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INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH
OF NATIONS
MICHAEL G MULHALL
>v\
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY ; MEMBEK OF THE
COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
AUTHOR OF "THE DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS"
"Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce are the springs
of national wealth."— Chaptal.
"Wealth consists of nothing else than an abundance of
those commodities that minister to the wants of human lif e "
— Dupin.
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY
1896
V
All rights reserved
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
THE DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS.
THIRD EDITION. SIXTH THOUSAND.
The only work of the kind in any language. It is uniform with
Chambers^ Encyclopaedia, 630 pp. royal 8vo, with
Index of 4400 items.
Price £1, 11s. 6d.
" This admirable dictionary." — Emile de Laveleye.
" We want an edition in French." — Yves Guyot.
" Inexhaustible treasury of facts."— Economist* Frangais.
" Most reliable statistics. "—Baron Malortie.
" The figures (on United States) are remarkably correct."— United States
Secretary of State.
" An unrivalled arrangement of statistics."— Academy.
" This wonderful work stands alone."— Boston Beacon.
" It is both trustworthy and unique."— Scotsman.
" No book of reference has higher claims."— Globe.
" The result of laborious and skilled research."— Contemporary Review.
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Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & Co.
At the Ballantyne Press
TO
HIS FELLOW-WORKERS IN THE FIELD OF
STATISTICAL RESEARCH
3bt0 little 3i3ook
IS DEDICATED
AS A TOKEN OP PROFOUND ESTEEM
BY
THE AUTHOR.
PKEFACE
THERE is nothing original in the present work, which simply
brings into a narrow compass the result of the labours of
hundreds of able writers, whose works are not accessible to
the general public. The conviction that this task could have
been better accomplished by someone else has not deterred me
from taking it in hand ; and the years that I have devoted to
it, let me hope, may prove to have been as useful as they have
been to me delightful. Shakespeare says, "No profit goes
wherein no pleasure's ta'en."
The public and the Press have heretofore treated me with
such kindness that I feel profoundly grateful.
MICHAEL G. MULHALL.
KILLINEY, DUBLIN,
August 15, 1896.
" The principal value of Statistics is for purposes of comparison, and they
must often cover the debateable ground between ascertained facts and
reasonable conjecture. " — Jevons.
" We must avoid the absurdity of limiting Statistics to ascertained facts,
for in many cases this branch of science can reach only approximate results."
— Leroy-Beaulieu.
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION .... .1
II. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM . . . .14
III. UNITED KINGDOM 58
BRITISH MANUFACTURES . ... 69
WEALTH OF UNITED KINGDOM ... 95
IV. FRANCE . . . , . . - . . . 109
V. GERMANY . ..*.., 135
VI. RUSSIA . 156
VII. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY . , . .173
VIII. ITALY , . 188
IX. SPAIN ^ . . 200
X. PORTUGAL 211
XI. SWEDEN AND NORWAY . . , .219
XII. DENMARK ... .. . , . . 232
XIII. HOLLAND . . . - . . , . 240
XIV. BELGIUM ..... 249
XV. SWITZERLAND ...... 259
XVI. DANUBIAN STATES -. 266
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
XVII. GREECE ....... 275
XVIII. UNITED STATES . . . , . ,281
XIX. CANADA . . 315
XX. AUSTRALIA . . . , . ,331
XXI. SOUTH AFRICA ...... 353
XXII. ARGENTINA . .361
XXIII. URUGUAY . . . 371
COMPARATIVE TABLES . . 377
APPENDIX ....... 394
A minute Index will be found at the end.
ERRATUM.
The earnings of Australia are incorrectly stated at page 51 ;
correctly at page 3-16.
DIAGEAMS
1. WEALTH PER INHABITANT .
. Frontispiece
2. POPULATION, URBAN, RURAL
to face page 16
3. OCCUPATIONS OF MANKIND .
18
4. ENERGY OF NATIONS .
„ „ 20
5. STEAM-POWER ....
» »
6. AREAS CULTIVATED
„ „ 22
7. AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL
n »
8. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS .
„ „ 24
9. PRODUCT PER HAND .
» » —
10. GRAIN CROPS ....
» 11 —
11-12. VALUE OF MANUFACTURES .
28
13. MINERALS
„ „ 34
14-15. PRECIOUS METALS .
„ „ 36
16-17. PRICE-LEVELS.
» » —
18-19. COMMERCE ....
. „ „ .40
20. SHIPPING . . .
• „ „ 44
21. RAILWAYS
„ „ 46
22. MONEY .....
• „ „ 48
23. EARNINGS
50
xi
xii DIAGRAMS
24-26. WEALTH to face page 52
27. TAXES AND DEBT .... „ „ 54
28. UNITED KINGDOM .... „ „ 58
29. UNITED KINGDOM AND FRANCE . „ „ 110
30. GERMANY „ „ 136
31. UNITED STATES „ „ 281
32. CANADA, AUSTRALIA .... „ „ 331
INDUSTEIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
ERRATUM
Page 264, third line from fool of page,
instead of " £16 " read " £164."
Wealth of Nations.
~~.~^,5 o^DOiun iui uwu years in suc-
cession at Paris and London. If they were to work harmo-
niously, the result of their labours would be of the highest
value, but it is possible that some points of discord might
arise and render their labours nugatory.
The field of inquiry is vast, since it embraces two genera-
tions, for the object is not merely to arrive at the earnings
and wealth of nations in the final decade of the nineteenth
century, but also to trace the growth of industries during the
last sixty years. It is no less important to compare the wealth
of Great Britain at present with that of France or the United
xii DIAGRAMS
24-26. WEALTH to face page 52
27. TAXES AND DEBT .... » »
CQ
28. UNITED KINGDOM .... » »
29. UNITED KINGDOM AND FRANCE „ »
136
30. GERMANY
31. UNITED S
001
32. CANADA, AUSTRALIA . » »
281
31. UNITED STATES »
INDUSTBIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
i
i
LNTKODUCTION
IT is unquestionably of the highest importance to ascertain
approximately the earnings and wealth of the various nations
of Christendom. In all leading countries, within the last fifty
years, numerous economists and statisticians have published
essays on the subject as far as concerned their respective
countries, which is sufficient evidence that a careful and com-
prehensive work of this description is most desirable. The
method to be adopted for carrying out such a task must
depend on the taste and judgment of the author. It may,
meantime, be questioned whether the work might not be better
done if undertaken collectively by three or four European
Governments, each appointing a Commissioner for the purpose,
and the Commissioners holding session for two years in suc-
cession at Paris and London. If they were to work harmo-
niously, the result of their labours would be of the highest
value, but it is possible that some points of discord might
arise and render their labours nugatory.
The field of inquiry is vast, since it embraces two genera-
tions, for the object is not merely to arrive at the earnings
and wealth of nations in the final decade of the nineteenth
century, but also to trace the growth of industries during the
last sixty years. It is no less important to compare the wealth
of Great Britain at present with that of France or the United
2 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
States, than to ascertain what progress we have made since
the days of Porter and M'Culloch. Nor would it be possible
to estimate correctly the earnings of a nation unless we were
first to gauge their various industries. These depend on popu-
lation, energy, means of transport and other factors, all which,
in like manner, call for consideration. The plan, therefore,
of the present work may best be explained by passing in
review the items of which it is made up.
1. Population. — Without population there can be no wealth.
The immense territories watered by the Amazon are not at
present worth sixpence an acre, because they are un tenanted :
on the other hand the little island of Barbadoes, although
inhabited by negroes, is most valuable. Perhaps the most
striking illustration in this way is the State of Colorado,
which was a desert until 1858, when a group of 200 persons
settled there : the census of that State in 1890 showed pro-
perty to the value of 239 millions sterling, all created in
thirty-two years. It has been estimated by Dr. Farr, that a
man aged 20, as an element, or rather a creator of wealth, is
worth, in a new country, £234, and Engel estimates him at
£200. In effect it will be seen that there has been a rapid
accumulation of wealth in the United States and the British
Colonies, where a great influx of immigrants took place, of
working-age, that is, between the ages of 15 and 60. In most
countries the ratio of persons of working-age, male and female,
is about 60 per cent, of the population.
2. Energy. — This is the working-power of a nation, consist-
ing of many kinds, such as human beings, horses, oxen, wind,
water, steam, and electricity. Human energy is by common
consent fixed at 300 foot-tons daily for a man, 200 for a
woman, 100 for a child between 10 and 16 years of age. For
all practical purposes we may omit women and children, the
first being usually occupied in domestic cares, the second
seldom employed in the business of life. Human energy,
counting only men up to 60, will be found in most countries
equivalent to 90 foot-tons daily per head of the whole popula-
INTRODUCTION 3
tion. The working- power of a horse, according to Smeaton
and others, is about 5000 foot-tons daily, but the agricultural
statistics of countries include horses of all ages, for which
reason we cannot take the average working-power higher than
3000 tons, or equal to that of ten men. Mules are in all cases
counted as horses, but no account is taken of asses. French
economists sometimes compute the power of oxen, which in
ertain countries are used for ploughing and other rural
labours, but they are not used in Great Britain and other
leading countries, and hence for purposes of comparison must
be omitted.1 It is unfortunately necessary to exclude wind-
mills, since their number or power in various countries is
unknown, but the omission is, after all, of little importance,
as they are going out of fashion everywhere except in Holland,
where there are still 9000, used mostly for pumping. Water-
power offers the same difficulty as windmills, since there are
but scanty returns as to its use in factories. The United
States census for 1880 showed 55,000 water-wheels, with a
collective force of 1,225,000 horse-power, an increase of 8 per
cent, since 1870 : if we suppose a like increase in the ensuing
decade, the force of water-wheels in 1890 would be 1,320,000
horse-power. The exclusion of this element of energy makes
the following difference in the United States : —
Million Foot-Tons Foot-Tons per
Daily. Inhabitant
Including water .... 133,980 1,9'20
Excluding water .... 128,700 1,850
The exclusion of water reduces the apparent working-power
of the American people by no more than 4 per cent. In
Switzerland water is relatively of more importance, the last
census showing water-wheels with an aggregate of 120,000
horse-power, or 17 per cent, of the energy of the nation. As
regards other countries water plays an insignificant role. The
new force of electricity has not yet been measured, but its iise
increases every day, and it threatens before long to supplant
steam.
4 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
3. Steam. — This item of energy calls for separate notice,
representing as it does more than half the working-power of
the world. It is of three kinds : fixed engines, locomotives,
and steamboats, the aggregate last year amounting to 55
million horse-power. Each unit of horse-power is considered
equal to 4000 foot-tons daily, or one-third more than a living
horse, because steam never tires, never suffers from sickness,
and is therefore able to accomplish more than the same number
of horses. The latest general statement of fixed engines is
that made by Engel in 1878, but the principal countries have
published much later returns : where such do not exist we
may go on the hypothesis that the increase of fixed engines
since 1878 has been in the same ratio as that of the con-
sumption of raw material, or that of the number of factory
operatives. The power of locomotives, in all but mountainous
countries, ranges from 250 to 350 horse : in Switzerland it is
420. Whenever it is impossible to ascertain the number or
force of locomotives in any country, a safe estimate will be
80 horse-power for every lineal mile of railway, or else one
horse of steam to every 50 miles run in the year by loco-
motives. The third kind of steam-power is that used in
shipping. If we were to take merely the nominal power of
the engines, it would be so far below the reality as to mislead.
A vessel of 1000 nominal horse-power may often be found to
have engines that possess double or treble that force. When
Engel made his statement in 1878, he gave to British steamers
a horse-power equal to three-fourths of their registered tonnage :
in the present work the power and registered tonnage are
supposed to be numerically equal ; that is, a steamer of 3000
tons is counted as 3000 horse-power. As vessels of war have
no direct bearing on trade or the creation of wealth, their
steam-power is not included.
4. Employment of Energy. — It is well to distinguish in the
various countries the amount of energy expended in production,
from what is employed for transport or distribution. The
plan followed is this : we count as productive energy that
INTRODUCTION 5
which is human, the whole power of fixed engines, and half
that of horses; distributive energy, therefore, includes the
other half of horses, and all the power of railway locomotives
and steamboats. It will be seen hereafter that distributive
energy has in the last fifty years increased three times faster
than productive, causing a remarkable reduction in the cost
of transport, but for which the increase of production would
have been much less than it has been, as it would not have
been profitable to produce many things at the freight charges
of former years.
5. Agriculture. — This is the chief occupation of mankind,
employing 49 per cent, of the working population of nations,
the number of hands in Europe alone exceeding 86 millions.
It comprises both tillage and pastoral pursuits. The prin-
cipal points of comparison are, the area under crops, the
weight of grain produced, the number of hands, the food-
supply of all kinds, the amount of capital represented by
farms, and the annual value of products. Some points deserve
particularly to be remembered. The quantity of grain pro-
duced is not wholly available for food, a deduction of 10 per
cent, being necessary to provide for seed. Not quite half the
grain produced is used for human sustenance, and hence it
occurs that a country like France may raise 20 bushels of
grain per inhabitant and yet be obliged every year to import
largely. In order to compare the production of food in the
various countries it will be necessary to reduce all kinds to
the common denominator of bushels of wheat, for which pur-
pose the following is a convenient formula : — 4 tons of flour
or malt equal to 5 of wheat or barley ; 3 tons of potatoes to
1 of wheat ; 100 gallons of wine to 1 ton of wheat; and 1 of
meat to 8 of wheat. As regards the production of meat, the
slaughter and the weight of carcase are variously estimated in
different countries, but it may be taken as a general rule that
1000 live cattle will give yearly 50 tons of meat, 1000 sheep
10 tons, and 1000 pigs 40 tons, the usual slaughter being
20 per cent, of cattle, 30 of sheep, and 90 of pigs. In the
6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
United Kingdom the product per thousand head is fully 10
per cent, more than the foregoing general formula, Major
Craigie's estimate being as high as 67 tons of beef and 12| of
mutton. In countries like Spain, where goats are numerous,
their meat is included with mutton, on the basis of 3 tons per
thousand living goats. Importations of live cattle are esti-
mated at the rate of 750 Ibs. each for oxen and 90 Ibs. for
sheep. Tables of meat-supply in the present work do not
include fowl, game, &c., owing to the difficulty of arriving at
the annual consumption. Some chicken-farmers assert that
Great Britain consumes 80 million home-grown fowl yearly,
besides what is imported : altogether, the consumption of
fowl and game in this country may reach 5 Ibs. yearly per
inhabitant. Dairy products were for some years the subject
of angry discussion, but it seems now to be admitted that
cows give 350 gallons of milk yearly, that 6000 gallons make
a ton of butter, or 2200 a ton of cheese. Dairy products
range from £6 per cow yearly in some countries to £12 in
others. As regards the annual value of farm products, esti-
mates have been made from time to time in all countries of
Europe and in the United States : in some cases, however,
only crops have been considered, to the exclusion of pastoral
products ; in others the value of grain has been set down,
and that of straw omitted. In the estimates of agricultural
wealth it will be seen in the ensuing pages that sundries
(including implements) are allowed for as 9 per cent, of
the total, which cannot be considered excessive, seeing that
Chaptal allowed 14 per cent.
6. Forestry. — Some writers include forest products among
agricultural, because many farmers are also wood-cutters, but
it is better to regard it as a distinct branch of industry. It
appears to give constant occupation to at least 4 millions of
men, the average weight of timber cut being close on 3 million
tons daily, and representing a value of £800,000. About
two-thirds are used for firewood, and only one-third is timber
properly so called. If the value of forest products were in-
INTRODUCTION J
eluded with agriculture it would disturb the ratio of yearly
product per acre devoted to farming.
7. Fisheries. — The harvest of the seas varies from 2£ to 3
million tons of fish yearly, and the average take of each
fisherman rarely passes 4 tons. In fact the number of hands
does not reach a million, and the annual product of their
labours is about 39 millions sterling. It is, therefore, rela-
tively, a very small industry.
8. Textile Manufactures. — This is the foremost among
manufactures, occupying 5J million operatives, who turn out
goods to the value of about £2,700,000 daily. M'Culloch
estimated the output at three times the value of raw material
consumed, but improved machinery has so far reduced the
cost of production, that at present the ratio between raw
material and manufactured goods is as 10 to 33. Cotton and
wool have long competed for supremacy ; at present cotton is
ahead, standing for 35, while wool is only 32, per cent, of the
total value of textile manufactures.
9. Hardware. — This term in the present work excludes
stone, &c., and is applied only to metallic industries, com-
prising every kind of manufactures in which iron, copper,
lead, or other metal forms a principal component, such as
rails, arms, cutlery, implements, machinery, steamboats, &c.
It has been often said in England that any attempt to estimate
the output of this branch of industry would be illusory, but
such is not the case. We know the quantity and value of
iron, steel, and copper goods exported, as well as the weight
of metal retained for home manufacture and consumption.
The official value of steel manufactures exported from Great
Britain in 1894 was .£26, 10s. per ton : we may be permitted to
put down iron manufactures at half that price. On this basis
the manufactures of iron and steel in the United Kingdom in
1894 will be found to sum up a value of 116 millions sterling.
As regards copper, lead, and tin, the manufactured output
may be taken, as M'Culloch would have it, at three times the
value of metal consumed. The total hardware industries of
8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
the United Kingdom would thus amount to 142 millions
sterling, equal to an annual output of £114 per operative,
according to the number engaged in this branch of industry
at the census of 1891.
10. Leather. — The production of leather in each country
depends more or less on the number of live-stock. A hide
weighing 100 Ibs. will produce 60 Ibs. of leather, and the
weight of hides produced yearly compared with the number
of living animals will be found as follows : — 1000 cattle, 5 tons ;
1000 sheep, 1| ton; 1000 pigs, 3 tons; 1000 horses, 1 ton.
When the total yield is ascertained, a deduction of 10 per
cent, should be made for what is lost or used on farms.
Tanned leather has a normal value of £170 per ton : boots,
shoes, saddlery, &c., are worth over £500 a ton. In most
countries boots and shoes constitute half the value of leather
manufactures.
11. Clothing. — The value of clothing produced in any
country will be found to be about 75 per cent, of that of
textile manufactures retained for home use, and this formula
is adopted in the present work as regards all countries.
12. Food Manufactures. — These consist mainly of flour,
beer, sugar, &c. We have accurate returns as to France,
Russia, and Belgium, but incomplete as to other countries,
and in their case such manufactures may be put down at one-
third of the value of food consumed.
13. Houses and Furniture. — The value of houses built and
furniture made yearly in the United Kingdom, as will be
shown hereafter, is about 3 per cent, on the existing value of
all houses and furniture. The same formula may be applied
to other countries, there being no other means to arrive
approximately at the annual product of these two industries.
14. Small Manufactures. — There are a hundred small indus-
tries in every country that come under none of the preceding
heads, and they may in every case be put down as 20 per
cent, of the annual manufacturing output of a nation.
15. Mining. — This includes, besides subterranean work, all
INTRODUCTION 9
gold-washings, salt-pans, stone arid slate quarries, and similar
works above ground. The value is taken at the pit's mouth,
except as regards precious metals, gold being worth £140,000
per ton, silver valued at the current price in the London market.
Mining is an important industry, employing 3,100,000 men,
who raise 2|- million tons of stuff daily.
16. Transport. — The carrying-trade of the world may be
considered under three heads: 1st, shipping; 2nd, railways;
3rd, highroads and canals. No fewer than 8| million men
are employed in this calling — that is to say, there is one
carrier for twenty-three men engaged in other industries.
The weigh't of goods moved daily appears to exceed 10 million
tons, each carrier moving twenty times his own weight. It
will be seen, later on, that carriers' earnings average almost
£4,000,000 daily, or 9 shillings a man, but this must not be
confounded with the wages paid them ; earnings, of course,
include the gross receipts of railways and shipping. Carriers'
capital is enormous, and increases by more than 200 millions
sterling per annum. If we consider the carriers' earnings of
the United Kingdom, they seem to amount approximately to
169 millions sterling, viz. : —
By Goods, £. Passengers, £. Total, £.
Rail . . 47,800,000 36,500,000 84,300,000
Sea. . . 28,600,000 25,400,000 54,000,000
Highroad, &c. . 17,400,000 13,300,000 30,700,000
Total . . 93,800,000 75,200,000 169,000,000
In the above table the railway returns are official, the
earnings on sea are taken at £2 per ton of carrying-power,
and those on highroads, &c., at £70 per carrier. Port-entries
of the United Kingdom in 1894 were 95,200,000 tons; the
sea-freight, therefore, as given in the above table was equal
to 6 shillings per ton, including foreign and coasting trade.
The earnings on highroads, &c., include £3,600,000 by tram-
ways, £9,700,000 by cabs and coaches, and an allowance of
10 pence per ton for the use of carts in loading or discharging
to INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
420 million tons of merchandise carried in 1894 by ship or
rail. This total of 169 millions sterling is just double the
earnings of the railways of the United Kingdom. It is,
moreover, equivalent to a fixed toll of 10| per cent, on the
value of the whole internal trade of the kingdom, and for
this reason in the present work this formula is adopted re-
garding all countries. The shipping of various nations may
be valued at £6 per ton of sailing vessels, and £15 per ton
of steamers, including furniture, stores, machinery, &c. — the
gross earnings at £2 per ton of carrying-power, which means
the nominal tonnage of sailing-vessels and four times that of
steamers. Railways have been already referred to in dealing
with steam-power : it only remains to be added that they
should in all cases be state-property, like the post-office or
telegraph services, as they become a terrible monopoly in the
hands of joint-stock companies.
17. Commerce. — By this is understood the interchange of
merchandise between nations, exclusive of bullion. The
weight of sea-borne merchandise may be considered identical
with the tonnage of port-entries. It is true that 20 per cent,
of all port-entries among nations, as shown hereafter, are in
ballast, and that tonnage entries are often repeated, by reason
of a vessel calling at two or three ports on the same voyage ;
but it is no less certain that cargo steamers usually carry more
than their registered tonnage, and these circumstances balance
one another.
18. Internal Trade. — This is much more important than
external trade, and presents the best gauge of a nation's
industry and prosperity. It comprises the value of all mer-
chandise handled by the inhabitants; agricultural products,
manufactures, minerals, forestry, fish, and the imports from
other countries retained for consumption. The aggregate
value of human industry — that is, of all products (excluding
transport charges) — was in 1894 nearly 10 milliards sterling,
that of goods interchanged between nations 1| milliard, from
which it appears that nations consume at home 85 per cent.
INTRODUCTION 11
of their products of every description, and barter 15 per cent,
with their neighbours. In other words the products of in-
dustry average £31,000,000 daily, of which £26,400,000 are
kept for home consumption and £4,600,000 exported. Each
man in the great workshop of the world produces goods to the
value of 36 pence daily : the food for himself and his family
costs about 15 pence, the transport of himself and his pro-
ducts 5 pence, and the rest goes in clothing, house-rent, cattle-
food, taxes, &c., except 4 pence which goes to accumulation
of wealth.
19. Banks and Money. — The banking-power of a country
may be said to consist of the paid-up capital of its banks, the
deposits exclusive of savings-banks, and the amount of con-
vertible paper money. With regard to money we can count
only gold, silver, and convertible notes, the amount represented
by nickel and copper being insignificant. Inconvertible notes,
to use Leon Say's words, are dishonest money, and not to be
counted.
20. Earnings. — To determine the annual earnings of a
nation, take —
Agricultural : 60 per cent, of gross annual product.
Manufacturing : 50 per cent, of output of mills and artisans.
Minerals, forestry, fisheries: total annual value produced.
Commercial: 10 per cent, on aggregate internal trade.
Transport: 10^ per cent, on same.
House-rent: 6 per cent, on value of houses.
Domestic wages : two-thirds of house-rent.
Public service : 50 per cent, of national revenue.
Professions: 10 per cent, on sum of all preceding.
The above formula is followed throughout in the present
work.
21. Wealth. — For the purpose of the present inquiry wealth
is classified under ten headings. Land is capitalised at thirty
times the annual assessed value. Cattle are taken usually at
ofncial estimate (except in the case of Austria) where such is
found to exist. Farm implements, &c., are computed as 10
12 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
per cent, on the aggregate value of land and stock, thus form-
ing 9 per cent, of farming capital. Houses are capitalised at
16| times the rental. Furniture, on the basis of London
insurance, is estimated at 50 per cent, of the value of the
house to which it belongs, and, moreover, includes pictures,
books, jewellery, clothing, carriages, &c. Railways are put
down at their cost of construction. Factories are valued at
one-third of their annual output, this ratio being found to
exist in France and the United States. Bullion estimates are
according to the latest official statements. Merchandise com-
prises the aggregate value of all agricultural, manufacturing,
mining, fishing, and forestry products, as well as imported
goods, existing at any time in a country, which may be taken
as 50 per cent, of the annual amount.1 Sundries embrace all
other components of wealth, and in the present work are
estimated at 20 per cent, of the total, because in the case of
France they form that ratio. In all cases, meantime, when
Probate returns enable us to determine the exact amount of
wealth, as in the United Kingdom, the item of Sundries will
be found simply to express the balance unaccounted for or
undefinable.
22. Taxation. — For greater clearness taxation must be con-
sidered from three points of view : first, the national revenue
of a country ; secondly, the amount levied yearly by taxation,
excluding all public services ; thirdly, the total burthen of
taxes, general and local. In some countries the receipts from
State railways constitute the largest item of revenue. In
order to arrive at the amount of taxation we must exclude
not only the earnings of State railways, but also those of the
Post-Office, Crown lands, &c. The annual burthen borne by
a nation consists of the collective amount of national and
local taxes, and the incidence of same should be calculated
in the ratio of taxation to earnings, instead of counting how
many shillings per head of the population.
1 The United States Census Commission has adopted 75 per cent.
INTRODUCTION 13
23. Debt. — On this point a similar method as in taxes is to
be followed : first, the nominal amount of national debt in a
country; secondly, the debt after deduction of the value of
State railways ; thirdly, the burthen of real debt, national and
local. The incidence of debt is to be computed not at so much
per inhabitant, but in the ratio it bears to the wealth of the
nation.
Note. — The whole scheme of the book is based on the tables in
the Appendix, which will for this reason be found to elucidate the
several subjects that are treated in succession. None but English
weights and measures are employed. American money is reduced
to the pound sterling at 4 dols. 80 cents, French at 25 francs,
Austrian and Dutch at 12 florins or guilders, Kussian at 10 roubles.
A ton is always a long ton, that is, 2240 Ibs. or 1000 kilogrammes.
Acres are in all cases English statute acres, and grain is taken as
8 bushels to the quarter, 5 quarters or 40 bushels to the ton. A
milliard signifies one thousand millions. For sake of brevity the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy is termed Austria, and in a few cases
the ancient title Scandinavia is used to comprehend Sweden, Nor-
way, and Denmark. British Colonies l comprises only Canada and
Australia, the rest being outside the scope of survey. Official
returns are as a rule adopted, unless in a few cases where they are
manifestly incorrect, but even then the official figure is given, sub-
ject to protest, as occurs in the cotton manufactures of Spain.
1 The only exception is as regards population on page 14, where South
Africa is included.
II
NATIONS OF CHEISTENDOM
THERE has never been a period of ancient or modern times
wherein the population of civilised nations has increased so
rapidly as in the last sixty-five years, that is about the length
of an ordinary life-time, viz. : —
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Russia
Austria
Italy .
Other countries
1831.
24,200,000
32,500,000
29,800,000
55,000,000
29,900,000
21,000,000
36,000,000
1896.
39,500,000
38,400,000
52,200,000
105,800,000
43,400,000
31,200,000
58,500,000
Increase. Per Cent.
15,300,000 63
5,900,000 18
22,400,000 75
50,800,000 92
13,500,000 45
10,200,000 48
22,500,000 62
Europe
United States
British Colonies
228,400,000
9,700,000
1,900,000
369,000,000
70,400,000
11,600,000
140,600,000 62
60,700,000 626
9,700,000 510
Total . 240,000,000 451,000,000 211,000,000 88
So unprecedented a development of population was remark-
able for three special circumstances. First, the emigration of
30 million Europeans to America and Australia; second, the
influx of 10 millions of rural population into towns; third,
the growing preponderance of the English language, now
spoken by 120 million persons, as compared with 35 millions
in 1831. If we inquire into the causes that impelled 40
millions of Europeans to break up their homes and either
cross the seas or migrate into cities, we find that it was a social
movement which may be said to date from 1848. The eman-
cipation of serfs and the breaking up of noblemen's estates
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 15
in Prussia, Austria, Russia, and other countries, completely
changed the face of Europe, placing the masses of the people
in a much better position than before. Fifty years ago the
Continent of Europe counted 100,000 nobles, 1,700,000 soldiers,
11 million persons living in towns, and 205 millions of rural
peasantry, the last class for the most part in a state of
bondage, ignorance, and destitution, not unlike that of the
Helots in ancient Greece. The revolution of 1848, which
shook every throne from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, and
was accomplished without bloodshed, converted millions of
serfs into Freemen. At the same time the introduction of
railways and of improved agricultural implements enabled the
rural population to augment the product of their farms, to find
markets everywhere, and to adopt a better standard of living.
Steam multiplied the productive energy of nations ; manu-
factures and commerce grew with amazing rapidity ; and the
condition of Europe underwent in a single generation a greater
change than previous centuries had wrought. Men are now
better housed, better fed, and better clad than before. The
use of sawdust as an ingredient of bread is no longer heard
of; corvee has been abolished; the schoolmaster is a pro-
minent feature in the social world, and except for military
service and the overcrowding of the poorer classes in large
cities, the aspirations of Christian philanthropy have been in
a great degree accomplished. Meantime the improved con-
dition of the masses acted as a stimulus among the young
and adventurous to seek their fortunes in new worlds, and
thus we have seen in forty years no fewer than 25 million
Europeans emigrate to America and the British Colonies,
viz. : —
From
1816-50.
1851-93.
Total.
United Kingdom .
. 2,369,000
8,601,000
10,970,000
Germany
. 1,130,000
5,360,000
6,490,000
Italy ...
320,000
4,020,000
4,340,000
Other countries
. 1,177,000
8,693,000
9,870,000
Total . . 4,996,000 26,674,000 31,670,000
1 6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Of the emigration since 1851 the United States took 63,
South America 13, the British Colonies 11, and other parts of
the world 13 per cent., that is to say, the American Continent
took 21 £ millions, leaving 5 millions to other parts. We see
the result in the extraordinary development of industry and
wealth in the United States, Canada, and some of the Spanish
American Republics. Nevertheless, 90 per cent, of the
American Continent is still uninhabited, and in many parts
the traveller may go, for hundreds of miles, through lands of
the richest fertility without seeing a house, a human being, or
a head of cattle, although wood and water abound. If the
present population of the Continent of Europe were trans-
ported to Spanish America the average would still be less
than 22 inhabitants per square mile, which suffices to show
that for centuries to come the western hemisphere will offer
an almost unlimited field for the surplus population of the
Old World.
The rapid growth of cities and towns in the last sixty years
is no less true of the United States and Australia than of
Europe : the number of cities over 50,000 souls has quad-
rupled since 1831, viz. : —
Number of Cities.
Europe. U. States. Brit. Colonies. Total.
1831 .... 85 4 0 89
1861 .... 148 16 4 168
1891 .... 255 56 9 320
Cities of this description have quadrupled their inhabitants
in Europe since 1831, but in the United States they have
multiplied 23-fold, viz. : —
Population of Cities.
Europe. United States. Colonies. Total.
1831 . 10,700,000 510,000 ... 11,210,000
1861 . 22,600,000 3,100,000 400,000 26,100,000
1891 . 44,800,000 11,700,000 1,700,000 58,200,000
Thus cities (over 50,000 souls) show an increase of 470 per
cent, in 60 years, while the population outside them has risen
II.
URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION
COMPARED IN 1891.
U. Kingdom France Germany
Urban is shaded.
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 17
only 70 per cent., the former growing 6| times faster than
the latter. Europe, as we have seen, has 255 cities of this
class, whose aggregate population, it will be found, rose from
25^ millions in 1861 to 45 millions in 1891. The natural in-
crease of these cities in thirty years would have been 8£ millions,
from which it appears that at least 10 million persons of the
rural population must have nocked into the cities in that
interval. They were attracted mostly by higher wages, the
earnings of factory hands and domestic servants exceeding
those of rustic labourers. At the same time even among the
educated classes this migration from country to city has been
general, and Laveleye feelingly deplores it as injurious to
rural interests. If we distinguish all population under three
heads — first, cities of 50,000 upwards; secondly, towns
between 10,000 and 50,000; thirdly, rural — we find in 1891
as follows : —
Cities. Towns. Rural. Total
U. Kingdom . 13,200,000 7,400,000 17,200,000 37,800,000
Eur. Continent . 31.700,000 24,900,000 262,800,000 319,400,000
U. States . . 11,700,000 5,700,000 45,200,000 62,600,000
Total . . 56,600,000 38,000,000 325,200,000 419,800,000
Rural population constitutes in the United Kingdom 45,
on the European Continent 82, and in the United States 72,
per cent, of the total. There is no country in Europe except
Great Britain where urban population exceeds ruraL By urban
we understand the aggregate of all towns and cities over 10,000
souls, and in 1891 the position of the principal countries of
Europe was in this respect as follows : —
Urban Ratio,
Urban.
Rural.
Total. Per Cent.
U. Kingdom
20,600,000
17,200,000
37,800,000 55
France
9,200,000
29,100,000
38,300,000 24
Germany
15,600,000
36,600,000
52,200,000 30
Russia
10,900,000
86,900,000
97,800,000 11
Austria
5,600,000
35,800,000
41,400,000 14
Italy
5,300,000
25,400,000
30,700,000 17
Other countries
L 10,000,000
49,000,000
59,000,000 17
Europe .
77,200,000
280,000,000
357,200,000 22
1 See table in Appendix.
18 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Vital statistics for five years ending 1892 show that five
countries of Europe have a birth-rate under, and fifteen coun-
tries over, 30 per thousand, those under being France, Ireland,
Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland ; they also show that death-
rate exceeds 20 per thousand in all countries except the
United Kingdom and Scandinavia.
The mean density of population in Europe is 93 to the
square mile; all countries, however, are above 100 except
Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Spain. The ratios of the various
countries show as follows, per square mile : —
Italy. . . 272
Scotland . .140
Austria . .169
France . .188
Germany . . 248
Holland . . 374
England . . 530
Belgium . . 550
Sweden . . 28
Russia . . 50
Spain . . 96
Ireland . . 138
Density of population has no necessary effect on the pros-
perity of a country, or even on the rate of wages. Scotland
and Ireland are almost equal in the number of inhabitants to
the square mile, yet the wealth of the former country, as will
be shown hereafter, exceeds that of the latter by 60 per cent.
England has three times as dense a population as France, and
wages are, nevertheless, nearly equal in the two countries.
Spain is thinly, Italy thickly, populated, and both countries
are poor. Belgium has the maximum, Sweden the minimum,
per square mile, and both are remarkably prosperous.
The number of workers is usually found to be 45 per cent,
of the population, and the total for Europe, United States,
and the British Colonies is over 201 millions, viz. : —
U. Kingdom
France
Germany .
Austria
Other States ] .
Europe
United States .
British Colonies .
Total .
Agriculture.
2,530,000
7,220,000
9,350,000
12,940,000
54,250,000
Manufactures.
9,030,000
4,720,000
9,230,000
4,620,000
17,080,000
Various.
5,260,000
5,350,000
5,320,000
3,090,000
15,840,000
Total.
16,820,000
17,290,000
23,900,000
20,650,000
87,170,000
86,290,000
10,740,000
1,580,000
44,680,000
5,950,000
1,170,000
34,860,000
14,920,000
1,450,000
165,830,000
31,610,000
4,200,000
98,610,000
51,800,000
51,230,000
201,640,000
1 These are detailed in the Appendix.
III.
OCCUPATIONS OF MANKIND.
G. Britain
Ireland
France
I Manufactures &• Mining.^ X X Commerce, &-c. • •
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM tg
One-half of the world is engaged in agricultural pursuits,
one-fourth in manufactures, one-tenth in trade and transport,
and the remainder (15 per cent.) in professions, public service,
or other useful occupation.
ENERGY
In little more than half-a-century the working- power of
nations has trebled in Europe, and multiplied eight-fold in
the United States, viz. : —
Millions of Foot-Tons
Daily.
Foot-Tons per
Inhabitant.
1840. 1695.
360 1,570
330 850
310 900
740 780
350 560
220 390
350 640
420 800
1,020 1,850
800 2,020
United Kingdom .
1840.
9,720
11,460
1895.
61,410
32,460
46,360
82,700
23,790
12,030
34,740
Germany
Russia .
Austria
Italy .
Other countries .
Europe
United States
British Colonies .
. 10,360
. 44,020
. 11,670
4,160
. 14,260
. 105,650
. 17,350
- . ) 1,050
293,490
128,760
18,710
Total . . 124,050 440,960 460 990
Taking the nations of Christendom in the aggregate, the
average energy per inhabitant has more than doubled since
1840, that is to say, five men can now do as much as eleven
could fifty years ago. This prodigious increase is mainly due
to the development of steam, which has grown 35-fold in the
interval, the total energy being made up as follows : —
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
Hand. Horse. Steam. Total.
1840 . . . 23,400 93,900 6,750 124,050
1895 . . . 38,760 179,880 222,320 440,960
In 1840 steam was in its infancy, and constituted only 5
per cent, of the working- power of Christendom; in 1895 it
1840.
832,000
489,000
326,000
1870.
4,167,000
10,876,000
2,746,000
1895.
11,340,000
32,235,000
12,005,000
20 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
was equal to the aggregate force of the men and horses of all
nations, and as it is much cheaper than horse or hand-power,
its use has greatly tended to a fall of prices, owing to reduc-
tion of cost not only in production, but also in freight and
distribution. The horse-power of steam at various dates in the
nations of Christendom summed up approximately thus : —
Steam, Horse- Power.
1840.
Fixed .
Railway
Steamers
Total . 1,647,000 17,789,000 55,580,000
Steam-power has grown with accelerated speed in late years;
thus in thirty years, down to 1870, the annual increase was
540,000 horse-power, but in twenty-five years, since 1870, it
has been 1,510,000. In round numbers railway locomotives
stand for 60, steamboats 20, and manufactures, mines, &c., 20
per cent, of the steam-power of the world. During the last
thirty or forty years so marvellous a change has taken place
in the industries and habits of civilised nations, coincident
with a great increase of commerce and travelling, that whereas
power was formerly used chiefly for production, in one form or
other, it is now principally utilised for distribution, that is for
the conveyance of passengers and merchandise. The following
table shows the amount of energy : —
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
Production. Distribution. Total.
1840 .... 73,700 50,300 124,000
1895 .... 174,120 266,840 440,960
In fifty-five years the power used for production has risen
140 per cent., that for distribution or locomotion 430 per cent.
The following table distinguishes animal energy from that pro-
duced by steam, as well as what is used for production from
that used in transport or distribution : —
IV.
Hundreds
of
Foot-Tons.
ENERGY.
Foot-Tons Daily per Inhabitant.
i
S c
i
i
§
3
1
rt
19
(3
0
"O
c
16
H
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Q
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— § S
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8
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. < s
>,
t«
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— 1
21
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
Animal.
Steam.
Total. Production. Distribution.
U. Kingdom
9,530
51,880
61,410
15,160
46,250
France
12,800
19,660
32,460
11,400
21,060
Germany .
15,760
30,600
46,360
18,800
27,560
Russia
71,500
11,200
82,700
41,700
41,000
Austria
14,230
9,560
23,790
10,800
12,990
Italy .
6,550
5,480
12,030
5,300
6,730
Other States
16,540
18,200
34,740
13,4.10
21,330
Europe . 146,910
U. States . 61,000
Brit. Colonies 10,730
146,580 293,490 116,570 176,920
67,760 128,760 49,460 79,300
7,980 18,710 8,090 10,620
Total . 218,640 222,320 440,960 174,120 266,840
It appears, therefore, that 40 per cent, of the working-
power of the world is used for production, 60 per cent, for
transport or distribution, which is exactly the reverse of the
ratios in 1840.
AGRICULTURE
Under this general term is embraced all field industry,
whether tillage or pastoral, connected with the great business
of the food supply of nations. It has always been the chief
occupation of mankind, but the methods in use until the
middle of the present century were for the most part rude.
Whether owing to frequent wars, or to the enslaved condition
of European peasantry, little or no improvement took place
during a thousand years, from the age of Charlemagne till the
revolutionary epoch of 1848. Famines were so frequent that
Walford gives a list of 160, in which many millions of persons
perished. Even after the fall of Buonaparte, in 1815, tillage
was in most countries as in the time of the Pharaohs; wooden
ploughs were in use, and grain was threshed by driving
horses over it. Reaping-hooks and scythes may still be seen
in some countries, but the introduction of machinery during
the last forty years has been so general that labour is more
effective. The production of food in Europe in 1895 shows
22 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
an increase of 76 per cent, in grain, and 38 per cent, in meat,
since 1840, viz. : —
Grain, Tons. Meat, Tons.
1840 . . . 82,800,000 6,800,000
1895 . . . 146,000,000 9,380,000
In the above interval population rose 44 per cent. , from which
we see that the production of meat is less, that of grain more,
per inhabitant than in 1840. In order to compare the pro-
duction in different countries it is convenient to reduce all
kinds of food to a common denominator as bushels of grain,
taking a ton of meat as equal to 8 tons of grain, and 3 tons of
potatoes, or 100 gallons of wine, equal to a ton of grain. The
following table shows the ordinary production for the several
countries and the number of bushels to each farming hand : —
Millions of Bushels. Bushels
Grain.
Sundries.
Total.
per
Hand.
United Kingdom .
301
435
736
290
France
724
908
1,632
227
Germany
. • 682
942
1,624
174
Russia .
. 2,120
948
3,068
89
Austria
780
565
1,345
104
Other States
. 1,126
1,519
2,645
130
Europe
. 5,733
5,317
11,050
128
United States
. 3,575
1,658
5,233
486
Total . . 9,308 6,975 16,283 168
As regards the capability of a country for supporting popu-
lation, it may be said as a rule that the number of inhabitants
should not exceed half the number of acres in the productive
area; that is to say, for every 100 acres not more than 50
souls. The following table shows that there are seven Euro-
pean countries over-populated, viz., Belgium, England, Hol>-
land, Scotland, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland : —
Inhabitants per 100 Productive Acres.
United States 20 Sweden .
40 Italy .
. 60
Russia . . 22
France .
43 Scotland
. 86
Ireland . . 30
Austria .
50 Holland
. 95
Denmark . 33
Switzerland .
58 England
. 112
Spain . . 35
Germany
59 Belgium
. 115
VI.
AGRICULTURE.
Relative Areas of Crops, Pasture and Waste.
G. Britain Ireland France
V
V
V
V
,-
-
:
Russia
Crops. {T I
Waste includes forests, mountains, &>c.
VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
VII.
Pasture v v v v
funujc. V v V V
23
It will be seen hereafter that those countries which have
more than 50 souls to 100 productive acres are obliged to
import food largely. The productive area of Europe comprises
580 million acres of tillage, and 527 million of pasture. If we
consider the product per acre of the area under tillage in
various countries, as regards the value of crops, we find the
ratio is very low in the United States — only 43 shillings, as
compared with 84 in France and 126 in the United Kingdom;
but it pays better in the United States, because each farming
hand cultivates 21 acres, against 9 in France and 8 in the
United Kingdom. The following table shows the area under
crops, the collective value of grain and green crops, and the
ratio per acre : —
United Kingdom
France
]
[illion Acres.
20
67
Millions £.
126
284
£, per Acre.
6-3
4-2
Germany
Russia .
65
255
262
370
4-0
1-5
Other States
173
627
3-6
Europe
United States
580
226
1,669
486
2-9
2-2
British Colonies
36
55
11
Total . . .842 2,210 2'6
The area under crops has risen from 402 million acres in
1840 to 842 millions in 1894, the number of hands at present
employed being 98 millions, which gives an average of 8|
acres to each. But if the economy of labour were as well
understood in all countries as in the United States, where
each hand cultivates 21 acres, the tilled area would be 2£
times as great as it is. The production of food, as already
shown, reducing all kinds to a grain denominator, is equivalent
in the United States to 12 tons, in Europe to 3 tons, per
farming hand, which shows what an enormous waste of labour
there is in Europe, for want of improved agricultural machi-
nery. European peasants undergo more severe toil than the
American farmers, yet four of them produce no more food than
one agricultural hand in the United States. The value of all
farming products in 1894 was approximately as follows: —
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain. Green Crops. Meat.
Sundries.
Total.
United Kingdom
50
76
55
49
230
Continent .
801
742
352
440
2,335
United States
217
269
163
164
813
British Colonies .
31
24
19
53
127
Total
1,099
1,111
589
706
3,505
It must here be observed that the above total of 3505
millions sterling does not represent solely articles of food,
since green crops include cotton, flax, &c., and under the head
of sundries are included hides, wool, and other articles used
for clothing or manufactures. Moreover, the above table
comprises the values of all products consumed by cattle, so
that when all deductions are made we find the value of human
food does not reach 2400 millions sterling, or two-thirds of
the total. The population of the above countries being, as we
have seen, 450 millions, it follows that the consumption of
grain, potatoes, meat, dairy products, &c. (taking their value
on the farm), hardly exceeds £5 per head yearly, or 2 shillings
a week.
Pastoral industry, as already shown, has not kept pace in
Europe with population. If we compare the actual numbers
of live-stock with those in 1850, we find that 100 inhabitants
of Europe have now only 30 horned cattle and 58 sheep, as
compared with 34 cattle and 78 sheep in 1850. The total
value of pastoral products in Europe last year was approxi-
mately 896 millions sterling, while those of tillage were 1681
millions. The values compared in various countries thus :—
Millions £ Sterling.
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria .
Other States
JSurope .
Tillage.
Pastoral.
Total.
126
104
230/
284
132
410
262
155
417
370
170
540
210
109
319
417
226
643
1,669
2,565
VIII.
Millions £
AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL.
2
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1 a c
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1
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1
AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL PER INHABITANT.
— 115 —
110
«
13
Q
*
i
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90
V
1
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- 70
c& 4? e
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OS
20
15
10
IX.
Bushels.
AGR
Production
ICU
of <
LTURE.
Srain per Acre.
— 40 —
0
c
a
T-I no
«
— C
'& -^
c o
~v 2
%> -S *
c
v
rt &
Q
<J5 -^
X » t>
9» .5 I §
u 3
£ ' O
< .5
£
«
16
3 g >> =
^ - s.
•
Cj ,
1
g
1
Bushels.
FOOD PRODUCTION— Bushels of Grain per Farming Hand.
- T?
W -3
420
-£
g
§
M
280
w
£ J
1' ®
•5 .2
•I c
* 2
IfM
D.
V?
3
« •=
Ji*
3 'in
100 *H
**• ^
I
60
1
In this latter table all kinds of food are reduced to a grain denominator.
X.
£ stg-
AGRICULTURE.
Product per Farming Hand, Value.
- 160 —
g ' :-
— 150 —
i
c
1
a
d
_^
i
B
S s
a «
g
'ti
i
3
01
' 8
/>
•o
b 3 «S
C 2 T|
-i •§ 1
S S 4?
«_l
c3 a g
i
5 1
C/2 « C
* >, «
40 i oo
*•" S rt
— (A
18
r
Shillings.
PRODUCT PER ACRE, VALUE.
c
e
=
|5
[3
i
1
•3
•c
|
— g1
a
1 I °"
C
e
«
1 "•
0
•v Tl
c J
'?
3 1
1
fio B w
e
•3
1 00
en
.2
1
1
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 25
The farm products of Europe sum up a value of 2565
millions, or three times as much as those of the United States,
but the former occupy 86 million persons, the latter hardly
11 millions, so that the average product per hand is three
times as great in the United States as in Europe, as regards
value, the average as regards weight of food being four to one,
as already shown. Hence it appears that farm products are
much cheaper in the United States than in Europe.
Agricultural capital in the nations of Christendom exceeds
21,000 millions sterling, land representing more than 80 per
cent, of the total. The principal countries show as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
£
per
Inhab.
53
80
48
26
41
45
56
46
59
75
United Kingc
France .
Germany
Russia .
Austria .
Italy .
Other States
Europe .
United States
British Colon
om
es
Laud.
1,686
2,580
1,977
2,113
1,473
1,180
2,803
Cattle, &c.
391
513
531
597
324
219
543
Total.
2,077
3,093
2,508
2,710
1,797
1,399
3,346
13,812
3,314
466
3,118 16,930
828 4,142
231 697
Total . . 17,592 4,177 21,769 48
The value of all farm products being, as already shown,
approximately 3505 millions, the ratio of gross product to
capital is about 16 per cent. The ratio, as a rule, is high
where land is cheap, and vice versa; thus it is 11 per cent, in
the United Kingdom, 16 on the European Continent, 20 in
the United States, and 18 in the British Colonies. Comparing
the above statement with a similar one for 1840, we find :
Millions £ Sterling.
Europe .
U. States
Colonies
Total
1840.
1894.
--
Land.
Cattle, &c.
Total.
Land.
Cattle, &c.
Total.
6,471
1,695
8,166
13,812
3,118
16,930
400
196
596
3,314
828
4,142
44
11
55
466
231
697
6,915 1,902 8,817 17,592 4,177 21,769
26 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
If we compare agricultural capital and product with the
number of hands engaged, the result will be as follows : —
Millions £.
£ per Hand.
Capital.
Product.
Hands. Capital.
Product.
U. Kingdom .
. 2,077
230
2,530,000
820
91
Eur. Continent
. 14,853
2,335
83,760,000
177
28
United States
. 4,142
813
10,740,000
385
76
Colonies
697
127
1,580,000
441
80
Total
21,769 3,505 98,610,000 220
35
The amount of capital and of product per hand is higher in
the United Kingdom than in the United States, and higher
also than the average for the British Colonies.
FOEESTS AND FISHERIES
These are industries of minor note, occupying an indeter-
minate number of persons. A large number of the farming
population in Russia, Norway, Canada, and some other coun-
tries spend a portion of the year in felling timber, and in
those countries like Norway, which have an extensive sea-
board, many of the farmers are also fishermen. The aggregate
value of the two industries does not reach 300 millions ster-
ling per annum ; hence the total number of persons employed
can hardly exceed 6 millions. The annual^ product may be
summed up thus : —
Forestry.
&
United Kingdom . 2,000,000
France . . . 14000,000
Germany . . . 13,000,000
Russia . . . 40,200,000
Austria . . . 18,000,000
Scandinavia . . 13,000,000
Other States . . 15,800,000
Europe
United States
British Colonies
Total
fishing.
'£
7,500,000
4,800,000
1,000,000
2,200,000
300,000
5,000,000
3,200,000
Total.
£
9,500,000
18,800,000
14,000,000
42,400,000
18,300,000
18,000,000
19,000,000
116,000,000 24,000,000 140,000,000
120,000,000 9,400,000 129,400,000
21,000,000 5,600,000 26,600,000
257,000,000 39,000,000 296,000,000
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 27
The felling of timber in Europe reaches 20 million tons
monthly, and in the United States is estimated at the high
figure of 50 million tons a month. Moreover, the cutting in
Canada by latest returns was nearly 4 million tons monthly.
Thus it appears that the forests of the above countries yield
3 million tons of timber daily.
The following table shows the actual forest area, the weight
of timber cut yearly, and the possible yield : —
Forest. Cutting. Cwt. Possible Yield.
Million Million per Million
Acres. Tons. Acre. Tons.
Russia. . . 498 130 5 374
Scandinavia
Other States
Europe .
United States
Canada .
64 18 6 48
146 82 11 110
708 230 7 532
466 600 26 350
218 48 4 164
Total . 1,392 878 12 1,046
Where afforestation is carefully attended to, the product
(between firewood and timber) may reach 15 cwt. yearly per
acre without diminishing the forest area. Thus Europe could
yield more than double what the forests now produce. On
the other hand the United States are rapidly consuming their
forest capital, the actual felling of timber being 70 per cent,
more than the normal growth ; hence it will be necessary in
the coming century to take measures to limit the destruction
of forests, and preserve a minimum of 200 million acres, that
is, 1 acre per inhabitant of the probable population one hun-
dred years hence. In the above table the forest area of
Canada is that of the old provinces, exclusive of the North-
West, which has 1030 million acres under timber.
The product of all European forests is equal to a value of
40 pence an acre yearly, but if Russia were excluded the
average would be 85 pence. The forests of the United States
yield 62 pence, those of Canada 18 pence, per acre.
The countries which stand pre-eminent in fisheries are the
United States, Great Britain, France, Canada, and Norway.
28 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The total number of men who live exclusively by fishing is
about 850,000. The value of fish taken yearly averages .£45
per man, representing about 4 tons of fish. The consumption
of fish as an element of food is, of course, much less than that
of meat, being approximately as follows : —
Fish. Lbs. per Meat. Lbs. per
Tons. Inhabitant. Tons. Inhabitant.
Europe . . 1,800,000 11 10,400,000 64
United States . 800,000 25 4,400,000 140
The relation between fish and meat as articles of food is
the same in the United States as in Europe, namely, as one
to six.
MANUFACTURES
The nineteenth century has witnessed a much greater
development of manufactures than of agriculture. To go
back no farther than 1840, we find that while the aggregate
production of grain in Europe, United States, and the British
Colonies has risen only 110 per cent., that of meat 60 per
cent., the output of manufactures has more than trebled, the
value showing approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1840 .
1894 .
The increase has been much greater in quantity than in
value, the cost of raw material and manipulation being con-
siderably less now than fifty years ago. Some articles of manu-
facture are produced at a quarter of their cost in 1840, the
result of machinery, cheap freight, and other causes.
Textiles. — The factories of Europe and America consumed
in 1894 nearly four times the weight of fibre used in 1840 ; the
consumption now averages 24 Ibs. per head, against 11 Ibs. in
1840, showing as follows : —
Tons.
Textiles.
Hardware.
Sundries.
Total.
. 246
90
1,474
1,810
. 826
603/^"
4,247
5,676
Year. Cotton. Wool. Flax, <fec. Total.
1840 . . 380,000 340,000 590,000 1,310,000
1894 . . 2,226,000 1,068,000 1,544,000 4,838,000
XI.
MANUFACTURES.
Textiles Value.
Hardware Value.
XII.
MANUFACTURES.
Aggregate Value of Textiles, Hardware and Leather.
1
£ 5
Millions £ .§ V)
D
— 450 —
t>
X
8
r^
2
u.
rt
— 150- ^—
_o
I'
1
i
x £
•5 .2
L
j
1
Shillings
Ratio of above per Inhabitant.
£
i
3
s
09
£
3
140
t)
"u
c
0
1
120
110
O
8
90
S
SO
.2
i
60 c —
3
— 50 — c
g
'Si
30
OK
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 29
Wool and cotton were nearly equal as regards weight down
to 1840, but since that year the latter has rushed ahead, and
at present more than doubles wool. Jute came first into
notice in 1850, the consumption now exceeding 600,000 tons
yearly. The value of all textile manufactures is approxi-
mately 826 millions sterling per annum, an average of £170
for every ton of fibre consumed. The shares corresponding to
the principal nations in the output of textiles are shown
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1840
1894
In 1840 the United States held the lowest rank as regards
textiles among the four great manufacturing nations, but since
then the Union has passed both France and Germany in the
race, and bids fair to rival Great Britain before long. In the
manufactures of the world textiles stand for one-seventh of
the total. Their value in various countries is approximately
as follows : —
Millions £.
Ui King.
France.
Germany.
U. States.
Various.
Total.
92
52
22
15
65
246
191
115
108
161
251
826
Cottons.
Woollens.
Silks.
Linens, &c.
TotaL
United Kingdom
92
62
6
31
191
Trance
22
45
28
20
115
Germany
35
42
17
14
108
Russia
20
29
3
24
76
Austria
18
15
5
18
56
Other States
42
30
17
23
112
Europe
229
223
76
130
658
United States
56
44
18
43
161
Total . 285 267 94 173 819
The value of textiles made in the Colonies added to the
above brings up the total to 826 millions.
The consumption of fibre in the world's factories averages
440,000 tons monthly, or almost 20,000 tons daily, and the
output of goods is nearly 3 millions sterling each day. Cotton
represents more than half the total weight, wool only one-
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
fifth. The consumption of fibre among the principal nations
is as follows, yearly : —
Tons.
I.bs. per
Cotton.
Wool.
Flax, &.c.
Total. tant.
U. Kingdom .
696,000
246,000
460,000
1,402,000
80
France
165,000
170,000
195,000
530,000
30
Germany
260,000
160,000
110,000
530,000
23
Russia
150,000
110,000
200,000
460,000
10
Austria .
135,000
55,000
180,000
370,000
20
Other countries
300,000
117,000
179,000
596,000
14
Europe . . 1,706,000
United States . 520,000
Other countries 314,000
858,000 1,324,000 3,888,000 22
210,000 220,000 950,000 30
18,000 112,000 444,000 ...
Total
2,540,000 1,086,000 1,656,000 5,282,000
Europe consumes nearly four times as much fibre as it
produces, the other parts of the world having a great surplus ;
the production may be summed up thus : —
Tons.
Wool.
Cotton.
Flax, &c.
Total.
351,000
754,000
1,105,000
135,000
1,950,000
60,000
2,145,000
305,000
305,000
120,000
15,000
135,000
175,000
590,000
827,000
1,592,000
1,086,000
2,540,000
1,656,000
5,282,000
Europe .
United States
Australia
Argentina
The East, &c.
Total
Hardware.— This industry has grown more than twice as
fast as that of textiles, the production of iron being now ten
times as great as in 1840, showing as follows : —
Iron, Tons.
U. Kingdom. U. States. Germany. Other States. Total.
1840 . 1,390,000 290,000 170,000 830,000 2,680,000
1893 . 6,750,000 7,120,000 4,830,000 7,310,000 26,010,000
Fifty years ago Great Britain produced more than half the
world's supply of iron, her share at present being one-fourth ;
she holds, moreover, the second place, her production being
31
much less than that of the United States. Down to the year
1860 France held next place after Great Britain, producing
twice as much iron as Germany, but now the position of these
countries is reversed, the make of iron in Germany being more
than double the French. Comprehending under the term
hardware all manufactured goods in which iron, steel, copper,
or other metal forms the chief component, it may be said that
Great Britain makes one-fourth, the United States one-third,
and other nations the remainder, the output comparing with
that of 1840 as follows :—
Millions £ Sterling.
U. King. U. States. Germany. France. Other States. Total.
1840 . 30 10 12 12 26 90
1894 . 142 229 105 47 80 603
The value of metallic ores raised yearly averages 70 millions
sterling; it appears, therefore, that the hardware produced
represents nearly nine times the value of the original mineral.
Leather. — This is the third great staple of manufacturing
industry ; it employs more than 4 million hands, the annual
output of whose labours amounts to 450 millions sterling, or
about £1,500,000 a day. The actual weight of leather con-
sumed is not known, but that of hides produced yearly gives
ground for a well-reasoned estimate, 100 Ibs. of hide yielding
60 Ibs. of leather. The production and consumption of hides
is as follows : —
Tons Produced.
'
Sheep-
~~^
Consumption
Cowhide.
skin.
Pigskin, &c.
Total.
Tons Hides.
U. Kingdom .
49,000
40,000
13,000
102,000
196,000
France
58,000
27,000
20,000
105,000
150,000
Germany .
79,000
18,000
36,000
133,000
220,000
Russia
124,000
65,000
48,000
237,000
190,000
Other countries
155,000
82,000
60,000
297,000
366,000
Europe
465,000
232,000
177,000
874,000
1,122,000
United States .
228,000
57,000
135,000
420,000
510,000
Other countries
267,000
321,000
28,000
616,000
278,006
Total . 960,000 610,000 340,000 1,910,000 1,910,000
32 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The consumption of hides in Europe greatly exceeds pro-
duction, the deficit being covered by supplies from Australia
and Argentina. If we reduce the hides to their equivalent in
leather, it will be seen that the annual consumption of the
latter, compared with population, averages 7 Ibs. per inhabi-
tant in the United Kingdom, 5 Ibs. in France, 6 Ibs. in
Germany, 2 Ibs. in Russia, and 4 Ibs. for the whole of Europe,
while the average in the United States reaches 10 Ibs. per
inhabitant. The world consumes almost 1,200,000 tons of
leather yearly, or 100,000 tons monthly, and Great Britain
stands for one-tenth of the total.
The total manufacturing output of nations at various dates
has been approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
United Kingdom
France
1820.
290
240
1840.
387
330
I860.
577
430
1894.
.876
596
Germany .
Austria
185
105
305
175
410
232
690
328
Other States .
340
517
710
1,076
Europe
United States .
1,160
55
1,714
96
2,359
392
3,566
1,952
Total
1,215 1,810 2,751
5,518
The United States produce about one-third of the manufac-
turing total of nations, as they do also of grain and meat,
while their population is less than one-sixth. The value of
American manufactures is artificially raised, by Protective
tariffs, fully 33 per cent, over the real value ; the latter
amounts, therefore, to about 1464 millions sterling, or the
value conjointly of British and French manufactures. Ameri-
can manufactures have multiplied just twenty-fold since 1840,
while those of Europe have only doubled. Nearly all American
manufactures are produced by machinery, while in Europe
more than half is hand-work; the result is that the output
per hand in the United States is much greater, viz. : —
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 33
Value, Millions £.
Hands.
£ per Hand.
United Kingdom
876
8,185,000
107
France
596
4,480,000
133
Germany.
690
8,830,000
79
Austria .
328
4,470,000
73
Other States .
. 1,076
12,435,000
86
Europe .
. 3,566
38,400,000
93
United States .
. 1,952
5,400,000
360 1
The fixed steam-power of nations is approximately thus :
Europe 63, United States 37, per cent. ; and manufacturing
output : Europe 65, United States 35, per cent, of total. At
the same time the number of operatives in the United States
is only 12 per cent., while that in Europe is 88 per cent., of
the total, showing a great economy of labour in the former,
due to the universal use of improved machinery.
As regards the consumption of manufactured goods, if we
consider only three of the most important, we find as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling per Annum. Shillings
Textiles.
Hardware.
Leather.
Total.
per
Inhab.
United Kingdom
122
96
56
274
138
France
91
46
37
174
90
Germany .
92
94
60
246
96
Russia
76
22
57
155
30
Other countries .
157
61
107
325
48
Europe
538
319
317
1,174
63
United States .
182
222
108
512
148
Total . . 720 541 425 1,686 76
The aggregate value of the above manufactures consumed
in Europe averages 2 pence a day per inhabitant; the ratio
varies from 1 penny in Russia to 3 pence in France or
Germany, and 4 pence in the United Kingdom per inhabitant.
It would seem to be still higher in the United States, but if
we deduct one-fourth the nominal value, for inflation of prices
arising from a Protective tariff, we find that the ratio in that
country is only 111 shillings, or 3 J pence daily.
1 If we suppose the inflation of prices in the United States by the
action of Protective tariffs to be, as already stated, 33 per cent, over the
real value, the ratio of manufactures per operative will be £270, or three
times the European average.
C
34 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
MINING
This age is specially remarkable for the development of
subterranean industry, for while agriculture has only doubled,
and manufactures have quadrupled, since 1840, the output of
mining has multiplied thirteen-fold. The principal features of
this industry are shown approximately since 1820 as follows: —
Year.
Hands.
Tons raised.
£ Value.
& per Hand.
1820
250,000
26,100,000
17,800,000
70
1840
442,000
56,200,000
31,500,000
70
1860
. 1,016,000
182,600,000
76,000,000
75
1880
. 1,760,000
420,400,000
149,000,000
85
1894
. 3,130,000
746,000,000
302,000,000
96
Coal constitutes 70, other minerals 30 per cent, of the total
weight raised. Such progress has been made in machinery
that the average output per miner is now 240 tons, as com-
pared with 125 tons in 1840; thus, while the mines have
gone deeper, we find that one man now raises as much mineral
stuff as two could fifty years ago. In point of value no
country approaches the United States, but in weight of
mineral Great Britain is ahead. It may be said as regards
weight, that Great Britain raises one-third, the United States
one-third, and all other nations collectively one-third of the
minerals of the world. The weight and value of minerals,
and the number of miners, in 1894 were : —
Million
Millions
£per
Tons per
Tons.
£.
Miners.
Miner.
Miner.
Great Britain
240
78
840,000
93
285
Uuited States
230
94
580,000
162
4001
Germany
115
34
400,000
85
287
Franoe .
38
16
180,000
90
210
Other States .
123
80
1,130,000
71
110
Total . 746 302 3,130,000 96 240
The money value of product per miner is higher in Great
Britain than among other European nations, but is greatly
1 The exact number of miners is not known. See chapter on Mining
in the United States. The ratio in 1880 was even higher, viz., 440 tons
per miner.
XIII.
WEIGHT OF MINERAL RAISED YEARLY.
9ff
VALUE OF MINERAL PRODUCED YEARLY.
70
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 35
surpassed by the ratio in the United States, perhaps because
in the latter country the difficulties of extraction are less.
Coal. — This is the great lever of industrial progress, and
the production has grown thirty- fold since 1820, showing as
follows : —
1820. 1894.
Great Britain, tons . . 12,500,000 188,300,000
United States, „ . . 500,000 152,500,000
Germany, „ . . 1,500,000 99,000,000
Other States, „ . . 2,700,000 91,200,000
Total . . 17,200,000 531,000,000
The consumption of coal has quadrupled since 1860, and
there is every indication that the demand will go on increas-
ing. The supply, meantime, is practically inexhaustible, the
British coalfields having enough to meet the requirements of
all Europe, at the present rate, for 230 years, the German for
100 years, the United States for many centuries, without
counting other countries, such as Canada, Australia, and
China, where coal-mining is in its infancy.
Ironstone. — This mineral comes next in magnitude after
coal, and has multiplied eight-fold in half-a-century, the output
showing : —
1840. 1894.
Great Britain, tons . . 3,500,000 12,400,000
United States, „ . . 500,000 17,000,000
Germany, „ . . 400,000 12,400,000
Other States, „ . . 2,000,000 11,200,000
Total. . . . 6,400,000 53,000,000
Miscellaneous ores, such as lead, copper, zinc, &c., make up
an annual total of 7 million tons, from which are extracted
about a million tons of metal.
Precious Metals. — The production of gold and silver in forty-
four years was as follows : —
Weight, Tons. Value, Millions £.
&
1851-70
1871-90
1891-94
44 years . . 8,108 93,714 1,134 702
Gold.
Silver.
Gold.
Silver?
3,903
21,157
546
187
3,340
54,037
467
412
865
18,520
121
103
36 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
According to the tradition of the older class of bi-metallists
the production of silver should be sixteen times the weight of
that of gold, in order to maintain the equilibrium of value
between the two metals. If this principle be admitted the
production of gold since 1851 has been relatively excessive,
that of silver short, the production of the latter to the former,
in weight, having been only twelve to one. Hence, if the pro-
duction of the two metals determined their value, silver ought
to be now worth 33 per cent, more than in 1850, whereas, on
the contrary, it has fallen 50 per cent. The countries which
produced these metals since 1850 show thus : —
Gold,
Millions
Silver,
Millions
Tons.
£.
Tons.
£.
United States
2,873
= 402
United States .
30,350
= 217
Australia .
2,678
374
Mexico
29,910
226
Russia
1,377
193
South America .
13,410
103
Other States .
1,180
165
Other States
20,044
156
Total .
8,108
= 1,134
Total .
93,714
= 702
The production of gold and silver in the years 1891-94
gave an average exceeding the annual yield in any decade of
the world's history, namely, 216 tons of gold and 4630 of
silver. Even in the decade 1851-60, when California and
Australia were in their apogee, the world's production of gold
did not exceed 202 tons yearly. Everything indicates that
the concluding decade of the century, 1891—1900, will surpass
in this respect anything in the records of the human race.
The production in 1894 was as follows: —
Value, £.
Weight, Tons.
Gold.
Silver.
Total.
Gold.
Silver.
United States .
8,200,000
6,100,000
14,300,000
59
1,540
Span. America.
3,200,000
9,900,000
13,100.000
23
2,480
Australia .
8,700,000
2,200,000
10,900,000
63
560
South Africa .
8,400,000
8,400,000
61
Russia
5,700,000
5,700,000
42
Other States .
3,500,000
2,3o'6ioOO
5,800,000
25
580
Total . 37,700,000 20,500,000 58,200,000 273 5,160
XIV.
Increase of Gold and Silver since 1800.
1894
STOCK OF GOLD AND OF SILVER,
RELATIVE WEIGHT.
I8fd
Gold — shaded. Silver — unshaded.
XV.
XVI.
PRICE-LEVELS
OF 10 AND OF 20 PRINCIPAL ARTICLES.
1794 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1800 1895
Price-level of 10 articles
Price-level of 20 articles.
XVII.
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 37
There has been in recent years a remarkable increase in the
production of silver, which now averages 5000 tons, whereas in
twenty years, down to 1870, it averaged only 1050 tons yearly.
Gold quartz varies so much in yield that no exact statement
can be made of the quantity crushed, the product [of gold
being equivalent in Australia to 40 shillings, in Russia to
5 shillings, a ton. Silver ore usually gives £20 worth a ton.
According to Soetbeer, and other eminent authorities, the
manufacturing industries of the world consume yearly about
100 tons of gold, and 500 of silver. The stock of precious
metals, coined and uncoined, at various dates was approxi-
mately as follows : —
Gold, Tons. Silver, Tons.
Coined. Uncoined. Total. Coined. Uncoined. Total.
1800 . . 908 1,822 2,730 42,000 46,000 88,000
1848 . . 1,125 2,450 3,575 45,200 67,800 113,000
1894 . . 6,840 3,460 9,300 92,000 89,000 181,000
The stock of silver compared to gold in 1848 was as thirty-
two to one, whereas at present it is less than twenty to one,
and yet silver has fallen 50 per cent, in price, a sufficient proof
that the relative stocks of the two metals have no perceptible
connection with their value as regards one to another.
In the mining product of the world the precious metals last
year stood for 58 millions sterling, or one-fifth of the whole.
TRANSPORT
It is to the rapid increase of the means of transport by land
and sea that the wonderful development of all industries in
the last half-century is mainly due. The number of persons
actually engaged in the carrying trade is over 8| millions, and
(apart from passenger traffic) the value of goods handled is
approximately 11,200 millions sterling, being an average of
£1300 to each carrier. The number of carriers is approxi-
mately as follows : —
38
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
By Rail.
By Sea.i
By Road, &c.
Total.
United Kingdom 230,000
520,000
440,000
1,190,000
Eur. Continent 1,350,000
840,000
3,740,000
5,930,000
United States . 870,000
120,000
330,000
1,320,000
Colonies . . 90,000
30,000
80,000
200,000
Total
2,540,000 1,510,000 4,590,000 8,640,000
The transport earnings in the various countries sum up a
total of 1173 millions sterling, or £135 for each hand employed,
which covers not only the wages of carriers, but also the main-
tenance of draught horses, and the numerous expenses on
railways, shipping, &c., over and above wages. The earnings
are shown approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Other countries
Europe
United States .
Colonies .
Total
By Rail.
84
By Sea.
54
By Road, &c.
31
Total.
169
55
5
66
126
71
9
62
142
35
3
70
108
73
318
18
171
262
89
400
807
223
23
81
327
19
5
15
39
560
117
496
1,173
Railways and shipping perform at present the bulk of the
carrying trade, the weight of merchandise carried by them
having multiplied seven-fold in the last twenty-four years,
viz. : —
Millions of Tons.
Year.
1860
1880
1894
By Rail.
222
1,070
1,790
By Ship.
45
113
176
Total
267
1,183
1,966
The actual traffic by rail and ship is equal to 5,500,000 tons
daily, in the transport of which, as we have seen, are employed
1 This includes not only sailors on the high seas, but also those engaged
in coasting, harbours, inland waters, &c.
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 39
4,050,000 men ; that is to say, each carrier of these two classes
moves 1^ ton daily. Taking the working year as 310 days,
the sum paid daily for freight, in one or other form, is
£3,800,000, by 193 million persons engaged in various in-
dustries : thus each worker in the human family of the
civilised nations of Christendom pays 5 pence a day for
freight, or one-tenth of the fruits of his industry. The
number of carriers compared to other workers is as four to
ninety, and the amount of capital employed in their calling
represents 11 per cent, of the aggregate wealth of mankind,
being approximately as follows : —
Millions £.
Railways 6,745
Shipping 246
Horses, waggons, &c. ..... 459
Total . /. .1 . 7,450
The capital represented by each hand employed in carrying
is nearly £900 ; the wealth of all the rest of the world divided
among the other workers (193 million hands) is only £320
each. The earnings of each carrier, as we have seen, average
£135 a year; those of the other workers of the world only
reach £52 each. Hence it appears that the carrying trade
shows a very high ratio of capital and earnings to the number
of hands employed. This subject of transport is treated in
further detail under the headings of Shipping and Railways.
COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
The international trade of the world has grown six-fold
since 1840, the aggregate value of imports and exports of
merchandise showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
G. Britain. France. Germany. U. States. Other States. TotaL
1840 . 114 66 52 41 301 574
1894 . 682 -277 346 322 1,678 3,305
The exports of one country become the imports of another,
but in the latter form merchandise assumes a higher value, the
difference being caused by freight, insurance, commission, &c.
Thus in the decade 1871-80 imports appeared to exceed
exports by 13| per cent., but in the decade ending 1890 the
excess was only 8 per cent. A reduction in freights and
charges has been the cause, merchants being now able to
work with a relatively smaller capital, since telegraphs facilitate
business, and often save the necessity for shipments of specie.
The weight and value of sea-borne merchandise at various
dates were approximately as follows : —
Year.
1840
1860
1880
1893
The average value of a ton of merchandise is now only half
what it was fifty years ago, which means that a large portion
of merchandise now exchanged among nations is relatively of
so cheap a nature that in former times it would not have paid
to carry it from one country to another, apart from the fact
that since 1840 there has been a notable fall in prices. In
order to measure the alterations of price-level, the method of
index numbers has been for many years followed by various
writers. If we take the prices in England of ten principal
articles of merchandise (namely, beef, butter, coffee, copper,
iron, silk, sugar, tallow, timber, and wheat), the aggregate for
1895 being represented by the figure 1000, the comparison
with previous dates will be found to stand thus : —
Tons.
Millions £.
£ per Ton.
14,700,000
266
18-1
44,500,000
695
15-6
112,800,000
1,435
127
176,300,000
1,620
9-2
1794 . . 1,717
1800 . . 2,410
1810 . . 2,580
1820 . . 1,933
1830 . . 1,371
1840 . . 2,128
1850 . . 1,351
1860 . . 1,765
1870 . . 1,523
1880 . . 1,400
1890 . . 1,180
1895 . . 1,000
It appears from this table that 20 shillings will now buy as
much as 28 would in 1880, or 42 in 1840. The above fall in
prices is mainly the result of machinery and easier transport,
XVIII.
INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE.
Proportions corresponding to Principal Nations.
18fO 1824
Proportions of Sea-Borne Merchandise.
1840
XIX.
Aggregate
Of
COMMERCE OF NATIONS.
Imports and Exports of Merchandise in 1894.
c
630
o
•fi
c
M
77^ -ufholr pillar shows
thf trade nf rfyj
The. shfiili'ii portion
the trade of i8(>o
520
500
C
i
I
310
«
0
P
c
°so
£
°60
_J Holland
'a
«
160
a
A
1 3
ET
LJ HI < 'M
ra in 3
f
as .« -
S
rt
XI)
1
•r.
§
Hi < '
c
CA r^
I
tor
^
'-
] S
j
I ' I
i '•! ..^ 3 :
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM
not an increased appreciation of gold, since we see that wages,
salaries, and house-rents have risen in all countries since
1850.
The following table shows the articles of most bulk in sea-
borne merchandise : —
Tons.
1840.
1860.
1893.
Coal .
1,400,000
10,800,000
61,000,000
Grain .
1,900,000
4,300,000
24,100,000
Timber
4,100,000
5,600,000
18,600,000
Metals
1,100,000
3,200,000
12,400,000
Sundries .
6,200,000
20,600,000
60,200,000
Total . 14,700,000
44,500,000 176,300,000
Thus we see that four articles of relatively low value con-
stitute two-thirds of the weight of merchandise exchanged
between nations. If the imports and exports of nations be
added together we shall have, of course, a sum representing
more than double the value of merchandise exchanged. This
value, as we have seen, was 1620 millions sterling in 1893;
the annual average of trade in five years preceding, between
imports and exports, was 3380 millions, the currents of trade
between the various countries showing as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
G. Britain.
France.
Germany.
U. States.
Other States. Total.
Great Britain
67
56
140
465
728
France
67
28
26
195
316
Germany .
56
28
36
235
385
United States
140
26
36
148
350
Other States
465
195
235
148
588
1,631
Total
728
316
355
350
1,631
3,380
Great Britain stands alone in the magnitude of her trade,
which is more than double that of any other country, the
second place being closely contested by Germany, United
States, and France. The preceding tables have reference only
to merchandise. As regards the value of specie sent over sea,
in the last thirty-four years, we find as follows : —
42 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Millions & Sterling.
Gold. Silver. Total.
1861-70 ... 512 474 986
1871-80 ... 504 427 931
1881-94 ... 738 436 1,174
34 years . . 1,754 1,337 3,091
The above includes all gold and silver, coined and uncoined ;
the amounts imported and exported by the principal nations
in the whole term of thirty-four years, according to official
returns, were as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
G. Britain. U. States. France. Other States. Total*
Imported . . 946 245 797 1,103 3,091
Exported . . 836 482 534 1,239 3,091
France and Great Britain have had a great influx of precious
metals, the United States a large outflow. Among the other
States it is worthy of notice that Australia exported 251
millions, Spanish America 261 millions, the former all gold,
the latter four-fifths silver. On the other hand, India and
China absorbed no less than 106 millions gold, and 551 millions
sterling of silver. It is doubtless due to telegraphs that the
amount of bullion, as compared with merchandise, sent over
sea has declined in a remarkable manner, showing as follows
in yearly averages : —
Millions £ per Annum.
Specie
Ratio,
Per Cent.
12
8
5*
Merchandise.
830
1,216
1,555
Specie.
99
93
84
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
Thus for all purposes of international commerce £45 in
bullion now do as much work as £100 in the decade ending
1870, a fact which bi-metallists seem to overlook. For greater
clearness on this point we may exclude silver, and take
account only of sea-borne gold, the annual averages of which
compare thus with merchandise since 1861 : —
1 Detailed tables will be found in the Appendix.
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 43
Millions"£ per Annum. Gold
, •*• N Ratio,
Merchandise. Gold. Per Cent.
1861-70 ... 830 51 6-1
1871-80 . . . 1,216 50 4'1
1881-94 . . . 1,555 52 3'3
We see that while commerce has doubled since the decade
1861—70, the amount of gold sent over sea is unaltered, show-
ing that one ounce of gold now serves as efficiently in inter-
national exchanges as two ounces did thirty years ago.
Shipping. — The registered tonnage of shipping on the high
seas in 1,894 was more than double the total in Lloyd's
Register for 1840 ; the carrying-power has quintupled, viz. : —
Tons.
Steam. Sail. Total. Carrying-power.
1840 . 368,000 9,012,000 9,380,000 10,480,000
1894 . 10,150,000 10;100,000 20,250,000 50,700,000
In the computation of carrying-power a steamer of given
tonnage is considered equal to four times the same tonnage
of sailing-vessels, because it is found by ship-owners that a
steamer makes three long-sea or ten short voyages for one of
a sailing-vessel. The nominal tonnage and effective carrying-
power of the sea-going merchant-navies in 1894 were : —
Flag.
Nora. Tons.
Carrying-power.
Ratio.
British .
10,380,000
29,560,000
58-2
Scandinavian
2,380,000
4,030,000
8-0
German .
1,550,000
4,220,000
8-3
United States l
1,830,000
3,220,000
6-3
French .
890,000
2,360,000
47
Spanish .
680,000
2,120,000
4-2
Italian .
780,000
1,410,000
2-8
Various .
1,760,000
3,800,000
7'5
Total . . 20,250,000 50,720,000 lOO'O
The annual increase of carrying-power in the merchant-
navies of the world between 1880 and 1894 was 1 million
1 This is only sea-going shipping ; if vessels on internal waters were
included, the United States inerchant-navy would reach 4,680,000 tona
register and 11,250,000 carrying-power.
44 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
tons, while the nominal tonnage showed no increase, because
in those fourteen years sailing-vessels summing up 4,400,000
tons were lost or broken up, and their place was taken by
steamers aggregating an equal tonnage, but representing 18
million tons of carrying-power. This change still goes on,
Lloyd's Register showing the nominal tonnage of vessels
built in Europe and America in 1894 as follows : —
Steamers. Sailing. Total, Tons.
British . . 965,000 82,000 1,047,000
Other flags . . 203,000 74,000 277,000
Total . . 1,168,000 156,000 1,324,000
In the preceding tables British includes also Colonial ship-
ping, the latter constituting 13 per cent, of nominal tonnage,
and 9 per cent, of carrying-power, of the British merchant-
navy. It is often asserted that there are too many vessels
afloat for the commerce of the world, but the assertion is at
best doubtful. There are many steamers with antiquated
machinery, which it is not found convenient to employ in
trade ; but the ratio of entries in ballast, which may be con-
sidered a fair test, shows no increase since 1882. The following
table shows the total port-entries in Europe and the United
States, and the entries in ballast : —
Entries, Tons. Ballast, Tons. Ratio per Cent.
1882 . . 112,690,000 22,100,000 20
1892 . . 146,300,000 29,800,000 20
The merchant-navies of the world (exclusive of fishing-boats)
represent an approximate value of 246 millions sterling, of
which British (excluding Colonial) stands for 108 millions.
Internal Trade. — This is the real trade of a country, com-
prising the total value of agricultural, manufacturing, and
mining products handled by the people, and the value of
imported goods from foreign countries that are consumed.
The amounts in 1894 were approximately as follows : —
XX.
LJL
o
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 45
Millions £ Sterling.
Agricul-
Manu-
Forestry,
ture.
factures.
Mining.
&c.
Imports.
Total.
United Kingdom
. 230
876
78
9
417
1,610
France
. 416
596
16
19
154
1,201
Germany
. 417
690
34
14
198
1,353
Russia
. 540
380
12
42
56
1,030
Other States
. 962
1,024
29
56
437
2,508
Europe
.2,565
3,566
169
140
1,262
7,702
United States
. 813
1,952
94
130
136
3,125
British Colonies .
. 127
158
19
26
52
382
Total . .3,505 5,676 282 296 1,450 11,209
The above table shows at a glance the merchandise produced
yearly by nations, but it will be observed that the column of
imports is a repetition, and that the actual value of mer-
chandise is 9759 millions. Of this amount 85 per cent, is
kept for home use, namely, 8419 millions, and 1340 millions
are exported, which latter acquire 8 per cent, additional value
by transport and trade, and figure as 1450 millions in the
above table under the column of imports.
EAILWAYS
These may be considered a distinctive feature of the second
half of the century, although a few were made in the first
half. The total length in traffic in 1850 was only 23,500
miles, and since then nearly 400,000 miles have been con-
structed, at an average annual outlay of 140 millions sterling.
The progress in the various parts of the world since 1860 is
shown in the number of miles open then and now, viz. : —
Miles. Cost, Millions £.
1860.
Europe .
America
Asia
Africa .
Australia
Total . . 66,290 420,180 1,079 6,745
I860.
1894.
I860.
1894.
31,890
150,580
797
3,499
33,040
224,880
268
2,770
840
23,660
8
249
270
7,440
4
88
250
13,620
2
139
46 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
At present the cost of all existing lines shows an average of
£16,000 a mile, and the actual rate of construction, judging
by the last five years, is about 10,200 miles per annum, the
amount of capital expended in making new lines averaging
£500,000 a day. Working expenses take almost two-thirds
of the gross receipts, and the ,net profit, for the whole world,
is a little over 3 per cent, on the cost of construction, in
Europe reaching 3J per cent., viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling, per Annum.
Receipts.
Expenses.
Profit.
JTIUllL UU
Capital.
Europe
. 318
196
122
3-5
North America .
. 238
170
68
3-0
South America .
. 17
13
4
1-8
Asia .
. 20
11
9
3-6
Africa
8
5
3
3-6
Australia .
9
6
3
2-7
Total . . 6101 401 209 3'1
The total railway capital in 1894 reached 6745 millions
sterling, a sum much greater than the aggregate of public
debts, and equal to 10 percent, of the total wealth of mankind.
The benefit resulting from railways is not merely a dividend
of 3| or 4 per cent, to shareholders. It is computed in
Germany that each mile of railway causes a yearly saving of
£6300 to the public, which is equal to a dividend of 32 per
cent, on the cost of construction. In other countries it is
usual to compare the amounts now paid for freight of goods
by rail with what the old charges by team would have come
to; the result in 1894 would have been as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Railway. Team. Saving.
United Kingdom ... 46 201 155
Continent . . . .162 973 811
United States . . . .166 1,420 1,254
Colonies 13 79 66
Total . . . .387 2,673 2,286
1 These are the earnings for the whole world, but the railway earnings
of the twenty-four countries that form the scope of the present work are
only 560 millions sterling, as shown at page 38, in treating of transport.
XXI.
Miflions £
RAILWAYS.
Amount of Capital.
u
rt
u;
53
1 300
1 400
j"
1
i
1
,
1
1 200
j
S
1 000
J3
800
i
i
600 '*•
E
V
rt
3
100 > ^
1
$ « .2
5— -1—1
1
M «
CJ 3
1
1
1 1
Receipts per Mile.
c
«
O
3 000
X
c
g
B
,, f
[5
u —
0 400
I~'
X
c
jg
U.
i
1 HOA
s -
_jj
en .2 g
i? ~
| • J *
1 £ 3
1 °00 *•
" r^ "I
-3 3
-
300 | |
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 47
This shows an annual saving of 2286 millions sterling in
the above countries, equal to a dividend of 38 per cent, on the
sum spent (6000 millions) in the construction of their rail-
ways. There are in active service 110,000 locomotives, with
an aggregate power of 32 million horses, and 2,540,000 men.
The life of a locomotive is fifteen years, in which time it will
run 270,000 miles, carry 900,000 passengers or 600,000 tons
of merchandise, and earn £80,000 ; its ordinary power is 300-
horse, and its first cost £2000. The rails on existing lines sum
up 62 million tons, 75 per cent, of steel, which rail is 10 per
cent, lighter than iron and has 150 per cent, more durability,
the life of an iron rail being sixteen, of a steel one forty,
years. The annual consumption of rails reaches 4 million
tons, equally divided between the laying of new lines and the
replacing of old rails. The saving in the wear-and-tear of
rails by the introduction of steel amounts to 1,600,000 tons
yearly, worth 6 millions sterling, which adds 2| per cent, to
annual profits ; in other words, where a shareholder formerly
received a dividend of £200 he ought now to receive £205.
If we reduce the goods traffic of all countries to a common
denominator, that is a mean haulage of 100 miles, we find
that the daily traffic in 1893-94 was as follows : —
Lbs. per Lbs. per
Tons. Inhab. Tons. Inhab.
U. States . 2,840,000 95 I Austria . . 180,000 10
Germany . 470,000 21
U. Kingdom . 340,000 19
France . . 280,000 17
Russia . . 150,000 4
Belgium . . 50,000 18
Italy . . 45,000 4
The total haulage, on the mean of 100 miles, amounted to
4,530,000 tons daily, the United States standing for almost
two-thirds. The only country in Europe which surpasses
Great Britain in goods traffic per inhabitant is Germany, and
close upon our heels come Belgium and France. So pro-
digious is the goods traffic in the United States, that the rail-
ways carry every day in merchandise a weight exactly equal
to what the whole population of 70 million persons would
amount to if they could all be placed in a single train.
48 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The increase of railway traffic in recent years is shown as
follows : —
Millions of Passengers. Goods, Million Tons.
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Belgium
Austria
Other States
Europe
United States
Other countries
Total
1860.
1894.
1860.
1894.
180
912
82
325
57
337
22
97
48
522
24
242,
17
97
7
45
12
199
7
215
25
225
8
144
339
2,292
150
1,068
60
541
70
638
14
302
2
84
413 3,135
222 1,790
The railway traffic of the world in 1894 averaged 10 million
passengers, and 6 million tons of merchandise daily ; the re-
ceipts averaged 14 pence per passenger, and 55 pence per
ton of goods carried.
As regards the amount of railway capital to population, we
find as follows : —
£per
£ per
£per
Inhab.
Inhab.
Inhab.
Canada . . 36
France
. 17
Austria .
. 9
Australia . . 33
Belgium .
. 12
Italy
. 6
United States . 32
Germany .
. 11
Spain
. 6
United Kingdom 25
Holland .
. 10
Russia .
. 3
Although Canada, Australia, and United States show a
higher ratio than the United Kingdom, it must be borne in
mind that a great portion of their lines was made with British
capital.
BANKS AND MONEY
Banking-power multiplied eleven-fold in half-a-century,
showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1840.
1894 .
G. Britain.
. 132
. 960
U. States.
90
1,030
France.
16
356
German y.
12
231
Other States.
58
760
Total.
308
3,337
XXII.
'Gold
Silver X X X Paper
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 49
We have already seen that in the above interval manufac-
tures only quadrupled and international commerce hardly
increased six- fold, from which it appears that banking has out-
stripped other branches of business in its rate of progress.
The rapid increase of banking in later times may be seen in
the fact that the specie reserve of the great banks of Europe
and United States rose from 154 millions in 1870 to 450
millions sterling in 1890.
Money. — The amount of money in use has by no means
increased in the same degree as banking or commerce, since
cheques and bills have in a great measure come to supply its
place. Money has in fact not trebled since 1848, showing as
follows in millions £ : —
Gold. Silver. Paper. Total.
1848 . . .157 388 260 805
1895 . . .822 707 775 2,304
The above is exclusive of " dishonest " money, that is in-
convertible notes, common in Russia, Italy, and South America
The currency above stated in 1895, according to Mr. Probyn,
showed as follows in millions sterling : —
Gold. Silver. Paper. Total.
In Bank . . .446 232 105 783
Circulation . . 376 475 670 1,521
Total . . 822 707 775 2,304
Of bond-fide money in circulation about 56 per cent, is
coin, 44 per cent, paper, and the specie reserves held in banks
and government offices are more than the total convertible
notes in circulation. The money in use in certain countries
is shown as follows in millions £ : —
United Kingdom
Gold.
85
Silver.
24
Paper.
41
Total.
150
£ per Inhab.
3'8
France .
187
140
140
467
12-0
United States
130
131
243
504
7-5
Germany
132
45
61
238
4-8
Other States .
288
367
290
945
3-1
Total .
822
707
775
2,304
41
D
50 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Although Great Britain is by far the richest country in
Europe, the most commercial, and that which possesses the
greatest banking power, the amount of money which she uses
is relatively very small, hardly one-third of the sum per head
that is used in France, and only half of the ratio in the
United States.
It may be more to the purpose to compare the internal trade
of countries with the amount of money in circulation, viz. : —
Millions & Sterling.
Internal Trade.
Money.
Ratio of Money.
United Kingdom 1,619
150
9-4
France .
1,201
467
39-0
Germany
1,353
238
17-6
Austria
733
119
16-2
United States
3,125
504
16-1
Canada
205
13
6-3
Australia
177
34
19-2
The following table shows in aliquot parts how the money
of the principal countries is composed : —
Gold. Silver. Paper. Total.
United Kingdom . . 567 160 273 1,000
France . . . .400 300 300 1,000
Germany . . . .555 190 255 1,000
United States . . .258 260 482 1,000
General summary . . 357 307 336 1,000
The preponderance of gold in Great Britain and Germany
is remarkable, while the volume of paper money in the United
States is nearly double the stock of gold.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The following table shows approximately the earnings of
nations in 1894. For greater convenience it is necessary to
include Mining, Forestry, and Fisheries in one column ; in like
manner Commerce comprises both trade earnings and trans-
port, and the item of Professions includes also Domestics and
the Public service ; but all these items will be found set out
separately in the chapters that treat of the several countries
in their order : —
XXIII.
£ Stg. Pe. An
EARNINGS PER INHABITANT,
=
<
rt
4°
j:
Ml
£
o"
•o
el
31
•
3°
1
'5 ^
28
X =
.s • S |
H
1 « j_l
* 8
4 t
r« T!
00
CO
C
- -a
1
16
14 rt
12 1
10 •
shuiiogs FOOD EXPENDITURE YEARLY PER INHABITANT.
200
C
'S
190
a
B
^ | d
c
2
> T3
170
§ |
J 8
160
•K v (
all
V
CJ I
HO
g (
i
05
130
- r
i •§
.3 -3
110 "
£
I
s
00 *
ON
80 ,5
70 1
flD
Millions & Sterling.
Agricul-
Manufac-
Mining,
Com-
House-
Pro-
^*
ture.
tures.
&c.
mercial.
rents.
fessions,
&c. Total.
U. Kingdom .
138
438
87
330
150
280
1,423
France .
250
298
35
246
118
252
1,199
Germany
250
345
48
277
92
272
1,284
Russia .
324
190
54
211
47
178
1,004
Austria .
192
164
28
149
37
137
707
Italy
122
95
8
92
27
92
436
Other States .
264
252
49
272
62
190
1,089
Europe .
1,540
1,782
309
1,577
533
1,401
7,142
United States
488
976
224
640
267
521
3,116
Canada . '.
34
49
26
41
7
26
183
Australia
42
30
19
36
21
46
194
Total . 2,104 2,837 578 2,294 828 1,994 10,635
It will be observed that in the United Kingdom agricul-
tural earnings are less than 10 per cent, of the total, whereas in
other countries they usually stand for 20 or even 30 per cent.
Wealth. — The aggregate wealth of nations is almost 70
milliards sterling, or six times as much as the earnings.
Real estate (that is lands and houses) represents 32£, personal
property 37£, milliards ; in other words, real estate forms
46 per cent., personal property 54 per cent., of the total.
The principal items are shown approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
^~~"
Cattle,
Rail-
Merchan'
Land.
Ac.
Houses.
ways.
dise.
Sundries.
Total.
U. Kingdom .
1,686
391
2,490
985
805
5,449
11,806
France .
