For Reference
NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THIS ROOM
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Property of
N. C. EXPERiiMENT STATION
Department of Entomology
No.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO
STAPLE CROPS.
BY
E. DWIGHT SANDERSON, B S.Agk.,
ENTOMOLOGIST, UELAWAllE COLLEGE AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMKNT STATION;
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY,
DELAWARE COLLEGE.
FIRST EDITION-.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK :
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
I.ONDON- CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
Copyriffht, 1902,
BY
E. D. SAISDERSON.
ROBERT DRUMVOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK.
PREFACE.
The sources of information concerning the insects
affecting our staple crops are widely scattered throughout
the bulletins of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations
and of the United States Department of Agriculture, a few
books on Economic Entomology, and various other publica-
tions. Few men but the entomologist have the desire or
ability to glean an account of any given insect from tlie
first-mentioned publications, if they know of the existence
of others than those published by their own State station.
The few books which have been written upon American
Economic Entomology usually give but a brief and sum-
mary account of any given insect, too brief — it seems to
the writer — to give a very clear understanding of the
matter.
In preparing the following pages the author has been
more and more impressed by the fact that for the control
of most of the worst insect pests of our staple crops, the
farmer must depend very largely upon general methods of
farm practice. This being the case, it is essential that he
have a correct knowledge of the pest to be combated ; such
a knowledge of its life-history as will make plain the reason
for the effect of any given ^jrocedure against it. Thus the
better class of farmers may find a work in which each
Yl PEEFACE.
insect is treated somewhat comjirehensively as to life-
history, habits, and remedies, yet without being exhaustive
or technical, to be of considerable service to them. To
furnish such a guide to the more intelligent class of prac-
tical farmers has been the aim of the writer, w^io trusts
that the following j^ages will be read as such and not as in
any way a contribution to science.
The author wishes most unreservedly to disclaim any
originality for the contents of the work, and to state that
unless otherwise noted all the facts are merely compiled
from the writings of others. Free use has been made of
the writings of all the most prominent American ento-
mologists. Where the treatment of a group of insects has
been largely drawn from one or two sources, they will often
be indicated by quotations in the text.
Many of the following chajiters or parts of them have
previously appeared in various agricultural journals during
the past three or four years, to the editors of which the
author desires to express his thanks for their courtesy in
allowing him to here republish them: namely. The Country
Gentleman, The Farmers' Eeview, Farm and Fireside,
Farm Xews, The National Rural, Texas Farm and Eanch,
The American Agriculturist, The National Stockman and
Farmer, and The Practical Farmer.
The author is jjarticularly indebted to Prof. M. V.
Slingerland, of Cornell University, for kindly reading
23ortions of the manuscrijot and for several suggestions of
value; to Dr. L. 0. Howard for assistance in part of Chap-
ter X; and to his wife, Anna Cecilia Sanderson, for a large
amount of clerical assistance.
K. I) WIGHT Saxdkksox.
Newark, Del., February, 1901.
SOUKCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Electrotypes of the following figures were purchased,
being secured through the tindness of the parties named :
Fig. 9, from Houghton, Mifflin & Co. ; Fig. 102, from the
Iowa Ag. Exp. Sta., through Prof. H. E. Summers; Figs.
7, 136, and 137, from Dr. J. B. Smith; Figs. 51, 52, 60,
84, and 85, from Cornell Tniv. Ag. Exp. Sta., through
Prof. M. Y. Slingerland: Figs. 25 and 28, from The
Farmers' Keview, Chicago; Figs. 74, 75, 76, 77, and 78,
from Dr. S. A. Forbes; Figs. 71 and 72, from The
Country Gentleman, for which they were originally
redrawn by the author; Fig. 53, from the Xebr. Agr. Exp.
Sta., through Prof. L. Bruner; and Figs. 11, 24, 31, 50,
59, 61, 62,^64, 66, 67, 68, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 88, 89, 90,
91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112,
113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124,
126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 134, 135, 136, 143, 146, 154,
155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, from the United
States Department of Agriculture, through the kindness
of Dr. L. 0. Howard and Mr. F. H. Chittenden, of the
Division of Entomology and the Division of Publications,
to which gentlemen we are under especial obligation.
The following figures were kindly loaned by the parties
named: Figs. 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
vii
Vlll SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
41, 42, 44, 45, 4G, 47, 48, 110, and 150, from the Md.
Agr. Exp. Sta., through Prof. A. L. Qiiaintance, these
havmg heen first used by the author iu The Farmers'
Review; Figs. Go, 132, and 133, from the Ky. Agr. Exp.
Sta., through Prof. H. Carman; Fig. 125, from the Fhi.
Agr. Exp. Sta., through Prof. H. A. Gossard; Figs. 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 70, 96, 98, 101, and 103, from the
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., through Prof, F. M. Webster; Fig.
49, from the Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., through Director
W. M. Liggett; Figs. 12 and 95, from the DeL Coll, Agr.
Exp. Sta.; Fig. 151, from the Peninsula Horticultural
Society, through Prof. Wesley Webb.
Figs. 19, 20, 21, 6(j, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, and 147
were loaned by the author. Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
23, 26, 27, 99, 115, 145, 149, 152, and 153 were copied
from prints. Figs. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10, and Figs. 2, 3,
22, 86, 87, and 100 and frontispiece are original from
photos by the author, the photos of the latter numbers
being loaned by the Del. Coll. Agr. Exp. Sta.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface v
Sources of Illustrations vii
CHAPTER I.
Injury done Staple Crops by Insect Pests ..-.. 1
CHAPTER II.
Structure and Development of Insects « 6
CHAPTER III.
General Farm Practice against Injurious Insects 20
CHAPTER IV.
Beneficial Insects 30
CHAPTER V.
Insects Injurious to Grains and Grasses 44
CHAPTER VI.
Insects Injurious to Wheat 90
CHAPTER VII.
Insects Injurious to Indian Corn 125
CHAPTER VIII.
" Weevil " in Grain 155
ix
X TABLE OF COXTEXTS.
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE
Insects Injurious to Clover 172
CHAPTER X.
Insects Injurious to Cotton 188
CHAPTER XI.
Insects Injurious to Tobacco 214
CHAPTER XII.
Insects Injurious to the Potato 239
CHAPTER XIII.
Insects Injurious to the Sugar-beet 252
CHAPTER XIV.
Insects Injurious to the Hop-plant 269
CHAPTER XV.
Insecticides 284
(TJ^, . / -1^^ b>
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
CHAPTEE I.
INJURY DONE STAPLE CROPS BY INSECT PESTS.
Ever since the plagne of locusts in the time of the
Pharaohs, insects have maintained a continual opposition
to agriculture. History is replete Avith accounts of insect
scourges and the enormous losses occasioned by them.
And instead of diminishing with the advancement in agri-
cultural methods, injurious insects have undoubtedly be-
come both more numerous and more destructive in modern
times. Every now and then we hear of communities
assembling for prayer and fasting to appease the Almighty,
whose wrath has hurled a new insect plague against them.
But a little reflection will show that the?e scourges are
entirely due to natural causes. In fact such injuries are
very largely due to man himself, who, in trying to subdue
Nature by the clearing and cultivation of the land, has
deprived the insects of their natural food. Thus they must
needs feed upon that which is substituted by him, and as
it is less abundant than the former wild vegetation, the
number of insects and the injuries they inflict are more
2 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
upparent. But the native insects are by no means entirely
responsible for this condition. Foreign insects are con-
stantly being imported in one way or another, sometimes
already being established pests in other lands and some-
times only becoming so under their new surroundings.
These are even more injurious than those native, for
whereas many of our native birds, insects, and diseases
constantly prey upon native insects and thus keep their
numbers in check, the enemies of imported pests rarely
accompany them, and they thus increase at an alarming
rate and do enormous damage before they are attacked by
the natural enemies of similar native pests.
American farmers have learned from sad experience
of the severe losses occasioned by insects, but few realize
their enormity when considered as a whole. Several cal-
culations of these losses have been made by competent
authorities, who practically agree that one-tenth of the
total agricultural product of the United States, or $300,-
000,000, is but a conservative estimate of the loss annually
sustained by this country. But when this statement has
occasionally been made by the author it has been met with
a look of incredulity which very plainly indicated that he
was thought to have a very elastic imagination. A careful
collection of such data as may be confided in as accurate
shows that the above estimate is entirely correct. Con-
siderably over one-half of this loss is upon the staple crops,
the remainder being upon truck crops, fruits, domestic
animals, and timber.
Growing Cereals. — Probably no other insect does so
wide-spread damage as the Hessian Fly, attacking our chief
staple, wheat, as well as rye and barley. One-tenth of
the whole crop, valued at 140,000,000, is generally con-
INJURY DONE STAPLE CROPS BY INSFCT PESTS. 3
ceded to he destroyed by this pest every year, and in
certain sections the loss often amounts to from 30 to 50
per cent. If the loss to rye and barley be put at one-
fourth the loss of wheat, it amounts to about 11,000,000.
From various estimates made at different times during
that period. Prof. F. M. Webster states that 1^330,000.000
represents the loss from the depredations of the Chinch-
bug since 1850, or 17,000,000 per annum, which has been
largely confined to the States of the Mississippi Valley.
Corn has a host of insect enemies. Frequently the Corn
Root-worm has damaged the crop to the extent of 10 to
20 per cent in many of the largest corn-growing States.
The annual loss on this crop due to insects is certainly
not under 5 per cent, or $37,000,000. Thus with only
the above figures we see an annual loss of 185,000,000
upon growing cereals.
Stored Grain. — But stored grain has its insect pests also,
which are especially injurious in the South. Mr. F. H.
Chittenden, of the IT. S. Department of Agriculture, places
the loss on stored corn in the seven Gulf States at
$20,000,000, or 20 per cent of their crop. If only one-
fourth of this amount, or 5 per cent, of the rest of the
country's stored corn were thus lost, it would amount to
$40,000,000. Twenty million dollars, or 3 per cent of the
value of all other stored grain, certainly no more than
cover the loss sustained upon it and other stored products
subject to insect pests, which gives an approximate total
of 160,000,000 damage to stored products.
Grass and Hay. — A host of grass and clover insects
damage the hay crop. Half a million dollars have fre-
quently been given as the loss sustained from the Army-
worm alone in individual States. Five per cent of the
4 IITSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
hay crop, or 120,000,000, fairly represents the loss upon
this crop and pasture-lands due to insects.
Cotton. — The cotton-plant has a number of serious
enemies, of which the Cotton-worm, Boll-worm, and Boll-
weevil are the worst. In 1880 the United States Ento-
mologic^al Commission valued the annual ravages of the
Cotton-worm at 130,000,000, but, thanks to their careful
study of the pest, the damage done by it has been greatly
lessened in recent years. But the Boll-weevil has now
presented itself in Texas. In 1894 it damaged the Texas
crop to the extent of 18,000,000, and its injuries are not
reported as having diminished. Thus ^15,000,000 must
be a low estimate for the insect depredations upon cotton.
Tobacco. — The tobacco crop, valued at $25,000,000, has
a horde of insect enemies at all stages of its existence,
which will easily consume 8 per cent of it, or $2,000,000.
Potatoes. — The Colorado Potato-beetle does not do that
crop so serious an injury as formerly, but some new
enemies to it have appeared, and a loss of $10,000,000,
or about 6 per cent of the value of that crop, is un-
doubtedly caused by our six-legged foes.
Surely, when we include the injury done to fruits, truck
crops, domestic animals, and timber, $300,000,000 is a
conservative estimate of the price these apparently insig-
nificant little insects are annually costing this country.
Yet there is another aspect to the matter. '' One man's
loss is another man's gain" is never more true than as
regards these losses occasioned by insects. For, through
wide-spread injury by them, prices rise; while if these
injuries were not done and correspondingly large crops
were placed upon the market, prices must surely fall.
INJURY DONE STAPLE CHOPS BY INSECT PESTS. 5
These estimates of losses due to insects are then very
largely comparative. Yet, to a large extent, they are still
real losses, the same as are those occasioned by fire and
storm. For though a small crop may bring better prices,
it is usuall}' at the expense of individuals or communities
which have sustained exceptionally heavy losses. AVere
these losses evenly distributed among all those producing
a given crop, there would be no real hardship to them;
but such is by no means the case.
All this, then, goes to emphasize the fact that the suc-
cessful farmer — as the successful man in any other trade
or j)rofession — is the one who is able to overcome obstacles
which, though possibly ruining his neighbor, are making
a good market for his special crop. And these insect
pests can be largely overcome. The millennium will doubt-
less come before the farmer will be able to stop fighting
them, but a large part of the damage by them can be pre-
vented at a cost which renders it profitable. Rational
methods of general farm practice with the proper use of
ap23aratus and insecticides, even such as are now known,
and in which improvements are being constantly made, if
intelligently used by American farmers, would save to
them fully two-thirds of this enormous loss.
•^^
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
The more experience the farmer has with insect pests,
the more he comes to realize that if he would successfully
combat them, he must have a certain amount of necessary
knowledge concerning their structure and growth.
In general, the artificial means which may be effectually
used to combat an insect pest will very largely depend
upon the anatomical structure of the insect, while control
by general methods of cidture will depend upon a knowl-
edge of the peculiarities of its life-history.
The value of a proper understanding of these important
factors in insect control is therefore apparent.
General Structure of an Insect.
The body of an insect is composed of three separate
parts, the head, thorax, and abdomen (Fig. 1), each of
which is composed of several rings or segments. To the
head are attached the jointed antennae, or feelers, the
compound eyes, and the mouth-parts, which are described
below. Each of the three segments of the thorax bears a
pair of legs, and adult insects usually possess one or two
pairs of wings upon the last two segments of the thorax.
The abdomen is composed of nine or ten segments, but
6
STRUCTUKE A^D DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 7
bears no appendages save the ovipositor of the females of
certain orders.
Harvest-mites, or ^^ daddy-long-legs/^ sow-bugs, thou-
sand-legged worms, and similar vermin are often popularly
called insects, but all of them can readily be distinguished
from true insects by their possessing more than six legs.
\
■^
i ?^
abd^^
ff
i
r
Fig. 1. — Honey-bee, showing three principal regions of the body
of an insect : — Ji, head; tJi., thorax; aJ/d., abdomen. (Original.)
the harvest-mites and spiders having eight and the others
many more.
How Insects Grow.
With rare exceptions insects hatch from eggs laid by
the adult females. Upon hatching they are but little
larger than the eggs, and often bear but little resemblance
to their parents. Thus the young caterpillar would never
be recognized as the immature stage of the butterfly by
one unfamiliar with its transformations. Grasshoppers
and some other insects, however, upon hatching from the
egg bear a marked resemblance to the adult form, except
that they lack wings.
8 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Complete Metamorphosis. — But let us return to the cater-
pilLir and follow it through its short hut interesting life.
Upon hatching from the (igg it at ouce commences to feed
and grows Tery rapidly. But before long an obstacle to
further growth arises. Unlike higher animals, insects
possess no internal skeleton or framework for the organs
of the bod}^, but the outer skin becomes hardened and to
it the muscles and ligaments are attached. This harden-
ing of the skin is best seen in the horny wing-covers of the
beetles and is due to the secretion of a hard substance
called chitin. This chitin is secreted by all parts of the
skin in greater or less degree, and thus forms a sort of
shell for the whole body. Though this hardening is not
so apparent in larvae as in adult insects, it is always
present, and it is for this reason that when the young-
caterpillar has made a certain growth it is forced to shed
its skin, which refuses to expand further, in order to
develoj) more fully. Thus the skins of insects are shed
several times (see Fig. 2, h), — usually five or six, but
sometimes as many as twenty, — this process being known
as ^^ molting." During its life as a caterpillar, which is
called the ''larval stage," and during which it is called a
^^arva," it is nn elongate, worm-like creature, with six
short, jointed legs on the three thoracic segments, a pair
of fleshy false legs or pro-legs on the last abdominal seg-
ment, and probably several pairs of pro-legs between these
and the true legs. No traces of wings can be seen, but the
body is often covered with hairs, spines, or warty tubercles.
But with the next molt the insect changes in appearance
most radically, becoming a joupa, or chrysalis as this stage
is termed for butterflies. During the pupal stage the
insect remains dormant either in a small cell slightly under
STRUCTURE AND DKVELOl'MEXT OF INSECTS. 9
the surface of the earth, or in a silken cocoon spun by the
caterpillar, or merely attached to the food-plant })y a
Fig. 2. — Complete Metamorphosis, The different stages of the
Corn Ear-worm {HeliotMs armiger Hlibn. \ a, eggs on corn-
silk; h, the first three larval stages; c, pupa from below; d, same
from above; e, adult moth — all enlarged; h, about twice natu-
ral size. (Original.)
strand of silk or the cast larval skin. In many of the
Diptera, — the order including flies, mosquitoes, gnats, etc.,
— however, the last larval skin is not shed, but hardens
and forms a case — called a puparium — within which the
pupal stage is passed.
10 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The typical jmpa (Fig. 2, c, d) of a butterfly or moth is
of a more or less oval shape, rather resembling the adult
insect than the larva, with the wings and antennae tightly
folded at the sides, the legs drawn up snugly together under
them, and the head and mouth-parts bent upon the breast,
or sternum. But all of these parts are not always recog-
nizable, the legs and mouth-parts being sometimes lacking.
Gradually the jidult insect develops, and at last the pupal
skin is broken open and the airy butterfly emerges to enjoy
a short life and perpetuate the species. Such a series of
transformations is that commonly found among butter-
flies and moths (Lepidoj)tera), beetles (Coleoptera), flies
(Diptera), and bees (Hymenoptera), and is known as a
complete metamorphosis. All of these insects normally pass
through four stages, the Qgg, larva, pupa, and adult.
Incomplete MetamorphosU. — In contrast to this mode of
development is that of the grasshoppers (Orthoptera), bugs
(Hemiptera), and some other insects. As already stated
these are much like the adult upon emerging from the
agg. With each molt they become larger and small wing-
like pads gradually appear on the sides of the thorax.
There is no dormant or pupal stage, the adult insect
differing from the previous stages in having fully developed
wings, being larger, and often by an accompanying change
of markings. The immature stages of such insects are
called nymphs^ and this development an incomplete meta-
'inorpliosis, having but three stages, the Qgg, nymph, and
adult (Fig. 3).
The time occupied by the complete life-cycle of an insect
varies from a week or ten days for the plant-lice to thirteen
or seventeen years for some Cicadas, and is entirely
dependent upon the habit of the species and the climate.
STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
11
A correct knowledge of the exact time and conditions
under which the transformations occur for each individual
Fig. 3. — Incomplete jMetamorpliosis of a Bug [Brachymena 4-jmsiic-
lata). a, eggs: 6, adult bug; c, different stages of young bugs
or nympLs. (Original.)
insect pest is therefore often most essential when seeking
means for its control.
How Insects Feed.
The material to he used in cumhating a given insect is
almost entirely dependent upon the structure of its mouth-
12
IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
parts. Much Paris green is wasted upon insects unable
to eat it and which it will, therefore, never kill.
Insects may be roughly divided into two classes, those
which bite and those which suck their food. Among the
former are the beetles, grasshoppers, the larva3 of butter-
flies and moths, and the larvae of saw-flies; and among the
Ibr.
MX.pA
Kldh^
Fig. 4. — Front-view Face of Grasshopper {Schiziocerca americnna).
ant., anUnma; oc, ocellus; ey., eye; cl., clypeus; Ibr., labrum, or
upper lip; mx.p., maxillary palpus; lab. p., labial palpus; gal.,
galea, lobe of maxilla; lab., labium, or under lip. (Original.)
latter are butterflies, flies, bees, and bugs, while the larvae
of most flies and bees do not possess mouth-parts homol-
ogous with those of the above.
Biting Mouth-imrts. — Mouth-parts typical of those of
biting insects are easily seen in the grasshopper (Figs. 4, 5,
and 6). In brief, they consist of an upper and a lower
lip, between which are two pairs of jaws which work trans-
versely. The upper pair of jaws, or mandihies (md.), are
stout, short, and horny, usually sharpened at the tip,
STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
13
slightly serrated at the margins, and flattened at the base.
The lower pair of jaws, or maxillcB {mx.), are longer, not
so strong, and to each of them is attached an accessory
lobe, and a jointed style called a palpus or feeler. At each
Fig. 5. — Mouth -parts of Grasshopper, separated to show position and
relation, a, from above the mouth; b, looking into the mouth;
c. from below the mouth. Ibr.. labrum, or upper lip; md., man-
dible or biting-iaw; mx., maxilla, or second jaw; lab, labium,
or und(n' lip: ^lyp., hypopharynx, or tongue; mx.p., maxillary
palpus. (Original.)
side of the lower lip is another j^alpus, these palpi being
sensory organs.
Sucking Moutli-parts. — In the sucking insects these
mouth-parts are prolonged into a tube through which the
juices of the food plant — or animal — are sucked. In the
plant-lice and other bugs the lower lip is elongated so that
it forms a tube, and the max ill a? and mandibles consist of
long hair-like bristles, or seta?, enclosed within this tube
(Fig. 7). The tip of this beak is rested upon the surface
of a leaf into which the setae are thrust, laceratino- tlie
tissue, and by a pumping process of the mouth the juices
are sucked up through the beak. The structure of the
mouth-parts of the various orders of sucking insects varies
14
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
considerably, but all agree in that their food must Ije
sucked up in a liquid state. Any application of a poison -
Fig. 6. — Cicada, showing Mouth-parts of a Bug, a Sucking Insect.
a, seen from below, beak or rostrum {ro. G. ) reposing between
forelegs; b, head removed; e, eye; l})r., labrum; md., man-
dlble-setae ; mx., maxillary seta^ ; lab., labium. (Original.)
ous spray to the surface of foliage will be of no avail
against them, though sure death to most biting insects
STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
15
which chew the leaves, and sucking insects must therefore
be killed by other means.
How Insects Breathe.
In the side of one thoracic segment and each abdominal
segment except the last, of a caterpillar or larva, is a small
Fig. 7. — Mouth parts of a Plant-louse; a, the jointed beak; b, the
lancets, much enlarged; c, antenna; d, foot. (After J. B.
Smith. )
oval spot, in the centre of which is a slit closed by two
membranous lips. These apertures are called sjjiracles or
stigmata (Fig. 8, st^-st^^), and are the openings of the
respiratory system. Similar openings are to be found in
all insects, though not so easily seen in the adults. Con-
necting these spiracles is a pair of tubes on each side of
the body, throughout its length, from which branch oil'
16
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
smaller tubes to all of its organs and tissues. Fresh air is
thus inhaled to all parts of the body through these tubes
(Fig. 8, tr).
Fig 8. — Diagram of tracheal or breathing system of an Insect,
.s-ij-s^jo, the ten pairs of spiracles; A, head; i?i_3, the three seg-
ments of the thorax; Tr., the two main tracheal trunks; trs.,
trachea leading from the main trunk to the spiracle; tru., tra-
chea connecting the two main trachea; tri., visceral trachea;
tro., ventral trachea; tr., the anterior termination of the tra-
chea; g.-g., nerve-cord with ganglia to wiiich go branches of
the visceral trachea; au., eyes; a, antennae; p, palpi; m, man-
dibles; jPi-p^, bases of the legs. (After Kolbe.)
The blood of insects does not circulate through any
system of tubes as it does in the higher animals. Along
STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
17
the middle of the back, above the alimentary canal, is a
long tube popularly called the heart (Fig. 9, ]i\ Fig. 10,
dr). This heart is composed of a number of chambers
each of which is funished with side valves for admitting
blood from the body-cavity. The blood coming into the
heart from the body- cavity is propelled forward toward
the head, where it again flows into the body-cavity. Thus
various currents of blood are maintained throusfhout the
Fig. 9. — Ideal section through au iu.sect. a, ahmentaiy canal; h,
heart; n, nerve-cord; s, stigmata: /, tracheal tubes; I, legs; w,
wings. (From Riverside Nat. History.)
body, but other than the heart there is no system of blood-
vessels, the blood merely filling the body- cavity around
and through the various organs and tissues. Constantly
flowing around the respiratory tubes or tracheae, the blood
is quickly and thoroughly purified, though the exact
manner in which this is done is not definitely known.
The respiratory system has absolutely no connection with
the mouth or pharynx (Fig. 10, ^j^), as have the lungs of
the higher animals, and if an insect is to be suffocated, it
must be done by closing the spiracles. It is in this way
18
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
that tobacco-dnst, lime, pj'Tethruin, and similar insecti-
cides kill sucking insects by ^penetrating the spiracles and
choking the tracheal system. Whale-oil soap, kerosene
emulsion, and the other "contact" insecticides, or ^' irri-
tants," may also stop up the spiracles and thus cause
death, but they act chiefly as "irritants," penetrating the
Fig. 10. — Internal Anatomy of Silkworm. A, the upper, or dorsal,
body-wall seen from within; B, the back of the silkworm re-
moved, showing alimentary canal: C, alimentary canal removed,
showing nervous system and tracheal trunks; t?'., trachea; d.v.,
dorsal vessel or heart; ph., pharynx or mouth; sti., supra-
oesophageal ganglion; sp. sp., spiracles or breathing-pores; n,
nerve-cord; ^r.^., tracheal trunk; oes., a^sophagus or throat; c/'.,
crop; s.g.. silk-gland; pro., proventriculus or grinding-stomach ;
St., stomach; 7i.i., hind-intestine. (Photo, by author from Azoux
model.)
skin and thus killing the insect. When insects are killed
by means of a gas such as carbon bisulfide or hydrocyanic
acid gas, they are truly asphyxiated by a substitution of
these gases for air, the same as are higher animals by the
use of anaesthetics,
STRUCTUKE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 19
Though arsenical poisons are generally used as sprays
for biting insects, soft-bodied caterpilhirs and similar larv^ae
are often killed by the use of contact insecticides, which
affect them the same as sucking insects.
The reader will observe that, almost without exception,
the remedies advised for different insect pests in the fol-
lowing pages are determined by some peculiarity, either of
structure or develo^mient, of the insect to be combated.
CHAPTER III.
GENERAL FARM METHODS AGAINST INSECT PESTS.
In" the following pages artificial means of combating
insect pests, such as spraying with insecticides, are not
as often the remedies or preventives given as those which
consist of some method of general farm practice. That
such should be the case is but natural, for the staple crops,
being cultivated in large areas, can hardly be treated witli
sprays or mechanical devices, in many instances, with any
degree of profit. The best methods to employ against
most of the insects affecting the staj^le crops are what
might be termed cultural methods, consisting of some
mode of culture or handling the crop which fatally inter-
feres with the development of a given insect pest. Such
treatment is far less simple in many instances, however,
than the use of a spray-pump or powder-gun. In the
latter case the farmer merely waits until he observes a crop
being injured and then with a liberal application of poison
destroys his insect enemies; but in using the former
method he must have a more or less accurate knowledge
of the life-history of the insect which he wishes to combat.
It will also be necessary for him to observe or ascertain
the usual dates of the transformations of various insects
for his particular locality, as they vary considerablv for
different latitudes and altitudes, and to make due allow-
20
GENERAL FAUM METHODS AGAINST INSECT PESTS. 21
auce for any variation of these dates on account of the
peculiarities of the individual season.
Looking Ahead. — Few farmers, in planning the manage-
ment of their land and crops for tiie coming season, con-
sider the effect which any given procedure will have upon
the injurious insects with which they may have to contend.
A field which has for several years been in wheat, corn, or
tobacco may be sown with some other crop for the sake
of soil improvement, or may even be favored with a green-
manuriug of rye, crimson clover, or cow-peas; but how
often is it considered necessary to rotate crops in order to
lessen insect pests ? In most cases the answer would
doubtless be, " Xot until some noticeable loss has been
suffered from their injuries.'' That this is a mistake may
be seen from a brief survey of the best methods for com-
bating our worst insect pests.
For this purpose let us take the list of sixty-three insects
given in the Year Book of the United States Department
of Agriculture for 1898 as a basis, it being carefully com-
piled by experienced entomologists.
But in passing, though foreign to our theme, it may be
interesting to note that of these sixty-three insects twenty-
seven have been imported from foreign climes, thirty-one
are native, and four are of doubtful origin, so that we can
correctly say that fully one-half of our worst insect pests
are imported. Among those native to the United States
are the Chinch-bug, Corn Root-worm, Cutworms, Locusts,
and Colorado Potato- beetle; while among those imported
are the Angumois Grain-moth, Cypsy Moth, Codling-
moth, Cotton- worm. Sugar-cane Borer, Grain Weevils,
Hessian Fly, and San Jose Scale.
Of tliese sixty-three pests eight infest stored grains and
22 INSECTS IX.TURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
lionseliold goods, and may be exterminated by the fumes
of carbon bisulfide; and five are insects affecting cattle,
and are combated with various washes.
Thus only fifty are really to be considered insects of the
farm cro^is. Of these, three are controlled by '- ditching,'^
three by mechanical means or devices, and for two of them
hydrocyanic acid gas is sure death, while a spray of whale-
oil soajD is advisable for two others, a spray of kerosene
emulsion for six, and of Paris green or London purple for
fifteen, these sprays, etc. , being used largely for orchard
pests, which comprise eighteen of the fifty. But for the
control of many of the insect pests affecting the staple
crops, and which are, therefore, of the greatest economic
im2:>ortance, we have so far been unable to devise anything
better than a judicious manipulation of purely natural
agents, and for the control of twenty-three of the fifty
farm insects listed, or nearly one-half, and 75 per cent of
those outside the orchard, such methods must be mainly
relied upon.
Clean Farming.
After a crop has been harvested, there is usually some
portion of it which is allowed to remain on the land. In
this refuse the insects peculiar to the crop often go on
multiplying until winter, and greater damage to the crop
in the following year is therefore probable. Thus the
Wheat Joint-worm and the Corn Stalk-borer both winter in
the stubble of those crops, the Potato Stalk-borer remains
for some time in the vines, and numerous other cases
might be cited. It is therefore of imj^ortance in our war-
fare against insect pests that the remains of a crop,
stubble, vines, leaves, or stumps, as it may be, should be
GENERAL FARM METHODS AGAINST INSECT PESTS. 23
removed from the field as soon after it is harvested as
possible Such material allowed to remain in the field
also furnishes the adult insects an excellent place in which
to hibernate over winter. Much can be done to rid a field
of insects by cleaning it so thoroughly as to deprive them
of shelter during the winter, during which time they
hibernate under all sorts of rubbish, grass, and weeds, in
fence-rails, loose bark of trees, etc. This fact may also
often be utilized by first carefully cleaning a field and then
leaving one or two piles of rubbish in which various insects
will assemble during the winter, when they can be easily
caught by burning the whole. Such a trap will be more
effectual in catching the insects affecting truck crops than
those of the staple crops.
Weeds.
But even when all the piles of litter and rubbish have
been carefully cleared up many of our native insects will
merely leave them for some common weed upon Avhich
they will feed and breed during the season^ and, if it should
be earlier than the cultivated crop, will continue upon it
the following spring until the cultivated crop is to be
secured for food. '• Volunteer *' plants should be included
with weeds in this connection, as they frequently serve the
same purpose. Thus the Cotton Boll-weevil feeds upon
volunteer cotton during the spring, and the Hessian Fly
on the volunteer wheat during late summer, while the
Corn Root-louse lives on the roots of the smart-weed
until corn is out of the ground. Then, too, many in-
jurious insects feed in the larval or adult stage upon some
common weed, while in the other stage they are injurious
to a cultivated crop. The flea-beetles thus feed upon the
24 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
roots of Solonaceous weeds during the larval stage, and
attack all sorts of garden and truck crops as adults; one of
the Corn Bill-bugs lives in the roots of a wild grass as a
larva, but is injurious to corn as a beetle. The w^eeder
(!an^ therefore, be occasionally used as an insecticide as
effectually as the spray-pump.
Burning.
To start a prairie fire in order to destroy all the insect
life of the j)lain might ^irove to be poor policy, but the
careful use of the torch has a distinct place upon the farm
in controlling its insect foes. The burning over of stubble
and grass land will very largely aid in or secure the entire
extermination of Army-worms, Chinch-bugs, Locusts,
and Wheat Joint-worms. Raking up and burning the
vines will be excellent practice against the Squash-borer,
Squash-bug, Potato Stalk-borer, and Hop Plant-louse,
while the removal and burning of all wild ^^l^mi-trees in
their vicinity will greatly lessen the damage to hops by
the latter pest.
Deep Fall Plowing.
Deep fall plowing is being increasingly recommended
for the reduction of many pests, and will be found to be
of advantage for the Corn Stalk-borer, Corn Ear-worm,
Cutworms, Locusts, and Wireworms. In both burning
and fall j^lowing the object is to kill that stage in which
the insect passes the winter.
But this method does not affect all of these insects in
the same manner. Some insects will be destroyed by
having the cells in which they have gone to pass the winter
broken up, and being thrown up to the surface, they will
GENERAL FARM METHODS AOAIXST INSECT PESTS. 25
be killed by the weather before they again provide them-
selves with winter quarters. Among these are those which
hibernate over winter as larvs, and those which pass it in
the pupal stage. Among the former may be mentioned
the Cutworms and the Corn Stalks or Sngar-cane-borer
Larvae. Of those passing the winter as pnpge, the Corn
Ear-worm is a good example. It goes into the pupal stage
in the fall, and this method of breaking up the pupal cells
is practically the only way of combating it upon corn land.
But whereas some insects are destroyed by exposing
them on the surface, others may be literally buried alive
and thus killed. One of the best instances of the value of
fall plowing in this way is in the destruction of grass-
hoppers' eggs. If they be turned under to the depth of
five or six inches after they are laid in the fall, the young
hatching from them in the spring will be utterly unable
to regain the surface and will thus be smothered to death.
Other insects which pass the winter in the pupal stage,
but whose pup^e are encased in a tough cell not easily
broken open, may also be killed by being turned under in
this manner. In fact, even adult insects may be so
handled. After the plants are all thrown out of the ground
in Xovember the adults of the Mexican Cotton Boll- weevil
can be readily caught in this way and plowed under so
deeply that they can never regain the surface. Young
grasshoppers are also destroyed in a similar manner just
after they have emerged from the eggs in the spring.
It is a homely, common-sense method, but with a correct
understanding of their life-histories it may be used to
good advantage against many of our most common and
injurious insects.
26 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Drainage.
The Kice-weevil can be largely controlled by proper
drainage, and the Corn Bill-bugs are usually injurious
only on land adjacent to or recently reclaimed from swamp
land, and disappear with the introduction of proper
drainage.
Fertilizers.
In general, land covered with barnyard manure presents
more favorable conditions for the development of insects
than that fertilized with luineral fertilizers, sometimes
furnishing them food and always affording a good shelter
for the cold of winter. On the other hand, it is claimed
that kainit, lime, and nitrate of soda are often of consider-
able value in controlling, driving out, or preventing the
attacks of insects. A liberal application of fertilizers in
any form will always be of great value in preventing loss
from root-feeding insects by enabling the plant to outgrow
the injury and mature fruit in spite of it.
Poultry.
A flock of chickens or turkeys following the plow will
pick up a great many White Grubs and Cutworms and can
readily be trained to this — for them — rather pleasant task.
In many tobacco-growing sections large flocks of turkeys
are raised especially for destroying the Tobacco Horn-
worm and are slowly driven through the tobacco-fields
several times a day.
Trap Crops.
Doubtless the reason that trap crops are not more in
favor Y/ith the farmer is because their successful use
GENERAL FARM METHODS AGAINST INSECT PESTS. 27
requires more or less of a knowledge of the life-histor}^ and
habits of the pest to be caught; 3^et this is easily acquired
by a little observation and reading, and the men who
combat these pests successfully are those who have such a
knowledge of them. Let us consider, then, one or two of
the more important cases where this principle may be used
to advantage.
The Harlequin Cabbage-bug is a southern insect, but
it has recejitly been found in southern Pennsylvania and
seems to be gradually working northward. When this
insect has succeeded in reachiug the cabbage-field it is an
exceedingly difficult matter to prevent serious injury by it.
If, however, a crop of early kale is planted the previous
fall, the bugs Avliich hibernate over winter will attack it in
the. spring, aud may then be killed by spraying them with
pure kerosene, and the danger to the cabbage crop be thus
largely averted.
The Corn Ear-worm, Tomato-worm, Tobacco Bud-
worm, or Cotton Boll-worm, as it is variously known in
different sections of the country, according to the crop
which it most commonly infests, is one which must be
treated almost entirely by means of a trap crop of corn.
Unfortunately for that plant, however, this method can-
not, of course, be of use in protecting the corn-field, where
it must be controlled as best it may by breaking up the
cells of the hibernating pup^ by late fall plowing. But
as corn is the favorite food of the worms, and the moths
will invariably deposit their eggs in its silk, tobacco,
cotton, and possibly tomatoes may be largely protected
by a proper handling of the corn crop. By planting an
early crop of corn, the moths will deposit their eggs in the
silk; and before the worms have become full grown it
28 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLK CROPS.
should be cut and fed to stock. Another crop should have
been planted near by, or in alternate rows with the
previous one, so as to mature a little later, and it should
be handled in the same manner. Even a third will prove
to be of considerable value. In this way the worms will
be trapped in the corn, and the more valuable crop pro-
tected. Sweet corn is the best to use, and a few strips will
often be found to be of great value when properly used.
Numerous other instances of the successful application
of this principle might be cited, and several are mentioned
under the discussion of individual insects. AVith a correct
knowledge of the habits of a given pest, the ingenious
farmer will often find the method one of great value.
Time of Planting.
The proper time of planting is of importance in the
protection of many crops from insect attacks. Late-sown
wheat is usually exempt from the attack of the Hessian
Fly. Late-planted corn is much less affected by the
Stalk-borer than that planted earlier in the season.
Rotation.
A very important, if not indeed the most important,
factor in insect control is the rotation of crops in such a
manner that no single crop shall be continuously grown
on the same land, or any two crops nearly related botani-
cally. Allowing land to remain in meadow for some time
forms a breeding-ground for White Grubs, Cutworms, and
Wireworms, and if it is then desirable to cultivate the land,
it should be planted in ^^otatoes or some such crop
unrelated to the grasses. It may then be planted with
small grains, and then with corn; for if the number of
GENERAL FAini METHODS AGAINST INSECT PESTS. 29
these insects iu the grass land be at once concentrated
upon the comparatively few corn plants, the injury will be
much more severe than if the change be a gradual one,
with first a crop not of the grass family which would be
largely immune from their attacks, and then a small grain.
The value of rotation is possibly best illustrated in the case
of the Western Corn Eoot-worm, which is never injurious
to corn after the land has been in a small grain or clover.
The Hessian Fly, Wheat Isosoma, Wheat Plant-louse,
Wireworms, and many other of our worst pests may be
largely controlled by a rapid rotation, and their increase
and consequent depredations are very often due almost
entirely to a lack of such practice, which is also of the
utmost importance in preventing soil depletion.
Thus a proper understanding of the pests with which
he has to deal and a timely consideration and application
of these homely methods may be of the greatest value,
and indeed often the only available means for the control
of the larger part of the insect enemies of the general
farmer.
CHAPTER IV.
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC.
Ladybird-beetles.
After his strawberries have been ruined by the Straw-
berry-weevil, the garden truck by Cutworms, the wheat
despoiled by the Hessian Fly, the melon-patch fallen a
prey to plant-lice, and the fruit crop has been a failure on
account of the Codling-moth, Plum Curculio, and San
Jose Scale, it is scarcely surprising that the farmer does
as one of my acquaintances did and '^orders the hands to
kill everything that crawls."
But such would be entirely too heroic a measure, and
if strictly adhered to the remedy would be as bad as the
disease, for it would mean not only useless labor, but the
destruction of the most effective means whereby insect
pests are held in check. We j^ride ourselves — and justly
— that with our Paris green and kerosene sj^rays and gas
tent most of the crops can be effectually protected ; but
were it not for those other insects which feed u23on these
injurious forms, what an enormous and, in some instances,
almost futile task it would bsl
Among these beneficial insects the little Ladybird-
beetles of the family CoccineUidce are entitled to be in the
first rank. Almost all the beetles and larvae feed upon
30
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC. 31
plant-lice and scale insects. Of such value are those
feeding upon scale insects that not many years ago a large
number of Australian species were imported into California
that they might prey upon the San Jose and other scales.
One of these was eminently successful and almost com-
pletely destroyed the Cottony Cushion-scale.
Of those feeding upon plant-lice, one of the most
common is the Xine-spotted Ladybird (Coccinella novem-
notata). This beetle is about one-fourth of an inch long,
with black head and body. The wing-covers are orange-
yellow marked with nine black spots — four on each side
and one on the central suture. The larva has been fancied
to resemble a miniature alligator; it is nearly twice as
long as wide, almost black, marked with bluish and orange
spots, and has long legs, which carry it around quite
rapidly. The beetles hibernate during the winter and
come forth in the scoring and lay their eggs wherever the
young will be able to find food when they hatch. When
the larva has satisfied its ravenous appetite and become
full grown it fastens itself to the food-plant — seemingly
by its tail, if such a term might be alloAved, — transforms
to the pupa, and in a week or ten days the adult beetle
emerges from the pupal skin. This life- cycle is repeated
several times during the summer season, before the fall
brood turns into winter quarters.
Another very common form among plant-lice on garden
truck is the little Adalia hipundatiu or Tw^o-spotted Lady-
bird. It is slightly smaller than the preceding, and with
only one black spot on each wing-cover (Fig. 11).
Several other species in the genus Hippodamia are very
useful, and among them the Convergent Ladybird
{^Hippodamia convevgens) is one of the best known. Its
32
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
name is received from two wliite dashes on the black
thorax, which converge posteriorly. The thorax has also
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a white margin, and there are thirteen black dots on its
orange wing-covers. These larva? and l^ectles are very
common among the plant-lice on melon-vines, and are an
important factor in their extermination. They have also
BKNEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 33
been noted for eati7?g the Black Peach Aj^his and many
other plant-lice.
A form which is often very abundant among lice on corn
Fig 12.— 1, the Fifteeu-spotltd Ladybird: a, larva eating plant-
louse; b, pupa; d, beetle. 2, the Convergent Ladybird {Hippo-
damia convergens., larva, pu])a, and beetle. 8, the Nine-
spotted Ladybird {Coccinella 0-tiotata). 4, Megilla maculaia.
(After Riley.)
is Megilla macuhita. The head, thorax, and wing-covers
are a dark pink, with two black spots on the thorax and
ten on the wing-covers. Such numbers of these little
fellows have frequently been
found huddled together un-
der the rubbish at the base
of some tree in a last yearns
cornfield that they might be
, 1 1. ^1 1 i-P 1 FiGt- 13. — The Twice-stabbed
t'dken up by tlie iiancltui Ladybird (Chilocorus Uvulne-
without difficulty. Many ^ws): «, beetle; 6, larva. (After
Riley. )
other species feed upon
plant-lice, but the above are the most common, and all
bear a resemblance to one another, being generally orange
or red with black spots, and of a characteristic round or
34 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
oval form, flattened below, so that the legs may be drawn
in under tlie wing-covers.
Those Ladybirds which feed upon scales are much
smaller and black, though sometimes s^iotted with red or
orange.
As fa,r as known, there is no .way in which these useful
allies may be encouraged or increased in numbers, but it
is trusted that the above may give such a brief view of
their habits that fewer may be killed through ignorance
concerning their true Avorth.
Syrphus-flies.
Besides the little beetles described above there is a
family of flies, the SyrphidcBy many of whose larvae feed
upon plant-lice. This family is a very large one, and thus
the habits of its different mombers vary considerably.
One of them so closely resembles a honey-bee as to be
almost indistinguishable from it. The larva of this fly
{Eristalis tenax) is one of the common Rat-tailed Maggots
which is found in putrid matter. It is thought that the
old '^ bugonia " superstition of the ancients that bees came
from maggots in dead animals, etc., was due to the con-
fusion of this fly with the honey-bee.
In another group of the family, the adult flies of which
also quite closely resemble bees, the larv^ are parasitic in
the nests of honey- and bumble-bees, feeding upon their
larvae.
But the larvae of possibly the most typical portion of the
family, embracing the genus Syrplms and its near allies,
are entirely predaceous upon plant-lice. Rarely can a
colony of plant-lice be found without some of these little
enemies hard after them.
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PR:EDA('K01:S AND PAHASITIO. 35
The adult syrplius-fi}^ is a very striking insect, with its
dark green metallic thorax, and abdomen variously banded
with yellow and black. The
female fly lays her eggs
upon some plant bearing
plant lice. The 1 a r v ae
which hatch from these are
elongate, flattened mag-
gots,about one -half an inch
long, with hardlv a trace Fig U. — Syrphm rihesii. (Au-
° -^ , thor's illustration. )
of a head, but with four
small hooks, which serve as jaws, projecting from the more
pointed end of the body. These maggots are often of a
light green color, and so like the color of the plants as to
render them most ditflcult to be recognized. The young
larvae at once commence crawling over the plant in search
of the aphids, and as soon as they come in contact with
one it is firmly clasped by the small booklets until the
juices are sucked from its body. In this manner very
Fig. 15. — The Koot-loiise Syrphus-fly {Pipiza radicans). a, mag-
got; b, piiparium; r, fly. (After Riley.)
large numbers are destroyed, a single maggot of tlie
American Syrphus-fly {Syrphus ainericanus) having been
observed to eat twenty-five Apple Plant-lice {AjjJiis mali)
36 INSECTS INMURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
in as many minutes. When the larva is ready to pupate
it attaches itself to a leaf, and- the larval skin dries up and
forms a case or puparium inside of which the pupa remains
until it transforms to the adult fly.
