616° F.), and then soaked at 722° C. (1332° F.) for a further 30 minutes,
give a high elastic limit and maximum strength, and are harder than if the second
soaking were at a temperature of 760° C. (1400° F.). The carbon steel, again, is but
little affected by these variations in the second furnace.

Change of Length in Hardening. — Both low-tungsten and carbon steel is much
affected by the above variations in the temperature of the second furnace. Good
results as regards elastic limit and maximum strength, and also as regards hardness,
are obtained by very short soaking, first at a high temperature, say, 879° C. (1615° F.),
and then at a low one, the results being best when the second temperature is near to
or a little below the hardening point. If the furnace be at a sufficiently high temperature
it is easy either by variations of the temperatures of the two furnaces, or by variations
in the time of soaking, to arrive at a treatment of the steel, both low-tungsten and
carbon, whereby they neither lengthen nor shorten. Under the same treatment carbon
steel has a greater tendency to shorten than low-tungsten steel.

Miscellaneous Results. — Other experiments showed that low-tungsten steel heated
at 860° C. (1580° F.) for 15 minutes and quenched in oil has a higher elastic limit and
is harder than carbon steel similarly treated. As regards annealing, it was found that
bars annealed at a temperature of 799° C. (1470° F.) or below became slightly shorter
by the annealing process, and its action was more pronounced in the case of carbon
steel than tungsten steel. Annealing at a temperature of 899° C. (1650° F.) causes
both low-tungsten and carbon steel to lengthen.

It was found that recalescence of low-tungsten steel takes place gradually at a
temperature of 731° C. (1348° F.) and more readily at 725° C. (1337° F.) and, further,
that the recalescence at either of the above temperatures is very much retarded if the
steel is cooled from a maximum heat of 890° C. (1634° F.).

Regarding hardening cracks, it is shown that both for low-tungsten and carbon
steel, such treatment as produced the highest elastic limit accompanied by the greatest
hardness is frequently the most risky. The risk of hardening cracks is reduced if the
steel is heated for a sufficient length of time to a temperature of 899° C. (1650° F.)
or a little above. Low-tungsten steel is more liable to crack in hardening than is
carbon steel.

Effect of Tempering. — Tempering experiments showed that little effect was pro-

[497]

HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS

duced by the tempering of carbon steel to 149° C. (300° F.) for 30 minutes. Tempering
the same steel to 249° C. (480° F.) for 15 minutes, however, caused it to soften con-
siderably and to shorten in length. For low-tungsten steel the elastic limit was in-
creased considerably by tempering, up to a temperature of 249° C. (480° F.). The
maximum strength of the same steel coincides with the elastic limit for bars either un-
tempered or tempered at 149° C. (300° F.) for 15 minutes, but it then rises rapidly with
further tempering. The hardness, as measured by the scleroscope, was considerably
reduced by tempering at 149° C. (300° F.) and still more at 199° C. (390° F.), but
was not so much affected by further tempering at 249° C. (480° F.). The length of
the low-tungsten bars was reduced by tempering up to a temperature of 249° C (480° F.),
the higher the temperature, the greater was the reduction in length.

Tensile Strength. — The following conclusions refer to low-tungsten steel, but there
is no reason to doubt that they are also applicable to carbon steel. A very good bar
was produced by quenching from a temperature fully 42° C. (108° F.) above the harden-
ing temperature. A heat of only 5 minutes' duration produced a harder bar than a
heat of 25 minutes, the maximum temperature in both cases being 799° C. (1470° F.),
or a little above; but the bar heated for a shorter time gave a much lower elastic limit.
The following has reference to both tungsten and carbon steels: Tempering up to a
temperature of 299° C. (570° F.) gradually increases the maximum strength, the elastic
limit, and reduces for a given stress the extension under load and the permanent
extension.

COMPOSITION AND HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON AND ALLOY

STEELS

Soc. Auto. Engrs., Standards Committee, 1911)
Nickel Steel-0.30% Carbon, 3i% Nickel

Composition. — Carbon, 0.25 to 0.35% (0.30% desired); manganese, 0.50 to 0.80%
(0.65% desired); silicon, not over 0.20%; phosphorus, not over 0.04%; sulphur, not
over 0.04%; nickel, 3.25 to 3.75% (3.50% desired).

Characteristics and Uses. — This steel is primarily intended for heat treating, and
is used for structural parts where much strength and toughness are desired : such parts
as axles, spindles, crankshafts, driving-shafts, and transmission-shafts. The elastic
limit in the annealed condition is about 55,000 pounds per square inch. By heat
treatment this may be increased to 160,000 pounds per square inch, the ductility at
this point being satisfactory, and a reduction of area of at least 45% being obtainable.
The wide variation in the elastic limit is obtained by the use of different quenching
mediums — brine and oil — and a difference in the drawing temperatures.

Heat Treatment.— After forging and machining: 1» Heat, 1450 to 1500° F. 2.
Quench. 3. Heat, 600 to 1200° F. and cool slowly.

A higher refinement of this treatment is: After forging and machining: 1. Heat,
1450 to 1500° F. 2. Quench. 3. Reheat, 1350 to 1400° F. 4. Quench. 5. Heat, 600
to 1200° F. and cool slowly.

By the proper regulation of the quench and drawing temperatures, a wide range of
physical characteristics may be obtained. The thickness of the mass treated, the
volume and temperature of the quenching medium, and other details peculiar to most
hardening plants must be recognized in order to get intelligent and desirable results.
This material may be case-hardened, but it contains a rather high carbon content for
this purpose. The lower ranges of carbon — 0.25% — are satisfactory, but the upper
ranges — in the neighborhood of 0.35%, approach the danger point, and steel of this
carbon content must be correspondingly carefully hardened.

Chrome-Nickel Steel— 0.30% Carbon

Composition. — Carbon, 0.25 to 0.35% (0.30% desired); manganese, 0.30 to 0.50%
(0.40% desired); silicon, 0.10 to 0.30%; phosphorus, not over 0.04%; sulphur, not
over 0.04%; nickel, 3.25 to 3.75% (3.50% desired); chromium, 1.25 to 1.75% (1.50%
desired).

[498]

HEAT TREATMENT OF CHROME-VANADIUM STEEL

Characteristics and Uses. — This grade of chrome-nickel steel is intended largely
for structural parts of the most important character; parts requiring this high grade
of steel must be heat treated, otherwise there is no gain commensurate with the
increased cost of the steel. It is suitable for crankshafts, axles, spindles, driving-
shafts, transmission-shafts, and, in fact, the most important structural parts of an
automobile. The elastic limit in the annealed condition is of no importance, as this
steel should not be used in the annealed state. The elastic limit after heat treating
may be as high as 175,000 pounds per square inch, with a generous reduction of area
and elongation.

Heat Treatment.— After forging and machining: 1. Heat, 1450 to 1500° F.
2. Quench. 3. Reheat to a temperature between 500 and 1250° F. and cool slowly.

A higher refinement of this treatment is, after forging: 1. Heat, 1450 to 1500° F.
2. Quench, 3. Reheat to 1400° F. 4. Quench. 5. Reheat to a temperature between
500 and 1250° F. and cool slowly.

The temperatures when treating and annealing should be controlled by a pyrometer.

The lower the temperature at which the proper response to treatment is obtained,
the better will be the results. At the same time, if a sufficient temperature is not used,
there will be an incomplete or unsatisfactory response. This steel is not intended for
case-hardening, but may be so treated in an emergency. If case-hardening is attempted
the highest degree of care must be exercised.

Chrome-Vanadium Steel— 0.30% Carbon

Composition. — Carbon, 0.25 to 0.35% (0.30% desired); manganese, 0.40 to 0.70%
(0.50% desired); silicon, 0.10 to 0.30%; phosphorus, not, over 0.04%; sulphur, not
over 0.04%; chromium, 0.80 to 1.10% (0.90% desired); vanadium, not less than
0.10 (0.18% desired).

Characteristics and Uses. — This steel is used for structural purposes, and for crank-
shafts, driving-shafts, axles, etc. The physical characteristics in the annealed condition
are unimportant, as the steel should not be used in that condition — not that it is unsafe,
but because there will be no gain commensurate with the increased cost of the material.

Heat Treatment.— After forging and machining: 1. Heat, 1600 to 1700° F.
2. Quench. 3. Reheat to a temperature between 500 and 1300° F. and cool slowly.

The elastic limit after heat treatment may be from 60,000 to 150,000 pounds per
square inch, with good toughness as represented by the reduction of area and elongation.
This steel may be case-hardened, but if so treated it must be handled with care on
account of the relatively high carbon content.

Chrome-Vanadium Steel — 0.45% Carbon

Composition.— Carbon, 0.40 to 0.50% (0.45% desired); manganese, 0.60 to 0.90%
(0.75% desired); silicon, 0.10 to 0.30%; phosphorus, not over 0.035%; sulphur, not
over 0.035%; chromium, 1.00 to 1.30% (1.20% desired); vanadium, not less than
0.10% (0.18% desired).

Characteristics and Uses. — This steel contains sufficient carbon in combination with
vanadium to harden when quenched at a proper temperature. The elastic limit after
suitable treatment may be carried as high as 200,000 pounds per square inch, with a
reduction of area great enough to indicate good toughness. This steel may be used
for structural parts where exceedingly great strength is required.

Heat Treatment. — The information given relative to the heat treatment of 0.30%
carbon, chrome-vanadium steel, also applies to this steel. The drawing temperature
must be considerably modified to produce proper stiffness. For gears this steel must
be annealed after forging. The heat treatment is as follows: 1. Heat to 1600° F.
2. Quench. 3. Reheat to 1450° F. 4. Cool slowly. 5. Reheat, 1600 to 1650° F.
6. Quench. 7. Reheat, 250 to 550° F. and cool slowly.

This last drawing operation (7) must be modified to obtain any desired hardness.

[499]

CASE-HARDENING

CASE-HARDENING

This is a process by which to carburize and harden the surface of wrought iron or
mild steel by packing the finished articles in an air-tight iron box in contact with some
substance rich in carbon, commonly charcoal, bone, or charred animal matter; luting
the box cover with fire clay to exclude the air; subjecting the box to a high temperature
for several hours and then chilling its contents. The effect is to convert the surface
of each article in the box in contact with the carburizing material into a hardening
steel. This casing of steel is of varying degrees of thickness, from a mere skin for small
parts to ^s inch, depending upon the shape and thickness of the part, and upon the
furnace temperature — usually about 815° C. (1500° F.) — and upon the length of time
the article is subjected to this heat; in any case the time is only such as to case the
articles with steel to the desired thickness, which is then hardened by quenching, leaving
the inside of the article soft and tough.

Metals to be Case-Hardened. — Wrought iron contains but little carbon, seldom
more than 0.20%, and from that down to a mere trace the operation of case-hardening
is analogous to that of cementation, the difference being that case-hardening is merely
a surface conversion of wrought iron into hardening steel, while in cementation the
carbon becomes so incorporated with the wrought iron as to completely alter its com-
position, structure, and properties. The manner in which carbon is thus passed into
the iron is not exactly known, probably in the form of gaseous compounds of carbon
deposited at the surface of the wrought iron, the combined carbon being then trans-
mitted to the interior by the iron itself.

As the case-hardening process does not eliminate any of the impurities ordinarily
found in wrought iron, such as sulphur, phosphorus, etc., an iron should be selected
as free as possible from these impurities.

Mild Steel. — The carbon content in ordinary carbon steel for case-hardening should
be from 0.10 to 0.15%, and in no case should it exceed 0.20%. In alloy steels the
carbon content may be as high as 0.30%. The manganese content should not exceed
0.40% if a single quenching only is employed, but can be somewhat higher if two
quenchings are used. Silicon increases the brittleness in all cases, and should not
exceed 0.30%. Tungsten and molybdenum both increase the brittleness of the core.
Nickel seems to retard the process somewhat, and the' hardness of the case is somewhat
lower than that obtainable in ordinary carbon steels. Steels with from 1.0 to 1.2%
chromium are sometimes used when an especially hard case is required. This element
aids crystallization of the core, and double quenching is absolutely necessary. Chrome-
nickel steels with a low chromium content require about the same heat treatment as
pure nickel steels.

Nickel Steel. — In the treatment of nickel steel the first quenching for refining
the core is not always necessary, although it noticeably increases the tenacity of the
core. With a 2% nickel steel the following temperatures are recommended by Guillet.
The first quenching should be from a temperature of 1000° C. (1830° F.). The second
heating should be to 749° C. (1380° F.), after which the quenching should take place
after the objects have cooled off to about 700° C. (1292° F.). A single quenching from
700° C. (1292° F.) gives the greatest hardness in the case but not the greatest tenacity
in the core. Quenching from 750° C. (1382° F.) gives a somewhat higher tenacity
but a slightly lower hardness in the case. A 6% nickel steel should be quenched in
the first instance from 850° C. (1562° F.), and after reheating from 675° C. (1247° F.).
Since this high nickel percentage almost completely prevents the brittleness of the
core, one quenching from about 700° C. (1292° F.) is in most cases sufficient.

Chrome Steel. — Steels with from 1 to 1.2% chromium are sometimes used when an
especially hard case is required. This element, however, aids the crystallization of
the core and the double quenching is, therefore, absolutely necessary. Chrome-nickel
steels with a low chromium content require about the same heat treatment as pure
nickel steels.

Carburizing Materials. — To convert the surface of wrought iron or mild steel into
hardening steel, the present practice is to pack the work in raw_bone, leather scrap,

[500]

CASE-HARDENING

wood charcoal, charred bone or charred leather. In general, the granulated bone may
be mixed with an equal bulk of granulated wood charcoal, the granules of each to be
of the same size, since should one be finer than the other the finer will settle to the
bottom and produce an uneven mixture. Carbon should exist chiefly as fixed carbon,
although it is essential that some hydrocarbons or nitrogenous matter be also present
to act as carriers of the carbon and to create a more active carburizing atmosphere
in the box.

Bone. — An analysis of bone yielded: 8.0% carbon; 25.5% volatile matter and
hydrocarbons; 3.5% nitrogen; 60% ash; 1.0% sulphur; 2.0% moisture = 100.0%.
Alumina, lime, and ammonia were included in the ash, as also 16.0% phosphoric acid.
Granulated bone as a carburizer is in common use, but raw bone does not work well
for articles that are comparatively weak, and which are to be subjected to strain;
raw bone is rich in phosphorus, and phosphorus causes brittleness in steel. Charred
bone is to be preferred because the fixed carbon is in a better state for carburizing
work.

Charred Leather.— 69.0% carbon; 15.2% volatile matter and hydrocarbons; 3.8%
nitrogen; 3.5% ash; 0.55 sulphur; 8.0% moisture = 100.05%. Alumina, lime, iron
and silica were present in the ash, as also 0.10% phosphoric acid. Charred leather
contains more fixed carbon than bone, but bone contains more volatile hydrocarbons;
the total carburizing matter for each of the respective compositions is practically:
Bone = 37%, charred leather, 88%. Sulphur when present in such a quantity as in
charred leather is likely to produce deteriorating effects. Charred leather is some-
times objected to as a case-hardening material because it works too actively; Guillet
recommends a mixture of 60 parts wood charcoal and 40 parts of barium carbonate,
as best to use.

Moisture, when present in amounts over 12%, causes a rough surface to be produced
on the work to be case-hardened. This action appears to be intensified by the presence
of sulphur.

Cyanides. — Carbon does not combine with nitrogen under ordinary circumstances.
If, however, they are brought together at very high temperatures in the presence of
metals, they combine to form compounds known as cyanides. When refuse animal
substances, such as blood, horns, claws, hair, etc., are heated together with potassium
carbonate, and iron, a substance known as potassium ferro-cyanide, or yellow prussiate of
potash, is formed. When this is heated it is decomposed, yielding potassium cyanide.
When this salt is treated with chlorine it is converted into potassium ferrocyanide, or
red prussiate of potash.

The Effect of Nitrogen (in combination as cyanogen) has been dealt with by recent
workers. Charpy, for example, made experiments in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide,
together with cyanides, and also in an atmosphere of the same gas, but devoid of nitro-
gen, the result of which indicated that the presence of cyanides was not essential in
case-hardening, and that the case-hardening is produced chiefly by the gases evolved
by the case^-hardening agents.

Carburizing Gas. — The effective power for case-hardening of the following gases,
illuminating gas, acetylene, and carbon monoxide, carried out experimentally with
each gas alone and also mixed with ammonia in definite amounts, showed that the
presence of ammonia facilitates case-hardening in all cases except that of carbon monox-
ide, which acts as well without it as with the ammonia treatment. Of the three gases
studied, the carburizing efficiency is in the following order: Carbon monoxide, acety-
lene, methane. Carbon monoxide appears to be the best for case-hardening, as no
ammonia seems necessary, and it gives the best penetration in the same time.

By this process the articles to be case-hardened are not packed but simply placed in
a cylindrical retort mounted within a suitable furnace, where the articles are heated
to, say, 816 to 982° C. (1500 to 1800° F.). Carburizing gas under pressure, 25 pounds
per square inch, or even higher, is then introduced and surface carburization of each
article begins. -The retort is slowly rotated to bring each article in contact with the
carburizing gas, the spent gas escaping from the retort according as the carburizing
gas is supplied at the other end under pressure.

This operation may be arrested at any point; the contents of the retort are per-

[501]

CASE-HARDENING

mitted to cool from the carburizing heat to a cherry red and then quenched in a cooling
bath, to be afterward tempered as desired.

Method of Case-Hardening. — An iron box is used in which the articles are packed
in carburizing material; these boxes are made from either cast iron, wrought iron,
or low-grade sheet steel. E. R. Markham states that after an experience of many
years he has used boxes made of cast iron almost exclusively and with uniformly good
results.

In packing a box with articles to be case-hardened, such as bolts, nuts, wrenches,
bushings, etc., there is first placed in the bottom of the box a layer of carburizing
material about one inch in depth; then a layer of the articles to be case-hardened;
the space between each article is to be closely packed with the carburizing material.
For small work, several pieces may be loosely wired together and spread out in the
packing; the wiring facilitates removal from the box after heating, preparatory to
quenching. After the first layer of work has been packed in the box and covered
with about an inch of carburizing material, another layer of work is similarly packed
and covered, and so on in alternate layers until the box is filled to within about an
inch of the top, including an inch layer of carburizer; the lid is then placed on top of
the carburizing material, the joint between the lid and the box being luted with fire-
clay or asbestos cement to prevent escape of gas from the carburizing material.

Heating. — The box packed and luted is now ready for the furnace, the temperature
of which should not greatly exceed 426° C. (800° F.). After placing one or more boxes
in the furnace the gas flame is increased, the furnace temperature is slowly raised to
the carburizing temperature, which may he between 816 to 982° C. (1500 to 1800° F.).
These temperatures should be by pyrometer readings only.

The length of time required to bring the box and its contents up to the furnace
temperature is often a matter of judgment based up n previous experience; it may
be two hours or more, but timing for carburizing is to begin when the contents of the
box have reached the carburizing temperature. After which, for small and medium
work, the box may remain in the furnace 4 to 8 hours, depending upon the depth of
hardening desired. Markham states that ordinarily carb n penetrates iron at the
rate of about Y% inch in 24 hours.

Case-Hardening Temperatures. — In an article in Le Genie Civil (1912), Dr. L. Guillet
states that for regular carbon steels the carburizing temperature should be about 850° C.
(1562° F.). After carburizing, the objects should be permitted to cool to about 590°
C. (1094° F.), or lower. They are then again heated and quenched from a temperature
of about 1025° C. (1875° F.) for refining the core, after which they are again heated
and quenched from a temperature of 750° C. (1380° F.) for the final hardening. The
quenching in both cases is done in water.

Withdrawal test wires are useful in approximating temperatures in the box; these
are simply stiff wires passing through the side of box and into the carburizing material.
When it is desired to know the temperature of the contents, one of the wires is with-
drawn without disturbing the box in the furnace; the color of the wire will give a close
approximation of temperature, thus a medium cherry red indicates a temperature of
about 677° C. (1250° F.), too low for case-hardening; a bright cherry red indicates a
temperature of about 800° C. (1500° F.), a good temperature for small and medium
work. Carburization is not effective at temperatures below 760° C. (1400° F.), a
full cherry red. The pyrometer will give the temperature of the furnace at the time
of the withdrawal of the wire. When the proper temperature has been reached it can
be maintained through manipulation of the fuel supply. Uniformity in furnace tem-
perature is of the greatest importance, too high a temperature, or a variable temperature
promotes crystallization in the central portion of the work, making it brittle.

Quenching. — In a trade catalogue relating to case-hardening furnaces, it is recom-
mended that the boxes taken from the furnace, the covers having been removed, the
hardened parts should be dumped upon a perforated screen so that the hardening
material shall not adhere to the pieces when they are raked into the water for quench-
ing. The case-hardening material drops through the screen into a can or box placed
under it. When this material dries it may be used again, if mixed with fresh material.
The screen should be near the shelf of the furnace, at an angle of about 45 degrees,

[502]

CASE-HARDENING

and attached to the water tank into which the carburized pieces are raked. A jet
of cold water should be opened into the tank at the bottom whenever a box is about
to be removed from the furnace. A blast of cold air into the water near the bottom
of the tank is also an aid.

Cooling and Reheating. — If the work to be hardened consists of bolts, nuts, screws,
etc., it is satisfactory to dump them into water directly from the furnaces, without any
reheating, but in more important hardening the boxes should be allowed to cool down
with the work in them, after which they are reheated and hardened in water. The
reheating refines the grain of the steel and prevents the formation of a distinct line
between the outer hardened case and the soft core.

A still more refined method of case-hardening is to repack the work, after it has been
carburized, in old bone, and after heating for two or three hours take it out and dip
the pieces in the hardening tank directly as they come from the boxes. This will
produce a very fine grain and in many cases prevent warping. If the work is large
and it is required to toughen the inner core, it should be reheated to a higher heat
than otherwise; than, after dipping, reheat again to 1500 or 1600° F. according to the
size of the work, and redip.

Gears and other parts which should be tough, but not glass hard, should preferably
be hardened in an oil bath. There is then less liability of warping the work, and the
hardened product will stand shocks and severe stresses without breakage. Cotton-
seed oil is the best hardening medium to be used in this case. — R. H. Grant.

Case-Hardening Mixture. — The following formula is in use at the Juniata Shops
of the Pennsylvania R.R. Co.

11 pounds prussiate of potash.
30 pounds sal soda.
20 pounds coarse salt.
6 bushels powdered charcoal (hickory preferred).

The whole is mixed thoroughly, using about 30 quarts of water in the mixing; the
above quantity is sufficient to harden three boxes of material containing the following
parts: 2 links, 2 link blocks, 2 link-block pins, 2 valve-rod pins, 4 knuckle-joint
pins, and 24 gibs for spring rigging.

The box required to hold these parts measures 40 inches long, 16 inches wide, and
12 inches deep. In packing, the bottom of the box is covered to a depth of 2 inches
with the compound; the parts to be hardened are placed solidly, so that the compound
is in contact with the bottom surface of the work; care is taken that the work does
not touch the sides of the box or other pieces in the box. After the first layer of the
material is placed, it is covered on all sides and on the top with the compound, and
is solidly packed. After which the same process may be repeated, being sure to have
sufficient compound between the two layers to prevent contact. There should not be
less than 2 inches of compound on top of the last layer. The lid which fits inside the
box is then thoroughly sealed with a luting of fire-clay.

When in the furnace, the box rests on rollers to allow the flames to pass under it.
The furnace is kept at a bright red heat, but not hot enough to scale or blister the work;
the time required to harden them properly is fourteen hours; then quenched in an
overflowing tank supplied with cold water.

The Cyanide Process of Case- Hardening. — Pure cyanide of potassium, when melted
in a crucible furnace, furnishes a rapid method for case-hardening large quantities of
thin machinery steel parts. By this method the pieces to be hardened are placed in a
wire basket, and when the cyanide has been melted, the basket containing the work
is lowered into the liquid and left for a short time — sometimes twenty minutes — depend-
ing on the depth of the case required. The pieces are then dumped into a bath of cold
water.

While this method is very rapid and uniform, it is objectionable because cyanide
of potassium is a deadly poison, and when it is used, the furnace must always be con-
nected with the chimney so that the fumes can be carried away. The furnace is almost
identical with the single crucible furnace, but is made low for convenience in placing
a sheet-iron hood on top when used for cyanide hardening. The pot is of cast iron

[503]

CASE-HARDENING

or pressed steel, gas is used for fuel, the cyanide can be raised to the desired tempera-
ture quickly and kept there with little attention on the part of the operator.

Case-Hardening for Colors. — In order to produce colors on iron and steel it is
necessary that the surfaces be polished, and usually the finer the polish the better
the colors. The metal must be entirely free from grease and dirt.

Certain carbonaceous materials will not produce colors. Raw bone is not used,
neither is prussiate of potash; but cyanide of potassium works satisfactorily; charred
bone produces a nicely colored surface, while charred leather is one of the best agents
for this purpose. Any carbonizer that is to be used for colored work must be kept
clean and dry, since moisture will generate steam and prevent good results.

When articles must have a deeply hardened, colored surface, it is necessary to
undergo several operations. Markham suggests a large hexagon nut, as an example,
in which the depth of penetration is specified, and that the walls of the hole must not
be hard, so that threads can be cut after the nut is hardened.

The nuts must be packed in coarse granulated bone, run for a period of ten to twelve
hours and allowed to cool in the box. Then repack in the same manner and run for
the same length of time. After cooling they are repacked in charred bone, to which
is added a small amount of charred leather, and run for three or four hours after they
become red-hot. While the first two carbonizing heats are fairly high, viz., a high
red or low yellow, the last heat which is to produce colors must be a low red. After
they have been in the fire the proper length of time, remove them one at a time and
harden in a bath of clear water.

To cause the walls of the holes to be soft, each of the nuts is to be provided with
two plates of such size as to protect the top and bottom surfaces of the nut .around the
holes for a distance equal to the depth of thread.

It is necessary to work quickly when handling pieces that are to be colored, as
exposure to the air for any great length of time will prevent colors; the oxygen in the
air attacks the surfaces and causes oxidation. When comparatively small pieces are
to be colored, and the penetration need not be deep, the articles may be packed in
charred bone, charred leather, or a mixture of the two, run at a low red until the proper
penetration is insured, the.n dumped direct into the bath.

When large quantities of work are to be colored, a bath having a continuous water
supply from a pipe at the bottom, together with a jet of air introduced with the water,
gives good results. If the work comes in contact with air before entering the water,
good colors cannot be produced; but air in the water tends to produce better colors
than can be obtained without it.

Cyanide Coloring. — The method frequently employed consists in melting cyanide
of potassium in a cast-iron crucible, suspending the articles in the cyanide, which is at
red heat. The articles are allowed to remain there until they attain a low red, when
they are removed, one at a time, and dipped into an overflowing bath of clear water.

It is sometimes desirable to color surfaces, and yet not have the pieces hardened.
This may be accomplished by what is commercially termed 50% fused cyanide, and if
stock is used that will not harden of itself, beautifully colored soft surfaces result.
The treatment is exactly the same as where the regular commercial cyanide is used.
The use of the fused cyanide is recommended where the pieces must be straightened
or bent to some desired form after coloring.

[504]

SECTION 9

NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Non-ferrous alloys used in engineering work are commonly divided into three
classes: (1) Bronzes or alloys consisting chiefly of copper and tin, though sometimes
containing small proportions of other metals and non-metals in combination. Thus,
gun metal originally consisted of 90% copper and 10% tin; the later alloys contain
about 88% copper; 10% tin; 2% zinc, with perhaps a small percentage of iron and of
lead. A bronze is sometimes given the name of an added element which imparts a
special quality to the alloy, for example: Phosphor-bronze is ordinary bronze to which
phosphorus has been added either as phosphor-copper or phosphor-tin. Manganese
bronze is an alloy of bronze and ferro-manganese. Silicon bronze is an alloy of copper
and tin containing silicon. Alloys with about 9.0% tin show the greatest strength of
all bronzes, and alloys with about 15.0% tin possess the greatest hardness and strength.

(2) Brasses or alloys consisting chiefly of copper and zinc; most varieties, however,
contain other metals, such as lead, tin, and iron. The English standard brass consists
of 66.6% copper; 33.4% zinc. The normal composition of brass for the United States
Navy is 62% copper; 1% tin; 37% zinc, with which are also incorporated small per-
centages of iron (0.06%) and lead (0.3%) as a maximum. The physical properties
of brass vary according to the relative quantities of copper and zinc, that alloy con-
taining about 28.5% zinc showing the greatest strength. Complex brasses are copper-
zinc alloys to which other constituents have been purposely added, for example: brass
with lead; brass with tin; brass with manganese; brass with aluminum, etc.

Nickel alloys form a class distinct from ordinary bronzes and brasses. A com-
position of copper, nickel, and zinc widely used in the arts is commonly known as
German silver, sometimes as nickel silver. German silver is superior to brass, as regards
strength, hardness, and power of resisting chemical influences. For engineering use
the United States Navy composition is 64% copper; 20% zinc; 16% nickel. For
commercial use: 46% copper; 34% nickel; 20% zinc is considered the best.

(3) White metals for bearings commonly known as anti-friction metals include in
their composition copper, tin, antimony, zinc, and lead. The alloys, however, seldom
consist of more than three metals; of the alloys containing copper, Babbitt metal is
probably the best known. The following formula has been attributed to him: Melt
together 4 pounds copper ; 8 pounds antimony; 24 pounds tin; this is called the harden-
ing compound. For each pound of the hardening compound add 2 pounds additional of
tin. A good alloy for low pressures and medium speeds consists of: 6.0% tin; 16.0%
antimony; 78.0% lead. An alloy for light pressures and slow speeds may consist of
10.0% antimony; 90.0% lead. The melting point of each of the above anti-friction
metals is below red head; they can be readily melted in an iron ladle in an ordinary
forge fire.

NON-FERROUS METALS

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not partake of the nature of iron. The
metals have been conveniently grouped by chemists according to their base-forming
propei ties; this grouping is too elaborate for our present purpose; we have therefore
shortened it somewhat as follows, limiting the groups to the non-ferrous metals used in
engineering:

Copper Group. — Copper, Cu. Atomic weight, 63.6. Specific gravity, 8.93 = 551
pounds per cubic foot = 0.321 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.093. Melting
point, 1083° C. (1981.5° F.). Tenacity, 27,800 pounds per square inch. Fracture,
fibrous; color, red.

[505]

NON-FERROUS METALS

Mercury. — Symbol Hg. Atomic weight, 200.6. Specific gravity, 13.59 = 848
pounds per cubic foot = 0.491 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.032. It is liquid
at ordinary temperatures. It unites with most metals forming amalgams.

Lead. — Symbol Pb. Atomic weight, 207.1. Specific gravity, 11.37 = 708 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.410 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.031. Melting point,
327.4° C. (621.1° F.). Tenacity varies, averages about 2,000 pounds per square inch.
Color a bluish-gray.

Bismuth. — Symbol B. Atomic weight, 208.0. Specific gravity, 9.80 = 612 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.354 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.031. Melting point,
271° C. (520° F.). Color, grayish white. It has the property of expanding in the act
of solidifying. This metal is used in the preparation of fusible alloys.

Tin Group. — Tin, Sn. Atomic weight, 119.0. Specific gravity, 7.29 = 455 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.263 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.055. Melting point,
231.9° C. (449.4° F.). Tenacity, 3,500 pounds per square inch. Fracture fibrous. Color,
-grayish white. Tin is an inferior conductor of heat and electricity.

Antimony. — Symbol, Sb. Atomic weight, 120.2. Specific gravity, 6.71 = 418
pounds per cubic foot = 0.242 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.051. Melting
point, 630° C. (1166° F.). It can be distilled at white heat. When heated to a suffi-
ciently high temperature in the air it takes fire and burns. Ordinary commercial
antimony is often very impure, containing iron, lead, arsenic, and sulphur, and is called
" regulus of antimony." It is hard and brittle, has a silver-white color, and a high
metallic luster.

Arsenic. — Symbol, As. Atomic weight, 75.0. Specific gravity, 5.67 = 353 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.0204 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.081. Melting point,
850° C. (1560° F.). It can be volatilized without melting. At red heat it burns with
a bluish flame, and the vapor given off has the odor of garlic. The metal has a brilliant,
dark steel-gray color, and metallic luster. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

Iron Group. — Iron, Fe. Atomic weight, 55.8. Specific gravity, 7.86 = 490 pounds
per cubic foot = 284 pounds per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.110. Melting point,
1520° C. (2768° F.). Iron is now included in the composition of many of the brass
alloys because it imparts to the resultant metal increased hardness, elasticity, and
tenacity, important examples of which are Sterro metal; Aich's metal; Delta metal;
Admiralty metal; and nearly all the brass for the United States Navy.

The constitution of the iron brasses has not been sufficiently investigated, but
when present in small amounts the iron enters into the alloy in the form of a solid
solution and does not form, according to Law, definite chemical compounds. When
more than about 2% of iron is present a compound of iron and zinc is formed.

Ferro- manganese. — Iron and manganese will combine in nearly all proportions up
to 80% manganese, or even higher. Mr. P. M. Parsons, in developing his manganese
bronze, melted the ferro-manganese in a separate crucible, which was added to the
copper when in a melted state. The effect of this combination is similar to that pro-
duced by the addition of ferro-manganese to the decarburized iron, in a Bessemer con-
verter; the manganese in a metallic state having a great affinity for oxygen cleanses
the copper of any oxides it may contain, by combining with them and rising to the
surface in the form of slag, which renders the metal dense and homogeneous. A por-
tion of the manganese is utilized in this manner, and the remainder, with the iron, becomes
permanently combined with the copper, improving and modifying the quality of the
alloys, afterward prepared from the copper thus treated.

Manganese. — Symbol, Mn. Atomic weight, 55. Specific gravity, 8.00 = 499
pounds per cubic foot = 0.289 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.120. Melting
point, 1225° C. (2237° F.). This metal is obtained principally by the reduction of
black oxide of manganese; the resultant metal being in appearance similar to cast
iron; it is hard and brittle; it easily oxidizes and must therefore be excluded from the
air. It is used as a constituent of some useful alloys, notably iron, steel, and copper.

The important qualities of manganese bronze consist in adding the manganese in
its metallic state, in the form of ferro-manganese, to the copper, by which the copper is
cleansed from oxides. The amount of manganese required for deoxidizing the copper
and for permanent combination with it, having been ascertained by .experience, very

[506]

NON-FERROUS METALS

slight variations in quantity have a perceptible and ascertained effect in modifying the
qualities of alloys produced; thus, toughness can be increased, and hardness diminished,
or vice versa, at will.

In preparing the ferro-manganese for use, that which is rich in manganese con-
taining, say, from 50 to 60%, is preferred; this is melted with a certain proportion of
the best wrought-iron scrap, so as to bring down the manganese to the various pro-
portions required.

Nickel. — Symbol, Ni. Atomic weight, 58.7. Specific gravity, 8.8 = 549 pounds
per cubic foot = 0.318 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.108. Melting point,
1452° C. (2646° F.). Nickel is a white metal with a slight cast of yellow. In its ordi-
nary or unrefined condition it is brittle, due to the presence of iron, copper, silicon,
sulphur, arsenic, and carbon, but when it contains a small quantity of magnesium
or phosphorus it becomes malleable. The magnesium is supposed to reduce the
occluded carbonic oxide CO, forming magnesia, and to cause the carbon to separate out
as graphite. Aluminum is now generally used instead of magnesium in refining nickel.
Nickel unites readily with most metals forming valuable industrial alloys. Argentan
or German silver is an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel: The proportions for the United
States Navy are 64% copper; 20% zinc; 16% nickel. Benedict nickel is 84 to 86%
copper; 16 to 14% nickel.

Cobalt. — Symbol, Co. Atomic weight, 59. Specific gravity varies, but averages
8.50 = 530 pounds per cubic foot = 0.307 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.103.
Melting point, 1490° C. (2714° F.). The boiling point is said to be 2200° C. (3992° F.),
It is a hard, tenacious metal of silver- white color, occurring in nature, almost always
in company with nickel, and, like nickel, preferably forms compounds which are analo-
gous to ferrous compounds.

Alloying aluminum with 9 to 12% cobalt improves its properties, but it is still
deficient in mechanical strength owing to the coarse crystalline structure. This defect
can be overcome by addition of a small proportion of tungsten or molybdenum, yielding
alloys having a tensile strength three times that of pure aluminum. The best results
are said to be obtained with: 0.8 to 1.2% tungsten; 8.0 to 10.0% cobalt; or 0.6 to 1.0%
molybdenum; 9.0 to 10.0% cobalt. The forging and rolling qualities diminish and the
tensile strength increases with increasing content of tungsten (or molybdenum) and
cobalt. The alloys containing tungsten are somewhat harder than those containing
molybdenum.

Zinc Group. — Zinc, Zn. Atomic weight, 65.4. Specific gravity is not constant,
averages about 7.15 = 446 pounds per cubic foot = 0.258 pound per cubic inch. Specific
heat, 0.094. Melting point, 419.4° C. (786.9° F.). Its boiling point is variously placed
at 906 to 1040° C. (1663 to 1904° F.). It has a highly crystalline structure and at
ordinary temperatures is quite brittle. The chief impurities are iron, lead, and arsenic.

Experiments made in Belgium to ascertain the effects of foreign metals on the
rolling of zinc showed cadmium to be harmful if above 0.25%, while with 0.5% rolling
is impossible. Arsenic present in 0.02% markedly increases the hardness, and with
0.03% the metal is too brittle for practical purposes. Antimony is less objectionable
than arsenic, as 0.07% does not increase the hardness; but 0.02% is enough to pro-
duce a striated surface on the rolled sheet, which makes it unsalable. Tin is objec-
tionable when over 0.01% and prohibitive at 0.03%. Copper does not harden until it
reaches 0.08% and with 0.19% the zinc is unworkable. A permissible maximum of1
iron is 0.12%, but this is easily reduced in refining. Though 1% to 1.25% of lead does
not interfere with the rolling, a slight increase not only seriously affects the malleability,
but the excess of lead remains unalloyed and forms patches on the sheet. The presence
of two or more impurities Ltogether results in a combination of injurious effects of
each.

Cadmium. — Symbol, Cd. Atomic weight, 112.4. Specific gravity, 8.60 = 537
pounds per cubic foot = 0.311 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.056. Melting
point, 320.9° C. (609.6° F.). It is more volatile than zinc; its boiling point is 766° C.
(1411° F.). In color it is tin-white; structure, fibrous; it is harder than tin. As cadmium
occurs in zinc ores it is frequently found in commercial spelter, to which it imparts a
fine grain; it is not at all injurious, however; according to some authorities it im-

[507]

ALKALINE-EARTHY METALS

proves brass. The metal is chiefly used for making fusible alloys, and is a constituent
of some aluminum solders.

Magnesium. — Symbol, Mg. Atomic weight, 24.3. Specific gravity, 1.74 = 107
pounds per cubic foot = 0.062 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0 250 Melting
point, 651° C. (1204° F.). It is said to boil at 1120° C. (2048° F.). When heated above
its melting point in oxygen or in the air, it takes fire and burns with a bright flame.
The metal is of a brilliant white color, but tarnishes when exposed to moist air. At a
temperature of 450° C. (842° F.) it can be rolled and worked into a variety of forms.
It is sometimes used as an alloy with aluminum.

Magnesium, even in small percentages, improves the mechanical properties of
aluminum. The following table indicates to what extent:

STRENGTH OF ALUMINUM — MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
L. Mach

Magnesium
in Alloy,
Description

2 PER CENT

4 PER CENT

6 PER CENT

10 "PER CENT

Tensile
Strength,
Pounds
per Sq. In.

Elon-
gation

%

Tensile
Strength,
Pounds
per Sq. In.

Elon-
gation

%

Tensile
Strength,
Pounds
per Sq. In.

Elon-
gation

%

Tensile
Strength,
Pounds
per Sq. In.