2,580
513
2,159
663
601
3,174
9,690
Germany
1,977
531
1,755
555
677
2,557
8,052
Russia .
2,113
597
1,019
349
515
1,832
6,425
Austria .
1,473
324
719
371
367
1,258
4,512
Italy
1,180
219
503
184
223
851
3,160
Other States * .
2,803
543
1,189
392
666
2,102
7,695
Europe .
13,812
3,118
9,834
3,499
3,854
17,223
51,340
United States
3,314
828
4,446
2,260
1,563
3,939
16,350
Brit. Colonies 2
466
231
319
325
191
547
2,079
Total
17,592 4,177 14,599 6,084 5,608 21,709 69,769
1 These States are given in detail in the Appendix.
2 Canada and Australia only.
52 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The United Kingdom stands for almost one-fourth of the
wealth of Europe, although it has only one-ninth of the popu-
lation. The United States hold the foremost place as to
amount of earnings and of wealth, but the ratios of wealth to
population are higher in the United Kingdom, Australia, and
France, viz. : —
£ per Inhabitant. £ per Inhabitant.
Earnings. Wealth. Earnings. Wealth.
United Kingdom 36 302
Australia . . 46 256
France . . 31 252
United States . 44 234
Canada . . 36 196
Germany . . 25 156
Austria . . 17 104
Italy . . .14 101
Daily earnings average about 30 pence per inhabitant in
Australia and United States, 24 pence in the United Kingdom
and Canada, 20 pence in France, 16 pence in Germany, 11
pence in Austria, and 10 pence in Italy.
FINANCES
The increase of public revenue and expenditure since 1830
has been much greater than that of population, but much less
than that of commerce or manufactures. The revenues are
shown at the two periods thus : —
Millions £ Stg. Millions £ Stg.
1830. 1895.
18 97
12 67
9 30
3 81
The aggregate revenue of the above eight countries more
than quadrupled, rising from 177 millions in 1830 to 780
millions in 1895 ; but it must not be supposed that taxation
quadrupled, a large portion of revenue in 1895 arising from
State railways, which had no existence in 1830. Excluding
State railways, the revenues in 1895 and the ratio per inhabi-
tant were as follows : —
1830.
1895.
United Kingdom .
55
102
Austria .
France .
41
128
Italy
Germany
16
163
Spain
Russia .
23
112
United States
WEALTH OF NATIONS
(In 1894.)
XXIV.
The British Colonies in thi above figure
include only Ausnalia and Canada.
WEALTH OF UNITED KINGDOM.
7&9f J894
XXV.
WEALTH OF NATIONS.
Proportions of Real and Personal Property.
U. Kingdom France
Germany
Real
Persona/ — unshaded.
XXVI.
G. Britain
WEALTH OF NATIONS.
Rural and Non-Rural.
Ireland
Rural
Non-Rural — not shaded.
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM
53
illions
£per
Millions
£per
£.
Inhab.
£.
Inhab.
102
2-6
Austria
. 82
1-9
126
3-3
Italy .
. 62
2-0
101
2-0
Spain .
. 30
1-8
105
1-0
United States
. 81
1-2
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
If we were to judge by the ratio of revenue per inhabitant,
it would appear that France and Great Britain were the
heaviest taxed, Russia the lightest, which is by no means the
fact. In order to arrive at the incidence of taxation we must
take first the approximate earnings of the people in each
country, then the total amount of national and local taxes,
and ascertain the ratio of the latter to the former. Taxation,
of course, excludes post-oflice and other public services, national
as well as local, and such sources of revenue as Crown lands,
forests, &c. The amounts are approximately as follow : —
Earnings,
Millions £ Sterling.
Ratio
of
£.
Nat. Taxes.
Local.
Total.
Tax.
United Kingdom 1,423
79
43
122
8'6
France .
1,199
102
42
144
12-0
Germany
1,284
85
45
130
10-1
Russia .
1,004
84
11
95
9-5
Austria .
707
69
15
84
11-9
Italy
436
56
27
83
19-0
Spain
273
29
7
36
13-3
Other States
816
52
28
80
9-8
Europe .
7,142
556
218
774
10-8
United States
3,116
65
98
163
5-2
Total
10,258
621
316
937
9-1
It may be laid down as a rule that taxation is heavy when
it exceeds 10 per cent, of national earnings, and light when
under that ratio. Thus it appears that Italy, France, Spain,
and Austria are overtaxed ; while Germany and Russia have
relatively light burthens, but Russia loses the benefit in this
respect by the unscrupulous conduct of the government in
issuing " dishonest" money, inconvertible notes, whose value
is so variable as to prove a national curse. The incidence of
taxation in the United States is one-third less than in the
54
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
United Kingdom, and although we are still under the dividing
line between light and heavy taxation, the tendency is mani-
festly in an ascending, rather than a descending, direction.
Debt. — Taking the aggregate of national and local debt in
the various countries, we find that the total has nearly quad-
rupled since 1848, rising from 1666 to 6200 millions, viz. : —
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Italy
Other States
Europe
United States .
British Colonies
Total
1848.
1870.
1895.
773
921
850
260
504
1,400
69
148
604
90
342
703
125
340
555
36
333
553
298
577
801
1,651
3,165
5,466
10
485
425
5
54
309
. 1,666 3,704
6,200
The above is exclusive of the debts of Turkey, Egypt, India,
and South America. It is to be observed that in the fore-
going table the debts of some countries in 1895 are largely
made up of sums spent on State railways, the net proceeds of
which considerably swell the public revenues. If we deduct
the cost of such railways (which makes up an aggregate of
1418 millions) so as to arrive at the real debt in those
countries, the account will stand in comparison with national
wealth thus : —
Millions £.
Ratio
of Debt.
7'2
14-0
1-4
77
Millions £.
Ratio
of Debt.
7-2
13-4
2-5
8-0
U. Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Wealth.
11,806
9,690
8,052
6,425
Debt.
850
1,370
117
495
Austria
Italy .
U. States .
B. Colonies
Wealth.
4,512
3,160
16,350
2,079
Debt.
324
423
425
164
In the above table British Colonies include only Australia
and Canada.
Here again we may lay down the rule that when a nation's
debt, including local, exceeds 10 per cent, of the people's
XXVII.
TAXES AND EARNINGS COMPARED.
Percentage of former to latter.
>.
i
•o
J
h
- <
' i
3 =5
c '
i
o
at
e £-
1
H
: x •«
* $ S
6 g J9
o c 3 c J!
,S 1 -^
9 -0 J» Q
s B_3_y
? *c %
7 o
t 39
I
OT 03 « .rt
• . a •§
tU "i
tri-
I Ll
7a.r« include both National and I.osal — see table in Appendix-.
DEBT AND WEALTH COMPARED.
Percentage of Debt, after deducting State Railways, to Wealth.
£
t*
a
•o J1
a
1
< 1
rt 2
i
c
ot
M
1
c
D
3 1
J
•o
« §
0
S s x .s
3
* ^ 1 J
o
>J M | '-3
If f 1
1 1 w
1
55
fortune, it is desirable in every way to avoid any further in-
crease of indebtedness. France and Italy are supporting at
present a heavy burthen in this respect, the incumbrance
having been chiefly caused in both cases by military expendi-
ture. The only nations of first-class importance that are
practically unburthened with debt are Germany and the
United States, the German debt being only as 1^ per cent.,
the American 2| per cent, of wealth. The relative weight of
debt in the British Colonies is not much greater than in the
Mother Country, and is far from heavy,
i
FOOD SUPPLY
As might be expected, we find the richest nations are the
best fed, that is to say, they consume less grain than poorer
States, and more of everything else. Thus it comes to pass
that while food is cheaper in Great Britain than in most
countries, the expenditure is, nevertheless, higher per inhabi-
tant than elsewhere. The following table shows the value of
food consumed yearly in various countries : —
Millions & Sterling. Millions £.
Grain.
Meat.
Sundries
Total.
Native.
Imported.
United Kingdom . 56
91
234
381
224
157
France . . 95
62
183
340
292
48
Germany
'. . 102
72
232
406
354
52
Russia .
. 151
86
157
394
387
7
Austria
. 76
45
123
244
238
6
Italy .
. 45
18
94
157
150
7
Other States . 102
75
178
355
274
81
Europe. . . 627
449
1,201
2,277
1,919
358
United States . 90
129
306
525
477
48
Total. . 717 578 1,507 2,802 2,396 406
Grain may be said to stand for one-fourth the expenditure,
although in the United Kingdom it is only one-seventh.
Meat, on the other hand, holds a higher ratio in the United
Kingdom than in other countries. The average cost of food
per inhabitant, at wholesale prices, shows thus ; — '
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Shillings per Head.
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Russia
Austria
Italy ,
Belgium
Scandinavia
Other States
Europe
United States
lin. Meat.
!8 46
Dairy.
28
Liquor.
47
Sundries.
45
Total.
194
19 32
23
34
37
175
!9 28
24
28
38
157
!8 16
8
4
17
73
!5 21
17
13
27
113
10 12
13
24
25
104
:8 23
28
41
23
163
14 31
20
15
20
130
JO 25
25
14
18
112
14 24
17
21
27
123
!6 37
24
18
45
150
The foregoing tables apply to food only for human beings,
excluding all grain that is used for feeding cattle. The
quantities of grain of all kinds and of such food as is the
immediate product of agriculture have been already set forth
in the chapter on agriculture, and will be found fully detailed
in the appendix. If we compare the amount spent on food
with the earnings of each nation we find as follows, counting
the year as 365 days : —
Great Britain .
Ireland .
United Kingdom
France .
Germany
Russia .
Austria .
Italy .
Spain
Portugal
Scandinavia .
Holland .
Belgium .
Switzerland .
Roumania, &c.
Europe .
United States
Millions £ Sterling
Pence daily per
per Annum.
Ratio of
Inhabitant.
Earnings.
Food.
Food.
Earnings.
Food.
1,331
357
26-8
25-3
6-8
92
24
261
13-5
3-5
1,423
381
26-8
23-9
6-4
1,199
340
28-3
20-5
5-8
1,284
406
31-6
16-2
5-1
1,004
394
39-2
6-2
2-4
707
244
34-5
11-0
3'8
436
157
36-0
9-2
3-3
273
103
37-7
10-2
3'8
64
23
36-0
8-9
3-2
202
59
29-0
14-7
4-3
124
38
29-7
17-0
5-2
181
51
277
19-0
5-3
70
21
29-1
15-4
4-6
175
60
34-3
8-5
2-9
7,142
2,277
31'9
12-7
4-0
3,116
525
16-8
29-0
4-9
NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 57
It appears that in Europe one-third of the earnings of
peoples goes to pay for food, but in Great Britain the ratio
is little over one- fourth, and in the United States it is
only one-sixth. At the same time the average earnings per
inhabitant are much higher in the United States and in
Great Britain than in the other countries of the above
list. This shows that the economic conditions of the British
and American peoples is much better than on the European
Continent. The retail cost of food would be 25 per cent, over
the above figures ; thus the actual cost daily per head in the
United Kingdom is 8 pence, in Russia 3 pence, and so on.
While the economic condition of Great Britain, as regards
national earnings and expenditure on food, is highly satis-
factory, the case is far otherwise in Ireland, which country
has been in a chronic state of misery since the close of the
reign of George II. (excepting a brief interval from 1855 to
1875). The expenditure on food is only 3£ pence daily, or
half what it is in Great Britain. It seems strange that
Ireland should, per inhabitant, spend less on food than either
Spain or Austria, seeing that the average earnings of the
Irish people are much higher than those of Austrians or
Spaniards; but we must bear in mind the fact that Ireland
has to pay a tribute of at least £2,000,000 a year to absentee
landlords, and the recent report on Financial Relations shows
that her share of taxation is £1,800,000 over what it ought
to be. These are unquestionably the two great causes of
suffering and discontent in the Sister-Kingdom.
III.
UNITED KINGDOM
IN little more than half -a- century the United Kingdom
has risen 50 per cent, in population, besides sending out 10
millions of settlers to new countries. The number of inhabi-
tants in 1896 compares with the figures for 1841 as follows: —
Population. Per Square Mile.
1841
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
United Kingdom . 26,855,000 39,400,000 220 324
England and Scotland are over-populated, being unable to
raise sufficient food for their people. Ireland, on the contrary,
produces food for nearly 50 per cent, more than her popula-
tion. England is now the densest peopled country in Europe,
except Belgium. In a period of forty-four years, ending
December 31, 1894, the number of emigrants nearly reached
9 millions, viz. : —
1841.
1896.
1841.
1896.
16,038,000
30,700,000
275
530
2,620,000
4,200,000
86
140
8,197,000
4,500,000
256
138
To
English.
Scotch.
Irish.
Total.
United States
. 2,360,000
478,000
2,935,000
5,773,000
Australia
827,000
260,000
408,000
1,495,000
Canada
603,000
215,000
202,000
1,020,000
Other parts .
338,000
95,000
35,000
468,000
Total . 4,128,000 1,048,000 3,580,000 8,756,000
The English and Scotch do not appear to have survived in
the same ratio as the Irish. The latest census returns showed
the numbers still resident in the above new countries as
follows : —
58
XXVIII.
THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Population
Area
UNITED KINGDOM 59
In British. Irish. Total.
United States . . 1,251,000 1,872,000 3,123,000
Australia . . . 765,000 275,000 1,040,000
Canada . . . 327,000 149,000 476,000
Total . . 2,343,000 2,296,000 4,639,000
In the period of forty-four years to end of 1894 the ratio of
Irish emigration to the total from the United Kingdom was
only 43 to 100, but according to the latest census returns the
Irish settlers formed 49£ per cent, of all British subjects
resident in the above new countries. It may be, at the same
time, that the numbers of English and Scotch returning to
their native land has been relatively larger than of Irish. The
number of persons returning to the United Kingdom has
greatly increased in late years, averaging 106,000 per annum
from 1890 to 1894 inclusive, against 64,000 in the years
1880 to 1884. There is a growing preponderance of females in
the United Kingdom, which might be supposed to result from
emigration ; but this can hardly be the case, seeing that the
ratio of males has risen very remarkably both in Scotland and
Ireland, viz. : —
Females to 1,000 Males.
1821.
. 1,050
1861.
1,052
1891.
1,064
. 1,128
1,112
1 072
Ireland .
United Kingdom
. 1,033
. 1,053
1,045
1,057
1,028
1,060
Vital statistics show that the span of life in Ireland is
much longer than in Great Britain, which is perhaps partly
due to the fact that the Irish marry at a more mature age
than the English or Scotch.
Average Age when Marrying.
In . Husband. Wife. Both.
England 27 7 - 25 -5 26 -6
Scotland 28'6 25'7 27'2
Ireland 29'9 25'2 27'6
It is to be observed that the difference of age between
husband and wife is greater in Ireland than in the sister
kingdoms, which promotes a stronger race. The relative
60 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
occupations and the working-power of the three kingdoms in
1891 are shown in aliquot parts as follows : —
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom
Agriculture .
80
15
56
151
Manufactures
436
62
39
537
Trade .
83
10
6
99
Professions .
55
7
12
74
Domestics .
113
12
14
139
Total . . 767 106 127 1,000
Agriculture occupies a much smaller ratio of people than in
other countries; in fact it supports only 10 per cent, of the
population of England, or 15 per cent, of that of the United
Kingdom. Occupations have undergone a striking change in
the last half- century, the returns for the whole United King-
dom in 1891 comparing with those in 1841 as follows : —
Number. Ratio.
1841.
1891.
1841.
1891.
Agriculture
. 3,401,000
2,527,000
37-8
15-1
Manufactures
. 3,137,000
9,026,000
34-8
53-7
Trade .
684,000
1,676,000
7'6
9-9
Professions .
223,000
1,245,000
2-5
7'4
Domestics .
. 1,556,000
2,342,000
17-3
13-9
Total . . 9,001,000 16,816,000 100-0 lOO'O
Fifty years ago the number of agricultural hands was
greater than that of persons employed in manufactures,
whereas at present the latter are 3^ times as numerous as
the former. The decline of rural industry and rapid increase
of manufactures have been attended with a great rise in urban
population. If we take the aggregate population of the ten
principal cities of the United Kingdom in 1821 and compare
it with 1894, we shall see how much greater has been the in-
crease than in the rest of the kingdom, viz. : —
Increase.
1821. 1894. Per Cent.
Ten Cities . . 2,310,000 8,502,000 270
Rest of U. Kingdom 18,674,000 30,284,000 62
Total pop. . 20,984,000 38,786,000 85
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
Foot-Tons
Per In-
habitant.
370
570
1,130
1,570
Hand.
2,220
2,430
2,940
3,200
Horse.
5,100
5,500
5,700
6,330
Steam.
2,400
8,600
31,200
51,880
Total.
9,720
16,530
39,840
61,410
UNITED KINGDOM 61
It appears that in the last seventy-three years urban popu-
lation has grown four times as fast as rural, and every suc-
ceeding census shows that cities engross more and more the
pursuits and energies of our people. The working-power of
the United Kingdom grows much faster than population : it
has multiplied six-fold since 1840, viz. : —
1840 .
1860 .
1880 .'
1895 .
The average power per inhabitant has quadrupled since
1840, which signifies that one man can now do as much as
four could half-a-century ago. The energy of the three king-
doms in 1895 was distributed approximately thus : —
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
England.
Hand .
Horse .
Steam
Total . 47,900 9,580 3,930 61,410
Steam works much cheaper than horse or hand, and hence
the incalculable advantage that Great Britain possesses over
Ireland. We find that 86 per cent, of all work done in Eng-
land, 90 per cent, in Scotland, and only 47 per cent, in Ireland,
is done by steam. The total energy compared with population
shows 2300 foot-tons daily per inhabitant in Scotland, 1570
in England, and 860 in Ireland, from which it follows that
10 Scotchmen can do as much as 14 Englishmen or 27 Irish-
men. The steam-power of the three kingdoms is approximately
as follows : —
Horse-Power.
Fixed. Raih
England
Scotland
Ireland
U. Kingdom . 2,200,000 4,800,000 5,970,000 12,970,000
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
2,480
330
390
3,200
4,020
630
1,680
6,330
41,400
8,620
1,860
51,880
Fixed.
1,740,000
315,000
145,000
Railway.
4,100,000
510,000
190,000
Steamboats.
4,510,000
1,330,000
130,000
Total
10,350,000
2,155,000
465,000
62 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The steam-power of the United Kingdom is a little more
than that of France and Germany combined, and is only sur-
passed by that of the United States : it is one-fifth of that of
the world.
AGRICULTURE
It was observed by Lord Liverpool that the most prosperous
periods of British agriculture were sometimes those in which
the general condition of the British people was unsatisfactory,
from which it may be inferred that agricultural depression
may exist while the general progress of the country is unin-
terrupted. Thus the last half-century has witnessed an un-
precedented increase of commerce, manufactures, and wealth,
and at the same time agriculture has been either stationary,
or in some respects retrograde. If we compare Porter's and
M'Culloch's estimates of the area under crops in their times
with the official returns for 1895 wo find as follows : —
Acres under Crops.
1827.
England
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom 19,140,000 21,930,000 20,050,000
The area under crops has declined by 2 million acres since
1846, but this has been in a manner compensated by the
increase of pastoral industry, the whole productive area of
the United Kingdom showing a rise of 3 million acres,
viz. : —
Year. Grain. Green Crops. Pasture. Total.
1846 . 11,600,000 10,330,000 22,940,000 44,870,000
1895 . 8,870,000 11,180,000 27,830,000 47,880,000
The average of crops and meat production in the last three
years was as follows : —
1827.
1846.
1895.
11,140,000
13,300,000
12,550,000
2,550,000
3,390,000
3,510,000
5,450,000
5,240,000
3,990,000
UNITED KINGDOM
Tons.
Wheat
Barley
Oats, &c.
Grain
Potatoes
Turnips
Hay .
Meat.
England.
. 1,170,000
. 1,470,000
. 2,340,000
Scotland.
35,000
190,000
955,000
Ireland.
35,000
160,000
1,165,000
U. Kingdom.
1,240,000
1,820,000
4,460,000
. 4,980,000
. 2,500,000
. 20,600,000
. 6,750,000
610,000
1,180.000
800,000
6,200,000
850,000
150,000
1,360,000
2,800,000
4,500,000
4,700,000
340,000
7,520,000
6,100,000
30,300,000
12,300,000
1,100,000
Notwithstanding that the price of grain has fallen 40 per
cent, since 1846, the gross value of farm products is greater
now than it was fifty years ago. The value during the last
three years averaged 230 millions sterling, against M'Culloch's
estimate of 218 millions in 1846, viz. : —
Value, £ Sterling.
Grain
Green crops
Hay and straw .
Meat
Dairy
Sundries .
Total
1846.
1893-95.
77,000,000
38,200,000
41,600,000
43,800,000
19,000,000
44,000,000
46,500,000
55,200,000
19,400,000
33,000,000
14,500,000
15,800,000
218,000,000
230,000,000
While the value of products shows an increase of 5£ per
cent, as compared with 1846, the number of hands has been
reduced by one-third, this being mainly due to the introduc-
tion of machinery. The figures stand thus : —
Year.
1846.
1895 .
Hands.
3,519,000
2,527,000
Product, £.
218,000,000
230,000,000
£ per Hand.
62
91
It appears that two hands now produce as much in value as
three did fifty years ago, and seeing that prices have fallen
no less than 40 per cent, it may be said that two men
now produce in quantity as much as five did then. The
value of farm products in the years 1893-94-95 averaged as
follows : —
64
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Grain .
Straw .
Potatoes
Hay
Sundries
Tillage .
Meat
Dairy .
Sundries
England, £.
. 26,600,000
. 9,100,000
. 8,800,000
. 20,300,000
. 18,200,000
Scotland, £.
5,200,000
1,500,000
2,400,000
2,100,000
3,800,000
Ireland, £.
6,400,000
1,600,000
7,000,000
9,400,000
3,600,000
U. Kingdom, £.
38,200,000
12,200,000
18,200,000
31,800,000
25,600,000
. 83,000,000
. 33,200,000
. 21,000,000
. 9,800,000
15,000,000
7,400,000
3,600,000
2,000,000
28,000,000
14,600,000
8,400,000
4,000,000
126,000,000
55,200,000
33,000,000
15,800,000
Total . 147,000,000 28,000,000 55,000,000 230,000,000
The concentration of landed property in the hands of a few
is a special characteristic of the United Kingdom, and may
constitute an obstacle to agricultural progress. Two-thirds of
England, nine-tenths x>f Ireland, and nineteen-twentieths of
Scotlandj are held in ownership by a small group of persons.
This system of land-tenure is quite at variance with what
prevails in other countries (except Portugal). At present the
United Kingdom, excluding estates of less than 10 acres, is
held as follows : —
Estates.
Large
Small
Total
Number.
. 19,275
. 157,640
176,915
Acres.
57,890,000
13,600,000
71,490,000
Average.
3,003
86
Agricultural capital rose steadily from 1780 until 1880, but
since the latter year it has fallen so rapidly that it is now
little more than it was fifty years ago : —
Value, Millions £ Sterling.
Land
Cattle .
Sundries
Total
1780.
1812.
1846.
1880.
1895.
702
1,101
1,705
2,086
1,686
86
146
150
209
202
79
125
185
230
189
867
1,372
2,040
2,525
2,077
Landowners and farmers have lost 450 millions of capital
since 1880 — that is, an average of 30 millions yearly. The
distribution of capital in 1894 was approximately thus: —
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
1,202
188
296
1,686
118
25
59
202
132
21
36
189
Capital.
Product.
1846.
1894.
1846.
1894.
England
Scotland
. 1,486
213
1,452
234
142
28
147
28
Ireland
341
391
48
55
UNITED KINGDOM 65
Millions £ Sterling.
England. i
Land
Cattle
Sundries .
Total . . 1,452 234 391 2,077
If we compare the agricultural capital in each of the three
kingdoms in 1894 with what it was in 1846, we find a dimi-
nution in England, and an increase both in Scotland and
Ireland. The following table shows the capital and product
at the above dates in each of the kingdoms, and the ratio of
product to capital : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Product Ratio.
184e! 1894?
9-5 101
13-1 12-0
14-1 14-1
U. Kingdom 2,040 2,077 218 230 10*7 11-1
Here we find that the gross product in the United Kingdom
represents a higher percentage on capital than it did in 1846,
but this would not warrant us to infer that the farmers'
profits are larger ; we have no means for ascertaining what
the net profits were then, or are at present. At various
periods estimates have been made in England as to the cost
of working a farm of 100 acres, 40 arable, 60 pasture, viz. : —
& Sterling.
Bent. Taxes. Team. Labour. Sundries. Total.
1790 . 88 39 67 85 110 389
1813 . . 118 70 99 118 121 526
1888 . 120 42 100 125 63 450
The gross product of the above farm in 1895 would have
been as follows : —
Acres. Shillings per Acre. £
Tillage ... 40 132 264
Pasture ... 60 84 252
Total ... 100 103 516
E
66 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
This would leave a balance of £66, or 13 shillings an acre,
that is 25 shillings a week for support of the farmer and his
family. Rent and taxes absorb a larger proportion of the
gross product in England than in the sister kingdoms, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Ratio of
Bent and
Product.
Bent
Taxes.
Balance.
Per Cent.
147-0
401
16-2
90-7
38
28-0
6-3
1-9
19-8
29
55-0
10-8
2-7
41-5
25
England
Scotland
Ireland
LT. Kingdom . . 230'0 57'2 20'8 152'0 34
The advantage of farming in Ireland is, meantime, unreal ;
the tenant in that country has to build offices and make im-
provements, which are done in England by the landlord.
Moreover, the money-product per acre is much less in Ireland
than in Great Britain, viz. : —
Product,
Shillings
Millions £.
per Acre.
Acres,
f ' N
, ' ^
Productive.
Gross. Net.
Gross. Net
27,800,000
147 91
106 65
4,900,000
28 20
114 82
15,200,000
55 41
72 54
England
Scotland
Ireland .
U. Kingdom . . 47,900,000 230 152 96 63
In the eighteenth century the British Islands had usually
a surplus of grain, beef, butter, and cheese, and these articles
formed considerable items in the yearly exports, but in the
last half-century so rapid has been the increase of population
that the agricultural products have been insufficient to feed
the inhabitants of the United Kingdom. The annual con-
sumption of wheat since 1831 has been as follows : —
Millions of Bushels.
Period. Native. Imported. Total.
1831-50 ... 113 14 127
1851-70 ... 101 55 156
1871-90 ... 85 135 220
1891-95 51 192 243
UNITED KINGDOM
67
The quantity of home-grown wheat is now less than the
requirement for three months' consumption. The decline of
tillage is, of course, one of the results of the enormous im-
portation of grain, but a result of far greater magnitude has
been the cheapening of food for the people. During a period
of five years, ending December 1895, the average price of
wheat in England was less than £1 per ton, and the annual
consumption reached 360 Ibs. per inhabitant, whereas in the
decade ending 1860 the average price was nearly £14, and
the consumption did not exceed 311 Ibs. If we reduce all
food to a common denominator, we find that the actual pro-
duction in the United Kingdom is equivalent to 18| million
tons of grain, the averages for the years 1893-94-95 having
been as follows : —
England
Scotland
Ireland
Tons Yearly.
Equivalent Bushels
in Tons per In-
Grain. habitant.
10,710,000 14
2,670,000 25
5,020,000 44
Grain. Potatoes.
, 5,000,000 2,500,000
. 1,200,000 800,000
. 1,360,000 2,800,000
Meat.
610,000
150,000
340,000
U. Kingdom 7,560,000 6,100,000 1,100,000 18,400,000 20
England raises food sufficient to support her people only
5£ months, Scotland 10 months, but Ireland produces enough
to feed 7,000,000 persons all the year, or 50 per cent, over
her actual population. More than half the grain consumed
in the United Kingdom is imported ; the average consump-
tion, after deducting from native crops what is required for
seed, shows as follows in 1891-95 : —
Tons.
Wheat .
Barley .
Oats, &c.
Total
Native.
1,230,000
1,750,000
4,400,000
Imported.
4,800,000
1,100,000
2,800,000
Total.
6,030,000
2,850,000
7,200,000
7,380,000 8,700,000 16,080,000
In order that the United Kingdom should produce sufficient
grain for consumption, so as not to import any, it would be
necessary to put under cereals 19,100,000 acres, that is
Beef.
440,000
590,000
Mutton.
310,000
320,000
Pork.
170,000
190,000
TotaL
920,000
1,100,000
68 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
10,200,000 more than at present. While the production of
grain has declined 25 per cent, since 1846, that of meat has
increased 20 per cent. ; the quantities were as follows : —
Product, Terns.
Year.
1846
1895
This increase has, however, fallen short of requirements.
Not only has our population increased by 12 million souls in
the above interval, but the average consumption of meat per
inhabitant has risen 40 per cent. Thus it comes to pass that
the quantity of meat consumed yearly has doubled, showing as
follows : —
Consumption, Tons.
, * s Lbs. per
Year. Native. Imported. Total. Head.
1846 . . . 920,000 ... 920,000 75
1895 . . . 1,100,000 780,000 1,880,000 108
Ireland exports live cattle to Great Britain equivalent to
280,000 tons of dead meat yearly, leaving for home use only
60,000 tons, say 30 Ibs. per inhabitant, but this is probably
so far supplemented by foreign meat as to raise the consump-
tion in that country to 40 Ibs. per inhabitant. The produc-
tion and consumption of meat in the three kingdoms are
shown approximately as follows : —
Production, Tons.
Beef.
Mutton.
Pork.
Total.
Consumption,
Tons.
England
. 285,000
200,000
125,000
610,000
1,620,000
Scotland
. 65,000
80,000
5,000
150,000
180,000
Ireland
. 240,000
40,000
60,000
340,000
80,000
U. Kingdom 590,000 320,000 190,000 1,100,000 1,880,000
The home production is sufficient to give to each inhabitant
of the United Kingdom 63 Ibs. yearly, and this ought to
be enough, for it is observed that the span of life is much
longer in Ireland, where the consumption of meat per inhabi-
tant is less than half what it is in England. There are not
wanting medical authorities to affirm that the consumption of
meat in England is excessive.
UNITED KINGDOM
69
FOKESTS AND FISHEKIES
The forest area of the United Kingdom and the approxi-
mate value of product are shown as follows : —
England
Scotland
Ireland .
United Kingdom
Acres.
1,800,000
900,000
300,000
3,000,000
Product, £.
1,200,000
600,000
200,000
2,000,000
The area under timber has increased by 200,000 acres since
1887, but is still insufficient. The annual consumption of
timber exceeds 550 million cubic feet, of which only one-fourth
is of native growth.
The fisheries of the United Kingdom are shown thus : —
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
Fishermen.
43,000
50,000
27,000
Tons Pish.
360,000
310,000
30,000
United Kingdom . 120,000
700,000
Value, £,.
5,430,000
1,830,000
270,000
7,530,000
The net imports of fish average £600,000 per annum, which
brings up consumption to £8,100,000, equal to 4 shillings per
inhabitant. The weight consumed gives an average of 40 Ibs.
per inhabitant, as compared with 108 Ibs. meat. Comparing
the value of fish taken with the number of fishermen, it shows
£10 per man in Irish waters, £78 in British, the average all
round being £63 per man, which is a poor return for so
dangerous a calling.
MANUFAOTUKES
The total output of British manufactures at the beginning
of the present century was valued by Eden and Stevenson at
not more than 105 millions sterling ; those writers appear,
70 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
however, to have taken account only of factories, and to have
left out what the French call " small industries." The real
value of our manufactures in 1810 was double the above
estimate.
Textiles. — The advance of this branch of industry is best
measured by the consumption of fibre, the weight being shown
as follows : —
Tons of Fibre.
Year. Cotton. Wool. Flax, etc. Total.
1810 . . 51,000 55,000 74,000 180,000
1850 . . 252,000 83,000 184,000 519,000
1895 . . 696,000 246,000 460,000 1,402,000
The value of manufactured goods has by no means kept
pace with the consumption of fibre ; improvements connected
with machinery have caused a great fall in prices, besides the
fact that all descriptions of raw material are cheaper now
than in years gone by. The output of textiles has been
approximately as follows : —
Value, Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Cottons. Woollens. Linens, &c. Silks. Total.
1810 . 20 18 13 5 56
1850 . . 49 28 18 12 107
1895 . 92 62 31 6 191
For many centuries woollen manufactures held the foremost
rank in England, but about the beginning of the nineteenth
cotton rushed to the front, and it has ever since maintained
undisputed pre-eminence.
Cotton Goods. — Although Manchester merchants, as Roberts
shows, made stuffs out of Smyrna and Cyprus cotton in the
days of Charles I., this industry may be said to date from
1790. In that year Arkwright's spinning-jenny was invented,
and in 1791 the first invoice of American cotton arrived, con-
sisting of 91 tons. The chief impetus, however, was given
in 1801, when Cart Wright's power-loom was first brought
into use at Monteith's mill, in Pollokshaws, near Glasgow.
Cotton mills multiplied in Great Britain, and in the course of
years such improvements of machinery have been introduced
UNITED KINGDOM 71
that, as Yeats says, a mule-frame that used to work 20
spindles now works 3000, and each spindle produces fifty
times as much as in 1820. So great has been the effect of
machinery in cheapening goods that a pound of yarn which
cost 38 shillings in 1786 may now be bought for a shilling.
Coming down to our own time, we find that although the price
of raw cotton in the last five years was the same (5|d. per Ib.)
as in the decade ending 1850, the price of cotton cloth has
fallen 36 per cent., namely, from £25 to £16 per statute mile.
The following table shows approximately the consumption of
cotton clotb at various dates : —
English Statute Miles.
1820. 1860. 1895.
United Kingdom . 101,000 790,000 1,320,000
India and China . 9,000 656,000 1,410,000
South America . 32,000 301,000 440,000
Various . . . 80,000 623,000 1,030,000
Total . . 222,000 2,370,000 4,200,000
Estimates have been made at various times as to the amount
of capital and wages, and the value of output. Ellison's table
for 1887 compares with Baines's for 1833 as follows : —
Tear. Cotton, £. Wages, £. Output, £. Capital, £.
1833 . 7,000,000 10,400,000 31,300,000 34,000,000
1887 . 34,500,000 29,400,000 101,400,000 105,000,000
The value of exported goods and of home consumption in
1895 was as follows : —
Exports £54,500,000
Home use 37,600,000
Total output . . . . £92,100,000
We consumed also £2,500,000 of imported cotton goods,
bringing up the total consumption to £40,100,000, equal to
20 shillings per inhabitant.
The value of goods produced annually averages £175 per
hand. If we suppose that for efficiency a child counts as one-
third, and a woman two-thirds, of a man, the result will be: —
74 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. Product, &. £ per Hand.
Men .... 186,000 43,100,000 231
Women . . . 295,000 45,300,000 154
Children . . . 48,000 3,700,000 77
Total . . . 529,000 92,100,000 175
The mills at present turn out daily 14,000 miles of cotton
cloth, and the daily wages of the operatives are about £100,000
sterling.
Hosiery. — Stockings are a modern invention, for we read
that in the reign of George II. they were worn in England
by not more than 13,000 persons. In the early years of
George III. there were only two factories, one at Nottingham,
the other at Balbriggan, but the use of stockings became so
general in the beginning of the present century, that when
Felkin made his report in 1833 there were 33,000 stocking
frames at work, and the output reached 42 million pairs
yearly. The factories now produce about 150 million pairs
yearly, of which 12 millions are exported.
Woollen Goods. — The manufacture of woollens was con-
sidered for centuries the sheet-anchor of British industry.
Kings and parliaments surpassed one another in arbitrary
edicts for its encouragement : it was forbidden to wear clothes
made abroad, or to export wool, or to shear a sheep within
three miles of the sea. It was commanded to bury corpses in
woollen shrouds. All the woollen factories in Ireland were
closed by the English Parliament in 1690, in order to compel
Irishmen to use English woollen goods. Some of these tyran-
nical edicts were repealed in 1810, the latest in 1825, and
since the latter year this branch of industry, far from declin-
ing, has grown apace. Stevenson's and M'Oulloch's estimates
compare with the present output thus : —
Year. Home Use, £. Export. Total Output.
1816. . . 10,200,000 7,800,000 18,000,000
1834 . . . 16,800,000 5,700,000 22,500,000
1895. . . 34,800,000 26,900,000 61,700,000
The number of operatives in woollen, worsted, and shoddy
UNITED KINGDOM 73
factories is 302,000, and the output averages £208 per hand,
as compared with £175 in the cotton industry. Owing .to
improved methods and machinery the consumption of wool
per hand rose from 1360 Ibs. in 1870 to 1702 Ibs. in 1893,
which means that three operatives now do as much work as
four could do in 1870. This economy of labour, as well as
the fall in price of wool, has tended to cheapen woollen goods,
extend the markets of such commodities, and give increased
activity to our mills, which now consume twice as much wool
as in 1870. Down to the year 1850 the greater portion of
the wool us"ed in our factories was home-grown, but at present
three-fourths are imported. The home-clip averages 5 Ibs. per
sheep, say 66,000 tons, of which one-fifth is exported. The
consumption of wool in our mills is shown thus : —
Tons of Wool Consumed.
1840.
British .
Imported
Total . . 58,000 91,000 161,000 246,000
Besides home-made woollens we consume foreign fabrics,
mostly French, to the value of £9,800,000, which brings up
the total consumption in the United Kingdom to £44,600,000,
equal to 23 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 14
shillings in the time of M'Culloch.
linens. — This branch of manufacture flourished in Ireland
and Scotland before it was known in England. Irish linen
was famous in the reign of Queen Anne. The first cargo of
Russian flax in Scotland was imported for the Dundee mills
in 1745. The production of linen has been approximately as
follows : —
Millions of Yards, Yearly.
Period. England. Scotland. Ireland. Total.
1791-1800 13 22 42 77
1821-1830 . . 24 60 90 174
1861-1870 . . 54 140 204 398
1891-1893 42 130 172 344
1840.
I860.
1880.
1896.
37,000
21,000
45,000
46,000
50,000
101,000
53,000
193,000
74 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The system of bounties which had existed for 140 years
was abolished in 1830, whereupon the mill-owners introduced
improved machinery, the result of which was greater efficiency,
economy, and production.
The consumption of flax is no more than it was forty years
ago, the weight being shown as follows : —
Tons of Flax Consumed.
Year. Native. Imported. TotaL
1850 . . 21,000 89,000 110,000
1895 . . 12,000 100,000 112,000
The output in 1895 was not quite 400 million yards, of
which 205 millions were exported ; the value of output was
about ,£1 3,000,000. Of late years the linen trade has been
declining, especially as regards home consumption, which
averaged 8 yards per inhabitant in 1840, and is now less
than 5 yards ; this decline is doubtless due to the increasing
use of Crimean or woollen shirts. There is one serious draw-
back connected with linen manufacture, that it is most hurtful
to operatives, of whom, as Dr. Purdon shows in his Factory
Report, not less than 60 per cent, die of lung diseases ; he
adds that their span of life after entering the factory is only
seventeen years.
Hemp. — This is a manufacture of minor importance ; there
is no mention of it in Porter's " Progress of the Nation," but
M'Culloch says that in 1835 the Dundee mills consumed 6500
tons of Russian hemp. The following table shows the quan-
tities imported and retained for consumption, as well as the
approximate value of articles manufactured : —
Year. Tons. Manufacture, £.
1830 .... 26,000 2,100,000
1850 .... 54,000 4,900,000
1895 .... 70,000 5,200,000
An attempt was made to grow hemp in Ireland, in 1810,
when 320 acres were put under it, but without success.
Jute. — This fibre is first mentioned in the trade reports of
India in 1835, in which year 600 tons were exported from
UNITED KINGDOM 75
that country. Soon afterwards it was largely consumed in
the flax mills of Dundee, which city is the principal seat of
this manufacture. The growth of this industry has been very
rapid, viz. : —
Year. Jute, Tons. Output, £.
1850 .... 19,000 900,000
1870 . . . .98,000 5,800,000
1895 .... 272,000 12,300,000
About one-sixth of jute manufactures is exported.
Silks. — This industry rose steadily during the first half of
the century, and reached its highest point in 1857, since
which date it has declined.
Year. Silk Consumed, Lbs. Output, £.
1823. . . . 2,470,000 6,200,000
1857. . . . 10,750,000 21,500,000
1895. . . . 3,900,000 6,000,000
The annual consumption of silk manufactures reaches a
value of £19,000,000, the net import of silk fabrics reaching
£13,000,000 per annum. The consumption averages 10
shillings per inhabitant, the same as in France.
Hardware. — The consumption of metals gives us the measure
of the growth of this industry, which falls little short of that
of textile manufactures in importance : —
Tons of Metal Utilised.
Year.
Iron.
Copper.
Lead.
Zinc, &c.
Total.
1806 .
243,000
10,000
24,000
4,000
281,000
1850 .
1,970,000
42,000
70,000
24,000
2,106,000
1870 .
5,210,000
54,000
132,000
36,000
5,432,000
1894 .
6,600,000
80,000
178,000
79,000
6,937,000
The above table represents not the production, but the weight
of metals converted in the United Kingdom into manufactured
goods in the years expressed. This weight in 1894 was equal
to 390 Ibs. per inhabitant, a ratio not equalled in any other
country.
Iron. — The rise of this industry may be said to date from
1740, when the Dudley process for smelting iron with coal
was introduced, but it was just 100 years later that the
76 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
commencement of the construction of railways raised British
iron to unprecedented importance in the economy of the world.
The following table shows the production, the quantities ex-
ported, &c. : —
Tons of Iron.
Year.
Make.
Export Pig.
Do. Manufactures.
Home Use.
1835
700,000
20,000
160,000
520,000
1850
. 2,250,000
280,000
930,000
1,040,000
1870
. 5,960,000
750,000
2,080,000
3,130,000
1880
. 7,750,000
1,630,000
2,160,000
3,960,000
1894
. 7,430,000
830,000
1,880,000
4,720,000
The consumption of iron at the above dates was the
"make," less the quantity of pig-iron exported. Thus it
appears that although the " make " of iron was greater in
1880 than at present, the quantity used for manufactures was
less; the consumption in 1894 was 6,600,000 tons, against
6,120,000 in 1880. The greatest production of iron on record
was in the year 1882, namely 8,590,000, but of this amount
no less than 1,760,000 tons were exported as pig-iron, leaving
to be converted into British manufactures 6,830,000 tons, or
about 3 per cent, more than we consume at present. The
decline, therefore, of this branch of manufacture is more
apparent than real. One-half of the iron made is converted
into steel, and the quantities exported and retained in 1894
are shown thus : —
Tons.
Iron. Steel. Total.
Exported . . 1,490,000 1,220,000 2,710,000
Retained . . 2,260,000 2,460,000 4,720,000
Total . 3,750,000 3,680,000 7,430,000
It has been frequently asserted that the magnitude and
variety of the iron and steel industries defy any attempt to
ascertain their annual value even approximately ; this is, how-
ever, not the case. "We know the quantity and value of iron
and steel goods exported, also the weight of metal retained for
home manufacture. The official value of steel manufactures
UNITED KINGDOM 77
in Great Britain in 1894 was £26 '7 per ton, and we may be
permitted to put down manufactures of iron at half that
figure. The total output of iron and steel industries in 1894
was, therefore, approximately as follows : —
Tons. £, Value.
Steel manufactures . . 2,460,000 65,700,000
Iron manufactures . . 2,260,000 30,100,000
Exports, steel and iron . . 2,710,000 20,200,000
Total output . . . 7,430,000 116,000,000
The above, of course, includes machinery, implements, arms,
cutlery, shipbuilding and all manufactures in which steel or
iron is the principal raw material. The production of steel
has increased prodigiously of late years, viz. : —
Period. Tons Made. Per Annum.
1851-60 .. 900,000 90,000
1861-80 . . 10,200,000 510,000
1881-93 . . 36,000,000 2,770,000
The first use of steel for railway bars was in 1862, at Chalk
Farm station, near London, and proved so successful that
iron bars are no longer used in constructing railways, and
when worn out are replaced by steel ones. Ships were built
of steel at Glasgow in 1879, when it was found that they
could carry 20 per cent, more cargo than iron vessels of equal
size ; this led to a revolution in shipbuilding, steel wholly
taking the place of iron. In some of the smaller industries,
likewise, steel plays a chief part ; thus 10 tons weekly are
converted into steel pens at Birmingham, each ton producing
1,500,000 pens. The following is a summary of the iron and
steel trade for forty-four years : —
Millions £ Sterling. Millions £ Sterling.
Period.
Iron.
Steel
Total.
Home Use.
Exports
Total.
1851-60
. 383
56
439
261
178
439
1861-70
. 540
97
637
377
260
637
1871-80
. 729
341
1,070
656
414
1,070
1881-90
. 518
504
1,022
561
461
1,022
1891-94
. 170
270
440
264
176
440
44 years .2,340 1,268 3,608 2,119 1,489 3,608
78 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Copper. — The production of copper from British ores rose
from 6000 tons in 1810 to 13,000 in 1840, but began to
decline in the ensuing decade, and has now fallen so low that
the average for the years 1892-94 did not exceed 450 tons.
British ore gives only 7 per cent, of metallic copper, whereas
Australian gives 12, and American still more. At present
we import about 250,000 tons of regulus or half-smelted ore
from Chili and other countries, which yielded last year about
135,000 tons of pure copper. The production has more than
doubled since 1850, showing thus : —
Tons.
Year. British. Imported. Total.
1850 . . 12,000 51,000 63,000
1894 . . 500 135,000 135,500
Copper ingots were exported last year to the amount of
55,000 tons, leaving 80,000 tons for home manufactures, the
total representing a value of £14,000,000. Stevenson esti-
mated the copper manufactures in 1314 at £3,000,000.
Lead. — This industry, like that of copper, depends almost
wholly on imported metal. The product of British mines
rose steadily during the present century until 1870, when
it reached its maximum, but since then the Austrian and
Spanish mines have yielded so abundantly, and at less cost,
that our production has fallen by more than one-half. The
consumption has been as follows : —
Tons of Lead.
Year. British. Imported. Total.
1830 . . . 48,000 5,000 53,000
1894 . . . 30,000 148,000 178,000
The value of goods manufactured is only £5,000,000, almost
entirely for home consumption.
Tin. — Great Britain passes through her factories two-thirds
of the tin produced in the world. Our mines in Cornwall
have been declining since 1871, and our manufacture is mostly
dependent on metal imported from Java and Australia. The
output has been as follows : —
UNITED KINGDOM 79
Tons of Tin.
Year. British. Imported. Total.
1850 . . . 6,000 500 6,500
1894 . . . 8,000 16,000 24,000
One-fourth of the tin produced in 1894 was exported un-
wrought, leaving 18,000 tons for home manufactures. The
value of goods manufactured last year was £4,000,000.
Zinc. — The consumption of this metal has increased four-
teen-fold in little more than half a century. The product of
the mines in( Wales and Isle of Man has increased prodigiously,
but we still derive seven-eighths of our supply from abroad, as
shown thus : —
Tons of Zinc.
Year. British. Imported. Total.
1831 ... 700 4,000 4,700
1894 . . . 8,000 53,000 61,000
The value of zinc manufacture last year was nearly
£3,000,000.
Hardware Summary. — The growth in money value of our
metallic manufactures has been more than ten-fold in a cen-
tury, as will be seen on comparing the output of 1894 with
M'Pherson's and Stevenson's estimates, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1783
1814
1835
1894
According to the census of 1891 there were 1,240,000
operatives employed in metallic industries, exclusive of those
engaged in mining. It appears, therefore, that the average
output per hand in hardware is only £114, or two-thirds of
the average for textile operatives. Professor Levi ascertained
in 1881 that 943,000 hands engaged in foundries and similar
establishments received for wages yearly a sum of £56,500,000,
or almost £60 each. At the same rate the hardware opera-
Iron and SteeL
9
Copper, <fec.
2
TotaL
11
14
3
17
20
8
28
. 116
26
142
8o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
tives would now be in receipt of £74,400,000, or 52 per cent,
of the above estimated output of hardware manufactures
The total value of the output of hardware since 1850 was
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period.
Iron.
Copper.
Lead.
Tin.
Zinc.
Total.
1851-60
439
Ill
37
19
12
618
1861-70
637
131
45
21
9
843
1871-80
. 1,070
104
60
31
14
1,279
1881-94
. 1,462
189
65
50
30
1,796
44 years . 3,608 535 207 121 65 4,536
The value of hardware product is much less than that of
textile manufactures, the aggregate for the last forty-three
years summing up approximately as follows : —
Hardware, Millions £. Textiles,! Millions £,.
Period.
Home.
Export.
Total.
Home.
Export.
Total.
1851-60
419
199
618
715
584
1,299
1861-70
545
298
843
795
954
1,749
1871-80
821
458
1,279
902
1,107
2,009
1881-94
. 1,108
688
1,796
1,278
1,459
2,737
44 years . 2,893 1,643 4,536 3,690 4,104 7,794
It appears that since 1881 we exported about 38 per cent,
of our hardware, and 53 per cent, of our textile, manufactures.
Leather. — M'Culloch, in 1835, considered this industry
equal, if not superior, to that of iron. The output had been
valued by Eden in 1803 at £12,000,000. In the following
table is shown the annual consumption of leather from British
and imported hides : —
Tons consumed Yearly.
Period. British. Imported. TotaL
1831-50 . . 33,000 22,000 55,000
1891-95 . . 63,000 55,000 118,000
The value of leather goods made yearly is about 59 millions
sterling, of which boots and shoes stand for one- half, saddlery
one-fourth ; the remainder is made up of sundries and fancy
1 This table is given in detail in Appendix.
UNITED KINGDOM 81
goods. Deducting exports, which average £3,000,000 yearly,
the consumption of leather articles is equal to 28 shillings per
inhabitant, against 15 shillings in Sir Morton Eden's time.
The aggregate output in the last forty years summed up
2100 millions sterling, and in that period Great Britain paid
210 millions for hides imported. According to the census of
1891 there were 430,000 bootmakers and saddlers in the
United Kingdom : the output therefore averages £137 per
hand, which is less than the average in textile industries.
Glass and Pottery. — These are kindred industries, and of
minor importance, the collective output not exceeding
£15,000,000 yearly. The first glass factory was established
at St. Helens, Lancashire, in 1773, although some noblemen
had glass in their windows as early as the sixteenth century.
The said factory languished under tremendous taxation, the
duty on glass in the reign of George III. being £98 per ton,
but this was reduced to £30 under George IV., and finally
abolished in 1845. Pottery may be said to have commenced
with Josiah Wedgwood, in 1760 ; this son of a peasant did
for pottery what Arkwright did for the cotton industry.
The factory and village of Etruria were founded by him, and
after his death, in 1795, the works were carried on by his
descendants. Similar works were established at Belleek, Co.
Donegal, in 1861, by Mr. M'Birnie, a Dublin merchant. The
Board of Trade returns show that the United Kingdom does
not produce enough glass, but has a large surplus of pottery
for exportation. The average returns for twenty-three years,
ending 1893, were as follows : —
Imports, £. Exports, £.
Glass . . . 1,750,000 950,000
Pottery. . . 550,000 2,200,000
Total . . 2,300,000 3,150,000
M'Culloch estimated consumption in 1835 at 4 shillings
per inhabitant; at present it is probably 8 shillings per head,
say 15 millions sterling per annum. The census of 1891 gave
v
82 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
98,000 operatives in glass and pottery ; the average output
thus appears to be £153 per hand, against £114 in hardware.
Paper and Printing. — During the reigns of the Four Georges
the most oppressive taxes were imposed on printing paper and
newspapers, to such a degree that the duty paid on Knight's
"Encyclopedia" amounted to £20,000, and left the enter-
prising publisher without any profit on his great work. In
1841 the consumption of paper in the United Kingdom did
not exceed 16,000 tons, little more than double the quantity
in the time of George I., a statement published in 1721 show-
ing that it was then 7000 tons, of which only two-thirds were
made in England. The abolition of the paper-duties by Mr.
Gladstone in 1861 was such a boon to literature that the
consumption of paper rose from 83,000 tons in 1864 to
195,000 in 1885. At present there are 400 mills, employing
30,000 hands, and turning out yearly 220,000 tons, worth
£9,000,000 sterling : our production of paper is one-fourth of
that of Europe. The circulation of newspapers rose from 3J
millions monthly in 1831 to 45£ millions in 1864, and is now
approximately 174 millions, having thus multiplied nearly
fifty-fold in our own time. If we compare the circulation of
1831 with 1894 we find appi-oximately as follows : —
Monthly Issue. No. Yearly per Inhab.
1831.
1896.
1831.
1896.
England
. 2,750,000
148,000,000
2-3
59-0
Scotland
160,000
15,500,000
0-8
44-0
Ireland
330,000
10,500,000
0-5
27-0
U. Kingdom 3,240,000 174,000,000 1-7 53'0
Newspapers consume 120,000 tons of paper yearly, and
represent approximately an income of £16,000,000, while the
value of books produced yearly is about £5,000,000, so that
printing as a manufacture stands for £21,000,000 yearly.
About one-fourth of the books are exported. The production
of paper is greater than the consumption : the latter averages
12 Ibs. yearly, including paper of all descriptions. The census
UNITED KINGDOM 83
of 1891 gives 173,000 hands employed in the printing-trade ;
this gives an average product of £1 21 per operative. Levi
estimated printers' wages at .£61 per head, yearly.
Houses and Furniture. — Although houses are not usually
ranked among manufactures, it is necessary to classify them
as such. If we capitalise the assessed rental (by assuming it
to be 6 per cent, of the value) to arrive at the value of new
houses built or old ones rebuilt, yearly, we find as follows : —
Millions &. Annual Increase, £.
Value in 1821 .... 338
Increase, 1822-61 ... 682 17,000,000
Increase, 1862-94 . . . 1,473 44,000,000
Value in 1894 . . . 2,493
In the last thirty years the annual increase has averaged
£44,000,000, the assessed rental rising nearly £2,700,000
per annum. Furniture being half the value of houses, the
production requisite for new houses will be 22 millions yearly.
For the wear-and-tear of the existing furniture (valued at
1100 millions) an allowance of 3 per cent, will be 33 millions.
Thus the total annual product of houses and furniture sums
up 99 millions sterling. If this sum be divided among
973,000 operatives engaged in the building and furniture
trades in 1891, it gives an annual product of £102 each, their
wages, according to Levi, averaging £57.
Shipbuilding. — This industry is included among those of
iron already mentioned, but deserves special notice, the output
averaging about 20 millions sterling per annum. The tonnage
and carrying-power of vessels built in the United Kingdom
during the present century were : —
Yearly Average.
Period.
Tons Register.
Carrying-power.
Tons.
Carrying-power.
1801-40
. 3,170,000
3,540,000
80,000
88,000
1841-60
. 3,490,000
6,400,000
175,000
320,000
1861-80
. 8,170,000
22,300,000
409,000
1,115,000
1881-92
. 9,250,000
31,270,000
771,000
2,606,000
92 years . 24,080,000 63,510000
84 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Since 1890 the annual output of British shipyards has
averaged 1,150,000 tons register, and as 80 per cent, were
steamers, the effective carrying-power of new vessels averaged
3,930,000 tons yearly. No less than 90 per cent, of the vessels
were built of steel. Of the world's shipbuilding three-fourths
are done in British yards.
Machinery. — According to Professor Zehden there were 2000
machine-shops in Great Britain in 1889, employing 200,000
hands. The value of their output is about 40 millions ster-
ling per annum, two-fifths being exported, three-fifths kept
for home use. This item is also included in the general esti-
mate of value of iron manufactures. The export of machinery
has doubled in the last fifteen years.
Liquor. — Breweries and distilleries represent an aggregate
capital of 200 millions sterling. The production has been as
follows : —
Annual Product. Per 100 Inhabitants.
Period.
1801-30 .
1851-60 .
1890-94 .
Breweries consume yearly 70,000,000 bushels of malt (equal
to 90,000,000 bushels of grain) and 70,000 tons of sugar : only
one per cent, of the beer is exported, the average of home con-
sumption being 30 gallons yearly per inhabitant. One-tenth
of the spirits made in the United Kingdom is exported, but,
on the other hand, we consume yearly 8,000,000 gallons of
imported spirits, so that the total consumption is almost 1
gallon per inhabitant : this is exclusive of wine. The quantity
and value of all liquor consumed, and its equivalent in alcohol,
are shown thus : —
Quantity. Gallons Alcohol. Value, £.
Beer, barrels . 31,600,000 56,900,000 79,000,000
Spirits, gallons . 37,600,000 20,700,000 7,000,000
Wine, „ . 14,000,000 2,100,000 5,000,000
Beer, Barrels.
Spirits, Gallons.
Beer,
Barrels.
Spirits,
Gallons.
10,200,000
6,200,000
50
30
20,800,000
11,300,000
72
40
31,900,000
34,000,000
84
89
Total .... 79,700,000 91,000,000
UNITED KINGDOM 85
The consumption in the three kingdoms was approximately
as follows : —
Beer, Barrels. Spirits, Gallons. Win<>, Gallons.
England . 28,100,000 25,400,000 11,300,000
Scotland . 1,500,000 7,500,000 1,300,000
Ireland . 2,000,000 4,700,000 1,400,000
IT. Kingdom 31,600,000 37,600,000 14,000,000
Beer is the principal drink in England, spirits in Scotland
and Ireland, but it will be seen that the consumption of spirits
is also considerable in England. Thus when all kinds of liquor
are reduced to their equivalent in alcohol it will be found that
the ratio per head is much higher in England than in the
sister-kingdoms.
Gallons of
Value of
Gallons Pence
Alcohol.
Liquor, £.
per Head, per Head.
England
. 66,300,000
79,200,000
2-20 53
Scotland
. 7,000,000
5,500,000
1-70 26
Ireland
. 6,400,000
6,300,000
1-40 27
U. Kingdom. 79,700,000 91,000,000 2'10 47
The above is exclusive of cider, the consumption whereof
reaches 12,000,000 gallons, equal to 800,000 gallons of alcohol.
The annual output of the breweries and distilleries is of the
value of 85 millions sterling.
Food. — The total value of manufactured food, such as bread,
beer, &c. (excluding meat, tea, coffee, imported sugar, wine,
&c.), is about 127 millions sterling.
Clothing. — The census of 1891 showed 1,376,000 persons
engaged in tailoring, dressmaking, &c., and Levi estimates
the earnings of this class at a fraction over £33 per head
yearly, this being the worst-paid class of operatives in the
United Kingdom. According to the rule laid down in the
Introduction, the value of clothing made yearly is 84 millions
sterling, or about £61 per hand. There is an annual surplus
of .£3,000,000 in exports of clothing over imports, which
leaves consumption at £81,000,000, equal to 42 shillings
per inhabitant, exclusive of boots, but including hats and
shirts.
86 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Summary. — The total value of manufactures at various
dates was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1810. 1850. 1895.
Textiles 56 107 191
Hardware
Leather
Houses
Furniture
Food .
Clothing
Sundries
17 68 142
10 33 59
9 16 44
11 19 55
58 88 127
43 66 84
51 99 174
Total 255 496 876
It may appear strange that whereas the energy of the
nation has multiplied six-fold since 1840, the output of manu-
factures has not much more than doubled, having amounted
in 1840 to about 420 millions sterling; but the cause is not
far to seek. In the first place, the chief increase of energy
has been for transport, not for production, viz. : —
Year
1840
1860
1880
1895
Productive energy has not trebled since 1840, whereas that
employed in transport has grown thirteen-fold. In the second
place, the fall of prices must be taken into account, our manu-
factures having grown much more in volume than in value in
the last fifty years.
It has been already shown that the working-power of the
inhabitants differs exceedingly, being relatively as 100 per head
in England to 140 in Scotland and 55 in Ireland (see p. 61),
and if this ratio be held in view in determining approximately
the values of manufactures produced in the three kingdoms,
the account will stand thus : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Transport
Ratio.
Per Cent.
36
52
65
75
Production.
6,270
7,980
13,790
15,160
Transport.
3,450
8,550
26,050
46,250
Total.
9,720
16,530
39,840
61,410
UNITED KINGDOM 87
Hands. Millions £. £, per Hand.
England .... 6,607,000 702 106
Scotland .... 922,000 136 148
Ireland .... 656,000 38 58
United Kingdom . . 8,185,000 876 107
The above gives an average of £23 per inhabitant in
England, £32 in Scotland, and only £9 in Ireland, the general
average for the United Kingdom being £23, as compared with
£15 in France.
MINERALS
Since 1830 the weight of minerals raised has multiplied
thirteen-fold, showing thus : —
Tons of Mineral.
Year. Coal. Sundries. Total. Value, £.
1830 . . 16,100,000 1,980,000 18,080,000 8,500,000
1850 . . 49,000,000 5,800,000 54,800,000 19,900,000
1870 . . 110,000,000 16,700,000 126,700,000 46,100,000
1895 . . 189,700,000 49,500,000 239,200,000 77,900,000
At the present rate of extraction we have enough coal for
550 years without going beyond a depth of 4000 feet, the
greatest depth at present being about 2500 feet. One-fifth
of what is raised is exported, the home consumption exceeding
150,000,000 tons yearly, of which three-fourths are used for
factories, railways, &c. ; the domestic consumption being esti-
mated at 1 ton per inhabitant. It is worthy of remark that
the output of British collieries since 1850 almost equals in
value the product of all the gold and silver mines of the world
in the same interval, viz. : —
Value in Millions £ Sterling.
Period. Gold. Silver. Total. British Coal.
1851-70 ... 546 187 733 410
1871-94 ... 588 515 1,103 1,223
44 years . . . 1,134 702 1,836 1,633
The loss of life that attends coal-mining averages one man
for every million of tons raised, whereas before 1870 the
88 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
average was one killed for 350,000 tons. The total number
of men employed in mines and quarries in 1895 was 838,000,
that in quarries being 105,000 : the number of miners under-
ground was 590,000. If we exclude quarries,1 the mining
output in tons compares thus with the number of hands em-
ployed : —
Year. Tons raised. Miners. Tons per Man.
1820 . . 15,200,000 165,000 92
1860 . . 88,300,000 497,000 180
1895 . . 209,200,000 733,000 285
Each miner raises nearly a ton of mineral daily, and the
product of his labour is worth about 7 shillings. The report of
the Mining Commission of 1893 shows that "royalties" take
more than 7 per cent, of the gross product of mining, and
average 7 pence per ton on all minerals raised : the production
of coal and ironstone and amount of royalty in the three
kingdoms in 1889, according to the report, were : —
Coal, Tons. Ironstone. Royalties, £.
England . . 153,600,000 13,420,000 4,190,000
Scotland . > 23,200,000 1,060,000 678,000
Ireland . . . 100,000 160,000 6,000
United Kingdom . 176,900,000 14,640,000 4,874,000
England stands for 88, Scotland 12, per cent, of the mining
industry of the United Kingdom. The average wage of
miners in 1890 was £72, and this would make their earnings
sum up £60,500,000, which is more than three-fourths of the
value of minerals raised, viz. : —
Year. Coal. Ores, &c. Total, £. Miners. £ per Man.
1820 . 5,300,000 1,400,000 6,700,000 165,000 40
1860 . 20,100,000 10,700,000 30,800,000 497,000 62
1894 . 62,700,000 15,200,000 77,900,000 838,000 93
In the above column of ores are included not only metallic,
but also stone, slate, salt, &c. The value of metals produced
1 The stone quarries of the United Kingdom in 1895 yielded 29,500,000
tons of building stone, worth about £8,000,000; the slate quarries, 460,000
tons of slate, valued at £1,200,000.
UNITED KINGDOM 89
from British ores rose from £7,100,000 in 1840 to £18,200,000
in 1894. Reference has been already made to these metals
in the chapter on manufactures.
COMMERCE
Down to the reign of William IY. the balance of trade was
called favourable, that is, exports exceeded imports in value ;
but with better times, during the present reign, we came to
have a healthy surplus of imports, the most unequivocal proof
of commercial prosperity and increasing national wealth. The
progress of British commerce in seventy-five years has been as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1820
1850
1880
1895
The above figures would appear to show a very trifling
•increase of trade since 1880 ; nevertheless the volume of mer-
chandise has greatly increased. There has been in the interval
a notable decline in prices, the index-number of price-level in
Sauerbeck's tables showing a fall of 30 per cent, since 1880,
so that if the merchandise exchanged in 1895 were taken at
the prices of 1880 it would represent not 703 millions, but 1004
millions. The principal items of import trade have been : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
*iper
Inhabitant.
30
44
74
3-5
99
70
169
6-2
411
286
697
20-2
417
286
703
18-1
1854.
1870.
1SSO.
1895.
Grain .
23
37
70
50
Cotton .
20
54
43
30
Meat
4
8
27
36
Wool .
7
16
26
28
Sugar .
11
18
23
18
Dairy produce
3
12
21
27
Timber
12
13
17
16
Minerals
3
9
16
19
Sundries
69
136
168
193
Total . . 152 303 411 417
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The greatest relative increase has been in meat, dairy pro-
ducts, and minerals, which have risen six- to eight-fold since
1854. Meantime the real increase has been greater still than
shown in the above table, as there has been, as already stated,
a considerable fall of prices in the last forty years.
The trade relations of the United Kingdom with all
countries are shown in the following table of imports and
exports, being the average for five years ending December
1893 :—
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
from.
Exports
to.
Total.
Ratio.
United States
. 100
41
141
19-4
France .
. 44
23
67
9-3
Germany
Holland
. 26
. 28
30
16
56
44
7-7
6-0
Russia .
. 22
9
31
4-3
Various
Foreign countries .
India .
. 106
98
204
28-0
. 326
. 32
217
32
543
64
74-7
8-8
Australia
. 30
23
53
7-3
Canada
. - 13
9
22
3-0
Various
. 22
23
45
6-2
British Colonies
The World .
97
423
87
304
184
727
25-3
100-0
Our trade with the United States far surpasses our dealings
with any other country, and exceeds the aggregate of our
trade with India, Australia, and Canada, which is the more
remarkable as the fiscal policy of the United States in recent
years has apparently had for its main object to cripple com-
mercial relations with Great Britain. It is, moreover, note-
worthy that our trade with Canada is less than half what it is
with Australia, although the former is much nearer. Each
Australian has £13 of trade yearly with the Mother Country,
each Canadian only £4. Our trade with the Colonies is one-
fourth of the total, precisely the same ratio as forty years ago.
Shipping. — The maritime carrying-trade of the British
nation has no parallel in ancient or modern times; its
UNITED KINGDOM gi
greatest increase has been since the abolition of the Naviga-
tion Laws in 1849, although the said laws had for object the
supremacy of the British flag on sea. The following table
shows the nominal tonnage and carrying-power at various
dates : — '
Year.-
1800 .
1840 .
1881 .
1894 .
The average carrying-power per vessel has nearly doubled
since 1881, so rapidly have steamers come to supplant sailing-
vessels. In 1892 more than half the carrying-trade on the
high seas was done by British vessels, the tonnage of port-
entries showing as follows : —
Tons Register.
Vessels.
17,410
28,962
30,531
27,310
Tons Register.
1,856,000
3,311,000
8,535,000
10,380,000
Per Vessel,
Carrying-power. Tons.
1,856,000 106
3,596,000 124
17,850,000 585
29,560,000 1,070
Ports of
British.
Other Flags.
Total
United Kingdom
27,040,000
10,630,000
37,670,000
British Colonies .
30,210,000
9,410,000
39,620,000
United States
9,820,000
8,360,000
18,180,000
Other countries .
48,280,000
76,440,000
124,720,000
Total . 115,350,000 104,840,000 220,190,000
In the foregoing tables Colonial shipping is included with
British. If we consider only that of the United Kingdom the
returns show thus: —
Tons Register.
f ~ ^ Carrying-power,
Year. Sail. Steam. Total. Tons.
1840 . . 2,480,000 90,000 2,570,000 2,840,000
1880 . . 3,850,000 2,725,000 6,575,000 14,750,000
1894 . . 2,990,000 5,970,000 8,960,000 26,870,000
The increasing efficiency of our seamen is seen on comparing
their number at various dates with nominal tonnage and
carrying-power : —
Tons per Man.
Carrying-
'
Carrying-
Year.
Tons Register.
power.
Seamen.
Register.
power.
1830 .
. 2,202,000
2,260,000
131,000
168
173
1850 .
. 3,565,000
3,890,000
148,000
241
263
1870 .
. 5,691,000
9,020,000
196,000
290
460
1894 .
. 8,960,000
26,870,000
240,000
374
1,120
92 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The effective carrying-power per seaman has quadrupled
since 1850, that is to say, one sailor now can do as much work
as four did fifty years ago.
Internal Trade. — The internal trade of the United Kingdom
at various dates was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1812. 1836. 1850. 1870. 1895.
Agricultural products . 171 229 225 252 230
Manufactures, &c. . . 262 370 516 710 957
Imports .... 25 47 99 303 417
Total . . . .458 646 840 1,265 1,604
It appears that while our trade with foreign countries has
quadrupled since 1850, our internal trade has not quite
doubled. The latter in 1895 was distributed among the three
kingdoms approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
Agricultural products 147
28
55
230
Manufactures
. 702
136
38
876
Mines, forestry, &c.
74
13
87
Imports
. 334
51
32
417
Total
. 1,257
228
125
1,610
From the above it would appear that 78 per cent of the
industries of the United Kingdom correspond to England, 14
to Scotland, and 8 per cent, to Ireland. The average all
round is .£41 per inhabitant. No records are kept of the
value of imported merchandise consumed separately in the
three kingdoms, but it may be assumed that the proportions
will be the same as those of port-entries, sea-going and coast-
wise, of which England stands for 79 per cent., Scotland 13,
and Ireland 8 per cent., and on this basis the values are put
down in the above table.
UNITED KINGDOM 93
RAILWAYS
The first line was opened in 1825 from Stockton to Dar-
lington, and the mileage and cost of construction were as
follows : —
Miles Open. Cost, £. £ per Mile.
1850. . . . 6,620 240,300,000 36,300
1894. . . . 20,910 985,400,000 47,100
English and Scotch lines have been the dearest in the world
for construction, having averaged, for the island of Great
Britain, £5,2,600 per mile, or more than four times the
average cost in Ireland. The mileage and capital in 1894
were : —
Miles Open. Cost, £. £ per Mile.
England . . . 14,535 811,800,000 55,800
Scotland . . . 3,330 134,400,000 40,300
Ireland . . . 3,045 39,200,000 12,900
United Kingdom . . 20,910 985,400,000 47,100
Although the traffic on Irish lines is light, owing to the
scanty population and backward condition of the country, the
earnings give a larger profit on capital than in England or
Scotland, the returns for 1894 showing : —
Traffic per Mile, £.
Receipts. Expenses. Net. On Capital.
England . . . 4,944 2,794 2,150 3 '8
Scotland . . . 2,698 1,412 1,286 3'2
Ireland . . . 1,115 605 510 4'0
United Kingdom . 4,034 2,259 1,775 3'8
The goods traffic in 1894 consisted of 324 million tons of
merchandise, of which 86 per cent, corresponded to England,
12J to Scotland, and l£ to Ireland. Before the introduction
of railways the ordinary freight charge on canals was 40
shillings per ton per 100 miles ; at this rate the goods carried
by rail in 1894 would have paid 201 millions sterling (the
average length of haulage in the United Kingdom being 31
miles), but they paid only 47 millions, which shows a saving
of 154 millions in freight, equal to nearly 10 per cent, on the
value of internal trade of the three kingdoms.
94 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
BANKING
This is an industry very closely related to commerce ; the
estimates of banking-power, according to the British Almanac
and the Bankers Magazine, were at various dates as follows : —
£per
Year. £ Inhabitant
1840 . . . 132,000,000 5-0
1874 . . . 782,000,000 24'1
1894 . . . 960,000,000 25'0
Banking-power has multiplied seven-fold since 1840, show-
ing in 1894 as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Capital.
English .
Scotch
Irish
Foreign .
Total . . . 122-4 38'7 799-0 960-1
If foreign banks be left out, the proportions of banking-
power will be thus : — England, 76| ; Scotland, 15J ; Ireland,
8 per cent, of total. As regards the Bank of England, its
business has doubled in seventy-four years, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Capital.
58-4
Issue.
26-3
Deposits.
445-2
Total.
529-9
9-3
6-6
92-1
108-0
7-1
5-8
41-7
54-6
47-6
220-0
267-6
Year. Capital. Issue. Deposits. Total.
1820 . . . 14-5 235 4'1 421
1894 . . . 14-5 25-1 40'5 80'1
While the Bank of England has only doubled, the banking
business of the country, as shown in the first table, has multi-
plied eleven-fold. According to the Statesman's Year-Book there
are 178 joint-stock banks, with 4138 branches or bank-offices
in the United Kingdom. Also 41 private banks, with aggre-
gate capital amounting to 12 millions, and deposits 64 millions,
which are not included in the foregoing statement of the
banking-power of the nation. In that statement the banking
capital is merely the amount paid up, but the market value of
UNITED KINGDOM 95
the shares in October 1894 amounted to £241,200,000, being
an average premium of 98 per cent., which is the more re-
markable as only 36 per cent, of the nominal capital was
paid up. Shareholders were still liable for 218 millions to be
called up if occasion required. If the effective capital of our
banks were supposed to be the present market value of the
shares, say 241 millions, and that we were to include the
capital and deposits in private banks, the total banking-power
of the nation would be raised from 960 to 1155 millions
sterling.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the people at various dates were approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
1812.
1836.
I860.
1895.
Agricultural
103
137
147
138
Manufacturing
127
180
310
438
Mines, forests, &c
6
12
31
87
Trade .
46
65
111
161
Transport
49
69
118
169
House-rent .
15
33
61
150
Domestics .
10
22
40
100
Public service
11
27
35
51
Professions .
37
55
85
129
Total . . .404 600 938 1,423
Comparing the above totals with population, we find that
the ratio per head has been constantly rising; and , if we
reduce the ratio at each date to its equivalent in wheat, the
increase of income is still greater, viz. : —
£ per Wheat,
Tear. Millions £. Population. Head. Bushels.
1812 . . 404 18,500,000 22 35
1836 . . 600 25,000,000 24 76
1860 . . 938 29,000,000 32 94
1895 . . 1,423 39,100,000 36 245
Average earnings per inhabitant have risen 50 per cent, in
money since 1836, and have trebled in wheat. The shares
that at present fall to the three kingdoms are as follow : —
96 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Millions £ Sterling.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
Agricultural
88
17
33
138
Manufacturing .
351
68
19
438
Mines, forests, &c.
74
13
0
87
Trade
126
23
12
161
Transport. .
137
21
11
169
House-rent
132
14
4
150
Domestics
88
10
2
100
Public service .
44
4
3
51
Professions
104
17
8
129
Total . . .1,144 187 92 1,423
This gives an average income of £38 per head in England,
£45 in Scotland, and £20 in Ireland.
Wealth, — Taking the returns of property which paid death-
duties in the three kingdoms, and the number of persons,
adults and infants, who died, we find the averages for five
years to December 1893 were as follows : —
Property, £. Deaths. £ per Head.
England . . 185,200,000 560,000 331
Scotland . . 20,500,000 78,000 263
Ireland. . . 12,200,000 86,000 142
Applying these ratios to the living population in 1895, we
find:—
Wealth,
Population. £ per Head. Millions £.
England . . 30,400,000 331 10,062
Scotland . . 4,160,000 263 1,094
Ireland. . . 4,580,000 142 650
United Kingdom . 39,140,000 302 11,806
The amount in 1895 is more than four times Colquhoun's
estimate in 1812, showing that the wealth of the nation, as
M'Culloch estimated in 1835, dottbles in about forty years.
The principal components at various dates were approximately
as follows : —
UNITED KINGDOM
97
Millions £ Sterling.
1812.
I860.
1895.
Land
1,332
1,748
1,686
Cattle and implements
334
350
391
Railways .
348
985
Factories .
85
207
292
Houses
315
813
2,200
Furniture .
250
407
1,100
Merchandise
180
555
805
Bullion
15
105
109
Shipping .
27
32
104
Sundries .
199
2,641
4,134
Total . . 2,737 7,206 11,806
If we take the ratios of the income tax assessments in 1860
as indicating the proportions of wealth, we find : —
Ratio. Millions £. £ per Iiihab.
England . . . 84'1 6,061 303
Scotland 9'0 648 212
Ireland . 6'9 497 84
Total . . 100-0 7,206 249
Comparing the figures of 1860 and 1895, we find : —
I-
Millions £.
Rate of
I860.
1895.
Increase.
Per Cent
6,061
10,062
4,001
66
648
1,094
446
68
497
650
153
31
England
Scotland
Ireland
'U. Kingdom . 7,206 11,806 4,600 64
he components of wealth in 1860 and 1895 were : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Land
Cattle, &c.
Railways
Factories
Houses .
Furniture
Merchandise
Sundries
Total
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
1860.
1895.
1860.
1895.
1860.
1895.
1,289
1,202
189
188
270
296
247
250
40
46
63
95
289
812
39
134
20
39
166
234
32
45
9
13
672
1,962
60
187
41
51
336
981
30
93
20
26
433
629
79
114
43
62
2,629
3,992
179
287
31
68
6,061 10,062 648 1,094
497
650
98 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The annual accumulation in the above interval of thirty- five
years compares with population as follows : —
Accum.
Accumulation,
Mean
per Inhab.,
£ per Annum.
Population.
Shillings.
114,300,000
24,840,000
92
12,700,000
3,580,000
71
4,400,000
5,250,000
17
England
Scotland
Ireland
TJ. Kingdom . 131,400,000 33,670,000 78
Counting 300 working days to the year, it appears that the
average accumulations during the last thirty-five years were
almost 4 pence a day in England per inhabitant, 3 pence in
Scotland, and a little over a half-penny in Ireland ; say 3
pence in the whole United Kingdom.
Land. — In 1812 land constituted nearly half the national
wealth, but now it is only one-seventh. The area of the three
kingdoms is 72 million acres, and the total value is 1686
millions sterling, which gives an average of £23 per acre;
but if we eliminate 24 million acres of waste lands, which are
valueless, the cultivated portion and its value will stand
thus : —
Acres. Millions £. £ per Acre.
England . . 27,600,000 1,202 43'5
Scotland . . 4,800,000 188 39'2
Ireland . . 15,300,000 296 19'3
U. Kingdom . 47,700,000 1,686 35'3
The total agricultural wealth of the United Kingdom
between land, cattle, implements, &c., is 2077 millions sterling
equal to .£54 per inhabitant, as compared with £76 in 1812.
Railways. — In the interval between 1860 and 1894 the miw
capital expended in railway construction was 637 millions, o
nearly 20 millions per annum. No country in the world
except the United States, has so large a railway capital as the
United Kingdom.
Factories. — These are included in the assessed rental o
houses, and hence the value cannot be exactly determined,
but we find in the United States that their value is one-thir<
UNITED KINGDOM 99
of the manufactured output, and the same is probably true in
all countries.
Houses. — The value of house-property, including factories,
and the number of houses at various dates, are shown in the
following table : —
Value,
£per
Tear.
No.
Rental, £.
Millions £.
House.
1821
. 3,572,000
20,300,000
338
95
1841
. 4,775,000
41,500,000
692
145
1861
. 5,131,000
61,200,000
1,020
199
1881
. 6,485,000
117,500,000
1,960
302
1894
. 7,360,000
149,600,000
2,493
339
The average value of each house has almost quadrupled
since 1821, and the aggregate value has multiplied seven- fold,
while population has not quite doubled. Looking back to
1812 we find, according to Colquhoun, that land was then
3£ times the value of houses, whereas in 1894 houses ex-
ceeded land by 800 millions sterling. The number, rental,
and value of houses at the last census (1891) in the three
kingdoms were as follows : —
Value,
£per
No.
Rental, £.
Millions £.
House.
England
. 5,461,000
123,700,000
2,062
370
Scotland
818,000
13,200,000
220
268
Ireland .
871,000
3,600,000
60
69
U. Kingdom. 7,150,000 140,500,000 2,342 328
If factories be deducted from house property, the value of
the latter in 1894 will be, as already stated, 2200 millions.
The values of furniture, merchandise, and shipping are accord-
ing to the bases laid down in the Introduction. Bullion is
according to semi-official estimates. Sundries comprise all
the rest, say 4134 millions, and it is believed that half
this amount consists of investments abroad, in loans, rail-
ways, &c.
Distribution of Wealth. — On this subject the probate returns
and average number of deaths in five years, ending December
1893, give the following results : —
loo INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Class.
Deaths, No.
Property, £.
Average, £.
Wealthy .
478
63,800,000
133,000
Affluent .
5,544
70,100,000
12,600
Above want
43,898
30,900,000
702
No assets .
341,080
...
Children .
333,000
...
Total . 724,000 164,800,000
The above is exclusive of property which paid succession
duty, averaging in the same years £53,100,000, making in all
£217,900,000 per annum. If we were to distribute the whole
wealth of the United Kingdom on the basis of the above
probate returns for the last five years, the result would be as
follows : —
Class.
Rich
Middle
Number.
327,000
2,380,000
Millions, £.
9,120
2,120
£ per Head.
28,000
900
Working
Children
. 18,210,000
. 17,940,000
566
31
Population . . . 38,857,000 11,806 302
Nearly 80 per cent, of the total wealth is held by 1| per
cent, of the adult population. The middle class stands for
11 per cent, of population, and holds 18 per cent, of wealth.
The same probate returns point to a congestion of wealth
among the richest class of the community, viz. : —
Yearly. Ratio of Progress.
Estate. 1840. 1877. 1889-93. 1840. 1877. 1893.
Over £5,000 . 1,989 4,478 5,367 100 223 270
£100 to £5,000 . 17,936 36,438 44,553 100 203 249
Fortunes over £5000 are multiplying much faster than
those under £5000, which is the reverse of what is desirable,
and this congestion seems to increase in intensity the higher
we go. The latest statistical abstract shows the values of
estates probated in the last twelve years, 1882-93. If we
compare the last four years with the first four years of the
period, we find the annual averages of estates as follows : —
UNITED KINGDOM 101
1882-86. 1890-93. Increase.
£. £. Per Cent
Over £100,000 . . 32,700,000 44,100,000 35
Under „ . . 102,000,000 125,500,000 23
Here we see that the progression of estates over £100,000
is as three to two, compared with estates under that figure.
There is, meantime, one very cheering feature in these probate
tables, namely, that the ratio of persons above want rises
steadily, in spite of the above-mentioned congestion of wealth.
The following table shows the relative progress cf population
and of estates1 over £100 since 1840 : —
1840. 1877. 1893.
Population .... 100 126 146
Estates over £100 ... 100 205 251
Thus in fifty-three years population has risen 46 per
cent., and the number of persons who left estates of more
than £100 at their death, 151 per cent. ; in other words, the
class of society which may be considered above the reach of
want has grown since 1840 three times faster than the general
population. And if we go back only sixteen years, to 1877.
we find that population has risen 16 per cent., while the easy
class has increased 22 per cent., showing beyond doubt that
the proportion of people whose life is a constant struggle to
keep the wolf from the door diminishes year by year. If we
compare the deaths of adults with the number of persons who
left estates over £100, we find thus :l —
Year. Deaths. Estates. Estate Ratio.
1840 .... 318,000 19,925 6'2
1877 .... 360,000 40,916 11 '3
1888-93 .... 391,000 49,920 12'8
The improved condition of the working classes is evident
from the increased number of depositors in savings banks ; it
was less than 4 per cent, of the population of the United
Kingdom in 1850, and has now risen to 19 per cent. Never-
1 The number of deaths of adults for the United Kingdom in 1840 is
estimated after that of England, there being no returns for Scotland and
Ireland so far back.
102 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
theless, the sufferings of the indigent class in our large towns
are greater than ever before ; the condition of this class has
been aptly described as far worse than that of Hottentots.
The evil arises partly from habits of intemperance, but much
more from want of suitable dwellings at a moderate rent.
FINANCES
The revenue of the United Kingdom has not doubled since
1820, the gross amounts collected showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1820. 1853. 1880. 1895.
Excise . 16-2 16'3 25'3 30'5
Customs .
Stamps .
Land-tax
Income-tax
Post-office
Sundries .
22-6 22-5 19-3 20'3
6-5 7-1 10-4 16-7
1-4 1-2 1-1 1-0
5-6 9-2 15-6
1-4 2-5 7-8 13-3
6-4 37 6-3 4-3
Total . . 54-5 58'9 79'4 101-7
Revenue has kept pace with population, the average being
now 52 shillings per inhabitant, the same as in 1820. When
we consider that the earnings of the people are now 50 per
cent, higher, per inhabitant, than they were seventy years ago,
it will be seen that the incidence of taxation is only two-thirds
of what it was then. British finances, on the whole, have
been much better handled than those of other countries, and
our national debt has been reduced. The totals of revenue
and expenditure for fifty-four years are shown in the sub-
joined table : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period.
Customs.
Excise.
Post-office.
Taxes.
Total.
1841-60
464
326
46
384
1,220
1861-80
454
475
109
493
1,531
1881-94
277
340
150
485
1,252
54 years . 1,195 1,141 305 1,362 4,003
UNITED KINGDOM
Millions & Sterling.
Period. Government,
1841-60 . 224
, Army.
244
Navy.
176
Debt.
581
Total.
1,225
1861-80 .
369
338
218
540
1,465
1881-94 .
417
257
183
362
1,219
54 years . 1,010 839 577 1,483 3,909
Customs. — The tendency of fiscal legislation during the last
half-century has been to lighten customs-dues, which fall
mostly on the working classes. In 1864 they averaged 15
shillings per inhabitant, and in 1895 a little over 10 shillings.
A sum of £200,000 is taken from the Customs and given to
local authorities, wherefore the amount in the Budget appears
£200,000 less than collected.
Excise. — This is almost exclusively a tax on liquor, which
has doubled since 1852, but is actually less per inhabitant
than it was twenty years ago, viz. : —
Shillings
Year. Excise. Population. per Head.
1852 . . 15,800,000 27,700,000 11'4
1874 . . 27,100,000 32,400,000 16'7
1895 . . 30,500,000 39,100,000 15'6
A portion of the revenue from this tax, amounting to
£4,600,000, is handed over to local authorities ; hence this
item in the Budget appears as £25,900,000.
Income-tax. — This was first introduced by Pitt in 1798, and
was abolished in 1816, after the close of the Bonaparte wars.
The highest rate was in 1808, namely 24 pence in the pound,
when it produced £16,500,000. It was revived by Peel in
1842, but Ireland was exempted till 1853. The product in
fifty-three years has been as follows : —
Millions £.
Product
per Penuy,
£.
910,000
1,630,000
2,070,000
Pence
per
Inhabitant
77
57
54
Period.
1842-61
1862-81
1882-94
Amount.
. 157
. 148
. 109
Per Annum.
7-8
7-4
8-4
53 years . 414 7'8 l,470,t)00 64
io4 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Pitt's tax embraced all incomes over £60 a year, with
higher rates for those over £150. Peel's began at £100,
charging 5 pence in the pound up to £150, and 7 pence over
the latter figure. It remained so until the Crimean War,
which drove up the rate to 16 pence in 1855, but in 1858 it
was reduced to 5 pence. The minimum was in 1875, when it
fell to 2 pence, but since 1878 it has ranged between 5 pence
and 8 pence, the latter being the present rate. No incomes
under £160 are taxed, an abatement of 40 per cent, is allowed
between £160 and £400, and 25 per cent, between the latter
and £500.
Stamps. — This source of revenue has doubled in forty years,
and may be said to consist of three items, viz. : —
1853, £. 1874, £. 1895, £.
Death-duties . 2,400,000 5,500,000 10,800,000
Deeds . . 1,400,000 2,000,000 3,300,000
Bills, &c. . 3,300,000 3,000,000 2,600,000
Total . 7,100,000 10,500,000 16,700,000
Since 1889 a portion of the death duties (one-fifth) is
handed over to local authorities, and hence stamps figure in
the Budget of 1895 for no more than £14,600,000.
Post-office. — This department leaves a large profit yearly,
since the postal reform of 1840, when penny postage was
introduced ; the aggregate receipts in fifty-four years have
exceeded 300 millions sterling, of which 30 per cent, was
profit, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period. Receipts. Expenses. Profit.
1841-64 61 39 22
1865-84 130 91 39
1885-94 114 85 29
54 years 305 215 90
In the above table are included the earnings of the Tele-
graph Department, which reach £2,600,000. The telegraphic
service in the three kingdoms was taken over by the State in
UNITED KINGDOM 105
1870; sixpenny telegrams were introduced in 1885, since
which year the number of messages has doubled, at present
passing 70,000,000 yearly.
Expenditure. — Although the imperial revenue in 1895
reached £101,700,000, the expenditure for national purposes
was considerably less, a sum of £7,000,000 having been
handed over to local authorities. The actual expenditure was
only £93,900,000. Dividing the past fifty-four years into
three epochs, the annual expenditure has averaged thus : —
Army .
Navy .
Government
Debt .
Total
Incidence. — About 83 per cent, of the national revenue is
used by taxation, say £78,700,000 in 1895. If we compare
taxation with the people's earnings we find : —
Millions £, Sterling.
Millions £,.
Shillings per Inhabitant.
1841-60.
1861-80.
1881-94.
1841-60.
1861-80.
1881-94.
12'2
16-9
18-4
8'8
12-3
101
8-8
10-9
13-1
6-4
8-0
7-2
11-2
18-5
29-8
8*1
13-4
16-3
29-1
27-0
25-8
21-2
17-1
14-1
61-3
73-3
871
44-5
50-8
47-7
Year. Earnings. Taxation. Tax Ratio.
1860 ..... 938 66 7-1
1895 1,423 79 6'5
A similar result is obtained if taxation be compared with
income-tax assessments, showing that the burthen of public
charges is now much lighter than it was thirty years ago.
Besides imperial taxes there are local rates and tolls, about
£43,000,000, which, added to the former, make a total of
£122,000,000, or 8| per cent, of national earnings. Taxation
may, therefore, be considered light, as compared with most
other countries.
An inquiry was recently made by Parliament into the
relative shares of national taxation borne by Great Britain
and Ireland, when the following statement by the Treasury
was handed in : —
io6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Millions £ Sterling.
/* """"""" ^""™""~ •"""" •"" ""• ™"~™™"
Amount Collected. Real Revenue.
Year.
1820
G. Britain.
. 52-6
Ireland.
5-3
U. Kingdom.
57-9
G. Britain.
51-4
Ireland.
5-3
U. Kingdom.
56-7
1830
. 50-9
4-6
55-4
49'6
5-5
551
1840
. 47-3
4-6
51-9
46-3
5'4
51-7
1850
. 53-1
4-3
57-4
51-9
4-9
56-8
1860
. 63-9
7-1
71-0
61-4
7-7
69-2
1870
. 68-3
7-3
75-6
65-6
7'4
73-0
1880
. 72-3
7-8
80-1
69-8
7-3
77-1
1890
. 85-6
9-0
94-6
84-9
7-9
92-8
From the above it appears that Ireland pays 8J per cent, of
the revenue of the United Kingdom. The incidence of imperial
revenue, as compared with earnings, shows as follows : —
Earnings, £. Revenue, £. Ratio.
Great Britain . . 1,331,000,000 84,900,000 6'37
Ireland .... 92,000,000 7,900,000 8'59
United Kingdom . . 1,423,000,000 92,800,000 6'52
If taxation were adjusted in proportion to earnings the
share that corresponds to Ireland would be exactly £6,000,000
per annum, or 24 per cent, less than at present.
Debt. — At the accession of George III. the National Debt
was under 150 millions, and before his death it reached the
enormous sum of 900 millions. The following table shows
debt and national wealth at various dates : —
Millions £.
Debt per
Inhabitant.
Population. £.
8,700,000 21
19,500,000 46
28,900,000 28
39,100,000 17
Year.
1763
1816
1860
1895
Debt.
. 147
. 900
. 823
. 660
Wealth.
1,100
2,900
5,927
11,806
Ratio of Debt.
13-4
31-0
14-0
5-6
Although the debt is now nominally 660 millions it is really
no more than 629 millions, if we deduct the Suez Canal shares
and other assets held by the State. The burthen of debt, as
compared with wealth, is now less than half what it was 130
years ago, at the beginning of the reign of George III. At
the close of the Bonaparte wars, in 1816, it was equal to
nearly one-third of the national wealth, or relatively six times
UNITED KINGDOM 107
greater than at present. The American war of 1775-81
added 106 millions to the debt, and the Bonaparte wars about
600 millions, the loans issued having been as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1776-86. 1793-1815. Total?
Issue 106 788 894
Realised . . . ' . 92 470 562
Loss . , ..' ....... 14 318 332
This loss of 332 millions was more apparent than real, for
between August 1788 and December 1821, the Commissioners
redeemed 420 millions at a cost of 277 millions, a saving of
143 millions, leaving the net loss only 189 millions. Accord-
ing to Lowe the French war cost Great Britain no less than
1109 millions sterling, and Cohen's estimate, in 1823, is nearly
the same. Lowe places ordinary expenditure at 18 millions a
year down to 1802, and 22 millions after that date, making
the account stand thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period. Ordinary. War. Total.
1793-1805 . . . .246 404 650
1806-1815 . . . .220 705 925
Taxes.
Loans.
Total.
Per Annum.
150
264
414
32
419
325
744
74
23 years . . . .466 1,109 1,575
Cohen's estimate of war expenditure is 1158 millions, or 49
millions more than Lowe's, the money having been raised as
follows : —
Millions^ Sterling.
Period.
1793-1805 .
1806-1815 .
23 years . . .569 589 1,158 50
It must be observed that the actual increase of debt was
less than the above amount of loans issued ; it was in fact 458
ullions, the difference of 131 millions being accounted for by
redemption of old loans. The official statement of funded
debt in 1792, before the outbreak of the war, showed capital
£279,000,000, annual interest £10,060,000, and in 1816 it
was (exclusive of the Irish debt) as follows : —
io8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Capital, £. Interest, &.
5 per cents. . . . 144,000,000 7,200,000
4 per cents. . . . 75,000,000 3,000,000
Various stocks . . 518,000,000 18,900,000
Total funded . . 737,000,000 29,100,000
Hence it would appear that the actual cost of the French
war was 1106 millions, of which 45 per cent, was met by
means of loans and 55 per cent, by taxes. In 1817 the Irish
Exchequer was suppressed, and the debt of that kingdom,
amounting to £113,500,000, added to the British. From that
time the national debt steadily declined until 1854, when the
Crimean war caused an addition of 25 millions. The total of
funded and unfunded debt in 1860 was 823 millions, and it is
now, as already shown, only 629 millions, being a reduction of
194 millions in thirty-five years, say 5|- millions yearly.