Though most of these larvae feed upon plant-lice upon
the leaves, one of them, the Root - louse Syrphus - fly
{Pipiza radicans), lives entirely underground during that
stage, and feeds upon the root-lice of the apple and the
grape. None of this family are injurious, and as a large
portion of them are so beneficial as to frequently destroy
whole broods of plant-lice, they should not be disturbed
in their good work if possible to avoid it.
The Ground-beetles.
If, as you scrape away the loose chips at the base of a
tree in your door-yard, turn over an old log in the wood-
land, or pick up a fallen fence-rail, you will scrutinize the
inhabitants under these shelters, a number of shining
black beetles varying in length from one-fourth to one and
one-half inches will usually be noticed. If the city reader
be not so fortunate as to be fa-miliar with or have access
to these hiding-places, he may find large numbers of the
beetles under any electric arc light during the warm
summer evenings; for there they are having a sumptuous
banquet upon the small flies and moths attracted by the
glare. They are rarely seen at large during the day, as
they are almost exclusively nocturnal insects, and from
their habit of remaining almost entirely in or on the
ground they are usually known as '^Ground-beetles.''
As might therefore be inferred, they are exceedingly
valuable to the farmer by destroying large numbers of
noxious insects which ])ass a part or all of their existence
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PUEDACEOIS AND PARASITIC. 3T
ill the soil. Besides tlio glos^^y black forms which are
most commonl}" seen, mniiy are brilliantly marked with
gold, green, purple, and iridescent tints.
The Fiery Ground-beetle {Calosoma caJidnni), so called
on account of the wing-covers being dotted with bright
gold, has many times been of great assistance in helping
to rid a corn-field of Cutworms. The larvae of this insect
Fig, 16.— The Fiery Ground-
beetle ( Calosoma calidum).
a, beetle; h, larva. (After
Riley.)
Fig. 17. -''The Searcher" {Car
losoma serutator). (After Ri-
ley.)
are about one inch in length, of a dark brown color, with
the skin of a hard, horny texture like that of the beetle.
They have strong, prominent jaw\s, and at the posterior
end of the body is a forked appendage looking much like
another pair of jaws. It is not only surprising that these
larvae will eat so large a number of cutworms, as they have
frequently been known to do, but also that they will
dare to attack such a formidable creature fully tliree or
four times as large as themselves. But their assault is
sharp and vigorous, and a single larva has often been seen
38 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
to kill and eat in a short time several fnll-grown cutworms.
Many instances of the good work of this heetle are on
record, among which one by the late Prof. J. A. Lintner
might be cited, where he found them eating large numbers
of the Corn-crainbus — sometimes locally known as the
Corn Bud-worm. Another somewhat larger beetle, called
by Prof. J. H. Comstock ^' the Searcher" {CaJosoma scru-
t((ior), and in fact one of the largest of the family, is a
brilliant metallic green, bordered with a dark purplish
blue, and has the good quality of having a very particular
appetite, causing it to kill large numbers of caterpillars,
but eating only part of each.
While in the earth as pup* large numbers of the Colo-
rado Potato-beetles are destroyed by members of this
family, and one species, Lehia grandis, which is peculiar
Fig. 18.
Lehia grandis.
Riley.)
(After Fi(i. 19.— The Murk}- Ground
beetle (Harpalus culiginosuL .
(After Riley.)
in that the wing-covers are somewhat abbreviated, thus
leaving the tip of the abdomen exposed, has been noticed
on the plants eating the eggs and young larvae of this old
potato pest.
Another valuable species is one called by Dr. Riley the
BEITEFICIAL INSECTS, PKEUACEOUS AND PARASITIC. 39
Murky Ground-beetle {Harpalus caligiiioms). Its larva
is of considerable assistance to fruit-growers by eating large
numbers of Curculio larvae, which it secures from the
plums after tliey have fallen to the earth. From a glance
Fig. 20.—^, larva of Murky Ground-beetle; B head of same; G ,
mandible.
at its formidable jaws. Fig. 20, h-c, it is easy to conjec-
ture the fate of man}^ a curculio grub.
Thus here again are found some " bugs '' that are friends
and not foes, worthy of all the protection that can be
aiforded them, and well repaying such careful observation
of their habits as may be bestowed upon them.
Insect Parasites.
Though large numbers of injurious insects are annually
destroyed by those which are purely predaceous upon
them, many more succumb to those minute forms which
live parasitically within them. A few of these parasites
belong to the order Diptern, or true flies, but most of them
are classed in the order Hymenoptera, in which order are
also included the saw-flies, ants, wasps, and bees.
Of the half-dozen families of hymenopterous parasites
one of the largest and most beneficial is that of the
Ichneumon-flies. The illustrations will best show the
form and structure of these insects, which the casual
40 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STATLE CROPS.
observer will luirdly be able to diftijiguisli from other
families of the group. Bat it will be noticed that the fine
yeius of the wings vary considerably in the different jDara-
sites figured, and it is by these that the entomologist is
enabled to separate the different groups and often to
identify the species at a glance. Both this and the fol-
lowing family are 2)eculiar in having an exceedingly long
Fig. 21.— a Plant-louse Fiu-nnite (Aphidius gr-inaj'iaphis), showing
above the parasitized louse from which it has issued. (Copied
from J. B. Smith )
ovipositor or egg-tube, of which it will be seen that they
make a very good use. It is with this extensile tube that
the female deftly punctures the skin of some unsuspecting
caterpillar, and under it inserts her eggs. In a few days
there hatch from these a host of young grubs, which feed
npon the Juices and tissues of the caterpilhir, but are
seemingly careful to avoid injuring any of its vital organs,
for as soon as the caterpillar reaches its full growth it
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PAKASITIC. 41
changes to a pupa, apparently iinaffected. But now the
maggots have reached their full size, and each spms up a
small silken cocoon inside the 2:»upa, entirely filling up its
now dead shell, and instead of a beautiful moth apj^earing
in the spring, from a round hole in the side of the pupa,
or cocoon, a horde of small flies are seen to emerge.
Thus large numbers of such pests as the Apple-tree
Tent-caterpillar {CUsiocam2)a americaiia), Bag-worms
Fig. 22. — Maggots of Pimj)la iriqiiisUor, a parasitic Ich
fly, feeding on a caterpillar which had spun its cocoon
ready to pupate. (Original.)
ncumon-
spun its cocoon and was
{Tliyridopteryx ep1iemer(efor})iis), cater^jillars of the swal-
low-tailed butterflies which feed upon parsley, carrots,
etc., and a host of others, are consumed by members of
this family.
Those belonging to the genus Opliion are partial to the
large American silkworms which produce some of our
largest and most beautiful moths, and difficulty is fre-
quently experienced in rearing a desired number of moths
on account of the large ^^er cent of cocoons parasitized.
The species of the family Braconidce are very similar to
those of the preceding one, and contain some eqiiany
42
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
beneficial insects, feeding jis tliey do upon sucli pests as
the Codling-moth, Web-worms, Plum-cnrciilio grub. Plant-
lice, etc. Some of the more common forms of this family
belong to the genus Microgaster, and their small white
cocoons may frequently be seen almost covering one of
our large tomato- or tobacco-worms (see page 237), the
Fig. 23. — The Long-tailed O^hion {Ophion macrurum). a, adult;
h, maggot. (After Riley.)
pupae of which are often known as "' horn-blowers.^' Many
mistake these cocoons for the eggs of the worms, and there-
fore destroy some of their best friends. Though some
thus spin their cocoons on the outside of the host, others
remain inside of the parasitized insect until the adult fly
emerges. Thus dead plant-lice may often be found with
a large round hole in the abdomen — the only evidence of
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PKEDACEOUS AND PARASITIC. 43
where one of these pcarasites has emerged. For this reason
as a general rule dry, shrunken plant-lice shonld never he
destroyed.
The Ohalcis-flies, which comprise another closely re-
lated famih', are exceedingly minnte insects, sometimes
not over one one-hundredth of an inch long. They are
generally of a metallic black color, and the nsnal veins of
the wings are almost entirely absent. Many of these flies
are parasitic npon plant-lice, while a large number of their
larva? live and mature in the eggs of other insects.
Very similar to the Chalcis-flies in their habits of infest-
ing plant-lice and insect eggs are some even smaller insects
— in fact the smallest known, the largest being rarely over
one twenty-fifth and the smallest only six or seven one-
thousandths of an inch in length — with a correspondingly
tremendous and unpronounceable name, known to science
as the Proctotryjndce,
But enough has been said to indicate the important j^art
which the immense hordes of these apparently insignificant
insects play in the economy of Nature, by often clearing
off a most dreaded insect pest in a few days almost as if
by miracle.
CHAPTER V.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES.
Ukder the above head several common insects which
are injurious to almost all of the grains and grasses may
be conveniently grouped, thus distinguishing them from
those which affect a few or an individual species.
White Grubs {Lachnosterna spj^.).
Of all the insects attacking cereal crops none are
better known than the so-called "white grubs/^ I say
" so-called," for the Englishman has styled this larva the
"cockchafer grub," the Frenchman calls it " ver blanc,"
and the German has named it the "engerling," while
here in America the adult beetles are known both as May-
beetles, June-bugs, and dor-bugs, and when flying in the
windows and buzzing around the ceilings are often termed
" pinching-bugs." In Europe white grubs have long been
recognized as one of the agriculturist's worst insect foes,
and their depredations were noted in this country as early
as the middle of the seventeenth century. •
Life-history. — As for most of our grain insects, grass
land is their favorite haunt, and the female beetle usually
lays her eggs in old meadows, though not infrequent!}^ in
corn land. The eggs, which are glossy white, about one
44
INSECTS IXJUUIOUS TO THE GRAlJsS AND GRASSES. 45
eighth of an inch long, and broadly oval, are laid early in
June and hatch in from 11 to 13 da3's. The grubs hatch-
ing from these feed upon the plant-roots, growing but
slowly, as they require a bout two years to become full-
grown. Meanwhile, however, each grub does its full share
of damage, especialh^ to corn and grass, and often to the
smaller grains. Its attacks have also long been feared by
the growers of straAvberries, potatoes, and garden truck.
46 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
as well as by nurserymen and greenhouse florists. The
grub becomes full-grown in the summer of the second year
after hatching from the egg.
It then forms a small oval cell from three to ten inches
below the surface of the soil, and here changes to the
pupa. The pupal stage lasts slightly over three weeks.
Late in August or early in September another transforma-
tion takes place and the adult beetle wriggles out of the
pupal skin, but remains m the earthen cell until the fol-
lowing spring, when it comes forth fully hardened in May
or June. The beetles at once pair, and the females
deposit their eggs and soon die. Thus three full years are
consumed in the complete life-cycle of each brood.
hijiiry. — Having seemingly formed a dislike to the light
of day from their long subterranean existence, the adult
beetles feed and pair entirely at night. The foliage of
almost all of the common forest- and shade- and occa-
sionally fruit-trees suifers from their attacks. Injury to
maple-trees has been specially observed. About 9 p.m. of
an evening early in June, thirty-five beetles were once
taken by the writer from a small silver-maple tree about
eight feet in height, and they were equally numerous on
all of a long row of these trees.
But the grubs and beetles are too common to need
description and may be recognized from the figures. It
may not, however, be known that the term ^^ white
grubs ^' is generally applied to the larvae of many distinct
species of the genus Lachnosterna and one of Cyclocephala,
which so far as known have practically the same habits,
except that the larvae of the latter genus remain over
winter as dormant larv^ and pupate in May.
By cutting off the tap-root and feeding roots of corn.
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 47
white grubs have often been responsible for the total or
partial failure of large areas of corn land. In 1805 the
grubs so injured one twenty -year-old meadow of 250 acres
in Illinois that the sod could be rolled up like a carpet
over the entire field.
Remedies. — Unfortunately, as regards remedies for this
pest little is known. Though eaten by various birds and
^parasitized by a half-dozen or so insects, yet these natural
enemies seem to be of little value for holding the grubs in
check. Leaving land in meadow for several years is
undoubtedly conducive to their rapid increase; and hence
a short rotation in ^\'hicli clover follows grass and which is
in turn followed by the small grains before corn will very
largely prevent serious damage to the latter crop. Poisoned
bran mash such as used for cutworms (see page 217) is
reported as having been used successfully against the grubs
by scattering it over infested land.
If turned loose in infested grass land, swine will fairly
gorge themselves on the grubs, and, prior to plowing grass
land for corn, this will be found to be one of the best
means for ridding it of grubs. The hogs will also feed as
freely upon the beetles which drop to the ground from the
trees and hide during the day, and hence they may be of
considerable benefit in woodland adjoining infested fields.
A flock of chickens or turkeys following the plow or culti-
vator will also be found to consume not a few of the grubs.
In Europe the beetles are systematically jarred from the
trees in the early morning by organized bands composed
mostly of women and boys, in much the same manner as we
** jar" for the Plum-curcnlio. But such methods, as well
as spraying seem hardly practicable in our larger country,
except possibly for young orchard-trees, which are often
48 IXSKCTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
seriously defoliated. As the beetles remain in the pupal
cells over winter and are still tender, not fully hardened,
deep fall plowing will destroy a large number of them by
breaking open the pupal cells and exposing them to the
weather, and by burying or crushing them. But possibly
the best method of preventing serious injury by white
grubs, and one which will not only be of benefit in securing
immunity from the attacks of this as well as many other
insect pests, but will also cause less drain upon the soil,
is a judicioiTS rotation of crops, avoiding a continual
growth of grass in any one field.
Wireworms {Elateridm).
Injury. — The ^o\\ has been properly prepared and the
field carefully planted. Day after day the anxious farmer
awaits the sprouting of the young shoots of grain. But
all in v^nl Still no signs of growth appear. So, appre-
hensive that he lose the use of the land, he removes the
earth from some of the seed and there finds the kernels of
corn or wheat either with a small round hole drilled
through them or some " hard, smooth, shining, reddish
or yellowish-brown, slender, cylindrical, six-legged larvae "
still devouring the seeds, with their heads firmly embedded
in them. If he be a man of any experience, he at once
recognizes the work of wireworms and wastes no time in
reseeding his field, for of all the insects attacking grain in
the seed, these are the most common and destructive. If
later on the resown seed secures a start, its growth is
exceedingly liable to be stunted by the worms attacking
the smaller roots, and it may even be killed when several
inches high by their boring through the underground
INSECTS IXJURIOL'S TO THE liKAINS AND GRASSES. 49
stalk. All the grains are attacked by wireworms, but
wheat and corn suffer most, as well as potatoes, turnips,
and many garden crops.
Description. — Wireworms, which are the young of a
number of beetles, which, from their habit of snapping
~^M
■^.-t
s
Fig. 25.
The Corn Wireworm {Melanotiis The AVireworm of Drnsterius ele-
crihulosus), enlarged 4| diam- guns, enlarged seven diam-
eters. (After Forbes.) eters. (After Forbes.)
their bodies up in the air, are known as ''click-beetles,''
are all more or less like Fig. 25 in general appearance.
Although the common wireworms are usually suj^jjosed to
be of but one kind, upon examination several species will
50
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOI'S.
often be found which niiiy be distinguished by a compari-
son of the caudal segment with the illustrations (Figs. 27
and 28). The adult beetles arc mostly about one-half to
three-fourths of an inch long, decidedly flattened, of a
dark brown coJor, with short heads and shield-shaped
thoraxes, as in Fig. 2G.
Life-history. — Land wliich has been in grass for several
years is their native breeding-ground, and here the eggs
Fig. 26. — A, Beetle of Wheat Wirew^^rm; B, Dmsterius elegnns,
both enlarged about 4 diameters. (After Forbes.)
are deposited. Much concerning the life-histories of these
important pests is still unknown, but it seems safe to assert
that the larvae require from three to five years to become
full-grown. Thus the second year after grass land has
been planted in grain is that in which the worst injury
occurs, and this is especially true with corn, wliich covers
the ground less completely than do the smaller grains,
The larvffi become full-grown in midsummer, form a small
earthen cell, and there transform to the pup^e. Three or
four weeks later the adult beetles shed the pupal skin, but
only a few of them make their way to the surface during
/
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 51
the fall, the most of the brood remaining in the pnpal
cells as partially hardened beetles until the following
spring.
Means of Comldting. — Eemedies galore have been
advised for these insects, almost every farmer having his
Fig. 21.^ a, last segment of Melnnotus communis, dorsal view.
(After Forbes.) B, the Wheat Vvlreworm. Agriotes 7n(incu8.
a, b, c, d, details of month-parts, enlarge. I. (After Slinger-
land.)
favorite expedient, but in recent years a careftil testing has
shown that a satisfactory remedy or preventive for wire-
worms is vet to be discovered. Professors Comstock and
Fig. 28. — C, caudal segment of the Wireworm of Drasterius elegnns
D, caudal segment of the Wireworm of Asaphes decoloraiu^,
much enlarged. (After Forbes.)
Slingerland performed extensive experiments for nearly
three years in attempting to sttccessfnlly combat these
insects by (1) the protec^tion of the seed, and (2) the
destruction of the larvse by {a) starvation in clear fallow
52 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
and supposedly immune crops, and {b) by the use of in-
secticides and fertilizers. But all the remedies or pre-
ventives tested resulted in failure, and this has been the
experience of several other leading entomologists. It was
ascertained, however, that they may be more or less
checked by destroying the beetles. This can be done both
by fall plowing or by trapping. By plowing late in sum-
mer and keeping the earth stirred for a period of a month
or so, large numbers of the newly transformed beetles which
do not become fully hardened until spring, and pupae, will
be destroyed. When the wireworms are numerous in re-
stricted areas, as they often are on spots of low moist land,
they may be effectually trapped with but little labor by
placing under boards bunches of clover, or sweetened
corn meal poisoned with Paris green.
A short rotation of crops, in which land is never allowed
to remain in grass for any length of time, will undoubtedly
secure comparative immunity from serious attack.
The Chinch-bug (Blissus le^icopteriis Say).*
Though individually insignificant, when assembled in
countless myriads Chinch-bugs have doubtless been of
greater injury to the farmers of the Mississippi Valley than
any other insect attacking grain crops, and are responsible
for hundreds of millions of dollars' loss.
Distrihntion, — This insect may be found over all the
eastern United States to the Rockies, and in restricted
*See "The Chinch-bug," F. M. Webster, Bulletin 15, n. s..
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Dr. S. A. Forbes, 12th, 16th, and 20th
Ilepts. St. Ent. Illinois.
INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO THE GIJATNS AND GRASSES. 53
localities in Cuba, Central America, Panama, Lower and
Central California; but the area in which it has been most
injurious lies in the Central and North Central States.
During the last fire years, however, its attacks have been
increasingly wide-spread in Ohio and Kentuck}^, and in
August. 1898, some damage was done by it in Pennsyl-
vania and New York.
Description. — The adult bug is about one-fifth of an inch
long, with a black body. Its white wings lie folded over
Fig. 29.— The Adult
Chmc\\-\i\xg{Blissus
leucopterus Say)
enlarged. (After
Riley.)
Fig. 30. — a, h, eggs magnified and natural
size; c, young nymph; e, second stage of
nymph; /, third stage; g. full-grown
nymph or pupa; d, h, j, legs; i, beak
through which the bug sucks its food.
(After Riley.)
each other on the back of the abdomen, and are marked
by a small black triangle on their outer margins, while the
bases of the antennae, or feelers, and the legs are red. The
young bugs are mostly red, but vary in the different stages.
Life-history . — During the winter the bugs hibernate in
clumps of grass and under boards and rubbish. With the
first warm days of spring they come forth and spread about
the neighboring wheat-fields, but there do little harm.
Very soon they pair, and the females, each of which is
54
INSECTS INJUllIUUS TO STAPLE CKUPSo
Ft«. 81. — Corn-plant two feet tali infested with Chinch bu.os.
(After Webster, Bull. 15, n. s., Div. Eat., U. S. Dept. Agr.)
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 55
capable of laying 150 eggs, commence to deposit them
either upon the roots or bases of the stalks. This occurs
from the middle of April until the first of June, depend-
ing upon the latitude and weather, and the eggs hatch in
from two to three weeks. The nymphs often severely
injure the small grains, and are full-grown about the time
of harvest. As the wheat is harvested they spread to oats
and soon to corn, but, curiously enough, though the adults
have wings they prefer to travel from field to field on foot,
much like Army-worms, and were it not for this fact we
would be at a loss how to cope with them. Another lot
of eggs are now laid under the unfolding leaves of the
corn, and the young nym^Dhs emerge in about ten days.
This brood lives upon corn, and when full-grown is that
which hibernates over winter. South of the latitude of
southern Illinois there is often an unimportant third
brood. The most extensive injury is done by the mature
nymphs and adult bugs of the first brood. Though no
means is known for preventing the ravages of this brood
in the small grains, every effort should be made to defend
the young corn from its attacks, for, with the innumer-
able little beaks of the adult insects sucking out its life, it
soon succumbs when they are reinforced by the largely
multiplied numbers of the second brood.
Methods of Prevention and Destruction. — During the
migration from the small grains to corn seems to be prac-
tically the only time when this pest may be successfully
combated. Just before harvest a narrow strip should be
plowed around the corn-field and this thoroughly pulver-
ized by harrowing and rolling, and then reduced to as fine
a dust as possible by dragging over it a brush composed
of dead limbs, or whatever contrivance is most convenient.
56 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
A log or block should now be dragged through this strip
in such a manner as to form a deep furrow, with tlie incli-
nation of its side next the corn as steep as possible. In
attempting to climb this barrier, the dust will slide from
under the bugs and large numbers of them will accumulate
in the furrow, where, on a clear day, they will soon be
killed by the heat if the temperature of the air be over
88 degrees Fahrenheit (the soil will then be 110 degrees
Fahr.). The furrow may be kept clean by redragging the
log through it as often as necessary. If the weather be
cooler, the bugs should be further trapped by sinking holes
with a post-hole digger about one foot deep every ten or
twelve feet i]i the furrow. Large quantities will soon
accumulate in the holes, and may be there crushed or
killed with coal-tar or kerosene.
Of course a sudden dash of rain will destroy such a
furrow, and the bugs will then at once march on to the
corn-field. In such an emergency a narrow strip of coal-
tar, about the size of one's finger, should be run around
the field a few feet inside the former furrow, with post-
holes dug as before upon the outside of the line. Dislik-
ing the smell of the tar, the bugs will again fall into the
traps and may then be destroyed. As many strips may
be made along the outer rows of corn as seem necessary to
prevent their further progress. These strips of tar should
be freshened whenever dust, straw, or rubbish has crossed
them at any point. In this manner one Illinois farmer
protected over 300 rods with less than a barrel of tar.
That this method is practicable and efficient was
thoroughly demonstrated by Prof. W. G. Johnson in a
series of experiments in Illinois, in the report of whose
work Prof. Forbes says: "In short, the success of this
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 57
field experiment, tried under ver}^ difficult conditions, was
substantially complete, and the value of this method of
contest with the Chinch-bug seems established beyond
controversy."
Extensive experiments have been made in Illinois and
Kansas in the use of the Muscardine fungus — Sporotrichum
glohnUfenmi — against the Chinch-bug. Though the re-
sults have often seemed to indicate its use to be profit-
able, yet it has never so commended itself — even to ento-
mologists— as of sufficient value to be brought into general
use, and its value must still be considered as largely
problematical.
If the bugs have already become numerous in the outer
rows of corn, most of them may be destroyed by a si)ray
of kerosene, which, with a tar strip, will effectually pro-
tect the remainder of the field. Such a spray may be
either (1) in the form of an emulsion, composed of a
^' stock solution" of one pound of soap, one gallon of
water, and two gallons of kerosene, prepared in the usual
manner, and diluted with fifteen quarts of water; or (2)
may be merely a mechanical mixture of about one part
kerosene to four parts of water (20 per cent), which can be
formed only by pumps with a special kerosene attachment,
and which are now very largely doing away with the use
of the soap emulsion. About a teacupful of this spray to
a hill will be ample, and at this rate an acre will require
about GO gallons at a cost of about one dollar.
In case of serious attack by the Chinch-bug the farmer
must at once prepare to devote to combating it the time
of as many hands as his interests may require; for the
above methods require constant and j^ersonal supervision,
but, where carefully tested by practical farmers, have been
58 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
found to be the best and only means of preventing the loss
of then' crops.
Locusts {Acrididce).
Plagues of destructive locusts — or what the American
farmer terms grasshoppers — have been recorded since the
dawn of history. In America the worst devastation has
been done by flights of the Rocky Mountain or Migratory
Locust [Melanoplus spretys Thos.), which swooped down
upon the States of the western part of the Mississippi
Valley in the years 1873-7G like a veritable horde of
mountain robbers. Since then they have several times
done considerable injury in restricted localities, but never
in such numbers or so generally as to cause apprehension
of another " grasshopper plague."'
Concerning their recent distribution, numbers, and
destructiveness, Mr. W. D. Hunter reported after the
season of 1897 : '^ There was, this season, a general activity
of this species throughout the permanent breeding region
greater than at any time in many years. This was brouglit
about by a series of dry years, which have resulted in the
abandonment of farms in many places. It is, of course,
well understood that the absence of serious damage since
1876 has been partially due to the settling w^ of valleys
in the permanent region. I wisli to make it clear, how-
ever, that the dryness is the primary and the abandoning
a secondary cause. "'
The Rocky Mountain Locust.
Let us first consider this the most injurious species, as
the other locusts differ from it in but few essential points
other than in being non-migratory.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 59
To correctly understand its habits the reader should
first divide the area which this species affects into three
parts. Of these the (1) '' Permanent Eegion, including
the highlands of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, forms
the native breeding-grounds, where the species is always
Fig. 32. — Rocky Mountain Locust.
found in greater or less abundance.'^ * (2) The Sub-
permanent Region, including Manitoba, the Dakotas, and
western Kansas, is frequently invaded. Here the species
may perpetuate itself for several 3^ears, but disappears
from it in time. (3) The Temporary Region, including
the States bordering the Mississippi River on the west, is
that only periodically visited and from which the species
generally disappears within a year.
Spread. — When for various reasons the locusts become
excessively abundant in the Permanent Region they spread
to the Subpermanent Region, and from there migrate to
the Temporary feeding-grounds. It is the latter area
which suffers most severely from their attacks, but, for-
tunately, they generally do not do serious injury the next
year after a general migration. In the Subpermanent
Region their injuries are more frequent than in the Tem-
porary, but hardly as severe or sudden as farther east.
Immigrating from their native haunts, flights of the grass-
hoppers usually reach southern Dakota in early summer,
Colorado, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iov\'a, and western Kansas
*Bull. 25, U. S. Dept. Ag., Div. Entomology. C. V. Riley.
GO
INSKCTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLIC CROPS.
during midsummer, and southeastern Kansas and Missouri
during late summer, apj^earing at Dallas, Texas, in 1874,
Fig. 33. — Rocky Mount aiu Locust. Different stages of growth
of young.
about tlie middle of October, and even later in 1876. As
thus indicated, the flights are in a general south to south -
Fig. 34.— Rocky Mountain Locusts, a, a, a, females in different
positions, ovipositing; b, egg-pod extracted from ground, with
end broken open; c, a few eggs lying loose on ground; d, e,
show the earth partially removed, to illustrate an egg-mass
already in place and one being placed ; / shows where such an
egg- mass has been covered up. (After Riley. )
easterly direction, while west of the Rockies they descend
to the more fertile valleys and plains, but without any such
regularity as east. While the rate of these flights is
INSECTS IXJUIllOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. Gl
variable and entirely dependent upon local weather condi-
tions, twenty miles a day may be considered a fair average.
The flights are more rapid and more distance is covered in
the early part of the season, when, while crossing the dry
prairies, a good wind will often enable them to cover 200
to 300 miles in a day. As they first commence to alight
in their new feeding-grounds their stay is limited to but
two or three days, but later in the season it is considerably
lengthened, and, after being once visited, in an infested
country swarms will be seen to be constantly rising and
dropping during the middle of the day.
Life-history. — Over all the infested area, and while still
sweeping it bare of croj)s and vegetation, the females com-
mence to lay their eggs, and continue to deposit them from
the middle of August until frost. For this purpose '' bare
sandy places, especially on high, dry ground, which is
tolerably compact and not loose, ^^ are preferred. " Meadows
and pastures where the grass is closely grazed are much
used, wliile moist or wet ground is generally avoided.^'
In such places the female deposits her eggs in masses of
about thirty. These are placed about an inch below the
surface in a pod-like cavity, which is lined, and the eggs
covered by a mucous fluid excreted during oviposition.
Erom two to five hours are required for this operation, and
an average of three of these masses is deposited during a
period of from six to eight weeks.
As the time of ovipositing varies with the latitude, so
the hatching of the eggs occurs from the middle or last of
March in Texas till the middle of May or first of June in
Minnesota and Manitoba. Until after the molt of the
first skin, and often till after the second or third molt,
the young nymphs are content to feed in the immediate
63 INSECTS IKJUUIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
vicinity of their birth. But upon such food becoming
scarce they congregate together and in solid bodies, some-
times as much as a mile wide, march across the country,
devouring every green crop and weed as they go. During
cold or damp weather and at night they collect under
rubbish, in stools of grass, etc., and at such times almost
GBcm to have disappeared; but a few hoars of sunshine
brings them forth, as voracious as ever. When, on account
of the immense numbers assembled together, it becomes
impossible for all to obtain green food, the unfortunate
ones first clean out the underbrush and then feed upon the
dead leaves and bark of timber lands, and have often been
known to gnaw fences and frame buildings. Stories of
their incredible appetites are legion ; a friend informs me
that he still possesses a rawhide whip which they had quite
noticeably gnawed in a single night!
By mathematical computation it has been shown that
such a swarm could not reach a point over thirty miles
from its birthplace, and as a matter of fact they have
never been known to j^roceed over ten miles.
As. the nymphs become full-grown they are increasingly
subject to the attacks of predaceous birds and insects,
insect parasites, fungous and bacterial diseases, as well as
being largely reduced by the cannibalistic appetites of
their own numbers. When the mature nymphs transform
to adult grasshoppers and thus become winged, large
swarms are seen rising from the fields and flying toward
their native home in the Northwest. This usually takes
place during June and early July in the North, and as
early as April in Texas, so that it is frequently im.possible
to distinguish the broods of the temporary region from
the incoming brood which has migrated from the perma-
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND (UlASSES. 63
nent region. Although the eggs for a second brood are
sometimes laid, these seldom come to maturity, and the
species is essentially single-brooded.
Emmies. — As before mentioned, large numbers of the
nymphs are destroyed before reaching maturity by their
natural enemies. Among these a minute fungus un-
doubtedly kills many of those already somewhat exhausted,
especially during damp weather. Almost all of our com-
FiG. 35. — Antliomyia, egg-parasite, o, fly; h, puparium; c, larva;
d, head of larva. (After Riley.)
mon birds, as well as many of the smaller mammals, are
known to feed quite largely upon them.
A small red mite {TromhicUum locustanun Riley), some-
what resembling the common Red Spider infesting green-
houses, is often of great value not only in killing the
nymjihs by great numbers of them sucking out the life-
juices of the young hopper, but also in greedily feeding
upon the eggs.
The maggots of several species of Tachina-flies are of
considerable value in parasitizing both nymphs and adult
locusts. Their eggs are laid on the neck of a locust, and,
G4
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
upon hatching, the maggots pierce the skin and live inside
by absorbing its juices and tissues. When full-grown the
maggots leave the locust, descend into the earth, and there
transform to pupae inside of their cast skins, and from the
pupa? the adult flies emerge in due time.
The maggots of one of the Bee-flies (Systcecltus oreas)
feed upon grasshopper-eggs, but their life-history is not
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. G5
fully known. The common Flesh-fly {SarcopJiaga car-
naria Linn.), Fig. 39, is also very destructive, though
largely a scavenger.
Fig. 37.— Tachina-fly. {Exo-
rista leucanice Kirk). (After
Riley.)
Fig. 38. — Tachina-fly. (E.
lidvirauda Riley). (After
Riley.)
Fig. 39. — Common ¥\e^\i-^j {SareojyJiagn carnaria Linn.), a, larva;
6, pupa; c, fly. Hair-lines show natural size. (After Riley.)
Fig. 40. — Various stages of a Blister-beetle {Epicauta vittaia).
(After Riley.)
But of all the insects attacking locusts, the Blister-
beetles, which, unfortunately, are often known to its as
very injurious to various garden cro^DS, are probably of the
66 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
most Tiiliie. The female beetle deposits from four to five
hundred of her yellowish eggs in irregular masses in loose
ground, and in about ten days there hatch from these eggs
some " ver}^ active, long-legged larvae, with huge heads and
strong jaws, which run about everywhere seeking the eggs
of locusts/^ Each of these larvae will consume one of the
masses or about thirty eggs. The subsequent life-history
of these insects is very complicated on account of their
peculiar habits, but the various stages are shown in Fig.
40.
The Lesser Migratory Locust.
Besides the Rock}'' Mountain Locust there is only one
other species that truly possesses the habit of migrating,
though to a far lesser extent, and which is therefore
known as the Lesser Migratory Locust (Mekuioplus atlanils
Eiley). It is considerably smaller than its western relative
and somewhat resembles the Red-legged Locust both in
size and appearance. The species of very vridely dis-
tributed, occurring from Florida to the Arctic Circle east
of the Mississippi, and on the Pacific sloj^e north of the
40th parallel to the Yukon. The habits and life-history
of the species are in all essentials practically the same as
of the former species except that they have no particular
breeding-grounds. Injuries by this grasshopper were first
noticed in 1743, almost seventy-five years before the first
record of the Rocky Mountain Locust, and since then they
have done more or less serious damage in some part of the
territory inhabited every few years.
Non-migratory Locusts.
There are several species of locusts which, though lack-
ing the migratory habit, and thus being more easily con-
trolled, often become so numerous as to do serious damage
INSKCTS IXJUlilOrS TO THE GRAIXS AND GRASSES. 6T
Fig. 41. — The Two-striped Locust {Mel moplus hivittdtus Scud.).
(After Pviley.)
Fig. 42. — The DilTerential Locust {Melaiioplua differentialis Thos.)
(After Riley.)
Fig. 43. — The American Acridium {ScMstocerca americnna Scud.).
(After Riley.)
Fig. 44. — Rcd-leg-ged Locust (Mehinoplus femur-rubrum Harr.).
(After Riley.)
68 i^'SECTS INJURIorS TO STAPLE CROPS.
over limited areas. Both as regards the regions inhabited,
its habits, and life -history, the common Red-legged Locust
(Melajioplus feniur-7-uhrum Har.) hardly differs from the
last species and is often found m company with it. It is
non-migratory, however, and though its injuries are thns
entirely local, they are often of considerable importance.
Records of locust-j^lagues in California date back as far
as 1722. Many of them were doubtless due to the Cali-
FiG. 45. — The Pellucid Locust {Ctnnuula pellucida Scud.). (iVfter
Einerton.)
fornia Devastating Locust [Melnnoplus devastator Scud.),
and in the last inyasion of 1885 this species outnumbered
all others seven to one. Resembling the last two species
in size and markings, the habits and life-history of this
species are also supposed to be similar to them, though
they have not as yet been thoroughly studied.
Together with the last species the Pellucid Locust
{Camnula pellucida Scud.) has been largely responsible for
the losses occasioned by locusts in California, and has also
been found in New England, but not noted there as
specially destructive.
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE GRAIXS AND GRASSES. 60
Considerably larger than the preceding species are the
Differential Locust {Melanoplus dijfereniialis Thos.) and
the Two-striped Locust [Melanophis Mvittatus Scud.), of
which the former is peculiar to the central States of the
Mississippi Valley, Texas, New Mexico, and California,
Fig. 46. — A Swarm of Grasshoppers Attacking a Wheat-field. (After Riley.)
while the latter has a more extended range from Maine to
Utah and as far south as Carolina and Texas. These two
differ from the smaller species in laying only one or two
masses of eggs, and the eggs of differ en fialis have often
been found placed under the liark of logs, but otherwise
their habits are very similar. The Two-striped Locust is
70 INSKCTS INJUIITOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
characterized by two yellowish stripes extending from the
eyes along the sides of the head and thorax to the extremi-
ties of the wing-covers, and is probably the species most
commonly observed by the farmer.
The Differential Locust.
An nnusnally severe outbreak of the Differential Locust
occurred in Mississippi and Louisiana in 1899 and 1900
and was quite fully investigated by Prof. H. A. Morgan^
and interestingly reported upon by him.* It seems that
outbreaks of this grasshopper invariably occur immediately
after an overflow of the Mississippi or crevasses through
the levees, which inundate the surrounding country, caus-
ing a rank growth of vegetation and rendering the land
unfit for cultivation for a season or two, during which time
the grasshoppers have every opportunity for rapidly
increasing in abnormal numbers. *^ Should heavy rains
prevail during May and June of the season immediately
following the crevasse, nothing is heard of the ravages of
grasshoppers; but should dry summers follow, the condi-
tions for grasshopper propagation and development are
much more favorable and complaints are common."
" The habits of young grasshoppers to seek the soil-crevices
during rain results in the burial of millions beyond the
hope of resurrection. This, with the development and
propagation of fungous diseases among the nj^mphs, are
the most potent natural agencies which destroy grass-
hoppers during wet summers." f In 1899 thousands of
acres of cotton, corn, and other crops were totally destroyed
*See Bulletin 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 7-33.
\ Morgan, 1. c, p. 33.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THK GR.VIXS AND GRASSES. 71
or seriously injured, and only saved by a most persistent
fight against the locusts.
The eggs are deposited in a single mass of from 103 to
132, mostly from August 10 to September 15. The young
hatch from the eggs during the first three weeks of May
and, after molting five times, become full-grown by the
last week in June. They mate about the middle of July,
and the eggs are laid a few weeks later.
Our largest American locust, the American Acridium
(Schisfocerca ainericaiia Scud.), is practically confined to
the Southern States from the District of Columbia to
Texas, and thence south through Mexico and Central
America, being rarely found in the Xorth. This species
is essentially a tropical one, and has often been exceedingly
destructive, being especially so in 1876 in Missouri,
Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and southern Ohio.
Remedies and Preventives. — All of our destructive
locusts having essentially the same life-history and habits
except that of migrating, methods of combating them will
apply almost equally well to all, but must, of course, be
judiciously determined according to existing local condi-
tions.
Destruction of the Eggs. — Of first importance in this
warfare is the destruction of the eggs. In Europe, where
labor is cheap, this is often done by hand-picking. That
would hardly do in a western corn-field or wheat-ranch,
They may, however, be quite successfully destroyed either
by fall plowing or harrowing. In harrowing, ''the object
should be not to stir deeply, but to pulverize the soil as
much as possible to about the depth of one inch. Where
the cultivator is used, it would be well to pass over the
ground again with a drag- or brush-harrow for this pur-
72 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
pose,* In this way many of the egg-pods may be broken
up or left exposed on the surface. Prof. Morgan has
shown that of eggs in land thus treated 80 per cent failed
to hatch.
By plowing in the fall to a depth of about eight inches
the same result is more surely accomplished by turning
the eggs under to such a depth that the young hoppers
upon hatching are unable to reach the surface. This will
be made more eifectual by then harrowing and rollirg, so
as to compact the surface as much as possible. . Such
plowing might even be profitable if done in very early
spring were it then followed by the usual spring showers,
but in all probability it Avould be better to wait till the
young are hatching, when large numbers of them can be
buried by plowing infested fields in a square from the
outside inward.
Destroying the Kymplis. — Burniug. — After hatching
every effort should be made to destroy the locusts while
still young. The burning of straw or hay stubble, dead
grass, or rubbish, where it is present in sufficient quanti-
ties, or even, if need be, by augmenting such with rows
of straw, is one of the best methods, esj)ecially on cold
days when the young hoppers are congregated under such
materials. Several machines have been devised both for
burning and crushing the nymphs, but all are of doubtful
utility.
Crushing. — When, however, the surface of the ground
is smooth and hard, a heavy roller will crush large num-
bers of the nymphs while they are still young, especially
in the morning and evening.
* Riley, Bull. 25, 1. c.
INSECTS INJCUIOLS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. To
Duelling. — Of the various means devised for trapping
the nymphs "ditching" is one of the best, and is of
especial advantage when the crops become too large for the
effective use of other methods. Simple ditches two feet
wide and tw^o feet deep, with nearly perpendicular sides,
form effectual barriers to young grasshoppers. The sides
next to the field to be protected must be kept finely pul-
verized and not allow^ed to become washed out or hardened.
This may be done by a brush composed of dead branches
Fig. 47. — Simple Coal-oil Pan or Hopperdozer. (After Riley.)
being hauled through the ditch, which has been dug in a
strip of finely pulverized soil. The young locusts tumble
into the ditch, and, failing to climb the steep and slippery
sides, die there, from their exertions and the heat, in large
numbers. To avoid too great an accumulation, pits should
be sunk in the ditch at short intervals, in which most of
them will accumulate, and wdiere they may be easily
buried. It would seem that grasshoppers w^ould be able
to leap across such a small obstacle, but as a matter of
fact, like the Chinch-bugs, which might fly across^ they
very seldom do so.
74 INSF.CTS INJUiaoUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
- Spraying Ditches. — Prof. Morgan states that '^upon
river plantations many open ditches are indispensable, and
when rains are sufficient to keep tlieni filled or partly filled
with water they serve a most excellent purpose in the
destruction of the young grasshoppers."
" The experience of spraying ditch-banks soon developed
the method of damming water in the ditches and covering
the surface with coal-oil or kerosene emulsion. Before
and after rains the ditches were dammed and the water
Fig. 48.— The Price Oil-pan or Hopperdozer. (After Riley. )
covered Avith a 12 per cent coal-oil emulsion. The young
grasshoj^pers were then driven into the ditches, with the
result that very few, if any, escaped. In this way a single
application of oil would last several days, as many millions
may easily float upon the water of a ditch not more than
two feet wide. Unless the grasshoppers are scattered too
far from the ditch-banks no difficulty is experienced in
getting them to move in the directiun of the oiled water
on account of the ' homing' instinct.''
7G INSECTS INJUUIOL'S lU Sl'Al'I.E CHOPS.
Hopper dozers. — One of the methods most extensively
tried i'or the destruction of the nymphs upon small or
young crops is by the use of crude kerosene or coal-tar in
one of the so-called ^' nopperdozers." '^The main idea
embodied in these contrivances is that of a shallow recep-
tacle of any convenient size, provided with high back and
sides, mounted either on wheels or runners. If the pan
is larger than, say, three feet square, it is provided with
transverse partitions, which serve to prevent any slopping
of the contents (in case water and oil are used) when the
device is subject to any irregular motion. On pushing
these pans, supplied with oil, over the infested fields, and
manipulating the shafts or handles so as to elevate or
depress the front edge of the pan, as may be desired, the
locusts are startled and spring into the tar or oil, when
they are either entangled in the tar and die slowly, or,
coming in contact with the more active portion of the oil,
expire almost immediately. A good cheap pan is made of
ordinary sheet iron, eight feet long, eleven inches wide at
the bottom, and turned up a foot high at the back and
an inch high in the front. A runner at each end, extend-
ing some distance behind, and a cord attached to each
front corner, complete the ^^an at a cost of about §1.50
(Fig. 47). We have known of from seven to ten bushels
of young locusts caught with one such pan in an afternoon.
It is easily pulled by two boys, and by running several
together in a row, one boy to each rope, and one to each
contiguous pair, the best work is performed with the least
labor." Larger pans may be drawn by horses. The oil
is best used on the surface of water, from which the insects
are removed with a wire strainer. Various modifications
of this apparatus have been devised, but the more simple
INSECTS INJL'KIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 77
ones seem to be fully as effective as those more complicated
for which fancy prices are charged for royalty.
Destroy ing the Adults. — The destruction of the winged
insects is an entirely hopeless task, for, though even large
numbers are caught, so many will remain that the damage
done the crops would be but very slightly diminished.
One of the most promising means for averting the swarms
of v/inged migratory locusts from alighting in the fields is
by a dense smudge, in which some foul smelling substances
are placed. Where strictly attended, and with favorable
winds, this has often proved highly successful. To
accomplish the best results farmers over an extensive area
should combine in its use.
The South African Fuugns. — In 1900 Prof. Morgan
made a test of a fungous disease which had been found to
destroy large numbers of grasshoppers in South Africa,
to determine whether, after starting it by artificial proim-
gation, it would spread sufficiently to destroy any consider-
able number of locusts. The weather was favorable, rains
being frequent. Early in August it was found that " over
the areas where the liquid infection was spread diseased
hoppers were abundant." *^ As many as a dozen dead
grasshoppers could be found upon a single plant, and some
upon nearly every weed on ditch-banks where grasshoppers
were numerous. From the centres of infection great areas
had become inoculated, spreading even beyond the planta-
tions first infected." The property upon which it was
placed became thoroughly infected with the fungus.