Elon-
gation

%

Cast in sand

17,900
28,600

40,000
25,600
41,300

3.0
2.0

1.0
18.0

2.7

21,400
33,600

61,100

2.4
3.4

4.2

Cast in chills

28,600

28,700
44,900

2.0

8.0
2.1

Castings, water
chilled

57,600

28,100
44,100

1.0
17.0
1.0

Annealed sheet . . .
Hard sheet

Aluminum. — Symbol, Al. Atomic weight, 27.1. Specific gravity, 2.56 = 160
pounds per cubic foot = 0.092 pound per cubic inch. Specific heat, 0.218. Melting
point, 658.7° C. (1217.7° F.). Its boiling point is about 1800° C. (3272° F.). It is a
white metal, soft, malleable, and ductile, it flows easily under pressure and can be
rolled, hammered, and stamped. The ultimate tensile strength of unworked castings
is about 15,000 pounds per square inch, with an elastic limit of about one-half that
amount.

Aluminum alloys are largely employed in the manufacture of automobiles and
aeroplanes. Owing to its low tensile strength the usefulness of aluminum has not
widely extended into the heavier class of engineering work except as an alloy in the
various bronzes, brasses, and white metals.

ALKALINE-EARTHY METALS

The metals calcium, barium, and strontium are called the metals of the alkaline
earths. Calcium, Ca: Calcium is found in nature in the form of carbonates, as lime-
stone, marble, chalk. It also occurs in the form of sulphate as gypsum; in the form
of phosphate, of which bones contain a large proportion; calcium fluoride occurs as
fluor-spar, much used in metallurgical operations, as it melts readily and does not act
upon other substances easily, serving as a liquid medium in which reactions take place
at high temperatures; when used for this purpose it is called a flux.

Barium, Ba. Barium sulphate is known to mineralogists as barite, barytes, and
heavy spar. Barite is chiefly used for paint in place of white lead and zinc white. The
metal is obtained through electrolysis of the molten chloride of barium; its only use
is for experimental purposes in the laboratory.

Strontium, Sr. A pale yellow metal known chiefly through its salts. It occurs
in nature in the form of sulphate, as celestite, also in the form of carbonate, as stron-
tianite. Strontium metal is isolated by the action of an electric current on the molten

[508]

NON-METALS

chloride. It is oxidized by contact with the air; it decomposes water rapidly with
evolution of hydrogen. Strontium nitrate, Sr (NO3)2, is made for the purpose of pre-
paring a mixture known as Bengal-fire, which burns with a brilliant red light.

ALKALI METALS

These include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium.

Sodium, Na. Atomic weight, 23. Specific gravity, 0.97. Specific heat, 0.290.
Melting point, 97.5° C. (207.5° F.). It volatilizes, forming a dark blue vapor. Sodium
is used for the preparation of aluminum, magnesium, boron, and silicon. It is also
used, in combination with mercury, as sodium amalgam.

Potassium. — Symbol, K. Atomic weight, 39.1. Specific gravity, 0.86. Specific
heat, 0.170. Melting point, 62.3° C. (144° F.). It decomposes water with evolution of
hydrogen which burns in the air; in consequence of this action upon water it can not
be kept in the air, but under some oil, as petroleum, upon which it does not act. Potas-
sium cyanide is used as a flux because of the readiness with which it reduces many
metallic compounds when mixed with carbonate of soda.

NON-METALS

The non-metals commonly met with in the manufacture of non-ferrous alloys are:

Boron, B. — This non-metal belongs to the same family as aluminum, but it differs
from it in that its oxide is acidic, while that of aluminum is basic. It is used as a de-
oxider for copper, with which it does not combine. When heated boron loses all its
hydrogen in the form of water, and boric oxide or boron trioxide, is left. By melting
aluminum and boron trioxide together at a high temperature, the latter is reduced,
and the boron thus formed is dissolved in the molten aluminum, from which, on cooling,
it is deposited in crystals.

Carbon, C. — A non-metallic element distinguished by the large number of the
compounds into which it enters. Uncombined, it occurs in nature as diamond and as
graphite. In the latter form it is used in the manufacture of crucibles, because of its
infusibility and its non-tendency to form fusibl • slags with acid or basic substances.
It will combine with oxygen at high temperatures and form carbon dioxid.e, or carbon
monoxide, but it will not melt, nor will it vaporize. The abstraction of oxygen from
compounds by means of carbon may be illustrated in the case of powdered copper
oxide when mixed with powdered charcoal, and the mixture heated in a tube, carbon
dioxide is given off and the copper is left behind. Charcoal and coke are nearly pure
carbon with a little earthy matter, which is left as ash after burning.

Hydrogen, H. — This is the lightest substance known; in relation to other gases its
specific gravity is 1.000. It differs from other non-metals in not generally uniting
with metals to form compounds. A number of metals have the power to absorb a
large quantity of hydrogen when they are heated to red heat in the gas; thus palladium,
which under the most favorable conditions takes up something more than 935 times
its own volume of hydrogen. Aluminum has a marked capacity for occluding
hydrogen gas.

Lime, Calcium oxide, CaO. — Lime is made from calcium carbonate or limestone by
burning in a kiln, expelling its contained moisture and carbon dioxide, leaving as a
product lime an infusible compound strongly basic in character but capable of forming
a fusible compound with silica and other acid bodies. When limestone is properly
burned it becomes the quicklime of commerce. Hydrated lime is prepared by slacking
the quicklime in water, thoroughly incorporating the lime and water into a paste, which
may be dried and powdered for the market. As a flux, lime combines with silica and
the silicates, and is useful in counteracting the effects of sulphur and phosphorus.

Nitrogen, N. — Nitrogen does not combine with any element except at a very high
temperature. It does not support combustion. In the air it serves the useful purpose
of diluting the oxygen; the two gases are not chemically combined, simply mixed.
Nitrogen is found in combination in a large number of substances in nature, among
which are potassium nitrate, K NOs, commonly known as niter or saltpeter, largely

[509]

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

used as an oxidizing agent; potassium cyanide, KCN, used as a ftux on account of the
facility with which it fuses, and the readiness with which it reduces many metallic
compounds when mixed with carbonate of soda. The limit of reduction of nitrogen
compounds is ammonia, NH3, and of oxidation, nitric acid, HNO3.

Oxygen, O. — Under suitable conditions as to temperature oxygen will combine
with all known elements except fluorine. When its action is rapid and accompanied
by an evolution of heat and light the process is called combustion; when the combina-
tion.takes place slowly without evolution of light the process is called oxidation. The
compounds of oxygen with other elements are called oxides, the name of the element
with which the oxygen is combined being prefixed, as iron oxide, zinc oxide, etc. An
oxide which forms an acid when dissolved in water is called an acidic oxide, such as
carbonic acid, silica; an oxide of a base-forming element when dissolved in water will
form a basic oxide, such as calcium oxide, potassium oxide, etc. Acidic oxides are
chiefly oxides of the non-metals; basic oxides are chiefly oxides of the metals. Water
is the connecting link between the oxygen acids and bases.

Phosphorus, P. — A soft yellowish-white non-metallic element having a powerful
affinity for oxygen. It is obtained from the animal kingdom, as from bones, and from
the mineral kingdom, as from calcium phosphate. It combines with oxygen in two
proportions, forming oxides of phosphorus; one of these oxides unites with bases forming
phosphates. When it occurs in a metal it is usually as a phosphide, but the occurrence
in the slag from any metal is as a phosphate. Phosphorus unites both with copper
and tin, forming the alloys known as phosphor-copper and phosphor-tin. As a deoxidizer
the action of phosphorus in copper is to reduce any oxide present, forming an oxide of
phosphorus, which, by reason of its acid character, combines with any basic metallic
oxides also present, forming phosphates, and these pass into the slag, the immediate
effect of which is to give the molten metal greater fluidity; it is thus conducive to sound
castings.

Plaster of Paris. Calcium Sulphate, CaSO4. — The principal natural variety of
this mineral is gypsum, which, when heated to 100° C. (212° F.), or a little above it,
loses nearly all its water and forms a powder known as plaster of Paris. It has been
used with success as a flux when melting washings, grindings, etc., in brass foundry
practice; its action upon this almost refuse material is to dissolve the foreign matter
in the crucible, passing it into the slag, and leaving a comparatively clean molten metal
at the bottom of the crucible.

Silicon, Si. — This mineral occurs chiefly in the form of silica SiO2, as quartz or as
common sand; it also occurs in combination with oxygen and several of the common
metallic elements, such as sodium, potassium, aluminum, and calcium as silicates.
Silica is a slag forming substance, and is therefore much used as a flux. The action of
silicon on copper is that of a deoxidizer and as a flux in the removal of metallic oxides
during the process of melting. Some of the silicon enters into combination with the
copper-forming cupro-silicon; the quantity is not large, but it has the effect to increase
the tensile strength of copper-tin alloys; such alloys are known as silicon-bronzes.

Sulphur, S. — A pale yellow non-metallic crystalline element which combines readily
with most metals forming compounds called sulphides which are analogous to the
oxides. WTien heated together with copper, or lead, a combination takes place with
evolution of heat and light. Sulphur will combine with copper, forming cuprous sulphide,
Cu2S; it will also combine as cupric sulphide, CuS; when heated, cupric sulphide loses
half its sulphur, and is converted into cuprous sulphide. The principal form (galena)
in which lead occurs in nature is sulphide, Pbs. The litharge of commerce is lead
oxide PbO; when this is heated with sulphides, sulphurous acid is volatilized and an
alloy of the metal with lead is formed. Sulphur, present as an impurity in metals to be
made into alloys, has a reducing effect and assists the reducer in the flux.

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

The properties of alloys in general, as given below, are an abstract from the Report
of the United States Board to test iron, steel, and other metals, of which R. H. Thurston
was chairman.

[510]

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

Physical Properties of an Alloy. — It is impossible to predict from the character of
two metals what will be the character of an alloy formed from given proportions of
each. In most cases, however, it will be found that the hardness, tenacity, and fusi-
bility will be greater than the mean of the same properties in the constituents, and
sometimes greater than in either, the ductility is usually less, and the specific gravity
is sometimes greater and sometimes less.

It is not a matter of indifference in what order the metals are melted in making an
alloy. Thus, if we combine 90 parts of tin and 10 of copper, and to this alloy add
10 of antimony; and if we combine 10 parts of antimony with 10 of copper, and add to
that alloy 90 parts of tin, we shall have two alloys chemically the same, but in other
respects — fusibility, tenacity, etc. — they totally differ.

Chemical Nature of Alloys. — Metals in forming alloys are governed by the greater
affinities which some of them manifest for each other; this in some measure proves that
alloys are not mechanical mixtures, but definite chemical compounds.

Matthiessen experimented on upwards of 250 alloys, all made of purified metals.
The results of his investigations may be summed up in the following classification of the
solid alloys, composed of two metals, according to their chemical nature:

1. Solidified Solutions of One Metal in Another. — The lead-tin, cadmium-tin,
zinc-tin, lead-cadmium, and zinc-cadmium alloys.

2. Solidified Solutions of One Metal in the Allotropic Modification of Another.—
The lead-bismuth, tin-bismuth, tin-copper, zinc-copper, lead-silver, and tin-silver
alloys.

3. Solidified Solutions of Allotropic Modifications of the Metals in Each Other.—
The bismuth-gold, bismuth-silver, palladium-silver, platinum-silver, gold-copper, and
gold-silver alloys.

4. Chemical Combinations. — The alloys whose composition is represented by
SnsAu, Sn2Au, and Au2Sn.

5. Solidified Solutions of Chemical Combinations in One Another. — The alloys whose
composition lies between SnsAu and Sn2Au, and Sn3Au and Au-2Sn.

6. Mechanical Mixtures of Solidified Solutions of One Metal in Another.— The
alloys of lead and zinc, when mixture contains more than 1.2% lead or 1.6% zinc.

7. Mechanical Mixtures of Solidified Solutions of One Metal in the Allotropic
Modification of the Other. — The alloys of zinc and bismuth, when the mixture con-
tains more than 14% zinc, or 2.4% bismuth.

8. Mechanical Mixtures of Solidified Solutions of the Allotropic Modifications of
the Two Metals in One Another. — Most of the silver-copper alloys.

Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity of an alloy is rarely the mean between the
densities of each of its constituents. It is sometimes greater and sometimes less, indi-
cating, in the former case an approximation, and in the latter case a separation of the
particles from each other in the process of alloying. The specific gravity of an alloy
should not be calculated from the weights, but should always be calculated from the
volume. The correct rule for this purpose is that given in lire's Dictionary of Arts,
Manufactures, and Mines, which is: Multiply the sum of the weights into the products
of the two specified gravity numbers for a numerator, and multiply each specific gravity
number into the weight of the other body and add the products for a denominator. The
quotient obtained by dividing the said numerator by the denominator is the truly
computed mean specific gravity of the alloy.

(W - w) Pp
Pw-pW

where M is the mean specific gravity of the alloy, W and w the weights, and P and p
the specific gravities of the constituent metals.

The following list of alloys whose density is greater or less than the mean of their
constituents, is given by several writers: Alloys, the density of which is greater than
the mean of their constituents: Copper and zinc; copper and tin; copper and bismuth ;
lead and antimony; platinum and molybdenum. Alloys, the density of which is less
than the mean of their constituents: Iron and bismuth; iron and antimony; iron
and lead; tin and lead; nickel and arsenic; zinc and antimony,

[511]

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

Fusibility. — In nearly all cases the fusing point of an alloy is lower than the mean
of its constituent metals, and in some instances, as in the so-called fusible alloys, it is
lower than that of either. The cause of this fact has not been definitely ascertained.
Matthiessen says that the low fusing points admit of explanation by assuming that
chemical attraction between the two metals comes into play as soon as the temperature
rises, and the moment the smallest portions melt, then the actual chemical compound
is formed which fuses at the lowest temperature, and then acts as a solvent for the
particles next to it, and so promotes the combination of the metals where this can take
place.

Liquation. — Many of the alloys exhibit the phenomena of liquation, or separation
of the mass of melted metal in the act of solidification into two or more alloys of dif-
ferent composition. The resulting alloy or mixtures of alloys are consequently deficient
in homogeneity. The causes of this separation are as yet but imperfectly understood.
Bronze alloys, such as gun-metal, are said to have liquation diminished by rapid cooling.
When the mass is cooled slowly, bronze castings often show in the interior what are
called spots of tin, but what are really spots of a white alloy of copper and tin, con-
taining a larger percentage of tin than the average of the whole casting.

Specific Heat. — M. Regnault determined the specific heat of two classes of alloys:
First, those which at 100° C. (212° F.) are considerably removed from their fusing points;
and, secondly, those which fuse at or near 100° C. (212° F.). The specific heats of the
first series were remarkably near to that calculated from the specific heats of the com-
ponent metals, so that he announced the following law:

The specific heat of the alloys at temperatures, considerably removed from their
fusing point, is exactly the mean of the specific heats of the metals which compose them.
The mean specific heat of the component metals is that obtained by multiplying the
specific heat of each metal by the percentage amount of the metal contained in the
alloy and dividing the sum of the products for each alloy by 100.

Eutectic Alloys. — When a molten alloy of two or more metals cools to solidification
it does not do so as a whole, at a definite temperature, but one of the metals will solidify
first, separating itself from the more fusible alloy or metal, which afterward solidifies
at a lower temperature. This separation effects a change in the composition of the
remaining alloy, if the original alloy consisted of three metals; or the liquid metal
remaining, if it consisted originally of two metals; the separation in either case con-
tinues only on a falling temperature. The ratios in which the constituent metals unite
to form the alloy possessing the lowest melting-point are never atomic ratios, and when
metals do unite in atomic ratios the alloy produced is never eutectic, that is, it does
not have a minimum solidifying point.

The term eutectic has been specifically applied to a mixture of metals in such pro-
portions that the fusing point is lower than that of either of the constituents themselves.
Alloys are always regarded as eutectic compounds.

The mechanical properties of eutectic alloys are dependent on the manner in which
the component crystals are interlocked. In some eutectics neither constituent exhibits
definite crystal outlines, while in others the crystalline arrangement is due to one of the
constituents. This is the case in alloys of copper and antimjedy in which the antimony
determines the crystalline arrangement, and it would seem to be associated with the
power possessed by some substances of forming crystal skeletons rather than small
crystals. C. H. Desch found that free antimony is able to form fern-like growths, and
in the presence of excess of antimony. The eutectic structure has a definite orienta-
tion to these crystals. In the copper-silver alloys, and hi copper containing oxygen
the small red-like crystallites are rounded. This is considered to be due to the action
of surface tension at the time of solidification.

Occlusion. — The gas-absorbing power of molten copper increases, in general, with
the temperature up to a certain point, also with increasing purity of the metal; the
presence of platinum or nickel has a favorable influence on the absorption. The
disintegration of copper, which takes place during solidification, has been traced to
occluded sulphur dioxide SO2, which is formed by oxidation of the sulphur present, and
given up during solidification. Up to 1500° C. (2732° F.) the absorption increases with
the temperature. The fact that the gas causes the metal to " spit " and become spongy

[512]

THE POROSITY OF BRASS CASTINGS

during solidification, and that a considerable quantity of gas is still retained in the
cold metal, shows that absorption and not adsorption effects are concerned. Sulphur
dioxide does not diffuse through solid copper below 1000° C. (1832° F.). Estimations
of the lowering of freezing point produced by the oxide and sulphide show that the com-
pounds occur as copper sulphide and cuprous oxide, and that their solubilities are more
than sufficient to account for the absorption of sulphur dioxide by decomposition and
chemical reaction.

Oxygen. — When oxygen is in solution in copper, the dissociation pressure is lowered,
BO that, at 1600° C. (2912° F.), no thermal decomposition of the dissolved oxide occurs,
and the absorption of O2 at this temperature is not a physical solution but a chemical
combination.

Evidence of the solubility of hydrogen in copper is given by surface disintegration
and blister-like structure assumed by the metal during solidification after exposure to
this gas. An absorption of H2 in, and diffusion through, copper has been detected at
650° C. (1202° F.). Up to 1500° C. (2732° F.) the absorption increases almost linearly
with the temperature; when the melting point is reached a sudden increase occurs.
The conductivity of copper is not affected by the dissolved hydrogen. On heating
copper containing oxide in a hydrogen atmosphere, the gas penetrates the metal and
reduces the oxide with formation of water, which escapes by disintegrating the metal
and rendering it unsuitable for further mechanical working.

A slight solubility of carbon monoxide in copper has been shown by changes hi the
density produced in the metal by its presence, by the blister-like structure it imparts
to the metal, by spectrum analysis, and by direct measurement. A small quantity
of gas appears to have a marked influence on the physical properties of the refined
metal.

Deoxidizing Copper. — Silicon in the form of silicon-copper is a good deoxidizer of
copper, whether the copper charge is all new metal, or all scrap, or any proportion of
either. The silicon-copper should be added when the copper is sufficiently hot to pour,
and the metal should be removed from the furnace 10 minutes after the silicon has
been added. Use charcoal as a cover on the copper, melt quickly, and do not keep
it in the furnace longer than necessary. There is no gain in using more than 2.0% of
silicon-copper and, if the copper is well melted, 1.0% will be sufficient to make solid
castings.

The effect of silicon on yellow brass is similar to that of aluminum, that is, it adds
fluidity and gives the metal the same appearance. However, while aluminum can be
used in a leaded alloy, silicon cannot, as it causes excessive dressing. The effect of
silicon on a bronze mixture 85% copper, 11% tin, and 4% lead, would be to produce so
much dross that the metal could not be used for sand castings. Although the con-
ductivity of the metal is not as high as when magnesium is used, the silicon will produce
a more reliable casting. — Foundry.

THE POROSITY OF BRASS CASTINGS

Some metals absorb gases so easily when heated that they cannot be cast without
the addition of some deoxidizing agent. This is the case with copper, no matter how
solid the copper may be before it is melted ; if poured into the molds without treatment,
they only remain full a short time before the copper rises in the sprues and overflows
on to the floor. In every case the castings will be found honeycombed whenever this
occurs. It is necessary therefore to alloy some other metal or element having a greater
affinity than copper for oxygen, to form an oxide that either rises to the surface as a
slag, or escapes into the atmosphere as a vapor. The latter occurs when zinc is added
to molten copper; phosphorus forms a slag of ever-changing form and position on the
surface of the metal.

When copper is melted under charcoal, the quantity of gas absorbed is not large,
the metal, when cooled, possesses a metallic appearance, even though not solid; but
if heating were continued sufficiently long, the copper would lose its metallic char-
acteristics, passing into an oxide; this explains why it is necessary to protect copper
from the atmosphere while in the furnace.

[513]

MELTING NON-FERROUS METALS

However carefully copper may be melted, sufficient gas is absorbed to prevent its
being cast pure; the copper must therefore be deoxidized; the substances often used in
making brass or bronze are zinc and phosphorus. Tin is not an active deoxidizer, so
while alloys of copper and tin can be made without the addition of any other element,
they are so liable to porosity that it is always desirable to add either zinc or phosphorus.
A familiar example of the use of zinc to prevent porosity is the well-known alloy — copper
88%, tin 10%, zinc 2%, and even in this alloy there is a tendency to porosity, because
of the small percentage of zinc. Phosphorus is a much more active deoxidizing agent
than zinc, and if the 2% zinc in the above were replaced by 2% of 15% phosphor-
copper, it would make an excellent phosphor-bronze. As a preventive of porosity,
phosphorus is not a specific, and phosphor-bronze may produce spongy castings when
carelessly melted. It is, however, the best agent for deoxidizing the metal; defective
castings should be remelted and run into ingots with the addition of 5%.of 15% phosphor-
copper. These ingots can be melted with new metal without producing porosity. The
oxidation of copper is largely prevented by the use of fluxes, and one of the best of
these is common salt. It should be added at the beginning of the heat, after the metal
has begun to melt; the cold additions, which may protrude above the charcoal, should
be pushed into the liquid metal as they become hot. — C. Vickers.

FLUXES USED IN MELTING NON-FERROUS METALS

A flux is a substance used for cleansing a mass of molten metal, by the removal of
such foreign ingredients as can readily be fused into a slag. A flux must therefore melt
at a temperature below that of the molten metal and it must not act injuriously upon
the metal to be cleansed; its proper function is that of a liquid medium in which reactions
take place at high temperatures. The selection of a flux will vary with the metal to be
cleansed and the properties of the substances to be removed. If the impurities are
of an acid nature, a basic or neutral flux will be required. So also, an acid flux will be
required if the impurities are basic in their character.

The fluxes employed in brass foundry practice formed the subject matter of a paper
prepared by Erwin S. Sperry for the American Brass Founders' Association, 1910,
from which the following notes are taken:

In the early days of brass founding two things were guarded jealously: the mixture
and the fluxes. Chemists made serious inroads into the mixtures, and their secrecy
faded away. The mystery of the fluxes was more difficult to eliminate, as, unlike the
castings themselves, they did not go beyond the foundry. In course of time the secret
fluxes went the way of the brass mixtures and they became general technical knowledge.

As to the advantage of a flux and whether one is actually necessary, Mr. Sperry
believes the flux question to be greatly overdone and imperfectly understood. It is
not advisable to go into a detailed enumeration of all the fluxes that can be used in brass
melting; it would be of little value. The following fluxes are those which have proved
valuable, and the manner in which they should be used.

Copper. — Probably more fluxes have been proposed or used for copper than for any
other one metal or its alloys because copper cannot be melted alone and yield sound
castings. In the selection of a flux for copper it should be known whether pure copper
castings are to be made or whether it is to be alloyed to make brass or bronze. To make
sound copper castings with a flux alone, and without the use of " physic " like silicon-
copper, magnesium or similar materials (which, strictly speaking, are not fluxes), is a
difficult matter. For this purpose yellow prussiate of potash (potassium ferrocyanide)
is excellent. With it sound copper castings can be made, but better results may be
obtained by the usual deoxidizing agents, such as silicon-copper, magnesium, and
phosphorus.

In melting copper for producing brass or bronze there is nothing better than common
salt. Its value lies in that it possesses the property of reducing any oxide of copper
which may form during the melting; about a handful of salt in a 150-pound crucible
is used and is preferably put in after the copper has begun to melt. If the salt is intro-
duced with the copper it melts before the copper, volatilizes, and goes to waste. Too
much salt produces a liquid that is apt to penetrate the crucible like fluor-spar, although

[514]

MELTING NON-FERROUS METALS

not as violently or as rapidly. The theory of the action of common salt seems to be
that, at the temperature of the molten copper, it breaks up or dissociates into metallic
sodium and chlorine gas. The latter escapes and the sodium performs its work in
deoxidizing.

Brass. — The flux almost universally employed in brass melting is common salt;
its action is to reduce the oxide of copper formed in melting the copper previous to the
addition of the spelter. The quantity used is, as already stated, about a handful to a
150 pound crucible, added after the copper begins to melt. When the right conditions
have been produced there will be a little slag on the top of the brass when it is skimmed.
It is of note that, although every brass rolling mill uses salt in brass melting, few brass
founders who make sand castings employ it. Mr. Sperry advocates its use under all
conditions, as it is theoretically correct and has been found by actual practice to im-
prove the quality of brass and is so cheap that the cost of the brass is not appreciably
increased. Every brass founder should use it, whether he makes new metal or melts
scrap, as the character of the castings will be improved.

Bronze and Composition. — What has been said about the use of common salt in
melting yellow brass applies equally well to composition or bronze, and it is used in
identically the same manner and in the same quantities. It makes no difference whether
phosphorus or other deoxiding agents are employed, the salt is used just the same.

German Silver. — This is such a refractory material in the rolling mill that much
time and thought have been given the subject of a suitable flux for it. The bulk of
German silver manufactured in the United States is made by two concerns. One uses
a flux in making it, while the other uses none. The concern which uses no flux at all
has a little better reputation, and they have the more particular trade; examples,
which indicate that fluxes do not constitute the "secret" of making German silver. Mr.
Sperry demonstrated in practice that a mixture of nitrate of soda or the nitrate of
potash (nitre), mixed with black oxide of manganese and used as a flux on copper,
will introduce metallic manganese into the copper, showing a reducing action. The
probable reason for the action of the flux is that a slight amount of manganese is thus
introduced. Metallic manganese has come into use as a deoxidizing agent for German
silver and similar nickel alloys, which is preferable to introducing manganese through
the agency of a flux; the results are positive, certain, and predetermined amounts of
manganese always can be added. While its use has been attended with excellent re-
sults, it also seems to be the natural deoxidizing agent for nickel and nickel alloys. In
making German silver common salt is used in the same manner, and with the same
results as those obtained in brass and bronze.

Nickel. — The flux used by makers of nickel anodes has proved a good one. It is
composed of lime, 3 parts; fluor-spar, 1 part. Slake the lime as though mortar were
to be made; then stir in the fluor-spar and allow it to become solid. It is then broken
up into small pieces for use. This flux has been found particularly serviceable in
melting old anodes, as it dissolves any earthy matter that may be on them. It is
used for both new and old material, and may be called the standard flux for nickel.
The proportions used are about a pint or a good handful for new nickel, and twice this
quantity for old material.

Fluor-spar alone is a good flux but it becomes very fluid when melted and rapidly
attacks a crucible. It seems to soak in and dissolve out the clay from the crucible
mixture and leave nothing but the graphite. The use of lime with the fluor-spar is
to increase the melting point so that it will not so readily attack the crucible. Although
the fluor-spar is toned down with lime, the flux will still act on the crucible, which will
last only five or six heats, but all fluxes act on the crucible to a greater or less extent,
otherwise they would not be of value as a flux.

Washings, Grindings, Etc.— For use in melting brass, bronze, or composition wash-
ings, grindings, skimmings, and similar material, nothing is better than plaster of Paris.
Its value as a flux is that it possesses the property of dissolving any foreign matter
present in the shape of sand, slag, or oxide, while it has practically no action on the
crucible; therefore, any desired quantity can be used. It melts readily and forms a
thin slag. Mix about 5 pounds of plaster of Paris with the washings when they are
placed in the crucible; then melt in the usual manner. If the slag at the conclusion

[515]

ALUMINUM ALLOYS

of the melt is not sufficiently fluid, more should be added. When the metal is com-
pletely melted pour the entire contents of the crucible into ingot molds. Do not
attempt to skim it. The slag will run into the molds with the metal and rise to the top.
Allow the mass to cool and then dump the ingot molds.

Plaster of Paris is calcium sulphate; when used as a flux, the cotton seems to be
one of simple solution: The molten plaster dissolves the foreign matter as sugar is
dissolved by water. When coal is present in washings, as it usually is, there is a slight
reduction of the sulphate to sulphide and there will be an odor of sulphur during the
melting. This does no harm, in fact, it appears to act as if any iron be present, it is
changed to sulphide and enters the slag.

Aluminum. — For years those who melted aluminum used no fluxes at all, not even
charcoal, as it was found that this material did more harm than good. On account of
the lightness of aluminum, charcoal does not readily free itself and is apt to become
entangled in the metal and produce small, black spots in the casting. Within the
past few years fluxes have come into use; the one most extensively used, and which
has proved to be valuable is chloride of zinc. It seems to react with the aluminum,
forming chloride of aluminum and metallic zinc, which alloys with the aluminum.
When this takes place the dross is changed to a fine, granular condition and is readily
skimmed off. When aluminum is melted the surface is' covered with a rather thick mass;
but the chloride of aluminum will change it to a perfectly clear one closely resembling
in appearance molten tin or lead. The method of using chloride of zinc as a flux in
melting aluminum is simple. Small pieces are thrown on the surface after the melting
has been completed. Enough has been added when the surface is clear. A very small
amount usually suffices, and for 50 pounds of aluminum a piece the size of a walnut
is generally enough. The metal is stirred immediately after the addition and then
skimmed.

ALUMINUM ALLOYS

The following notes are from a paper prepared by Dr. J. W. Richards, for the Am.
Soc. for Testing Materials, 1903.

Pure aluminum is a comparatively soft and weak metal; it hardens quickly while
being worked, becomes harder, denser, more elastic and stronger, but goes to pieces
if worked too far. To produce a thin sheet or fine wire it is necessary to anneal fre-
quently, to remove the strains caused by the work. Castings of aluminum, unworked,
are soft and weak.

The following table gives the usual limits of physical properties of No. 1 com-
mercial aluminum, which averages 99 to 99.5% pure:

Elastic Limit
(Pounds per
Square Inch)

Ultimate Tensile
Strength. (Pounds
per Square Inch)

Percentage
Reduction
of Area

Castings .

8500

14 000 to 18 000

15

Sheet

12,500 to 25,000

24,000 to 40,000

20 to 30

Wire

16 000 to 33 000

25 000 to 55 000

40 to 60

Bars

14 000 to 23 000

28 000 to 40 000

30 to 40

For all purposes where it is sufficiently hard and strong, it is advisable to use the
pure metal, since it resists alteration by the atmosphere and other corroding agencies
better than almost any of its alloys. For cast articles, wire, rods, or sheets, not suffi-
ciently strong or hard when made of the pure metal, aluminum can be alloyed with
small quantities of other metals, without materially increasing its specific gravity.
The principal metals used for alloys are zinc, copper, nickel, magnesium, titanium,
tungsten, chromium and manganese.

Alloying. — The aluminum used should be of No. 1 quality, which averages 99.5%
aluminum. The commercial qualities of other metals are frequently so impure that
they give alloys of quite different properties from the pure metals. This is particularly

[516]

ALUMINUM ALLOYS

true of zinc which often contains 1% or more of lead and considerable iron. As a
general rule, it is advisable to melt the aluminum first, and then to stir or dissolve the
other metal into it. Most metals, particularly copper, unite with aluminum with
considerable energy, and dissolve quickly in it, even though the melting point be con-
siderably higher. To facilitate the solution of a metal of very high melting point, such
as nickel, it is advisable to prepare first an alloy of the metal with aluminum in some-
what like equal proportions. This alloy, cast into bars, is then added to the melted
aluminum, and dissolves much faster and more uniformly than the pure metal.

Aluminum alloys, like aluminum, have large specific heats, and it takes a large
amount of heat, though not a high temperature, to melt them. The characteristic of
the furnace operation is therefore to have only a moderately hot fire, and it is of the
greatest importance that the alloy be never over a cherry-red heat. The stirring rod
may be a wrought-iron bar, if the temperature is kept low. If the temperature is high
the iron bar will be corroded and the alloy injured; it is better to use a carbon rod
for a stirrer, fastened into the end of an iron pipe for a handle.

Melting Point. — The addition of a few per cent of any metal to aluminum lowers
the melting point. Adding copper, the melting point decreases until 33% of copper
is present, above which it rises. Antimony is the most striking exception, small quan-
tities increase the melting point very considerably.

Specific Gravity. — The alloys with magnesium, 2 to 12%, are the only ones which
are lighter than aluminum itself; but they are lighter than their composition and the
specific gravity of magnesium (1.72) would lead us to expect. Thus, 10% of magnesium
would theoretically make a physical mixture with a specific gravity 0.16 less than
aluminum, whereas it really gives an alloy 0.24 lighter. This points to expansion
taking place during alloying. In the case of the other metals heavier than aluminum,
their specific gravity is usually higher than would be calculated from the composition,
pointing to a condensation or contraction taking place in alloying.

Working and Annealing. — All alloys are hardened by working and must be fre-
quently annealed to avoid cracks. Working raises the tensile strength but decreases
ductility and frequent annealing is necessary.

The annealing is done in a muffle, if possible, as it is advisable not to subject these
alloys, especially magnalium, to the direct action of the flame, since absorption of gas and
internal oxidation, or burning, takes place at redness without melting. Slabs and
bars are heated to full dark red. Sheets must not be heated so high; a thin sheet is
merely warmed to about 400° C. (752° F.) and then cooled in water. Very thin sheets
can be put into hot oil and thus allowed to cool slowly.

Chromium. — Chromium hardens aluminum strongly, the alloys having somewhat
of the qualities of self-hardening steel, i.e., retaining their hardness on heating or after
annealing much better than any other of the aluminum alloys. Two to 3% of chromium
is recommended as making the metal much harder but decreasing malleability con-
siderably. Eleven per cent makes the alloy brittle, crystalline and unworkable.

Titanium. — Alloys up to 7% of titanium have been made, but the best is that with
2%. This has elasticity comparable to spring brass, and a tensile strength of 30,000
to 35,000 pounds when rolled hard with 3% elongation, and 21,000 pounds when an-
nealed with 16.5% elongation. These alloys are difficult to make, as pure titanium is
rare, and the only practicable method of manufacture is to dissolve titanic oxide in
melted cryolite and add aluminum, which latter reduces the oxide and forms an alloy
with the metal.

Manganese. — The addition of manganese to commercial aluminum up to 5%
produces hard and rigid alloys. They can be made either by making a rich alloy of
manganese and aluminum in the electric furnace, or diluting this down with pure
aluminum. The addition of rich ferro-manganese to aluminum also serves to produce
the alloys, but it has the disadvantage of introducing some iron and carbon into the
alloy at the same time. Used with copper and nickel manganese makes the hardest
light alloy of aluminum yet produced.

Tin.— The alloy of aluminum with 10% of tin is whiter than aluminum, its density
is 2.85, its coefficient of expansion by heat is less than that of aluminum and it can
be more easily soldered than pure aluminum. The tensile strength of a casting of

[517]

AMALGAMS

this alloy showed only 14,000 pounds per square inch, with 4% elongation, so that it
is no stronger than pure aluminum and not as Ductile.

Nickel. — Alloys of aluminum with nickel alone have not been found advantageous.
An alloy with 4.5% nickel, had a coarsely crystalline fracture, rolled and worked well,
but had poor mechanical properties. The commercial alloys which go under the name
of nickel aluminum alloy are in reality ternary alloys of aluminum with nickel and
copper. What are called nickel-aluminum casting alloys contain 7 to 10% of nickel
and copper together, have an elastic limit of 8,500 to 12,000 pounds, ultimate strength
of 15,000 to 20,000 pounds, with reduction of area of 6 to 8%.

Tungsten. — The precise effects of tungsten alone have not been very satisfactorily
determined, since it is used in small amounts in conjunction with other hardeners of
aluminum, such as with copper and iron, or copper and manganese, etc.

Copper. — Copper is one of the most frequently used hardening agents for aluminum,
being often used alone and often associated with zinc, nickel and other metals. In
casting, these copper alloys are only slightly stronger than pure aluminum, because
of the segregation of the alloy, which takes place during slow cooling. It is only in
chill castings that satisfactory results can be obtained. Slabs and bars for rolling or
drawing should be cast in chill molds.

Zinc. — Zinc is the cheapest and at the same time one of the most efficient of the
metals which improve the mechanical properties of aluminum. Proportions up to
33% are used; the alloys are malleable up to 15% and above that are still useful for
making castings. Only the purest aluminum should be used, to get the best alloys.
Casting in chills gives much better results than casting in sand; in the latter case the
slow cooling seems to cause a separation.

The alloy with 15% zinc can be rolled and drawn. In chill castings it has an elastic
limit of 16,000 pounds per square inch, a tensile strength of 22,330 pounds, an elonga-
tion of 6% in 2 inches and reduction of area of 10.50 per cent.

The alloy with 25% zinc has a tensile strength of 22,000 pounds, extension 1%
and reduction of area 3%, when cast in sand. When cast in chill molds its tensile
strength is 35,000 to 45,000 pounds, extension 1%, with a close fracture like high carbon
steel. Its specific gravity is 3.4, which shows a contraction of 14% in the bulk of the
constituents while alloying, and since one part of zinc has only one-eighth the volume
of three parts of aluminum, the remarkable conclusion follows that the aluminum
takes up one-third of its weight of zinc and actually decreases in volume some 2% in
doing it. This probably accounts for the close grain and good working qualities of
this alloy. It is non-magnetic, has a fine color, takes a high polish, and bids fair to
be the most generally useful of all the light aluminum alloys.

Zinc alloys are the cheapest to make, and are equal in mechanical properties to very
nearly the best alloys made with more expensive metals, and therefore promise to
have, of all the light aluminum alloys, the largest sphere of usefulness.

AMALGAMS

This term is applied to that class of alloys in which one of the combining metals
is mercury. On adding successive small quantities of silver to mercury, a great variety
of fluid amalgams are apparently produced; in reality, the chief, if not the sole, com-
pound is a solid amalgam, which is merely diffused throughout the fluid mass. The
fluidity of any amalgam would thus seem to depend on there being an excess of mercury
above that necessary to form a definite compound. Some amalgams are solid, others
liquid. They are, generally speaking, weak compounds, many of them being decom-
posed by pressure, and all are decomposed at a white heat. The principal amalgams
are those of lead, zinc, tin, bismuth, cadmium, copper, silver, gold, sodium.

Lead- Amalgam. — This alloy may be formed by pouring molten lead into mercury;
it has a higher specific gravity than either mercury or lead, as it undergoes contraction
in combining. The color is a brilliant white. It remains liquid with as much as
33.0% lead, but when made of equal parts it crystallizes into a brittle solid.

Zinc- Amalgam. — Mercury combines readily with molten zinc; an amalgam of 8
parts of zinc to 1 part of mercury is very brittle. Singer recommends an amalgam

[518]

INGOT COPPER

for rubbers of electric machines: 2 parts zinc, 1 part tin, and 4 to 6 parts mercury.
Zinc plates, used in galvanic batteries, are generally coated with mercury by first
cleaning the zinc plate in dilute sulphuric acid, and then rubbing in the mercury with
a brush or rag.

Tin-Amalgam. — This is made by adding mercury to molten tin. If of 10 parts
mercury and 1 part tin the amalgam is liquid, but equal parts of these metals make
a brittle solid of tin-white color. By adding more mercury the amalgam becomes
plastic; it may then be molded or pressed into shape, which will harden in a few days.
A preparation of tin-amalgam has been used in dental work for filling teeth; it hardens
with little or no expansion.

Bismuth- Amalgam. — Mercury will dissolve bismuth without losing its liquid form;
an amalgam of 4 parts mercury and 1 part bismuth has been used as an occasional sub-
stitute for tin in tinning. With the addition of lead and tin it is occasionally used for
silvering glass.