Much more striking has been the reduction of interest ; the
annual charge, which averaged 26 shillings per inhabitant in
1821, is now only 8 shillings. Yansittart in 1822 inaugurated
an epoch of conversion of debt by calling in all the 5 per cent,
stock, for which the holders were glad to take new 4 per
cents., and thus saving £1,500,000 of interest. Two years
later Robinson converted the 4 per cents, into 3| per cents.,
and after him came Goulburn, whose conversions effected a
reduction of 2 millions a year. In later times Gladstone's
measures caused a saving of £500,000, and finally in 1888
Goschen reduced interest by £1,400,000. Thus we find that
the interest on funded debt is now only £16,200,000, that is
40 per cent less than in the year when Yansittart made his
first conversion. In the meantime local debts have multiplied
in late years, rising from 153 millions in 1880 to 230 millions
in 1894, but these debts are mostly of a reproductive character,
since they represent municipal and sanitary works. Adding
together the national and local debts of the United Kingdom,
we have a total of about 860 millions, equal to 7£ per cent of
the wealth of the nation.
IV
FKANCE
AT the beginning of the century France had nearly double the
population of the United Kingdom, but at present the advan-
tage is on our side, viz. : —
Increase.
1801. 1895. per Cent.
France . . . 27,350,000 38,350,000 41
United Kingdom . 15,720,000 39,130,000 149
Frenchmen are little inclined to emigrate, and the number
actually living abroad is less than that of foreigners residing
in France, the census of 1891 showing 1,130,000 for the
latter and 788,000 for the former. The total emigration of
fifty years down to 1890, and the number of French living
abroad in 1891, were approximately as follows : —
To Emigrants. Living in 1891.
Algeria .... 400,000 271,000
United States . . . 294,000 113,000
Other parts . . . 686,000 404,000
Total .... 1,380,000 788,000
During the above period of fifty years emigration averaged
28,000 per annum, or less than 1 per thousand of the popu-
lation, against 7 per thousand from the United Kingdom.
There was meantime a large migration of peasantry into the
chief cities, which have trebled their population since 1835,
viz. : —
Year. Paris. Lyons. Marseilles. Total.
1835 . 881,000 162,000 125,000 1,168,000
1891 . 2,450,000 415,000 405,000 3,270,000
109
I io INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Since 1835 the aggregate population of the above three
cities has risen 180 per cent., that of the rest of France only
8 per cent. As regards the distribution of sexes there is only
a slight excess of females, and the surplus seems to diminish
as time goes on, probably owing to the influx of Belgian,
Italian, and other foreign workmen. The number of females
to 1000 males has declined from 1058 in 1821 to 1014 at last
census. This is the reverse of what occurs in England, where
the surplus of females keeps rising in ratio. Vital statistics
show that whereas forty years ago population increased about
5 per thousand yearly, there has been no increase of late
years, deaths exceeding births, viz. : —
Per Thousand Inhabitants Yearly.
1S20. 1850. 1890-94.
Births . . . 31-7 26'9 22'5
Deaths . . . 25"4 21 "4 22'6
Natural increase . 6'3 5'5 0
The birth-rate is the lowest in Europe ; the death-rate is
relatively 15 per cent, higher than in the United Kingdom,
and consequently the span of life is 18 months shorter than
ours. The occupations of the people in 1891 were as
follows : —
Principals.
Assistants.
Total.
Agriculture
3,570,000
3,650,000
7,220,000
Manufactures
1,020,000
3,700,000
4,720,000
Commerce .
940,000
1,510,000
2,450,000
Professions, &c. .
2,140,000
760,000
2,900,000
Total . . 7,670,000 9,620,000 17,290,000
The number of workers is 470,000 more than in the United
Kingdom, although the population is a trifle less ; the differ-
ence is readily explained by the fact that in France 61 per
cent, of the population are of working age, between 15 and
60 years, against 58 per cent, in the United Kingdom. The
following table shows at various dates the working-power of
France : —
XXIX.
PROGRESS OF UNITED KINGDOM AND OF FRANCE
SINCE 1860.
540
U. Kingdom A.
France B.
The. unshaded portion indicates the increase since 1860.
FRANCE in
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
— -*• per
Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1840 . 3,060 8,050 350 11,460 337
1860 . 3,350 9,700 4,800 17,850 484
1893 . 3,500 9,300 19,660 32,460 846
The increase of power has been mainly due to the more
general use of steam, which is shown approximately as
follows : —
Steam, Horse-power.
Year. Fixed. Railway. Steamboats. Total.
1840 . 34,000 42,000 11,000 87,000
1860 '. 181,000 930,000 84,000 1,195,000
1895 . 825,000 3,600,000 490,000 4,915,000
The steam-power of France is less than half that of the
United Kingdom.
AGRICULTURE
France is the largest wheat grower in Europe except Russia,
the area having increased 40 per cent, since the close of
Bonaparte's wars, viz. : —
Bushels
Year. Acres. Crop, Tons. Value, £. per Acre.
1818 . 12,800,000 3,550,000 49,100,000- 11-1
1894 . 17,500,000 8,500,000 72,700,000 19-4
Formerly there was in ordinary years a surplus for exporta-
tion ; down to the year 1840 not more than 60 per cent, of
the French people consumed wheaten bread, the rest subsist-
ing on rye ; but at present, wheat being the food of the whole
population, the crop is insufficient, as the importation averages
1,500,000 tons yearly — that is, about two months' supply.
The area under all kinds of grain is about the same as it
was forty years ago, but the crops are heavier; that of 1894
compares with that of 1850 thus : —
Year. Acres. Crop, Tons.
1850 . . . 36,200,000 12,800,000
1894 . - . 36,600,000 20,100,000
112 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The average yield per acre for the whole grain area is now
50 per cent, more than it was forty years ago, thanks to the
improved method of agriculture. It was a common thing in
the reign of Louis-Philippe to see horses treading out grain, as
customary in England 500 years ago, but Cobden's treaty in
1860 led to such an introduction of machinery that in 1872
no fewer than 2850 steam threshers were at work in France.
Not only is the yield per acre greater, but there is also a
considerable saving in the quantity of seed : thus, before -1830
it took 18 Ibs. of seed to produce 100 Ibs. of wheat, whereas
now 13 Ibs. suffice, equal to a saving of 27 per cent. If we
suppose the same as regards oats, barley, &c., it implies a
total saving of 750,000 tons of grain yearly, worth £5,000,000
sterling. Official returns of the cultivated and the uncultivated
areas in 1894 compare with those for 1840 thus : —
Acres.
Grain .
Vines .
Other crops .
Cultivated .
Forest .
Pasture
Waste .
1840.
. 34,500,000
5,200,000
. 17,800,000
1894.
36,600,000
4,200,000
26,200,000
. 57,500,000
. 16,200,000
. 10,500,000
. 47,000,000
67,000,000
20,700,000
23,100,000
19,500,000
Total . . 131,200,000 130,300,000
About 27 million acres of waste lands have been reclaimed
since 1840, of which nearly 13 millions have gone into pasture,
9| into tillage, and 4£ millions into forest timber. The extent
of France is a trifle less than it was fifty years ago, the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine in 1871 having exceeded the gain of territory
by annexing Nice and Savoy in 1859. As to agricultural
area France lost 3 million acres by the cession of Alsace-
Lorraine, but this was a minor calamity compared with the
Phylloxera, an insect that made its first appearance in 1865
and after ten years of inactivity spread like a destroying
pestilence in 1876 over the west and south. More than
FRANCE 113
4.000,000 acres of vineyard, representing a value of 200
millions sterling, were wholly or partially ruined, only one-
third of the area under vines escaping this terrible visitation,
the effect of which is shown in the following table : —
Wine, Gallons
Year. Acres. Million Gallons. per Acre.
1873 . . 6,060,000 1,720 283
1894 . . 4,220,000 870 206
No less than 1,800,000 acres of vineyard have disappeared,
and are now( planted with potatoes or beet-root. Owing, how-
ever, to the diligence of the wine-growers the plague has been
stamped out, and the ordinary yield, as before, passes 200
gallons of wine per acre. Nevertheless the vintage is far
short of the requirement for home consumption, and France
now imports about 50 per cent, more wine than she exports.
The following table shows the quantities of wine and grain
imported and exported in thirty years, down to the end of
1892: —
Wine, Million Gallons. Grain, Million Bushels.
Peiiod. Import. Export. Import. Export.
1863-72 . . 48 630 233 167
1873-82 . . 663 682 660 180
1883-92 . . 2,280 506 480 74
30 years . 2,991 1,818 1,373 421
From the above it appears that during the decade ending
with 1892, the net imports of grain averaged yearly a little over
40 million bushels, and of wine 180 million gallons. Nor is
it only in wine and grain that France has a deficit every year ;
the supply of meat is likewise short, the net importation
averaging 50,000 tons. This is the more remarkable as the
weight of carcase, whether beef or mutton, has notably
increased with the cultivation of beet-root. An official report
in 1885 showed, as compared with 1847, that the average
sheep carcase rose from 50 Ibs. to 80 Ibs., and oxen from 700
Ibs. to 1030 Ibs. The consumption of meat has doubled since
Dupin's estimate in 1840, viz. : —
H
114 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Tons of Meat.
Year. Beef. Mutton. Pork. Total.
1840 . . 299,000 82,000 290,000 671,000
1893 . . 700,000 210,000 290,000 1,200,000
The above total for 1893 does not include 50,000 tons of
imported meat, which brings it up to 1,250,000 tons, equal to
70 Ibs. per inhabitant against 43 Ibs. in 1840. The value of
all farm products has been estimated at various periods from
1816 to 1890 by Chaptal, Roger, Dupin, and Tisserand, show-
ing a rapid rise till 1882, since which date there has been a
decline, as shown thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1S16. 1843. 1882. 1890. 1894.
Agricultural . . .142 212 310 271 284
Pastoral .... 45 101 182 167 132
Total . . 187 313 492 438 416
The value of farming products in 1894 compares with
ChaptaPs estimates in 1816 and Tisserand's in 1890, as
follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
*.
1816. 1890. 1894.1
Grain 74 120 130
Wine 29 45 47
Other crops .... 39 106 107
Meat 18 65 56
Dairy products ... 7 46 46
Sundries .... 20 56 30
Total . .187 438 416
The productive area of France compared with that of the
United Kingdom, and the value of products, are shown thus: —
Millions of Acres.
Tillage.
Pasture.
Total.
Millions £,.
per Acre.
France .
67
23
90
416
92
U. Kingdom
20
28
48
230
96
1 In the estimates for 1894 the item of Grain includes Straw, but not
in previous years.
FRANCE 115
It appears that the gross product per acre is almost equal
in the two countries, but not the product compared with the
number of agricultural hands, viz. : —
Hands. Millions £. £ per Hand.
France .... 7,220,000 416 58
United Kingdom . . 2,527,000 230 91
In a strictly economic sense, that is if we keep in view to
produce a maximum of value with a minimum expenditure of
energy, the English system of farming leaves the French
much behind. But if agriculture be considered as an occu-
pation in which to maintain in comfort a very large section of
the population, the French method is preferable. Instead of
19,000 land-owners in France, the number exceeds 3^ millions,
and if we exclude all estates under 12 acres, as cottier
holdings, we find the land tenure of the two countries as
follows : —
No. of Estates. Acres. Average, Acres.
France . . . 1,638,000 91,250,000 56
United Kingdom . 19,275 57,890,000 3,003
The total of persons interested in agricultural pursuits in
the two countries may be set forth, side by side, thus : —
Number. Ratio.
Estate-owners
U. Kingdom.
19,275
France.
1,638,000
TJ. Kingdom. France.
8 227
Farmers
Assistants
. 1,048,000
. 1,459,725
1,932,000
3,650,000
416 268
576 505
Total . 2,527,000 7,220,000 1,000 1,000
In the above comparative table the item of farmers as
regards France includes a number of cottiers holding pro-
perties of less than 12 acres. It is here to be borne in
mind that the official inquiry of 1882 shows that only 60 per
cent, of the cultivated area is farmed by the owners. The
agricultural wealth of France has been estimated by Chaptal,
Dutens, and subsequent writers, and appears to have doubled
since 1817, showing as follows : —
ii6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Year. Land. Cattle. Sundries. Total.
1817 .... 1,198 63 126 1,387
1852 .... 2,106 166 227 2,499
1893 .... 2,580 232 281 3,093
The inquiry of 1882 shows that there are 3,503,000 farms;
it appears, therefore, that on an average each farm represents
£880 of capital, and a gross annual product of £119, that is
13 J per cent, on capital, as compared with 11 per cent, in the
United Kingdom.
As regards food supply, if we reduce the principal products
to a grain denominator, the account stands thus for 1894 : —
Grain, tons .
Quantity.
. 20,100,000
. 12,800,000
Equiv. Tons of Grain.
20,100,000
4,300,000
Meat, „
Wine, gallons .
. 1,200,000
. 880,000,000
9,600,000
8,800,000
Total 42,800,000
This is equivalent to more than a ton of grain per inhabi-
tant, and yet the production is short of the needs of the
population; so that France has to import every year grain,
wine, and meat.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
80 much attention is paid to forestry that the area under
timber has increased by 4,500,000 acres since 1840. Accord-
ing to Tisserand the product is worth £14,000,000 yearly, or
13 shillings an acre. The weight of timber produced yearly
is about 25 million tons, but this is inadequate for the require-
ments of the nation, no less than 3 million tons of foreign
timber being also consumed. The value of timber and firewood
consumed yearly averages 9 shillings per inhabitant, against
4 shillings in the United Kingdom.
The fisheries employ 85,000 men, who take yearly 150,000
tons of fish, value £4,800,000, equal to £56 per fisherman,
against £63 in the fisheries of the United Kingdom. French
fish averages £32 per ton, British only £11.
FRANCE 117
MANUFACTURES
Down to the eighteenth century France obtained her
woollens from Spain, her linens from Holland, and her silks
from Italy. Manufacturing industries had a great develop-
ment in the reign of Louis XV., and when Tolosan made his
survey in 1788 he valued the output of textile goods at 18
millions sterling. The next estimate was by Chaptal in 1812,
who valued textiles at 32 millions sterling, an increase of
80 per cent.' from Tolosan's time. Subsequent reports and
estimates are shown in the following table : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1812.
Woollens .
Silks
Cottons .
Linens, &c.
Total . . 32 50 74 115
Woollens. — This industry has always held the foremost rank
among textiles. The mills consume 207,000 tons of wool, and
turn out goods to the value of £45,000,000, of which one-fifth
is exported. The consumption of wool has multiplied six-fold
since Chaptal's estimate, viz. : —
Tons of Wool Consumed.
1812.
1S35.
I860.
1894.
10
16
28
45
4
10
20
28
8
12
14
22
10
12
12
20
Tear. French. Imported. Total.
1812 . . 27,000 7,000 34,000
1867 . . 47,000 64,000 111,000
1894 . . 37,000 170,000 207,000
The first machinery for spinning wool was put up at Rheims
in 1809, and that city now possesses 330 woollen mills.
Chaptal found the chief seats of this industry in 1812 to be
Sedan and Louviers, which had 5500 looms and gave employ-
ment to 28,000 workmen. In 1890 France counted 1926
mills, with 46,000 power-looms, and 3,300,000 spindles, for
the most part situate at Lille, Sedan, Roubaix, Rheims, and
ii8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Amiens. Thirty years ago nearly half the wool used was
French, but now the River Plate supplies three-fourths. The
wool of the Pampas, meantime, is so heavily impregnated with
dust and grease that it should be counted only as 75 per cent,
of what ordinary unwashed wool would be. Therefore, it
may be said, that the French mills consume no more than
170,000 tons of wool yearly, or three-fourths of our consump-
tion in the United Kingdom. Home consumption in France
of woollen goods reaches 36 millions sterling, equal to 19
shillings per inhabitant, against 23 shillings in the United
Kingdom.
Silks. — In 1801 the weaver Jacquard invented at Lyons the
loom that bears his name, and to this fact is in some measure
due the prosperous position of Lyons as the foremost centre
of silk industry in the world. From the fifteenth to the
eighteenth century Tours had held pre-eminence, but when
Chaptal made his survey in 1812 Lyons had 11,000 looms
and 15,000 operatives, while Tours counted only 320 looms.
The latest official returns show that in 1890 France had
1170 silk factories, with 107,000 looms and 1,100,000 spindles,
Lyons possessing 44,000 looms, and turning out silk goods to
the value of £16,000,000 yearly. The annual consumption
of raw silk and the value of output are shown thus : —
Tons of Silk Consumed Yearly.
Period French. Imported. Total. Output, &.
1830-32 . . 720 510 1,230 7,500,000
1868-73 . . 540 6,840 7,380 34,600,000
1894 . . .800 7,600 8,400 28,200,000
In 1894 the value of silk goods produced at Lyons was
£15,970,000, and at St. Etienne £3,750,000, together nearly
three-fourths of the total silk industry of France. One-third
of the manufactures is exported, and on the other hand
France imports silk goods to the value of £1,700,000 yearly;
the home consumption reaches £20,000,000, say 10 shillings
per inhabitant, the same as in the United Kingdom. This is
very different from the condition of things sixty years ago,
FRANCE 119
when Porter estimated the consumption of silk manufactures
at 7 shillings per head in England and 1 shilling in France.
Cottons. — Rouen, which is now styled the Manchester of
France, began to make cotton handkerchiefs in 1789, the
output that year being £600,000. Chaptal's report on
cotton factories in 1812 showed 70,000 looms and 1,030,000
spindles, which spun 11,000 tons of yarn, the value of goods
made being £7,600,000. The industry, as Porter observes,
would have advanced more rapidly but for the dearness of
fuel, iron, and machinery, which France could with difficulty
obtain from England or elsewhere, owing to the enormous
import dues. The consumption of raw cotton at present
reaches 165,000 tons, this branch of manufacture having
sustained a serious check by the Franco-German war which
deprived France of 1,500,000 spindles in Alsace. Neverthe-
less there has been such a recovery in late years that the
weight of cotton consumed has risen 25 per cent, since 1884.
The present output represents a value of 22 millions sterling,
and the home consumption 20 millions; the latter gives an
average of 10 shillings per inhabitant, against 20 shillings in
the United Kingdom. According to Zehden the French
cotton mills have 112,000 power-looms, that is one-fifth of the
number in British cotton mills.
Linens. — Tolosan estimated the output of this manufacture
in 1788 at 5 millions sterling. The factories of St. Quentin,
Lille, &c., in 1812 counted 139,000 operatives, who produced
linen and canvas goods valued at £9,700,000. An official
statement for 1875 showed 1 million spindles, which con-
sumed 70,000 tons of flax, and turned out fabrics to the
value of £12,000,000. Finally in 1894 there were 360 fac-
tories which consumed flax, hemp, and jute as follows : —
Tons. Output, Value, £.
Flax .... 85,000 10,500,000
Hemp .... 48,000 3,600,000
Jute 54,000 2,100,000
Total . . 187,000 16,200,000
1820.
1845.
1867.
1S8T.
7,000
19,000
65,000
179,000
21,000
57,000
101,000
141,000
9,000
17,000
66,000
133,000
540
1,170
6,460
11,530
120 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Nearly all goods of this description were kept for home
consumption.
Raw Material. — Levasseur's table of the importation of
fibre shows as follows : —
Tons of Fibre Imported.
1820.
Wool
Cotton .
Flax, &c.
Silk
Total . 37,540 94,170 238,460 464,530
The above is, of course, irrespective of the wool, flax, and
silk grown in France. Besides the foregoing industries there
is that of lace at Valenciennes and other places, giving em-
ployment to 350,000 women, who are supposed to earn in this
way about £12 a year each, say 4 millions sterling.
Hardware. — All manufactures of this description were
retarded during half a century by the severe laws against
foreign iron and coal, until Cobden's free-trade treaty with
Napoleon III., in 1860, gave an immense impulse to every kind
of industry. The consumption of coal and metals is stated by
Levasseur and others as follows : —
Consumption, Tons.
1S80.
1867.
1894.
2,400,000
19,600,000
37,500,000
260,000
1,380,000
2,120,000
13,000
42,000
70,000
6,000
25,000
40,000
Coal .
Iron
Lead
Copper .
Total . . 2,679,000 21,047,000 39,730,000
In the reigns of Charles X. and Louis-Philippe iron was so
dear that the peasants used wooden ploughs : l the consump-
tion of iron yearly per inhabitant hardly reached 40 Ibs.,
1 Rochefoucauld computed that agriculturists used 2 Ibs. of iron yearly
per acre, or 57,000 tons for the whole of France.
FRANCE 121
whereas it is now 135 Ibs. In 1894 there were more than 600
blast furnaces, employing 120,000 workmen. The value of
hardware manufactures has been approximately as follows : —
1830, £.
1867, £.
1894, £.
Iron
. 6,500,000
20,700,000
36,700,000
Copper
. 1,200,000
5,100,000
6,000,000
Lead .
700,000
2,600,000
2,600,000
Zinc, &c.
200,000
1,000,000
1,400,000
Total . 8,600,000 29,400,000 46,700,000
The hardware industries sum up about 47 millions sterling,
or one-third of the value of the same class of manufactures in
Great Britain.
Leather. — The production of leather has risen 60 per cent,
since the year 1818, but is still much less than in the United
Kingdom ; one- third is made from imported hides, viz. : —
Tons of Leather Consumed.
Year. French. Imported. Total. Millions £.
1818 . . 35,000 15,000 50,000 25
1860 . . 57,000 18,000 75,000 38
1894 . . 62,000 28,000 90,000 45
Exports of leather and leather goods reach a value of 8
millions sterling, leaving for home consumption 37 millions,
equal to 19 shillings per inhabitant, against 28 shillings in
the United Kingdom. The use of wooden shoes in France
explains the difference.
Glass and Porcelain. — According to Chaptal nearly all the
glass in use down to the Revolution was imported, but the
industry grew so rapidly under Bonaparte that in 1812
there were 85 factories producing goods to the annual value
of £800,000. The porcelain factory founded at Sevres in
1756 has enjoyed world- wide fame for more than a century.
Chaptal estimated the output of all kinds of pottery at
£1,300,000. At present the combined value of glass and
pottery is apparently on a par with the output in the United
122 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Kingdom, say 15 millions sterling per annum : the exports of
these articles from the two countries are equal.
Paper and Printing. — In 1812 the consumption of paper was
15,000 tons, and the value of books and journals £1,600,000.
The progress of journalism was slow in the first half of the
century, the total daily issue of papers in Paris in 1840 not
exceeding 90,000 copies. At present the circulation of Paris
is over 3 million papers daily, and that of all France is
about 5 millions. There are more than 7000 new books
published yearly at Paris, and the total output of the press
may be valued at £16,000,000. France has 530 paper-mills,
which turn out more than 200,000 tons yearly.
Houses and Furniture. — The capital value of houses and
furniture being 2,940 millions sterling, the annual production,
at 3 per cent, on that amount, will be 88 millions.
Clothing. — The value of this. industry was stated in 1875 to
be £52,000,000 ; at present it appears to be approximately
£69,000,000, the production in Paris according to Professor
Zehden reaching one-fourth of the latter sum. Exports of
apparel reach £4,000,000, leaving for home consumption
£65,000,000, say 34 shillings per inhabitant, against 43
shillings in the United Kingdom ; hats and shirts included,
but not boots.
Food. — Wine and cider, having been classed among agri-
cultural products, must be excluded from the list of manu-
factures ; not so spirits and beer, the product of which exceeds
18 millions sterling. The manufacture of oil amounts in value
to 12 millions sterling, and has grown eight-fold in twenty
years, the importation of oleaginous seeds having risen from
90,000 tons in 1873 to 770,000 in 1894. Sugar has more
than doubled in the same interval, the output exceeding
400,000 tons, value 6 millions sterling. Kolb's official report
showed that France had 53,000 factories for the production of
food, to the yearly value of 112 millions sterling.
Summary. — Professor Zehden's estimate of the total value
of French manufactures in 1886 was 600 millions sterling,
FRANCE 123
although an official statement in 1892 gives it no higher than
512 millions. These figures compare with earlier estimates by
Chaptal, Levasseur, and others as follows : —
1812 . £ 73,000,000 I 1860 . £400,000,000
1850 . 340,000,000 | 1886 . 600,000,000
Chaptal's estimate for 1812 was too low, and apparently
included only the output of factories, taking no note of the
small industries of artisans. Levasseur's for 1860 and Zehden's
for 1886 wei;e evidently close to the truth. There has been
little increase of value since 1886, and the sum total of French
manufactures at various dates seems to have been approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1812. 1860. 1894.
Textiles . 32 74 115
Hardware
Leather .
Food
Clothing .
Houses and furniture
Sundries .
8 26 47
22 41 45
60 100 113
35 55 69
20 48 88
44 86 119
Total . . .221 430 596
If we compare the manufacturing and mining product with
the number of hands in France and in the United Kingdom,
we find as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Manufactures. Mining. Total. Hands. £ per Hand.
France . 596 16 612 4,720,000 130
U. Kingdom 876 78 954 9,026,000 106
The ratio per hand is higher in France because many of the
industries, such as silk, are of a more valuable character than
the principal British ones.
124 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
MINERALS
Coal holds the first place, the extraction at present reaching
25 million tons, or fifteen times the quantity that was raised
in the year 1830. Production and consumption are shown in
the following table : —
Tons of Coal, Yearly Average.
1811-20. 1841-50. 1871-80. 1891-94.
Raised . . 890,000 4,100,000 17,200,000 26,300,000
Imported . . 180,000 2,050,000 7,700,000 10,400,000
Consumption . 1,070,000 6,150,000 24,900,000 36,700,000
According to an official statement in 1879, the net profit,
after paying wages and all working expenses, averaged 21
pence per ton, but in 1888 profits were less, and 129 collieries
were worked at a loss. The Pas-de-Calais mines yield half
the total, the St. Etienne field being next in production. The
output in 1888 averaged 225 tons per miner against 130 in
1835. The average in Great Britain is 280 tons, so that four
British colliers raise as much as five French.
Iron is found in 58 departments, but the production
has never been sufficient for the wants of the country. The
prohibitory dues against foreign coal retarded the iron industry
for more than fifty years, fuel being so dear that the cost of
producing a ton of iron, under Charles X. and Louis-Philippe,
was three times as much as in England. Production and con-
sumption were as follows : —
Tons of Iron.
1814. 1850. 1870. 1894.
Made . . 100,000 570,000 1,180,000 2,100,000
Imported . ... 30,000 170,000 200,000
Consumed . 100,000 600,000 1,350,000 2,300,000
As regards copper France depends chiefly on what is im-
ported : the consumption averages 40,000 tons yearly, only
one-tenth being from native ore. The consumption of lead is
about 70,000 tons, two-thirds imported. The total value of
coal and other minerals, along with the product of quarries,
is 16 millions sterling, the number of hands being 180,000.
FRANCE 125
COMMERCE
Official returns of the foreign trade of France at various
dates show as follows :— Millions £ sterling.
1802. 1850. 1873. 1894.
Imports .... 12 31 142 154
Exports .... 12 43 151 123
Total ... 24 74 293 277
Trade received an extraordinary impulse from the Cobden
Treaty of 18^60, the amount of imports and exports in 1869
showing a rise of 50 per cent, in the interval. A reaction set
in under Thiers, who introduced a Protective tariff, by this
means hampering the commercial energies of the nation. The
results of Free Trade and Protection are seen in comparing the
growth of trade in twenty-five years in France and the United
Kingdom as follows, in millions £ sterling : —
Increase
1869. 1804. per Cent.
France 249 277 11
United Kingdom . . .532 703 32
The increase in value of British trade was relatively three
times as great as that of French. Thiers declared his purpose
to be to augment French exports, which, however, have re-
mained stationary in point of value, the amount in 1894
having been the same as in 1869. British exports in the
same interval rose from 190 to 216 millions, an increase of
14 per cent. The commercial relations with foreign countries
are shown in the following average table for five years ending
December 1892 :— Millions £ sterling
Imports
Exports
"*
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Great Britain
23
39
62
19-6
Belgium
18
21
39
12-3
Germany
14
14
28
8-7
United States
15
11
26
8-2
Spain .
14
7
21
66
Various
90
50
140
44-6
Total . . 174 142 316 lOO'O
126 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Shipping. — The protective system of Thiers created heavy
bounties in favour of French merchant shipping ; these
bounties cost the nation £4,000,000 yearly, and seem to be
of no effect, since tonnage and carrying-power have declined
in the last eleven years, as shown in the following table : —
Year.
1840 .
1872 .
1884 .
1895 . . 492,000 399,000 891,000 2,360,000
In 1872 France was 18 per cent, ahead of Germany in
carrying-power ; in 1895 Germany was 70 per cent, ahead of
France, both in registered tonnage and carrying-power.
Internal Trade. — The internal trade at various dates was
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Tons register.
>
Tons,
Carrying
Power.
664,000
1,630,000
2,567,000
Steam.
10,000
180,000
511,000
Sail.
624,000
910,000
523,000
Total.
634,000
1,090,000
1,034,000
1816. 1843. 1860. 1S94.
Agricultural products . 187 313 380 416
Manufactures . . .221 324 430 596
Forestry, minerals, &c. .6 10 18 36
Imports .... 15 30 76 154
Total ... 429 677 904 1,201
Internal trade has trebled in France and quadrupled in
Great Britain since the close of the Bonaparte wars, eighty
years ago. Foreign trade has, of course, increased in much
higher ratio in both countries.
Railways. — The first line was opened at St. Etienne in
1828, but the construction of railways was slow until the
accession of Louis Napoleon, in 1853 : in that year France
had 2450 miles in traffic, and at the fall of the Second
Empire, in 1870, there were 11,000 miles. The amount of
capital expended in making railways during Louis Napoleon's
reign was 363 millions sterling, an average of 21 millions
yearly. At present France has open 24,970 miles, represent-
ing a cost of 663 millions sterling, say £26,500 per mile,
against £55,400 per mile in England. Of the earlier French
FRANCE 127
lines it was found that land stood for 8 per cent, of the total
cost, earthworks 36 per cent., the rest going for rails, rolling-
stock, stations, &c. Since the fall of the Second Empire a
number of lines of minor importance have been constructed
at the instigation of M. Freycinet, but so far these lines
produce no net earnings. Some of the older lines are in-
debted to the State, on the score of guarantee deficits; the
Great Southern, £5,900,000 ; the Orleans line, £5,800,000.
These lines will revert to the State in the year 1960. The
system of guarantees is a serious drain to the treasury, the
deficit paid in 1893 amounting to £4,600,000. Nearly all
the railways have been made by companies, except the State
lines commenced on Freycinet's plans in 1878, the existing
length of which is 1640 miles : these represent a cost of about
30 millions sterling. Goods traffic on all the French railways
amounted in 1893 to 1226 millions of kilometric tons, being
70 per cent, of the total traffic by rail, water, and high-road
in France. The goods traffic on French lines is one-fifth less
than that of the railways of the United Kingdom. The gross
and net earnings on French lines are much greater now per
mile than they were fifty years ago, viz. : —
Per Mile.
1843, £. 1S93, £. Increase, £.
Receipts . . . 1,810 2,195 385
Expenses ... 970 1,253 283
Net profit ... 840 942 102
Working expenses take 57 per cent, of gross earnings,
against 56 per cent, in the United Kingdom : the net profit
on capital is 3^ per cent., against 3f in England.
Banks. — Banking-power in 1881, according to the Journal
des JEconomistes, reached 268 millions sterling : since then the
circulation of the Bank of France has risen 33 per cent., from
which it may be inferred that the banking -power of the
republic is now about 356 millions sterling. The capital of
the Bank of France when founded, in 1803, was £3,600,000,
which was doubled in 1857 : it has right of emission up to
128 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
140 millions sterling, and the official returns at various dates
show : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Issue. Bullion. Discounts.
1820 .... 6 8 12
1860 .... 30 21 199
1892 .... 133 119 337
In June 1894 the bank held £71,500,000 in gold, and
£51,200,000 in silver, the issue amounting to 136 millions
sterling. There are forty-six other joint-stock banks, with a
paid capital of 59 millions sterling, the aggregate dividends
in 1889 amounting to 8 per cent. France possesses three
times as much bullion as the United Kingdom, but her
banking- power is only one-third of ours. The money used
by the two countries compares thus : —
Millions & Sterling.
£per
Gold. Silver. Paper. Total. Inhabitant.
France . . 187 140 140 467 12'0
United Kingdom 85 24 41 150 3'7
In France they use £39 of money for £100 of internal
trade, whereas in the United Kingdom we use only £9, 7s.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the people were estimated at various dates
by French economists as follows : —
Year. Millions £. £ per Inhab.
1810 251 91
1850 660 18-8
1890 900 24-0
All the above estimates, even the latest by Lacoste, were
apparently too low. The following table shows the amounts
approximately at four periods : —
FRANCE
129
Millions £ Sterling.
1816.
1843.
I860.
1894.
Agricultural 113
188
228
250
Manufacturing
110
160
215
298
Mining, forests, &
c.
6
10
18
35
Trade .
43
68
90
120
Transport
45
71
94
126
House-rent .
26
36
60
118
Domestics
18
24
40
79
Public service
19
24
37
64
Professions .
38
58
78
109
Total
418
639
860 1,199
It is remarkable that the earnings of the British and French
nations approached at two of the above periods, but the ratio
per head has always been much higher in the United King-
dom, viz. : —
Millions £,. £ per Inhabitant.
Tear.
1816
1860
1894
France.
418
860
1,199
U. Kingdom.
404
938
1,423
France.
15
24
31
U. Kingdom.
21
32
36
Among the countries of the European Continent there is
none that shows so high a ratio of earnings per inhabitant
as France.
Wealth. — The wealth of the nation has been estimated by
French writers at various dates as follows : —
Year. Millions £. & per Inhab.
1830 ..... 2,840 90
1869 6,680 176
1892 9,200 242
Official returns show that property in France changes hands
every thirty-six years, and on this basis, according to the
Stamp Office Report of 1892, the amount of real and personal
property was at various periods as follows, in millions £
sterling : —
Period.
1847-51
1867-71
1887-91
Real.
2,138
3,520
4,558
Personal
1,548
3,248
4,745
Total. & per Inhab.
3,686 105
6,768 180
9,303 245
130 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The most rapid increase of wealth occurred during the
Second Empire, partly owing to the expansion of commerce
after Cobden's Anglo-French treaty, partly to the develop-
ment of railways and steam-power. The following table shows
the increase : —
Period.
1831-51 .
1851-71 .
1871-91 .
60 years
Millions £.
. 1,022
. 3,082
. 2,535
. 6,639
£ Yearly.
51,100,000
154,100,000
126,700,000
110,600,000
£ per Head.
To
4-2
3-4
31
Notwithstanding the industrious and thrifty character of
the French, the accumulation of wealth per head since 1860
has been much less than in Great Britain ; but it must be
borne in mind that the Franco-German War cost France 650
millions sterling, between the army expenses, the indemnity
paid to Germany, and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. But for
this the average accumulation during the whole period of
forty years since 1851 would huye been 85 shillings yearly
per inhabitant, against 78 in the United Kingdom. The
principal components of wealth at various dates were approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1815.
Land .
Cattle, &c.
Houses .
Furniture
Factories
Railways
Merchandise
Bullion
Sundries
Total . . . 2,670 6,320 9,690
Land. — This item seventy years ago constituted half the
wealth of France : at present it is little more than one-fourth.
According to De Foville the average price rose steadily from
£13 per acre in 1821 to £32 in 1874, and subsequently fell
to £27 in 1886. The official returns already quoted show
1815.
1866.
1894.
1,198
2,520
2,580
189
470
513
450
1,080
1,960
225
540
980
75
160
199
0
220
663
216
493
601
100
250
327
217
587
1,867
FRANCE 131
that the total value of real estate in the period of 1887-91
was 4558 millions sterling, from which deducting that of
houses and factories the balance corresponding to land was
2580 millions sterling. This gives an average as follows : —
Acres. Millions £. £ per Acre.
Under crops . . 66,900,000 2,210 33'0
Pasture, &c. . . 43,800,000 370 8'4
Total . . 110,700,000 2,580 23'4
Agricultural capital in France, between land, cattle, and
implements, sums up 3093 millions sterling, equal to £80 per
inhabitant, against £54 in the United Kingdom.
Houses. — In 1815 Chaptal estimated the value of houses
and factories in France at £462,000,000, which was equivalent
to £76 per house, or £16 per inhabitant. In eighty years
the value has more than quadrupled, being at present about
2160 millions sterling, an average of £210 per house, or £52
per inhabitant. Excluding factories, the value in 1890 was
as follows : —
Class. No. Millions £. £ per House.
Castles . . . 44,600 77 1,730
Mansions . . . 310,400 691 2,230
Ordinary houses . . 1,260,000 425 340
Cottages . . . 7,301,000 653 90
Total . . . 8,916,000 1,846 207
The assessed rental in 1890 was £113,300,000, and the
official valuation 1973 millions sterling, inclusive of factories.
According to the official statement of 1890 Paris stands for
nearly 30 per cent, of the house-property of France, as shown
in the following table : —
Millions £. Population. £ per Head.
Paris ... 534 2,450,000 218
Towns ... 906 17,900,000 51
Rural . . .406 17,750,000 23
Total . . 1,846 38,100,000 48
The growth of Paris has been exceedingly rapid ; the highest
132 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
price for building-sites in 1826, says Guyot, was £2 per square
foot, and at present £10 is not an uncommon price. The
rental assessment of Paris in 1882 was exactly three times
that of 1851, and this was partly the result of the Haussmann
improvements, all the principal streets having been rebuilt
between 1853 and 1869, at an outlay of 85 millions sterling.
The assessed rental is now higher per inhabitant than in
London. The statement of 1890 showed that in the interval
since 1870 no fewer than 3,010,000 new houses were built,
and 2,180,000 old ones pulled down, the result being an in-
crement of value amounting to 466 millions sterling, or 23
millions yearly.
Factories.— In 1889 there were 131,000, valued at 127
millions sterling, but this appears to have been exclusive of
machinery ; at the ordinary valuation, say one-third of yearly
output, the factories and machinery would represent 192
millions sterling.
Sundries. — This item includes, among other things, the
amount of French capital in foreign or colonial investments,
which was estimated by Neymarck in 1891 at 800 millions
sterling, made up thus: — Russian, 220; Spanish, 110;
Austrian, 90 ; various, 380 millions.
Distribution of Wealth. — If we may take house valuation as a
guide, the distribution of earnings and wealth is as follows : —
Millions £. £ per Family.
Class.
Families.
Earnings.
Wealth.
Earnings.
Wealth.
Rich .
355,000
440
3,440
1,240
9,700
Middle
1,260,000
240
1,920
190
1,600
Working
7,301,000
519
4,330
71
594
Total . 8,916,000 1,199 9,690 134 1,088
Leroy Beaulieu estimates that there are in Paris 36,000
persons with incomes exceeding £500 a year, 180,000 ranging
between £100 and £500, and the rest under £100 a year.
He adds that France has eight times the income of Paris.
There is no material difference between his estimate and the
one given above.
FRANCE
133
FINANCE
The revenue and expenditure from the fall of Buonaparte
have been as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Regime.
Date.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Deficit.
Bourbons
1815-30
37
41
4
Louis-Philippe .
1831-48
48
51
3
Republic
1848-52
55
70
15
Louis Napoleon .
1853-70
74
84
10
RepubluJ
1871-93
131
148
17
In the expenditure of 1871-93 is not included the cost of
the Franco-German war, 400 millions sterling, as it cannot
be fairly charged to the account of the Republic. The budget
for 1895 was: —
Revenue.
,e.
Expenditure.
£48,700,000
18,600,000
27,800,000
8,500,000
24,700,000
Debt
Army and Navy
Public Works .
Schools
Sundries .
Total
£49,400,000
37,100,000
9,300,000
7,700,000
29,100,000
. £128,300,000
£132,600,000
Excise
Customs .
Stamps
Post-office
Taxes, &c.
Total
So 'lavish has been the expenditure on public works since
the fall of the Second Empire, that to this cause may be
partly attributed the fact that the debt of France has risen
391 millions sterling, or 17 millions a year since 1870. The
government has spent 30 millions in the construction of new
railways, and 30 millions on harbours, besides constructing
52,000 miles of telegraph, putting up lighthouses, and making
roads and bridges, the total of such expenditure falling little
short of 200 millions sterling. The amount of revenue raised
by taxation in 1894 was 102 millions sterling, equal to 53
shillings per inhabitant, against 41 shillings in the United
Kingdom. If local taxes be added the total paid yearly by
the French people will reach 144 millions sterling, or 12 per
134 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
cent, of their earnings, against 8£ per cent, in the United
Kingdom.
Debt. — The debt of France compared with wealth at various
dates as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
Year. Wealth. Debt. Debt Ratio.
1817 .... 2,670 90 3 '4
1866 .... 6,320 604 8'0
1895 . . . . 9,690 1,220 12'5
If France were not so rich a country the rapid growth of
debt would give reasonable ground for alarm, but the ratio of
debt to wealth is, after all, much less than it was in the
United Kingdom in 1850. The interest of debt imposes a
burthen of 26 shillings a year per inhabitant, yet, in spite of
this, as we have seen, there is an annual accumulation of wealth
of 68 shillings per head. If we take also local debts, say 180
millions, the grand total will then be 1400 millions sterling;
but from this should be deducted the sum of 30 millions
spent on state railways, which reduces the total debt to 1370
millions sterling — that is, 14 per cent, of national wealth, as
compared with 7 per cent, in the United Kingdom.
GERMANY
ALTHOUGH a? part of Austria was included in the German
Confederation until 1866, it will be more convenient for the
study of Germany, its people and industries, to eliminate the
Austrian element altogether. The population of Germany
has more than doubled since the Waterloo epoch, 1815, viz.: —
1815. 1866. 1895.
Prussia . . •. 10,170,000 18,040,000 31,490,000
Bavaria . . . 3,560,000 4,810;000 5,770,000
Other States . . 7,250,000 10,310,000 14,500,000
Total . . . 20,980,000 33,160,000 51,760,000
In the above table Prussia includes Hanover, Nassau, and
Hesse-Cassel, although they were not annexed until 1866.
Among the minor states in 1895 are included Alsace and
Lorraine, annexed in 1871 ; if their population were deducted
it would still be found that Germany had an increase of 29
million souls, or 140 per cent, between 1815 and 1895. The
population of Germany now outnumbers that of France as
four to three, whereas in 1815 the position was the reverse.
The density of population varies exceedingly, from 194 inhabi-
tants per square mile in Bavaria to 650 in Saxony, the
average for all Germany being 248, as compared with 530 in
England.
During the last half-century there has been a continuous
stream of emigration to the United States and other parts of
the world. According to the Almanac de Gotha no fewer than
5,360,000 Germans emigrated between 1850 and 1892, of
135
136 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
whom 4,400,000 went to the United States, 200,000 to South
America, 100,000 to the British Colonies.
The United States census of 1890 showed 2,790,000 Ger-
man residents, being 63 per cent, of the number who had
landed in that country since 1840. Since the reconstruction
of the German Empire emigration sums up 2,900,000 souls,
of whom more than 80 per cent, went to the United States.
While the number of Germans living abroad exceeds 3
millions, which is equal to 6 per cent, of the home population,
that of foreigners residing in Germany is only 510,000, say
1 per cent. As regards the distribution of sexes the excess of
females is much greater than it was forty years ago : —
Females to 1,000 Males.
Year.
Germany. Year.
Prussia.
1855 .
. 1,022
1843 .
. 1,004
1890 .
. 1,040
1890 .
. 1,038
Germany has 150 cities and towns, counting only those over
20,000 inhabitants, and of these there are 26 that exceed
100,000. The aggregate population of the six largest cities
has grown 500 per cent, in sixty years, namely, from 600,000
to 3,500,000, viz. :—
1830. 1890. 1830. 1890.
Berlin . 220,000 1,580,000
Hamburg 112,000 570,000
Leipzig . 42,000 360,000
Munich . 65,000 350,000
Breslau. . 88,000 340,000
Dresden . 70,000 290,000
Collectively the above cities have grown eight times as fast
as the general population.
The latest census of occupations was that of 1882, and if we
suppose the same ratios to exist in the census of 1895, the
figures will stand thus (manufactures, including also mining) : —
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Other States.
Total.
Agriculture
5,830,000
1,270,000
2,250,000
9,350,000
Manufactures .
5,380,000
860,000
2,990,000
9,230,000
Commerce
1,390,000
220,000
710,000
2,320,000
Professions, &c.
1,770,000
360,000
870,000
3,000,000
Total . 14,370,000 2,710,000 6,820,000 23,900,000
XXX.
THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
Population Area
-900-
800-
700-
-600
-500-
400
-300-
-200
-100-
Progress since 1860.
U V
The unshaded part indicates the increase since 1860.
GERMANY 137
The energy or working-power of the nation at various dates
was approximately as follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
^ — v Foot-tons per
Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1840 . . . 2,700 7,500 160 10,360 310
1860 . . . 3,200 9,100 3,400 15,700 415
1895 . . . 4,260 11,500 30,600 46,360 900
The working-power has more than quadrupled since 1840,
chiefly owing to the great development of steam, viz. : —
Steam, Horse-Power.
Fixed .
1840.
. 20,000
I860.
200,000
1895.
2,200,000
Locomotive
Steamboat . .
. 20,000
600,000
50,000
4,555,000
895,000
Total . . . 40,000 850,000 7,650,000
The steam-power of Germany is 50 per cent, over that of
France, although in 1860 France was 300,000 horse-power
ahead of Germany.
AGRICULTURE
The cultivated area is a little less than that of France,
having almost doubled in less than forty years, viz. : —
Acres.
Year. Cultivated. Uncultivated. Total.
1856 . . 35,330,000 93,710,000 129,040,000
1893 . . 65,200,000 68,300,000 133,500,000
In one generation nearly 30 million acres of pasture and
waste lands have been brought into cultivation, the immediate
consequence of breaking up the large estates, which beneficial
measure has been attended with an increase of 84 per cent, in
the value of agricultural products. It was not an act of con-
fiscation, the nobles having been allowed to retain one-half of
their estates, while the other moiety was distributed among
the tenants ; and in compensation for what was taken from
them the nobles received Prussian Consols equivalent to
138 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
eighteen years' rent, the coupons of such Consols being met
by a land-tax of 5 per cent, imposed on the tenants for a term
of forty-seven years. The Stein Law, as it was called, has
completely changed the internal condition ; fifty years ago the
kingdom of Prussia was in the possession of 30,000 nobles,
whereas the present number of landowners exceeds a million
and a half. The total land tenure of Germany, excluding
properties of less than 2^ acres, is shown thus : —
Estates. Number. Acres. Average, Acres.
Large .... 25,000 13,500,000 540
Medium . . . 655,000 72,000,000 110
Small .... 2,275,000 27,000,000 12
Total . . . 2,955,000 112,500,000 38
Prussia contains 65 per cent, of the productive area of
Germany, and it may be presumed that the ratio of progress
in the minor states has been the same as in her case. If we
compare the Prussian valuation of 1837 and Yiebahn's esti-
mates for 1856 with the amount of agricultural capital in
1890, we shall find that the farming wealth of Germany has
quadrupled since 1837, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1837
1856
1895
Land.
Cattle.
Sundries.
Total.
508
88
60
656
1,304
138
144
1,586
1,977
303
228
2,508
The average price of cultivated land is about £21 an acre,
which appears very cheap, compared with £33 in France and
£35 in the United Kingdom. The agricultural capital of the
German States in 1895 was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Land. Cattlo. Sundries. Total.
Prussia . . . 1,252 187 144 1,583
Bavaria ... 264 46 31 341
Wurtemburg . . 105 13 12 130
Other States . . 356 57 41 454
Germany . . 1,977 303 228 2,508
GERMANY 139
The crops were valued in 1840 at 105 millions sterling, but
no account was taken of pastoral products. Block and
Viebahn in 1856 made the total of rural products 231 millions
sterling, and in 1895 it was approximately 417 millions, viz. : —
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Other States.
Germany.
£
£,
£
£
Grain .
65,000,000
12,400,000
31,800,000
109,200,000
Potatoes
41,800,000
8,600,000
13,200,000
63,600,000
Other crops
58,400,000
11,800,000
19,000,000
89,200,000
Meat .
37,800,000
9,400,000
15,800,000
63,000,000
Dairy .
35,900,000
8,900,000
15,200,000
60,000,000
Sundries
19,100,000
4,900,000
8,000,000
32,000,000
Total . 258,000,000 56,000,000 103,000,000 417,000,000
The gross product per acre was 91 shillings in Prussia, 104
in the rest of Germany, and 96 in the whole empire, as com-
pared with 92 shillings in France and 96 in the United
Kingdom.
If we reduce all food to a grain denominator, we shall find
that the total hardly exceeds 41 million tons, considerably less
than 1 ton per inhabitant, viz. : —
Equiv. in
Quantity. Grain, Tons.
Grain, tons . . . 18,700,000 18,700,000
Potatoes, tons . . . 29,000,000 9,700,000
Meat, tons . . . 1,520,000 12,160,000
Wine, gallons . . . 80,000,000 800,000
Total 41,360,000
It seems strange that a country of which only one-half is
cultivated, and possessing so large a rural population, should
be unable to raise enough food for its people ; yet such is the
fact, the net average importation of grain in the last three
years having been 3,500,000 tons, and of meat 200,000 tons,
together representing a value of 34 millions sterling per
annum. Neumann Spallart stated in 1884 that two-thirds
of the German population subsisted on rye, and that of all
grain raised for human food in Germany the supply was equal
to no more than ten months' consumption. In the last three
years the supply averaged barely enough for eight months.
140 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Owing to the cheapness of land, the return on agricultural
capital is greater than in France, being shown as follows : —
Millions & Sterling. Ratio
per
Capital. Products. Cent.
Germany . . . 2,508 417 16fc
France . . . 3,093 416 13£
Dividing the agricultural capital among the number of
farms, it gives a ratio of £840 each in Germany, against £880
in France. The product per hand is less than in France,
viz. : —
Hands. Millions £. & per Hand.
Germany . . . 9,350,000 417 44
France .... 7,220,000 416 58
In both these countries, meantime, the ratio is much below
that of the United Kingdom, £91 per hand ; although the
agricultural classes in France and Germany have a more
laborious life than with us.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The area under timber is 34| million acres, or one-fourth
of that of the empire, and the product is approximately
£13,000,000, equal to 8 shillings per acre. The forests give
employment to about 190,000 woodcutters, whose labour
represents an annual product of £70 each.
The fisheries are insignificant, employing about 20,000
men, who take fish to the value of about 1 million sterling
per annum.
MANUFACTURES
But for the wars of Frederick the Great this class of industry
would have attained more importance in the eighteenth cen-
tury. Silesia had long been famous for linens, Saxony for
woollens, Prussia for hardware, yet an official return for
Prussia in 1799 showed the total output of manufactures to
GERMANY 141
be only £8,100,000. The first steam-engine was erected at
Tarnowitz in 1788, from which date factories began to multiply,
and Oddy, writing in 1805, says : " No country in Europe
has yet aimed so much as Prussia at the improvement of
manufactures, and the most flourishing now are those of linen
cloth, woollens, cottons, leather, and hardware."
Linens. — This was the most important branch of manufac-
ture at the beginning of the century, Silesia counting 25,000
looms, which turned out damask table-cloths of great beaut}'.
" This linen," says Oddy, " has a world-wide reputation as
being almost equal to Irish, and is largely exported from
Hamburg to Spain, England, and North America." An
official report in 1843 valued the output of linen in all
Germany at £3,700,000, of which Prussia stood for three-
fourths, the home consumption in that kingdom reaching
120 million yards. The consumption of flax in 1894 was
74,000 tons, including 30,000 imported, and this consumption
was equivalent to a make of about 300 million yards of linen,
worth £9,000,000. This industry, nevertheless, has been in
late years left far behind by other textiles.
Woollens. — Frederick the Great introduced merino sheep
from Spain to improve the quality of German wool. The
woollen manufacture made such progress in the present century
that in 1878 Germany counted 2 million spindles, and the
consumption of wool has multiplied seven-fold since 1824, at
present exceeding 160,000 tons. The output is of the value
approximately of 42 millions sterling, the home consumption
averaging 16 shillings per inhabitant, against 19 shillings in
France and 23 in the United Kingdom. The best kinds of
cloth are made in Saxony and Prussia.
Cottons. — Cotton-mills existed in the last century, but made
so little progress that the survey of 1825 showed only 22,000
looms. The introduction of steam-power subsequently gave
such an impetus that the consumption of cotton increased
ten-fold between 1835 and 1875. The annexation of Alsace-
Lorraine transferred 1| million cotton-spindles to Germany,
142 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
and in 1887 the empire counted 5,200,000 spindles, against
150,000, as stated by M'Gregor, in 1837. The principal seats
of this industry are Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, and Chemnitz.
The weight of cotton used in the mills is 260,000 tons, or
twenty times as much as in the years 1831-40, and ,the output
represents an approximate value of 35 millions sterling. Of
this about one-fifth is exported, the home consumption being
equal to 11 shillings per inhabitant, against 20 shillings in
the United Kingdom.
Silks. — In Oddy's time the only German factories were in
Prussia, with an output of £700,000 yearly, which was more
than doubled in 1840, when the mills counted 12,000 looms
and 14,000 workmen. Crefeld and Barmen are the centres
of silk manufacture, with 87,000 operatives, and consuming
5000 tons yearly of raw silk. No country except France
exceeds Germany in this branch of industry, the output
reaching 17 millions sterling. The home consumption aver-
ages only 4 shillings per inhabitant, against 10 shillings in
France.
Hemp. — This is a minor industry, the factories, according
to Spallart, consuming 30,000 tons yearly, equivalent to an
output worth £2,200,000.
AH Textiles. — The value of these manufactures at various
dates was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Woollens
Cottons . .
Silks .
1840.
. 8
. 5
2
I860.
16
9
4
1880.
28
20
14
1894.
42
35
17
Linens .
Sundries
. 4
. 2
5
3
6
4
9
5
Total .... 21 37 72 108
The sum total of textiles yearly is less than 60 per cent, of
those of the United Kingdom.
Hardware. — M'Gregor says that the Germans began in the
last century to make good cutlery and farm implements.
GERMANY 143
According to Malchus and later authorities the consumption
of iron in Germany has been at various dates as follows : —
Tons of Iron.
1826. 1850. 1872. 1893.
Made . . 130,000 402,000 1,450,000 4,980,000
Imported . 10,000 50,000 650,000 50,000
Consumed . 140,000 452,000 2,100,000 5,030,000
The production of steel has risen still more rapidly ; from
170,000 tons in 1870 to 2,200,000 in 1893, or thirteen-fold in
twenty-three years. The value of iron and steel manufactures
is approximately 86 millions sterling, of which exports repre-
sent 11 millions. Home consumption averages 30 shillings
per inhabitant, against 35 in the United Kingdom.
Other Metals. — The consumption of lead, copper, and zinc
has likewise grown prodigiously in the last forty years, as
shown thus : —
Tons of Metal Consumed.
Year.
1850 .
1872 .
1892 .
The mineral wealth of Germany is such that the above
figures fall short of the aggregate production, which in 1892
exceeded 260,000 tons. She consumes little more than half
of the zinc and lead produced, but is dependent on importa-
tion for all the tin and two-thirds of the copper used in her
manufactures,
Summary of Hardware. — The output of all classes of metallic
wares sums up a value approximately of 105 millions sterling,
having multiplied six-fold since 1850, and more than doubled
since 1872. The present value of metallic manufactures is
one-fourth less than that of Great Britain, but more than
double that of France. It is equal to 42 shillings per inhabi-
tant, against 77 in the United Kingdom. The hardware
trade of the two countries compares as follows : —
Copper.
Lead.
Zinc.
Tin.
Total.
5,000
25,000
15,000
1,000
46,000
15,000
39,000
29,000
3,000
86,000
52,000
60,000
75,000
7,000
194,000
144 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
U. Kingdom, £. Germany, £.
Export .... 45,500,000 14,300,000
Home use .... 96,500,000 90,700,000
Annual output . . 142,000,000 105,000,000
Home consumption of hardware in Germany, including im-
ports, reaches 94 millions sterling, equal to 37 shillings per
inhabitant, against 48 shillings in the United Kingdom. It
will be observed that Great Britain exports three times the
value of hardware that Germany does.
Leather. — In the earlier part of the century the importation
of hides was insignificant, but as population and manufactures
have increased much faster than live-stock, it has been
necessary in the last thirty years to import hides so largely
that at present 40 per cent, of those tanned are from foreign
countries : —
Tons of Leather.
1840. 1872. 1894.
Native .... 50,000 73,000 82,000
Imported . . . 5,000 30,000 50,000
Total, tons . . 55,000 103,000 132,000
The value of goods manufactured yearly is now about 66
millions sterling. Hardly one-tenth is exported, the home
consumption averaging 23 shillings per inhabitant, against 28
in Great Britain.
Sugar. — In 1816 the mills turned out 1400 tons of beet-
sugar, and in 1850 the quantity rose to 40,000 tons. At
present the average product is 1 million tons, worth 15
millions sterling, about 600,000 tons being exported. The
consumption averages 18 Ibs. per head, against 70 Ibs. in the
United Kingdom.
Liquor. — There are 25,000 breweries, which produce 24
million barrels of beer, Prussia standing for 60, Bavaria 30,
per cent, of the total; they consume yearly 960,000 tons of
grain, each ton producing 25 barrels of beer. Germans do
not drink so much beer as is commonly believed, the con-
sumption averaging only 20 gallons per head, against 30 in
GERMANY 145
the United Kingdom. There are 22,000 distilleries, turning
out 80 million gallons of spirits, value 8 millions sterling :
consumption averages 1| gallon per inhabitant. The annual
product of breweries and distilleries is 63 millions sterling.
Printing. — The principal seat of this industry is Leipzig,
long famous for its book fairs. The first steam printing
press was erected in 1848, and since that year the business
has grown so rapidly that in 1888 Leipzig turned out 60
million volumes, valued at 6 millions sterling. The news-
papers of Germany circulate about 150 million copies monthly,
and the tbtal value of the printing and publishing trade
is approximately 18 millions sterling, say 7 shillings per
inhabitant.
Machinery. — According to Zehden there are in Prussia
alone 300 machine factories, which produce everything
requisite for railways, agriculture, mining, &c. Two of them
are among the most remarkable in the world, namely, Krupp's
at Essen, and Borsig's at Berlin. The first mentioned covers
one thousand acres, employs 20,000 men, has 310 steam-
engines representing 10,000 horse-power, and possesses 70
steam-hammers (the largest being a 50-ton hammer, the
erection of which cost £100,000 sterling), the factory con-
suming yearly a million tons of steel in making cannon,
machinery, &c. The Borsig factory was started in 1837 by a
man of that name, to whom a friend lent £1500 for the
purpose; before his death Mr. Borsig had turned out 3600
locomotives, and accumulated a fortune of 3 millions ster-
ling, his staff counting 10,000 operatives. Germany has 750
machine factories, and their output is included in the estimate
of metallic industries given already.
Clothing. — This industry amounts approximately to 69
millions sterling, of which 4 millions are exported : home
consumption is equivalent to 25 shillings per inhabitant,
against 34 shillings in France and 43 in the United Kingdom.
Houses and Furniture. — The census of 1880 showed
1,004,000 men engaged in building and carpenters' work,
K
146 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
and their product may be estimated at 69 millions sterling,
that is 3 per cent, of the capital value of houses and furniture.
Summary. — The total value of manufactures at various
dates was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1826. 1869. 1S94.
Textiles . 10 52 108
Hardware
Leather
Food .
Clothing
Houses and furniture
Sundries
8 39 105
15 47 66
70 95 135
40 60 69
35 52 69
44 86 138
Total . . .222 431 690
The total for 1894 gives an average of ,£79 per operative,
against £106 in the United Kingdom. It is not unreasonable
to suppose that the value of manufactures produced in the
several States is in ratio with the number of hands employed,
in which case the table for 1894 will show as follows : —
Operatives. Millions £. Ratio.
Prussia . . . 5,030,000 394 57 "2
Saxony . . . 970,000 76 ll'O
Bavaria . . . 860,000 67 9'7
Minor States . . 1,970,000 153 22'1
Total . . . 8,830,000 690 lOO'O
Prussia does not hold so high a ratio in manufactures as in
agriculture or in the general population of the empire.
MINERALS
Coal. — This is the mineral of most importance, Germany
occupying the third place among nations as a producer of
coal. In 1840 there was not much difference between France
and Germany in this respect, but since then the latter has
gone much ahead, the quantities raised being as follows : —
Tons Raised.
1840. 1870. 1894.
Germany . . 3,400,000 34,000,000 99,100,000
France . . 3,300,000 13,300,000 25,200,000
GERMANY 147
One- fourth of German coal is lignite or " brown " coal. The
most valuable collieries are those of Prussia, with 256,000
miners, who raise 80 per cent, of the German total. Con-
sumption averages 90 million tons, or almost 2 tons per
inhabitant, against 4 tons in the United Kingdom.
Ironstone. — There are 1070 iron mines, mostly in Silesia
and Westphalia, the output of 1894 reaching 12^ million tons
of ore, which gives about 36 per cent, of metallic iron. Large
quantities of ironstone are imported from Biscay, and the
total make of iron in 1893 was 4,980,000 tons, having in-
creased ten-fold since 1860.
Copper. — The production of copper ore has multiplied
twelve-fold since 1850, being now 600,000 tons, raised in
Prussia and Saxony. The ores are poor, yielding hardly 3
per cent, of bar copper, as compared with American ores,
giving 18 per cent. German factories consume 50,000 tons
of bar copper yearly, more than half being imported either as
copper or regulus.
Lead. — Production has grown six-fold since 1848; in 1893
it reached 95,000 tons of pig lead, that is 55 per cent, of the
weight of ore raised.
Zinc. — Prussia produces more than half the zinc of the world :
the ores raised in 1894 amounted to 730,000 tons, which gave
140,000 tons of metallic zinc, a yield of nearly 20 per cent.
Home consumption is 70,000 tons, just half the product.
Gold and Silver. — About 500 tons of silver are produced
yearly, worth £2,400,000. The gold mines in the Harz
Mountains give a small amount, not quite £50,000 a year.
Salt. — This is made in salt-pans at Halle, and rock-salt is
extracted at Erfurt. Total product, 2,400,000 tons yearly.
Summary. — The production of coal and of metals from
native ore was as follows : —
Production, Tons.
Year. Coal. Iron. Zinc. Lead, &c.
1850 . 6,600,000 350,000 30,000 18,000
1870 . 34,000,000 1,340,000 65,000 59,000
1893 . 95500,000 4,600,000 140,000 119,000
148 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The mines employ 400,000 men, the product of whose labour
is valued at the pit's mouth at 34 millions sterling, say £85
per man. Prussia stands for 80, Saxony 10, per cent, of the
total value. The weight of mineral raised in 1894 was 115
million tons, or 287 per miner, as compared with 91 in 1850
and 180 in 1870 : thus by means of improved machinery two
miners now raise as much as three did in 1870 or six in 1850.
COMMERCE
An official report in 1856 showed that the foreign trade
of the Zollverein had risen to 106 millions sterling, from 40
millions in the year 1822. There was a great increase after
the Austro-German war of 1866, and a steady rise until 1890,
when imports and exports summed up 375 millions sterling,
but since the latter year there has been a decline. Imports
and exports showed at various dates as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1822. 1!
Imports .
Exports
1822.
1840.
1872.
1894.
19
25
163
198
21
27
116
148
Total . . 40 52 279 346
The excess of imports shows the prosperous condition of the
empire, whereas fifty years ago there was an excess of exports,
which always happens in a poor country. The average of
returns for five years ending December 1892 shows thus : —
Millions & Sterling.
Imports from.
Great Britain 29
Exports to.
31
Total.
60
Ratio.
16-9
Austria
27
16
43
12-1
United States
18
18
36
10-0
Russia
24
8
32
8-9
Holland .
13
13
26
7-3
France
12
11
23
6-6
Belgium .
Other countries
14
60
8
54
22
114
6-3
31-9
Total . . 197 159 356 lOO'O
GERMANY
149
The trade of Germany exceeds that of France by 70 millions
sterling, or 25 per cent., whereas in 1872 France surpassed
Germany.
Shipping. — The carrying -power of German merchant ship-
ping has grown seven-fold since the statement published in
Lloyd's List for 1842, the increase of steamers in late years
being remarkable : —
Tons Register.
f ' N Carrying.
Year. Steam. Sail. Total. power.
1840 . 1,000 550,000 551,000 554,000
1872 . 130,000 870,000 1,000,000 1,390,000
1895' . 890,000 660,000 1,550,000 4,220,000
Germany is now the second carrying-power on the high
seas, being inferior only to Great Britain ; but if the shipping
on the internal waters of the United States were counted, the
American tonnage would be three times that of Germany.
Internal Trade. — The amount of internal trade at various
dates was approximately as follows : —
Agriculture .
Manufactures .
Minerals, forestry, &c.
Imports . . .
Total
Millions & Sterling.
1840. 1869. 1894.
170 295 417
285 431 690
10 21 48
25 148 198
490
895
1,353
Internal trade compared with population shows an average
of £26 per inhabitant, against .£31 in France. The gross
amount has trebled since 1840, whereas in France it has not
quite doubled.
Railways. — A line was made in 1840 from Berlin to Leipzig,
106 miles, but very little progress was made till the North-
German Confederation was formed, after the campaign of
Sadowa, in 1866. Previously the concession of a railway two
or three hundred miles in length required the sanction of a
dozen petty governments. The following table shows the
length open at various dates : —
ISO INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Miles.
1840.
I860.
1S80.
1894.
Prussia
. 106
3,450
12,640
17,490
Bavaria .
. 40
1,130
3,000
3,710
Other States
. 194
2,400
5,050
6,650
Total . 340 6,980 20,690 27,850
Germany has more miles of railway than any other country
except the United States. Her lines represent a cost of
555 millions sterling, or almost £20,000 a mile : they are all
State property, except 2900 miles. Goods traffic is equivalent
to 136 million tons carried 100 miles. Traffic returns per mile
compare with those of France thus : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £.
Germany . . . 2,564 1,664
France . . . .2,195 1,253
The net return on capital is 4| per cent, in Germany and
3£ in France, the French lines having cost 36 per cent, more
per mile in construction. Goods tariff in Germany is 10 per
cent, cheaper than in France, which is a great benefit to
internal trade.
Banks. — The old Bank of Prussia, founded in 1765, was
reconstructed in 1875 as the Imperial Bank, with a capital of
6 millions sterling. There are numerous joint-stock banks,
and in 1887 the Almanac de Gotha published a statement
showing current discounts to amount to 164 millions sterling.
The money in use in 1894 comprised 132 millions gold, 45
silver, and 61 paper, in all 238 millions sterling, or less than
£5 per inhabitant. Money compared with the amount of
internal trade in Germany, France, and United Kingdom
shows thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Germany . .
France
Intern. Tro '?.
. 1,353
. 1,201
Money.
238
466
J.MUAU
per Cent.
18
39
United Kingdom
. 1,610
150
9
It appears that Germany uses relatively twice as much
money as Great Britain, and not half as much as France.
GERMANY
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the people of Germany at various dates
were approximately as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
Agricultural
Manufacturing .
Mines, forests, &c.
Trade
Transport .
House -rent
Domestics .
Public service .
Professions
Total
1840.
1869.
1894.
102
177
250
93
215
345
10
21
48
49
90
135
51
94
142
20
33
92
13
22
61
16
26
94
35
68
117
. 389
746
1,284
The class which in Prussia is subject to income-tax was
estimated by Soetbeer in 1890 to have an aggregate income
of 500 millions sterling, against 404 millions in 1879. The
earnings of the principal States in 1893 were : —
Millions £ Sterling.
**
Wurtem-
Other
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Saxony.
berg.
States.
German
Agricultural
155
35
10
10
40
250
Manufacturing .
197
34
38
16
60
345
Mines, &c. .
36
3
3
1
5
48
Trade £<-' ".
80
15
11
6
23
135
Transport .
85
16
11
6
24
142
House-rent
55
10
6
4
17
92
Domestics .
36
7
4
3
11
61
Professions, &c. .
125
23
16
8
39
211
Total
. 769
143
99
54
219 1,284
Official returns for Prussia show that the number of persons
with incomes over £150 a year rose from 173,000 in 1881 to
319,000 in 1893, an increase of 85 per cent. As Prussia
stands for 60 per cent, of the German Empire, we may con-
struct from the assessments for that kingdom an estimated
distribution of earnings thus : —
152 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Amount,
Income.
Prussia.
Other States.
Germany.
Millions £.
Over £1,100
18,100
11,900
30,000
115
£480 to £1,100 .
31,100
20,900
52,000
39
£240 to £480 .
65,000
37,000
92,000
31
£150 to £240 .
215,000
145,000
360,000
67
Under £150
13,370,800
8,945,200
22,316,000
1,032
Total
13,690,000 9,160,000 22,850,000 1,284
Wealth. — The components of wealth in 1895 were approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Wurtera-
Other
~~^
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Saxony.
berg.
States.
Germany.
Land .
1,252
264
54
105
302
1,977
Cattle, &c. .
331
77
18
25
80
531
Railways
348
65
36
20
86
555
Factories
131
22
25
11
41
230
Houses .
917
157
107
66
278
1,525
Furniture
459
78
54
33
139
763
Merchandise
403
76
55
28
115
677
Bullion .
111
20
16
8
29
184
Sundries
988
190
91
74
267
1,610
Total . 4,940 949 456 370 1,337 8,052
Land. — There is no official valuation of land for the whole
empire. In 1837 a valuation of Prussia showed that the
lands of that kingdom were then worth 305 millions sterling ;
a second made in 1869 amounted to 664 millions sterling.
Viebahn valued all the land of Germany in 1856 at 1304
millions sterling, and made the average per acre for Wurtem-
berg 50 per cent, higher than in the rest of Germany. In
1880 a valuation of Wurtemberg lands amounted to 105
millions sterling ; this was equal to £30 an acre for the pro-
ductive area, and £6 an acre for forest. Following Viebahn's
opinion, that other German land is worth two-thirds of the
Wurtemberg price, we may estimate the rest of Germany,
that is, the productive area, at £20 an acre, and put down all
forest land at £6 an acre, leaving out of account 12,100,000
acres of waste or mountain land. The result will be as
follows : —
GERMANY
153
Acres (OOO's omitted).
Value, Millions &.
Productive.
Forest.
Productive. Forest.
Total.
Prussia
. 66,500
20,400
1,130 122
1,252
Bavaria
. 11,400
5,900
228 36
264
Wurtemberg
. 3,200
1,450
96 9
105
Other States
. 15,800
6,750
316 40
356
Germany . . 86,900 34,500 1,770 207 1,977
According to the land-tax of Bavaria in 1890 the official
valuation of that kingdom appears to have been 240 millions
sterling, that is 9 per cent, less than the above estimate, but
it is known that official valuations are under the reality. The
total agricultural wealth of the German Empire, between
land, cattle, and sundries, amounts approximately to 2508
millions sterling, being an average of £840 per farm, against
£880 in France.
Houses. — If we take the house-tax of 1890 for a guide it
must be remembered that the official valuation (as occurs
in France) is much below the letting value. The following
estimate supposes the venal value to be twenty-five times the
apparent assessment :— Millions £
'Rei
Prussia .
Bavaria .
Wurtemberg
Darmstadt
Other States
Empire 1,525 30'5
The rental of "other States" not being known, the value
of house property is assumed in their case to be £30 -5 per
inhabitant, the average for the rest of Germany.
Summary. — The amount of wealth compares with popula-
tion in the several kingdoms as follows : —
Millions £. Population. £ per Head.
Prussia .... 4,940 31,500,000 157
Bavaria .... 949 5,770,000 165
Saxony .... 456 3,750,000 122
Wurtemberg ... 370 2,070,000 179
Small States . . . 1,337 8,670,000 154
Rent.
36-7
Value.
917
vaiue jt per
Inhabitant.
30-6
6-3
157
28-0
2-6
66
32-5
1-4
35
35-0
350
30-5
Germany
8,052
51,760,000
156
154 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The wealth of Germany appears to be 16 per cent, less than
that of France, although the population is one-third greater ;
hence the ratio per inhabitant is very much less, being £156
in Germany to £252 in France. Among Continental nations
Germany holds the second place as regards the gross amount,
but not as to ratio per head.
FINANCE
The revenue of the States now composing the empire has
grown thirteen-fold since 1822, as shown thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
X"^ ~"~"* ' ^^^—
Year.
1822 .
1867 .
1895 .
It must not be supposed that taxation has risen in the same
degree as revenue, one-third of which proceeds from State
railways, constructed or purchased since 1867. The system of
finance is complicated, each of the States receiving from the
Imperial Treasury a quota on account of Customs and Excise,
and giving back an amount almost equal as its contribution
to the Federal Government. If we eliminate this quota the
revenues in 1894 will be found to sum up 119 millions sterling,
besides the imperial revenue of 46 millions : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Other
General
~~^
Prussia.
Bavaria.
States.
Taxes.
Total.
7-0
2-5
4-9
0
14-4
25-3
5-9
9-3
11-2
51-7
97-5
16-4
281
46-0
188-0
Prussia. Other States. Imperial. Total.
Railways . . . 49'2 13'7 1'2 641
Crown Estates . . 24'0 6'4 9'0 39'4
Taxes . . . 24'3 24'4 35'8 84'5
Total . . 97-5 44'5 46'0 188"0
Crown estates comprise not only lands and forests, but also
the Post-office, telegraphs, and other public services. Taxes
consist of the imperial customs and excise, income-tax, poll-
GERMANY 155
tax, stamps, &c., all which make up an aggregate of 85 millions
sterling, equal to 33 shillings per inhabitant, while municipal
and other local taxes amount to about 45 millions, and this
brings up the total taxes to 130 millions sterling, say 50
shillings per inhabitant. The incidence of taxation, therefore,
as compared with national earnings is much lighter than in
France, but heavier than in the United Kingdom, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Taxes. Earnings. Ratio of Tax
Germany . . . .130 1,284 lO'l
France1 . . . .144 1,199 12'0
United Kingdom . . .122 1,423 8'6
The foregoing table, of course, includes both national and
local taxes.
Debt. — The amount of debt at various dates was as
follows : —
Million! £ Sterling.
Year. Prussia. Bavaria. Other States. Imperial. Total.
1822 . 26 10 18 ... 54
1867 . 49 30 49 ... 128
1896 . . 318 69 112 105 604
State railways represent a value of 487 millions, so that the
real debt of Germany may be said not to exceed 117 millions,
or 45 shillings per inhabitant. About 300 millions sterling of
the debt is held in 4 per cents., the rest in 3 or 3£ per cents.,
and as the railways earn more than 4 per cent, the debt is no
burthen to the nation.
VI
EUSSIA
RUSSIA and Poland have been increasing very fast in popula-
tion in the last forty years, viz.: —
Inhabitant
Population. per sq. mile.
1855. 1895. 1855. 1895.
Russia . . 59,330,000 95,750,000 31 50
Poland . . 4,760,000 0,220,000 97 188
Total . . 64,090,000 104,970,000 33 54
Where three men stood forty years ago five stand to-day.
The cultivated area being 255 million acres, or 2| acres per
inhabitant, the production of grain is more than sufficient for
the needs of the empire, but some of the provinces, especially
Poland, Podolia, and Kiev, are so thickly populated that they
could not support more than their present number of inhabi-
tants. The latest vital statistics for European Russia, includ-
ing Poland, give the averages for five years ending December
1889 as birth-rate 47, death-rate 32, per thousand.
Birth-rate is the highest in the world, probably because of
the early marrying age, the average being twenty-five for men
and twenty-one for women. Death-rate is 50 per cent, higher
than in England, which is mainly caused by infant mortality :
of 1000 children born 575 die under five years of age, as
compared with 238 in England. Nevertheless the natural
increase is such that population doubles in forty-six years.
The census of 1882 showed that 89 per cent, of the population
were rural, 11 per cent, urban, the latter comprising 294 cities
and towns with an aggregate of 10,400,000 souls. The official
156
RUSSIA 157
statement of 1895 makes the population of Russia 105
millions, and the total may be said to be made up thus :
95 million Russians, 7 million Poles, 3 million Jews. The
number of foreign residents is small, only 150,000, and that of
Russians and Poles living abroad is barely 500,000, of whom
330,000 are in the United States, most of the remainder
being Mennonites who emigrated to Canada and Argentina
since 1870, to avoid military service, and who are admirable
colonists. The last occupation-census was that of 1872, which
showed the occupations of male adults only. It is to be
supposed that in Russia, as happens in most countries, there
are in each avocation of life 50 females to 100 male workers.
Allowing for the increase of population since 1872 there would
be at present 38,400,000 persons engaged in agriculture,
3,660,000 in manufactures, and 6,240,000 in other pursuits.
But it must be borne in mind, as Zehden observes, that the
Russian peasant is often both an artisan and a tiller of the
soil, for wnich reason we must transfer 10 per cent, of the
Moujiks from the agricultural to the manufacturing category,
and the occupations will then show as follows, in 1895 : —
Agriculture. Manufactures. Commercial, &c. Total.
Males . 23,100,000 4,980,000 4,120,000 32,200,000
Females . 11,550,000 2,490,000 2,060,000 16,100,000
Total . 34,650,000 7,470,000 6,180,000 48,300,000
The working-power of Russia has risen 60 per cent, since
1860, viz.:—
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
-^- per
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1860 . . 6,500 43,500 800 50,800 780
1894 . . 9,100 62,400 11,200 82,700 780
The introduction of railways has brought a great increase
of steam-power, which has multiplied fourteen-fold since 1860,
viz. : —
Horse-power of Steam.
Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total.
1860 . . 60,000 100,000 40,000 200,000
1894 . . 350,000 2,200,000 240,000 2,790,000
158 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
While Russia has double the population, she has only one-
third of the steam-power, of Germany, from which we may
infer that she could produce six times as much as she does if
she had an adequate supply of steam-power. The waste of labour
in Russia is prodigious, but is not understood by the govern-
ing class ; men and women toil out their lives in producing a
minimum, and their existence is such a drudgery that this is
possibly the latent cause of the discontent which finds expres-
sion in Nihilism.
AGRICULTURE
Before the Crimean War agriculture was of the rudest
kind : machinery was unknown ; the peasants were bought
and sold on the estates, like cattle. Since 1850 the agri-
cultural capital has quintupled, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year Land. Cattle. Sundries. Total.
1850 . 295 140 45 480
1894 . . . 2,113 350 247 2,710
The emancipation of the serfs, in 1861, gave a great impulse
to farming and caused the price of land to double. During
an interval of twenty years down to 1892, the clearing of the
forests and extension of the improved area proceeded at the
rate of 8 million acres yearly. If we compare the improved
area in later years with Hermann's estimate for 1830, we find
as follows :— Millions of Acres.
Year. Improved. Forest, &c. Total.
1830 .... 195 862 1,057
1872 .... 305 939 1,244
1892. . . .589 752 1,341
One -fifth of European Russia is desert, the productive
portion being only 1087 million acres, viz.: —
Acres.
Under crops 255,000,000
Pasture 334,000,000
Forest 498,000,000
Total 1,087,000,000
RUSSIA 159
The crown and the nobles still hold three- fourths of the
empire, and as a rule the Moujik, or peasant, is limited to a
patch of 10 acres, whereas there is sufficient land to give him
20 or 30 acres, as appears from the table of tenure : —
Millions of Acres.
Crown. Nobles. Merchants. Peasants. Total.
Russia . . 430 160 94 373 1,057
Poland 2 15 1 12 30
Total . 432 175 95 385 1,087
There are some 50,000 nobles whose estates cover a larger
area than the German Empire. Peasant proprietors, on the
other hand, possess no more than 6 per cent, of Russia, if we
except the lands in Communes. In 1893 there were 6,750,000
farms held by emancipated serfs, covering 63£ million acres,
which gives an average of not quite 10 acres each. There
were also Communes or villages, with 13 millions of male
adults, holding collectively 310 million acres, of which nearly
half was forest, leaving about 12 acres of improved land to
each male adult. We have seen that the total number of
hands is about 38| millions, and if we divide among them the
value of tillage and pastoral products it gives to each only £14
a year. The value in 1894 was approximately as follows : —
Grain £258,000,000
Other crops 112,000,000
Meat 87,000,000
Dairy, &c 83,000,000
Total £540,000,000
The improved area being 589 million acres the gross pro-
duct averages less than 19 shillings per acre, as compared
with 96 shillings in Germany and 92 in France. The total
agricultural capital of the empire, as already shown, amounts
to 2710 millions sterling ; hence the gross annual product is
equal to 20 per cent, on capital, as compared with 16£ per
cent, in Germany and 13£ in France. There is usually a
160 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
large surplus of grain for exportation, the production and con-
sumption in the years 1892-93-94 averaging as follows : —
Millions of Bushels.
Wheat. Rye. Oats. Other Grain. Total
Crop . . . .312 697 560 441 2,010
Exported ... 94 27 37 108 266
Consumption . . 218 670 523 333 1,744
The value of grain exported in the above years averaged
28 millions sterling. The quantity under the head of con-
sumption was disposed of in the following manner : 300
million bushels kept for seed, 480 given to cattle and horses,
and 960 used for human food; three-fourths of the popula-
tion live on rye, one-fourth on wheat. The foregoing table is
for Russia proper, taking no account of the crops of Poland,
which average 105 million bushels yearly, and are only
sufficient for home consumption. Neither has Poland any
surplus of meat, the production averaging only 250,000 tons,
equal to 60 Ibs. per inhabitant. Russia has a small surplus of
meat, the weight of live cattle annually exported being equiva-
lent to 20,000 tons of dead meat. The production of meat is
approximately as follows : —
Tons of Meat.
Beef. Mul
Russia .
Poland .
Total . 1,380,000 480,000 430,000 2,290,000
Large as seems this supply of meat it suffices to give no
more than 50 Ibs. to each inhabitant, which is a lower ratio
than in any other country, except Italy and Portugal, and
accounts for the large consumption of grain. If we reduce all
food to a grain denominator, we find the total product for
Russia and Polland in 1894 as follows : —
Quantity. Equiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons . . . 58,400,000 58,400,000
Potatoes, „ ... 14,100,000 4,700,000
Meat, „ ... 2,290,000 18,300,000
Wine, gallons . . . 70,000,000 700,000
Total . . 82,100,000
Beef.
Mutton.
Pork.
Total.
1,230,000
150,000
440,000
40,000
370,000
60,000
2,040,000
250,000
RUSSIA 161
This is not quite double the quantity produced in France,
while the number of hands is as five to one, another indication
of the waste of labour in Russia. Civilisation has yet a long
road to travel in the dominions of the Czar. The best farms
are those of the nobles, the peasants being too poor to culti-
vate their land properly : the nobles put 14 tons of manure to
the acre, the peasants only 7, and the result is that the seed
sown by the former produces fifteen-fold, that by the latter
only six-fold. The gross product of a Moujik's ten-acre farm
is hardly £20 a year, from which we have to deduct one-
third for taxes, seed, &c., leaving him £13 to support his
family. His food is so bad that an English traveller writes
thus : — " No man but a Russian could subsist on such fare :
it consists of rye-bread and mushroom soup, worth twopence
a day." He lives in a hut five feet square ; his wife helps him
at the plough, often in less than a week after her confinement,
and the poor women have such a wretched life that 5 per cent,
of wives die in child-bed, or double the European average.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The forests cover 498 million acres, an area almost four
times as large as the German Empire. The clearance of
timber since 1872 has averaged 7 million acres yearly, and
the forest area diminishes, year by year, as population increases.
Crown forests in 1860 covered 333 million acres, and in 1878
Strebinski found them reduced to 180 million acres. Besides
Crown forests, which belong to the State, the Czar owns 30
million acres of timber, in which he employs 27,000 wood-
cutters. The value of firewood and timber cut yearly averages
1 shilling per acre in Crown forests, 2 in communal or private.
Buschen estimated the yield in 1864 at the sum of 24 millions
sterling; at present it reaches about 40 millions : —
Tons. Value, £,.
Firewood .... 90,000,000 13,500,000
Timber .... 40,000,000 26,700,000
Total .... 130,000,000 40,200,000
t
1 62 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Comparing the product with the area, it appears that each
acre yields about £ ton, value 20 pence, whereas in Germany
the product averages 8 shillings per acre.
Fisheries are of minor importance : the take in 1880 was
estimated at 220,000 tons, value £2,200,000.
MANUFACTURES
In 1824 Schubert reported 5300 textile factories, employing
250,000 operatives and turning out goods to the value of
£5,100,000, which gives the very low average of £20 per
operative. Forty years later Buschen's survey gave the output
of 15,000 factories as 52 millions sterling, adding that he
considered the factories to represent only 40 per cent., the
artisans and small industries 60 per cent., of the total annual
value of goods manufactured. The following statement there-
fore applies only to factories : —
Year. Factories. Operatives. Millions £. £ per Hand.
1824 . . 5,286 250,000 5 20
1864 . . 15,453 465,000 52 112
1894 . . 26,200 1,171,000 164 140
The actual value of manufactures is more than double the
output of the factories.
Textiles. — This branch of industry has doubled in the last
thirty years ; the production was approximately as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
1824. 1864. 18M4.
Cottons .... 2 11 20
Linens .... 1 12 24
Woollens .... 3 9 29
Silks 2 3
Total .... 6 34 76
Coitons. — Schubert's table for 1824 showed 484 mills, con-
suming yearly 2000 tons of cotton and yarn. In 1840 the
RUSSIA 163
consumption had risen to 20,000, and now it exceeds 140,000
tons. The mills contain 3 million spindles, and produce suffi-
cient fabrics for home consumption, value 20 millions sterling,
or 4 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 11 shillings
in Germany.
Linens. — Factories consuming flax and hemp have always
been classified together, and in 1864 Buschen found that their
number had trebled since 1824. It is, however, in the last
twenty years that this industry has made the greatest strides,
the consumption of flax and hemp rising from 110,000 tons in
1872 to 230,000 in 1892. Zehden states the value of goods
made in 1887 to reach 25 millions sterling, a sum surpassing
the output of this class of goods in any other country of
the world.
Woollens. — Russia had not until recently a sufficient number
of mills to consume her wool-clip, but in 1893 she imported
more wool than she exported, production and consumption
having been as follows : —
Tons, Wool.
Year. Clip. Exported. Home Use.
1824 . . . 45,000 3,000 42,000
1864 . . . 73,000 21,000 52,000
1894 . . . 95,000 ... 110,000
The mills do not fully meet the requirements of the empire,
woollen goods being imported yearly to the value of £400,000.
It is surprising to find that notwithstanding the severity of
the climate the annual consumption of goods is equivalent to
no more than 2 Ibs. of raw wool per inhabitant, against 7 Ibs.
in Germany, a striking proof of the poverty of the Russian
people.
Silks. — Buschen reported 326 mills, with an output of
£2,300,000, that is six times the amount given by Schubert
in 1824. Not much progress has been made since 1864, the
mills in 1892 consuming only 900 tons of raw silk, and the
output, according to the Bull. Statist., being only 3 millions
sterling.
164 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Hardware. — There were 900 furnaces at work at Perm,
Novgorod, &c., in 1828 ; Tula, the Sheffield of Russia, had 600
cutlery establishments. Iron was, meantime, dearer than
bread, which compelled the Moujiks to use wooden plough-
shares and leave their horses unshod. Tegeborski's report in
1866 showed 1730 foundries, and since then the consumption
of iron has trebled. The production and consumption of
iron were : —
Tons of Iron.
Year. Produced. Imported. Consumed.
1828 . . . 115,000 ... 115,000
1860 . . . 290,000 14,000 304,000
1892 . . . 1,060,000 80,000 1,140,000
The consumption of copper has for several years ranged
between 4000 and 6000 tons. According to an official report
for 1891 the output of all metallic wares is a little over 15
millions sterling.
Leather. — This industry is universal throughout the empire,
and the leather derives its fragrant odour from birch-oil, used
in tanning. Russia produces hides sufficient to make 138,000
tons of leather yearly, but she exports a portion, and the'actual
make of leather hardly exceeds 114,000 tons. The value of
leather manufactures turned out yearly is about 57 millions
sterling, equal to 11 shillings per inhabitant, whereas in
Germany the average is 23 shillings.
Sugar. — Some beet-root sugar was made near Tula in 1811,
but it was not till after the Crimean War that the industry
attained importance. When Buschen wrote, in 1864, the
beet-crop reached a million tons, from which 50,000 tons
of sugar were extracted, in 430 mills. A report for 1887
shows 405,000 tons of beet-sugar, valued at £7,200,000, the
quantity exported averaging 90,000 tons yearly. The home
consumption is only 7 Ibs. per inhabitant, against 18 Ibs. in
Germany.
Food. — The output of breweries and distilleries was valued
by Buschen in 1864 at £8,300,000, and the official valuation
for 1882 amounts to £19,500,000. The latest return for
RUSSIA 165
flour-mills, &c.f is £39,200,000, making a total of £58,700,000
for food manufactures.
Summary. — The total value of manufactures at the three
periods already considered was approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
^1824. 1864. 1894?
Textiles 6 34 76
Hardware
Leather
Food .
Clothing
HAuses and furniture
Sundries
B 10 15
7 26 57
20 30 59
15 25 57
10 18 40
17 34 76
Total .... 80 177 380
The manufacturing industry is less than £4 per inhabitant,
compared with £14: in Germany, £15 in France, and £22 in
the United Kingdom.
MINERALS
Gold. — The Ural gold-fields began working at Katerinen-
berg in 1745, but made such little progress that in 1810 the
product was only 10,000 oz., worth £40,000. Official returns
since 1821 show that the yield in seventy years has been
nearly 1600 tons, worth 224 millions sterling. Meantime the
ore is exceedingly poor : in 1890 the miners raised 23 million
tons, from which were extracted 39 tons of gold (Ural mines
10, Siberian 29), that is, 600,000 tons of ore to produce 1 ton
of gold. The yield was equivalent to 5 shillings a ton, and
coal would have been worth more than this. There are about
160,000 miners, and the gold produced in 1890 represented
£5,600,000, or £35 per man. But for convict labour such
mines would hardly pay working expenses.
Silver. — The Siberian mines have been working since 1704,
the present yield averaging 10 tons, worth about £40,000,
yearly. In the last seventy years the total output has been
11 millions sterling.
1 66 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Gold and Silver. — Official records of all mines in the empire
since 1821 show as follows : —
Tons. Value, £.
Period.
rQold.
Silver.
Gold.
SilTer.
Total.
1821-40 .
102
450
14,400,000
3,800,000
18,200,000
1841-80 .
1,124
680
157,400,000
8,300,000
163,700,000
1881-90 .
360
110
50,000,000
600,000
60,600,000
70 years . 1,686 1,240 223,800,000 10,700,000 234,500,000
Coal— The coal-field of the Don yielded 10,000 tons in
1840. Fuel for all purposes is so cheap and abundant in the
form of firewood that the use of coal is limited. The produc-
tion is nevertheless short of the requirements of the country,
the consumption showing as follows : —
Tons of Coal.
Year. Raised. Imported. Consumed.
1860 . . 130,000 720,000 850,000
1880 . . 4,100,000 1,950,000 6,050,000
1892 . . 6,100,000 1,700,000 7,800,000
In 1887 there were 32,000 coal-miners, who raised 140 tons
each, as compared with 285 in Great Britain, one English
miner raising as much as two Russian.
Salt. — The production has trebled since 1860, and now ex-
ceeds 1,200,000 tons yearly, all used for home consumption,
say 27 Ibs. per inhabitant.
Petroleum. — The springs near the Caspian Sea began to
yield in 1863, and in twenty-seven years, down to December
1889, they produced 130 million barrels of crude oil, equal to
36 millions of refined, and worth 26 millions sterling. The
product in 1893 was 28 million barrels crude, or 8 millions of
refined oil, and of this latter quantity 5£ million barrels were
exported, representing a value of £2,200,000 sterling. The
output of the wells is, therefore, worth 3 millions sterling, or
about 2 shillings per barrel of crude oil.
Summary. — The mining industries sum up a yearly total of
36 million tons, representing a value of 12 millions sterling;
RUSSIA 167
they have 2950 water and steam engines, with an aggregate
of 100,000 horse-power, and employ 420,000 miners, whose
average product is, therefore, less than £30 sterling.
COMMERCE
Russia being emphatically a poor country, there has always
been a great excess of exports over imports, as the following
table shows : —
» Millions £ Sterling
Tear. Imports. Exports. Total.
1840 ..... 11 15 26
1860 22 26 48
1894 56 68 124
Down to 1857 the tariff all but prohibited the importation
of foreign goods, and in this manner crippled also the export
trade; but its relaxation brought such an improvement that
imports and exports have more than doubled in thirty years.
The returns for five years ending December 1892 give the
following averages : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports Exports
from. to. Total. Ratio.
Great Britain ... 9 20 29 30'2
Germany ... 11 18 29 30'2
France .... 2 4 6 6'2
Various .... 13 19 32 33'4
Total . . 35 61 96 lOO'O
The foreign trade is less than £1 sterling per inhabitant,
as compared with £7 in Germany.
Shipping. — The nominal tonnage of Russian shipping, in-
cluding that of Finland, has trebled, and the carrying-power
has quintupled, in fifty years, viz. : —
Tons.
Tear.
1842
1894
Steam.
10,000
240,000
Sail.
230,000
510,000
Total.
240,000
750,000
Carrying-power.
270,000
1,470,000
*
168 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
So deficient is Russia in shipping that 85 per cent, of her
trade is done on foreign bottom, mostly British.
Internal Trade. — The amount has been at various dates
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1824. 1864. 1894.
Agriculture . . . .190 330 540
Manufactures .... 80 177 380
Forestry, minerals, &c. 15 30 54
Imports 13 23 56
Total . . . .298 560 1,030
The total for 1894 is not much for a people numbering
105 million souls, being less than £10 per head, against £26
in Germany : in the world's economy one German is worth
three Russians.
Railways. — The first line was opened in 1837, from St.