Strangely, though many other species of grasshoppers
were abundant, only the Differential was killed by it.
Dr. Howard states that this disease has also spread and
done effective work in Colorado.
78 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Poisoning. — A mash composed of bran, molasses, water,
and arsenic or Paris green, wliicli has been extensively
used for cutworms, was found to be quite successful in the
experiments of Mr. D. W. Coquillct in the San Joaquin
Vallejs California, during 1885, for protecting orcliards,
vineyards, gardens, etc., and might even be of some value
for grain crops. Two pounds of Paris green, twenty- five
pounds of bran, barely moistened with water and cheap
molasses, will be about the correct proportion. It should
be placed in the fields, a tablespoonful to each plant or
vine. At this rate the cost per acre of vineyard, including
labor, will not exceed fifty cents. The poison acts slowly,
but if judiciously used will be found very effective,
especially for the non-migratory forms. In Texas the
mash has been found satisfactory in destroying the grass-
hoppers attacking cotton. One planter* writes: "We
are successfully using arsenic (for grasshoppers) at the
following rates: 10 pounds of wheat bran, 1^ gallons
sorghum molasses, 1 pound arsenic. Make a thick mash,
sow broadcast on infected ground, and it will surely kill
them. I used 40 pounds last year and made 49 bales ot
cotton. My neighbors did not do anything and entirely
lost their crop." However, Prof. M^organ concluded that
'Hhe mash cannot be relied upon in severe outbreaks, such
as occurred in the delta, but may be used in limited attacks
wliere the area affected would not warrant the more
aggressive methods.''
* S. D. Harwell, Putnam, Callahan Co., Tex., Bull 30, n. s.,
Piv. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 06.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 79
The Army-worm [Leucania unipiinda Haworth).
Almost every year from some portion of this large
country reports are received of the ravages of armies of
worms sweeping over the grain-fields, like a horde of
Vandals. Invariably, also, there has not been a single
attack in the infested locality for a number of years, so
that the farmer is at a loss to do anything to protect his
crops, and by the time information can be received from
an entomologist a large portion of them will already have
been destroyed. Thus previous knowledge of the habits
and remedies for these insects may be of value to him
when injury by them is threatened.
Being a species native to this country, these worms may
almost alwa3^s be found east of the Rockies in low, rank
growths of grass, which form their habitual breeding-
grounds. Yet, though the moth is widely distributed, its
chief injuries have been in belts from eastern Iowa to
Maine, from northern Texas to northern Alabama, and
east of the Blue Ridge Mountains to northern North
Carolina. Even in these regions, however, the worms have
never been recorded as injurious for two successive years,
and the only recent wide-spread outbreaks have bee*n in
1861, 1875, 1880, and 1896, though serious injury is
almost annually done in restricted localities. Only when
their usual feeding-places are exhausted, or when through
favorable climatic conditions or the destruction of large
numbers of the parasites which hold them in check, they
increase in abnormal numbers, do they assume the march-
ing habit and mass in armies.
Life-history. — In the North there are usually three
broods each season^ and the insects pass the winter as half-
80
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
grown caterpillars; but in tlie South there may be as many
as six broods, and the moths often hibernate over winter,
laying eggs early in the sjiring. In the Northern States
these young worms mature, change to puj)a3, and from
them the adult moths appear early hi June, the May
broods rarely doing serious injury. The female moths
now lay their small yellowish eggs in rows of from ten to
Fig. 50 — Army-worm Moth (Leueanin unipunctd), pupa, and eggs
in natural position in a grass- leaf. Natural size. (After
Comstock.)
fifty, inserting them in the unfolded bases of the grass-
leaves, and covering them with a thin layer of glue. Over
seven hundred may be deposited by one female, and thus
it is that the myriads of young worms appear when they
hatch in about ten days, and form the destructive army
of early July. The worms usually feed entirely at night,
and thus whole fields will often be ruined before they are
discovered, though a few generally feed during the day,
as they all do during cloudy weather. The leaves and
stalks of the grains and grasses form their favorite food,
the heads usually being cut off, l)ut various garden crops
have frequeutly been seriously injured. As a rule clover
INSKCTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 81
is untouched, but even that is not always exempt. In
from three to four weeks the worms become mature and
are then about one and one-half inches long, of a dark-gray
or dingy-black color, with three narrow, yellowish stripes
above, and a slightly broader and darker one on each side,
altogether much resembling cutworms, to which they are
nearly allied. They now enter the earth and there trans-
form to pnpae, from which the adulb moths come forth in
about two weeks. These again lay eggs for a brood of
worms which appear in September, but are rarely very
injurious. The moths developing from this last brood
either hibernate over winter or deposit eggs, the lar^^as
from which become partially grown before cold weather
sets in.
•The moths very often fly in windows to lights, and are
very plain little " millers "' The front wings are of a clay
or fawn color, specked with black scales, marked with a
darker shade or stripe at the tips, and a distinct white
spot at the centre — on account of which they were given
the specific name unipundii. The hind wings are some-
what lighter, with blackish veins and darker margins.
Enemies. — Were it not for other insects which prey
upon the worm^, the army habit would undoubtedly be
assumed much more often; but ordinarily these very
efficiently reduce their number, and Dr. L. 0, Howard
has recorded two instances in w^hich armies of w^orms were
practically destroyed by them. Large numbers are always
destroyed by the predaceous ground-beetles and their
larvse, but their most deadly enemies are two small
Tachina-flies. These lay from half a dozen to fifty eggs
upon a worm, and the maggots from them enter the body
of the worm and there absorb its juices and tissues, thus
83
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
soon killing it. Ordinarily, when feeding at night, the
worms are free from these parasites, bnt when the marcli-
ing habit is assumed these little flies swarm aroand them
on cloudy days, and before the next year will again have
the voracious army under subjection. Thus worms with
eggs upon them should never be destroyed if avoidable.
Fig. 52. — The Farmer's Friend, the Red-tailed Tachina fly ( Win-
themiit 4-pustulat<i). a, natural size; b, much enhirged; c, army-
worm on which fly has laid eggs, natural size; d, same, much
enlarged. (After Slingerland.)
Remedies. — When detected, all efforts should be centred
on keeping the worms out of crops not yet attacked and
confining their injury to one point. As a barrier, there
is nothing better than a steep ditch with the side next to
the crop to be protected as nearly vertical as possible. In
the bottom of this dig some deep holes every ten feet.
Not being able to easily scale the steep wall, the worms
will look for some easier ascent, and become accumulated
in large numbers in the holes, where they may be destroyed
Fig. 51. — Army-worms at work on Corn-plant. (After Slingerland.)
83
84 INSECTS IXJUIITOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
by kerosene or by burning straw on them. Several deep
parallel furrows will act in the same way, and if a series
are properly made, they will also be found efficient. If it
be possible to turn water in the ditches, or if they become
filled by rains, the addition of a little kerosene, so as to form
a thin scum over the surface, will soon kill the caterpillars.
By thoroughly spraying or, perhaps better, dusting a
small strip of the crop in advance of the worms with Paris
green, and liberally distributing poisoned bran mash (com-
posed cf fifty pounds of bran and one pound of Paris green
with about enough molasses and water to sweeten it) large
numbers may be destroyed. But be careful not to pasture
cattle in a field so poisoned until rain has thoroughly
washed it. A flock of poultry will also do good service in
consuming them. Burning stubble, grass land, and
rubbish is also of considerable importance for this as well
as all similar insects. But whatever is done to combat the
Army-worm must be done quickly and at once, for a single
day's delay may often mean the ruin of a valuable croj^.
Deep fall plowing followed by a thorough harrowing or
rolling will do much to destroy the hibernating larvae and
thus prevent their attack the next season.
The Fall Army-worm {Lajihygw a fni giperda S. & A.).
Description. — ^Very similar in its destructive habits to
the true Army-worm is the Fall Army-worm or Grass-
worm. At first glance the worms have much the same
general appearance, bat upon close examination consider-
able difference in the markings is noticeable. Along each
side of the body is h longitudinal pitch-colored strij)e, and
in the middle — betw^een them — is a yellowish -gray stripe
about twice as wide, which includes four black dots
INSECTS IN'JUlUOrS TO T^HE GRAINTS AND GRASSES. 85
arranged in pairs. These worms assume the habit of
working in armies, bnt usually do not feed in such large
bodies as those of the trne Army-worm and are thus even
more difficult to combat. They appear later in the season,
the other species rarely being destructive after August
first, and have thus been termed the Fall Army-worm.
The Army-worm proper rarely feeds upon anything but
grasses aud cereals, while the Fall Army-worm feeds upon
a large variety of cultivated crops, including sugar-beets,
cow-peas, sweet-potato vines, millet, and many other
general and truck crops. In Nebraska it has developed a
l^eculiar fondness for alfalfa and has there been styled the
Alfalfa-worm. It is also sometimes very destructive to
city lawns, as it was in Chiccigo during 1899. Indeed,
that season witnessed an unusual outbreak of this species
in widely distant localities, it having been exceptionally
destructive in the Carolinas and Virginia, Illinois, and
Nebraska, as well as other districts. The insect is more
of a native of the Southern States, but occurs from Canada
and Maine south to the Gulf States and west to Colorado
and Montana.
Life-history. — The life-history of this insect differs from
that of the true Army-worm in that it passes the winter
in the pupal stage. The pupae are about one-half an inch
Ions: and mav be found in small cells from one-half to one
and one-quarter inches beneath the surface of the soil.
The exact time of the emergence of the moths in the
spring has not been definitely observed, but the first gen-
eration of worms appears in May or June. The moths
deposit their eggs on blades of grass, in clusters of 50, 60,
or more, each mass being covered with mouse-colored
down from the body of the moth. The eggs hatch in
86
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
about ten days. The exact time required for the growth
of the larva or the time occupied in the pupal stage does
not seem to have been definitely observed. ''Present
knowledge indicates that the number of generations that
are normally produced each year is two in the most
northern range of the species (in years Avhen it develops
northward), three for central localities like central and
southern Illinois and the District of Columbia, and prob-
ably four for the extreme South. We know, however,
Fig. 53. — Yall Army -worm {LnpJiygma frugiperda S. & A.). 1,2,
moth; 3, pupa; 4, 5, larva. (After W. D. Hunter.)
practically nothing of the development of this sjDecies in
the Gulf States."*
Prof. Morgan states that this insect often makes its
appearance in damaging numbers in the States around the
Mississippi Delta, in sections behind the levees immediately
after an overflow or crevasse. This seems to be largely
due to the predaceous ground-beetles (see page 36), which
usually prey upon the army-worms in such numbers as to
*F. H. Chittenden, "The Fall Army-worm," Bulletin 29, n. s.,
Div. Ent , U. S. Dept. Agr.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 87
hold them in check, being destroyed or carried to other
places by the rush of water.
The parent moth is very dissimilar from that of the
Army- worm. It is of a " general yellowish, ash-gray color,
with the second pair of wings almost transparent, but with
a purplish reflection. In extent of wings it measures about
one and one-quarter inches, and when these are closed the
length of the insect is about three-quarters of an inch.
The front wings are mottled or marbled, especially near
the central area, and usually there is visible a fine white
line a short distance from the edge and parallel to it.
The hind wings have a fringe of darker hair as well as
veins that contrast somewhat with the lighter portion/'*
Remedies. — As before stated, this species is even more
difficult to combat than the true Army-worm on account
of the fact that its attacks are scattered over a wider area,
the individuals being of more solitary habits. The same
methods of combating it will be found profitable, however,
and especially that of deep fall plowing and harrowing,
which in this case will break up the pupal cells and prevent
the development of the moths. '' In the case of perennial
crops fall plowing is not practicable. For alfalfa Mr.
Hunter has recommended that the field should be
thoroughly 'disked,' or cultivated with a disk-harrow,
giving practically the same results as plowing other fields.
For lawns a thorough going over with a long-toothed steel
rake is the treatment recommended.''
"In fields of young grain and on lawns many of the
worms may be killed by rolling with a heavy roller, prefer-
ably when the insects are at work early in the morning or
* Press Bulletin Xo. 2, Nebr. Ag. Exp. Sta., "The Fall Array
Worm," W. D. Huuter.
88 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
late in the afternoon. In pasture-lands and in fields that
are injured beyond recovery, sheep or cattle could be
turned in in numbers with benefit, as they will crush the
larvae by trampling upon them.^'
The worms may often be destroyed, when not occurring
in too large numbers and especially while young, by spray-
ing the food with Paris green or other arsenicals, and
when present in only ordinary numbers like cutworms they
may be killed with poisoned bran mash as advised for the
latter on page 217.
'^ Lawns can be freed from the insects by the application
of kerosene emulsion, followed with as copious a drench-
ing of water as possible from a hose. This remedy should
not be employed in bright sunlight or on a hot day, but
preferably toward sundown. ^^
When the worms occur in armies they may be combated
in the same way as the true Army-worm.
But too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the im-
portance of clean cultural methods a7icl the rotation of crops
in the control of both this and the true Army-worm.
This has been well expressed by Mr. Chittenden (1. c.) as
follows: " Kotation of crops should always be practiced, as
well as the burning over of fields in the fall, when they
are too badly infested to recover from injury. Above all
other precautions which it is necessary to take to secure
immunity from attack is that of keeping the fields free
from volunteer grain and wild grasses, since experience
shows that these are the favorite breeding-grounds of the
insect; in other words, they attract the female moths for
the deposition of their eggs, and when the larvae hatching
from these eggs have devoured the grain and grasses which
grow in batches they are driven to cultivated fields for
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAINS AND GRASSES. 89
food. One of the most important sources of injury is the
rotation of one cereal crop with another or with grasses,
and the planting of crops in fields that have been allowed
to run waste to wild grasses and weeds. As grasses and
cereals are the crops most affected by the Fall Army- worm,
the soil should always be very thoroughly plowed before
planting to any crop, particularly a similar one, and it is
inadvisable (not alone on account of the Fall Army-worm,
but on account of the numerous other common cutworms,
wireworms, and white grubs) to plant wheat, corn, or any
other cereal in pasture-land unless a crop which is not so
subject to infestation by this insect intervenes. ^^
CHAPTER VI.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT.
INJURING THE ROOTS.
Meadow-maggots or Leather-jackets {TipulidcB).
Several instances have been recorded in which serious
injury has been done to wheat, clover, timothy, and bkie
grass by the larvae of Crane-flies. These insects are never
so injurious in this country as in Europe, where they are
known as ''Daddy-long-legs," the common name of our
harvest-spiders, though doubtless injury done by them is
often attributed to other insects. The farmer usually
declares the work to be that of wireworms or cutworms,
the adults often being known as ''cutworm-flies,'' unless
the maggots are so abundant as to attract his attention.
When the maggots are abundant enough to do much
injury, they usually occur in very large numbers, but
ordinarily, though common everywhere, they occur in such
small numbers as to escape notice.
Several species [Tipula bicornis Loew, T. costalis Say,
and Paclujrrliini.^ sp.?) have at various times done con-
siderable damage in localities in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
and elsewhere.
Life-history. — So far as studied, the life-histories of
these species seem to be much the same. The larvae
90
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT.
91
remain dormant over winter, bnt evidently commence
feeding again very early in the spring, a wheat-field having
shown the effects of their injuries from February first to
Fig. 54. — A Crane-fly (Tipula Jiebes Loew). a, larva; h, pupa; c,
male adult. (After Weed.)
April first. The larvae become full-grown from the latter
part of April until the middle of May, depending upon
the species and season. The full-grown maggots are about
an inch long, of a dirty-grayish color, and of a tough
93 INSECTS IXJUHIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
leathery texture. They are nearly C3^1iiidrical, somewhat
taj)ering in front and terminating bluntly behind. Legs
are entirely wanting, but at the blunt end are a few fleshy
processes and a pair of small, horny hooks. The larya3
seem to prefer low, moist ground, and will live for some
time on land entirely flooded or in a ditch. They feed
very largely on dead vegetable matter, but when excessively
abundant they attack the roots of wheat, grass, and clover,
so weakening them near the surface that the plants,
deprived of pro^^er nourishment, are killed and loosened
from the ground.
Pup^e may be found during the latter 2^art of May,
occupying small cells near the surface of the soil in a
vertical position. Prior to emerging the adult pushes
from one-half to two-thirds of the body above the surface
and remains in this pose for several hours. The males
usually emerge first, as their assistance is required by the
females, which are loaded down with eggs, to extricate
themselves from the pupal skins. The sexes pair imme-
diately, there being many more males than females — one
observer states one hundred to one — and the females
deposit their eggs ujDon grass and clover lands, to the
number of three hundred each. Eggs are laid for another
brood in September, the maggots from which live over
winter.
Remedies. — Injury to wheat land may be largely pre-
vented by plowing early in Se2:)tember.
No satisfactory remedy for the maggots is known when
injuring clover, timothy, or grass, although large numbers
have been knoAvn to be destroyed by driving a flock of
sheep over infested land. Dr. S. A. Forbes states that
"close trampling of the earth by the slow passage of a
IN^SKCTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 93
drove of pigs avouM doubtless answer the same inirpose,
which is that of destroying the larvae lying free upon the
surface or barely embedded among the roots of the grass/'
Several of our common birds feed upon the maggots
and flies as well as a number of ground-beetles. The
maggots are also sometimes attacked by a fungous disease
which in the damp soil in which they live would doubtless
grow and spread rapidly. Altogether these different
enemies keep them so well in check that they rarely
become of importance.
Wheat Joint-worms {Isosoma spp.).
Injury. — During midsummer, shortly before harvest,
many of the ripening ears of wheat are seen to topjjle over
and fall to the ground, owing to the breaking of the stalk,
which has been weakened at one of the joints. Upon
examination several small gall-like cavities will be found
fractured at the broken joint, and at other joints will be
found small round holes leading to some of these empty
cells. Xow and then one will be found occupied by a
small larva or pupa, the cause of all the mischief. Very
often this injury becomes quite serious, affecting the crop
much as does that of the Hessian Fly, though late in the
season, and is often mistaken for the Avork of that species.
The Joint -worms, however, are larv^ of small hymen-
opterous insects which were at first supposed to be parasitic
upon the Hessian Fly, as they belong to a family, the
Clialcididce, most of the members of which are parasites
of other insects. They differ from the flies in having
four wings instead of two, and in many other structural
points, as shown by the illustration, belonging to the same
order as the bees, ants, and wasps.
94
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
Two sj^ecies are commonly injurious, the AVheat Joint-
worm {Isoso)ua tritici Fitch) and another species of the
same genus, more popuhirly knoAvn as the Wheat Straw-
worm {hosoma grande Riley). The adults of /. tritici are
small hlack flies from an eighth to three -sixteenths of an
inch in length, and with wings expanding about one fourth
of an inch. The larvae are yellowish-white with the tips
of the jaws brown, of about the same length as the fly, and
of the form shown in the figure.
Life-Mdory. — The larvae of /. grande are much the
same; but while the former species has but a single brood
each season, this is double-brooded. The summer brood
Fig. 55. — a, Wheat-straw affected by Joint- worm; b, adult as seen
from above. (After Riley.)
is similar to that of tritici, but the spring brood is peculiar
in that the females are much smaller and almost wingless,
so that the pest is spread only by the later brood. The
larv* of tritici hibernate over winter in the wheat-stubble,
coming to maturity in June, and the next brood feeds
upon volunteer wheat and the fall planting. /. grande,
however, passes the winter in the pupal state, also in the
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT.
95
stubble. From them the wingless females emerge in early
spring and j^lace their eggs upon the young wheat, usually
on or near the growing head. These become mature in
June, and from them the winged females develop. Singu-
larly, there are no males in this brood, they appearing only
in the spring, while in the summer brood the females are
so large and robust that they were at first mistaken for a
Fig. 56. — Adult of Joint-worm {Isosoimi irlticl Harr.). a, female;
h, male; c, d, antennae of same; e, f, abdomens of same.
(After Riley.)
separate species. ^' These deposit their eggs in or near
the joints of the straw, more frequently the second below
the head,'' becoming full-grown by fall, and passing the
winter in the stubble as jDupa?. The two species may also
be separated by their manner of injuring the straw. The
Joint-worm {tritici) makes more or less apparent galls in
the walls of the culm, while the Straw-worm [gr ancle)
forms no galls and but fewer individuals infest a straw.
Owing to their small size and retiring habits these little
parasites of the wheat-plant — and they also infest barley
96
INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
and rye — are not often observed, or their injuries are
cliarged against the Hessian Fl)^, and not until they do
Fig. 57. — Wheat straw Worm {Isosoma gr^mde Riley . n, ventral
view; h, side view of larva; c, antenua^; d, mandible; e, anal
segment, ventral view;/, adult female; g, forewing; h, hind-
wing; i, aborted wing. (After Riley.)
Fig. ^%.—l80soma grande. Female of summer brood. (After Riley.)
unusual and severe injury is the difference in the method
of their attack from that of the "fly " noticed.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 97
Remedies. — Owing to the fact that the Straw-worm is
spread only by the summer brood, a simple rotation of the
crop Avill keep them largely nnder control. However, as
both species pass the winter in the stubble, most of them
may be killed by burning the stubble in fall and winter.
The Wheat Saw-fly Borer {Cephtis pygmmns Linn.).
The ' ' Corn SaAv-fly '' has been a well-known wheat-pest
for many years throughout England, France, and the
Continent, but was not noted as injurious in this country
till 1889, when Prof. J. H. Comstock published * a very
complete account of its injuries upon the University Farm
at Ithaca, N. Y., where it had done more or less damage
for two years, though Mr. F. H. Chittenden states that
he collected a single adult at Ithaca in the early ^80's.
Specimens Avere also collected at OttaAva, Canada, and
Buffalo, N. Y., in 1887 and 1888, these being the only
other references to its occurrence in this country.
The following is gleaned from Prof. Comstock^s interest-
ing account.
Injury. — No external indications of injury to the plant
can be seen until the larva Avithin has almost completely
tunneled the stalk, at which time there is a discoloration
just beloAV the injured joints. Thus damage by this
insect is not readily noticed, it merely dwarfing and stunt-
ing the groAvth of the plant by boring in the stem.
'^If infested straws be examined a Aveek or ten days
before the ripening of the Avheat, the cause of this injury
can be found at Avork Avithin them. It is at that time a
yellowish, milky-Avhite Avorm, varying in size from one-fifth
* Bulletin 11, Cornell Univ. Ag. Exp, Station.
98
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
to one-half an inch in length. The smaller ones may not
have bored through a single joint; while the larger ones
will have tunneled all of them, except, perhaps, the one
next to the ground.
Life-history. — "As the grain becomes ripe the larva
works its way toward the ground; and at the time of
Fig. 59. — The Wheat Saw-fly Borer {Cephus pygmrfus Linn.), n,
outline of larva, natural size; h, larva, enlarged; c, larva in
wheat stalk, natural size; d, frass; e, adult female; /, Pachyo-
nerus calriir-itor, female, a parasite — enlarged. (After Curtis,
from "Insect Life.")
harvest the greater number of them have penetrated the
root. Here, in the lowest part of the cavity of the straw,
they make ^^reparations for passing the winter, and even
for their escape from the straw the following year. This
is done by cutting the straw circularly on the inside,
nearly severing it a short distance, varying from one-half
to one inch, from the ground. If the wheat were growing
wild, the winter winds would cause the stalk to break at
INSECTS iNJORIOrs TO WHEAT. 99
this point; and thus the insect after it had reached the
adult state could easily escape; while but for this cut it
would be ver}^ liable to be imprisoned in the straw/'
Ordinarily, the straw is cut by the reaper before it becomes
broken; but a strong wind Just before harvest will cause
a large number of stalks to become broken, much as if
affected by the Hessian Fly.
''After the circular cut has been made, the larva fills
the cavity of the straw just below it for a short distance
with a plug of borings. Between this plug and the lower
end of the cavity of the straw there is a place about one-
half an inch in length. It is here that the insect passes
the winter." This cell is lined with silk so as to form a
warm cocoon. Here the larva passes the winter and
changes to a pupa in March or April. The adult insect
emerges early in May. The adults are four-winded insects
and are popularly known as Saw-flies on account of the
saw-like ovipositor of the female, by means of which she
inserts her eggs in the tissue of the plant. This species is
quite different in some respects from the saw-flies feeding
upon the leaves of wheat, and belongs to the family
Cephidce.
The female commences to lay eggs by the middle of
May. By means of her sharp ovipositor she makes a very
small slit any jilace in the stalk of the plant and in this
thrusts a small white Qgg — about one one-lmndredth of an
inch long — which is pushed clear through the walls of the
straw and left adhering to the inside. Though several
eggs are deposited in a straw, but one larva usually
develops. '- The eggs hatch soon after they are laid, and
the larva? may develop quite rapidly. A larva which
hatched from an Qgg laid May 13th was found to have
loo INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
tunneled the entire length of the stalk in which it was"
on May 28th.
liemeclies. — *' The most obvious method of combating
the insect is to attack it while it is in the stubble; that is,
some time between harvest aud the following May. If the
stubble can be burned in the autumn, the larvae in it can
.be destroyed. The same thing could be accomplished by
plowing the stubble under, which would prevent the escape
of the adult flies. But as it is (often) customary ... to sow
grass-seed with wheat, it is feared that the plowing under
of infested stubble would rarely be practicable; and it is
also questionable if the burning of the stubble could be
thoroughly done without destroying the young grass. It
would seem probable, therefore, that if this insect becomes
a very serious pest, it will be necessary . . . either to sow
grass-seed with oats and burn or plow under all the wheat-
stubble, or to suspend growing wheat for one year, in order
to destroy the insects by starvation." .
The Hessian Fly {Cccidomyia destructor Say).
Of the injurious insects peculiar to the wheat-plant the
Hessian Fly is undoubtedly the most widely distributed
and most destructive. Very often it is responsible for the
loss of from one-fourth to one-half of the crop; and one-
tenth of the whole yield, or from 55 to 65 million bushels,
is estimated to represent the amount lost by its annual
ravages. Excessive injury by this as by most other insects
comes periodically. Thus '^Hessian Fly years" have
occurred in New York in 1779, 1817, 1844, 1845, 1846,
and 1877, and in the three last years commencing with
1899. In 184G it has been ''estimated that the loss from
the pest in western New York was not less than 500,000
IKSKCTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. lOl
bushels/' Professors Roberts, Slingerland, and Stone (1. c.)
state that the destruction during the past three seasons
has been the most severe ever experienced in New York,
conservatively estimating the loss in 1901 at 3,500,000
bushels of wheat, valued at about 13,000,000. Injury has
also been wide-spread and severe in Ohio, Michigan, and
neighboring States during the past few seasons, owing to
peculiar climatic conditions. In 1900 Prof. F. M.
Webster stated that a loss of about 60 per cent of the
wheat crop in Ohio, amounting to 24,000,000 bushels and
valued, at the market-rate, at $16,800,000, was due to
injury by this pest.
History. — Having been first noticed as injurious on Long
Island, in 1779, near where the Hessian troops had landed
three years before, it seems altogether jorobable that it was
brought to this country by them, and it has therefore
been so named. Rapidly spreading over all the wheat
land in the East, it aj)peared in California in 1884, was
reported as injurious in England in 1886, and in 1888 was
found to be destructive in New Zealand.
Description and Li fe-lii story. — The adult flies are little,
dark-colored gnats, about one-eighth of an inch long, but
these are less often seen than the immature stages. Each
of the females lays from one hundred to one hundred and
fifty minute reddish eggs, placing them in irregular rows
of from three to five, generally upon the upper surface
of the leaf, but in the spring often beneath the sheath
of the leaf. In a few days these hatch into small,
reddish maggots, which soon turn white, are cylindrical,
about twice as long as broad, and have no true head or
legs. The fall brood of maggots burrow beneath the
sheath of the leaf and its base, which is still below tjie
102 INSECTS INJURtOCS TO STAPLE CROPS.
ground, causing a slight enlargement at the point of
attack; but in the spring they usually stop at one of the
lower joints above the surface, in both instances becoming
fixed in the plant and weakening it by absorbing its sap
and tissues.
Fig. 61. — The Hessian Fly and its various stages of development.
n, an iigg; b, larva or worm; c, flaxseed; d, pupa; e, adult, lay-
ing eggs; /, female; g, male; Ji, stalk of wheat showing attack;
i, natural enemy or parasite— all enlarged except wheat-stem
and fig. e. (After Riley, Burgess, and Trouvelot, from U. S.
Dept. Agr.).
This difference in method of attack results in a corre-
sponding effect on the plant. The first indication of the
work of the maggots in the fall is the tendenc}^ of the
plants to stool out; the dark color of the leaves, which are
sopiewhat broader, and the absence of the central stems
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 103
also reveal their presence. Later, many of the plants may
be observed to turn yellow and die. The spring maggots
attack the laterals, or tillers, which have escaped the
previous brood, so weakening them that the stems break
and fall before ripening, and cannot be readily harvested.
In about four weeks the maggots become full-grown,
and are then light greenish white and about three-sixteenths
of an inch long. The skin now turns brown, shrivels
slightly, and inside of it is formed the new stage, called
the pupa. This outside case, composed of the cast larval
skin, is known as the puparium, and this stage is generally
called the '' flax-seed '^ stage from the close resemblance to
that seed. In this stage the fall brood passes the winter,
the flies emerging in April or May, while the spring brood
so remains during midsummer, and emerges during Sep-
tember. Besides the above, there are often two supple-
mental broods, one following the spring brood, and the
other preceding that of the fall.
Enemies. — Several parasites arc of great value in hold-
ing the numbers of the fly in check, but as yet no method
is known whereby they mry be artificially encouraged.
Attempts to import foreign parasites have not, as yet, been
permanently successful. It is owing to these parasites
being destroyed by unfavorable weather conditions that
the fly becomes excessively abundant.
Preventives. — Owing to the wide distribution of this pest,
and the corresponding variation of latitude and altitude,
it is evident that the time of its appearance will varv con-
siderably, and any 2:>reventive measures must be based upon
a previous determination of the time of appearance of the
broods for any given locality. Recently it has been shown
that weather conditions largely determine the time of
104
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
appearance of the fall brood, a season of drought in early
September retarding the emergence of the flies until rain
falls. Professors Roberts and Slingerland state that ''a
mild October and November often emphasizes the fly's
destructiveness. A damp spring, even though a cold one,
is also favorable to the development of the insect. On the
contrary, dry hot summers are unfavorable, and often
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 105
cause a serious mortality to the earlier stages of the fall
brood of adults; and a rainless August often retards the
emergence of the flies until even our latest-sown wheat (in
Xew York) is up and ready to receive their eggs. Just such
weather conditions occurred in New York in 1900 and, we
believe, were largely responsible for the fact that in many
cases late-sown fields were as badly infested as those sown
earlier/' If there be a normal rainfall in August, the flies
will emerge as usual early in September and will lay their
eggs on volunteer, early-sown, and trap strips of wheat,
and late sowings will largely escape.
Dr. A. D. Hopkins has recently worked out a most
valuable law governing the time of appearance of this pest,
and from which he has deduced a rule for '^the approxi-
mate determination of normal dates for the ending of the
fall swarm of the Hessian Fly in any locality " in West
Virginia. "Take a knowm normal date of a place, of
known latitude and altitude, correct this date to a corre-
sponding date at sea-level, by adding one day to each one
hundred feet of altitude above sea-level; then for any place
north of this sea-level base subtract one day for each one-
fourth degree of latitude and one day for each one hundred
feet of altitude at the place to be determined, and for all
points south add one day for eacli one-fourth degree of
latitude and subtract from the result, as before, one day
for each one hundred feet of altitude. The resulting date
will be the approximate normal.
. " To give an example of this method of determining
normals, and to demonstrate its value, we will take, as the
most important and reliable data, the results obtained by
Prof. Webster, by actual experiments and observations, at
Columbus and Wooster, Ohio. He found that the normal
lOG INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
dtito for the ending of the fall period of active flight or
swarming of the fly at Colnmbus, latitude 40 degrees, was
September 25th, and that the corresponding date for
Wooster, latitude 40 degrees and 49 minutes, was Septem-
ber 20th, which he states agrees almost exactly with results
obtained in Indiana, and forms the base of conclusions, as
set forth in his Bulletin No. 107." Columbus is 800 and
Wooster 1000 feet above sea-level. By applying the above
rule and computing the date of Wooster from that of
Columbus, or vice ve^^sa, the same dates will be secured as
those determined by Prof. Webster.
Of the various farm methods of control the most im-
portant is the late planting of winter wheat through the
Central States. In the latitude and altitude of northern
Ohio if this be done after September 12th the flies will all
have laid their eggs before the plants sprout. The time
of planting should be later the further south, but no arbi-
trary dates can be given for the whole country, as those
must be determined by altitude, latitude, and local condi-
tions. Thus in extreme southern Ohio October 10th is
stated to be a safe time, while in central Maryland, in the
same latitude, wheat may commence to be sown between
September 25th and October 5th. In northern Delaware
farmers prefer not to sow until October 1st. Prof. Roberts
states that though no definite dates can be given owing to
injury being most serious after abnormal weather condi-
tions, after which the dates would be different, yet that
"^ New York wheat-growers have learned that wheat sown
after the 20th to the 25th of September is usually much
less infested. In Ohio and Michigan, as elsewhere, it has
been found that wheat sown very early, i.e , about Sep-
tember 1st, and late, i.e., after October 1st, is but slightly
INSECTS IXJUllIOUS TO AVHKAT. 107
injured, while that planted during the middle of Se2)tem-
ber is largely or wholly destroyed.
Fig. 63 shows the proper dates for j^l^nting in Ohio as
given by Prof. Webster. Various State experiment stations
have issued bulletins giving the proper time to plant in
those States, and should the rule given by Dr. Ilojikins
prove to be applicable throughout the country, the problem
of when to plant will be easily solved.*
Inasmuch as most of the sj^ring brood remain in the
stubble in the flaxseed stage after harvest, if the fields be
then burned over, large numbers will be destroyed, but
often this is impossible owing to the j^i'ictice of seeding
wheat land to grass and clover, which is quite a common
practice in many sections. By tlie destruction of all
volunteer wheat the two supplementary broods may be
reduced, and in the extreme North, where this is the
principal means of carrying the insect over winter and
spring wheat is grown, this will be found of considerable
importance.
By planting a few strips of wheat late in August or in
the first weel: of September many of the flies will be
decoyed into laying their eggs upon them, and by then
plowing under these strips the eggs and larvae may be
destroyed and the regular sowing thus 2)rotected. The
trap strips should not be allowed to stand over about
* See W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station, Bulletin Xo. 67 : The Hessian
FlyinW. Va., A. D. Hopkins. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletins
Nos. 107, 119 : F. M. Webster. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletin Xo.
58: W. a. Johnson. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., n. s. : The
Hessian Fly in the United States, Herbert Osborn. Cornell
University Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletin 194: The Hessian Fly, I. P.
Roberts, M. V. Slingerland, and J. L. Stone.
108
INSKCTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
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Fig. 6B.— Map indicating, in bold faced type, the approximate dates
immediately after which it is usually safe to sow wheat in the
fall, in various sections of Ohio, in order to avoid the autumn
attack of Hessian fly. Dates given in small type show when
Avheat sown in the fall of 1899 escaped the fall attack, though
it was in many cases totally destroyed by the spring attack. The
difference between these dates is the variation from the normal,
and where no dates are given between the cross-lines there waa
no such variation. (After Webster.)
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 109
four weeks, or three or four days after the main crop is
sown.
Tliough none are exempt from attack, those varieties of
wheat ^^ with large, coarse, strong straw are less liable to
injury than weak-strawed and slow-growing varieties.'^
In Xew York in many localities in 1901 a wheat called
Dawson's Golden Chaff was found to be but little injured,
where others were nearly destroyed. However, in Canada,
where this variety originated, it is as seriously injured as
other kinds, and may become so in Xew York. Bearded
Eed Wheat No. 8 was also found to be a very resistant
variety, as were Prosperity, Democrat, Ked Rusisan, and
White Chaff Mediterranean. It should be remembered,
however, that none of these are invariably '' fl3'-proof/'
and that though under certain conditions tbey maybe but
little injured, in other localities and under less favorable
circumstances they may be injured as much as any other
sorts.
Among other conclusions Prof. Koberts and his col-
leagues state that the fly '-injures wheat more on dryish
and poor land than on moist but well-drained, rich soils."
Also, ''that the soil must be so well fitted and so fertile
that a strong, healthy growth will be secured in the fall,
though the sowing of the seed be delayed ten to fifteen
days beyond the usual time. Such preparation of the soil
will also help the wheat to recover from any winter injury.
Thick seeding and vigorous growth also tend to ward off
the fly.'' " Much stress should be laid on the proper
fitting of the land for wheat Plowing should be done
earty — at least six weeks before sowing^to give abundant
time for the repeated working of the soil in order to
recompact the subsurface soil and secure a fine but
110 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
shallow seed-bed in which there has been developed, by
tillage and the action of the atmosphere, an abundance of
readily available plant-food. Manures and fertilizers should
be kept near the surface and the young roots encouraged
to spread out on the surface soil, thus avoiding much of
the damage by heaving in winter and leaving the deeper
soil for fresh pasturage for the plants during the following
spring and summer."
Prof. Webster strongly recommends the rotation of the
wheat-crop, sowing it as far from where it was grown the
previous year as possible. Where this has been judiciously
done, individual farms have often remained free from
serious attack when neighboring ones were badly injured.
Remedies. — After injury by the fly has once become
apparent in the fall, there is no application known by
which it may be destroyed. The application of a liberal
amount of fertilizer to land not already well fertilized will
enable the plants to better withstand the injury and possi-
bly outgrow it. Pasturing shee^D on early-sown fields
would doubtless result in crushing many of the flaxseeds
and larvae, and give the ground that compact, pulverized
nature which it should have.
Nothing is known as a remedy for injury by the spring
brood.
In summarizing his knowledge of means of controlling
this pest, Prof. F. M. Webster, who is probably our best
authority upon it, says: " After thirteen [now fifteen] years
of study of the Hessian Fly^ I am satisfied that four-fifths
of its injuries mmj he 2)r evented hy a letter system of agri-
culture. For years I have seen wheat grown on one side
of a division-fence without the loss of a bushel by attack
of this pest, while on the other side the crop was invariably
IK8EC"1S INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. lU
always more or less injured. No effect of climate,
meteorological conditions, or natural enemies could have
brought about such a contrast of results. The whole
secret was in the management of the soil and the seeding."
Some Wheat-maggots.
Very similar in its mode of injuring the wheat-stalk to
the Hessian Fly is the Wheat Stem-maggot {Meromyza
mnericana Fitch). The adult flies were first described by
Dr. Fitch in 1856, tliough the work of the maggots had
probably been noticed as early as 1821 by James Worth of
Bucks County, Pa., and by the Michigan Farmer in
Michigan about 1845.
Extending from Dakota and Manitoba to Texas, the
range of this insect practically covers all the eastern
United States and southern Canada.
Unlike the Hessia7i Fly it feeds and breeds upon wild
grasses and is thus much more difficult to control. Prof.
A. J. Cook found the larvae in both barley and oats in
Michigan, Prof. Webster reared an adult from Blue Grass
{Poa prate7isis), and Dr. Jas. Fletcher records it as breed-
ing in Agrojyijrum, Descliampsis, Elynius, Poa, and
Setaria viridis in Canada.
Life-history.— lii\e the Hessian Fly the adult flies lay
their eggs on fall wheat in September and October, and
the young maggots when hatched work their way down
into the stem, either cutting it off or causing it to discolor
or die. The eggs are about one-fortieth of an inch long
and of a glistening white color. The larvse are a light
greenish color, about one-fourth of an inch long, tapering
towards the terminal end while subcylindrical posteriorly,
being quite elongate. The piipi^ are the same color as the
112 INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
larv^, but more rounded, being only one-sixth of aji inch
long, and reveal the legs and wing-cases of the imago
forming within tliem. The external case of the pupa,
called the puparium, is merely the shrunken and hardened
cast skin of the last larval stage, within which the insect
Fig. 64. — Wheat Bulb-worm {Meromyza amerkana) a, mature fly;
b, larva; c, puparium; d. infested wheat-stem — all enlarged ex-
cept d. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr. )
transforms to the pupa. The fly is abotit one-fifth of an
inch long. It is of a yellowish- white color with a black
spot on the top of the head, three broad black stripes on
the thorax, and three on the abdomen, which are often
interrupted at the sutures, so that they form distinct spots.
The eyes are a bright green.
The winter is passed by the larva3 in the young plants,
and in spring they transform to pupae and adult flies.
These in turn deposit eggs in such a position that the
maggots issuing from them may readily feed upon the
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 113
succulent portions of the growing stalk. Numerous larvae
thus sapping the life of the plant soon kill it outright or
cause the top and head to wither and die. The adults of
this brood emerge in July and lay eggs on volunteer wheat
and grasses, the maggots working in the same manner as
in the fall and coming to maturity so that another brood
of flies lay eggs for the fall brood on the newly planted
wheat.
Owing to the fact that this insect breeds also in grasses
during late summer it is much more difficult to combat
than were it confined to wheat as its food-plant, as is the
Hessian Fly.
Jieniediex. — '' If the grain is stacked or threshed and the
straw stacked or burned/' says Prof. AVebster, " it is clear
that the number escaping would be greatly reduced,'' for,
as the adults emerge soon after harvest, they would escape
to deposit their eggs were the straw left in the fields, but
^Mt is not likely that those in the centre of the stacks
would be able to make their way out, and the threshing-
machine vv'ould destroy many more.. How much could be
accomplished by late sowing of grain is uncertain, as the
females are known to occur abundantly up to October.
If plots of grain were sowed immediately after harvest in
the vicinity of the stacks, many of the females could, no
doubt, be induced to deposit their eggs therein, and these
could be destroyed by plowing under." Burning of the
stubble will also aid in keeping this jiest under control.
There are several undetermined species of flies belong-
ing to the genus Oscinis, and very closely resembling the
common house-fly in miniature, being about one-fourth as
larcre, whicli have nracticallv the same life-historv as tlie
Wheat 8tem-maggot and injure the wheat in tlie same
114
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
manner. They will not need consideration by the prac-
tical farmer other than in applying methods of control as
already given. One species of this genus, determined by
Prof. H. Garman as Oscinis variabilis Loew and christ-
ened the American Frit-fly, has been found common in
Kentucky and Canada, but is so nearly identical in
Fig. 65. — The American Frit-fly (Oscinis virinMlis Loew). a,
larva or maggot; b, puparium; c, adult fly. (After Garman.)
appearance and habit in the larval stage that it can with
difficulty be distinguished from the Stem-maggot.
That these pests do not do more injury is probably due
to a considerable extent to the fact that large numbers of
them are destroyed by a small hymenopterous parasite,
known as CoBlimis meromyzce Forbes, which very commonly
infests the larvse, and by other parasites and predaceous
insects.
Rarely will these pests do serious damage, but very often
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 115
it is sufficient to merit consideration, and only a knowledge
of their life-history can give a key to their successful
control.
IXJURIXG THE LEAVES AND HEAD.
The Wheat-louse {Nectar o pi mr a avenm^2^.^.
History and Distrihution. — At comparatively long inter-
vals the wheat crop is extensively injured by the Wheat-
louse or Grain-aphis. In 1861 and 1862 serious damage
was done throughout New York and New England, which
seems to have been the first serious outbreak of the jDest
in this country, it being a native of England. Since then
the crop of 1889 throughout Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan was the worst damaged,
sometimes to the extent of 60 per cent. The follow^ing
year the lice appeared on the eastern shore of Maryland in
large numbers, causing a total failure of the crop in some
sections, and in 1894 they did serious damage in Washing-
ton and northern Idaho, wdiere they had been known for
some years. Though no record of its distribution is to be
found, it would seem probable from the above that the
Wheat-louse occurs throughout the northern half of the
United States, as no mention of its occurrence in the South
is found.
Like many aphids it rarely becomes excessively injurious,
being usually held in check by internal parasites, ^Dre-
daceous insects, diseases, and weather conditions. Just
how far the weather is directly responsible for their
increase or decrease is unknown; but it has been observed
that an outbreak is usually preceded by several dry seasons,
and that cold, damp weather during late sjoring and early
summer seems to favor their development. Parasitic
116
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
fungous diseases — mostly of the genus Empusa — are one
of the most important checks to the multiplication of
plant-lice, and, as they require wet weather for their best
Fig. 66. — Wbeat-louse Parasite (Aphidius gr<i.n(iri(iphis Cook), and
parasitized louse from which it has issued. (Copied from
J. B. Smith.)
Fig. 67. — The l^he^it-Xoum (Nectar ophor a amnm Fab.). Wingless
and winged forms. (After Garman.)
development, it is not surprising that several dry seasons
should precede an abundance of lice. Prof. F. M. Webster
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 117
thinks that cold, wet weather in May and June is favor-
able to the lice, in that it retards the development of their
parasites.