Cadmium-Amalgam. — Mercury combines readily with molten cadmium. The
mercury is completely saturated in the proportions of 78.26% mercury; 21.74% cad-
mium. This is a tin-white brittle amalgam which softens when moderately heated;
it has been used in dental work.

Copper-Amalgam. — Copper does not readily combine with mercury, but the amal-
gam may be formed by rubbing copper, which has been precipitated from its solution
by zinc, first with a mercuric nitrate solution, then with mercury in a mortar. This
amalgam is plastic when newly made, but becomes hard in a day or two; it may be
softened by immersing it in boiling water or by simply pounding it. It hardens with-
out expanding or contracting.

Gold-Amalgam. — Mercury has been extensively used in separating gold from
crushed quartz rock in which the particles of gold are embedded. The mercury at-
taches the gold particles to itself forming a semi-fluid mass which needs only to be
placed in a retort, applying heat and driving off the mercury, the gold remaining in
the retort. The saturation point of gold and mercury is 2 parts gold for 1 part mer-
cury, forming an amalgam of waxy consistence. Gold-amalgam dissolved in mercury
becomes fluid, and when this solution is strained through chamois leather, mercury
passes through, together with a small quantity of gold, and there remains a white amalgam
of pasty consistence.

Silver-Amalgam. — Silver and mercury form a definite chemical compound, cor-
responding to the formula Ag2Hg2. By squeezing the excess of mercury through
chamois leather an amalgam containing 43.7 parts of silver to 100 parts of mercury is
obtained. Silver-amalgam can be prepared by adding mercury to a solution of silver
nitrate; the amalgam is precipitated in a crystalline form called a silver tree, or arbor
Diance.

Sodium-Amalgam. — Sodium combines rapidly with mercury at ordinary tempera-
tures, the combination being attended with vivid combustion. This amalgam is used
in the preparation of other amalgams. Metallic chlorides, such as those of silver and
gold, for example, are decomposed by sodium-amalgam, and the reduced metal then
unites with the mercury.

INGOT COPPER

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Quality. — Ingot copper to be refined new copper suitable for casting purposes:
Grade 1, to show on analysis 99.88 per cent of pure copper.

Grade 2, to show on analysis 99.25 per cent of pure copper.

2. Form and Marking. — To be furnished in standard commercial shaped ingots,
between 9 inches and 12 inches in length, with brand name stamped or cast in.

3. Purposes for Which Used. — Grade 2 may be used in compositions of commercial
brass (B-c), cast naval brass (N-c), screw pipe fittings (S-E), and commercial rolled brass
(B-r).

Grade 1 should be used for other compositions of non-ferrous materials.

[519]

NON-FERROUS METAL

COPPER SHEETS, PLATES, RODS, BARS, AND SHAPES, OR
NON-FERROUS METAL Cu-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General Instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may accumulate
in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their own make.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The chemical and physical requirements
shall be as follows:

Ultimate

Yield

Letter

Name

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Lead
Maxi-

Iron
Maxi-

Tensile
Strength,
Pounds

Point,
Pounds
per

Elonga-
tion in
2 Inches

per Square

Square

per Cent

Inch

Inch

Cu-r

Copper (roll-

99 5

30,000

25

ed or drawn)

(min.)

4. Test Pieces. — Test pieces will be as nearly as possible of the same diameter as
the rounds, or else they are not to be less than \ inch diameter and taken at a distance
from the circumference equal to one-half the radius of the rounds.

5. Additional Tests. — All bars to be clean and straight, of uniform color, quality,
and size. Bars must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the test bar.

(c) The bending test bar may be the full-size bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch
width and \ inch thickness. In the case of bending test pieces of rectangular section,
the edges may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

6. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, must lie flat, and be within the gauge and weight tolerances.

7. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will be
ordered in as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for copper sheets when ordered
in 10-foot lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8 to 10-foot lengths.
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,
unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be as
follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths, no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths, no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
ordered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from \ to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round,
rectangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths

[520]

SHEATHING BOTTOMS OF WOODEN CRAFT

will be random lengths from 4 to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are special, but no
length will be less than 4 feet.

8. Tolerances. — No excess weight will be paid for, and no single piece that weighs
more than 5 per cent above the calculated weight will be accepted.

UNDER WEIGHT AND GRADE TOLERANCES

WIDTH OF

SHEETS OK PLATES

Up to 48 Inches,
Inclusive

48 to 60 Inches,
Inclusive

Over 60 Inches

Tolerance

5 per cent.

7 per cent.

8 per cent.

Material shall not vary throughout its length or width more than the given tolerance.

9. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

10. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Copper pipe and tubing.

SHEET COPPER FOR SHEATHING BOTTOMS OF WOODEN CRAFT

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. To be hard or soft rolled, as specified in the order; to be best commercial quality,
in sheets 48 by 14 inches, smooth on both sides, free from all defects, blisters, bad edges
and corners, and to contain at least 99 per cent pure copper. Sheets to be commercially
flat and reasonably free from waves and buckles.

2. A variation of 7 per cent under gauge at edge of sheet, and a variation in weight
of 5 per cent over or under will be allowed.

3. In ordering copper the thickness in decimals of an inch should be given, as shown
in the first column of table below:

Thickness

Ounces, per
Square
Foot

Weight of
Sheet, 14 by
48 Inches

Maximum
Weight

Minimum
Weight

Minimum
Gauge

Inches

Lbs. Oz.

Lbs. Oz.

Lbs. Oz.

0.0189

14

4 1

4 4

3 14

0.0176

.0203

15

4 6

4 10

4 2

.0189

.0216

16

4 10£

4 14

4 7

.0201

.0230

17

4 15£

5 4

4 11

.0214

.0243

18

5 4

5 8

5 0

.0226

.0257

19

5 8£

5 13

5 4

.0239

.0270
.0297

20
22

5 13*
6 6£

6 2
6 12

5 9
6 1

.0251
.0277

.0323

24

7 0

7 6

6 10

.0301

.0352

26

7 9

7 15

7 3

.0328

.0379
.0406

28
30

8 2$
8 12

8 9
9 3

7 12
8 5

.0353
.0378

.0433

32

9 5

9 13

8 13

.0404

4. Each sheet to have thickness in decimals of an inch, or weight in ounces per square
foot, stamped or stenciled clearly and permanently in large letters on one corner — for
example, 28 ounces. The weight stamped or stenciled on the sheet will be the same as

[521]

COPPER USED IN MAKING CARTRIDGE CASES

the order calls for, although, on account of the weight tolerance, the sheet may be actually
nearer the next gauge. Net weight only will be paid for.

REFINED COPPER FOR USE IN MAKING CARTRIDGE CASES

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Material. — High-grade lake copper, to be refined from ore of the best quality.

2. Analysis. — Chemical analysis shall show 99.90 per cent pure copper, with not
more than 0.0025 per cent of sulphur or arsenic, and only traces of other impurities.

3. Size of Ingots. — To be furnished in ingots between 9 and 12 inches long.

4. Branding. — The brand of copper shall be cast in the ingot.

5. General. — Electrolytic copper will not be accepted under these specifications.
Bidders are required to specify brand of copper offered.

SILICON COPPER OR COMPOSITION Cu-si

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron

Lead

Silicon,
Minimum

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent
10

Material to be 99.5 per cent pure. Analysis is to be made from every lot of 300
pounds or less.

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and
free from all injurious defects.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Marking. — Each ingot will be plainly stamped with the percentage of silicon
and copper, as determined by analysis.

PHOSJPfcOR COPPER OR COMPOSITION Cu-p

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — Chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron

Lead

Phosphorus,
Minimum

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent
10

[522]

TIN

Material to be 99.5 per cent pure. Analysis to be made from every lot of 300
pounds or less.

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and
free from all injurious defects.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Marking. — Each ingot will be plainly stamped with the percentage of phosphorus
and copper, as determined by analysis.

INGOT TIN

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form a part of these specifications.

2. Delivery. — To be delivered f.o.b. cars at navy yard indicated.

3. Quality. — To be prime quality tin, and to contain not less than 99.75 per cent
pure tin, nor more than 0.1 per cent of either of the following metals: Lead, antimony,
arsenic, copper; nor more than 0.01 per cent of sulphur; the total amount of impurities
allowed being 0.25 per cent. To be new metal, free from scrap or remelted metal, and
in commercial and branded ingots.

4. Size of Order and Ingots. — Unless smaller quantities are actually necessary,
requisitions shall call for quantities amounting to 1 1,200 pounds (5 gross tons) or mul-
tiples thereof. No particular size of ingot to be specified.

5. Place of Inspection. — Inspection to be made at steamer's dock or in warehouse,
if practicable to the bureau concerned; each bidder to state in his proposal the name
and location of the dock or warehouse where inspection is to be made.

6. Brand. — The inspector shall note that the tin is branded before samples are taken
and shipment authorized to the yard concerned.

7. Lots to be Analyzed. — For each lot of 1 1,200 pounds a sample of equal amount
will be taken from each of four ingots, the four samples so taken to be blended and
analysis made from a sample of this blend.

8. Rejection. — If, upon delivery, the tin is found not to be the tin submitted for
inspection, or if it does not contain the percentage of pure tin specified, or if it contains
an excess of lead or other impurities, the delivery will be rejected.

PHOSPHOR TIN

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Phosphor tin to be furnished in the form of ingots of uniform quality and fracture
throughout; to be made of new material of the best grade; of domestic manufacture; to
be at least 99.5 per cent pure, to be of the following composition:

Phosphorus, not less than 5 per cent.
Tin, the remainder.

2. Each ingot to be plainly stamped with the percentage of phosphorus and tin,
as determined by analysis. Analysis to be made from every lot of 300 pounds or less.

SLAB ZINC

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions and specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form a part of these specifications.

2. Quality. — Under these specifications virgin spelter — that is, spelter made from
ore or similar raw material by a process of reduction and distillation and not produced
from reworked metal — is required.

3. Marks. — A brand shall be cast in each slab by which the maker and grade can
be identified.

[523]

ROLLED ZINC PLATES

4. Lots. — The maker shall use care to have each lot as uniform quality as possible.

5. Chemical Requirements.

Grade

Zinc

Lead
Maximum

Iron
Maximum

Sulphur

Arsenic

Antimony

A

Remainder

Per Ct.
0 50

Per Ct.
0 04

Per Ct.

o

Per Ct.

o

Per Ct.

o

B

Do

1 5

08

(i)

(i)

(i)

i Practically free.

Grade A shall be free from aluminum.

6. Physical Requirements. — The slab shall be reasonably free from surface corrosion
or adhering foreign matter.

7. Purpose. — Grade A shall be required for special foundry work for composition
material where lead allowance is low. Grade B shall be required for galvanizing and
general foundry work which permits a large amount of lead in the slab zinc used.

Note for General Storekeepers. — Grade A should only be called for when Grade B
will not be satisfactory.

ROLLED ZINC PLATES OR COMPOSITION Zn-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Size and Weight. — Plates will be of thicknesses and dimensions as specified and
net weight only will be paid for. The standard sizes of sheets for various thicknesses,
also the external sizes possible for the various thicknesses, are given below:

.HULL ZINCS

Standard size 12 inches by 6 inches by \ inch.

Other sizes of zincs for circular openings, etc., are given in the table below:

Thickness

Standard
Size

Extreme
Size

Thickness

Standard
Size

Extreme
Size

Inch
H0.125J
H -250)
I ( -375)
* ( .500)

Inches
36 by 84
36 by 84
24 by 48
24 by 48

Inches
60 by 96
36 by 84
24 by 72
24 by 72

Inch
f( .625)
f ( -750)
!( -875)
1 (1.000)

Inches
24 by 48
24 by 36
24 by 36
24 by 36

Inches
24 by 48
24 by 48
24 by 36
24 by 36

ZINCS FOR BOILERS, SALT-WATER PIPING, ETC.

Standard size, 12 inches by 6 inches by \ inch, with one central hole f inch in diameter.

3. Tolerance. — A tolerance of 10 per cent over or under weight will be permitted,
the weight of 1 cubic inch of rolled sheet zinc being 0.2605 pound. The tolerance for
under gauge at edge of sheet is 15 per cent on a sheet 3 feet wide; other widths proportional.

4. Material. — The plates must be made of zinc, containing not less than 98.5 per
cent pure zinc, nor more than 0.08 per cent of iron, and must be thoroughly compressed
by rolling to make a solid homogeneous slab, with a surface smooth and free from all
defects.

5. Test. — The plates must be able to stand bending through an angle of 45° over a
round surface whose diameter is 1 inch without break or cracks, at a temperature not
exceeding 100° F.

[524]

GUN METAL

6. Packing. — To be delivered in boxes of about 250 pounds each; boxes to be well
made of 1-inch pine or spruce, securely strapped with iron.

7. Marking. — Net weight and number of plates to be marked on each box.

PIG LEAD

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Grade. — Pig lead will be required for either as No. 1 or No. 2. No. 1 grade is
for foundry use for alloys and compositions, and No. 2 is for weights, ballast, etc.

2. No. 1 Pig Lead; Analysis 99.9 per Cent. — No. 1 pig lead to be good lead of any
well-known brand, and must show on analysis not less than 99.9 per cent of metallic
lead (Pb.); to be product of new ore.

3. No. 2 Pig Lead. — No. 2 pig lead to be either old or new lead.

4. Weight of Pigs. — Pig lead will be delivered in pigs weighing about 80 to 90 pounds,
unless otherwise specified.

5. Test.— From each 2 tons in a delivery of No. 1 pig lead one pig will be selected,
and an equal amount of clean fine drillings will be taken from each sample pig and
thoroughly mixed. The sample for analysis will be taken from this mixture.

INGOT ALUMINUM

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Aluminum ingots shall contain not less than 99 per cent of aluminum.

2. A chemical analysis shall be made upon each lot of 2,000 pounds or each fraction
thereof, except as otherwise noted. For shipments in carload lots of 30,000 pounds or
more, not more than five (5) analyses shall be required for each carload shipment.

3. The tensile strength of the aluminum shall not be less than 12,000 pounds per
square inch when cast in a test bar of dimensions outlined below. The test bar shall
be cast in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. The quality shall be judged from the
average result obtained from at least six (6) bars.

DIMENSIONS OF BAB

Inches

Diameter of body 0.5

Length of body 2.0

Length of fillets 125

Diameter of grips 6

Length of grips 4 . 25

4. Elongation between 2-inch lengths on a bar of the dimensions given in paragraph
3 shall not be less than 20 per cent. The bar may be the same one used for tensile
strength determination.

5. In case the chemical analysis shows an aluminum content less than 99 per cent,
the shipment shall be resampled and reanalyzed. If the second analysis, or analyses,
as the case may be, also show an aluminum content below 99 per cent, the entire lot
represented by the analyses will be rejected.

6. In case the tensile strength and elongation fall below the requirements as described
in paragraphs 3 and 4, the lot or shipment shall be resampled and retested. In case
the second test fails to meet the requirements, the lot or shipment will be rejected.

GUN METAL, CAST, OR COMPOSITION G

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

[525]

GUN METAL

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The physical and chemical requirements
shall be as follows:

Minimum
Tensile Strength,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
Yield Point,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum of
Elongation in
2 Inches

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Per Ct.

Per Ct.

Per Ct. I Per CL

PerCt.

PerCt.

30,000

15,000

15

87-89

9-11

1-3 0.06

0.2

4. Waiving of Physical Tests. — Physical tests may be waived by the bureau con-
cerned or by the inspector through whom request for inspection is made on small castings
of which the factor of safety is large by reason of necessities of design.

5. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

6. Test Lots. — Castings weighing less than 250 pounds, finished, may be tested by
lots or heat, a lot not to exceed 250 pounds, and a heat not to exceed 500 pounds of
finished castings. Each lot or heat will be represented by one test specimen when
attached to a casting or when a casting is sacrificed to obtain a test specimen.

7. Test Coupons. — If the castings are too small for the attachment of coupons,
the test pieces may be cast separately, from the same metal, under as nearly as possible
the same conditions as the castings. Where test pieces are cast separately from the
castings, two pieces will be required, one to be poured before and one after the castings.
Coupons shall not be detached from castings until they are stamped by the inspector.
If the test pieces are cast separately from the casting, they must be cast in the same flask
with the casting and must be removed from it in the presence of the inspector and
stamped by him at the time they are taken out of the molds.

8. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

9. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
All composition valves 4 inches in diameter and above; expansion joints, flanged pipe

fittings, gear wheels, bolts and nuts, miscellaneous brass castings, all parts where strength
is required of brass castings or where subjected to salt water, and for all purposes where
no other alloy is specified.

COMPOSITION VALVES. — Safety and relief, feed check and stop, surface blow, drain,
air, and water cocks, main stop, throttle, reducing, sea, safety, sluice, and manifolds
at pumps.

Heads, shapes, and water chests for condensers, distillers, feed-water heaters, and
oil coolers.

PUMPS. — Air-pump casing, valve seats, buckets, main circulating, water cylinders,
valve boxes, water pistons, stuffing boxes, followers, glands — in general, the water end
of pumps complete except as specified.

STUFFING BOXES. — Glands, bushings for iron or steel boxes.

BLOWERS. — Bearing boxes.

JOURNAL BOXES. — Distance pieces.

MISCELLANEOUS. — Grease extractors; steam strainers, separators, casting for stern
tube and propeller shafts, propeller hub caps.

BEARINGS. — Main, stern tube, strut, and spring.

SPRING BEARINGS. — Glands and baffles.

[526]

JOURNAL BRONZE

VALVE BRONZE OR COMPOSITION M

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper,
Minimum

Tin,
Minimum

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

87

7

Remainder

0.06

1.0

4. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes Composition M in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

7. Purposes for Which Used.— The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Valves below 4 inches for steam and general purposes for which the material is not
otherwise specified, manifolds and cocks, relief valves, composition lug sockets, and pad
eyes not requiring special strength, hose couplings, and fittings.

JOURNAL BRONZE OR COMPOSITION H

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

82-84

12.5-14.5

2.5-4.5

0.06

1.0

Normal 83-13f-3?

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and
free from all injurious defects.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes Composition H in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

7. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Bearings, journal boxes, bushings, and sleeves, slides, slippers, guide gibs, wedges on
water-tight doors, and all parts subject to considerable wear, for reciprocating engines
in valve stem cross-head bottom brass, link block gibs, amd suspension link brasses.

[527]

TORPEDO BRONZE

TORPEDO BRONZE

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General. — To be drawn or rolled bright and to be uniform in quality and color,
to be free from cracks, flaws, blow-holes, seams, or other injurious imperfections; to have
a workmanlike finish and be true to the sizes ordered.

2. Physical Properties. — Ultimate tensile strength, minimum, 60,000 pounds;
yield point, minimum, 35,000 pounds; elongation in 2 inches, minimum, 30 per cent;
contraction, 45 per cent.

3. Chemical Properties. — Copper, 59 to 62 per cent; tin, 0.5 to 1.5 per cent; lead,
maximum, 0.3 per cent; iron, maximum, 0.1 per cent; and the remainder zinc. To
contain no aluminum.

4. Tests. — Must stand hammering hot to a fine point and bending cold through
120° with inner radius equal to diameter or thickness of bar.

5. Machining Qualities. — To be adapted to free and easy cutting in screw machines;
to give maximum results in drilling and turning; to take a perfect thread in die, threading
machine, or lathe. Any not found up to the standard as regards free working qualities
to be replaced at the expense of the contractor. To determine this factor, bidder may
submit samples, prior to opening bids; the suitability of these samples, if submitted,
will be determined prior to awarding contract. A portion of the contractor's samples
will be retained until the material has been used up, to be used as a comparison piece
in determining the relative machining qualities.

MANGANESE BRONZE, CAST, OR COMPOSITION Mn-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The physical and chemical requirements
shall be as follows:

Minimum
Tensile
Strength,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
Yield Point,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
of
Elongation
in 2 Inches

Copper

Tin,
Maxi-
mum

Zinc

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Aluminum,
Maximum

Manganese,
Maximum

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Cent

Cent

Cent

Cent

Cent

Cent

Cent

Cent

65,000

30,000

20

56-58

1

40-42

1

0.2

0.5

0.3

4. Test. — The castings will be required to stand a practical foundry test under the
supervision of a foreman experienced in making manganese-bronze castings.

5. Waiving of Physical Tests. — Physical tests may be waived by the bureau con-
cerned or by the inspector through whom request for inspection is made on small castings
of which the factor of safety is large by reason of necessities of design.

6. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

7. Test Lots. — Castings weighing less than 250 pounds, finished, may be tested by
lots or heat, a lot not to exceed 250 pounds, and a heat not to exceed 500 pounds of
finished castings. Each lot or heat will be represented by one test specimen when
attached to a casting or when a casting is sacrificed to obtain a test specimen.

[528]

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

8. Test Coupons on Castings. — Coupons shall not be detached from castings until
they are stamped by the inspector. If the test pieces are cast separately from the cast-
ing, they must be cast in the same flask with the casting and must be removed from it
in the presence of the inspector and stamped by him at the time they are taken out of
the moulds. If the castings are too small for the attachment of coupons, the test pieces
may be cast separately from the same metal, under as nearly as possible the same con-
ditions as the casting. Where test pieces are cast separately from the castings, two
pieces will be required, one to be poured before and one after the castings.

Tests on Ingots. — Where individual tests are made, test pieces may be taken from
any portion of an ingot. Two specimens, taken from the same portion of the same
ingot, both falling below specification requirements, or any single specimen falling more
than 5 per cent below specification requirements, shall cause the rejection of that heat.

9. Forging Test. — A piece forged into a bar must stand hammering hot to a fine point.

10. Bending Test. — A similar piece must stand bending through an angle of 120°
and to a radius equal to the thickness of the bar.

11. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

12. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Propeller hubs, propeller blades, engine framing, castings requiring great strength,
such as main gearing in steering engine; worm-wheels in windlass or turning gear for
turrets.

13. This specification supersedes Composition Mn-c in Specifications Part II,
Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

NOTE. — Proprietary Bronzes. — Proprietary bronzes differing from the above will
be accepted, provided such differences are clearly noted and described by the bidder,
and provided further that the bronze offered under these conditions is found to meet
fully the physical tests and fulfil equally well the specific requirements of the
Government. No metal containing above 1 per cent of lead will be accepted.

PHOSPHOR BRONZE, CAST, OR COMPOSITION P-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Physical and Chemical Properties. — The physical and chemical requirements
shall be as follows:

Grade

Minimum
Tensile
Strength,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
Yield Point,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
of Elon-
gation in
2 Inches

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Lead,
Maxi-
mim

Phos-
phorus,
Maxi-
mum

Per Cent

P. Ct.

P. Ct.

Per Cent

P~ Ct.

P. Ct.

Per Ct.

1

50,000

25,000

25

85-90

6-11

1 Re~ 1

0.06

0.2

0.3

2

35,000

20,000

18

78-81

9-13

j mam- }
{ der

8-11

0.7-1

4. Waiving of Physical Tests. — Physical tests may be waived by the bureau con-
cerned or by the inspector through whom request for inspection is made on small castings
of which the factor of safety is large by reason of necessities of design.

5. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any other
defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate an
inferior quality of metal.

6. Test Lots. — Castings weighing less than 250 pounds, finished, may be tested

[529]

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

by lots or heat, a lot not to exceed 250 pounds, and a heat not to exceed 500 pounds of
finished castings. Each lot or heat will be represented by one test specimen when
attached to a casting or when a casting is sacrificed to obtain a test specimen.

7. Test Coupons. — If the castings are too small for the attachment of coupons, the
test pieces may be cast separately from the same metal under as nearly as possible the
same conditions as the castings. Where test pieces are cast separately from the cast-
ings, two pieces will be required, one to be poured before and one after the castings.
Coupons shall not be detached from castings until they are stamped by the inspector.
If the test pieces are cast separately from the casting, they must be cast in the same
flask with the casting and must be removed from it in the presence of the inspector and
stamped by him at the time they are taken out of the moulds.

8. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

9. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
GRADE 1. — Valve stems and fittings, etc., exposed to the action of salt water;

sheathing, gears, and driving or main nuts for steering gears; castings where strength
and incorrodibility are required.

GRADE 2. — Gun fittings (ordnance).

PHOSPHOR BRONZE, ROLLED, OR DRAWN,
OR COMPOSITION P-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may accumulate
in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their own make.

3. Chemical and Physical Requirements. — The chemical and physical requirements
shall be as follows:

Grade

Minimum
Tensile
Strength,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
Yield Point,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum of
Elongation
in 2 Inches

Copper

Tin

Zinc,
Maxi-
mum

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Phos-
phorus,
Maxi-
mum

1

120,000
80000

(a) 90,000
(b) 60 000

Per Cent
25

P. Ct.
94-96

P. Ct.
5-4

P. Ct.
(d)

P. Ct.

(d)

P. Ct.

(d)

P. Ct.
0.10

60,000

(c) 45,000

2

50,000

25,000

25

85-95

10-5

4

0.06

0.2

.15

(a) For diameters less than ^ inch.

(b) For diameters K inch to ^ inch, inclusive.

(c) For diameters over J^ inch.

(d) For total of these three impurities not to exceed 0.10 per cent.

4. Additional Tests. — All bars to be clean and straight, of uniform color, quality,
and size. Bars must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter or
thickness of the test bar.

The bending test bar may be the full-size bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch width
and | inch thickness. In case of bending test pieces of rectangular section, the edges
may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

5. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, and must lie flat.

[530]

VANADIUM BRONZE CASTINGS

6. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will be
ordered in as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for sheets when ordered in 10-foot
lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8- to 10-foot lengths. f
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted, and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,
unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be as
follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths, no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths, no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
jrdered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from | to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round,
rectangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths
will be random lengths from 4 feet to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are special,
but no length will be less than 4 feet.

7. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

8. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
GRADE 1. — For rods, pins, spring wire, etc.

GRADE 2. — Pump rods, valve stems, objects exposed to salt water.

VANADIUM BRONZE CASTINGS OR COMPOSITION Vn-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Physical Properties. — The physical requirements shall be as follows:
Minimum tensile strength, 55,000 pounds per square inch.
Minimum yield point, 22,500 pounds per square inch.

Minimum elongation, 25 per cent in 2 inches.

3. Chemical Requirements. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:
Minimum copper, 61 per cent.

Maximum zinc, 38 per cent.

Remainder not to exceed 1 per cent tin, with lead, bismuth, aluminum, vanadium,
and nickel.

4. Test Specimens. — Standard turned test specimens, 2 inches gauge length, type
No. 1, shall be used in determining physical properties, as specified above.

5. Number and Location of Test Specimens. — The test specimens shall be taken
from the casting in sufficient number and so located as thoroughly to exhibit the character
of the casting.

6. Rejection After Delivery. — The acceptance of any casting by the inspector will
not release the makers thereof from the necessity of replacing the casting should it fail
in proof test or trial, or in working, or exhibit any defect after delivery.

[531]

ROLLED MEDIUM BRONZE PLATES

ROLLED MEDIUM BRONZE PLATES UP TO %-INCH THICK,
SHAPES, RIVET ROUNDS, AND BARS

(For Structural and Forging Purposes)
NAVY DEPARTMENT

Medium bronze plates up to f inch in thickness, shapes, rivet rounds, and bars for
structural purposes to be made from best quality materials of purest commercial quality.
The copper must be lake copper or its equivalent. The material must be free from
surface defects, and must be cleaned and straightened.

Tensile tests made in accordance with instructions below must show for rivet rounds,
and for hexagonal and octagonal bars for machinery or forging purposes, an ultimate
tensile strength of not less than 60,000 pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of not
less than one-half the ultimate tensile strength, and an elongation in 2 inches of not
less than 25 per cent.

Tensile tests must show for irregular shapes (material such as channels, angles,
I beams, and other similar shapes) an ultimate tensile strength of not less than 56,000
pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of not less than 40 per cent of the ultimate
tensile strength, and an elongation in 8 inches of not less than 25 per cent.

Tensile tests must show for plates up to and including 30 inches in width an ultimate
tensile strength of not less than 56,000 pounds per square inch, and for plates having a
width greater than 30 inches an ultimate tensile strength of not less than 54,000 pounds
per square inch. Tensile tests of all plates must show an elastic limit of not less than one-
half the ultimate tensile strength and an elongation of not less than 25 per cent in 8
inches. Test specimens to be cut lengthwise from plates and shall be machined only on
cut edges.

A tolerance of 5 per cent over or below the calculated weight will be allowed, and
any excess weight up to 5 per cent will be paid for. Larger excess weight, if accepted,
will not be paid for. Various composition materials otherwise conforming to the speci-
fications but manufactured under proprietary processes or having proprietary names
will be accepted as coming under this head.

Requisitions should specify the thickness of plates in common fractions or decimals
of inches. Shapes should be specified by width and thickness of flanges in inches, bars
by shape and dimensions in inches, and rivet rounds by diameter in inches.

All handling of material necessary for purposes of inspection shall be done at the
expense of the contractor, and all test specimens necessary for the determination of the
qualities of material used shall be prepared and tested at the expense of the contractor.

Test specimens cut from plates must stand being hammered hot to a sharp edge,
and being bent cold through an angle of 120° to a radius equal to the thickness of the
plate.

Bars must stand being hammered hot to a point when heated to a cherry red and
being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter or thick-
ness of the bar. Shapes must stand being forged hot and a strip cut lengthwise must
stand bending cold through an angle of 120° to a radius equal to the thickness of the
strip. Rivet rounds or bars intended for bolts will be tested by heading in a bolt machine
and upsetting the end by hammering under conditions simulating actual riveting. The
material must show satisfactory working qualities. If the bars are intended for rivets,
bolts, or other important parts subject to stress, one test piece for every lot of 400
pounds or less shall be taken; in the case of large lots of bars and for plates and shapes
the number of test pieces to be left to the judgment of the inspector.

TENSILE TESTS AND TEST PIECES

The tensile strength herein specified means the ultimate tensile strength per square
inch of original cross-section. The elastic limit may be measured by the drop of the
beam or the halt of the gauge of the testing machine. The elongation is that obtained
after fracture. In the case of test pieces of rectangular section the reduction of area is

[532]

MONEL METAL

to be measured by the product of the average width and thickness of the reduced area
and not the minimum width and thickness.

Each tensile-test piece shall be subjected to a direct tensile stress until it breaks,
in a machine of standard manufacture, running at a pulling speed of not less than 1
inch and not more than 5 inches per minute for 8-inch test pieces.

Tensile-test pieces shall be uniform in cross-section between measuring points,
and are to have a length of 8 inches or 2 inches, as required, between measuring points.

Full-size bars and rods within the capacity of the testing machine may be used as
tensile-test pieces, and in this case the bending tests also may be taken from the full-
size bars and rods.

The standard width of tensile-test pieces from plates will be 1^ niches, the thickness
the same as the plate, and the length between measuring points 8 niches.

In the case of bending-test pieces of rectangular section the edges may be rounded
off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

For plates the width of the bending-test pieces shall be not less than 1| inches and
the thickness that of the plate. The bending may be done by either pressure or by
blows.

MONEL METAL, CAST, OR COMPOSITION Mo-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The physical and chemical requirements
shall be as follows:

Minimum
Tensile
Strength,
Pounds per
Sq. Inch

Minimum
Yield Point,
Pounds per
Square Inch

Minimum
of
Elongation
in 2 Inches

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Alumi-
num

Nickel,
Mini-
mum

65,000

32,500

P.CL
25

P.Ct.
Remainder

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

6 5

P.Ct.

o

P.Ct.
0 5

P.Ct.
60

4. Waiving of Physical Tests. — Physical tests may be waived by the bureau con-
cerned or by the inspector through whom request for inspection is made on small castings
of which the factor of safety is large by reason of necessities of design.

5. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

6. Test Lots. — Castings weighing less than 250 pounds finished may be tested by
lots or heat, a lot not to exceed 250 pounds, and a heat not to exceed 500 pounds of finished
castings. Each lot or heat will be represented by one test specimen when attached
to a casting or when a casting is sacrificed to obtain a test specimen.

7. Test Coupons. — If the castings are too small for the attachment of coupons,
the test pieces may be cast separately, from the same metal, under as nearly as possible
the same conditions as the casting. Where test pieces are cast separately from the
castings, two pieces will be required, one to be poured before and one after the castings.
Coupons shall not be detached from castings until they are stamped by the inspector.
If the test pieces are cast separately from the casting, they must be cast in the same
flask with the casting and must be removed from it in the presence of the inspector and
stamped by him at the time they are taken out of the molds.

[533]

ROLLED MONEL METAL

8. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

9. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes Composition Mo-c in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

10. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Valve fittings, plumbing fittings, boat fittings, propellers, propeller hubs, blades, engine
framing, pump liners, valve seats, shaft nuts and caps, and composition castings requiring
great strength.

ROLLED MONEL METAL, SHEETS, PLATES, RODS, BARS, ETC.,
OR COMPOSITION Mo-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may accumulate
in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their own make.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The chemical and physical requirements
shall be as follows:

Per Cent

Copper Rem.

Tin

Zinc

Lead (maximum) 0.0

Per Cent

Iron (maximum) 3.5

Nickel (minimum) 60. 0

Aluminum (maximum) .5

Thickness

Ultimate Tensile
Strength per
Square Inch

Yield Point
per Square
Inch

Elongation
in 2 Inches

1 inch and below

Pounds
84,000

Pounds
47,000

Per Cent
25

Above 1 inch to 2| inches ....
Above 2 \ inches. . .

80,000
75,000

45,000
40000

28
32

No material less than | inch in thickness or diameter need be tested physically.

4. Additional Tests. — All bars to be clean and straight, of uniform color, quality,
and size. Bars must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the test bar.

The bending test bar may be the full-size bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch width
and ? inch thickness. In the case of bending test pieces of rectangular section, the
edges may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

5. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, must lie flat, and be within the gauge and weight tolerances.

6. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will
be ordered in as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for Monel metal sheets when
ordered in 10-foot lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8- to 10-foot lengths.
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted, and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,

[534]

BENEDICT NICKEL

unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be
as follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths, no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths, no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
ordered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from j to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round,
rectangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths
will be random lengths from 4 feet to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are special,
but no length will be less than 4 feet.

7. Tolerances. — No excess weight will be paid for, and no single piece that weighs
more than 5 per cent above the calculated weight will be accepted.

UNDERWEIGHT AND GAUGE TOLERANCES

Tolerance

Width of sheets or plates
Up to 48 inches ....

48 to 60 inches

Over 60 inches . .

Per Ct.
5

7
8

Material shall not vary throughout its length or width more than the given tolerance.

8. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

9. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Rolled rounds, used principally for propeller-blade bolts, air-pump and condenser
bolts, and parts requiring strength and incorrodibility, and pump rods.

BENEDICT NICKEL, ROLLED, OR COMPOSITION Be-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

per Cent

Tin,
per Cent

Iron,
per Cent

Iron,
per Cent
Maximum

Lead,
per Cent,
Maximum

Nickel

84-86

Remainder

4. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes composition Be-r in Specification
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

5. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Tubes for condenser distillers and feed-water heaters.

[535]

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE INSPECTION OF COPPER

GERMAN SILVER, OR COMPOSITION G-Ag

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Nickel

Iron

Lead

Sulphur

Per Cent
64

Per Cent
20

Per Cent
16

Trace only

Trace only

Trace only

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and free
from all injurious defects.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE INSPECTION OF COPPER, BRASS,

AND BRONZE

Under the Cognizance of the Bureau of Construction and Repair

NAVY DEPARTMENT
DESIGNATION OF CONTRACTOR, MANUFACTURER, AND SUBCONTRACTOR

1. Contractor. — Generally speaking, contractor, as used in these specifications,
refers to ship-yard, navy-yard, or any builder of Government machinery, appliances,
or structures placing orders for material with some manufacturer.

2. Manufacturer. — Refers to person or firm manufacturing material for incorporation
in Government work being done by ship-yard, navy-yard, or any other builder of Gov-
ernment machinery, appliances, or structures, and who are designated as contractors.

3. Subcontractor. — Refers to person or firm to whom the contractor may sublet
part of his contract, but not for raw material; the subcontractor in turn places orders
with manufacturers for raw material.

OFFICE AND INSPECTORS

4. Access to Work and Information. — The Department shall have the right to
keep inspectors at the works who shall have free access at all times to all parts thereof
and be permitted to examine the raw material and to witness the process of manufacture.

Contractors and manufacturers shall furnish all the information and facilities the
inspector may require for proper inspection under these specifications.

5. Inspector's Office and Furniture. — Each firm manufacturing material shall, if
required, furnish the inspectors, free of expense, with suitable office and laboratory
room and such plain office furniture as may be necessary for the proper transaction of
their business as agents of the Government.

EXPENSE

6. Handling Material. — All handling of material necessary for purposes of inspection
shall be done at the expense of the contractor.

7. Making Tests. — All test specimens necessary for the determination of the qualities
of material used shall be prepared and tested at the expense of the contractor.

[536]

REJECTION AFTER LEAVING MANUFACTURER

REJECTION AFTER LEAVING MANUFACTURER

8. Rejection at Builder's. — Material may be rejected at the building or navy-yards
for surface or other defects, either existing on arrival or developed in working, although
it bears the above-mentioned stamps.

ORDERS, LISTS, AND INVOICES

9. Contractors shall furnish the superintending constructor with copies in duplicate
of their orders to manufacturers for material requiring inspection, and such orders shall
be given separately for each vessel under contract and shall include the estimated
weight of each object or group of similar objects on the schedule. Such orders shall
state clearly the grade or kind of material and for what purpose each item called for is
intended. Manufacturers shall exhibit to the inspectors the schedules of material
that they receive from the contractors, and give the inspectors all the information that
the latter may require for the proper inspection of the material on said schedules under
these specifications. They shall also furnish every facility to the inspectors, so that
they will not be delayed in their work of inspection.

10. Shipping Report. — The inspector will forward a copy of each shipping report
to the Superintending Constructor at place to which material is shipped. If material
is intended for a navy-yard or naval station, the inspector will forward a copy of each
shipping report to the Bureau of Construction and Repair, and also a copy to the com-
mandant of the navy-yard or naval station, this copy to be forwarded with a letter.
Shipping reports forwarded by the inspector of material must show explicitly on each
copy of same the stamp or stamps which appear on the material inspected, or on the
casing containing the material, or on tags on car in which the material is shipped, and
must state on what part of material, box, or car the stamp is placed.

STAMPS

11. Each object made from accepted material shall be clearly and indelibly marked
with four separate stamps: First, the private stamp of the inspector; secondly, the stamp
of the manufacturer; thirdly, identification number, and fourthly, the regulation Govern-
ment stamp. The last shall not be stamped on any of the above material until it has
been inspected, weighed, and passed ready for shipment. In case of small articles
passed and packed in bulk, the above-mentioned stamps shall be applied to the boxing
or packing material of the object.

12. No material will be received at the building or navy-yards for incorporation
into vessels unless it bears, either upon its surface or that of its packing, all these stamps
as evidence that it has passed the required Government inspection.

13. Carload Lots — Tags. — If the material is shipped in box cars containing no other
freight, it will be sufficient to seal the car and put the stamp on the seal as well as on
a tag on the inside of the car near the door.

GENERAL QUALITY

14. General Character of Material. — All material shall be of domestic manufacture
and of uniform quality throughout the mass of each object, and free from all defects.

15. Special Material or Special Treatment. — With the approval of the Bureau of
Construction and Repair, special material or special treatment, or both, may be used
to obtain the qualities specified.

GENERAL TEST REQUIREMENTS

16. Tests and Acceptance. — All material for which tests are prescribed shall be
inspected and tested by Government inspectors and passed by them, subject to restric-
tions mentioned herein, before acceptance by the Navy Department.

17. Treatment of Test Pieces. — Test pieces, after being cut from the plate or object
to be tested, shall not be subjected to any treatment or process except machining to

[537]

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

size; and such pieces shall not be cut off until the plate or object shall have received
final treatment, except in those special cases mentioned in the following specifications.