Petersburg to Tsarskoye Selo, 18 miles, but very little progress
was made until after the death of Czar Nicholas in 1855, at
which date Russia had only 850 miles of railway. Since then
the construction has proceeded at the rate of 500 miles a year,
and the length now in traffic, including Finland, is 23,100
miles, which have cost 349 millions sterling, say £15,600 per
mile. Traffic per mile compares with German lines thus : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £.
German .... 2,564 1,664 900
Russian .... 1,610 970 640
The net profit is 4£ per cent, on cost in Russia, and 4J
in Germany. Goods tariff is 50 per cent, higher than in
Germany, which is a serious obstacle to internal trade, and
hence we find that the haulage is hardly one-third of what is
done on the railways of Germany. There are 14,900 miles of
State railways, and the Government holds shares in the
companies' lines to the amount of one-third of their capital.
Canals. — Navigable rivers and canals unite all the great
cities : the principal system is that of which the Volga is the
main artery. Vessels 200 feet long can traverse the whole
length from the Caspian Sea to Archangel, 2500 miles, or to
RUSSIA 169
St. Petersburg, and this traffic on internal waters occupies
1500 steamers and 61,000 canal boats, with crews numbering
altogether 300,000 men. Navigation is open during eight
months, the canals being frozen during the other four months.
Banks. — The Imperial Bank, founded in 1859, has a mono-
poly in the issue of dishonest money, or inconvertible notes,
which has been for more than a century the curse of Russia.
In 1843 the paper-money fell so low that the Czar called it in,
giving one new note for three old ones : since then the issue
has been multiplied six-fold, and the currency is now at 40 per
cent, discount. While the gold rouble is worth 38 pence, the
paper one fluctuates about 24 pence. The amount of issue
and the value of the rouble note at various dates have been as
follows : —
Millions £ Value.
Million Roubles, „ * ., Rouble
Year. Issue. Nominal. Real. Pence.
1823 .... 605 96 25 10
1844 .... 180 29 27 35
1870 .... 720 114 84 28
1895 .... 1,396 221 140 24
In 1878 there were 30 large, and 347 small, joint-stock
banks, whose current discounts made up an aggregate of 82
millions sterling. The banking-power of the empire is ap-
parently about 160 millions sterling.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the Russian people at various dates have
been approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1824. 1864. 1894.
Agricultural 114 198 324
40 88 190
15 30 54
30 56 103
31 58 108
20 29 47
13 20 31
7 35 56
27 51 91
Manu f acturing
Mines, forests, &c
Trade
Transport .
House-rent .
Domestics .
Public service
Professions .
Total .... 297 565 1,004
i?o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The earnings in 1894 averaged £10 per inhabitant, or a
little over 6 pence a day, a condition of extreme poverty.
Wealth. — The wealth of the nation has more than doubled
since 1864, the largest item of increase being, of course, that
of land, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1864. 1894. Increase.
Land 670 2,113 1,443
Cattle, &c 360 597 237
Railways . 20 349 329
59 127 68
550 892 342
275 446 171
280 515 235
40 101 61
564 1,285 721
Factories
Houses
Furniture .
Merchandise
Bullion
Sundries
Total .... 2,818 6,425 3,607
Land. — The ordinary price before the Crimean War was,
according to Buchanan, £\ English per cultivated acre, but
in 1879 Strebinski found it was 60 shillings for cultivated,
and 6 shillings for forest. A report published by the Imperial
Bank in 1888 shows that during three preceding years the
average price was (in gold money) 65 shillings per acre for
cultivated, and 8 shillings for forest, lands. At these prices,
excluding 363 million acres of desert, the landed value would
be as follows : —
Million Acres. Millions £.
Improved .... 589 1,914
Forest .... 498 199
Total .... 1,087 2,113
The total agricultural capital between land, cattle, and
sundries, sums up only 2710 millions sterling, or £70 per
agricultural hand, as compared with £270 in Germany.
Houses. — Buschen valued urban house property in 1864 at
270 millions sterling, and Strebinski the farm-houses at 288
millions in 1879. Since 1864 urban population has risen 45,
internal trade 77 per cent., and the Imperial Bank statement
shows that rural property has had an increase of 60 per cent.
RUSSIA
171
since Strebinski's report. We may, therefore, estimate a rise
of 60 per cent, both in urban and rural house-property, and
then the total value in 1894 would be approximately thus: —
City houses
Rural
Millions £.
. 432
. 460
Total
892
£ per Inhab.
42
5
9
Summary. — Dividing the total wealth among the population
the average is only £61 per inhabitant, against £156 in
Germany and'£252 in France : in fact, Russia may be described
as a country of princes and peasants, the social condition of
the rural masses being similar to what Arthur Young saw in
France before the French Revolution.
FINANCE
Revenue has multiplied six-fold in half a century, being
now 112 millions sterling, as compared with 17 millions in
1840. If we compare the budgets of 1867 and 1894 we find
as follows : —
Customs .
Excise
Sundries .
Total
The Government is very careful that income and expendi-
ture balance each other every year, but this applies only to
ordinary expenditure, large sums being spent outside the
budget unprovided for. State railways and other Crown
properties produce 37 millions sterling, so that the amount
raised by taxation is only 75 millions yearly. The Minister,
however, includes among other Crown estate incomes the
annual land-tax of 9 millions sterling from the emancipated
Revenue,
Millions £,.
1867. 1895.
4 15
21 37
45 60
70 112
Debt .
Army and navy
Government
Total
Expenditure,
Millions £.
1867. 1895.
12 28
22 33
36 51
70 112
172
serfs, in payment of their farm-lots, and if we count this
among taxes it will make the taxation 84 millions. There
are, moreover, local taxes amounting to 11 millions, bringing
up the total taxation to 95 millions sterling, or 9^ per cent,
of national earnings.
Debt. — Exclusive of expenditure in the construction of
railways there have been continuous deficits since 1840,
summing up 345 millions sterling, which have been met
partly by loans, partly by issue of dishonest money or incon-
vertible notes, viz., 241 millions by loans, 104 millions by
spurious paper money. In 1894 the Government converted
several loans of higher interest into 4 per cent, stock, besides
raising new loans to purchase railway lines and to meet other
requirements. The total debt in January 1895 was as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Debt. Gold. Currency. Total.
Ordinary . . . .150 345 495
Railway .... 166 42 208
Total . . . .316 387 703
The currency debt includes 104 millions sterling of un-
covered bank-notes, the issue amounting to 1396 million
roubles and the specie reserve to 360 millions, leaving 1036
millions uncovered. Deducting the value of State railways,
the real debt of Russia is 495 millions sterling, which is only
7£ per cent, of the wealth of the empire.
VII
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Increase,
1830.
1890.
per Cent.
11,760,000
18,080,000
54
3,680,000
5,840,000
69
12,060,000
17,460,000
45
THE Austro« Hungarian monarchy comprises a number of
States, peopled by so many nations that the Emperor Francis
Joseph is said to speak a dozen languages in making the
round of his dominions. The States that at present compose
the empire have increased 50 per cent, in population in sixty
years, viz. : —
Austria .
Bohemia
Hungary
Total . . . 27,500,000 41,380,000 50
The greatest increase has been in Bohemia. The empire
has an area of 244,000 square miles, and the number of
inhabitants per square mile has been as follows : —
Year. Austria. Bohemia. Hungary. Monarchy.
1830 . . . .121 184 95 112
1890 . . . .185 292 138 169
Bohemia being densely populated the people are in a manner
compelled to emigrate : in fact 40 per cent, of the emigration
from the empire is from that province, that is three times as
much as its ratio of population. On the other hand, the efflux
from Hungary yearly is less than 1 per thousand of the
population, because the Hungarians have the necessaries of life
in abundance. Official returns show that between 1850 and
1892 no fewer than 1,443,000 persons emigrated from Austria-
Hungary, an average of 35,000 yearly. The American census of
174 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
1890 showed 304,000 Austrian subjects, of whom two-fifths were
Austrians, two-fifths Bohemians, and one-fifth Hungarians.
There has been, moreover, in the last half-century a great
influx of rural population into cities and towns. The three
principal cities, for example, have more than quadrupled their
aggregate population since 1830, viz. :• —
Tear. Vienna. Buda-Pesth. Prague. Total.
1830 . . 280,000 70,000 85,000 435,000
1890 . . 1,370,000 510,000 180,000 2,060,000
Here we find the increase of the three principal cities has
been 380 per cent., while that of the rest of the empire has
been only 45 per cent. As regards the distribution of sexes
we find the excess of females is more marked in Bohemia than
elsewhere ; the number to 1 thousand males is 1014 in Hun-
gary, 1035 in Austria, and 1071 in Bohemia.
The latest census of occupations for Austria, including
Bohemia, is that of 1890, for Hungary the same year, accord-
ing to which we find as follows : —
Austria.
Hungary.
Empire.
Agriculture
8,470,000
4,470,000
12,940,000
Manufactures .
2,880,000
1,740,000
4,620,000
Commerce
810,000
210,000
1,020,000
Professions, &c. .
1,100,000
970,000
2,070,000
Total. . 13,260,000 7,390,000 20,650,000
The working-power of the Austrian empire at various dates
was : —
Year.
1840 .
1870 .
1893 .
The ratio of energy per inhabitant is not high, and gives
reason to desire much improvement in the direction of steam.
France, with a smaller population, has double Austria's steam-
power ; this has, nevertheless, almost trebled in the last
twenty-three years, viz. : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Foot-tons
Hand.
Horse.
Steam.
Total.
per
Inhabitant.
2,750
8,800
120
11,670
350
3,030
10,800
3,200
16,030
450
3,530
10,700
9,560
23,790
560
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 175
Horse-power of Steam.
Year. Fixed. Locomotiyes. Steamboats. Total.
1870 . . 190,000 560,000 60,000 800,000
1894 . . 480,000 1,780,000 130,000 2,390,000
The horse-power of steam is 55 per thousand inhabitants,
against 150 per thousand in Germany.
AGRICULTURE
t
Fifty years ago the Austrian empire was in a semi-barbarous
condition. There were but three classes : princes, peasants,
and pedlars. The princes or nobles held immense estates in
Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary, some having more than
10,000 serfs, and living in a style of such magnificence that
they were floundering in debt. There were no roads. Land-
owners spent their lives in hunting boars and other wild
animals. The serfs had to give 104 days of corvee labour
gratis in the year to their master, besides one-ninth of the
crops and increase of cattle. The revolution of 1848 brought
a healthy change : the feudal system was abolished ; one-half
of the estate of each nobleman was broken up into farm-lots
for the peasants, without other obligation than an annual
charge of 2| per cent, on the amount paid by the Crown in
compensation to the nobles. This gave such an impulse to
rural pursuits that in less than twenty years land doubled in
price, and the peasants became industrious and thrifty. The
cultivated area has risen 60 per cent, since Becher's survey in
1836, showing thus : —
Acres.
Year. Cultivated. Uncultivated. Total.
1836 . 32,500,000 110,000,000 142,500,000
1895 . 52,300,000 97,200,000 149,500,000
The cultivated area is larger in Hungary than in Austria,
official returns showing as follows : —
176 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Acres.
Crops
Pasture
Productive .
Forest
Mountain .
Austria.
25,100,000
14,200,000
Hungary.
27,200,000
18,900,000
Total!
52,300,000
33,100,000
39,300,000
24,200,000
6,400,000
46,100,000
18,800,000
14,700,000
85,400,000
43,000,000
21,100,000
Total . 69,900,000 79,600,000 149,500,000
Becher found the total grain-crop of the empire in 1836 to
be 9,100,000 tons, whereas the average for the last three
years has been 19£ million tons. Hungary has a larger area
under grain than Austria, and the crops also are heavier,
averaging 20 bushels to the acre, against 18 in Austria.
There is always a surplus of grain and meat in the empire,
net exports averaging 540,000 tons of the former and 50,000
of the latter yearly. The amount of food raised may be
reduced to a grain denominator as follows : —
Equiv. in
Austria.
Hungary
Total.
Grain.
Grain, tous .
7,900,000
11,600,000
19,500,000
19,500,000
Potatoes, ,, .
6,500,000
3,500,000
10,000,000
3,330,000
Meat, „ .
600,000
610,000
1,210,000
9,680,000
Wine, gallons .
82,000,000
30,000,000
112,000,000
1,120,000
Total 33,630,000
The value of all farm products was estimated by Becher at
205 millions sterling in 1840, and at present it is approxi-
mately 319 millions, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain. Sundries. Meat. Dairy. <fec. Total.
Austria 48 54 26 37 165
Hungary . . 72 36 25 21 154
Empire . . 120 90 51 58 319
The gross product, if distributed over the productive area,
85,400,000 acres, would give an average of 75 shillings per
acre, as compared with 96 shillings in Germany and 19 in
Russia. The emancipation of the serfs in 1849 has been
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 177
followed by an increase of 1100 millions sterling in agricul-
tural wealth, viz. : —
Millions & Sterling.
Year.
1840
1894
The agricultural capital in 1894 was approximately as
follows : —
Millions £, Sterling.
Austria. Hungary. Total.
Land . . .796 677 1,473
Cattle ... 88 73 161
Sundries . 88 75 163
Land.
Cattle.
Sundries.
Total
543
50
59
652
1,473
161
163
1,797
Total . . 972 825 1,797
Land is still so cheap that the amount of agricultural capital
is relatively small — that is to say, the annual value of farm
products is much higher in ratio than in most countries; it
is nearly 18 per cent., as compared with 16 J per cent, in
Germany. The relation between capital and products in the
two great divisions of the monarchy are shown thus : —
Millions £ Sterling. Ratio
per
Capital. Product. Cent
Austria ... 972 165 17
Hungary ... 825 154 18£
Total . . 1,797 319 17£
One-third of the Austrian empire is held by the Crown, the
clergy, or other corporations, one-third by the nobles, and one-
third by the emancipated serfs or peasantry, as appears from
the following table, in English acres : —
Acres.
Crown, &c. Nobles. Peasants. Total.
Austria . 23,800,000 20,600,000 25,200,000 69,600,000
Hungary . 34,000,000 20,400,000 25,300,000 79,700,000
Empire . 57,800,000 41,000,000 50,500,000 149,300,000
The average size of a peasant's property is 18 acres.
Noblemen's estates average 8000 acres in Galicia, 20,000 in
i>8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Bohemia, 24,000 in Hungary. From whatever cause sheep-
farming has declined; there are now barely 14 million sheep,
as compared with 30 millions in 1840. On the other hand,
horned cattle have increased 40 per cent. Some of the sheep-
farms are the highest in the world, those in Styria being often
9000 feet over sea-level. On the whole the condition of the
agricultural classes is fairly prosperous : the peasant owner
pays no rent, his taxes are light, and the average product per
hand is as follows : —
Millions £. Hands. £ per Hand.
Austria . . . .165 8,470,000 20
Hungary . . . .154 4,470,000 34
Empire . . . .319 12,940,000 24
The agricultural population is relatively very large, being
59 per cent., as compared with 40 in Germany and 42 in
France.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
More than one-fourth of the monarchy is under timber, a
considerable portion of the forests belonging to the Crown,
the Church, or Municipal bodies. The ordinary cutting is
more than half a ton per acre yearly, two-thirds firewood, one-
third timber, the total value being approximately 18 millions
sterling, a little more than 8 shillings per acre. About one-
fourth of the timber is exported, viz., 2,200,000 tons, value
£5,000,000. The number of wood-cutters is unknown, but
will hardly fall short of 300,000. There are no returns as to
fisheries, which are of trifling importance.
MANUFACTURES
When Becher made his survey in 1834 he found 11,060
factories and 2,330,000 operatives and artisans, whose pro-
ducts he valued at 142 millions sterling. At present the
value reaches 328 millions.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 179
Textiles. — The output of these goods at various dates was
approximately as follows :— Mmions & 8terling
1834.
3
I860.
7
1894.
18
4
7
15
Linens, &c.
Silks .
. 5
. 3
9
6
18
6
Total . . ' . _ . .15 28 56
Cottons. — In the earlier part of the century this industry
was of minor importance, the consumption of cotton and yarn
in 1830 hardly reaching 5000 tons, but it has now taken the
highest place among textile industries. The mills are mostly
in Upper Austria and Bohemia, counting 96,000 operatives
and 2,400,000 spindles, and consuming 140,000 tons of cotton.
The production is just sufficient for home consumption, the
value whereof averages 8 shillings per inhabitant, against 11
in Germany.
Woollens, — Bohemia and Moravia were famous for their
cloths more than a hundred years ago, but such was the stag-
nation of trade under the old feudal system, down to 1848,
that the mills did not consume the quantity of wool grown,
much being exported. It was not until 1875 that the imports
of wool exceeded exports, and such is now the activity of this
branch of manufacture that the ordinary consumption is
55,000 tons, or double the weight of clip, the mills depend-
ing for six months in the year on imported wool. Home con-
sumption averages 6 shillings per inhabitant, against 16
in Germany.
Linens. — As far back as the fourteenth century Bohemian
linen was known in all the world's markets, but the industry
suffered during the wars of Bonaparte, and only began to
revive after Waterloo. The mills in 1824 turned out 92
million yards of linen, valued at £3,600,000, besides a quantity
of hempen goods. A new era opened about 1850, with the
breaking up of large estates and the introduction of railways,
the area under flax doubling in a few years. In 1892 the
i8o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
mills consumed 180,000 tons of flax, hemp, and jute, and the
output is valued by Zehden at 16 millions sterling.
Silks. — In 1834 the province of Tyrol produced silken goods
to the value of 3 millions sterling. The mills in all the
monarchy at present consume 1500 tons of raw silk, one-
tenth native grown, nine-tenths imported, the chief supply
being obtained from Lombardy. The value of goods manu-
factured is about £4,500,000, one-tenth being exported.
Hardware. — The scarcity and dearness of iron in the early
part of the century acted as a serious check upon agriculture
and all industries. In 1830 there were some factories in
Styria for making nails and arms, but it was not till thirty
years later that the manufacture of hardware rose to any
importance. Official reports show the production and con-
sumption of iron as follows : —
Tons of Iron.
Year.
1830 .
1860 .
1893 .
Three-fourths of the pig-iron are made in Austria, one-
fourth in Hungary. Steyer, the Sheffield of the empire, is
famous for its cutlery. The total value of iron and steel
manufactures is approximately 15 millions sterling, that of
other metallic wares 4 millions. The consumption of lead is
70,000, of copper 11,000 tons; of the latter three-fourths are
imported.
Leather. — The supply of native hides and leather has never
been sufficient, and at present one-sixth is imported, the
consumption reaching 80,000 tons, and the value of goods
manufactured about 40 millions sterling ; the consumption is
equal to 18 shillings per inhabitant, against 23 shillings in
Germany.
Porcelain. — The output of Bohemian glass and porcelain in
1834 was £2,600,000 ; at present it may be roughly estimated
at 8 millions sterling, exports amounting to 2 millions.
Produced.
Imported.
Consumed.
80,000
20,000
100,000
310,000
20,000
330,000
930,000
60,000
990,000
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
181
Sugar. — In 1850 the mills turned out 10,000 tons of beet-
sugar, and since 1891 the average output has been 700,000
tons, of which two-thirds are exported, home consumption
averaging only 13 Ibs. per inhabitant.
Liquor. — There are 4100 breweries and distilleries, which
produce 330 million gallons of beer and 30 million of spirits,
together worth 21 millions sterling.
Summary. — The approximate value of manufactures at
various dates was as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
Textiles .
Hardware
Leather .
Food
Clothing .
Houses and furniture
Sundries .
Total
1834.
I860.
1894.
15
28
56
5
10
19
25
32
40
50
65
81
25
33
39
14
18
27
33
46
66
167
232
328
An official report for 1890 showed 10,750 factories, with
Bteam-motors representing 480,000 horse-power, and 846,000
hands : there were also 3,034,000 artisans. The value of
manufactures gives an average of .£84 per hand.
MINERALS
Austria, as Zehden observes, is one of the countries richest
in minerals, but the product is small because the working is
expensive, coal and the metallic minerals not being found
within convenient distance of each other. The output has
been as follows : —
Tons Raised.
Year.
1840
1860
1893
Coal.
400,000
3,500,000
30,400,000
Ores.
190,000
510,000
3,700,000
Total.
590,000
4,010,000
34,100,000
Value, £,.
300,000
1,500,000
8,800,000
About two-thirds of the coal is lignite, a cheap fuel found
in Bohemia and Hungary, of which 8 million tons are
1 82 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
annually exported by the Elbe. On the other hand Austria
imports 4 million tons of foreign coal. Thus the total con-
sumption is 26 million tons. Iron mines are worked in Styria,
lead mines in Carinthia and Bohemia. About 2 tons of gold
are extracted yearly from Hungarian ores, and 50 tons of
silver from Bohemian. The petroleum wells of Galicia yield
200 million gallons, valued at £800,000. Altogether the
mines employ 140,000 persons, and the annual output is 10
millions sterling.
COMMERCE
The foreign trade of the empire has grown eight-fold since
1831, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Ye;ir. Iinjort*. Exports. Total.
1831 .... 7 8 15
1894 .... 58 66 124
Austria has so little coast-line and do few seaports that most
of her foreign trade is done not by shipping but by railway.
The returns for four years ending 1894 give the following
averages : —
Millions & Sterling.
Imports
Exports
"*
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Germany .
. 20
35
55
46-3
Great Britain .
. 5
5
10
8-4
Italy
. 4
4
8
67
Other Countries
. 25
21
46
38-6
Total . 54 65 119 lOO'O
Trade relations with Germany are nearly equal to those
with all other nations collectively. The foreign trade of
Austria is much greater than that of Russia, although the
population of the latter empire is more than double.
Shipping. — The Austrian Lloyd's Co., specially intended to
trade in the Levant, was formed in 1833, the Danube Steam-
boat Co. in 1850 : the latter owns 186 steamers and 700 iron
A U STRIA -HUNGARY 183
barges, which during certain seasons ply between Ratisbon
and Galatz, 1500 miles. The merchant-shipping of the empire
is insignificant; between sea-going and internal it hardly
reaches 250,000 tons register, with 640,000 carrying-power.
Internal Trade. — This is greatly facilitated by 18,000 miles
of railway, 99,000 of excellent carriage-roads, and 7200 of inland
navigation, in all 124,000 miles. It amounted approximately
at various dates as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1830. 1860. 1894.
Agriculture .... 186 270 319
Manufactures . . .167 232 328
Minerals and forestry 8 13 28
Imports .... 7 21 58
Total . . . .368 536 733
The shares that corresponded to Austria and Hungary in
1894 were approximately : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Au-itria. Hungary. Total.
Agriculture . . . .1(55 154 319
Manufactures . . .180 148 328
Minerals, &c. . . . 17 11 28
Imports .... 34 24 58
Total . . . .396 337 733
Railways. — A horse railwa'y was opened from Linz to
Budweis in 1829, but the first for locomotives in 1836. The
active construction of railways began after the emancipation
of the serfs, since which time 17,000 miles have been opened,
being an average of 400 miles of new line yearly. The length
open in 1850 and at present is shown thus : —
Miles Open.
Year. Austria. Hungary. Total.
1850 .... 820 140 960
1895 .... 10,100 8,220 18,320
There are 12,270 miles of State railways, 6050 belonging to
companies; the average cost per mile all round was £20,300,
having been £21,500 in Austria, and £18,700 in Hungary,
1 84 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The traffic returns per mile of the railways of the empire
compare with those of Russia and Germany thus : —
Austrian
Russian .
German .
Receipts, £.
. 1,510
. 1,620
. 2,564
Expenses, £. Profit, £.
860 650
990 630
1,664 900
The Austrian returns are nearly the same as the Russian,
and a long way behind the German. Net profit is equal to
3£ per cent, on capital. Goods traffic is equivalent to 55
million tons carried 100 miles.
Banks. — The Imperial Bank, founded at Vienna in 1861,
has a capital of 9 millions sterling, and possesses sole right of
issue. There are 224 other joint-stock banks. In 1887 the
banking-power of the empire was 147 millions sterling, or
half that of Trance.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the Austro-Hungarian people at various
dates were approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Agricultural
Manufacturing
Mining and foresl
Trade .
Transport
House-rent .
Domestics
Public service
Professions .
Total
1834.
I860.
1894.
112
162
192
83
116
164
8
13
28
37
54
73
39
56
76
13
20
37
9
13
25
8
18
48
31
45
64
340
497
707
The above earnings for 1894 give an average of nearly £17
per inhabitant; Neumann Spallart's estimate in 1880 having
given £16 per head. The shares that correspond to the
two portions of the monarchy are as follows : —
AUSTRIA HUNGARY
185
Millions £ Sterling.
Agricultural .
Manufacturing
Mining and forests
Trade .
Transport
House-rent .
Domestics
Public service
Professions .
Total 397 310 707
The avefage earnings to population are 14 shillings per
head higher in Hungary than in Austria.
Wealth. — The components of wealth in 1895 were approxi-
mately as follows : —
* Millions £ Sterling.
Austria.
99
Hungary.
93
Total.
192
90
74
164
17
11
28
39
34
73
41
35
76
28
9
37
19
6
25
28
20
48
36
28
64
Austria.
Hungary.
Total.
796
677
1,473
Cattle, &c. .
. 176
148
324
Houses .
460
150
610
Furniture
230
75
305
Railways
217
154
371
Factories
60
49
109
Merchandise
198
169
367
Bullion
28
23
51
Sundries
541
361
902
Total .... 2,706 1,806 4,512
Professor Sternegg in 1892 valued Austria (without Hun-
gary) at 2500 millions sterling. Beer's valuation in 1880 for
the whole empire was 3330 millions sterling, from which it
would appear that the increase of wealth in the last fifteen
years has averaged 79 millions, or about 40 shillings per
inhabitant, as compared with 68 shillings in France.
Land. — The value of land in 1893 was approximately as
follows : —
Acres (OOO's omitted).
Austria.
Hungary.
Total.
Arable .
25,100
27,200
52,300
Pasture .
14,200
18,900
33,100
Forest .
22,800
22,600
45,400
Millions £ Sterling.
Austria. Hungary. Total.
527 436 963
149 151 300
120 90 210
Total 62,100 68,700 130,800
796
677 1,473
1 86 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
In 1892 Professor Fellner valued the land of Hungary at
650 millions sterling. The average price of arable land per
acre is £21 in Austria and only £16 in Hungary, although
the Hungarian land is of better quality ; the difference, per-
haps, arises from the fact that the population is denser in
Austria, viz., 56 per square mile, against 45 in Hungary.
Houses. — In 1892 Schiff valued the houses of Austria at
320, Fellner those of Hungary at 110, millions sterling, but
these estimates were evidently much too low. The house-tax
of Austria in 1892 was supposed to be 10 per cent, on the
real rental, being 15 per cent, on the nominal assessment: it
amounted to £2,760,000, representing therefore a rental of
£27,600,000 and a capital value of £460,000,000 sterling.
The valuation of house-property in Vienna in 1886 was
£88,000,000, say £80 per inhabitant. When Fellner made
his estimate in 1892 the assessments of houses in Hungary
were equal to about one-third of the amount in Austria ; the
value would, therefore, be about £150,000,000. This would
make the total for the monarchy 610 millions sterling, or £15
per inhabitant, as compared with £30 in Germany.
FINANCE
Revenue has increased six-fold since 1840, the amount in
millions sterling showing as follows :—
Year-. Revenue. Debt.
1840 16 125
1895 97 543
Besides the special budgets for Austria and Hungary there
is one for the joint monarchy. The special in 1895 together
made up £92,500,000, that of the united monarchy £12,300,000,
but the latter included contributions from the two States pro-
vided out of their budgets, and amounting to £8,300,000, so
that the total of revenues sums up £96,500,000 : —
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 187
Austria.
Hungary.
Monarchy.
£
&
&
Railways .
8,100,000
6,800,000
14,900,000
Crown estates .
6,400,000
6,000,000
12,400,000
Taxes
39,200,000
26,000,000
65,200,000
Customs .
2,300,000
1,700,000
4,000,000
Total . . 56,000,000 40,500,000 96,500,000
The last item in the above table is the General Customs, an
imperial tax, which averages 2 shillings per inhabitant. The
expenditure comprises 24 millions for service of debt, 16 for
the army, and 56 for civil service and other internal expenses.
In 1892 the provincial taxes of Austria (without Hungary)
amounted to £5,200,000, and the municipal taxes of forty-
nine cities to £4,600,000, making altogether about 10 millions
sterling. The local taxation in Hungary is less than in
Austria, and may reach 5 millions sterling. Thus the total
revenue raised by taxation, national and local, makes up 84
millions sterling, which is equal to 12 per cent, of national
earnings, the incidence of taxation being 6 shillings less in
Hungary than in Austria, per head of the population.
Debt. — The total debt of the empire, funded and unfunded,
consists of 1210 millions of gold florins (121 millions sterling),
and 5210 millions in silver or paper (435 millions sterling),
distributed thus : —
Millions of Florins.
General.
Gold .
Silver .
Paper .
Total . 3,070 1,270 2,080 6,420 555
In apportioning the general debt it was agreed to consider
70 per cent, of it Austrian, 30 per cent. Hungarian, and in
this way the total debt of Austria comes to be 291, that of
Hungary 264, millions sterling. If we deduct the value of
State railways, the figures are reduced to 184 and 140 millions
respectively, or £8 per inhabitant in both countries. The
total net debt of 324 millions sterling is equal to 7| per cent,
of the wealth of the monarchy.
General.
Austrian.
Hungarian.
Total.
Millions £.
500
710
1,210
121
400
1,000
1,200
2,600
217
2,170
270
170
2,610
217
VIII
ITALY
POPULATION has increased 45 per cent, since 1830, the follow-
ing table preserving the ancient denominations for sake of
comparison : —
Population.
Per Sq. Mile.
State.
1830.
1893.
1830.
1893.
Piedmont .
3,750,000
4,230,000
180
302
Papal States
2,710,000
3,790,000
150
210
Naples
7,490,000
11,470,000
180
285
Lomb. Veneti.i
4,280,000
6,980,000
225
367
Duchies
2,770,000
4,070,000
126
185
Total
21,000,000 30,540,000 175 270
The increase of population has been too rapid for the
resources of the kingdom, being now 50 per cent, more to the
square mile than in France. The productive area is only 53
million acres, barely sufficient to raise food for 27 million
souls, the population being therefore 15 per cent, in excess
of what the country can conveniently carry. Hence there
has been for many years a strong current of emigration, Carpi
and other atithorities showing thus : —
Period. To U. States.
1861-80 . 59,000
1881-92 . 349,000
8. America.
610,000
910,000
All Countries. Per Annum.
1,829,000 91,500
1,904,000 158,700
32 years . 408,000 1,520,000 3,733,000 117,000
At present the annual emigration is just half the natural
increase from surplus of births over deaths. In this country,
as elsewhere, urban population has risen much faster than
rural, the aggregate of four principal cities showing an increase
ITALY 189
of 140 per cent., while the rest of Italy has increased only 40
per cent., since 1830, viz. : —
Year. Naples. Rome. Milan. Turin.
1830 . 354,000 128,000 125,000 114,000
1892 . 530,000 440,000 430,000 330,000
While the number of foreign residents in Italy is only
60,000, that of Italians residing abroad is nearly 2 millions,
namely 1,010,000 in South America, 286,000 in the United
States, and 620,000 in the East and other countries. The
census of 1881 gave the occupations (see Appendix) of all
persons over 9 years of age. If we consider only persons
between 15 and 60, and allow for increase of population, the
numbers employed in 1895 would be as follows : —
Men.
Women.
Total.
Ratio.
Agriculture
4,350,000
2,490,000
6,840,000
52-6
Manufactures .
1,880,000
1,550,000
3,430,000
26-4
Commerce
510,000
110,000
620,000
4-8
Professions, &c.
1,270,000
900,000
2,170,000
16-2
Total . 8,010,000 5,050,000 13,060,000 lOO'O
The working-power of the nation has almost doubled since
1870, viz. :—
Millions of Foot-Tons Daily.
f~~ — ^ ^x Foot-Tons
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. per Inhab.
1870 . . 2,410 3,060 1,320 6,790 260
1893 . . 2,750 3,800 5,520 12,030 400
This rapid increase is chiefly owing to the development of
steam-power, viz. : —
Steam Horse-Power.
Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total.
1870 . . 45,000 250,000 35,000 330,000
1893 . . 160,000 1,000,000 210,000 1,370,000
The steam-power is little more than one-fourth of that of
France, although the population is as four to five.
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
AGRICULTURE
Italians, except in some of the southern provinces, are the
most laborious people in Europe, with special aptitude for
tillage and gardening, but agriculture is by no means pros-
perous. One-third of the kingdom consists of forest or waste
lands, improved machinery is little known, and taxes in every
form oppress the husbandman. There has been, nevertheless,
remarkable progress in the last half-century, as may be seen
on comparing the official returns for 1894 with Schnabel's
estimate for 1840, as follows : —
Acres.
Year.
1840 .
1894 .
In fifty-two years the peasantry have reclaimed 18 million
acres, and doubled the cultivated area. The returns for 1892,
according to the old denominations, showed thus : —
Vineyards.
3,900,000
8,520,000
Grain, <fcc.
17,600,000
29,680,000
Forest, &c.
52,000,000
32,590,000
Total.
73,500,000
70,790,000
State.
Grain.
Wine.
Sundries.
Total.
Piedmont
] ,660,000
750,000
]. 580,000
3,990,000
Papal States .
3,290,000
2,070,000
2,100,000
7,460,000
Naples .
7,300,000
2,340,000
4,390,000
14,030,000
Lomb. Venetia
3,780,000
1,550,000
2,360,000
7,690,000
Duchies
2,660,000
1,930,000
2,010,000
6,600,000
Total . 18,690,000 8,640,000 12,440,000 39,770,000
The grain crops are light, seldom exceeding 13 bushels per
acre, and for more than thirty years Italy has had to import
cereals : the deficit in this respect increases with population,
and whereas the imports twenty years ago were equal to eight
days' supply, Italy has now to subsist on imported grain forty-
two days in the year. The following table shows the total
average grain crop, from which one-eighth has to be reserved
for seed, and the quantity imported yearly in tons : —
ITALY 191
Period. Crop. Imports. Consumption.
18b'8-77 . . 5,400,000 120,000 5,520,000
1891-93 . . 6,100,000 710,000 6,810,000
The annual production of meat is about 390,000 tons, of
which 20,000 are exported, the balance allowing a supply of
only 27 Ibs. per inhabitant, the lowest ratio in Europe : this
is insufficient for the proper maintenance of the people, and
partly accounts for the high death-rate (26 '5), which is 38 per
cent, more than in the United Kingdom. Dr. De Renzi states
that 4 per cent, of the people die of impoverishment of the
blood, for w£,nt of meat. All the food raised in Italy (except
fruit) being reduced to a grain denominator shows thus : —
Quantity. Equiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons .... 6,100,000 6,100,000
Potatoes, „ . 750,000 250,000
Rice, „ . 480,000 600,000
Meat, , 390,000 3,120,000
Wine, gallons . . . 726,000,000 7,260,000
Total 17,330,000
This is equivalent to little more than half a ton per inhabi-
tant, whereas the ratio in France is over a ton ; it demon-
strates that the agricultural resources are utterly inadequate
to support a population of 31 millions, and that emigration
ought to be encouraged and facilitated. An official valuation
of farm products in the years 1891-92-93 showed an average
of 172 millions sterling, but appears to have been too low, hay
being omitted, and fruits and vegetables under-estimated (see
Appendix). The value approximately in 1870, and in 1893,
was as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1870 .
1893 .
The product compared with the productive area gives an
average of 77 shillings per acre, against 92 in France and 75
in Austria. There is apparently a great waste of labour for
want of machinery, the product being only £30 per hand
Grain.
Wine.
Sundries.
Pastoral.
Total.
56
31
51
34
172
53
34
54
63
204
IQ2 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
employed, as compared with £59 in France. Small farms are
the rule in Northern Italy, whereas in Central and Southern
the estates average 100 acres. In 1870 the proprietors and
area showed thus : —
Proprietors. Acres. Average.
North .... 909,000 22,500,000 25
Papal States . . 80,000 10,800,000 136
Naples . . . 276,000 24,900,000 90
Land.
Cattle.
Sundries.
Total.
377
30
41
448
1,180
92
127
1,399
Total . . . 1,265,000 58,200,000 46
Since 1870 many large estates have been broken up, and in
1882 the number of landowners had risen to 1,610,000, with
an average of 36 acres each. Agricultural capital seems to
have trebled since 1840, showing approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1840
1890
If the capital were divided among the number of agricul-
tural hands it would give an aveiage of £165 each, as com-
pared with £430 in France. The sum of farm products in
1893 was nearly 15 per cent, on the above capital.
FOKESTS AND FISHERIES
The area under timber is a little over 10 million acres, or
one-seventh of the kingdom. The cutting is about 9 million
tons, of which 5 millions are firewood, the rest timber, the sup-
ply of the latter being so far short of requirements that Italy
imports 1 million tons yearly. Forest products are valued
officially at £3,500,000 per annum, say 7 shillings an acre, as
compared with 8 shillings in Germany.
There are 70,000 men employed in the fisheries, who take
fish to the value of £700,000 per annum. Italy, moreover,
imports 50,000 tons of fish, valued at £1,500,000; her con-
sumption is about 100,000 tons, an average of 7 Ibs. per
inhabitant.
ITALY 193
MANUFACTURES
Textile manufactures show great progress, the weight of
fibre consumed having quadrupled in thirty-two years, as
shown thus : —
Tons of Fibre.
Year. Cotton. Wool. Flax, &c. Total.
1862 . . 12,000 14,000 20,000 46,000
1894 : . 105,000 22,000 65,000 192,000
Cottons. — The mills count 82,000 workmen, who turn out
goods to the value of 13 millions sterling, but this is not
sufficient, for Italy has to import cotton fabrics to the value
of £900,000 yearly.
Woollens. — This industry has been almost stationary for the
last fifteen years. The wool consumed is half native, half
imported, and the output is worth 6 millions sterling. Here
again the supply is short of requirements, and goods to the
value of £1,200,000 are imported.
Silks. — This industry is one of primary importance, the
factories counting more than 1£ million spindles. The quantity
of silk spun yearly is about 4000 tons, most of which is
exported to France. Between the value of spun silk exported
and that of silk goods made for home use this industry stands
for 9 millions sterling.
Flax. — The mills consume 65,000 tons of flax and hemp, or
about two-thirds of the crop, the rest being exported : output
about 8 millions sterling.
Hardware. — The consumption of iron and steel hardly
reaches 200,000 tons, one-third imported, and of lead 20,000
tons, the total output of hardware manufactures not exceeding
4 millions sterling.
Leather. — About 32,000 tons are consumed, one-third made
from imported hides; the value of goods made is about 16
millions, an average of only 10 shillings per inhabitant, against
18 shillings in France.
194 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Summary. — The total value at various dates is shown
approximately thus : — Minions £ sterling.
Textiles ....
Hardware ....
Leather ....
Food ...
1830.
. 6
. 1
. 8
. 33
I860.
20
2
10
44
1894.
37
4
16
52
Clothing ....
Houses and furniture
Sundries ....
. 14
. 13
. 19
18
17
28
23
20
38
Total . . .94 139 190
MINERALS
Between mines and quarries there are 67,000 hands, who
turn out a total value of 3 millions sterling, viz. : —
Tons. Value, £. Hands.
Sulphur . . . 370,000 1,100,000 36,000
Ores .... 830,000 -1,100,000 11,000
Marble .... 260,000 1,000,000 20,000
Total . . . l,460,uOO 3,200,000 67,000
There are 610 sulphur mines working in Sicily, but the
industry is a poor one, the product per miner not exceeding
£30 a year. The want of coal-fields is a great drawback :
Italy has to import 4 million tons yearly, of which quantity
the factories consume two-thirds, railways and steamboats
the rest.
COMMERCE
Foreign trade rose considerably after the expulsion of the
Austrians and Grand Dukes, and is now more than double
what it was forty years ago, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Imports. Exports. Total.
1850 23 15 38
1894 44 41 85
The returns for five years, to December 1892, give the
following averages : — •
ITALY 195
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports Exports
from. to. Total. Ratio.
Great Britain ... 11 5 16 17'6
France 8 8 16 17'6
Germany .... 6 5 11 12'0
Other countries ... 27 21 48 52'8
Total .... 52 39 91 100-0
Shipping. — Italians have a genius for navigation, and their
length of coast-line gives them every facility to cultivate
maritime enterprise, yet port-entries show that 75 per cent,
of Italian trade is done on foreign bottom, mostly British.
The merchant-shipping under the Italian flag numbers only
780,000 tons register, with a carrying-power of 1,410,000 tons,
hardly 5 per cent, of the carrying-power of the British flag.
Internal Trade. — The amount at various dates was approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
1830. 1860. 1894.
Agriculture ... 96 160 204
Manufactures 94 139 190
Mines, forestry, &c. .2 5 8
Imports 13 33 44
Total . . .205 337 446
The ratio of internal trade to population is only £15 per
head, as compared with .£30 in France and £42 in the United
Kingdom.
Railways. — A short line of 13 miles was opened in 1839,
but little was done in the way of construction during twenty
ensuing years. Between 1865 and 1890 there were opened
to traffic 5600 miles of new lines, an average of 220 miles a
year, and at present Italy has 8800 miles, representing a cost
of 184 millions sterling, which includes 6400 miles of State
railways. Traffic returns per mile compare with those of
Austrian railways thus : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £.
Italian . . . 1,265 858 407
Austrian . . . 1,510 860 650
196
The profit on Italian lines hardly gives 2 per cent, on
capital, as compared with 3| per cent, in Austria. Goods
traffic is very small, not quite 14 million tons on a mean
haulage of 100 miles, perhaps because the tariff is the highest
in Europe, 1 penny a ton per mile.
Banks. — Banking- power in 1885 amounted to 108 millions
sterling, but the banks have since then suffered such reverses
that it is now perhaps less. The country has been flooded
with dishonest money (i.e., inconvertible notes), and the notes
of Genoese banks are not current in Naples, nor vice versa.
In 1874 gold was at 14 per cent, premium, and the currency
fluctuated so much that in 1884 a foreign loan was made
which enabled the banks to resume specie payments. A
suspension again took place in 1893, which continues. The
issue consists of Government greenbacks and notes issued by
banks, the bank issue having doubled since 1871, viz. : —
Issued by 1871, £. 1894, £.
State . . . 25,200,000 19,700,000
Banks . . . 23,100.000 45,100,000
Total . . 48,300,000 64,800,000
The present amount of paper- money is 50 per cent, more
than in the United Kingdom.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the Italian people at various dates were
approximately as follows :— MilUons £ gt
" 1830. 18CO. 1894.
Agricultural . . 58 96 122
47 70 95
258
21 34 45
22 35 47
14 20 27
9 13 18
4 19 34
18 29 40
Manufacturing
Mining, forestry, &c.
Trade .
Transport
House-rent
Domestics
Public service .
Professions
Total . . .195 321 436
ITALY 197
This gives an average in 1894 of £14 per inhabitant, as
compared with £17 in Austria and £25 in Germany.
Wealth. — Probate returns show that the amount of property
which paid succession duty in the years 1884-89 was equal to
£71 for each person that died in those six years. Pantaleoni
applied this rule to the living, by which the national wealth
in 1892 would be 2130 millions, but Italians are so clever in
eluding taxation that it appears one-third of the property
escaped either through omission or under-value. The above
figure represents only two-thirds of the national wealth, which
reaches 3160 millions sterling, made up approximately thus: —
Millions £ Sterling.
Land . .1,180
Cattle, &c. . 219
Railways . 184
Houses . 440
Furniture . 220
Factories . 63
Merchandise 223
Sundries . 631
Total . 3,160
Land. — An official report in 1844 estimated the value of
cultivated land at £11, uncultivated at £5, per acre, according
to which the landed value in that year would be 377 millions
sterling. The report of 1882 was as follows : —
Acres. Millions £. £ per Acre.
North . . . 22,600,000 597 26'5
Papal States . . 10,800,000 115 10'6
Naples . . . 24,900,000 468 18'8
. 58,300,000 1,180 20"3
Houses. — The assessed rental of house- property in 1892 was
£26,400,000, equal to a capital value of 440 millions : the
Archivio estimate in 1880 was 380 millions sterling, but was
manifestly too low.
The total value of real estate is officially put down at 1708
millions sterling, which is equal to 54 per cent, of the esti-
mated total (3160 millions) in the preceding table: the ratio
of real estate in France is only 49 per cent. It appears from
the Probate returns that the average wealth per head of
persons who died in the years 1872-75 was only £57, as
198 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
compared with £71 in 1885-89 : applying the same ratio to
the living, this gives an increase of 20 shillings yearly per
inhabitant, against 68 shillings in France.
FINANCE
The aggregate revenues and debt of the States that now
compose the kingdom of Italy were at various dates as
follows : —
1S30, £. 1861, &. 1895, £.
Revenue . 8,300,000 38,000,000 67,200,000
Debt . . 48,300,000 97,000,000 505,000,000
If we deduct the amount expended for State railways, we
find that since 1861 the aggregate of deficits has been 260
millions sterling, or 8 millions yearly. Schools, high-roads,
and other public works will account for some of these deficits,
but a good deal must be set down to extraordinary military
and naval expenditure arising from the Triple Alliance. The
budgets of 1875 and 1895 compare as follows : —
Revenue (OOO's omitted). Expend. (OOO's omitted)
1875, £.
1895, £.
1875, £.
1895, £.
Customs
. 6,600
11,400
Debt .
20,100
30,500
Taxes .
. 33,100
47,600
Army .
7,800
13,600
Sundries
. 4,100
8,200
Government
15,300
28,400
Total
. 43,800
67,200
Total .
43,200
72,500
If we deduct from the revenue and expenditure of 1894 the
sums received and expended on State railways, we find the
revenue 62, the expenditure 68, millions sterling, showing a
deficit of 6 millions. The amount raised by taxation in 1894
was 56 millions, to which, adding 27 millions for local taxes,
the total becomes 83 millions, say 54 shillings per head.
The incidence of tax compared with national earnings is very
heavy : Millions £ Sterling.
, ' , Tax Ratio.
Earnings. Taxation. Per Cent.
Italy .... 436 83 19
France .... 1,199 144 12
ITALY 199
Debt. — Although the debt is nominally 505 millions we
may deduct the value of State railways, 130 millions, which
brings it down to 375 millions sterling : there are also Com-
munal debts amounting to 48, so that the total debt may
be said to be 423 millions, and this, if compared with national
wealth, shows a lighter ratio than in France ; the amounts
are as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
, ' ^ Debt Ratio.
Wealth. Debt. Per Cent,
Italy. . . . 3,160 423 13J
France . . . 9,690 1,370 14
Unfortunately the Italian debt must go on increasing, by
the piling up of deficits, unless military expenditure be
curtailed.
IX
SPAIN
THIS country is thinly populated, the census of 1887 showing
17,300,000 inhabitants, being only 90 to the square mile, as
compared with 270 in Italy. Emigration has increased in
recent years, viz. : —
Period. To S. America. All Countries. Per Annum.
1861-85 . . . 205,000 515,000 20,600
1886-92 . . . 185,000 505,000 72,000
32 years . . 390,000 1,020,000 32,000
There are only 51,000 foreigners residing in Spain, while
the number of Spaniards living abroad is over 600,000, mostly
in South America. To judge by the returns for the five
largest cities, urban population has exactly doubled since
1830, while rural has risen hardly 50 per cent. Spain has
only twenty-five cities with more than 30,000 souls, making
up an aggregate of 2,300,000 souls, or 13 per cent, of the
population. The census of 1877, in giving the occupations
only of males, showed 4,107,000 workers, to which must be
added 50 per cent., in each class, for female, giving the
following result : —
Agriculture. Manufactures. Commerce. Total.
Men . . 2,720,000 1,170,000 220,000 4,110,000
Women . 1,360,000 580,000 110,000 2,050,000
Total . 4,080,000 1,750,000 330,000 6,160,000
Here there is no allowance for professions and sundry
occupations, which in other countries average 16 per cent, of
SPAIN
201
total: this would be 1,170,000, making a total of 7,330,000,
and as the population of working-age (15-60) amounts to
10,500,000, it would appear that 30 per cent, of the adult
inhabitants have no visible or useful means of livelihood.
The working-power of the nation was as follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Tear.
1870
1894
Hand.
1,510
1,590
Horse.
2,400
2,640
Steam.
1,100
4,520
Total.
5,010
8,750
Foot-tons
per
Inhabitant.
305
505
Steam-power has quadrupled since 1870, viz. : —
Steam Horse-power.
Year.
1870.
1894.
Fixed.
Locomotives.
Steamboats.
Total.
20,000
50,000
210,000
600,000
45,000
480,000
275,000
1,130,000
The steam-power nearly approaches that of Italy, although
the population of Spain is 40 per cent. less.
AGRICULTURE
According to the Registro of 1803 Spain had then 60
million acres under crops, but this was an official exaggera-
tion. Malchus in 1828 put down the cultivated area at 23
million acres. Coming down to our own time we find
Neumann Spallart's estimate in 1876, of 32 million acres
under tillage, and grain crops summing up 8,100,000 tons.
On the other hand, an official return for 1890 estimates 41
million acres under grain : if this were true the grain crop would
exceed 12 million tons, whereas Juraschek's " Uebersichten "
(1893) makes the total 5 million tons. The area of Spain
may be set forth approximately as follows : —
Grain
Vineyards .
Other crops
Total
Acres Cultivated.
. 20,800,000
4,200,000
7,200,000
. 32,200,000
Pasture
Forest
Desert
Total
Uncultivated.
21,000,000
16,400,000
55,700,000
93,100,000
202 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Thus it would appear that only one-fourth of the kingdom
is cultivated. The production of wheat down to 1878 usually
left an annual surplus of 130,000 tons for exportation, but
during the last three years, ending 1894, there has been a
deficit of 330,000 tons yearly; that is to say, Spain subsists
on imported wheat during fifty days in the year. Increased
attention has been of late years devoted to vineyards, the
export of wine in the last six years averaging 170 million
gallons, as compared with 48 millions in the quinquennium
ending 1877. The ordinary vintage in recent years has been
610 million gallons. Reducing all food to a grain denomi-
nator, the production is approximately as follows : —
Quantity. Equiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons. . . 5,800,000 5,800,000
Potatoes, ,. . . . 1,500,000 500,000
Meat, „ . . . 430,000 3,400,000
Wine, gallons . . 600,000,000 6,000,000
Total 15,700,000
This is equivalent to 36 bushels per inhabitant, which shows
that however small the cultivated area, Spain raises enough
food for her population ; but as one-third of it is in the form
of wine, some of this has to be exported, to pay for imported
wheat and stockfish. The value of all farm products was
estimated by Argiielles in 1832 at 102 millions sterling; it is
now approximately 135 millions, viz. : —
Grain
Wine
Green crops .
Meat
Dairy and sundries
£39,200,000
33,600,000
21,200,000
20,200,000
21,000,000
Total £135,200,000
The productive area being 53 million acres, this gives a
mean product of 51 shillings per acre, against 77 in Italy,
and an average of £33 per hand, against £30 in Italy. The
Registro for 1877 showed 596,000 landowners, holding 65
million acres, an average of 110 acres per estate. There were
SPAIN 203
3900 hidalgos or country gentlemen whose rent-roll exceeded
£400 a year. Agricultural capital in 1890 compared with
the official statement for 1832 as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1832
1890
Land.
Cattle.
Sundries.
Total.
724
34
76
834
1,056
46
110
1,212
Dividing the capital among the number of hands, it gives
an average of £295 each, against .£430 in France. The
annual product of farms is equal to 1 1 per cent, on the agri-
cultural capital, the same ratio as in the United Kingdom.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The forest area is 16,400.000 acres, but there are no returns
as to the annual product, or the number of men employed in
wood-cutting. If we suppose an average yield of 4 shillings
per acre (that is, half the ordinary European yield), the
annual product will reach £3,300,000. This, of course, would
include cork, the export of which reaches £900,000 a year.
The consumption of firewood probably averages a value of
2 shillings per inhabitant, as in Italy, and this would amount
to £1,800,000. As regards timber for building, Spain seems
to rely mostly on foreign supplies, importing nearly 2 million
tons yearly.
Fishing is carried on by 10,200 boats, counting 40,000
fishermen, who take 50,000 tons of fish, value about £600,000
sterling. This is, however, insufficient for home consumption,
the import of codfish reaching 45,000 tons, valued at £960,000.
MANUFACTURES
Spain, so famous in the Middle Ages for her manufactures,
now ranks low in this branch of industry. Protective tariffs
have in some respects shut out foreign goods, but smuggling
204 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
is carried on so extensively that Contrabandistas are the only
gainers. Textile factories have, nevertheless, made consider-
able progress in late years, the consumption of fibre having
nearly doubled since 1872, as shown thus : —
Tons of Fibre.
Year. Cotton. Wool. Flax, &c. Total.
1872 . 28,000 21,000 10,000 59,000
1894 . 65,000 25,000 10,000 100,000
Cottons. — An official statement in 1833 showed that the
mills had 800,000 spindles and consumed 8000 tons of cotton.
The latest report, published in 1886, showed 1,800,000
spindles, 53,000 operatives, and an output estimated at
£12,400,000. This was, however, a fictitious value, the
quantity of fibre consumed showing that the real value could
not exceed 9 millions. Cotton goods are exported to the
annual value of 2 millions sterling.
Woollens. — This industry is so backward, in spite of Pro-
tection, that Spain is unable to consume her own wool, or
even to produce woollen fabrics sufficient for her population.
The clip averages 30,000 tons, of which one-fourth is exported,
and the consumption in the mills, including some imported
wool, is about 25,000 tons : there are 25,000 operatives, and
the output appears to be 6| millions sterling. The value of
woollen goods imported in the years 1891-94 averaged
£800,000.
Linens. — This industry is declining, and the importation of
linen goods has doubled since 1872. The latest official report
showed 6000 operatives, and an output estimated at £1,100,000,
equal to £180 per operative.
Silks. — The consumption of raw silk is under 300 tons
yearly, more than half being imported. The factories count
8000 hands, and the official report values the output at
£2,800,000, a manifest exaggeration, which the Bulletin
Statisiique reduces to 1 million sterling. Silk goods are,
moreover, imported to the value of £400,000 a year.
SPAIN 205
Hardware. — Although Spain is so rich in iron-fields she
gets much of her hardware from England. The production
and consumption of pig-iron are shown thus : —
1830. 1870. 1893.
Production . . . 20,000 70,000 180,000
Imported . . . 20,000 80,000 70,000
Consumption . . 40,000 150,000 250,000
The value of iron and steel goods made in the country is
about 4 millions sterling, or two-thirds of the consumption,
which latter averages 7 shillings per inhabitant. The manu-
factures of copper, lead, and zinc do not make up a million
sterling, the greater part of the ores raised and metal extracted
being sent to other countries for elaboration.
Leather. — Cordoba is no longer a flourishing centre of this
trade, which is now of secondary importance. The annual con-
sumption of leather in Spain is about 28,000 tons, one-fifth
imported, and the value of this branch of manufacture is about
14 millions sterling.
Summary. — The value of goods manufactured was at various
dates approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1S40. 1870. 1894.
Textiles . 6 10 19
Hardware
Leather
Food .
Clothing
Houses and furniture
Sundries
1 3
9 16
20 30
7 10
7 9
13 20
Total 63 98 121
According to an official statement in 1860 the output of
the factories reached £63,200,000, without counting the work
of artisans.
2o6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
MINERALS
Mining industry has increased ten-fold in the last thirty
years, the weight showing as follows : —
Tons of Mineral.
Year.
1863
1894
Ironstone.
170,000
5,400,000
Copper Ore.
140,000
2,400,000
Lead, &c.
420,000
1,300,000
Coal.
320,000
1,700,000
Total.
1,050,000
10,800,000
The value of minerals in 1894 was £3,900,000, the number
of miners 59,000, showing an output of £66 per man.
COMMERCE
Foreign trade has more than doubled since 1860, viz. : —
Year. Imports £. Exports £. Total £,.
1860 . . . 14,500,000 10,700,000 25,200,000
1894 . . . 32,200,000 26,900,000 59,100,000
Commercial relations with France are greater than with any
other country, the returns for five years down to December
1892 giving the following averages : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Ratio.
37-7
21-7
40-6
Total . . 35 34 69 100 '0
The foreign trade of Spain is relatively greater than that of
Italy, being £4 per inhabitant against £3, which is perhaps
owing to the fact that Spain has so many colonies.
Shipping. — Merchant- shipping has quadrupled in carrying-
power in the last twenty years, the tonnage being as follows : —
Imports
from.
Exports
to.
Total.
France
. 11
15
26
Great Britain .
. 7
8
15
Other countries
. 17
11
28
SPAIN 207
Year. Steam. Sail. Tons Register. Carrying-powor.
1872 . . 45,000 340,000 385,000 520,000
1893 . . 480,000 200,000 680,000 2,120,000
Notwithstanding this remarkable increase Spain would re-
quire double her present shipping to carry on her trade, since
only 44 per cent, of the tonnage of Spanish port-entries and
clearances is under the national flag.
Internal Trad,e. — The amount at various dates was approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
% 1832. 1860. 1894.
Agriculture . . . .102 140 135
Manufactures .... 50 78 121
Mining, forestry, &c. 3 5
Imports 4 15 32
Total . . . .159 233 296
Internal trade averages £17 per inhabitant, against £15 in
Italy and £30 in France.
Railways. — The first line was one of 18 miles, from Barce-
lona to Matar6, opened in 1848, and the length of railways
working in January 1894 was 6710 miles, representing a cost
of 108 millions sterling. There are no State railways, but the
various companies received subsidies, the amount of which
down to 1880 reached 28 millions sterling, equal to 40 per
cent, of the sum spent until then on railways. Traffic returns
per mile compare with those of Italian lines thus : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £,.
Spanish .... 1,201 524 677
Italian . . . . 1,265 858 407
The profit on Spanish lines is 4£, on Italian 2, per cent.
Working-expenses are lower in Spain than in any other part
of the world, only 43 per cent, of receipts.
Banking. — Spain was described by a modern traveller as a
country of three banks and one hundred bull-rings. Bank-
ing-power in 1889 was 47 millions sterling; hardly £3 per
inhabitant.
208 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the Spanish people at various dates were
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1832. 1860. 1894.
Agricultural .... 62 84 81
Manufacturing .... 25 40 60
Mining, forests, &c. ... 3 5 8
Trade 16 24 30
Transport . ... 17 25 31
House-rent 7 10 14
Domestics 5 7 9
Public service .... 4 10 15
Professions . 14 21 25
Total 153 226 273
The earnings are equal to £15 per inhabitant, against £14:
in Italy and £30 in France.
Wealth. — The valuation by the Junta de Medios in 1832
was very incomplete, making real estate 923 millions, personal
property 186, total 1109 millions sterling. We may take the
real estate to have been correct, but the personal property
would seem to have amounted to 547 millions, making a total
of 1470, the figures comparing with those at present thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Land .....
Cattle, &c. ....
Houses .....
Furniture ....
Factories ....
Railways ....
Bullion .....
Merchandise ....
Sundries ....
Total .... 1,470 2,380 910
From this it would appear that the increase of wealth has
been only 61 per cent, in the same number of years, whereas
SPAIN 209
M'Culloch says that it ought to be 100 per cent, in fifty years
in countries that are fairly prosperous. The average accumu-
lation has been about 20 shillings yearly per inhabitant, as
compared with 68 shillings in France and 92 shillings in
England.
Land. — If we take the real rental in 1890 as 10 per cent,
over the assessment (£32,000,000) and capitalise it at thirty
times same, the land will now represent a value of 1056 millions
sterling, an increase of 55 per cent, since 1832, being at
present approximately as follows : —
Class.
Acres.
Value, £. £ per Acre.
Irrigated
2,500,000
225,000,000 90
Ordinary arable
29,700,000
594,000,000 20
Pasture and forest .
37,400,000
237,000,000 6J
Waste
55,700,000
Total . . 125,300,000 1,056,000,000
Houses. — The assessed rental has nearly doubled, rising from
7 millions in 1832 to 12 millions sterling in 1890 : the real
rental is probably 20 per cent, higher, say £14,400,000, equal
to a capital value of 240 millions sterling.
Distribution. — There are altogether 3,430,000 estates in
Spain, but this includes house-property, the number of land-
owners not exceeding 596,000, according to the survey of
1877. The landed estates cover 65 million acres, or half the
area of the kingdom, giving an average of 110 acres to each
estate. There are 3900 hidalgos or country gentlemen with
a rent-roll exceeding £400 a year. The total land and house
property is approximately as follows : —
No. Rental, &. Value, £. Average Value, £.
440,000 17,600,000 528,000,000 1,200
1,210,000 18,100,000 508,000,000 420
1,780,000 8,400,000 260,000,000 150
3,430,000 44,100,000 1,296,000,000 378
The number of persons owning lands or houses is probably
half that of properties, say 1,720,000, or one-tenth of the
population, which is a very high ratio.
o
2io INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
FINANCE
The finances of Spain during sixty years showed deficits
amounting to 380 millions sterling, that being the excess
of expenditure over revenue, as shown thus in millions £
sterling : —
Year. Revenue. Expenditure. Excess.
1831-70 .... 530 735 205
1871-90 .... 628 803 175
60 years . . . .1.158 1,538 380
In 1840, after the first Carlist War, Queen Isabella repu-
diated the debt, compelling the bond-holders to take new scrip
for old at the rate of 30 for 100. A second repudiation
occurred under Alfonso XII. in 1882, when bond-holders had
to accept new scrip at 40 for 100. By these repudiations the
debt, which would otherwise have been 776 millions, was
reduced to 220 millions sterling. The budget shows little
variation in the last thirty years, viz. : —
Revenue (OOO's omitted). Expenditure (OOO's omitted).
Customs
Taxes .
Sundries
Total
The budget is reliable only as regards revenue, the estimates
of expenditure being illusory. According to the Statesman's
Year-book the public debt (including 10 millions for Cuba)
amounts to 293 millions sterling; the annual interest is
£12,700,000, equal to 14 shillings per inhabitant, whereas
the interest on national debt in the United Kingdom is only
8 shillings per inhabitant.
18fi
6, £.
1896, £.
1866, £.
1896, £.
10,
000
12,
200
Debt . . .
5,
100
12,
700
7,
700
12,
600
Army
5,
400
6,
500
0,
800
5,
500
Government
17,
000
11,
100
27,
500
30,
300
Total .
27,
500
30,
300
X
PORTUGAL
THIS little kingdom is on a par with Ireland as to area and
population. t The census of 1890 showed 4,700,000 inhabitants,
being 144 to the square mile, but however thin the population
it seems too much for the resources of the country. There has
been during half a century a constant outflow of emigration,
and in a period of forty years down to 1890 we find that
460,000 persons left Portugal, of whom 380,000 went to
Brazil, the rest to the United States. At present the ordinary
emigration is 30,000 yearly, and the number of returning
emigrants about 15,000. Urban population is hardly 11 per
cent, of the total, there being only two cities, Lisbon and
Oporto, and twelve small towns. While the other cities of
Europe have doubled or quadrupled their number of inhabi-
tants in the last sixty years, we find that the aggregate of
Lisbon and Oporto has not risen one-fourth, viz. : —
Year. Lisbon. Oporto. Total.
1830 . . . 202,000 80,000 282,000
1890 . . . 242,000 106,000 348,000
There is perhaps no country in Europe where the surplus of
females is so large as in Portugal, the number being as 1092
to a thousand males, which is probably the result of emigration.
No census has ever been taken as to the occupations of the
people, but an official return in 1860 showed 870,000 adults
engaged in agriculture, the population of working-age (15 to 60)
being as follows : —
Men. Women. Total.
Urban V . 130,000 140,000 270,000
Rural . . 7. 1,050,000 1,150,000 2,200,000
Total . .. 1,180,000 1,290,000 2,470,000
311
212 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The working-power of the nation has increased 50 per cent,
since 1870, viz. : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
, *• > per
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1870 . . 310 400 180 890 210
1890 . . 350 420 560 1,330 290
Steam-power is trifling, summing up no more than 140,000
horse-power, of which 120,000 stand for railway locomotives.
AGRICULTURE
This is the chief occupation of the people, and yet is so
backward that hardly one-fifth of Portugal is under cultiva-
tion. If we compare the latest estimates with those of
Malchus, nearly seventy years ago, we find that the produc-
tion of grain has increased, but wine shows little progress,
viz. : —
5fear. Tons, grain. Wine, gallons.
1827 .... 520,000 75,000,000
1890 .... 740,000 80,000,000
Juraschek's estimate of the grain-crop, as given above, is 20
per cent, less than Neumann Spallart's. Notwithstanding the
fertility of the soil the production of grain and animal food is
short of requirements, and imports average 140,000 tons of
the former and 20,000 of the latter. Reducing all food to a
grain denominator the production is as follows : —
Quantity. Equiv. in grain.
Grain, tons . . . 740,000 740,000
Potatoes, „ . . . 270,000 90,000
Meat „ 100,000 800,000
Wine, gallons . . . 80,000,000 800,000
Total 2,430,000
This is equivalent to no more than half a ton per inhabi-
tant. If we deduct the grain necessary for seed it will be
found that the people live on native grain during ten months,
and depend on what is imported for the other two months of
PORTUGAL 213
the year. Their meat supply is equivalent to 48 Ibs. per inhabi-
tant, and is supplemented by 10 Ibs. (per head) of imported stock-
fish, and a small quantity of foreign meat. Wine is the most
valuable crop, the quantity exported having more than doubled
in twenty years, viz. : —
Gallons. £ value.
1872 .... 9,500,000 2,100,000
1892 .... 22,100,000 3,100,000
The quantity exported is only one-fourth of the vintage,
the home consumption averaging 12 gallons per inhabitant.
Agricultural products are equal to 16 per cent, on capital :
the capital and products may be summed up thus : —
Capital. Products.
Land . . . £138,400,000
Cattle . . 10,500,000
Sundries . . 14,900,000
Total . . 163,800,000
Wine . . . £6,700,000
Grain, &c. . . 11,200,000
Animal products . 8,100,000
Total . . 26,000,000
The latest official valuation of farm products was £18,000,000
for grain, wine, &c., and £5,200,000 for animal products, in
all £23,200,000.
The productive area being 11,600,000 acres, the product is
equal to 45 shillings per acre, against 51 in Spain and 77 in
Italy. It is stated by Portuguese writers that the kingdom
consists of 5 million acres cultivated, 10 million idle but suit-
able for tillage, and 5 million of mountain waste. There is,
however, no prospect of the available land being cultivated so
long as the present system of land tenure exists. More than
half the kingdom, in fact 13 million acres, or 60 per cent, of
the whole area, is in the hands of noblemen who have neither
the capital nor the energy to develop their estates. If it were
possible for the Government to do as was done in Austria and
Prussia, namely to purchase from the nobles one-half of their
estates, say 6,300,000 acres, and distribute the same in thirty-
acre lots among the peasantry, the cultivated area would be
doubled in a few years. According to an official report there
are 870,000 adults engaged in agriculture, among whom a
214 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
division of the products would give an average of £30, as com-
pared with £30 in Italy and £33 in Spain. There are 490,000
small farms, averaging 18 acres, and after allowing for the
value of noblemen's estates the average of agricultural capital
corresponding to these little farms is about £210 each.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
There are 1,200,000 acres of forest, the most valuable pro-
duct being cork, of which 25,000 tons are exported yearly,
worth £600,000. Firewood and timber will probably bring
up the total to £1,200,000. There is no record as to fisheries,
which must be worth close on a million sterling, since the ex-
ports of sardines and other tinned fish amount to 20,000 tons
yearly, worth £300,000. On the other hand Portugal imports
20,000 tons of codfish, valued at £400,000, a cheap article of
food for the peasantry.
MANUFACTURES AND MINERALS
There are 115 cotton, woollen, and flax mills, with steam-
power of 2000 horse in the aggregate, consuming 22,000 tons
of fibre, that is three times the consumption of the year 1872,
and turning out goods to the value of 4 millions sterling.
The supply of these goods is not sufficient, and the value of
imported fabrics usually exceeds £500,000. As regards hard-
ware the foundries consume 50,000 tons of imported iron.
The silversmiths of Oporto make handsome jewellery, but
this, like all manufactures in Portugal, is of trifling value.
Leather consumption averages 7000 tons. The approximate
value of manufactures is as follows : —
Textiles
Hardware .
Leather
Tood.
£4,800,000
600,000
3,400,000
7,300,000
Clothing . . £3,900,000
Houses and furn. 3,000,000
Sundries . . 6,000,000
Total . . 29,000,000
PORTUGAL 215
Coal is known to exist, near Oporto, but the only mineral
produced is copper, of which 120,000 tons in ore are exported
yearly. The salt-pits at Setubal yield 300,000 tons, and of
this quantity one-half is exported. Altogether the value of
minerals, according to Pery, is only £270,000 a year.
COMMERCE
Portuguese trade with foreign nations in the year 1842
hardly reached 4 millions sterling; in 1894 it exceeded 14
millions. The aggregate of five years down to 1892 gives
the following averages : —
Imports from, £.
Exports to, £,.
Total, £.
Great Britain
, 3,000,000
1,800,000
4,800,000
France .
. 1,400,000
800,000
2,200,000
Brazil .
400,000
800,000
1,200,000
Other countries
, 4,400,000
1,600,000
6,000,000
Total . . 9,200,000 5,000,000 14,200,000
Shipping. — The Portuguese flag, in the fallen fortunes of the
kingdom, has almost disappeared from the high seas ; no less
than 70 per cent, of the vessels that clear from the ports of
Portugal carry the British or other foreign flag. According
to a statement published in 1888 the merchant-navy of Por-
tugal counted 78,000 tons register, as compared with 80,000
tons in Lloyd's Register for 1842.
Internal trade. — This comprised in 1893 approximately 26
millions of agricultural products, 29 millions manufactures, 2
millions of forest and fishery products, and 8 millions imports,
making up 65 millions sterling, which gives an average of £14
per inhabitant, against £17 in Spain and £15 in Italy.
Communications. — Fifty years ago there were neither high-
roads, railways, nor mail-coaches; nothing but mule-tracks,
along which even nobles travelled on horseback and ladies in
palanquins. An ox-cart with a pipe of wine, drawn by two
oxen, usually took ten days for a journey of 60 miles. The
first high-road was made in 1849 from Elvas to Vendas, the
first railroad in 1854 from Lisbon to Carregado, 22 miles.
In 1893 the kingdom possessed 1420 miles of railway, 2500
of high-road, and 480 of navigable rivers, making a total of
4400 miles. The cost of the railways is supposed to have been
at the same rate as those of Spain, say £16,000 a mile, which
would sum up 23 millions sterling: there are 910 miles of
State railways, and the remainder was made by companies to
which the Government gave subsidies. The net product of
State lines in 1893 was £350,000, but the annual charge to
the Treasury for loans contracted for their construction was
£700,000. Traffic earnings on all lines compare with Spanish,
per mile, as follows : —
Portuguese .
Spanish
Receipts, £.
850
. 1,201
Expenses, £.
450
524
Profit, &.
400
677
Banking. — There are thirty-eight banks, with an aggregate
banking-power of 25 millions sterling. The amount of paper
money in circulation in 1895 was 1 i millions sterling, or £3
per inhabitant, that is relatively three times as much as in
Great Britain.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
Earnings and wealth may be summed up approximately as
follows : —
Earnings.
Wealth.
Agricultural
. £15,600,000
Land
£138.400,000
Manufacturing
14.500,000
Cattle .
10,500,000
Forestry, &c.
2,200,000
Implements, &c.
14,900,000
Trade .
6,500,000
Houses .
67,300,000
Transport
6,800,000
Furniture
33,700,000
House-rent
4,000,000
Railways
23,000,000
Domestics
2,700,000
Merchandise .
32,000,000
Public service
5,300,000
Factories
9,200,000
Professions
5,800,000
Sundries
82,000,000
Total
£63,400,000
Total
£411,000,000
PORTUGAL 217
Heal estate. — The latest land assessment is that of 1872,
which amounted to £4,200,000 : the real rental may be taken
10 per cent, higher, say £4,620,000, which would represent a
capital value of 138 millions sterling, viz. : —
Clasa. Acres. Value, £. £ per Acre.
Cultivated . . 3,800,000 76,000,000 20
Pasture, &c. . . 7,800,000 62,400,000 8
Waste . . . 9,200,000
Total . . 20,800,000 138,400,000
As regards houses the same assessment valued urban house-
property at £900,000 per annum, equal to a capital value of
£15,000,000 sterling, or £40 per head of the urban popula-
tion. Nothing is known of rural house- property. It may be
assumed that house-property for the whole kingdom bears the
same ratio as in Spain to population, that is £14 per inhabi-
tant, which would amount to 67 millions sterling. This makes
the total real estate approximately 205 millions sterling, or
50 per cent, of the wealth of the kingdom, as compared with
49 per cent, in France.
Ratio per head. — The average of earnings is under £14, that
of wealth is only £87, per inhabitant, showing that Portugal
is relatively one of the poorest nations in Europe.
FINANCE
Between 1825 and 1867 there was so loose a system of
finance that expenditure was usually 40 per cent, over revenue,
and thus the debt rose from 7 to 47 millions sterling. In the
subsequent period of twenty-seven years things have been
much worse, and deficits piled one on another to the amount of
101 millions, the debt now amounting to 148 millions sterling.
The average revenue and expenditure since 1868 are shown
as follows, per annum : —
218 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Period. Revenue, £. Expenditure, £. Deficit, £,.
1868-80 . . 6,100,000 9,700,000 3,600,000
1881-95 . . 7,700,000 10,400,000 2,700,000
Thus during the last quarter of a century deficits have
averaged more than 3 millions sterling, but this includes the
outlay for construction of State railways, amounting to 15
millions : if this sum be deducted, the actual debt of Portugal
will be reduced to 133 millions sterling. The budgets of 1868
and 1893 compare as follows : —
Revenue (OOG's omitted). Expend. (OOO's omitted).
1SG8, £.
1895, £.
18(38, £.
189'., £.
Customs
. '2,000
4,900 , Debt .
1,300
3,200
Taxes .
. 1,200
3,700
Army .
800
2,000
Sundries
600
1,900
Government .
3,000
5,300
Total
. 3,800
10,500
Total
5,100
10,500
The amount of taxation is £8,600,000, equal to 13 £ per
cent, of the earnings of the people ; and the debt, after
deducting for railways, to 33 per cent, of national wealth, a
state of things that leaves room for some anxiety.
XI
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
THESE two kingdoms are constitutionally distinct, but in all
economical and industrial interests may be considered together.
The population approaches 7,000,000 souls, being densest in
Sweden, viz. : —
Sq. Miles. Population. Per Sq. Mile.
Sweden . . . 67,700 4,100,000 61
Norway . . . 81,300 1,800,000 22
Lapland . . . 146,000 900,000 6
Total . . . 295,000 6,800,000 23
Although the population is sparse it is quite as much as
the country can support with a very limited area under crops.
The outflow of emigration in the last ten years averaged
60,000 yearly, that is about three-fourths of the natural
increase. Since 1851 more than 1,200,000 persons have
emigrated, viz. : —
Period. Swedes. Norwegians. Total.
1851-80 . . . 288,000 202,000 490,000
1881-93 . . . 462,000 258,000 720,000
43 years . . . 750,000 460,000 1,210,000
The American census of 1890 shows that 805,000 of the
above emigrants were then living in the United States, of
whom 670,000 were farmers in the Western prairies, espe-
cially Minnesota and Illinois. According to official returns,
80 per cent, of emigrants go to the United States, 20 per
cent, to Denmark. The urban population of Sweden and
Norway rose 300 per cent., the rural 60 per cent., between
220 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
the years 1831 and 1891. The occupations of the people at
the last census were : —
Sweden. Norway. Total.
Agriculture . . 1,070,000 330,000 1,400,000
Manufactures . . 380,000 180,000 560,000
Commerce . . 140,000 90,000 230,000
Various . . . 570,000 460,000 1,030,000
Total . . 2,160,000 1,060,000 3,220,000
The working-power of these kingdoms has doubled since
1870, viz. :—
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
per
Year. Sweden. Norway. Total. Inhabitant.
1870 . . . 2,080 760 2,840 470
1894 . . . 3,810 1,900 5,710 840
The components of power in 1894 were approximately as
follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
, " : ^ per
Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
Sweden . . 430 1,500 1,880 3,810 780
Norway . . 170 450 1,280 1,900 970
Total . 600 1,950 3,160 5,710 840
The total steam-power of the two kingdoms was equal to
790,000 horse in 1894, having quintupled since 1870 : it is
now as 115 horse-power per thousand inhabitants, as com-
pared with 150 horse-power in Germany.
AGEICULTUKE
When Bernadotte came to the throne in 1818 he found that
30 noblemen owned Norway, and 1200 gentlemen Sweden,
under whom there were 70,000 farmers with lots averaging
20 acres, the whole cultivated area of the two kingdoms not
exceeding 1,400,000 acres. The grain-crops seldom reached
50,000 tons, or 1 bushel per inhabitant, for which reason the
bread of the rural population was made of sawdust and rye.
The nobles lived in riotous extravagance, until the banks
would lend them no more money : thereupon a crisis ensued,
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 221
and many large estates were brought to the hammer. More
than 10,000,000 acres were sold to the peasants, at prices
averaging 17 pence per acre, and when Lang visited Sweden
and Norway in 1830 he was surprised to find that "the con-
dition of the rural classes was better than in Scotland." In
1840 the peasants had acquired no less than 16,000,000 acres,
and the area under tillage was 5,200,000 acres, having quad-
rupled in twenty years. At present the production of grain
averages 3,100,000 tons yearly, which is short of the require-
ment. Sweden had an annual surplus of about 300,000 tons
down to 1*882, since which year she has usually imported
70,000 tons per annum. Norway has so unfavourable a climate
that she has never been able to raise enough grain for her
people ; the supply during five months consists of imported
grain, that is 250,000 tons. Reducing all food to a grain
denominator, we find the annual production as follows : —
Weight Tons. Grain Equivalent.
Sweden. Norway. Sweden. Norway.
Grain . . 2,750,000 450,000 2,750,000 450,000
Potatoes . 1,440,000 660,000 480,000 220,000
Meat . . 160,000 70,000 1,280,000 560,000
Total . 4,510,000 1,230,000
The area under crops in Norway is almost the same as it was
thirty years ago, viz., 600,000 acres : on the other hand the
Norwegian farms in the Western States of North America
cover 2,400,000 acres, from which it appears that agriculture
in Norway is a declining industry on account of the climate.
The areas of the two kingdoms are made up thus : —
Sweden. Norway. Total.
Crops . . 8,400,000 600,000 9,000,000
Pasture . . 3,900,000 2,200,000 6,100,000
Productive . 12,300,000 2,800,000 15,100,000
Unproductive . 98,400,000 76,900,000 175,300,000
Total . 110,700,000 79,700,000 190,400,000
222 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The total value of farm products is approximately as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain. Sundries. Meat. Dairy, &c. TotaL
Sweden ... 13 7 8 9 37
Norway ... 2 1 3 3 9
Total . 15 8 11 12 46
The value of farm products, compared with the productive
area, is equal to 60 shillings per acre in Sweden and 64 in
Norway, as compared with 96 in Germany. The product per
hand is £35 in Sweden and £27 in Norway, against £44 in
Germany. The agricultural capital of the two kingdoms may
be set down approximately thus : —
Value, Millions £ Sterling.
Sweden. Norway. Total.
Land 154 58 212
Cattle 29 12 41
Sundries. .18 7 25
Total .... 201 77 278
In 1837 the agricultural wealth of Sweden was only 51
millions, and if Norway bore then the same ratio to the sister-
kingdom as at present, her rural capital would have been 19
millions, together making 70 millions sterling. It appears,
therefore, that in little more than half a century the farmers
(who previously lived on sawdust and fish) have been enabled,
by the breaking up of the nobles' estates, to add 208 millions
sterling to the national wealth. In Sweden there are 245,000
farms, covering 12,300,000 acres of cleared and improved land,
in Norway 130,000 farms with 2,800,000 acres. Nobles still
own the half of these kingdoms, and often let portions of their
vast estates to tenants : such a portion is called " mantal,"
which comprises 400 acres, and there are 40,000 mantal-
holders in Sweden alone.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 223
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The forest area is 65 million acres, which extent, in the
European continent, is surpassed only in Russia. The cutting
averages 18 million tons or 900 million cubic feet, one-third
firewood, the rest being used for timber : the production and
consumption are approximately as follows : —
Tons. Value, £ Sterling.
Sweden. Norway. Sweden. Norway.
Firewood . . 4,900,000 2,000,000 800,000 300,000
Timber, h«me . 3,000,000 1,400,000 2,700,000 1,300,000
Do., exported . 5,600,000 ], 100,000 6,500,000 1,500,000
Total . . 13,500,000 4,500,000 10,000,000 3,100,000
Most of the farmers being also wood-cutters it is impossible
to ascertain how many hands are employed in forestry, but
the number is certainly over 200,000. The forest industry of
Sweden is more than 40 shillings per inhabitant, as compared
with 5 shillings in Germany.
Fisheries constitute another great industry, the value of
which is approximately as follows : —
Sweden, £. Norway, £. Total.
Home consumption . 700,000 900,000 1,600,000
Export .... 500,000 2,200,000 2,700,000
Total . . . 1,200,000 3,100,000 4,300,000
Norway has 120,000 fishermen, whose take gives little more
than £25 a year to each, notwithstanding the hazardous nature
of their lives, about 120 men, or 1 per thousand, being drowned
every year. Swedish fisheries occupy 30,000 men, whose take
averages £40 per man.
MANUFACTURES
The Gustavus tariff during the first quarter of the century
imposed prohibitory duties on imports with the view of pro-
tecting native industry, but it was not until the abolition of
224 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
this tariff, in 1828, that manufactures began to exhibit any
sign of vitality. A report published in 1839 showed that this
branch of industry had grown 35 per cent, since the change
of tariff. The latest official estimate is that of 1876, which
gives the output of all factories in Sweden as £10,200,000,
and if the work of artisans and small industries had been
included the value would probably have doubled. As regards
Norway most of the manufactures are of the simplest char-
acter : the peasantry during the long winter make all neces-
saries for domestic use, except cutlery and pottery, which they
get from England, while there are also some factories in the
large towns.
Textiles. — The consumption of fibre in the two kingdoms
rose from 25,000 tons in 1872 to 52,000 in 1894, Sweden in
the latter year standing for two-thirds, Norway one-third, of
the total. The mills consumed in 1894 as follows : 22,000
tons of cotton, 13,000 of wool, and 5000 of flax, hemp, &c.,
the total output reaching an approximate value of 7| millions
sterling.
Hardware. — In the earlier years of the century Sweden
produced as much iron as Germany ; at present the production
is as one to ten. Swedish iron is specially suited for making
steel; the output of iron is nearly 500,000 tons, of which one-
fifth is converted into steel. The production of iron has
quadrupled since 1850.
Leather. — The annual consumption of leather is about
17,000 tons, one-third made from imported hides. The value
of manufactures is 8 millions sterling, Sweden standing for
three-fourths.
Paper. — This industry has of late years sprung into im-
portance in Sweden, wood-pulp being the chief material ; the
export of wood-pulp and paper rose from 8000 tons in 1872
to 130,000 in 1894.
Sundries. — Distilleries and breweries turn out yearly 20
million gallons of potato-brandy and 30 millions of beer, worth
4 millions. The Jonkoping match factories have trebled their
\1
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 22$
output since 1872, and now export 15,000 tons of matches,
worth £400,000. Shipbuilding amounts to 2 millions sterling
per annum, Norway standing for two-thirds. The value of
manufactures in 1894 was approximately as follows : —
Textiles
Hardware
Leather
Food .
Clothing
Houses & fur
Sundries
Sweden, £.
" . 4,900,000
. 6,200,000
. 6,000,000
. 9,800,000
.; 4,800,000
aiture 4,300,000
. 9,000,000
Norway, &.
2,700,000
1,200,000
2,000,000
3,900,000
1,900,000
1,600,000
3,300,000
Total, £.
7,600,000
7,400,000
8,000,000
13,700,000
6,700,000
5,900,000
12,300,000
Total . . 45,000,000 16,600,000 61,600,000
The manufacturing output has more than doubled in twenty
years. Sweden possesses a great advantage in cheap and
abundant water-power, supplying the place of steam, which
accounts for the steady increase of her manufactures.
MINERALS
Sweden has an inexhaustible supply of the richest iron ore,
the ordinary yield being 48 per cent, of metal, against 40 in
England. There are 200 mines and 1400 smelting- works,
which employ 20,000 men. The quantity of ore raised in
1893 was 1,500,000 tons, of which one-third was exported.
The richest ore is found at Dannemora and Tuberg, the latter
a mass of magnetic iron. There are also zinc and copper
mines, the quantity of metal extracted from these ores being
20,000 and 1200 tons respectively. Coal-mines are worked in
the southern provinces, but nine-tenths of the coal used in
Sweden is imported from England, the annual consumption
being 2,400,000 tons, and the quantity raised seldom exceeding
200,000. The annual value of all mining products (including
£300,000 for Norway) is just 2 millions sterling, and the
number of miners 32,000, that is an average of £62 each
man.
P
226 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
COMMERCE
The united commerce of these kingdoms has quintupled
since 1850, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Imports. Exports. TotaL
1850 .... 5 6 11
1894 .... 31 24 55
Forty years ago, when Scandinavia was poor, there was a
surplus of exports; but in later times, as always happens
when nations become prosperous and have a valuable carrying-
trade, there has been a large excess of imports. Taking the
aggregate trade of the two countries in the past five years, we
find the averages thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
from.
Exports
to.
Total.
Ratto.
Great Britain .
. 9
10
19
34-5
Germany .
Denmark .
. 9
. 3
3
2
12
5
21-8
9-1
Other countries
. 10
9
19
34-6
Total . . 31 24 55 100-0
During the said five years (1888-92) the shares of the above
total that corresponded to the two kingdoms were : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Sweden. Norway. Total.
Imports .... 20 11 31
Exports .... 17 7 24
Total ... 37 18 55
Shipping. — Norwegians have always been famous as a sea-
faring people, and their merchant-shipping, as compared with
population, is relatively double in carrying- power to the
British. If we put Norwegian and Swedish together, the
carrying-power of the shipping of these kingdoms is 50 per
cent, over that of France, and holds the next place below that
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 227
of Germany. The gi-owth of Scandinavian shipping is shown
as follows : —
Tons Register.
Carrying-
power,
Tons.
330,000
1,740,000
3,310,000
Year.
1837 .
1872 .
1894 .
Norwegian.
210,000
1,120,000
1,500,000
Swedish.
120,000
390,000
550,000
Total.
330,000
1,510,000
2,050,000
The united shipping comprises 420,000 tons register of
steamers and 1,630,000 of sailing-vessels : the carrying-power
that corresponds to Norway is 2,220,000, to Sweden 1,090,000
tons. S»
Internal Trade. — This may be summed up for 1894 briefly
thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Sweden. Norway. Total.
Agricultural products 37 9 46
Manufactures .... 45 17 62
Forests, fisheries, &c. 13 6 19
Imports 20 11 31
Total .... 115 43 158
This is an average of £24 per inhabitant in Sweden and
£22 in Norway, against £26 in Germany.
Railways. — The first line in Norway was opened in 1854,
from Christiania to Moesen, 40 miles, and in Sweden in 1856.
A system of State railways, mostly narrow-gauge, was begun
in Norway in 1862 and completed in twenty years, with a
length of 930 miles. Two systems were begun in Sweden in
1870, by the State and by joint-stock companies, with the
result that 5000 miles had been constructed in 1890. At
present the length of railways working and the sum spent in
construction in the two countries are : —
Miles. Millions £. £ per Mile.
Sweden .... 5,730 33 5,800
Norway .... 1,000 7 7,300
Total .... 6,730 40 6,000
228 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Sweden has more railways for population than any other
country in Europe, namely a mile for 870 inhabitants, whereas
in the United Kingdom we have only a mile for 1900. State
railways in Sweden are one-third of the total length ; in Nor-
way they all belong to the State, except the Moesen line above
mentioned. Thus the aggregate total is 2780 miles of State
lines, 3640 of companies. In both countries the State lines
are run less with a view to profit than for the benefit of in-
ternal trade, and hence the net product on capital is only 2£
per cent, in Sweden, less than 1 per cent, in Norway, while
the companies' lines in Sweden yield 4^, the Moesen line in
Norway 7, per cent, net yearly. If we put together both
State and companies' lines the traffic per mile in the two
countries will be found much lower than even on Russian
lines, viz. : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £.
Swedish .... 531 329 202
Norwegian ... 517 387 130
Russian .... 1,610 970 640
Tariffs are fixed so low that Swedish railways are made to
give a gross return of 52 pence, Norwegian 36 pence, per mile
run by locomotives, as compared with 73 pence in Germany.
Canals and Roads. — A complete system of canals has been
constructed, beginning with the Gotha Canal, which.was opened
in 1800 : this system communicates by way of Lake Malar
with the Gulf of Bothnia, forming a complete water-way of
700 miles from Gottenburg as far as Tornea in the Arctic
Circle. More than 70,000 vessels passed through the canals in
1892. There are, moreover, 12,400 miles of royal highways,
besides 19,000 of departmental roads.
Banks. — The banking-power of Sweden is 34, of Norway
12, millions sterling. There is a State-bank in each country
which issues up to 3 millions sterling : the issue averages 30
shillings per inhabitant in Norway, 13 in Sweden, as compared
with 21 shillings in the United Kingdom. The Enskilda or
joint-stock banks were begun in Sweden in 1830, and are now
found all over the kingdom : there are thirty-five similar
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
229
banks in Norway. Savings-bank deposits amount to 18
millions sterling in Sweden, 12 in Norway, that is nearly
£4: per inhabitant in the first, £6 in the second, country.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the two nations are approximately as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Agricultural
Manufacturing
Forests, fisheries, &c.
Trade .
Transport
House- rent
Domestics
Public service
Professions
Total
Sweden.
22
Norway.
6
Total.
28
23
8
31
13
6
19
12
4
16
13
4
17
6
2
8
4
1
5
3
2
5
10
3
13
106
36
142
This gives an average of £22 per inhabitant in Sweden,
£18 in Norway, as compared with £25 in Germany.
Wealth. — The principal components of wealth are approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Sweden.
Norway.
TotaL
Land
154
58
212
Cattle, &c.
47
19
66
Railways
33
7
40
Shipping
5
12
17
Houses .
96
35
131
Furniture
48
17
65
Factories
15
6
21
Merchandise
58
22
80
Sundries
114
44
158
Total . . .570 220 790
Land. — The official valuation in 1893 was 140 millions
sterling for Sweden, 58 for Norway, but Professor Fahlbeck
considers that the real landed value in Sweden is 154 millions.
230 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
According to a valuation in 1836 the land then stood for 33
millions, from which it would appear that this item has quin-
tupled in half a century.
Houses. — The official returns of 1893 show the value of
houses in Sweden to be 96, in Norway 35, millions sterling.
Thus the total value of real estate gives an average of £52 per
inhabitant in Sweden, £47 in Norway, showing that in point
of wealth to population the condition of the two countries
differs but slightly.
FINANCE
The finances of these two Scandinavian kingdoms offer an
agreeable contrast to those of the nations of Southern Europe,
as if climate or race had something to do with the thrifty or
careless handling of public money. If we put together the
budgets of both countries we find the revenue has risen 200
per cent, in the last thirty years, viz. : —
Customs
Excise
Taxes, &c. .
Total . . 2-8
The revenue for 1895 shows £5,400,000 for Sweden,
£3,000,000 for Norway ; that is 23 shillings per inhabitant
in the first, and 30 shillings in the second, kingdom. Local
taxes amount to £3,700,000 in Sweden, and £1,100,000 in
Norway. Between national and local taxes the total amount
raised yearly by taxation is £7,500,000 in Sweden, £3,100,000
in Norway, from which it appears that the incidence of taxa-
tion as compared with earnings is 7 per cent, in Sweden, 8£
per cent, in Norway, against 12 per cent, in France.
Debt. — The total debt of Sweden, national and communal,
sums up 26 millions sterling, but the national debt of 16
Revenue,
Millions £.
Expenditure,
Millions £.
1865. 1895.
1865. 1895.
1-4 2-8
Debt .
. 0-4 0-8
0-6 1-5
0-8 4-1
Army
Government
. 1-1 2-4
. 1-3 5'2
2-8 8-4
Total .
. 2-8 8-4
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
231
millions is wholly represented by State railways, so that the
real debt is only 10 millions, say 2 per cent, of the national
wealth. The net proceeds of the State railways average
£360,000, and as their construction imposes a yearly charge
on the Treasury of £600,000, the deficit of £240,000, which
is met by taxation, is equivalent to 1 shilling per inhabitant.
The Norwegian national debt is 7 millions sterling, which is
in like manner represented by State railways, which give a
net profit of £30,000 yearly, leaving a deficit of £180,000,
equivalent to a tax of 22 pence on each inhabitant. '
XII
DENMARK
THIS little kingdom was a Power of some importance when
the century began : the loss of Norway in 1814. and of the
Sleswig-Holstein duchies in 1864, has reduced it to 15,000
square miles, say double the area of Yorkshire, with a popu-
lation of 2,200,000 : this is equal to 146 to the square mile,
against 248 in Germany. Although the cultivated area and
the production of food, as compared with population, are much
greater than in any other European country, there is a steady
emigration to North America, which takes away one-third of
the natural increase yearly ; since 1890 the average number
of emigrants yearly has been 10,000, and the returns for
twenty-five years show that 137,000 proceeded to the United
States, and only 9000 to other countries. These returns are
evidently below the real number, since the American census
of 1890 showed 133,000 Danes, of whom 115,000 were
farmers in Iowa and other Western States. There are 75,000
foreigners resident in Denmark, half being Swedes, the other
half Germans. If we compare the census of 1890 with that
of 1880 we find that in the interval there was an increase of
4 per cent, in rural, 29 per cent, in urban, population. The
only city of note is Copenhagen, which, in relation to the rest
of the kingdom, is the largest metropolis in the world, since it
counts for one-sixth of the total; its population quadrupled
between 1830 and 1890, and now reaches 380,000. The
census of 1890 divides the people of Denmark into classes, of
which 45 per cent, may be considered workers, viz. : —
232
DENMARK 233
Manu-
Agriculture. factures. Commerce. Various. Total.