Description and Life-liisiory. — The first individuals are
found on the young wheat in the latter part of April,
though during open winters they may remain on the
young wheat, as observed by Dr. Cyrus Thomas in 1875
and Prof. H. Garman in 1889. Until early July the lice
feed upon the wheat, first upon the stalk and leaves and
later upon the head, breeding in the parthenogenetic
manner of most aphids. (See life-history of Corn Eoot-
aphis, page 13G.) The color of the lice varies greatly, as
does also the size. In the spring the winged lice are
green, with head, antennae, thorax, femora, tarsi, corni-
cles, and a series of spots on the sides of the abdomen
black. As the grain matures and the lice migrate to the
head, many of them become yellow, reddish, and some of
the winged forms almost black. The wingless lice are of
a pale green.
Oats, barley, rye, corn, blue grass, and many other
grasses furnish food for this pest, and after the wheat
becomes mature it may commonly be found on volunteer
oats until the fall wheat appears. During the hot weather
of midsummer, however, it is not much in evidence.
The true sexes occur in the fall, and eggs are laid upon
the fall wheat.
Enemies. — "Were it not for its parasites and the preda-
ceous insects which feed upon it, the Wheat-aphis would in-
deed be a most serious past, but ordinarily these keep it well
under control, and when for some reason they are them-
selves killed off for a season and the lice have opportunity
to multiply, they soon become so numerous as to again
118 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
destroy so many as to prevent serious injury. The effect
of these parasites and predaceous insects is indeed marvel-
lous and is always a matter of observation to the farmer,
who wonders if they are to finish the work of the lice and
utterly destroy the crop. Prof. Webster says of them:
"The effect of the parasites upon the grain-louse was
simply astonishing, while their numbers were myriad.
Going to the fields of recently harvested grain, if one stood
in a position to bring the newly made shocks between
himself and the setting sun, he could clearly observe the
swarms of minute hymenoptera arising therefrom and
flying away. Besides, the stubble-fields were overrun with
lady-beetles and their larvae. ^' Several internal parasites
belonging to the family Braconidm (see page 41) are con-
cerned in this good work, one variety, described by
Prof. A. J. Cook as Aphidiiis granariaphis (Pig. ^Q),
having been especially namerous in 'Michigan in 1889.
All the common ladybird-beetles feed upon these lice, and
with an abundance of food increase in numbers very
rapidly. Several species of syrphus-flies and Clirysopa are
equally fond of them, and are very numerous in infested
fields.
Remedies. — As far as known no artificial remedy for the
Wheat-louse has yet been found. Though the lice might
be destroyed with various sprays, this is hardly practicable
in a wheat-field; and inasmuch as the lice breed upon so
many species of the grass family, there seems to be no cul-
tural method for combating them. Ordinarily, therefore,
we will have to trust to the good woebnrk of the eficial
insects and diseases to prevent their depredations.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 119
Wheat Saw-flies {Dolerus spp.).
Several species of saw-fly larvae sometimes feed upon the
leaves and rarely the heads of wheat, but seldom do serious
injury. Dolerus arvensis Say and Dolerus collar is Say
have both been reared upon wheat from Ohio and New
Jersey, though both species occur throughout the United
States and southern Canada east of the Rockies. The
adult flies "are comparatively large, robust insects, of a
dull black or bluish color, varied with yellow or reddish.^'
*^The larvae are quite uniform in color and general char-
acteristics. They have twenty-two legs, are cylindrical;
and generally of a uniform grayish o^ slaty color, dorsally
and laterally, but nearly white ventrally." *
The adults deposit their eggs in the spring, and larvae
are to be found early in June. The only record found of
the life-history is that of D. collaris by Prof. Webster,
who found that a larva collected on June 15, 1897, entered
the ground in about ten days, and the flrst adult emerged
January 11, 1898, though the adults usually appear later.
The most common saw-fly feeding upon wheat-foliage is
Pacliynematus extensicornis Norton. "The adult insects
ap23ear during the latter part of April and first of May,
the males antedating the females several days. The eggs,
when first laid, are of a light green color. They are
inserted to the number of two to five, or more, together
along the edges of the wheat-blades and just beneath the
epidermis. Some fifteen or sixteen days elapse before
hatching. The newly hatched larva is rather slender and
* Wheat and Grass Saw-flies. C. V. Riley and C. L, Marlatt,
"Insect Liie," Vol. IV, p. 169.
120
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
elongate, tapering gradually from the head to the last
segment; head yellowish, eyes black. Full growth is
attained in about five weeks, the mature larva having a
length of about four-fifths of an inch. The head is of a
pale clay-yellow color, the eyes are black, and the color
of the body is green or yellowish green. The larva is at
Fig. 68. — Dolerus nrvensis Say, female. (After Riley and Marlatt,
"Insect Life," U. S. Dept. Agr )
once separated from the Dolerus larvae by the possession
of but seven pairs of abdominal feet.^^ (R. & M., 1. c. )
When full-grown the larvae enter the earth and construct
silken cocoons, in which they doubtless remain unchanged
over winter, transforming to i^upae shortly before the
adults emerge the next spring. The form of the adults is
well shown in the illustration. " The female is stout and
in general light j^ellowish or ochraceous iu color. The
abdomen is for the most part dark brown or black,
dorsally, except the posterior lateral margin and the
extreme tip. The male is much more slender and elon-
gate than the female, and is almost black in color, the tip
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT.
121
of the abdomen being reddish and part of the legs
whitish/' This species has been taken on wheat in
Illinois, Nebraska, Delaware, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana,
and Pennsylvania. During 1886 and 1887 it did con-
siderable damage by cutting off the heads, — sometimes, as
Fig, 69. — The Grass Saw-fly {Parhynemntus extensirornis Norton).
n, (1, eggs on wheat -blade; />, young larva?; c, full-grown larva;
d, cocoon from which adult has emerged; e, f, adult insects —
e, male; /, female, a and />, natural size; c-f, enlarged. (After
Riley and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
stated by a Maryland man, cutting fully one-half of them.
No more recent damage has been recorded, and owing to
the slight damage usually done no remedies have received
a practical test. Deep fall plowing might be of advantage
by burying the larvae so deeply that the adults would be
unable to escape.
122 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
INJURING THE HEAD.
The Wheat-midge {Diplosi.^ tritici Kirby).
History. — While the Hessian Fly attacks the stalk of
the wheat-plant, another species of the same genus, known
as the Wheat-midge, or " Red Weevil," often does very
serions damage to the maturing head. It, too, is a
foreigner, having first been noticed as injurious in Suffolk,
England, in 1795, though probable references to its
depredations date back as. early as 1741. ''In ' Ellis^s
Modern Husbandman' for 1745 the attacks of the vast
numbers of black flies (the ichneumon j^arasites) are
noticed in the following quaint terms : ' After this we have
a melancholy sight, for, as soon as the wheat had done
blooming, vast numbers of black flies attacked the wheat-
ears and bio wed a little yellow maggot which ate up some
of the kernels in other parts of them, and which caused
multitudes of ears to miss of their fulness, acting in some
measure like a sort of locust, till rain fell and washed them
off; and though this evil has happened in other summers
to the wheat in some degree, yet if the good providence of
God had not hindered it they might have ruined all the
crops of wheat in the nation.^ (Hind's '' Essay on Insects
and Diseases Injurious to Wheat Crops,' page 76.)" * It
seems probable that it was first introduced into America
near Quebec, where it ''ajDpears to have occurred" in
1819, and was first observed in the United States in
northwestern Vermont in 1820. It did not become very
destructive, however, until 1828, from which time until
1835 it kept increasing in such numbers as to cause the
*The Wheat-midgc. Bulletin No. 5, Vol. 1, 2d Ser., Ohio Ag.
Exp. Sta., F. M. Webster.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 123
abandonment of the wheat crops in some localities through-
out northern New England. Serious damage was reported
as due to this pest every few years until about 1860, being
most severe in 1854, — in which j^ear Dr. Fitch estimated
the loss in Nevv York alone at 815,000,000, — 1857, and
Fig. 70. — Wheal -midge (Diplosis triU-i). a, female fly; h, male
fly; c, larva from below. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
1858. Since then no wide-spread injury has occurred,
though local outbreaks are frequent, and it has spread
south to the Gulf States and westward to Iowa, Minnesota,
and Arkansas.
Life-lmtovy. — The adult flies are small, two-winged
insects, about an eighth of an inch long, of a yellow or
orange color. They appear about the middle of June and
lay the eggs "'in a small cavity at the summit of, and
formed by a groove in, the outmost chaff covering the
incipient kernel.^' They hatch in about a week, according
to Dr. Fitch, and the maggots burrow into the fonning
t.ernels. The maggots are of a reddish color, and when
124 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CUOI'S.
an car is badly infested give it a reddish tinge, on account
of which the insect is often called the '' Eed Weevil."
When full-grown the larvae enter the ground and usually
form cocoons, in which they pass the winter in the pupal
stage, though they often hibernate without such protec-
tion. Though doubtless there is usually but one brood in
a season, observations by Prof. F. M. Webster and others
seem to point to the fact that there sometimes are two
broods, as adults have been observed from August into
November.
Besides wheat, the wheat-midge also sometimes injures
rye, barley, and oats.
Remedies. — Plowing infested fields in the fall so deeply
that the midges will be unable to reach the surface upon
developing in the spring is by far the best means of con-
trolling this 2^est; while burning the stubble previous to
plowing, and a rotation of the crop, will also be of con-
siderable aid.*
* See "The Principal In. ect 1 nemies of Growing Wheat," C.
L. Marlatt, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 182, U. S. Dept. Agr.
CHAPTER VIL
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO CORN
IN^JUKIKG THE ROOTS.
Corn Root-worms.
The Western Corn Root-worm {Diahrotica longicornis Say).
The farmers and entomologists of the Central States
have long known this as one of the worst pests with which
they have to deal, and its progress eastAvard through Ohio
has been a matter of considerable interest.
Hidorii. — Outside of entomological collections, the
beetle was hardly known until 1878, when it first appeared
in Illinois in such numbers as to cause any wide-spread
damage. First observed by Say in 1823, who gave its
habitat as Arkansas Territory, it was not again noticed
until found numerous upon sorghum by Prof. AV. S.
Robinson of Kansas in 1866, who gave a large thistle as
its native food-plant. In 1874 Prof. C. V. Riley received
a larva from Kirkland, Mo. , which had been found bur-
rowing into the roots of corn with considerable injury,
and again in 1878 from Eureka, Mo. Prof. Webster states
that in Illinois from the spring of 1874 he collected only
two specimens until the fall of 1877, when quite a number
were taken in corn-fields. A rapid increase in numbers
occurred during the next three years, and by 1880 its
125
126
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
injuries to corn in Illinois were so severe as to demtind
investigation. At tliat time it was stated by several
farmers that the larvae had been noted feeding on corn-
FiG. 11. — Diahroiicd longicornis Say. a, beetle; h, larva — Western
corn root-worm; c, pupa; d, egg; d' , portion of egg enlarged
(X40); e, mandible of larva; /, Lead of larva from above. Hair-
lines at sides natural size. (Redrawn from Forbes.)
Fig. 72. — a, Diahrotien 12-punctata Ollv. Beetle of Southern corn
root-worm; b, Diabrotica mttata Fab. Striped Cucumber-
beetle. (Redrawn from Forbes.)
roots for ten or twelve years, and that serious damage had
been done for at least seven years. Thus it is evident that
in all probability the injuries to corn commenced in
Missouri and Kansas during the early ^70's, and, as soon
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN. 127
as the larvae had acquired a decided taste for corn, spread
gradually eastward into Illinois, where that is the staple
crop.
In the spring of 1882 Professors Forbes and Webster
began a careful study of the life-history, habits, and
injuries of the insect, and to them we owe almost all our
knowledge of it. At that time its injuries were found to
be general throughout western Illinois, north of Centralia,
and also in southeastern Iowa, destroying from five to ovei'
fifty per cent of the crop. In 1885 Prof. Webster found
it abundant at Lafayette, Indiana, where the owner of one
large estate estimated his loss at fifteen per cent of the
wiiole crop, or a cash loss of $60,000.
Unnoticed in Ohio till 1892, in that year it was reported
from Hamilton County, in the extreme southwestern
corner of tbe State, and was also found in Van Wert
County, in tlie nortlnvestern part. Since then it has
steadily advanced, each year spreading over one and one-
half counties to the eastward, until in 1895 it had been
reported from over almost the entire western half of the
State. jS^o special notice has been seen of any spread.
While thus spreading eastward, it has become generally
recognized in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, northern Missouri,
Illinois, and Indiana.
Though never known to have been seriously injurious
east of Ohio, the writer found ears of corn in a field near
Ithaca, N. Y., which had been planted in that crop for
several years, attacked by large numbers of the beetles.
On September 15, 1897, the corn w^as fairly alive with the
beetles, as many as a dozen being found eating the silk of
a single ear, generally well under the husk. Mr. Harring-
128 INSh:CTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
ton has found the beetles on thistles as far east as New
Brunswick. The only previous records of it in New York
are those of Prof. Webster, who quotes Mr. Fred. Blanchard
of Lowell, Mass., as having specimens from New York,
and Mr. Ottomar Reinecke of Buffalo, who wrote that he
had collected it there on willow j^rior to 1880. Though
these statements are doubtless correct, there certainly is
no record of it during the last fifteen years, and never of
its having been injurious.
Life-liistory. — The life-history of the pest, though not
comjDletely known, is 3'et comparatively simple. The eggs
are laid in the early fall, within a few inches of the base
of the stalk, from one to five inches deep in the soil. The
larvae hatch from June to August, and at first eat the
small roots entire, and then commence burrowing under
the outer layers of the larger roots, causing the stalks
to be easily blown over if on a rich loam, or small ears
and a general dwarfing of the plant, if on poorer land.
The adult worm is nearly white, with brown head, a little
less than half an inch long by less than one-tenth of an
inch in diameter. Three pairs of short legs are found on
the segments immediately back of the head, but otherwise
the long, cylindrical body appears perfectly smooth to the
unaided eye, though seen to have numerous hairs and
bristles under the microscope. Before pupation the color
becomes slightly darker and the body shortens, becoming
more like a common grub. They then leave the roots,
form a small oval cell in the soil, transform to pup^e, and
in a short time come forth as adult beetles
The beetles are of a greenish or greenish-yellow color
and about one-fourth of an inch long, resembling in form
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN. 129
the common Striped Cucumber-beetle. The adults are
found in the fields from the latter part of July until the
corn-silk becomes brown and dry, and often later, feeding
upon the silk and pollen, thus doing more or less damage,
though slight when compared with that of the larva3.
Though feeding almost entirely upon corn, they have
occasionally been recorded as eating various weeds, clover,
beans, cucumber- and squash-vines, apples of which the
skin had been broken, cotton-flowers, pumpkins, and
various fungi.
[Remedy. — See below.)
The Southern Corn Root-worm or Twelve-spotted Diabro-
tica (Diabrofiva (hiodecempu)ictata Oliv.).
This beetle is distinguished from the above by being
larger and having three transverse rows of four black
spots on the wing-covers. Its larva, which has very
similar habits and is very injurious, by eating the corn-
roots in the South, has not been knovrn to do so in the
North, but is everywhere exceedingly abundant. The
beetle is ]3robably best known as attacking squash-, melon-,
and cucumber-vines, of which it eats voraciously both
leaves and fruit, but has also been noticed on clover,
cabbage, cauliflower, beans, beets, hops, cotton, chrysan-
themums, and various fruit-trees.
Remedy. — The remedy for both these pests is so simple
and effective that it would seem that no one ought to
suffer from their injury. As far as known, they have
never been injurious to corn after a j^revious crop of
wheat, rye, or barley, though the field may have been
infested before that, and a crop of corn is then safe for at
130 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
least two years. Thus a simple rotation, which is also to
bo recommeuded on many other grounds, is entirely
effectual. *
The Corn-root Web-worm (Crambus caliginosellus Clem.).
Injury. — When young corn-plants are seen to stop
growing, become deformed, and to die off in such numbers
as to frequently necessitate replanting, upon examination
of the roots the iujury will often be found to be due to
the work of a small caterpillar. Two or three, very often
five or six, and sometimes as many as eight or nine will
be found at the base of a plant about an inch below the
surface of the soil, and not o\er four to six inches from
the stalk, usually being in close proximity to it. Each
larva is covered with a fine, loose web, to which cling
particles of earth, forming a sort of case, and on account
of which these insects are known as Web-worms.
Where the web-worms are present in any number they
will often necessitate the second, third, and sometimes a
fourth planting, making the corn very late and involving
considerable expense. The worms bore into the youug
stalks just above the ground, frequently cutting them off
entirely. Later on the larger stalks are gouged out at or
slightly above the surface of the ground, and the larvae
burrow into the folded leaves, which when they unfold
have several transverse rows of three to five holes. On
*See :
1882. Forbes, S. A. First Ann. Kept. 12th Kept. St. Ent. 111..
p. 10.
1890. Forbes, S. A. 6tli Ann. Rept., p. 71.
1892. " " Tth " " pp. 146, 154.
1894. Webster, F. M. Bull. No. 51 Ohio Ag. Exp. Sta., p. 89.
1896. '' " " " 68 '' " " " p 39.
INSECTS iXTURIOtJS TO CORK". ISl
account of this habit these insects are sometimes known
as '^bnd-worms/^ Strong plants will often make a new
start and survive the injury, but remain much behind
those not attacked, while most of the weaker plants will
decay and rot off.
Tlie Motli. — As one walks through jiasture or grass land,
many little white and yellowish moths are seen flying
about on all sides, but quickly disappear as they alight on
the grass. If a single individual be watched more closely,
it will be noticed that in alighting upon a blade of grass
it quickly rolls its wings very tightly around its body, and
hugs up close to the grass so that it is hardly distinguish-
able from it. Projecting from the head in front is what
appears to be a long beak or snout, on account of which
these moths are often known as '•snout-moths,"' but
which really consists of the j)alpi or feelers. The '^ Grass-
moths," as they are sometimes called, belong to the genus
Cramius and include several common species, being
marked with silver stripes and bands, as well as golden
lines and markings, so that they often present a very
handsome appearance.
Life-liistory. — These are the parents of the Web-worms
which do so much injury to the young corn-roots, the
principal depredators ujjon corn belonging to the species
Oramlus caliginoselhis. They lay their eggs in grass land
in May or early June, dropping them on the surface among
the rubbish or vegetation, or attaching them to the grass.
They are oval in form and of a yellowish color, each being
marked with regularly placed ridges. About two hundred
eggs are laid by each female. In from six to ten days the
eggs hatch. The young larva3 soon form their loose silken
webs or tubes at or a little below the surface of the soil,
132
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLI-: CKOl'S.
Fig. 73. — The Corn-root Web-worm {Cramhvs ailiginosellnb) n
larva; b, pupa; c, moth; d, segment of larva; e, parasite
(After Johnson. )
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN". 133
burrowing among the roots, and feeding upon the stalk
and outer leaves, or killing the phint by attacking the
crov>'n. The larvs vary considerably in color, from a
yellowish white, through pink, to a reddish or brownish
shade, and are studded with small tubercles, each bearing
a tuft of bristly liairs. The larvae become full-grown in
from five to seven weeks and are then from one-half to
three-fourths of an inch long. During the latter part of
July they form cocoons, sometimes in the larval tubes, in
which they pass the pupal stage and from which the
moths emerge some twelve to fifteen days Liter. Eggs are
laid in grass lands during August and September for
another brood, the larv» hatching in September and
October and becoming part-grown before winter. They
hibernate in their webs over winter, and as soon as the
grass commences its growth in the spring they are to be
found feeding upon it, becoming full-grown early in May.
Preventive, — As the natural food of these insects is grass,
it is not surprising that corn planted on sod land should
be worst injured; and though the injury 'done the grass
may not have been noticeable, wdien the available food is
so greatly diminished by substituting for grass land the
comparatively few hills of corn the injury becomes much
more serious and apparent. Though the planting of corn
on sod land is a most common practice, injury by this and
many other insect pests of corn — most of w^hose native
food is grass— might be avoided by planting any other crop
than a grain, such as potatoes. Otherwise plowing late in
the fall and harrowing so as to expose the larva? to the
weather, or plowing so deeply that they will be buried so
that they cannot regain the surface, will do much to pre-
vent injury the next season. Inasmuch as the moth will
134 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
not It^iy her eggs upon plowed land, if the land he plowed
early she will he driven to other fields; hut the exact time
of oviposition varies for different latitudes.
Generous fertilization Avill aid the plants in overcoming
injury very considerahly. Dr. J. B. Smith advises "the
application of all the necessary potash in the form of
kainit, put on as a top-dressing after the field is prepared
for planting," and sa3"s: "Fall plowing and kainit as a
top-dressing in spring will, I feel convinced, destroy by
all odds the greater proportion of the web worms that in-
fest the sod, and would also destroy or lessen many other
pests which trouble corn during the early part of its life.''
The Corn Root-louse (Aphis maidiiuaUcis Forbes).
Description. — Where joatches of corn become dwarfed,
the leaves becoming yellow and red, with a general lack
of vigor, one may well be suspicious of the work of the
Corn Root-louse. Though such an appearance may be
due to the Root-blight or the Grass Root-louse [Schizo-
neura panicola Thos.), the cause of the trouble may
usually be ascertained by an examination of the roots. If
due to root-lice, they will be readily seen gathered
together in large masses. The Root-louse may be recog-
nized by being of a blnish-green color, with a white, waxy
bloom, of an oval form, with two short, slender tubes
projecting from the posterior part of the abdomen. These
have open ends and were formerly supposed to excrete the
sweet liquid " honey-dew '' upon which the ants feed, and
were therefore called " honey-tubes. '^ If the Grass-louse
be the depredator, however, it may be recognized by its
white color, its blackish head and markings, and the
absence of the honey-tubes, their position being indicated
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN. 135
by two small openings surrounded by narrow brownish
rings. The latter species is common upon the roots of
grasses, among which may be mentioned bhie grass,
timothy, and Paniciim glahruw, and though it rarely
becomes of any great economic importance, it is well to be
able to distinguish it from the more injurious Corn Eoot-
louse.
Distrihution and Food. — The Corn Root-louse has been
reported from Illinois, where it occurs in all parts of the
State, Maryland, Xew Jersey, Delaware, Indiana, Ohio,
Kentucky, Minnesota, and Nebraska, so that it doubtless
occurs to some extent through the whole Corn Belt.
Besides broom-corn and sorghum no other cultivated crop
has been known to have been injured l)y this pest, though
it feeds in early spring and even as late as June upon
the roots of smaitweed, purslane, Fortiilaca solcracco,
ragweed, foxtail, and crab-grasses. The economic bearing
of its feeding upon these weeds will be seen in discussing
the life-history.
Care of the Ants. — If you will break open the nests of
the small brown ants {Lasius niger and var. alienvs),
which are common in corn-fields which have been infested
w^ith the root-louse, during the winter, you will doubtless
find many of the little black aphis-eggs, which have been
carefully stored by the ants and which will be well cared
for by them during the winter. They are of a glossy
black color and an oval shape, and will sometimes be found
in small piles in the chambers of the ants^ nests. On
warm days the ants bring them up to the warmer surface-
soil, and in cold weather carry them far down into the
unfrozen earth. With the appearance of the young smart-
weed plants [Polygo7ium pcrsicaria) in early spring, the
130 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
eggs commence to hatch. The ants at once lay hare the
smartweed roots and carry their young wards to them,
where large colonies soon become established.
Life-liidory — If the field is not planted in corn, the
lice will later feed upon the roots of the pigeon-grass or
purslane. About the first of May the second generation
of lice commences to appear, among them being both
winged and wingless forms. Like most j^lant-lice, this
brood, and all daring the summer, are produced by
females known as agamic females, without any intervention
of the male form, the young lice being borne directly by
the female without any Qgg stage. Such females are called
viviparous in contrast to those laying eggs, which are called
ovijDarous, and such a process is termed " budding '' or
partlienogenesis. The little brown ants again transfer the
lice to the roots of the young corn-plants about this time,
burroAving around the roots of the corn so as to lay them
bare, and even carrying hither winged lice. All through
the summer they attend the lice, burrowing around the
roots of the corn, and carrying them from plant to plant,
in return for which, upon stroking the lice with their
antennae, the lice give off the sweet " honey- dew" upon
which the ants feed; indeed, the lice have been well
likened to herds of cattle, cared for by the ant herds-
men. The first three generations each require about
nineteen days to become full-grown. During the summer
the lice continue breeding with extreme rapidity, the
broods becoming mature in an average of eleven days, ,
some twelve broods occurring before the middle of Sep-
tember. During the summer both winged and wingless
agamic females occur, but about the middle of September
appears a brood of wingless lice including both true sexes.
INSECTS INJUIITOUS TO C()R:N'. 137
The females of this brood hxy the eggs until the middle of
November. This generatiou is usually carried by the ants
to their nests, of which they are given the freedom and in
which they lay their eggs.
Bemcdics — Owing to the fact that the lice do not
migrate until the second generation, a rotation of crops
will be of considerable service in checking their injuries,
as corn planted on uninfested land will not be attacked
until it has been able to secure a good start, and if well
fertilized may be able to successfully withstand the injuries
of the lice. The proper fertilization of plants infested
with root-insects is always of the greatest importance, and
usually the corn-plant will readily throw out sufficient
roots to enable it to mature a crop, if the soil contains
sufficient nourishment and is under proper cultivation.
As the ants not only care for the lice during spring and
summer, being largely responsible for their spread, but
house the eggs in their nests over winter, any means by
which the nests may be destroyed together with their
inmates, the adult ants, their larvae, and aphis-eggs, will
therefore be of considerable value in controlling the lice.
Deep fall plowing and harrowing, thoroughly breaking up
the ants' nests just before early winter, has been found to
accomplish this end to a large extent, and is also excellent
practice for destroying the hibernating larv^ of cutworms
and the Corn Stalk-borer. Furthermore, inasmucli as the
lice feed upon various weeds in early spring, if these be
kept cultivated out, the probability of injury to the corn
will be greatly lessened. These weeds are usually thickest
in low spots, and it is in just these places that the lice
appear first and do their worst damage.
Injury done by the Corn Eoot-aphis is often overlooked
138
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
'■-' "■'■':>liiSi
Fig. 74.— The Corn ^o<di2i\s\\\'& {Aphis inaidiT(idiiis Forbes); Ovip-
arous female, n, hiud tibia, showing sensoria. (After Forbes.)
Fig. 75. — The Corn Root aphis; male, a, antenna?. (After Forbes.)
INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO CORN.
139
4 5
Fig. 76. —The Corn Root-aphis i Aphis mndirddi'-is Forbes). 1,
wingless viviparous female; a, apex of abdomen; 2, antennae
of same; S, pupa; 4, winged viviparous femal?; 5, antenna of
same. (After Forbes.)
140
INSKCTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLH CHOPS.
or attributed to other 'causes, as is much of that done
l)y root-lice on other plants, largely on account of igno-
rance concerning it. From the above desciiption of its life
be
i ^
CQ
C
o
03
M
its destructive capacity may readily be seen, and also the
weak points in its career, at which times it may be most
successfully combated. With such a knowledge to guide
us, the application of the cultural methods outlined is but
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN.
141
a simple matter, and a most practical and efficient method
of dealing with this troublesome pest.
J
k
Fig. 78. — Grass Root-louse; wingless viviparous female. (After
Forbes.)
INJURING THE STALK.
Corn Bill-bugs {Sphenophorns spp.).
Description. — Throughout the South and often in the
more Northern States, Canada, and the West the Corn
Bill-bugs sometimes become serious enemies of young
corn-plants. They belong to the same class of " snout-
beetles "as the Plum Curculio and Grain-weevil, and to
the same family as the latter — the Cidandridce. They are
called " Bill-bugs" on account of the prolongation of the
head, termed a bill or snout, by means of which they are
enabled to drill holes in the corn-stalks. Several species
belonging to the genus Sphe?iophor2{s are commonly in-
jurious to corn. One of these, S. parvidus GylL, also
attacks small grains and timothy, and is therefore known
as the Grain Sphenophorus. xA.nother species, S. ohscurus
Boisd., does considerable injury to sugar-cane in Hawaii,
143 INSECTS IXJUKIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The adult beetles are from one-fourth to three-fourths of
an inch long, of the form shown in the illustration, and
are of a brown or black color, marked with darker longi-
tudinal ridges on the wing-covers. The larvge are of from
one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch long, thick fleshy
white grubs, with brown heads and cervical shields on first
segments, and footless.
Life'liistories. — The life-histories of the different sj)ecies
are but partially known and vary somewhat,
S. parvnhis hibernates over winter as a beetle, appear-
ing in March and April. The female punctures the stalk
of wheat or timothy — oats and barley are also sometimes
attacked — a little above the roots, and deposits her egg in
the cavity. This is done in May or June even up to July
1st. The larv^ are to be found during July, becoming
full-grown and pupating during the latter part of that
month. The larvae will eat out quite a cavity in the
interior of the stalk or bulb, and then attack the roots,
thus often killing a whole clump or stool of small grain
or timothy. The pupal stage is passed in a small cell in
the earth and lasts from two to three wrecks, adult beetles
emerging from the middle of August to the first of
October.
The life-history of S. 7'ohustns ic not known, though
larvae and pupse were collected in South Carolina on
August 20th, and adults in early sj^ring and late August.
So far this species has been found only on corn. " Wher-
ever, ^^ says Dr. Howard, "the larva had reached its full
size the pith of the stalk was found completely eaten out
for at least five inches. Below ground even the hard,
external portions of the stalk were eaten through, and in
one instance everything except the rootlets had dis-
INSECTS INJUIilOUS TO CORN 143
appeared and the stiilk had fallen to the ground, Jn a
great majorit}^ of instances but a single larv'a was found
in a stalk, but a few cases were found where two larvae were
at work. In no case had an ear filled on a stalk bored
by this larva. The stalk w^as often stunted and twisted,
and the lower leaves were invariably brown and twisted."
One of the most injurious species to corn is *S'. ochrens
Lee. The life-history is much the same as that of
S. parviilns, though eggs have been found as late as July
30th. The natural food-plant of this Sjoecies, however, is
the common Club-rush (Scirpns fluvia tills), the roots of
which consist of bulbs connected by smaller slender roots.
The eggs are deposited in or about the roots of this rush,
never having been found on corn. The bulbs of the rush
are very hard and oftentimes as large as hens' eggs. In
them the larva? burrow, becoming full-grown aiul trans-
forming to pupa?, from which the adult beetles ap2")ear in
August and September. When the rush becomes too hard
for the beetles they often attack a comm.on reed (PIivckj-
mites commnuis), piercing and splitting lengthwise the
unfolded terminal leaves, and eating out the succulent
portions within. The injury to corn is done by the beetles
while the corn is still young, feeding upon it in the same
manner as do the other species. '' Standing with the head
downward and the feet embracing the lower part of the
stalk.-' says Dr. Forbes, ''they slowly sink the beak into
the plant, using the jaws to make the necessary perfora-
tion. Bv movincr forward and backward and twistins: to
the right and left, the beetle Avill often hollow out a cavity
beneath the surface much larger than the superficial injury
will indicate.'' As the lower part of the stalk becomes
hardened, they leave it for the terminal ]iortion, and when
144
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
the ears commence to form often penetrate the husk and
gorga out the soft cob. Sometimes the injury thus in-
flicted is but slight, merely resulting in a puncturing of
the leaves when they unfold, these being in a series across
the leaf resulting from a single puncture when the leaf was
folded, and looking much like the work of the Corn Eoot-
web-worm. But when several beetles attack a young plant,
Fig. 79.— *Si. ochreus, larva, adult, and work in roots of Srirpus.
(After Webster, "Insect Life.")
they will either kill it outright or so deform the foliage
and stalk that no ear will mature.
Several other species have also been known to do more
or less injury to corn, viz., ;S'. sropan'iis, ])Iacidus, cariosus,
S('(il/)filis^ and pertinax, but so far as known their habits
and injuries are much the same as of those already described.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN.
145
Means of Control. — The control of these pests is rather
a difficult task. S. rohustiis, which breeds in corn and
winters in a pnpal cell in the roots and stalk as an adult
Fig. 80. — Sections of Sugar cane showing- work of Sphenojilwrvs
ohacnrus. a, larva; b, papa; c, probable points of ovipo!;ition.
(After Riley and Howard, "Insect Life.")
beetle, might be destroyed by plowing np and burning the
stubble. '8. oclireus, as are in fact all of the species, is
most injurious on recently cleared swamp-land, and usually
disappears as fast as these lands are drained and cultivated.
Planting llax, potatoes, or some crop not attacked by these
146 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
insects for the first crop will largely prevent so serious
injury to a subsequent corn crop. The burning over of
grass- and swamp-land infested with the beetles will-also
be of considerable value.
The Larger Corn Stalk-borer {Diatrcea saccharalis Fab.).*
I)) jury. — Every season corn throughout the district from
Alabama to Maryland is more or less seriously injured by
large, white, brown-spotted caterpillars, which bore into
the stalks, especially the young stalks. When abundant
a loss of from "Zh to 50 j^gi' cent of the crop results. In
Louisiana and the West Indies this pest is known as the
Sugar-cane-borer. It is found as far west as Kansas, and
is frequently injurious in the southern parts of Maryland,
Delaware, and New Jersey.
Life-liistorii. — In the fall when the caterpillars become
full-grown they burrow down into the tap-root and there
pass the winter in a small cavity at or near the surface of
the ground. In the spring they transform to pup^ (Fig-
81), from which the adults soon emerge. The eggs are laid
upon the leaves of the young corn near the axils, and the
young larvae hatching from them bore into the stalk and
upward through the pith. As the borers grow they
become very active and frequently leave and re-enter the
stalk, thus making several holes. When the caterpillars
are full-grown they bore outwards to the surface of the
stalk, making a hole for the escape of the adult moth, and
then transform to pupa? in the burrows. This takes
place from the middle of July (m, and the adult moths
emerge from ten days to two weeks later. The second
*SeeL. O. Howard, Circular 16, n, s,, Div. Entomology, U. S,
Dept. Agriculture,
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN.
ir.
brood of larva? feed on the old stalks, tunneling them
between the second joint and the ground, and become
full-grown about harvest-time, when they go into winter
— v.^
r^-
FiG. 81. — Work of the larger Coru Stalk-borer, a, general appear-
ance of stalk infested by the early o;eneration of borers; h, same
cut open to sll0^v pupa and laryal b^rro^y. (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
quarters as alread}^ described. " The damage done by the
second generation consists largely in weakening the stalk
so that it is readily blown to the ground, whereas damage
148
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLH: CROPS.
Fig. 82. — a, b, c, varieties of the larva of the larger Corn Stalk-
borer; d, third thoracic segment; e. eighth abdominal segment;
/, abdominal segment from side; g, same from above— enlarged.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 83. — The larger Corn Stalk-borer, a, female; h, wings of
male; c, pupa— all somewhat enlarged. (After Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN. 149
by the first generation results in serious injury to the crop,
preventing the growth of the ears/'
Description. — When full-grown the larv^ are about
three-fourths of an inch long, with six true legs and five
pairs of pro-legs, and of a white color marked with brown
as shown in Fig. 8*?. These brown markings often become
indistinct or lost in larvae hibernating over winter.
Preve7itive. — Dr. Howard states that "in 1891 it was
found that of corn planted during the first and second
weeks in April, 25 per cent was damaged; of that planted
the third and fourth weeks, 20 per cent was damaged: of
that planted May 1st to 15th, 15 per cent was damaged:
of that planted May 15th to 31st, 12 per cent was
damaged; of that j^lanted from June 1st to 15th, 8 per
cent or less was damaged. In fact, corn planted after the
first of June was practically uninfested. "
Remedies. — Where corn has been seriously infested the
old stalks or butts should be dragged off the field and
burned late in the fall, thus destroying the over-wintering
borers. Where corn is stripped for fodder, the stalks left
standing, and the land sown in small grain, the most
favorable conditions are allowed the borers for safely pass-
ing the winter and developing into moths which will fly
to new fields in the spring. Besides corn, sugar-cane, and
sorghum, this insect also attacks a rank-growing grass
which grows upon swampy land, known as Ga ma-grass,
or Sesame-grass (Tripsacum dad ylo ides). Where such
grass adjoins corn-fields, therefore, it would be well to
burn it over in the summer. A simple rotation of crops
will also do much to lessen the numbers of this pest. It
has been observed by Dr. Howard that crops on fields
planted in corn the previous year have been damaged to
150
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
the extent of 25 per cent, whereas injury to corn planted
on sod land was only 10 per cent, though reasonably close
to land which had been in corn.
Cutworms [NncJuidce).
Almost all of our common cutworms attack young corn
to a greater or less extent, sometimes doing considerable
Fig. 84. — The Well-marked Cutworm-moth [Noctua clandestina
Harris). (After Slingerland.)
Fig. 85. — The Dingy Cutworm {Feltia subgothica Haworth); male and
female moths. (After Slingerland.)
damage. The same species affect corn as tobacco, and the
account given on page 214 is therefore equally applicable
to corn cutworms. For large areas clover or grass might
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN. 151
be sprayed with an arseuite, then cut, and bunches of it
scattered over the fields, as a jDoisoned bait, instead of the
bran mash, being cheaper and more easily prepared and
applied in large quantities.
INJURING THE EAR.
The Corn Ear-worm (HeliothU armiger Hubn.).
Practically the only insect seriously injuring the ears of
field-corn, and the worst insect pest of sugar-corn, is the
Ear-worm. In the extreme South the growing of sugar-
corn successfully is almost an impossibility on account of
the injury done by these worms, while further north it
often reduces the profits by far too large an amount.
This insect also does considerable damage to tomatoes
by boring into the green and ripening fruit, being known
as the '^Tomato Fruit-worm"; it bores into the "bud,"
or unfolding leaves, of tobacco, being known to planters
as the '^Tobacco Bud-worm" (see page 218); and is also
one of the most serious j)ests of cotton (see page 201),
being called the ''Cotton Boll-worm " from its habit of
boring into the b)ll. It also has many other food-plants
and is a cosmopolitan insect, being found in many parts
of the world.
Life-hi story. — In this latitude the moths appear during
May and deposit their eggs on corn or other food-plants,
such as beans. The eggs (Fig. 2) are small, yellow, cir-
cular, flattened disks, prettily corrugated by ridges radiat-
ing from the centre. They hatch in three or four days.
When deposited upon corn they are usuall}^ laid in the silk
or tassels. Upon hatching, the young worms, after feeding
upon the silk for a day or two, find their way down into
152
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
the ear, where they feed upon the tip of the young ear.
Very often one worm will feed upon several ears before it
becomes full-grown, eating its way out through the husk,
^-#»
Fig. 86. — Corn Ear-worms at Work. The central cob has been
attacked by a nearly full-grown worm, which has bored through
the husk near the middle. (Original.)
in which it leaves a large round hole (Fig. 87), marking
its exit. When full-grown the worms leave the ears and
go into the ground, where, three or four inches below the
surface, they hollow out small oval cells and in them
transform to pupae. From ten days to two weeks later the
next brood of moths emerges. Thus the complete life-cycle
is completed in about thirty- eight days, the exact time
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN.
153
varying with the hititiide and season. In the South there
are five broods in a vear; in Delaware there are three
Fig. 87.— Corn Ear-worm. Husk of ear of sugar-corn torn open,
showing worms at work on tip, and hole tlirongli which a full-
grown worm has left. (Original.)
broods, further nortli but two, and in some sections possi-
bly only one brood may occur. The second Ijrood of
154 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
moths appears in northern Dekiware about the middle of
July, and the third brood during the first two weeks of
September. In northern Delaware only the hist brood
of worms in Sejotember is injurious, but in the southern
part of the State corn is injured at all seasons, but worst
in July and September. In Delaware but little corn is
canned after September 1st, but in Maryland, where it is
canned until frost, the late corn is always more or less
seriously injured.
Reinedies. — As yet no thoroughly satisfactory method of
combating this pest upon corn is known. As the jmp^e
of the last brood in the fall hibernate in the ground over
winter, many of them may be killed by deep plowing late
in the fall or early in the spring, but as the moths are
strong fliers this probably would not appreciably lessen the
number of worms unless generally practiced throughout a
community. Evidently the time of planting is a point
Tvhich should be carefully considered. As the moths
prefer to lay their eggs on the silk, corn which is in silk
when they emerge from the ground will be most seriously
injured, while corn which has finished silking at that time
will be but little injured. Thus a few days' difference in
the time of planting may mean immunity from injury or
serious loss. In this locality corn planted between the
15th and 22d or 23d of June — the exact dates varying with
the season — escapes injury by the fall brood, but that
planted later than this is more or less injured, the later
plantings being injured worst. The time of appearance
of the different broods in different localities is therefore a
matter of considerable importance, and a careful study
may show that by proper planting injury can be largely
escaped.
CHAPTER VIII.
"WEEVIL" IN GRAIN.
The enterprising farmer who stores his grain, awaiting
a higher price, is often sadly disappointed, when he sells at
the top of the market, to find that it has been so riddled
by '^weevil" that it brings no more than had it been sold
previonsly.
The term '^ weevil'^ is rather a comprehensive one,
being commonly applied to almost every insect infesting
stored food-products. But only four species are commonly
injurious in the farm -granary.
Grain-weevils,
Of these the Granary-weevil (Calandrn granaria Linn.)
and the Rice-weevil {C. oryzce) (Fig. 88) are the most
common and widely distributed. Both of these insects
have infested grain from the most ancient times, so long,
in fact, that the granary-weevil has lost the use of its wings
and remains entirely indoors. They are small, brown
beetles, from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in length,
with long snouts which are of great service in boring into
the kernels of grain. By means of them the females
puncture the grain and then insert an egg iii the cavity.
The larva hatching from this is without legs, somewhat
shorter than the adult, white in color, and of a very robust
155
156
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Fig. 88. — Cnlaridra uranaria. a, beetle; h, larva; c, pupa; d, G.
oryz'i. beetle— all enlarged, i After Chittenden, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)
Fig. 89. — Bilvanus surinamensis. ((, adult beetle; b, pupa; c, larva
— all enlarged; d, antenna of larva— still more enlarged; e,
Cathnrtus yemellatus. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
"weevil" IX GRAIN". 157
build, being almost as broad as long. It soon devours the
soft interior of the kernel and then changes to a ])ui^a,
from which the adult beetle emerges in about six weeks
from the time the egg was laid.
Only a single larva inhabits a kernel of wheat, but
several will often be found in that of corn. Not only do
the larva? injure the grain, but the beetles feed npon it,
and then hollow out a shelter for themselves within the
hull. The beetles are quite long-lived and thus do con-
siderable damage. The egg-laying pewod is equally long,
and as there are three or four broods in the Xorth and six
or more in the South, it has been estimated that the
progeny of one pair would amonnt to 6000 insects in a
single season.
Grain-beetles.
Another beetle very common in the granary, but of
quite different appearance, is the Saw-toothed Grain-beetle
{Silvaniis stirinamensis Linn.) (Fig. 89). It is a cosmo-
politan pest and is also nearly omnivorons. The beetle is
only about one-tenth of an inch long, very much flattened,
of a dark-brown color, and may be easily recognized by the
six saw-like teeth on each side of the thorax. The larva
is of a dirty-white color, and quite dissimilar from that of
the Granary-weevil. Having six legs to cj^rry it about, it
is not satisfied with a single seed, but runs about here and
there, nibbling at several. When full-grown' the larva
glues together several grains or fragments into a little case,
and inside of this transforms to the pupa and then to the
beetle. In early spring this life-cycle requires from six to
ten weeks, but in summer it is reduced to about twenty-
five days. Thus there are from three to six or more
generations during a season, according to the latitude.
158
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The Red or 8qiiare-necked Grain-beetle {Catharius
gemellatus Duv.) (Fig. 89) is about the same size as the
last species, but is of a reddish-brown color, and the
thorax is nearly square, nearly as broad as the abdomen,
Fig. 90.—Tenebroides mauritanicus. a, adult beetle with greatly en-
larged antenna above; h, pupa; c, larva— all enlarged. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
and not notched on the sides. It breeds in corn in the
field and in the granary, first destroying the germ, so that
it is especially injurious to seed-corn. It feeds mostly out
of doors, though sometimes infesting the granary.
The Foreign Grain-beetle {Cathartus advena Waltl.) is
"weevil" in GRAIN". 159
of mucli the same general appearance, but smaller and of
a more robust appearance. It feeds upon a great variety
of stored products as well as grain, but rarely becomes
troublesome.
The Cadelle (Tenehroides mauritcmicns Linn.) (Fig. 00)
rJso has the bad habit of first attacking the embryo or
germ of the kernel, and going from one kernel to another,
thus destroying a large number for seed purjooses. It
possesses, however, the good trait of destroying other
injurious grain-insects. The beetle is oblong, flat, nearly
black, and about one-third of an inch long. The larva is
of a whitish color, with brown head, the thoracic segments
marked with brown, and the abdomen terminating in two
dark horny processes. It is a long fleshy grub, nearly
three-fourths of an inch long when full-grown.