18. Flaws in Test Pieces. — Test pieces which show defective machining or which
after breaking show flaws, or which break outside of the measuring points, may be
discarded, and the inspector will select others in their stead.

19. Test Pieces for Lots.— Test pieces which represent groups or lots shall be taken,
as nearly as the case will permit, so as to represent the worst material in that lot.

20. Location of Test Pieces. — All test pieces of rolled bars which are too large to be
pulled in their full sizes shall, unless otherwise specified, be taken at a distance from
the longitudinal axis of the object equal to one-quarter of the greatest transverse dimen-
sion of the body of the object, not including palms and flanges.

The test pieces should be taken from a part of the material which, with the exception
of palms or flanges, has not been reduced by forging or rolling more than any other part
of that piece of material.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

21. Contractor's Analysis. — The character of the castings will generally be determined,
knowing the ingredients of the mix and the local foundry practice, by an examination
of the fractures where gates are broken off, or by the hammering, bending, etc., of
coupons cast on, and from contractor's analysis, a copy of which shall be furnished
to the inspector.

22. Government's Analysis. — Should the circumstances make it necessary, arrange-
ment will be made by the Bureau for further analysis, at a navy-yard or elsewhere.

Drillings for analysis must be fine, clean, dry, and free from scale. The inspector
may take them from any test piece, or from any part of the material, provided in this
last case that by so doing the material will not be rendered unfit for use. Unless other-
wise requested, the chemist will make determinations of those elements only which are
limited by the specifications.

ADDITIONAL TESTS

23. By Bureau's Orders. — Tests may be prescribed by the Bureau of Construction
and Repair for the inspection of material for which tests are not specified herein.

24. By Inspector's Decision. — The inspector may make, from time to time, such
additional tests as he may deem necessary to determine the uniformity of the material.

TENSILE TESTS AND TEST PIECES

25. Interpretation. — The tensile strength herein specified means the ultimate tensile
strength per square inch of original cross-section. The elastic limit may be measured
by the drop of the beam or the halt of the gauge of the testing machine. The elongation
is that obtained after fracture. In the case of test pieces of rectangular section the
reduction of area is to be measured by the product of the average width and thickness
of the reduced area and not the minimum width and thickness.

26. Pulling Speed. — Each tensile-test piece shall be subjected to a direct tensile
stress until it breaks, in a machine of standard manufacture, running at a pulling speed
of not less than 1 inch and not more than 5 inches per minute for 8-inch test pieces, and
not less than £ inch and not more than 3 inches per minute for 2-inch pieces.

27. Uniformity of Section. — Tensile-test pieces shall be uniform in cross-section
between measuring points.

28. Standard Area and Length. — Test pieces from castings are to have a length of
2 inches between measuring points and an area of cross-section of 1 square inch. Other
tensile-test pieces are to have a length of 8 inches between measuring points, but no
test piece shall be less than \ inch diameter nor less than 2 inches between measuring
points.

29. Allowance of Variation in Area of Test Pieces. — A variation of 5 per cent above
or below in area is allowed.

30. Full-Size Bars. — Full-size bars and rods within the capacity of the testing

[538]

STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR ALLOYS

machine may be used as tensile-test pieces, and in this case the bending tests may also
be taken from the full-size bars and rods.

31. Plates, Standard Width for Test Pieces. — The standard width of tensile-test
pieces from plates and tubes will be 1^ inches, the thickness the same as the plate or
tube, and the length between measuring points 8 inches.

32. Rounding of Edges of Test Pieces. — In the case of bending test pieces of rec-

«-8 INCHES-*

tangular section the edges may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the
thickness.

33. Standard. — Bending-test pieces shall be 1 inch wide by £ inch thick. For plates
the width shall be not less than 1£ inches and the thickness that of the plate. The
bending may be done by either pressure or by blows.

34. Test Specimens. — Test specimens, in general, shall be taken from each lot of
200 pounds or less, except in the case of large castings, in which case one specimen shall
be taken from each 500 pounds.

STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN,

AND ZINC

35. For the purpose of securing uniformity in practice in castings of the alloys of
copper, tin, and zinc for incorporation into naval vessels, the bureau establishes the
standard mixtures listed below.

36. Contractors in submitting plans or schedules involving such castings must
designate, by name or by mark, the alloy which is proposed for the purpose, being
governed by the instructions below as to the uses of the several alloys, and the con-
sideration and approval of the plan will extend to and cover the alloy or composition.

37. With the exception of yellow or scrap brass, all cast alloys shall be made from
new materials of purest commercial quality.

COPPER ALLOYS

38. The various copper alloys and the purposes for which used will be as follows:

Name

Class

Mixture, per Cent

Purpose

Composition:
Gun bronze. .

G.

(Normal 88-10-2.) Cop-
per, 87 to 89; tin, 11 to
9; zinc, remainder.

Valves 4 inches and above, gunport
frames, air-port lens frames, man-
hole fittings, sea chests and
strainers, and studs and nuts
securing strainers, steering stand,
other bronze parts, parts of steer-
ing gears, sluice valves and bronze
parts of magazine flood cocks and
operating gear for both. Com-
position pipe fittings, stuffing
boxes, gear wheels, hardware for
joiner work and furniture, cleats
and boat fittings, water-closet
troughs, and all parts where great
strength is required of composi-
tion casting.

[539]

COPPER ALLOYS
STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR ALLOYS — COPPER ALLOYS — Cont.

Name

Class

Mixture, per Cent

Purpose

Valve bronze.. .

Journal bronze .

M..

H..

Brazing metal.

Yellow or scrap
brass.

S..

Naval brass,
cast.

N-c.

Naval brass,
rolled.

N-r.

(Normal 87-7-4.) Cop-
per, at least 87; tin, at
least 7; lead, not more
than 1 ; zinc, remainder.

(Normal 83-13£-3i)Cop-
per, 82 to 84; tin, 12.5
to 14.5; zinc, 2.5 to 4.5.

(Normal 85-0-15.) Cop-
per, 84 to 86; zinc,
remainder.

Normal 67-0-33. Cop-
per, 64 to 68; zinc, 32
to 34; lead, not over
2?; iron, not over 2.

(Normal 62-1-37.) Cop-
per, 61 to 63; tin, 1 to
1.5; zinc, remainder.

As approved. Analysis of
commercial bars shows:
Copper, 64 to 67; tin,
0.7 to 0.8; zinc, 32 to 35

Valves below 4 inches, manifolds
and cocks, relief valves, composi-
tion lug sockets, and pad eyes not
requiring special strength.

Bearings, bushings, and sleeves,
slides, guide gibs, wedges on
water-tight doors, and all parts
subject to considerable wear.

All flanges for copper pipe and
other fittings that are to be
brazed.

Fixed parts of air-port frames, deck
drains and gratings, hatch and
scuttle covers, deadlight shutters,
light box castings, handwheels,
deck plates, pipe stuffing tubes,
caps for thermometer tubes, cast
parts of scuppers and pipes, truck
light pedestals, pin rails, label
plates, caps or ornamental finish-
ing castings, guards for heater
and other pipes, voice-pipe fit-
tings, chocks and fair leads,
sheaves, toe plates and head
and heel fittings for ladders, and
miscellaneous boat fittings.

Hatch frames, hatch-cover frames,
door frames, scuttle frames, fit-
tings for mess tables and benches;
skylight and chest hinges and fit-
tings; all joiner work fittings
(except hardware); rail and lad-
der stanchions, brackets, clips,
etc., for stowage purposes; fit-
tings for canopy frames; all
brass valves and fittings of venti-
lation system, except working
parts, belaying pins, tarpaulin
hooks, brass hatch and door
fittings, brass pipe flanges.

Bolts, studs, nuts, and turn-buckles,
especially if subject to corrosion
by salt water.

[540]

COPPER ALLOYS

STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR ALLOYS — COPPER ALLOYS — Cont.

Name

Class

Mixture, per Cent

Purpose

Manganese

Mn-c

As approved; usual com-

Castings requiring great strength,

bronze, cast.

position is: Copper, 56;

such as main gearing in steering

zinc, 41.38; iron, 1.25;

engine; wormwheels in windlass or

tin, 0.75; aluminum,

turning gear for turrets.

0.5; manganese, 0.12.

Manganese

Mn-r.

As approved ....

Rolled rounds requiring great

bronze, rolled.

strength or subject to corrosion

by salt water, valve stems.

Tobin bronze,

T....

As approved; usually:

Rolled rounds requiring great

rolled.

Copper, 59; tin, 2.16;

strength or subject to corrosion

zinc, 38.40; lead, 0.31;

by salt water.

iron, 0.11.

Phosphor-

P....

Not less than : Copper, 85 ;

Valve stems and fittings, etc., ex-

bronze, cast

tin, 3; phosphorus, 0.01 ;

posed to the action of salt water;

and rolled.

the balance made up of

sheating, gears, and driving or

components suitable to

main nuts for steering gears.

produce maximum

strength and to be in-

corrodible in salt water.

Antifriction

W...

Best refined copper, 3.7;

All white metal, lined bearings, and

metal.

Banca tin, 88.8; regulus

bearing surfaces-

of antimony, 7.5; to be

well fluxed with borax

and rosin in mixing.

Muntz metal. . .

D....

Coppe^, 60; zinc, 40

Bolts, nuts, etc., subjected to salt

water.

Other composi-

As approved

As directed.

tions.

SPECIAL BRONZES

39. Special authority may be obtained to use manganese, phosphor, Tobin, or
other proprietary bronzes in place of gun metal or naval brass.

40. The Superintending Constructor may require bronzes of special characteristics
to be employed for items not especially named above or wherever special qualities for
specified items are important.

41. These specifications are for the purpose of defining uniformly the kind of metal
acceptable for use; they are not intended to modify specific requirements for special
bronzes or other metals now or hereafter contained in hull specifications.

MANGANESE-BRONZE CASTINGS

42. The castings must be sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks,
or any other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which
indicate an inferior quality of metal.

43. For castings weighing over 200 pounds, test pieces or coupons shall be taken in
such number and from such parts of the casting as will thoroughly exhibit the quality
of the metal.

[541]

ROLLED NAVAL BRASS

44. Castings weighing less than 200 pounds may be tested by lots, each lot to be
represented by two test pieces. If the castings are too small for the attachment of
coupons, the test pieces may be cast separately from the same metal under as nearly as
possible the same condition as the casting.

45. Coupons shall not be detached from castings until they are stamped by the
inspector. If the test pieces are cast separately from the casting, they must be cast
in the presence of the inspector and stamped by him as soon as they are taken out of
the molds.

46. The test pieces shall show an ultimate tensile strength of not less than 60,000
pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of not less than 30,000 pounds per square inch,
and an elongation of not less than 20 per cent in 2 inches.

47. The color of the fractured section of the test pieces and the grain of the metal
must be uniform throughout.

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

48. Rounds, whether cast, rolled, or forged, shall have an ultimate tensile strength
and elongation of 50,000 pounds and 25 per cent respectively.

NOTE. — The test pieces are to be as nearly as possible of the same diameter as the
rounds, or else they are to be not less than one-half an inch in diameter and taken at a
distance from the circumference equal to one-half the radius of the round.

49. Phosphor-bronze spring wire shall be hard and elastic.

50. The inspector will take drillings for analyses, and these shall show not less
than 85 per cent copper, not less than 3 per cent tin, and not less than 0.01 per cent
phosphorus, the balance to be made up of whatever components the manufacturers
consider best suited to produce a composition of the maximum strength, and incorrodible
in sea water.

ROLLED NAVAL BRASS

51. All bars are to be cleaned and straightened and must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the bars.

52. If the metal is to be rolled into rods for bolts or other important parts subject
to stress, one test piece for every lot of 400 pounds or less shall show the following
results:

Ultimate Tensile Strength
per Square Inch

Elastic Limit

Elongation per Cent in
2 Inches

Not less than 60,000 pounds

At least one-half ultimate
tensile strength.

Not less than 25 per cent.

In the case of large lots the number of test pieces to be left to the judgment of the
inspector.

53. Various composition materials, otherwise conforming to the specifications but
manufactured under proprietary processes or having proprietary names, will be accepted
as coming under this head.

[Paragraphs 51, 52, and 53 have been superseded by new and extended specifications:
see "Rolled medium bronze plates up to f inch thick, shapes, rivet rounds, and bars."
48B1.]

ANTI-FRICTION OR WHITE METAL

54. When practicable, the weighing and mixing of the metals will be witnessed by a
Government inspector. Otherwise as many chemical analyses will be taken as, in the
judgment of the inspector, will show that the material is of the proper composition.

55. If by reason of scarcity Banca tin cannot be procured, another standard brand
of tin may be proposed, subject to the approval of the Bureau of Construction and
Repair.

[542]

COPPER PIPES

ROLLED COPPER, MUNTZ METAL, AND BRASS SHEETS, PLATES, AND RODS

56. Material. — All metals used either alone or in the manufacture of alloys must
be of the purest commercial quality. The copper must be Lake copper, or its equivalent.

57. Analysis. — The inspector will take drillings for analyses. An analysis of the
copper sheets, plates, and rounds and copper for water-closet troughs must show that
they contain not less than 99.5 per cent pure copper. An analysis of Muntz metal must
show not less than 59 per cent copper and the remainder zinc. An analysis of brass
must show that it is of the specified composition, no component varying more than
1 per cent in amount above or below that specified. Sheet brass for ceiling, trim, and
similar purposes may be of commercial composition and chemical analysis will not be
required.

58. Surface Inspection. — The material must be free from all surface defects; in no
place of less thickness than ordered, nor of less weight than the calculated weight,
taking the weight of 1 cubic inch of hot-rolled copper to be 0.320 pound, 1 cubic inch of
cold-rolled copper 0.323 pound, 1 cubic inch of rolled Muntz metal 0.296 pound, and
1 cubic inch of rolled brass 0.297 pound to 0.313 pound, according to its composition.
The sheets and plates must be cut to the dimensions ordered.

59. Tolerance for Excess of Weights. — An excess of weight of 5 per cent will be
allowed.

COPPER PIPES

60. Material. — The pipe must be made of Lake copper, or its equivalent, and a
chemical analysis must show that the metal is 99.5 per cent pure copper. The Govern-
ment inspector will take drillings for analyses.

61. Form and Surface. — The pipe must be free from identations, cracks, flaws, or
other surface defects, inside and outside, perfectly round, of the specified diameter
and thickness in all parts.

62. Hydraulic Tests. — Each pipe must withstand an internal hydraulic pressure
which will subject the metal to a stress of 6,000 pounds per square inch, the test pressure
being calculated by the following formula for thin hollow cylinders, but in no case will
a test pressure of over 1,000 pounds per square inch per gauge be required:

2ts in which

p=a;

p = safe internal pressure;
d = inside diameter in inches;

s = safe tensile strength of material = 6,000 pounds per square inch;
t = thickness of pipe in inches.

Every pipe must be perfectly tight under pressure and show no signs of bulging,
cracks, flaws, porous places, or other defects.

63. Bending Tests. — A strip If inches wide will be taken from each lot of 2,000 pounds
or less of pipe and must stand the following tests:

(a) If less than f inch thick, it must stand bending flat back cold after being annealed.

(b) If £ inch or over, it must bend back after being annealed until the ends are
parallel and the inner radius of the bend is equal to the thickness of the piece.

(c) In every case the ends of the bending test pieces shall stand hammering down
hot and cold to a knife edge without showing signs of cracks. The pipes must be able
to stand flanging without defects.

64. Tensile Tests. — Pipes of 2 inches inside diameter and over, for high pressures,
are to be subject to tensile tests, one piece of pipe from each lot of 1,000 pounds or
less being selected to represent the lot. If the pipes are from 2 inches to 6 inches inside
diameter, the test pieces are to be cut longitudinally. If over 6 inches inside diameter,
they will be cut circumferentially. The test pieces will be heated to a cherry red and
straightened when hot, then machined to the shape shown in the sketch, care being
taken to have the brazed seam, if any, between the measuring points.

65. For thickness up to and including £ inch, the width of the narrow part of the
test piece shall be about 1| inches. For thicker pieces the width shall be such as to

[543]

SEAMLESS BRASS PIPE

give a cross-section of about % square inch, but the breadth shall not in any case be
less than the thickness. The rolled surfaces are not to be machined, but to be left in
their original condition.

66. The test piece must show an ultimate tensile strength after being annealed of
at least 28,000 pounds per square inch for all pipe, and an elongation of at least 25 per
cent in 8 inches in the case of seamless pipe.

67. Threading.— One piece of pipe taken at random from the completed lot (ready
for shipment) must stand threading in a satisfactory manner with the usual thread for
the size of the pipe.

68. Weight.— The weight of every pipe must be at least equal to the calculated weight
on a basis of 1 cubic inch of copper pipe weighs 0.320 pound. An excess of weight
equal to 5 per cent of the calculated weight will be allowed.

SEAMLESS BRASS PIPE

IRON PIPE SIZES, MADE TO CORRESPOND WITH IRON PIPE AND TO FIT

IRON-PIPE FITTINGS

69. Material. — Pipe shall be made of material of purest commercial quality, com-
pounded from 60 per cent to 70 per cent of pure copper and from 40 per cent to 30 per
cent of pure zinc, and not more than 0.5 of 1 per cent of lead, the manufacturer being
allowed this variation of composition in order o get the material best suited for the
purpose for which it is intended. The Government inspector will take drillings for
chemical analyses.

70. Defects.— The pipe will be inspected for surface defects and it must be free from
cracks, seams, and defects generally.

71. Hydraulic Tests. — Each pipe must withstand an internal hydraulic pressure
which will subject the metal to a stress of 7,000 pounds per square inch without showing
weakness or defects, in accordance with the formula for thin hollow cylinders under
tension where

2ts
P = -d"

p = safe internal pressure;

d = inside diameter of pipe in niches;

s = safe tensile strength of material = 7,000 pounds per square inch;

t = thickness of pipe in inches;

but no pipe will be tested beyond 1,000 pounds per square inch per gauge, unless specially
directed.

72. Annealing. — All pipe, unless ordered "hard," is to be annealed sufficiently to
prevent fire cracking and to stand the physical tests.

73. Physical Tests. — When the pipe is finished (ready for shipment), the inspector
will subject 1 per cent of the lot, taken at random, to the following physical tests:

(a) The end of each test pipe must stand being flattened by hammering until the
sides are brought parallel, with a curve on the inside at the ends not greater in diameter
than twice the thickness of the metal in the pipe, without showing cracks or flaws.

(b) Each test pipe shall have a piece 3 inches long cut from it, which piece when split
must stand opening out flat without showing cracks or flaws.

(c) Each test pipe must stand threading in a satisfactory manner with the usual
thread for the size of the pipe. When the pipe is ordered "hard" the (a) and (b) tests
shall be made on annealed test specimens. These (a), (b), (c) tests shall be made on
each of the test pipes, and the test specimens shall be furnished at the contractor's
expense. If any of these pipes selected for tests fail, the inspector will select two extra
pipes from the same lot and put them through the same test as the pipe that failed,
and both of these pipes must be found satisfactory in order that the lot may be passed.
The failure to pass satisfactorily any one of the tests marked (a), (b), (c) will reject the
lot.

74. Thickness, Weight, and Marking. — All pipe shall be up to the gauge ordered.

[544]

ROLLED NAVAL BRASS

Each large single pipe, or bundle of small pipes, must be marked with the name of the
vessel for which it is intended, or with the number of the order. The standard weight
for seamless-drawn brass pipe will be 0.307 pound per cubic inch of material, but a
tolerance not to exceed 5 per cent overweight will be allowed.

NAVAL BRASS, CAST, OR COMPOSITION N-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Per Cent
6O-63

Per Cent
.05-1.5

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent
0.06

Per Cent
0.3

Normal 62-1-37

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and
free from all injurious defects.

5. Fractures. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes composition N-c in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

7. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
(C. and R.) Hatch frames, hatch-cover frames, door frames, scuttle frames; fittings for
mess tables and benches; skylight and chest hinges and fittings; all joiner work fittings
(except hardware); rail and ladder stanchions; brackets, clips, etc., for stowage pur-
poses; fittings for canopy frames; all brass valves and fittings of ventilation system
(except working parts); belaying pins, tarpaulin hooks, brass hatch and door fittings,
brass pipe flanges.

(S. E.) Valve hand wheels, hand-rail fittings, ornamental and miscellaneous castings,
and valves in water chests of condensers.

ROLLED NAVAL BRASS, SHEETS, PLATES, RODS, BARS, AND
SHAPES, OR COMPOSITION N-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the bureau
concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may accu-
mulate in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their
own make.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical and physical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron, Maximum

Lead, Maximum

Per Cent
59-63

Per Cent
0.5-1.5

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent
0.06

Per Cent
0.2

[545]

ROLLED NAVAL BRASS

Physical Properties:

Thickness

Tensile
Strength

Elastic
Limit

Elongation
in 8 Inches

Elongation
in 2 Inches

Bend
120° Cold

Lbs. per

Lbs. per

Square Inch

Square Inch

Per Cent

Per Cent

Up to 3 inch. . . .
| to 1 inch
Over 1 inch". ....

60,000
58,000
54,000

27,000
26,000
25,000

25

28

28

35
40
40

1 Radius equals
j thickness.

No material less than j inch in thickness or diameter need be tested physically.

4. Test Pieces. — Test pieces will be as nearly as possible of the same diameter as
the rounds, or else they are not to be less than \ inch diameter and taken at a dis-
tance from the circumference equal to one-half the radius of the rounds.

5. Additional Tests. — All bars to be clean and straight, of uniform color, quality,
and size. Bars must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the test bar.

(c) The bending test bar may be the full-size bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch width
and \ inch thickness. In the case of bending test pieces of rectangular section, the edges
may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

6. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, must lie flat, and be within the gauge and weight tolerances.

7. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will be
ordered in as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for brass sheets when ordered
in 10-foot lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8- to 10-foot lengths.
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,
unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be as
follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
ordered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from j to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round,
rectangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths
will be random lengths from 4 feet to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are specials
but no length will be less than 4 feet.

8. Proprietary Materials. — Various composition materials, otherwise conforming
to the specifications but manufactured under proprietary processes or having proprietary
names, may be submitted in bids for the consideration of the bureau concerned.

9. Tolerances. — No excess weight will be paid for, and no single piece that weighs
more than 5 per cent above the calculated weight will be accepted.

[546]

MUNTZ METAL SHEETS
UNDERWEIGHT AND GAUGE TOLERANCES

WIDTH OF SHEETS OR PLATES

Under 48 Inches

48 to 60 Inches

Over 60 Inches

Tolerance

5 per cent

7 per cent . . .

8 per cent.

Plates and sheets shall not vary throughout their length or width more than the
given tolerance.

10. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

11. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes Composition N-r in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

12. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Bolts, studs, nuts, and turnbuckles, especially if subject to corrosion or salt water,
rolled rounds, used principally for propeller blade bolts, air pump, and condenser bolts
and parts requiring strength and incorrodibility, and pump rods, tube sheets, supporting
plates, and shafts for valves in water heads.

MUNTZ METAL, CAST, OR COMPOSITION D-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Per Cent
59-62

Per Cent

Per Cent
38-41

Per Cent

Per Cent
0.6

4. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

5. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes composition D-c in Specification
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

6. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

MUNTZ METAL SHEETS, PLATES, RODS, BARS, AND SHAPES
OR NON-FERROUS METAL D-r

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may
accumulate in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their
own make.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The chemical and physical requirements
shall be as follows:

[547]

MUNTZ METAL

Letter

Name

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Lead

Iron

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength

Yield
Point

Elonga-
tion In
2 Inches

Maxi-

Maxi-

Lbs. per

Lbs. per

Per.

mum

mum

Sq. Inch

Sq. Inch

Cent

D-r...

Muntz metal

59-62

....

38-41

0.6

40,000

20,000

25

(rolled)

4. Test Pieces. — Test pieces will be as nearly as possible of the same diameter
as the rounds, or else they are not to be less than £ inch diameter and taken at a dis-
tance from the circumference equal to one-half the radius of the rounds.

5. Additional Tests. — All bars to be clean and straight, of uniform color, quality,
and size. Bars must stand:

(a) Being hammered hot to a fine point.

(b) Being bent cold through an angle of 120° and to a radius equal to the diameter
or thickness of the test bar.

(c) The bending test bar may be the full-size bar, or the standard bar of 1 inch
width and 5 inch thickness. In the case of bending test pieces of rectangular section,
the edges may be rounded off to a radius equal to one-fourth of the thickness.

6. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, must lie flat, and be within the gauge and weight tolerances.

7. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will be
ordered hi as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for Muntz metal sheets when
ordered in 10-foot lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8- to 10-foot lengths.
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted, and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods, and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,
unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be
as follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths, no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths, no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
ordered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from £ to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round, rec-
tangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths
will be random lengths from 4 feet to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are special,
but no length will be less than 4 feet.

8. Tolerances. — No excess weight will be paid for, and no single piece that weighs
more than 5 per cent above the calculated weight will be accepted.

UNDERWEIGHT AND GAUGE TOLERANCES

WIDTH OF SHEETS OR PLATES

Up to 48 Inches,
Inclusive

48 to 60 Inches,
Inclusive

Over 60 Inches

Tolerance

5 per cent

7 per cent

8 per cent

[548]

COMMERCIAL BRASS CASTINGS

Material shall not vary throughout its length or width more than the given tolerance.

9. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

10. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Bolts and nuts not subject to action of salt water.

COMMERCIAL BRASS CASTINGS, OR COMPOSITION B-c

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions for specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Designation. — Material under these specifications shall be designated as "Com-
mercial Brass Castings" or "Composition B-c."

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows :

Copper
per Cent,
Minimum

Tin
per Cent

Zinc
per Cent,
Minimum

Iron
per Cent,
Maximum

Lead
per Cent,
Maximum

Nickel

62

Remainder

30

2

3

Remainder

4. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any other
defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance, or which indicate an
inferior quality of metal.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Name and number plates. Cases for instruments. Oil cups. Distribution boxes.

COMMERCIAL BRASS FOR RODS, BARS, SHAPES, SHEETS,
PLATES, AND PIPING

Or Non-ferrous Metal B-r, when intended for Rods, Bars, and Shapes; Non-ferrout
Metal B-p, when intended for Sheets, Plates, and Piping

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used in the manufacture, except such as may accumulate
in the manufacturers' plants from material of the same composition of their own make.

3. Chemical and Physical Properties. — The chemical and physical requirements
shall be as follows:

Ultimate

Yield

Letter

Name

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Lead,
Maxi-
mum

Iron,
Maxi-
mum

Tensile
Strength,
Lbs. per
Square

Point,
Lbs.
per
Square

Elonga-
tion in
Two
Inches

Inch

Inch

Per

Ct.

B-r...

Commercial brass

60-63

0 5

38-35£

3

0.06

(rods, bars, and

max.

shapes).

B-p...

Commercial brass

60-70

40-30

0.5

.06

(for sheets, plates,

and piping).

[549]

BRASS CASTINGS FOR ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

4. Surface Inspection. — Material must be free from all injurious defects, clean,
smooth, must lie flat, and be within the gauge and weight tolerances.

5. Trimming. — Plates and sheets will be cut to the required dimensions and will
be ordered in as narrow widths as can be used.

(a) The following will be considered stock lengths for commercial brass sheets when
ordered in 10-foot lengths:

40 per cent in weight may be in 8- to 10-foot lengths.
30 per cent in weight may be in 6- to 8-foot lengths.
20 per cent in weight may be in 4- to 6-foot lengths.
10 per cent in weight may be in 2- to 4-foot lengths.

No lengths less than 2 feet will be accepted, and the total weight of all pieces on
lengths less than 10 feet must not exceed 40 per cent in any one shipment.

(b) Rods and bars, when ordered to any length, will be received in stock lengths,
unless it is specifically stated that the lengths are to be exact. Stock lengths will be as
follows:

When ordered in 12-foot lengths, no lengths less than 8 feet.

When ordered in 10-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 8-foot lengths, no lengths less than 6 feet.

When ordered in 6-foot lengths, no lengths less than 4 feet.

When ordered to the lengths given above, the weight of lengths less than length
ordered shall not exceed 40 per cent of any one shipment.

This applies to all rods from £ to 1 inch diameter or thickness, whether round, rec-
tangular, square, or hexagonal. Above 1 inch to and including 2 inches the lengths
will be random lengths from 4 feet to 10 feet. Above 2 inches the lengths are special,
but no length will be less than 4 feet.

6. Tolerances. — No excess weight will be paid for, and no single piece that weighs
more than 5 per cent above the calculated weight will be accepted.

UNDERWEIGHT AND GAUGE TOLERANCES

WIDTH 01

- SHEETS OR PLATES

Up to 48 Inches,
Inclusive

48 to 60 Inches,
Inclusive

Over 60 Inches

Tolerance

5 per cent

7 per cent

8 per cent

Material shall not vary throughout its length or width more than the given tolerance.

7. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
material must be uniform throughout.

8. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Sheet brass : For liners, trim, etc.

Brass pipe: Handrails.
Distributing oil tubes and water pipes.

Commercial brass rod for trim and purposes where strength and incorrodibility are
not required.

BRASS CASTINGS FOR ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES OR
COMPOSITION BE

, NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

[550J

ADMIRALTY METAL
3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron, Maximum

Lead, Maximum

Per Cent
80-88

Per Cent
2 min.

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent

Per Cent
2

4. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for electrical fittings, such
as junction boxes, switches, distribution boxes, connection boxes, water-tight belte.
and buzzers, etc.

ADMIRALTY METAL, CAST, OR COMPOSITION A

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Designation. — Material under these specifications shall be designated as
"Admiralty Metal" or "Composition A."

3. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

4. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper per Cent,
Minimum

Tin, per Cent,
Minimum

Zinc, per Cent,

Iron per Cent,
Maximum

Lead per Cent,
Maximum

70

1

Remainder

0.06

0.075

5. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings and
specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any other
defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate an
inferior quality of metal.

6. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

7. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
Condenser tubes.

Distiller tubes.
Feed-water heater tubes.
Evaporator tubes.

BRAZING METAL OR COMPOSITION F

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used expect such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows: ,

[551]

MELTING-POINTS OF COPPER ALLOYS

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Per Cent
84-86

Per Cent

Per Cent
Remainder

Per Cent
0 06

Per Cent
0 3

4. Workmanship. — The castings must be made in accordance with the drawings
and specifications — sound, clean, free from blow-holes, porous places, cracks, or any
other defects which will materially affect their strength or appearance or which indicate
an inferior quality of metal.

5. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

6. Supersedes. — These specifications supersede specifications for brazing metal in
Steam Engineering Specifications Part II, Revised July 1, 1910.

7. Purposes for Which Used.— The material is suitable for the following purposes:
All flanges for copper pipe and other fittings that are to be brazed.

MELTING-POINTS OF COPPER ALLOYS

BUREAU OF MINES

Non-ferrous alloys occur so frequently in machine construction that, in the investi-
gation of current melting practice in American brass foundries, H. W. Gillett and A. B.
Norton, acting under the direction of the Bureau of Mines, found it necessary to deter-
mine with approximate exactness the true relation between the pouring and melting
points of various copper alloys; the available literature on the subject being incomplete
and not always trustworthy. The results of their investigations are incorporated in
the Bureau's Technical Paper 60, from which the following memoranda are taken.

METHODS USED IN THE TESTS

The alloys were melted in a gas furnace. Instead of crucibles of the ordinary shape,
which exposes too large a surface to volatilization and oxidation, the crucibles used were
made from bonded carborundum tubes about 4.5 cm. inside ^diameter and had walls
about S mm. thick.

The temperatures were measured by a platinum, platinum-rhodium thermocouple
used with a single-pivot galvanometer. The calibration was checked and found correct
within the error of reading.

About 600 grams of metal were used in making the tests. The metals were weighed
in the proper proportions to form the alloy desired, a slight excess of zinc, increased
with increasing zinc content, being allowed to compensate for volatilization. Electro-
lytic copper, Bertha zinc, and chemically pure lead and tin were used. The copper
was melted first, and then covered with granular carbon and a little salt. When the
copper was melted the tin, the lead, and lastly the zinc, were added, and the alloy
was well stirred with a graphite rod.

When the alloy was fully melted and mixed the pyrometer was inserted and so
clamped that the graphite boot did not touch the bottom or sides of the crucible. The
gas flame was lowered and the temperature read every 15 seconds, the melt being
stirred between each reading. When the alloy had frozen, the gas was turned up and
a heating curve was taken. This procedure was repeated several times. Zinc was
continually volatilized from the melts containing zinc, but not in sufficient quantity
to have appreciable effect on the melting point, as duplicate runs agreed within 5° C.
in all cases. After a run was completed, the melt was usually poured into an ingot
mold, sampled, and analyzed. As the analyses of the samples analyzed agreed well
with the composition desired, the melts containing zinc were not analyzed. Duplicate
analyses of the same sample agreed within 0.1 per cent/

All the melts were made from virgin metals except a sample of manganese bronze
which was in the form of test-bar ends from a previous investigation. It had shown

[552]

RESULTS OF TESTS

a tensile strength of 76,000 to 77,000 pounds per square inch and an elongation of
24 to 35 per cent in the standard brick-form test bar. The bronze had approximately
the following composition: Copper, 56 per cent; zinc, 41 per cent; iron, 1.5 per cent;
tin, 0.9 per cent; aluminum, 0.45 per cent; and manganese, 0.15 per cent.

The melting point given is the liquidus, or point at which freezing begins on cooling
and liquefaction ends on heating. This is more strongly marked than the solidus,
or point at which freezing ends on cooling and liquefaction begins on heating.

RESULTS OF TESTS

The data obtained in the determination of the melting points of several alloys
were as follows:

MELTING-POINT DETERMINATION FOR 10 ALLOYS

Alloy

COMPOSITION
DESIRED

COMPOSITION
BY ANALYSIS

Number
of Dupli-
cate De-
termina-
tions

Melting
Point
(Liquidus)

Cu.

Zn.

Sn.

Pb.

Cu.

Zn.

Sn.

Pb.

Gun metal

P.Ct.

88
85£
85
82
80

85
75
67
61f

P.Ct.

2
2
5
10

5
20
31
37

P.Ct.

10
0*

5
3
10

10
2

iV

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

P.Ct.

4
6

18
4
3

4
3

4
5
6

°C.

995
980
970
980
945

980
920
895
855
870

°F.
1,825
1,795
1,780
1,795
1,735

1,795
1,690
1,645
1,570
1,600

Leaded gun metal

3
5
5
10

3
2

85.4

1.9

9.7

3.0

Red brass

Low-grade red brass . . .
Leaded bronze

81.5

10.4

3.1

5.0

Bronze with zinc

84.6
75.0
66.9
61.7

5.0
20.0
30.8
36.9

10.4
2.0

1.4

3.0
2.3

Half yellow, half red. . .
Cast yellow brass

Naval brass

IManganese bronze.

1 Two Samples.

As the results all checked within 5° C., an allowance of ±10° C. or ±20° F. is
probably ample to cover all errors in reading, calibrating, and using the pyrometer.

PREVIOUSLY DETERMINED MELTING POINTS OF BINARY ALLOYS

For comparison, the melting-point (liquidus) figures for binary systems of copper-
tin, copper-zinc, and copper-lead alloys for the range covering the common industrial
alloys are given below. As the curves are small, the figures are only accurate to within
about =±=10° C. or ±20° F.

MELTING POINTS OF BINARY ALLOYS
COPPER-TIN ALLOYS COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS

Parts by Weight

Melting Point

Copper

Tin

°C

°p

95

5

1,050

1,920

90

10

1,005

1,840

85

15

960

1,760

80

20

890

1,635

COPPER-LEAD ALLOYS

Copper

Lead

°e

cp

95

5

1,065

1,950

90

10

1,050

1,920

85

15

1,035

1,895

Parts by Weight

Melting Point

Copper

Zinc

°c

°F

95

5

1,070

1,960

90

10

1,055

1,930

85

15

1,025

1,880

80

20

1,000

1,830

75

25

980

1,795

70

30

940

1,725

65

35

915

1,660

60

40

890

1,635

[553]

SPELTER SOLDER

Although the melting points of only 11 alloys were determined, the alloys chosen
represent a large proportion of the non-ferrous alloys in use in the ordinary foundry.
The composition of many of the other common alloys is near enough to these or to the
binary alloys whose melting points are given to allow the melting point being obtained
by interpolation closely enough for most technical purposes.

ANTI-FRICTION METAL, CAST, OR COMPOSITION W

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General Instructions. — General instructions or specifications issued by the
bureau concerned shall form part of these specifications.

2. Scrap. — Scrap will not be used, except such as may result from the process of
manufacture of articles of similar composition.

3. Chemical Properties. — The chemical requirements shall be as follows:

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Iron,
Maximum

Lead,
Maximum

Regulus of
Antimony

Per Cent
3 7

Per Cent
88 8

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

7 5*

Banca

* To be well fluxed with borax and rosin in mixing.

4. Workmanship. — Material must be in accordance with detail specifications and
free from all injurious defects.

5. Brand of Tin. — If by reason of scarcity Banca tin cannot be procured, another
standard brand of tin may be proposed, subject to the approval of the Bureau of Steam
Engineering.

6. Fracture. — The color of the fracture section of test pieces and the grain of the
metal must be uniform throughout.

7. Supersedes. — This specification supersedes Composition W in Specifications
Part II, Steam Engineering (Revised July 1, 1910).

8. Purposes for Which Used. — The material is suitable for the following purposes:
All white metal liner bearings and bearing surfaces.

SPELTER SOLDER

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. General. — To be made of high-grade material, of good manufacture, and be suit-
able for the purpose intended.

2. Composition. — To be of the following compositions, as may be specified in
requisition :

(a) LONG-GRAIN SOLDER. — To consist of not less than 52 per cent of copper, not
more than 0.2 per cent of lead, not more than 0.1 per cent of iron, and the remainder
zinc.

(b) GRAY SPELTER SOLDER, QUICK RUNNING. — To consist of 49 to 52 per cent of
copper, 3 to 3.5 per cent of tin, not more than 0.5 per cent of lead, and the remainder
zinc.

3. Containers. — Long-grain solder shall be delivered in well-made wooden boxes,
each containing 100 pounds net weight. Gray spelter solder shall be delivered in
1-pound packages.

4. Marking. — Packages and boxes shall be marked with the name of the material,
the weight, and the name of the manufacturer.

5. Deliveries. — Deliveries shall be marked with the name of the material, the name
of the contractor, and the requisition or contract number under which delivery is made.

[554]

CRUCIBLES

SOLDER

NAVY DEPARTMENT

1. Solder to consist of practically equal amounts, by weight, of lead and tin, and be
made from new tin, Straits, Malacca, or Australian, and commercially pure new lead;
and be in bars branded " half-and-half" and average about 1 pound.

2. Any bar selected at random from a delivery of solder must show an analysis:
Total tin and lead, not less than 99.8 per cent.

Tin, between 49 and 51 per cent.
Antimony, not more than 0.10 per cent.
Zinc, none.

CRUCIBLES

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Crucibles to be of best plumbago or graphite, suitable for melting composition.
Workmanship to be of the best. To be delivered in perfect shapes.

Samples will be selected and must stand a test of at least 20 heats successfully
before acceptance. Payment will be made for test crucibles that do not stand 20
heats in the course of inspection at a price bearing the same proportion to the contract
price that the number of heats the crucibles stand before breaking bears to 20 heats,
the number required, i.e., if the crucibles stand 15 heats and then break, payment
of three-fourths of the contract price will be made for such crucibles.

The shapes and outside dimensions to be in accordance with the following dimensions:

Nos.

Holding Capacity,
Liquid Measure

Height
Outside

Diameter at
the Top
Outside

Diameter at
the Bulge
Outside,

Diameter at
the Bottom
Outside

Gals.