Population . 880,000 540,000 210,000 540,000 2,170,000
Workers . 400,000 245,000 95,000 245,000 985,000
The working-power was as follows, approximately, in millions
of foot- tons daily : —
Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. TotaL
1870 ... 160 1,050 220 1,440
1893 . ... 200 1,240 840 2,280
Steam-power -'is about 210,000 horse, of which 120,000 in
steamboats, 80,000 in locomotives, and 10,000 fixed.
AGRICULTURE
The reform of land-tenure has been attended with the most
astonishing transformation. In the eighteenth century Den-
mark consisted of 614 hovedgards or estates, belonging to
the same number of noblemen, ranging from 10,000 acres
upwards. On each estate there were two or three hundred
tenants, called bondsmen, whom an English traveller described
as "dirty, devoid of energy, and not so well fed as Jamaica
negroes." At the assembly of Roskilde the nobles declared
their right to flog the farmers' wives, and at the same time
the peasantry were bought and sold on the estates, like cattle.
Reforms projected by Count Struensee were carried out after
his death, the first being a law against landlords selling their
bondsmen. In 1808 another reform was introduced by
Frederic VI., which compelled the nobles to sell farms to
their tenants at £6 an acre, and an official return in 1840
showed that in thirty years the peasantry had bought up half
the kingdom. Those who had not bought farms were termed
huusmen, or tenants, whom the law protected by an enact-
ment that the landlord could neither raise the rent nor evict
them so long as they paid it. In 1861 Bishop Mourad's
law gave still further facilities to the peasantry for the
234 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
purchase of land. The tenure is at present approximately as
follows : —
Owners. Number. Acres. Average.
Nobles ... 650 1,400,000 2,500
Peasants . . . 71,000 4,300,000 60
The latter are subject to a land-tax of 3 shillings an acre,
and the productive area has risen from 5,600,000 acres in 1866
to 7,100,000 in 1890. Climate and soil being equally suited
to tillage or grazing, the farmers pay great attention to both,
and the crops are much heavier than in most countries, the
average yield showing thus : —
Bushels per Acre.
Denmark. France. Germany.
Wheat 37 18 23
Oats 34 25 30
Barley 32 20 22
It is doubtless owing to improved method and machinery
that the ordinary grain-crop is now 20 per cent., the potato
crop 50 per cent., greater than iu the decade ending 1880.
Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the averages for
1891-93 showed thus :—
Quantity. Bquiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons .... 2,100,000 2,100,000
Potatoes, „ 450,000 150,000
Meat, „ 130,000 1,040,000
Total 3,290,000
The consumption of grain by live-stock is so considerable
that, although the crop exceeds 1 ton per inhabitant, there is
no surplus for exportation. Down to the year 1884 Denmark
used to export about 200,000 tons of grain, but since that
year she has been obliged to import largely ; in 1893 no less
than 190,000 tons. Meantime there is a great surplus of
pastoral products, the exports of meat, butter, and eggs
amounting to a yearly value of 10 millions sterling. The
value of all farm products yearly, and the amount of agricul-
tural capital, are shown approximately as follows : —
Products.
Millions £. Capital.
Grain *JS.-/ ,
. 12
Land
Other crops
. 7
Cattle
Animal products
TV>fal
. 16
SK
Sundries
Tr>fa
DENMARK 235
Millions £.
. 205
. 26
. 23
. 254
From this it would appear that the annual product is 14
per cent, on capital, and gives an average of 99 shillings per
acre, against 96 in Germany ; it is equal to £88 for each
hand employed, against £48 in Germany and £59 in France ;
the higher ratio is explained by the fact that the latest and
best machinery is more generally in use in Denmark than in
in any other country of the European continent. The official
value of the crops in 1894 was £15,000,000, but this was
considerably under the real value : possibly hay and straw
were omitted.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The forest area is 500,000 acres, the product of which is
about £300,000 a year, but the supply of timber is so short
that Denmark has to import to the value of a million sterling.
The fisheries occupy 15,000 men, who take a yearly value
of about £600,000; the export reaches 15,000 tons, value
£250,000. Thus the total earnings from forests and fisheries
are about a million sterling.
MANUFACTURES
The Danes are so much absorbed in farming pursuits that
they can spare little attention for manufactures. An official
report in 1880 showed 720 factories, with an aggregate of
10,000 horse-power. Denmark depends almost wholly on
imported goods as regards textiles and hardware. The output
of distilleries and sugar-mills is little over 1 million sterling.
Leather manufactures consume 6000 tons yearly. The
approximate value of manufactures in 1894 was as follows: —
236 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Textiles . . £1,400,000
Hardware . . 600,000
Leather . . 3,000,000
Food . . . 5,300,000
Clothing . . £2,300,000
Houses and furn. 2,800,000
Sundries . . 3,800,000
Total . . 19,200,000
There is no mineral of any description, and the consumption
of imported coal is only a million tons yearly, or half a ton
per inhabitant.
COMMERCE
Foreign trade has quadrupled since 1850, the returns show-
ing thus : —
Year. Imports, £. Exports, £. Total, &.
1850 . . 4,700,000 3,100,000 7,800,000
1894 . . 19,400,000 14,600,000 34,000,000
Here, as in all prosperous countries, imports are considerably
in excess of exports. The foreign trade of Denmark is rela-
tively large, £14 per inhabitant, as compared with £7 in
France and Germany. The countries with which trade is
carried on, according to the average of five years ending 1892,
are as follow : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports Exports Total. Ratio.
from. to.
Great Britain 4 7 11 35'5
Germany ... 6 3 9 29'0
Other countries 8 3 11 35'5
Total ... 18 13 31 100*0
Shipping. — The abolition of the Sound dues, in 1857, appears
to have favoured the growth of Danish shipping, which .has
quintupled in carrying-power in forty years : —
Tons Register.
Carrying
Year. Sail. Steam. Total. power.
1850 . 153,000 ... 153,000 153,000
1894 . 190,000 140,000 330,000 750,000
Denmark is short of shipping, only 55 per cent, of the trade
of her ports being done on vessels bearing the Danish flag.
DENMARK
237
Internal Trade. — This amounts to 74 millions sterling,
made up of 35 millions for agriculture, 19 for manufactures,
1 million for forestry and fisheries, and 19 for imports.
Railways. — In 1847 a short line, of 20 miles, was made by a
joint-stock company. A system of State railways, 1070 miles
in length, was begun in 1862 and completed in 1885. The
length of companies' lines is 300, making in all 1370 miles,
which have cost 14 millions sterling. Traffic returns per mile
compare with those of Sweden thus : —
Denmark
Sweden
Receipts, £.
. 890
531
Expenses, £.
727
329
Profit, £.
163
202
Gross earnings per mile run by locomotives are the same as
in Sweden, 52 pence. Working expenses are so heavy (82 per
cent.) that the net profit is only a trifle over 1£ per cent on
capital.
Banking. — The Riks-bank, founded in 1814, has sole right
of emission, its issue reaching £4,300,000, say £2 per inhabi-
tant. Joint-stock banks were begun in 1857, and now there
are forty of them, making up, with the Riks-bank, a total
banking-power of more than 20 millions sterling. Savings-
bank deposits amount to 29 millions sterling, or £13 per
inhabitant, against £4 in the United Kingdom.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The following table shows approximately the earnings and
wealth of the Danish people : —
Earnings. Millions £. Wealth. Millions £.
Agricultural .
21
. Land
205
Manufacturing
10
Cattle, &c.
49
Fisheries, &c.
1
Railways
14
Trade .
7
Houses .
63
Transport
7
Furniture
31
House-rent
4
Factories
6
Domestics
3
Merchandise
37
Professions, &c.
7
Sundries
101
Total . .60
Total . . ,506
238 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The above earnings give an average of £27 per inhabitant,
against £25 in Germany and £31 in France. As regards
wealth Falbe's estimate in 1885 was 429 millions sterling,
which would give £204 per inhabitant, the present ratio,
according to the above table, being £230 ; this would indicate
an increase of 52 shillings yearly per inhabitant, against 68
shillings in France. The ratio of wealth per head of the
population is higher than in any other country of Continental
Europe, except France.
Real Estate. — According to Falbe the value of real estate
quadrupled in less than forty years, rising from 65 millions
in 1848 to 257 millions in 1885. The valuation of landed
properties made in 1818, by order of Frederick VI., amounted
to no more than 15 millions; that of 1886 showed an average
price of £29 per acre, say 205 millions sterling, or fourteen
times as much as in 1818. Nor does the latter valuation
appear exaggerated, since the assessed rental in 1886 was 8
millions sterling, which would be in England equivalent to a
capital value of 240 millions. As regards house-property the
official valuation in 1886 was 48 millions, but Falbe considered
the real value was 63 millions. The wealth of Denmark
seems to be: real estate 274, personal 232, millions sterling;
that is to say, real estate stands for 54 per cent, of the total,
as compared with 49 per cent, in France and 46 per cent, in
Germany. This would lead us to infer that the price of land
in Denmark is relatively too high, doubtless because the king-
dom is of such limited dimensions. The average of wealth to
population is 46 per cent, higher in Denmark than in Germany,
viz., as £230 to £156 per inhabitant.
Denmark lost one-fourth of her revenue when Germany
annexed the duchies of Sleswig-Holstein. Nevertheless, her
finances have been so carefully administered that the national
debt has been reduced by one-third since 1866, at present
DENMARK 239
amounting to no more than 1 1 millions sterling. This debt,
moreover, is represented by 1000 miles of State railways, so
that it would be almost correct to say that Denmark has no
debt. Meantime these railways have imposed on the Treasury
an obligation of £370,000 a year, while their net product is
only £160,000, leaving a deficit of £210,000 to be met by
taxation, equal to 2 shillings per inhabitant. The national
revenue in 1895 was £3,700,000, of which £2,800,000 was
raised by taxation : add to this the local taxes, which will
bring up the total to £4,900,000, equivalent to 8£ per cent, of
national earnings, or almost ^the same ratio as in the United
Kingdom.
XIII
HOLLAND
Tins kingdom, though not much bigger than Wales, is of
considerable importance in the economy of Europe, owing to
the thrift, energy, and enlightenment of its people. It is
densely inhabited, counting 374 persons to the square mile,
against 248 in Germany. The population has nearly doubled
since the secession of Belgium, the increase in cities and towns
being much greater than in rural districts, viz. : —
Increase
1830. 1893. per Ceiit.
Urban . . . 640,000 1,800,000 180
Rural . . . 1,980,000 2,930,000 48
Total . . 2,620,000 4,730,000 80
The cultivated area being little more than 1 acre per
inhabitant, the agricultural resources of the kingdom are
insufficient ; population is 50 per cent, in excess of what the
country could conveniently carry. Yet there is practically no
emigration, the people as a rule being in a prosperous con-
dition. Emigration has in late years averaged 5000, that is
1 per thousand of the population yearly, as compared with 8
per thousand in Norway. Emigrants go wholly to the United
States, in which country the census of 1890 showed 82,000
Dutch settlers, mostly in the Western Prairies, including
30,000 farmers in Michigan. The number of foreigners liv-
ing in Holland is 48,000, mostly Germans. No census that
has been taken shows the occupations of the people, but that
of 1880 showed that there were 840,000 persons residing on
HOLLAND 241
farms. At present the working population may be estimated
approximately thus : —
Agricultural 460,000
Commercial, &c 1,700,000
Total 2,160,000
The working-power of the nation was as follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
^- -^ .. Foot-tons per
Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total Inhabitant.
1860 ' . 300 750 220 1,270 380
1894 . 420 810 2,300 3,530 750
Holland is so deficient in horses that her working-power
would be very low but for steam, which has increased 150 per
cent since 1870, viz. : —
Steam, Horse-power.
Year. Fixed. Locomotive. Steamboat. Total.
1870 . . 30,000 160,000 30,000 220,000
1894 . . 80,000 320,000 175,000 575,000
The ratio of steam-power to 1000 inhabitants is 120 horse,
against 150 in Germany.
AGRICULTURE
One-fourth of the kingdom is below sea-level, protected by
dykes or polders, behind which the industrious natives have
pastoral and tillage farms. Every inch of the country is
drained and irrigated by means of canals, which have a length
of 1,900,000 miles ; and as the total area is under 8 million
acres, there are 420 yards of canal to every acre. The pastures
are of such fertility that lean kine imported from Germany
grow fat in a few months, often attaining a ton in weight,
while the cereal crops are equally prolific. The average yield
Q
242 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
per acre in four years ending 1892 compares with Germany
as follows : —
Bushels per Acre.
Wheat
Oats.
Barley.
Rye.
Mean.
. 27
46
40
21
33
. 23
30
22
16
23
Thus it appears that 2 acres in Holland produce as much
as 3 in Germany. Dairy farming is a most important
feature : there are 900,000 milch cows, which give 100,000
tons of butter and cheese yearly, or 250 Ibs. per cow, a result
unequalled in any other part of the world. The cows are
kept in the swampy meadows till November, when they are
lodged in sumptuous sheds, ranged along tete-cl-iete, their tails
tied up behind by means of pulleys from the roof. The Dutch,
meantime, do not depend wholly on the cows for production
of butter, being largely aided by margarine, of which they
import 35,000 tons yearly. The quantity of butter and cheese
exported in 1893 was 103,000 tons, or a trifle more than the total
product of the dairies, without taking account of 30,000 tons
for home consumption : the apparent discrepancy is explained
by the importation of margarine. Meat-supply exceeds con-
sumption, fat cattle being exported equivalent to 30,000 tons
of dead meat. There is, on the other hand, an increasing
deficit of grain, for we find that, whereas thirty years ago the
importation was only three months' supply, Holland now sub-
sists during five months in the year on foreign grain, viz. : —
Consumption, Tons.
Period. Native. Imported. Total.
1861-62 . . 680,000 220,000 900,000
1890-93 . . 790,000 650,000 1,440,000
The above consumption may seem excessive, being equal to
12 bushels per inhabitant, but it appears that 40 per cent, is
given to cattle, which leaves the balance for human food
equivalent to 7 bushels per head of the population. It is to
be observed that cows have increased 22 per cent, in number
since 1860, and this partly explains why the consumption of
HOLLAND 243
grain is now much greater, compared with population, than it
was thirty years ago. Reducing all food to a grain denomi-
nator, the production in 1893 was : —
Quantity. Equiv. In Grain.
Grain . . . . 1,050,000 1,050,000
Potatoes .... 2,250,000 750,000
Meat 130,000 1,040,000
Total 2,840,000
The above quantity would hardly suffice for more than two-
thirds of the present population. The value of all farm pro-
ducts yearly, and the amount of agricultural capital, are shown
approximately as follows : —
Products. Millions £. Capital. Millions £.
Grain ... 6
Other crops . . 12
Animal . . .18
Total . 36
Land . . . 240
Cattle ... 28
Sundries ... 27
Total 295
The annual product appears to be only 12 per cent, on
capital, because land commands an artificial value, much
beyond what it could have if the kingdom of Holland were
not so diminutive and so densely populated. Meantime it
must be admitted that the land, from being so admirably
drained and irrigated, is highly productive : the value of
products is equal to 142 shillings per acre of productive area,
against 92 in France and 96 in the United Kingdom. The
product, compared with the number of hands employed in
farming, gives an average of £78 each, against £58 in France
and £87 in Denmark. There are 167,000 farms, averaging
34 acres and employing 3 hands each : the tenure is as
follows : —
Estates. Number. Acres. Average.
Large . . . 7,000 2,270,000 325
Medium . . . 48,000 2,310,000 48
Small . . . 112,000 1,140,000 10
Total. . . 167,000 5,720,000 34
244 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The above area comprises 2,250,000 acres tillage, 2,800,000
pasture, and 670,000 unproductive. A farm of 50 acres is
preferred, carrying 15 cows, 20 sheep, and a horse, and re-
quiring 2 farm-servants. An official return for 1892 shows
that 3 million acres (say half the kingdom) are cultivated by
the owners, the rest by meejers or tenants. Lands held by
meejers descend by right of primogeniture, and the landlord
can neither disturb the meejer nor raise his rent. If we
divide the agricultural wealth of Holland among the number
of farms, it gives £1800 to each, as compared with £880 in
France. Land-tax averages 4 shillings an acre, and is in all
cases paid by the owner of the estate. The condition of the
rural population is prosperous.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
There are 600,000 acres of forest, the product of which is
about £300,000 yearly. Holland has to import 2 million tons
of timber yearly, value £2,500,000. The fisheries were of
such importance in times gone by that it used to be said
Amsterdam was built of herring-bones. Injudicious taxes
have blighted the industry, and now the number of fishing-
boats is reduced to 5200, manned by 17,000 fishermen, whose
take does not reach in value 1 million sterling.
MANUFACTURES
Holland has 4010 factories, including 520 distilleries, em-
ploying steam to an aggregate of 80,000 horse-power. The
mills consume 52,000 tons of fibre, which is three times the
weight consumed by them thirty years ago. Hardware is
almost wholly imported, the value of goods made in the
country hardly reaching one-sixth of what is used. The con-
sumption of leather reaches 10,000 tons, including 4000
HOLLAND
245
made from imported hides. The manufacture of gin reaches
3 millions, paper 2 millions, sterling. The value of manu-
factures in 1894 was approximately as follows : —
Textiles
Hardware
Leather
Food .
£8,100,000
1,200,000
5,000,000
12,600,000
Clothing . . £4,900,000
Houses & furniture 7,300,000
Sundries . . 9,900,000
Total . . 49,000,000
The only mineral wealth is a small coal-field in Limburg,
which produces 70,000 tons yearly.
COMMERCE
The Dutch are a nation of merchants, and their foreign
trade averages £45 per inhabitant, as compared with £17
in the United Kingdom. As the nation has been gener-
ally prosperous we find that imports have always exceeded
exports : —
Millions £ Sterling.
, * ^ £per
Year. Imports. Exports. Total. Inhabitant.
1843 ... 15 11 26 9
1870 ... 39 32 71 19
1894 . . .121 93 214 45
Trade returns for five years to December 1892 give the
following averages : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
Exports
^
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Germany .
22
44
66
33-0
Great Britain
24
25
49
24-5
Belgium .
15
12
27
13-5
Dutch Colonies
14
5
19
9-5
Other countries
33
6
39
19-5
Total .
108
92
200
100-0
Shipping. — Holland, which had for so long the carrying-
trade of the world, is now so low in shipping that only 30 per
cent, of vessels entering Dutch ports carry the national flag.
The registered tonnage of Dutch shipping is little more than
246 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
it was fifty years ago, but as steamers have largely taken
tlie place of sailing-vessels the carrying-power has nearly
trebled : —
Tons Register.
Tear. Steam. Sail. Total. Carrying-power.
1840 . . 6,000 255,000 260,000 275,000
1894 . . 180,000 110,000 290,000 830,000
Internal Trade. — This amounts approximately to 207 millions
sterling, of which imports figure for 121, agricultural products
36, forestry and fisheries 1 million, and manufactures 49. It
gives a ratio of £43 per inhabitant, against £30 in France.
Railways. — A short line of 10 miles was made in 1839.
The Government began to make a system of State railways
in 1863, which was completed in 1890, with a length of 890
miles, at a cost of 22 millions sterling : these lines give a net
profit of 2£ per cent, on capital, leaving a deficit which is met
by taxation, say £80,000, equal to 4 pence per inhabitant.
There are also 1430 miles of companies' lines, the cost of which
averaged only £17,000 a mile, or two-thirds of the cost of State
lines. Taking in the aggregate the traffic of all Dutch lines,
the averages per mile compare with those of Germany as
follows : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £.
Holland .... 1,340 740 600
Germany .... 2,564 1,664 900
The return on Dutch lines averaged 3 per cent, on cost of
construction.
Canals and Roads. — Much of the prosperity of Holland is
due to her facilities for internal traffic, which are unrivalled.
There are 2700 miles of navigable waterways, 17,600 of ad-
mirable high-roads, made of hard-burnt klinkers, and 2300 of
railway, in all 22,600 miles, or 2 miles of route for every
square mile of territory. The Dutch have, moreover, spent 300
millions sterling in construction of the polders or sea-dykes.
Banking. — The visible banking-power in 1894 was only 25
millions sterling, nine-tenths of which corresponded to the
Netherlands Bank, founded in 1814 : this bank has an issue
HOLLAND
247
of 17 millions sterling, minimum bullion reserve 40 per cent.
So many Dutch capitalists lend money that the real banking-
power is probably double what it appears, or about 50 millions
sterling. The amount of coin in use is officially estimated
at 18 millions sterling.
The earnings and wealth of the Dutch people are approxi-
mately as follows : —
Earnings. Millions £. Wealth. Millions £.
Agricultural .
22
Land .
240
Manufacturing
25
Cattle .
28
Forests and fished
es
1
Implements
27
Trade .
.21
Railways
46
Transport
22
Houses .
162
House-rent .
10
Furniture
81
Domestics
7
Merchandise
104
Public service
5
Factories
16
Professions .
11
Sundries
176
Total 124
Total . . .880
Earnings. — The above amount gives an average of £26 per
inhabitant, against £25 in Germany.
Wealth. — The official estimate of national wealth in 1894
was 880 millions sterling, which gives the high ratio of £183
per inhabitant, being £27 more than in Germany. Real
estate constitutes 47 per cent, of the total. The assessed
land rental, as we have seen, is £8,020,000, that of houses
£9,730,000, according to which the capital value would be: of
the first 240, of the second 162, together 402 millions sterling.
Leaving aside uncultivated land as valueless, the cultivated
area of 5 million acres stands for £48 an acre, as compared
with £44 in England, yet this is apparently the normal value
in Holland, for we find that in the Government Message of
1894 for emptying the Zuyder Zee the land to be recovered is
valued at £56 an acre.
248 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
FINANCES
Before the secession of Belgium in 1830 the united revenue
of the whole kingdom was £6,400,000. In 1840 the revenue
of Holland was £4,700,000, from which time it rose rapidly
to £9,600,000 in 1866, but has remained nearly stationary
during the last thirty years. The budgets of 1866 and 1895
compare thus : —
Revenue, Expenditure,
Excise
Income-tax
Sundries
Total . . 9-6 10-7 Total . . 8'8 11'4
The amount of revenue raised by taxation is £9,200,000,
to which adding £6,900,000 for local taxes, the total becomes
16 millions sterling, or 67 shillings per inhabitant, the highest
ratio per head in Europe. The incidence of taxation is equal
to 12| per cent, of national earnings, as compared with 8£ in
the United Kingdom. The debt is nominally 92 millions, but
this includes 22 millions for State railways, leaving the real
debt 70 millions sterling, say 8| per cent, of national wealth,
against 8 in the United Kingdom.
Millions £.
Millions &.
1866.
1895.
1866.
1S95.
2-0
3-5
Debt .
. 3-0
3-0
1-4
<>-2
2-9
4-3
Army .
Government
. 1-7
. 4-1
3-1
5-3
XIV
BELGIUM
THIS kingdom is even smaller than Holland, its area not
exceeding 11,400 square miles, or one-third of that of Ireland.
Although the most densely populated country in the world, its
career, since its separation from Holland in 1830, has been
one of remarkable prosperity. The population has risen
nearly 50 per cent, in half a century, viz. : —
Year. Inhabitants. Per Sq. Mile.
1846 4,340,000 380
1893 6,260,000 550
The agricultural resources suffice to maintain no more than
4 million persons, or two-thirds of the population.
If we compare the figures for 1893 with those for 1830 we
see that the principal towns have increased in population 240
per cent., the rest of Belgium 40 per cent., from which it
would appear that urban population has been growing six
times as fast as rural, owing to the influx of peasantry into
the towns. Emigration is insignificant, about 20,000 yearly :
there are 460,000 Belgians settled in France, 25,000 in the
United States. The occupations of the people, according to
the last census, are so confused as to be unintelligible (see
Appendix), but when properly classified give the following
result : —
Agriculture .
Manufactures
Commerce, &c.
Total .
Men.
480,000
. 1,010,000
570,000
Women.
240,000
375,000
265,000
Total.
720,000
1,385,000
835,000
. 2,060,000
249
880,000
2,940,000
250 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The working-power of the nation was as follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons
per
Fixed.
Locomotives.
Steamboats.
Total.
30,000
10,000
40,000
100,000
65,000
5,000
170,000
380,000
500,000
70,000
950,000
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1860 . . .420 780 680 1,880 400
1893 . . .560 810 3,800 5,170 830
Steam-power has increased 24-fold in the last half-century,
Steam, Horse-power.
Year.
1840 .
1860 .
1893 .
The ratio of steam-power to population is a little higher
than in Germany, being 154 horse to 1000 inhabitants and
150, respectively.
AGRICULTURE
Belgium is a country of kitchen-gardens, with a cultivated
area of 5^ million acres, or 10 per cent, more than in Holland :
the farms are very productive, but so small that the amount
of labour expended is out of all proportion to the result.
There are, as we have seen, 720,000 persons employed, who
cultivate 7£ acres each ; the same number of hands in the
"Western States of America would produce thrice as much
food. The peasantry are laborious, but ill-fed, subsisting on
rye-bread, buttermilk, and potatoes, with some bacon on
Sundays. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the
production in the years 1890-93 averaged thus : —
Quantity. Equiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons . . . 1,850,000 1,850,000
Potatoes, „ ... 3,600,000 1,200,000
Meat „ ... 110,000 880,000
Total ...:... 3,930,000
Population has increased so much that Belgium has now to
import grain for five months' supply, whereas thirty years
ago she only depended during two months in the year on
BELGIUM 251
foreign grain. If we deduct what is required for seed, the
quantity of grain consumed yearly is shown as follows : —
Consumption, Tons.
Period. Native. Imported. Total.
1860-62 . . . 1,400,000 260,000 1,660,000
1890-93 . . . 1,650,000 1,130,000 2,780,000
There is also a deficit in meat supply, the importation,
including live cattle, being equivalent to 50,000 tons of dead
meat, or four months' supply. Thus it comes to pass that
Belgium pays yearly 9 millions sterling for imported food, say
30 shillings per head of population. In 1880 an official report
showed that the average value, during the preceding ten years,
of all farm products was 66 millions sterling, but prices have
since fallen, and the average for the years 1890-93 was not
more than 44 millions. The value of products and the amount
of agricultural capital are shown approximately as follows : —
Products. Millions £. Capital. Millions &.
Grain . . . .12
Other crops . . .17
Animal . . . .15
Total . 44
Land .... 300
Cattle .... 22
Sundries ... 32
Total , 354
The product on capital is 12 per cent., the same as in
Holland. The average product per acre is 160 shillings, the
highest obtained in any country of the world, but the con-
dition of the farmers is not so prosperous as in Holland or
Denmark, the farms being too small. Moreover, only 40 per
cent, of the cultivated area is in the hands of owners, the rest
being let to tenants at rents ranging from 20 to 40 shillings
an acre. An official report shows that rented farms cover
3,200,000, and farms in hand 2,300,000, acres, the latter for
the most part under 12 acres. The latest statement of tenure
was in 1880, viz. : —
Class. Farms. Acres. Average.
Large .... 15,600 2,450,000 160
Medium . . . 74,200 1,900,000 26
Small ... . . 226,000 1,150,000 5
Total . . . 315,800 5,500,000 17
252 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The price of land is much too high, the Government valua-
tion giving a medium of £55 per acre, as compared with £33
in France. Land-tax averages 6 shillings an acre. The yearly
product of agriculture gives an average of £61 to each hand
employed, against £58 in France and £78 in Holland.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
There is no country in which forests are so productive as
Belgium, owing to the special care that is given to them, the
average yield being 14 shillings per acre, viz. : —
Shillings
Forests. Acres. Product, £,. per Acre.
Public .... 440,000 250,000 11
Private .... 770,000 620,000 16
Total . . . 1,210,000 870,000 14
Nevertheless the country is so populous that Belgium has
to import 800,000 tons of timber yearly.
The fisheries are insignificant, employing only 300 boata
The importation of fish reaches 50,000 tons, from Norway and
other countries, value £900,000 yearly.
MANUFACTURES
Belgium is now one of the great manufacturing nations of
Europe, her rise in this branch of industry during the last
half-century being very remarkable. The total of her steam-
power in factories and mines in 1830, the year of her eman-
cipation from the yoke of Holland, was only 20,000 horse-
power ; in 1887 it reached 340,000. An official report in 1880
showed the yearly output of manufactures to be 81 millions
sterling ; the amount is at present approximately 99 millions.
Textiles. — The horse-power used in textile mills rose from
4300 in 1846 to 33,000 in 1880. The weight of fibre con-
sumed in 1894 was 120,000 tons, as compared with 48,000 in
1862, so that it may be said textile industry has nearly trebled
in thirty years. The output is about 17 millions sterling, of
which almost one-fourth is exported. The consumption of
BELGIUM 253
fibre and the value of goods produced are shown approximately
as follows : —
Fibre, Tons. Output, £.
Cotton . . . 37,000 5,200,000
Wool
Flax, &c.
Silk .
Total
20,000 5,300,000
53,000 5,400,000
300 900,000
. 110,300 16,800,000
The value of linen and woollen exports reaches 4 millions
sterling — not all manufactured goods, but chiefly yarn.
Hardware. — The production of iron has multiplied 22-fold
since 1830; and now reaches 770,000 tons, made almost wholly
from Luxemburg ore, which gives 40 per cent, of iron. The
production is equal to 270 Ibs. per inhabitant, a ratio surpassed
only in Great Britain. The Belgians are much indebted to
Mr. John Cockerill, who introduced in 1816 the system of
smelting with coke, and established at Seraing one of the
finest ironworks in Europe. In 1894 there were 420 foundries
and ironworks, consuming yearly 500,000 tons of iron and
400,000 of steel. Liege is become one of the great Continental
factories, turning out arms to the value of a million sterling
per annum. The output of all iron and steel wares is about
13 millions sterling. There are copper manufactures, con-
suming about 7000 tons of that metal, besides those of zinc,
consuming 15,000 tons. Total hardware manufactures, 19
millions sterling.
Leather. — The consumption averages 1 2,000itons, more than
one-half made from imported hides, and the value of goods
produced is 6 millions sterling.
Liquor. — There are 1450 breweries and distilleries, pro-
ducing 5 million barrels of beer and 13 million gallons of
spirits, together worth 12 millions. All is used for home con-
sumption, which averages 2 gallons of spirits and 31 of beer
per inhabitant.
Miscellaneous. — The production of sugar has quadrupled in
twenty years : there are 160 mills, turning out 270,000 tons,
valued at 4 millions, one-half being exported, and the home
254 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
consumption averaging 40 Ibs. per inhabitant. Glass factories
have an output of 4 millions sterling, one-half of which is
exported. Paper and printing represent an equal amount.
Summary. — The approximate value of all manufactures was
as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1860. 1880. 1894.
Textiles 10 14 17
Hard ware
Leather
Food .
Clothing
Houses and furniture
Sundries
7 14 19
456
22 32 36
7 10 10
456
11 20 24
Total . 65 100 118
The output in 1894 gives an average of .£93 per operative,
against £106 in the United Kingdom.
MINERALS
Coal is the most important mineral, the production having
multiplied ten-fold since 1836, and at present reaching 20
million tons, nearly 3£ tons per inhabitant — the highest ratio
in any country except Great Britain. The production and
consumption have more than doubled in thirty years : —
Tons of Coal.
Year. Production. Consumption.
1860 .... 9,600,000 6,100,000
1894 .... 20,500,000 16,100,000
There are 124 mines, employing 117,000 colliers, and the
quantity raised averages 167 tons per miner, against 126 in
1850: the coal is valued at 8 shillings, the net profit being
only 3 pence, per ton. The output per miner is only two-
thirds of what it is in Great Britain, but perhaps the great
depth of Belgian coal-mines is the reason ; the Lambert, for
instance, is 3500 feet deep, whereas the deepest in Great
Britain, the Rosebridge, is only 2500. Zinc mines give half
BELGIUM 255
a million tons of ore, from which are obtained 85,000 tons of
metal, and of this quantity only one-fifth is kept for home
use, the rest being exported. The total value of minerals
(including the product of stone quarries) is 10 millions sterling
per annum.
COMMEKCE
Foreign trade has multiplied nearly six-fold since 1850,
showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Imports. Exports. Total.
1850 ' 10 11 21
1870 37 28 65
1894 ...... 63 52 115
In Belgium, as in all prosperous countries, imports greatly
exceed exports, and it is the more remarkable because Belgium
is so destitute of shipping that she has to pay other nations to
to do the carrying-trade for her. The averages for five years
ending 1892 show thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
Exports
^*
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
France .
12
14
26
21-5
Great Britain
8
10
J8
14-8
Germany
7
11
18
14-8
Holland
8
8
16
13-2
Other countries
30
13
43
35-7
Total ... 65 56 121 lOO'O
Foreign trade averages £19 per inhabitant, against £17 in
the United Kingdom.
Shipping. — The merchant navy is insignificant, and consists
wholly of steamers, with a nominal register of 75,000 tons,
and 300,000 carrying-power. Port-entries show 20 per cent.
Belgian, 40 British, and 40 of other flags.
Internal Trade. — This comprises agriculture 44, manu-
factures 118, minerals &c., 11, and imports 63, in all 236
millions sterling, equal to £38 per inhabitant, as compared
with £41 in the United Kingdom and £30 in France.
2J6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Railways. — The second line opened on the Continent was
that from Brussels to Malines, 17 miles, in 1835, and in the
ensuing fifty years nearly 2000 miles of State railways were
constructed at a cost of 58 millions sterling. At present the
total length of lines is 2820 miles, including 800 miles belong-
ing to companies : the outlay has been 75 millions, or £26,500
per mile. Traffic returns compare with those of Holland, per
mile, as follows : —
Receipts, £ Expenses, £. Profit, £.
Belgium . . . 2,566 1,467 1,099
Holland . . . 1,340 740 600
Belgian lines yield nearly 4£ per cent, on capital, Dutch
only 3 per cent. Between railways, high-roads, and navigable
water-ways, Belgium has 9500 miles of route.
Banking. — The banking-power is about 50 millions sterling,
represented by fifty-four banks. The Bank of Belgium, founded
in 1850, has sole right of issue, and its circulation amounts to
18 millions sterling : the other banks, between capital and
deposits, show an aggregate power of 24 millions. These are
irrespective of savings-banks, which nold 16 millions of deposits.
The amount of coin in use is 22 millions sterling, or 70 shil-
lings per head, whereas in the United Kingdom the ratio is
only 55 shillings.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the Belgian people are approxi-
mately as follows : —
Earnings. Millions £. Capital. Millions £.
Agricultural .
26
Land
300
Manufacturing
59
Cattle .
22
Mining, &c.
11
Implements,
&c.
32
Trade .
24
Railways
75
Transport
25
Factories
39
House-rent
8
Houses .
136
Domestics
5
Furniture
68
Public service
7
Merchandise
118
Professions .
16
Sundries
198
Total
181
Total
BELGIUM
257
Earnings. — The above gives a ratio of £28 annual earn-
ings to each inhabitant, against £26 in Holland and £25 in
Germany.
Wealth. — Massalski estimates the wealth of Belgium at
1180, Graux at 1360, millions sterling, but they are certainly
over the mark. Probate returns for six years show that the
amount of property which paid succession and legacy dues
was equal to £151 for each person who died. Applying the
same ratio to the living we have a total of 966 millions ster-
ling, or 2 per cent, less than the estimate on preceding page.
Heal Estate. — Minister Malou's estimate is 300 millions for
land and 136 for houses, together 436 millions sterling, and if
we include factories the total of real estate will be 48 per cent,
of national wealth, Malou estimates the house-property at
twenty-three times the assessed rental, which would be about
eighteen times the annual renting value.
Average. — The average of wealth per head is £154, as com-
pared with £156 in Germany and £183 in Holland.
FINANCES
The revenue after secession from Holland in 1830 was under
4 millions sterling ; it showed an increase of nearly 70 per
cent, in 1865, and since the latter year it has more than
doubled. The budgets for 1865 and 1895 compare thus : —
Customs
Excise
Railways
Taxes .
Sundries
Total .
Revenue
(OOO's omitted).
Expenditure
(OOO's omitted)
1865, £. 1895, £.
500 1,000
1,100 1,700
1,300 5,800
1,200 4,300
2,300 1,500
Debt .
Army .
P. Works .
Communes .
Government
1865, £. 1895, £.
1,600 4,400
1,400 1,900
1,200 700
600 1,400
1,600 5,900
6,400 14,300
Total .
6,400 14,300
More than one-third of the revenue arises from earnings of
State railways, which give a net annual profit of £2,300,000,
R
258 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
say 4 per cent, on cost, so that they involve no burthen on
the treasury beyond that of sinking-fund. The amount of
revenue raised by taxation is 7 millions, and of local taxes 6,
making in all 13 millions sterling, which is equal to 7 per
cent, of national earnings, against 8£ per cent, in the United
Kingdom.
Debt. — This is nominally 88 millions, of which 58 millions
correspond to State railways, which give, as shown above, a
net profit that fully covers the interest on the loans for their
construction. The real debt is therefore 30 millions sterling,
or 3 per cent, of national wealth.
XV
SWITZEKLAKD
THIS little republic, which is half the size of Portugal, affords
a striking 'example of what an industrious and intelligent
people can do. It has no sea-coast, no navigable rivers, no
mineral wealth, no large cities ; three-fourths of its area are
occupied by Alpine ranges, and the remainder is not sufficient
to raise food for its population. Nevertheless the country is
prosperous, and the condition of the people enviable. Some
of the Cantons speak German, others French or Italian ; some
are Roman Catholic, others Protestant, but the wheels of
government work smoothly, the people are friendly and
patriotic, forming, as it were, one family. The population is
3,050,000, or 197 per square mile, as compared with 190 in
France. The number of emigrants is about 8000 yearly,
almost all to the United States, the American census of 1890
showing 104,000 Swiss settlers, including 70,000 farmers in
the Western States. On the other hand, Switzerland has
attracted a large number of foreign residents, at last census
230,000, of whom one-half were Germans, one-fourth French.
Urban population has increased 320, rural only 30, per cent,
since 1830.
The occupations of the people, according to the census of
1888, showed, as in Belgium, a larger number engaged in
manufactures than in agriculture, viz. : —
Agriculture. Manufactures. Commerce. Various. Total.
Men . . 400,000 325,000 100,000 35,000 860,000
Women . 90,000 195,000 40,000 25,000 350,000
Total . 490,000 520,000 140,000 60,000 1,210,000
259
260 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Working-power has more than doubled since 1860, as shown
thus : —
Millions of Foot -tons Daily. Foot-tons
, "• ^ per
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant.
1860 . . 220 270 480 970 400
1893 . . 270 300 1,520 2,090 700
Steam-power at present reaches 380,000 horse, of which
40,000 in factories, the rest in railway locomotives. Owing
to the mountainous character of the country the locomotives
are of extraordinary power, averaging 420 horse. The above
table of energy, meantime, does not express the full working-
power, because Switzerland has a valuable contingent of force
in 2700 mountain-streams, some of which supply the place of
steam, the motive -power in factories being about 160,000
horse, three-fourths water. If this be taken into account the
energy of Switzerland will be about 2500 millons of foot-tons
daily, or 830 per inhabitant, the same ratio as in Belgium.
AGRICULTURE
The productive area is only 5,200,000 acres, of which three-
fourths are used for pasture. With so limited an area it is
not surprising that the production of grain suffices only for
four months, of meat for eight months, in the year. Deduct-
ing grain used for seed the food- supply is as follows : —
Grain, tons. Meat, tons. Wine, gallons.
Native . . . 260,000 80,000 22,000,000
Imported . . 490,000 40,000 24,000,000
Consumption . 750,000 120,000 46,000,000
Switzerland pays 8 millions sterling yearly for imported
food, but gets back one- third of this sum in payment for
40,000 tons of cheese and condensed milk, which she exports,
dairy-farming being a special industry in some of the Cantons.
The value of products and amount of agricultural capital are
approximately as follows : —
SWITZERLAND 261
Products. Millions £. Capital. Millions £
Grain i „ . .2
Other crops ... 7
Animal . . . .11
Total . 20
Land . . . .138
Cattle .... 18
Sundries ... 16
Total . . 172
The product is 12 per cent, on capital, as compared with
13£ in France and 16£ in Germany. The official valuation of
farm products in 1890 was £20,200,000. The land is divided
among 300,000 farms, averaging 17 acres, two-thirds culti-
vated, one-third pasture; the average value of each farm is
£490, agaiast £880 in France. The product is equal to £41
per hand, as compared with £61 in Belgium and £58 in
France.
The forest area is 2,100,000 acres, in which about 20,000
wood-cutters find employment, the product in timber and fire-
wood being of the approximate value of 1 million sterling.
The supply of timber is short, being supplemented by 100,000
tons imported yearly. There are no fisheries of any im-
portance.
MANUFACTUKES
In 1894 Switzerland had 4600 factories, employing 150,000
hands, besides 420,000 artisans, producing altogether an annual
output of 40 millions sterling, equal to £78 per operative,
nearly 40 per cent, of the hands being women.
Textiles.— There are 1900 mills, with 90,000 operatives,
consuming 38,000 tons of fibre, as compared with 14,000 tons
in the years 1880—82 : this branch of industry has, therefore,
increased 170 per cent, in twelve years, the output reaching
12 millions sterling, of which two-thirds are exported, viz.: —
Silks. Cottons, <fcc. Total.
Output . . £6,400,000 £5,400,000 £11,800,000
Export . . 5,600,000 2,300,000 7,900,000
262 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Woollen mills do not produce enough for home consump-
tion, and goods of this class are imported yearly up to a
million sterling.
Hardware. — About two-thirds of the wares used are made
in the country, the annual consumption of iron and steel in
550 foundries and ironworks reaching 180,000 tons.
Miscellaneous. — Geneva, according to Prof. Zehden, has
40,000 watchmakers, who turn out 3 million watches yearly :
the annual export of watches is 4 millions sterling. There
are 4000 tanners at Zurich and Lucerne, and leather manu-
factures are of importance.
The approximate value of manufactures in 1894 was as
follows : —
Textiles
Hardware
Leather
Food
£11,800,000
2,400,000
3,200,000
7,300,000
Clothing
Houses and furn.
Sundries
Total
£4,300,000
3,600,000
8,200,000
40,800,000
The mineral products are trifling, viz., 20,000 tons of coal,
30,000 of salt, yearly : there are some good quarries of slate
and marble.
COMMERCE
Forty years ago this was a poor country, and her exports
exceeded imports : at present the position is reversed, viz. : —
Year.
1855
1894
Imports, £.
14,400,000
35,200,000
Exports, £.
19,600,000
26,900,000
Total, £.
34,000,000
62,100,000
The trade of five years gives the following averages : —
Millions & Sterling.
Imports
Exports
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Germany
11
7
18
27-3
France .
10
5
15
22-7
Italy
5
2
7
10-6
Great Britain .
2
4
6
91
Other countries
10
10
20
30-3
Total
. 38
28
100-0
SWITZERLAND
263
Internal Trade. — This amounts to 97 millions, of which
agriculture stands for 20, manufactures 41, forestry 1 million,
and imports 35 millions, sterling; this is equal to £32 per
inhabitant, against £30 in France and £38 in Belgium.
Railways. — Notwithstanding natural difficulties there is a
complete network of railways, 2270 miles in length, which
have cost 44 millions sterling. The first line was opened in
1844. Traffic compares with German lines, per mile, as
follows : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £.
Swiss .... 1,857 1,107 750
German . . . 2,564 1,664 900
Swiss lines give almost 4 per cent, net profit on cost of
construction, and all belong to companies.
Banks. — Switzerland has the largest banking-power com-
pared with population of any country of Continental Europe,
viz., 36 millions, or £12 per head, as compared with £8 per
head in France. There are thirty-five banks, all with right
of issue, which is a great facility to trade ; these banks in
December 1893 showed an aggregate of discounts, or bills in
portfolio, amounting to £35,800,000; deposits 23 millions
sterling, issue 7 millions.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the Swiss people are approxi-
mately as follows : —
Earnings.
Agricultural .
Manufacturing
Forests .
M
illions &
12
20
1
Wealth.
Land
Cattle, &c.
Houses .
Millions £.
138
34
77
Trade .
10
Furniture
38
Transport
House-rent
10
5
Railways
Merchandise
44
49
Domestics
3
Factories
14
Public service
3
Sundries
98
Professions
6
TVtoi 7ft
Total . . .492
264 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Earnings. — The above earnings show an average of £23 per
inhabitant, as compared with £31 in France and £25 in
Germany.
Real Estate. — If we capitalise the assessed rental of Switzer-
land in 1880, which was £7,640,000, it may be said to repre-
sent £229,000,000. According to Sir F. Adams the value
of land was £138,400,000. This would le^ve a balance of
£90,600,000 for houses and factories. The Canton of Berne,
which is said to possess one-fourth of the wealth of Switzerland,
showed in 1882 a total of real estate amounting to £59.000,000.
It will be seen that real estate constitutes 47 per cent, of the
wealth of the Swiss Confederation, the ratio being 48 per cent,
in Belgium and 46 in Germany.
Land. — The value of cultivated land appears to average £35
per acre, against £33 in France : the figures are approximately
as follows : —
Acres. £ Sterling.
Cultivated . . . 3,100,000 108,400,000
Pasture, forest . . 3,700,000 30,000,000
Total . . . 6,800,000 138,400,000
Houses. — Excluding factories the value of houses, as shown
above, is £78,600,000, which gives a ratio of £26 per inhabi-
tant, against £31 in Germany and £48 in France. No
country is richer in hotels, of which there are 7640, valued
at £20,500,000, containing 82,000 beds, employing 27,000
waiters, receiving 1,230,000 guests, who paid for board
and lodging £4,400,000. Thus the magnificent lake and
Alpine scenery is a valuable source of income. It appears
from the above statement of the " Schweizer Verein " that
hotels stand for one-fourth of the house-property of Swit-
zerland.
Average Wealth. — The wealth of the nation shows an average
of £16ttper inhabitant, which is £8 more than the average in
Germany ; the condition of the Swiss people is, moreover,
much better than that of the German. In Switzerland there
SWITZERLAND 265
are neither great fortunes nor poverty : what Goldsmith said
of the Swiss 150 years ago is still true : —
" Though poor the peasant's hut, his feasts though small,
He sees his little lot the lot of all."
Sir Francis Adams says : " It would be difficult in Europe
to find a more industrious and contented people than the
Swiss."
FINANCES
The Swiss republic is in reality a confederacy of twenty-
two diminutive republics, each Canton being autonomous, and
all held together for mutual protection and external interests.
National or Federal revenue does not exceed 3 millions sterling,
or <£! per inhabitant, but if we include the budgets of the
Cantons the whole will amount to £6,300,000, viz. : —
Revenue. Expenditure.
Customs . . £1,600,000
Taxes . . . 1,500,000
Cantonal do. . 3,200,000
Total . . £6,300,000
Debt . . . £ 500,000
Army . . . 900,000
Government . . 4,900,000
Total . . £6,300,000
The amount raised by taxation is £5,300,000, equal to 7|
per cent, of national earnings, against 8£ per cent, in Great
Britain.
Debt. — The total of Federal and Cantonal debts makes up
13 millions sterling, say 3 per cent, of national wealth.
XVI
THE DANUBIAN STATES
THESE three States, recently detached from the Ottoman
Empire, might be constituted into a compact kingdom of some
importance, but for the jealousy of the principal European
powers. They form one continuous territory, watered by the
Danube for more than 600 miles, from Belgrade to the Black
Sea, with an area equal to that of Italy, viz. : —
Sq. Miles. Population. Per Sq. Mile.
Rouinania . . 50,600 5,800,000 115
Servia . . . 18,700 2,300,000 123
Bulgaria . . . 36,900 3,300,000 90
Total . . . 106,200 11,400,000 108
The population is almost wholly rural, the only towns of
importance being Bucharest, Jassy, Belgrade, and Sofia, collec-
tively counting 410,000 souls. There is a great mixture of
races, Slavonic predominating, the rest consisting of Greeks,
Jews, Gypsies, and Turks.
According to Zehden the agricultural element forms nearly
three-fourths of the population. As persons in active work
are in most countries about 45 per cent, of the number of
inhabitants, the actual workers may be put down approxi-
mately thus : — •
Occupation.
Agricultural
Various .
Total
Roumania.
. 1,900,000
710,000
Servia.
730,000
300,000
Bulgaria.
1,050,000
440,000
Total.
3,680,000
1,450,000
. 2,610,000
1,030.000
266
1,490,000
5,130,000
THE DA NUBIAN STATES 267
The working-power of the three States is as follows : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Foot-tom
Hand.
Horse.
Steam.
Total.
Inhab.
Roumania .
520
1,770
480
2,770
470
Servia . .
200
490
100
790
350
Bulgaria
300
600
160
1,060
320
Total . 1,020 2,860 740 4,620 410
This is a very low ratio of energy, owing to the fact that the
total steam-power is less than 200,000 horse, and this consists
almost wholly of railway locomotives.
t
AGRICULTURE
The condition of all three States is similar : in Roumania
one-third, in Servia one-half, and in Bulgaria two- fifths, of all
the lands have been broken up into small farms and given to
the emancipated serfs, subject to a land-tax of 2 shillings an
acre. The tenure of these peasant farms is as follows : —
Farms. Acres. Average.
Roumania . . 600,000 9,000,000 15
Servia . . . 300,000 6,000,000 20
Bulgaria . . 400,000 10,000,000 25
The farms are small, the method of agriculture is rude, but
the soil is very fertile ; the quantity of food raised is much in
excess of what is needed for the home consumption, and there
is always a large amount for exportation. There is, meantime,
a great waste of labour, the number of hands employed being
nearly half that which is in the United States of America,
and the result nowise comparable. The cultivated area might
be much extended.
Ronmania .
Servia
Bulgaria
Total
Cultivated.
. 11,700,000
. ] 4,900,000
. 6,500,000
Uncultivated.
20,700,000
7,300,000
17,100,000
Total.
32,400,000
12,200,000
23,600,000
. 23,100,000
45,100,000
68,200,000
JThe official return for Servia shews 6,100,000 acres cultivated, but is
unreliable.
268 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The collective area under grain is 17,800,000 acres, under
other crops 5,300,000, and the remaining area comprises
20,900,000 of pasture and 24,200,000 of forest or wilderness.
The ordinary grain-crop sums up 6| million tons, of which
three-fifths are retained for home consumption, and two-fifths,
say 2,500,000 tons, are exported. Reducing all food to a
grain denominator, the production is as follows : —
Grain, tons
Meat, , ,
Wine, gallons .
Quantity.
. 6,900,000
400,000
120,000,000
Equivalent in Grain.
6,900,000
3,200,000
1,200,000
Total
11,300.000
This is equivalent to 1 ton of grain per inhabitant, or
2| tons per hand employed, which cannot be considered a
satisfactory result. The production in the three States is
ordinarily as follows : —
Grain, Tons Meat, Tons,, Wine, Gallons
Rouraania . . 4,200,000 200,000 30,000,000
Servia . . . 900,000 100,000 60,000,000
Bulgaria . . 1,800,000 100,000 30,000,000
Total . 6,900,000 400,000 120,000,000
The aggregate grain-crop comprises 2,500,000 tons of wheat,
2,500,000 of maize, and the rest of barley, rye, &c. ; repre-
senting a value of 38 millions sterling, exports amounting to
13 millions. Not more than 30 million gallons of wine are
exported, home consumption averaging 10 gallons per inhabi-
tant. The production of meat comprises 170,000 tons of beef,
150,000 mutton, and 80,000 pork, and the exportation of
cattle is small, the home consumption of meat averaging 75 Ibs.
per inhabitant. Fruit is largely cultivated in Servia, which
country has 180,000 acres under orchards, producing particularly
a famous plum called Slivovitz ; of this there are 20,000 tons
exported yearly, to make brandy. The aggregate area under
vineyards in the three States is 1,100,000 acres, the vintage
THE DA NUBIAN STATES 269
averaging 130 gallons per acre. The value of all products is
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total.
Grain .... 23 5 10 38
Other crops ... 8 5 6 19
Meat .... 8 4 4 16
Sundries ... 6 2 2 10
Total ... 45 16 22 83
The total product is equal to 38 shillings per productive
acre, and £21 for each hand employed. Agricultural wealth
is approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Roumania.
Land .
Cattle .
Sundries
Roumania.
Servia.
Bulgaria.
Total.
. 200
90
130
420
. 22
10
10
42
. 22
10
14
46
Total . . .244 110 154 508
The number of farms in the three States is, as we have
seen, 1,300,000, so that the average capital is £384, as com-
pared with £880 in France, and the product £65 per farm.
Hence it may be inferred that the condition of the farmers is
fairly prosperous.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The Danubian States are thickly wooded. According to
Obedenaire, whose work turns chiefly on agriculture, the
forests of Roumania cover 5,050,000 acres and yield an annual
product, between firewood and timber, of £5,900,000, but this
is apparently an exaggeration : a more recent writer makes it
only £3,800,000, and even this is very high, being equivalent
to 15 shillings per acre. It is not credible that the yield can
exceed 10 shillings an acre (the average in the adjacent
Austrian Empire being only 8 shillings), and therefore it may
be concluded that the forest products of the three State?
270 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
amount to 5 millions sterling, Roumania standing for one-
half. The export of lumber is small, only 30,000 tons from
Roumania and 10,000 from Servia. There are no fisheries.
MANUFACTURES
Textile mills consume yearly in the Danubian States about
26,000 tons of fibre, the collective output being about
£4,800,000. Hardware is nearly all imported, the consump-
tion of iron being under 50,000 tons. The most important
industry is leather, of which 16,000 tons are consumed, one-
half in Roumania. In these States, as Zehden observes,
domestic articles of the coarsest description are the chief
manufactures. The approximate value of such industries is
as follows : —
Textiles
Hardware .
Leather
Food .
Clothing
Houses and furniture
Sundries
Total . . 26,600,000 12,400,000 16,900,000 55,900,000
These countries possess few minerals. Roumania has
petroleum and salt, exporting 100,000 barrels of the former
yearly. Coal is found in Servia, but nothing has been done
in the way of mining : an English company has established
works at Maidanpek to develop an iron and copper mine
there.
COMMERCE
The foreign trade of the three States in 1894 showed
thus : —
Imports, £. Exports, £. Total, £.
Roumania . . 16,900,000 11,800,000 28,700,000
Servia . . 1,400,000 1,800,000 3,200,000
Bulgaria . . 4,000,000 2,900,000 6,900,000
Roumania, £.
Servia, £,.
Bulgaria, &.
Total, £.
1,800,000
800,000
1,600,000
4,200,000
200,000
100,000
100,000
400,000
4,500,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
10,000,000
9,800,000
4,500,000
6,000,000
20,300,000
2,300,000
900,000
1,300,000
4,500,000
2,700,000
1,100,000
1,500,000
5,300,000
5,300,000
2,500,000
3,400,000
11,200,000
Total
22 300,000 16,500,000 38,800,000
THE DANUBIAN STATES vj\
The averages for five years down to 1892 show the currents
of trade thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports from. Exports to. Total. Ratio.
Great Britain . 5 7 12 33'3
Germany ... 5 1 6 16'7
Austria ... 3 1 4 11 '1
Other countries . .7 7 14 38'9
Total . 20 16 36 100-Q
Internal trade. — This amounts approximately to 138 millions
sterling, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Agricul-
Manufac-
ture.
tures, &c.
Imports.
Total.
. 45
29
17
91
. 16
14
1
31
. 22
18
4
44
Roumania .
Servia .
Bulgaria
Total ... 83 61 22 166
Internal trade is only £15 per inhabitant as compared with
£18 in Austria.
Railways. — In 1869 the first line was made by a joint-stock
company, to a length of 150 miles, and afterwards sold to the
Government of Roumania. The railway system of the three
States has now a total length of 2460 miles, which represent
a cost of 36 millions sterling. No traffic returns are published.
The following table shows the mileage of railways, highroads,
and navigable waterways : —
Railways. Highroads. Water. Total.
Roumania . . 1,600 3,400 500 5,500
Servia. . . 340 3,500 400 4,240
Bulgaria . . 520 2,400 500 3,420
Total . . 2,460 9,300 1,400 13,160
These States are still deficient in ways of communication,
the length of route to 100 square miles of territory being in
Roumania 11, in Servia 22, and in Bulgaria 9, miles. The
Danube is, of course, the main artery of foreign trade, the
port-entries of Roumanian ports reaching 8,400,000 tons.
272 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the three States are approximately as
follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
Roumania.
Servia.
Bulgaria.
Total.
Agricultural
. 27
10
13
50
Manufacturing, &c.
. 16
7
10
33
Trade
. 9
3
4
16
Transport .
. 9
3
4
16
Rent and servants
. 6
2
3
11
Professions, &c.
. 11
4
6
21
Total . 78 29 40 147
The average of earnings to population is £14 in Roumania,
£13 in Servia, and £12 in Bulgaria, as compared with £17
in Austria and £10 in Russia,
Wealth. — The principal components in 1894 were approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total.
Land . . .200 90 130 420
Cattle, &c. . 44 20 24 88
Houses ... 60 24 33 117
Furniture. 30 12 16 58
Factories ... 9 4 6 19
Railways ... 26 4 6 36
Merchandise . . 46 15 22 83
Sundries . . .104 42 59 205
Total. . . 519 211 296 1,026
The above gives an average of £90 in Roumania, £92 in
Servia, and £90 in Bulgaria, per inhabitant. These ratios are
low, but it must be remembered that thirty years ago these
States had hardly emerged from barbarism ; the peasantry,
until 1864, were serfs on the estates of the Boyars.
Land. — The assessed rental of lands in Roumania is
£6,700,000, which is equivalent to a capital value of 201
millions sterling, say £12 for cultivated, and £3 uncultivated,
THE DA NUBIAN STATES 273
per acre. If we suppose the same prices per acre in Servia
and Bulgaria, the account will stand thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total.
Cultivated . . .140 73 78 291
Forest, &c. . . . 60 17 52 129
Total . . .200 90 130 420
Houses. — The assessed rental of Roumania in 1893 for
house-property was £3,300,000, which would make the pro-
bable letting-value £3,630,000 per annum, representing a
capital value of 60 millions. At the same ratio per inhabitant
the houses of Servia would be worth 24, of Bulgaria 33,
millions, there being no means to ascertain their value.
FINANCES
The revenues and expenditure of the three States in 1895
were as follows : —
Revenue, & Sterling.
Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria.
Customs . . . 2,500,000 400,000 900,000
Taxes . . . 1,500,000 1,100,000 1,700,000
Sundries . . . 4,400,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
Total . . 8,400,000 2,500,000 3,600,000
Expenditure, & Sterling.
Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria.
Debt . . . 2,900,000 900,000 800,000
Army . . . 1,600,000 500,000 900,000
Government . . 3,900,000 1,100,000 1,900,000
Total . . 8,400,000 2,500,000 3,600,000
Between national and local charges the total amounts paid
in taxes in the above States are £9,100,000 in Roumania,
£2,300,000 in Servia, and £3,700,000 in Bulgaria, which
shows the incidence of taxation as compared with earnings
8
274 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
in the several States to be — in the first 11£, in the second
8, in the third 9£, per cent.
Debt. — Much of the existing debts is represented by State
railways, the value of which being deducted we find the real
debt, as shown in the following table, compared with national
wealth : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Norn. E
Roumania .
Servia .
Bulgaria
Total . . .67 33 1,027 3J
It appears, therefore, that one-half of the aggregate debts
of the three States has arisen from the construction of State
railways, and that the real amount of indebtedness is com-
paratively small. These States paid annual tribute to the
Sultan down to 1878, when it was abolished, except as re-
garded Bulgaria, but as a matter of fact the Bulgarians have
paid no tribute over since.
Norn. Debt.
Real.
Wealth. Per Cent.
. 47
21
520
4
. 14
8
211
4
6
4
296
li
XVII
GEEECE
THIS kingdom, which dates from 1830, has an area of 25,000
square miles, with a population of 2,200,000 souls, say 88
per square mile, being about the same ratio as in Spain. No
less than 98 per cent, are Greeks. Greece has the peculiarity
of a surplus of males, namely, 1076 to 1000 females, whereas
the European average of sexes is the reverse. There is not
much emigration, except to the Levant. Rural population
forms 85 per cent, of the total, there being only twelve towns,
with an aggregate of 310,000 souls, and of this number Athens
counts for one-third. The kingdom of Greece includes only
one-fourth of the Greek people, of whom 6 millions are
scattered over the Levant and the Ottoman Empire. It is
probably owing to the demoralising effects of the Turkish
yoke under which the country groaned for so many centuries
that little progress has been made in the sixty-five years that
have elapsed since its emancipation. The census of 1889 gives
the occupations of males, and if we add half the number of
females in each class, we find as follows : —
Agriculture. Manufactures. Commerce. Various. Total.
Males . . 440,000 60,000 120,000 100,000 720,000
Females. . 220,000 30,000 60,000 50,000 360,000
Total . 660,000 90,000 180,000 150,000 1,080,000
The working-power of the people in millions of foot-tons
daily is: hand, 200; horse, 300; steam, 700; in all, 1200
millions, or 550 foot-tons per inhabitant. Steam-power
amounts to 175,000 horse, of which steamboats stand for
three-fourths : fixed steam-power is insignificant, comprising a
few engines at the Laurium mines and some factories.
275
276 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
AGRICULTURE
Until recently the want of roads and the abundance of
brigands checked all internal progress. Only thirty years ago
it was cheaper to import grain from the Black Sea to Athens
than to convey it from Marathon, 25 miles by land. The
acquisition of Thessaly, 5000 square miles, in 1881, added to
the agricultural capacity of Greece, and this must be borne in
mind when comparing Bickford's figures for 1889 with those
of Bikelas for 1860, as follows : —
Year. Grain. Sundries. Uncultivated. Total.
1860. . 560,000 250,000 10,590,000 11,400,000
1889. . 1,210,000 880,000 13,810,000 15,900,000
The area of land that might be made productive is 8 million
acres, or nearly four times that which is actually under
cultivation. According to an official report for 1893 the
cultivated area has risen to 2,340,000 acres : as this is little
more than an acre per inhabitant the production of food is
insufficient to feed the people. The usual grain-crop is 400,000
tons, one-half wheat, the rest made up of maize, barley, and
rye; the currant-crop averages a ton per acre, say 160,000
tons. Official returns put down the vintage at 66 million
gallons, but the Moniteur Vinicole does not believe it exceeds
36 millions. If we reduce all food to a grain denominator we
find :—
Quantity. Equiv. in Grain.
Grain, tons . . . 400,000 400,000
Potatoes, 240,000 80,000
Meat, „ ... 60,000 480,000
Wine, gallons . . . 36,000,000 360,000
Total 1,320,000
The inhabitants have to import 100,000 tons of grain and
5000 tons of meat yearly, the latter in the form of live cattle.
The chief progress observable in late years is in the cultivation
of currants, the crop of which rose from 40,000 tons in 1861
GREECE
277
to 160,000 in 1893 : in the latter year the export reached
120,000 tons. Vineyards cover 340,000 acres, but the wine
is nearly all used for home consumption, the export not ex-
ceeding 3 million gallons. The value of all products and the
amount of capital in agriculture are approximately as follows : —
Grain
Other crops
Meat, &c.
£2,400,000
6,600,000
5,000,000
Land
Cattle .
Sundries
£94,000,000
5,000,000
10,000,000
Products . . £14,000,000 Capital . £109,000,000
This shows the product to be about 13 per cent, on capital,
the same as in Spain. One-third of the kingdom consists of
small farms, averaging 33 acres, held by 147,000 peasant pro-
prietors ; there are also 1600 large estates, belonging to nobles,
say 4,000,000 acres, and the rest is Crown land, for the
most part barren mountains. The total productive area,
including 5,900,000 acres used for pasture, is 8,200,000 acres,
and the annual value of farm products shows an average of 35
shillings per acre, as compared with 79 shillings in Austria.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
Forests cover 2 million acres, the product of which may be
estimated at £800,000, but the supply of timber is insufficient,
the import averaging a value of £300,000 per annum. The
fisheries are so unimportant thatGreece imports£130,000 worth
of fish yearly.
MANUFACTURES
Greece depends mostly on imported goods, from England and
elsewhere. The approximate value of local manufactures is
as follows : —
Textiles
Shipbuilding
Leather
Food .
£ 900,000
400,000
1,500,000
3,300,000
Clothing . . £ 900,000
Houses and furn. 1,300,000
Sundries . . 2,100,000
Total . . 10,400,000
The Laurium mines produce 260,000 tons of iron, lead, and
zinc ores.
278 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
COMMERCE
Foreign trade has trebled in the last thirty years, the
averages for five years ending December 1892 amounting to
£8,900,000, against £2,700,000 in 1861. These averages
show as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
I mports
Exports
*
from.
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Great Britain
1-3
1-5
2-8
31-4
France
0-4
0-8
1-2
13-5
Turkey
0-8
0-3
1-1
12-4
Russia
0-9
0-1
1-0
11-3
Various
1-6
1-2
2-8
31-4
Total . . .5-0 3-9 8-9 10OO
Sliipping. — Much of the commerce of the Levant is in
Greek hands, and their flag is seen in all Eastern ports, the
carrying-power of Greek shipping having trebled in the last
twenty years : —
Tons Register.
Year. Sail. Steam. Total. Carrying-power.
1872 . 234,000 6,000 240,000 258,000
1894 . 340,000 135,000 475,000 880,000
Internal Trade. — This amounts to no more than 29 millions
sterling, including 14 for agriculture, 10 for manufactures, 1
million for forestry and fisheries, and 4 for imports : the total
gives an average of about £13 per inhabitant, the same as in
Portugal.
Railways. — The first line opened was from Piraeus to Athens,
7 miles, in 1855 : at present there are 570 miles, including
a Government line of 90 miles. Bickford says that 2300
miles of high-roads have been made since 1868, at a cost of
£1,600,000.
Banking. — Dishonest money is the curse of the country, and
the result of extravagant finances. In order to meet re-
peated deficits the Government has given forced currency to
GREECE
279
"shin-plasters" since 1877 (except a brief interval of eight
months in 1885). The issue exceeds 142 million drachmas,
including 88 millions by the joint-stock banks to represent
advances made by them to the Government. Gold is at 50
per cent, premium.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the people of Greece are shown
approximately thus : —
Earniiiys.
Wealth.
Agricultural
£8,400,000
Land
£94,000,000
Manufacturing
5.200,000
Cattle, &c.
15,000,000
Forestry, &c.
900,000
Railways
6,000,000
Trade
2,900,000
Shipping
2,500,000
Transport
3,000,000
Houses .
28,000,000
House-rent
1,700,000
Furniture
14,000,000
Domestics
1,100,000
Factories
3,400,000
Public service
1,900,000
Merchandise
14,500,000
Professions
2,500,000
Sundries
44,400,000
Total
£27,600,000
Total
£221,800,000
The official report for 1888 makes the national earnings
£26,800,000, and the amount of wealth £213,000,000. Land
is officially valued at £94,000,000, house-property £28,000,000 :
which brings up the total of real estate to 122 millions sterling,
or 56 per cent, of the wealth of the kingdom, against 49 per
cent, in France. The average of earnings is only £13, of
wealth £100, per inhabitant, as compared with £13 and
£83 respectively in Portugal, these being two of the poorest
countries in Europe.
FINANCES
For sixty years the financial condition of Greece has been
deplorable, every successive Government plunging the king-
dom deeper into debt. Since 1879 things have been no better
28o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
than before : the revenue has doubled, and yet the debt has
been increased by 14 millions sterling, or nearly a million a
year. The budget for 1895 showed a revenue of £3,700,000,
of which 90 per cent, was raised by taxation : there are also
local taxes to the amount of £700,000, so that the total
burthen on the public is just 4 millions sterling, or 14 per
cent, of the earnings of the people, as compared with 8 per
cent, in the United Kingdom.
Debt. — The national debt rose from 10 millions in 1840 to
33 millions sterling in 1895. There is also a local debt of
£800,000. Deducting the value of the State railway (90
miles) the total debt is 33 millions sterling, or 15 per cent,
of national wealth.
XXXI.
PROGRESS OF UNITED STATES SINCE 1860.
— 860
The unshaded portion indicates the increase since 1860.
Population
Agriculture
New England includes Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island and
Connecticut. The Middle States are New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland
and the District of Columbia. The Southern States include the two Virginias, the tiuo Carolines,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississiffi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky and Tennessee.
The West comprises all the rest.
XVIII
THE UNITED STATES
POPULATION multiplied five-fold between 1830 and 1890, rising
from 12,870,000 to 62,620,000. The increase in that period
was 49,750,000, made up as follows : —
1831-50. 1851-70. 1871-90. 60 yearn.
Surplus births . 8,435,000 12,045,000 20,380,000 40,860,000
Immigrants . 1,885,000 3,325,000 3,680,000 8,890,000
Total . . 10,320,000 15,370,000 24,060,000 49,750,000
The above table does not show the number of immigrants,
but the increase of foreign population in each period : thus in
the census of 1890 there were 8,890,000 more persons of
foreign birth than in that of 1830. It appears, therefore,
that less than one-fifth of the increase of population since
1830 is due to immigration, at least directly; but of course
the natural increase, or surplus of births over deaths, has
been largely affected by the influx of millions of Europeans.
The actual number of immigrants who arrived in the above
interval of sixty years was 15,640,000, of whom nearly half
died or left the country. The following table shows the
arrivals and the net gain to population : —
1831-50. 1851-70. 1871-90. 60 years.
Arrivals . . 2,310,000 5,040,000 8,290,000 15,640,000
Died or left . 425,000 1,715,000 4,610,000 6,750,000
Balance . 1,885,000 3,325,000 3,680,000 8,890,000
281
284 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
of white. He computes the birth-rate for the whole Union at
34 per thousand, but it would seem to be 35, since the growth
of American-born population between 1870 and 1890, as
already shown, averaged a fraction over 20, and the death-rate
in 1880 was 15 '1 per thousand. These figures compare with
those of two other new countries as follows, per thousand of
population yearly : —
U. States. Australia. Canada.
Births . . . .35-3 35 -0 28 -3
Deaths .... 151 14'0 141
Natural increase . . 2O2 21'0 14'2
The most striking feature of American life in the last
thirty years is the rapid growth of urban population, which
has increased almost four times as fast as rural ; by the term
urban is understood in the United States all cities and towns
over 8000 souls, and the figures compare as follows : —
Increase
1860. 1890. per Cent.
Urban . . 5,072,000 18,265,000 260
Rural . . 26,371,000 44,357,000 68
The surplus of births over deaths in the rural population
during the above term of thirty years at the foregoing rate of
20'2 per thousand would have been 21,420,000, so that if
there had been no immigration the rural population in 1890
should have amounted to 47,791,000, or 3| millions more than
it was. It appears, therefore, that even with the aid of im-
migration the rural districts have relatively lost ground, such
was the attraction which manufacturing industry and high
wages in the cities held out to the working classes. Take, for
example, the four largest cities of the Union, which we find to
have almost quintupled since 1850; in the following table
New York includes the suburbs of Brooklyn, Hoboken, and
Jersey City, which are as integral parts of the former as
Southwark and Kensington are of London : —
Year. New York. Chicago. Philadelphia. St. Louis. Four Cities.
1850 . 652,000 30,000 340,000 78,000 1,100,000
1890 . 2,528,000 1,091,000 1,047,000 452,000 5,118,000
THE UNITED STATES 285
The population of the Union in 1895 was very close on
70 millions, that is almost as much as the aggregate of France
and Great Britain, having risen 40 per cent, since 1880; the
distribution in 1895 is approximately in comparison with
1880 as follows :—
Year. New England. Middle. South. West. Total.
1880 . 4,011,000 11,757,000 15,256,000 19,132,000 50,156,000
1895 . 5,100,000 15,400,000 20,100,000 29,100,000 69,700,000
While the density of population for the whole Union is
only 23 per square mile, the older parts are as thickly popu-
lated as many countries of Europe, the ratio for the Middle
States being 135 per square mile, and for the Continent of
Europe only 80.
No census showing occupations has been published since
that of 1880, since which year the population has risen 40 per
cent., and therefore the number of working hands in 1895
may be estimated to compare with the number in 1880
approximately as follows : —
Year. Agriculture. Manufactures. Various. Total
1880 . 7,670,000 3,840,000 11,060,000 22,570,000
1895 . 10,740,000 5,380,000 15,490,000 31,610,000
The energy or working-power of the people has multiplied
nearly eight-fold since 1840, viz. : —
Year.
1840
1860
1895
The collective power has more than trebled since 1860,
steam-power having multiplied five-fold in the last thirty-five
years, the strength being shown approximately thus : —
Horse-power of Steam. Horse-power
per
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Foot- tons
per
Inhabitant.
1,020
1,240
1,850
Hand.
1,406
2,805
6,400
Horse.
12,900
22,200
54,600
Steam.
3,040
14,000
67,700
Total.
17,346
39,005
128,700
Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1,000 Pop.
1860 . 800,000 1,800,000 900,000 3,500,000 110
1895 . 3,940,000 10,800,000 2,200,000 16,940,000 242
286 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
More than three-fourths of steam-power is employed for
traction purposes, on railways and in steamboats, which is
not surprising when we consider that the area of activity is as
vast as Europe, and that the merchandise transported by rail
appears, from official returns, to be double the goods traffic by
rail of all other countries in the world collectively. It has
been already shown that the average of energy in the United
States is 1940 foot-tons daily per inhabitant, which is more
than double the European average, so that it may be said 70
millions of Americans represent as much working-power as
150 millions of Europeans.
AGRICULTURE
The growth of American agriculture in half a century has
been unparalleled in any age or nation, the production of grain
showing as follows : —
Tons.
Year. Wheat. Maize. Oats, &c. Total.
1840 . 2,100,000 9,500,000 3,800,000 15,400,000
1895 . 11,700,000 53,800,000 23,900,000 89,400,000
The grain-crop of 1895 was equal to 8 tons per hand em-
ployed in farming, the average in Europe being 2 tons : the
superiority of the American agriculturist is due to improved
machinery. Nevertheless all parts of the Union have a deficit
of grain, except the Western States ; but for the surplus crops
from those prairies it would be necessary to import 8 million
tons yearly for the food of men and animals. The ordinary
crop of the Western States is 56 million tons, of which a little
less than 50 millions is consumed in the United States, the
quantity of grain exported from the country in the last three
years averaging 6,500,000 tons. The area under all crops
quadrupled between 1850 and 1895, as the following table
shows, in acres : —
Year. Grain. Cotton. Meadow, <fcc. Total.
1850 . 34,200,000 6,100,000 11,050,000 51,350,000
1895 . 149,950,000 23,740,000 51,800,000 225,490,000
THE UNITED STATES 287
The area under grain is larger than the German Empire,
that under hay is the size of Great Britain, and the cotton-
fields cover more than the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium
put together. Besides the area under crops there are 133
million acres under pasture, bringing up the total improved area
to 358 million acres, or nearly one-fifth of the extent of the
United States (excluding Alaska). The following table shows
the whole Union under three heads, improved, unimproved,
and unoccupied : the actual area of farms includes the first
two classes, together 623 million acres : —
.,* Millions of Acres.
States.
Improved.
Unimproved.
Unoccupied.
Total.
New England
. 11
9
24
44
Middle
. 36
13
24
73
South .
. 104
147
271
522
West .
. 207
96
980
1,283
Union . . 358 265 1,299 1,922
The Homestead Law of 1862 has had a powerful influence
in promoting agriculture : by this law in thirty-two years no
less than 164 million acres (an area larger than France,
Belgium, Holland, and Denmark collectively) have been given
gratis to immigrants in farm lots of 160 acres, and in the
same interval settlers have bought 67 million acres from
railway companies. The result is, that the area of improved
lands showed an increase of 194 million acres between 1860
and 1890, or 6£ millions yearly.
Pastoral interests are inferior in importance to those of
tillage, the value of products in 1893 showing as 40 to 60 in
this respect. Nevertheless there has been in the last forty-
four years a great advance in the number and value of live-
stock, and this is the more remarkable, seeing that population
has trebled in the interval, and that there has been in late
years a great demand of meat and cattle for exportation to
Europe. The numbers of live-stock show thus : —
Year. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Horses.
1850 . . 17,800,000 21,700,000 30,400,000 4,900,000
1894 . . 53,100,000 45,100,000 45,200,000 18,400,000
288 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The value of live-stock in 1894 was 451 millions, against
113 millions sterling in 1850. Iowa is relatively the richest
State in this respect, possessing live-stock to a value of £22
per inhabitant, which is surpassed only in Australia, where
the average is £30 to each inhabitant. The following table
shows the number of cattle, sheep, and pigs to 100 inhabitants
in the great sections of the Union, and also to each thousand
acres of the farming area of 1890 : —
Per 100 Inhabitants. Per 1000 Acres.
States.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
New England
. 30
18
7
72
42
17
Middle
. 32
22
16
92
63
46
South .
. 87
48
94
64
36
69
West .
. 122
127
100
102
106
83
Union .
. 80
67
67
84
72
72
The farms of the Western States are so heavily stocked
that if those in other parts of the Union had the same
number of animals per thousand acres there would be in the
United States 11 millions more cattle, 22 millions more sheep,
and 7 millions more pigs. The occupied lands, as already
shown, comprise only 32^ per cent, of the Union : if we
suppose the unoccupied to be capable of carrying half the
stock of the former per acre, say 42 cattle, 36 sheep, 36 pigs,
and 15 horses per thousand acres, the pastoral resources of
the United States might be more than doubled. The follow-
ing table shows the live-stock on existing farms, and what
could be carried by unoccupied lands on the above basis : —
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs.
Horses
At present the annual production of meat is about 4,830,000
tons, of which 460,000 are exported, leaving for consumption
4,370,000, equal to 140 Ibs. per inhabitant. Neither New
England nor the Middle States raise enough meat for con-
sumption, their deficit amounting to 1,020,000 tons, but the
On Farms.
53,100,000
45,100,000
45,200,000
18,400,000
Unoccupied.
55,500,000
47,200,000
47,300,000
19,200,000
Total.
108,600,000
92,300,000
92,500,000
37,600,000
THE UNITED STATES 289
Southern and Western have a surplus of 1,480,000 tons. The
exportation to Great Britain includes 220,000 tons of beef and
180,000 of pork, besides 130,000 tons of meat sent to other-
countries. If we reduce all food to a grain denominator, the
production in 1895 will stand thus : —
Equivalent in Grain,
Quantity, Tons. Tons.
Grain .... 89,400,000 89,400,000
Potatoes . . . 7,480,000 2,490,000
Meat .... 4,830,000 38,640,000
Wine, gallons . . 30,000,000 300,000
Total i . . . . . 130,830,000
But for the great development of tillage and pastoral
industry in the United States some European countries,
especially England, would come short of grain and meat. At
present the United States raise one-third of the food produced
in the world, viz. : — Tong
U. States. Europe. Other Countries. Total "
Grain . 89,400,000 141,500,000 23,300,000 254,200,000
Meat . 4,830,000 9,380,000 1,290,000 15,500,000
The meat product of the United States consists approxi-
mately of 2,410,000 tons of beef, 2,050,000 of pork, and
370,000 of mutton, the whole representing a value of 163
millions sterling. Notwithstanding the great fall, in recent
years, of prices for all farming products, the value of these
products in the United States has doubled since 1860. The
following table is an approximate statement of these values : —
Milli
ous £ Ste
rung.
Milli
one £ Sfc
srling.
1840.
1860.
1893.
1840.
1860.
1893.
Grain .
. 62
172
217
Meat
29
68
163
Cotton .
. 15
40
56
Dairy .
14
34
87
Hay .
. 20
33
119
Poultry .
7
17
42
Sundries
. 28
43
94
Hides, &c.
5
13
35
Tillage .
. 125
288
486
Animal prod.
55
132
327
This makes for 1893 a total value of 813 millions sterling,
the official valuation in 1886 having amounted to 777 millions
sterling, and this was the last made. The Western States
T
290 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
stand for nearly 55 per cent, of the total, the amounts that
correspond to the various sections of the Union, and the
number of hands employed, being approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
States.
Tillage.
Pastoral.
Total.
no. in
Hands.
*. per
Hand.
New England
. 20
13
33
545,000
60
Middle
. 65
47
112
1,705,000
66
South .
. 152
72
224
3,650,000
61
West .
. 249
195
444
4,840,000
92
Union . . 486 327 813 10,740,000 75
The value compared with the productive area gives an
average of 46 shillings per acre, against 96 in the United
Kingdom. About one-sixth of the agricultural products are
exported, as shown by the customs returns, from which fact
it may be asserted that 1,800,000 persons are exclusively
occupied in producing food for exportation to Europe. The
value of products consumed at home and of those exported
were at various dates as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
1840. ISi
Exported .
Home use .
1840.
I860.
1880.
1S86.
1893.
19
53
143
101
128
161
367
556
674
685
Total . . 180 420 699 775 813
When we compare the total value of farm products with
the area under farms, we find that the gross product per acre
is not much more than forty years ago, while the price of
land is higher, but there is some compensation in the fact
that the reduced cost of transport, since the construction of
railways, is equivalent to 10 per cent, on the yearly value of
products. The following table shows the value of land and
of products at various dates, the same per acre, and the ratio
of product to land-value : —
Alillions £. £ per Acre.
, ' , , * N Ratio of
Year. Land. Product. Land. Product. Product.
1850 . . 681 246 6'0 2-2 36'7
1870 . . 1,543 495 8-2 2'6 31-7
1893 . . 2,765 813 7'7 2-3 29-4
THE UNITED STATES 291
There has been such an improvement of agricultural ma-
chinery in late years that the area of cultivation per farming
hand rose from 32 acres in 1870 to 37 in 1880. Not quite
three-fourths of the farms are in the hands of owners, the
census of 1890 showing that owners are 72, tenants 10, and
metayer or partnership farms 18, per cent, of the total, this
last class not paying rent in money, but giving half or other
portion of the crops to the owner of the land.
, FORESTS AND FISHERIES
The forest area is about the same extent as that of Russia,
showing (without Alaska) a total of 466 million acres, equal
to 7 acres per inhabitant, the average in Europe being hardly
2 acres. The forests of the United States show thus : —
States.
New England
Middle .
Southern .
Western .
Total . . 466,000,000 69,700,000 670
It was computed in 1888 that 30,000 acres of timber were
felled daily : the annual output of the sawmills of Maine was
12 million tons, that of the Michigan mills 19 millions. The
domestic consumption for firewood and fences would seem to
exceed 400 million tons, the total felling in 1888 being esti-
mated at 600 million tons, value £120,000,000 sterling. The
lumber industry has just kept pace with the growth of popula-
tion ; it was equal to nearly $10, or £2 sterling, per inhabitant
in 1870, and the same in 1888, viz. : —
Millions of Dollars.
187O 1888.
Firewood .... 72 104
Fences 150 210
Planks, sleepers, &c. . . 134 241
Export 14 21
Total 370 • 576
Acres.
Acres per
Population. 100 Population.
. 19.000,000
5,100,000
372
. 18,000,000
15,400,000
117
. 233,000,000
20,100,000
1,160
. 196,000,000
29,100,000
672
2Q2 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The lumber industry of the United States exceeds in value
by 4 millions sterling that of all European countries in the
aggregate.
Fisheries do not show much progress in late years, the
returns for 1892 comparing with those of 1880 as follows : —
Year. Hands. Take, £ Sterling. & per Man.
1880 .... 131,000 8,600,000 66
1892 .... 192,000 9,400,000 49
There is probably no industry that gives so poor a return
per hand in the United States as this.
MANUFACTURES
The first complete census of manufactures was that of 1850,
and the returns for 1890 show that they increased in value
nine-fold in forty years : in the same period the number of
operatives multiplied only five-fold, one operative now pro-
ducing nearly as much as two did in 1850. The following
table shows the value of goods manufactured, the number of
operatives, and the average output per hand : —
Year. Millions £. Operatives. £ per Hand.
1850 .... 212 958,000 220
1870 .... 705 2,054,000 343
1890 .... 1,952 4,713,000 414
Manufactures may be said to have their home in New
England, where they constitute the chief occupation of the
people, but it is in the Western States that the greatest
relative progress has been made, and hence it comes to pass
that New England stood in 1890 for only one-sixth of the
manufacturing output of the Union, whereas it represented
28 per cent, in 1850. The value of goods manufactured in
the various sections of the United States was as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. N. England. Middle. South. West. Total.
1850 . 59 98 21 34 212
1890 . . 312 760 147 733 1,952
Cottons.
Woollens.
Sundries.
Total.
. 14
10
5
29
. 56
44
61
161
THE UNITED STATES 293
In the census of 1890 operatives figured for 13 per cent, of
the able-bodied population, whereas in 1860 they were only
7^- per cent. The rapid increase of manufactures in the last
thirty years fully explains the abnormal growth of urban
population.
Textiles. — If we compare the output of 1890 with that of
1850 as regards value, we find that it multiplied more than
five-fold, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Tear.
1850 • .
1890 .
Cotton has always occupied the foremost rank in this class of
manufactures. The first cotton-mill was built at Providence,
Rhode Island, in 1790, and the number of mills in 1850 was
1094, but many of the smaller ones have disappeared, only
905 existing in 1890. The growth of this industry in fifty
years is shown thus : —
Tear. Spindles. Operatives. Cotton, Tons. Output, &.
1840 . . 2,200,000 72,000 60,000 9,600,000
1890 . . 14,000,000 222,000 520,000 55,800,000
New England stands for £38,400,000, or 70 per cent, of
the total output : the average product per operative in Massa-
chusetts is £274, and in the other States £240. The cotton
goods made are almost wholly consumed at home, the value
exported never reaching 2 millions sterling. Each operative
turns out about 14 miles of cotton cloth yearly, the output of
1890 reaching about 3,100,000 miles, or one-fourth of the
world's product.
Woollen manufactures multiplied ten-fold between 1840 and
1893, as shown by the consumption of wool, as follows : —
Tons of Wool.
Tear. Native. Imported. Total.
1840 . . . . 16,000 5,000 21,000
1893 .... 135,000 75,000 210,000
294 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Woollen operatives in 1890 showed an average product of
£385 each, as compared with £251 for cotton operatives,
which is explained by the superior value of raw material in
the former case. The cotton operative received 6 cents, the
woollen 12 cents, on every pound of raw material that passed
through his hands ; the wages of the former averaged £66, of
the latter £80, per hand. Meantime if we compare wages
with output we find the cotton operatives received a higher
share, namely, 26 per cent., while the woollen operative took
only 21 per cent, of the value produced by him.
Silk is comparatively a new branch of manufacture, the
output having more than doubled in ten years : it rose from
8 millions in 1880 to 18 millions in 1890. In the latter year
there were 51,000 operatives, the average value of goods pro-
duced by each operative having risen in ten years from £275
to £354, a sign that the industry is improving and likely to
prosper. Most of the silk-mills are in and about New York.
Flax, Hemp, fyc. — The weight of flax and hemp grown in
the United States averages 60,000 tons yearly, besides which
the mills consume 160,000 tons of flax, hemp, and jute im-
ported, the total output in 1894 being of the approximate
value of 22 millions sterling. The ordinary importation of
manufactured goods of this class is 6 millions, bringing up the
home consumption to 28 millions sterling, equal to 8 shillings
per inhabitant, against 15 shillings in the United Kingdom,
and 10 in France. This branch of manufacture shows some
progress, the trade returns for 1894 showing, as compared
with those of 1884, a decline of 20 per cent, in the value of
imported goods, and a corresponding increase in the weight of
raw fibre imported, the latter having risen from 130,000 to
160,000 tons. The census of 1890 gave the following particulars
as to goods of this class manufactured in the United States : —
Goods. Hands. Wages, £. Output, £.
Twine . . . 13,000 900,000 6,900,000
Bagging . . 7,000 500,000 4,200,000
Sundries . . 11,000 1,100,000 4,100,000
Total . . 31,000 2,500,000 15,200,000
THE UNITED STATES 295
The average value of output to each hand employed was
£500 sterling, or three times the average product of textile
operatives in the United Kingdom.
Clothing stands high among the list of manufactures, the
output in 1890 reaching 111 millions sterling, an increase of
80 per cent, over 1880. The principal seat of this industry
is New York, viz. : —
Operatives. Output, £. £ per Hand.
New York. . 133,000 42,500,000 319
Other States . 226,000 68,500,000 303
Total . „ 359,000 111,000,000 308
Notwithstanding the enormous production of dry goods, it is
insufficient for the wants of the people, as will be seen in the
following table, imports signifying net imports : —
Production, £.
Imports, £.
Consumption, £.
Cottons -
55,800,000
4,500,OOD
60,300,000
Woollens
44,400,000
4,100,000
48,500,000
Silks . \
18,100,000
5,100,000
23,200,000
Clothing
111,000,000
4,600,000
115,600,000
Sundries
42,600,000
7,300,000
49,900,000
Total. . 271,900,000 25,600,000 297,500,000
Imported goods are a little more than 8 per cent, of the
consumption, which averages 85 shillings per inhabitant, this
ratio being much higher than in any country except Great
Britain. It must be observed that values are inflated by the
system of Protection, making the prices of dry goods very
oppressive to the great bulk of the population. The value of
textiles, exclusive of clothing, consumed by the American
people is 182 millions sterling per annum, equal to 52 shillings
per inhabitant, against 62 in the United Kingdom.
Hardware. — The production of iron multiplied exactly fifty-
fold between 1830 and 1890, amounting in the latter year to
9,200,000 tons, a quantity far in excess of the production of
any other country. Steel was first manufactured in 1808,
but only a small lot of 900 tons : the production rose to
3,400,000 tons in 1889, being one-third of the world's output.
296 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS
All metallic industries may be reduced to two classes, the
returns for 1890 showing as follows : —
Product, &. Operatives. Wages, £.
Machinery . 86,000,000 248,000 30,800,000
Hardware . 143,300,000 536,000 61,400,000
Total . . 229,300,000 784,000 92,200,000
This gives an average of £292 product and £117 wages to
each operative, being much higher as to product and wages
than falls to operatives in Europe. Imports and exports of
iron and steel manufactures balance one another, and the
consumption of iron averages 300 Ibs. yearly per inhabitant,
being about the same as the consumption of bread. The value
of goods consumed in 1890 was 229 millions sterling, as shown
above, say £4 per inhabitant.
Leather. — This industry quintupled in forty years, the value
of boots, shoes, and other leather manufactures rising from
19 millions in 1850 to 106 millions sterling in 1890. Not-
withstanding the millions of live-stock on the prairies the
country does not supply sufficient hides for home use : the
quantity of leather made yearly is about 240,000 tons, of
which one-fourth is made from 100,000 tons of imported hides.
Lumber. — The output of sawmills has multiplied exactly
ten-fold since 1850, the amount in 1890 reaching 123 millions
sterling, and the mills employing 373.000 hands : this gives
an average product of £330 per hand. These hands appear
to earn a lower wage than most others, the average for saw-
mills in 1890 being only £76 per man.
Flour. — The value of this item has quadrupled in forty
years, rising from 28 millions in 1850 to 107 millions sterling
in 1890 ; but the quantity of flour milled has increased in a
greater measure, prices having fallen in the interval.
Meat-packing. — This first figured among manufactures in
1870, since which year it has multiplied in value twelve-fold,
amounting in 1890 to ]18 millions £, representing about
3 million tons of meat.
THE UNITED STATES 297
Summary. — The various branches of manufacture, according
to the census of 1890, were distributed among the various sec-
tions of the Union as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
States.
Textiles.
Hardware.
Food.
Sundries.
Total.
New England
. 96
29
20
167
312
Middle .
. 129
111
96
424
760
South .
' . 12
14
23
98
147
West
. 35
75
190
433
733
Union . . .272 229 329 1,122 1,952
In the foregoing table textiles include clothing, and hard-
ware all, metallic industries except jewellery. The relative
importance of manufactures is greatest in New England,
where the output in 1890 averaged £67 per inhabitant, as
compared with £54 in the Middle States, £8 in the Southern,
and £29 in the Western. The amount of product and of
wages, and the averages per operative, were as follows : —
Millions £. £ per Hand.
States.
Product.
Wages.
Operatives.
Product.
Wages.
New England .
. 312
86
885,000
353
98
Middle .
. 760
195
1,810,000
420
108
South
. 147
35
459,000
320
76
West
. 733
160
1,559,000
470
102
Union . . . 1,952 476 4,713,000 414 101
The product per hand is highest in the "Western, but the
highest average of wages is in the Middle States, which is
perhaps because the cost of living is much higher in the latter.
On the whole the condition of the working classes seems
much better now than it was forty years ago ; the average
wage per operative rose from £51 in 1850 to £101 in 1890,
an increase of 98 per cent., while the output per operative
rose only 88 per cent., namely from £220 to £414. Thus
the operative at present receives in wages 24| per cent,
of the gross value of goods produced by him, as compared
with 23 per cent, in 1850. The amount of wages paid to
operatives in 1890 represented one-sixth of the total earnings
of the people.
298 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
MINERALS
As regards quantity the mining products almost equal those
of Great Britain, while in point of value they surpass those
of any country in ancient or modern times. The weight of
mineral stuff raised has been approximately as follows : —
Tons of Mineral.
Year. Coal. Iron Ore. Quartz, <fec. Total.
1830 . 1,300,000 400,000 90,000 1,790,000
1870 . 33,000,000 3,200,000 3,100,000 39,300,000
1894 . 165,000,000 10,800,000 4,200,000 180,000,000
The above is exclusive of building and lime stone, of which
23 million tons were used in 1892, and if this were added to
the figures for 1893 the total would exceed 200 million tons.
The value of mineral products has multiplied nearly five-fold
since 1850, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year.
1850 .
1894 .
The official returns are confusing, as they give the value
not of ores, but of metals obtained from them ; moreover,
they put the value of silver at 64 pence instead of 28 pence
(the real market price) per ounce. In this way the mining
product for 1894 is made to reach 109 millions sterling or
527,000,000 dollars, viz. :—
Non-metallic. Millions $. Metallic. Millions $.
Coal . . . .186 Iron .... 65
Stone . . . 37 Silver .... 64
Petroleum . . 36 ! Gold .... 40
Sundries . .. .50 Copper, &c. ... 49
Coal.