Flour- and Meal-moths.
The larvae of several small moths sometimes infest grain
in store, but rarely do it serious damage, preferring the
softer flour, meal, and food-products.
The most destructive of these is the Mediterranean Flour-
moth [Ephedia Jctieliniella Zell.) (Fig. 91). This insect
was jDractically unknown until 1877, but during recent
years it has occasioned the loss of many thousands of
dollars to mill-owners. It occurs throughout Europe, and
is found in Mexico and Chili. It was first recognized in
America in 1889, and has since done an increasing amount
of damage in California, in New York and Pennsylvania,
while it has been reported as occurring in North Carolina,
Alabama, New Mexico, and Colorado, and seems to be
constantly spreading. " The caterpillars form cylindrical
silken tubes in which they feed, and it is in great part
160
INSECTS INJUllIOUS TO STAPLE CKOPS.
Fig. 91. — Ej)hestia kuehniella. a, moth; h, same from side, resting;
c, larva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal joint of larva— more
enlarged; /, larva, dorsal view. (After Chittenden, Y . S. Dept.
Agr.)
Fig. 92. — Plodia inter punctella. a, moth; h, chrysalis; c, cater-
pillar; /, same, dorsal view— somewhat enlarged; d, head, and e,
first abdominal segment of caterpillar — more enlarged. (After
Chittenden, U. S.l)ept. Agr.)
Fig. 93. — Pyralis farinalis. a, adult moth; h, larva; c, pupa in
cocoon — twice natural size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)
"weevil'' in grain. 161
their habit of web-spinning that renders them so injurious
where they obtain a foothold. Upon attaining full growth
the caterpillar leaves its originrJ silken domicile and forms
a new web, which becomes a cocoon in Avhich to undergo
its transformations to pupa and imago. It is Avhile search-
ing for a suitable place for transformation that the insect
is most troublesome. The infested flour becomes felted
together and lumpy, the machinery becomes clogged,
necessitating frequent and prolonged stoppage, and result-
ing in a short time in the loss of thousands of dollars in
large establishments/'*
The life-cycle of this insect requires ordinarily about
two months, but may be completed in thirty-eight days
under the most favorable conditions. The adult moth
measures a little less than an ioch across the expanded
wings. The fore wings are of a lead -gray color, with
transverse black markings, while the hind wings are dirty
whitish, with a darker border.
The Indian Meal-moth {Ploclia interpiDictella Hbn.)
(Fig. 92) larvae resemble those of the grain-beetles in
having a special liking for the embryo of wheat-grains.
They spin a fine silken web as they go from seed to seed,
to which they become attached, and to wliieh is added a
large amount of excrement, thus spoiling for food much
more grain than is actually injured.
The moth has a wing-exjDanse of an inch; the inner
third of the fore wings being a whitish gray, and the outer
portion reddish brown, with a coppery lustre.
The Meal Snout-moth {Pyrcdis farinalis Umn.) (Fig.
93) is of a light-brown color, the thorax, base, and tips of
*"Sorae Insects lujurious to Stored Grain," U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 45, F. H. Chittenden.
162 INSECTS IXJUHIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
the fore wings being darker brown. The wings expand
nearly an inch and are otherwise marked with Avhitish lines
as shown in the fignre. It is very similar to the last-men-
tioned species in its habits, constructing long tubes with
silk and particles of the food in which it is living. The
life-history is completed in about eight weeks, and four
generations may occur in a year. The moisture of
'' heated ^^ grain is most favorable for the development of
this pest, and it need not be feared if grain is kej)t in a
clean, dry place.
The Angumois Grain-moth.
By far the worst granary pest throughout the South is
the '* Fly- weevil/' or Angumois Grain-moth [Sistotroga
cerealella Oliv.).
History. — This insect is an importation from Europe
and receives its name from the fact that in 1760 it ''^was
found to swarm in all the wheat-fields and granaries of
Angumois and of the neighboring provinces [of France],
the afflicted inhabitants being thereby deprived of their
principal staple, and threatened with famine and pestilence
from want of wholesome bread/' The insect was first
noted in this country in Xorth Carolina in 1730, and in
1796 was so abundant as to extinguish a lighted candle
when a granary was entered at night. It is essentially a
southern insect, in the Gulf States being very injurious to
stored corn. Of late years it seems to be moving steadily
northward, being reported as injurious in central Pennsyl-
vania and Ohio. Wheat, corn, oats, rye, barley, sorghum-
seed, and even cow-peas are subject to injury.
Life-history. — The injury is not done by the moth, as
might be reasonably supposed from the fact that it is the
^^ weevil'' in grain. 163
only form of the insect usually seen, but is done by the
small caterpillars which feed within the grain, where they
may be found during the winter. The caterpillar eats to
the surface of the kernel, but not through it, thus leaving
a thin lid which the moth can easily push aside when it
comes out in the spring, and then covers itself with a fine
silken web. At this time the caterpillar is usually fully
grown and is about one -fifth of an inch long, of a white
color, with the head yellowish and harder, having six
jointed legs in front, a series of four pairs of fleshy pro-legs
along the middle, and another pair of soft legs at the end
of the body. With warm spring weather the caterpillar
changes to a pupa, and about the time that the wheat
comes into head the adult moth emerges. As soon as it
emerges, whether outdoors or in a barn, the moth at once
flies to the grain-field, where the eggs are deposited. The
exact time at which the moths emerge varies, but occurs
some time late in May or in June. The moths quite
closely resemble the clothes-moths often found flying about
houses. The wings are quite narrow, and when expanded
measure about one-half an inch from tip to tip, being of
a yellowish or buff color, marked with black. The eggs i,
are laid in the longitudinal channel on the side of the i
grain. Each female lays from sixty to ninety eggs in lotSr ^
of about twenty each, one lot thus being about enough tq /^
infest the kernels of a head. The eggs hatch in fror^, lI
four to seven days. The young caterpillars are at fir^i.i
very active and soon find tender places and bore into tl|e ^
kernels, leaving almost invisible openings. These cat^
pillars become full-grown in about three weeks, just abqmtjQ
the time the grain is mature. About harvest-time the ,
second brood of moths appear. Tiiese lay their eggi^^l
164
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
during July, depositing tliem on tbo ripe heads if the
harvest be a little delayed, but on the wheat in stacli if
harvest is prompt. Usually the caterpillars hatching from
these eggs become full-grown and remain in the grain over
winter, but in warm seasons, esj^ecially if warm in Sep-
tember, and when the pest is unusually abundant, a third
brood of moths appear early in September. These lay
another batch of eggs about the middle of September,
depositing them upon the open ends of grain in stack or
Fig. M.—Sitotrogi rerexlelln. a, eggs; b, larva at work; c, larva,
side view; d, pupa, e, moth:/, same, side view. (After Chit-
tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr. )
mow, which thus becomes more infested than that in the
centre. In grain stacked outside, the caterpillars of this
brood become fnll-grown slowly and remain in the grain
over winter, but if in the mow they grow faster and a
fourth brood of moths appear about the middle of
October, the moths being noticed in threshing. The
insects continue to breed within doors all winter as long
as any grain remains, though they become sluggish and
cease feeding during a very cold spell. The number of
weevil" in ORAIN".
165
^'
broods is entirely dependent npon
the latitude and weather condi-
tions; in the South, where they
can breed continuously, there
being as many as eight in a j^ear.
Corn is frequently attacked, but
not until it is ripe and husked,
and then but rarely when husked
in October and November and
stored outdoors in shitted cribs. I"
Seed-corn stored in barns, and in
the South in almost any situation,
is often badly injured.
Aside from loss in weight,
grain when badly infested becomes
unfit for milling j^urposes, and
will even be refused by cattle
and horses, which should not be
urged to eat it. In that case
hogs and fowls Avill readily con-
sume it.
Remedies. — Dr. J. B. Smith,
in an interesting bulletin upon
this 23est, to which we are in-
debted for much of the above,
advises as follows: -'Thresh as
soon after harvest as j^ossible, and
bulk in tight bins or in good
sacks. [By ''tight bins" are
meant those which will not per-
mit the entrance or exit of the
moths. ] If the grain is dry when
X '^■
L!La*
o»:
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L'^ et
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166 INSECTS TXjrRiors to staple crops.
harvested, it may be threshed at once; if not, as soon as it
is in good condition. If the sacked grain is infested, there
will not be wormy kernelc sufficient to heat the grain.
The moths cannot make their way out and are stifled.
Nothing can come in from outside and the grain remains
safe. The threshing itself kills many of the insects and
jars and rubs off many of the eggs. If binned, the bins
should be tight and the grain should be tested occasionally
for any ajDpreciable heating. If it heats perceptibly, it
indicates considerable infestation, and it should be treated
with carbon bisulfide at once, used at the rate of one drachm
per cubic foot, or one pound for 250 cubic feet bin-space."
We have sometimes found two or three pounds for 100
bushels of grain necessary, though one or one and one-half
pounds for 100 bushels has been often recommended. The
bisulfide should be placed in shallow plates or pans on top of
the grain, preferably not over a pound in a vessel, and the
bin should then be covered with boards, canvas, or olankets,
and allowed to remain at least twenty-four hours. If to
be used for seed, it should not be left for over thirty-six
hours; but if not, leave it forty-eight hours, which will do
it no injury for food. After treating kee}) the grain
covered to prevent reinfestation.
Those having wheat unthreshed, whether in stack or
mow, should thresh at once, and treat as above directed,
except that if much of it is noticed to be wormy, it should
be treated with carbon bisulfide at once, as soon as
threshed, which if done thoroughly will prevent any
further infestation this year.
Barns and storehouses should be cleaned up and freed
from all loose and scattered grain — chickens will help in
this — before April 1st, so that no moths will be allowed to
''weevil'^ tx grain. 16T
develop and infest the grain in tlie field. Places where
grain has been in shock the previous season should be
cleaned up by the aid of chickens. Thus if there is any
probability of grain being infested, it should be kept tightly
covered in the sj)ring so as not to permit the spread of the
moths to the fields.
Prevention of'^ Weevil." — Undoubtedly grain-insects can
usually be more successfully combated by a proj)er housing
of the grain. No matter how often the insects in a
granary are destroyed, if the remainder of the barn is full
of dust, sweepings, and refuse, as it generally is, on which
the beetles can feed and in which they will breed, and if
the granary is not absolutely tight, as soon as the gas
passes off the insects from the barn will again enter the
granary, and soon it will be as badly infested as ever.
Cleanliness. — " Cleanliness will accomplish much toward
the prevention of injury from these pests, the cause of a
great j)roportion of injuries in granaries, mills, elevators,
and other structures where grain and feed are stored being
directly traceable to a disregard of neatness. Dust, dirt,
rubbish, and refuse material containing sweepings of
grain, flour, and meal are too frequently permitted to
accumulate and serve as breeding-places for a multitude
of injurious insects.
"The floors or corners and walls of the barn or store-
house should be frequently swept, and all material that
has no commercial value burned.'^
The Granary. — " The ideal farmer's granary, from the
standpoint of insect ravages, should be built at some dis-
tance from other buildings, and the rooms constructed of
matched flooring so as to be as near vermin-proof as possi-
ble. The doors should fit tighth^, closing upon a rabbet,
168 IXSECTS IXJURIors TO STAPLE CROPS.
which may be covored with felt or packing, and the
windows covered with frames of wire gauze to j)reYent the
passage of insects. The floor, wails, and ceilings should
be smooth, so as not to afford any lurking-places for the
insects, and it would be well to have them oiled, painted,
or whitewashed for further security. A coating of coal-
tar has been strongly recommended for the latter pur-
pose."
"The value of a cool place as a repository of grain has
been known of old, and a building in which any artificial
heat is employed is undesirable for grain storage. The
'heating' and fermentation of grain, as is well known, is
productive of 'weevil,' and this should be prevented by
avoiding moisture and by ventilation.
''TJie storage of grain in large hulk is to be com-
mended, as the surface layers only are exposed to infesta-
tion. This practice is particularly valuable against the
moths, which do not penetrate far beneath the surface.
Frequent agitation of the grain is also destructive to the
moths, as they are unable to extricate themselves from a
large mass, and perish in the attempt. The true granary-
weevils (small dark-brown beetles with long curved snouts,
similar to the pea-weevil), however, penetrate more deeply,
and although bulking is of valtie against them, it is not
advisable to stir the grain, as it merely distributes them
more thoroughly through the mass."
Destruction of " Weevil."
Carhon Bisvlficle.- — '• The simi)lest, most effective, and
most inexpensive remedy for all insects that affect stored
grain and other stored products is the bisulfide of carbon,
a colorless liquid, with a strong disagreeable odor, which,
'Mveeyil" tx PtRaix. 169
however, soon passes away." At ordinary temperature it
vaporizes rapidly, forming a heavy gas, which is highly
inflammable and a powerful poison.
Ap])lication. — It may be apj)lied directly to the infested
grain or seed without injury to its edible or germinative
principles by spraying with an ordinary watering-can
having a fine rose nozzle. In moderately tight bins it is
more effective, however, evaporating more slowly and
diffusing more evenly, if placed in shallow dishes or pans,
or on bits of cloth or cotton waste distributed about on
the surface of the grain or infested material. The liquid
volatilizes rapidty, and, being heavier than air, descends
and permeates the mass of grain, killing all insects and
other vermin present.
Amount to Use. — The bisulfide is usually evaporated in
vessels containing one-fourth or one-half of a pound
each, and is applied in tight bins at the rate of one to
three pounds to 100 bushels of grain, and in more open
bins a larger quantity is used. For smaller masses of
grain or other material an ounce is evaporated to every
100 pounds of the infested matter. Bins may be rendered
nearly air-tight by covering with cloths, blankets, or
canvas.
The amount of bisulfide to be used depends very largely
upon the shape of the space to be fumigated. If the grain
is in approximately a cubical form, the above amounts will
be sufficient; but if spread out with but little depth, two
to four or five times as much will be found necessary.
Time to Fumigate. — '^Infested grain is generally sub-
jected to the bisulfide treatment for twenty-four hours, but
may be exposed much longer without harming it for mill-
ing purposes. If not exposed for more than thirty-six
170 INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO STAPLE CROPS.
hours, its germinating power will be unimpaired. In open
cribs and badly infested buildings it may sometimes be
necessary to use a double quantity of the reagent and
repeat treatment at intervals of about six weeks during
the warmest weather.^'
When possible it is always desirable to fan the grain
immediately after fumination, thus removing the dead
insects, and to thoroughly clean the granary before refill-
ing it.
"Mills and other buildings, when fonnd to be infested
throughout, may be thoroughly fumigated and rid of
insects by a liberal use of the same chemical. A good time
for this work is during daylight on a Saturday afternoon
or early Sunday morning, closing the doors and windows
as tightly as possible and observing the precaution of
stationing a watchman without to prevent any one from
entering. It is best to begin in the lower story and work
upward to escape the settling gas. The building should
then be thoroughly aired, and the grain stirred early
Monday morning.
" For the fumigation of a building or a reasonably close
room it is customary to evaporate a pound of bisulfide for
every thousand feet of cubic space. In comparatively
empty rooms, and in such as do not admit of being tightly
closed, two or three times the above quantity of the chem-
ical is sometimes necessary.
Cauiio)]. — " Certain precautions should always be
observed. The vapor of bisulfide is deadly to all forms of
animal life if inhaled in sufiicient quantity, but there is no
danger in inhaling a small amount. The vapor is highly
inflammable, but with proper care that no fire of any kind,
as, for example, a lighted cigar, lantern, or light of any
"weevil" in grain. 171
kind, be brought into the vicinity until the fumes have
entirely passed away, no trouble will be experienced."
Cost. — Carbon bisulfide may be secured through any
retail or wholesale druggist in cans of various sizes. In
considerable quantities it may usually be secured from
wholesale houses and manufacturers at from 8 to 10 cents
per pound, and in smaller quantities from retailers at 15
or 20 cents.
CHAPTER IX.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER.
Both for its value as forage and as . a fertilizer, clover
holds a peculiar place among our crops. In the Mississippi
Valley and the Eastern States we have nothing to occupy
its place, and without it the farmer would be at a loss to
make a suitable rotation of crops.
Some eighty-two insects have been noted as doing more
or less injury to the clover-plant, but hardly a dozen of
these can be considered as serious pests. The insects
doing the most injury to clover have so far not become
widely spread and are largely confined to certain States
and latitudes. Bat in these sections they have often been
exceedingly destructive, and they seem to be constantly
spreading.
INJURIN^G THE ROOT.
The Clover Root-borer [Hylastes obsciirus Marsh).
This is the only serious pest preying upon the roots, but
on account of the difficulty with which it is fought makes
a formidable opposition to the successful growth of the
crop. Thus in the southern part of Michigan hardly one-
half a crop was secured in 1894 on account of its ravages.
Though the l^eetles have been well known in Europe for
over a century, their habits there seem to be but little
173
INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO CLOVER. 173
understood. In this country the pest has been noticed
since 1876, when it was first found in three counties in
western Xew York. Since then it has been noted as doing
injury on Long Island and in several parts of Canada.
Some ten years later it appeared in Michigan, and in 1894
was found in northwestern Ohio. Thus it has not become
very generally distributed, and seems to be confined to the
Northern States.
Life-history. — If one tears open a clover-root in an
infested field during the winter, he will usually find the
beetles hibernating in the burrows. They will not be
readily distinguished, as they are scarcely an eighth of an
inch Ions: and are of a reddish -brown color much like that
of the Inirrow. With the warmer weather of spring they
commence burrowing and feeding in the roots, and during
the latter part of May the females deposit their eggs along
the sides of the tunnels. The eggs are shining white, and
are i^laced in the sides of the galleries and then covered
and packed with refuse, so as to separate them from the
rest of the burrow. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the
small white grubs emerge and continue the attack upon
the roots. Here they grow fat during the summer months
and ultimately transform to pupa?, which again change to
beetles during the early fall. This life-history varies con-
siderably, and the grubs are often found much earlier and
the beetles much later than usual. The spread of the
insect occurs very largely in the spring when the beetles
fly from field to field, seeking uninfested plants in which
to perpetuate their kind. Their entrance is usually made
below the surface of the ground, though sometimes the
burrow is started from the crown of the plant.
It has been observed that alsike clover is not so badly
ir-i
IXSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
injured as the mammoth and common red, on account of
its fibrous roots and the tendency of its tap-root to divide.
a
Fig. 96.— The Clover Root-borer {Hylastes ohf<curus Marsh), a,
adult beetle; 6. larva; c, pupae; d, eg^; e, f, showing appear-
ance of infested roots. (After Webster.)
Remedies. — On account of its underground life tliis pest
is not readily combated. The only remedy known is that
lifSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER.
175
suggested by Prof. F. M. Webster, who advises ^^ plowing
the infested fields as soon as the hay cro2:> is removed and
Fig. 96. — Continued.
before the larvae have advanced to the pupal stage. If the
roots are thrown up to the hot sun and dry winds at this
time, they will dry out and thus starve the young larva?,
176
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
thereby preventing their developing and migrating to other
fields." A more frequent and thorough rotation of the
crop will thus be of value.
Meadow-maggots. (See page 90.)
INJURING THE STEM.
The Clover Stem-borer [Laugmna mozardi Fab.).
Early in June one frequently finds the beetles of the
Clover Stem-borer here and there in the clover-field.
They are slender, shining beetles, about one- third of an
inch long, with red head and thorax and bluish-black
Fig. 97. — Clover Stem-borer {Languria moz((rdi). Shows the eggs
natural size and magnified, the beetle, larva, and pupa much
enlarged, and above, a clover-stem with the larva at work in
it. (After Comstock.)
wing-covers. The beetles themselves seem to do little or
no harm. Hibernating over winter, they lay the eggs in
the pith of the stems early in June, and the larvae emerg-
ing from these feed upon the pith of the stem, often ver}-
seriously weakening or killing it. The larvae become full-
grown in a short time, transform to pupge, and the beetles
appear by August.
Clover is only one of a dozen food-plants of this insect,
which is widely distributed. It rarely does any consider-
IN^SECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVEll.
177
able injury whore clover is regularly cut in early summer
and fall, and need not be feared when this is not neglected.
iNJURixG tup: leaves.
The Clover Leaf-weevil (Pliytonomus pundcdus Fab.).
TJie Clover Leaf-weevil is also a native of Europe, and
made its first appearance in this country in the same sec-
FiG. 98.— Clover Leaf-weevil {Phytonomus punctatus Fabr.). a, egg
magnified and natural size; b b b b, larvce; c, recently hatched
larva;^ d, head of larva; e, jaws of the same; /, cocoon; g, same
magnified to sliow tlie meshes; 7^ pupa; i, weevil, natural size;
j, the same magnified; k, top view of the beetle; I, tarsus and
claws of the beetle; m, antenna of the beetle. (After Riley.)
tion of western l^ew York as the root-borer, in 1881. Its
injuries during that and the following year seem to have
been the worst on record. Since then it has spread east
178 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
into Connecticut, south to Maryland and AVcst Virginia
and as far west as Ohio and Micliigan. Every few years
the weevils and larva? destroy much of the foliage, but
rarely are as bad the next season. The weevil is about
one-third of an inch long, of a stout, oval form, with a
long, thick snout. It is of a brown color, with several
narrow gray lines above and broad gray stripes on each
side, and with twenty rows of small, deep punctures on the
wing-covers.
Life-liistorij. — In early fall the females lay their eggs in
crevices among the stems near the base of tlie plant. The
young larvae emerging from them are without legs, but
manage to climb quite well by means of the prominent
tubercles on the lower surface of the body. They are light
yellowish green, which usually becomes deej)er green as
they grow older. The larvse become partially grown before
winter sets in, when they go into a dormant stage, hiding
in rubbish or under the soil till spring, when they continue
to feed upon the foliage and become full-grown in May
and June. The larvae feed mostly at night and will not
be noticed during the day, when they lie protected around
the base of the phmt. The injury done to the foliage is
very characteristic, the edges of the leaves being eaten in
a very regular manner as shown in the illustration. Before
transforming to the pupa the larva constructs a very deli-
cate cocoon of a greenish-yellow color, which is left on the
surface of the ground. In this the joupal stage is passed,
occupying about a month, the beetles being most common
in Julv and Ausfust. The damage which the beetles do to
the second crop of clover is fully equal that done by the
larva? to the first, and is more apparent, because the soil
is then dry and the plant makes a slower growth. In
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. 1?9
some cases the beetles have been known to hibernate ovei
winter, when the larv^ would occur correspondingly
earlier.
Enemies. — The reason that this insect has not become a
more serious pest is, that as often as it becomes excessively ■
abundant the larvae are attacked by a fungous disease
AV'hich carries them off by the millions. When affected by
this they climb to the top of a blade of grass, curl tightly
around the tip, and soon die, first becoming covered with
a white mold and then turning to a jelly-like mass. The
spores of the fungus become scattered to healtlw indi-
viduals, which soon succumb. Larva? affected in this
manner may be easily recognized, and when diseased larvae
are found in any quantity care should be taken not to
pasture cattle on land infested with them, as instances are
on record in which there seems little doubt that cattle have
been seriously poisoned by eating these diseased larvae.
The Clover-mite (B?^yoMa praieiisis).
The spraying of fruit-trees for various in sect -pests in
winter has been found to be one of the best means of
keeping in control those which hibernate or whose eggs are
on the trees during that season. One of these is the
Clover-mite {Bryohia pratensis), an insect Avidely dis-
tributed and of most variable habits.
As its name indicates, this insect is nearly related to the
common red spider of greenhouses, belonging to the family
of vegetable-feeding mites {Tetranychidce), and with which
it is often confused. It is, however, about twice the size
of the red spider, being fully three-tenths of an inch long.
Though knovrn as the Clover-mite, on account of its
feeding upon that jDlant, yet this insect was first known
180 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS,
as, and is still, an important enemy of fruit-trees, more
especially on the Pacific coast and in the Western States,
but also in other sections of the country. The most
injury seems to have been done to clover in the Central
States as far south as Tennessee, though it has suffered
somevi^hat even in the East.
When attacked by the mite the leaves of the clover or
fruit-trees become yellow and have a sickly appearance, as
Fig. 99. — The Clover-mite {Bryobia pratensis).
if affected with a fungous disease. Especially upon the
upper sides of the tender leaves of clover the juices are
extracted over irregular areas, looking more or less like
the burrows of some leaf-mining larvae. Owing to the
small size of the mites they may be doing considerable
damage to the foliage and yet remain unnoticed; but in
the egg stage the pest is much more readily detected and
INSECTS i:N^JrilTOFS TO TLOVER. 181
attacked. In the more northern States the eggs are laid
in the fall, and do not hatch until the next spring.
Further south, however, the adult mites hibernate over
winter. The eggs are of a reddish color, laid upon the
bark of trees, especially in the crotches, and in the West
are sometimes so thickly placed as to cover considerable
areas two or three layers deep. When the adult mites
leave the clover-fields in the fall to fiiul hibernating quar-
ters upon fruit-trees for the winter, they often become
quite a nuisance by invading dwelling-houses which are in
their path. This is more j)articularly the case throughout
the Mississij^pi Valley.
I^einedies. — AVhen swarming into a house their progress
may be arrested by spraying the lower part of the building,
walls, etc., with 23ure kerosene as often as necessary.
Inside the house they may be destroyed by the use of
pyrethrum powder (Persian insect-powder), burning brim-
stone, or S23raying with benzine, care being taken not to
bring the latter substance near the fire.
The only practical way of protecting clover from the
mite is by destroying the eggs and hibernating mites upon
the fruit-trees in winter. This may be done by burning
all the prunings and thoroughly spraying the trees with
kerosene emulsion diluted with five parts of water, or with
a mechanical mixture of twenty or twenty-five per cent
kerosene and water. Such a si^raying will also j^rotect the
fruit-trees from tlie mite, and will also destroy numerous
other insects, such as the j^ear-leaf blister-mite, which
hibernates upon the trees. Such small insects, so minute
as to usually escape notice, are often responsible for a poor
growth, and should be i)roperly checked whenever known
to be injurious.
182 INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The Destructive Pea-louse or "Green Dolphin" (Xectaro-
pli ora p is i Kalt . ) .
Considerable injury was done to both red and scarlet
clover by this pest in the spring of 1900 in Virginia, Dela-
ware, and Maryland, and to crimson clover in Delaware in
1890. In Europe the " Green Dolphin '' has been known
as one of the worst pests of peas, vetches, and clovers for
the past century. The aphids leave the clover about May
1st in the above States, and feed upon peas during the
early summer, practically destroying the crop of late peas
in 1899 and 1900. During October and November they
return to the clover and pass the winter upon it.
Many predaceous and parasitic insects prey u2:>on this
pest, but it is held in check, especially on clover, chiefly
by a fungous disease (Empusa aj^hidis). This disease is
prevented by dry weather, and hence the pest is most
injurious in dry seasons.
As yet no remedy for the pest on clover or means for
prevention of injury are known.*
IXJUEIXG THE SEED.
The Clover-seed Midge {Cecidofuvia legumhiicola Lint.).
This is also a native of western New York, where its
first injuries were recorded in 1878, but since then it has
spread to almost every section where clover is grown, and
is so serious a pest that it has become quite an art to raise
a crop of clover-seed. The parent of all this trouble is a
*See Bull. XLIX, Del. Agr. Exp. Sta., "The Pea-louse," E. D.
Sanderson ; and Circular 43, 2d Ser., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.,
F. H. Chittenden.
f
wg.
apt.
Fig. 100. — The Ve?L-\o\i^e [Nectarophora pisiKdiii.). p, pupa: irg.,
winged viviparous female; apt., wingless, or apterous, vivip-
arous female and newlv born young, all enlarged. (Author's
illustration in Bulletin 49, Del. 'Coll. Agr. Eip.'Sta.)
183
184
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
little fly, resembling a mosquito, but only about one-tenth
as large; so small, in fact, that it is rarely noticed.
Life-liistory. — The eggs are laid among the hairy spines
of the clover-head or beneath the bracts around the head.
They are of a reddish color and scarcely one-tenth of an
inch long. When the maggots emerge from them they
Fig. 101.
-The Clover Seed-midge (^Cecidomyia leguminicola).
fly; h, larva, enlarged. (After Riley.)
a,
enter the undeveloped florets, which they often prevent
from flowering. In this case some of the flowers in the
head will bloom, but the field as a whole does not blossom
as usual. Once inside the floret the maggots feed on the
developing seed. They are of a dark-red color, of a plump,
oval form, and without feet. When full-grown they leave
the florets and drop to the ground, into which they enter
and form a little, tough, papery cocoon, just under the
surface. In it they transform to the pupa, which ulti-
mately transforms to the adult fly.
In the North two broods of the midge occur each year.
The maggots of the flrst and principal brood become full-
grown about the middle of June, and those of a smaller
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. 185
one following during July and August. White and alsike
clover have not been molested by the midge to any extent,
but good judgment and a knoAvledge of the habits of the
insect are needed to harvest a crop of seed from the red or
mammoth.
Remedies. — Two methods are in practice for controlling
this pest. The first, wxll adapted for dairy farms, consists
in pasturing the clover until the 10th or loth of June, and
then securing a late crop of seed. The other method is
to cut the clover for hay before the maggots have become
full-grown and left the flowers, and then harvest a late
crop of seed. Usually for red clover this will be any time
during the latter part of June, and some two wrecks earlier
for the mammoth, as the latter will not mature a crop of
seed if left later. But the exact time for cutting must
depend upon the latitude and season, and to secure success
will need good judgment on the part of the farmer. K
good rule for red clover is to start the seed crops a few
days before timothy-heads apjDcar.
The Clover-seed Caterpillar {Grajjholitlia inter stinctana
Clem.).
The larva of a small moth known as the Clover-seed
Caterpillar [GraijholitJta inter sti7ict.ana Clem.) has also
done serious damage to the seed in Iowa and is common
in clover-fields elsewhere. The greenish-white larvse are
about one-fourth of an inch long, and destroy the seed by
gnawing through the florets at the base. The larvae pupate
in thin cocoons spun in the clover-head, and from them
emerge the small brown moths, which lay eggs for another
brood at the base of the head. Three broods occur in
Iowa; in June, August, and September.
186
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The remedies advised for the midge have also been found
satisfactory for this pest.
Fig. 103. — Clover Seed-caterpillar {GraplwlitJia inter stinrtana^.
a, caterpillar; 6. pupa; e, moth, all much enlarged; d, moth
natural size. (After Osborn.)
Fig. 103. — 0\oYex 'R2LY-yvorm.{PyraUscostaUs). 1 and 2 show larvae
suspended by threads; 3 represents the cocoon; 4, the pupa;
5 and 6, the moths; and 7, larva in a case which it has spun;
all natural size. (After Riley.)
INJURING THE HAY.
The Clover-hay Worm {Pyralis costalis Fab.).
Even after all the above pests have been successfully
combated, another insect, known as the Clover- hay AVorm,
IXSECTS IXJURIOUS TO CLOVER. 187
often does clover-hay considerable injur}^ in the mow or
stack. The caterpillars will usually be noticed toward the
bottom of tlie stack if that part be searched in March
or April. They are shown natural size in the illustration,
and are of a dark-brown color, each segment being ringed
with a band of darker brown. Hay infested by them has
a moldy appearance from the numerous fine silken threads
which they spin through it, often forming webs, and is so
badly chewed and covered with w^ebs as to unfit it for stock.
Life-histonj. — The laiva? forjn small silken cocoons in
the cracks and crevices of the barn, from which the moths
emerge early in June. As soon as the females find some
clover-hay they deposit their eggs upon it, and from these
the worms emerge and continue the destruction. Usually
no serious injury is done except where clover-hay is kept
over the second year or longer. When it is fed out each
spring, before the next crop is harvest^ed, there is no food
for the young caterpillars, and they perish before the new
crop comes in.
Remedies. — Thus these worms may be easily controlled
by:
1. Xever stacking clover-hay two successive seasons in
the same place.
2. Cleaning the mow out each spring so that no old
clover w411 be left over in the barn until the new comes.
3. Never patting new clover-hay on top of old, in stack
or mow.
Though the clover-plaut has numerous and serious
enemies, almost all of them may be controlled by simple
means, the successful use of which depends almost entirely
upon a thorough understanding of the habits of the insect
to be fought.
CHAPTER X.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON.
INJURING THE LEAVES.
The Cotton-worm (Aletia xylina Say).
Best known of all the insect enemies of the cotton-plant
is the Cotton-worm. Though the subject of numerous
extensive investigations, it is such an ever-present pest that
practical information concerning those habits which must
be considered in successfully combating it is always perti-
nent. Let us commence, then, with the new year, and
follow the species through the season.
L\fe-liidory. — During the winter months the adult
moths hibernate in the most southern portion of the
cotton belt, principally Florida and Texas, in the rank
wire-grass occurring in the more thickly timbered regions.
Only a few of these survive, but they are very capable
ancestors, and in early March lay their eggs upon ratoon
cotton where it is only an inch or two high. The eggs
are laid singly, usually upon the under surface of the
leaves, preferably near the top of the plant, and about five
hundred are laid by each female moth. They are of a
flattened convex shape, bluish green in color, and with a
number of prominent ridges converging to the apex. In
midsummer the eggs hatch in three or four days, but in
the spring and autumn a much longer period is required.
188
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO COTTON,
189
When first emerged from the eggs the young larvae are
of a pale yellow color, but soon assume a greenish tinge,
and are marked with dark spots, which become more dis-
tinct after the first molt. Thev then become marked as
Fig. 104.— Egg of Cotton Worm-
moth, a, top view; h, side view;
greatly enlarged. (From
Fourth Kept. U. S. Entom.
Comm.)
Fig. 105. — Cotton-caterpillar.
a, from side; h, from above
— t w i c e natural size.
(Fourth Kept. U. S. Entom.
Comm.)
when adult, being more or less striped with black and are
distinctly greenish. During the early season the green
worms are the more common, while later the black forms
predominate. The appetites of these caterpillars are only
too well known to the cotton-grower. At first they are
content with eating only the under surfaces of the leaves,
occasionally piercing through. Then the leaves commence
190
Il^SECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
to look ragged, and Avlien these become scarce the tender
twigs and bads are attacked. When excessively abundant,
like the Boll-worm, the larger larvae develop cannibalistic
Fig. 106. — Pimpln conquisitor, one of the principal Parasites of the
Cotton-caterpillar, a, larvae, enlarged: h, head of same still
more enlarged; c, pupa; d, adult female enlarged; e, f, end of
abdomen of adult male, still more enlarged. (From Fourth
Kept. U. S. Entom. Comm.)
Fig. 107.— Cotton Worm-moth, a, with wings expanded in flight;
h, wings closed, at rest— natural size. (After Kiley.)
tendencies and often feed upon the weaker caterpillars.
It requires from one to three weeks for the larv^ to become
full-grown, during whi(jh time it is necessary for them to
shed their skins some five times.
The caterpillar now crawls into a folded leaf, which
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON. 191
sometimes is eaten away so that the pupa hangs exposed,
and there sj)ins around it a silken cocoon and transforms
to the chrysalis or pupa. In this stage the insect remains
dormant for from one week to a month, when the adult
moth emerges.
The imago is of a dull olive-gray color with a wing-
expanse of about one and one-third inches, with wings
marked as shown in Fig. 107, and sometimes with a
purplish lustre. Like most of its relatives of the Xoctuidce^
or ''night-flying moths,'' it flies only after sunset, but,
unlike them, it is not confined to the nectar of flowers for
fool, -''s its mouth is peculiarly adapted to piercing the
skin ol rij)e fruit and feeding upon its tissues. They are
strong flyers, the moths of the later broods frequently
flying as far north as Canada. At such times they have
been known to do serious damage to peaches in Kansas,
and to cantaloups in Wisconsin.
The first two broods develop rapidly, and in the extreme
South and by early April the moths emerge and are carried
northward by the prevailing winds. Eggs deposited by
them develop into moths, which, in turn, fly further
northward, and thus the worms are gradually found
throughout the whole cotton belt, though with a consider-
able confusion between the various broods. At least seven
broods occur in the far South and three at the northern
limit of the species range. With this number of genera-
tions, it is readily perceived, considering the number of
eggs laid by each female, how such great numbers of the
caterpillars may arise by the latter part of the season,
in a region where practically none remain over winter.
The progeny of a single moth after four generations would
amount to over 300,000,000,000 individuals, or, if placed
192
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
end to end, at the end of the third brood there would be
enough to encircle the earth at the equator over four times.
Eyiemies. — It is thus very fortunate that the cotton-
worms have many deadly enemies which commence their
warfare upon them as soon as the first aj^pearance of
spring, and continue it with increasing ardor throughout
Fig. 108. — Cotton-worm ^gg-Y>dir2i^\te {Trichogramma pretiosa). a,
adult female, greatly enlarged; b, ovipositor; c, female antenna;
d, male antenna. (From Fourth Kept. U. S. Entomological
Commission.)
the season. A little insect which lives inside of the eggs
and is known to science as Trichogramma pretiosa is one of
the most efficient of these. Mr. Hubbard once observed
in Florida that from 75 to 90 jDer cent of the fourth brood
of eggs and 90 per cent of the fifth were destroyed by this
parasite, while only three or four eggs in a hundred
escaped in the sixth brood.
One of the most useful parasites of the caterpillar was
noticed to destroy nearly all of the chrysalids of the last
II^SECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTOX. 193
brood as early as 1847. The eggs of these insects are laid
upon the caterpillars, and the maggots hatching from them
bore into the worm and there feed upon its tissues. It
transforms to a pupa as usual, but the pupa soon dies, and
large numbers are thus killed. Several similar parasites
prey upon the cotton-worm, among the more important of
which may be mentioned EiqAedrus comstockii. It is to
be regretted that we have no way of encouraging the good
work of these valuable parasites. But the common insec-
tivorous birds which eat large numbers of the worms,
especially when they are yet scarce in early spring, may
and should be protected by enacting and enforcing the
most stringent laws against their wanton destruction.
Remedies. — Paris green is an effectual and now widely
used remedy for this pest. When the United States
Entomological Commission made their extensive investi-
gations of remedies for cotton-insects in the early 80's,
they devised some very tremendous apjiliances for spraying
this upon as many as sixteen rows at once. But such
machines have not proved practical, and it was found
useless to attempt spraying over four rows at once. In
fact they have never been used throughout the South in
other than in an experimental capacity.
Besides the general use of the dry Paris green by dust-
ing it upon the plants as described below there have been
several important factors which have so worked against
the cotton-worm that the problem of keeping it in check
is now considered practically solved by many authorities.
The most important of these, and a most beneficial
change as regarded from other than an entomological
standpoint, is the diversification and rotation of crops,
now coming to be more and more widely practiced by the
194 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
progressive agriculturist of the South. This alone has
been very largel}^ responsible for checking the rapid spread
of the pest.
Now that the seed has become such a valuable joroduct
of the cotton-plant, smaller varieties with many seeds and
a short fibre are being grown, in contrast with the rank-
growing, long-fibre sorts formerly preferred. Thus the
rows are more open, the work of the worms is more readily
detected, and remedies more easy of application. With
these advantages in their favor, the more southern planters
have come to realize the importance of destroying the
early broods, and by doing so have been able to keep them
in a state of comparative subjection.
For many years the most commonly used and. exj)erience
has shown, effective remedy is the use of the dry Paris
green. It is usually dusted upon two rows of j^lants, from
bags fastened at the ends of a pole, and carried by a man
on horseback, who can thus poison from 15 to 20 acres per
day. These sacks are about ten inches long by four inches
in diameter, open the whole length of one side and firmly
sewed at the ends. Eight-ounce Osnaburg is the best
cloth for the purpose. A strip of oak or strong wood
about one and one-half by two inches, and five feet long,
has a one-inch hole bored through it at five inches from
each end, and to this the sack is tacked, fastening one of
the edges of the opening to each of the narrow sides of
the pole. The sacks are filled through the holes in the
pole. When freshly filled a slight jarring will shake out
a sufficient amount of the poison, but when nearly empty
the pole should be frequently and sharply struck with a
short stick, or S2:)aces in the rows will be missed. The
poison has been found most effective without the admix-
INSECTS IJ^JURlors TO COTTOK. 195
ture of flour. If that be added, lighter cloth should be
used for the sacks.
The remedy for the cotton -worm is sim23le and effective.
It simply needs careful watching, especially upon the part
of the southernmost planters, and prompt work immedi-
ately upon its appearance.
Cutworms.
For very few plants could a list of their insect- pests be
made without mentioning the destructive cutworms (see
page 214: to 217), and cotton is no exception. Their char-
acteristic manner of cutting off the young plants at the
surface of the soil is so familiar to every planter and
trucker that no discussion of their life-history and habits
is here necessary. The best method for their destruction
is by distributing through the field bunches of clover or
grass poisoned with Paris green. This may be best done
by spraying a patch of grass or clover with the poison,
then cutting it, loading it on a wagon, and scattering
bunches over the field with a fork. For best results such
traps should be spread over the field just as the plants are
appearing above ground, or even a day or two before ; some
care is necessary in so doing this that it will not result in
injuring the young leaves.
Grasshoppers.
A much similar treatment will prove effectual for grass-
hoppers, which frequently do considerable damage to the
foliage. Twenty-five pounds of bran, one pound of white
arsenic, mixed dry and then slightly moistened with water
and cheap molasses, will form an excellent '^ mash "for
their destruction, by placing a teaspoonful at the base of
196
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
each plant. Some fourteen different kinds of grasshojipers
have been known to injure cotton, but of these the Ameri-
can Acridium [ScUistocerca ame7'icana) and the Differential
Locust (see page 69) are the most injurious.
Fig. 109. — Granulated Cnt-worm {Agroiis annexa). n, larva; /,
pupa; 7i, adult— natural size. (After Howard, U. S Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 110. — The American Acridium {ScMstocerca americana Scud.).
(After Riley.)
Caterpillars.
Many species of Lepidopterous larvae occasionally defoli-
ate the cotton-plant, among the most common being the
Bag-worm {Tliyridopterijx e2)hemercBformis), Fall Army-
worm (Laphygma friigiperda) (see page 84), Garden Web-
worm {Loxostege similalis) (see page 260), and the Leaf-
roller [Caccecia rosaceana). Any of these may be destroyed
INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO COTTOX.
197
by applying Paris green in a spiay or dust, as for tiie
cotton-worms.
Ftg. 111. — Garden. "Web- worm {Loxostege similalls). a, larva, en
larged; b, side view of abdominal segment of same; c, dorsal
view of anal segment; d, pupa; /, moth, enlarged. (xlfter
Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Plant-lice (Aphidce).
The plant-louse Avhich is most frequently found injuring
the leaves of the cotton-plant is the same as the melon-
louse {Aphis gossypii). As upon melons, its worst injury
is done while the plants are yet young, and in such cases
the best practice is to destroy the infested plants and
replant in their place. A spray of kerosene emulsion and
water or similar irritant will kill them, and sometimes may
be used to advantage; but owing to the rapid and hardy
growth of the plant, and the fact that large numbers of
them are consumed by their insect enemies, plant-lice are
seldom of any great importance.
IXJURIXG THE STALK.
If it escapes the cutworms, the stalk of the plant will
not be troubled further with insects, as long as it is in a
healthy condition. Occasionally plant-bugs puncture the
new growth, but such damage is rarely of importance.
One of the boring-beetles, known as Ataxia crypta (Fig.
112), has been supposed to injure the stalk b}^ boring in
198
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
it, but investigation shows that its eggs are laid only upon
stalks which have already been damaged in some other
manner.
Fig, 112. — Cotton Stalk borer (At xi' cryytci). a, larva from above;
h, larva from side; c, tunneled cotton-stalk showing exit-hole;
d, adult beetle — all enlarged except c. (After Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)
INJURING THE BOLL.
Sharpshooters.
Bolls are frequently damaged by leaf -hoppers, known to
science as Homalodisca coagulata, which injury is termed
''Sharpshooter work" by the planters. Usually they do
not make their appearance till after the first of June.
Before that they prefer the foliage of poplar and other
shade trees near the cotton-field. Where the injuries are
of annual occurrence it would be well to ascertain the
trees upon which the insects are feeding, early in the
season, and give them and neighboring undergrowth a
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON.
199
thorough spraying with strong kerosene emulsion during
May.
^^
Fig. 113. — Hoimdodisca codgulata. ((, aclull female seen from above;
b, same, side view. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
"Cotton-stainer."
The Red Bug or Cotton-stainer [Dysclerciis suturelhis)
once did considerable damage to the bolls in Florida,
Georgia, and neighboring parts of Alabama and South
Carolina, but of late years has devoted most of its atten-
tion to oranges. Early in the season they stunted the
bolls and made them abortive by sucking the vsap; but the
most serious damage was done later, wdien they entered
the open bolls, "puncturing the seed and damaging the
200
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
fibre " by their yellowish excrement. This indelible stain
greatly depreciated the market value of the fibre, and
was a vexing loss. Though never of commerical impor-
tance, it was found by experiments that a rich orange dye
could be made from these insects, which could be easily
Fig. 114. — The Red Bug or Cotton-stainer {Dysdereus suturelluft)
enlarged, a, nymph; h, adult. (From "Insect Life.")
fixed upon silks and woolens by an alum mordant. In
winter these insects congregate in heaps of cotton-seeds,
and by using these as traps the insects may be killed with
hot water.