Qts.

Pts.

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

0

. . .

2

H

If

H

00

. . .

2|

U

H

If

000

2?

li

2i

1^

0000

. .

. . .

3

2f

2*

If

1

31

3*

3

2|

2

..

..

...

41

3f

3f

2f

3

5J

4?

4|

3

4

. . .

5f

4|

4|

3i

5

. .

li

6

41

4f

3^

6

1

&l

5*

5i

3|

7

1

i

6!

51

5|

4

8

. .

1

i

7*

5f

5f

4J

9

1

I

71

6

6?

4*

10

1

i

8

6

6^

4f

12

2

...

8

6i

61

5

14

..

2

i

8i

6f

7|

5|

16

2

i

8|

7

7|

18

3

i

9i

71

8

5f

20

1

m

7!

8|

6

25

1

1 10i

8

8f

6i

[555]

CRUCIBLE FURNACE, TILTING TYPE
CRUCIBLES — Cont.

NOB.

Holding Capacity,
Liquid Measure

£g

Diameter at
the Top
Outside

Diameter at
the Bulge
Outside

Diameter at
the Bottom
Outside

Gals.

Qts.

Pts.

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

30

1

1

1

• 11

81

9*

6*

35

1

2

1

111

9J

9|

7

40

2

. . .

12|

9*

101

71

45

2

I

13

9f

10|

71

50

2

3

...

13|

10*

ill

71

60

3

...

14

10f

ill

8

70

3

1

14|

101

12

8|

80

3

2

1

15f

HI

12f

8f

90

4

151

11*

12|

9

100

4

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1

16

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9f

125

4

3

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91

150

6

3

18*

131

14f

10f

175

7

3

1

19f

14J

15!

10!

200

9

3

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20£

15

16|

m

225

10

1

1

20f

16*

16!

12*

250

10

3

20£

m

17

ii!

275

11

3

22|

15

16f

12|

300

12

2

22

161

17*

12*

SECTION A~A

KROESCHELL-SCHWARTZ CRUCIBLE FURNACE, TILTING TYPE

This furnace relates to that class of crucible-furnaces in which the fuel (gas or oil)
and the air for its combustion are introduced into the furnace-chamber at or near its
base; the hot gases of combustion are given a gyratory motion causing them to com-
pletely envelop the crucible supported in the chamber, thus heating and melting its
contents. In a furnace of this construction the greatest intensity of heat is generated
about the lower portion of the crucible and causes its contents to melt from the bottom
upwardly, with the advantage of employing the heat of conduction from the lower

[556]

CRUCIBLE FURNACE, TILTING TYPE

molten portion of the mass to the upper solid portion; it thus expedites the melting
operation and greatly reduces oxidation, important considerations in melting metals.

The engravings from designs by Kroeschell Brothers Company, 440 W. Erie Street,
Chicago, 111., show a cylindrical metal casing with refractory lining, as also a raised
base formed with a circular concave seat for the purpose of receiving a special crucible
having a convex bottom conforming to the seat; it is also provided with a spout for
pouring. The crucible is held in place in the furnace by this concave seat and by
adjustment of two fire-bricks along the sides and near the top; when the furnace, is
tipped to pour the metal, the crucible is in no wise displaced, in fact, the crucible is
never removed until it has to be replaced by a new one.

This bottom lining also forms an annular gutter having a discharge outlet at the
bottom of the casing from which slag or spilled metal discharges automatically, a detail
not shown in the engraving.

Two covers are provided, the main cover hinged to top of casing, and a smaller
cover arranged to swivel on the main cover as shown in the engraving; both covers
are lined with refractory material. The main cover is provided with a central charging
opening; the smaller cover is also provided with an opening, the purpose of which is
to form an outlet for the escape of spent gases from the furnace. A hood placed above
the furnace conveys these gases to the chimney.

To operate the furnace the small cover is swung aside for charging the metal to be
melted through the main cover-opening into the crucible. The main cover need never
be opened except for introducing and removing a crucible and for repairing purposes,
so that the furnace remains closed while in operation and also while pouring.

The furnace is provided with trunnions which rest on two cast-iron supports, the

trunnions being placed below the center to insure the easy tilting of the furnace by
means of a hand wheel and gearing when the crucible is filled with metal.

The tilting function of the furnace is advantageous in facilitating pouring the molten
metal, and as the crucible is not removed from the furnace, there is no loss of heat
through radiation.

Pouring metal from a crucible in a completely closed furnace, far above the tem-
perature of the molten metal, insures not only hot metal but greatly reduces the time
required for making the next heat.

The location of fuel valve and air inlet is shown, as also the construction of lining
in the combustion zone, in Section A-A.

[557]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

This tilting furnace is made in one size with melting capacity per heat of 400 pounds
of metal. The oil consumption per 100 pounds of brass or bronze melted is 2 gallons;
when melting iron 5 gallons of oil are required per 100 pounds. The gas consumption
per 100 pounds of brass or bronze is 300 cubic feet; for iron 600 cubic feet of gas
are required. The air pressure required is from 20 to 24 ounces. The air required
per minute is from 125 to 140 cubic feet.

Melting copper, brass, or bronze, the furnace has a capacity of from six to seven
400-pound heats per day. The oxidation of the non-ferrous metals melted in this
furnace is very low; on bronze it is less than 1%, while on yellow brass it is less than
2%. The furnace is especially well adapted for melting borings, turnings, etc., be-
cause the metal melts first at the bottom of the crucible; this insures a low melting loss.

When used for Lmelting gray iron, the output averages about 400 pounds per heat,
and four heats can readily be taken off in a day. The results thus far obtained with
iron have been gratifying. Owing to the fact that the iron does not come in contact
with coke or other melting medium, as in the cupola, there is no increase in the sulphur
content, and the other metalloids, such as manganese, silicon, and carbon are under
absolute control. For this reason, clean iron is insured and no change occurs in the
mixture as a result of the melting operation, owing to the low percentage of oxidation.

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED

Admiralty Metal. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition A: 70.0% copper
(minimum); 1.0% tin (minimum); 0.06% iron (maximum); 0.075% lead (maximum);
zinc = remainder. Uses. Condenser tubes, distiller tubes, feed-water heater tubes,
evaporator tubes.

Aich's Metal. — Composition: 60.0% copper; 38.2% zinc; 1.8% iron. To which
is sometimes added 1.0% tin. Properties: Specific gravity, 8.42. Yellow-gold color.
Resists action of sea water; it is hard and tenacious. At red heat it is as malleable
as wrought iron. At 20° C. (68° F.) its tensile strength is 57,300 pounds per square
inch; at 450° C. (842° F.) the tenacity is reduced to 11,430 pounds per square inch.
Melting point about 894° C. (1641° F.) ,

Alloy — Non-Oxidizable.— Composition, Lemarguand: 38.66%^ copper; 7.22%
nickel; 7.73% cobalt; 9.28% tin; 37.12% zinc. The metals must be pure.

Aluminum Alloy '.— Composition: 3.0% copper; 82.0% aluminum; 15.0% zinc.
Specific gravity, 3.1 = 0.11 pound per cubic inch. Suitable for castings.

Aluminum Alloy. — Composition: 8.0% copper; 92.0% aluminum. Specific grav-
ity, 2.8 = 0.10 pound per cubic inch. Tensile strength about 18,000 pounds per
square inch. Suitable for automobile castings, crank cases, etc.

Aluminum Alloys. — Note — Zinc alone confers strength to the alloys with aluminum.
Copper hardens without strengthening. Annealing lowers the strength. Rolling
strengthens the material. Strength of castings increases with magnesium content,
the copper and zinc content ranging 10 to 15% combined.

Aluminum Brass. — Cowles. Composition: 33.33% copper; 33.33% zinc; 33.33%
A-No. 1 aluminum bronze (89.0% copper; 11.0% aluminum). The copper and the
bronze are first thoroughly melted together, then add the zinc. This alloy will show
about 80,000 pounds tensile strength per square inch.

Aluminum Bronze. — Composition: 87.0% aluminum; 8.0% copper; 5.0% tin.
Used in the automobile industry.

Aluminum Bronze. Composition, Cowles: A-No. 1 = 89.0% copper; 11.0%
aluminum.

A-No. 2 = 90.0% copper; 10.0% aluminum. These alloys are used in mixtures
when preparing aluminum brasses.

Aluminum Copper. — Aluminum with less than 7.0% copper will form malleable
alloys. In the automobile industry alloys containing 3 to 5.0% copper are sometimes
used. An alloy 94.0% aluminum; 6.0% copper was used in the hull construction of
a torpedo boat, but the excessive corrosion of this alloy by sea water prevented its.

[558]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

further use. The highest tenacity is obtained with the alloy containing about 4.0%
copper; beyond this the strength diminishes. Only those alloys which contain but
small percentages of copper are of any industrial value.

Aluminum and Manganese. — Alloys may be made by mixing these two metals
while in a state of fusion; the resultant alloy will have the property of being attracted
by the magnet. Alloys containing 2 to 3.0% manganese are used in the automobile
industry. The effect of small quantities of manganese is to increase the tenacity,
but when as much as 10.0% is reached the alloys are hard and brittle.

Aluminum and Nickel. — The effect of nickel on aluminum is similar to that of copper,
but it is only such alloys as contain small percentages of nickel that possess any pracr
tical value; the limit appears to be at about 2.0% nickel, which hardens aluminum.
At 5.0% nickel the alloy is very brittle.

Aluminum and Zinc. — Alloys containing less than 50.0% zinc consist of homo-
geneous solid solutions, and those containing less than 4.0% aluminum are also solid
solutions. Alloys with 1 to 15% zinc can be rolled, and drawn, but with more zinc
they become hard and can only be used for castings.

Anti-Friction Metal. — Admiralty. Plastic. Composition: 5.0% copper; 85.0%
tin; 10.0% antimony. For heavy load (special): 8.0% copper; 83.0% tin; 9.0%
antimony.

Anti-Friction Metal. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition W: 3.7% copper;
88.8% tin (Banca); 7.5% regulus of antimony (to be well fluxed with borax and rosin
in mixing). Uses. All white metal liner bearings and bearing surfaces.

Argentan. — Composition: 52.0% copper; 26.0% nickel; 22.0% zinc.

Arsenic Bronze. — Composition by analysis, Dudley. 89.20% copper; 10.0% tin;
0.8% arsenic.

Babbitt Metal. — A composition for lining journal boxes was patented by Isaac
Babbitt in 1839. In his patent he claimed 50 parts tin; 5 of antimony; and 1 of
copper, but did not intend to confine himself to this particular composition. This is
the basic formula for all so-called babbitt metals.

Commercial Babbitt metals range from the so-called genuine Babbitt down through
a great variety of mixtures to that of simply hardened lead. With a view to reducing
the number of commercial mixtures and yet meet the requirements of machine and
engine builders, a sub-committee of the American Society for Testing Materials has
proposed 5 specific grades, as given below.

Number

Tin

Antimony

Copper

Lead

1

83 33%

8 33%

8 33%

2

89 00

7 00

4 00

3. . .

50 00

15 00

2 00

33 00%

4

5 00

15 00

80 00

5

10 00

90 00

A Babbitt metal recommended in the Metal Industry Handbook (1916) is made
as follows: Melt together 4 pounds copper, 8 pounds antimony, and 24 pounds tin.
Cast this in thin strips in an iron mold. Melt in an iron pot 72 pounds tin, and add
the hardening mixture to it and stir well. Cast the resulting metal into small ingots
for use. The Handbook says this is one of the best white metals for lining bearings
known, when it is made according to the above formula.

Note. — The above composition is almost identical to that used in the United States
Navy.

Bell Metal. — Composition: 80.0% copper; 20.0% tin. This metal when slowly
cooled after fusion, is dingy gray in appearance, and very brittle. If suddenly chilled
in cold water from a low red heat it becomes moderately soft and capable of being
worked; it may be hardened after working by heating tcJ redness and slowly cooled.

Brass with Aluminum. — The useful addition of aluminum to brass composed wholly
of copper and zinc is restricted to small percentages, not over 4%. Guillet's experi-

[559]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

ments relating to two types of brass known as 70-30 and 60-40 composition show that
an alloy containing 38.0% zinc and 2.0% aluminum has the structure of a brass con-
taining 45.0% zinc; and this holds good with all the intermediate alloys; indicating
that 1.0% aluminum is probably equivalent to 3.5% zinc. With more than 4.0%
aluminum the alloys are difficult to work. It is probable that the action of aluminum
in small quantities in compositions of copper and zinc is that of a deoxidizer.

Brass with Aluminum. — Castings. Mechanical tests by Guillet show that 60.0%
copper; 40.0% zinc, has a tensile strength of 44,800 pounds per square inch with 47.0%
elongation. With 0.8% aluminum the tensile strength was about 43,000 pounds, elon-
gation 45%. With 2.9% aluminum the tensile strength was nearly 65,000 pounds,
elongation 14%. With 4.7% aluminum the tensile strength was 62,720 pounds, elon-
gation 2%. For engineering purposes the 4.7% alloy is inferior to that containing
2.9% aluminum because of its brittleness.

A brass alloy, 70.0% copper; 30.0% zinc, showed a tensile strength of about 19,264
pounds per square inch with 50.0% elongation. An alloy, 70.0% copper; 29.1%
zinc; 0.9% aluminum, had tensile strength 31,800 pounds with 67.0% elongation.
With 3.1% aluminum; 70.5% copper; 26.4% zinc, the tensile strength was 47,488
pounds with 50.0% elongation. Increasing the aluminum to 5.2%, with 70.0% copper;
24.8% zinc, the tensile strength was 71,232 pounds with but 11.0% elongation.

Brass with Aluminum. Rolled and annealed bars. Mechanical tests by Guillet
show that an alloy 61.4% copper; 37.9% zinc; 0.7% aluminum, had a tensile strength of
about 49,000 pounds per square inch with 45.0% elongation. An alloy, 61.0% copper;
37.6% zinc; 1.4% aluminum, had 51,520 pounds tensile strength with 45.3% elongation.
With 60.0% copper; 38.0% zinc; 2.0% aluminum, the tensile strength was 56,000
pounds with 17.0% elongation. Increasing the aluminum to 3.9% aluminum with 60.0%
copper; 36.1% zinc, the tensile strength was about 67,000 pounds with 13.0% elongation.

Brass Castings. — United States Navy. Composition B-c: 62.0% copper (mini-
mum); 30.0% zinc (minimum); 2.0% iron (maximum); 3.0% lead (maximum);
tin = remainder, normally, 3.0%. Uses: Name and number plates. Cases for
instruments. Oil cups. Distribution boxes.

Brass Castings for Electrical Appliances. — United States Navy. Composition BE:
80-88% copper; 2.0% tin (minimum); 2.0% lead (maximum); zinc = remainder.
Uses: For electrical fittings, such as junction boxes, switches, distribution boxes
connection boxes, water-tight bells, and buzzers, etc.

Brass Castings. — Not to stand high pressure steam. Composition: 85.0%
copper; 15.0% zinc; 3.0% tin; 2.0% lead. Melting point about 1032° C. (1890° F.).

Brass, Castings, Yellow. — Composition: 70.0% copper; 1.0% tin; 27.0% zinc;
2.0% lead. Tensile strength, about 29,000 pounds per square inch. Casts satisfactorily,
works easily, takes a fine finish.

Brass, Commercial. — Compositions B-r and B-p. United States Navy. Com-
position B-r: 60-63% copper; 0.5% tin (maximum); 38-35.5% zinc; 3.0% lead
(maximum) 0.06% iron (maximum). Uses: For rods, bars, shapes.

B-p: 60-70% copper; 40-30% zinc; 0.5% lead (maximum); 0.06% iron (maxi-
mum). Uses: For sheets, plates, and piping.

Brass Condenser Tubes. — Admiralty. Composition: 70.0% copper; 1.0%
tin (minimum); 29.0% zinc.

Brass with Lead. — The addition of lead to brass improves its lathe-working qualities.
Lead exists in brass in a free state and tends to segregate in patches according to the
amount present and the rate of cooling. Quick cooling lessens segregation. High
grade brass should never contain more than 0.10% lead or its ductility will be impaired.
The presence of 2.5 to 3.0% lead cannot be detected by the eye in a polished surface.
Alloys of brass with lead are rolled cold, because of liability to crack if rolled hot, and
the limit of lead is about 2.0% for rolling. The alloy most commonly used contains
about 60.0% copper; 38.0% zinc; 2.0% lead.

Brass with Manganese. — The so-called manganese bronze is in reality a manganese
brass; the principal metals in the alloy being copper and zinc. The action of man-
ganese in a copper and zinc alloy is to strengthen and harden it; it is equivalent to
reducing the copper and increasing the zinc. As the addition of the manganese is

[560]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

commonly in the form of ferro-manganese such alloys contain traces of iron, and upon
analysis, very often, only traces of manganese are found, in which case the manganese
probably acted as a deoxidizer and did not enter into the alloy at all. When manganese
does enter into solution, the micro-structure is the same as that of copper-zinc alloys.
Manganese bronzes or brasses containing more than 60% copper are suitable for forg-
ing; alloys containing less than 60% copper are suitable only for castings. A feature
of brass-manganese alloys is instanced by Hiorns in which an alloy: 54% copper;
40% zinc; 6% manganese, has practically the same structure as brass with 57% copper
and 43% zinc. Again, an alloy of 55% copper; 10% manganese; 35% zinc, has the
same structure as 60-40 brass.

Brass. Naval. Admiralty. — Composition: 62.0% copper; 1.0% tin; 37.0% zinc.
Tensile strength for round bars, f inch and under 58,240 pounds per square inch; round
bars above f inch and square bars, 49,280 pounds. Bars to be capable of (a) being
hammered hot to a fine point; (b) being bent cold through an angle of 75° over a radius
equal to the diameter, or the thickness of the bars.

Brass Pipe Fittings. — United States Navy. Composition S-c: 77-80% copper;
4.0% tin; 13-19% zinc; 3.0% lead; 0.10% iron.

Brass. Red. Commercial. — Composition: 83.0% copper; 4.0% tin; 7.0 zinc;
6.0% lead. Tensile strength about 30,000 pounds per square inch.

Brass. Rolled. High Brass. — Composition: 61.5% copper; 38.5% zinc. For
spinning, drawing, etc.

Brass. Rolled. Low Brass. — Composition: 80.0% copper; 20.0% zinc.

Brass. Spring Wire. — Composition: 65.7% copper; 32.8% zinc; 1.5% tin, or,
commonly, 66%% copper; 33 H% zinc, with 1^% tin added.

Brass with Tin. — A small percentage of tin renders brass less liable to corrosion by
sea water when in contact with gun metal. An alloy of brass with tin is known as
Naval Brass, the approximate composition being 62.0% copper; 37.0% zinc; 1.0% tin;
beyond this percentage of tin the alloy increases in brittleness and hardness; and with
more than 2.0% tin the alloy loses its useful properties.

Brass Tubes for Locomotives. — British Standard. Composition: 70-30 alloy
to contain not less than 70.0% copper, and not more than a total of 0.75% of materials
other than copper and zinc.

Composition: 2-1 alloy to contain not less than 66.7% copper, and not more than
a total of 0.75% of materials other than copper and zinc.

Bulging test: The tubes must stand bulging or drifting without either crack or
flaw, until the diameter of the bulged or drifted end measures not less than 25.0%
greater than the original diameter of the tube.

Flanging test: The tubes must stand flanging, without showing either crack or
flaw, until the diameter of the flange measures not less than 25.0% greater than the
original diameter of the tube.

Flattening and doubling over test: Tubes must be capable of standing the follow-
ing test, when cold, without showing either crack or flaw. A piece of the tube shall
be flattened down until the interior surfaces of the tube meet, and then be doubled
over on itself, i.e., bent through an angle of 180°, the bend being at right angles to
the direction of length of the tube.

Hydraulic test: All brass boiler tubes shall be tested by an internal hydraulic
pressure of at least 750 pounds per square inch.

Brass, Yellow. — Composition: 60.0% copper; 40.0% zinc. Tensile strength:
Castings = 16,000 pounds per square inch. Annealed sheet = 60,000 pounds. Hard
rolled sheet = 107,000 pounds. A possible reduction of 92.0% in rolling is given by
E. S. Sperry. This composition is perfectly homogeneous; the chips, being long and
tenaceous, necessitate a slow speed in cutting.

Brass, Yellow. — Composition: 60.0% copper; 35.0% zinc; 5.0% lead. Tensile
strength: Castings = 33,000 pounds per square inch. Annealed sheets = 42,000
pounds. Hard rolled sheets = 61,000 pounds. This composition makes good castings
with good cutting qualities. This alloy cracked on rolling. A possible reduction of
61.0% in rolling is given by E. S. Sperry.

Brazing. Aluminum Bronze. — This metal will braze, using 25.0% brass solder

[561]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

(50.0% copper; 50.0% zinc) and 75.0% borax, or, better perhaps, 75.0% cryolite,
a double fluoride of aluminum and sodium.

Brazing Metal. — Composition: 84.2% copper; 15.8% zinc. For flanges for copper
pipes. Brazing solder for the above alloy, 50.0% copper; 50.0% zinc.

Brazing Metal. — United States Navy. Composition F: 84-86% copper; 0.06%
iron (maximum) ; 0.3 % lead (maximum) ; zinc = remainder. Used on all flanges for
copper pipe and other fittings that are to be brazed.

Bronze. Acid Resisting. — Composition: 90.0% copper; 10.0% tin. Tensile
strength, 37,500 pounds per square inch. Suitable for mine pumps.

Bronze, Ajax. — Composition by analysis, Dudley: 81.2% copper; 10.9% tin;
7.2% lead; 0.4% phosphorus.

Bronze, Castings. — Admiralty. Composition: 87.0% copper; 8.0% tin; 5.0%
zinc. For parts of engines on Naval vessels.

Bronze, Deoxidized.— Composition: 82.42% copper; 12.25% tin; 3.14% zinc;
2.08% lead; 0.10% iron; 0.03% silver; 0.005 phosphorus.

Bronze, Journal. — United States Navy. Composition H: 82-84% copper;
12.5-14.5% tin; 2.5-4.5% zinc; 0.06% iron (maximum); 1.0% lead (maximum).
Normal: 83 — 13.5 — 3.5. Uses: Suitable for bearings, journal boxes, bushings,
and sleeves, slides, slippers, guide gibs, wedges on water-tight doors, and all parts
subject to considerable wear, for reciprocating engines in valve stem cross-head bottom
brass, link block gibs, and suspension link brasses.

Camelia Metal. — Composition by analysis, Dudley: 70.2% copper; 4.2% tin;
14.7% lead; 10.2% zinc; 0.5% iron.

Car Bearings. Pennsylvania Railroad. — Composition, Dudley's alloy B: 76.8%
copper; 8.0% tin; 15.0% lead; 0.2% phosphorus.

Carbon Bronze. — Composition by analysis, Dudley: 75.4% copper; 9.7% tin;
14.5% lead.

Constantin. — Composition: 60.0% copper; 40.0% nickel. High electric resistance
properties.

Copper Plates for locomotive fire boxes. English Standard. Composition: Class
A. Not less than 99.25% copper, and 0.35 to 0.55% of arsenic.

Class B. Not less than 99.25% copper, and 0.25 to 0.45% of arsenic. Tensile
strength not less than 31,360 pounds per square inch with 35% elongation in 8 inches.
Bending test both red and cold through 180° without showing either crack or flaw on
the outside of the bend.

Copper Rods for locomotive stay bolts, rivets, etc. English Standard. Composi-
tion: Not less than 99.25% copper, and 0.15 to 0.35% of arsenic. Tensile strength
not less than 31,360 pounds per square inch with not less than 40.0% elongation in
8 inches.

Copper Tubes (seamless) for locomotive feed pipes etc. British Standard. Com-
position: Tubes must contain not less than 99.25% copper, and 0.25 to 0.45% arsenic.
Mechanical tests are the same as for brass tubes.

Cupro-Nickel. — For cartridge cases: 75.0 to 85.0% copper and the remainder
nickel.

Delta Metal. Composition: 57.0% copper; 42.0% zinc; 1.0% iron. Castings
have a tensile strength of about 45,000 pounds per square inch. Rolled or forged
bars have a tensile strength of about 60,000 pounds per square inch. The iron is
chemically combined by dissolving wrought iron in the molten copper. Tin, manganese,
or lead is sometimes introduced into the alloy, to impart special properties to it.
Delta metal can be forged at a dark cherry-red heat.

Duralumin. — Composition: 3.6% copper; 0.5 silicon; 0.60% iron; 0.4% man-
ganese; 94.9% aluminum. Specific gravity, 2.79. Tensile strength of castings about
35,800 pounds per square inch. It is used in the form of sheets and wire. The tensile
strength of sheets is about 76,000 pounds per square inch.

Duralumin. Composition by analysis, Law: 4.06% copper; 0.53% manganese;
0.86% magnesium; 0.40% silicon; 1.55% iron; 92.60% aluminum (by difference).

Fusible Alloy.— Charpy gives the most fusible alloy: 52.0% bismuth; 32.0%
lead; 16.0% tin. Fusing point, 96° C. (204.8° F.). He calls this the eutectic alloy.

[562]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

Newton's Fusible Alloys. Composition: 50.0% bismuth; 31.25% lead; 18.75%
tin. Melting point, 95° C. (203° F.).

Rose's alloy: 50.0% bismuth; 28.0% lead; 22.0% tin. Melting point, 100° C.
(212° F.).

Wood's alloy: 38.46% bismuth; 30.77% lead; 15.38% tin; 15.39% cadmium.
Melting point, 71° C. (160° F.).

Lipowitz's alloy: 50.0% bismuth; 27.0% lead; 13.0% tin; 10.0% cadmium.
Melting point, 60° C. (140° F.).

Fusible Alloys. Darcet's formulas: A. 57.14% bismuth; 14.29% lead; 28.57%
tin.

B. 59.26% bismuth; 14.82% lead; 25.93% tin.

C. 60.0% bismuth; 13.33% lead; 26.67% tin.

Of these all become more or less soft at 100° C. (212° F.); alloy B becomes softer
than either A or C.

D. 57.14% bismuth; 17.85% lead; 25.00% tin, becomes nearly fluid at 100° C.
(212° £.).

E. 53.33% bismuth; 20.00% lead; 26.67% tin, becomes liquid at 100° C. (212° F.),
but not very fluid.

F. 50.0% bismuth; 25.0% lead; 25.0% tin becomes very liquid at 100° C. (212°
F.). The melting point of this alloy is said to be 93° C. (199.4° F.).

Gear Bronze. — Hard. Composition: 89.0% copper; 11.0% tin. Tensile strength,
about 37,500 pounds per square inch. Elastic limit, about 21,600 pounds. Suitable
for worm-wheels with steel worm.

Gear Bronze. Medium hard. Composition: 88.0% copper; 10.0% tin; 2.0%
lead. Tensile strength, about 32,500 pounds per square inch. Suitable for worm-
wheels with steel worm.

German Silver. — An alloy consisting of nickel, copper, and zinc. This alloy has the
properties of whiteness, luster, hardness, tenacity, toughness, malleability, and ductility.
The proportions of the above metals vary widely, and to these are sometimes added:
Tin, iron, cobalt, silver, manganese, aluminum, lead, antimony, magnesium, according
to the needs or the fancy of the manufacturer. Hiorns states that founders whose
specialty is German silver have agreed that the best alloy for beauty, luster, and working
properties is 46.0% copper; 34.0% nickel; 20.0% zinc.

German Silver, Notes on. — The metals most often found in German silver and
regarded as impurities are iron, tin, and lead. Iron forms a solid solution with the
alloy; it increases the strength, hardness, and elasticity of German silver, and makes
it slightly whiter. In general, 1 to 2% of iron does not affect its working; in fact, nearly
all commercial castings contain some iron. In mixtures intended for rolling and spin-
ning, iron has been found to be very objectionable. In regard to color, an alloy con-
taining 12.0% nickel with iron is said to be equal to an alloy containing 16.0% nickel
in which no iron is present, zinc being the same in each case. To alloy iron with
copper and nickel by Hiorns' method: Heat together the best iron wire with copper
and nickel in a covered crucible, add zinc to the molten mass, stir vigorously and pour
into ingots; the metals will form a perfect alloy and no separation of iron can be de-
tected when the ingot is rolled into a thin sheet and highly polished.

Tin, to the extent of 2 to 4%, is much more injurious to German silver than is iron,
the alloy showing brittleness in rolling and a decided yellow cast when polished; there
is, therefore, no advantage in adding tin to German silver. Tin does not enter into
solid solution in the alloy, but forms a eutectic which renders the metal brittle. For
use in ornamental castings, 1 to 2% tin is sometimes used.

Lead, to the extent of 1 to 3%, is sometimes added in castings to facilitate lathe and
hand fitting.

Arsenic injures the working qualities of German silver and should never be present.

Cobalt frequently accompanies nickel and alloys readily with it; it exerts no in-
jurious influence in German silver alloys.

Graphite Bearing Metal. — Composition by analysis, Dudley: 15.0% tin; 68.0%
lead; 17.0% antimony. No graphite present.

Gun Metal. Admiralty. Composition: 88.0% copper; 10.0% tin; 2.0% zinc

[563]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

(maximum). Tensile strength, 31,360 pounds per square inch. Castings must be
sound, clean, and free from blow-holes.

Gun Metal. Bearings. Composition: 88.0% copper; 10.0% tin; 2.0% zinc.
Tensile strength about 35,000 pounds per square inch. Suitable for heavy pressures
and high speeds.

Gun Metal. Cast.— Composition G. United States Navy. 87-89% copper;
9-11% tin; 1-3% zinc; 0.06% iron (maximum); 0.2% lead (maximum). Uses: All
composition valves 4 inches in diameter and above; expansion joints, flanged pipe
fittings, gear wheels, bolts and nuts, miscellaneous brass castings, all parts where
strength is required of brass castings or where subjected to salt water, and for all pur-
poses where no other alloy is specified.

Gun Metal. English. — Composition: 87.0% copper; 8.0% tin; 5.0% zinc. For
general engine fittings.

Gun Metal. Good alloy for general use. English. — Composition: 88.0% copper;
8.0% tin; 2.0% zinc; .0% lead. Melts about 950° C. (1742° F.).

Lead-Bronze Bearing Metal. Composition: 77.0% copper; 10.5% tin; 12.5%
lead. The wear is comparatively low with lead bronze, but the friction is higher than
with bronzes containing less lead. A nickel alloy consisting of 64.0% copper; 5.0% tin;
30.0% lead; 1.0% nickel is given by Hiorns as being largely in use, as it allows a much
greater proportion of lead with the consequent diminished wear.

Lumen Bearing Metal. — Composition: 10.0% copper; 85.0% zinc; 5.0% aluminum.

Macadamite. — Composition: 72.0% aluminum; 24.0% zinc; 4.0% copper. This
alloy has been used to replace brass where lightness is desirable.

Magnalium. — This alloy, by Dr. Ludwig Mach, consists of 100 parts aluminum
and 10 to 30 parts of magnesium. It is very light in weight, and can be made hard
or soft as desired. It is pure white, takes a higher polish than silver, and is said to
have all the merits and none of the defects of pure aluminum. The alloys containing
more than 15.0% magnesium at one end of the series or more than 15.0% aluminum at
the other are brittle. Magnesium has the power of freeing aluminum from dissolved
oxide. The three chief magnalium alloys are termed by the makers X, Y, and Z. X is
used for very strong castings, Y for ordinary castings, and Z for rolling and drawing.

X contains 1.76% copper; 1.16% nickel; 1.6% magnesium; and 95.48% aluminum.

Y is similar to X, but contains no nickel and a small quantity of tin and lead.

Z contains 3.15% tin; 0.21% copper; 0.72% lead; 1.58% magnesium; and 94.34%
aluminum. Hiorns.

Magnalium. — Composition by analysis: 94.5% aluminum; 2.0% zinc; 2.0%
copper; 1.0% iron; 0.6% magnesium. Tensile strength (rolled), 20,832 pounds per
square inch, with 25% elongation.

Magnolia Metal.— Composition by analysis, Dudley: 83.55% lead; 16.45%
antimony; with traces of copper, zinc, and iron.

Composition by analysis, R. H. Smith: 78.0% lead; 16.0% antimony; 6.0% tin.

Note. — Magnolia metal is a trade name; it is not confined to a single composition.

Manganese Bronze. — Composition: For castings, 56.0% copper; 41.0% zinc;
0.9% tin; 1.5% iron; 0.15% manganese; 0.45% aluminum. Specific gravity, 8.39.

For rods, 56.0% copper; 40.6% zinc; 0.9% tin; 0.25% iron; 2.0% manganese;
0.25% aluminum.

Manganese Bronze. Cast. — United States Navy. Composition Mn-c: 56.58%
copper; 1.0% tin (maximum); 40-42% zinc; 1.0% iron (maximum); 0.2% lead
(maximum); 0.5% aluminum (maximum); 0.3% manganese (maximum); Uses:
Propeller, hubs, propeller blades, engine framing, castings requiring great strength,
such as main gearing in steering engine; worm-wheels in windlass or turning gear
for turrets.

Manganese Copper. — Composition: 70.0% copper; 30.0% manganese. Used for
electric resistances.

Manganese-Vanadium Bronze. — Composition, Law: 58.56% copper; 38.54%
zinc; 1.48% aluminum; 0.48% manganese; 1.00% iron; 0.03% vanadium. Tensile
strength, about 81,500 pounds per square inch; elastic limit, about 50,600 pounds,
elongation, 12% in 2 inches. Reduction of area, 14%.

[564]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

Manganin. — Composition: 84.0% copper; 12.0% nickel; 4.0% manganese. Used
for electrical resistance.

Monel Metal. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition Mo-c: 60.0% nickel;
6.5% iron (maximum); 0.5% aluminum; 33.0% copper (remainder). Uses: Valve
fittings, plumbing fittings, boat fittings, propellers, propeller hubs, blades, engine
framing, pump liners, valve seats, shaft nuts and caps, and composition castings requir-
ing great strength.

Monel Metal.— Rolled. Sheets, plates, rods, etc. United States Navy. Com-
position Mo-r: 60.0% nickel (minimum); 3.5% iron (maximum); 0.5% aluminum
(maximum); 36.0% copper (remainder). Uses: Rolled rounds, used principally
for propeller-blade bolts, air-pump and condenser bolts, and parts requiring strength
and incorrodibility, and pump rods.

Muntz Metal. — Composition, English: For plates, 60.0% copper; 40.0% zinc.
Specific gravity, 8.40 = 524 pounds per cubic foot = 0.33 pound per cubic inch. Melt-
ing point, about 886° C. (1627° F.).

For sheets, 61.0% copper; 39.9% zinc.

For rods, 62.0% copper; 38.0 zinc. This alloy is very ductile and can be forged
when hot. It has an ultimate tensile strength of about 49,000 pounds per square inch.

Muntz Metal. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition D-c: 59-62% copper;
38-41% zinc; 0.6% lead (maximum).

Muntz Metal. — United States Navy. Sheets, plates, rods, bars, etc. Non-ferrous
metal D-r: 59-62% copper; 38-41% zinc; 0.6% lead (maximum). Tensile strength,
40,000 pounds per square inch. Yield point, 20,000 pounds per square inch. Elonga-
tion, 25% in 2 inches.

Naval Brass. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition N-c: 60-63% copper;
0.5-1.5% tin; 0.06% iron (maximum); 0.3% lead (maximum); zinc = remainder.
Normal, 62 — 1 — 37. Uses (C. and R.): Hatch frames, door frames, scuttle frames;
rail and ladder stanchions; brass valves and fittings for ventilation system; belaying
pins, brass pipe flanges. (S.E.): Valve handwheels, hand-rail fittings, ornamental and
miscellaneous castings, and valves in water chests of condensers.

Naval Brass. — Rolled. Sheets, plates, rods, etc. United States Navy. Composi-
tion N-r: 59-63% copper; 0.5-1.5% tin; 0.06% iron (maximum); 0.2% lead (maxi-
mum); zinc = remainder. Uses: Bolts, studs, nuts, and turnbuckles, especially if
subject to corrosion or salt water, rolled rounds used principally for propeller blade
bolts, air pump, and condenser bolts and parts requiring strength and incorrodibility,
and pump rods, tube sheets, supporting plates, and shafts for valves in water heads.

Nickel Silver.— Composition: 40.0% copper; 30.0% nickel; 30.0% zinc. This
mixture is suitable for castings only.

Nickel Silver.— Sheffield. Composition: 57.0% copper; 24.0% nickel; 19.0%
zinc.

Nickelin. — Composition: 68.0% copper; 32.0% nickel. A copper-nickel alloy
for electrical resistances. Another alloy analyzed 55.3% copper; 31.1% nickel; 13.1%
zinc.

Non-Ferrous Metal D-r. — United States Navy. Muntz metal sheets, plates, rods,
bars, etc. Composition: 59-62% copper; 38-41% zinc; 0.6% lead (maximum).

Phosphor Bronze. — Castings. United States Navy. Composition P-c:

Grade 1. 85-90% copper; 6-11% tin; 8.44% zinc (remainder); 0.06% iron (maxi-
mum); 0.2% lead (maximum); 0.3% phosphorus (maximum).

Grade 2. 78-81% copper; 9-13% tin; 4.3% zinc (remainder); 8-11% lead (maxi-
mum); 0.7-1.0% phosphorus (maximum).

Uses, Grade 1: Valve stems and fittings, etc., exposed to the action of salt water;
sheathing, gears, and driving or main nuts for steering gears; castings where strength
and incorrodibility are required. Grade 2: Gun fittings (ordnance).

Phosphor Bronze. — Rolled or drawn. United States Navy. Composition P-r:

Grade 1. 94-96% copper; 5-4% tin; 0.10% phosphorus (maximum); zinc, iron,
or lead, when present as impurities must not exceed 0.10% as a total for the three.

Grade 2. 85-95% copper; 10-5% tin; 4.0% zinc (maximum); 0.06% iron (maxi-
mum); 0.2% lead (maximum); 0.15% phosphorus (maximum).

[565]

COMPOSITION OF SOME ALLOYS USED IN ENGINEERING

Uses, Grade 1: Rods, pins, spring wire, etc. Grade 2: Pump rods, valve stems,
objects exposed to salt water.

Phosphor Bronze. — Dudley's Standard. Composition: 79.7% copper; 10.0% tin;
9.5% lead; 0.8% phosphorus.

Phosphor Bronze. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Composition: 79.7% copper; 10.0%
.tin; 9.5% lead; 0.8% phosphorus. Rejections will occur if deliveries fail to show
between 9.0 and 11.0% tin; 8.0 and 11.0% lead; 0.7 and 1.0% phosphorus.

Plastic Bronze. — Composition: 65.0% copper; 5.0% tin; 30.0% lead. The lead
does not alloy with the copper but separates out in the form of globules, which ought
to be uniformly distributed throughout the mass. In this alloy the soft particles of
lead are embedded in the harder matrix of copper and tin; the addition of lead increases
the plasticity of the alloy.

Platinoid. — Composition: 60.0% copper; 14.0% nickel; 24.0% zinc; 1.0 to 2.0%
tungsten. This alloy has high electric resistance, not changing with temperature.
Note: Many samples of so-called platinoid failed to show even traces of tungsten on
analysis.

Rheotan. — Composition: 84.0% copper; 4.0% zinc; 12.0% manganese. Used for
electrical resistance.

Rheotan. — Guillett's formula. Composition: 54.0% copper; 25.0% nickel; 17.0%
zinc; 4.0% iron.

Silicon Bronze. — Composition, Guillemin: 89.0% copper; 9.0% tin; 1.5% zinc;
0.5 % lead; silicon, traces. Tensile strength, about 38,000 pounds per square inch
with 20% elongation. Cupro-silicon is used in the manufacture of silicon bronze. The
hardness and strength of alloys can be increased or decreased at will by increasing
or decreasing silicon.