Gold.
Silver.
Sundries.
Total.
5
10
0
4
19
39
8
6
41
94
Total . . .309 Total . . .218
The value of iron ore was only $22,000,000, and that of the
silver produced $28,000,000, so that the real value of mining
products did not really exceed 94 millions sterling.
THE UNITED STATES 299
The number of miners in 1880 was 234,000, who raised 104
million tons of minerals, being an average of 440 tons each ;
if we take 400 tons as the present average the number of
miners would be 575,000, the weight of mineral raised having
been approximately 230 million tons in 1894.
Ironstone. — The production of this mineral in 1840 was only
600,000 tons, but it rose rapidly with the construction of rail-
ways, reaching 13,300,000 tons in 1889, and declining in later
years. The yield is usually 40 per cent. iron.
Coal was first discovered in Pennsylvania in 1768, but sixty
years elapsed before the output reached a million tons. From
the year 1830 the production increased so rapidly that twenty
years later Pennsylvania had constructed 7 canals and 27 rail-
ways expressly for carrying coal. American coal is for the
most part bituminous, only 30 per cent, of what is raised being
anthracite. The coal-fields cover an area of 195,000 square
miles, that is about the size of France. Coal and iron are
found mostly in the Middle and Western States, the output
of 1890 showing:—
Tons Raised.
Middle. Western. Southern. Total.
Coal . . 84,700,000 40,200,000 16,400,000 141,300,000
Ironstone . 3,300,000 8,300,000 2,900,000 14,560,000
Lead and Copper. — Lead mines were first opened in 1829,
in Missouri and Colorado, the ore giving about 70 per cent, of
metal : the production of metallic lead in 1892 reached 200,000
tons, having more than doubled since 1880. Copper-mines
were worked by the French Jesuits of Lake Superior as far
back as the seventeenth century, but the industry in modern
times may be said to date from 1843, when the United States
Government bought the Lake Superior copper-fields from the
Chippeway Indians. At present 900,000 tons of ore are raised
yearly, from which 150,000 tons of bar-copper are extracted,
valued at 7 millions sterling. Among other minerals may be
mentioned zinc, the production reaching 80,000 tons of metal,
worth £1,200,000.
300 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Petroleum was first discovered near Pittsburg in 1845, and
the first Oil company was formed nine years later at New
York, but no petroleum worth mention was raised till 1859.
In the last thirty-six years no fewer than 60,000 wells have
been sunk, of which 6000 are now working. The production
has been as follows : —
Millions of Barrels.
1859-80. 1881-93. 35 years.
Raised 172 440 612
Exported .... 80 172 252
Home use .... 92 268 360
The production during the last three years has averaged
50 million barrels, or 2100 millions of gallons; and the ex-
portation 17 million barrels, or one-third of the output. The
value of crude petroleum at the pit's mouth raised in the
above thirty-five years was 118 millions sterling, but the value
of the refined oil, ready for market, was nearly four times as
much, showing approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1859-SO. 1881-93. 35 Years.
Exported ... 117 123 240
Home use ... 98 118 216
Total . . .215 241 456
The value of petroleum refined in the last twenty-three
years reached 368 millions sterling, which exceeds by 3 mil-
lions the total production of gold and silver in the United
States during the same period.
Gold and Silver. — Gold was found in North Carolina early
in the present century, and in 1850 Professor Whitney esti-
mated the total yield until then at no more than 21 tons,
worth hardly 3 millions sterling. It was in 1849 that
the first Californian discovery took place at Captain Sutter's
mill, and the new gold-fields quickly dazzled the world. Silver
was found in Storey County, Nevada, by J. H. Comstock and
James Phinney in 1858, and the Comstock mine proved so
rich in both precious metals that it produced in six years
THE UNITED STATES
301
(1871-76) no less than 105 tons of gold and 1600 of silver,
together worth 28 millions sterling. The total product of
precious metals in forty -four years has been : —
Period.
1850-69
1870-89
1890-93
Tons.
Value, Millions £.
Gold. Silver.
1,525 2,130
1,104 20,980
201 7,270
Gold.
213
154
28
Silver. Total.
18 231
151 305
45 73
2,830 30,380
395
214 609
44 years
Colorado in 1892 produced 30, Montana 20, California 15,
and the 'other States 35, per cent, of the aggregate value of
gold and silver produced in the Union.
COMMERCE
The strength of the United States lies in its internal
development, and hence the growth of its trade with foreign
countries is relatively slow, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
Exports
1820.
1840.
1860.
1880.
1896.
15
20
75
140
161
11
24
84
171
182
Total .
26
44
159
311
343
The foreign trade of 1896 averaged only £5 per inhabitant,
against £18 in the United Kingdom. It is manifest that
trade has been cramped and hindered in all directions by the
protective tariffs : these have had the effect of stimulating
manufactures, but at an enormous cost to the American
people. Suffice it to compare the aggregate of imports and
exports for the last fourteen years, which shows that there
has been a great excess of exports, or, in other words, a
" balance of trade " largely in favour of the United States, a
proof that the trade with foreign countries is on an unsatis-
factory footing, viz., imports 2104, exports 2352, surplus
exports 248, millions sterling. The old fallacy of the " mer-
302 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
cantile system," which is still in force among Protectionists,
supposed that the value of surplus exports came back in
bullion, but the official tables of the United States show the
reverse : the imports and exports of the precious metals have
been as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period. Imported. Exported. Surplus exported.
1871-80 ... 64 127 63
1881-90 . . .101 107 6
1891-95 58 122 64
25 years . . 223 356 133
Notwithstanding the fact that since 1881 the exports of
merchandise have exceeded imports by 18 millions sterling
per annum, there has been at the same time an outflow of
precious metals averaging 4£ millions sterling yearly. The
net outflow of the past twenty-five years has been 60 per cent,
silver, 40 per cent, gold, the total current of bullion in that
period showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Gold. Silver. Total.
Imported . . .150 73 223
Exported . . .202 154 356
Net export ... 52 81 133
The trade relations of the United States with other countries
are shown in the subjoined table of average imports and
exports of merchandise during five years ending June 1894,
which is as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports
from.
Exports
to.
Total.
Ratio.
Great Britaii
i
34
94
128
36-2
Germany
France .
18
14
19
13
37
27
10-4
7-6
Cuba .
14
4
18
5-1
Canada
8
10
18
5-1
Various
78
48
126
35-6
Total . . .166 188 354 lOO'O
The returns for 1894 compared with those of 1884 show
that commercial relations with Great Britain, Canada, and
THE UNITED STATES 303
France are declining, and those with other countries are on
the increase. The four principal seaports are New York,
Boston, Philadelphia, and New Orleans, and these make up
three-fourths of the foreign trade, the aggregate of imports
and exports showing in 1893 as follows in millions £. New
York 186, Boston 34, Philadelphia 24, New Orleans 21, other
ports, 92, total 357. Thus New York stands for more than
half the foreign trade of the United States.
Shipping. — The Protective policy adopted after the civil
war of 1861-65 has in a manner driven American shipping
from the high seas. In 1830 no less than 90 per cent, of
foreign trade was done on American bottom, but in 1894 the
ratio had fallen to 13 per cent, the amount showing as follows
at various dates : —
Millions £ Sterling
Flag.
American
Others .
1830.
I860.
1880.
1894.
25
106
54
41
3
53
257
281
Total . . 28 159 311 322
At the ordinary estimate of 5 per cent, for freight it
appears that the American people pays a tribute of 14
millions sterling per annum to foreign shipping. Meantime
the shipping used for coasting or internal waters has trebled
in fifty years, viz. : —
Nominal Tonnage.
f *• •>. Carrying
Year. Ocean. Coasting-, &c. Total. Power.
1840 . . 760,000 1,420,000 2,180,000 2,780,000
1860 . . 2,380,000 2,970,000 5,350,000 7,960,000
1894 . . 900,000 3,780,000 4,680,000 11,250,000
Internal Trade. — This has multiplied ten-fold since 1840,
viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1840. 1860. 1880. 1894
Agriculture . . 180 420 698 813
Manufactures . . 95 392 1,117 1 952
Forestry and fisheries 20 35 108 130
Minerals ... 3 30 80 94
Imports . __ , . 20 75 140 136
Total . , .318 952 2,143 3,125
304 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The shares that corresponded to the various sections of the
Union in 1894 were approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
N. England.
Middle.
South.
West.
Union.
Agriculture .
. 32
108
207
466
813
Manufactures
. 312
760
147
733
1,952
Minerals
4
30
8
52
94
Forestry, &c.
. 10
20
49
51
130
Imports
. 16
43
17
60
136
Total . . 374 961 428 1,362 3,125
It is a coincidence worthy of observation that the ratio of
internal trade to population is almost the same in the United
States as in the Mother Country, being .£44 per head in the
former, £42 in the latter. In the above table for 1894 the
value of manufactures is supposed to have been the same as in
1890, no later returns being available.
Railways, — The first line in the New World was from
Boston to Quincey, 4 miles, opened in 1827. The construction
and cost since then have been as follows : —
Cost,
Period. Miles. Millions £ Sterling.
1827-55 18,370 127
1856-75 55,730 566
1876-95 105,900 1,567
68 years 180,000 2,260
During the last twenty years the amount of capital ex-
pended in making railways averaged 78 millions sterling per
annum, or 1 million dollars daily; that is about 2 cents, or
1 penny a day for every inhabitant during the whole term.
But for the construction of railways on so vast a scale it would
have been impossible to open up the Far West. The cultivated
area progressed with each mile of railway laid down, as may
be seen if we compare the farming area in square miles with
the mileage of railways, thus : —
Year. Miles Rail. Farms, Sq. Miles. Rail to Sq. Miles.
1850 . . 9,020 177,000 51 to 1,000
1870 . . 52,920 295,000 177 „ „
1890 . . 167,000 560,000 300 „ „
THE UNITED STATES 305
Thus in forty years the construction of 158,000 miles of
railway contributed to bring under cultivation 245 million
acres; that is 1600 acres for each mile of railway built. The
average value of improved land by the census of 1890 was 37
dollars per acre, so that the area improved for each mile of
rail represented a value of $59,000, and as the cost of railways
averaged $63,000 per mile, it may almost be said that the
extended area of farming land paid the cost of the lines built.
Again, the gross product per acre in 1890, in the United
States, averaged $10|-, which upon the area won to cultivation
in forty years means 2570 million dollars, or 535 millions £,
equal to an annual dividend of 25 per cent, on the capital sunk
in the lines. In 1894 the United States had a mile of railway
for 400 inhabitants, whereas the average in Great Britain,
France, and Germany is only a mile for 1800. The increase
of population since 1890 has averaged 1,400,000 souls yearly,
so that in order to keep up the present ratio of mileage to
population it will be necessary to go on constructing 3500
miles a year, and this is about the actual rate of progress.
The chief increase of railways since 1870 has been in the
Western States, viz. : —
Miles of Railway Open.
Year. N. England. Middle. South. West. Union.
1870 . . 4,490 10,580 12,560 25,290 52,920
1892 . . 6,920 21,100 44,210 103,000 175,230
The tfa&ic per mile on American railways is much less than
in Great Britain or France, but the profit as compared with
capital is almost the same, viz. : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £. On Capital.
United States . . 1,270 867 403 3'22
United Kingdom . 4,034 2,259 1,775 3'SO
France . . . 2,195 1,253 942 3'50
Rolling-stock in the United States comprises 36,000 loco-
motives, 31,000 passenger cars, and 1,160,000 goods wagons.
The goods traffic is enormous : reduced to the denominator of
tonnage carried 100 miles, it is equal to 870 million tons; as
compared with population it is six times per head more than
U
306 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
in Great Britain, eight times more than in France. The rail-
ways of the United States employ 874,000 hands, of whom 3
per thousand are killed, and 35 per thousand injured, yearly.
Banks and Money. — The United States Bank was founded
in 1790 with a capital of 2 millions sterling, and collapsed
in the crisis of 1837, when every bank in the Union closed its
doors. Banking business grew with great rapidity from 1850
till 1860, but the civil war threw everything into confusion,
forced currency being proclaimed in 1862. In order to carry
on the war the Government had to make repeated issues of
Greenbacks, the currency being thus raised from 43 to 205
millions sterling. This caused such a rapid depreciation that
the paper-dollar in July 1864 fell to 39 cents, that is 2^
paper-dollars were given for 1 of gold. At the conclusion
of the war, however, the currency quickly rose to 67 cents, a
premium of 50 per cent, on gold, and ultimately specie pay-
ments were resumed in 1880. The latest complete returns
for banking are those of 1887, from which it appears that
business grew sixteen-fold since 1830, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Capital. Deposits. Issue. Total.
1830 . . 31 12 13 56
1887 . . 175 712 36 923
It was ascertained in 1890 that 70 per cent, of the discount
business of the Union was done by National Banks, 30 per
cent, by State and private banks, and on this basis the dis-
counts for 1893 would be approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
States. National. Other Banks. Total.
New England ... 75 32 107
Middle 152 65 217
South 33 14 47
West ... 121 52 173
Total . . . .381 1G3 544
In October 1894 there were 3755 National Banks with assets
amounting to 720 millions sterling: if we suppose the State and
THE UNITED STATES 307
private banks to be as in 1890, that is as thirty to seventy,
with respect to the former, their assets would reach 310
millions, making a total banking property for the Union of
1030 millions sterling, say £15 per inhabitant, as compared
with £25 in Great Britain. The quantity of money in the
United States has quintupled in forty years, showing as
follows : Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Coin. Paper. Total. £ per Inhab.
1854 ... 53 39 92 3'5
1894 . . .261 243 504 7'4
The ratio of money per inhabitant is now £J1 £, as compared
with £4£ in Great Britain, but the actual quantity in use is
much less than shown above, the Treasury holding nearly
one-third. The currency in 1894 was made up as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Circulation
Treasury
Bank-
Treasury-
"~" —
Gold.
Silver.
notes.
notes.
Total.
103
23
42
178
346
27
108
1
22
158
Total . . 130 131 43 200 504
Of the currency actually in use it appears that two-thirds
are paper-money, and of the money in the Treasury two-thirds
are silver, which is worth only half the nominal value.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the people at various dates were approxi-
mately as follows : —
• Millions £ Sterling.
1840.
I860.
1870.
1880.
1894.
Agricultural
108
252
297
420
488
Manufacturing
48
196
353
559
976
Mining
3
30
60
80
94
Forestry, &c.
20
35
83
108
130
Trade .
32
95
142
214
313
Transport .
33
99
148
224
327
House-rent .
31
66
96
162
267
Domestics .
21
44
64
108
178
Public service
5
11
40
42
60
Professions .
30
83
120
192
283
Total . . 331 911 1,323 2,109 3,116
308 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Mr. Edward Atkinson's estimate of earnings for 1880 was
2080 millions sterling, or 1^ per cent, less than the figure in
the above statement. The total for 1894 is equal to £44 per
inhabitant, against £36 in the United Kingdom. It is to
be observed that earnings have increased much faster than
population, the ratio in 1840 having been only £17 per head.
In the following table are shown approximately the earnings
in the various sections of the Union under the principal heads: —
Millions & Sterling.
N.
England.
Middle.
South.
West.
Union.
Agricultural
19
65
124
280
488
Manufacturing .
156
380
74
366
976
Mining
4
30
8
52
94
Forestry, &c.
10
20
49
51
130
Trade .
38
96
43
136
313
Transport .
40
100
45
142
327
House-rent .
30
98
30
109
267
Domestics .
20
65
20
73
178
Professions, &c. .
39
106
49
149
343
Total . . 356 960 442 1,358 3,116
The earnings per inhabitant in the above sections are ap-
proximately as follows : —
Agricultural. Manufacturing. Various.
States. £. £. £. Total, &.
New England 3'7 30'6 35'5 69 -8
Middle . 4'2 24'7 33'4 62'3
South . 6-2 3-7 12-1 22 "0
West . 9-6 12-6 24'4 46'6
Union . 7'0 14'0 23'0 44'0
In the Southern States the average is only half what it is
for the Union in general, which is partly explained by the
fact that one-third of the population in those States consists
of negroes.
Wealth. — The census returns show that wealth has increased
nine-fold in forty years, the amounts being as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
"T850. 1860.
Urban .
Agricultural .
Total . 1,486 3,366 5,010 9,092 13,550
1850.
I860.
1870.
1880.
1890.
660
1,704
3,156
6,570
10,220
826
1,662
1,854
2,522
3,330
THE UNITED STATES 309
Agricultural wealth, in the above table, comprises farms,
cattle, and implements; all else is urban : in 1850 the former
greatly exceeded the latter, but in 1890 urban wealth consti-
tuted three-fourths of the total. The average yearly accumu-
lations were as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
jBper
Period. Agricultural. Urban. Total. Inhabitant
1851-70 . . 51 125 176 5-7
1871-90 . . 74 353 427 8'5
If it b.e supposed that the annual accumulation of wealth
has been the same since 1890 as during twenty preceding
years, that is <£8£ per inhabitant, the actual wealth of the
Great Republic will now amount to 16,350 millions sterling,
comparing with population thus : —
Year. Population. Millions &. £ per Inhab.
1850 . . . 23,200,000 1,486 64
1870 . . . 38,600,000 5,010 130
1890 . . . 62,600,000 13,550 216
1895 . . . 69,700,000 16,350 234
The census of 1890 shows that 60 per cent, of the wealth
accumulated since 1870 was in the Western States, the wealth
of the various sections showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
N. England.
Middle.
South.
West.
Total
1870 .
. 674
2,019
589
1,728
5,010
1890 .
. 1,088
3,710
2,068
6,684
13,550
Increase
. 414
1,691
1,479
4,956
8,540
The annual accumulation in the above twenty years averaged
in English money per inhabitant as follows : 98 shillings in
the Southern States, 101 in New England, 140 in the Middle
States, and 255 in the Western ; the general average for the
Union having been, as already stated, 170 shillings yearly
per inhabitant. The shares of wealth corresponding to the
310 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
various sections, according to the census of 1890, were as
follows : Millions £ Sterling.
States.
Farms.
Railways.
Buildings.
Sundries.
Total.
New England
122
74
520
372
1,088
Middle.
548
245
1,723
1,194
3,710
South .
610
447
515
496
2,068
West .
. 2,050
1,044
1,915
1,675
6,684
Total1 . . 3,330 1,810 4,673 3,737 13,550
If the above items be distributed according to population,
the result will be : —
£ per Inhabitant.
States.
Farms.
Railways.
Buildings.
Sundries.
Total.
New England
. 26
16
Ill
78
231
Middle .
. 39
17
122
84
262
South .
. 33
24
28
27
112
West .
. 81
41
75
66
263
Union .
. 53
29
75
59
216
The increment of wealth, as already shown, between 1870
and 1890 was 8540 millions, being a yearly average of 427
millions sterling : taking the working year at 300 days, this
was a daily accumulation of £1,400,000, equal to 7 pence per
head of the mean population in that interval.
Assuming the wealth of the United States, as before stated,
to have reached 16,350 millions in 1895, it was made up
approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
States.
Farms.
Railways.
Buildings.
Sundries.
Total.
New England
142
90
595
460
1,287
Middle.
646
310
1,967
1,474
4,397
South .
713
556
591
610
2,470
West .
. 2,641
1,304
2,182
2,069
8,196
Union . . . 4,142 2,260 5,335 4,613 16,350
Land. — The value of farming land has varied exceedingly
in the last half-century : the extent of improved land and the
1 In a paper read by me before the British Association, at Bath, in 1888,
I ventured to predict that the American census of 1890 would show the
wealth of the United States to average £212 per inhabitant : the result
of the census gave £216, that is 2 per cent, over my prediction.
THE UNITED STATES
value of the farms (exclusive of cattle and implements) were
as follows : —
Year.
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
Millions of Acres. Millions $. $ per Acre.
113
163
189
285
358
3,272
6,645
8,059
10,197
13,279
29
41
43
36
37
The average price per acre in 1890 was 10 per cent, less
than it was thirty years before. The results of census valua-
tions in .1850, 1870, and 1890 gave the following average
prices for improved land in the several sections of the
Union : —
$ per Acre.
Year.
1850
1870
1890
The price in New England has risen since 1870, as also in
the Southern States, but on the whole there has been a fall of
14 per cent.
House Property. — The Commissioners' report in 1880 esti-
mated churches, schools, and other public edifices at one-sixth
of the total value of buildings : following this basis, the value
of house property in the various parts of the republic in 1890
was as follows : —
New England
. Middle.
Southern.
Western.
Union.
. 34
46
19
28
29
. 42
74
21
45
43
. 44
63
23
39
37
Minions §.
House
States.
Buildings.
Public Buildings.
Houses.
Property.
$ per Inhab.
New England
. 2,495
416
2,079
442
Middle .
. 8,271
1,378
6,893
487
South .
. 2,470
412
2,058
112
West .
. 9,196
1,533
7,663
302
Union
22,432
3,739
18,693
300
The average of house property per inhabitant was £62
sterling, as compared with £53 in the United Kingdom.
312 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
FINANCES
Eevenue multiplied 23-fold between 1840 and 1890, re-
ceipts and expenditure showing thus : —
Receipts .
Expenditure
1840, £.
4,100,000
5,100,000
I860, £.
11,600,000
13,100,000
1890, £.
96,700,000
74,700,000
1895, &,
81,300,000
90,200,000
Before the civil war of 1861 the incidence of taxation
ranged from 5 to 7 shillings per head of the population, but
it quadrupled after the war. The finances of thirty-five years
may be summed up thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1861-70. 1871-5
Revenue .
Expenditure
In the twenty-three years from 1871 to 1893 revenue ex-
ceeded expenditure by 311 millions sterling, this surplus being
applied to reduction of debt. The years 1894-95 showed
expenditure greatly in excess of revenue. The principal items
of revenue and expenditure in the last twenty-five years were
as follows : —
Millions £. Millions £.
1861-70.
432
1871-80.
595
1881-90.
729
1891-95.
440
35 years.
2,196
773
519
505
452
2,249
Customs
Excise
Sundries
Revenue
940
655
169
Military
Debt .
Government
. 1,764 Expenditure
673
347
456
1,476
In the above table military expenditure includes 356
millions sterling paid as pensions, for the most part arising
out of the war of 1861-65, so that in fact the real expenditure
for army and navy in the said term of twenty-five years was
only 317 millions, or about 13 millions sterling per annum.
Before the civil war the debt was so low that the annual
interest was only £800,000, but in 1865 interest rose to
£31,500,000 : at present it is only £5,800,000. In 1894 the
revenue fell to 78 millions sterling, showing a deficit of 14
THE UNITED STATES 313
millions, this being the first deficit since 1874. At present
the United States expenditure is 90 millions sterling, or 26
shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 50 shillings in
Great Britain and 60 in France.
Local taxation doubled between 1870 and 1890, rising from
51 to 98 millions sterling, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. N. England. Middle. South. West. TotaL
1870 . . 8-0 16-0 7'5 19'5 51-0
1890 * . 11-0 28-7 11-9 46'4 98'0
Although the ratio of local taxation for the Union rose in
the above interval from 26 to 32 shillings per inhabitant, the
incidence in 1890 was really less than in 1870 (as compared
with wealth), having, declined from 1'97 to 1'85: in other
words the incidence was relatively 6 per cent, less in 1890.
The rate of taxation was as follows : —
$ per $1,000 of Property.
Year. N. England. Middle. South. West Union.
1870 . . 16-1 19-7 16-7 24'2 19-7
1890 . . 14-8 17-0 14-0 22'9 18'5
The ratio of taxation is necessarily higher in the Western
States than in the rest of the Union, because the population
is more scattered, and the creation of new cities and towns
brings with it corresponding expenditure.
If we add together national and local taxation, apportioning
the former equally per head of the population, and compare
the gross amount with earnings we find : —
Earnings, Taxes, Tax
States. Millions £. Millions £,. Ratio.
New England ... 356 17 4'8
Middle .... 960 47 4'9
South .... 442 35 8'0
West . . . .1,358 79 5'8
Union . . . .3,116 178 5'7
The incidence of all taxation compared with earnings shows
a general ratio of 5| per cent., as compared with 8J per cent.
314 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
in 1870; that is to say it is now relatively one-third lighter
than in 1870.
Debt. — National debt in 1855 averaged only 1£ dollar, say
5 shillings per inhabitant, but the civil war of 1861-65 in-
volved such enormous expenditure that it rose in 1866 to £16
per head. The amount increased during the war at the rate
of 112 millions sterling per annum. In a period of twenty
years after the war it was reduced at the rate of 16 millions
sterling yearly, and in the ensuing seven years down to 1893
about 13 millions yearly. The interest on debt paid by each
inhabitant has declined from 17 shillings in 1867 to 20 pence
in 1894, a reduction of 90 per cent. Meantime local debt
has risen 30 per cent, since 1870, amounting in 1890 to 237
millions sterling. Thus the total indebtedness of the United
States at present reaches 412 millions sterling, or £6 per
inhabitant. Allotting the national debt equally per head, and
adding it to the local debt of the various sections of the Union,
we find that the ratio per inhabitant in 1890 was little more
than one-third of what it was in 1870, viz. : —
States.
New England .
Middle .
South
West
Total . . 698 422 18 7
The burthen of debt, as compared with the wealth of the
nation, was nearly five times as heavy in 1870 as in 1890, the
ratio showing as follows : —
Wealth, Debt, Debt Ratio.
Year. Millions £. Millions £. per Cent.
1870 . , . 5,010 698 14
1890 . . . 13,550 422 3
In 1895 the total debt was approximately 425 millions,
wealth 16,350 millions sterling, leaving debt equal to 2^ per
cent, of wealth, the average in Europe being 8 J per cent.
Total Debt,
Millions £.
£per
Inhabitant.
1870.
1890.
1870.
1890.
73
44
21
9
195
123
20
9
207
104
18
6
223
151
16
6
XIX
CANADA
THE Dominion of Canada, as it is termed, bears much resem-
blance to a federal republic, and may be said to consist
geographically of four provinces : Quebec or Lower Canada ;
Ontario or Upper Canada ; Acadia, comprising Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island ; and the North-
West, including Manitoba, Hudson's Bay, and British Co-
lumbia, viz. : —
Sq. Miles.
Population. Per Sq. Mile.
Quebec
228,000
1,490,000
6
Ontario
220,000
2,110,000
10
Acadia
50,000
880,000
18
North-West
. 2,812,000
360,000
Total . . 3,310,000 4,840,000
The area is about the same as that of the United States,
the population equal to what the United States had in 1800.
Although the number of inhabitants has quintupled since
1830 it is still very small, less than that of the State of
Pennsylvania, and so sparse that even in the old territory of
Canada proper it averages 8 per square mile, as compared
with 23 in the United States. The last census, which dis-
tinguished the population among four great classes, showed
that British formed 37, French 29, Irish 23, and other races
11, per cent, of the total. Population increases slowly, owing
to the constant stream of emigration to the United States,
for it is remarkable that the Great Republic has 980,000
Canadians, while Canada has only 80,000 Americans. One-
half of the tide of immigration is lost in the same way, as it
316 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
appears that of 2,425,000 persons who arrived from Europe
in the interval of 1851-1891 no fewer than 1,310,000 pro-
ceeded over the frontier to the United States, only 1,115,000,
or 46 per cent., remaining in Canada. What is still more
surprising is that the census of 1891 showed the number of
European survivors to be only 590,000, or little more than
half of the above number of persons who settled in Canada
in the said interval of forty years. The native element is
stronger here than in the United States, the foreign-born
population being in Canada only 13 per cent, of the total, and
in the United States 15 per cent. Moreover, the European
element is declining in Canada, the ratios in 1 thousand of
population in 1891 comparing with 1881 as follows : —
Year. Canadians. British and Irish. Foreigners. Total.
1881 . . 859 111 30 1,000
1891 . . 866 101 33 1,000
Another feature revealed by last census is the rapid growth
of urban population, which is now 29 per cent, of the total,
against 19 per cent, in 1871. In the interval of twenty years
urban grew 6| times as fast as rural population, viz. : —
Increase
1871. 1891. per Cent
Urban . . 685,000 1,390,000 103
Rural . . . 2,950,000 3,440,000 16
Total . . 3,635,000 4,830,000 33
It is a remarkable coincidence that the United States census
of 1890 shows the urban population to be 29 per cent, of the
total, and the Canadian census of 1891 the same ratio.
The occupations of Americans and Canadians compare ap-
proximately as follows : —
Hands. Ratio.
United States.
Canada.
United States.
Canada.
Agriculture
Manufactures
. 10,740,000
5,950,000
1,140,000
540,000
34-0
19-0
47-0
22-5
Trade, &c.
. 14,920,000
740,000
47-0
30-5
Total . . 31,610,000 2,420,000 100-0 lOO'O
CANADA 317
The working-power of Canada has multiplied thirteen-fold
iu half a century, viz. : —
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Foot-tons
per
Inhabitant.
Year.
Hand.
Horse.
Steam.
Total.
1840 .
. 120
600
40
760
540
1870 .
. 330
2.400
1,000
3,730
1,090
1894 .
. 450
4,500
4,640
9,590
1,920
This is (excepting Australia) the highest ratio in the world
of energy to population, being 70 foot-tons more than the
American and 350 over the British : it is due mainly to the
development of steam-power, especially in railway locomotives,
viz. : —
Steam Horse-power.
Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total.
1840 . 3,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
1870 . 100,000 100,000 50,000 250,000
1894 . 320,000 600,000 240,000 1,160,000
AGRICULTURE
In the first quarter of the present century the only agricul-
turists were the French ' habitans,' who had a chain of farms,
400 miles long, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, and pro-
duced grain much in excess of home needs ; we find that down
to the year 1830 the annual* shipments of wheat to England
averaged 25,000 tons. The system of giving free farm-lots of
200 acres to military and other settlers was pursued by the
British Government from 1816 till 1826, but in the latter
year auction-sales were adopted, at an upset price of 4 shillings
an acre, the purchaser stipulating to pay the amount in four
instalments, stretching over four years, free of interest. The
lands being thus thrown open to the public, thousands of
settlers nocked to Upper Canada (now called Ontario), the
progress of which province is shown thus : —
1842. 1852. 1891.
Population . . 486,000 952,000 2,110,000
Acres tilled . . 1,928,000 3,698,000 8,110,000
3i8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
As years rolled on, the backwoods were penetrated by Scotch
and Irish farmers, and in 1872 a colony of 500 Russian
Mennonites settled in Manitoba, followed three years later by
280 Icelanders. When the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, visited
these new settlements in 1877, he found that they had received
large accessions from home, the total of Mennonites and Ice-
landers already reaching 9000 souls : he described them as
thrifty and prosperous people. The country west of Lake
Winnipeg had been explored by Dr. Cheadle and Lord Monk
so far back as 1865, but its utility for agriculture was not
recognised till visited in 1878 by Mr. Brassey, who stated
that: "In Manitoba you may drive a gig for a thousand
miles straight over open prairie, suitable for wheat-growing."
All the North-west Territory was held by the Hudson's
Bay Company, by charter from Charles II., till 1869, when it
was annexed to the Dominion, having an arable area, says
Mr. Hall, of 237 million acres. The grain-crop of Canada
has more than doubled since 1871, showing as follows : —
Tons of Grain.
, — ~ x
Year. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Maize, &c. Total
1871 . 420,000 1,140,000 300,000 220,000 2,080,000
1892 . 1,200,000 2,600,000 440,000 780,000 5,020,000
The crop of 1892 comprised 3,200,000 for Ontario, 650,000
for Manitoba, and 1,170,000, tons for the other provinces.
Ontario is the backbone of Canada as regards farming : it
stands for 64 per cent, of the grain, and 45 per cent, of the
live-stock of the Dominion, and its farms in 1887 were valued
at 201 millions £ sterling. The productive area of Canada
rose nearly 70 per cent, in ten years ending 1891, viz. : —
Acres under 1881. 1891. Increase.
Tillage . . 15,110,000 19,900,000 4,790,000
Pasture . . 6,390,000 15,290,000 8,900,000
Total . . 21,500,000 35,190,000 13,690,000
It is very surprising that whereas the yield of grain per
acre in Canada is much heavier than in the United States,
CANADA
319
and that 47 per cent, of Canadians are engaged in farming
pursuits, as compared with 34 per cent, in United States,
the production of food in reference to population is much less
in Canada. The only explanation appears to be that more
improved methods and machinery are in use in the United
States : the ordinary yield is as follows : —
Bushels per Acre.
Ontario
United States
Wheat.
17-6
12-8
Barley.
25-7
21-4
Oats.
34-6
25-1
The total area under farms in 1891 was 60^ million acres,
an area equal to that of Great Britain, but only 3 per cent, of
Canada. The area under crops, as already shown, is almost
20 million acres, just the size of Ireland, being as follows,
in acres : —
8,110,000
5,180,000
2,830,000
3,780,000
Wheat . ^
Oats .
Maize, &c.
Sundries .
Total .
. 2,720,000
. 4,130,000
. 2,900,000
. 10,150,000
Ontario
Quebec
Manitoba .
Acadia, &c.
Total .
. 19,900,000
. 19,900,000
Of late years there has been a lull in grain-growing, because
dairy-farming and the production of meat are found more
profitable. The number of cheese-factories rose from 710 in
1881 to 1570 in 1891. The decline of tillage has been most
marked in Lower Canada. Reducing all food to a grain
denominator, we find as follows : —
Tons.
Equiv. in Grain.
Grain
Potatoes
Meat.
Total
1881.
. 3,100,000
. 1.200,000
250,000
1892.
5,020,000
1,200,000
310,000
1881.
3,100,000
400,000
2,000,000
1892.
5,020,000
400,000
2,480,000
5,500,000
7,900,000
The above total was equal to 50 bushels in 1881, and 64
in 1892, per inhabitant, as compared with 75 in the United
320 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
States. The value of all rural products in 1894 was approxi-
mately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain. Sundries. Meat. Dairy, &c. Total.
Home use . 17 12 9 9 47
Export ... 4 ... 2 4 10
Total . . 21 12 11 13 57
The export of food in 1894 comprised 880,000 tons of grain,
60,000 of meat, and 70,000 of cheese and butter, besides 62
million eggs. The increased attention that is given to pastoral
interests appears when we compare the present numbers of
live-stock with those of twenty years ago, viz. : —
Year. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Value, £.
1871 . 860,000 2,690,000 3,300,000 1,410,000 33,800,000
1893 . 1,440,000 4,240,000 3,460,000 1,700,000 46,300,000
The importance of the several provinces as regards tillage,
live-stock and agricultural capital is shown approximately, in
aliquot parts, as follows : —
Grain. Live-stock. Capital.
Ontario . . . 64'0 50'2 59'2
Quebec .... 10'2 24'0 22'0
Acadia 4'0 13'1 10'3
Manitoba, &c. . . 21'8 12'7 8'5
Total . . . lOO'O 100-0 lOO'O
Rural interests have been promoted by the Homestead Law
of 1870, similar to that passed by the United States in 1862.
Free farm-lots of 200 acres are given to settlers in the North-
West, with the obligation to build a log-hut and bring 30
acres into cultivation. In twenty years, ending December
1893, the number of free farms permanently taken up by
settlers (exclusive of those abandoned or cancelled) was 41,760,
covering an area of 6,700,000 acres. Moreover, in Canada
proper public lands are still sold to immigrants or others at
prices ranging from 4 shillings per acre upwards ; these sales
in the interval from 1887 to 1893 amounted to 1,350,000,
and realised £470,000, say 7 shillings an acre. The railway
CANADA 321
companies also sell lands, usually at much higher prices, their
sales in 1893 reaching 114,000 acres, at an average of 14 shil-
lings per acre. There are in all Canada 59,000 farms, with a
productive area of 35 million acres, say 60 acres each : dividing
the annual value of products among the number of farms it
gives an average of £97 to each, or 33 shillings per acre, as
compared with 107 shillings in Great Britain. The agricul-
tural capital is approximately as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Ontario.
Land . 140
Quebec.
50
Acadia. Manitoba.
23 12
North-West.
5
Total.
230
Cattle, &c.
40
17
9
4
5
75
Total 180 67 32 16 10 305
This gives an average value of £517 to each farm, as com-
pared with £730 in the United States and £880 in France.
The annual product is 19 per cent, on capital in Canada and
19| per cent, in the United States.
FOEESTS AND FISHERIES
More than one -third of the Dominion is under timber,
viz. : —
Square Miles.
Ontario. Quebei
Forest .
Total area
The quantity of timber cut in 1891 was 41 million tons, of
which 12 millions were exported. In 1892 the railways
carried 4^ million tons of timber, from which it would appear
that not less than 30 million tons were floated down the rivers
on rafts. There are at present 71,000 square miles of forest
leased to woodcutters, producing an annual revenue to the
Canadian Government of £600,000, say 3 pence an acre. The
value of timber felled is officially estimated at £16,500,000,
including what is exported, viz., £4,100,000 worth.
x
Ontario.
102,000
220,000
Quebec.
116,000
228,000
North-West.
1,032,000
2,862,000
Total
1,250,000
3,310,000
322 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The fisheries are the most extensive in the world, embracing
5600 miles on the Atlantic, and 7200 on the Pacific, sea-
board, besides 51,000 square miles of internal waters. In
twenty-five years ending 1894 the aggregate product has been
as follows : —
£ Sterling.
20,600,000
10,100,000
9,300,000
7,900,000
7,500,000
Cod .
Herring .
Lobsters .
Salmon
Mackerel .
Haddock, &c
23,700,000
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Quebec
British Columbia
Ontario
Prince Edward Is., £c.
£ Sterling.
34,800,000
15,100,000
10,400,000
7,700,000
5,100,000
6,000,000
Total .
. 79,100,000 i Total. . . 79,100,000
The fisheries in 1894 yielded £4,300,000, against £3,700,000
in 1884, the returns for 1894 showing as follows : —
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
British Columbia
Quebec
Ontario
Prince Edward Island, &c.
Total
Fishermen.
Take, £.
£ per Man.
25,500
1,360,000
53
11,700
910,000
78
12,700
820,000
64
12,100
480,000
40
4,200
340,000
81
4,500
400,000
89
61
. 70,700 4;310,000
The general average for Canadian fishermen is £61, against
£49 for the fishermen of the United States. The fish taken
in 1894 weighed 180,000 tons, being an average of 2| tons
per fisherman.
MANUFACTURES
In 1830 the manufacturing industry consisted of 1580
sawmills, 1090 other mills, and 7 foundries, besides 1300
domestic looms which turned out yearly 4 million yards of
woollen and linen stuffs : the output hardly summed up a value
of 5 millions sterling. In recent years the progress made
is shown by the last three census reports, viz. :-
Year.
1871
1881
1891
Operatives.
188,000
254,000
370,000
Wases, £,
8,100,000
11,900,000
20,700,000
Output, £.
46,000,000
64,100,000
98,200,000
Output pei-
Hand.
£244
252
265
CANADA 323
Textile factories consumed in 1891 over 7000 tons of wool and
20,000 of cotton, the value of goods produced being not quite
5 millions sterling. The various provinces show as follows : —
Capital, £.
Hands.
Wages, £.
Output, £.
Ontario
36,100,000
166,000
10,300,000
49,500,000
Quebec
24,300,000
117,000
6,200,000
31,200,000
Acadia
7,400,000
62,000
2,700,000
11,300,000
North-West.
5,200,000
25,000
1,500,000
6,200,000
Total . 73,000,000 370,000 20,700,000 98,200,000
The factories are valued at £35,600,000, say 36 per cent, of
the value of goods manufactured in a year, the ratio in this
respect in the United States being 33 per cent. The total
manufacturing output of Canada, as we have seen, rose from
64 millions in 1881 to 98 millions sterling in 1891, every
branch, except leather, showing a marked advance, viz. : —
18S1.
1891.
Food ....
£13,200,000
£19,800,000
Sawmills
. 11,100,000
\1, 500, 000
Clothing
. 8,500,000
13,800,000
Implements .
. 7,600,000
12,800,000
Furniture
. 5,200,000
9,300,000
Leather
. 7,600,000
7,200,000
Liquor ....
. 4,300,000
7,000,000
Sundries
. 6,600,000
10,800,000
There has been a rise of 19 per cent, in wages, namely from
£47 per hand in 1881 to £56 in 1891. If we compare wages,
cost of raw material, and value of output per hand, with the
same items in the United States, we find as follows : —
£ Sterling per Operative.
Wages. Raw Material. Output.
Canada .... 56 142 265
United States . . .101 228 415
The balance which remains to the factory-owner in Canada,
after paying wages and cost of raw material is £67 per hand,
in the United States £86, and it is out of this balance that he
must defray rent, motive-power, lighting, machinery, and all
other expenses.
324 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
MINING
The coalfields of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick yield 3
million tons yearly, besides 750,000 raised in the North-West
Territory ; the latter province contains one of the great coal-
fields of the world, covering an area of 65,000 square miles, as
large as the island of Great Britain. The production of coal
has doubled since 1883, but Canada still imports 3 million
tons from foreign countries. Gold is found in British Columbia
and Nova Scotia, but the annual production hardly reaches
£400,000, whereas it exceeded .£800,000 thirty years ago:
about 200,000 tons of auriferous quartz were crushed in
1895, which yielded 105,000 oz., equal to £2 per ton, or seven
times as much as the Russians obtain from the quartz of their
Siberian gold-mines.
The mineral product of 1895 compares with the average
for the years 1886-88 as follows : —
Quantity.
Value, £.
1886-88.
1895.
18S6-8S.
1895.
Coal, tons .
. 2,410,000
3,560,000
1,060,000
1,640,000
Gold, oz. .
66,000
105,000
250,000
400,000
Silver, ,, .
. 350,000
1,780,000
60,000
240,000
Nickel, Ibs.
3,500,000
280,000
Petroleum, brls.
'. 660,000
805,000
120,000
250,000
Lead, tons .
10,000
160,000
Sundries
1,110,000 1,730,000
Total ... 2,600,000 4,700,000
There are 15,000 miners, of whom 6000 in Nova Scotia,
5000 in British Columbia, and 4000 in Canada Proper. The
Nova Scotian colliers raised 404 tons each in 1895, as com-
pared with 448 tons per man (1893) in the United States.
COMMERCE
As regards foreign trade, it has quadrupled since 1851, and
imports have always been in excess of exports, a proof of the
prosperity of the colony : —
CANADA
325
Year.
1851
1894
Imports, £.
7,600,000
23,500,000
Exports, £.
5,200,000
24,500,000
Total, £.
12,800,000
48,000,000
The ratio of foreign trade to population is still very small,
only £10 per inhabitant, and would be fully double as much,
but for vexatious tariffs on the part of Canada. The returns
for five years ending December 1893 give the following
averages : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Great Britain .
United States .
Other countries .
Total .
Imports from.
. 9
. 11
. 4
. 24
Exports to.
11
9
1
21
Total.
20
20
5
45
Ratio.
44-4
44-4
11-2
100-0
Commercial relations with the mother country and the
United States are equal, those with other countries being
insignificant.
Shipping. — Canada has a larger merchant navy than many
of the kingdoms of Europe, with a carrying-power exceeding
1,500,000 tons, and representing a value of 7 millions sterling.
Its carry ing- power has quadrupled in half a century, viz. : —
Tons Register.
Year.
1841
1895
Steam.
5,000
250,000
Sail.
345,000
580,000
Total.
350,000
830,000
Tons of
Carrying-power.
365,000
1,580,000
Internal Trade. — This has nearly doubled in twenty-two
years, showing as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Agriculture
Manufactures
Minerals .
Forestry .
Fisheries .
Imports
1871.
30
46
1
12
2
16
Total 107
1894.
57
98
5
17
4
24
205
In 1894 the internal trade was equal to £40 per inhabi-
tant, against £44 in the United States.
326 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Railways. — The first line was opened in 1836, from Laprairie
on the St. Lawrence to St. John's, near Lake Champlain,
15 miles. The Grand Trunk line from Quebec to Toronto,
850 miles, was opened in 1856, and when the Dominion was
formed, in 1867, the total length of railways was 2260 miles.
Since then the Canadian Pacific and others to the length of
13,740 miles have been built, at a cost of 147 millions sterling.
The actual Grand Trunk system is an amalgamation of 24,
the Canadian Pacific of 21, lines. In June 1895 Canada had
16,000 miles, representing an outlay of 186 millions sterling,
of which 144 were supplied by shareholders, 32 by the
Dominion Government, and 10 by the local authorities.
The only State railway is the Intercolonial, 1350 miles. The
mileage and cost of the principal systems are as follows : —
Miles. £. £ per Mile.
Canadian Pacific . 6,170 65,500,000 10,700
Grand Trunk. . 3,160 69,600,000 22,100
Other lines . . 6,670 50,900,000 7,600
Total . . 16,000 186,000,000 11,600
The net product of all railways in 1895 was £2,910,000,
equal to 1^ per cent, on the cost of construction ; but if we
exclude Government subsidies, and consider only the share-
holders' capital of 144 millions sterling, it will be found a
little over 2 per cent. The traffic of 1895 comprised 14 million
passengers and 22 million tons of merchandise, which figures,
being compared with those for 1875, show an increase of 170
per cent, in passengers and 290 per cent, in goods traffic in
an interval of twenty years. The rolling-stock includes 2020
locomotives, of 600,000 horse-power. Traffic returns per mile
compare with those of United States thus : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £. Do. on Cap.
Canada . . 610 428 182 1'57
United States . 1,270 867 403 3'22
However inadequate as an investment the result may appear,
of the Canadian railways, they have been of incalculable
benefit in connecting the Atlantic provinces with the Pacific,
CANADA
327
and opening up to immigrants the vast prairies of the North-
West.
Navigable Routes. — The St. Lawrence and lake system of
inland navigation has a length of 2700 miles, the total* of
navigable rivers and canals in the Dominion being 3350 miles,
in the improvement of which a sum of 12 millions sterling
has been expended.
Banking. — The banking-power in 1893 was 56 millions,
against 15 millions sterling in 1868. The amount of paper-
money in circulation is 7 millions sterling.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the Canadian people are
approximately as follows : —
Earnings. Millions £. i Wealth. Millions £.
Agricultural
34
Land
230
Manufacturing
49
Cattle
47
Forestry
17
Implements, &c
28
Fisheries
4
Kail ways
186
Mining
5
Shipping
7
Trade
20
Factories
33
Transport
21
Houses
112
House-rent
7
Furniture
56
Domestics
5
Merchandise
103
Professions, &c.
21
Sundries .
201
Total . .- . 183 Total . . . 1,003
This gives an average of £36 yearly earnings, and £196 of
wealth, to each inhabitant, as compared with £44 and £234
respectively in the United States.
The earnings of the several provinces may be set down
thus : —
£ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Ontario
Quebec
Acadia
North-West
Total .
Agricul-
Manufac-
Trade,
"*•
£ per
ture.
tures.
&c.
Sundries.
Total.
Inhab.
19,400
24,700
20,100
22,600
86,800
41
5,800
15,600
10,800
16,200
48,400
33
3,100
5,600
6,000
13,600
28,300
33
5,700
3,100
4,100
6,600
19,500
54
34,000 49,000 41,000 59,000 183,000 36
328 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Land. — The official value of occupied lands, exclusive of public
lands, in the province of Ontario in 1887 was 131 millions
sterling, and this represented apparently 60 per cent, of the
landed value of the Dominion. A previous valuation of all
farming-land in Canada had been made in 1861, amounting to
102 millions sterling. The area and approximate value in
1891 compare with 1861 as follows: —
Ye:ir. Acres. £. £ per Acre.
1861 . . 13,060,000 102,000,000 7'8
1891 . . 60,500,000 230,000,000 3'8
The average price per acre has fallen more than 50 per
cent., which is not surprising, as the new farms in Manitoba
and the North-West include lands that are much cheaper than
in Canada Proper. The average value in the United States
at the census of 1890 ranged from £4'8 in the Southern, to
£13'1 in the Middle, States per acre, and was £7 '7 for the
whole Union, or 102 per cent, dearer than in Canada.
Houses. — Municipal assessments for 1893 show that house-
property has risen 130 per cent, in twenty years, showing as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Ontario. Quebec. Acadia. North-West. Total.
1873 . . 22-3 15-5 9'6 1-2 48'6
1893 . . 57-6 30-6 12'1 11-7 112'0
Toronto and Montreal make up just half the total, viz. : — •
Millions £ Sterling.
Year. Toronto. Montreal. Other Towns. Total.
1873 . . .9-5 13-1 26-0 48'6
1893 . . . 32-4 23-6 56'0 112-0
House-property in Toronto averages £180 per inhabitant,
as compared with £160 in London, and £218 in Paris. The
average value of house-property in the whole Dominion (in-
cluding factories) is £29 per inhabitant, as compared with
£62 in the United States.
Distribution. — The shares of wealth that correspond to the
several provinces are approximately as follows : —
CANADA
329
Millions & Sterling.
Farms
Railways .
Houses and factories
Furniture
Merchandise
Sundries .
Total
Ontario.
. 180
Quebec.
67
Acadia.
32
North-West.
26
Total.
305
. 75
36
29
46
186
75
41
16
13
145
. 29
16
6
5
56
. 51
28
13
11
103
. 106
50
25
27
208
. 516
238
121
128
1,003
Canada and Belgium are equal in point of wealth. The
province of Ontario in this respect comes close after Sweden,
and surpasses Denmark, Switzerland, and Portugal.
The ratios of earnings and wealth per inhabitant in the
several provinces are as follows : —
Ontario
Quebec
Earnings. Wealth.
£ £
. 41 244
33 159
Acadia
North-West
Earnings.
£
, 33
54
Wealth.
£
137
355
It happens in Canada, as in the United States, that the
newly-settled and thinly-populated western districts have
much higher ratios of earnings and wealth per inhabitant
than the older and more populous parts. It is also observable
that Quebec or Lower Canada, where the French population
is largest, has a much lower ratio than Ontario or Upper
Canada, the province in which Scotch predominate.
FINANCES
When the Dominion was created in 1867 the revenue was
less than 3 millions ; it is now nearly 8 millions sterling : the
budgets for 1868 and 1894 compare thus : —
Customs . .
Taxes, &c.
Total
Revenue, £
(OOO's omitted).
Debt . . .
Government
Total .
Expenditure, £
(OOO's omitted).
1868. 1894.
1,400 4,000
1,400 3,600
1868. 1894.
1,000 2,600
1,800 5,200
2,800 7,600
2,800 7,800
330 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Expenditure is really less than 7 millions sterling, as the
Treasury refunds a sum of £860,000 to the various provinces
in the form of subsidies, which average 40 pence per inhabi-
tant (although this is not uniform). The amount raised by
taxation is £6,200,000, to which must be added £1,600,000
for local taxes, thus summing up £7,800,000 or 4| per cent,
of the earnings of the people, and in this respect Canada com-
pares favourably with most countries. The incidence is by no
means equal, averaging 28 shillings in Acadia, 32 in Quebec,
and the same in Ontario, 30 in Manitoba, and 57 per inhabi-
tant in British Columbia, the difference being caused by local
taxes.
Debt. — When the Dominion was formed in 1867 local or
provincial debts were consolidated to the amount of 19 millions
sterling. . In July 1894 the Canadian debt was 64 millions
sterling, and represented 54 millions spent on public works,
viz., railways 30, canals 12, sundries 12 millions. The Inter-
colonial railway is the only one belonging to the Government,
and represents an outlay of 1 2 millions : if this were deducted
from the debt the latter would be reduced to 52 millions
sterling. There are, meantime, local debts that sum up
£25,200,000, so that the total net debt is 77 millions, say 7f
per cent, of national wealth, being the same ratio as in the
United Kingdom.
XXXII.
AUSTRALIA, CANADA AND ARGENTINA.
1 •-
i!
.0 «j
K
- o. »
K 1
105 *
V
3
C
u *
Commerc
o>
.5 -S
300 t-
« C
3
£
1 1
*=;
7ft
65
60
55
-,
A
25
BG A
1C
B(
; *
B(
: /
IB
•V
A
B
: A
BC A
BC A
JC
°0
10
A. Australia B. Canada C. Argentina
The column- of Debt represents the relative net Debt, after deducting value
of State Railways. That of Commerce as regards Australia excludes inter-
colonial trade. That of Railways refers to length.
XX
AUSTRALIA
THE Australian Heptarchy is the most modern of the Anglo-
Saxon nations, and its progress has been stimulated in the last
forty years by the production of gold and wool on a large
scale. Population has multiplied eight-fold since 1850, when
it was less than that of the State of Maryland, whereas it is
now nearly equal to that of the Kingdom of Holland. The
figures for 1895 and 1850 compare thus: —
Year. N. 8. Wales. Victoria. N. Zealand. Other Colonies. Australasia.
1850 . 189,000 76,000 63,000 182,000 510,000
1895 . 1,280,000 1,190,000 730,000 1,040,000 4,240,000
Although this rapid increase has been in a great measure
due to immigration the number of native Australians is more
than two-thirds of the population, the census of 1891 showing
the aliquot parts thus : Australians 69, British 20, Irish 7,
Foreigners 4, per cent. It is an extraordinary feature of
Australia that urban population exceeds rural, which occurs
in no other country but England. The census of 1891 showed
the urban ratio to be 66 per cent, in N. S. \Vales; 57 per cent,
in Victoria ; and 54 per cent, in the whole Australian group,
of the total population. The rapid growth of towns and cities
in new countries is an unfavourable circumstance, and as
Coghlan says "is a most unfortunate element in the progress
of Australia." For example the four principal cities have
grown as follows : —
Year. Sydney. Melbourne. Adelaide. Brisbane. Total.
1861 . . 96,000 140,000 18,000 6,000 260000
1893 . . 412,000 475,000 137,000 100,000 1,124,000
331
332 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
These four cities have in the aggregate more than quad-
rupled since 1861, and the rest of the population has not quite
trebled. The increase of population in the seven colonies from
1861 to 1894 was 2,847,000 souls of which 62 per cent, was
natural increase, 38 per cent, immigration, being made up
thus : —
New South New Other
Wales. Victoria. Zealand. Colonies. Australasia.
Nat. increase . 527,000 519,000 320,000 414,000 1,780,000
Immigration . 348,000 117,000 273,000 329,000 1,067,000
Total . 875,000 636,000 593,000 743,000 2,847,000
When we consider that the wealth of Australia consists
chiefly in its flocks, herds, and agricultural resources, it is
surprising to find what a small proportion of the people is
engaged in rural pursuits. The whole farming element is
only 24 per cent, of the working population, as compared
with 34 per cent, in United States and 47 per cent, in Canada.
The census of 1891 showed occupations as follows : —
Farming. Manufactures. Mining1. Various. Total.
Men. . 358,000 417,000 94,000 435,000 1,304,000
Women . 37,000 70,000 ... 209,000 316,000
Total 395,000 487,000 94,000 644,000 1,620,000
The working-power of Australia has trebled since 1870,
T71 7 •
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
, -^ — — ^ Foot-tons
Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. per Inhab.
1870 . . 170 2,350 520 3,040 1,550
1894 . . 370 5,310 3,300 8,980 2,210
Steam-power in 1894 consisted of: fixed 260,000, locomotives
385,000, and steamboats 180,000; in all 825,000 horse-power.
There is relatively less steam-power, as compared with popu-
lation, than in Canada : thus 1000 Canadians have 240, and
1000 Australians 202, horse-power. Nevertheless the ratio
of energy is higher in Australia, being as 2210 foot-tons per
inhabitant, against 1920 in Canada, which is explained by
the fact that the former country has a greater number of
horses than the latter.
AUSTRALIA
333
AGRICULTURE
Notwithstanding the predominance of pastoral interests
tillage is much attended to, and the cultivated area has mul-
tiplied ten-fold in thirty-one years, showing as follows : —
Acres.
Year.
1861
1892
N. S. Wales. Victoria.
298,000 422,000
1,370,000 2,470,000
N. Zealand. Other Colonies. Australasia.
225,000 595,000 1,540,000
9,590,000 2,810,COO 16,240,000
In 1861 the cultivated area was only 1 acre per inhabitant;
at present it is 4 acres. New Zealand is vastly ahead in this
respect, her area of tillage being much greater than that of
the six other colonies collectively, and equivalent to 14 acres
per inhabitant ; South Australia comes next, with an average
of 6 acres per head. Only one-third of the cultivated area is
under grain, the rest being under green crops, hay, &c. It
was necessary to import grain from Chili and United
States down to 1860, but since that year there has been
usually a surplus every year for exportation : the average
weight exported has quintupled since 1873, at present reach-
ing 320,000 tons, or one-fifth of the crop. The average area
and crops in 1893-94 were : —
Acres
Tons
Wheat.
4,010,000
920,000
Other Grain.
1,150,000
700,000
Total.
5,160,000
1,620,000
The crops are very light, the above two years showing an
average of 9 bushels an acre for wheat, and 24 for other grain.
Tillage products form only 30 per cent, of the annual value
of farming products, pastoral amounting to 70 per cent. ; the
total value of products in 1893 was : —
Wool.
Meat.
Dairy
Sundries
Pastoral
£22,400,000
8,200,000
6,700,000
11,100,000
Grain .
Hay .
Orchard
Sundries
48,400,000 ! Tillage
£9,600,000
4,800,000
2,600,000
4,500,000
21,500,000
334 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The prodigious pastoral wealth of Australia is of compara-
tively recent date, neither sheep, cattle nor horses being indi-
genous: the first were introduced by Captain Philip in 1788,
namely 5 cows and 29 sheep, but the real founder of sheep-
farming was Captain M'Arthur in 1797, who imported some
fine Merinos from Cape of Good Hope. The flocks increased
very rapidly, and in 1813 two farmers named Went worth and
Lawson crossed the Blue Mountains, 70 miles west of Sydney,
and settled in the locality where Bathurst now stands. In
1825 the whole Mudgee district was covered with sheep, the
colony then counting 237,000 head, and in ten years ensuing
numerous squatters settled on the plains watered by the
Murray River, near the present city of Adelaide, and in the
environs of Port Phillip, where now stand Melbourne and its
princely suburbs. The numbers of sheep and cattle at various
dates were as follows : —
1813. 1842. 1861. 1894.
Sheep . 53,000 6,310,000 23,740,000 121,200,000
Cattle . 25,000 1,010,000 4,040,000 13,310,000
The wool-clip rose from 6000 tons in 1842 to 300,000
in 1893, New South Wales producing at present one-half of
the total. Sheep-farming in New South Wales may be said to
be in the hands of two classes, the large and the small pro-
prietors, viz. : —
Class. Owners. Sheep. Average.
Large. . . 1,840 46,700,000 25,400
Small . . . 12,050 11,400,000 950
Total . . 13,890 58,100,000 4,200
Australian sheep-farms actually cover an area of 803 million
acres, of which 85 per cent. (686 million acres) are held by
squatter's lease from the Government. These squatters pay
1 penny per acre rent yearly, on leases for fifty years, with
right to purchase at any time. A squatter's run in Queens-
land averages 76,000, in South Australia 97,000, acres. It is
considered that the present area under sheep-runs could carry,
AUSTRALIA 335
at 300 per square mile, about 400 million sheep, or, allowing
for cows and horses, about 266 millions, which is more than
double the present number. No less than 60 per cent, of
Australia is still unoccupied, the whole tenure of land in the
seven colonies being shown as follows : —
Millions of Acres.
New South Wales
Freehold.
. 47
On Lease.
124
Unoccupied.
28
Total.
199
Queensland
South Australia
. 14
. 9
281
161
133
408
428
578
West Australia .
. 8
93
577
678
Victoria .
. 24
15
17
56
New Zealand
. 21
15
31
67
Tasmania .
. 5
1
11
17
Total. . . .128 690 1,205 2,023
The land system has so far been unfortunate : more than
80 per cent, of the occupied area is let to 19,000 squatter
capitalists at a penny an acre, and as regards lands held in
fee, more than three-fourths are in estates exceeding a thou-
sand acres. Some of the colonies, indeed, offer farm-lots to
settlers at prices ranging from 7 to 20 shillings per acre, pay-
able in instalments that stretch over five or ten years, but the
lands offered are perhaps unfavourably situated, as working-
men prefer to rent land from private owners : thus tenant
farms in South Australia cover 10,700,000, and in New Zealand
7,100,000, acres. The value of live-stock, according to Coghlan,
in 1892 amounted to 120 millions sterling, and the product of
pastoral industry to 48| millions. The total of farming pro-
ducts summed up almost 70 millions sterling, viz. : —
Crops, £.
Pastoral, £.
Total, £. £ per Inhab.
New South Wales
, 3,960,000
16,800,000
20,760,000 17-0
Victoria .
, 6,670,000
9,300,000
15,970,000 13-5
New Zealand .
. 4,840,000
9,280,000
14,120,000 21-0
Queensland
. 1,410,000
8,270,000
9,680,000 22-4
South Australia
. 3,330,000
3,090,000
6,420,000 18-5
Tasmania
. 1,030,000
1,060,000
2,090,000 13-5
West Australia
280,000
620,000
900,000 13-8
Total . . 21,520,000 48,420,000 69,940,000 17'3
336 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The value of farming products averaged £17 per inhabitant,
against £11 in Canada and £12 in the United States. The
product per hand engaged is much greater than in any other
part of the world, namely £160, as compared with £75 in the
United States, £50 in Canada, and £91 in the United King-
dom : there is, in fact, no form of rural industry that gives so
large a return per hand as the pastoral.
FORESTRY AND FISHERIES
These industries would appear of trifling importance if we
considered only the number of persons employed according to
the census of 1891, which did not exceed 14,400. But it
must be observed that here, as in Canada, the farmers and
others turn the forests to much advantage for domestic
purposes, such as fences and firewood. The following table
shows the forest area in five of the colonies, and the estimated
product, according to Coghlan, of forestry and fisheries in
1893 :—
Forest, Acres. Product, £.
New South Wales . . 19,200,000 1,500,000
Victoria .... 4,500,000 1,250,000
New Zealand . . . 18,500,000 1,130,000
Queensland . . . 130,000,000 760,000
South Australia . . . ... 280,000
Tasmania .... 7,200,000 340,000
West Australia . . . ... 290,000
Total . . . . ... 5,550,000
New Zealand and Western Australia export £600,000 worth
of forest products yearly, including £400,000 worth of Kauri
gum from the first-named colony. On the other hand, New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia import timber
for building to the value of £500,000 yearly. Deducting from
the above amount the value of the fishing industry, probably
£500,000, we find the forest product, say 5 millions sterling,
equivalent to no more than 6 pence per acre, as compared
with 5 shillings in the United States.
AUSTRALIA 337
MANUFACTURES
According to the census of 1891 there were 417,000 males
and 70,000 females engaged in manufactures in the seven
colonies. As regards the three great colonies we find there
were 126,000 factory operatives and 254,000 artisans, the
official returns of the factories showing thus : —
Operatives. Output, £. £ per Hand.
New South Wales . 46,000 16,600,000 360
Victoria . . . 54,000 22,400,000 415
New Zealand . . 26,000 8,800,000 340
Total . . . 126,000 47,800,000 380
There are no factory returns for the other four colonies.
If we allow £100 per head as the product of the rest of the
hands engaged in manufactures, the total value of goods pro-
duced yearly between factories and artisans will be as follows: —
Hands.
Output, £.
£ per Hand.
New South Wales
. 140,000
26,000,000
186
Victoria
. 168,000
34,000,000
202
New Zealand
. 72,000
13,300,000
184
Queensland
. 47,000
4,700,000
100
South Australia
. 38,000
3,800,000
100
Tasmania .
. 16,000
1,600,000
100
West Australia .
6,000
600,000
100
Total . . . 487,000 84,000,000 173
The above gives an average of £173 per hand, against £265
in Canada and £415 in the United States.
MINING
Gold was first discovered on February 16th, 1823, by Surveyor
M'Brien, at a spot on the Fish River, 15 miles east of
Bathurst, but the authorities deemed it advisable not to let
the fact be known to the public. In 1839 it was found in the
Vale of Clydd by Count Strelecki, who was requested by
Governor Gipps to keep the matter secret, lest it should lead
to disagreeable consequences. A third discovery took place
in 1841 by the geologist, Kev. W. Clarke, in Macquarie
y
338 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Valley. Finally, in 1851, a wandering English lawyer
named Hammond Hargraves, who had been a gold-digger in
California, found a rich vein near Bathurst, which quickly
attracted thousands of adventurers. A few weeks later valu-
able deposits were found at Ballarat and elsewhere, and in
July (1851) a nugget weighing 1270 ounces, worth £5000,
was taken out of the Turon diggings. In ten years, from the
date of Hargraves' discovery, the Australian gold-fields yielded
120 millions sterling, the Ballarat fields producing the biggest
nuggets, such as the Welcome in 1858, and the Stranger in
1869, worth respectively £8400 and £9500 sterling. The
value of gold produced in forty-four years to end of 1894
was as follows : —
Period.
1851-60
1861-70
1871-80
1881-90
1891-94
44 years. . 371,000,000 \ Total . . 371,000,000
However attractive gold-mining must always prove to a
large number of the human race, it has been on the whole a
business that hardly pays working expenses. Many of the
mines are over 2000 feet deep, and when a ton of quartz is
brought to the surface it yields only half an ounce of gold. If
we take the average yield per ton of the last five years, in the
several colonies, as that of the whole period, the quantity of
quartz raised and the product per ton will be as follows : —
Tons, Quartz. Gold, Oz. Oz. per Ton.
Victoria . . . 147,000,000 70,700,000 0'48
New Zealand . . 13,300,000 14,600,000 MO
Other colonies . . 21,800,000 22,900,000 1'05
£
£
118,000,000
Victoria
238,400,000
95,000,000
New Zealand
50,200,000
81,000,000
N. S. Wales
41,000,000
48,300,000
Queensland
35,000,000
28,700,000
W. Australia, &c.
6,400,000
Total . . . 182,100,000 108,200,000
The total quantity of gold produced was only 3000 tons, and
would fit in a room 30 feet square by 12 feet in height : the
quartz would suffice to build thirty pyramids such as that of
Cheops. It appears that 60,000 tons of quartz gave a ton of
AUSTRALIA 339
gold, being somewhat richer than Californian quartz, which
took 70,000 to a ton of gold. The year of greatest production
was 1856, when it reached a value of £13,200,000, declining
to £5,400,000 in 1886 ; but there has been a recovery since
then, the average for the last five years having been £7,200,000
or 52 tons of pure metal. The ordinary number of miners is
60,000, and the product per miner varies exceedingly, the
result, for example, in 1892 showing as follows : —
Miners.
Product. £.
£ per Man.
Victoria
23,500
2,620,000
Ill
Queensland .
8,700
2,150,000
247
New Zealand .
12,200
950,000
78
New South Wales, &c. .
15,600
1,110,000
71
Total . . . 60,000 6,830,000 114
The above gives an average product of £114 per man, or
less than two-thirds of the average product per hand on farms.
Silver. — The first discovery of this metal was in Victoria, in
1863, mixed with gold. It was found in New Zealand in
1869, and the following year in New South Wales. The
total value produced in thirty-one years, to end of 1893, was
£17,100,000, of which 95 per cent, was from New South
Wales. The product in 1893 reached 20 million ounces of
bar silver, valued at 3 millions sterling : the number of mines
was less than 5000, the product exceeding £600 per man.
Broken Hill, near the Darling River, which has proved one of
the richest silver mines in the world, was discovered in 1883
by a shepherd of Mount Gipps, named Charles Rasp : in eight
years down to December 1893 it gave a gross product of
£10,900,000, from which the dividends to shareholders
amounted to 7 millions sterling.
Copper was found at Kapunda, South Australia, in 1842,
and at Cobar, New South Wales, in 1876. South Australia
in the last fifty years has produced 250,000 tons of bar copper,
valued at 20 millions sterling ; New South Wales in seventeen
years 52,000 tons, worth 4 millions : and Queensland 30,000
tons, valued at 2 millions.
340 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Tin was discovered by Bass in 1798 on the north coast of
Tasmania, and by Rev. Mr. Clarke in 1853 in New South
Wales, but it was not until 1872 that the first mines were
opened, simultaneously, in New South Wales, Queensland, and
Tasmania. In the last twenty-one years the value of tin
raised was 16 millions sterling, the production showing in
aliquot parts as follows : New South Wales 36, Tasmania 35,
Queensland 25, and Victoria 4, per cent, of that sum.
Coal was first found in 1797 near Mount Keira, New South
Wales, by a derelict sailor named Clark, and again in 1846
at Irwin River, Western Australia. Mining began in New
South Wales in 1847, when 40,000 tons were raised, the pro-
duction rapidly rising to 4 million tons in 1891, and declining
since then. Coal-fields have likewise been opened in Queens-
land and New Zealand, the total Australian output in 1892
reaching 4,800,000 tons, which gives Australia the eighth
place among the coal-producing countries of the world. The
aggregate product since 1847 has been 69 million tons, valued
at 33 millions sterling. New South Wales gave 84, New Zea-
land 12, and Queensland 4, per cent, of the total. Coal-mining
seems a better industry than gold-mining : the colliers of New
South Wales in ten years ending 1893 averaged yearly 358
tons, value £155 per man, against £114 in gold-mining. The
supply of coal is now greater than home consumption, sea-
going steamers in 1893 taking no less than 750,000 tons.
The total mining product in fifty years to end of 1892 was
448 millions sterling, made up thus : —
Gold .
Coal
Copper .
Silver .
Tin
Sundries
Total
The value of minerals for the year 1894 was £14,000,000,
of which gold stood for £8,300,000 and silver for £2,600,000.
Millions £. Millions £.
371
Victoria
. 239
37
New South Wales
. 102
27
New Zealand
. 56
20
Queensland .
. 43
17
South Australia
. 23
3
Tasmania, &c.
. 12
, 475
Total . . .475
AUSTRALIA 341
COMMERCE
ID the trade returns each of the seven colonies treats its
neighbours as foreign countries, and thus the aggregate of
imports and exports rises to a fictitious figure. If the colonies
were confederated like Canada or the United States, this local
trade would not appear as international. The following table
shows the nominal trade returns : —
1861. 1873. 1893.
Imports . . 26,500,000 41,400,000 53,300,000
Exports . . 24,500,000 39,100,000 65,800,000
Total. . 51,000,000 80,500,000 119,100,000
Viewing Australia as one country, and eliminating inter-
colonial traffic, the transmarine trade shows as follows : —
1861. 1881. 1893.
Imports . . 18,500,000 33,300,000 27,800,000
Exports . . 16,600,000 31,200,000 40,000,000
Total . . 35,100,000 64,500,000 67,800,000
The following table shows the total trade for twenty years : —
Foreign, Millions £. Intercolonial, Millions £
Period. Imports. Exports. Total. Imports. Exports. Total.
1874-83 . . 320 291 611 180 153 333
1884-93 . . 376 349 725 256 243 499
20 years . 696 640 1,336 436 396 832
Imports exceeded exports down to 1891, but since the great
banking crisis of 1893 there has been a large surplus of
exports, that is to say, the balance of trade has been greatly
in favour of Australia. This is the surest sign, or the inevi-
table consequence, of a great calamity or public distress : the
same thing occurred, for example, as regards the trade of
France after the Franco-German War, and continued so until
1876. The transmarine trade of the colonies has increased
342 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
only 21 per cent, in twenty years, while the population has
more than doubled : the aggregate of imports and exports
in each colony (excluding intercolonial trade) shows as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
New South New South Queens-
Year. Wales. Victoria. Zealand. Australia, land, &c. Total.
1873. . 14-5 24-4 8'2 5'6 3'2 55'9
1893. . 22-4 17-1 13'2 7 '6 7'5 67'8
Victoria having adopted Protection her trade has declined
30 per cent., while the Free Trade policy of New South Wales
has resulted in an increase of 55 per cent. The total foreign
or transmarine trade of the last twenty years amounts, as we
have seen, to 1336 millions sterling, and the shares corre-
sponding to the several colonies show thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Ratio.
Victoria .
. 233
201
434
32-5
New South Wales
. 220
191
411
30-8
New Zealand
. 112
116
228
17-1
South Australia .
. 67
76
143
10-7
Queensland
. 46
40
86
6-4
Tasmania .
11
8
19
1-4
West Australia .
7
8
15
1-1
Total . . .696 640 1,336 100-0
There has been relatively a decline in recent years of the
trade relations with Great Britain : in the quinquennium of
1874-78 trade with the Mother Country was 79 per cent., in
that of 1889-93 only 76 per cent, of the total. The average
yearly in the two periods showed as follows : —
Increase.
With 1874-78. 1889-93. Per Cent.
Great Britain . . £45,400,000 £57,600,000 27
Other countries . 12,000,000 18,200,000 52
Total . . 57,400,000 75,800,000 32
Coasting or intercolonial trade has grown three times as
AUSTRALIA 343
fast as foreign trade in the same interval, as appears in the
annual averages, viz. : —
Increase
1874-78, £. 1889-93, £. per Cent.
Foreign . . 57,400,000 75,800,000 32
Intercolonial. . 28,800,000 54,600,000 90
Total . . 86,200,000 130,400,000 52
The shares which corresponded to the principal colonies in the
trade of the last period of five years showed as follows : —
Millions & Sterling.
New South South New Queens-
Wales. Victoria. Australia. Zealand, land, &c. Total.
Foreign . 24'6 22'0 8'0 13'0 8'2 75'8
Colonial 20"6 11'8 8'6 3'0 10'6 54"6
Total . 45-2 33'8 16'6 16'0 18'8 130'4
The average of foreign trade was £20 per inhabitant, against
£19 in the United Kingdom.
Shipping. — The merchant shipping of the seven colonies
sums up 370,000 tons register, with a carrying-power of
920,000 tons, or one-third of the merchant-navy of France.
Registered tonnage and carrying-power are shown as follows: —
New South New South
Wales. Victoria. Zealand. Australia, Ac. Total.
Tons register . 110,000 95,000 75,000 90,000 370,000
Carrying-power 275,000 245,000 195,000 205,000 920,000
It is remarkable that while Australian trade has only
doubled in thirty years port-entries have multiplied six-fold,
the tonnage of entries showing as follows : —
Tons.
Year.
1861
1892
Melbourne.
550,000
2,080,000
Sydney.
370,000
1,750,000
Other Ports.
530,000
4,800,000
Total.
1,450,000
8,630,000
Classifying the entries in 1892 it is found that transmarine
vessels constituted 36, colonial 64, per cent, of the total.
344 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Internal Trade. — This may be summed up as follows : —
£ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
-•"^
Manu-
Forestry,
Rural.
factures.
Mining.
<fec.
Imports.
Total.
N. S. Wales
20,800
26,000
4,900
1,500
8,200
61,400
Victoria
16,000
34,000
2,800
1,300
7,800
61,900
New Zealand
14,100
13,300
1,700
1,100
4,900
35,100
Queensland
9,700
4,700
2,700
800
3,600
21,500
South Australia
6,400
3,800
400
300
2,300
13,200
Tasmania .
2,100
1,600
700
300
700
5.400
W. Australia
900
600
800
300
500
3,100
Total
70,000 84,000 14,000 5,600 28,000 201,600
Railways. — The first was only 3 miles long, from Melbourne
to Hobson's Bay, opened in 1854 ; the second was in the
following year, from Sydney to Paramatta, 14 miles. Very
little was done in the way of construction before 1873, but in
the last twenty years more than 10,000 miles have been laid
down. In 1883 the New South "Wales and Victorian lines
met at the Murray River ; in 1886 Adelaide and Melbourne
were connected; and in 1888 Sydney and Brisbane, thus com-
pleting a continuous line of 1500 miles between the capitals
of South Australia and Queensland. It is proposed to connect
Adelaide with Perth, in Western Australia, and also to carry
a line across the continent, from Adelaide due north to Port
Darwin. It is unfortunate that there are three gauges in
use : that of 63 inches in Victoria, of 56J inches in New
South Wales, and of 42 inches in all the other colonies : as if
to increase confusion South Australia has the first and third
gauges, and New South Wales all three. The length of rail-
ways in 1893 was 3540 wide, 2360 medium, and 6860 miles
narrow gauge, in all 12,760 miles, all of which, except 800
miles, were State property. The sum expended on Government
lines was 122 millions sterling, and the loans contracted for
the purpose involve an annual burthen of £4,740,000, which
exceeds the net profits of the railways by £1,200,000: this
deficit is met by taxation, and is equal to an impost of 6
shillings per inhabitant, a trifle compared with the benefit
AUSTRALIA 345
caused by railways to the colonies. In 1893, according to
Coghlan, the ordinary charge for conveying goods 100 miles
was 13 shillings by rail and 100 shillings by team : the
goods traffic by rail in the preceding year was equivalent
to 9 million tons carried 100 miles, the freight on which at
the wagoner's charge would have been 45 millions sterling,
but as the State railways charged only £5,700,000, the
public was gainer to the amount of £39,300,000, equal to a
yearly dividend of 32 per cent, on the sum spent in con-
structing the lines, or to a bonus of £10 per head on the
whole population of the seven colonies. Although Australia
is mostly flat, some of the lines have had to surmount great
engineering difficulties : that over the Blue Mountains attains
a height of 3660 feet at Clarence, and the Sydney- Brisbane
line 4470 feet at Ben Lomond. The highest point in New
Zealand is 1250 feet over sea-level. The whole cost of con-
structing 13,620 miles down to 1894, between Government
and Companies' lines, has been 139 millions sterling, or
£10,200 per mile. Traffic is light, the averages per mile
being : —
Receipts, £. Expenses, &. Profit, £. Int. on Cap.
Australian . . 798 497 301 2'95
Canadian . . 713 503 210 1'75
Banking. — The condition of Australian tanks was gravely
affected by the crisis which burst like a tornado on April 5th,
1893. Of 24 banks that existed in March 1893, only twelve
were standing in May of the same year. Those which had
fallen owed the public 90 millions sterling, and were allowed
to reconstruct by means of calling up fresh capital and giving
bonds to depositors: in December 1894 one-third of the
deposits had been repaid. The paid-up capital of banks is
now £20,300,000, as compared with £15,700,000 before the
crisis. Bullion reserve amounts to £23,800,000, or £6 per
inhabitant, whereas the total of gold in Great Britain,
between banks and the public, is not quite £3 per inhabi-
tant. Banking - power is about 150 millions sterling.
346 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Deposits have multiplied eight-fold since 1861, showing as
follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
New South New South
Tear. Victoria. Wales. Zealand. Queensland. Australia, &c. Total.
1861 . 7-6 5-6 0-9 0'3 17 16'1
1894 . 43-7 38-4 18'4 127 15'0 128-2
At present the ratio of deposits to population is £37 per
head in Victoria, and £31 in New South Wales
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the seven colonies are shown approximately
as follows : —
£ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Manufactures
and
Trade and
House-
Professions,
Farming.
Mining.
Transport.
rent.
&c.
Total.
New S. Wales .
12,400
18,000
12,700
6,800
17,300
67,200
Victoria
9,600
20,400
12,900
7,300
15,600
65,800
New Zealand
8,500
8,200
7,100
2,300
8,000
34,100
Queensland .
5,800
5,100
4,400
1,900
5,900
23,100
South Australia .
3,900
2,300
2,700
1,300
3,800
14,000
Tasmania .
1,300
1,500
1,100
1,000
2,000
6,900
West Australia .
500
1,100
600
400
1.300
3,900
Total . . 42,000 56,600 41,500 21,000 53,900 215,000
The census report of 1891 estimates the earnings of the
colony of New South Wales at £66,400,000, or 1 per cent,
less than the figure in the above table : no official estimate
has been made with regard to the other colonies. The above
total for the seven colonies, showing 215 millions sterling,
gives an average of £51 per inhabitant, against £31xin
Canada and £44 in the United States. The ratios, oh
course, vary considerably in the seven colonies, that of
Victoria, for example, being 40 per cent, higher than that of
S. Australia.
AUSTRALIA 347
In the preceding table house-rent is set down at £21,000,000,
which is equal to £5 per inhabitant, as compared with £4
in Great Britain. The census of 1890 showed an average
rent of £5, 14s. in the colony of New South Wales, and the
Government statist, Mr. Coghlan, adopted for Australasia an
average of £5, 6s. Since then, however, property has declined
so notably that the house-rent of the seven colonies can hardly
exceed £14,000,000, or two-thirds of what it was in 1892.
If this be admitted the earnings of the people will be reduced
to 208 millions sterling, equal to £49 per inhabitant, that is
£5 more than in the United States.
Wealth. — In twelve years ending 1892 the number of deaths
which occurred in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria,
New Zealand, South Australia, and Tasmania was 500,300, and
the value of property which passed through the Probate Court
£152,200,000, that is an average of £304 each. Applying
this ratio to the population of the seven colonies in 1894,
namely 4,150,000, we 'find the wealth of Australia to be
approximately 1262 millions £ sterling, without counting
State railways and other public property (valued at 225
millions). It would appear, therefore, that in 1892 (the year
before the collapse of so many banks) the wealth of the seven
colonies was about 1450 millions sterling. Coghlan's estimate
in 1890 did not include railways and other public property,
the inclusion of which would have made the account stand
thus : —
Millions £.
Real estate 821
Cattle 120
Sundries 229
Public works .200
Total 1,370
We must, nevertheless, observe that a " boom " prevailed hi
1890, by which houses and lands appeared to be worth double
their real value : hence real estate must be taken at half
Coghlan's estimate, or 410 millions sterling. Making this
348 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
deduction the wealth of the seven colonies in 1895 sums up
1076 millions sterling, viz. : —
Millions £ Sterling,
N. S. Wales
Victoria
N. Zealand
Queensland
S. Australia
Tasmania .
W. Australia
Total . . 120 236 174 321 225 1,076
The average of earnings and wealth per inhabitant in the
several colonies is as follows : —
£ per Inhabitant. £ per Inhabitant.
Cattle.
Land.
Houses.
Sundries.
P. Works.
Total.
. 34
85
68
112
71
370
. 21
49
53
84
76
283
. 20
43
25
49
29
166
. 34
18
8
32
22
114
. 7
28
12
29
19
95
. 2
9
6
10
5
32
. 2
4
2
5
3
16
N. S. Wales
Earnings.
54
Wealth.
296
Earnings.
S. Australia . 40
Wealth.
271
Victoria .
56
236
Tasmania .
44
206
New Zealand
50
237
W. Australia
47
240
Queensland
52
253
Gen. average .
51
256
The Australian items of wealth, on the above basis, compare
with those of Canada as follows :—
Millions £. £ per Inhabitant.
Australia.
Canada.
Australia.
Canada.
Land
236
230
56
45
Cattle, &c. .
156
75
37
15
Houses .
174
112
41
22
Public Works, &c. .
510
585
122
114
Total . . 1,076 1,002 256 196
Land, — There are 132 million acres freehold, worth 236
millions, an average of 36 shillings per acre, as compared with
76 shillings in Canada and 154 in the United States. As
regards leased land, which is not included in the foregoing
estimates of wealth, there are 686 million acres let to squatters
at a penny an acre yearly, the capital value of which is said
AUSTRALIA 349
to be seventy times the said rent, or 6 shillings an acre, and
hence these lands represent 206 millions sterling, which is
almost identical with the sum total of public debt. The fore-
going statement of wealth, namely, 1076 millions, may be
considered the net wealth of Australia. Besides the freehold
and leased lands there are vast plains unoccupied and unpro-
ductive, which cover 1205 million acres, or 60 per cent, of the
total area; for all practical purposes they may be considered
worthless, although they may some day prove of value.
Houses. — The estimated rental in 1892, according to Coghlan,
was £20,900,000, equal to 106 shillings per inhabitant, taking
all seven colonies in the aggregate : this was equivalent to a
capital value of 348 millions sterling, and if we deduct one-
half, on account of the inflation before the crisis, as already
explained, the real value of house-property will now be 174
millions. The rental as given by Coghlan, and the present
value on the reduced estimate, are shown thus : —
Rental, £. Value, £. Population. £ per Inhab.
Sydney . 6,070,000 50,600,000 412,000 124
Melbourne . 6,950,000 58,000,000 475,000 122
Other towns 7,850,000 65,400,000 1,323,000 50
Total . 20,870,000 174,000,000 2,210,000 79
The ratios of house-property per inhabitant in Sydney and
Melbourne (even at the above reduced valuation) are nearly
as high as in Paris or London. The magnificence of those
cities strikes the visitor with amazement. The Parliament
House of Melbourne covers 2 acres, and Menzies Hotel cost
£150,000, while the adjoining pile of building cost £490,000.
Sydney is equally superb in public and private edifices, having
1520 miles of streets and boulevards, with 82,000 houses.
The house-property of the Australian colonies, at the reduced
estimate, constitutes 17 per cent, of total wealth, as compared
with 21 per cent, in France and the same in the United
Kingdom.
1865.
1894.
1865.
1894.
3,200,000
7,700,000
40
38
2,600,000
4,000,000
32
20
900,000
9,400,000
11
46
2,300,000
8,100,000
30
39
350 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
FINANCES
Revenue has trebled in thirty years, viz. : —
Amount £. Shillings per Inhab.
1865
Customs .
Lands
Railways
Taxes, &c.
Total . . 9,000,000 29,200,000 113 143
Thirty years ago almost 30 per cent, of the revenue was
derived from lands; at present this source gives less than 14
per cent, of the total, yet the finances of the colonies have
suffered no derangement or inconvenience. The land-sales of
ten years ending December 1893 summed up nearly 20 million
acres, and realised 22 millions sterling, an average of 22
shillings per acre. The total of sales from the commencement
down to December 1893 was : —
N.S.Wales. Victoria. N.Zealand. Queensland, &c. Total.
Acres . 24,100,000 16,900,000 20,700,000 29,800,000 91,500,000
Price, £. 36,700,000 25,600,000 13,500,000 21,200,000 97,000,000
The lands leased to squatters, as already stated, cover 686
million acres, and are estimated at 206 millions £, or 6 shillings
per acre, whereas the above realised 21 shillings. Meantime
the leased lands bring in a rental of .£1,950,000, being an
average of £2 per square mile yearly. The revenues of the
colonies in 1894 were as follows : —
£ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Customs.
Lands.
Railways.
Sundries.
Total
N. S. Wales
. 2,130
2,210
3,250
2,950
10,540
Victoria .
. 1,720
500
2,710
1,790
6,720
N. Zealand
. 1,660
310
1,180
1,500
4,650
Queensland
. 1,080
590
930
740
3,340
S. Australia
500
230
1,010
790
2,530
Tasmania .
290
60
150
200
700
W. Australia
330
100
140
110
680
Total. . 7,710 4,000 9,370 8,080 29,160
AUSTRALIA 351
Debt. — The rapid increase of debt in the last twenty years
has given rise to frequent and unfounded alarms as to the
solvency of these colonies : it has more than quadrupled since
1874 v\7 •
j.o«-±, viz,.. Amount, £. £. per Inhab.
1S74.
1894.
1874.
1894.
New South Wales
10,500,000
58,100,000
20
47
Victoria .
12,500,000
47,300,000
16
40
New Zealand .
13,400,000
39,800,000
40
59
Queensland
5,200,000
32,100,000
35
74
South Australia
3,000,000
22,600,000
14
65
Tasmania .
1,500,000
7,600,000
14
50
West Australia
100,000
2,900,000
4
44
Total. . . 46,200,000 210,400,000 21 52
No other country in the world has ever had a debt of £52
per inhabitant, the highest on record having been that of the
United Kingdom after Waterloo, £48 per head : the average
of European debts at present is only £15 per head. But, in
the first place, it is right to note that 60 per cent, of the
Australian debt is represented by State railways, which give a
net profit of 3 per cent, on their cost. Deducting the capital
expended on these railways, the Australian debt is reduced to
84 millions sterling, or £20 per inhabitant, a lower ratio than
we have in the United Kingdom between national and local
debt. Secondly, the public lands now leased to squatters are
certainly worth over 200 millions, and may be considered to
cover the whole debt of Australia. Thirdly, the wealth of
Australia averages £256 per inhabitant, so that even deducting
the gross debt, £52 per head, there is still a balance of £204,
which ratio is unequalled in any other country of the world.
Fourthly, the annual burthen of debt, after deducting the net
product of railways, is only £5,400,000 per annum, or 27 per
cent, of the revenue (excluding railway receipts), whereas the
service of debt in Great Britain takes 30, in Canada 33, and
in France 39 per cent, of the total revenue.
Incidence. — The incidence of taxation and debt is light.
The amount raised yearly by taxation is only £10,700,000,
which is only 5 per cent, of the earnings of the people, the
352 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
incidence in the United Kingdom being over 8 per cent. The
net debt, as shown above, is only 84 millions sterling, or 9 per
cent, of the net wealth of the colonies, as compared with 8i
per cent, in the United Kingdom. It is true, meantime, that
the incidence of taxation and debt varies exceedingly in the
seven colonies, as compared with earnings and wealth. If we
put aside all State railways, and count them neither among
assets nor liabilities, the net wealth and debt of the Colonies
stand thus : —
Millions £. Millions £.
, * , Debt , * , Tax
Wealth. Debt. Ratio. Earnings. Taxation. Ratio.
New South Wales. 331 19 57 67'2 2'83 4'2
Victoria . . 245 10 4'1 65'8 2'60 4'0
New Zealand . 150 25 16'6 34'1 2'39 7'0
Queensland 97 15 15'5 23'1 1'35 57
South Australia . 79 9 1T4 14'0 076 5'5
Tasmania 28 4 14-3 6'9 0'41 6'0
West Australia 13 2 15'3 3'9 0'36 9"2
Total . . 943 84 8'9 215'0 1070 5'0
The incidence of debt, it will be seen, is much greater in
New Zealand and Queensland than in the other colonies. The
incidence of taxation is less uneven, and may be said to range
from 5 to 8 per cent., Western Australia being exceptional.
There are few countries in the world where the incidence of
taxation is so low as in the Australian colonies, and if the
occasion called for it, the people could readily pay taxes to the
amount of 20 millions sterling, or double what they pay at
present.
In the foregoing statement of debt no account is taken of
municipal and other local debts, amounting to 30 millions
sterling. If these were included, the net debt of Australia
would be over 10 per cent, of wealth.
XXI
CAPE COLONY, as it was originally called, comprises the terri-
tory south, of Orange River, having the Indian Ocean for its
eastern, the Atlantic for its western, boundary, and covering
an area of 241,000 square miles, that is larger than the
German Empire. This includes Natal, which was detached in
1856, but may be considered, for the sake of continuity, as if
still forming a part of Cape Colony. There is an abundance
of wood, water, and prairie, and British South Africa enjoys a
great advantage over Australia and Canada in the fact that
no part of its territory is more than 400 miles from the sea-
board. The first batch of British settlers, mostly Scotch,
arrived at Cape Town in 1820, and many others followed from
time to time, but it was the discovery of the Kimberley
diamond-fields in 1867 that first gave importance to this part
of the world. Population has quintupled since 1850, viz. : —
Year. Whites. Blacks. Total.
1850 . . 95,000 310,000 405,000
1893 . . 1,000,000 1,230,000 2,230,000
There are four towns, Cape Town, Kimberley, Port Eliza-
beth, and Durban, with an aggregate of 160,000 souls, or 7
per cent, of the total, most of the population being engaged
in farming.
The census of 1850 showed a surplus of females, as 116 to
100 males, but that of 1891 gave the sexes as equal.
The working-power is 1900 millions of foot-tons daily, one-
fifth being supplied by steam, which amounts to 100,000
horse-power, and of this nearly nine-tenths consist of railway
locomotives.
353 Z
354 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
AGRICULTURE
Pastoral interests predominate, South Africa being specially
suited thereto. In the eighteenth century the Dutch Boers
had flocks and herds that covered an area of 20 million acres,
their first effort to improve the breed of sheep being the
introduction of some Merinos, part of a flock presented to the
Stadtholder by the King of Spain. Cape wool made its first
appearance in London in 1810, a small invoice of 10- tons,
which was so well received that sheep-farming progressed
rapidly : the wool export in 1833 rose to 500 tons, and now it
exceeds 40,000, including 11,000 from Natal, the first ship-
ment from the latter colony having been in 1861. The breed
of sheep has been greatly improved in recent years, the average
weight of fleece being a little over 5 Ibs., as compared with 3^
in 1865. Live-stock of all descriptions has increased very
notably in the last fifty years, though by no means on a par
with Australia or Argentina : the figures show as follows : —
Year. Cattle. Sheep. Goats. Horses.
1840 . . 307,000 2,340,000 390,000 57,000
1893 . . 2,690,000 17,750,000 5,960,000 430,000
.Angora goats were introduced from Smyrna in 1860 and
crossed with native goats, and although the industry made
little progress during twenty years it has advanced so rapidly
since 1880 that it promises to rival sheep-farming in import-
ance : the export of hair in 1894 reached 4500 tons, valued at
£450,000. Ostrich-farming is another industry to which
much attention has been paid, although the price of feathers
is now hardly one-fifth of what it was twenty years ago : the
progress in the interval is shown thus : —
Tear. Ostriches. Feathers, Ibs. Value, £.
1874 . . . 22,000 37,000 210,000
1894 . . . 230,000 350,000 480,000
In 1894 the number of cattle and sheep farms was 16,200,
covering an area of 84 million acres, that is an average of
5200 acres, the average stock of each farm being 27 horses.
SOUTH AFRICA 355
170 cows, 370 goats, and 1100 sheep. Only 5400 of the farms
were held in fee, and these comprised 24 million acres, the
rest being squatters' runs, to an extent of 60 million acres.
Tillage has always been a secondary occupation, and may
be said to date from the settlements of Scotch ploughmen
made by Lord Liverpool, in 1820, at Uitenhage, Albany, and
Somerset, which were thus described by an English traveller
in 1843 : "These settlements cost the British Government
£50,000, and what is the result after twenty-three years?
We behold the desert converted into a garden ; towns,
villages, and hamlets where before was a cheerless solitude;
the busy hum of industry on all sides ; just laws, education,
and religion spreading their benefic influence around, while
the shipment of products exceeds a value of £100,000. There
is no brighter example in the whole world of a prosperous
group of settlers." The total area under crops in 1893, be-
tween Cape Colony and Natal was 1,540,000 acres, of which
90 per cent, was under grain : the supply of grain is, of
course, far short of requirements, but the deficit is not so
great as it was ten years ago. Thus in 1883 the consumption
was 220,000 tons, of which 74,000 were imported; and in
1893 it was 310,000 tons, of which 60,000 were imported: in
other words the inhabitants ten years ago lived on imported
grain during four months in the year, whereas the importa-
tion in 1893 was only equal to a supply for seventy days.