Several other insects attack the bolls, but never very
extensively. Among them is a weevil (Arcecerus fascicu-
latus) often mistaken for the Mexican Boll-weevil and
which closelv resembles that insect. It is a '^ cosmopolitan
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON. 201
insect living in the pods of various plants, among others
in those of the coffee-plant in Brazil, but is never shown
to attack healthy plants/'
Various leaf -eating caterpillars often gnaw the bolls, but
will be destroyed by poisoning the foliage as previously
described.
If the Paris green be aj^plied for the Cotton-worm, and
the general methods advised for the control of the Boll-
worm and Mexican Boll-Aveevil be followed out, little fear
need be had of these minor insects, though a knowledge
of the best remedies for them is always desirable in case of
their apppearing in unusual numbers.
The Cotton Boll-worm (Heliothis armiger Hubn.).
The Cotton Boll-worm is one of the pests most widely
dreaded by the cotton-grower, and differs from the Cotton-
worm in that it is found in other parts of the world as well
as America, and is not restricted to a single plant-food,
Tlie Moth. — The adult moth is about the same size as
the Cotton-worm moth, but has a larger body and a greater
variety of markings. When at rest the fore wings of the
Cotton Boll-worm moth are slightly parted, while in the
Cotton-worm moth they are closed. The Boll-worm moth
varies much in color; both wings are bordered with dark
bands, the wing-veins are black, and there are other black
spots upon the fore wings. It may generally be seen about
dark, and hides itself during the day in cow-peas and
clover, sipping the honey from the blossoms of these and
other honey-secreting plants, but does not, like the Cotton-
worm moth, feed upon fruit.
Life-history. — It deposits its yellowish-white eggs upon
all parts of the cotton-plant, but prefers the silk and
202 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
tassels of corn. If hatched on the cotton-plant, the worms
attack the young buds or bolls, rapidly destroying them.
Tlie young worms resemble the cotton-worms, and walk
like the familiar measuring- worms, but are darker in color.
With age the w^orms exhibit great variety in appearance,
from light green to dark brown or rose, and may be either
striped or spotted or perfectly plain.
The life of the insect from egg to adult averages about
thirty -eight days, and there are usually five generations
each year. The worms of the first brood, as a rule, appear
about the first of May, and feed almost entirely upon the
young leaves and buds of the corn; the second brood,
appearing in early June, eat the tassels and forming ears
of corn; the third brood, in July, attack the hardening
ears. The fourth and fifth broods, appearing successively
in August and September, appreciate the cotton as food,
the corn having become too hard. About the middle of
October the worms of the last brood descend into the earth
to pupate, which state lasts from one to four weeks.
Food. — The worm is known by various names according
to the plant upon which it feeds, as, for instance, the
Cotton Boll -worm, the Corn Ear-worm (see page 151), and
the Tomato Fruit-worm. It is also found upon ^^eas,
beans, tobacco, pumpkins, squash, and many flowering
plants. A strange but mitigating characteristic of this
pest is its tendency to feed upon its kind, especially if
large numbers are crowded together, thus materially
reducing its own numbers.
Remedies. — Poisoning the young worms by spraying
with arsenic was a method formerly used, but as it proved
only partially successful, and as another and better method
has been discovered, it is now comparativel}'' little used.
INSECTS IXJURIOCS TO COTTOX. 203
The more effective method of keeping the insect in con-
trol is the result of practical experience, and consists in
the wise use of what are known as trap crops. Let five
acres be planted with cotton and corn alternately with every
seventy-five or one hundred acres of cotton, or in tlie same
relative proportion for smaller areas. Of the five acres,
for every twenty-five rows of cotton let five rows he left
vacant. In these five vacant rows plant, as early as possi-
ble, one row of an early-maturing sweet corn, planted
sparsely, as only a small number of plants are desired.
During the silking period let frequent search be made for
the yellowish-white eggs, and when fresh eggs Cvin no
longer be found let the silk ends of the corn covered with
eggs and young worms be cut off and destroyed by burn-
ing or feeding to stock; or better still, to insure perfect
safety, let the entire plant be destroyed. Let three other
rows be planted with dent corn so as to bring the silking
period about the first of July. The larger number of eggs
which will be laid on these three rows should be allowed
to mature for the j^i'^servation of the natural enemies
which parasitize the eggs and young worms. The crowded
condition of the worms in these rows will result in a large
amount of cannibalism, so that only a small number will
reach maturity, recompense for which will be found in the
parasites. But to entrap these individuals, let the fifth
row be planted so as to reach the silking j^eriod about
August first, and let this row be cut and destroyed as soon
as the laying of eggs upon it ceases. It has been found
that the corn produced from the second planting Avill
generally j^ay for the expense of cultivation and the sacri-
fice of the five rows of corn. In many cases, if the other
two be properly cared for^ the third planting will not be
204
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
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(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON. 205
necessary. The entire success of this latter method of
combating the Cotton Boll-worm depends upon careful
observations and judicious planting, based upon a correct
knowledge of the life and habits of the insect.
The Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil {Anthoiioinus grandU
Boh.).
Several of the worst insect pests of the South have
immigrated thither from Mexico. About 1890 some small
beetles came across the Eio Grande near Brownsville,
Texas, which so rapidly multiplied in numbers during the
following seasons that in certain sections the crojD was
entirely ruined. As early as 1862 these insects caused the
growers at Monclova, Mexico, to abandon the culture of
cotton, and when they again planted it, about 1893, the
beetles promptly appeared and destroyed the entire crop.
At the close of 1894, an agent of the United States
Department of Agriculture (Mr. C. H. Townsend), sent
especially to investigate their ravages, reported that
between one-fifth and one-sixth cf the cotton-growing
section of Texas was infested, there being a loss of from
25 to 90 per cent of the crop. This meant 15 per cent of
the whole crop of the State, 3 per cent of that of the
United States, and in round numbers, 2 per cent of the
world's product, with a cash value of over $8,000,000.
The outlook was certainly alarming.
Fortunately its worst ravages have been confined to the
southern portion of Texas. This is largely because the
damage done and the spread of the weevils are worst where
the top crop is most valued, which is the condition in
southern Texas. Its ultimate spread to other regions,
206
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
"however, seeruB inevitable; and a knowledge of its habits
and methods for its control are therefore not nntimely.
The parent of all the mischief is a small, grayish beetle,
hardly one- fourth of an inch in length, wdiile the per-
petrators of the worst injury are the little, fleshy grubs or
larvae, which live and feed within the squares and bolls.
Li fe-lii story. — Until late in December, or as long as any
Fig. 116.— The Cotton Boll-weevil (AutJionomns grandis Boh.), a,
adult beetle; b, pupa; c, larva — enlarged. (From "Insect Life.")
part of the plants are green, the beetles may be found
upon them. During the winter they hide in the rubbish
on the field or among the weeds surrounding it, and there
hibernate until the sunshine of early spring brings them
forth for another season of dej^redation. As soon as the
buds have formed on the volunteer plants the beetles are
upon them and lay their eggs in the early squares. Almost
invariably, the work of a larva hatching from one of these
eggs causes the '''square^' infested to drop to the ground^
where the larva becomes full-grown, transforms to a pupa,
and comes forth as a beetle in about four weeks in all.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON.
207
Fig. 118. — The Cotton Boll-weevil, a, newly hatched larva, in
square; b, nearly full-grown larva in situ; c, pupa in young
boll picked from ground. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 119.— Mature Boll cut open, at left showing full-grown larva;
one at right showing feeding-punctures and oviposition marks.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. 3
208
IKSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Thus one or two generations develop on the vohinteer
cotton. By the time the planted cotton is high enough
to form squares the weevils have become quite numerous,
and, as a result, a large portion of the squares soon drop.
The first indication of tlie preseuce
of the pest is by the absence of the
blooms. The squares also drop in
much more than ordinary numbers
and though this might be due to
other causes, if they are cut open
the presence of the weevil will soon
become apparent. Infested bolls
are characteristically discolored and
-p ^^Q J . -p J, punctured. '' Late in the season the
Boll, showing how weevils themselves will be found
beetles hide between ^ ^ ,i • i t - 1 i n
boll and involucre, between the involucre ana the boll,
(After Howard, U. S. ^^ j^^ ^i^gj^. absence, the feeding
Dept. Agr.) ' °
marks and the yellow, granular ex-
crement wdiich collects at the base of the boll are excellent
indications."
The bolls are attacked in the same manner as the
squares, but do not drop. The weevils also do consider-
able injury by eating into the bolls, making ugly punctures
with their stout little snouts. Although a single larva will
ruin a boll, as many as a dozen are often found in one.
Thus the destruction goes on, and inasmuch as it takes
each female several days to complete her egg-laying, by
July the different generations or broods have become so
intermingled that it is impossible to make a distinction.
Not until the frosts of late fall do the weevils cease to
breed and feed. Then they go into winter quarters, and
almost all of the larvae are killed by the frosts.
IKSECTS IXJURIOUS TO COTTON. 209
Remedies. — The following suggestions as to the best
methods for the control of this pest have been largely
gleaned from a forthcoming report of Mr. W. D. Hunter,*
a special agent of the Division of Entomology, U • S. Dept.
Agriculture, who has made an extended investigation of the
matter daring the season of 1001 (Mar. — Dec.) and which
comprises the previously expressed opinions of Dr. Howard f
and his assistants, Messrs. Maria tt and Schwarz, as to the
importance of better cultural methods for its control.
Inasmuch as the pest is notably w^orst where the top
crop is gathered late into the fall, the most obvious, and
as the experience and investigations of the past five years
have shown, the best and most practical means for its
control is in the entire abandonment of the top crop and
the destruction of the plants by October, or earlier. The
value of the late fall top crop seems to be very much over-
estimated, as very often it hardly pays for the picking and
in the last twenty years onh^ four or five top crops of any
value have been secured. As the beetles hibernate over
winter in the bolls and among the old plants, the immediate
destruction of the plants in the fall will destroy most of
the weevils. The plants may be cut with a stalk-chopper
or thrown out with a plow, and should then be burned.
After this the plowing of infested land to the depth of
6 or 8 inches is advisable. Tn this way all the larvae and
pupfe in the cotton at the time are destroyed, as well as
many of the weevils; the adult beetles are buried by the
deep plowing and will never again reach the surface; the
removal of the stalks and rubbish prevents their hiberna-
* To appear in Yearbook, U. 8. Dept. Agr., 1901.
t "The Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil," Circular 14, 3d Ser., Div.
Eut., U. S. Dept. Agr., L. O. Howard.
210 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
tion in the field; tlie growth of volunteer cotton has been
largely prevented; and the field is left clean of old stalks,
facilitating thorough cultivation the following year.
'* Fields treated in this w^ay have given a practical demon-
stration of the usefulness of this method." (Howard, I.e.)
Where the fields are free from grass, cattle may be turned
in to graze on the green tips of the cotton and will thus
consume and destroy many of the beetles. Inasmuch as
a comparatively small number of the beetles which go into
hibernation pass through the winter alive, it is of the
utmost importance that their numbers be reduced as much
as possible in the fall.
Those beetles which do winter successfully appear in the
spring rather late and as a consequence early cotton is but
little injured. The importance of cultivating early varie-
ties of w^hich the bolls develop before the pest becomes
abundant is therefore apparent. Furthermore, early
cotton brings by far the best prices and is usually not
subject to serious injury by other insect pests. Plants
grown from northern seed seem to mature earlier than
those grown in southern Texas. The selection and breed-
ing of early maturing varieties is therefore of considerable
importance in this connection. Growers in the heart of
the badly infested regions of Texas have found that by
merely growing early varieties they can secure a yield as
good as the average throughout the country.
Injury being worst on low, moist ground, it would seem
best to reserve such land for other crops.
^' In connection with the system of fall treatment of the
cotton, constant and thorough cultivation of the growing
crop is of considerable value, and is also what should be
done to insure a good yield. With a cross-bar to ])rush
II^SECTS IN^JURIOUS TO C0TT02^. 211
the plants, many of the blossoms and squares containing
weevils will be jarred to the ground and buried, together
with those already on the ground, in moist soil, and a
large percentage of the material will rot before the con-
tained insects have developed." (Howard, I.e.)
The advantage of controlling this and other insect pests
by such cultural methods is at once apparent when the
small margin of profit in the growing of cotton and the
economic conditions incident to large areas of land being
farmed by tenants are considered. Such cultural methods
involve no outlay of cash, which makes any other method
prohibitive to most tenants. There seems, also, to be a
real danger of an overproduction of the cotton crop, and
a diversification and rotation of crops would do much to
solve the question of how to combat this and other insects
of the cotton-plant. It seems certain that the control of
this pest merely requires a better system of agricultural
practice, as is the case with the Hessian Fly (see page 110)
and many of our worst insects.
On a small scale much may be done by planting the
rows farther apart than usual. Where the roAvs of cotton
are grown close together the soil between them is shaded
from the sun and remains moist, furnishing the best con-
dition for the development of the larvje in the fallen
squares. Where rows are farther apart the soil is heated
by the sun to such an extent as to kill large numbers of
the larvae. That the rows are usually placed too close for
the proper growth of the crop has been demonstrated by
several agricultural experiment stations. It has been
shown that in spite of the much smaller number of plants,
one-fourth more cotton can be secured from rows five feet
apart than from those three feet apart.
212 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Upon small areas the application of Paris green by-
spraying the volunteer plants as they appear in the spring,
and two or three times during the next two weeks, will
greatly check the increase of the pest. The young tips
are the parts which should be most thoroughly sprayed,
and as the number of volunteer plants will not be very
great, such spraying will not require much time. The
solution used should be as strong as one pound of Paris
green to fifty gallons of water, as it does not matter if the
volunteer plants are killed by it. Volunteer plants appear-
ing in deserted cotton-fields or corn-fields should be
destroyed as far as possible.
Picking up the fallen squares and burning them is urged
by Prof. Mally* as one of the best means of fighting it.
He records that one cotton-grower ''who had fourteen
acres of old land in cotton, picked up his squares faithfully
and made seven bales. His neighbor, who is conceded by
all to be the better farmer, had an adjoining field of
twenty-five acres of cotton, but did not gather and burn
his squares, made two bales." He states that eleven
negroes picked up the squares on ninety acres between
9 A.M. and 6.30 p.m., at a cost of $8.00, or less than 10
cents per acre. The squares should be picked up every
ten days or two weeks. This method is only practicable,
however, upon small areas.
But few insect parasites seem to infest the larvae and
but little aid can be hoped from them. Quail and turkeys
have, however, been reported as eating large quantites of
the weevils and being most beneficial.
* "The Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil," Farmers' Bulletin No. 130,
U. S. Dept. Agr., F. W. Mally.
INSECTS IX.TURIorS TO COTTON. 213
The Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil is only one of the many
insect j)ests which are becoming permanent factors in
agriculture and which are forcing the American farmer to
adopt better agricultural methods, which, if generally
practiced, would result not only in their control, but cause
less drain upon the soil through a better rotation of crops,
and better crops as a result of more constant and thorough
cultivation.
CHAPTEK XI.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO.
It would hardly be supposed that a plant like tobacco,
which when dried is used as an insecticide, would be
troubled Avitli many insect enemies, and experience has
shown this to be very largely a fact, as only three or four
insects are recognized as what might be termed ^^ standard
pests" of tobacco throughout the country, though an
equal number, whose injuries have not been especially
noticed hitherto, have been coming into prominence m
various sections in recent years; yet the few insects which
do attack tobacco, if left to themselves, are entirely capable
of doing a vast amount of damage; for that which would
be considered but a slight injury to other plants means a
considerable loss in the sale of a tobacco-crop with imper-
fect leaves.
INJURING THE TOUXG PLANTS.
Cutworms.
To begin with, as soon as the plants are set out they are
attacked by those old foes of the farmer, with which he
has to contend in the growing of almost every truck and
garden crop, the Cutworms. The cutting of the stems of
the young plants by these worms often necessitates replant-
ing, sometimes a second time. This injury is especially
214
INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO TOBACCO.
215
severe where a crop of grass or clover has been turned
under as a soil crop in the spring and there furnishes a
good su23pl3" of food for the cutworms till the tobacco is
set out. Not only is this replanting expensive and tedious
itself, but it makes the crop mature unevenly and thus
entails unnecessary expense in handling.
Descriptimi and Life-history. — Under the general term
'^cutworms" we commonly designate the larvae of several
species of moths, which are very similar in general apj^ear-
ance and habits. Both the moths and larv» are readily
Fig. 121. — Greasy Cutworm {Agrotis ypsilon), one of the Tobacco
Cutworms, a, larva; h, head of same; c, adult — natural size.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. )
distinguished by one familiar with them. Though the
life-histories of the different species vary more or less, still
they are so uiuch alike that they may be readily described
as a class. Of those attacking tobacco, the Greasy Cut-
worm [Agrotis ypsilon) and Granulated Cutworm {Agrotis
annexa) are among the most common. The adults of
cutworms are moths with dark fore wings, variously
marked, which are folded over the back when at rest, and
216 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
with lighter hind wings, as shown in the ilhistration —
natural size. Like the cutworms, they feed at night,
sipping the nectar from flowers, and the family to which
they belong has therefore been named the Noduidce. As
a rule there is but a single brood of worms in a season,
thouofh a second one is not unusual. The female moths
lay the eggs on stones, leaves, trees, etc., almost any place
where the ground is well covered with vegetation, so that
the young worms can readily find food. They are usually
deposited during midsummer and the larvae become par-
tially grown before winter, when they hollow out an oval
cell in the earth, curl up, and hibernate till spring, seem-
ingly unaifected by freezing. The next spring, after their
long fast, the young vegetation is eaten with surprising
voracitv. When full-OTown a cutAvorm is of a dull
brown, gray, or greenish hue, generally marked with
longitudinal stripes, oblique dashes and dots, and is from
one and one-fourth to two inches long. The head and
segment back of it are reddish brown and horny. There
are eight pairs of legs; the first three jointed and tapering,
the last five short and stout. As soon as full-grown the
worm enters the earth to pupate, and from the pupa
transforms to the adult moth from late July to early
August. Though besides the larvae all the other stages are
known to sometimes hibernate over winter, nevertheless
the life-cycle is usually so that the worms are hungry for
the young spring plants, and though numerous during the
whole season, it is during the spring that their devastation
is worst and most noticed.
Bemedies. — From the habits above outlined it may be
seen that much can be done to exterminate these pests by
a thorough cultivation of the land to be planted, during
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 217
the spring, thus depriving the worms of any food during
that time. The most successful method yet found for
destroying the worms is in the use of a poisoned bran
mash. This is composed of forty parts of Avheat-bran,
two quarts of cheap molasses, and one ]Dound of Paris
green, with enough water to thoroughly moisten the
whole. The bran and Paris green should be thoroughly
stirred together while dry and the molasses diluted with
water, and then poured on and stirred in. The land
where the tobacco is to be set out should be prepared
several days before. Then dro]) about a tablespoonful of
the mash near each hill, doing thi^ from three to five days
before the plants are set out, and as near evening as possi-
ble. Chickens, etc., should be kept out of the field for
several days. The cutworms are attracted by the smell of
the molasses and seem to relish the mash, coming out of
the ground and making a liberal meal upon it — a meal
which almost always proves fatal. This remedy is at once
simple and inexpensive and has been found most satisfac-
tory by growers who have used it. Any other arsenite
could be used instead of Paris green, though the amount
used would vary according to the strength of the j^oison.
The Tobacco Stalk-worm [Cr ambus caligmoselUis). (See
page 130.)
Prof. W. G. Johnson* has found this species, also known
as the Corn-root Web-worm, to be a serious pest to grow-
ing tobacco-plants in southern Maryland, where it seems
to have been a tobacco-pest for at least fifteen years, and
it has also been noted in Delaware.
The Injurtj. — The injury to tobacco is described by
^ Bull. 20, n. s., U. S. Div. Ent., U. S. Dept, Agr., pp. 99-101, 1899.
218 IN'SECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Prof. Johnson as follows: ''The uninjured tobacco had a
leaf- spread of from ten to twelve inches. A few rods
beyond, where the soil was not so gravelly and better, we
found the larv^ had literally destroyed the first and second
plantings, and were at work upon the third, damagiug it
severely, although the ground had been replanted before
tlie last planting. Here and there was a young plant just
beginning to wilt, and invariably we found the larva at
work either in the stalk or at the base of the plant just
below the surface of the ground. So far as I could ascer-
tain the attack is always at the surface or just below. In
many instances the larv^ had hollowed out the stalks from
the base of the roots to the branches of the first leaves.
Many plants were gnawed irregularly around the stalk
below the surface, and some, in fact, were completely cut
pff at the surface, the insect always working from below.
In the great majority of cases the larvse were found in a
small mass of web near the plant, and sometimes within
it. In one plant, less than six inches high, we found four
larvae within the stalk, but as a rule only a single one was
present."
Prof. Johnson concluded " (1) that it is most likely to
occur over local areas in tobacco following timothy or
grass; (2) that the character of the soil has little or noth-
ing to do with its ravages; (3) that the attack u])o\\ corn
is also a frequent occurrence in the same section, esj)ecially
when following grass or timothy."
Remedies. — He recommended "(1) that growers of
tobacco avoid planting upon grass or timothy sod; (2)
that where grass land is plowed down it would be well to
put it in wheat, following with clover, before tobacco. If
desirable, corn could follow the grass and the land could
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 219
be seeded in crimson clover at the last working. This
would serve a twofold object by revealing the exact location
of larva3 in the area nnder cultivation by their attack upon
corn, when they could be destroyed largely by frequent
harrowing and rolling, and by affording a most excellent
soil crop to turn down the following spring, which would
be a decided advantage to the tobacco; that if it is found
necessary to have tobacco following grass, it should be
broken in the spring as early as jDOssible, and frequently
rolled and harrowed, at the same time delaying the setting
of the plants as long as possible in order to destroy and
starve the larva3 within the ground. ^^
INJURING THE STEM.
The Spined Tobacco-bug {Eusclnstus variolarius).
Prof. H. Garman has found a small bug, which he has
termed the Spined Tobacco-bug, doing more or less injury
to plants in Kentucky, and as this insect is widely dis-
tributed throughout the country, it probably does more or
less damage elsewhere, though never a serious pest. Con-
cerning its work, he says:* ^' Occasional plants in tobacco-
lields are at times observed to haA'e become suddenly
wilted, the leaves hanging limj), much as if the stalk had
been severed. After a time they recover again, aiid, beyond
a temporary check on their growth, appear to have suffered
but little injury. If such plants are searched carefully
while still wilted, a flat, brown bug with each side of the
body produced into an angle, or sharp spine, will be found
upon the stalk along the base of the leaves. It is very shy
and keeps out of sight, hence any brisk movement on the
injured plants is likely to cause it to dro^) to the ground
* Bulletin No. 66, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 33.
220 INSECTS IXJUKIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
and conceal itself." These insects are true bugs, sucking
their food through a beak, which is bent under the body
between the legs when not in use. They are about half
an inch long, of a drab color above and greenish or
yellowish below. Usually only one bug is found on a
plant, so that the best way to ^^I'event the injury is to
pick them from the plants, and keep down such weeds as
thistles and mulleins, upon which such insects feed, in
the adjoining fields.
Fig. 122. — EuscMsius variolarius. Nymph at left; adult at right-
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
INJURING THE *'BUD."
Bud- worms {Heliothis armiger and rliexim).
Before the leaves of the tobacco have unrolled they are
subject to the attacks of two larvse, known as ^'Bud-
worms." Though the adult moths of these two insects
are very different in appearance, the larvae are much alike.
The Corn-worm, Cotton Boll-worm, or Tomato-worm
{Heliothis armiger), as it is called in different sec-
tions, is well known to all groAvers of these crops
and needs no extended description. Corn is the favorite
food of these worms, on which they first riddle the leaves
IKSECTS INJUEI0U8 TO TOBACCO, 221
and then bore into the forming ear, but as the corn
hardens they leave it for cotton, tobacco, etc. When
an abundant food-supply of corn or cotton is not found
by them during the early part of the season, they
turn to tobacco. On tobacco the moths deposit their
eggs in the buds, and when the larvae emerge from them
a few days later, they do very serious injury by eating
the unrolled leaves, boring into the bud, which may
be entirely consumed by a large worm. As the leaves
grow, these holes become larger, and the leaves are thus
ruined for the best grade of tobacco. The later broods
seem to prefer the unripened seed-capsules, and eating
into them they devour the immature seed. From two
weeks to a month are required for a larva to become full-
grown, when it descends into the ground and constructs a
loose silken cocoon just below the surface. In this it
transforms to the pupa, or chrysalis, and remains dormant
for from one to four weeks, when the adidt moth emerges.
The moths are about the same size and belong to the same
family — Noctuidce — as those of the Cutworms. The color
varies from dull ochre-yellow to dull olive-green;' both
wings are bordered with dark bands; the wing-veins are
black, and there are several other dark markings on the
fore wings. Throughout the cotton -belt there are four or
five broods during a season, but fewer farther north, the
number depending upon the latitude and season.
Another species of this genus {Heliothis rhexm) has
been found to be more common in Kentucky, and, as it is
not known to attack any other cultivated plant, is known
as the '-Tobacco Bud-worm." Both species are usually
found where tobacco is raised and in Florida the Corn-
worm (^H. armigei') is the most injurious. They are alike
222
i:5^SECTS II^JURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
Fig. 123,— The True Bud-worm iHeliothis rhexm). a, adult moth ;
b^ full-grown larva, from side; c, same, from above; d, seed-
pod bored into by larva; e, pupa — natural size. (After How-
ard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 124. — False Bud-worm or Cotton Boll- worm {HeliotMs ar-
miger). a, adult nroth; h, dark full-grown larva; c, light-col-
ored full-grown larva; d, pupa— natural size. (After Howard
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO.
223
in their habits and depredations upon the tobacco-2)lant.
The original food-plant of rliexia is probably one of our
common weeds such as the horse-nettle, which should
therefore be kept cut down along the edges of the tobacco-
FiG. 125. — Larva of Bud-worm {Heliothis armiger.) Showing work
on seed-capsules of tobacco-plant. (After Quaintance.)
fields and in those adjoining. The moths of this species
are quite different from those of armiger, the fore wings
being of a sea-green color, crossed by three white bands,
and the hind wings white with a dark margin. Only one
or two broods occur during a season.
Remedies. — Poisoned corn-meal has been found to be a
224 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
sjitisfactory remedy for both species. Into a quart of finely
ground corn-meal, a half teaspoonful of Paris green is
thoroughly mixed by stirring, and sprinkled on the buds
from a can perforated like a pepper-can. This should be
applied frequently, especially after heavy rains. Large
buds should be opened and a pinch of the poison placed
within. When spraying with Paris green is practiced
against the Horn- worm, it will also be of service against
the Bud-worms. AVhen the Corn-w^orms are the more
common species, it would seem that the use of strips of
corn used as a catch crop, as used in protecting cotton from
the same insect, would be of value. By j^lanting a row of
corn here and there around the tobacco-field, the moths
will preferably deposit their eggs upon it, and it can then
be cut and a large part of the injury to tobacco thus pre-
vented.
INJURING THE LEAVES.
The Suck-fly (JJici/jyJiys minimus Uhl. Mss.).
As tobacco has become more generally grown in Florida,
a small bug known to the planters as the " Suck-fly ^^ has
become increasingly injurious, until it is now considered
as the worst insect pest of tobacco in many parts of that
State. So far as known it has not been recorded as
injurious elsewhere, though it has been noticed in Florida
plantations for at least ten years.
Life-history. — The adult is. a small bug about one-eighth
of an inch long, with rather long, yellowish-green legs.
The upper surface of the insect is black, except the front
margin and a central stripe of yellow on the first segment
back of the head, while the under side is greenish. The
wings are folded over the back when at rest. The ^' flies"
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 225
become numerous enough to be injurious during the first
two weeks in June, usually being first noticed in one
corner of a field, from which they rapidly spread over the
whole. The eggs are deposited singly, in the tissues of
the leaf, mainly on the smaller veinlets, and hatch in
about four days. The young nymphs at once attack the
foliage, and after molting about four times transform to
adults about eleven days later. The full-grown njmiphs
are of the same general aj^pearance as the adults, except
that the wings are still undeveloped and form small wing-
pads, but are of a greenish color. As it requires but a
fortnight for the development of a brood, these insects
multii^jy very rapidly and in a few weeks become so
numerous as to seriously damage the foliage, hundreds of
them being found on a single leaf. The injury is done by
their inserting their small beaks into the tissue of the leaf
and sucking the juices, causing the leaf to become yellowish
or wilted, and cracking older leaves so that they become
ragged. "Experienced growers say that the leaves badly
infested with the Suck-fly are very difficult, if not impossi-
ble, to properly cure.^' The weather plays an important
part in the control of this pest. ''According to an
observant grower, ' an important factor in bringing about
their disappearance has been the absence of rain duriiio-
the latter part of August and early September. The sticky
exudation from the glandular hairs of the tobacco-plant
causes many of these insects to become stuck to the leaf
and in this way a great many are killed. Frequent showers
keep this washed off to a considerable extent, and thus
favor the insects.^ ^' (Quaintance.) A veritable fl3^-trap !
Remedies. — In experimenting with insecticides for this
pest, Prof. Quaintance has found, curiously enough, that
226
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
the only ones fatal to it are preparations of its own food —
tobacco. A solution of one part of ''Xikoteen" to sixty
of water is a very satisfactory remedy. This insecticide
Fig. 126. — The Suck-liy {Dicyphus minimus), a, uewly hatched;
b, second stage; c, nymph; d, adult; e, head and beak from
side — enlarged. (After Howard, U, S. Dept. Agr.)
is a concentrated solution of nicotine and is manufactured
by the Scabcura Dip Co., Union Stock Yards, Chicago,
111. It should be sprayed over the plants, using a bent-
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 227
necked nozzle which will throw a fine mist upon both the
upj)er and nnder surfaces of the leaves, as most of the
young are on the lower surfaces. Where refuse tobacco is
at hand a good decoction can be made by boiling it at the
rate of one pound to a gallon of water for an hour, then
draining off, and straining well before spraying. This
will not keep for more than two or three days before fer-
menting, but where it can be used at once is less expensive
than " Nikoteen." The spraying should be done early in
the day, when the adult bugs are sluggish and do not fly
readily. Keep a sharj^ watch for the ' ' flies '' early in
June, and by attacking them upon their first ap23earance
they may be kept from s]3reading and be destroyed before
they have done much injury and much more readily than
when more numerous.
MINII^G THE LEAF.
The Tobacco Leaf-miner {Gelechia solanella Boisd.).
The larva of a small moth has become quite injurious in
parts of Xorth Carolina and Florida by mining the inside
of the leaf, and is thus known as the Tobacco Leaf -miner.
This insect occurs in other parts of the country, but has
become injurious only in the States named and in recent
years. The injury is done by the larvae eating out irregular
patches of the tissue in the leaves, leaving only the upper
and lower surfaces, the lower leaves being infested the
worst. The leaves are rendered unfit for wrappers, split-
ting and tearing very easily on account of these blotches.
A larva does not confine its work to one place, but makes
several mines, and a single larva may thus destroy the value
of a leaf for wrapping purposes. This migratory habit is
of considerable importance, as in leaving the old and in
228
INSECTS iKJURlOrs TO STAPLE CROPS.
making new mines the larvse must necessarily eat a certain
amount of the surface of the leaf, and can thus be killed
by an arsenical spray. The life-history of the insect is
not completely known, but as only about twenty days are
required for all its transformations, several broods probably
occur during a season. The original food-plant of this
pest has been found to be the common horse- or bull-nettle
(Solamim carolinense), which fact further emi^hasizes the
Fig, 127. — Tobacco Split- worm. Adult moth above; larva below at
right; pupa below at left, with side view of enlarged anal seg-
ment— all enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
caution already given, to keep all weeds carefully cut down
around the tobacco-field, especially those nearly related to
tobacco botanically. Many planters destroy the larvae by
simj)ly crushing them with the hand, and this can be done
quite rapidly, and if done before the mines become numer-
ous should be sufficient to check the injury. Where
spraying with Paris green is practiced against the Horn-
worm it should be sufficient to destroy most of the miners,
as, if the leaf is thoroughly coated with poison, they would
get a fatal dose in starting a new mine.
INSECTS IXJrRIOUS TO TOBACCO.
229
The Tobacco Flea-beetle (EpUrix parvula Fab.).
The Tobacco Flea -beetle is one of
the insects which has become in-
creasingly injurious upon tobacco-
leaves in recent years. So far as
recorded its injuries have been no-
ticed only in the northern part of
the tobacco-belt, viz., Kentucky,
Ohio, West Virginia, Marjdand, and
Connecticut. The leaves are dam-
aged by having small holes eaten in
the upper or nnder surfaces, or some-
times clear through them. When
badly eaten the leaves appear as if
peppered with shot, the injury being
esj)ecially severe to young plants.
The adult beetles which do this in-
jury are very small, hardly more
than one-twentieth of an inch long,
of a light brown color, with a dark
band across the wing-covers. A few
of them could do but little injury,
but they soon increase nntil they
swarm over the leaves and injure them
badly. The life-history of this sj)ecies
has not been studied until recently
and is not yet well known. Mr. F.
H. Chittenden has ascertained that
the larvae feed habitually uj^on the
roots of the common Nightshade and
Jamestown weed. These are undoubtedly the usual food
Fig. 128. — Work of
Split-worm — reduced.
(After Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr. )
230
INSECTS TXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
of the larvae, as of the nearly allied Potato Flea-beetles
{E. cucnmeris and fuscula) , but when the beetles become
more numerous the larvae sometimes feed upon tobacco-
roots, doing them more or less damage, but generally not
to a noticeable extent. The breeding of this insect upon
these common weeds further emphasizes the caution
Fig. 129. — Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epitrix pnriml'i). a, adult beetle;
b, larva, lateral view; c, head of iarva; d, posterior leg of same;
e, anal segment, dorsal view;/, pupa — a, b, f, enlarged about
fifteen times; c, d, e, more enlarged. (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
already given in previous chapters to see that they are kept
cut down. Spraying with Paris green as advised for the
Horn-worm will also keep this insect in check.
Grasshoppers.
Grasshoppers have often been known to eat tobacco-
leaves quite badly. Of these, our most common species,
the Red-legged Locust [Melanoplus femur-rii'brum), has
been recorded most often. If the plants have been sprayed
with Paris green, it will usually be sufficient to prevent
serious injury by grasshoppers. If they are very numerous.
IKSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO.
231
however, a bran mash such as advised for use against Cut-
worms will be found attrac-
tive to them. A tablespoon-
ful placed at the base of
each plant will be sufficient
to prove fatal to the locusts.
The Horn-worm or Tobacco-
worm [Protoparce celeus,
P. ccu'olina).
Of all the insects feeding
upon tobacco, this oue is the
most injurious and conse-
quently most generally
known. In many sections
on account of its damage to
that plant it is also known
as the Tomato-worm. It
may be well to first state,
however, that two species
of insects are ordinarily in-
cluded under this popular
name. The IN^orthern To-
bacco-worm is the more
common form in many of
the more northern parts of
the tobacco-belt, especially
in Connecticut, though it
is generally found wherever
tobacco is extensively grown
in the United States. The Fig. 130.— Tobacco-leaves dam-
^igedhj Epitrix pnrmila. {Miav
Southern Tobacco-worm {P. Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
232
INSECTS IXJURlorS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Carolina) also occurs throughout all the tobacco -j)roclucing
States and is usually much the more common form in
the South. The life-history and habits of these insects
are so nearly alike that they may be discussed together.
The larvae of the northern form may be distinguished from
IXSECTS IXJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 233
the southern by tlie V-shaped markings along the sides,
those of the latter being simple oblique bands. The
differences between the moths are well shown in the
illustrations.
Life-history. — The pupae from which these moths
emerge in May and June remain in the ground over
winter. The females then deposit their eggs, singly, upon
Fig. 133. — Southern Worm killed by Fungus. (After Garman.)
the lower surfaces of the tobacco-leaves, which hatch out
in three davs. The way in which the younsr w^orms now
attack the tobacco foliage is well known to every grower.
During their growth, which occupies about three weeks,
the worms molt some five times. They then transform to
l"»upae, in which state they remain about three weeks, when
the adults emerge and the same life-cycle — occupying about
six weeks — is repeated. The first brood of worms usually
does not do very serious damage, the one in July being
that against which the planter's attack should be directed.
Usually three broods occur in a season, sometimes but two
234
IXSEOTS TXJrRIOrS TO STAPLE CROPS.
in the ^^orth and four in the South. Occasionally the
worms are overlooked in cutting the tobacco and do con-
siderable injury to it even after it has become partially dry
in the barn, though there is little excuse for this.
nemedies.—The oldest and most common method of
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 235
controlling this j^est is that of hand-picking. This is,
however, both tiresome and expensive. I am informed
that in southern Maryland this task is willingly done by
large flocks of turkeys, which are kept largely for that
purpose and fed on little else during the time the worms
are most numerous.
In many parts of Kentucky a spray of Paris green has
been used against the Tobacco-worm. Against this there
has been more or less of a popular prejudice on account of
possible poisoning. Such a prejudice having also existed
against the use of this well-known arsenite upon apples
for the Codliug-moth and on numerous other crops, and
with no deleterious results, it seems safe to assume that
such a prejudice is unfounded. Xevertheless Prof. H. A.
Garman has made a careful test of such spraying, and
plants sprayed were analyzed by Dr. A. M. Peters, chemist
of the K3^ Agr. Exp. Station, who found that the amount
of arsenic left on leaves sprayed three times wdth a solution
of one pound of Paris green to IGO gallons of water would
not be sufficient to be injurious to the consumer. In the
numerous tests made, one-third of a grain of arsenic per
pound of tobacco was the most ever obtained, and would
hardly be injurious. Prof. G-arman (Bulletin No. 63, Ky.
Agr. Exp. Station) also made thorough tests as to the
efficiency of this method of controlling the worm, which
he found to be entirely satisfactory. Usually it will not
be necessary to spray over three times, if aj^plied at the
proper time. The time of these apj^lications will vary for
different latitudes and seasons, but should be made as soon
as the young of each brood make their appearance. In
general this will be early in July, early August, and middle
or late August. One pound of Paris green to 160 gallons
236 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
of water is strong enough if properly applied, and in no
case should it be used stronger than one pound to 125
gallons. The best way of applying the mixture is by
means of a knapsack-pump, and both surfaces of the leaves
should be sprayed.
Florida growers have used the arsenite of lead to some
extent, dusting it on the plants dry, by means of a bellows
or powder-gun, such as is manufactured by Leggett Bros. ,
301 Pearl St., New York. It is a white powder, more
insoluble than Paris green, but it will not burn the foliage
as readily. It is also more adhesive when thus applied,
remaining on the foliage for eight or ten days.
A method for killing the adult moths has been satisfac-
torily practiced for many years. It consists in poisoning
the flowers of the Jamestown weed [Datura stramonium)
with a sweetened cobalt solution. The flowers are placed
around the fields in the evening, being set upright in holes
of horizontal slats, or supported by sticks. The cobalt
solution is then introduced into them by means of a quill.
It is composed of — cobalt, one ounce; molasses, one-fourth
of a pint; water, one pint. In their search for flowers
the moths will be attracted by the odor of the molasses and
the cobalt of the solution will poison them, and thus jore-
vent the females from laying some two hundred eggs
toward another brood.
Enemies. — There are also several insects which tend to
keep this pest in check by parasitizing it, and about which
many growers do not seem to be well informed. Worms
covered with what seem to be small white eggs are ahvays
common. They are not eggs, however, but the cocoons
of a small hymenopterous insect whose larv« feed upon
tlie worm internally and thus ultimately kill it before it
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 237
becomes full-grown or transforms to the pupa. Such
parasitized worms should never be destroyed, as the para-
sites are of more value than the damage the worm might
do (Fig. 134).
Fic4. 134. — Southern Tobacco-worm with Cocoons of Parasite.
(After Garman.)
INJURING STORED TOBACCO.
The Cigarette-beetle {Lasioderma serricorne Fab.). '
Even after the crop has been cured and has been packed
away, sometimes for years, it is subject to the ravages of
the larvae and adults of a small beetle, called the Cigarette-
beetle. This pest also infests numerous other stored
products, household goods, upholstery, etc. The beetle
is but one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a brownish color,
with the prothorax bent under in front so that the head is
obscured as under a hood. The pupal stage is passed in a
delicate cocoon; the whole life of the insect being spent
in the infested goods.
Remedies. — Infested tobacco should be o^oened ujd, if
packed tightly, placed in tight boxes, or a tight room, and
exposed to the fumes of carbon bisulfide, using it the same
as for grain-insects. This liquid is very volatile, giving
off a gas heavier than air and fatal to all insect life. The
quantity used would depend upon the tightness of the
238
IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
enclosure aud the way in which the tobacco is packed.
One ounce to every fifty cubic feet of enclosed space will
doubtless be ample. This should be placed in shallow
vessels on top of the tobacco aud allowed to remain for
twenty 'four hours. No injury will be done the tobacco.
a. h e
Fig. 135. — The Cigarette-beetle, a, larva; h, pupa; c, adult; d,
side view of adult: e, anteuna — all greatly enlarged; e, still
more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr. )
but care should be taken in the use of this chemical that
no light, cigar, etc., be brought near it, as it is highly
combustible and such carelessness might cause a serious
conflagration.
Hydrocyanic acid gas has recently been used very suc-
cessfully by Prof. AY. G. Johnson in riddiug some large
tobacco warehouses of this pest.
CHAPTER XII.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO.
IXJURIXG THE TUBERS.
Potato-scab and Insects.
That certain forms of what is commonly termed '^potato-
scab" are due to the work of insects has frequently been
shown. In 1895 Prof. A. D. Hopkins, of the West Virginia
Agr. Experiment Station, reported some very careful orig-
inal investigations upon two species of gnats, Epidapns
scabies Hopk. and Sciara sp., the larv^ of which had been
conclusively shown to cause a scab upon the tubers bv
boring into them. He found that " they breed in and are
especially common in barnyard-manure," that ^'excessive
moisture in the soil has been observed to be the most favor-
able condition for their development," and that ''soaking
the seed-potatoes in a solution of corrosive sublimate
previous to planting" will kill all the eggs and youno-
larvae, as it will also destroy the spores of the potato-scab
fungus.
Prof. A. H. Garman has also recorded the injuries of
"several species of millipedes, or "thousand-legged worms,"
Camhala annidata and Parajulus impresstis, as causing a
scab by gnawing into the surface of the tubers. Though
both of these observations are unquestionably true, they
240 INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
have not been verified in otlier parts of the country, and
it is improbable that am^ large ^^ortion of potato-scab is
due to these insects. Potato-scab is a fungous disease,
which, as already noted, may be destroyed by soaking the
seed-potatoes in a solution of corrosive sublimate.
Some interesting oliservations have been published by
Messrs. Stewart and Sirrine, of the New York station, in
which they attribute the peculiar marking of the skin
known as '^ pimply^' potatoes to the larva of the small
black cucumber flea-beetle, Epitrix cucumeris Harris,
which, as a beetle, does so much injury to the leaves.
Without doubt this instance is a parallel to those already
mentioned concerning insects producing potato-scab.
Undoubtedly the larvae of this beetle may have been found
producing '• j^imply " potatoes, but several other entomolo-
gists and the writer have carefully examined hundreds of
tubers in fields fairly alive with the beetles, and at all
seasons of the vear, but all in vain as far as discoverins:
any flea-beetle larvae is concerned.
The truth of the matter is that the natural food-plants
of these larv^ are some of our commonest weeds. Similar
instances are observed in the larva? of the Sweet-potato
Flea-beetle {Chceto enema confinis Clr.), Bean Leaf-beetle
(Cerotomatrifurcata Foerst), Tobacco Flea-beetle [Epitrix
parvuJa), and others which are all occasionally found on
the roots of the respective food-plants of the beetles, but
which habitually feed in the larval stage upon the roots of
such weeds as the horse-nettle, Jamestown weed, Des-
modium, and various Solonacem. In fact, the only insects
which are habitually injurious to the tubers are white grubs
and wireworms, both of which are only too familiar to
every farmer. So far as known, the only remedy for these
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 241
will be rapid rotation of crops, until the infested land has
become clear of them.
INJURING THE STALK.
The Potato Stalk-borer {Tricltoharis trinoiata Say.).
In some sections this insect has rivaled the famous
Colorado Potato-bug in the damage it has inflicted upon
potato-yines. It was recorded in Iowa as badly damaging
the crop there in 1890, and was found by Dr. Eiley in
Missouri as early as 1869. The beetles were first noted in
Fig. 13G. — Potato ^talk-horer (Trichoharis tri?wtaia). Larva, pupa
and adult. (After J. B. Smith.)