Solder. — Aluminum. Composition: 69.0% tin; 26.2% zinc; 2.4 phosphor tin
(10.0% P.); 2.4% aluminum. Richards. This solder is said to be capable of being
used with a soldering iron, and not to disintegrate after exposure to air.

Solder.— Half andrhalf. ; United States Navy. To be made from new tin, Straits,
Malacca, or Australian, and commercially pure lead. Total tin and lead = 99.8%.
Tin between 49 and 51%. Antimony not more than 0.10%; zinc, none.

Solder. — Hard for copper and brass. Composition: 66.67% copper; 33.33% zinc.
Flux; Borax.

Other compositions: Good tough brass, 83.33%, and 16.67% zinc. Flux: Borax.
A more fusible solder consists of equal parts copper and zinc.

Solder. — Nickel silver. Composition: 47.0% copper; 11.0% nickel; 42.0%
zinc.

Solder.— Tinmen's. Composition: 60.0% tin; 40.0% lead. Flux: Rosin or zinc
chloride. Fluxing temperature, 334° F. (168° C.).

For fine solder: 66.67% tin; 33.33% lead. Flux: Rosin or zinc chloride. Fluxing
temperature, 340° F. (171° C.).

Spelter Solder. — United States Navy. Composition A: Long-grain solder. To
consist of not less than 52.0% copper, not more than 2.0% lead; not more than 0.1%
iron, and the remainder zinc.

B: Gray spelter solder. Quick running. To consist of 49-52% copper; 3-3.5%
tin; not more than 0.5% lead, and the remainder zinc.

Steam Metal. — Brass. High grade. Composition: 85.0% copper; 5.0% tin;
5.0% zinc; 5.0% lead. Tensile strength, about 30,000 pounds per square inch.

Sterro Metal.— Composition : 60.0% copper; 38.0 to 38.5% zinc; and 1.5-2.0%
iron. The proportion of iron is found to vary somewhat and tin is sometimes added
to the alloy. Baron Rosthorn's analysis of sterro metal indicated 55.04% copper;
42.36% zinc; 0.83% tin; 1.77% iron; this alloy yielded 60,480 pounds per square
inch tensile strength for castings; 76,160 pounds for forgings; 85,120 pounds when
cold drawn. The presence of iron in this alloy imparts to it a strength equal to that
of mild steel. It is recommended as an alloy for sheathing for ships and other objects
which are subjected to the continued action of salt water.

Tobin Bronze. — Composition: 58.22% copper; 2.30% tin; 39.48% zinc. Specific
gravity, 8.379. Weight per cubic inch, 0.302 pounds. Tensile strength, about 60,000

f566]

NOTES ON BEARING METALS

pounds per square inch, with yield point about one-half the tensile strength." Used for
bolts, nuts, pump rods, condenser tube plates, etc.

Tobin Bronze. — Composition by analysis, Dudley: 59.0% copper; 2.1% tin;
0.3% lead; 38.4% zinc; 0.1% iron.

Torpedo Bronze. — United States Navy. Composition: 59-62% copper; 0.5-1.5%
tin; 0.3% lead (maximum); 0.1% iron (maximum); the remainder zinc. To contain
no aluminum. Tests: Must stand hammering hot to a fine point and bending cold
through 120° with inner radius equal to diameter or thickness of bar.

Valve Bronze. — United States Navy. Composition M: 87.0% copper; 7.0% tin;
4.94% zinc (remainder); 0.06% iron (maximum); 1.0% lead (maximum). Uses:
Valves below 4 inches for steam and general purposes for which the material is not
otherwise specified, manifolds and cocks, relief valves, composition lug sockets, and
pad eyes not requiring special strength, hose couplings, and fittings.

Vanadium Bronze. — Cast. United States Navy. Composition Vn-c: 61.0%
copper (minimum); 38.0% zinc (maximum); remainder not to exceed 1.0% tin, with
lead, bismuth, aluminum, vanadium, and nickel. Tensile strength, 55,000 pounds
per square inch as a minimum.

White Brass. — Alloys known as white brass are, in general, German silver alloys.
The composition of German silver varies widely in its proportions of the metals copper,
zinc, and nickel. Nickel will vary from 18 to 25%; zinc from 20 to 30%; the remainder
copper. Alloys of copper and zinc containing less than 45.0% copper are no longer
yellow; when the percentage of copper is below 40.0%, but above 30.0%, the alloy is
white. Nickel whitens as well as strengthens the alloy; it also makes the alloy more
non-corrodible than copper and zinc alone. The term white brass should not be con-
fused with white metal anti-friction alloys.

White Brass. — Parsons'. Composition, Campbell: 5.0% copper; 65.0% tin;
30.0% zinc.

Composition, Seaton: 5.6% copper; 17.5% tin; 0.8% antimony; 76.1% zinc.

White Metal. — Admiralty. Composition: 7.0% copper; 85.0% tin (minimum);
8.0% antimony (minimum). Where bearing brasses are fitted with white metal, they
are to be tinned before being filled.

White Metal for Bearings. — Composition, Seaton: A very good white metal is
made by mixing 6 parts of tin with 1 of copper, and 6 parts of tin with 1 of antimony,
and then adding the two mixtures together.

The exact Admiralty specification is at least 85% tin, and not less than 8% anti-
mony, and about 5% copper; zinc or lead not to be used.

White Metal. — Parsons'. Composition, Seaton: 58.5% tin; 2.0% antimony;
39.5 zinc.

Another alloy: 1.0% copper; 68.0% tin; 30.5% zinc; 0.5% lead.

NOTES ON BEARING METALS

In a properly adjusted bearing with proper lubrication, the composition of the
metal is of little importance so long as it is strong enough to bear the load without
being squeezed out, or tough enough without being brittle.

Compressive Strength. — All white metal alloys intended for shafts should stand
a pressure of 9,000 pounds per square inch, alloys for connecting rods should stand
13,000 pounds per square inch before failing. When a bearing is subjected, while
running, to gradually increased load, there will come a point where the friction increases
out of all proportion to the previous gradual increase; this is the cutting point, or
that at which the metal is said to grip. The harder the surfaces in contact, the less
the friction, and the higher the load to produce gripping.

Durability. — A metal cannot at once possess a low coefficient of friction and dur-
ability to a high degree. Lead is the best metal as regards rate of wear ; owing, how-
ever, to the tendency of its particles to stick to the shaft it is perhaps the worst with
regard to friction resistance.

Low Temperature of Running. — In high speeds, where the heat generated may be

(5671

NOTES ON BEARING METALS

considerable, an alloy with low specific heat and high thermal conductivity, such as tin,
is preferable to alloys high in lead.

Wear on Journal. — White metals do not score the shaft as do other alloys in case
of deficient lubrication.

Corrosion. — Tin and antimony resist the corrosive action of a lubricant entirely,
iron, copper, lead, and zinc being corrodible in the order named, zinc being quite the
worst.

Rigid Bronzes. — When well-fitted, bronzes run cooler and with less friction than
other bearing metals, but they wear most of all. The best alloys of this class for heavy
loads are the true bronzes. Both the rate of wear and the hardness of the bronzes
increase as the tin increases. The practical limit for tin is about 20%; above this the
alloys are too brittle to be safe. Bronzes with over 6% tin consist of a portion high in
copper surrounded by a eutectic high in tin. As the tin increases the proportion of the
eutectic increases; as this is very hard, the hardness of the alloy also increases. Zinc
is often added as a cheapening addition for common bearings, but bearings high in
zinc wear badly. Phosphorus used as a deoxidizer in making bronzes results in closer-
grained, harder, and more homogeneous castings.

Plastic White Metals. — Plasticity should be such as to enable the alloy to mold
itself round the shaft, but the alloy must be tough enough to stand the working pressure
without deformation. Hardness is necessary to give low frictional resistance. These
two properties belong to alloys which consist of hard grains embedded in a plastic
matrix; a characteristic of all the best anti-friction alloys. The hard grains in service
are slightly in relief, and perform most of the bearing duty with a minimum of frictional
resistance.

Lead-antimony alloys are the cheapest white lining metals in use, and quite good
eno.ugh for many purposes, but their compressive strengths are low. Lead and anti-
mony alloy in all proportions; the eutectic alloy contains 13% antimony, but most
alloys have antimony in excess of 13%; when a limit of about 25% is reached the
alloy becomes too brittle for safe use.

Alloys of Tin, Antimony, and Copper. — In this class is included the original Babbitt
metal, the highest-priced alloy in common use, because of the high content of tin, but
these alloys generally give most satisfaction.

Alloys of Lead, Antimony, and Tin. — The introduction of tin to lead-antimony
alloys modifies the brittleness of the hard antimony grains by the presence in solid
solution of a greater or less amount of the antimony-tin compound, which also enters
into the antimony of the eutectic matrix, increasing its compressive strength. Their
heat-dissipating capacity, determined by the combined effects of specific heat, thermal
conductivity, and radiative capacity, is inferior to the high-tin alloys, and should not
be recommended for high speeds.

Alloys of Tin, Zinc, and Antimony. — A remarkable property of these alloys is their
high compressive strengths. They are difficult to cast, as the volatilization of zinc is
aggravated in the presence of antimony.

Deoxidizing Agents. — Arsenic when not above 1 % produces a fine-grained fracture,
and freedom from blow-holes; but it does not improve the alloy's wearing properties.
Phosphorus, potassium cyanide, and sodium are also used as deoxidizing agents.

Plastic Bronzes. — The want of plasticity of the rigid bronzes is a disadvantage;
attempts made by Dr. Dudley, of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, to secure
higher plasticity by 'the introduction of lead were successful up to the extent of 15%
of lead; after exhaustive tests these alloys replaced the old rigid bronzes. The lead
does not appear to alloy to any extent with the bronze, but to be mechanically held
by it, and "forms trails of a plastic substance throughout the metal." — A. Hague.

[568]

SECTION 10

MACHINE DETAILS, PRINCIPALLY THOSE RELATING TO
STEAM ENGINES

KEYWAYS AND KEYS

One function of a key is to secure a simultaneous rotative movement of a shaft and
the piece keyed to it. The working stresses upon a key sunk into both shaft and hub
tend to sheafing, there being little or no tendency to axial movement. A key by its
breadth and length presents an area of metal between the driving and driven parts,
and must be sufficiently large to easily resist the shearing stress. It is important that
a sunk key shall completely fill the keyway at its sides to properly resist this shearing
effort. The taper of a key should be employed only for fixing the key in place, and not
in wedging the shaft and hub apart.

The taper of a key is allowed for on its upper side only; the bottom of keyway is
always parallel to the axis of the shaft. The thickness of a tapered key is that of the
small end to which the allowance for taper is added. The usual taper for keys is £ inch
per foot.

Key forgings should be of steel. The tensile strength of rolled machinery steel in
medium and small sizes will vary from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds per square inch.
Keys may, therefore, be considered to be as hard or harder than the shaft, and of course
much harder than the cast iron hub into which the key is to be fitted. Steel keys have
a safe working strength of 7,500 Ibs. per square inch of shearing section.

Proportions — The proportions for sunk keys as formulated by Unwin are in almost
universal use in this country; these are given in the accompanying table together with
all necessary working dimensions for keys and keyways suitable for shafts from 1 to 12
inches in diameter.

KEYWAYS AND SUNK KEYS

Unwin's formula:

B = .25D+ .125 inch

T = .5B

ti = depth of keyway in hub

t2 = depth of keyway in shaft

. 3B
. 2B

SHEARING RESISTANCE OF

KEY PER INCH OF LENGTH.

FOR WORKING VALUES PER

Shaft

Area of

SQUARE INCH OF

Diam.

B

T

ti

t2

Key

D

6000

7500

10,000

Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

1

.375 = Y%

.188 = A

.113

.075

.0703

2250

2812

3750

iy*

.406= H

.203= if

.122

.081

.0825

2438

3047

4063

iy*

.438= &

.219 = A

.131

.088

.0957

2625

3281

4375

iy*

.469 = M

.234 = M

.141

.094

.1099

2813

3516

4688

llA

.500= y2

.250 = M

.150

.100

.1250

3000

3750

5000

[569

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
KETWAYS AND SUNK KEYS— Continued

Shaft
Diam.
D

B

T

ti

tz

Area of
Key

SHEARING RESISTANCE OF
KEY PER INCH OP LENGTH,
FOR WORKING VALUES PER
SQUARE INCH OF

6000
Pounds

7500
Pounds

10,000
Pounds

i«

.531 = H

.266 = H

.159

.106

.1411

3188

3985

5313

IX

.563 = &

.281 = A

.169

.113

.1670

3375

4219

5625

m

.594 = if

.297 = if

.178

.119

.1763

3563

4454

5938

2

.625 = 5/8

.313 = A

.188

.125

.1953

3750

4688

6250

2ys

.656= B

.328 = fi

.197

.131

.2153

3938

4922

6563

VA

.688 = tt

.344 = H

.206

.138

.2364

4125

5156

6875

2y8

.719 = H

.359 = ft

.216

.144

.2583

4313

5391

7188

2y*

.750 = M

.375 = ys

.225

.150

.2813

4500

5625

7500

2%

.781 = ff

.391 = ff

.234

.156

.3052

4688

5860

7813

2H

.813= if

.406= if

.244

.163

.3301

4875

6094

8125

2%

.844= H

.422= H

.253

.169

.3560

5063

6329

8438

3

.875 = J4

.438= A

.263

.175

.3828

5250

6563

8750

3K

.906 = f|

.453 = ft

.272

.181

.4106

5438

6797

9063

3M

.938 = tt

.469= |f

.281

.188

.4395

5625

7031

9375

3M

.969 = fi

.484= fj

.291

.194

.4693

5813

7266

9688

3H

.000 = 1

.500 = H

.300

.200

.5000

6000

7500

10000

3^

.031 = l-h

.516 = fi

.309

.206

.5317

6188

7735

10313

m

.063 = 1&

.531 = M

.319

.213

.5645

6375

7969

10625

VA

.094 = 1&

.547= ft

.328

.219

.5982

6563

8204

10938

4

.125 = -1^

.563 = ^

.338

.225

.6328

6750

8438

11250

4^

.188 = 1A

.594= if

.356

.238

.7051

7125

8906

11875

4^

.250 = 1%

.625 = 5/8

.375

.250

.7813

7500

9375

12500

4%

.313 = 1&

.656 = fi

.394

.263

.8614

7875

9844

13125

5

.375 = iys

.688 = tt

.413

.275

.9453

8250

10313

13750

5M

.438 = 1A

.719 = ff

.431

.288

1.0333

8625

10781

14375

5H

.500 = iy2

.750 = M

.450

.300

1 . 1250

9000

11250

15000

&A

.563 = 1A

.781 = ff

.469

.313

1.2208

9375

11719

15625

6

.625 = 1%

.813 = tt

.488

.325

1.3203

9750

12188

16250

6^

.688 = Itt

.844= ff

.506

.338

1.4239

10125

12656

16875

6^

.750 = 1%

.875 = J4

.525

.350

1.5313

10500

13125

17500

6^

.813'= 1H

.906= ff

.544

.363

1.6427

10875

13594

18125

7

.875 = 1%

.938 = tt

.563

.375

1.7578

11250

14063

18750

7M

.938 = 1H

.969 = fi

.581

.388

1.8771

11625

14531

19375

7^

2.000 =2

.000 = 1

.600

.400

2.0000

12000

15000

20000

754

2.063 = 2&

.031 = 1&

.619

.413

2.1271

12375

15469

20625

8

2.125 =2>i

.063 = 1&

.638

.425

2.2578

12750

15938

21250

VA

2.188 =2&

.094 = 1&

.656

.438

2.3927

13125

16406

21875

81A

2.250 = 2%

.125 = iy8

.675

.450

2.5313

13500

16875

22500

m

2.313 = 2A

.156 = 1^

.694

.463

2.6739

13875

17344

23125

9

2.375 = 2%

.188 = 1A

.713

.475

2.8203

14250

17813

23750

[570]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
KEYWAYS AND SUNK KEYS — Continued

SHEARING RESISTANCE OF

KEY PER INCH OP LENGTH,,

FOR WORKING VALUES PER

Shaft

Area of

SQUARE INCH OF

Diam.

B

T

ti

tz

Key

D

6000

7500

10,000

Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

VA

2.438 = '2&

.219 = 1&

.731

"."488

2.9708

14625

18281

24375

$1A

2.500 = 2l/2

,250 = 1M

.750

.500

3.1250

15000

18750

25000

&A

2.563 = 2&

.281 = 1&

.769

.513

'3.2833

15375

19219

25625

10

2.625 = 2%

.313 = 1A

.788

.525

3.4453

15750

19688

26250

10M

2.688 = 2H

.344 = 1H

.806

.538

3.6115

16125

20156

26875

10^

2.750 =2^

1.375 = l^g

.825

.550

3.7813

16500

20625

27 500,

IOM

2.813 = 2H

1.406 = 1H

.844

.563

3.9552

16875

21 094

28125

11

2.875 = 2^

1.438 = 1&

.863

.575

4.1328

17250

21563

28750

IIJ4

2.938 = 2H

1.469 = 1H

.881

.588

4.3146

17625

22031

29375

11^

3.000 =3

1.500 = 1H

.900

.600

4.5000

18000

22500

30000

11M

3.063 =3^

1.531 = 1H

.919

.613

4.6896

18375

22969

30625

12

3.125 = 3H

1.563 = 1&

.938

.625

4.8828

18750

23438

31 250

Length of Key. — Apart from resistance to crushing, a key should have length enough
to hold it securely in place under any conditions of service. Pulley hub proportions
are influenced by those of the rim, but in any case the length of hub is seldom less than
twice the diameter of shaft; this provides a little more length than is needed to resist
crushing of key. Short hubs, for any service, are seldom less than one shaft diameter
in length; if a key is proportioned D -r 4 + .125 in., the shortest limit of length is
reached when the length of key equals the diameter of shaft for which it is proportioned,
as above. The proper length closely approximates 1.6 diameter of shaft.

Square Sunk Key — Largely used in machine construction in resisting shearing
strains only, any tendency to lateral movement being prevented by one or more set
screws in the hub, as shown in the illustration. A common proportion for square keys
is one-fourth the diameter of the shaft for sizes from 2 to 4 inches, for smaller shafts

ibsssssss^l

_?_

D -f- 4 + .0625 is often used. In general, square keys are simply cut to length from
cold drawn polished rods, and used without further preparation, unless it may be case-
hardening. Two set screws are shown in hub; except for hubs of unusual length this
is not always necessary. The screw should have a flat point and casehardened to prevent
distortion of thread.

Special Keys. — Key on a flat, Fig. 1, has the same breadth B for shaft diameter A
as has a sunk key. The flat should be parallel to the axis of shaft and a little wider
than the key. Its thickness C, measured at the small end is one-third its breadth; the
taper is commonly one-eighth inch per foot, for which allowance is made in the hub,

[571]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

If the piece to be keyed is in a confined space, the key should have a gib head to
facilitate its withdrawal.

Saddle Key — This key, Fig. 2, is wholly included in the hub, no preparation of
shaft being necessary for its use. In breadth D it follows the same proportions relative
to shaft diameter as for a sunk key. Thickness E, measured at the small end, is one-
third its breadth. The usual taper is one-eighth inch per foot, for which a correspond-
ing taper is included in the hub. The under side of key is made concave to fit the

shaft. To facilitate its removal, the key should have a gib head. As this key lies
wholly outside the circumference of shaft, and drives by friction only, it is not well
adapted for important power transmission.

Round Key. — This method of fastening, Fig. 3, is sometimes employed instead of
a sunk key. For practical reasons it is limited to fastening a hub at the end of a shaft.
The diameter of pin may be one quarter the shaft diameter; the hole reamed for either
a straight or taper pin. The location oHiole is such that one-half the pin is in the hub,
the other half in the shaft. A pin key resists working stresses in the same manner as a
sunk key, that is, by resistance to shearing. Pin keys are occasionally used in large
work, but their use is practically confined to small details in machine construction.

Taper Pin Key — In fastening a hub other than at the end of a shaft a pin is mode to
pass diametrically, or nearly so, through the hub and shaft as shown in sketch. In this
case a taper pin is used, the usual taper being | inch per foot. The pin is in double shear.

TAPER PINS AND REAMERS
Commercial Sizes

Alf F ";

Taper of pins

PIN

REAMER

SHAFT

HUB

Trade
Number

Diameter
Large End B

Longest
Length

c

Inches

Diam.
Small
End
E

Length
Cutting
Edge
F

Diam.
Large
End
G

Diameter A

Diameter D

Pin
X3

Pin

X 4

Pin
X 3

Pin
X4

Dee.

Frac.

1

.172
.193
.219
.250
.289

.341
.409
.492
.591
.706

it

A
&
H
if

tt
H
H
tt
H

1H

m

IK

2

VA

*y*

4

4^
51A
6

.146
.162
.183
.208
.240

.279
.331

.398
.482
.581

m

2

VA
VA
3

&A

±1A
VA
VA

7

181

204
230
260
303

355
425
507
610

727

.516
.579
.657
.750

.867

1.023
1.227
1.476
1.773
2.118

.688
.772
.876
1.000
1.156

1.364
1.636
1.968
2.364

2.824

1.02
1.20

1.41
1.56
1.81

2.09
2.35
2.73
3.15
3.62

1.19
1.41
1.63

1.88
2.16

2.49
2.89
3.34
3.86
4.45

2

3

4

5,

6

7

8

9 . .

10

[572

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

Taper pin dimensions coincide with those of the reamer used in fitting the hole.
Certain sizes of pins are commonly accepted as standard, the larger sizes of which are
tabulated herewith.

Shaft diameters are given in the table merely to show what diameters result from
multiplying the several pin diameters by 3 and 4 respectively. The tabular sizes for
shafts are exact multiples of the standard pin diameter, these are to be changed to the
nearest common fractional measurement the design may suggest.

The designer must determine how much of the shaft area can be allotted to the pin.
Suppose a design calls for a shaft about 1J inches diameter; the nearest shaft diameter in
the table under Pin X 3 is 1.227, for which a No. 7 pin will be required. In the column
Pin X 4 the choice lies between 1.156 and 1.364 for shaft diameter, the former calls for
a No. 5 pin, the latter a No. 6 pin, which size would probably be selected together with
an average shaft diameter of lj inches.

Shaft diameters as given in the table are subject to increase or decrease in diameter,
to conform to the next nearest working unit, suited to the standard parallel reamer
used for the hub; thus, 1.227 inches would be increased to 1.25 inches, similarly 1.156
inches would be advanced 1.1875 inches.

Reamer flutes, as well as overall lengths of standard taper pins, are of sufficient
length that a moderate increase in shaft diameter is permissible.

Gib Head Key. — This form of key is useful in supplying a fixed projection, or an
abutment, against which a wedge may be driven in order to loosen a key preparatory to
its withdrawal. A table of sizes up to and including 4 inches in breadth is given. The
breadth and thickness follow Unwin's proportions for sunk keys; knowing the breadth
of a key, suitable working dimensions for a gib head may be taken from the table.

TAPFRflNCH PFR FOOT

k- A—*

GIB HEADS FOR KEYS

H

°/8
A

K
H

4

IK

IK

IK

A
%

tt

7*
«

1

1A

?4

H
H

H

3^

M

H
H

K
A

K

y*

H
H

¥

B

%
H

l

IK

1A

1A

2

•2M

1
1A

1A
1A

3^
4

1H

1A

1*1

2M

H

K
K

l
l
l

IK
IK
IK
1M

IK

2

2K

2K

3K

[573]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

Sliding Keys. — When a rotating hub in a fixed bearing is required to rotate a shaft
passing through it, the shaft having an end movement as well, the driving key included
in the hub is then provided with gib heads, or other form of fastening, to prevent the
key sliding out of place.

A sliding key, such as included in the feed works of a machine tool, has but little
work to do, and one key will suffice; but if, as in the case of a large boring machine
spindle, it may be required to transmit nearly the whole power of the machine, two
keys are recommended, to be placed diametrically opposite each other in the spindle.

For light and medium work the breadth of key may be one-fourth the shaft di-
ameter; the thickness of key following, usually, 0.25 shaft diameter + 0.125 inch.

For heavy work the breadth of key diminishes somewhat, because two keys are
commonly employed, the proportionate rate for thickness of key remaining as above.

To increase the surface of key subject to wear, 0.4 of the key may be placed in the
hub and 0.6 in the keyway in shaft.

The gib head details for a sliding key will depend upon the clearance at end of
traverse. Should the hub have little or no clearance the gib will be included within
the hub as in Fig. 2, if plenty of clearance, the ends may then project as in Fig. 3.

SLIDING KEYS

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

1

H

H

.150

.225

%

H

A

H

1M

A

&

.175

.263

1A

H

A

l/s

m

«

%

.200

- .300

ft

a

K

A

1%

A

A

.225

.338

A

A

H

A

2

1A

H

.250

.375

H

A

A

A

VA

A

H

.275

.413

1A

A

A

A

VA

M

X

.300

.450

H

A

A

A

&A

H

H

.325

.488

X

H

H

H

3

ZA

H

.350

.525

A

H

y*

1A

3^

if

ft

.375

.563

A

IA

y*

H

&A

%

i

.400

.600

A

li

A

1A

3M

tt

l*

.425

.638

A

M

A

1A

4

i

1H

,450

.675

H

A

A

A

To facilitate fitting, the hub at F G, Fig. 2, can be notched through; the gib ends at G to extend to
outside of hub and finished with it.

Maximum Load on Key — Crank pin pressures in automatic cut-off engines will vary
from that due to full boiler pressure at the beginning, to a fourth or less at the end of
stroke. In cross compound engines the high pressure steam is confined to one cylinder

[5741

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

the crank and reciprocating mechanism of the low-pressure side is commonly a duplicate
of the high-pressure side, the crank keys are somewhat larger than necessary for the
work but need not be considered here.

Starting a single or compound engine from a state of rest, the crank pin being at or
near half stroke it may, and probably does, receive the maximum load due to full boiler
pressure upon piston area which may equal 1,500 pounds per square inch of projected
crank pin area, the crank shaft, meanwhile, being at a state of rest. The maximum
effort of the steam is transmitted through the crank directly upon the crank shaft keys
which, in turn, must resist the shearing effort and permit rotation of shaft. Mean
effective pressures cannot be used in determining key proportions.

Keys forged from medium steel have a tensile strength from 65,000 to 70,000 pounds
per square inch; 7,500 pounds per square inch of section subject to shearing stress is
taken as the working load for a sunk key.

Example. Crank keys for steam engine.
20 inch cylinder = 314.16 sq. in. area.
Steam pressure = 160 Ibs. per sq. in.
P = 50,266 pounds = 314.16 X 160.
R = 18 inches,
r = 5 inches.
2 keys. B — If inches.
L = 6f inches.
D = 10 inches.

Then
P XR 50,266 X 18

r 5

2B X L X 7500

180,958
180,469

The pressure exerted by the steam piston upon the crank pin is 180,958 pounds. The
resistance of the two keys in the crank shaft is 180,469 pounds, they thus practically
balance each other.

Example. Pulley driving a shaft.

P = 4,000 pounds.

R = 24 inches, radius of pulley.

r =2 inches, radius of shaft.

B = 1| inches, key breadth. •

L = 6 inches, key length.

D = 4 inches, shaft diameter.
Then

B X L X 7500 = 1.125 X 6 X 7500 = 50,625.
In this example there is a margin of 2625 pounds in favor of the key. The breadth
of key is by Un win's formula: B = — + i inch.

Keyways for Minor Attachments. — Keyways in engine shafts are much too large
for the needs of minor attachments sometimes carried by it, such as pulleys, gears,
eccentrics, etc., transmitting but a fraction of the total power. No general rule can
be given for such minor fastenings other than to select a hub suited to the pulley or
gear and employ its corresponding size of key for which an additional keyway should
be made in the shaft. A small pulley thus placed on an engine shaft would in all prob-
ability be made in halves, in which case the small keyway in shaft need not be longer
than the pulley hub.

[575]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

Double Keys. — A limit so the breadth of a single key is quickly reached in large
shafts transmitting full power. By Unwin's formula the breadth of a single key for a
24-inch shaft would be 6| inches, its depth STS inches. The shearing resistance of a
key varies as its breadth; we can, therefore, divide this breadth into two or more keys
without loss of strength. Referring to the accompanying table of double keys, a 24-inch
shaft would have two keys 4 inches in breadth. Two thicknesses are given for double
keys according to the severity of service. For a crank the key thickness would be 3
inches; for a pulley the thickness would be 2 inches. The crank would have its keys
placed 90° apart; the pulley would have its keys diametrically opposed, one key in each
half of the hub.

The liberal proportions of double as compared with single keys is to favor the exacting
conditions under which double keys are commonly used. The stresses upon a crank and
shaft are, in general, more severe than those in a pulley or gear so that, for the same
breadth of key, its thickness may be increased for the crank connection, thereby pre-
senting a larger area opposing deformation of key and keyway through crushing.

Double keys are commonly set at an angle of 90° when placed in cranks and solid
hubs. An incidental advantage, outside the real function of a key, occurs in the 90°
keyways in a pulley hub, in making three points of support, thus taking up any lost
motion between the shaft and hub, should the bore of pulley be sufficiently large to make
a loose fit. Keys and keyways are placed diametrically opposite when employed in split
hubs, driving each half separately; the bolts passing through a hub will securely clamp
it to the shaft.

Kennedy Double Keys. — These keys have been satisfactorily used in rolling mills
for the transmission of heavy loads subject to periodical reversal. Key dimensions for
any shaft may be found thus:

Draw a semicircle in which the diameter A is the same as that of the shaft for which
the key is desired. From its center draw 45° angle lines beyond the circumference as

at B and C. Bisect each half diameter as at D
and E. From each of these points D and E erect
a perpendicular extending to the circumference as
at E G. Where the perpendicular crosses the 45°
diagonal as at F draw F H parallel to A. Then
F H and F G being equal represent two sides of a
square key F H B G.

Dimensions for keys suited to shafts from 6
inches to 24 inches diameter are given in table of
Double Keys for Cranks and Engine Pulleys.

The keyways in the hub and the upper side of the key are tapered | inch per foot.
The sides of key are parallel and closely fitted into shaft and hub. It will be noted that
the key is wholly in compression.

Peters' Double Key — This key is designed to have its breadth of bearing located
on a radial line in the shaft, and to transmit the rotary motion of the shaft to a diag-
onally opposite bearing in the hub; or, the reverse, in case motion is to be transmitted
through the hub to the shaft. In either case an equal breadth of key is had in both
shaft and hub. The working stresses upon the key tend to compression.

In designing a key of this kind, lay down that portion of hub and shaft in which
the keys are to be located, as in the accompanying diagram, in which A is equal to the
shaft diameter. From the shaft center, draw two opposite radial lines at an angle of
22£° each, above the horizontal, the complemental angle being 135°. From the cir-
cumference of the projected shaft, lay off on one of the diagonal lines the desired breadth
of key B, and erect a perpendicular C, intersecting the shaft circumference. The lines
B C form two sides of a parallelogram which, when completed, represents the key area.
Repeat for the opposite side.

The keyways in both shaft and hub are parallel. Each key, as shown in the diagram,
is made up of two halves with central inclined faces; the outer faces of the key are
parallel and machined to slide freely into place in the keyways. After the preliminary
adjustment each pair of keys is firmly fixed in place, by driving the tapering keys to
the desired tension. Any increase of breadth B has the effect of lengthening C, there-

[576]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

DOUBLE KEYS FOB CRANKS AND ENGINE PULLEYS

Sunk Key

Kennedy Key

SUNK KEY

KENNEDY

**

For Cranks

For Pulleys

g?iS

Shaft

rQ

Shearing

Shearing

SJSo ^

Diam.

'^«

Area

Load per

Area

Load per
Inch on

A

B

C

Area
1 Key

Ijs 1

A

1

C

IKey

1 Key at

C

IKey

1 Key at

i^^w

W

7500 Lbe

7500 Lbs

O ft

perSqln

perSqln

6 ...

Ik

K

1.09

9375

k

0.94

9375

6

1A

3

1.13

7968

6K...

1A

H

1.23

9844

k

.98

9844

6K

IK

3k

1.27

8441

7 ...

IK

l

1.38

10313

H

1.12

10313

7

ik

3K

1.56

9375

7K...

i&

l

1.44

10781

It

.17

10781

7K

i&

3k

1.72

9844

8 ...

IK

i&

1.59

11250

K

.31

11 250

8

1A

4

2.07

10781

8K...

i&

IK

1.76

11 719

K

.37

11719

8K

IA

4k

2.44

11719

9 ...

IK

IK

1.83

12188

H

.52

12 188

9

IK

4K

2.64

12 187

9K...

1H

1A

2.00

12656

if

.58

12656

9K

ik

4k

3.06

13 125

10 ...

IK

2.19

13 125

1

.75

13 125

10

IK

5

3.52

14062

IOK...

1H

l&

2.38

13594

1

.81

13594

IOK

1H

5k

3.75

14531

11 ...

IK

m

2.58

14063

l

1.88

14063

11

2

5K

4.00

15000

UK...

1H

2.66

14531

1A

2.06

14531

UK

2K

5k

4.52

15937

12 ...

2

lp

2.88

15000

iA

2.13

15000

12

2k

6

5.06

16875

13 ...

2K

3.19

15938

IK

2.39

15938

13

2K

6K

5.64

17812

14 ...

IK

3.76

17344

1A

2.75

17344

14

2K

7

6.89

19687

15 ...

2JL

1H

4.11

18281

ik

3.05

18281

15

2M

7K

7.56

20625

16 ...

2K

1H

4.76

19688

1A

3.45

19688

16

3

8

9.00

22500

17 ...

1H

5.45

21 094

IK

3.87

21094

17

3K

8K

9.77

23437

18 ...

31

2K

6.38

22500

IK

4.50

22500

18

3K

9

11.39

25312

19 ...

3K

2k

7.03

23438

1A

4.88

23438

19

3K

9K

12.25

26250

20 ...

3rV

2K

7.87

24844

1H

5.38

24844

20

3k

10

14.06

28125

21 ...

3K

2A

8.97

26250

6.13

26250

21

3K

IOK

15.02

29062

22 ...

2ii

9.74

27 188

*T*

6.57

27188

22

4K

11

17.02

30937

23 ...

3H

2K

10.96

28594

7.15

28594

23

4k

UK

18.06

31875

24 ...

4

3

12.00

30000

2

8.00

30000

24

4K

12

20.25

33750

fore B must be kept down to a close working limit. As the crushing strength of steel
is practically the same as its tensile strength, 7,500 pounds per square inch gives a safe
working value to the key,

[577]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

T

t>

B =

shaft radius.

PETERS' DOUBLE KEY
C = nearest shop measurement.

Graphic Determination

KEY

Com-
pression
Load per

KEY

Compres-
sion Load
per Inch

Shaft

Area

Inch on

Shaft

Area

on 1 Key

A

1 Key

1 Key at
7500

A

1 Key

at 7500
Lbs. per

B

c

Lbs. per
Sq. In.

B

c

Square
Inch

4

N

1*

0.66

3750

7y2

if

2K

2.34

7031

4M

H

iy*

.73

3985

8

1

2%

2.63

7500

4/^

A

I'M

.84

4219

8^2

llV

2{f

2.99

7969

4^

$

iA

.93

4454

9

l/^

3

3.38

8438

5

1%

1.02

4688

9K

14

3H

3.71

8906

5M

Jl

W

1.15

4922

10

IK

3A

4.14

9375

5^

H

^

1.25

5156

10H

i«

3K

4.59

9844

5%

0

1.35

5391

11

i/^

3%

4.98

10313

6

M

2

1.50

5625

11^

i^

3H

5.48

10781

§1A

H

2A

1.78

6094

12

iH

4

6.00

11250

7

2A

2.02

6563

Keys for Screw Propellers — These are always subject to violent changes of load
through racing of mam engines in a rough sea, not overlooking the frequent and full
powered reversals which occur during maneuvers. To meet this service the outboard
end of tail shaft is tapered, the propeller boss is bored to fit the tapered shaft, the keys
are thicker to resist crushing, and extend the whole length of boss.

Single key proportions by Seaton and Rounthwaite are:
Breadth of key = 0.22 X largest diameter of shaft + 0.25.
Thickness of key = 0.55 X breadth.

The thickness of a single key is limited to about one-eighth the shaft diameter; should
this thickness be insufficient, two keys must be used.

The breadth of key is less than in stationary practice by reason of the greater length
and consequent area which the key offers in resisting compression or shearing. The
breadth of key need not greatly exceed once and a half its total thickness.

The length of a propeller boss may vary according as the propeller is cast in one
piece or whether the boss and blades are cast separately. The former will include all
small propellers, especially those of cast iron, for which Seaton and Rounthwaite's rule
= 2.7 X diameter of tail shaft. Thus an 8-inch tail shaft would have a taper and boss
with key 21.6 inches long. A boss having separate blades will vary between 2.25 and
2.5 diameters in length, averaging the latter figure nearly; in this case, the keyway of
the taper end of a 16-inch tail shaft would be 40 inches long.

A propeller shaft of carbon steel will have an elastic limit of about 35,000 pounds

[578]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

per square inch. If the maximum working stress be fixed at one-half this, a maximum
working limit is reached at 17,500 pounds per square inch. When this limit is reached
two keys must be used, and these should be placed diametrically opposite each other.

The bearing surface of a key is important in preventing deformation. The shearing
"of a key of ordinary proportions is quite unlikely to occur. In general, the depth of
keyway in a propeller shaft is 0.0625 that of its diameter.

The aggregate area of two keys for a given shaft diameter is greater than for a single

BOLT END WITH COLLAR AND COTTER
For Rigid Frame Connection

BAR

COLLAR

SHANK

SLOT

Kf

Diam.
A

Area

Diam.
B

Thickness
C

Diam.
D

Length

Width
E

Depth
F

1

.785

H

f

U

1

A

Ii

H

II

.994

1H

H

H

1&

A

m

1*

t|

1.227

2

f

if

H

f

H

if

If

1.485

2A

H

H

H

f

2&

lit

ii

1.767

2|

1

Hi

if

A

2i

2

u

2.074

2^

1

Itt

I&

&

2^r

2i

if

2.405

21

H

1H

H

i

2f

2A

H

2.761

2H

1

2^

if

1

2H

2^

2

3.142

3|

1A

2i

m

A

3

2H

2i

3.976

3*

1A

2^

H

f

3f

3

2|

4.909

31

!&

2!

2

H

31

3f

2f

5.940

*i

I*

3^6

2i

1

4i

3!

3

7.069

4|

ii

3A

2A

H

41

4i

H

8.296

5

U

3f

2^

H

41

4^

3£

9.621

5f

H

31

2H

5i

4H

3f

11.05

5|

H

4i

21

If

5f

5i

4

12.57

61

2

4^

3

i

6

5|

[579]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

key, a result of greater thickness, relatively, of double keys over a single one. When
the thickness of a double key is determined, its breadth may be one and a half times
that thickness.

The central core in a propeller boss is commonly one-third of its length, therefore
only two-thirds of the tapered length of a tail shaft is available for driving through the
key.

No taper is given the keys used in fastening a propeller boss on the tapered end
of a tail shaft. The boss slides over the key or feather (both terms are in use) until
taper surfaces are in contact; the boss is followed up by a nut on the outer end of the
tail shaft. Taper of tail shaft in the boss of propeller = 1 inch per foot.

BOLT EXD FOE RIGID FRAME CONNECTION— Countersunk Head and Cotter

BAR

COLLAR

SHANK

Kfy

FRAME

Dia.
A

Area

Diam.
B

Thick-
ness
C

Diam.
D

Length

Slot
Width
H

K

L

M

E

F

G

1

.785

If

f

1|

1

H

1

A

H

1|

11

2|

U

.994

m

H

H

it

I»

*ft

A

i*

2A

1H

2f

H

1.227

2

1

if

H

H

U

f

if

2J

H

3

H

1.485

2&

H

H

if

2^

H

f

lit

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2A

81

il

1.767

2f

1

1H

H

21

if

A

2

2f

2i

8|

if

2.074

2&

1

Itt

If

2A

1*

A

2|

2H

2A

31

i!