This shows that in spite of diamond-fields, gold-fields, and other
attractions tillage is making steady progress. At one time,
some forty years ago, it was expected that wine-growing
would prove very successful, as the climate and soil were most
favourable: even in the eighteenth century the Constantia
vineyards, near Cape Town, were famous for a wine equal to
Malaga. The hope has not been realised, the export having
declined to a small fraction of what it was then, viz. : —
1858. 1894.
Gallons .... 950,000 85,000
Value, £ . . . . 140,000 19,000
356 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
This decline is the more to be regretted as Algeria, where
the first vines were planted in 1856, now produces 80 million
gallons yearly. Cape vineyards at present cover 30,000 acres,
and produce 4| million gallons, an increase of 1 million over
1875. The value of farming products is approximately as
follows : —
Cape, £,. Natal, £. Total, £.
Wool . . 1,600,000 500,000 2,100,000
Grain . . 1,000,000 400,000 1,400,000
Sundries . . 3,400,000 1,100,000 4,500,000
Total. . 6,000,000 2,000,000 8,000,000
The agricultural capital is approximately 65 millions ster-
ling, of which 51 pertain to Cape Colony and 14 to Natal, and
the value of products is as 12^ per cent, on capital, against 18
in Australia, and 19 per cent, in Canada.
MANUFACTURES
In 1834 there were in the colony 170 mills and factories,
the output of which would hardly reach £200,000. In 1891
there were 2230 factories, with 33,000 hands and valued at
£1,560,000. The output of flour-mills, breweries, tanneries,
and other factories in the same year was estimated at
£4,900,000, equal to £150 per hand employed. Manufac-
tured goods are imported to the yearly value of 6 millions,
which shows the consumption to reach 11 millions, or £5 per
inhabitant.
MINING
Coal was the first mineral discovered in the colony, in some
borings at Wynberg, near Cape Town, in 1845. Thirty years
later an English Company obtained a concession from the
Government of Natal to work coal-fields near Durban, which
now produce 200,000 tons yearly, or nearly half the quantity
consumed in the two colonies, the rest being imported from
England.
SOUTH AFRICA 357
Copper was found in 1850, and the value exported since 1868
reaches 9^ millions sterling : the year of greatest production
was 1888, viz., 40,000 tons ore, value £900,000, declining in
1894 to 27,000 tons, value £300,000.
Diamonds were found in 1867 at Kimberley on Vaal River,
400 miles north of Port Elizabeth, but no rush of diggers
occurred till 1869, when a diamond of 83 carats, worth £100,
was found, and since then the product of twenty-five years
has been as follows : —
Perio^. Value £,. Carats. £ Yearly.
1869-83 . . 28,900,000 ... 2,050,000
1884-94 . . 40,500,000 32,300,000 3,700,000
25 years . 69,400,000 ... 2,800,000
There are usually 18,000 miners, half whites, half Basutos,
and the yearly product averages £220 a man. The highest
price for one of these diamonds was £11,000, paid in November
1872 for the Stewart diamond, weighing 228 carats, this being
the fourth diamond in the world, as regards size. The quality
of these diamonds has improved in late years, the value per
carat since 1890 averaging 26 shillings, as compared with 22
shillings in the years 1884-86. The yield of the diamond-
fields reached its highest point in 1888, namely 3,800,000
carats, worth £4,020,000, declining to 2,500,000 carats, value
£3,010,000, in 1894. The effect of these diamond-fields has
been to cause all the diamonds in the world to fall one-third
in value since 1875. It will probably be many years before
they can be exhausted, as they extend some miles over the
West Griqualand border into the Orange Free State. The
total mineral product of Cape Colony and Natal is about
£4,200,000 per annum.
COMMERCE
The foreign trade has nominally quintupled since 1860, viz. : —
Tear. Imports, £. Exports, £. Total, £.
1860 . . . 3,000,000 2,200,000 5,200,000
1894 . . . 13,800,000 14,900,000 28,700,000
358 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The returns for 1894, however, are artificial, since they
include an important transit trade with the Transvaal and
Orange State Republics. Exports, for example, include gold
bullion and dust to the value of £7,400,000. The real trade
of Cape Colony and Natal is about 11 millions imports and
7 millions exports, together 18 millions sterling, or £8 per
inhabitant.
Shipping. — The colonists own 53 sea-going vessels, with an
aggregate of 5000 tons register, and 15,000 tons carrying-
power. Port entries, excluding coast-trade, reach 2,400,000
tons, about 90 per cent, being British.
Internal Trade. — This amounts to about 28 millions, namely,
agricultural products 8, manufactures 5, mining 4, and imports
11, millions sterling.
Railways. — The first line, 64 miles long, was opened in 1873,
and the total length open in December 1893 was 2840 miles,
representing a cost of £27,700,000, or £9700 per mile. The
lines all belong to the State, except one of 200 miles, the
State lines including 400 miles in Natal. In 1895 the main
trunk line from Cape Town was prolonged across Orange Free
State to Johannesburg, the chief town in the Transvaal or
South African Republic, a length of 700 miles. The Natal
has also been completed from Durban to Johannesburg, 480
miles. The Cape lines cost £8800, those of Natal £15,000, per
mile. The State lines give 5^ in the Cape, 3£ per cent, in
Natal, equal to almost 5 per cent. (4'8) over all. Traffic
returns for the two colonies showed thus, per mile : —
Cape, £. Natal, £. General, £.
Receipts . . . 1,140 1,200 1,150
Expenses ... 670 670 670
Profit .... 470 530 480
The above are for State railways, no returns being pub-
lished for the Company's line of 200 miles.
Banks. — Banking-power amounts to about 9 millions ster-
ling, the deposits in banks summing up 8|- millions, that is,
6J for Cape Colony and 2 millions for Natal.
SOUTH AFRICA
359
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings of the people are approximately as follows : —
Cape, &.
Natal, £.
Total, £.
Agricultural .
3,600,000
1,200,000
4,800,000
Manufacturing
2,400,000
200,000
2,600,000
Mining .
4,000,000
200,000
4.200,000
Trade . . „
2,400,000
400,000
2,800,000
Transport
2,500,000
400,000
2,900,000
House-rent
1,100,000
300,000
1,400,000
Domestics
700,000
200,000
900,000
Public service
2,600,000
500,000
3,100,000
Professions
1,900,000
400,000
2,300,000
Total
21,200,000 3,800,000 25,000,000
This is an average of only £11 per head, but it must be
borne in mind that 55 per cent, of the population are negroes,
to whom, if we allot one -fourth of the total earnings, the
balance left for the whites will be .£18,700,000, or nearly £19
per head, against £37 in Canada.
Wealth. — In 1834 the colony was valued by Pebrer at
£6,400,000. There was an official valuation of houses and
lands in 1883 for Cape Colony (without Natal) which amounted
to £37,800,000. The total wealth in 1894 was approximately
as follows : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Lands
Cattle, &c.
Railways
Houses .
Merchandise
Sundries .
Total
118
32
150
Lands. — About four-fifths of the area is bush, the occupied
lands covering 29 million acres, representing approximately
a value of 35 millions sterling, viz. : —
Acres .
Value, £
Tillage.
1,540,000
7,700,000
Pasture.
27,500,000
27,500,000
Totat
29,040.000
35,200,000
360 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Government land may still be bought in Cape Colony at a
shilling an acre, far in the interior, all the best land having
been taken long since; but the State lands of Natal cannot
be purchased under 10 shillings an acre, as they have the
advantage of proximity to seaports, no part of this colony
being over 200 miles from the seaboard. In the above
estimate of lands, based on the Government valuation of
1883, are not included 60 million acres of Crown lands
leased to squatters, which may represent a value of 10 millions
sterling, nor 70 million acres of forest and desert, practically
valueless.
Hoitses. — The house-property of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth,
and Kimberley, in 1883 was of the assessed value of £8,600,000,
and will probably now reach 10 millions sterling.
FINANCE
The collective revenue of the two colonies rose from £800,000
in 1860 to £6,300,000 in 1894, amounting in the latter year
to £5,300,000 for Cape Colony and £1,000,000 for Natal.
One-half of the total revenue proceeds from railways, the other
from taxes and public lands. The sum raised by taxation is
£2,200,000, say 9 per cent, of the earnings of the people.
The product of leased lands is about a penny an acre, the
same as in Australia.
Debt. — This has nearly trebled since 1880, having arisen
mostly from expenditure in constructing State railways. The
amount was as follows : —
Tear. Cape, £. Natal, £. Total, £.
1880 . . 11,400,000 1,600,000 13,000,000
1894 . . 27,700,000 8,100,000 35,800,000
The ratio of debt per inhabitant is £16, but if the cost of
State railways be deducted the debt will be found not to
exceed 9 millions, or £4 per inhabitant. The reduced debt is
equal to 7 per cent, of the wealth of the colony.
XXII
AKGENTINA
THIS is the most important of Spanish-American republics,
forming a confederacy of fourteen States and nine Territories,
with an area six times as large as France, and a population of
4,000,000 souls, viz. : —
Sq. Miles. Population. Per Sq. Mile.
Buenos Ayres . . 106,000 1,584,000 15
Santa F<§ . . . 36,000 404,000 11
EntreRios . . . 38,000 302,000 8
Other States . . 1,030,000 1,680,000 1
Total . . . 1,210,000 3,970,000 3
The census of 1869 showed a population of 1,837,000, and
the increase since then is supposed to be made up of 770,000
immigrants and 1,363,000 surplus of births over deaths. The
actual number of immigrants in the interval was 1,810,000,
but of these it is supposed that 58 per cent, died or returned
to Europe. Natural increase is estimated at 52,000 souls
yearly during the said period of twenty-six years, which is
equal to 16 per thousand inhabitants, against 21 in Australia,
and 14 in Canada.
The foreign-born population is about 18 per cent, of the
total, comprising 450,000 Italians and 320,000 of other
nationalities, among the latter being 25,000 British subjects.
In the provinces of Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, and Santa F£
there are 122 males to 100 females, the result of immigration,
the records of thirty years showing that the sexes of arrivals
were as 73 males to 27 females : in the Upper Provinces the
number of females exceeds that of males. The city of Buenos
361
362 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Ayres is abnormally large for a country of 4 millions of people,
its population being as one-sixth of the republic, and having
risen from 177,000 in 1869 to 663,000 in 1895. It is not
only the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere, but has no
rival in America outside the United States, its growth having
been unhealthily stimulated in late years by the creation of
1240 large factories, under the Protective tariff introduced in
1878, and in this way a numerous proletarian population has
sprung up. At the same time there are seven of the fourteen
provinces so sparsely settled that there are not five inhabitants
to the square mile.
Twenty years ago tillage was in its infancy, the rural
interests of the republic being then almost wholly pastoral :
in 1895 the value of pastoral products held the second place.
The area under crops is shown as follows : —
Year. Wheat. Sundries. Total.
1874 . . 270,000 550,000 820,000
1894 . . 7,300,000 5,150,000 12,450,000
Down to the year 1880 the population subsisted mainly on
United States flour, the home-grown crop hardly sufficing for
two months' supply. There has been an increasing surplus of
grain for exportation during the last ten years, the shipments
for the quinquennium 1889-93 averaging 920,000 tons of grain
yearly, three-fourths wheat. The tillage area in 1894 was ap-
proximately as follows : — Acres
Wheat. Sundries. Total.
Buenos Ayrea . . 2,420,000 3,120,000 5,540,000
Santa Fd . . . 3,800,000 900,000 4,700,000
Other provinces . . 1,080,000 1,130,000 2,210,000
Total . . . 7,300.000 5,150,000 12,450,000
It cannot be said that Argentina is specially suited for
agriculture : the soil of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe", Entre Rios,
ARGENTINA 363
Corrientes, Misiones, Tucuman, and Salta is extremely fertile,
but these provinces are subject alternately to drought and
locusts. Even in good seasons the crops are light, wheat
rarely exceeding 10 bushels per acre, except in the small zone
of irrigated lands in Mendoza and San Juan, where a yield of
30 bushels is not uncommon. Vineyards have doubled in area
and production in the last ten years, at present covering
100,000 acres, and producing 15 million gallons of wine. This
suffices for about half the consumption, which averages 7
gallons per inhabitant: there is also a large industry in the
manufacture of artificial wines, of so deleterious a character
that physicians consider the death-rate is much increased by
this cause. Sugar was little cultivated before 1880, but the
import duty of 100 per cent, ad valorem has favoured home-
production, which now reaches 60,000 tons, Tucuman standing
for two-thirds of the total. Lucerne or Alfa is a crop of
great importance, covering 2 million acres, in which sheep
and cattle are fattened for local markets or Chile, as well as
for the business of exporting frozen sheep to England. All
the most improved agricultural machinery from United States
and England is in use, the tillage farms being in the hands
of 300,000 Italian, Swiss, and German settlers. It is not
uncommon to see a wheat-field of 5000 acres, the owner of
which probably landed at Buenos Ayres without a dollar, not
more than twenty years ago. Most of the grain-farms, how-
ever, are 60-acre lots taken up since 1885 by settlers who had
no capital, on condition of giving the owner of the land half
the crop during ten years, after which the land becomes the
settler's property. Sometimes the owner prefers to sell the
land to the settler at £1 per acre, payable in instalments
extending over five or ten years, with interest at 6 per cent.,
or else he lets the land at 2 shillings an acre. This last
method is not considered advisable, as the tenant after a few
years throws up the land. Experienced farmers say that it
pays them well to sell their wheat at the nearest railway
station at £4 a ton, say 16 shillings the English quarter,
364 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
which means a yield of 1 pound sterling an acre, as it usually
takes 4 acres to produce a ton.
Pastoral industry is better suited to the country : it has
been the source of its prosperity, and is less exposed to locusts
and bad seasons than tillage, besides yielding a larger product,
as measured by value, to the number of men employed. Com-
paring the figures for 1894 with those for 1864 we find that
cattle have doubled, sheep nearly quadrupled, in the interval: —
Year. Horses. Cows. Sheep. Value, £,.
1864 . 3,870,000 10,220,000 23,110,000 31,800,000
1894 . 4,440,000 22,870,000 80,220,000 51,500,000
The above seems to show a satisfactory increase, and yet
the relative decadence of pastoral interests is indisputable : for
example, the value of live-stock in 1864 was equivalent to
£20 per inhabitant, and now it is only £13. The flocks
increased six-fold in twenty years ending 1870, but in the last
twenty-five years they have not quite doubled. There are
millions of acres in the Pampas suitable for sheep-farming,
which could carry 200 millions of sheep, were it not for a
school of pseudo-economists at Buenos Ayres who decry pas-
toral industry, and endeavour to turn all the energies of the
nation to tillage and manufactures. The foremost pastoral
provinces are Buenos Ayres and Entre Eios, viz. : —
Buenos Ayres. Entre Rios. Other Provinces. Total.
Cattle . 9,600,000 4,100,000 9,170,000 22,870,000
Sheep . 63,800,000 5,600,000 10,800,000 80,200,000
The export of wool rose from 9000 tons in 1850 to 61,000
in 1870, and at present averages 160,000 tons: this gives a
ratio of 4^ Ibs. fleece, as compared with 5| in Australia. But
as River Plate wool is so dirty that when washed it gives only
35 per cent, of its weight, while Australian gives 55 per cent.,
it comes to pass that 100 Argentine sheep give 160 Ibs. of
washed wool, and 100 Australian 300 Ibs., or nearly double.
Nevertheless, sheep-farming in Argentina has some great
advantages over the same business in Australia. The ordinary
sheep-run in the Pampas carries 1200 sheep to the square
ARGENTINA 365
mile, in Australia only 300; the price of pasture land in
Argentina averages £60 per square mile, in Australia £400 ;
and whereas water is often scarce in Australia it may be
found anywhere in the Pampas at a depth not exceeding 30
feet. Most of the best sheep-farms of Buenos Ayres are those
of Irish and Scotch settlers: as Consul Cowper said in his
report (1872): "To the Irish settlers is chiefly due the pro-
gress of Buenos Ayres in pastoral interests," and for the same
reason Governor Saavedra declared the Irish sheep-farmers
" Benemer,itos de la Patria." Many of them have from
50,000 to 100,000 sheep. Cattle-farming is mostly in the
hands of Argentines, an ordinary farm or estancia of 100
square miles having usually 10,000 head of horned cattle and
2000 wild horses, the cattle divided into herds of 2000, and
requiring two men for each herd. The total value of tillage
and pastoral products is 46 millions sterling, viz. : —
Home
Product, £.
Consumption, £.
Export, £.
Grain .
15,000,000
9,200,000
5,800,000
Sundries
9,000,000
8,500,000
500,000
Wool .
8,000,000
100,000
7,900,000
Meat .
9,700,000
7,300,000
2,400,000
Hides, &c.
4,300,000
2,500,000
1,800,000
Total . 46,000,000 27,600,000 18,400,000
The total farming product is equal to £11 per inhabitant,
as compared with £12 in the United States, and £17 in
Australia. The estimated value of farms, stock, &c., in 1890
was 198 millions sterling; the gross product was therefore 23
per cent, on capital, as compared with 18 in Australia, 19 in
Canada, and 20 in United States.
MANUFACTURES
The census of 1887 for the city of Buenos Ayres showed
1240 factories, with 42,300 hands and 6300 horse-power of
steam, consuming raw material worth 9J millions sterling,
from which it may be inferred that the value of output would
366 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
be 30 millions sterling. Buenos Ayres is believed to stand
for three-fourths of the manufactures of the republic, which
may, therefore, be estimated at 40 millions sterling.
MINING
The first mining enterprise in the present century was the
Famatina Mining Company, started by some London capital-
ists in 1824, but the manager was shot three years later, and
the works were abandoned. An attempt was made in 1861 to
work the silver-mines of Tontal in San Juan, and in 1873 the
Carolina gold-mines in San Luis. Mr. Hoskold, present
Director-General of Mining Department, thinks that the San
Juan mines may one day prove very rich. Mr. Lafone's
copper " ingenio " at Catamarca has worked for forty years
continuously, the ore yielding 20 per cent, of bar copper. In
1869 Bickard's report on Argentine mines showed 2700
miners, turning out minerals to the yearly value of .£90,000,
equal to £33 a man, a very miserable result. Notwithstand-
ing the railways since made through San Juan and other
mining provinces, the business has fallen since Rickard's
time, the export of minerals and metals now hardly reaching
£70,000. In 1895-96 the sheep-farmers of Chubut have
found gold at many places along the Andine slopes, from the
Teca valley to Lake Fontana.
COMMERCE
Official reports show that foreign trade has multiplied nine-
fold in half a century, viz. : —
Year. Imports, £. Exports, £. Total, £.
1850 . . 2,100,000 2,200,000 4,300,000
1893 . . 19,200,000 18,500,000 37,700,000
Since 1880 the official returns are misleading, as the
Government puts an excessive valuation on imports. The
ARGENTINA
367
aggregate imports from Great Britain, France, Germany,
Belgium, and United States during five times to December
1893 appear in Argentine Customs-books as £88,700,000,
whereas, according to the export tables of those countries they
were worth at shipment £70,600,000, to which may be added
10 per cent, for freight and charges, making them worth
£77,700,000 on arrival in Argentina. We must, therefore,
deduct one-eighth from the Argentine statement of imports,
and then the account for five years to December 1893 will
stand thus, in the aggregate : —
Imports
Exports
Nominal Value, £.
, 112,200,000
. 106,600,000
Real Value, £.
98,000,000
106,600,000
Exports unfortunately exceed imports, but this is precisely
what is aimed at in every President's Message at the opening
of Congress and in all fiscal legislation. The averages of
trade in the last five years showed thus : —
Imports from £. Exports to £. Tota], £,.
Ratio.
France
Germany .
Belgium .
Various States .
2,800,000
2,000,000
1,700,000
5,700,000
5,400,000
2,700,000
2,900,000
6,700,000
8,200,000
4,700,000
4,600,000
12,400,000
Great Britain . 7,400,000 3,600,000 11,000,000 26'9
20-1
11-4
11-2
30-4
Total . 19,600,000 21,300,000 40,900,000 lOO'O
The city of Buenos Ay res stands for 70 per cent., Rosario
15 per cent., of the trade of the republic.
Shipping. — The Argentine merchant -navy consists of 170
vessels, having an aggregate of 60,000 tons register, and
160,000 carrying-power.
Internal Trade. — This comprises farm products 46, manu-
factures 40, and imports 19 millions, in all 105 millions ster-
ling, equal to £26 per inhabitant, as compared with £40 in
Canada and £48 in Australia.
Railways. — The first line was opened from Buenos Ay res to
Flores, 6 miles, in 1857, but very little was done in the way
368 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
of construction during the ensuing twenty years, the total
length in 1877 being only 1300 miles. Since then great
progress has been made, the lines (including rural tramways)
open in December 1894 having a length of 8500 miles, which
represented a cost of 88 millions sterling. Most of the lines
are of 66-inch gauge, but those of Entre Rios and Corrientes
are of 66^ inch, and the Chaco, Tucuman, and others 39^
inches. Traffic returns for 1893, per mile, compare with
those of Australia and South Africa thus : —
Argentina, £. Australia, £. S. Africa, £.
Receipts . . .511 798 1,150
Expenses . . .301 497 670
Profit . . . .210 301 480
The result is 2 per cent, on capital, against 3 and 5 per
cent, in Australia and South Africa. Some lines run parallel
for hundreds of miles, others begin nowhere and end nowhere:
such lines were never meant to pay, but simply jobs, and as
they enjoyed Government guarantees they entailed heavy
burthens on the Treasury. In 1893 there were four lines, of
640 miles aggregate, which did not earn enough to pay work-
ing expenses. Nevertheless there are 3300 miles of lines
that give a net profit exceeding 3 per cent, yearly on the cost
of construction. All the Government lines have been sold to
Companies, except 310 miles.
Banks. — There are fourteen State and thirty-eight other
banks. Gold or silver is rarely seen, the currency consisting
of 300 millions of inconvertible notes, nominally, worth 60
millions £ sterling, but the premium on gold is so high that
it takes 55 shillings in notes to buy a sovereign. There is
also a kind of subsidiary currency called Cedulas, amounting
to 450 millions, say 90 millions £ sterling, issued in different
series, some of which are so depreciated that a Cedula of £20
may be bought for 20 shillings. Between bank-notes and
Cedulas the total issue is 750 millions.
ARGENTINA
369
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the people are approximately as
follows : —
Earnings. Millions £.. Wealth. Millions £.
Agricultural .
28
Land
129
Manufacturing
20
Cattle, &c.
69
Trade .
10
Railways
88
Transport
11
Factories
13
House-rent
7
Houses .
94
Domestics
5
Furniture
47
Public service
5
Merchandise
53
Professions
9
Sundries
123
Total . . 95
Total . . .616
Earnings average £24 per inhabitant, as compared with ,£36
in Canada, and £44 in the United States. Wealth averages
£154 per head, against £196 in Canada, and £256 in
Australia,
Land. — The price varies from £2 an acre in the province of
Buenos Ayres to a shilling in some of the remote territories :
it ranges from 10 to 20 shillings in Santa Fe and Entre Bios,
and is usually 4 shillings in most of the other provinces. The
above official valuation of 129 millions sterling includes only
lands actually occupied, covering 251 million acres, the average
being, therefore, a little over 10 shillings an acre. There are
also 193 million acres of good land, not occupied, which may
sooner or later become worth 4 shillings an acre, say 38
millions sterling; not to speak of 333 million acres of salt
deserts, mountain ranges, &c., which are valueless.
Houses. — The assessed rental of the city of Buenos Ayres
in 1887 was £5,600,000, and since that year the popula-
tion has risen 40 per cent., building being, moreover, very
active; but the sales of property show a shrinkage of 30
per cent, in the value per square foot of building sites, so
that the rental is now probably the same as in 1887, repre-
senting a capital value of 80 millions sterling. The other
cities of the republic have an aggregate population equal to
2 A
1864-75.
. 33
1876-85.
47
1886-93.
56
Total.
136
. 44
54
88
186
370 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS
90 per cent, of that of Buenos Ayres, but their house-property
will hardly exceed 33 per cent, of that of the metropolis, say
27 millions, making 107 millions altogether. The ratio of
house-property to population in Buenos Ayres is £121 per
head, as compared with £124 in Sydney and .£110 in Montreal.
FINANCE
The finances of thirty years may be summed up thus : —
Millions £ Sterling.
1864-75.
Revenue .
Expenditure .
Expenditure exceeded revenue by 50 millions sterling, and
public debt rose from 5 millions in 1863 to 55 millions sterling
in 1894, the Ministerial report in the latter year showing the
foreign debt to be 44, the internal 11, millions sterling. This
is exclusive of the paper-money guaranteed by Government,
nominally 60 millions sterling. All the fourteen provinces
have also their distinct budgets and debts, as well as the cities
of Buenos Ayres, Rosario, &c. The total revenues and debts
in 1894 summed up as follows : —
National, £. Provincial, £. Total, £.
Revenue . 7,800,000 2,300,000 10,100,000
Debt. . 55,200,000 37,200,000 92,400,000
The National Government draws 82 per cent, of its revenue
from Customs. The total amount raised by taxes, national
and provincial, is £9,200,000, or a little under 10 per cent, of
the earnings of the people, against 4£ per cent, in Canada and
5 in Australia. Debt, as shown above, is 92| millions ster-
ling, equal to 15 per cent, of national wealth, against 8 per
cent, in Canada and 10 per cent, in Australia.
XXIII
UEUGUAY
THIS is the1 smallest of South American States, but the most
favoured in climate, soil, and geographical position. Its
area is 72,000 square miles, or twice the size of Portugal,
with a population of 730,000, say 10 to the square mile,
this being the densest ratio in any part of the continent,
except Chile. The population has more than trebled since
1860, when it was only 220,000, the increase being made up
of 218,000 immigrants and 292,000 surplus of births over
deaths. The country was desolated by the "long war,"
between Generals Oribe and Rivera, which lasted from 1836
to 1852. Vital statistics for five years to 1890 show birth-
rate 40, death-rate 19, increase 21, per thousand. About 60
per cent, of the population are natives, 15 per cent. Italians,
and 25 per cent, made up of Spaniards, French, &c. The city
of Montevideo has quadrupled since 1858, at present counting
240,000 inhabitants, one-half Europeans.
AGRICULTURE
Colonists from the Canary Islands and Italy began to settle
in the department of Canelones, near Montevideo, in 1850,
and some Waldensians near Colonia in 1857 : in this way
tillage began. The area under crops showed as follows : —
Acres.
s " -^
Year. Grain. Sundries. Total.
1855 . . 110,000 70,000 180,000
1894 . . 900,000 224,000 1,124,000
371
372 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The grain-crop averages 200,000 tons, three-fourths wheat,
and the value of all tillage products is estimated at 2 millions
sterling.
Pastoral interests are of much higher importance, the live-
stock including 5,400,000 cattle and 10,500,000 sheep: the
latter have quadrupled since 1860, but horned cattle have re-
mained stationary. The latter, meantime, constitute the
principal industry, sheep holding a secondary place, which is
the reverse of the position in Argentina. If we reduce all
live-stock to the common denominator of sheep, counting a cow
or horse as ten, we shall find that Uruguay has more live-stock
per inhabitant than any other country in the world. The
ratio per inhabitant is as follows : —
Uruguay . .
Argentina . .
Australia ..
The official value of live-stock is £15,400,000, equal to
£21 per inhabitant, against £13 in Argentina, and £30 in
Australia. The wool-clip averages 25,000 tons, or 5| Ibs. per
sheep, against 4| in Argentina ; the wool is, moreover, of
better quality than Argentine, giving 45 per cent, washed,
against 35 per cent. Argentine : thus 100 Uruguay sheep pro-
duce 250 Ibs. washed wool, and the same number of Argen-
tine only 160 Ibs. The value of pastoral products is esti-
mated at 6 millions sterling, making a total of 8 millions
between tillage and pastoral, the annual export of farm pro-
ducts reaching £5,800,000. There is always a surplus of food,
the country exporting 40,000 tons of wheat and 140,000 of
meat yearly. Climate and soil are peculiarly adapted for till-
age, and there is abundance of wood and water, the territory
being intersected by numberless rivers. No part of the re-
public is more than 150 miles from a seaport.
URUGUAY 373
MANUFACTURES AND MINES
The only factory of any magnitude is Liebig's at Fray
Bentos, founded in 1863 for making beef extract, which
employs 800 workmen, and kills as many as 1000 cattle daily.
At Montevideo and the minor towns the usual small handi-
crafts occupy about 20,000 persons. There is no mineral
industry worth mention, although copper-mines were worked
in the last century. Superior marble exists at Maldonado,
which is sometimes used for public buildings at Montevideo.
Gold was found at Cunapirii, on the Brazilian frontier, in
1859, and an English company introduced machinery ten
years later, the works afterwards passing into the hands of a
French company : in the last five years the annual product
has averaged 4500 oz., worth .£15,000. Agate is found in
abundance near Salto.
COMMERCE
Foreign trade has increased only 50 per cent, in twenty
years, that is, it has not kept pace with population, being now
only £14 per inhabitant, as compared with £18 in 1873,
viz. : —
Tear. Imports, &. Exports, £. Total, &.
1873 . . 8,600,000 3,100,000 6,700,000
1893 . . 4,200,000 6,900,000 10,100,000
Protective tariffs against imports act as a check on com-
merce, and retard progress in every direction. The averages
for five years to December 1893 showed thus : —
Imports from, £.
Exports to, &.
Total, £,.
Ratio.
Great Britain .
1,500,000
900,000
2,400,000
217
France
700,000
1,200,000
1,900,000
17'3
Brazil
400,000
900,000
1,300,000
10-9
Other countries .
2,700,000
2,700,000
5,400,000
491
Total . . 5,300,000 5,700,000 11,000,000 lOO'O
374 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
Internal Trade. — This amounts to about 17 millions sterling,
or £23 per inhabitant, which is the same ratio as in Argen-
tina.
Railways. — The Central Uruguay was begun in 1867, but
it was not until 1872 that the first section was opened to
Santa Lucia, 40 miles. At present there are 1060 miles,
which have cost 1 1 millions sterling : the Companies received
Government guarantees amounting to £400,000 a year, but in
1892, in view of the painful condition of Uruguayan finances,
it was agreed to reduce the guarantees to £200,000 a year.
The net earnings of the lines do not quite reach 1£ per cent.
on capital, whereas the Argentine give 2 per cent. Traffic
earnings per mile compare thus : —
Receipts, &. Expenses, £. Profit, &.
Uruguay . . .381 235 146
Argentine . . .511 301 210
Although the British shareholders have lost money the
lines have been of great benefit to the country, the population
having doubled since the first line was opened twenty-three
years ago.
Banks. — The "wild-cat" speculations of 1887-89 brought
on a crisis in which the State banks collapsed, ruining thou-
sands of artisans and other innocent persons. The total stock
of money is estimated at 4 millions sterling, mostly gold.
There is no inconvertible currency.
EARNINGS AND WEALTH
The earnings and wealth of the people are approximately as
follows : —
Earnings. £ Wealth. £
Rural . . . 6,400,000
Commercial . . 3,400,000
Farms . . 42,300,000
Houses . . 31,200,000
Public service . 1,800,000 I Railways . . 11,000,000
Various . . 5,000,000
Total . . 16,600,000
Sundries . . 35,500,000
Total . . 120,000,000
URUGUAY
375
Real Estate. — The official value of lands in 1890 was
£23,100,000, of houses £31,200,000, making a total for real
estate of £54,300,000, held as follows :—
Owners.
Value, £.
& per Owner.
Natives
22,774
25,200,000
1,150
Italians
8,246
7,200,000
870
Spaniards .
7,158
6,400,000
900
Brazilians .
4,595
7,500,000
1,630
French, &c.
5,019
8,000,000
1,590
Total
47,792
54,300,000
1,140
The official valuation of land comes out at an average of
10 shillings an acre, the area being 46,100,000 acres, but it
is impossible to buy good land under £1 per acre. The house-
property of Montevideo was valued in 1891 at £26,800,000,
equal to £113 per inhabitant, the twenty-four minor towns
making up an aggregate of £4,400,000, equal to £55 per
inhabitant. Real estate altogether forms 45 per cent, of total
wealth, as compared with 38 per cent, in Argentina.
FINANCE
The finances of forty-three years may be summed up as
follows : —
1851-80, &. 1881-93, &. Total, £.
Revenue . . 25,100,000 35,400,000 60,500,000
Expenditure . 36,700,000 43,900,000 80,600,000
Expenditure was 33 per cent, over revenue, and thus the
debt rose from 2 millions in 1850 to 22 millions in 1894.
The budget is always framed so as to show a probable surplus
of revenue, but at the end of the year the result is the
reverse : as a rule the budget is reliable as to income, but not
as to expenditure ; that of 1893 was as follows : —
Customs
Sundries
Revenue
. £1,800,000
. 1,900,000
. 3,700,000
Debt .
Government
Expenditure
.£1,100,000
. 2,400,000
. 3,500,000
376 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
The amount raised by taxation is ,£3,400,000, equal to 21
per cent, of national earnings, against 10 per cent, in Argen-
tina, and 5 in Australia. Public debt consists of £20,700,000
due in London, and £1,500,000 at Montevideo, together
£22,200,000, equal to 18£ per cent, of national wealth, as
compared with 15 in Argentina, and 10 per cent, in Australia.
No. I. — Comparative Tables of Nations.
Earnings.
Wealth.
Steam.
Area.
Millions
Millions
Horse-
8q. Miles.
Population.
£.
&.
power.
United Kingdom
120,100
39,500,000
1,423
11,806
12,970,000
France
204,100
38,400,000
1,199
9,690
4,915,000
Germany .
208,700
52,200,000
1,284
8,052
7,650,000
Russia
1,956,000
105,800,000
1,004
6,425
2,790,000
Austria
240,900
43,400,000
707
4,512
2,390,000
Italy.
110,600
31,200,000
436
3,160
1,370,000
Spain . i
194,900
17,600,000
273
2,380
1,130,000
Portugal .
32,500
4,700,000
64
411
140,000
Sweden and Norway
295,000
6,900,000
142
790
790,000
Denmark .
14,800
2,200,000
60
506
230,000
Holland .
12,600
4,800,000
124
880
580,000
Belgium .
11,400
6,400,000
181
988
950,000
Switzerland
16,000
3,000,000
70
492
380,000
Danub. States .
105,400
11,400,000
147
1,026
185,000
Greece
25,000
2,200,000
28
222
175,000
Europe
3,548,000
369,700,000
7,142
51,345
36,645,000
United States .
2,970,000
70,700,000
3,116
16.350
16,940,000
Canada
3,314,000
5,100,000
183
1,003
1,170,000
Australia .
3,160,000
4,200,000
215
1,076
825,000
Argentina .
1,210,000
4,000,000
95
616
240,000
Total . . 13,202,000 453,700,000 10,751 70,385 55,820,000
No. II. — Population, Urban and Rural.
(Urban comprises all cities or towns over 10,000 population ; rural, the rest.)
Inbab. per
Population. 8q. Mile.
Urban.
Rural.
Total.
1821.
1896.
United Kingdom . 20,600,000
17,200,000
37,800,000
172
330
France . . . 9,200,000
29,200,000
38,400,000
147
188
Germany . 15,600,000
36,600,000
52,200,000
130
250
Russia
10,900,000
86,900,000
97,800,000
26
54
Austria
.
5,600,000
35,800,000
41,400,000
101
181
Italy .
.
5,300,000
25,400,000
30,700,000
140
284
Spain .
2,900,000
14,700,000
17,600,000
61
90
Portugal
400,000
4,300,000
4,700,000
109
142
Sweden anc
Norway
1,000,000
5,800,000
6,800,000
12
23
Denmark
,
500,000
1,700,000
2,200,000
73
150
Holland
1,800,000
2,900,000
4,700,000
198
380
Belgium
1,700,000
4,600,000
6,300,000
298
560
Switzerland
500,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
127
187
Danub. States .
900,000
10,500,000
11,400,000
60
108
Greece
300,000
1,900,000
2,200,000
44
88
Europe
77,200,000
280,000,000
357,200,000
58
104
United States .
17,400,000
45,200,000
62,600,000
6
24
377
378 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. III. — Occupations.
(OOO's omitted).
Manufac-
Commerce.
Per Cent,
Agriculture, tures.
&c.
Total.
of Pop.
United Kingdom .
2,530
9,030
5,260
16,820
44.4
France ....
7,220
4,720
5,350
17,290
45-3
Germany
9,350
9,230
5,320
23,900
45-8
Russia ....
34,650
7,470
6,180
48,300
450
Austria
12,940
4,620
3,090
20,650
47-5
Italy ....
6,840
3,430
2,790
13,060
43-0
Spain ....
4,080
1,750
1,500
7,330
42-0
Portugal
870
400
480
1,750
37'2
Sweden and Norway .
1,400
660
1,260
3,220
47-3
Denmark
400
250
340
990
45-0
Holland
460
400
1,300
2,160
46-0
Belgium
720
1,380
840
2,940
46-6
Switzerland .
490
520
200
1,210
40-3
Danub. States
3,680
760
690
5,130
45-0
Greece ....
660
160
260
1,080
49-0
Europe
86,290
44,680
34,860
165,830
45-5
United States
10,740
5,950
14,920
31,610
45-0
Canada
1,140
540
740
2,420
46-5
Australia
440
630
710
1,780
42-5
Total .
98,610 51,800 51,230 201,640 46'3
No. IV. — Energy.
Millions of Foot-tons Daily.
Hand.
Horse.
Steam.
Total. Per Inhab.
United Kingdom
3,200
6,330
51,880
61,410
1,570
France
3,500
9,300
19,660
32,460
846
Germany .
4,260
11,500
30,600
46,360
900
Russia
9,100
62,400
11,200
82,700
780
Austria
3,530
10,700
9,560
23,790
560
Italy ....
2,750
3,800
5,480
12,030
400
Spain ....
1,590
2,640
4,520
8,750
505
Portugal .
350
420
560
1,330
290
Sweden and Norway .
600
1,950
3,160
5,710
830
Denmark .
200
1,240
900
2,340
1,060
Holland .
420
810
2,300
3,530
750
Belgium
560
810
3,800
5,170
830
Switzerland
270
300
1,520
2,090
700
Danub. States .
1,020
2,860
740
4,620
405
Greece
200
300
700
1,200
550
Europe
31,550
115,360
146,580
293,490
800
United States .
6,400
54,600
67,760
128,760
1,850
British Colonies
810
9,920
7,980
18,710
2,020
Total
38,760 179,880 222,320 440,960
990
COMPARATIVE TABLES
379
No. V. — Steam-power (1895).
Effective Horse-power (OOO's omitted).
United Kingdom . .
Fixed.
2,200
825
Railway.
4,800
3,600
Steamboat.
5,970
490
Total.
12,970
4,915
Germany
Russia ....
Austria ....
Italy ....
2,200
350
480
160
4,555
2,200
1,780
1,000
895
240
130
210
7,650
2,790
2,390
1,370
Spain ....
Portugal . ' .
Sweden and Norway
Denmark
Holland ....
Belgium ....
Switzerland
Danub. States
Greece ....
50
5
40
10
80
380
40
600
120
330
80
320
500
340
185
40
480
15
420
140
180
70
135
1,130
140
790
230
580
950
380
185
175
6,820
20,450
9,375
36,645
United States .
Canada ....
Australia . .
3,940
320
260
10,800
600
385
2,200
250
180
16,940
1,170
825
Total .
. 11,340
32,235
12,005
55,580
No. VI. — Growth of Steam.
Effective Horse-power.
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Italy
Spain
Scandinavia
Holland .
Belgium .
Various .
Europe
United States .
Colonies .
Total
1840.
1860.
1895.
600,000
2,400,000
12,970,000
90,000
1,150,000
4,915,000
40,000
850,000
7,650,000
30,000
200,000
2,790,000
30,000
800,000
2,390,000
20,000
140,000
1,370,000
10,000
110.000
1,130,000
5,000
80,000
1,020,000
10,000
100,000
580,000
40,000
210,000
950,000
5,000
80,000
880,000
880,000
6,120,000
36,645,000
760,000
3,500,000
16,940,000
10,000
230,000
1,995,000
1,650,000
9,850,000
55,580,000
380 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. VII. — Cost of Energy Daily.
1,000
Hand.
Horse.
Steam.
Total.
ft. -tons.
£
£
£
£
Pence.
United Kingdom .
1,370,000
260,000
650,000
2,280.000
8-9
France .
1,160,000
340,000
240,000
1,740,000
12-8
Germany
1,210,000
320,000
380,000
1,910,000
9-9
Austria
1,010,000
300,000
120,000
1,430,000
14-3
Italy .
750,000
100,000
70,000
920,000
18-4
Spain and Portugal
540,000
80,000
60,000
680,000
16-3
Scandinavia
260,000
90,000
50,000
400,000
12-0
Belgium
180,800
20,000
50,000
250,000
11-5
Other States
1,980,000
1,090,000
210,000
3,280,000
8-4
Europe .
8,460,000
2,600,000
1,830,000
12,890,000
10-5
United States
3,380,000
1,820,000
850,000
6,050,000
11-1
Canada .
250,000
140,000
60,000
450,000
11-3
Australia
200,000
100,000
40,000
340,000
91
Total. . 12,290,000 4,600,000 2,780,000 19,730,000 107
No. VIII. — Product of Mines, Forests, and Fisheries.
Millions £ Sterling per Annum.
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Scandinavia
Belgium .
Other States .
Europe
United States .
Canada
Australia .
Total
No. IX. — Freight Earnings.
Millions £ Sterling per Annum.
Railways.
Goods. Passengers. Total. Shipping. Roads, &c. Total.
Mines.
Forests.
Fisheries.
Total.
78
2
7
87
16
14
5
35
34
13
1
48
12
40
2
54
10
18
—
28
2
13
5
20
10
1
—
11
7
15
4
26
169
116
24
309
94
120
10
224
5
17
4
26
14
5
1
20
282
258
39
579
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Italy .
Other States
Europe
United States .
Canada
Australia .
Total
46
32
52
28
25
6
19
38
23
19
7
7
4
12
110
57
3
3
173
84
55
71
35
32
10
31
318
223
10
9
loo
54
5
9
3
1
3
14
89
23
3
2
"117
31
66
62
70
43
34
94
400
81
496
169
126
142
108
76
47
139
807
327
21
18
1,173
COMPARATIVE TABLES
No. X. — Areas Cultivated and Waste.
Millions of Acres.
All
Mountain,
^»v
Grain.
Crops.
Pasture.
Forest.
*c.
Total.
United Kingdom . 8 '9
201
27-8
3-0
26-3
77-2
France . 36 '6
66-9
231
207
19-8
1305
Germany
,
38-0
65-2
217
34-5
12-1
133-5
Russia
§
172-8
255-0
334-0
498-0
254-0
1,341-0
Austria
.
41-9
52-3
33-1
43-0
211
149-5
Italy .
,
20-4
38-2
14-8
10-1
77
70-8
Spain .
.
20-8
32-2
21-0
16-4
55-5
125-1
Portugal
,
2-6
3-9
7'7
1-2
8-0
20-8
Sweden and
Norway
4-6
9-0
61
64-4
110-9
190-4
Denmark
i ,
3-0
4-5
2-6
0-6
17
9-4
Holland
.
1-4
23
2-8
0-6
21
7-8
Belgium
2-4
3-7
1-8
1-2
0-6
7-3
Switzerland
0-9
1-3
3-9
21
2-9
10-2
Danub. States .
17'9
231
20-9
10-2
14-0
68-2
Greece.
1-2
2-3
5-9
2-0
57
15-9
Europe . .
373-4
580-0
527-2
708-0
542-4
2,357-6
United States .
150-0
225-5
132-5
466-0
1,098-0
1,922-0
Canada
9-8
19-9
15-3
1,250-0
834-8
2,120-0
Australia .
5-3
16-2
802-0
180-0
1,024-8
2,023-0
Argentina .
9-5
12'5
238-0
41-5
482-0
774-0
Total . . 548-0 8541 1,715-0 2,645'5 3,982'0 9,196'6
(The grain column is, of course, included in the second.)
No. XL— Ordinary Grain Crops (1892-95).
Millions of Bushels.
Wheat.
Barley. Oats.
Maize.
Rye, &c.
Total.
BUSH.
Per Acre.
United Kingdom
49
73
167
—
12
301
34
France
303
44
216
27
134
724
20
Germany .
122
104
176
—
280
682
18
Russia
322
236
590
105
867
2,120
12
Austria .
196
113
170
136
165
780
19
Italy
122
8
18
68
17
233
11
Spain
88
59
12
42
31
232
11
Portugal .
8
2
1
14
5
30
11
Sweden and Norway
4
17
70
—
37
128
28
Denmark . . .
4
21
31
—
28
84
28
Holland .
5
5
15
—
16
41
30
Belgium .
18
3
26
—
27
74
31
Switzerland
2
2
3
—
3
10
11
Danub. States .
101
46
18
101
12
278
15
Greece .
7
3
—
4
2
16
13
Europe
1,351
736
1,513
497
1,636
5,733
16
United States .
467
88
824
2,151
45
3,575
24
Canada
48
18
104
7
24
201
20
Australia .
38
2
17
9
—
66
12
Argentina .
77
6
—
42
—
125
13
Total
1,981 850 2,458 2,706 1,705 9,700 18
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XII.— Cattle.
Number (OOO's om itted).
Value.
Millions
£.
202
232
303
350
161
92
46
11
41
26
28
22
18
42
5
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Italy ....
Horses.
2,100
3,100
3,800
20,800
3,600
1,200
Cattle.
10,900
12,900
17,600
27,600
14,200
5,000
2,100
600
3,500
1,700
1,500
1,400
1,200
3,600
400
Sheep.
30,900
20,700
13,600
48,200
14,400
6,900
16,500
3,000
2,700
1,300
700
400
300
13,000
2,900
Pigs.
4,200
6,100
12,100
10,700
9,100
1,800
1,900
1,000
800
800
1,100
700
400
2,300
Goats.
600
1,500
3,100
1,300
1,400
1,800
2,800
900
400
200
200
400
4,200
2,500
Spain
Portugal .
Sweden and Norway .
Denmark . .
Holland .
Belgium .
Switzerland
Danub. States .
Greece
Europe
United States .
Canada
Australia .
Argentina .
900
150
650
400
300
300
100
900
100
38,400
18,200
1,400
1,900
4,400
104,200
50,900
4,200
13,300
22,900
175,500
42,300
3,500
121,200
80,200
53,000
44,200
1,700
1,100
300
21,300
1,579
451
47
120
51
Total
64,300 195,500 422,700 100,300 21,300 2,248
No. XIII. — Production of Meat.
Tons
Yearly.
Lbs
Beef.
Mutton.
Pork.
Total.
per
Inhab.
United Kingdom
590,000
320,000
190,000
1,100,000
63
France
700,000
210,000
290,000
1,200,000
67
Germany .
880,000
150 000
490,000
1,520,000
68
Russia
1,380,000
480,000
430,000
2,290,000
50
Austria
710,000
140,000
360,000
1,210,000
62
Italy ....
250,000
70,000
70,000
390,000
30
Spain
100,000
260,000
70,000
430,000
56
Portugal .
30,000
30,000
40,000
100,000
48
Sweden and Norway .
170,000
28,000
32,000
230,000
73
Denmark .
85,000
10,000
35,000
130,000
130
Holland .
80,000
10,000
40,000
130.000
60
Belgium
75,000
5,000
30,000
110,000
39
Switzerland
00,000
5,000
15,000
80,000
57
Danub. States .
175,000
150,000
75,000
400,000
78
Greece
20,000
40,000
—
60,000
60
Europe
5,305,000
1,908,000
2,167,000
9,380,000
57
United States .
2,410,000
370,000
2,050,000
4,830,000
160
Canada
210,000
35,000
65,000
310,000
140
Australia .
290,000
260,000
20,000
570,000
315
Total
8,215,000 2,573,000 4,302,000 15,090,000 75
COMPARATIVE TABLES
383
No. XIV. — Value of Products Yearly.
Millions & Sterling.
Grain. Green Crops. Meat.
Dairy. Sundries. Total.
United Kingdom
50
76
55
33
16 230
France
130
154
56
46
30 416
Germany .
109
153
63
60
32 417
Russia
258
112
87
45
38 540
Austria
120
90
51
37
21 319
Italy .
53
88
20
20
23 204
Spain .
39
55
20
12
9 135
Portugal
5
13
4
2
2 26
Sweden and Norway
15
8
11
8
4 46
Denmark . .
12
7
6
8
2 35
Holland . ' .
6
12
6
10
2 36
Belgium
12
17
5
8
2 44
Switzerland
2
7
4
6
1 20
Danub. States
38
19
16
6
4 83
Greece
2
7
3
1
1 14
Europe
851
818
407
302
187 2,565
United States
217
269
163
87
77 813
Canada
21
12
11
9
4 57
Australia .
10
12
8
7
33 70
Argentina .
15
9
10
1
11 46
Total
. 1,114
1,120
599
406
312 3,551
No.
XV. — Product per Acre,
Value.
Shillings
Acres,
Millions.
Millions & Sterling.
Per Acre.
r
All
r
All
All
Tillage.
Farms.
Tillage.
Products.
Tillage. Farms.
United Kingdom
201
47-9
126
230
126 96
France
66-9
90-0
284
416
84 92
Germany
65-2
86-9
262
417
81 96
Russia
. 255-0
589-0
370
540
29 18
Austria
52-3
85-4
210
319
80 75
Italy .
38-2
53-0
141
204
74 77
Spain .
32-2
53-2
94
135
59 51
Portugal
3'9
11-6
18
26
92 45
Sweden and Norway
9-0
151
23
46
51 61
Denmark .
4-5
71
19
35
84 99
Holland .
2-3
51
18
36
156 141
Belgium
37
5-5
29
44
156 160
Switzerland
1-3
5-2
9
20
138 77
Danub. States .
231
44-0
57
83
49 38
Greece .
2-3
8-2
9
14
78 34
Europe
. 580-0
1,107-2
1,669
2,565
58 47
United States
. 225-5
358-0
486
813
43 45
Canada
19-9
35-2
33
57
33 32
Australia . v .
16-2
818-2
22
70
28 2
Total
841-6 2,318-6 2,210 3,505
53
30
384 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XVI. — Agricultural Capital.
Value, Millions £ Sterling.
£ Sterling.
Land. Cattle. Sundries. Total? Per Acre. Per Hand.
United Kingdom
1,686 202
189 2,077
43 823
France
2,580 232
281 3,093
34 430
Germany .
1,977 303
228 2,508
29 268
Russia
2,113 350
247 2,710
5 79
Austria .
1,473 161
163 1,797
21 138
Italy
1,180 92
127 1,399
27 204
Spain
1,056 46
110 1,212
23 297
Portugal .
138 11
15 164
14 190
Sweden and Norway
212 41
25 278
18 198
Denmark .
205 26
23 254
39 635
Holland .
240 28
27 295
38 640
Belgium .
300 22
32 354
63 492
Switzerland
138 18
16 172
32 350
Danub. States .
420 42
46 508
12 137
Greece
94 5
10 109
14 165
Europe
13,812 1,579
1,539 16,930
15 196
United States .
3,314 451
377 4,142
12 385
Canada
230 47
28 305
9 268
Australia .
236 120
36 392
890
Total .
17,592 2,197
1,980 21,769
9 220
No.
XVII. — Production of Food.
Tons (OOO's omittted). Wine,
Total,
Grain. Potatoes.
Meat. Gallons.
Tons Grain.
United Kingdom
7,520 6,100
1,100 —
18,400,000
France .
18,100 12,800
1,200 880
40,800,000
Germany .
17,040 31,800
1,520 80
40,600,000
Russia
53,000 14,100
2,290 70
76,700,000
Austria .
19,500 10,000
1,210 112
33,630,000
Italy
6,700 750
390 730
17,330,000
Spain
5,800 1,500
430 596
15,700,000
Portugal .
750 270
100 80
2,430,000
Sweden and Norway
3,200 2,100
230 —
5,740,000
Denmark
2,100 450
130 —
3,290,000
Holland .
1,020 2,250
130
2,810,000
Belgium .
1,850 3,600
110
3,930,000
Switzerland
250 1,200
80 22
1,510,000
Danub. States
6,950
400 180
11,950,000
Greece
400 240
60 36
1,320,000
Europe .
144,180 87,160
9,380 2,786
276,140,000
United States .
89,400 7,480
4,830 30
130,830,000
Canada .
5,020 1,200
310
7,900,000
Australia
1,650 600
570 4
6,450,000
Argentina
3,100
410 15
6,550,000
Total . . 243,350 96,440 15,500 2,835 427,870,000
(Grain includes what is used for the people and also for cattle.)
COMPARATIVE TABLES
No. XVIII. — Value of Food Produced for Human Use.
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain.
Meat.
Liquor.
Dairy.
Sundries.
Total.
United Kingdom .
25
55
85
33
45
243
Frauce ....
88
56
71
46
57
318
Germauy
83
63
70
60
95
371
Eussia ....
175
87
22
45
91
420
Austria
80
51
29
37
64
261
Italy ....
42
20
38
20
40
160
Spain ....
22
20
37
12
14
105
Portugal
5
4
7
2
6
24
Sweden and> Norway .
10
11
5
8
7
41
Denmark
5
6
2
8
2
23
Holland . .
4
6
5
10
7
32
Belgium
8
5
12
8
5
38
Switzerland .
2
4
2
6
2
16
Danub. States
26
16
7
6
3
58
Greece ....
2
3
2
1
2
10
Europe ....
577
407
394
302
440
2,120
United States
97
163
61
87
127
535
Total .
674 570 455 389 567 2,655
No. XIX. — Value of Food Consumed.
Millions £ Sterling.
Grain.
Meat.
Liquor.
Dairy.
Sundries.
Total.
SniUmgs.
per Inhab.
United Kingdom
61
91
92
55
82
381
194
France
95
62
66
44
73
340
176
Germany .
102
72
71
62
99
406
158
Russia
151
86
23
43
91
394
74
Austria
76
45
28
36
59
244
114
Italy.
45
18
36
20
38
157
104
Spain
25
20
33
12
13
103
114
Portugal .
6
4
5
2
6
23
96
Sweden and Norway
14
11
5
6
7
43
122
Denmark .
6
3
2
3
2
16
144
Holland .
13
6
5
5
9
38
160
Belgium .
15
7
13
9
7
51
164
Switzerland
4
5
3
4
5
21
140
Danub. States .
17
16
6
6
5
50
87
Greece
2
3
1
1
3
10
90
Europe
632
449
389
308
499
2,277
124
United States .
90
129
63
85
158
525
150
Total .
722
578
452
393
657
2,802
126
2
B
386 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XX. — Value of Manufactures Produced.
Millions £ Sterling.
Tex-
Hard-
Cloth-
Sun-
£per
tiles.
ware.
Leather.
Food.
ing.
dries.
Total.
Inhab.
United Kingdom
191
142
59
127
84
273
876
22
France
115
47
45
113
69
207
596
15
Germany .
108
105
66
135
69
207
690
13
Russia
76
15
57
59
57
116
380
4
Austria
56
19
40
81
39
93
328
8
Italy .
37
4
16
52
23
58
190
6
Spain .
19
5
14
34
14
35
121
7
Sweden and )
Norway )
8
7
8
14
7
18
62
9
Holland .
8
1
5
13
5
17
49
11
Belgium
17
19
6
36
10
30
118
19
Switzerland
12
2
3
7
5
12
41
14
Other States
11
3
17
35
15
34
115
6
Europe
658
369
336
706
397
1,100
3,566
10
United States
161
229
106
329
111
1,016
1,952
28
Colonies
7
5
8
43
19
76
158
17
Total
826 603 450 1,078 527 2,192 5,676
12
No. XXI. — Production of Textiles.
Value £ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Cottons.
Woollens.
Silks.
Linens, &c.
Total.
United Kingdom .
92,100
61,700
6,000
31,400
191,200
France .
22,400
44,700
28,200
19,800
115,100
Germany
35,400
42,200
16,500
14,100
108,200
Russia
20,400
29,000
3,200
23,900
76,500
Austria .
18,400
14,500
4,500
18,300
55,700
Italy . . . .
12,900
5,800
9,000
9,200
36,900
Spain
8,800
6,600
900
3,100
19,400
Scandinavia .
3,300
4,200
—
1,600
9,100
Holland .
4,600
2,100
—
1,300
8,000
Belgium .
5,200
5,300
900
5,500
16,900
Switzerland .
3,200
1,600
6,400
600
11,800
Other States .
2,800
5,400
200
1,100
9,500
Europe .
229,500
223,100
110,800
129,900
658,300
United States
55,800
44,400
18,200
42,600
161,000
Colonies .
2,100
2,900
—
2,000
7,000
Total
287,400 270,400 94,000 174,500 826,300
COMPARATIVE TABLES
387
No. XXII. — Consumption of Chief Manufactures.
Millions £ Sterling.
Shillings per Inhabitant.
'
Hard-
"* r
Hard-
s
Textiles
, ware.
Leather. Total. Textiles.
ware.
Leather. Total.
United Kingdom
122
96
56
274
62
48
28
138
France
91
46
37
174
47
24
19
90
Germany .
92
94
60
246
36
37
23
96
Russia
76
22
57
155
15
4
11
30
Austria
52
19
39
110
23
9
18
50
Italy .
31
6
16
53
20
4
10
34
Spain .
18
6
13
37
21
7
15
43
Scandinavia
13
5
11
29
28
11
24
63
Belgium
13
13
6
32
41
41
19
101
Other States t .
30
12
22
64
26
12
17
55
Europe
538
319
317
1,174
29
17
17
63
United States .
182
222
108
512
53
64
31
148
Total
720
541
425
1,686
32
25
19
76
No. XXIII. — Consumption of Textiles.
United Kingdom
France .
Germany
Russia .
Austria .
Italy .
Spain .
Belgium
Other States .
Europe .
United States
Total .
Value £ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Cottons.
40,100
19,800
29,000
20,500
18,300
13,500
7,100
5,000
15,600
Woollens.
45,000
36,000
39,800
29,400
14,100
7,100
6,900
5,500
18,600
Silks.
19,000
20,000
10,200
3,500
4,000
3,000
1,500
1,400
2,600
Linens, &c.
17,400
15,600
13,300
22,600
15,900
7,400
2,800
1,300
5,000
Total.
121,500
91,400
92,300
76,000
52,300
31,000
18,300
13,200
41,800
168,900
60,300
202,400
48,500
65,200
23,200
101,300
49,900
537,800
181,900
229,200
250,900
88,400
151,200
719,700
No. XXIV. — Production and Consumption of Hides.
United Kingdom
France .
Germany
Russia .
Austria
Italy .
Other States
Europe .
United States
Canada
Australia
Argentina, &c.
Total.
Production, Tons.
Consumption, Tons.
Cow.
49,000
58,000
79,000
124,000
64,000
22,000
69,000
Sheep.
40,000
27,000
18,000
65,000
19,000
9,000
54,000
Pig, &c.
13,000
20,000
36,000
48,000
27,000
6,000
27,000
Total.
102,000
105,000
133,000
237,000
110,000
37,000
150,000
Hides. =
196,000=
150,000=
220,000=
190,000 =
133,000=
53,000=
180,000=
Leather.
118,000
90,000
132,000
114,000
80,000
32,000
107,000
465,000
228,000
19,000
60,000
188,000
232,000
57,000
5,000
162,000
46,000
177,000
135,000
6,000
5,000
12,000
874,000
420,000
30,000
227,000
359000
1,122,000 =
510,000=
40,000 =
120,000=
118,000=
673,000
306,000
24,000
72,000
71,000
960,000 610,000 340,000 1,910,000 1 910,000=1,146,000
388 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XXV. — Growth of Commerce.
Total
Imports, millions £.
167
643 1,441
Exports, millions £.
1830.
1860.
1894.
1830.
I860.
1894.
United Kingdom
42
210
408
46
165
274
France
25
84
154
26
83
123
Germany .
22
65
198
24
65
148
Russia
10
22
56
12
26
68
Austria
7
21
58
8
27
66
Italy
13
33
44
11
19
41
Spain
4
14
32
3
11
27
Scandinavia
4
13
50
4
12
39
Holland .
17
25
121
13
20
93
Belgium .
—
21
63
—
19
52
Other States .
8
30
69
9
33
55
Europe
152
538
1,253
156
480
986
United States .
13
74
136
15
70
186
Canada
2
12
24
1
11
24
Australia .
—
19
28
—
16
40
172 577 1,236
No. XXVI. — Internal Trade.
Millions & Sterling per Annum.
Agri-
Manu-
Mining,
*
£per
culture.
factures.
&c.
Imports.
Total.
Inhab.
United Kingdom
230
876
87
417
1,610
41
France
416
596
35
154
1,201
31
Germany .
417
690
48
198
1,353
26
Kussia
540
380
54
56
1,030
10
Austria .
319
328
28
58
733
18
Italy
204
190
8
44
446
15
Spain
135
121
8
32
296
17
Portugal .
26
29
2
8
65
14
Sweden and Norway
46
62
19
31
158
23
Denmark .
35
19
1
19
74
34
Holland .
36
49
1
121
207
43
Belgium .
44
118
11
63
236
37
Switzerland
20
41
1
35
97
32
Danub. States .
83
57
5
22
167
15
Greece
14
10
1
4
29
13
Europe .
2,565
3,566
309
1,262
7,702
21
United States .
813
1,952
224
136
3,125
45
Canada
57
98
26
24
205
39
Australia .
70
85
20
28
203
48
Argentina
46
40
—
19
105
26
Total
3,551 5,741 579 1,469 11,340
25
COMPARATIVE TABLES
389
No. XXVII.— Railways (1894).
Miles
Millions.
Millions £.
Net
Profit
Open.
Fassengers.
Goods, Tons.
Capita).
Receipts
j. on Cai'.
United Kingdom
20,910
912
325
985
84
3-8
France
24,970
337
97
663
55
35
Germany .
27,850
521
242
555
71
4-5
Russia
23,100
55
79
349
35
4-2
Austria
18,320
199
215
371
32
3-2
Italy .
8,800
51
17
184
10
1'9
Scandinavia
8,060
33
18
54
5
2-6
Belgium . » .
2,820
97
45
75
8
4-2
Holland .
2,320
24
9
46
3
3-0
Switzerland
2,270
40
10
44
4
3'8
Other States
11,160
23
11
173
11
3-2
Europe
150,580
2,292
1,068
3,499
318
3-5
United States .
180,000
541
638
2,260
223
3'2
Canada
16,000
14
21
186
10
1-6
Australia .
13,620
91
12
139
9
3-0
Cape Colony
2,840
8
1
28
3
5-0
India .
18,780
146
33
192
16
4.4
Spanish America
28,880
24
8
324
21
25
Various
9,480
19
9
117
10
3-0
The World
420,180 3,135
1,790
6,745 610
3-1
No. XXVIII.— Traffic Returns of Railways.
£ Sfpvlinor rwvr Mil/'
No. Carried
per Mile.
^
n j^
Capital.
Receipt?.
Expenses.
Profit.
lr jissen-
gers.
\jrOOQP,
Tons.
United Kingdom
47,100
4,034
2,259
1,775
43,500
15,500
France
27,300
2,195
1,253
942
13,000
3,900
Germany .
19,900
2,564
1,664
900
18,700
8,700
Russia
15,100
1,610
970
640
2,400
3,400
Austria .
20,300
1,510
860
650
10,500
11,700
Italy
20,900
1,265
858
407
5,800
1,900
Sweden and Norway
6,000
530
340
190
3,300
2,100
Denmark
10,000
940
750
190
9,100
3,000
Holland .
19,800
1,340
740
600
14,700
5,500
Belgium .
26,500
2,566
1,467
1,099
34,300
16,000
Switzerland
19,400
1,857
1,107
750
17,600
4,400
Europe .
23,200
2,120
1,310
810
15,100
7,100
United States .
12,500.
1,270
867
403
3,000
3,600
Canada .
11,600
610
428
182
900
1,350
Australia .
10,200
798
497
301
6,700
900
Cape Colony > ,
9,700
1,150
670
480
2,800
350
India
10,200
850
400
450
7,700
1,800
The World .
16,000
1,450
955
495
7,400
4,200
390 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XXIX. — Growth of Railways.
Miles Open. Capital, Millions £. £ per
United Kingdom
France
Germany .
Russia
Austria
Italy .
Spain .
Scandinavia
Belgium
Other States
Europe
United States .
Colonies, &c.
Total
Flag.
British .
United States .
French
German .
Italian
Spanish .
Scandinavian .
Various .
Total .
Flag.
British
German .
French
Norwegian
Spanish .
Russian .
Italian
Swedish .
Greek
Dutch
Danish
Austrian .
European
United States .
Canadian .
Australian
Total .
1850. 1870. 1894. 1850. 1870.
6,620 15,540 20,910 240 530
1,890 9,770 24,970 57 274
3,640 11,730 27,850 61 204
310 7,100 23,100 5 119
960 5,950 18,320 20 120
270 3,830 8,800 5 75
80 3,200 6,710 1 51
20 1,730 8,060 — 13
550 1,800 2,820 13 43
130 2,650 9,040 2 47
1894. (1894).
985 25
663 17
555 11
349 3
371 9
184 6
108 6
54 6
75 12
155 6
14,470 63,300 150,580 404 1,476
9,020 53,400 180,000 60 497
60 11,540 89,600 1 124
3,499 10
2,260 32
986 —
23,550 128,240 420,180 465 2,097 6,745 —
No. XXX. — Growth of Shipping.
Tons Register. Carrying-Power.
1842. 1894. 1842.
2,570,000 8,960,000 2,860,000
2,180,000 4,680,000 2,770,000
630,000 890,000 660,000
550,000 1,550,000 580,000
460,000 780,000 490,000
280,000 680,000 290,000
620,000 2,380,000 630,000
2,090,000 2,965,000 2,200,000
1894.
26,870,000
11,250,000
2.360,000
4,220,000
1,410,000
2,120,000
4,060,000
6,320,000
9,380,000 22,885,000 10,480,000
No. XXXI.— Shipping in 1894.
Tons Register.
58,610,000
Tons
Carrying Power.
26,870,000
4,220,000
2,360,000
2,220,000
2,120,000
1,470,000
1,410,000
1,090,000
880,000
830,000
750,000
640,000
Steam. Sail. Total.
5,970,000 2,990,000 8,960,000
890,000 660,000 1,550,000
490,000 400,000 890,000
240,000 1,260,000 1,500,000
480,000 200,000 680,000
240,000 510,000 750,000
210,000 570,000 780,000
180,000 370,000 550,000
135,000 340,000 475,000
180,000 110,000 290,000
140,000 190,000 330,000
130,000 120,000 250,000
9,285,000 7,720,000 17,005,000
2,190,000 2,490,000 4,680,000
250,000 580,000 830,000
180,000 190,000 370,000
44,860,000
11,250,000
1,580,000
920,000
11,905,000 10,980,000 22,885,000
58,610,000
COMPARATIVE TABLES 391
No. XXXII. — Money of all Nations.
Millions & Sterling.
Gold.
Silver.
Paper.
Total Per Cent.
United Kingdom
85
24
41
150
57
France
187
140
139
466
40
Germany
132
45
61
238
55
Russia.
92
10
189*
291
32
Austria
26
25
68
119
22
Italy ....
20
7
65*
92
22
Spain and Portugal .
9
35
47
91
10
Scandinavia
7
3
13
23
30
Holland .
6
12
17
35
17
Belgium
12
10
18
40
30
Other States
8
8
13
29
27
Europe
584
319
671
1,574
37
United States
130
131
243
504
26
Canada
4
1
8
13
30
Australia .
29
1
4
34
85
The East .
56
205
41
302
19
Other States
18
51
110
179
10
Total . . 821 708 1,077 2,606 31
The above is exclusive of South American " shin-plasters" (£170,000,000).
* Inconvertible notes, i.e. dishonest money.
No. XXXIII.— Earnings.
Millions & Yearly.
Agricul- Manufac-
Com-
House-
Profes-
"^
£per
ture.
tures, &c.
merce.
rent.
sions, &c.
Total.
Inhab.
United Kingdom
138
525
330
150
280
1,423
36-0
France
250
333
246
118
252
1,199
31-2
Germany ••-...
250
393
277
92
272
1,284
24-7
Russia
324
244
211
47
178
1,004
9-5
Austria .
192
192
149
37
137
707
16-7
Italy
122
103
92
27
92
436
14-0
Spain
81
68
61
14
49
273
15-5
Portugal .
16
16
14
4
14
64
13-6
Sweden and Norway
28
50
33
8
23
142
20-6
Denmark .
21
11
14
4
10
60
27-3
Holland .
22
26
43
10
23
124
25-8
Belgium .
26
70
49
8
28
181
28-3
Switzerland
12
21
20
5
12
70
23-3
Danub. States .
50
33
32
7
25
147
12-9
Greece
8
6
6
2
6
28
12-5
Europe
1,540
2,091
1,577
533
1,401
7,142
19-3
United States .
488
1,200
640
26J
521
3,116
44-0
Canada
34
75
41
7
26
183
36-0
Australia .
42
62
41
21
49
215
51-2
Argentina
28
20
21
7
19
95
24-0
Total .
2,132
3,448
2,320
835
2,016
10,751
23-0
The second column includes manufacturing, mining, forestry and fisheries ;
the third comprises trade and transport earnings ; the fifth domestic wages,
professional earnings and public salaries.
392
INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS
No. XXXIV.— Wealth (1895).
Millions £ Sterling.
—
Rail-
Merchan
Farms.
ways.
Houses.
dise.
Sundries.
Total.
United Kingdom
2,077
985
2,490
805
5,449
11,806
France
3,093
663
2,159
601
3,174
9,690
Germany .
2,508
555
1,755
677
2,557
8,052
Russia
2,710
349
1,019
515
1,832
6,425
Austria .
1,797
371
719
367
1,258
4,512
Italy
1,399
184
503
223
851
3,160
Spain
1,212
108
280
148
632
2,380
Portugal .
164
23
77
32
115
411
Sweden and Norway
278
40
152
80
240
790
Denmark
254
14
69
37
132
506
Holland .
295
46
178
104
257
880
Belgium .
354
75
175
118
266
988
Switzerland
172
44
91
49
136
492
Danub. States .
508
36
136
83
263
1,026
Greece
109
6
31
15
61
222
Europe
16,930
3,499
9,834
3,854
17,223
51,340
United States .
4,142
2,260
4,446
1,563
3,939
16,350
Canada .
305
186
145
103
264
1,003
Australia .
392
139
174
88
283
1,076
Argentina
198
88
107
53
170
616
Total
21,967 6,172 14,706 5,661 21,879 70,385
No. XXXV.— Wealth per Inhabitant.
£, Sterling per Inhabitant.
Percentage.
Rural.
Urban.
Real.
Personal.
Total.
Real.
Personal.
United Kingdom
53
249
106
196
302
35-4
64-6
France
80
172
123
129
252
48-8
51-2
Germany .
48
108
72
84
156
46-3
53-7
Russia
26
35
30
31
61
48-8
51-2
Austria .
41
63
51
53
104
48-6
51-4
Italy
45
56
53
48
101
53-2
46-8
Spain
69
66
76
59
135
561
43-9
Portugal .
35
52
46
41
87
52-4
47-6
Sweden and Norway
40
74
53
61
114
46-0
54-0
Denmark
115
115
124
106
230
54-1
45-9
Holland .
61
122
87
96
183
47-5
52-5
Belgium .
56
98
75
79
154
481
51-9
Switzerland
57
107
76
88
164
46-5
53-5
Danub. States
44
46
49
41
90
54-1
45-9
Greece
50
51
57
44
101
56-3
43-7
Europe .
45
94
64
75
139
46-0
54-0
United States .
59
175
111
123
234
47-3
52-7
Canada .
60
136
73
123
196
37-4
62-6
Australia
93
163
97
159
256
381
61-9
Argentina
49
105
58
96
154
38-4
61-6
General Average
48
107
71
84
155
46-0
54-0
COMPARATIVE TABLES
No. XXXVI.— Public Debts.
Millions £ Sterling.
393
National.
Local
Total.
Real Debt.
jeper
Inhab.
United Kingdom .
629
230
859
859
22
1,220
180
1,400
1,370
35
Germany
604
604
117
2
Russia .
703
—
703
495
5
Austria .
555
—
555
324
8
Italy
505
48
553
423
14
Spain
293
—
293
293
16
Portugal
148
—
148
133
28
Sweden and Norway
25
10
35
12
2
Denmark
11
—
11
1
—
Holland ,
92
20
112
90
19
Belgium . »
88
—
88
30
5
Switzerland .
13
—
13
13
4
Danub. States
67
—
67
33
3
Greece .
33
1
34
33
15
Europe .
4,986
489
5,475
4,226
12
United States .
188
237
425
425
6
Canada .
64
5
69
57
13
Australia
210
30
240
107
26
Total . . . 5,448 761 6,209 4,815 11
Where blanks occur the amount of municipal debt is unknown. Real
debt is that which remains after deducting value of State railways.
No. XXXVII. — Debt, Wealth, Taxes and Earnings per Head.
£ per Inhabitant.
'""
Net.
Net
Wealth.
Debt.
Wealth.
Earnings.
Taxes.
Earnings.
United Kingdom .
302
22
280
36-0
31
32-9
France .
252
36
216
31-2
37
27-5
Germany
156
12
144
24'7
2-5
22-2
Russia .
61
7
54
9-5
1-0
8'5
Austria
104
13
91
16-7
2-0
14-7
Italy .
101
18
83
14-0
2-7
11-3
opain .
135
16
119
15-5
1-7
13-8
Portugal . . _
87
31
56
13-6
1-8
11-8
Sweden and Norway .
114
5
109
20-6
1-5
19-1
Denmark
230
5
225
27-3
2-2
25-1
Holland
183
23
160
25-8
3-3
22-5
Belgium
154
14
140
28-3
21
26 '2
Switzerland .
164
4
160
23-3
1-8
21-5
Danub. States
90
6
84
12-9
1-3
11-6
Greece . . . .
101
15
86
12-3
1-8
10-5
139
15
124
19 -3
21
17 '2
United States
234
6
228
44-0
2-5
41-5
Canada
196
14
182
36-0
1-6
34-4
Australia
256
57
199
51-2
2-5
48-7
General Average .
155
14
141
23-6
2-2
21-4
Debt ratio includes national and local, without any deduction for State
railways or other assets. Taxes include all, national and local, but not the
proceeds of Crown lands, post office, or State railways.
APPENDIX
Population. — jThe birth and death rates for five years,
1888-92, gave the following averages per thousand inhabi-
tants yearly : —
Births,
307
30-9
227
22-5
37-8
England .
Scotland .
Ireland
France
Germany .
Russia
45-0
Deaths.
19-5
197
19-1
22-2
25-2
31-0
Austria
Italy
Spain
Sweden
Holland
Belgium
Births.
39-4
37-3
29-6
277
33-0
30-0
Deaths.
29-7
26-5
25-4
167
20-2
21-2
Russia and Austria have the highest rates both for births
and deaths, while France and Ireland stand lowest for births,
Sweden and Ireland for deaths. The number of legitimate
children born to 100 marriages in 1888-92 was : —
Russia
Ireland
531
492
Holland . 457
Italy
451
Germany . 420
England . 389
Belgium . 369
France . 284
If we compare the total number of births with that of
marriages at two periods we find : —
Births per 100 Marriages.
186
England .
France
Germany .
Austria
Hungary .
England and Belgium show a decline, all the others a rising
ratio.
The proportions of married and unmarried persons, per
thousand inhabitants, are shown as follows (single including
widowed) : —
360-80.
1888-92.
1860-80.
1888-92.
407
304
406
310
Italy .
Holland
440
422
489
472
439
419
456
486
Belgium
Sweden
408
414
405
474
404
484
Denmark
360
446
Single.
Married.
Single.
Married.
England .
. 663
337
U. States
644
356
Scotland .
. 703
297
France
598
402
Ireland
. 736
264
Italy
648
352
Prussia
. 660
340
Belgium
683
317
Scandinavia
. 670
330
Spain
640
360
394
APPENDIX
395
The working-age being taken as from fifteen to sixty years
we may divide population into workers and non-workers thus,
per 1000 inhabitants : —
Non- Non-
\Vorkers. workers. Workers, workers.
France . . 608 392 United States . 575 425
Sweden . . 597 403 Belgium . . 566 434
Italy . . .595 405 Germany . . 564 436
Austria . . 584 416 United Kingdom 557 443
The number of females to 1000 males in various countries is —
England. 1,064 France . 1,014 Austria. 1,032 U. States 953
Scotland . 1,072 Germany 1,038 Italy . 995 Canada . 965
Ireland . 1,028 Russia . 1,012 Belgium 1,006 Australia. 866
Steam. — "Steam-power enables 1 man to do as much
work as 120 in the last century. 1 bushel of coal, value
3 pence, will raise 20,000 gallons of water from a depth of
350 feet in a few minutes, which would take 20 men 10 hours
to raise with a pump, at accost of 40 shillings. Steam does
for £1 what would cost £160 by hand." — Quart. Review.
Grain. — The production of grain has increased 31 per cent, in
the last twenty years, as appears when we compare the average
crops of the world for 1892-95 with Neumann Spallart's table
for the decade 1871-80 :—
Tons of Grain Yearly.
1871-80.
Wheat .... 48,600,000
Barley .... 19,400,000
Oats .... 46,700,000
Maize .... 38,400,000
Rye .... 39,200,000
1892-95.
50,300,000
41,300,000
61,500,000
55,500,000
42,600,000
Total
. 192,300,000 251,200,000
Exports of Wheat. — The annual shipments averaged as
follows, in tons : —
From
1876-80.
1881-90.
1891-95.
United State
s . 2,910,000
3,120,000
4,470,000
Russia .
. 1,820,000
2,250,000
2,000,000
River Plate
30,000
140,000
1,040,000
India .
180,000
850,000
800,000
Roumania
430,000
525,000
730,000
Canada
110,000
115,000
240,000
Austria
•-" . 290,000
380,000
150,000
Total
5,770,000 7,380,000 9,430,000
396 APPENDIX
Cattle. — The live-stock of Europe, as given by Malchus, in
1826 was as follows (OOO's omitted) :—
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
United Kingdom .
1,900
10,500
44,100
5,300
France .
2,550
6,700
35,200
4,000
Germany
2,440
9,970
17,300
4,500
Russia .
12,000
19,000
36,000
15,800
Austria .
1,900
9,900
12,000
5,500
Italy .
1,600
3,500
6,500
2,500
Spain
1,600
2,500
13,000
1,000
Portugal
540
650
1,200
700
Scandinavia .
1,250
4,200
3,500
1,550
Low Countries
570
2,500
1,200
1,400
Switzerland .
100
800
500
250
Europe . . . 26,400 70,300 170,600 43,000
Wool-dip. — The world's clip is now nearly 1,100,000 tons,
as compared with 270,000 tons in 1826. The annual pro-
duction in 1893-95 and its equivalent in washed wool were : —
Tons. Washed.
Europe . . 351,000 = 211,000
United States . 135,000 = 101,000
River Plate . 154,000= 53,000
Tons. Washed.
Australia . 305,000 = 168,000
Cape Colony . 43,000= 32,000
Tho East, &c.. 98,000=59,000
making up 1,086,000 unwashed, or 624,000 tons washed.
Production of Fibre. — For the whole world see p. 30. The
production in Europe is as follows, in tons : —
Wool. Flax, <fcc. Total.
United Kingdom . . 66,000 14,000 80,000
France. . . . 37,000 53,000 90,000
Germany . . . 25,000 55,000 80,000
Russia. . . . 106,000 474,000 580,000
Austria . . . 25,000 115,000 140,000
Other States . . 92,000 43,000 135,000
Europe . . . 351,000 754,000 1,105,000
CoHon. — According to Ellison the consumption was : —
Tons Yearly.
1867-72. 1879-84. 1894.
Great Britain . . 473,000 618,000 730,000
Continent . . . 310,000 542,000 852,000
United States . . 183,000 377,000 505,000
India 53,000 203,000
Total . . . 96o,000 1,590,000 2,290,000
APPENDIX 397
Iron and Steel. — Bessemer's and like inventions have had
the effect of producing steel at one-eighth of the previous
cost : steel plates fell from £40 a ton in 1860 to £5 in 1894,
and steel rails are now at 70 shillings a ton, as compared with
£11 in 1870. So late as 1870 the question of iron versus
wooden ships was debated at the Iron and Steel Institute, but
so rapidly did iron assert itself that in 1879 the new vessels
launched in the United Kingdom were 88 per cent, iron, 12
per cent, wooden. In 1893 the proportion was 96 per cent,
steel, 4 percent, of iron or wood.
Freight. — The ordinary cost of sending a ton of goods 100
miles is : by sea 6 pence, by canal 2 shillings, by railway 8
shillings, by highroad 30 shillings. Railway rates per ton
100 miles are approximately as follows : —
Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence.
U. States . 42 I Germany . 80
Belgium . 80 | France . . 85
G. Britain 88
Austria . 100
Italy . . 110
Ireland . 120
At a meeting of the Royal Statistical Society, London, on
June 16th, 1896, Mr. Price Williams showed tables to the
effect that the London and North-Western Railway tariff
averaged 88 pence a ton per 100 miles for merchandise, and
42 pence for minerals. Sir C. Boyle and Mr. Jeans con-
sidered that the ordinary goods charges by rail were much
higher. If we adopt the above figures of Mr. Price Williams
it follows that the mean haulage in Great Britain is 55 miles,
and the daily goods traffic of the United Kingdom 50,000,000
ton-miles, i.e., half a million tons carried 100 miles. There
has been a notable reduction of freight charges by land and
water in the last twenty years : the freight on a ton of grain
from Chicago to Liverpool is now 16 shillings, as compared
with 67 shillings in 1873. The average goods tariff by rail in
the United States for carrying a ton 100 miles has been as
follows : —
Year. Pence. Year. Pence.
1870 . , . . 141 I 1885 .... 53
1880 .... 68 1893 42
398
APPENDIX
Water-freight is much cheaper, averaging 12 pence per ton
on the Mississippi for 100 miles.
Raihvays. — Working expenses take the following percentage
of gross receipts : —
U. Kingdom . 56'5
France. . 56'1
Belgium . 57 '2
Australia . 62'3
Germany . 65'0 U. States . 70'5
Italy .' . 68-0 Canada . 70'6
The journey between London and Edinburgh, which usually
took 17 days in the early years of the reign of George III., is
now accomplished by express trains in 8J hours.
Wealth. — Varigny estimates that there are (1880) about
700 persons in the world whose fortunes exceed 1 million
pounds each, viz., Great Britain 200, United States 100,
Germany and Austria 100, France 75, Kussia 50, India 50,
other countries 125. The New York Tribune in 1893 pub-
lished a list of 4107 persons in the United States with fortunes
ranging from £200,000 upwards. It appears from the Probate
Court returns (1889-93) that there are in the United King-
dom 24,000 persons with fortunes over £100,000. In 1894
the London papers published a summary for seven years,
showing that 437 persons engaged in trade had died in
England leaving more than £50,000 each, viz. : —
Class. Number. Fortune, £. Average, &.
Bankers and brewers . . 250 59,100,000 236,000
Merchants . . . .187 15,100,000 80,000
Total . . . .437 74,200,000 170,000
Taxes. — In 1881 Guyot estimated the taxes per inhabitant
as follows : —
Pence per Inbab.
Pence per Inbab.
Direct.
Indirect.
Total.
Direct.
Indirect.
Total.
U. Kingdom 86
394
480
Portugal . 60
156
216
France 102
534
636
Russia .
37
107
144
Prussia
78
138
216
Sweden .
30
104
134
Austria
98
310
408
Denmark
58
182
240
Hungary
130
142
272
Holland .
120
340
460
Italy .
152
280
432
Belgium .
120
280
400
Spain .
152
280
432
Switzerland 55
98
153
APPENDIX
399
Price-Level for 101 Years. — In the following price-levels the
prices of 1895 are taken as par, with which to compare those
of former years. It appears that £1000 in 1895 would buy
as much as £1400 in 1880 :—
Retrospective Price-Level of Ten Articles.
1895.
1890.
1880.
1870.
1860.
1850.
1840.
1830.
1820.
1810.
1794.
Beef .
100
109
124
120
109
86
99
73
94
97
78
Butter
100
107
133
107
110
69
89
80
83
89
70
Coffee
100
108
89
63
60
66
86
41
108
82
80
Copper
100
126
146
160
225
184
216
190
256
309
233
Iron .
ido
120
128
118
150
144
363
217
336
280
262
Silk .
100
140
150
226
306
156
218
120
192
314
148
Sugar
100
126
208
230
242
199
343
165
259
304
357
Tallow
100
90
110
137
176
117
164
110
173
202
139
Timber
100
114
128
164
159
159
268
103
138
441
128
Wheat
100
140
184
198
228
in
282
272
294
462
222
Total . 1,000 1,180 1,400 1,523 1,765 1,351 2,128 1,371 1,933 2,580 1,717
Aggregate Price-Level of Twenty Articles.
Year.
Level, i Year.
Level.
Year.
Level.
Year.
Level.
1895 .
2,000
1870 .
. 3,248
1845 .
. 3,228
1820 .
. 4,096
1890-94
2,275
1865-69
. 3,447
1840-44
. 3,603
1815-19
. 4,400
1890 .
2,422
1865 .
. 3,525
1840 .
. 4,150
1815 .
. 4,210
1885-89
2,350
1860-64
. 3,590
1835-39
. 3,624
1810-14
. 4,904
1885 .
2,364
1860 .
. 3,532
1835 .
. 3,332
1810 .
. 5,050
1880-84
2,710
1855-59
. 3,558
1830-34
. 3,320
1805-09
. 5,210
1880 .
2,810
1855 .
. 3,780
1830 .
. 3,260
1805 .
. 4,707
1875-79
2,960
1850-54
. 3,060
1825-29
. 3,608
1800-04
. 4,922
1875 .
3,102
1850 .
. 2,737
1825 .
. 4,000
1800 .
. 5,695
1870-74
3,310
1845-49
. 3,218
1820-24
. 3,728 ; 1794 .
. 4,110
Grain
Meat, &c.
Sugar, &c.
Minerals
Textiles .
Sundries
Index No.
By
Sauerbeck's Price-Level (Forty-five Articles).
1895. 1888-94. 1878-87. 1867-77. 1858-66. 1848-57. 1838-47. 1828-37.
. 1,000 1,192 1,463 1,852 1,833 1,648 1,839 1,839
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,066 1,218 1,282 1,141 1,013 1,026 1,000
1,133 1,226 1,613 1,613 1,403 1,968 2,048
1,180 1,177 1,613 1,516 1,500 1,500 1,565
1,175 1,365 1,923 2,250 1,538 1,576 1,808
1,030 1,246 1,538 1,584 1,446 1,430 1,415
1,118 1,274 1,613 1,597 1,436 1,509 1,500
textiles is meant not manufactured goods, but raw fibre.
1818-27.
2,056
1,154
2,436
2,065
2,020
1,630
1,790
4oo APPENDIX
Production of Gold since 1850.
i
Value, & Ster
ling (000 s
omitted).
Equiv.
Year.
U. States.
Australia.
Russia.
Various.
Total.
Tons
of Gold
1851
. 11,600
1,400
3,600
2,200
18,800
134
1852
. 12,700
12,200
3,600
2,200
30,700
220
1853
. 13,700
13,000
3,400
2,200
32,300
231
1854
. 12,700
9,600
3,400
2,200
27,900
199
1855
. 11,600
12,000
3,500
2,200
29,300
209
1856
. 11,600
13,200
3,500
2,300
30,600
219
1857
. 11,500
11,600
3,900
2,300
29,300
209
1858
. 10,600
12,100
3,900
2,300
28,900
206
1859
. 10,500
12,200
3,600
2,300
28,600
204
1860
. 9,800
11,200
3,600
2,300
26,900
192
1861
. 9,000
11,000
3,500
2,400
25,900
185
1862
. 8,200
11,300
3,500
2,400
25,400
181
1863
. 8,400
11,400
3,300
2,400
25,500
182
1864
. 9,700
10,000
3,400
2,400
25,500
182
1865
. 11,200
10,300
3,400
2,400
27,300
195
1866
. 11,200
10,400
4,100
2,300
28,000
200
1867
. 10,900
9,900
4,100
2,300
27,200
194
1868
. 10,100
10,400
4,200
2,300
27,000
193
1869
. 10,400
9,700
4,300
2,300
26,700
191
1870
. 10,400
8,500
4,300
2,300
25,500
182
1871
. 9,700
9,900
4,400
2,500
26,500
189
1872
. 8,200
9,000
4,700
2,600
24,500
175
1873
. 8,200
8,400
4,800
2,700
24,100
172
1874
. 7,700
7,200
4,800
2,800
22,500
161
1875
. 7,700
6,900
4,800
3,000
22,400
160
1876
. 8,400
6,900
4,700
3,200
23,200
166
1877
. 9,900
6,300
5,700
3,200
25,100
179
1878
. 10,700
6,100
5,900
3,300
26,000
186
1879
. 8,200
6,100
5,900
3,200
23,400
167
1880
. 7,600
6,300
5,700
3,300
22,900
163
1881
. 7,300
6,400
4,700
4,000
22,400
160
1882
. 6,900
6,200
4,600
3,800
21,500
154
1883
. 6,300
5,600
4,600
4,300
20,800
149
1884
. 6,500
6,000
4,600
4,700
21,800
156
1885
. 6,700
5,800
4,200
5,100
21,800
156
1886
. 7,400
5,600
4,200
5,200
22,400
160
1887
. 7,000
5,800
4,200
5,100
22,100
158
1888
. 7,000
6,000
4,500
5,500
23,000
164
1889
6,900
7,000
4,900
5,800
24,600
176
1890
. 6,900
6,400
4,700
6,800
24,800
177
1891
. 6,600
6,600
4,700
7,500
25,400
181
1892
. 6,400
7,200
4,800
9,200
27,600
197
1893
. 7,100
7,500
4,800
11,900
31,300
223
1894
. 8,200
8,700
5,700
15,100
37,700
270
44 years 399,300 375,300 190,700 170,000 1,135,300 8,107
APPENDIX
401
Period.
1851-55
1856-60
1861-65
1866-70
1871-75
1876-80
1881-85
1886-90
1891-94
Production of Silver since 1850.
Tons.
Value,
£ Sterling.
40,300,000
41,100,000
50,100,000
60,300,000
86,900,000
95,800,000
106,300,000
117,000,000
103,200,000
44 years 29,830 13,400 30,290 19,950 93,470 701,000,000
The value of silver, as stated above, is according to London
market price in each period. The tables are Soetbeer's down
to 1890, and from the Australian and United States Mint
Reports since. The production of gold has now reached 280
tons, or £39,000,000 yearly, being 49 tons more than the
greatest previous yield on record. The new gold-fields of the
Rand, South Africa, first came into notice in 1888, and have
since yielded £33,000,000, their annual product now reaching
£8,000,000. The product of precious metals in forty-four
--""^
South
United
Mexico.
America.
States.
Various.
Total.
2,330
1,090
40
970
4,430
2,240
950
30
1,300
4,520
2,360
950
870
1,330
5,510
2,600
1,150
1,510
1,440
6,700
3,010
1,870
2,820
2,150
9,850
3,280
1,750
4,900
2,320
12,250
3,760
1,820
5,690
2,770
14,040
4,730
2,100
7,640
3,180
17,650
5,520
1,720
6,790
4,490
18,520
Gold, Millions £.
Equivalent
Period.
U. States.
Australia.
Russia.
Various.
Total.
Tons.
1851-60
. 116-3
108-5
36-0
22-5
283-3
2,023
1861-70
. 99-5
102-9
38-1
23-5
264-0
1,885
1871-80
. 86-3
73-1
51-4
29-8
240-6
1,718
1881-90
. 68-9
60-8
45-2
50-3
225-2
1,610
1891-94
. 28-3
30-0
20-0
43-9
122-2
871
44 years 899'3 375'3 1907 170'0 1,135'3 8,107
Silver, Millions &.
Period.
1851-60 .
1861-70 .
1871-80 .
1881-90 .
1891-94 .
44 years
United
States.
Spanish
America.
Various.
Total.
0-6
60-2
20-6
81-4
21-4
63-6
25-4
110-4
64-3
81-9
3o-5
182-7
93-9
87-5
41-9
223-3
38-0
40-4
24-8
103-2
218-2
333-6
149-2
701-0
Tons.
8,950
12,210
22,100
31,690
18,520
93,470
2 C
402
APPENDIX
The price of silver, and its relative value compared with
gold have been : —
Years.
1841-50
1851-60
1861-70
1871-75
1876-80
1881-90
Pence
Oz. to
per Oz.
1 Oz. Gold. Year.
60-5
15-5
1890
61-5
15-2
1891
60-8
15-4
1892
59-2
15-8
1893
52-5
17-8
1894
47-6
19-6 1895
Pence
per Oz.
. 477
. 45-0
. 39-8
, 35-6
. 29-0
, 29-9
Oz. to
1 Oz. Gold.
19-6
20-8
23-5
26-3
32-3
31-3
Sea-borne Specie. — The
four years were : —
Period.
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
amounts sent over sea in thirty-
Gold Imported, Millions £.
G. Britain.
France.
U. States.
Various.
Total.
. 171
189
31
121
512
. 180
151
42
131
504
. 241
153
99
245
738
. 592
493
172
497
1,754
Exported.
. 112
119
113
168
512
. 172
90
74
168
504
. 200
115
116
307
738
484
352
324
303
643
Silver Imported, Millions £.
210
179
596
1,754
93
92
12
277
474
132
111
18
166
427
129
101
43
163
436
354
304
73
606
1,337
Exported.
91
78
22
283
474
119
48
73
187
427
142
84
84
126
436
1,337
Period.
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
1861-70
1871-80
1881-94
34 years
APPENDIX
Total, Bullion Imports.
836
534
482
403
o.
Britain.
France.
U. States.
Various.
Total.
264
281
43
398
986
,
312
262
60
297
931
•
370
254
142
408
1,174
946
797
245
1,103
3,091
Exports.