New Jersey in 1895, and during the last few years have
been doing serious injury to the fields of northwestern
Maryland.
Life-history. — The grubs, which bore into the stalk of
the vines, are the larvae of some small ashen-gray beetles
which appear early in spring and into June. These beetles
are about one-fourth of an inch long, with a long, black
beak or snout, and are marked at the base of the wing-
covers by three black spots which give the insect its specific
Fig. 137. — Work of Potato Stalk-borer in Potato-vines. (After
J. B. Smith.)
242
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 243
name, trinotata. Eacli beetle punctures a small hole in
the base of a stem by means of its beak, hollows out a
small cavity, and there lays a single small, oval, whitish
Qgg. From these eggs some small, white grubs with
brown heads hatch in a few days and commence to bore
into the stalk. These grubs keep eating, either in the
main stalk or branches, from August 1st to September 1st,
when they have become full-grown. At this time the
grubs are about one-half an inch long, of a dirty white or
yellowish color, with a yellowish-brown, horny head, and
without legs. About the middle of August, as a general
rule, the grub constructs a small, oval cocoon of chips and
fibres in the stalk of the vine near the surface of the soil,
and there transforms to the pupa. During late August
and September the mature beetles shed the pupal skins, in
which they have remained dormant for the last few weeks,
but remain in the vines during the winter, and do iiot
come forth till the following spring.
Remedies. — On account of its internal feeding habits no
poison can be successfully used against this 2:)est, and the
only remedy, but a good one, is to rake up the vines and
burn them as soon as the potatoes have been dug. As this
insect also feeds upon the Jamestown weed, horse-nettle,
and other weeds of the Mghtshade family, or Solonacece^
they should be kept cut down very closely. When the
grubs are noticed in the plants, a good allowance of fer-
tilizer will do much to quicken growth and thus enable
them to mature a crop.
INJURING THE LEAVES.
Colorado Potato-beetle {Lejjtinotarsa 10-lineata Say.).
First and foremost among the enemies of the potato-
244
TXSEOTS IXJURIOrS TO STAPLE TROPS.
grower stands the Colorado Potato-beetle — the insect which
in the early seventies, on account of our ignorance of \t,
was made an entomological bugbear. But '^there's no
great loss without some small gain," and we may be
thankful that the invasion of this beetle also brought
about the use of Paris green, an insecticide which has
since saved thousands upon thousands of dollars to the
American farmer. Thus, with an effectual remedy which
Fig. 138. — The Colorado Potato-beetle {Lepiinotarsa decemlineata
Say.), a, eggs; h, larvji?; c, pupa; d, beetle; e, elytra or wing-
cover of beetle; /, leg of beetle. (After Riley.)
is now used where this pest occurs as regularly as potatoes
are planted, ^^familiarity" has '^bred contempt," and
to-day we have but little fear of its attack.
History. — As is probably known to most of the older
generation who watched its spread eastward, the Colorado
Potato-beetle, as its name indicates, was a native of the
Rocky Mountain region, and until about 1855 was satisfied
with feeding upon various common weeds of the same
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 245
genus as the potato-plant, principally Solanum datura
Dunal, and closely allied genera. But with the settlement
of this country and the introduction of the Irish potato,
these bugs also began to take advantage of the fruits of
civihzation and transferred their feeding-grounds from the
roadside to the potato-patch, and rapidly spread eastward
from one to another, as well as being imported in the
shipj)ing of the potatoes.
Thus, in 1859 they had reached a point one hundred
miles west of Omaha, N ebraska ; five
years later crossed the Mississippi
into Illinois; and advanced steadily
eastward till recorded among the
Atlantic States in 1874. Though
slow to be introduced into some ^ o \C
„ .. J, ^, , ., . Fig. 139.— rt, beakof pre-
few sections of the country, it is daceous bug; c, beak
safe to assert that this pest may ?[fJe?Rne^'^/''° ^"""
to-day be found almost wherever
the potato is grown in the United States or southern
Canada.
Life-history. — During October the beetles enter the
earth and there hibernate till the warm sunshine of April
or May brings them forth. As soon as the young plants
appear, the female beetles deposit their yellow eggs upon
the under side of the leaves near the tips, each female lay-
ing from six hundred to one thousand eggs during the
course of a month. Meanwhile the beetles have done
considerable damage by eating the young and tender
plants. In about a week, there hatch a horde of very
small but very hungry larva3, which fairly gorge themselves
with potato-foliage and increase in size with astonishing
rapidity. In four or five weeks, after having eaten an
246 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
amount of food out of all proportion to their size, the
larv8B have become full-grown, and enter the earth, where
they form smooth, oTal cells, and transform to the pup^.
In a week or two the adult beetles emerge from the pupal
skins and after feeding for a couple of weeks, deposit eggs
for another brood. The life-history of this brood is the
same, except that the time required for it is less than for
the first, and following it comes the third brood, the
beetles of which hibernate over winter as already described.
The time required for the development of a brood is
exceedingly variable, and owing to the length of time
required for laying the eggs, and the fact that some larv«
become full-grown much more quickly than others, all
stages of the insect may be found during the summer
months.
^
Fig. 140. — Tacliinid Parasite of Colorado Potato-beetle {Lydelta,
dorypliorce Ril.). (After Riley.)
Natural Enemies. — One of the chief agencies to prevent
the excessive multiplication of this j^est is the weather.
Thus, Professor Otto Lugger records that in Minnesota,
late in the fall of 1894, the beetles were lured from their
winter quarters by a few warm days, and most of them
subsequently perished from hunger or frost. In addition
INSECTS TXJURIOrS TO THE POTATO.
247
to this during the late summer of 1894 there was an exces-
sive drouth, so that but feAv of the third brood matured.
Thus in 1895 there were very few of the insects to be seen.
Among the birds, the common crow, red-breasted Gros-
FiG. 141. — Murky Ground-beetle {Harpalus caUglnosus) and Fiery
Ground- beetle {Calosoma calidum). (After Riley.)
Fig. 142. — Larva of Murky Ground-beetle {Uarpalus caliginosus).
(After Riley.)
beak, and turkeys often feed upon this pest to a consider-
able extent.
Probably the most destructive insect-parasite of the
larvae is a Tachinid-fly known to science as LydeUa dory-
phorcB Ril., which rather closely resembles the common
house-fly, both in size and color. A single egg is laid on
a potato-bug and from it hatches a small, footless maggot
which burrows inside the bug. When the larva enters the
earth, the effect of the maggot's work becomes aj)parent,
and instead of transforming to a pupa and beetle, it
248 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
shrivels w}! and dies. But the maggot itself contracts into
a hard, brown pupa, from which the fly eventually
emerges. Thus in 1868, when first noted by Doctor C. V.
Kiley, he asserted that in Missouri fully ten per cent of the
second brood and one-half of the third were destroyed by
this parasite.
Many of our common ladybird-beetles and their larvae
check the pest by feeding upon the eggs. Several pre-
daceous bugs are of value in destroying the larvae, into
which they thrust their short, powerful beaks, and then
suck out the juices of the body, leaving only an empty
skin. One or two of these closely resemble the common
squash-bug [Anasa fristis De G.), but are really very dis-
similar, and whereas the beaks of the predaceous forms are
short and thick, as in Fig. 139fr, those of plant-feeders,
like the squash-bug, are long and slender, as in Fig. 1396-.
Several species of ground-beetles are often found preying
upon the larvae and beetles, but, unlike the bugs, attack
them by means of their powerful biting jaws. These
beetles are also exceedingly beneficial in feeding upon
many other injurious insects, and are among the farmers'
best insect friends (Fig. 141).
Eemedies. — As an artificial remedy for this pest, Paris
green has long been proven to be both effectual and prac-
tical.
For small areas it may be used dry by inixing it with
one hundred times its weight of dry flour, land-plaster, or
air-slaked lime, and should be applied while the plants
are still wet with dew, either by a perforated can, or,
better, by one of the improved powder-guns such as
Leggett's, by which two rows of plants may be powdered at
once.
INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO THE POTATO. 249
For larger areas a Avet application will doubtless be found
more satisfactory. For this purpose one pound of Paiis
green and one pound of quicklime to one hundred and
fifty gallons of water will kill all the insects biting the
foliage. While the vines are young, this may best be
carried in a half barrel placed on wheels, and applied with
a suitable pump and nozzle. But as the vines become
larger and the field is more difficult to traverse, a knapsack-
sprayer will be found advantageous.
Either arsenite of lime or arsenite of soda is as effective
as Paris green and very much cheaper.
By observing the pest and spraying when needed, no
fear need be had of losses from this insect, and if such
joolicy were adopted by every one, it would be but a few
years before we would be comparatively free from it.
Flea-beetles.
Among the worst insect pests wdth which j)otato-growers
have had to contend in recent years are the small black
beetles, which, from their power of making long, quick
jumps, are known as flea-beetles.
Indeed, in the Rural New Yorker 2:)otato-contest, in
1888, it was reported that the variety "Rural Seedling
No. 3 lost the day and was nearly a failure on account of
the ravages of the common flea-beetle, Epitrix cucuntej-is."
Several species are known to attack the potato, the two
most common being the Cucumber Flea-beetle (Epitrix
cucinneris Harris) and one which Prof. H. A. Garman has
styled the Southern Potato Flea-beetle [Epitrix fuscula).
The Tobacco Flea-beetle [Epitrix parvida) is not uncom-
monly found on the vines in sections where its habitue; 1
food-plant is also grown. All of these species are, how-
250
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
e\ei% essentially the same in habits and life-history, and
fortunately the same remedies apply to all. Unfortunately,
the complete life-cycle of these little insects has never been
carefully determined, so that only a general outline can be
given.
During the winter the beetles hibernate under leaves,
rubbish, etc., and in the spring come forth and lay their
eggs upon the roots of some of our common weeds, such
as the horse-nettle, Jamestown weed,
Desmodium, and various members of
the Nightshade family, or Solanacece.
Here the larvae feed upon the small
roots by mining in them, and trans-
form to pupae in small cells among
the roots. From the pupae the
beetles emerge and, after becoming
Fig. 143. —The Potato hardened, come forth to attack the
or Cucumber Flea- „ ,. i • i xi 4. ^.i, \^
beetle {Epitrlx cucum- foliage, which they most thoroughly
eris). Adult beetle, riddle, a badly eaten leaf appearing
much enlarged. (After
Chittenden, U. S. almost as if it had been the target for
Dept. Agr.)
a shotgun.
There are at least two, and possibly three, broods of most
of the species, but I can find few accurate records con-
cerning them.
Remedies. — Prof. C. M. Weed, of the New Hampshire
Agricultural Experiment Station, has successfully used
'^a spray of lime-wash made by adding a pint or more of
freshly slaked lime to two gallons of water, and then
thoroughly mixing in about half a teaspoonful of Paris
green. ^'
The use of Bordeaux mixture as a repellant for flea-
beetles was first tested and demonstrated to be effectual by
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 251
Prof. R. L. Jones, of the Vermont Experiment Station.
Prepare the mixture in the usual manner, using six pounds
of copper sulfate and four pounds of freshly slaked quick-
lime to fifty gallons of water, to which is added four ounces
of Paris green, for the destruction of any other insect
pests.
Spray this upon the vines so that they are well coated.
Where this has been carefully tested it has been reported
as a very successful repellant.
A few plants may be protected from flea-beetles by
covering tiiem with a frame composed of two crossed
barrel-hoops on which is tacked some mosquito-netting or
other material; but this method is hardly practicable upon
large areas.
Blister-beetles [Meloidce).
Long before we had made the acquaintance of the
Colorado potato-bug, several species of blister-beetles fre-
quently brought themselves into notice by their injuries,
and, therefore, are now known as the *' old-fashioned
potato-bugs.^"
The name of '' blister-beetles"' has been bestowed upon
them because of the blistering effect which they have upon
the skin, they being nearly related to the Spanish Fly,
used for that purpose, and are themselves brought to
manufacturing chemists.
One of the most common of these is the Striped Blister-
beetle, which has three yellow strij^es upon its wing-covers,
while the other two common forms are of a slate-black
color.
Very often when these beetles congregate in great num-
bers they are a great nuisance, not only in the potato-
252 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
patch, but upon mauy otlier plants of the garden or truck-
farm.
Unfortunately, they present to the farmer a very
peculiar problem, for while the beetles are often exceed-
ingly injurious, the larvse are even more beneficial, in
eating large quantities of grasshoppers' eggs.
JAfe-Msiory, — The life of these insects is unique. The
female lays a large number of eggs in a small cavity in the
earth, and from these hatch some small, long-legged larvae,
"which run about searching for the pod-like masses of
grasshoppers' eggs, upon which they feed. As soon as the
appetite of one of these little egg-hunters is appeased, he
sheds his skin, and now being surrounded by food and no
longer needing his long legs for running, in this next stage
of his existence the legs are very short and rudimentary,
and he remains almost immobile while feeding upon the
rest of the eggs.
Thus, if their destructiveness be not too severe, it would
not be good policy to destroy these beetles whose offspring
are so beneficial.
Three-lined Leaf-beetle {Lema trilineaia Oliv.).
Closely related to the Colorado Potato-beetle, and very
similar to it in habits, is the Three-lined Leaf -beetle
[Lema trilineata Oliv.). The eggs can scarcely be distin-
guished from those of that insect except by the fact that
they are usually laid in rows along the midrib on the
under side of the leaf, while those of the former are laid
indiscriminately in bunches.
The larvae, however, may be readily distinguished from
all other insects attacking the potato by being covered
with a disgusting mass of their own excrement.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO.
253
There are two broods during the season, the hirva? of
the first appearing in June, and that of the second in
August; but the beetles of the second brood do not emerge
until the following spring. In other respects the life-
history is practically the same as that of the Colorado
Potato-beetle. The beetle is of a pale yellow color, with
three black stripes on its back, and in a general way
Fig. 144. — Three-lined Leaf-beetle (Lema trilineata Oliv.). a,
larva; h, pupa; d, eggs; beetle at right. (After Kiley.)
resembles the common striped Cucumber-beetle (Diahrotica
vittata Fab.), though it is somewhat larger and the thorax
is decidedly constricted.
In case it becomes necessary to destroy the Blister-
beetles, both they and the Three-lined Leaf -beetle may be
readily disposed of by applying Paris green or other arsen-
ite as advised for the Colorado Potato-beetle.
CHAPTER XIII.
I:N^SECTS mJURIOUS to the SUGAR-BEET.*
INJURIN^G THE ROOT.
White Grubs and Wireworms. (See images 44 and 48.)
FoRTUisrATELY for the sngar-beet farmer the worst insect
enemies of that pest feed npon the tops, and very rarely
do we hear of serious damage being done the roots. In
the East most of the damage to the roots is done by those
two familiar old farm-thieyes, the white grub and the
wireworm. As a general rule they will be found to be
worse on lands previously in sod, which should therefore
be avoided when known to be badly infested with either of
these insects, as both are diflicult to fight after they have
once commenced doing noticeable injury.
As the wireworm -beetles — " click-beetles " — become
mature in late summer, but remain in the pupal cell in a
half-hardened condition over winter, much can be done
toward destroying them l)y plowing late in the summer
and keeping the land stirred for a month or so, in this way
exposing the newly transformed tender beetles to the fall
frosts.
* See Forbes and Hart, "The Economic Entomology of the
Sugar-beet," Univ. Ill Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. Xo. 60, Aug. 1900,
for summary.
254
IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SUGAR-BEET. 255
The Beet-aphis (Pem^jhigus letce Doane).
This species was first described by Mr. W. R. Doane in
1900 and seems thus far to have been found only in
Washington and Oregon. "^Attention was first called to
this pest/^ he says,* "in 1896, when it was found that a
field of two or three acres of beets was generally infested,
a strip of twenty-five to a hundred yards being so badly
injured that the beets were nearly all soft and spongy, and
the plants much smaller than the averiige. f
' ' It has been even more destructive in Oregon than in
Washington, at least a thousand tons of beets having been
destroyed by it in one year in a single valley devoted
largely to beet-culture. Like very many other beet-insects,
this species infests also several wild or useless plants.
"The smaller rootlets of the beet are first attacked by
this aphis, and if it occurs in considerable numbers these
are soon all destroyed, and the leaves thereupon soon
wither, and the whole beet shrivels and becomes spongy.
This wilting of the leaves will frequently, in fact, be the
first thing to attract the attention of the beet-grower.
The actual injury to the crop will, of course, depend
largely upon the time when the attack of the aphis is
made. If the plants are small they may be readily
destroyed, while if they are practically full-grown the loss
of the small rootlets will not materially affect them.
* ^ No sexual generation of this aphis has as yet been dis-
covered and no eggs have been seen, viviparous reproduc-
tion continuing throughout the year except when the cold
* Bull. No. 42, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta.
t Forbes and Hart, Bull. Xo. 60, Univ. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta.,
p. 507.
25G INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
of the winter temporarily suspends the physiological
activities of the species. The winged females, appearing
from time to time during the summer and fall, serve to
distribute the species generally, new colonies being started
wherever these females find lodgment and food. In dis-
tricts liable to injury by this insect it seems inadvisable
k
Fig. 145. — The Beet-aphis {Pemphigus beire Doane). a, winged
female; b, wingless female; c, antenna of winged female.
(After Doane.)
that beets should be the fiist crop on new land, or that
ground should be continued in beets or in any other root-
crop after the pest has made its appearance in the field."
CUTTING THE TOPS.
Cutworms.
Like all similar crops, the sugar-beet is often subject to
the midnight raids of the deadly Cutworms, and when
present in any number they should be carefully guarded
against while plants are young. Like the Web -worms,
they are worse upon a sandy soil, and like the Wireworms,
when the beets are on land previously in grass.
These well-known depredators are the larvae of moths,
which, from their habit of flying at night, are known as
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE SUGAR-BEET.
257
Noctuidas. The injurious species belong almost entirely
to the genera Mmnestris, Hadena, and Agrotis, and are
sufficiently alike in their habits and life-history that the
same methods may in general be applied to all. The
worms are of dull brown, gray, or greenish hues, generally
with longitudinal stripes, and often with oblique dashes.
Fig. 146. — Peridromia snicin. a, adult; b, c, d, full-grown larvae;
e, f, eggs— all natural size except e, which is greatly enlarged.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
They are one and one-fourth to almost two inches in length
and rather stout, but tapering. The head and segment
back are reddish brown and horny. There are eight pairs
of legs; the first three jointed and tapering, the last five
(pro-legs) short and stout. Besides the beets they have
been recorded as injuring almost every croj^ of the farm,
orchard, and garden. Beets, turnips, and many of the
garden crops are cut off at the neck just below the surface
of the soil. Like the adults, the worms feed only at night,
258
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CHOPS.
excepting when a scarcity of food causes them to assemble
and assume tlie marching habit of the army-worm during
the day. For this reason their work often remains
unnoticed until the damage is done, and no remedy can
repair the loss. The characteristic mode of attack is to
cut off the young plant at the surface of the ground and
leisurely feed upon the leaves and stem, but several species
Fig. 147. — The Dark-sided Cutv7orm {Agrotls messoria). (After
Riley.)
remain entirely under the soil, pulling the j^lant more or
less into their subterranean retreat. The life-history of
the various species of cutworms varies considerably, and
has not been entirely ascertained for many of them, but
whatever it may be they are always on hand, ready to nip
the young jDlants as soon as set out.
Remedies. — All things considered, no remedy has as yet
been devised which is more satisfactory or efficient than that
of a mixture of bran or middlings and Paris green. This
consists of mixing one pound of Paris green with forty of
bran or middlings, barely moistening this with water into
which has been stirred about two quarts of cheap molasses
IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SUGAR-BEET.
250
or sorghum. The molasses gives the mash more or less of
an odor, and renders it slightly more palatable. Do not
have the mixture too wet or it will " cake."^ Apply this
at the rate of a heaping tablespoonful about every three
feet in the rows. Equally good results have been obtained
by using thirty pounds of bran and middlings, dr}^ in
equal parts, with one pound of Paris green, which is easily
Fig. 148. — The Granulated Cutworm {Agrotis annexa). (After
Riley.)
scattered by hand or by means of an onion-drill. When
the worms are known to be present the mash should be
applied two or three days before the young plants appear,
in which case — having no other food — large numbers of
the worms will be killed. If applied later, distribute
the mash late in the afternoon, so that it will be fresh
when the worms come out in the evening.
IN^JURIIfG THE LEAVES.
Web-worms {Loxostege spp.).
Possibly the most destructive sugar-beet insects are the
common Garden Web-worm [Loxostege similaJis Gn.), and
260
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
ihe Sugar-beet Web-worm {Loxostege stidUdis Linn.), Lirv^
of very closely allied moths of the family PyralidcB. Until
the summer of 1892 they had not been noted east of the
Mississippi River, confining themselves to a region west of
that to the Rockies and north of the Platte River. But
in September of that year they destroyed fully fifty joer
cent of the tansy croj), which is largely grown for oil near
Menon, Mich., and, since the extensive growing of the
sugar-beet had hardly commenced at that time, it is safe to
assume that with its more general culture in the East these
two pests will accompany it.
The Garden Web-worm.
The greatest injury seems to be done by the second
brood of caterpillars in July, and in Nebraska there are
Fig. 149. — The Garden Web-worm {Loxostege similalis Gn.).
three broods during the season. When the fall brood has
become full-grown it burrows into the earth, forms small
cells, neatly lined with silk, and there lies dormant during
the winter, transforming to pupte the next May. The moths
emerge in a week or ten days, and at once commence to
lay eggs upon the leaves of the 23lants. They are pretty
little moths, with a wing-expanse of about three-fourths
INSECTS IXJURIOrS TO THE SUGAR-BEET. 201
of iin incli, quite variable in color, but generally an orange
or reddish yellow, inclining to a shade of gray. Their
characteristic dark and light markings are well shown in
the figure. The eggs of the latter worm are a pale yellow,
circular, somewhat flattened, and laid either singly or in
rows of four or five. The yonng worms hatch in a few
days, and often do serious injury by feeding upon the
foliage of the plant, always spinning a light, silken web
over them. Most of the feeding is done at night, but
during the last stage they may be found during the day.
This brood matures in about ten days after hatching,
pupates, and the moths emerge early in July, giving rise
to the destructive July brood of worms. The larv^, or
'* web-worms, ^^ are about five-eighths of an inch long when
full-grown, and, like the moth, are variable in color, being
either a pale, dark, or even greenish yellow. They are
distinctly marked by several rows of black spots, which are
surrounded by a plain border, as in Fig. 149.
Jiemedies. — Deep plowing or thorough harrowing in the
fall after the larvae have entered the cocoons in the earth
will destroy large numbers of them. When the worms
appear in destructive numbers upon the foliage they may
be controlled by a spray of Paris green or other arsenite,
using one pound to 125 gallons of water, providing, of
course, that the tops are not to be fed to stock. An
under- spray nozzle should be used, so as to reach all parts
of the plant in an effective manner. When present in
large numbers and doing serious injury the worms can be
more quickly killed by spraying with strong kerosene
emulsion, but this will only kill those hit, and an ar-
senite should also be applied without delay.
^62 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
The Beet Army-worm {Lajihygma fiavimaculata Harr.).
''This caterpillar, which replaces the Grass-worm
(L. friigiperda — see page 84) in the Western States, differs
from it by its more decidedly mottled ground-color, by a
row 01 white dots at the lower margin of the lateral dark
band, and by the yellower color of the light stripes. It is
an interesting fact that while the preceding species was
doing serious, unusual, and wide-extended injuries in the
Eastern and Southern States (1899), the present one was
similarly abundant in Colorado, where, besides destroying
many kinds of weeds and grasses, it completely defoliated
thousands of acres of sugar-beets. In some cases where
the foliage of the beet did not furnish it sufficient food,
the root was attacked and the upper surface was completely
gnawed away. Late plantings of course suffered most
severely, especially when surrounded by newly broken
ground. The weeds most generally eaten were pigweed,
saltweed, wild sunflower, and cleome. Potato-, pea-, and
apple-leaves were also devoured. These injuries occurred
about the middle of August, at which time the larvae and
pupa3 were abundant, and a few moths laden with eggs
were noticed."
This species evidently hibernates as a moth, and at
least two broods of larvae may be looked for each year, the
first about June and the second in August. The species
has been reported thus far from Colorado and California,
but it doubtless has a more extended range in the moun-
tain region of the far West.
*' Prof. Gillette's field-experiments showed that it could
INSECTS IXJURIorS TO THE SUGAR-BEET.
263
be destroyed by dusting or spraying arsenical poisons on
the leaves. ' ' *
Plant-bugs.
The Tarnished Plant-bug [Lygus pratensis), False
Chinch-bug {Kysius angustahis), and several of the
common plant-bugs often become so numerous as to do
considerable damage. When present in large numbers, a
spray of kerosene emulsion or kerosene and water might
Fig. 150 — The False Chinch-bug {JVysivs angustatus . (After Riley.)
Fig. 151. — Tarnished Plant-bug [Li/gus p)'aie?is's Linn.). «, young,
first stage; b, young, third stage (X3); c, adult (x2) — all en-
larged. (After Stedman.)
be used to great advantage. Recent experiments in New
York show that the Tarnished Plant-bug can be driven
from, a field by dusting the rows with wood-ashes, beiug
careful to work on the same side of each row and thus
gradually driving them into the field adjoining.
* Forbes and Hart, 1. c., facts derived from statements of Prof. C.
P. Gillette.
264 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Flea-beetles.
Several species of flea-beetles, chiefly Systena tcsniata,
Systena Mulsonias, Disonycha ti'iangularis, and Phyllotreta
vittata, often do considerable injury by gnawing small
holes in the npper and lower surfaces of the leaf, giving it
an appearance as if affected by leaf-sj^ot, or puncturing it
full of small holes, and thus stunting the growth of the
plant.
The Yellow-black Flea-beetle (Diso7iycha xantliomelcena).
This is one of the common beet-insects, both the larva
and adults feeding upon the leaves. It may be distin-
guislied among the Flea-beetles by its comparatively large
size (its length about a quarter of an inch), by its metallic
greenish-blue or black head and wing-covers, with the
thorax uniformly pale yellowish above and black beneath,
and the abdomen yellow beneath.
A much smaller, also very abundant, species whose
injuries in spring frequently attract attention is the Pale-
striped Flea-beetle {Systena tmniata). This is about an
eighth of an inch in length, light yellowish brown in
general color, with a l)road, pale stripe down each wing-
cover.
Most of the Flea-beetles are so similar in their general
habits that they may be treated together, and the same
remedies will be applicable for each species. The beetles
hibernate over winter in woodlands, under rubbish, etc.,
and in the early spring deposit their eggs on the roots of
common weeds of the family Solo7iace(B, such as the James-
town weed, horse-nettle, etc. On these the larva? feed,
mining the roots and stems of the plants. When full-
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE SUCtAR-BEET. 265
grown the larva transforms to a pupa inside a small
earthen cell, and a week or ten days later the adult beetle
emerges. The beetles may feed for a short time on the
larval food-plant, but they soon desert it for some culti-
vated crop. A spray of Paris green and Bordeaux mixture
will be found effectual in ridding the plants of these pests.
It should be applied liberally and the spraying should be
repeated, if necessary, after a heavy rain.
Clean Culture. — But there is one very simple method
for securing immunity from all the pests so far mentioned,
which should be practiced even were no insects present.
There can be no doubt that the natural food-plants of all
these insects. Web-worms, Flea-beetles, and Plant-bugs,
consists of the common pigweeds, tumbleweeds, Jamestown
weeds, etc. Thus, a field planted in beets, which has been
idle and allowed to grow up in weeds, is always the most
subject to insect attack, and it is always well to grow
some crop prior to beets, and subsequently to pursue as
much of a rotation as possible. Fields, fences, and road-
sides should be kept well cleaned from these weeds, espe-
cially during the fall, after the crop is harvested, and with
such precautions the few of these insects that are always
present will do but slight injury.
Blister-beetles (Meloidce).
Among those insects attacking the young sugar-beets
and often doing considerable damage after they have
become partly grown, few are more wide-spread or do more
general injury than the Blister-beetles. They have been
especially destructive in the northern Mississippi Valley,
where they are usually worst after a period of unusual
abundance of grasshoppers. Coming suddenly in a large
2B6
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
swarm, tliey settle in a field and tlioroiiglily riddle the
foliage with holes or strip it bare before going to another
field.
One of the most common forms is the Striped Blister-
beetle, or ^^old-fashioned potato-bug" (Epicauta vittata),
which is shown in the illustration, together with the im-
mature stages. The asli-gray Blister-beetle [Meter ohasis
unicolor) is also a common form, shown in Fig. 153.
Three or four other forms are common throughout the
country, but are especially numerous in the West, where
grasshoppers are more abundant. The reason for this is
apparent when we come to consider the life-history of the
pest, for the Blister-beetles are not an unmixed evil.
Life-liistory. — In a small cavity in the earth the female
beetle lays some four or five hundred eggs, these being
Fig. 152. — Striped Blister-beetle {Epicauta mttata). a, larva; c, d,
hibernating stage of larva: adult beetle at right, and pupa at
a, b. (After Riley.)
deposited from July to October. About ten days later the
eggs hatch, and from them emerge some small but very
active larv», with long legs, large heads, and strong jaws.
They at once commence running about in search of the
pod-like masses of grasshoppers' eggs, and as soon as one
is found the larva enters it and commences a hearty meal.
As soon as his appetite has been somewhat satisfied he
sheds his skin, and now being surrounded by food and no
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SUGAR-BEET.
267
longer needing his long running legs, they are changed for
very short, aborted legs, and the larva is soft and sluggish.
In another week a second molt takes place, after which
the legs and even the mouth-parts are still more atrophied.
After another molt and after consuming all the eggs in the
pod, the larva now goes deeper in the soil, and inside a
small oval cavity again sheds its skin, and hibernates over
winter as a sort of semipupa. In the spring the larva
Fig. 153. — a, Ash-gray Blister-beetle [Macrobasis unicolor; h, Epi-
cauta pennsylvanica. (After Riley.)
appears again much like the second stage, but does not eat
much, and soon goes into the pupal stage from which
emerges the adult beetle. Altogether the life-history is
one of the most peculiar and complicated among insects.
Thus the Blister-beetles are one of the most important
factors in holding the grasshoppers in check,
Bemcdies. — However, when they swarm into the beet-
fields, potato- or garden-patches, one cannot afford to
allov/ them to consume one crop for the good they may do
in saving anotlier from still another insect scourge. ''A
bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," is equally true
of insects. So be ready for them on tlieir first appearance;
give the plants a thorough spraying with Paris green, at
the rate of one pound and one pound of lime to 125 gallons
268 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
of water, and when sprayed, it would be well to spray it
with Bordeaux mixture, which will prevent various fun-
gous diseases, and with which Paris green can be used
much stronger without danger of burning the foliage; or
it may be ajoplied dry by mixing with from ten to twenty
parts of flour or plaster, dusting it on in early morning,
while the dew is still on the plants. Any other arsenical
poison will prove equally effective, if used at the proper
strength.
CHAPTEE XIV.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT.
INJURING THE STALK.
The Hop-plant Borer {Hydrcecia immanis Grt.).
The Hop-plant Borer is sometimes the occasion of a
considerable loss to the hop industry, Mr. Chas. R. Dodge
having estimated upon the basis of the census of 1879 that
it annually amounts to $600,000 in New York State alone.
The moths have been taken from Ontario and New Eng-
land south to the District of Columbia, and west to
Wisconsin, and also from Colorado and Washington, but
the larvffi have never become injurious in the hop-fields of
the Pacific Coast. *^It is probable that it is a northern
form, and confined, as it seems to be, to a single food-
plant, it will be found only where this plant is known to
grow. " *
Life-liistory . — Many of the moths emerge from the
pup^e in the fall and hibernate over winter, while others
do not transform till spring, passing the winter in the
pupal stage, in a small cell in the ground near the roots
of the i^lant which the larv^ have infested. The moths
appear during May, and the females deposit their globular,
* "Some Insects Affecting the Hop-plant," L. O, Howard, Bull.
No. 7, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 41.
269
270
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
yellowish -green eggs uj^on the tips of the hop-vines just
as they begin to climb. ' ' The Qgg hatches in a few days
and produces a minute slender greenish larva, spotted with
black, which immediately burrows into the vine just below
the tip, and spends a part of its life in the vine at this
point. The vine soon shows the effects of the insects'
Fig. 154.— Hop-plant Borer {Hydrceda immanis Grt.). a, enlarged
segment of larva; h, larva; c, pupa; d, adult, natural size.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
work; instead of pointing upward, embracing the pole
readily and growing rapidly, the tip points downward, will
not climb, and almost entirely ceases growing. This
appearance is called by growers a "^ Muffle-head.' When
the insect attains a length of about half an inch, or
slightly less, it leaves the tip, drops to the ground, and
entering the stem at the surface of the vine, feeds upward,
interrupting the growth of tlie vine and lessening its
vitality; the larva now changes color, and becomes a dirty-
white, with a strong, deep reddish tint, with numerous
black spots. The larva, now about an inch in length, and
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLAXT. 271
still slender, burrows downward to the base of the vine at
its juncture with the old stock, and eating its way out,
completes its growth as a subterranean worker; it is in
this state that it is best and most widely known as the hop
' grub,^ and the ravages caused by it are most noted." *
The larvae have mostly left the stems by the last of June
and henceforth are mainly sap-feeders. Eating into the
stem just below the surface of the ground and just above
the old root, they rapidly grow fat upon the juices of the
plant. These openings are gradually enlarged so that very
often the stem is entirely severed from the root or is so
slightly attached that the plant is badly stunted and yields
few, if any, hops. The larvj^e become full-grown from
the middle to the 20th of July and are then ^' about
two inches in length, fleshy, unwieldy, and very slow in
their movements; they are of a dirty white color, speckled
with line, brownish elevated tubercles, each furnished with
a single stout hair; the head is brownish and corneous, as
is also the top of the first segment." (1-c.)
The larva3 now transform to pupse in rough cells, close
to the roots which they have infested, and the adult moths
emerge during August or September, or the following
spring. The adult moths are found to be most beautifully
marked upon close examination, though not of a striking
appearance at first sight. ' ' The general color is a rosy
broAvn, paler at the extremity of the wings. The darker
central portion is shaded with dark velvety bronze and
marked with two dull-yellow spots. The fore wings are
divided into three areas by narrow oblique transverse lines,
* "Hop -insects," Dr. J. B. Smith, Bull. Xo. 4, o. s., Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agr.
272 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
edged outwardly with pink. The hind wings are paler in
color, crossed in the middle by a slightly darker line."
(Howard, I.e.)
Remedies. — Two points in the life-history of the insect
a:£ford oj^portnnity for its control. The first of these is
when the young larvae are still in the tips and can easily
be crushed by the fingers when tying the vines. ' ' Muffle-
heads " should always be picked off and destroyed.
Early in June when the larvae have left the inside of the
vines it is well to remove all the soil from the base of the
vine, down to the junction with the old root. The
larvae, which will not feed above ground, will go to the
old roots^ to which they will do but little injury. The
roots should be left thus exposed for about a week. A
handful of mixture of coal and wood ashes or ammoniated
phosphate should then be applied to each and the plants
hilled high. The plant will now send out new rootlets
from the main root, and is able to secure necessary nour-
ishment through them.
INJURING THE LEAVES.
The Hop-louse {Pliorodon liumuli Schr.).
Like many another aphid the Hop-louse has a most
interesting life-history, which has been fully ascertained
in but recent years. During the winter the small oval
black eggs may be found in the crevices and around the
buds of the terminal twigs of plum-trees near infested liop-
fields. From these hatch a generation of females, known
as '^stem-mothers," during the following spring. The
lice of this generation differ in being stouter, with shorter
legs and honey-tubes than those of any other generation.
Three generations feed upon the plum, the third becoming
INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT. 273
winged and at once flying to its favorite food in the hop-
field.
Throughout the summer the lice are produced partheno-
genetically, as are almost all plant-lice (see page 136).
They " multiply with astonishing rapidity for from five to
twelve generations, carrying us in point of time to the
hop-picking season.'' '^Each parthenogenetic female is
capable of producing on an average one hundred young
Fig. 155. — AYinter Eggs of the Fig. 156.— The Hop Plant-louse,
Hop Plant-louse, and sliriv- stem-mother, with enlarged an-
eled skin of the sexual female t^'umie above. (After Riley,
which laid them — enlarged. U. S. Dept. Agr.)
(After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr. )
(the stem-mother probably being more prolific), at the rate
of one to six, or an average of three per day^, under favor-
able conditions. Each generation begins to breed about
the eighth day after birth, so that the issue from a single
individual easily runs up, in the course of the summer, to
millions. The number of leaves (700 hills, each with two
poles and two vines) to an acre of hops, as grown in the
United States, will not, on the average, much exceed a
274
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
million before the period of blooming or burning; so that
the issue from a single stem-mother may, under favoring
circumstances, blight hundreds of acres in the course of
two or three months. " *
Daring September a brood of winged females are pro-
duced which fly back to the plum-trees and in the course
Fig. 157. — The Hop Plaut-louse, third generation on plum— the
generation which flies to the hop — enlarged; head below at right
— still more enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
of a few days give birth to three or more young. These
never become winged, but are the true sexual females
which lay the winter eggs. The true winged males are
developed during the latter part of the season and may be
found pairing with the wingless females at that time, these
being the only males during the year.
Remedies. — From a knowledge of the above-described
life-history several methods of treatment have been
secured. By spraying plum-trees neighboring the hop-
* Rfley, "The Hop-louse," " Insect Life," Vol. I, p. 135.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT.
275
yard and infested with lice while they are laying the eggs,
during fall or -in the spring, before the winged generation
appears, with some substance which will destroy them, the
pest may be prevented from getting a start the next season.
Spraying the trees during the fall
is best, because a stronger or more
caustic solution can then be applied
without danger of injury to the I V.</
tree. A winter wash of one pound ^ ' '^■
of concentrated lye to two gallons
of water might be used as a spray / / ' \
to advantage in killing a large share
of the eggs, but should not be applied
after the buds commence to swell in
the spring. To lessen the number
of eggs all wild plum-trees in the Fig. 158. — The Hop
. . , . 11111 1 Plant-louse, true sex-
neighbormg woods should be de- ^^.^^ female -enlarged.
stroyed. As soon as the crop is (After Riley, U. S.
•^ . ^ Dept. Agr.)
harvested, the hop-vines should be
burned or thoroughly sprayed with kerosene emulsion, so
as to kill off the males before they have been able to fer-
tilize the females.
For spraying the plum-trees and hop-vines the follow-
ing have given excellent satisfaction :
' 'Kerosene Emulsion.
Cheap kerosene 8 pints.
Water 4 ''
Soap h pound.
'' Dissolve the soap in the water and add (boiling hot) to
the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force-
pump and spray-nozzle for 5 or 10 minutes. The emul-
276
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
sion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens upon
cooling, and should adhere without oiliness to the surface
of glass. Dilute one part of the emulsion with 25 parts
of water." Kerosene and water mechanically mixed
('^ Kerowater ") would doubtless be equally effective
applied at a strength of 15 or 20 per cent.
Fig. 159. — The Hop Plant-louse, male — enlarged. (After Riley,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fish -oil or whale-oil soap used at the rate of one pound
to eight gallons of water will prove an effective spray
against the lice. It can be purchased at from 3 to 5 cents
per pound.
The Hop-vine Snout-moth {Hypena Immnli Harr.).
The larvae of the Hop-vine Snout-moth sometimes
become very formidable pests in the hop-field, appearing
INSECTS IXJrRIorS TO THE HOP-PLANT. 277
suddenly in large numbers and rapidly eating the foliage
over a large area.
They are not known to have any other food-plant than
the ho]) and hence are only found where that plant occurs,
though specimens have been taken from almost all sections
of the United States, southern Canada, and British
Columbia.
Life-history. — It seems probable that the moths hiber-
nate over winter, as they emerge in the fall, and lay eggs
for the first brood early in the following ^i^j. The eggs
are of a pale-green color, and are deposited upon the under
surfaces of the leaves, sometimes several upon a single leaf.
The larv^ emerging from them become mature late in
June and early in July. When full-grown the larvge are
slightly less than one inch long, and *^of a green color,
marked with two longitudinal white lines down the back,
a dark-green line in the middle between and an indistinct
whitish line on each side of the body. The head is green,
spotted with black piliferous dots, and similar dots occur
on each segment, arranged in two transverse rows."*
Before pupating the larva sjDins a thin silken cocoon,
either among the leaves, under the bark of the poles, or
at or slightly under the surface of the ground, various
observers having noted them in all of these positions.
The pupal stage occupies about ten days, and the moths
emerge from the cocoons early in July. Another brood
follows with a similar life-history, the moths emerging
late in August and in September and probably hibernating
over winter.
* "Hop-insects," L. O. Howard, Bull. No. 7, n. s., Div. Ent.,
U. S. Dept. Agr.
278
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE f'ROPS.
The larvae are known as ''false loo^^ers/' on account of
their bendnig the back slightly in creeping, which is due
to their lacking the first pair of pro-legs.
Another species of the same genus {Hypcna rostralis)
affects hop-vines in Europe in the same manner and is
very similar to the one above described.
Fig. 160. — The Hop-vine Snout-moth {Hypena Jmmuli HarrJ. a,
egg; h, larva; c, segment of same; d, pupa; e, cremaster of
same; /, adult — a, c, e, greatly enlarged, others slightly en-
larged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Remedies. — The larv« can be controlled by the use of
any arsenical spray, which should be applied while they
are still young.
Hop-merchants.
The so-called '* Hop-merchants^^ which here and there
gleam from the vines are the chrysalids of two common
butterflies, whose larvae feed preferably upon hops. The
chrysalids are normally marked with beautiful gold or
silver spots, which sometimes become so diffused as to
tinge the whole chrysalis. "An interesting superstition
holds among hop-growers to the effect that when the
II^^SECTS IXJURIOrS TO THE HOP-PLAXT. 279
golden-spotted chrysalids are plentiful the crop Avill be
good and the price high, while if the silver-spotted ones
are plentiful and the golden-spotted ones are scarce the
price will be low.'' (Howard, I.e.)
The Semicolon-butterfly (Polygonia interrogatiooiis
Godart).
The common names of these two butterflies indicate the
most striking mark of distinction between them. P. in-
terrogdtionis bears a silver mark like a semicolon or
'" interrogation'' point upon the under side of the hind
wings (Fig. 161), while P. comma has the same mark
without the dot, which thus resembles a comma (Fig. 162).
The Semicolon-butterfly is common throughout the
United States east of the Rockies, and especially in \\o])-
growing regions. It hibernates over winter and is among the
first butterflies to be seen in early spring, when it is often
attracted to the flowing sap of newly cut trees. The eggs
are laid late in May or early in June, usually upon the
under surface of the leaves, of elm, blackberrj^, or nettle,
either singly or in j^tendant columns of from two to eight.
They hatch in from four to eleven days and the larvge grow
quite rajjidly.
When full-grown the larva is an inch and a quarter
long. The head is reddish black, somewhat bilobed, each
lobe being tipped with a tubercle bearing five single,
black-pointed spines, and covered with many small white
and several blackish tubercles. The body is black, thickly
covered with streaks and dots of yellowish white; the
second segment is without sj^ines, but with a row of yel-
lowish tubercles in their place; the third segment has four
branching spines, all black, with a spot of dark yellow at
280
IKSECTS iN.irRIOrs TO STAPLE CROPS.
their base; and on the fourth segment are four spines, as
there are on all tlie others, excepting the terminal, which
has two pairs, one posterior to the other. The spines are
yellow, witli blackish branches, excepting the terminal
pair, which are black; and there is a row of reddish ones
on each side. TJie under surface is yellowish gray, darker
a
Fig. 101. — The Semicolon-butterfly {Polygon i<i iiterrogationis). a,
egg chain; h, larva; r, chrysalis; d, adult — all natural size ex-
cept a, which is greatly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)
on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish,
and many small black dots. (Saunders.)
The chrysalis is ash-brown, with the head deeply
notated, and with eight silyery spots on the back, this
stage lasting from eleven to fourteen da3^s and the butter-
flies emerging in July. These lay eggs for another brood
late in July and throughout August, mainly upon the
IXSEPTS TXJrRTOrS TO THE HOP-PLAXT.
281
hop-plants, where tliey are to be found. When the cater-
pillars of this brood are numerous they sometimes do con-
siderable damage to the foliage, but both this and the
following species are ordinarily prevented from becoming
Fig. 162. — The Comma-butterfly {Polygonia comma), a, egg-chain,
h, larva; c, chrysalis; d, adult— all natural size, except a, which
is greatly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
overnumerous by several parasites of the eggs and larvge.
Only when for some reason conditions are unfavorable to
the development of its parasites does either S23ecies become
especially abundant. In fact. Dr. J. B. Smith, who made
extensive observations upon hop-insects in 1883, states
282 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
" that not one in ten of the insects ever attains the butter-
fly state."