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21

if

IJt

If

2f

H

i

2&

3

2f

3f

U

2.761

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l

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if

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if

i

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3A

2H

4

2

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31

1&

2*

2

3

1H

A

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3f

3

4i

2i

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f

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8|

4f

2*

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3|

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2|

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2

H

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21

5.940

4*

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f

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4f

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3

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5

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41

2^

H

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5f

41

6t

3*

9.621

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1

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51

5i

6f

3f

11.05

51

if

41

3f

5f

21

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5|

6i

5f

71

4

12.57

6*

2

4*

4

6

3

l

5^

6^

6

n

580]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
VALVE ROD END WITH BUSHING

IK

IK

K
K
H

K

IK

IK

IK

2

2K

2K

2K
2K
2K

3K
3K
3K

IK
IK

2

2K

2K

H

K

IK

H

2

2K

2K

2K

3 4

2K
2K

3

3K

4K

4K

5K

2K

2K

2K
3

3K

IK

H

K
H

if

1

IK

VALVE ROD END WITH COUPLING

1

IK

IK

IK

IK
IK

2

2K

1K2K

\N\QO\Tf\00
-H\ 10\ C0\ t-\

^- — — —

4K
4K
4K
5K

H

IK

IK
IK

i-t

K

M

N

K

IK

IK
2

[581

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
VALVE ROD END WITH COUPLING — (Continued)

A B C D

IX

IK

2

2K

2K
2K
2K

2K

K

2

2K

2K

2K

2K

3

3K

3K

3K

3K
3K

3x

4

4K
4K

5K

5K

H

2K
2K

2H
2H

IK
1A

1A

IK

IK

K

l

i^

IK
1A

i&

IK
1A
IK

itt

IK
IA

IA

IK

^

IK
l&
l&

itt

l^
l^

IK
l&

1A

IK
IK
1A

1A

IK

M N

K
if

l

1^

IK

IA

1M
IA
IA

IK

1A

IK

if
if
K
if

l
l

i^

IK

1A
IK

2K

2K
2K

2K

3

3K

M

Valve rod socket and key taper Y^, in. per foot. g = K + L + N + 0.125.

VALVE ROD END. GUN METAL BOXES WITH SET SCREW ADJUSTMENT AND LOCK NUT

K

M

1

IK

IK
IK

2

2K

2K
2K

2K

2K

2K
3

IK
1A
1A

IK

IK

2

2K

2A
2A

2A

2if

3

3K

3K

3K

2K

2M

2K
2K

3K

3K
3K

3K
4K

4M

1

IK

IK

IK

2
2

2K

2K
2K
2K

2K

K
H

if

K

IK
IK

IK
iA

IX

IK

2K

A
K

H

if

K
if
if
l

1A

1A

IK

3K

3K

4K

4H

5K
5K

IK
IK
IK

IK

2

2K

2K

2K

2K
3

3K

3K

1A
1A

IK
IK

IK

2
2

2M

2K

2K

IX

IK

2

2A

2K
2K

2K
3

3K

3K
4

K
K

3//

X
K
K
K
l

l

l

IK
IK
IK

IX

3K

4

4K
5 4

6K

^
if

1A

IK
1A

IX
IK
1A

IK
IK
itt
IX
itt

IK

2

[582]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

VALVE ROD END. GUN METAL BOXES WITH KEY ADJUSTMENT

PTQ

IK
IK

IK
IK

2

2K

2K
2K

2K
2K

2K

2K
3

B

IK
1A
1A

IK
IK

IK

2

2K

2A

2K

2if
3

3K

3K

3K

IK
IK

2

2K

2K

2K

2K

2K

1A

IK
1A
1A

1A
itt

IK

A

IK
IK

2

2K

2K

2K

2K
2K

2K

3

3K

3K
3K

K

if

K

if

1A

IK
1A
IK
1A
1A

IK

1P

IK

IK
2

1H

2K

3K
3K

3tt

3K

4K
4K

4H

4K
5K

3

3K
3K
3H

4K

4K

4tt

5K

5K

6K
6K
6tt

IK
itt

2K

2K
2K

3K

4K
4K

4K
4K

u

IK
K
K
tt
tt

K
K
if
if
K

K
if

l

l

1A

1A

IK

N

K
K
K
A

K
K
K
K

K

K

K

K

K
if
K
l

1A

IK
1A

IK
IK
1A

IK
IK
itt
IK
itt

IK

2

Key tapers 1 in. per foot.

[583]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

VALVE ROD KNUCKLE

ii

1
IN

IN

IK

IK
IN

ill

2

3

3K

N

K
ift
ift

IK

K
tt

H

i
ift

ift

H

%

if

ift

IN
lit

2N

N

K
N

H
H

H

i

ift

ift

IK
ift

1H

2

N

A

N

K
K

»

H

l
l
l
l
l

ift
ift
ift

i*

ift
ift

lit

2M

^e

\6

X

K

K
K
N

[5841

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

VALVE ROD KNUCKLE

1
IK

IK

9

IK

2
2A

2K

2K

2K

3K

IK

2

2K

3

3K
4

4K

6K
7 8

K
K
A
H
H

K
l

IK

IK

IK

IK

K

K

H
H

K
H

K
IK

IK

2K

3K

l

IK

2K

2A
2K
2H

K
A
A

A
A

K
K

A
A

K

A
H

l
IK

IK

IK
1A

lil

2
2A

4
4A

A
A
A
A
K

K

K8
A
A

A

A

[585]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

STRAP JOINT WITH GUN METAL BODY AND STEEL STRAP
For operating balanced parts. Not suitable for heavy work

M

K.
l

IK
IK

2A

2K
2A
2K

3

3A

3H

4K

1
IK

1H
Ij

2
2K

K

A

H
K
A

IK
IK

24

2%
3

3K

ft

ii
i

IK
ift
ift
ift

IK

if
l

IK

ift
ift
IK

l

IK

ift

IK
IK
itt
itt

5*

K
H

if

IK
ift

ift
ift
IK

IK

IK
ift
ift

i3^

IK

y*

y8

7
T6

K

A

ift

IK

1M
IK
IK

K

K

K
K
K

A

1ft

1K1K
1ft

IK

IK

2
2>

2K

1
1

IK

H

IK
IK

IK

[586]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
ROD COUPLING WITH COLLAR AND COTTER

ROD

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

o

Diam.
A

Area

1

.785

li

i

H

3

4

11

7
8

H

i

2|

1

1J

1

f

3f

li

.994

itt

A

H

1

1A

1

li

A

2£

1

1A

1

H

41

H

1.227

if

f

1A

if

1A

u

ll3.

A

21

U

1A

H

f

4A

if

1.485

2^

H

1A

1A

U

1A

1A

f

3|

H

if

H

H

5A

I|

1.767

2j

i

1H

H

H

1A

itt

f

3f

if

11

if

1

5^

if

2.074

2A

H

lit

H

2^

H

11

A

31

li

2A

11

i

6A

if

2.405

2f

1

1H

1A

2A

li

2

A

4

if

2^

1A

1A

6^

11

2.761

2H

if

2^6

1A

2|

H

21

i

4|

H

2|

1H

H

6H

2

3.142

3

i

2i

li

2i

1H

2|

i

4^

itt

2|

1H

1A

7A

21

3.976

3f

11

2i

1H

2H

U

2A

9

5|

2^6

2H

2A

1A

8i

2£

4.909

3!

U

2f

if

3|

21

2H

f

5|

2A

3|

2A

1A

9A

2|

5.940

*i

H

3A

2^

3A

2&

3|

H

6£

2A

3A

2|

if

10i

3

7.069

4*

H

3A

2|

3f

2£

3f

i

4

6f

2|

3f

2f

if

11

ROD COUPLING WITH SINGLE TAPER SOCKET AND COTTER

Diam.
A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

j

K

L

M

N

0

1

H

H

1

2tt

2i

1

f

H

f

1A

If

li

i

3A

H

f

1A

1A

3i

2|

1

1

1A

H

if

2

H

A

^

H

1

1A

1A

3f

2|

H

1

1A

f

H

2A

if

A

4A

if

if

if

U

3H

21

H

1A

if

1

21

2A

1A

A

4H

H

IA

H

if

4A

31

if

1A

11

if

21

2f

1H

f

5A

[587]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
ROD COUPLING WITH SINGLE TAPER SOCKET AND COTTER — (Continued)

Diam.
A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

o

If

U

2A

ii

4H

31

ii

H

2^

1

2&

21

1H

f

51

If

1A

2A

1A

4H

3|

if

If

2T%

IA

21

2rs

2

T6

6fk

U

n

2f

if

4

if

1A

1A

2H

3A

2|

A

6f

2

1A

2*

if

5&

41

1H

IA

2$

H

3i

3|

21

1

7A

21

ii

2H

11

6&

41

2^

if

2H

if

3^

3H

2^

A

8A

2*

1H

3*

21

6H

5f

2A

1H

31

1A

31A

4f

2H

f

9

21

1H

3A

21

71

51

2A

2i

3^

if

4f

2H

H

9H

3

2

31

2*

81

6*

2f

2f

3f

H

4f

51

3f

f

101

ROD COUPLING WITH Two ABUTTING ENDS AND COTTERS

ROD

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

Diam.
A

Area

1

.785

f

U

1

21

2

1

If

11

1

2|

5f

H

.994

H

If

1

3A

21

1

11

H

A

2f

6f

H

1.227

if

IA

H

3f

2i

H

«i

if

A

3|

71

if

1.485

IA

if

tA

4

21

iA

nf

1A

A

3A

8

If

1.767

ii

H

1A

4A

3

Ub

2

m

f

3f

8|

if

2.074

H

2^

iA

4f

31

iA

21

1H

1

4^

9*

if

2.405

1A

2A

1A

5A

-3*

1A

21

2

A

4f

101

U

2.761

1A

2f

if

5A

31

if

2^

21

A

4H

101

2

3.142

n

2^

if

5f

4

if

2A

21

i

5

HI

2i

3.976

itt

2H

2

6^

4^

2

21

2|

A

5f

13

2*

4.909

H

3|

2A

7A

5

2A

3A

2H

f

61

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5.940

2A

3A

2f

71

5i

21

3A

31

H

61

151

3

7.069

21

3f

21

;«f

6

21

3f

31

f

7^

171

[588]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
ROD COUPLING WITH Two ABUTTING ENDS. GIB AND KEY

Dia.
A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

j

K

L

M

N

0

1

1

If

1

3!

11

1

If

f

f

I

21

A

1

4

61

li

1

1A

H

2f

H

H

ii

H

A

3A

f

7f

11

H

if

U

H

2f

H

1H

f

f

A

3f

f

A

8i

if

1A

11

if

2f

if

11

1

1

A

4

*

A

81

M

1A

H

41

21

H

if

if

f

4&

f

91

if

i^

2i

if

5jL

3i

if

2i

1

i

f

41

i

f

10f

if

i&

%TS

if

51

3f

if

2f

1A

i^

iSr

A

A

Hi

U

if

2&

H

U

2A

1A

i&

7

5^

A

A

12i

2

if

2f

2

65

3yf

2

2f

U

U

i

51

f

1

13

21

2

3A

2i

7&

4&

2i

3f

if

if

A

61

H

A

14f

2i

2JL

3JL

2i

81

4f

2|

3JL

1A

i&

f

7A

1

f

16*

2f

2f

3f

2f

81

5*

2f

3H

if

if

H

71

H

171

3

2f

4i

3

9f

5f

3

4f

11

H

3

4

8f

1

4

19|

ROD COUPLING WITH Two TAPER ENDS AND COTTERS

J RODS TAPER* IN. PER WOT

ROD

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

i

K

L

M

Diam.

A

Area

1

.785

f

11

f

2f

2

f

11

i

i

4

21

5

11

.994

H

H

2f

21

1

1*

H

A

2f

5f

U

1.227

f

Ift

3

2*

H

H

A

3

61

If

1.485

if

1A

1

3f

2f

1A

1H

if

A

3|

7

2

1.767

if

if

1A

3H

3

H

U

H

f

3H

71

[589]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
ROD COUPLING WITH Two TAPER ENDS AND COTTERS — (Continued)

ROD

Diam.
A

Area

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

If

2.074

1

if

lA

4

31

H

•2A

If

i

4

81

if

2.405

1*

2

H

4fV

31

1A

21

If

&

4^

at

If

2.761

i|

2A

i*

4f

3f

ii3*

2A

H

A

4f

9f

2

3.142

iA

2A

if

4M

4

1J

2A

2

i

4H

10

2t

3.976

iA

2|

1A

5&

4^

lit

2H'

21

A

5&

111

2*

4.909

It

2|

1H

6A

5

«

3A

2|

f

6A

m

2f

5.940

U

3A

if

6|

51

2iV

3|

2f

H

6|

13f

3

7.069

if

81

2

n

6

2J

4

3

f

71

15

SCEEW COUPLING. ADJUSTABLE WITH LOCK NUTS

Right and left hand threads. United States Standard

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

N

o

P

i

f

1

1

1

1

H

1

f

H

-t

i

f

f

it

f

M

kA

A

A

f

itt

B

if

1A

A

1

f

if

if

f

H

H

H

H

f

1A

H

It

itt

f

i

f

i

2i

1

1A

i«

1

f

1

iff

if

1A

if

i

4

A

1

It

2f

1

U

if

H

M

1

2

1A

It

2|

if

A

It

1A

3

It

itf

itt

It

M

It

2&

1A

1H

2A

if

A

H

H

3f

H

U

2

f

i

U

2A

if

U

2A

1

1

if

if

3f

U

2^

2A

if

A

If

2it

it*.

2^

2|

1A

i

4

It

1H

4i

It

21

2|

H

H

It

21

1H

21

3

It

1

if

2 '

4t

U

2&

2A

i

f

If

31

lit

2^

31

H

A

if

2t

4f

1!

2f

2f

ifc

H

If

3A

1H

2|

3&

1A

A

U

2&

51

if

2H

2M

1A

H

If

3A

2t

2tt

3f

if

A

2

2^

5f

2

3

3t

H

f

2

3f

21

3

3f

U

f

2t

2f

6

[590]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CRANKS. CAST IRON

Suitable for Steam Engines up to 24 In. Diameter of Cylinder; Steam Pressures No
More than 125 Pounds. For Higher Pressures Steel Castings Should be Used.

CKANK PIN END

IK
IK
2K
2K

2K
2K
3K

4K

4K

5K
6K
6K

6M

7

IK
2K

2K
3K

4K

5K

6K

6K

6&

IK

IK

IK

IK

IK

3%

4K
4K
4K
4K

5K

6

6K

SHAFT END

3

3K

4K
5

6

7
8
9

9K
10

11

UK

12

3%
4K

4K
5K

6

6K

7
7K

8K
8K

6K

7K

9

10K

12

12K
13K

16

16K
17K
18K

20

2K

3K

7K

8

K

IK
IK

2

2K

2K
3K

4K
4K

5

6K

6K

7K

K
H
1

IK

1A

1A

IK
lii

IK
itt

2

2K

M

A
tt

ft
1A

IK

1A

IK

1H
1H
IK
1H

2K

2K
2K

N

H

A

ft

tt

tt

i
it

1A
IK
1A

[591]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
CRANK PINS

3

, J ,

H-'T^

1 M*-"-*

» S....-

• *•

•f

.?.

m

3

I

i -

F

>*
*—

For Stationary Engines

Diam.
A

Area
A

Length
B

Project-
ed Area
Sq. In.

Pressure
on Pin
at 1500
Lbs.
Sq. In.

Diam.
C

Area
C

Length
D

E

F

G

H

I

1

.7854

IK

1.375

2063

K

.601

IK

IK

X

K

N

H

IK

.994

IK

1.688

2532

1

.785

IN

IK

X

K

H

H

IN

1.227

IN

2.031

3047

IN

.994

IK

itt

M

K

%

H

IN

1.485

1%

2.406

3609

IN

1.227

IN

1H

A

A

K

H

IK

1.767

IK

2.813

4220

IN

1.485

IK

2

K

A

K

ft

IN

2.074

2

3.250

4875

m

1.767

2

2K

K

K

l

A

IN

2.405

2K

3.719

5579

l5/8

2.074

2K

2M

K

K

1

A

IK

2.761

2N

4.219

6329

IN

2.405

2M

2^

K

K

1

A

2

3.142

2K

4.750

7125

IK

2.761

2K

2A

A

A

IK

ft

2K

3.547

2K

5.313

7970

2

3.142

2K

2H

A

A

IK

ft

2N

3.976

2%

5.906

8859

2K

3.547

2K

2K

A

A

IK

ft

2K

4.430

2N

6.531

9797

2M

3.976

2^

3

K

A

IK

ft

2K

4.909

2K

7.188

10782

2M

3.976

2K

3K

K

K

IN

H

2K

5.412

3

7.875

11813

2K

4.430

3

3A

K

K

IN

H

2N

5.940

3K

8.594

12891

2^

4.909

3K

3*

K

K

IN

H

2K

6.492

3N

9.344

14016

2%

5.412

3M

3^

3^

K

IN

H

3

7.069

3K

10.500

15 750

2M

5.940

3^

3M

A

£

IK

K

3N

8.296

3N

12.188

18282

3

7.069

3^

4

K

N

IK

K

3^

9.621

4K

14.438

21657

VA

8.296

4K

4A

H

N

IK

K

3N

11.045

4K

16.406

24609

V/2

9.621

4K

4K

N

N

IK

K

4

12.566

4N

19.000

28500

3%

11.045

4^

4K

N

K

IN

If

4N

14.186

5

21.250

31 875

4

12.566

5

5K

N

K

IN

If

4K

15.904

5N

23.625

35438

4M

14.186

5Ji

5K

N

K

IN

ft

4^

17.721

5^

26.125

39188

4^

15.904

5^

5K

H

K

IN

B

5

19.635

5K

29.375

44063

4M

17.721

5K

6

H

K

1%

ft

5N

21.648

6^

32.156

48234

5

19.635

6K

6^

H

K

IN

H

5^

23.758

6^

35.063

52594

5^

21.648

6^

6K

H

K

IN

H

5N

25.967

6^

38.813

58 219

5^

23.758

6M

aK

K

K

IN

ft

6

28.274

7

42.000

63000

5M

25.967

7

7K

K

l

2

H

6N

30.680

7M

45.313

67970

6

28.274

7^

7K

K

l

2

H

6K

33.183

7N

49.563

74345

6M

30.680

7K

7K

K

1

2

H

6N

35.785

7-N

53.156

79734

6^

33.183

7K

8

K

l

2

H

7

38.485

8^

56.875

85313

6M

35.785

8K

8^

K

1

2

H

7N

41.282

8K

61.625

92438

7

38.485

8^

8K

H

l

2

H

7K

44.179

8M

65.625

98438

7^

41.282

8M

8K

H

l

2

H

[592]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CRANK PINS. For Stationary Engines — (Continued)

Diam.
A

Area
A

Length
B

Project-
ed Area
Sq. In.

Pressure
on Pin
at 1500
Lbs.
Sq. In.

Diam.
C

Area
C

Length

E

F

G

H

I

7%

47.173

9

69.750

104625

7H

44.179

9

9%

tt

1

2

H

8

50.265

9%

75.000

112500

7%

47.173

9%

9%

1

1%

2%

H

8%

53.456

9%

79.406

119 109

8

50.265

9%

9%

1

1%

2%

If

%1A

56.745

10

85.000

127 500

8%

53.456

10

10

1

1%

2%

If

8%

60.132

10%

89.688

134 532

&A

56.745

10%

10%

1

1%

2%

H

9

63.617

10^

94.500

141 750

8%

60.132

10%

10%

1

1%

2%

If

9%

67.201

10%

99.438

149 157

9

63.617

10%

10%

1

1%

2%

If

VA

70.882

11%

105.688

158532

9%

67.201

11%

11%

1

1%

2%

If

9%

74.662

11%

110.906

166 359

VA

70.882

11%

11%

1

1%

2%

If

10

78.540

11%

116.250

174 375

9%

74.662

11%

11%

1

,1%

2%

1

10%

82.516

12

123.000

184 500

10

78.540

12

12

1

1%

2%

IOH

86.590

12^

128.625

192 938

10%

82.516

12%

12%

1

1%

2%

10%

90.763

12%

134.375

201 563

10%

86.590

12%

12%

1

1%

2%

11

95.033

12%

141.625

212 438

10%

90.763

12%

12%

1%

1%

2%

11%

99.402

13%

147.656

221 484

11

95.033

13%

13%

1%

1%

2%

11%

103.869

13%

155.250

232 875

11%

99.402

13%

13%

1%

1%

2K

11%

108.434

13%

161.563

242 345

ny2

103.869

13%

13%

1%

1%

2%

12

113.097

14

168.000

252000

11%

108.434

14

14

1%

1%

2^

CONNECTING ROD STUB END, FOR CRANK PIN. Box END WITH WEDGE ADJUSTMENT

A

B

C

D

E

P

G

H

i

j

K

1

i%

1%
1%
i%

2%
2%
2&
2%
3

IA

1%

i%

1%
1H

%

A
A

%
%

ljf

2%
2%
2%

2H

A

1A
A
A
H

3

3%
3H

3%
4%

%
1

IA
1A

1%

A
A

%
%

%

H
%
if
%
H

IA

W
l%

1^
1H

[593]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END, FOR CRANK PIN. Box END WITH WEDGE ADJUSTMENT

(Continued')

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

1«

3M

lit

A

3rV

H

4K

IK

TV

1

IK

i&

3A

2A

N

3A

%

4H

1*

TV

IK

3A

i%

3K

2M

N

3K

%

5K

IK

A

1A

2K

2

3K

2K

H

3M

tt

5K

IK

K

1H

2K

2K

4A

2K

N

4

K

5H

1M

K

if\

2K

2K

4M

2K

K

4H

H

6

1H

K

IK

2K

2K

4K

2M

H

4^

H

6M

IK

K

IK

2^

2K

4*

2K

K

4^

i

6A

2

K

liV

2K

2K

4%

3

y8

4%

l

6^t

2K

K

IK

3

2^

4K

3K

H

5

IT\

7

2A

K

IK

3K

2K

5*

3^

H

5l/8

1ft

7rV

2M

K

ifV

3M

3

5M

3K

1

V/S

IK

7K

2K

A

IK

3K

3M

5M

3K

IrV

&A

IH

8M

2K

A

1M

3K

3K

6K

4

IfV

&A

IK

8K

2H

A

IK

4

3M

6K

4J4

1M

&A

IK

9K

3

A

2

4M

4

7

4H

1«

7M

IK

10H

3M

K

2K

4K

4M

7K

4M

IrV

7^

iH

10K

3K

K

2M

4M

4K

7K

5^

iH

8^

1H

UK

3%

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2K

5K

4M

8K

5^

i«

8^

itt

12M

3K

K

2K

5K

5

8M

5^

1»

9

2rV

12K

4K

K

2K

5K

VA

9K

5^

1M

W

.2K

13K

4K

K

2M

5K

5K

9K

6M

iff

9^

2K

14K

4K

k

2K

6M

5%

10

6^

IK

10M

2K

14^

4M

s

3

6K

6

10K

6^

2

10%

2K

15K

5

%

3K

6^

1

A

L

u

N

0

p

Q

R

s;

T

u

1

K

m

2A

A

A

A

IK

K

A

1A

IK

A

IK

2H

A

A

A

1ft

1

A

y±

IX

K

IK

2H

A

K

A

1M

IK

H

A

IK

H

1H

3K

A

K

A

IK

1A

M

A

IK

H

IK

3K

A

K

A

2A

1A

M

K

IK

H

2

3K

A

'A

A

2M

1A

A

K

1%

K

2K

3H

M

A

1A

2A

1A

A

A

IK

H

2^

4K

K

A

H

2A

IK

K

A

2

2K

4K

K

K

M

2M

1%

K

K

2K

1

2K

*A

A

K

K

2K

IK

K

K

2%

IK

2K

4%

A

•K

M

3A

1H

K

K

2K

IK

2M

4K

A

A

H

3A

2

K

K

2K

1%

2K

5A

A

A

M

3A

2K

A

K

2K

1%

3

5K

A

A

A

3K

2K

A

K

2%

IK

3K

5K

A

K

A

3K

2A

A

K

[594

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END, FOR CRANK PIN. Box END WITH WEDGE ADJUSTMENT

(Continued)

A

L

M

N

0

p

Q

R

s

T

u

2K
3

3K

4

4K
5

5K
f>

IK
IK

IK

2

2K

2K
2K

2K

3

3K
3%

4K
4K

5

5K
5K

6K
6K

7

5H

5K
6K
6K

10

11 8
UK

K
K
tV
K

K

X

K

H
H

K
K
H

K

H
i

IK

IK
IK

*

K

K

K
K

A

K
K
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3K

4K
4K

5K
5K

5K

6K

6K

6%

7K
7K

2K
2H
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3K
3K

4

4K

4K
5

K
K

K

K
K

M
H

%

if

K

i 6

IK
IK

CONNECT

.7

X _1

TING ROD STUB END, FOR

CRANK PIN

. STRAP JOINT

-^ 1

WITH GlB AND KEY

T

0.

il: J-^NK--

«-f - 9

Wm

&3

^ V £,/

\
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1
. «H

:*s«i£ i

L » • 1 Jr 1 1

i — r~*~

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

j

K

L

1

IK
IK
IK
IK

IK
1H

2

2K

2A

iA

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IA

IK
1^

2

2^

SIA

2A
2H

IK
IK
IK
iX

IK

A

A
K
A

K

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K
A

K
K

IH

2^
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2K
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1

IK
1A
1A

IK

K
A
K
H

M

K
1

IK
i.k

IK

;A

A

K
K
A

[595]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END, FOR CRANK PIN. STRAP JOINT WITH GIB AND KEY

(Continued)

B

E

IK
IX

IK

2

2K

2K
2K
2K

2K

3

3K

3*A

5K

2K
31

3H

3K

4

6K

6K

7

7K

2

2K

2tt

3

3K

3K
3H

4K
4K
5

4H

tt

$

tt

10

1A
1A

IX

IK

2

2M

H

M

M

H

itt

2

3H
3H

5H

Itt
Itt
Itt

2K

2K
2K
3

3^
4

4K
4K
5K

H
K
tt

IK

IK
IK

IK

2

2K

2K

2K

2K

2K
3

i*

lit

2K
2K

3

3K

4

4K

4K
5K

5K
5K

A

M.

N

0

P

Q

R

s

T

u

V

1

1

A

2H

3

1

4A

A

A

K

X

IK

IK

A

2H

3K

IK

4K

K

K

l

H

1M

1M

1A

3&

3^

IA

5K

K

K

IA

K

IK

IK

1A

3K

4K

1H

5K

K

A

IA

l

IK

IK

A

3^

4K

IK

6K

K

A

i&

p

IK

IK

A

4K

4K

IK

6K

K

K

IK

IK

IH

I9K

K

4K

5K

IA

7

K

H

IK

IA

IK

IK

K

4K

5K

itt

7^

K

H

IK

iK

2

2

A

5A

6

i«

7H

K

N

1H

IA

2K

2K

K

5^r

6K

IK

8K

K

K

1H

iA

2K

2M

K

5A

6M

2

8H

K

K

itt

IK

2K

2K

K

5M

7K

2K

9K

K

K

2

IA

2^

2K

K

§A

7K

2K

9K

K

1

2K

itt

2K

2K

A

6K

7K

2K

IOK

K

1

234

IH

2H

2^

A

6K

8M

2&

ion

K

1

2K

itt

[596]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
STRAP JOINT WITH GIB AND KEY — (Continued)

A

M

N 0

p

Q

R

s

T

U V

2K
3
3%
3K
3%

4

4%
4K
4%
5

5%

5K
5%
6

2K

3

3%
3K
3%

4

4%
4K
4%
5

5%
5K
5%
6

5/s 7
K 7K
F 7H

it 8%

K 9K
if 10%

1^ 12K

IK 12K
IK 13K

1A 14

1% 14%

9

9%

IOK

12

13K
15

16K
18 4

2K

2K

3K

3K
3K

4

4%

4K
4K

15K

17%
18%
19%

23K

K
K
K

K
K
l

IK 2

IK 2
1A 2
1A 2

1% 2

IK s
IK ?

1 11 ^

1% 2

IK 4
2 4

2K ^

2% 4

A IK
A 2

'% 2K

'K 2^

K 2K

»K 2^
»K 2%
•% 2H
•K 3K

t 3%

t% 3K
tK 3K
tK 3K

t% 3%

CONNECTING ROD STUB END, FOR

^•4

CRANK

^^

PIN.

— -«^

STRAP JOINT WITH GIB AND KEY
«tj

«

y

i
• ^

i

i

•<^

P

1

L''/7^^

iOr

$£fc

IT-

V V*

F

/

-^N-

F

* L

•<—

i

H

3 :
—f-i-

i

»:
; ;%

M <

-1*!

1

1

0

— -A-»

1

!1

^s ^

7.

— ^-

i

-T, r-\

J

— j

1

— >! Kei^s taper %in.pvrfoo&.

(

!

i

i

! A

t

1

>£::

\

«v

Si

U

m.

A

B

C D E

IF

G

H

I

J

K

L, M

N O

1

IK

IK
IK

21
2K

1A IK i&
lA IK 1H
1A IK IK

IK 1% 2

1% IK 2K

1

IK

IK

K

p

i*

K
l

IK

IK

1

IK

L%

K
l

1A

H
K
if
1A

3 2%

3K 3

3K 3K

4% 3A
4% 3H

2 IK
2% 1%

2K IK
2H IK

2H IK

[597]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES
STRAP JOINT WITH GIB AND KEY — (Continued)

2K

3
3A

3K
3A

3tt

3K

4

4A

4K

4M

5

5K

5H

7
7K

7H

2

2K

2H

3

3H
3H

6M

E

2A
2K

2K

3K

3A

3M

3K

4

4K

4H

5

5K

5K

6K

7K
7K

1A

Itt

IK

2

2K
2A

2K
2g
3K

3K

K

IK

lp

1A

IK

IK
IK

IK

2

2K

2K

2K

2K

3

IA

2K

2K
2%

3K

4K
4M

4K

5K
5K
5K

IK

IK

2

2K

2K
2K
2K

2K
3

3K
3M

4

4^
5

5%

IK
1A

1A

IK
1A

IK

2

2K

2K
2H

3K

3K
3K
3K

lp

1A
IK
1A

IK
IH

IK

2K

2K
2H

2H

3K

3A
3H
3H
3H

5K

5K
6

7
7K

10
10;

UK

13

14K
15K
16

17

M

4H

5K

5K

5K

IOA

HA
HH

12K

14

15K

3H

4

4K

4K
4H

5S

6K

8H

9K

9K

I

10K
10K

UK
UK

IK

IK

2

2K

2K
2K

2K
2K

3K

3K

3H
4

5K
5K

2A

2M
3

4A
4A

5^
6

2

2A

3

3A
4 *

tt

71

H'

1
1A:

1A
1A

1A

IK
IK

A
A

K

K
A
A

K

A
A

K
K

H

K

K
K

2K

3K
3H

5

5K

6K

u

1

IK
1A

IK
IK
itt

2

2K

2K

2A

2K

2K
3

7598

IK

IA

IK
2A

2%
2K

3A

3K

3K

3K

4K

w

A
H

K
K
K

K
K
K
K

K
K
K
K

K
K
K

H

K

K
if

l

l

1A

IK
IK

IK

K

A
K

K

K

IK
IK

IK

IK

IK
IK
IK

IK

K

5^;

4K
4ft

5K

5K

7tt

9ft
IOA

11 tt

UK

12K

14K

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN. STRAP JOINT WITH GIB AND KEY

(Continued)

u

w

4

4K
5

8

8K
9

9K
10

11

UK

12

4K

5K

6

6K

2

2K
2M

2K
2K

2K
3

IK

IK
IK
IK

7M

7%

Itt

111
2^

K

i

i
1A

1A

istt

16tt

20^

22H

23%

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN WITH BOLTED STRAP, WEDGE BLOCK

AND KEY

Adapted from American Locomotive Practice

A

B

b

C

D

E

F

G

H

i

j

K

L

[M

m

N

n

0

1

IK

H

I*

A

A

IK

1

A

K

A

2

IK

1A

K

•A

K

A

IK

1.81

.91

1.33

.34

.10

W,

IK

A

K

.20

2.21

Itt

y*

K

K

H

K

IK

2.00

1.00

1.47

.38

.11

IK

1A

3*2

K

.21

2.42

Itt

A

K

K

%

K

IK

2.19

1.09

1.61

.41

.12

IK

1A

A

K

.23

2.65

2

A

A

A

H

A

1H

2.38

1.19

1.75

.44

.12

IK

IK

K

K

.24

2.86

2K

A

-h

A

K

K

599]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN WITH BOLTED STRAP, WEDGE
BLOCK AND KEY — Continued

A

B

b

C

D

E

p

G

H

i

j

K

L

M

m

N

n

0

IK

2.56

1.28

1.89

.47

.13

2

IK

M

K

.26

3.08

2M

K

A

K

&

H

i%

2.75

1.38

2.03

.50

.14

2K

IK

M

A

.27

3.29

2A

K

K

H

1

H

IK

2.94

1.47

2.17

.53

.15

2M

Itt

A

A

.28

3.50

2K

K

K

A

IK

M

2

3.13

1.56

2.31

.56

.16

2K

1H

&

A

.30

3.73

2%

K

K

^

1A

H

2K

3.31

1.66

2.45

.59

.16

2K

itt

A

A

.31

3.93

2tt

A

K

^

1H

H

2M

3.50

1.75

2.59

.63

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2K

2

A

A

.32

4.14

3A

A

H

H

1A

K

2K

3.69

1.84

2.73

.66

.18

2%

2K

A

A

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4.37

3^

A

K

H

1^

H

2K

3.88

1.94

2.88

.69

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2K

2M

A

K

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4.58

3K

H

H

M

1A

if

2K

4.06

2.03

3.02

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.20

3

2K

A

M

.37

4.80

3A

K

A

M

1H

1

2%

4.25

2.13

3.16

.75

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3K

2A

H

M

.38

5.00

3tt

1A

A

H

1%

1A

2%

4.44

2.22

3.30

.78

.21

3M

2A

H

K

.39

5.22

3K

A

A

H

itt

1A

3

4^

2A

3A

tt

A

3K

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A

M

H

5A

4

A

1A

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1%

ll/8

A

P

P

Q

q

R

T

s

8

T

t

u

u

V

w

X

Y

z

1

m

5/8

A

K

2A

K

A

K

A

A

2M

IK

5K

1

5/8

K

A

IK

2A

H

K

K

2.33

M

K

K

A

K

2K

1M

5H

IK

M

H

A

IK

2M

tt

K

K

2.47

l

A

K

K

K

2H

IK

6H

i%

if

M

A

IK

2K

K

A

K

2.74

l

K

K

7
T6

A

2H

IK

7K

IK

if

M

A

1H

2K

H

A

K

2.88

l

5/8

K

A

A

3K

IK

7A

IK

1A

if

M

IK

2K

1

K

K

3.14

1

H

K

K

K

3K

IK

7K

IK

1A

K

M

I5i

3A

1A

H

K

3.41

l

ZA

K

K

K

3A

IK

8K

1%

1H

K

M

IK

3A

IK

K

K

3.67

i

H

K

A

A

3H

IK

8K

IK

IK

if

H

2

3A

1M

H

M

3.94

IK

K

A

A

K

4A

IX

9A

2

IK

l

M

2K

3H

1A

H

K

4.08

IK

K

A

K

K

4M

1M

9K

2K

1A

IK

K

2M

4

IK

K

K

4.34

IK

H

A

K

H

4K

IK

IOK

2M

1A

1A

M

2K

4K

1A

H

K

4.61

IK

tt

A

H

H

4^

IK

10%

2K

IK

1A

K

2K

4K

IK

K

4.88

IK

l

A

H

M

4tt

IK

HA

2K

itt

1A

A

2K

4A

IK

i

K

5.02

IK

l

A

H

M

5A

IK

UK

2K

l%

1A

A

2^

4H

1H

1A

1

5.29

IK

IK

A

H

if

5K

2K

12A

2%

1M

itt

A

2K

5

1^

1A

1

5.43

IK

1A

A

H

if

5K

2K

12K

2K

m

1%

A

3

5A

1H

IK

l

5H

IK

1M

A

H

K

•5tt

2K

12K

3

IK

IK

A

Distance U is subject to slight correction due to fractional quantities being expressed in the nearest
working fraction. In no case will the difference exceed V« inch. Fractional differences in column V may
be adjusted in column U.

[600

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN, WITH BOLTED STRAP, WEDGE BLOCK,

AND KEY

Adapted from American Locomotive Practice

5M
6

2H

2K

3

3H

1A

7M

2H
3

3H

4

ft

1
1

1A
[601

A

6%

10

11

4M

5H

M

H

H

1A

tt

1A

1A

1A
1A

1A

2M

2K

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN, WITH BOLTED STRAP, WEDGE BLOCK,

AND KEY — Continued

6%

7

7%

7K

7%

8

9K

lOK

UK
UK

4H
5^
5%

7%

7K

8%
9

1A

1A
IK
IK
1H
itt

7K
8K
8K
8%
9

5K
5K

6%

IK

IK

1A

1A

1M
1A

12%
12%
12%
13%

8%
8K
8%
9K
9K
9%

M

IK

IK

K

N

IK

1H

1%
itt

3K
4

4K
4%

2%
2A

2K
2H

2%

2K

12

12%

12%

8%
9

10

14

10% 14%

10%
11

11%

11% 15%
12 16

14%

6%

7%

7A
7H

9%

9%
10
10%

UK
11%

12%

12%
12%
13
13%

Itt

1%
1%

ill

Iff

2

2

A

9%
10

10%

10%

UK
11%

12

12%

12%
12%
13%
13%
13%
14

7%

8%

9%

IK
IK
IK
1A

1A
1A

13%
14

14%
14%
14%

15%
15%
15%

10

10%

10%

10%

UK
11%

12

16% |12%
16% 12%

16%
17%

1A 17%

1%
1%

17%

12%
13%
13%
13%

18% 14
18% 14%

IK
IK

l%
1%

IK
IK
IK
IK

2

2

1%

111
2

2

2%

2K

2%

2%
2K
2K

2K

4K 2^
4% 3
4K
5

5K

5%

5K
5%
5%

6%

6K

3%

3K

3%
3%
3K

3H

A

p

p

Q

q

R

r

s

8

T

t

u

u

V

W

X

Y

z

3

5A

lit

IK

%

5H

IK

1%

A

H

K

5K

1%

13A

3

IK

IK

A

3%

5K

2^

1%

K! 6%

IK

l%

A

K

K

6

IK

14%

3%

2

2

A

3K

6

2%1A

Ki 6K

IK

1A

%

if

H

6%

IK

15%

3K

2&

2fV

K

3%

6K 2K >1A

i 7K iK

1A

%

i

if

6K

2K

16%

3%

2K

2K

K

4

6%

2K

IK

i

7K

IK

IK

%

1A

l

7

2K

17%

4

2K

2K

K

4%

7

2H |l%

IK

7%

1%

IK

A

1%

1.

7A

2K

18tt

4%

2K

2K

%

4K

7K

2*1 1A

IK

8%

1%

1A

A

1A.