203
197
135
451
986
,
291
138
147
355
931
•
342
199
200
433
1,174
1,239 3,091
UNITED KINGDOM
Population. — Between 1821 and 1894 the aggregate popu-
lation of ten principal cities of the United Kingdom rose 270
per cent., while the rest of the population increased only 62
per cent. The cities showed as follows : —
London
Manchester
Glasgow .
Liverpool .
Birmingham
Leeds
Sheffield .
Dublin
Belfast
Edinburgh
10 cities
Occupations. -
1821.
1,275,000
134,000
147,000
119,000
107,000
84,000
42,000
227,000
37,000
138,000
1861.
2,804,000
441,000
395,000
444,000
296,000
207,000
185,000
305,000
121,000
202,000
1894.
4,350,000
726,000
687,000
613,000
492,000
389,000
338,000
362,000
274,000
271,000
. 2,310,000 5,400,000 8,502,000
-The occupations of the people in 1891 were : —
England.
Scotland.
Agriculture
1,337,000
249,000
Manufactures .
7,336,000
1,033,000
Trade .
1,400,000
181,000
Professions
926,000
111,000
Domestics
1,901,000
203,000
Ireland.
941,000
657,000
95,000
208,000
238,000
U. Kingdom.
2,527,000
9,026,000
1,676,000
1,245,000
2,342,000
Total . 12,900,000 1,777,000 2,139,000
( " Manufactures " includes also mining.)
16,816,000
404
APPENDIX
Steam-power. — This has grown six-fold since 1860, horse-
power showing approximately as follows : —
Year.
1860
1880
1895
Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total.
700,000 1,100,000 350,000 2,150,000
2,000,000 3,300,000 2,510,000 7,810,000
2,200,000 4,800,000 5,740,000 12,740,000
The allotment among the three kingdoms, at page 61, is in
this manner : fixed, according to the ratios of factory opera-
tives; railway, according to gross earnings ; steamboat, accord-
ing to registered tonnage in each kingdom.
Agriculture. — The returns for 1895 showed the productive
area, in acres, thus : —
Wheat
Barley
Oats .
Rye, &c.
All grain
Potatoes
Turnips
Vetches, &c.
Green crops
Grasses
Flax .
Fruit, &c. .
Under crops
Pasture
England. Scotland. Ireland.
1,385,000 35,000 35,000
1,960,000 215,000 170,000
2,305,000 1,010,000 1,215,000
495,000 20,000 20,000
6,145,000 1,280,000 1,440,000
415,000
1,445,000
750,000
2,610,000
3,200,000
595JOOO
135,000 710,000
480,000 315,000
25,000 125,000
640,000 1,150,000
U. Kingdom.
1,455,000
2,345,000
4,530,000
535,000
8,865,000
1,260,000
2,240,000
900,000
4,400,000
12,550,000
15,255,000
1,575,000
15^000
3,510,000
1,385,000
1,285,000 6,060,000
100,000 100,000
15,000 625,000
3,990,000
11,190,000
20,050,000
27,830,000
Total cultivated . 27,805,000 4,895,000 15,180,000 47,880,000
The returns for 1896 show that the area under grain is
235,000 acres less than the above figures for 1895. The pro-
ductive area is now 3,000,000 acres more than in M'Culloch's
time (1846), viz. : —
1846. 1895.
. 25,270,000 27,805,000
. 4,400,000 4,895,000
. 15,200,000 15,180,000
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total
44,870,000
47,880,000
APPENDIX
405
M'Culloch's estimate of rural products in 1846 was as
lOllOWS : £ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
Grain .
. 51,800
9,700
15,500
77,000
Green crops
. 28,700
5,300
7,600
41,600
Hay and straw
. 13,000
2,400
3,600
19,000
Meat .
. 26,000
6,300
14,200
46,500
Dairy .
. 13,400
2,400
3,600
19,400
Sundries
9,100
1,900
3,500
14,500
Total
142,000 28,000
48,000
218,000
Caird's estimate for the United Kingdom in 1878 amounted
to 261 millions sterling, including 87 for grain, 39 for sundries,
and 135 millions for pastoral products.
Harris's estimate of crops and value of cattle in 1894 was : —
Wheat .
Oats .
Barley, &c. .
Straw . .
Green crops
Hay .
Total .
The value of products compared with the number of hands
in 1846 and 1894 was as follows : —
£ No.
&
8,510,000
Horses . 2,060,000
39,200,000
15,800,000
Cattle . 11,210,000
108,500,000
13,840,000
Sheep . 31,770,000
40,600,000
12,230,000
Pigs . 3,280,000
4,900,000
44,800,000
Asses .
1,000,000
33,520,000
Poultry.
3,000,000
128,700,000
Total .
197,200,000
Hands.
Product,
Millions &.
& per Hand.
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
1846.
1894.
1846.
1894.
1846.
1894.
1,760,000
1,337,000
142
147
81
110
299,000
249,000
28
28
93
112
1,460,000
941,000
48
55
33
58
62
91
U. Kingdom . 3,519,000 2,527,000 218 230
Estates and Farms. — There are 19,000 estates and over a
million farms in the United Kingdom : —
Estates,
Farms,
Acres
Number.
Acres.
Number.
Acres. per Farm.
England
. 10,070
22,010,000
453,000
27,880,000 60
Scotland
. 2,710
18,160,000
80,000
4,890,000 60
Ireland
. 6,495
17,720,000
515,000
15,110,000 30
U. Kingdom 19,275 57,890,000 1,048,000 47,880,000 46
406
APPENDIX
The assessed rental compares with what it was fifty years
ago thus : —
1894, £.
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
1846, £.
40,200,000
5,600,000
8,630,000
40,060,000
6,250,000
9,890,000
United Kingdom . . 54,430,000 56,200,000
The Land Commissioners in Ireland in the last fifteen years
have cut down half the rents of the kingdom by 20 per cent,
and left the other half unreformed. The following table shows
the reformed and unreformed in each province in 1895 : —
Reformed, £.
Ulster .
Leinster
Connaught
Munster
Old Rent.
1,910,000
1,620,000
760,000
1,690,000
Judicial.
1,540,000
1,290,000
600,000
1,310,000
Valuation
of Uiire-
formed, £.
1,270,000
1,930,000
680,000
1,610,000
Total, £.
2,810,000
3,220,000
1,280,000
2,920,000
Total . 5,980,000 4,740,000 5,490,000 10,230,000
The unreformed rents are known to be at least 10 per cent,
over the above official (Griffith's) valuation. Hence the real
land rental of Ireland is £10,800,000.
Land-taxes. — The taxes that fall on farmers have risen 70
per cent, since 1846, viz. : —
1846.
Tithes .
Rates
Income-tax
Land-tax
Stamps, &c.
Total
Tithes .
Rates
Income-tax
Land-tax
Stamps, &c.
Total
England, £.
3,010,000
3,900,000
1,200,000
950,000
1,100,000
Scotland, £.
550,000
200,000
50,000
150,000
Ireland, £.
850JOOO
250,000
U. Kingdom, £.
3,010,000
5,300,000
1,400,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
10,160,000
950,000
1,100,000
1890.
12,210,000
England, £.
4,050,000
8,300,000
1,200,000
1,050,000
1,600,000
Scotland, £.
1,400^000
200,000
50,000
250,000
Ireland, £.
2,100,000
250,000
350,000
U. Kingdom, £,.
4,050,000
11,800,000
1,650,000
1,100,000
2,200,000
16,200,000
1,900,000
2,700,000
20,800,000
APPENDIX 407
Value of Land. — In April 1889 the Times published a
record of all landed estates (over 30 acres) sold by auction at
London, situate in England and Wales, from 1780 to 1880,
which sum up thus : —
Rent per Price per
Period. Acres. Rental, £. Price, £. Acre, Shil. Acre, £.
1781-1800 . 72,000 76,000 2,430,000 21 33'8
1801-1820 . 136,000 152,000 4,920,000 22 36'2
1821-1840 . 246,000 221,000 5,830,000 18 23'7
1841-1860 . 189,000 261,000 6,880,000 28 36'4
1861-1870 . 122,000 153,000 5,250,000 25 43'0
1871-1880 . 109,000 163,000 5,590,000 30 51'3
100 years . 874,000 1,026,000 30,900,000 23 35'1
Food-supply. — The importations of grain in thirty-five years
have been : —
Tons (000 s omitted).
Period.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
Maize, <tc.
Total.
1861-70 ,
, 18,000
3,500
3,800
7,500
32,800
1871-80 ,
, 28,500
5,700
6,200
16,500
56,900
1881-90
. 38,500
7,800
7,000
18,200
71,500
1891-95 ,
, 24,000
5,500
3,800
10,100
43,400
35 years . 109,000 22,500 20,800 58,100 204,600
The consumption of wheat in the United Kingdom, per
inhabitant, rose steadily till 1880, and has since declined,
viz. : —
Pounds Wheat yearly per Head.
Period.
1831-50 ....
1851-60 ....
1861-70 . • .
1871-80 ....
1881-90 ....
1891-95 ....
The production of grain and meat in forty-five years has
Tons Yearly. Pounds per Inhab.
Period. Grain. Meat. Grain. Meat.
1851-60 . . 9,750,000 950,000 780 79
1861-70 . . 9,700,000 1,040,000 720 77
1871-80 . . 8,500,000 1,050,000 570 71
1881-90 . . 7,820,000 1,080,000 470 65
1891-95 . . 7,580,000 1,100,000 440 63
Native.
Imported.
Total.
f f " • • .
£ per Ton.
255
32
287
13-8
218
93
311
13-6
201
134
335
12-8
165
213
378
12-8
120
260
380
9-0
78
282
360
7-0
1875.
18S5.
1895.
100,000
182,000
258,000
56,000
86,000
227,000
145,000
222,000
292,000
27,000
44,000
67,000
16,000
18,000
408 APPENDIX
Imports of meat from foreign countries have more than
doubled in twenty years, the weight in tons being as follows : —
Beef
Mutton
Bacon
Lard
Poultry .
Total . . 328,000 550,000 862,000
Beef and mutton include live cattle : oxen as 750 Ibs., sheep
90 Ibs., dead meat.
Cattle. — The live-stock of the United Kingdom has increased
much since 1846, viz. : —
Year. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs.
1846 . 2,050,000 7,950,000 27,900,000 3,690,000
1896 . 2,110,000 10,900,000 30,800,000 4,280,000
The number of cows and sheep to 100 inhabitants in 1895
was *
England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom.
Cattle ... 17 25 95 28
Sheep ... 67 140 90 75
The number and value of cattle shipped from Ireland to
Great Britain in 1894 were : —
Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Total.
Number . 34,000 827,000 958,000 587,000
Value, £ . 340,000 8,270,000 1,440,000 1,170,000 11,220,000
Dairy. — There are 4,000,000 milch cows, which give an
average of 350 gallons milk. The consumption is estimated
thus, in millions of gallons : —
Used as Howard. Turnbull. Bear. Sheldon. Mean.
Milk . . 570 51)5 570 616 588
Butter . . 564 450 616 540 542
Cheese . . 305 240 224 224 248
Total . 1,^39 1,285 1,410 1,380 1,378
The mean of the above estimates shows an annual pro-
duction of 90,000 tons of butter and 110,000 of cheese: each
ton of butter takes 6000 gallons of milk, and each of cheese
2300 gallons.
APPENDIX
409
Canals. — A statement published in 1890 showed 3814 miles
of navigable rivers and canals in the United Kingdom, of
which the railway companies owned 1200 miles : total annual
traffic, 34 million tons : estimated gross receipts, £1,700,000.
House-property. — The rental of London is £40,000,000,
having quadrupled in half a century : it was only £9,600,000
in 1841. There are 700,000 houses and 2100 miles of streets.
Building sites in 1886 showed a maximum price of £29 per
square foot, equal to £1,260,000 per acre. The house-property
of London Represents a value of 670 millions sterling, or £160
per inhabitant, against £218 per head in Paris.
Textile Manufactures: 1851-1894.
Value, Millions £ Sterling.
Total,
Cottons —
1851-60.
1861-70.
1871-80.
1881-94.
44 years.
Make .
562
830
1,020
1,486
3,898
Export
381
596
719
997
2,693
Home use .
181
234
301
489
1,205
Woollens —
Make
366
508
555
753
2,182
Export
128
237
262
319
946
Home use .
238
271
293
434
1,236
Silks—
Make
173
146
108
113
540
Export
7
10
11
8
36
Home use .
166
136
97
105
504
Linens —
Make
128
165
170
173
636
Export
57
95
82
88
322
Home use .
71
70
88
85
314
Jute and Hemp —
Make
70
100
156
212
538
Export
11
16
33
47
107
Home use .
59
84
123
165
431
Total make
1,299
1,749
2,009
2,737
7,794
Export
584
954
1,107
1,459
4,104
Home use .
715
795
902
1,278
3,690
(Silk exports were merely of yarn.)
Woollens. — In a report dated 1886, Sir J. Behrens, of
Bradford, valued the output of British woollen goods at
£60,400,000 per annum.
4io
Al
°PENDI
Iron and Steel. — The output hi
follows : —
Iron, Tons (OOO's omitted).
Period.
1851-60 .
1861-70 .
1871-80 .
1881-93 .
43 years .
Make.
32,500
47,400
65,500
102,400
Export.
12,200
18,700
24,200
34,700
Home.
20,500
28,700
41,300
67,700
247,800
89,800
158,000
Steel, Tons (OOO's omitted).
Make.
900
1,700
8,300
36,000
Export.
200
350
3,800
14,600
Home.
700
1,350
4,500
21,400
46,900 18,950 27,950
Great Britain made 248 million tons of iron in forty-three
years, of which 90 millions were exported : of the remainder
111 millions were used in iron manufactures, and 47 millions
converted into steel. As regards the latter 28 million tons
were used for manufactures and 19 millions exported.
Copper, Lead, &c. — The output was approximately : —
Copper, Tons (OOO's omitted). Lead, Tons (OOO's omitted).
Period.
1851-60
1861-70
1871-80
1881-93
43 years
1851-60
1861-70
1871-80
1881-93
43 years
Make.
Export.
Home.
Make.
Export.
Home.
590
260
330
790
250
540
910
460
450
1,070
390
680
930
560
370
1,410
380
1,030
1,760
810
950
2,150
580
1,570
4,190
2,090
2,100
5,420
1,600
3,820
Tin.
Zinc.
90
20
70
200
30
170
130
40
90
220
60
160
180
60
120
310
60
250
280
70
210
830
110
720
680
190
490
1,560 260 1,300
Leather. — The output, export, and home consumption of
leather wares were approximately : —
Millions £ Sterling.
Period.
1851-60
1861-70
1871-80
1881-93
43 years
Make.
. 330
. 410
. 450
. 720
. 1,910
Export.
18
23
35
52
128
Home Use.
312
387
415
668
1,782
APPENDIX
411
Liquor. — The consumption of spirits and beer in the United
Kingdom per inhabitant were : —
Gallons per Head.
Year.
1853
Spirits.
. 1-10
Beer.
27-1
Year.
1870
Spirits.
. 1-01
Beer.
32-8
Year.
1890
Spirits.
. 1-02
Beer.
30'0
1860
. 0-93
25-8
1880
. 1-09
27-8
1895
. i-oo
29-7
As regards the consumption of spirits in the three king-
doms official returns distinguish only what is home-made : if
we allot what is imported in the ratio of tonnage entries the
total consumption in 1895 will appear as follows : —
England
Scotland
Ireland
Home-made.
20,400,000
6,500,000
4,200,000
Imported.
6,400,000
1,000,000
600,000
Total. Per Head.
26,800,000 0-88
7,500,000. 1-80
4,800,000 1-05
U. Kingdom . 31,100,000 8,000,000 39,100,000 I'OO
Newspapers. — "Sell's Press Directory" gives London circu-
lation as 4,800,000 daily. The consumption of printing-paper
(after deducting for books) indicates that the circulation of
the three kingdoms, between dailies and weeklies, is about
42,000,000 weekly. In 1841 no daily paper was published
jn England outside London. The present circulation, say
174,000,000 papers monthly, is distributed at page 82 among
the three kingdoms according to the ratio of letters passing
through the Post Office.
Shipping. — The ownership of vessels in 1894 was as follows,
in tonnage : —
England
Scotland
Ireland
Carrying- Tons per
Steam. Sail. Total. power. 100 Inhab.
4,510,000 1,920,000 6,430,000 19,960,000 66
1,330,000 930,000 2,260,000 6,250,000 151
130,000 140,000 270,000 660,000 15
69
U. Kingdom 5,970,000 2,990,000 8,960,000 26,870,000
Tonnage entries in 1894 were as follows : —
England
Scotland
Ireland .
U. Kingdom . 39,800,000 55,400,000 95,200,000 240
Tons per
Sea-going.
Coastwise.
TotaL 100 Inhab.
35,200,000
40,300,000
75,500,000 250
3,800,000
8,500,000
12,300,000 295
800,000
6,600,000
7,400,000 163
412 APPENDIX
Wealth. — Colquhoun's estimates in 1812 and Pebrer's in
1833 were, in millions £> sterling, thus : —
England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom.
1812.
1833.
1812.
1833.
1812.
1833.
1812.
1833.
Land
. 833
1,000
166
200
333
400
1,332
1,600
Cattle .
. 113
150
20
26
50
66
183
242
Houses .
. 300
400
30
40
70
93
400
533
Furniture
. 180
173
20
20
50
53
250
246
Sundries
. 451
748
50
87
71
138
572
973
Total . 1,877 2,471 286 373 574 750 2,737 3,594
Porter's estimate in 1840 was 4100 millions, Giffen's in
1885 was 10,037 millions. The ratios per inhabitant come
out thus : —
Year.
1812
1840
1860
1885 .
1895 .
Savings-banks. — The ratio of depositors to population has
quintupled since 1850 : —
Year. Depositors. Population. Depos. per 1000.
1850 . . . 1,060,000 27,400,000 39
1893 . . . 7,220,000 38,400,000 188
Local Expenditure. — This has doubled since 1868, viz. : —
Millions £.
Population.
£ per Inhab.
2,737
18,200,000
150
4,100
26,600,000
154
7,206
28,900,000
249
10,037
36,000,000
278
11,806
39,100,000
302
Poor relief
Schools .
Police, &c.
Total .
1868, £.
9,200,000
26,900,000
1892, &.
10,900,000
8,200,000
56,900,000
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
Total .
1868, £.
30,400,000
2,600,000
3,100,000
1892, £.
63,300,000
8,200,000
4,500,000
36,100,000
76,000,000
36,100,000
76,000,000
The Local Debt of England and Wales in 1894 reached
£224,200,000.
Debt of Ireland. — Official returns show the debt at the
following dates : —
1784 . . £2,130,000 1801 . . £26,840,000
1790 . . 2,400,000 1817 . . 113,500,000
There was a rapid increase from 1798 to 1801, being the
expenses of putting down the rebellion and paying those peers
APPENDIX
413
who consented to vote for the Union. After the Union the
handling of the finances was flagitious. The Irish Treasury
was suppressed in 1817.
Ratios of the Three Kingdoms.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
U. Kingdom.
Population .
77-7
10-5
11-8
lOO'O
Post-office
85-0
9-0
6-0
100-0
Railways receipts
85-3
10-7
4-0
100-0
Agriculture .
63-9
122
23-9
100-0
Manufactures
80-2
15-5
4-3
100-0
Wealth
85-2
9-3
5-5
100-0
FRANCE
Agriculture. — The crops of potatoes and beetroot have been
as follows, in tons : —
1840. 1860. 1894.
Potatoes . . 5,300,000 6,400,000 12,800,000
Beetroot . . 800,000 3,000,000 18,400,000
Levasseur estimated all farm products at 268 millions
sterling in 1830, and 368 in 1869. France has 5,020,000
milch cows, which average 325 gallons of milk, against 340 in
Great Britain. The production of butter is 110,000 tons
yearly. The dairy output is valued at £46,000,000, besides
£12,700,000 for fowls and eggs, and £800,000 for honey.
De Foville and some others count manure as an agricultural
product, worth 35 to 40 millions sterling, the quantity being
usually estimated at 84 million tons, but De Foville, who is a
good authority, maintains 100 million tons.
Land-value. — Land trebled in value between Chaptal's
estimate of 1817 and the year 1879, but it has since fallen
one-third : —
Area, Acres. Value, Millions £. £ per Acre.
1817.
1895.
1817.
1879.
1895.
1817.
1895.
Arable
57,000,000
46,600,000
548
2,301
1,398
10
30
Meadow
8,700,000
15,900,000
279
745
700
32
44
Vineyards
6,800,000
4,400,000
196
312
185
29
42
Forest
22,100,000
20,700,000
131
250
248
6
12
Pasture, &c
19,000,000
22,940,000
44
56
49
2
2
Total . 113,600,000 110,540,000 1,198 3,664 2,580 10 23
414 APPENDIX
Land-tenure. — The report for 1883 compares with that for
1815 as follows : —
No. of Estates. Acres (OOO's omitted). Acres to each.
Class.
1815.
1883.
1815.
18S3.
1815.
1883.
Large .
191,000
142,000
73,700
41,700
390
294
Medium
474,000
1,496,000
19,500
49,500
41
33
Small .
. 2,038,000
1,865,000
17,300
9,300
8
5
Total . 2,703,000 3,503,000 110,500 100,500 41 29
Medium-sized estates, average 33 acres, now cover one-half
of France, whereas in 1815 they covered only one-sixth.
Grain-crops. — The yield per acre now averages 21 bushels,
against 16 in 1835, viz. : —
Year. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Bye.
1835 . . 14-7 19-1 15-4 13-7
1894 . . 19-8 26-4 21-6 17'1
Transport.— The weight of merchandise carried in France
on roads, railways, and canals, has multiplied five-fold since
1851, viz. : —
Millions of Tons earned 10 Miles.
Year.
1851 .
1869 .
1882 .
1893 .
In the above table canal traffic includes that of 3150 miles
of canal and 4850 of navigable rivers. The road traffic is
merely that of 24,000 miles of national routes or grand high-
ways, exclusive of 22,000 miles of Departmental and 270,000
of local or by-roads, the traffic on which is unknown. The
transport per mile on the above lines in 1893 is shown as
follows, in tons carried 10 miles : —
Million Tons. Miles of Route. Tons per Mile.
Railway . . 766 24,600 31,300
Canal . . .226 8,000 28,300
Road . . .109 24,000 4,500
Road.
99
Rail way.
22
Canal.
108
Total.
229
104
391
125
620
91
677
140
908
109
766
226
1,101
Total . . 1,101 56,600 19,500
Railwavs appear to do 70 per cent, of the goods traffic, but
it will be seen that the traffic per mile on canals is little inferior.
APPENDIX
415
Wealth. — If the estimates of the best writers be correct the
wealth of the French nation appears to double in forty-five
years : we have seen that it doubles in the United King-
dom in forty years. The estimates for France include the
following : —
Wealth, Millions £,.
Year.
1853 .
1861 .
1872 .
1881 .
1891 % .
Real property stands for less now than thirty years ago,
personal has more than doubled in the interval. French
joint-stock companies paying income-tax represented in 1887
a capital of 1360 millions sterling, of which railways stood
for 540 millions £.
Taxes. — The Diction. JEcon. gives the following : —
Real.
Personal.
Total.
Writer.
3,680
1,320
5,000
Girardin
4,800
2,200
7,000
Wolowaki
4,000
3,800
7,800
D'Ayen
4,600
4,040
8,640
Mony
4,558
4,745
9,303
Official
Year.
1830.
1869.
1889.
Direct, £.
10,000,000
13,200,000
16,300,000
Indirect, £.
23,000,000
53,200,000
95,400,000
Total, £.
S3,000,000
66,400,000
111,700,000
According to Coste the urban population pays 102 shillings,
rural only 56, per head, viz. : —
Property tax .
Customs and excise
Stamps, &c.
Total
Rural, &.
12,800,000
20,100,000
13,000,000
Urban, &.
6,000,000
61,900,000
28,400,000
Total, £.
18,800,000
82,000,000
41,400,000
45,900,000 96,300,000 142,200,000
Debt. — The Journal Statistique gives the national debt
thus : —
Year.
1833
1869
Millions £.
205
520
Year.
1875
1891
Millions £.
933
1,219
The funded debt has increased 90 millions sterling in the
last ten years, rising from 950 millions in 1885 to 1040
in 1895.
APPENDIX
GERMAOT
Population. — The number of inhabitants per square mile is
as follows : —
Saxony .
Alsace .
650
290
Wurtemberg
Minor States
275
270
Prussia .
Bavaria .
234
194
The ratio for all Germany is 248, against 100 in the year
1815.
Agriculture. — The productive and non-productive areas are
as follows in acres (OOO's omitted) : —
Prussia
Bavaria .
Other States
Germany .
Crops.
40,200
16,200
Pasture.
16,300
2,600
2,800
Forest.
20,400
5,900
8,200
Waste.
9,200
1,400
1,500
Total.
86,100
18,700
28,700
65,200 21,700 34,500 12,100 133,500
The value of farm products is shown approximately thus : —
Grain .
Potatoes
Roots .
Hay .
Tons.
18,200,000
31,800,000
22,000,000
14,000,000
Value, £.
109,200,000
63,600,000
16,500,000
28,000,000
Wine, fruit, &c. .
Meat
Dairy and poultry
Sundries
Value, £.
44,700,000
63,000,000
73,000,000
19,000,000
This makes up a total of 417 millions sterling, the shares
of the various States being shown approximately thus : —
Value, & (OOO's omitted).
s~
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Wurtemberg.
Other States.
Germany.
Grain
65,000
12,400
3,500
28,300
109,200
Potatoes
41,800
8,600
2,000
11,200
63,600
Hay
20,400
3,500
1,000
3,100
28,000
Sundries .
38,000
8,300
2,400
12,500
61,200
Meat
37,800
9,400
3,000
12,800
63,000
Dairy, &c.
55,000
13,800
4,600
18,600
92,000
Total . 258,000 56,000 1G.500
86.500
417,000
APPENDIX 417
Food-supply. — The production of grain and meat is approxi-
mately as follows : —
Tons. Lbs. per Inhab.
Grain.
Meat.
Grain.
Meat
Prussia
. 10,500,000
920,000
720
69
Bavaria
. 2,500,000
225,000
920
91
Other States
. 5,200,000
375,000
830
56
Total . 18,200,000 1,520,000 820 68
Grain includes all kinds, for men and cattle.
Hardware. — The output of metallic wares was as follows, in
millions £ : —
I860. 1872. 1892.
Iron and steel .... 11 32
Copper, zinc, &c. ... 7 12 19
Total 18 44 105
Minerals. — Official returns give the production as following,
in tons : —
Year. Coal. Iron. Tear. Coal. Iron.
1860 . 12,300,000 530,000 I 1880 . 47,000,000 2,730,000
1870 . 26,400,000 1,390,000 | 1893 . 95,500,000 4,990,000
Internal Trade. — The shares corresponding to the various
States in 1894 were : —
Millions £ Sterling.
<*"
Wurtem-
Small
**
Prussia.
Bavaria.
Saxony.
berg.
States.
Germany.
Agriculture .
258
58
17
17
67
417
Manufactures, &c.
430
70
79
32
127
738
Imports
119
23
14
7
35
198
Total .
807
151
110
56
229
1,353
Savings-banks. — Their progress in Prussia in twenty years
was extraordinary, viz. : —
Year. Depositors. £ Sterling.
1872 1,706,000 28,900,000
1892 5,773,000 170,300,000
There is a depositor for every family in the kingdom.
2 D
41 8 APPENDIX
RUSSIA
Population. — The three principal cities have trebled popu-
lation since 1831 : —
Year. St. Petersburg. Moscow. Warsaw. Total.
1831 . 324,000 308,000 151,000 783,000
1891 . 1,035,000 820,000 455,000 2,310,000
Russia has fourteen cities over 100,000 population.
Agriculture. — The area under crops is as follows, in acres: —
Russia.
Poland.
Total, Acres.
Crop, Value £.
Grain
164,200,000
8,600,000
172,800,000
258,000,000
Potatoes .
5,700,000
2,600,000
8,300,000
21,000,000
Hay
46,400,000
2,100,000
48,500,000
45,000,000
Flax and hemp
4,700,000
4,700,000
14,000,000
Sundries
17,000,000
3,700,000
20,700,000
32,000,000
Total . 238,000,000 17,000,000 255,000,000 370,000,000
Cattle. — The live-stock in 1888 was as follows : —
Horses. Cows. Sheep. Swine.
Russia proper . 19,600,000 24,600,000 44,500,000 9,200,000
Poland . . 1,200,000 3,000,000 3,800,000 1,500,000
Total . 20,800,000 27,600,000 48,300,000 10,700,000
Land. — The area mortgaged to the Imperial Bank in the
years 1886-88 was 8,860,000 acres cultivated, and 4,750,000
forest, &c., the official value of all being £30,400,000, and
averaging 65 shillings per cultivated acre, and 8 shillings for
forest land. Official value was two-thirds of selling value.
Serfs. — At the close of the eighteenth century the ordinary
price was £24 for a man, £12 for a boy, £6 for a girl. At
the emancipation of 1861 there were 47,800,000 serfs, of
whom 26,000,000 belonged to the Crown: the average number
held by each noble was 800.
Manufactures. — The output of factories (exclusive of those of
sugar, liquor, and tobacco) was stated officially in 1894 thus : —
Factories. Hands. Output, £. £ per Hand.
Russia. . . 19,507 983,000 137,700,000 140
Poland . . 4,172 150,000 23,400,000 156
Total . . 23,679 1,133,000 161,100,000 142
APPENDIX 419
The above takes no account of small industries which occupy
6,100,000 artisans.
Minerals. — The product of petroleum is shown approxi-
mately thus : —
Millions of Gallons.
Period.
Crude.
Refined.
Value, £.
& per Annum.
1863-80 .
670
= 185
7,700,000
430,000
1881-89 .
. 4,510
= 1,260
18,000,000
2,000,000
1890-93 .
. 3,920
= 1,100
12,300,000
3,100,000
31 years . 9,100 =2,545 38,000,000 1,230,000
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Agriculture. — Neumann Spallart valued the grain-crops at
60 millions sterling in 1850, and 102 millions in 1887. The
ordinary yield per acre is as follows, in bushels : —
Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. All Grain.
Austria . . 15 '8 20 '0 22 -6 15 '6 18 '0
Hungary . . 18'6 20'2 23'5 16'2 20'1
Land Tenure. — The agricultural population is made up
thus : —
Austria. Hungary. Total.
Land-owners . . 1,510,000 890,000 2,400,000
Tenant-farmers . . 495,000 100,000 595,000
Labourers . . . 6,465,000 3,480,000 9,945,000
Total . . . 8,470,000 4,470,000 12,940,000
Manufactures. — The consumption of fibre has been as follows,
in tons : —
Tear. Cotton. WooL Flax, &c. Total.
1830 . 5,000 20,000 40,000 65,000
1860 . 45,000 40,000 100,000 185,000
1894 . 135,000 55,000 180,000 370,000
An official report in 1888 stated as follows for textiles : —
Factories. Operatives. Spindles. Power-looms.
Cotton . 1,900 96,000 2,350,000 42,000
Wool, &c. 3,055 119,000 1,050,000 23,000
Total . 4,955 214,000 3,400,000 65,000
420 APPENDIX
Means of Traffic. — These were in 1893 as follows, in English
miles : —
Austria. Hungary. Total.
Highroads . . . 69,000 30,000 99,000
Railways . . . 10,360 7,360 17,720
Water-ways . . . 4,150 3,050 7,200
Total . . . 83,510 40,410 123,920
Wealth. — Becher in 1836 estimated that of the whole empire
at 1920 millions sterling: wealth has apparently more than
doubled in sixty years.
House-property. — The average to each inhabitant is only
two-thirds of what it is in Germany : taking the house-tax as
a basis, we find the value thus : —
Millions £. Population. £ per Head.
Austria, duchy . . .198 3,450,000 57
Bohemia .... 93 5,850,000 16
Galitzia .... 51 6,610,000 8
Moravia, &c. . . .118 7,990,000 15
Total. . . .460 23,900,000 19
The above is exclusive of Hungary : see page 185.
Provincial Taxes. — In 1892, exclusive of Hungary, they
were : Pence Penoe
& per Head. £ per Head.
Austria . 1,210,000 82
Bohemia . 1,100,000 46
Galitzia . 1,050,000 38
Moravia, &c. 1,840,000 55
Municipal Taxes.— Vienna, £2,100,000, Prague £620,000:
the aggregate of forty - seven other cities amounts to
£1,900,000 : average all round, 33 shillings per head of
urban population.
ITALY
Agriculture. — Official estimates compare with mine thus : —
Official, £. Mine, £.
Grain . . . 53,400,000 63,400,000
Wine
Fruit and vegetables
Hay.
Meat, dairy, &c.
33,500,000 33,500,000
9,600,000 15,200,000
26,700,000
79,000,000 79,200,000
Total . . . 175,500,000 208,000,000
APPENDIX 421
There are 2,820,000 farms, held as follows :—
Farmed by Number. Acres. Average Acres.
Proprietor . . 1,265,000 33,000,000 26
Metayer. . . 1,245,000 18,000,000 15
Tenant . . . 310,000 7,300,000 23
Total . . 2,820,000 58,300,000 21
Manufactures. — The consumption of coal and iron were, in
tons : —
1850. 1870. 1893.
Coal . . . 100,000 1,500,000 3,700,000
Iron. . . . 50,000 100,000 200,000
Savings-banks : —
Depositors . 170,000 570,000 4,410,000
Deposits, £ . 2,200,000 14,800,000 77,200,000
Wealth. — Pantaleoni's estimate was as follows, in mil-
lions £ : —
Year. Real. Personal. Total. £ per Tnhab.
1876 . . . 1,080 710 1,790 63
1886 . . . 1,320 870 2,190 71
This indicated an increment of 40 millions sterling per
annum, say 30 shillings per inhabitant.
SPAIN
Population. — There are 92 inhabitants per square mile,
against 85 in 1860. Density of population varies exceed-
ingly :—
Estremadura . 42 Castile . . 61 Asturias . 135
Aragon . . 50 Biscay . . 107 Galicia . . 158
Agriculture. — An official survey in 1860 gave as follows : —
Cultivated. Acres.
Grain . . . 23,100,000
Vines . . . 3,200,000
Green crops . . 13,700,000
Total . . 40,000,000
Uncultivated. Acres.
Pasture. . . 22,000,000
Forest . , . 12,000,000
Desert . . . 46,000,000
Total . . 80,000,000
422 APPENDIX
Earnings. — According to the three classes of houses in Spain
we may suppose the earnings of the people to be distributed
approximately as follows : —
Class. No. Millions £. Average &.
Hidalgos . . . 86,600 43 500
Citizens . . . 457,700 110 240
Peasants . . . 3,087,000 110 35
Total . . . 3,631,300 263 72
SWEDEN
Real estate. — Official returns give the following, in millions
£ sterling : —
Year. Lands. Houses. Total.
1865 ... 133
1879 117 51 168
1893 140 96 236
DENMARK
Sound dues. — These dated from 1348, being 1 per cent, on
the value of all cargoes passing Elsinore. They were abolished
in 1857, Denmark receiving an indemnity of £3,600,000; one-
third from Great Britain.
HOLLAND
Agriculture. — The export of butter and cheese rose from
47,000 tons in 1872 to 103,000 in 1893, while the number
of milch cows declined from 980,000 to 890,000. Holland
imported no Margarine in 1872, but 35,000 tons in 1893.
Commerce. — In 1893 the weight of merchandise imported
was 16,400,000 tons, exported 9,600,000 tons; the former
averaged £8, the latter £10, per ton in value.
BELGIUM
Value of land. — The assessed land rental in 1890 was
£7,500,000, which was probably 25 per cent, under the real
APPENDIX 423
rental, say £10,000,000. The Minister's estimate of value,
300 millions sterling, would be thirty times the latter figure,
which was, doubtless, the basis of his estimate. This is equiv-
alent to 36 shillings rent or £55 purchase per acre.
TJNITED STATES
Population. — The census returns since 1 830 show thus : —
Year. Population.
Increase.
Ratio.
1830' . . 12,866,000
1840
. 17,070,000
4,204,000
32-3
1850
. 23,192,000
6,122,000
35-8
1860
. 31,443,000
8,251,000
35-6
1870
. 38,558,000
7,115,000
22-6
1880
. 50,156,000
11,598,000
30-1
1890
. 62,622,000
12,466,000
24-8
1896 (estimated) . 71,180,000
8,558,000
13-7
The diminished rate of increase in 1861-70 was due to the
War of Secession : the actual number of men killed was only
470,000, but the disturbance of family ties and return of
many foreign settlers to Europe caused a loss of 3,000,000 in
population.
Urban and Mural. — The census classifies as urban all towns
over 8000 souls, the ratio of which doubled in forty years,
viz. : —
Tear. Urban. Rural. Total. Urban. Rural. Total.
1850 . 3,330,000 19,862,000 23,192,000 143 857 1,000
1890 . 18,265,000 44,357,000 62,622,000 290 710 1,000
Urban ratio is 528 per thousand in New England, and only
98 per thousand in the Southern States.
Able-bodied. — The number of persons, male and female,
between the ages of 15 and 60 in 1890 was : —
States.
Americans.
Foreigners.
Negroes.
Total.
New England .
1,887,000
952,000
21,000
2,860,000
Middle .
5,755,000
2,396,000
265,000
8,416,000
South
6,205,000
336,000
3,125,000
9,666,000
West
10,790,000
4,036,000
223,000
15,049,000
Total . . 24,637,000 7,720,000 3,634,000 35,991,000
424 APPENDIX
Sexes. — The numbers and ratios by last census were : —
Americans
Foreigners
Negroes
Total
Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total.
23,252,000 22,650,000 45,902,000 506 494 1,000
5,068,000 4,182,000 9,250,000 548 452 1,000
3,748,000 3,722,000 7,470,000 502 498 1,000
32,068,000 30,554,000 62,622,000 512 488 1,000
Occupation. — No return on this head has been published
since 1880, when the ratios were as follows : —
Americans. Germans. British. Irish. Scandin. Total.
Agriculture . 495 285 222 142 448 442
Manufactures . 188 356 488 290 218 220
Trade .
Domestics
Total .
96
221
147
212
119
171
142
426
77
257
103
235
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
Steam-power. — The latest return of fixed steam-engines was
in 1880, since which date manufactures and mining have risen
80 per cent. : hence the table at page 285 supposes the fixed
engines to be 80 per cent, over the figure for 1880.
Agriculture. — The following table shows the average for
five years, 1891-95 :—
Value, $ per
Millions $. Acre.
319 8-78
656 9-02
211 7-82
49 8-20
Bushels
Acres.
Tons. per Acre.
Wheat .
36,400,000
12,250,000 13-5
Maize .
72,700,000
43,400,000 24-0
Data .
27,000,000
17,600,000 261
Barley, &c. .
5,980,000
2,850,000 19'0
Total
142,080,000 76,100,000 21 -4 1,235
8-70
The crops and other
as follows : —
products in 1893 were approximately
States.
N. England
Middle
South
West .
Weight,
Tons.
Bushels
Grain.
420,000
4,850,000
13,780,000
50,050,000
Potatoes.
330,000
1,100,000
670,000
2,400,000
Hay.
5,100,000
10,800,000
8,100,000
42,200,000
Meat. Inhab.
88,000 3£
333,000 12
1,593,000 27
2,816,000 76
Total
69,100,000 4,500,000 66,200,000 4,830,000 41
APPENDIX 425
Value, Millions $.
States.
New England .
Middle .
South
West .
Total . . . 1,043 783 571 1,505 3,902
The average value of what was consumed and what was
exported in 1893-94 was : —
Millions $.
Grain.
Meat.
Hay.
Sundries.
Total.
9
15
57
76
157
95
54
138
252
539
271
252
80
471
1,074
668
462
296
706
2,132
Product. Export. Home Use.
Grain . . . 1,042 184 858
Meat. ... 785 162 623
Dairy products . . 418 10 408
Cotton ... 272 200 72
Poultry ... 204 ... 204
Sundries . . . 1,161 66 1,095
Total . . . 3,882 622 3,260
The value of products at various periods was approximately
as follows : —
Millions $.
1840.
1850.
I860.
1870.
1886.
1893.
Grain . - .
Cotton
298
72
465
86
830
192
931
197
1,167
257
1,043
268
Hay .
Potatoes .
96
38
139
43
158
48
192
57
353
78
571
109
Tobacco .
19
24
19
43
39
39
Vegetables, &c.
Tillage
Meat
76
105
862
163
139
173
1,593
394
349
304
2,334
785
599
139
1,386
326
2,243
748
Dairy
Poultry .
Wool
67
34
10
82
38
16
163
82
21
197
96
47
380
186
77
418
204
64
Hides, &c.
17
21
41
49
93
98
Total .
Official value .
866
620
1,182
998
2,019
1,910
2,376
2,088
3,727
3,727
3,903
The official valuation for years before 1886 was below the
real value, hay and other items having been omitted.
426
APPENDIX
Food-supply. — The production and consumption of grain
show thus : —
Consumption, Million Bushels.
States.
Million Bushels. People.
Cattle.
Total.
New England
18
51
29
80
Middle .
. . .
215
154
138
292
South
B ,
560
201
542
743
West
•
2,275
294
1,352
1,646
3.068
700
2,061
2,761
Tons of Meat Produced.
States.
Beef.
Mutton.
Pork.
Total.
Inhab.
N. England
65,000
7,000
16,000
88,000
40
Middle . .
206,000
25,000
102,000
333,000
48
South . .
732,000
75,000
786,000
1,593,000
178
West . .
1,407,000
263,000
1,146,000
2,816,000
212
Total . 2,410,000 370,000 2,050,000 4,830,000 156
Poultry. — The census of 1890 showed 286,000,000 hens,
which laid 820,000,000 dozens of eggs, equal to 157 eggs per
inhabitant.
Dairy. — The production of milk in 1890 was 5210 millions
of gallons, of which 52 per cent, was used to make butter.
The output of butter was 454,000 tons, but there is no record
of cheese. Dairy products are valued at £87,000,000 sterling
per annum.
Farms. — The average area is the same as forty years ago : —
Tear.
1850
1890
Farms.
1,449,000
4,565,000
Acres.
113,000,000
358,000,000
Average.
78
78
The census of 1890 gave the following result : —
States. Farms. Acres. Average.
New England . . 190,000 10,800,000 57
Middle . . . 515,000 36,100,000 70
South . . . 1,785,000 103,500,000 58
West . . . 2,075,000 207,800,000 100
Union
4,565,000
358,200,000
78
In 1890 there were 3,270,000 farms cultivated by the
owner, 455,000 by tenants, and 840,000 on the Metayer
APPENDIX
427
system ; that is, the landlord taking half or other portion of
the crops, as common in France and Italy. Metayer farms
were 10 per cent, of the total number in 1890, against 8 per
cent, in 1880.
Agricultural Implements. — One hand in the United States
produces as much food as four in Europe, due to improved
machinery. It was at the Paris Exhibition of 1855 that
American implements first excited wonder: the Moniteur
said —
"Pitt's American thresher beat everything. In 30 minutes
it threshed 21 bushels, the English machine doing 11, the
French 7, the Belgian 4, bushels. It did the same amount
of work as 75 men working with flails."
Manufactures. — Census returns show thus : —
Millions $.
Year.
1850
1870
1890
Output. Wages.
1,019 237
3,386 620
9,372 2,283
Number.
958,000
2,054,000
4,713,000
Per Operative.
Wages, $. Output, $.
247 1,063
302 1,648
485 1,994
The output in the several parts of the Union was as follows: —
Tear.
1850
1870
1890
New England.
285
802
. 1,498
Middle.
470
1,416
3,648
South.
96
225
706
West.
168
943
3,520
Union.
1,019
3,386
9,372
The principal items of manufacture are shown thus : —
Millions $.
Hands
Product,
1850.
1870.
1890.
in 1890.
$ per
Hand.
Hardware
124
612
1,102
784,000
1,407
Textiles .
186
490
1,305
878,000
1,486
Food
136
406
1,081
229,000
4,700
Lumber .
59
202
590
373,000
1,580
Leather .
92
271
511
260,000
1,960
Sundries
422
1,405
4,783
2,189,000
2,185
Total
1,019 3,386 9,372 4,713,000 1,994
Hardware includes machinery ; textiles include clothing.
Output, $.
Operatives.
$ per Hand.
288,000,000
164,000
1,757
105,000,000
70,000
1,500
97,000,000
73,000
1,325
94,000,000
51,000
1,850
518,000,000
426,000
1,217
428 APPENDIX
Hardware. — This industry in 1890 showed thus : —
Pennsylvania
Ohio .
New York
Illinois
Other States .
Total. . . 1,102,000,000 784,000 1,407
Minerals. — The production of precious metals in 1892 was,
in millions $ : —
Colorado. Montana. California. Utah. Various. TotaL
Gold . 5 3 12 1 12 33
Silver . . 21 15 ... 7 7 60
Total . 26 18 12 8 19 83
The value of all mining products at various dates was, in
millions $ : —
1850. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1894.
Coal . . 24 99 141 177 186
Iron . . 15 38 95 151 65
Copper 8 11 31 38
Lead . . 4 8 10 13 10
Petroleum .... 48 24 35 36
Gold . 50 50 36 33 40
Silver 16 30 63 28
Sundries . 14 53 87 143 88
Total . 107 320 434 636 491
In 1894 Pennsylvania produced 166 million dollars, or 34
per cent, of total.
Commerce. — The principal items were as follows : —
Imports, Million §. Exports, Million $.
1860.
1880.
1894.
1860.
18SO.
1894.
Sugar .
. 29
75
129
Cotton .
192
212
211
Coffee .
. 22
60
90
Grain .
22
280
167
Woollens
. 38
34
20
Meat .
10
110
170
Iron
. 18
54
21
Petroleum .
36
37
Silks .
. 31
44
25 Tobacco
19
18
28
Sundries
. 216
401
370
Sundries
90
180
256
Total . 354 668 655 Total . 333 836 869
New York in 1893 stood for 896 millions, or 52 per cent.
APPENDIX 429
of the total trade, Boston for 165 millions, the other ports
being a long way behind.
Railways. — The mileage open in 1892 compared with popu-
lation and extent thus : —
New Middle
No. of Miles. England. States. South. West. Union.
Per million pop. . . 1,355 1,426 2,290 4,055 2,630
Per million acres. . 157 293 85 80 91
Money. — The amount has risen nearly 50 per cent, in twelve
years, showing thus in millions $ : —
« Treasury. Circulation. Total.
f
If
Gold .
Silver .
U. S. notes .
Bank-notes .
Total . . 427 796 1,230 1,599 1,657 2,395
United States notes include Treasury certificates, amounting
in 1895 to 393 millions $.
Earnings. — These compared with population as follows : —
Year. Population. Millions $. § per Head.
1840 .... 17,070,000 1,464 86
1870 .... 38,558,000 6,326 164
1893 .... 66,820,000 13,968 209
In 1893 the various sections showed approximately thus :—
States. Population. Millions $. $ per Head.
New England . . 4,900,000 1,622 330
Middle .... 14,800,000 4,310 291
South .... 19,300,000 1,814 94
West .... 27,800,000 6,222 224
1883.
1895.
1883.
1895.
1883.
1895.
198
143
345
475
543
618
145
503
82
123
227
626
76
143
455
794
531
937
8
7
348
207
356
214
Union .... 66,800,000 13,968 209
Wealth. — Census returns show as follows : —
Millions $. $ per Inhabitant.
1850.
New England
Middle
South
West .
Union . . 7,136 25,983 65,037 307 673 1,049
1850.
1870.
1890.
1850.
1870.
1890.
1,129
3,496
5,223
413
1,005
1,112
2,256
10,468
17,819
340
1,060
1,260
2,591
3,055
9,928
314
270
539
1,160
8,964
32,067
208
640
1,262
430
APPENDIX
The annual accumulation of wealth between 1850 and 1890
averaged $28 per inhabitant in New England, $38 in the
Middle States, $14 in the South, $49 in the West, and $35
for the whole Union. In 1850 the value of slaves was
included, averaging $350 each, the number being 3,200,000 :
this* was equal to 1120 millions $. The value of real estate in
1890 was as follows, in millions $ : —
States.
New England
Middle .
South .
West .
Union . . . 13,279 22,432 35,711 671
Lands.
Houses, &c.
Total. i
8 per Inhab.
490
2,495
2,985
635
2,272
8,271
10,543
753
2,354
2,470
4,824
263
8,163
9,196
17,359
680
CANADA
Agriculture. — The cultivated area is as follows in acres
(OOO's omitted) :—
Ontario.
Quebec.
Manitoba.
Acadia, &c.
Total.
Wheat
1,430
190
900
200
2,720
Oats .
1,860
750
330
1,190
4,130
Barley, &c. .
1,750
280
360
510
2,900
All grain
5,040
1,220
1,590
1,900
9,750
Hay .
2,530
2,460
250
970
6,210
Sundries
540
1,500
990
910
3,940
Total . 8,110 5,180 2,830 3,780 19,900
Cattle. — Returns for 1893 gave the numbers as- follows
(OOO's omitted) :—
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
Value, £.
Ontario
680
2,100
2,020
1,140
22,800,000
Quebec
350
970
730
370
10,400,000
Acadia
160
620
660
140
6,100,000
N.-W. Province
200
540
160
120
5,000,000
Total .
1,390 4,230 3,570 1,770 44,300,000
If poultry were added the total value would exceed 46
millions.
Shipping. — The first ocean steamer reached Montreal in
APPENDIX
431
1853 : there were 804 arrived in 1893. Port-entries of all
Canadian ports in 1893 summed up 9,800,000 tons, of which
Montreal stood for 1,580,000, and Quebec 980,000.
House-property. — The assessed value of cities in 1893 was: —
£
Toronto . 32,400,000
Montreal. 23,600,000
Quebec . 7,100,000
£
Hamilton . . 5,100,000
St. John's, N.B. 5,100,000
Halifax . . . 4,500,000
£
Winnipeg . 4,400,000
Ottawa . . 3,800,000
Vancouver 3,800,000
Wealth. — In 1830 Sir Henry Parnell valued the real estate
of Canada at £60,000,000, including cities and all occupied
lands, the latter then comprising 27,000,000 acres. The value
of real estate is now 375 millions sterling.
AUSTRALIA
Occupations. — The census of 1891 gives occupations for six
colonies, but not for South Australia : for this reason 9 per
cent, is added in the table at p. 332. .
Steam-power. — The census gives steam-power of factories for
four colonies, but not for Queensland, Tasmania, and Western
Australia : allowing for the latter the total for factories is
105,000 horse-power. In New South Wales factories have
40 per cent, of all fixed power. Assuming this to be true in
the other colonies the total steam-power of Australia stands
thus : —
Fixed.
Locomotive.
Steamboat.
Total.
N. S. Wales
75,000
105,000
55,000
235,000
Victoria .
80,000
100,000
50,000
230,000
S. Australia
15,000
50,000
15,000
80,000
Tasmania
7,000
15,000
10,000
32,000
New Zealand
55,000
50,000
40,000
145,000
Queensland
25,000
55,000
10,000
90,000
W. Australia
3,000
10,000
13,000
Total . 260,000 385,000 180,000 825,000 190
Wool, — In ten years Australia exported wool worth 200
millions sterling : —
N.S.Wales 90,800,000
N.Zealand 35,600,000
£
Victoria . 30,400,000
Queensland 25,100,000
S.Australia 14,200,000
Tasmania . 3,700,000
432
APPENDIX
Cattle. — The number and value of live-stock, excluding
pigs, are : —
Number (OOO's omitted). Value, £ (OOO's omitted).
Horses.
Cattle.
Slieep.
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Total.l
N. S. Wales
. 520
2,470
57,000
4,600
11,800
16,000
32,900
Victoria .
. 430
1,830
13,200
4,500
10,900
4,300
20,100
N. Zealand
. 210
960
20,200
2,500
6,000
10,300
19,200
Queensland
. 440
7,010
19,600
3,400
23,100
5,700
32,400
S. Australia
. 200
420
7,300
1,800
3,100
2,200
7,200
Tasmania
30
180
1,700
250
1,100
800
2,250
W. Australia
50
190
2,100
450
900
500
1,850
Total
. 1,880
13,060
121,100
17,500
56,900
39,800
115,900
If poult
ry were added the
total
value would
be 120
millions £.
Earnings. — In the table at page 346 it was necessary to
compress four sources of earnings under one column as " Pro-
fessions," &c., which are in detail as follows : —
£ Sterling (OOO's omitted).
Forestry, &c. Domestics.
Public Service.
Professions.
Total.
N. S. Wales . .
1,500
4,500
5,300
6,000
17,300
Victoria . . .
1,300
4,900
3,400
6,000
15,600
New Zealand .
1,100
1,500
2,300
3,100
8,000
Queensland . .
800
1,300
1,700
2,100
5,900
South Australia .
300
900
1,300
1,300
3,800
Tasmania . . .
300
700
400
600
2,000
W. Australia .
300
300
300
400
1,300
Total .
5,600 14,100
14,700
19,500 53,900
Wealth. — Coghlan's estimate in 1890 was as follows, in
millions £ : —
N. S. Wales. Other Colonies. Total
Land and houses . .311 510 821
Live-stock .... 34 86 120
Sundries 60 169 229
Total
405
765
1,170
This was equivalent to £291 per inhabitant. The Probate
returns of five colonies during twelve years, 1881-92, showed
Including pigs.
APPENDIX 433
500,300 deaths in that period, and the value of property
which changed hands by death £152,200,000, say £304 to
each death, including infants and paupers.
Debt. — In 1895 the public debt (not including municipal)
and the value of State railways showed thus : —
£per
Debt, &
Railways, &.
Net Debt, £.
Inhab.
N. S. Wales
58,200,000
39,000,000
19,200,000
15-0
Victoria .
48,000,000
37,600,000
10,400,000
8'7
New Zealand
40,000,000
16,000,000
24,000,000
34-0
Queensland
30,600,000
16,500,000
14,100,000
31-0
8. Australia
22.300,000
16,000,000
6,300,000
18-0
Tasmania
8,300,000
4,300,000
4,000,000
25-0
W. Australia
3,400,000
3,400,000
Total . 210,800,000 132,800,000 78,000,000 18'5
Meat Exports. — In 1884 Australia exported 31,000 tons of
meat, worth £800,000 : and in 1894 the quantity was 125,000
tons, value £2,600,000. New Zealand stands for half the
total.
ADDENDUM
Official documents just received from Rome show that the
manual energy of Italy is 2940 millions of foot-tons daily
(1895), instead of 2750, as given at page 189. Also that the
number of adults .engaged in agriculture is at least 7,800,000,
instead of 6,840,000. Moreover the water-power used by
factories in 1894 reached 250,000 horse-power, and if this be
included the total energy of Italy will be 13,260 millions of
foot-tons daily, say 428 foot-tons per inhabitant, instead of
400, as stated at page 189.
INDEX
AOADIA, area, population, 315.
Adams on Switzerland, 264.
Africa, v. Cape Colony.
Agriculture, all nations, 381.
Argentina, 362.
Australia, 333.
Austria, 175, 419.
Belgium, 250.
— Canada, 317, 430.
— Cape Colony, 354.
— Danubian States, 267.
Denmark, 233.
— France, 111, 413.
— Germany, 137, 416.
Great Britain, 62, 404.
Greece, 276.
Holland, 241, 422.
Hungary, 175.
Ireland, 64, 404.
Italy, 190, 420.
Norway, 221.
Poland, 158, 418.
Portugal, 212.
— Russia, 158, 418.
— Spain, 201, 421.
Sweden, 221.
— Switzerland, 260.
— United States, 286, 424.
— Uruguay, 371.
Alfa farms in Argentina, 363.
Algeria, emigration to, 109.
wine production, 356.
Alsace, cotton-mills, 119;
loss of, 112.
America, North, v. United States.
Spanish, silver-mines, 36, 401.
Angora goats, Cape Colony, 354.
Area of countries, 377.
Argentina, agriculture, 362.
commerce, 366.
earnings, 369.
finances, 370.
manufactures, 365.
population, 361.
wealth, 369.
Argiielles on Spain, 202.
Arkwright's spinning-jenny, 70.
Army Expenditure, v. Finance.
British, 105.
Atkinson on earnings, 308.
Australia, agriculture, 333, 431.
commerce, 341.
earnings, 346, 432.
finances, 349, 433.
forests and fisheries, 336.
manufactures, 337.
mining, 337-
population, 331.
wealth, 347, 432.
Austria -Hungary, agriculture, 175,
419.
commerce, 182.
earnings, 184.
finances, 186, 420.
forests, 178.
manufactures, 178, 419.
mining, 18L
population, 173.
435
436
INDEX
Austria-Hungary, wealth, 185, 420.
Austrian-Lloyd's, 182.
BAINES on cotton trade, 71.
Balance of trade, British, 89.
Balbriggan hosiery, 72.
Ballarat gold-diggings, 338.
Ballast entries, 44.
Banking-power, 11, 48.
Banks, Argentina, 368.
Australia, 345.
Austria-Hungary, 184.
Belgium, 256.
— - Canada, 327.
— Cape Colony, 358.
— - Denmark, 237.
— France, 127.
— • Germany, 150.
— Great Britain, 94.
— Greece, 279.
— Holland, 246.
— Ireland, 94.
— Italy, 196.
— Norway, 228.
— Portugal, 216.
Hussia, 169.
— Spain, 207.
— - Sweden, 228.
— - Switzerland, 263.
— United States, 306.
Barley-crop, all nations, 381.
Bavaria, v. Germany.
Becher on Austria, 175, 178, 420.
Beef, v. Meat.
Beer, v. Liquor.
Beer's estimate of Austria, 185.
Behrens on manufactures, 409.
Belgium, agriculture, 250.
commerce, 255.
earnings, 256.
finances, 257.
forests and fisheries, 252.
manufactures, 252.
mining, 254.
population, 249.
wealth, 256, 422.
Belleek pottery, 81.
Berne, real estate, 264
Bessemer's effect on steel, 397.
Bickford on Greece, 276.
Bikelas on Greece, 276.
Billings's vital statistics, 283.
Birth-rate of nations, 394.
Block on Germany, 139.
Bohemian emigration, 173.
glass, 180.
Bonaparte wars, cost of, 107.
Bondsmen in Denmark, 233.
Books, v. Paper.
Boots and shoes, v. Leather.
Borsig's locomotives, 145.
Bounties, French shipping, 126.
on liu en, 74.
Bourbon finances, France, 133.
Brassy on Manitoba, 318.
British, v. Great Britain.
Broken Hill silver-mines, 339.
Buchanan on Kussia, 170.
Buenos Ayres, growth of, 362.
Building sites in Paris, 132.
in London, 409.
Bulgaria, v. Danubian States.
Bullion, v. Gold, Silver.
Buschen on Russia, 162, 170.
Butter, v. Dairy.
CABS and coaches, 9.
Caird on agriculture, 405.
California gold-fields, 300, 428.
Canada, agriculture, 317, 430.
commerce, 325.
earnings, 327.
finances, 329.
forests and fisheries, 321.
manufactures, 322.
mining, 324.
• population, 315.
wealth, 327, 431.
Canadians in United States, 315.
Canals in Canada, 327.
France, 414.
Holland, 241.
INDEX
437
Canals in Russia, 168.
United Kingdom, 409.
Cape Colony, agriculture, 354.
commerce, 357.
earnings, 359.
finanose, 360.
manufactures, 356.
mining, 356.
population, 353.
wealth, 359.
Capital, v. Wealth.
Carolina gold-field, 300.
Carrying-powder, v. Shipping.
Cart wright's power-loom, 70.
Caspian Sea petroleum, 166.
Castles in France, 131.
Cattle, number and value, 382.
Cedulas of Argentina, 368.
Chaptal on agriculture, 114.
houses, 131.
land, 413.
Cheese, v. Dairy.
Chinese in United States, 283.
Chubut gold discoveries, 366.
Cider, Great Britain, 85.
Cities, v. Population.
of Great Britain, 403.
Clarke's mining discoveries, 337, 340.
Clothing, v. Manufactures.
Coal in Australia, 340.
• Austria-Hungary, 18L
Belgium, 254.
— Canada, 324.
France, 124.
Germany, 146, 417.
Great Britain, 87.
Russia, 166.
Spain, 206.
United States, 299, 428.
production, 35.
sent over sea, 41.
Cobden's French treaty, 112, 125.
Cockerill's iron-works, 253.
Coghlan on Australia, 335, 347, 432.
Cohen on British finance, 107.
Coin, gold and silver, 391.
Colonies, emigration to, 59.
trade with, 90.
Colorado, growth of, 2.
mining product, 428.
Colquhoun on wealth, 96, 412.
Commerce, all nations, 388.
Argentina, 366.
Australia, 341-
Austria-Hungary, 182.
— Belgium, 255.
Canada, 325.
Cape Colony , 357.
Danubian States, 270.
— Denmark, 236.
France, 125.
Germany, 148.
Great Britain, 89.
Greece, 278.
Holland, 245, 422.
Italy, 194.
Norway, 226.
Portugal, 215.
Russia, 167.
Spain, 206.
Sweden, 226.
— - Switzerland, 262.
United States, 301, 428.
Uruguay, 373.
Communes, Russian, 159.
Com stock mine, 300.
Congestion of wealth, 100.
Constantia wine, Cape Colony, 355.
Conversion, v. Debt.
British, 108.
Copper, v. Hardware, Mining.
manufactures, British, 80, 410.
Cork forests, Portugal, 214.
Corve"e labour, 175.
Cotton exports, United States, 428.
imports, Great Britain, 89.
manufactures, Austria, 179.
Belgium, 253.
France, 119.
Germany, 141.
Great Britain, 70, 409.
Italy, 193.
INDEX
Cotton manufactures, Russia, 162.
Spain, 204.
Sweden, 224.
United States, 293.
production, 30.
Craigie on meat, 6.
Crefeld silk industry, 142.
Crisis, banking, in Australia, 345.
Crops, all, value of, 23, 383.
of grain, 381.
Currant crop, Greece, 276.
Currents of trade, 41, 90.
Customs, v. Finance.
British, 103.
Czar's private forests, 161.
DAIRY products, all nations, 383.
Canada, 320.
— Denmark, 234.
— France, 413.
Great Britain, 408.
Holland, 242, 422.
Switzerland, 260.
United States, 289, 426.
Danube navigation, 182.
Danubian States, agriculture, 267.
commerce, 270.
earnings, 272.
finances, 273.
forests, 269.
manufactures, 270.
population, 266.
wealth, 272.
Death-duties, British, 104.
Death-rate of nations, 394.
Debt, v. Finances.
Debt of all nations, 393.
Denmark, agriculture, 233.
commerce, 236.
earnings, 237.
— — finances, 238.
forests and fisheries, 235.
manufactures, 235.
population, 232.
wealth, 237.
Density of population, 18.
Diamond-fields, S. Africa, 357.
Distilleries, v. Liquor.
Dudley smelting process, 75.
Dufferin, Lord, on Manitoba, 318.
Dundee linen-mills, 73.
Dutch farmers, S. Africa, 354.
Durban coal-fields, Cape Col., 356.
EABNINGS of nations, 11, 391.
East, absorption of specie, 42.
Easy class in United Kingdom, 101.
Eden on manufactures, 80.
Eggs, v. Poultry.
Ellison on cotton industry, 71, 396.
Emigration, European, 15.
from Austria, 173.
Belgium, 249.
Denmark, 232.
France, 109.
Germany, 135.
Great Britain, 59.
— Holland, 240.
Ireland, 59.
Italy, 188.
— Norway, 219.
Portugal, 211.
Russia, 157.
Spain, 200.
Sweden, 219.
Switzerland, 259.
to Algeria, 109.
Argentina, 361.
Australia, 332.
Canada, 316.
Cape Colony, 355.
United States, 281.
Uruguay, 371.
Energy, how measured, 2.
of all nations, 378.
Australia, 332.
Austria-Hungary, 174.
Belgium, 250.
Canada, 317.
Danubian States, 207.
Denmark, 233.
France, 111.
INDEX
439
Energy of Germany, 137.
Great Britain, 61.
Greece, 275.
Holland, 241.
Ireland, 61.
Italy, 189, 433.
Norway, 220.
Portugal, 212.
Russia, 157.
Spain, 201.
Sweden, 220.
Switzerland, 260.
United States, 285.
Engel on labour, 2.
England, v. Great Britain.
English language, 14.
Entre Rios, area, population, 301.
Europe, agriculture, 381.
area, 377.
— cattle, 382.
— commerce, 388.
debt, 393.
earnings, 391.
— emigration, 15.
— energy aud steam, 378.
— - forests and fisheries, 380.
— grain-crops, 381.
— hardware, 33, 386.
internal trade, 388.
manufactures, 386.
mining, 380.
occupations, 378.
population, 377.
railways, 389.
shipping, 390.
taxes, 393, 398.
vital statistics, 394.
wealth, 392, 398.
Excise, v. Finances.
FACTORIES; v. Manufactures.
value estimated, 12.
Fahlbeck on Sweden, 229.
Falbe on Denmark, 238.
Fall of prices, 40, 399.
Famatina Mining Co., 3C6.
Famines in Europe, 21.
Feathers, ostrich, 354.
Felkin on Hosiery, 72.
Fellner on Hungary, 186.
Females, v. Sexes.
Fibre, production of, 30, 396.
consumption of, 30.
Finances of all nations, 52, 393, 398.
Argentina, 370.
Australia, 349, 433.
— Austria-Hungary, 186, 420.
Belgium, 257.
Canada, 329.
— Cape Colony, 360.
Danubian States, 273.
Denmark, 238.
— France, 133, 415.
— Germany, 154.
Great Britain, 102, 406, 412.
Greece, 279.
Holland, 248.
Italy, 198.
Norway, 230.
Portugal, 217.
Russia, 171.
— Spain, 210.
Sweden, 230.
— Switzerland, 265.
— United States, 312.
Uruguay, 375.
Fish as an item of food, 28.
Fisheries of all nations, 380.
Australia, 336.
- Belgium, 252.
Canada, 322.
Denmark, 235.
France, 116.
Germany, 140.
— Great Britain, 69.
- Holland, 244.
— Ireland, 69.
- Italy, 192.
— Norway, 223.
Portugal, 214.
— Russia, 162.
Spain, 203.
440
INDEX
Fisheries, Sweden, 223.
United States, 292.
Fixed engines, v. Steam-power.
Flax, v. Linen.
Flogging farmers' wives, 233.
Flour, grain equivalent, 5.
Food all reduced to grain, 5, 384.
and earnings compared, 56.
consumed, its value, 385.
production, Europe, 22, 384.
Food-supply, Argentina, 384.
Australia, 384.
Austria-Hungary, 176.
Belgium, 250.
Canada, 319.
Danubian States, 268.
Denmark, 234.
— France, 116.
— Germany, 139, 417.
Great Britain, 66, 407.
Greece, 276.
Holland, 243.
Ireland, 66.
Italy, 191.
Norway, 221.
Portugal, 212.
Russia, 160.
Spain, 202.
Sweden, 221.
Switzerland, 260.
United States, 289, 426.
Foreigners in Denmark, 232.
France, 109.
Germany, 136.
Holland, 240.
Italy, 189.
Russia, 157.
Spain, 200.
Switzerland, 259.
United States, 282.
Forests of all nations, 26, 380.
— Australia, 336.
Austria-Hungary, 178.
— Belgium, 252.
— Canada, 321.
Danubian States, 269.
Forests, Denmark, 235.
France, 116.
Germany, 140.
— Great Britain, 69.
Greece, 277.
— Holland, 244.
Italy, 192.
Norway, 223.
Portugal, 214.
— Russia, 161, 170.
— Spain, 203.
Sweden, 223.
Switzerland, 261.
United States, 291, 296.
Foville on manure, 413.
value of land, 130.
Fowl as an item of food, 6.
France, agriculture, 111.
— commerce, 125.
— earnings, 128.
— finances, 133.
— forests and fisheries, 112, 116.
— manufactures, 117, 123.
mining, 120, 124.
population, 109.
wealth, 129.
Fray Bentos beef-factory, 373.
Frederick the Great's sheep, 141.
Freight, v. Transport.
French Canadians, 315.
French settlers abroad, 109.
Freycinet's railways, 127.
Furniture of houses, 12.
GERMANS in United States, 283.
Germany, agriculture, 137, 416.
commerce, 148.
earnings, 151.
— finances, 154.
forests and fisheries, 140, 153.
manufactures, 140, 417.
mining, 146, 417.
population, 135, 416.
wealth, 152, 416.
Giffen on wealth, 412.
Gladstone's finances, 82, 108,
INDEX
441
Glass industry, Austria, 180.
Belgium, 254.
France, 121.
Great Britain, 81.
Goats of all countries, 382.
Angora, Cape Colony, 354.
Gold, consumption yearly, 37.
production, 35, 400.
sent over sea, 42, 402.
Gold-mining, Australia, 337.
Hungary, 182.
Russia, 165.
South' Africa, 401.
United States, 300.
Goldsmith on Switzerland, 265.
Goods traffic, all nations, 38, 47.
France, 414.
United Kingdom, 93.
Goschen's finances, 108.
Gotha canal, Sweden, 228.
Goulburn's finances, 108.
Grain-crops, 381.
exports, all countries, 395.
Argentina, 362.
Australia, 333.
— Austria, 176.
Canada, 320.
Danubian States, 268.
Russia, 160.
— United States, 286, 425.
imports, Belgium, 251.
— Denmark, 234.
France, 113.
Germany, 139.
— Great Britain, 67, 89.
Greece, 276.
Holland, 242.
. Italy, 191.
• Norway, 221.
Portugal, 212.
Spain, 202.
Sweden, 221.
Switzerland, 260.
sent over sea, 41.
Grand Trunk Railway, Canada, 326.
Graux on Belgium, 257-
Great Britain, agriculture, 62.
commerce, 89.
earnings, 95.
finances, 102.
forests and fisheries, 69.
manufactures, 70.
mining, 68, 87.
population, 58.
wealth, 96.
Greece, agriculture, 276.
commerce, 278.
earnings, 279.
finances, 279.
forests, 277.
manufactures, 277.
population, 275.
wealth, 279.
Green crops, all nations, 383.
Guarantees, French railway, 127
Gustavus tariff, Sweden, 223.
Guyot on house-property, 132.
taxation, 398.
HALL on Canada, 318.
Hardware, all nations, 386.
Austria- Hungary, 180.
Belgium, 253.
France, 120.
Germany, 142, 417.
Great Britain, 75, 410.
> Italy, 193.
Portugal, 214.
Russia, 164.
Spain, 205.
Sweden, 224.
— Switzerland, 262.
— United States, 295, 427.
Hargraves finds gold, 338.
Harris on agriculture, 405.
Haussmann improvements, 132.
Hay crop, v. Agriculture.
Hemp, v. Manufactures.
Hermann on Russia, 158.
Hidalgos of Spain, 203.
Hides, v . Leather.
production of, 387.
442
INDEX
Holland, agriculture, 241, 422.
commerce, 245.
earnings, 247.
— finances, 248.
— forests and fisheries, 244.
— manufactures, 244.
— population, 240.
— wealth, 247.
Homestead Law, United States, 287.
— Canada, 320.
Horse-power measured, 3.
Horses of all nations, 382.
Hosiery, British, 72.
Hoskold on Argentine mines, 360.
Hotels in Switzerland, 204.
House-property, all nations, 392.
Argentina, 369.
Australia, 348.
Austria, 186, 420.
— Belgium, 257.
Canada, 328, 431.
Cape Colony, 360.
Danubian States, 273.
Denmark, 238.
— France, 131.
Germany, 153.
— Great Britain, 99, 409.
— Greece, 279.
- Holland, 247.
— Hungary, 186.
— Ireland, 99.
Italy, 197.
Norway, 230.
- Portugal, 217.
Russia, 170.
Spain, 209.
Sweden, 230.
— Switzerland, 264.
— United States, 311.
— Uruguay, 375.
House-rent, all nations, 391.
Hudson Bay Territory, 318.
Hungary, v. Austria-Hungary.
Huusmen in Denmark, 233.
IMMIGRANTS into U. Kingdom, 59.
Imports, v. Commerce.
Incidence of taxation, 53, 393.
Income-tax, British, 103.
German, 151.
Indigent class, Great Britain, 102.
Infant mortality, 156.
Internal trade, all nations, 10, 388.
Argentina, 367.
Australia, 344.
— Austria, 183.
— Belgium, 255.
— Canada, 325.
— Cape Colony, 358.
— Danubian States, 271.
— Denmark, 237.
— France, 126.
Germany, 149, 417.
Great Britain, 92.
Greece, 278.
Holland, 246.
Hungary, 183.
Ireland, 92.
— Italy, 195.
Norway, 227.
— Portugal, 215.
— Russia, 168.
— Spain, 207.
— Sweden, 227.
— Switzerland, 263.
- United States, 303.
— Uruguay, 374.
Investments abroad, British, 99.
— French, 132.
Ireland, agriculture, 62.
earnings, 96.
finances, 106, 412.
manufactures, 87.
mining, 88.
population, 68.
— wealth, 97.
Irish in Argentina, 365.
Australia, 331.
Canada, 315.
United States, 283.
Iron and steel, all nations, 30.
— - Austria, 180.
INDEX
443
Iron and steel, Belgium, 253.
France, 121.
Germany, 143. 417.
Great Britain, 76.
Italy, 193.
Russia, 164.
Spain, 205.
Sweden, 224.
United States, 295.
Ironstone production, 35.
Irrigated lands, Holland, 241.
Spain, 209.
Italy, agriculture, 190, 420.
commerce, 194.
earnings, 196.
finances, 198.
forests and fisheries, 192.
manufactures, 193, 421.
mining, 194.
population, 188.
wealth, 197, 421.
JACQUABD loom, 118.
Jews in Russia, 157.
Jonkoping matches, Norway, 224.
Junta de Medios, Spain, 208.
Juraschek on Portugal, 212.
Spain, 201.
Jute industry, 29, 75.
KAPUNDA copper-fields, 339.
Kauri gum, New Zealand, 336.
Kimberley diamond-fields, 357.
Kolb on manufactures, 122.
Krupp's factory, 145.
LACOSTE on earnings, 128.
Lafone's copper-mines, 366.
Lambert coal-mine, Belgium, 254.
Land Commission, Ireland, 405.
Land tax, Austria, 175.
Belgium, 252.
Danubian States, 267.
Great Britain, 102, 406.
Holland, 244.
Russia, 171.
Land tenure, Australia, 334.
Austria, 177, 419.
• Belgium, 251.
— Canada, 320.
— — Cape Colony, 354.
Danubian States, 267.
Denmark, 233.
France, 115, 413.
Germany, 138.
Great Britain, 115, 405.
Greece, 277.
Holland, 243.
• Hungary, 177, 419.
Ireland, 405.
Italy, 192, 421.
• Norway, 222.
Poland, 159.
Portugal, 213.
Russia, 159.
Spain, 202.
Sweden, 222.
Switzerland, 261.
United States, 291.
Land value, v. "Wealth.
United Kingdom, 64, 407.
Lang on Sweden, 221.
Laurium mines, Greece, 277.
Laveleye on rural affairs, 17.
Lead industry, v. Hardware.
manufacture, British, 80, 410.
Leather production, 31.
— — manufactures, 386.
Austria, 180.
Belgium, 253.
Denmark, 235.
France, 121.
Germany, 144.
Great Britain, 80, 410
Holland, 244.
Italy, 193.
— '• Russia, 164.
Spain, 205.
Sweden, 224.
United States, 296, 427.
Leipzig printing trade, 145.
Leroy Beaulieu on wealth, 132.
444
INDEX
Levasseur on manufactures, 120.
agriculture, 413.
Levi on wages, 79.
Liebig's beef factory, 373.
Liege arms factory, 253.
Life, loss of, in mines, 87.
Linen industry, Austria, 179.
Belgium, 253.
— France, 119.
Germany, 141.
Great Britain, 73, 409.
Italy, 193.
Russia, 163.
— Spain, 204.
United States, 294.
Liquor trade, Austria, 181.
— Belgium, 253.
Denmark, 235.
France, 122.
Germany, 144.
Great Britain, 84, 411.
Holland, 244.
Ireland, 84.
Russia, 164.
Sweden, 224.
Liquor consumed, value of, 385.
Lloyd's Register (1840), 43.
Loans, British, 107.
Local subsidies, British, 103.
taxes of nations, 53.
Locomotives, v. Steam-power.
force of, 4.
London house-property, 409.
Loss on Pitt's loans, 107.
Losses, farmers', 64.
Louis Napoleon's finances, 133.
railways, 126.
Louis-Philippe's finances, 133.
Lowe on British finances, 107.
Luxemburg iron ore, 253.
Lyons, silk trade, 118.
M 'ARTHUR'S sheep, Australia, 334.
M'Culloch on agriculture, 63, 404.
manufactures, 80.
wealth, 96.
M'Gregor on Germany, 142.
M'Pherson on hardware, 79.
Machinery in Denmark, 235.
— France, 112.
Germany, 145.
Great Britain, 84.
— United States, 427.
Maize crop, all nations, 381.
Malchus on Spain, 201.
table of live-stock, 396.
Malt, barley equivalent, 5.
consumption, Great Britain, 84.
Germany, 144.
Malou on Belgium, 257.
Manitoba wheat lands, 318.
Manufactures of all nations, 386.
— Argentina, 365.
— Australia, 337, 433.
— Austria-Hungary, 178, 419.
— Belgium, 252.
• Canada, 322.
— Cape Colony, 356.
Danubian States, 270.
— Denmark, 235.
— France, 117.
— Germany, 140.
— Great Britain, 69, 409.
— Greece, 277.
— Holland, 244.
— Italy, 193, 421.
— Norway, 224.
Portugal, 214.
Russia, 162.
— - Spain, 203.
— Sweden, 224.
— Switzerland, 261.
— United States, 292, 427.
Uruguay, 373.
number of hands, 18.
Manure in France, 413.
in Russia, 161.
Marble, Italian, 194.
Margarine in Holland, 242, 422.
Marriages, births to, 394.
Married and unmarried, ratios, 395.
Marrying ages, 59.
INDEX
445
Massalski on Belgium, 257.
Meat, v. Food-supply.
annual production, 382.
exports from Argentina, 365.
Australia, 433.
Austria, 176.
Canada, 320.
Holland, 242.
Ireland, 68, 408.
Italy, 191.
Russia, 160.
United States, 289, 428.
imports, into Belgium, 251.
France, 114.
Germany, 139.
Great Britain, 89, 408.
Greece, 276.
Switzerland, 260.
supply of Europe, 22.
value produced, 383.
Meejers" tenure in Holland, 244.
Melbourne, house-property, 349.
Mennonite emigrants, 157, 318.
Merchandise, v. "Wealth.
sea-borne, 40.
value estimated, 12.
Merino sheep in Germany, 141.
Australia, 334.
Cape Colony, 354.
Metals, v. Hardware.
sent over sea, 41.
Michigan saw-mills, 291.
Middle-class in France, 132.
Germany, 152.
Great Britain, 100.
Mining, all nations, 34, 380.
in Australia, 337.
Austria-Hungary, 181.
Belgium, 254.
Canada, 324.
France, 124
Germany, 146, 417.
• Great Britain, 87.
Greece, 277.
Italy, 194.
Norway, 225.
Mining in Russia, 165.
Spain, 206.
Sweden, 225.
United States, 298.
Mining Commission report, 88.
lives lost in, 87.
Misery of Russian Moujiks, 161.
Mississippi, freight on, 398.
Missouri copper mines, 299.
Money of all nations, 391, 429.
v. Banking.
Montana mining product, 428.
Monteith's mill, Glasgow, 70.
Montreal house property, 328.
shipping entries, 431.
Moujiks in Russia, 159, 161.
Mourad Bishop, his land-law, 233.
Murray River sheep farms, 334.
Mutton, v. Meat.
NATAL, v. Cape Colony.
National debt, v. Debt.
Negroes in United States, 282.
Neumann, v. Spallart.
New South Wales, v. Australia.
New York, trade of, 303, 428.
New Zealand, v. Australia.
Newspapers in U. Kingdom, 82, 411.
France, 122.
Neymark on French stocks, 132.
Nobles in Austria, 175.
Denmark, 233.
Germany, 137.
Greece, 277.
Portugal, 213.
Russia, 159.
Spain, 203.
Sweden, 220.
North-west provinces, Canada, 315.
Norway, agriculture, 220.
commerce, 226.
earnings, 229.
finances, 230.
forests and fisheries, 223.
manufactures, 224.
mining, 225.
446
INDEX
Norway, population, 219.
wealth, 229.
OATS crop, all nations, 381.
Obedenaire on Roumania, 269.
Occupations of all nations, 378.
United Kingdom, 60, 403.
Oddy on Germany, 141.
Oil factories, France, 122.
Ontario, area, population, 315.
Operatives, v. Manufactures.
Ostrich farming, 354.
PAMPAS, sheep-farming in the, 364.
Pantaleoni on wealth, 197, 421.
Paper industry, British, 82.
— French, 122.
German, 145.
Paper-money of all nations, 391.
American, 306.
— Greek, 279.
— Italian, 196.
Russian, 169.
South American, 368.
Paris house-property, 131.
Parnell, Sir Henry, on Canada, 431.
Pas-de-Calais collieries, 124.
Passengers by railway, 389.
Pastoral area of nations, 381.
products, v. Agriculture.
Pebrer on Cape Colony, 359.
Peel's income-tax, 104.
Penal laws on wool, 72.
Pennsylvania coal-fields, 29!), 428.
Pens, steel, manufacture, 77.
Petroleum in Austria, 182.
Canada, 324.
Roumania, 270.
Russia, 166, 419.
United States, 300, 428.
Phylloxera in France, 112.
Pigs, number in all nations, 382.
Pitt's income-tax, 104.
Pitt's American thresher, 427.
Plum orchards in Servia , 268.
Poland, agriculture, 160, 418.
Poland, manufactures, 418.
population, 156.
Polders of Holland, 246.
Population, all couu tries, 377-
Argentina, 361.
Australia, 33L
— Austria, 173.
— Belgium, 249.
— Canada, 315.
Cape Colony, 353.
Danubian States, 266.
— Denmark, 232.
France, 109.
Germany, 135, 416.
Great Britain, 58.
— Greece, 275.
— Holland, 240.
— Hungary, 173.
Ireland, 58.
Italy, 188.
— Norway, 219.
— Poland, 156.
— Portugal, 211.
— Russia, 156.
— Spain, 200, 421.
— Sweden, 219.
Switzerland, 259.
United States, 281, 423.
Uruguay, 371.
Porcelain, v. Pottery.
Pork, v. Meat.
Port-entries, v. Shipping.
Porter on agriculture, 62.
manufactures, 119.
• wealth, 412.
Portugal, agriculture, 212.
commerce, 215.
earnings, 216.
finances, 217.
forests and fisheries, 214.
manufactures, 214.
population, 211.
wealth, 217.
Post-office, British, 104.
Potato crop, all nations, 384.
United Kingdom, 63.
INDEX
447
Potato, grain equivalent, 5.
Pottery in Bohemia, 180.
France, 121.
United Kingdom, 81.
Price, Williams, on railways, 397.
Price-levels (100 years), 399.
Prices, decline of, 40.
Private banks, Great Britain, 94.
Probate returns, Australia, 347.
Belgium, 257.
Italy, 197.
United Kingdom, 100, 398.
Probyn's tabje of money, 49.
Professional earnings, 11.
Protective duties, France, 125.
Australia, 342.
Russia, 167.
— Spain, 203.
— Sweden, 223.
- United States, 32, 303.
Prussia, v. Germany.
Public buildings, United States, 311.
Purdon on linen-mills, 74.
QUEENSLAND, v. Australia.
Quarries, British, 88.
Quartz, average yield, 37, 338.
Quebec, area, population, 315.
RAILWAY capital, 389.
employees, 38.
steam-power, 20.
traffic, 48.
Railways of all nations, 389.
Argentina, 367.
— Australia, 344.
Austria, 183.
— Belgium, 256.
— Canada, 326.
— Cape Colony, 358.
— Danubian States, 271.
— Denmark, 237.
— France, 126.
— Germany, 149.
— Great Britain, 93.
— Greece, 278.
Railways, Holland, 246.
Hungary, 183.
Ireland, 93.
- Italy, 195.
Norway, 227.
Portugal, 216.
— Russia, 168.
Spain, 207.
Sweden, 227.
Switzerland, 263.
- United States, 304, 429.
Uruguay, 374.
Rand gold-fields, South Africa, 401.
Rates, United Kingdom, 406, 412.
Revenue, v. Finances.
Rheims woollen mills, 117.
River Plate wool, 364, 372.
Robinson's finances, 108.
Rosebridge coal-mine, 254.
Roskild, convention of, 233.
Rouen cotton mills, 119.
Roumania, v. Danubian States.
Royalties on mining, 88.
Rural population, 17, 377.
Russia, agriculture, 158, 418.
commerce, 167.
earnings, 169.
finances, 171.
forests and fisheries, 161.
manufactures, 162, 418.
— mining, 165, 419.
— - population, 156, 418.
wealth, 170, 418.
Rye crop of all nations, 381.
ST. ETIENNE silk factories, 118.
St. Helens glass factory, 81.
St. Lawrence, farms along, 317.
Salt production, Germany, 147.
Portugal, 215.
Russia, 166.
Switzerland, 262.
Santa Fe, area, population, 361.
Sauerbeck's price-level, 399.
Savings-banks, Italy, 421.
Prussia, 417.
448
INDEX
Sayings-banks, United Kingdom, 412.
Sawdust for bread, 220.
Saxony, v. Germany.
Schiff on Austria, 186.
Schnabel on Italy, 190.
Schubert on Russia, 162.
Scotch settlers in Cape Colony, 353.
Scotland, v. Great Britain.
Seaborne bullion, 402.
merchandise, 40.
Seamen of all flags, 38.
British, 91.
Seed, saving in, 112.
Serfs in Austria, 175.
Danubian States, 267.
Denmark, 233.
Russia, 158, 418.
Servia, v. Danubian States.
Sevres porcelain, 121.
Sexes, ratios of, 395.
Sheep of all nations, 382.
Shipbuilding in Greece, 277.
Norway, 225.
— United Kingdom, 83.
United States, 303.
Shipping of all flags, 390.
Argentina, 367.
Australia, 343.
— Austria, 182.
— • Belgium, 255.
— Canada, 325, 430.
Denmark, 236.
— — • France, 126.
Germany, 149.
— Great Britain, 91, 411.
Greece, 278.
Holland, 245.
— Italy, 390.
— Norway, 226.
Portugal, 215.
• Russia, 167.
Spain, 207.
Sweden, 226.
United States, 303.
Ship's earnings and value, 10, 44.
Ships made of steel, 77.
Siberian mines, 165.
Sicily, sulphur mines, 194.
Silesia, linen mills, 141.
Silk fabrics, all nations, 386.
— Austria, 180.
- Belgium, 253.
— France, 118.
Germany, 142.
Great Britain, 75, 409.
- Italy, 193.
— Russia, 163.
— Spain, 204.
— Switzerland, 261.
— United States, 294.
Silver, consumption, 37.
price of, 402.
production yearly, 36, 401.
sent over sea, 402.
Silver-mines, Australia, 339.
Austria, 182.
Germany, 147.
Russia, 165.
— Span. -America, 401.
— United States, 301.
Slate quarries, British, 88.
Slaughter of cattle, 5.
Sleswig-Holstein, loss of, 232.
Soetbeer on earnings, 151.
precious metals, 401.
Sound dues abolished, 422.
Spain, agriculture, 201, 421.
commerce, 206.
earnings, 208, 422.
finances, 210.
— forests and fisheries, 203.
manufactures, 203.
mining, 206.
— population, 200, 421.
wealth, 208.
Spallart on Austria, 184, 419.
Germany, 142.
grain-crops, 395.
Portugal, 212.
Spain, 201.
Spanish-America, silver mining, 401.
paper-money, 368.
INDEX
449
Specie, v. Gold, Silver.
Spirits, v. Liquor.
Squatters' runs, Australia, 334.
South Africa, 355.
Stamp-duties, British, 104.
Statesman's Year-book, 94, 210.
Steam, saving of labour, 395.
Steamboats, v. Shipping.
Steam-power, all nations, 379.
Australia, 332, 431.
Austria-Hungary, 174.
Belgium, 250.
Canada* 317.
Danubian States, 267.
Denmark, 233.
France, 111.
Germany, 137.
— Great Britain, 61, 403.
Greece, 275.
Holland, 241.
Ireland, 61.
Italy, 189.
Norway, 220.
— Portugal, 212.
Russia, 157.
— Spain, 201.
— Sweden, 220.
Switzerland, 260.
— United States, 285, 424.
Steel, v. Iron.
— rails, 47.
vessels, 77.
Stein's land reform, 138.
Sternegg on Austria, 185.
Stevenson on manufactures, 72, 79.
Stewart diamond, Cape Colony, 357.
Stockings, v. Hosiery.
Stone quarries, British, 88.
United States, 298.
Strebinski on Russia, 161, 170.
Struensee's land reform, 233.
Styria, ironworks, 180.
sheepfarms, 178.
Subsidies, local, Great Britain, 103.
Sugar consumption, U. Kingdom, 89.
industry, Austria, 181.
Sugar industry, Argentina, 363.
Belgium, 253.
— France, 122.
— • Germany, 144.
Russia, 164.
Sulphur-mines, Sicily, 194.
Sutter's gold discovery, 300.
Sweden, agriculture, 220.
— commerce, 226.
earnings, 229.
— finances, 230.
forests and fisneries, 223.
— manufactures, 224.
— mining, 225.
— population, 219.
— • wealth, 229, 422.
Swedish fanners in U. States, 219.
Switzerland, agriculture, 260.
commerce, 262.
earnings, 263.
finances, 265.
forests, 261.
manufactures, 261.
population, 259.
wealth, 263.
Sydney, house-property, 349.
TARIFF, v. Protective.
Tarnowitz steam-engine, 141.
Tasmania, v. Australia.
Taxation, incidence of, 53, 393.
Taxes, v. Finances.
Team charges, 46.
Telegraphs, British, 105.
effect on gold, 42.
Textiles, v. Manufactures.
Thiers' Protective system. 125.
Tillage area of nations, 381.
products, value of, 383.
Timber, v. Forests.
consumption, G. Britain, 69, 89.
sent over sea, 41.
Tin industry, Great Britain, 78, 410.
mines, Australia, 340.
Tisserand on agriculture, 114.
Tithes in England, 406.
2 P
45°
INDEX
Tolosan on manufactures, 117.
Tonnage, v. Shipping.
Toronto, house-property, 328.
Trade, v. Commerce, Internal.
Traffic v. Railway, Shipping.
Tramways, United Kingdom, 9.
Transport, land and water, 37.
earnings, 380.
Transvaal gold product, 36, 358.
Travellers in Switzerland, 264.
Treasury British report, 106.
- United States, money in, 307.
Tula, factories at, 164.
Turnip crop, United Kingdom, 63.
Tyrol silk industry, 180.
UNITED KINGDOM, v. Great Britain.
United States, agriculture, 286, 424.
— commerce, 301, 428.
— earnings, 307, 429.
— finances, 312.
forests and fisheries, 291.
— manufactures, 292, 427.
— mining, 298, 428.
— population, 281, 423.
wealth, 308, 429.
Ural gold-fields, 165.
Urban population, 16, 377.
Uruguay, agriculture, 371.
— commerce, 373.
earnings, 374.
finances, 375.
manufactures, 373.
mining, 373.
• — — population, 371.
— wealth, 374.
Utah silver mines, 428.
VAEIGNY on Wealth, 398.
Vansittart's finances, 108.
Victoria, v. Australia.
Viebahn on Germany, 138, 152.
Vienna house-property, 186.
municipal taxes, 420.
Vineyards, v. "Wine.
Vital statistics, 394.
Volga navigation, 168.
WAGES, v. Manufactures.
War, American (1776), 107.
(1861), 423.
Bonaparte, 107.
Crimean, 108.
Franco-German, 130, 133.
Waste lands of all countries, 381.
Watchmaking at Geneva, 262.
Water-power in Italy, 433.
— Switzerland, 260.
United States, 3.
Water, transport by, 38.
Wealth, components of, 11.
— of all nations, 392.
— Argentina, 369.
— Australia, 347, 432.
— Austria, 185, 420.
- Belgium, 256, 422.
— Canada, 327, 431.
— Cape Colony, 359.
Danubian States, 272.
— Denmark, 237.
— France, 129, 415.
— Germany, 152.
— Great Britain, 96.
— Greece, 279.
- Holland, 247.
— - — Hungary, 185.
Ireland, 96.
Italy, 197, 421.
Norway, 229.
Portugal, 217.
- Eussia, 170, 418.
- Spain, 208.
- Sweden, 229, 422.
- Switzerland, 263.
- United States, 308, 429.
Uruguay, 374.
Wedgewood pottery, 81.
Weights and measures, 13.
Wheat, v. Grain.
crop, all nations, 381.
exports, 395.
INDEX
Windmills in Holland, 3.
Wine, consumption, U. Kingdom, 84.
— production, Argentina, 363.
Australia, 384.
Austria, 176.
Cape Colony, 356.
Danubian States, 268.
France, 116.
Germany, 139.
Greece, 276.
Hungary, 176.
Italy, 191.
Portugal, 212.
Russia, 160.
Spain, 202.
Switzerland, 260.
United States, 289.
Wolowski on wealth, 415.
Wood-pulp industry, Sweden, 224.
Wool, clip of all nations, 396.
exports, Argentina, 364.
Australia, 334, 431.
Cape Colony, 354.
imports, United Kingdom, 73.
Woollen fabrics, all nations, 386.
Austria, 179.
Woollen fabrics, Belgium, 253.
France, 117.
Germany, 141.
Great Britain, 72, 409.
Italy, 193.
Russia, 163.
Spain, 204.
Sweden, 224.
United States, 293.
Working-class, British, 101.
French, 132.
Working-power, v. Energy.
Wurtemberg, v. Germany.
FEATS on machinery, 71.
ZEHDEN on Austria, 180.
France, 119.
Germany, 145.
Switzerland, 262.
Zinc industry, Belgium, 254.
Germany, 143.
Great Britain, 79, 410.
Zurich tan -yards, 262.
Zuyder Zee, pumping out, 247-
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