The chrysalis stage of the second brood is somewhat
longer than the first, sometimes lasting twenty-six days,
and the butterflies emerge from the latter part of August
until the end of October, and at once seek quarters in
which to hibernate over winter.
Both this species and P. comma are dimorj^hic, the
winter and summer forms differing in both sexes in both
the upper and lower aspects of the wings. In the South,
where from three to five broods occur in a season, both
+''^rms are usually found in the second and third broods,
^ummer form, var. twibrosa, gradually decreasing
all of the fourth brood are the hibernating winter
^JL, va?'. fahricii.
The Comma-butterfly {Polygonia comma Harr.).
The Comma-butterfly is most common throughout the
East from New England to North Carolina and Tennessee,
though occasionally found as far west as Wisconsin, Iowa,
Nebraska, and Texas.
Its life-history is practically the same as that of the
species just described. The larvae of the first brood some-
times seriously damage young elm-trees, which have been
Ijut recently reset, by eating them bare of the foliage. The
winter form hibernates about a month earlier, being rarely
seen in October. As a rule a similar dimorphism occurs,
the hibernating form being known as var. harrisii and the
summer form var. dryas, though the distinction is not
as marked in this species.
The half -grown larva is black, with a yellowish stripe
along the side from the third segment, and with yellow
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT. 283
stripes across the back, and spots of the same color at the
base of the dorsal spines, which are yellow tipped with
black. The mature caterpillar is white, mottled, or
striped with gray or ashen, and with red spiracles.
(W. H. Edwards.)
The butterflies of both species are of a rich brown color,
marked with black and tipped with lilac above, and of a
much darker purplish brown with the characteristic silver
spots beneath, which are well indicated in the illustration.
Remedies. — Spra3dng with an arsenical will destroy the
larvae when such treatment becomes necessary.
CHAPTER XV.
INSECTICIDES.
Those insecticides spra3"ed or dusted are generally
divisible into two classes: (1) poisons which kill by being
eaten; and (2) oils or dusts which kill the insect by pene-
trating the skin or by clogging the breathing-pores.
Poisons are used for insects such as grasshop23ers, cater-
pillars, beetles, etc., which bite jxnd chew their food (see
page 12). Contact insecticides are used against insects,
such as plant-lice, scale-insects, etc., which suck up the
juices of the plant through a slender beak (see page 13)
and which are not affected by poisons applied to the sur-
face of the plant.
Gases are used against certain insects which cannot be
effectively destroyed by sprays or other uitJttiib. They kill
by suffocation (see page 18).
Bordeavx mixtnre sometimes acts as a preventive against
insects by rendering the food-plant distasteful to them.*
* Bordeau Mixture :
Copper sulphate (bluestone) 4 pounds
Fresh lime (unslaked) 6 "
Water 40 gallons
Dissolve the bluestone in a half barrel of water by hanging in a
bag over night. Slake the lime and add to a half barrel of water.
Pour the two half barrels of bluestone solution and lime into a third
284
INSECTICIDES. 285
poTsoj^s. (for biting insects.)
Most of the poisons used as insecticides are composed
of compounds of arsenic. Formerly only Paris green and
London purple were used. Now several substitutes are
cheaper and some more desirable. Therefore, where the
word ar senile has been used above, any of the arsenites
mentioned below may be used, except as qualified.
Remember that these poisons are all dangerous to human
life. Keep them well labeled and locked up.
Arsenites.
Unless otherwise directed above, the arsenites may be
either sprayed or dusted. Dusting is usually desirable on
low-growing j^lants only and should be done in the early
morning while damp with dew. "When used dry tlie
arsenite is usually mixed with land plaster or flour and is
applied with a bellows, perforated can, or powder-gun.
When adding a dry arsenite to water for spraying, first
mix it in a small quantity of water, so as to form a paste.
Paris Green.
Paris green . 1 pound
Water 160-200 gallons
Lime 2 pounds
When used with Bordeaux mixture use 4 ounces of
arsenite to 50 gallons of the mixture. Keep well stirred
while spraying. 20 to 25 cents per pound.
empty barrel, stirring constantly. A "stock solution" of copper
sulphate, in which 40 pounds is dissolved in 40 gallons of water, is
convenient for extensive work. Four gallons should then be diluted
with one-half barrel of water and mixed with lime as above.
286 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
London Purple.
Used in the same proportions as Paris green, but is
much more caustic, its comj)Osition being variable, and
should therefore have considerable more lime added.
Green Arsenoid.
" Is slightly superior to Paris green in composition and
a])pears to be equally safe on foliage when applied at the
ordinary strength. The powder is about a tliird lighter
than Paris green, and remains correspondingly longer in
suspension. ^^ Sold by manufacturers, Adler Color and
Chemical "Works, New York, at 15 cents per pound, or
13 cents in 100-pound kegs. Rather j^referable to Paris
green. Add plenty of lime.
Arsenite of Lead.
Least caustic of all the arsenites in its effect upon
foliage. Remains in suspension and adheres to foliage
better than Paris green. Is white in color. Sells at 15
to 18 cents per pound. Manufactured by Wm. II. Swift
& Co., Boston, Mass. Can be made ''by combining
approximately 3 parts of the arsenite of soda with 7 parts
of the acetate of lead (white sugar of lead) in water.
These substances when pulverized unite readily and form
a white precipitate, which is more easily kept suspended
in water than any of the other poisons. At wholesale
acetate of lead costs about 7^ cents a pound, and the
arsenite of soda, 5 cents. May be used at any strength
from 3 to 15 pounds to 100 gallons of water without injury
to foliage, and is much safer on delicate plants than any
other arsenical."
" Disparene," manufactured by the Bowker Chemical
INSECTICIDES. 287
Co., Boston, Mass., is practically the same as arsenite of
lead, and is much more adhesive than the other arsenites,
this being due, we understand, to its containing glucose.
Arsenite of Lime.
''This has the threefold advantage of being (1) cheap,
(2) the amount of arsenic is under perfect control, and
(3) it does not burn the foliage. It is made by boiling
together for 45 minutes :
White arsenic 1 pound
Fresh stone lime 2 pounds
^Vater 1 gallon
'' This may be kept in a tight vessel (marked - Poison I '}
and used as desired. Thoroughly stir the material before
usiug. For most insects, one quart of the above per
barrel will be sufficient." It is insoluble in water and will
not injure foliage at this strength. The cheapest arsenite
and as effective as any.
Paragrene.
'' Has equal insecticidal value with Paris green, is about
as likely to burn the foliage and remains longer in suspen-
sion. We consider it an excellent substitute. " Manufac-
tured by Fred L. Lavenburg, Xew York, 13 cents per
pound in 1-4-pound pails. Add 1 pound of lime per
barrel.
Resin-lime Mixture.
Pulverized resin 5 pounds
Concentrated lye 1 pound
Fish-oil, or any cheap animal-oil except tallow. 1 pint
'' ^^^^' ' 5 gallons
Place oil, resin, and a gallon of water in an iron kettle
and heat until resin is softened; add lye solution made as
288 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
for hard soap; stir thoroughly; add remainder of water
:iiid boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite
with cold water making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If
the mixture has boiled away too much, add suliicient boil-
ing water to make 5 gallons.
For use, dilute 1 gallon of this stock solution with 16
gallons of water, add 3 gallons of milk of lime, or white-
wash, and 'l ]3ound Paris green or other arsenite.
Used on plants with a very smooth foliage.
Poisoned Bran Mash.
Wheat bran -iO pounds
Molasses (cheapest) 2 quarts
Arsenite (dry) 1 pound
Water Enough to make a thick mash
Mix the arsenite with the dry bran. Stir the molasses
into about a gallon of warm water, and pour over poisoned
bran, stirring thoroughly, then adding enough Avater to
make a stiff mash. Apply as near evening as possible, a
heaping tablespoonful near each plant. Keep poultry out
of fields thus treated. For cutworms apply a day or two
before setting plants.
CONTACT INSECTICIDES. (FOR SUCKING INSECTS.)
Kerosene Emulsion.
Hard soap ^ pound
Boiling water 1 gallon
Kerosene 2 gallons
Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene (away
from the fire) and cliurn with a pump by pumping back
and forth for 5 or 10 minutes. Dilute 4 to 15 times before
applying. Dilute 10 to 12 times for plant-lice and soft-
bodied bugs.
INSECTICIDES. 289
Kerosene-water Mixture (Kerowater).
Kerosene and water mixed mechanically may be used in
all cases where kerosene emulsion is advised above. The
water is placed in one tank, and the kerosene in another,
the two being mixed in the spray-nozzle. Any desired
j^ercentage of kerosene may be used. Use 10 to 20 per
cent for plant-lice. Generally much preferable to kerosene
emulsion, but the latter is somewhat safer upon tender
foliage. Can be aj)plied only with a special pumj) having
a kerosene attachment (same pump may be used for
other purposes). Pumps mauufactured b}^ Deming Co.,
Salem, 0., Goulds Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y., Spray Motor
Co., London, Ont.
Tobacco.
In Water. — Place old stems aud leaves in a tisfht vessel,
cover with hot water, and allow to stand several hours.
Dilute 3 to 5 times and apph^
Whale-oil Soap.
For plant-lice, 1 pound to G to 8 gallons of water.
Costs 3 to 5 cents per pound. Manufactured by James
Good, Philadelphia, Pa., Leggett & Bro., 301 Pearl St.,
New York, and W. H. Owen, Catawba Island, Ohio.
Mr. Good is now making a soap containing tobacco which
seems superior for soft-l)odied Jarv^.
Pyrethrum or Insect-powder.
N'ot poisonous to man in ordinary quantities, and there-
fore used against household pests, used either as powder
or spray. Burn in room to destroy mosquitoes. Used in
water at a rate of 1 ounce to 12 gallons, wliich should stand
a day before using. Use in hot water for immediate
application. Keep in tight cans — deteriorates with age.
290 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STAPLE CROPS.
Sulphur.
Apply at rate of 1 ounce to a gallon of water for red
spiders and mites. Often used to rid poultry -houses of
vermin. May be mixed with lard and nibbed on skin
for lice that infest animals. Sprinkle in greenhouses,
especially over steam or hot-water pipes.
GASES.
Carbon Bisulfide.
Used against insects affecting stored goods and grain.
Is a clear volatile liquid, giving off fumes heavier than air.
Sold in 25- to 100 pound lots at 10 to 12 cents per pound.
May be thrown directl}^ on wheat without injury to it, or
may be placed in shallow dishes. For wheat in store apply
1 to 3 pounds to every 100 bushels. Make the enclosure as
tight as possible, cover grain with blankets if necessary.
Leave for twenty -four hours; over thirty-six hours will
injure germinating qualities of grain. Do not inhale the
fumes, or allow any light, cigar, or pipe around building,
as gas IS exceedingly explosive. For open enclosure use
1 pound to every 1000 cubic feet of space.
Hydrocyanic Acid Gas.
The best agent for the disinfection or fumigation of
nursery-trees and plants, certain greenhouse insects, and
pests of dwelling-houses, store-houses, mills, etc. Made
by combining cyanide of potassium, sulphuric acid, and
water. Diffuses quickly, is lighter than air, and a most
deadly poison.*
* See "Fumigation Methods" by W. G. Johnson, Orange .Tudd
Co
INDEX.
(The number of the page giving complete depciiption is in blaelt-face tj-pe.)
Acrididce, 58
Adalia bipiinctata, 31
Agriotes mancus, 51
Agropyriim, 111
Agrotis annexa, 196, 215, 259
messoria, 258
ypsilon, 215
Aletia xj^lina, 188
Alimentary canal, 17, 18
American acridium, 67, 71
Angumois grain-moth, 21, 162
Anthomyia, egg-parasite, 63
Anthonomiis grandis, 205
Apliidte, on cotton, 197
Aphis gossypii, 197
maidi-radicis, 134
mali, 35
Aphidius granariaphis, 40, 116,
118
Army-worm, 3, 24, 79
Beet, 262
Fall, 84
Aroecerus fasciculatus, 200
Arsenites, 285
Arsenite of lead, 286
Arsenite of lime, 287
Asaphes decoloratus, 51
Ataxia crypta, 197
JSagworm, 196
Bean leaf-beetle, 240
Beet aphis, 255
Army worm, 262
Beneficial insects, 30
Blissus leucopterus, 52
Blister-beetles, 251, 265
Striped, 251
Bordeaux mixture. 284
Brachymena 4-pustulat.a, 11
Bran-mash, poisoned, 78, 288
Bryobia pratensis, 179
Burning, 24
CacQ^cia rosaceana, 196
Cadelle, 159
Calandria granaria, 155
oryzge, 155
Calandridai, 141
Calosoma calidum, 37
scrutator, 37
Cambala annulata, 239
Camnula pellucida, 68
Carbon bisulfide, 18, 168, 290
Cathartus ad vena, 158
gemellatus, 156, 158
Cecidomyia destructor, 100
leguminicola, 182
Cephus pygm^eus, 97
Cereals, injury to, 2
Cerotoma trifurcata, 240
Cha?tocnema confinis, 240
ChalcididcT, 93
Chalcis-flies, 43
Chilocorus bivulnerus, 33
Chinch-bug, 3, 21, 24, 52
False, 263
Chrysopa, 118
Cicada, mouth -parts, 14
Cigarette- beetle, 237
Click-beetles, 49
291
292
IXDEX.
Clisiocampa americana, 41
Clover bay-worm, 186
Clover insects, 172
Leaf-weevil, 177
-mite, 179
Root-borer, 172
Seed-caterpillar, 185
Seed-midge, 182
Stem-borer, 176
Coccinella novemnotata, 31
Coccinellidse, 30
Codling motli, 21
Coleoptera, 10
Colorado potato-beetle, 4, 21,
243
Comma butterfly, 282
Contact insecticides, 18, 284
Corn bill-bugs, 24, 26, 141
Ear- worm, 9, 24, 151
Root-louse, 23, 134
Root webworm, 130
Root- worm, 3, 21, 125
Western, 125
Southern, 129
Stalk-borer, 32, 28, 146
Crambus caliginosellus, 130, 217
Cotton Boll- weevil, 4, 23, 25, 204
Boll- worm, 27, 201
Injury to, 4
Insects, 188
-stainer, 199
-worm, 4, 21, 188
Cutworms, 21, 24, 28, 150, 195,
214, 256
Dingy, 150
Granulated, 196, 215,
259
Greasy, 215
Well-marked, 150
Cyclocephala, 46
Datura stramonium, 236
Deschampsis. Ill
Diabrotica longicornis, 155
12-punctata, 129
vittata, 126, 253
Diatrea saccharalis, 146
Dicvplius minimus, 224
Diph)sis tritici, 122
Diptera, 9, 10
Disonycha triangularis, 264
xanthomeloiua, 264
Dolerus arvensis, 119
collaris, 119
Drainage, 26
Drasterius elegans, 49, 50
Dysdercus suturellus, 199
Elateridae, 48
Elynius, 111
Empusa aphidis, 182
Ephestia kuehniella, 159
Epicauta pennsylvanica, 267
vittata, 65, 266
Epidapus scabies, 239
Epitrix cucumeris, 230, 240, 249
fuscula, 230, 249
parvula, 229, 240, 249
Eristalis tenax, 34
Euplectrus comstockii, 193
Euscliistus variolarius, 219
Exorista flavicauda, 65
leucaniae, 65
Fall army-worm, 84, 196
False chinch-bug, 263
Feltia subgothica, 150
Fertilizers, 26
Flea-beetles, 23
Beet, 264
Potato, 249
Sweet-potato, 240
Tobacco, 229, 240
Yellow-back, 264
Flour-moths, 159
Fumigation, Grain, 169
Fungus, So. African, 77
Chinch bug, 56
Garden webworm, 196, 260
Gelechia solanella, 227
Grain beetles, 157
Foreign, 158
Saw-toothed, 157
Square-necked ,158
Grain, stored. Injury to, 3
Grain-weevils, 21, 155
Granary, 167
weevil, 155
Grapholitha interstinctana, 185
Grasshoppers, Cotton, 195
Mouth parts, 13
Grass, Injury to, 3
Root-iouse, 134
INDEX.
293
Green arsenoid, 286
Green dolphin, 182
Ground -beetles, 36
Fiery, 37
jVIurky, 38, 39
Gipsy moth, 21
Harlequin cabbage-bug, 27
Harpalus caliginosus, 38, 247
Harvest-mites, 7
Hay, Injury to, 3
Heart, 17, 18
Heliothis armi2:er, 9, 151, 201,
220
rhexice, 220
Hemiptera 10
Hessian fly, 2, 21, 23, 28, 29,
lOO
Hippodamia convergens, 31, 33
Homalodisca coagulata, 198
Honey-bee, 7
Hop insects, 269
-louse. 272
-merchants, 278
Plant-louse, 24
Plant-borer, 269
-vine snout-moth, 276
Horn-worm, 231
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 18, 290
Hydroecia immanis, 269
Hylastes obscurus, 172
Hymenoptera, 10
Hypena humuli 276
rostralis, 278
Ichneumon-flies, 39
Indian meal-moth, 161
Insects, How they breathe, 15
How they feed, 11
How they grow, 7
Insecticides, 284
Insect-powder, 289
Irritants, 18
Isosoma grand e, 94
tritici, 94
Joint-worms, 93
Kerosene emulsion, 18, 288
and water mixture,
289
Kerowater, 289
Lachnosterna arcuata, 45
Ladybird-beetles, 30
Convergent, 31
Nine-spotted, 31, 33
Two- spotted, 31
Languria mozardi, 176
Laphygma flavimaculata, 262
frugiperda, 84, 196
Lasioderma serricorne, 237
Lasius niger alienus, 135
Leaf-roller, 196
Leather-jackets, 90
Lcbia grandis, 38
Lema trilineata, 252
Lepidoptera, 10
Leptinotarsa 10-lineata, 243
Leucania unipuncta, 79
Lime, 18
Locusts, 21, 24, 58
Devastating', 68
Differential. 67, 70
Lesser migratory, 66
Non-migratory, 66
Pellucid, 68
Red-lego-ed, 67, 68,
230
Rocky Mountain, 58
Two-striped, 67, 69
London purple. 286
Loxostege similalis, 196, 259
sticticalis, 260
Lydella doryphorte, 246
Lygus pratensis, 263
Macrobasis unicolor, 266
Mandibles, 12
MaxilLT, 13
Meadow-maggots, 90, 176
Meal -moths," 159
Meal snout-moth, 161
Mediterranean flour-moth, 159
Megilla maculata, 33
Melanoplus atlantis, 66
bivittatus, 67, 69
devastator. 68
differentialis, 67, 70
femur-rubrum, 68p
67, 230
spretus, 58
Melanotus cribulosis, 49
Meloida^, 251, 265
Meromyza americana, 111
294
IXDEX.
Metamorphosis, Complete, 8
Incomplete, 10
Mexican cotton boll- weevil, 205
Mouth-parts, Biting, 12
Sucking, 13
Nectaraphora avenge, 115
pisi, 182, 183
Noctua clandestina, 150
Noctuid«, 150
Nysius angustatus, 263
Ophion, 41
macrurum, 42
Orthoptera, 10
Oscinis variabilis, 114
Pach3'nematus extensicornis, 119
Pachyonerus calcitrator, 98
Pachj^rrhinis sp., 90
Palpus, 13
Panicum glabrum, 135
Paragrene, 287
Parajulus impressus, 239
Parasites, 39
Paris green, 285
Parthenogenesis, 136
Pea-louse, 182
Pemphigus betae, 255
Peridromia saucia, 257
Phorodon humuli, 272
Phragmites communis, 143
Phylfotreta vittata, 264
Phytononus punctatus, 177
Pimpla conquisitor, 190
inquisitor, maggots, 41
Pipiza radicans, 35
Planting, Time of, 28
Plant-louse, mouth-parts, lo
Plodia interpunctella, 160, 161
Plowing, Deep fall, 24
Poa pratensis. 111
Poisons, 285
Polygonia comma, 282
interrogationis, 279
Polygonum persicaria, 135
Portulaca solacea, 135
Potato-beetle, Colorado, 243
Potatoes, Injury to, 4
Potato insects, 239
Scab, 239
Stalk- borer, 2, 24, 241
I Poultry, 26
; Predaceous insects, 30
I Proctotrypida?, 43
I Protoparce Carolina, 231
celeus, 231
Pyralida^, 260
Pyralis costalis, 186
farinalis, 160, 161
Pyrethrum, 18, 289
Kesin-lime mixture, 288
Respiratory system, 17
Rice-weevil, 26, 155
Root-louse, Corn, 134
Grass, 134
Syrphus-fly, 35
Rotation of crops, 28
San Jose Scale, 21
Sarcophaga carnaria, 65
Sawflies, Wheat, 19
Schizoneura panicola, 134
Schistocerca americana, 12, C7,
71, 196
Sciara sp. ?, 239
Scirpus fluviatilis, 143
Semicolon butterfly, 279
Sesame grass, 149
Setaria viridis. 111
Sharpshooters, 198
Silkworm, Internal anatomy, 18
Silvanus surinamensis, 156, 157
Sitotroga cerealella, 162
Solanum carolinense, 228
datura, 245
South African fungus, 77
Sphenophorus ochreus, 143
obscurus, 141
parvulus, 141
pertinax, 144
placid us, 144
robustus, 142
scoparius, 144
sculptilis, 144
Spiracles, 15, 16
Sporotrichum globuliferum, 56
Squash -bug. 24
Structure of an insect, 6
Suck fly, Tobacco, 224
Sugar-beet insects, 252
Web worm, 260
IXDEX.
295
Sugar-cane borer, 21
Sulphur, 290
Syrphidse, 34
Syrphus americana, 35
-flies, 34
ribesii, 35
Systena hudsonias, 264
taeniata, 264
Systoechus oreas, 63
Tacliina-flies, 63
Tarnished plant- bug, 263
Tenebriodes mauritanicus, 158,
159
Tetranychidae, 179
Three-lined leaf-beetle, 252
Thyridopterj'^x ephemergeformis,
196
Tipula bicornis, 90
costalis, 90
hebes, 91
Tipulidae, 90
Trachea, 16, 18
Trap-crops, 26
Trichobaris trinotata, 24
Trichogramma pretiosa, 192
Tripsacuin dactyloides, 149
Trombidiuni locustarum, 63, 64
Tobacco bud -worms, 220
-bug, Spined, 219
Tobacco dust, 18
Flea-beetle, 229
Injury to, 4
Insecticide, 289
Insects, 214
Leaf-miner, 227
Stalk-worm, 217
-worm, 231
Webworms, Beet, 259
Corn-root, 130
AVeeds, 23
"Weevil, Grain, 155
Western Corn root-worm, 29,
125
Whale-oil soap, 18, 289
Wheat insects, 90
Isosoma, 29
Joint-worm, 22, 24, 93
-louse, 115
Plant-louse, 29
-maggots. 111
•midge, 122
Saw-flies, 119
Saw-fly borer, 97
Stem-maggot, 111
Straw- worm, 96
White grubs, 28, 44, 252
Wiuthemia 4-pustulata, 83
Wireworms, 24, 28, 29, 48, 252
SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
OF THE
PUBLICATIONS
OP
JOHN WILEY & SONS,
New York.
LoKDON^: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
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sold at net prices only, a double asterisk (**) books sold under the rules o^ the
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AGRICULTURE.
Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding i2mo, $i 75
Principles of Animal Nutrition 8vo, 4 00
Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
Part I. — Propagation, Culture, and Improvement i2mo, 1 50
Part II. — Systematic Pomology i2mo, i 50
Downing's Fruits and Fruit-trees of America 8vo, 5 00
Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo, i 50
Practical Farm Drainage i2mo, i 00
Green's Principles of American Forestry i2mo, i 50
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Well.) i2mo, 2 00
Kemp's Landscape Gardening \. lamo, 2 50
Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration i2mo, 1 50
Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops i2mo, i 50
Insects Injurious to Garden Crops. (In preparation.)
Insects Injuring Fruits. (In preparation.)
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50
VVoll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen i6mo, i 50
ARCHITECTURE.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings i2mo, 2 50
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00
Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres Svo, 3 00
Architectural Iron and Steel Svo, 3 50
Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings Svo, 2 00
Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings Svo, 3 50
Skeleton Construction in Buildings Svo, 3 00
Briggs's Modern American School Buildings Svo, 4 00
Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings Svo, 4 00
Freitag's Architectiiral Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten Svo, 3 50
Fireproofing of Steel Buildings Svo, 2 50
French and Ives's Stereotomy Svo, 2 50
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i 00
Theatre Fires and Panics , i2mo, i 50
Holly's Carpenters* and Joiners' Handbook iSmo, o 75
Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods .• Svo, 2 00
a
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1 6mo, morocco,
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo,
Monckton's Stair-building 4to,
Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo,
Peabody's Naval Architecture 8vo,
2iebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry Svo,
Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo,
Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.
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Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence Svo,
Sheep,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
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Law of Contracts Svo,
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel . . .Svo,
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills Svo,
Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
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i2mo.
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♦ Dredge's Modern French Artillery 4to, half morocco,
Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships Svo,
* Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery i2mo,
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* Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification Small Svo,
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Manual for Courts-martial i6mOi morocco,
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• Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols i2mo,
Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations iSmo, paper,
Peabody's Naval Architecture Svo,
• Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying Svo,
Powell's Army Officer's Examiner i2mo,
Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War , i8mo, morocco,
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* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 3vo 4 00
* Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining 8vo, 2 00
Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law i2mo. 2 50
WoodhuU's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50
Young's Simple Elements of Navigation i6mo morocco, i 00
Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised i6mo, morocco, 2 00
ASSAYING.
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
i2mo, morocco,
Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo,
Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo,
O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo,
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying Svo,
Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining Svo,
Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo,
Chlorination Process i2mo.
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ASTRONOMY.
Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers Svo,
Craig's Azimuth 4to,
Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy Svo,
Gore's Elements of Geodesy Svo,
Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy Svo,
Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy Svo,
* Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy Svo,
* White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy i2mo,
BOTANY.
Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation.
i6mo, morocco, i 25
Thome and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany i6mo, 2 25
Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.) Svo, 2 00
CHEMISTRY.
Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity Tables i2mo, i 25
Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis Svo, 3 00
Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.) Smali Svo. 3 50
Austen's Notes for Chemical Students i2mo, i 50
* Austen and Langworthy. The Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable
Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters Svo, 2 00
Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. — Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose
Molecule i2mo, 2 50
Bolton's Quantitative Analysis Svo, i 50
* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements , .8vo, 1 50
Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy .Svo, 4 00
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.) , . . .Svo, 3 00
Conn's Indicators and Test-papers i2mo, 2 00
Tests and Reagents Svo, 3 00
Copeland's Manual of Bacteriology, (in preparation.)
Craft's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (SchaefiferJ. . .i2mo, 1 5©
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Bactery). (Von
Ende) . . i2mo- 2 50
Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.) . .... i2mo, i 25
Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess. ) Svo. 4 00
Eissler's Modern High Explosives. ........... Svo, 4 00
EfEront's Enzymes and their Apphcations. (Prescott.) . . Svo, 3 00
Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.) . ....... i2mo, x 25
3
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe
i2nio, morocco, i 50
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo, 2 00
Presenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) 8vo, 5 00
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Parti. Descriptive. (Wells.)
8vo, 3 00
System of Instruction in Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)
2 vols 8vo,
Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo,
Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8\ o,
*Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry i2mo.
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo,
Grotenfelt's Principles o/Modem Dairy Practice. (WoU.) i2mo.
Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo,
Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.) i2mo,
Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco,
Hiads's Inorganic Chemistry 8vo,
• Laboratory Manual for Students i2mo,
Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo,
Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo,
• Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.) i2mo,
Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo,
Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry . . 8vo,
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo,
Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis i2mo,
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo,
Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) i2mo,
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control. (In preparation.)
Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo,
Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory i2mo,
• Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe. . i2mo,
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)
3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo,
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) i2mo,
Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.). . i2mo,
Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo,
Mizter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry i2mo,
Morgan's Outline of Theory of Solution and its Results „ i2mo,
Elements of Physical Chemistry i2mo,
Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco,
Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds.
Vol. I Large 8vo, 5 00
Nichols's Water-supply. (Considered mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary
Standpoint, 1883.) 8vo, 2 50
O'Brine's Laboratory Guide in Chemical Analysis 8vo, 2 00
O'DriscoU's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00
Ost and Kolbeck's Text-book of Chemical Technology. (Lorenz — Bozart.)
(/n preparation.)
. Ostwald's School of Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.) (In press.)
• Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper, 50
Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 00
Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) i2mo„ i 50
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 00
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of WaterBacterlology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis i2mo, i 2^
• Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 00
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Richards and Woodman's Air ,Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint . 8vo,
Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo.
Cost of Food a Study in Dietaries izmo,
• Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo,
Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon Inorganic Chemistry. (Part I. —
Non-metallic Elements.) 8vo, morocco,
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying ^ 8vo,
Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo,
Disinfection and the Preservation of ^ood 8vo,
Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo,
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish. (In press.)
Sclkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) 8vo,
Sciiimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis i2mo»
Essentials of Volumetric Analysis i2mo,
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco.
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco,
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo,
* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Seat 8vo,
• Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo,
Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo,
Quantitative Analysis. (HaU.) 8vo,
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo,
Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry /or Beginners. (Boltwood.) i2mo,
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo,
Wassermann's Immune Sera: Haemolysins, Cytotoxins, and Precipitins. (Bol-
duan.) i2mo,
Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo,
Short Course ir Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
Students i2mo,
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo,
Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo.
Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo,
Chlorination Process i2mo,
Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic harmaceutical and Medical Chem-
istry i2mo, 2 oo
CIVIL ENGINEERING.
BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments i2mo,
Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 19^X24! inches.
♦* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal. (Postage,
27 cents additional.) 8vo, net
Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo,
Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo,
Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo.
Practical Farm Drainage i2mo,
Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo,
Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten 8vo,
French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo,
Goodhue's Municipal Improvements i2mo,
Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse 8vo,
Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo,
Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo,
Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco,
Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth i2mo,
Johnson's Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo,
Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo,
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Kiersted's Sewage Disposal i2mo,
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) i2ino,
Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873) (Wood.) 8vo»
• Descriptive Geometry 8vo,
Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy Svo,
Elements of Sanitary Engineering Svo,
Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco,
Nugent's Plane Surveying . =, Svo,
Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo,
Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering Svo half leather.
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to,
Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage Svo,
Siebert and Biggin's Modem Stone-cutting and Masonry * .Svo,
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo,
Sondericker's Graphic Statics, witn Applications to Trusses, Beams, and
Arches Svo,
• Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco,
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence Svo,
Sheep,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
tecture. Svo,
Sheep,
Law of Contracts Svo,
Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting Svo,
Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.
i6mo, morocco,
• Wheeler's Elementary Course of Civil Engineering Svo,
Wilson's Topographic Surveying Svo,
BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .Svo, 2 00
* Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 00
Biirr's Coiuse on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and
Suspension Bridges ^ Svo, 3 50
Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL II Small 4to, 10 00
Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 00
Fowler's Coffer-dam Process for Piers Svo, 2 50
Greene's Roof Trusses Svo, i 25
Bridge Trusses Svo, 2 ^o
Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone Svo, 2 50
Howe's Treatise on Arches Svo , 4 00
Design of Simple Roof- trusses in Wood and Steel Svo, 2 00
J#knson, Bryan, and Tumeaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of
Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 00
Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
Part I. — Stresses in Simple Trusses Svo, 2 50
Part n. — Graphic Statics Svo, 2 50
Part in. — Bridge Design. 4th Edition, Rewritten Svo, 2 50
Part IV. — Higher Structures Svo, 2 50
Morison's Memphis Bridge 4to, 10 00
^addell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . . i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Specifications for Steel Bridges i2mo, i 2s
Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs. Svo, 2 00
Wright's Designing of Draw-spans:
Part L — Plate-girder Draws Svo, 2 50
Part II. — Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws Svo, 2 50
Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50
HYDRAULICS.
Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an
Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 00
Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00
Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, 1 50
Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 00
Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 00
Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 5 00
Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50
Water-filtration Works i2mo, 2 50
Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in
Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) 8vo, 4 00
Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply 8vo, 3 00
Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works 8vo, 2 50
Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal
Conduits 8vo, 2 00
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered PrincipaDy from a Sanitary Stand-
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 00
Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics, gth Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 5 00
* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00
Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-
supply Large 8vo, 5 00
*♦ Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Riyers. (Post., 44 c. additional), 4to, 6 00
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00
Wegmann's Desiem and Construction of Dams 4to, 5 00
Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 00
Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00
Wilson's Manual of Irrigation Engineering Small 8vo, 4 00
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00
Wood's Turbines 8vo, 3 50
Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00
Roads and Pavements 8vo, s 00
Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edi-
tion, Rewritten . , : 8vo, 7 50
Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 00
Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.
i6mo, 3 00
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00
Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50
Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 00
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, 750-
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00
Strength of Materials lamo, i 00
Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 00
Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 00
7
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Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France i2mo,
Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo,
Suow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo,
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo,
Text-book on Roads and Pavements i2mo,
Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts 8vo,
art I. — Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo,
Part n. — Iron and Steel 8vo,
Part III. — A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo,
Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction Svo,
Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo,
^addell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.) . . i6mo, mor. ,
Specifications for Steel Bridges i2mo.
Wood's Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on the Pres-
ervation of Timber Svo,
Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo,
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .Svo,
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers. 3X5 inches, morocco, i 25
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00
Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo. morocco, i 50
Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, i 50
Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Svo, i 50
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 00
Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad? (1S79) Paper, 5 00
• Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills, 4to, half mor., 25 00
Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25
Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide i6mo, mor,, 2 50
Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i 50
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-
bankments Svo, I 00
Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i 00
Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo morocco, 3 00
Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, i 50
Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork Svo, 1 50
• Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and
Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams Svo, 2 00
The Field Practice of [Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.
i2mo, morocco, 2 50
Cross-section Sheet Paper, 25
Webb's Railroad Construction. 2d Edition, Rewritten i6mo. morocco, 5 00
Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small Svo, 5 00
DRAWING.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery Svo, 2 50
• Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing Svo, 3 oc
• •♦ * " Abridged Ed Svo, i 50
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing Svo, paper, i 00
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
neers. (In press.)
Durley's Kinematics of Machines Svo, 4 00
8
Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 00
Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing. (In press.)
/ones's Machine Design:
Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo,
Part II. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo,
MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometrj . _ , * Svo,
Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism , Svo,
Mechanical Drawing ,... 4to,
Velocity Diagrams Svo,
• Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting Svo,
Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) Svo,
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to,
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo»
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .Svo,
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo,
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo,
Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . i2mo.
Drafting Instruments and Operations i2mo.
Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing i2mo.
Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and 1
Shadow i2mo,
Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry i2mo.
Primary Geometry i2mo,
Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective Svo,
General Problems of Shades and Shadows Svo,
Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo,
Problems. Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometrv Svo,
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Hermann and
Klein.) Svo.
Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving i2mo,
Wilson's Topographic Surveying Svo,
Free-hand Perspective Svo,
Free-hand Lettering Svo,
Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large Svo,
ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) , . . .Small Svo, 3 00
Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements i2mo, i 00
Benjamin's History of Electricity Svo. 3 00
Voltaic Cell Svo, 3 00
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .Svo, 3 00
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph Svo, 3 00
Dawson's "Eneineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mOs morocco, 5 00
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Acciunulator (Storage Battery). (Von
Ende.) i2mo,~2 50
Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) Svo , 4 00
Flather's Dvnamometers, and the Meastirement of Power i2mo, 3 00
Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) Svo, 2 50
Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained i2mo, i 00
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Holman's Precision of Measurements Svo, 2 00
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large Svo, 75
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) Svo, 3 00
Le ChateUer's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Uurgess.)i2mo, 3 00
Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo. i 00
• Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. Svo, each. 6 00
♦ Michie. Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light Svo, 4 00
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Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishoack. ) lamo, 2 50
• Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — Kinzbrunner.) 8vo, i 50
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50
Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
• Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat ^ 8vo, i 50
Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 2 00
Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00
LAW.
♦ Davis's Elements of Law 8vo,
♦ Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo,
♦ Sheep,
Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco.
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo,
Sheep,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
tecture 8vo,
Sheep,
Law of Contracts 8vo,
Winthrop's Abridgement of Military Law i2mo,
MANUFACTURES.
Bemadou's Smokeless Powder — Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose
Molecule i2mo,
Bolland's Iron Founder i2mo,
" The Iron Founder," Supplement. i2mo.
Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the
Practice of Moulding i2mo,
Eissler's Modem High Explosives 8vo,
Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo,
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i8mo.
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo,
Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo,
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo,
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
ControL (In preparation.)
Metcalf's SteeL A Manual for Steel-users i2mo,
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures — And the Administration of Workshops,
Public and Private Svo,
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to,
Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco,
♦ Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing Svo,
Smith's Press-working of Metals Svo,
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2rao,
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco,
HandbooK tor sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists.. . i6mo, morocco,
Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera-
tion , Svo,
♦ Walke's Lectures on Explosives Svo,
West's American Foundry Practice i2mo,
Moulder's Text-book i2mo,
Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small Svo,
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover Svo,
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills Svo,
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .Svo,
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MATHEMATICS.
Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo,
• Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus i2mo,
Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry i2mo,
Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations i2mo,
Daris's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo,
♦ Dickson's College Algebra Large i2mo,
* Answers to Dickson's College Algebra 8vo, paper,
♦ Introduction to the Theory of Axgebraic Equations Large i2mo,
Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo,
Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo,
Rational Geometry i2mo,
* Johnson's Three-place Logarithmic Tables : Vest-pocket size paper,
loo copies for
• Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X lo inches,
10 copies for
Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Small 8vo,
Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates i2mo.
Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Small 8vo,
Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares i2mo,
* Theoretical Mechanics i2mo,
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) i2mo,
* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other
Tables 8vo,
Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each,
* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo,
Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo,
Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo,
Meniman's Method of Least Squares 8vo,
Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. Sm., 8vo,
Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one Gmall 8vo,
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish. (7n jyress.)
Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo,
Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical i2mo,
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings i2mo,
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo,
• Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo,
♦ " " " Abridged Ed 8vo.
Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes i2mo,
Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo,
Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo,
Cary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous CoaL (/n prep-
aration.)
Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo,
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper,
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En-
gineers. (In press.)
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo.
Treatise on Belts and PuLeys i2mo,
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo,
Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power i2mo.
Rope Driving i2mo,
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50
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers ^ i2mo,
Hall's Car Lubrication i2ino,
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco,
Hutton's The Gas Engine 8vo,
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo,
Part II. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo,
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco,
Kerr's Power and Power Transmission Syo,
MacCord's Kinematics ; or. Practical Mechanism Svo,
Mechanical Drawing 4to,
Velocity Diagrams Svo,
Mahaa's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) Svo,
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels Svo,
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing , Svo.
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .Svo,
Richards's Compressed Air i2mo,
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo,
Smith's Press-working of Metals Svo,
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work Svo,
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. i2mo,
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Stro,
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. Herrmann —
Klein.) Svo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). .Svo,
Hydraul.cs and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) Svo,
Wolfif's Windmill as a Prime Mover Svo,
Wood's Turbines Svo,
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures Svo, 7 50
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition,
Reset Svo,
Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo,
Johnson's Materials of Construction Large Svo,
Keep's Cast Iron Svo,
Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo,
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) Svo,
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials Svo,
Strength of Mater»als i2mo,
Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo,
Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo
Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., Svo,
Part 11.— Iron and Steel Svo,
Part in. — A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents Svo
Text-book of the Materials of Construction Svo,
Wood's Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the
Preservation of Timber Svo,
Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo,
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .Svo,
STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) i2mo,
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book, .i6mo, mor..
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers iSmo,
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Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 00
Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy i2mo, 2 00
Button's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 00
Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 00
Kent's Steam-boiler Economy 8vo, 4 00
Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo i 50
MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 00
Meyer's Modem Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00
Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator i2mo, i 50
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, i 00
Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 00
Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8vo, 4 00
Pray'g Twenty Years with the Indicator , Large 8vo, 2 50
Pupln's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.
(Osterberg.) i2mo, i 25
Reagan's Locomotives : Simple, Compotmd, and Electric i2mo, 2 50
Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00
Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management i2mo, 2 00
Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice i2mo, 2 50
Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 00
Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50
Notes on Thermodynamics i2mo, i 00
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 00
Thurston's Handy Tables 8vo, i 50
Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols.. 8vo, 10 00
Part I. — History, Structuce, and Theory Svo, 6 00
Part n. — Design, Construction, and Operation Svo, 6 00
Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and
the Prony Brake Svo s 00
Stationary Steam-engines Svo, 2 50
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice i2mo i 50
Manual of Steam-boiler? , Their Designs, Construction, and Operation . Svo , 5 00
Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) Svo, 5 00
Whitham's Steam-engine Design Svo, 5 00
Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50
Wood's Thermodynamics Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . . .8vo, 4 00
MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery Svo,
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures Svo,
Chase's The Art of Pattern-making i2mo,
Chordal. — Extracts from Letters i2mo,
Chiirch's Mechanics of Engineering .8vo,
Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo,
Compton's First Lessons in Metal- working i2mo,
Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe i2mo,
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo,
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo,
Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of Colleges and
Schools i2mo.
Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making i2mo.
Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's
Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, half morocco, 5 00
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Du Bo s's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
Vol. I. — Kinematics 8vo,
Vol II.— Statics 8vo,
Vol. III.— Kinetics 8vo,
Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to,
Vol. II SmaU 4to,
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo,
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo,
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo.
Rope Driving i2mo,
Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo
Hail's Car Lubrication i2mo.
Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo,
* Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics i2mo«
Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo,
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo,
Part II. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts Svo,
Kerr's Power and Power Transmission Svo,
Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo,
MacCord's Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism. Svo,
Velocity Diagrams Svo,
Maurer's Technical Mechanics Svo,
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials Svo,
• Michie's Elements of Analirtical Mechanics Svo,
Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric i2mo,
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing Svo,
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .Svo,
Richards's Compressed Air i2mo,
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo,
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I Svo,
Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management i2mo.
Smith's Press-working of Metals Svo,
Materials of Machines i2mo,
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering Svo,
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work Svo,
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. i2mo,
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo,
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann —
Klein.) Svo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). Svo,
Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo,
Principles of Elementary Mechanics i2mo.
Turbines Svo,
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1S93 4to,
METALLURGY.
Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury:
VoL I.— Silver Svo, 7 5o
VoL II. — Gold and Mercury Svo, 7 50
*♦ Iles's Lead-smelting, (Postage 9 cents additionaL) i2mo, 2 50
Keep's Cast Iron Svo, 2 50
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe Svo, i 50
Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess.) . i2mo, 3 00
Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 00
Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, i 00
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Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 oo
Part II, — Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Part III. — A Treatise on Brasses^ Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo, 2 50
Ulke's Modem Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00
MINERALOGY.
Barringer*s Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 00
Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00
Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 00
Chester's Catalogue of Minerals Svo, paper, i 00
Cloth, I 25
Dictionary of the Names of Minerals Svo, 3 50
Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
First Appendix to Dana's New "Ssrstem of Mineralogy." Large Svo, i 00
Text-book of Mineralogy Svo, 4 00
Minerals and How to Study Them. i2mo, i 50
Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large Svo, i 00
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo, 2 00
Eakle's Mineral Tables Svo, i 25
Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms Svo, 2 50
Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small Svo, 2 00
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses Svo, 4 00
• Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
Svo, paper, o 50
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals.
(Iddings.) Svo, 5 00
• Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Docks Svo, 2 00
Williams's Manual of Lithology Svo, 3 00
MnnNG.
Beard's Ventilation of Mines i2mo, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia Svo, 3 00
Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00
• Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills.
4to, half morocco, 25 00
Eissler's Modem High Explosives Svo,
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo,
Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Westem Coast of the United States i2mo,
Ihlseng's Manual of Mining Svo,
** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage gc. additionaL) i2mo,
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe Svo,
O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores Svo,
• Walke's Lectures on Explosives Svo,
Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo,
Chlorination Process i2mo.
Hydraulic and Placer Mining i2mo.
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation i2mo
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Copeland's Manual of Bacteriology. {In preparation.)
Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction and Maintenance.; Svo, 3 00
Water-supply Engineering Svo, 4 00
Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50
Water-filtration Works Z2ino» 2 50
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50
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i 00
Goodrich's Economical Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50
Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 00
Kiersted's Sewage Disposal i2mo, i 25
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control. (In preparation.)
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand-
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo,
Examination of Water. (Chemical and BacteriologicaL ) i2mo,
Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo,
Nichols's Water-supply. (Considered Mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary
Standpoint.) (1883.) 8vo,
Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo,
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference
to Sanitary Water Analysis. , lamo,
♦ Price's Handbook on Sanitation i2mo,
Richards'. Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries i2mo.
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo.
Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-
point 8vo,
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo,
Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo,
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-suppUes 8vo,
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo,
Woodhull's Notes and Military Hygiene i6mo,
MISCELLANEOUS.
Barker's Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00
Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists , Large 8vo
Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo
Haines's American Railway Management i2mo^
Mott's Composition, Digestibility . and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart.
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. Small 8vo,
Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo,
Steel's, Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo,
Totten's Important Question in Metrology 8vo
The World's Columbian Exposition ot 1893 4to,
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small .
Hospital i2mo, i 25
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
Green's Grammar of the Hebrew Language 8vo, 3 00
Elementary Hebrew Grammar i2mo, i 25
Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 00
Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.
(Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00
Lett» ris's Hebrew Bible 8vo, 2 25
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