1A

7H

2K

19A

4K

2%

2%

A

4%

7K

2H

1H

1%

8%

IK

1A

K

1%

1A

8

2K

20A

4%

2K

2K

&

5

8K

3%

1H

1%

9%

IK

IK

%

1%

iK

8K

2K

20K

5

3

3

A

5%

8K

3%

1H

IK

9K

2K

IK

A

IK,

IK

8H

2K

22K

5%

3K

3K

A

5K

9

3A

itt

IK

10

2K

1A

A

1A

i&

9K

2K

23^

5K

3%

3%

K

5%

9K

3A

itt

1%

10%

2%

1A

K IK

tA

9&

3

24K

5%

3K

3K

1A

6

9%

3%

2

IK

10%

2%

IK

K 1A

1%

9%

3

24%

6

3K

3K

y2

6%

10

3K

2^

IK

UK

2K

IK

K

IK

1%

10% 13%

26^

6%

3K

3K 1A

6^

10%

4A

2K

IK

11%

2K

1%

K

IK

1A '10% '3%

26K

6K

3%

3% 'A

[602]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN, WITH BOLTED STRAP, WEDGE BLOCK,

AND KEY — Continued

7
7%

7%
8

11%

11%

12%
12**
12%

4%

4H
5

2%

IK
IK

2
2

12
12%

13%

13;

14

2K

3

3

2
2

2V

1%
lit

1H
lit

2

1A
1%

1A

u

12A
12%

3%
3%
3%
3%

3K

3K

27H
28%
29K

31%
Slit

W

6%

7

7%

7%

7%

8

3K
4

4K

4H

3K

4

4K

4%

8%

8%

8%

9

9M

10

10%

11

11%

11%

12

13

24

15%

16%
17%

17%

18%

5A

5A

5^

6%

7K
7%

2A

2tt

2%

2H

3

3

3K

3%
3%

2

2%
2%
2%
2%

2K
2%
2%

2%

2%

2%

2%

3

3

3

14**

14%
15

15%

16**

17

18%

18%
19%

20

3%
3%
3%
3%

4K

4%
4K
4K

4%

4%

S

2K
2%

2^

2%
2%
2K
2K

**

2

2

2%
2%
2%

2%
2%
2K
2K
3

1A
1A

itt
itt
1%
1%
itt

itt

IK

2
2

U

12tt

ISA

14

14%

14%
15

ISA

16%

16**

16%
17%

17%
18

3K

4%
4%
4%
4%
5%

5%
5%
5%
5%
i
5%

32%

34M
35^
35M

38A

41A

41%

42^
42H
45^

45&
46

W

8%

8%

8%

9

9%

9K
9%

10

10%

10%

11

11%

11%

12

4%
5

5%
5%

5%
5K
6

6%
6%
6%
6%

6K

7

4%
5

5%
5%

5%

5%

5K

6

6%

6%

6%
6K

[603]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN. FORKED DESIGN WITH BACK BLOCK,
ADJUSTING WEDGE AND LINER

Adapted from American Locomotive Practice

M

3M

7K
8

2ii

3

3H
4

4K

4%

634

7

1A
1A

1A

itt
lit

2

2H

3M

3A

4A

4H

?4

N

8H

IK

IN

IK

IN

2

2

2K

2H
3

3H
4

4A

2A

3A

3A

[604]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN. FORKED DESIGN WITH BACK BLOCK,
ADJUSTING WEDGE AND LINER — Continued

9
9%

9^
9K
9K
10

4.K

4A
4tt
4H
4tt

7%

8

8%

8K

8%

8K

8K

8%

9

9K

67/8

7K

7%

7K
8%

10%
10%

11

11%

6%

7
7%

7%

9

9%
9%
10

10%
IOK

2A

2%

2A

2%

2A

6

6A

6A

IK

2%

M

4%
5

N

W

3%
4

5%
6

6%

7

7%
8

4%
5

3%

5%
6

7K

4%
4H

5%

5%

7%

Itt
Itt

2K
2A

2%
2K
2%

2H

2H

2K

3
3%

3%

4K
4K

5K

5%

7
7K

8

8K
9 *

1

IK

IK
1A

2%
2K

3%

%
tt

1
1

IK

1A
1%

IK

itt

itt
1%

2

2K
2K

6

6K
6K
7K

8K
9K
9K

11%

12%

13%
13K
14

14K
14%
15%

4%

6K

6H

10%

IOA

lOtt

"A
ntt

12

12%

12%

8%

10%
10%

12A
13

14tt

15%
16 A
17%
18

18%

19A

20K

21tt
22%
23

4

4%

4A
4H

4K
5K

5%

6

6%

6%

7

7%

7K

7%

8

IK

2%

2%
2tt

3K

3%

4K

4%

4K
4K
4%
4%

2%

2%

2%

2%

3

3K

3^

3A

3%

4K

4K

[605]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN. FORKED DESIGN WITH BACK BLOCK,

ADJUSTING KEY AND LINER

Adapted from American locomotive Practice

53^
6

7^
8

83/1

2H
3

3H

3H

3

33^

3M

3^

43^

H

i

1^1

33^

6

43/4

5?
6

7^6

8H

33^
3H

4H

6M

9%
19?4

1034

UK

11

12
12A

Itt

4H

3

3%

43^

43^
5

4M

5%

63^

M

3K

[606]

MACHINE DETAILS RELATING TO STEAM ENGINES

CONNECTING ROD STUB END FOR CRANK PIN. FORKED DESIGN WITH BACK BLOCK,
ADJUSTING KEY AND LINER — Continued

7

7%

7%

7%

8

10
10%

4H

5

5K

5A

5K

7%

7K
8K

8K
8%

6%

7K
8%
8K
8%
9

1H

6%

7

7%

10%

11%

11%

12

12%

12%

5A
5%
5A

12

12K

13

13%

I2tt
13A
13%
14%
14tt
15%

2A

2H

2%
2K
3

3K

8A

8K

8M

7%

M

4K

4%
4K

5K
5%
6

6%
7

N

11
11%

12%
13%

14%
14%
15%

16%

17%
18%
18%
19%
20K
20K

IK

IK

1%

IK

4H

5%
6

6%

10%

10%

11

11%

UK

5
6

6K
7%

10

10%

10%

11%

UK
11%

12%
12%

13%

2H

2K

3%

3%

4H
4K

5%'

H

IT

4

4%

6

6%

7%

8 8
8%

9

9%

10
10%

if
l

1A

1%
1A
1%
1A

1H
itt

lit

2

2A

2A

2%

H

l

1A

IK

IK
1A
1%
1A

1A
1A
IK
1A

1H

w

3

3%
3K
3%
4

4%

4K

4%

5

5%

5%

6

6%

6%

7

7%

7K

7%

8

2

2A

2A

2K
2H

3

3K

3A

3K

3H

41

4K
4%

4K
4K

4K
5

IK

2%

2K

2%
2K
3

3K
3^

3A

3%

4%
4A
4K

[607]

INDEX

Acceleration, 7
Acetylene, properties,, 199
Acid open-hearth furnace, 230

oxides, 200

properties^ 199
Acidic oxides, 510
Acme thread screws, 358
Activity, C. G. S., 5
Admiralty metal, A, U. S. N., 551, 558.
Aich's metal, 558
Air as a standard, 12

properties, 200

specific heat, 14
Ajax bronze, 562
Alabama pine, 298
Alcohol, industrial, 201

properties, 201
Alkali metals, 509

properties, 202
Alkaline-earthy metals, 508
Allotropic theory, hardening steel, 482
Allotropy, 202
Alloy, non-oxidizable, 558

properties, 202
Alloy-steels, 245

Alloy-steels, heat treatment, 263
Alloys, aluminum, 517

chemical nature of, 511

copper, tin, zinc, U. S. N., 539

copper, uses, U. S. N., 539

eutectic, 512

fusibility, 512

liquation in, 512

non-ferrous, 510

non-ferrous, porosity of, 514

occlusion in, 512

physical properties, 511

specific gravity, 511

specific heat of, 512

used in engineering, 558
Aluminum alloys, 516, 558

alloys improved by zinc, 518

and chromium, 517

and copper, 518

and manganese, 517, 559

and nickel, 518, 559

and tin, 517

and titanium, 517

and tungsten, 518

Aluminum alloys, brass, Cowles, 558

bronze, 558

copper, 558

fluxes for, 516

ingots, properties, U. S. N., 525

magnesium alloys, 508

melting point, 517

physical properties, 516

properties, 203, 508

working and annealing, 517
Amalgams, 205, 518
American wire gauge, 73
Ammonia, properties, 206
Angle, 7

Angular velocity, 7
Annealing carbon tool steel, 494

mild steel, 494

wought iron, 469
Anti-friction metal, U. S. N., 559

Admiralty, 559

Comp. W, U. S. N., 541, 554
Antimony, properties, 207
Apothecaries' weight, 43
Arc of a circle, 124, 126
Arcs, circular, lengths of, 126
Area, 7

of circles, 94

of irregular figure, 135

of segment of circle, 125, 129
Areas of circular segments, 129
Argentan, composition, 559
Armor plate, 255
Arsenic, bronze, 559

properties, 207, 506
Asbestos, properties, 207
Attraction, intensity of, 8
Austenite, 208
Avoirdupois weights, 42

Babbitt metal, 559

Barium chloride bath, disadvantages, 490

bath for steel, 490

properties, 208, 508
Basic Bessemer process, 211

open-hearth furnace, 230

oxides, 510

Bastard thread screws, U. S. N., 360
Baths for heating steel, 489
Bell, David, 478
[609]

INDEX

Bell metal, composition, 559

Belting, rubber, testing, 435

Benedict nickel, Comp. Be-r, 535

Bessemer process, 208

Billets and blooms, classed, 474

Binary alloys, melting point, 55?

Birmingham wire gauge, 74

Bischof's refractory quotient, 290

Bismuth amalgam, 519
properties, 214,. 506

Blister steel, 214

Blooms and billets, classed, 474

Board measure, 40

Boiler braces, strength, U. S. N., 350,
plates for U. S. Navy, 304
tubes, nickel steel, 253

Bolt end for rigid connection, 580
end with collar and cotter, 579
end with gib and key, 413
end with slot and cotter, 412
head and nut, Frank. Inst., 347
head and nut, U. S. Std., 348
head, length for upset, 399

Bolts and nuts, deck, tests, 382
and nuts, dimensions, 385
and nuts, dimensions, U. S., 381
and nuts, iron, U. S. N., 380
and nuts, steel, U. S. N., 372
and nuts, tensile test, 374
and nuts, U. S. Std., 349, 350
and nuts, weight per 100, 375
and washers, foundation, 408
composition rods for, 384
eye, proportions, 409, 411
for gun mounts, U. S. N., 383
heads and nuts, weight, 352
hook proportions, 397
length of thread, 386
manganese, strength, 350
non-corrosive rods, 379
of composition, U.'S. N., 384
of uniform strength, 391
square head weight, 391
steel, nickel or carbon, 376
strength of, 350
taper, Loco. Std., 389
Tobin bronze, strength, 350
working load for U. S. N., 351

Bone for case hardening, 501

Borax properties, 215

Boron, properties, 215, 509

Box wrench for hex. nuts, 418

Brass castings, B-c., U. S. N., 549
BE, U. S. N., 550
chem. prop., 549
elec. work, 550, 560
porosity of, 513
U. S. Navy, 560

Brass castings, yellow, 560

Brass, commercial, 560
condenser tubes, 560
fluxes for, 515
high, rolled, 561
inspection of, U. S. N., 536
low, rolled, 561
Naval, Admiralty, 561
naval, properties, U. S. N., 545
pipe fittings, U. S. N., 561
pipe, hydraulic tests, 543
pipe, seamless, tests, 544
pipe, seamless, weight, 544
red, commercial, 561
rods, B-r, U. S. N., 549
rolled rods for bolts, 379
sheets, B-p, U. S. N., 549
spring wire, composition, 561
tubes, British standard, 561
washers, U. S. N., 405
with aluminum, 559
with lead, 560
with manganese, 560
with tin, 561
yellow, composition, 561

Brasses, constituents, 505

Brazing aluminum bronze, 561
metal, 562

metal, F., U. S. N., 551
metal, F., U. S. N. uses, 540

Brick, fire, 285

British Ass'n Std., screw, 368
thermal unit, 6

Bronze, acid resisting, 562
Ajax, 562
arsenic, 559
carbon, 562

castings, Admiralty 5j62
deoxidized, 562
fluxes for, 515
inspection of, U. S. N., 536
journal, H., U. S. N., 527
journal, U. S. N., 562
manganese, Mn-c, 528
phosphor, P-r, U. S. N., 530
plates and bars, spec., 532
plates, tensile tests, 532
Torpedo, U.S. -N., 528
valve, Comp. M., U. S. N., 527

Bronzes, constituents, 505
proprietary, 529

Bushel, legal weights, 80
U. S. standard, 42

Cadmium, properties, 215, 507
Calcium carbide, properties, 216

oxide in alloys, 509

properties, 216, 508
[610]

INDEX

Calcium sulphate as a flux, 510
Calorie, major and minor, 5
Calorific value of coke, 450
Camelia metal, 562
Cap nuts, 371

screw, 394

Capacity, measures of, 41
Car bearings, Penna. R. R., 562
Carbon and alloy steels, Comp., 498

and alloy steels, heat treatment, 498

and low-tungsten steel, hardening, 496

bronze, 562

chrome-nickel steel, 498

chrome-vanadium steel, 499

in alloys, 509

in pig iron, 443

properties, 216

steel for forgings, 471

steel, heat treatment, 480

steel, other than tool, 495

steel, tempering and annealing, 481

steel tools, color scale, 485

steel, requirements, 275

theory of hardening steel, 482

tool steel, 484

tool steel, quenching of, 493

tool steel, U. S. N. requirements, 284
Case-hardening, 500

carburizing gas, 501

carburizing materials, 500

chrome steel, 500

cooling, reheating, 503

cyanide process, 503

effect of nitrogen, 501

for colors, 504

method of, 502

mild steel, 500

mixture, 503

nickel steel, 500

queching, 502

temperatures, 502
Cast iron for U. S. N. properties, 267

malleable, 455

washers, 406
Castings, chrome-nickel steel, 256

iron and steel, 443

iron comp. and structure, 456

iron, physical properties, 454

iron, silicon in U. S. N., 456

iron, tensile strength, 454

iron, tests, U. S. N., 455

iron, transverse strength, 454

manganese steel, 249

semi steel, 459

steel, 460
Castle nuts, 371
Cementation process, 216
Cementite, 217

C. G. S. Mechanical units, 4

C. G. S. System, defined, 2

Charcoal pig iron, 447

Charred leather for case-hard, 501

Chemical changes in the cupola, 449

requirements, pig iron, 448
Chemistry of rubber, 441
Cheval, C. G. S., 5
Chrome-nickel carbon steel, 498

steel, case-hardening, 500

vanadium carbon steel, 499
Chromium hardens aluminum, 517

in steel, 259

properties, 217

steel, 246

vanadium steel, 261
Circle, length of arc, 124
Circles, properties of, 91

table, Dia., Cir., Area, 94
Circular arcs, length of, 126

steel plates weight, 329
Circumference of circles, 94
Clay, melting point, 287

plastic, 288
Clays, general properties, 286

refractory, nature of, 286
Coach and lag screws, 398
Coals, weight of American, 22
Cobalt in steel, 260

properties, 217, 507
Coins, values of foreign, 45
Coke, calorific value, 450

foundry, characteristics, 449
Cold-rolled or drawn steel, 276
Collar screws, proportions, 393
Color scale, hardening steel, 485
Colors in case-hardening, 504

of heated steel, 492
Composition A, U. S. N., 551

B-c, U. S. N., 549

B-p, U. S. N., 549

B-r, U. S. N., 549

BE, U. S. N., 550

Be-r, U. S. N., 535

Cu-p, U. S. N., 522

Cu-r, U. S. N., 520

Cu-si, U. S. N., 522

D, U. S. N., 541

D-c, U. S. N., 547

D-r, U. S. N., 547

F, U. S. N., 540, 551

G, U. S. N., 525
G-Ag, U. S. N., 536
H, U. S. N., 527
M, U. S. N., 527
Mn-c, U. S. N., 528, 541
Mn-r, U. S. N., 541
Mo-c, U. S. N., 533

[611]

INDEX

Composition Mo-r, TJ. S. N., 534
N-c, U. S. N., 540
N-r, U. S. N., 540, 545
P, U. S. N., 541
P-c, U. S. N., 529
P-r, U. S. N., 530
rods for bolts, 384
S, U. S. N., 540
T, U. S. N., 541
Vn-c, U. S. N., 531
W, U. S. N., 541, 554
Zn-r, U. S. N., 524
Condenser tubes, brass, 560
Conductivity, 10
Cone, mensuration, 155
Connecting rod ends, 593, 607
Constantin, composition, 562
Copper alloys, melting point, 552
alloys, uses, U. S. N., 539
amalgam, 519
and hydrogen, 513
and oxygen, 513
castings, porosity, 513
deoxidizing, 513
fluxes for, 514
for sheathing, 521
for U. S. N. alloys, 543
hardens aluminum, 518
in steel, 260
ingot, for U. S. N., 519
inspection of, U. S. N., 536
lead alloys, melting point, 553
non-ferrous; Cu-r, 520
phosphor, properties, 522
pipes, hydraulic test, 543
pipes, material, 543
pipes, physical tests, 543
pipes, strength of, 543
plates, English std., 562
properties, 218, 505
refined, cartridge cases, 522
rods, English std., 562
rods, properties, 520
sheets, properties, 520
sheets, weight, 521
silicon, properties, 522
tin alloys, melting point, 553
tubes, British std., 562
zinc alloys, melting point, 553
Corrugated sheet steel, 314
Corrugation types for U. S. N., 315
Cosecants and secants, 139
Cosines, sines, 139
Cotangents and tangents, 139
Couplings for valve rods, 587-8-9
Crank phi stub ends, 593, 607

pins, table, 592
Cranks, cast iron, table, 591

Crankshafts, steel, test pieces, 475
Crucible furnace, tilting, 556

steel, 218

Crucibles, sizes, 555
Cube, mensuration, 153

roots of numbers, 102
Cubes of numbers, 102
Cubic measure, 41
Cupola, chemical changes in, 449

excess of air in, 451

flux to promote fusion, 451

fuel efficiency in, 452

heat of combustion, 452

slag, 451

temp, melting zone, 450

temp, escaping gases, 451

wasted heat, 453

Cupro-nickel, cartridge cases, 562
Curvature, 8
Cyanide bath for steel, 489

process, case-hardening, 503
Cyanides for case-hardening, 501
Cycloid, area of, 133

length of arc, 133
Cylinder, mensuration, 154
Cylindric rings, mensuration, 163

Darcet's fusible alloys, 563

Decimal wire gauge, 74

Deck bolts and nuts, U. S. N., 382

Delta metal composition, 562

Density, 7

Deoxidized bronze, 562

Deoxidizing copper, 513

Dodecahedron, mensuration, 161

Douglas fir, 299

Douglas spruce, 299

Dry measures, 41

Ductility of wrought iron, 467

Duralumin, composition, 562

Dyne, unit of force, 4, 5

Elastic limit, determination, 422
limit, manganese steel, 249
limit, nickel steel, 252
limit, wrought iron, 468

Elasticity, modulus of, 9

Electric furnace, hardening, 488

hardening, high-speed tools, 492

Elements, melting point, 20

Ellipse, area, 133

Elliptic segment, area, 133

Emissivity, 10

Energy, C. G. S., 5

Engine forgings, 476
forgings, steel, 475

Entropy, 10

Erg, C. G. S., unit of work, 5
[612]

INDEX

Eutectic alloys, 512

Expansion, coefficient, 10

Eye bolt head, proportions, 409

bolt pins, 410

bolts for flanges, 411

Ferrite, 218
Ferromanganese, 444

properties, 506
Fir, Pacific Coast, 299
Fire brick, 285

analyses, 292

composition, 291

crushing strength, 294-5

hardness, burning, 294

load tests, 291

physical tests, 294
Fire clay, 285

analyses, 292

and alumina, 288

and feldspar, 289

and iron oxide, 289

and line, 290

and mica, 290

and quartz, 288

and titanium oxide, 289

chemical formulas, 293

effect of fluxes, 290

vitrification, 290

Flameless combustion, hardening, 487
Flint clay, properties of, 287
Floor plates, steel, 316
Fluorspar as a flux, 515

used as a flux, 452
Fluxes, effect on fireclays, 290

for copper, 514

non-ferrous alloys, 514
Force, 8

unit of, 4

Forging steel, physical changes, 477
Forgings, iron and steel, 465

steel, engine, U. S. N., 475

steel, heat treatment, 474

wrought iron, 470
Foundation bolts and washers, 408
Foundry coke, characteristics, 449

irons, 443

pig irons, U. S. N., 448
Franklin Institute screws, 346
Furnace, hardening, electric, 488

hardening, flameless, 487

Kroeschell-Schwartz, 556

muffle, 486

oven, 486

tempering, gas fuel, 487

tempering, oil fuel, 487
Furnaces, heating, 486
Fusible alloy, 562

G, value of, 4

Galvanized, corrugated steel, 314

sheet steel, 313

steel plates, 309
Gas, for case-hardening, 501

furnace for tempering, 487
Gases, weight and spec, grav., 24
Gear bronze, hard, 563

medium hard, 563
Geometrical quantities, 3
Georgia pine, 298
German silver, 563

Comp. G-ag, 536

fluxes for, 515
Gillett, H. W., 552
Gold amalgam, 519

properties, 219
Gram-degree, 5
Graphite bearing metal, 563

properties, 219
Gravitation units of work, 5
Gun bronze, Comp. G., 539
Gun metal, Admiralty, 563

Comp. G., 525, 564

English, 564

for bearings, 564

for general use, 564

Hammer, Bell's Steam, 478
Hardening carbon steel, 496

high-speed steel, 491

low-tungsten steel, 496

steel, color scale, 485

steel, critical points, 483
Harvey steel, 220
Headless set screws, 393
Heat treatment, alloy steels, 263

carbon steel, 480

high-speed tools, 263

unit of, 6, 9

units, conversion factors, 12
Heating and hardening high-speed steels,
494

carbon steel, 484
Hemlock, Western, 300
Hexahedron, mensuration, 161
Hibbard, H. D., alloy steels, 245
High-speed steel, quenching, 494

steels, theory, 265

tool steels, 258

tools, elec., hard., 492

tools, hardening, 491

tools, heat treatment, 263
Holding down bolts, gun mounts, 383
Hollow forgings, steel, 477

shaft, steel, 256
Hook bolts, proportions, 397
Horsepower, C. G. S., 5
[613]

INDEX

Horsepower and kilowatt, 28

Continental, 27

English, 25

unsuitable unit, 28
Horsepowers to kilowatts, 29
Hose, rubber, requirements, 434

steam, pressure test, 437
Hydrogen in alloys, 509

in copper, 513

properties, 221
Hyperbola, area of, 134
Hyperbolic conoid, mensuration, 161
Hyperboloid, mensuration, 160

Icosahedron, mensuration, 162

Inertia, moment, 8

Ingot iron, 221
steel, 222

Inspection of material, index, 427
of material, U. S. N., 421

International standard screw, 369

Invar, 253

Iridium, properties, 222

Iron and steel castings, 443

bolts and nuts, U. S. N., 380
castings, properties, 454
castings, silicon in, 456
castings, structure, 456
forgings, 465
properties, 222, 506
wrought, properties, 465

Joule's equivalent, 6, 10

Journal bronze, Comp. H,, 527, 540

Kaolin, properties, 287

Kennedy Double Keys, table, 576

Key, double, table, 577

gib head, table, 573

length, 569

Peters' double, table, 578

sliding, table, 574

sunk, proportions, 569

taper pin, table, 572
Keys for screw propellers, 578
Keyways and sunk keys, table, 569
Kilogram, calorie, 5

degree, 5

Kilograms per sq. cm. to pounds, 70
Kilometers, miles and knots, 68
Kilowatt as unit of power, 28

C. G. S., 5

Kilowatts to horsepowers, 34
Knot, Admiralty, 39
Knots, miles and kilometers, 68
Kroeschell-Schwartz furnace, 556

Lag and coach screws, 398

Larch, western, 300
Latent heat, 10
Lead amalgam, 518

bath for heating steel, 489

bronze, bearing metal, 564

pig, properties, 525

properties, 222, 506
Legal weights, commodities, 79
Length, measures of, 39

standard, 1
Lime in alloys, 509
Limestone used as a flux, 451
Line measurement, 39
Lipowitz's fusible alloy, 563
Liquation, 223

in alloys, 512

Liquids, weight and spec, grav., 24
Lithium, properties, 223
Loblolly pine, 298
Lock nuts, split pins, U. S. N., 356
Log. sines, cosines, tangents, 146
Logarithms of numbers, 163
Longitude and time, 48
Longleaf pine, 297
Lumen bearing metal, 564
Lune, area of, 134

Macadamite, composition, 564
Machine bolts and nuts, 376

bolts, tests, U. S. N., 380
Magnalium, composition, 564
Magnesia, properties, 223
Magnesite, properties, 224
Magnesium, carbonate, 224

properties, 224, 508
Magnolia metal, composition, 564
Malleable cast iron, 455

iron castings, 457-8

iron pipe flanges, 458
Manganese bronze, 564

bronze castings, 541

bronze, Mn-c, 528, 541

copper, 564

hardens aluminum, 517

in pig iron, 444

properties, 225, 506

rods for bolts, 379

steel, 247

vanadium bronze, 564
Manganin, composition 565
Marble chips used as a flux, 451
Martensite, 226
Mass, 2

Materials, chemical properties, 421
Materials, physical tests, 421

sizes for test, 422

types, test pieces, 422 j
Mayari steel, 256
[6141

INDEX

Mechanical equivalent of heat, 6

quantities, 3
Medical signs, 43
Melting point, copper alloys, 552

of clay, 287

of elements, 20
Mensuration, 89

of solids, 153

Mercury, properties, 226, 506
Metals, physical constants, 19

specific gravity, 21
Metric and U. S. measures, 50

screw threads, 369

system, 1, 49

Micrometer wire gauge, .74
Mild steel, case-hardening, 500
Miles, knots and kilometers, 68
Mill and foundry products, 267
Modulus of elasticity, 9
Moldenke, Dr. Richard, 455
Molybdenum in steel, 260

properties, 227
Moment of a couple, 8

of inertia, 8
Momentum, 8
Monel metal cast, Mo-c, 553

composition, 534

for bolts, 379

physical properties, 534

rolled, MO-E, 534

U. S. N., 565
Money, U. S., 44
Muffle furnace, 486
Muntz metal, cast, D-c, 547

composition, 565

comp. D, uses, 541

properties, 547

sheets, D-r, 547

Naval brass, cast, N-c, 545

inspection, 542

N-c, 540, 565

N-r, 540

rods for bolts, 379

rolled, N-r, 545
Newton's fusible alloy, 563
Nickel alloys, 505

and aluminum, 518

chromium steel, 253

fluxes for, 515

properties, 228, 507

silver, 565

steel, 250

steel, case-hardening, 500

steel for forgings, 471

steel, properties, 251
Nickelin, composition, 565
Niter, oxidizing agent, 509

Nitrogen in case-hardening, 501

in alloys, 509

properties, 229

Non-corrosive rods for bolts, 379
Non-ferrous alloys, 505, 510

metal, D-r, 565

metals, 505

Non-metals used in alloys, 509
North Carolina pine, 298
Norton, A. B., 552
Norway pine, 300
Nuts, cap, 371

Castle, 371

lock and split pin, 356

round slotted, 353

sleeve, dimensions, 403

steel and iron, 377

Occlusion, 229

in alloys, 512

Octahedron, mensuration, 161
Oil furnace for tempering, 487
Open-hearth carbon steel, 307

process, 230

steel for U. S. N., 305
Oregon pine, 299
Oven furnace, 486
Oxides, 232
Oxygen and copper, 513

and manganese, 444

properties, 233, 510

Parabola, area of, 133

Parabolic conoid, mensuration, 160

Paraboloid, mensuration, 160

Parallelepipedon, solidity, 153

Parallelogram, area, 89

Pearlite, 233

Pennsylvania R. R., car bearings, 562

Penna. R. R. case-hardening mixture, 503

Peters' double key table, 578

Phosphor bronze, inspection, 542

P, uses, 541

P-c, 529, 565

properties, 529

Phosphor copper, properties, 522
Phosphorus, 260

in alloys, 510

in pig iron, 445

properties, 234
Physical constants of metals, 19

prop, iron castings, 454
Pi, (TT) useful functions, 93
Pig iron, analysis, standard, 446

chemical requirements, 448

grading, 445

Norway, 301

Pine, Longleaf, 297

[615]

INDEX

Pig iron, Shortleaf, 298

Southern yellow, 296
Pipe, brass, requirements, 543

copper, requirements, 543

flanges, malleable iron, 458
Piping in steel ingots, 476
Plane trigonometry, 136
Plaster of Paris, flux, 510, 515
Plastic bronze, composition, 566
Plate washers, dimensions, 404
Platinoid, composition, 566
Platinum, properties, 234
Plumbago for foundry use, 464
Polygon, area, 90
Porosity, non-ferrous alloys, 514
Porter, H. F. J., 476
Potassium cyanide, flux, 510

nitrate, oxidizing agent, 509

properties, 235, 509
Pound-degree, C., 6

F.,6

Pound, unit of mass, 6
Poundal, 4

Pounds per sq. in. to kilograms, 70
Power, C. G. S., 5

or activity, 9

Pressures, pound to kilograms, 70
Prism, solidity of, 153
Prismoid, mensuration, 158
Projectiles, 255
Properties of materials, 199
Protective hull plates, 273
Puddling iron, 465
Pyramid, mensuration, 156

Quenching baths, 493

Reamers for taper bolts, 390

Recalescense, 477

Reciprocals of numbers, 102

Reduction, 236

Redwood, 300

Refractories, manufacture, 288

Reheating steel ingots, 476

Resilience, 9

Rheotan composition, 566

Ring, to find area, 132

Rivet rods, tests, 339

Rivets, manufactured, tests, 340
small, sheet metal, 344
standard, U. S. N., 341
steel, for hulls, U. S. N., 339

Rose's fusible alloy, 563

Rowland, Professor H. A., 6

Rubber belting, requirements, 435
chemistry of, 441
elongation, 438
fabrics, tension tests, 437

Rubber, friction test, 440
goods, compounding, 433
goods, definition, 436
goods, friction, layers, 437
goods, properties, 436
goods, testing of, 432
hose, requirements, 434
hydraulic test, 440
material, inspection, 428
physical testing, 436
repeated stretching, 439
tensile strength, 438

Salt, common, flux for copper, 514

Screw, Acme thread, U. S. N., 358
Bastard thread, U. S. N., 360
British Assn. standard, 368
buttress thread, 363
coupling, valve rod, 590
ends, length for upset, 400
ends, upset, details, 401
International, standard, 369
multiple thread, 362
propellers, key, 578
S. A. E. standard, 365
sharp V-thread, 364
square thread, 361
thread, length, bolts, 386
threads, Metric, 369
threads, Sellers, 346
threads, sharp V, 346
United States standard, 348
Whitworth standard, 365

Screws, cap, proportions, 394
collar, 393
headless, 393
set, sizes, 396

Secants and Cosecants, 139

Second, unit of time, 6

Segment of a circle, 125

Segregation in steel ingots, 476

Sellers, Wm., screw threads, 346

Semi-steel, 236
castings, 459

Set screws, sizes, 396

Shafts, steel, test pieces, 475

Shortleaf pine, 298

Silica, properties, 236

Silicon as a flux, 510
bronze, 566
copper, deoxidizer, 513
copper, properties, 522
effect, yellow brass, 513
in iron castings, 456
in pig iron, 443-4
properties, 236
spiegel, 444
steel properties, 257
[616]

INDEX

Silver amalgam, 519

properties, 237

Simpson's rule, irregular figures, 135
Sines and Cosines, 139
Sleeve nuts, dimensions, 403
Socket wrench, 419
Sodium amalgam, 519

properties, 237, 509
Solder, aluminum, 566

half and half, 566

hard for copper, 566

nickel silver, 566

spelter, 566

tin-lead, 555

tinmen's, 566

Solids, mensuration of, 153
Solution theory, hardening steel, 482
Sorbite, 483

South Carolina pine, 298
Southern yellow pine, 297
Space, 1
Specific gravity, liquids, 24

of gases, 24

of metals, 21

of minerals, 21

of wood, 23
Specific heat of air, 14

of alloys, 512

Speed, flow, cu. ft. to cu. meters, 72
Spelter solder, 554, 566
Sperry, E. S., 561
Sphere, mensuration, 158
Spherical triangle, mensuration, 158
Spheroid, mensuration, 159
Spiegeleisen, 444
Spikes, black and galv., 420
Spring cotters, U. S. N., 357

steel for U. S. N., 280
Spruce, 301
Square thread screws, U. S. N., 361

roots of numbers, 102
Squares of numbers, 102
Steam hammer, 478

hose, pressure test, 437

metal, brass, 566
Steel, allotropic theory, hardening, 482

annealing, 494

annealing mild, 494

as wrought iron substitute, 277

bars for concrete, 267

bars, strength of round, 337

bars, weights, 336

Bessemer, for hulls, 311

boiler plates, U. S. N., 304

boiler plating, U. S. N., 267

bolt rods, U. S. N., 376

bolts and nuts, U. S. N., 372

carbon and alloy, comp., 498

Steel, carbon chrome-nickel, 498
carbon chrome-vanadium, 499
carbon, color scale, 485
carbon, heating, 484
carbon nickel for hulls, 311
carbon, other than tool, 495
carbon, requirements, 275
carbon theory, hardening, 482
carbon tool, 484
carbon tool, U. S. N., 284
casting specifications, 460
castings, 239, 460

castings, chemical and physical prop-
erties, U. S. N., 462
castings, composition, 462
castings, heat treatment, 462
castings, tensile strength, 462
castings, U. S. N., 461
castings, U. S. N. properties, 267
castings, welding, 463
chromium-vanadium, 261
cold-rolled or drawn, 276
colors of heated, 492
common for hulls, 311
common, properties, 307
corrugated sheets, 314
crankshafts, test pieces, 475
double hardening, 494
drill rod, U. S. N., 274
extra soft for U. S. N., 277
for forgings, process, 471
for forgings, properties, 471
for forgings, tests, 472
for miscell. forgings, 278
for rivets, properties, 267
for springs, 280
for tools, 281

for U. S. N. requirements, 267
forgings, 465
forgings, hollow, 477
forgings, U. S. N., 471
galvanized, 309
galvanized sheet, 312
hardening carbon and low-tungsten,

496

heat treatment, alloy, 263
heating, barium chloride bath, 490
heating in cyanide bath, 489 «
heating in lead bath, 489
high-speed, theory, 265
high-speed tool, 258
high tensile, 307
hull plating, 267
ingots, defects, 476
ingots for U. S. Navy, 303
ingots, piping, 476
ingots, reheating, 476
ingots, segregation, 476
[617]

INDEX

Steel, ingots, specifications, 474

manganese, 247

Mayari, 256

nickel-chromium, 256

nuts for U. S. N., 377-8

open-hearth carbon for hulls, 311

other than carbon, 482

overweight allowance, 306

plates, circular, weight, 329

plates for hulls, 306

plates, rectangular weight, 318

plates, shapes and bars for U. S.
properties, 267

plates, special treatment, 273

properties, 239

quenching baths, 493

reheating boiler, 305

rivets for hulls, 339

shafts, test pieces, 475

shapes for hulls, 310

sheet, black and galv., 312

silicon, 257

silicon for hulls, 311

simple chromium, 246

simple nickel, 250

simple tungsten, 246

slabs, blooms, billets, 474

soft or flange, 307

solution theory, hardening, 482

terms relating to, 245

tests for hull plates, 308

tungsten tool, requirements, 284

variation in weight, 268

wire gauge, 73

Sterro metal, composition, 566
Strap joint, bolts, key, 599, 601

light, table, 586

round end, 597

square end, 595
Strength of round steel bars, 337

uniform, bolts, 391-2
Stress, intensity of, 9
Strontium, properties, 508
Structural timbers, 296
Stub end, box pattern, 593 ,

forked, table, 604

strap, gib and key, 597

strap joint, table, 595

strap, key, 599, 601
Studs, commercial sizes, 397

length of thread, 388
Sulphur, 260

in alloys, 510

m pig iron, 444

properties, 239
Surface measure, 40
Surveyors' measure, 39

Talbot process, steel, 231
Tamarack, 301

Tangents and Cotangents, 139
Tantalum, properties, 239
Taper bolts, Loco., Standard, 389

reamers, for bolts, 390
Temperature, case-hardening, 502
Tempering and annealing steel, 481
Tensile strength, malleable iron, 455, 458

phosphor bronze, 529, 530

steel castings, 462
N., wrought iron, 467

Terneplate roofing tin, 317

Test of material, U. S. N. std., 421

rubber materials, 428
Testing rubber fabric, 437

rubber goods, 432
Tests, timber, 302
Tetrahedron, mensuration, 161
Therm, C. G. S., 5
Thermal capacity, 10
Timber, New England, 301

Structural, 296

tests, 302

Timbers of Pacific Coast, 299
Time, 1

and longitude, 48 •"• •

between two dates, 47

measures, 44
Tin amalgam, 519

and aluminum, 517

ingot, properties, 523

phosphor, 523

properties, 240, 506

terneplate roofing, 317
Titanium and aluminum, 517

properties, 241
Tobin bronze, composition, 566

T, uses, 541
Tool steel, carbon, 484

requirements, 281

tempering furnace, 486
Torpedo bronze, U. S. N., 528, 567
Torque or twisting, 8
Tortuosity, 8
Trapezium, area, 89
Triangle, area, 89
Trigonometrical formula, 137
Trigonometry, plane, 136
Troy weight, 42
Tungsten and aluminum, 518

in steel, 259

properties, 242

steel, 246

tool steel requirements, 284
Turnbuckles, dimension, 402

Unit of energy, C. G. S., 5
(618] '

INDEX

Unit of force, 4

heat, 6

Mass, 2

momentum, 5

power, C. G. S., 5

time, 1

work, C. G. S., 5
Units and standards, 1

and standards, U. S. A., 12

fundamental and derived, 11

geometric and dynamic, 11
Useful alloy steels, 245

Valve bronze, comp. M, 527, 540

bronze, U. S. N., 567

rod couplings, tables, 587

rod end, adjustable, 582

rod end, bushed, 581

rod end, key adjustment, 583

rod knuckle, 584, 585
Vanadium bronze, 567

bronze, Vn-c, 531

in steel, 260

properties, 242
Velocity, 7
Virginia pine, 299
Vitrification, fire clay, 290
Volume, 7

measure of, 41

Washers, brass, U. S. N., 405

cast iron, 406

dimensions, U. S. N., 404
Water as a standard, 15
Watt, C. G. S., 5
Wedge, mensuration, 157
Weight, bolts and nuts, 375

bolts, square head, 391

metals and minerals, 21

of circular plates, 329

of copper sheets, 521

of square and round bars, 336

rectangular plates, 318

steel, variation, 268
Weights and measures, 39

and measures, Metric, 49

per bushel, 80
Welding steel castings, 463
Western hemlock, 300

larch, 300

White brass, 567

metal, Admiralty, 567

metals for bearings, 505, 567
Whitworth standard threads, 365
Wire gauge, U. S. standard, 77

gauges, American, 73

gauges in use in U. S., 75
Wood, structural timber, 297

weight and spec, grav., 23
Wood's fusible alloy, 563
Work and energy, 9
Work-rate, C. G. S., 5
Wrench, box, hex. nuts, 355, 418

field, square nuts, 417

socket, 419
Wrenches, box, round nuts, 354

open end, 413
Wrought iron, analysis, 466

annealing, 469

blacksmith grade, 470

chemical and physical requirements,
470

chemistry of, 465

compression, 468

ductility, 467

elastic limit, 468

for blacksmith use, 470

for U. S. N., 267

forgings, 470

low temperature, 469

proof load, 468

safe load, 468

special grade, 470

stiffening of, 469

tensile strength, 467

texture, 466
Wulfenite, properties, 244

Yard, unit of length, 6
Yellow brass, S., uses, 540
pine, 297

Zinc amalgam, 518

chloride, flux, aluminum, 516
for boilers, U. S. N., 524
for hulls, U. S. N., 524
for salt water piping, 524
improves aluminum alloys, 518
plates, Zn-r, U. S. N., 524
properties, 244, 507
slab, for U. S. N., 523

[619]

Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY