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THE

Smithsonian

Institution

1846-1896

IBANCROFT LIBRAW

The .

,^/rOTTTTTIT8Vn VLAr/lOP.Wm^S HHT 'ECO aaai^TTO'^T

JAMES SMITHSOK

FOUNDER OF THE SMITHSONIAN TNSTITT^TTON.

THE

SMITHSONIAN

INSTITUTION

1846 — 1896

The History of its First Half Century

Edited by

George Brown Goode

CITY OF WASHINGTON

1897

PREFACE

In iyg6, George Washingto7t, m his farewell address to his
fellow-countrymen, said : "■Promote, then, as an object of pri-
mary importajice, institutiojts for the general diffusion of
knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government
gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opiiiion
should be enlightened^ Thirty years later an E7iglishma7i,
James Smithson, as though influenced by these words, be-
queathed the whole of his property to the Uitited States of
America in trust '' to foicnd at Washington an establishment
for the increase a7id diffusion of knowledge among meny John
Quincy Adams, in pre s editing to the Natio7ial House of Repre-
sentatives the first report of the Select Committee on the mes-
sage of the President announcing the Smithson Bequest, ex-
horted his colleagues in these woi^ds: ^^ Let the trust of James
Smithson to the United States of America be faithfully exe-
cuted by their representatives in Congress ; let the result ac-
complish his object : ' the increase and di^usion of knowledge
among men! "

The Act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian Institu-
tion was sighted by President Polk on Atcgtist lo, 18^6, and
on September 7 the Board of Regents held its first meetijig.
The past year marks the close of the first half century of the
operatiofis of the Institution. This volume presents the sto7y
of the realization of one of the desires of Washington, through
the will of Smithson, the wise legislation of Congress, and the
devotion of those upon whom the management of the Smithso-
nian Institutio7i has devolved.

WILLIAM MCKINLEY.

The Executive Mansion,
Washington, June 22, i8gy.

INTRODUCTION

The law establishing the Smithsonian Institution luas signed
by President Polk on August lo, 18^6, and the first organic
act of the histitution was a meeting of the Board of Regents,
held on Septe^nber 7 of that year. As far back as i8gj, in
viezv of the approaching completion of the first half ce7itu7y, I
discussed with the Executive Committee of the Regents the
best method of celebi^ating this event.

It seemed quite impracticable to arrange for a gathering of
delegates from other scientific institutions, such as is ofte^i held
on similar occasions by institutions aiid learned bodies, and the
simplest and most efiective means of commemorating it ap-
peared to be the publication of a sici table volume, which would
give an acco7i7it of the history, achievements, and present con-
dition of the Smithso7iia7i l7istitutio7i.

Doctor G. B7VW71 Goode, zvhose acquai7ita7ice with its history
was unrivaled, drew 7ip a C077ip7^ehe7isive pla7i for the vohmie,
a7id 071 its app7'oval, Doctor lames C Welli7ig, a Rcge7it,
agreed to U7ide7^takc its edito7Hal supe7^visio7t. Doctor Well-
ing s death sce7ned to put a stop to the pivposed work, for there
appeared to be 710 07ie S2cfficie7itly acquainted zuith the history
of the histitution who had the ability, the willi7ig7iess, a7id
the leisu7^e to assu77ie this ve7y co7iside7^able task. It was the7i
that Doctor Goode told me of his great desire to imdertake the
work. K7iozvi7ig how ittmierotis his duties already were, I at
first refused, a7id it was 07ily at his ear7test solicitatio7i that I
agreed to his request.

The 77ianuscript was so fa7^ advanced at the ti77ie of his death
as to render possible its co77ipletio7t for the press, a7id its publi-
cation tip07i the li7ies he laid dow7i. He had 7iot 07ily writte7i
many of the chapters, but had 77tade ain'a7ige77ie7its for the illus-

vi Introduction

tratioiis and other details of the book. ThoiLgJi this lamejited
event has delayed its appearance, I have been enabled to sec2ire
the aid of valued assistants who have carried the work through.
I have added to the ojHginal plan a biographical sketch of
Doctor Goode, by Doctor David Starr Jordan, P^rsidcnt of the
Leland Stanfoi^d Junior University.

S. P. LANG LEY,

Secretary.
Smithsoniaji Lnstitution,

Washington, June 23, 1897,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE, BY THE President of the United States iii

INTRODUCTION, BY THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION V

HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

JAMES SMITHSON, BY Samuel Pierpont Langley I

THE FOUNDING OF THE INSTITUTION, 1835-1846, BY George

Brown Goode 25

III

THE ESTABLISHMENT AND THE BOARD OF REGENTS, BY George

Brown Goode 59

THE THREE SECRETARIES, BY George Brown Goode 115

THE BENEFACTORS, BY SaMUEL PiERPONT LaNGLEY 235

THE SMITHSONIAN BUILDING AND GROUNDS, BY GeoRGE BroWN

Goode 247

VII

THE SMITHSONIAN LIBRARY, BY CyrUS AdlER 265

vii

viii Contents

VIII

the united states national museum, by frederick william

True 303

IX
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, BY W J McGee 367

THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SYSTEM, BY WlLLlAM CRAWFORD

WiNLOCK 397

THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, BY SamueL PieRPONT LanGLEY 419

XII

THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, BY Frank Baker 443

XIII
EXPLORATION WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, BY

Frederick William True 459

XIV
THE SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS, BY CyRUS Adler 481

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF GEORGE BROWN GOODE, BY David

Starr Jordan, President of Leland Stanford Junior University .... 501

APPRECIATIONS OF THE WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN

INSTITUTION

PHYSICS, BY Thomas CorWIN MendENHALL, President of the Worcester

Polytechnic Institute 5^9

MATHEMATICS, BY ROBERT SiMPSON WoODWARD, Professor of Mechanics,

Columbia University 5^^

Contents ix

■'■-'■-'• PAGE

ASTRONOMY BY EdwARD SinglETON HoldEN, Director of the Lick Ob-
servatory 571

CHEMISTRY, BY MaRCUS BENJAMIN, Fellow of the Chemical Society of

London 611

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, BY WiLLIAM NORTH RiCE, Professor

of Geology, Wesleyan University 631

METEOROLOGY, BY Marcus BENJAMIN, Fellow of the Chemical Society of

London 647

VII

PALEONTOLOGY, BY Edward Drinker Cope, Professor of Mineralogy

and Geology, University of Pennsylvania 679

VIII

BOTANY, BY William GiLSON FarloW, Professor of Cryptogamic Botany,

Harvard University 697

ZOOLOGY, BY Theodore Gill, Professor of Zoology, Columbian University 711

ANTHROPOLOGY, BY JesSE Walter FewkES, Editor of the Journal of

American Ethnology and ArchcEology 745

GEOGRAPHY, BY GARDINER GreENE HubBARD, President of the National

Geographic Society 773

XII

BIBLIOGRAPHY, BY HenrY CarRINGTON BolTON, Lecturer on the His-
tory of Chemistry, and Professor of Bibliography, Columbian University . . 785

X Contents

XIII PAGE

THE COOPERATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WITH
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING, BY Daniel CoiT GilMAN,
President of Johns Hopkins University 805

XIV

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION UPON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIBRARIES, THE ORGANIZATION AND
WORK OF SOCIETIES, AND THE PUBLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES, BY JOHN Shaw BiLLINGS,
Director of the New York Public Library 815

RELATION BETWEEN THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AND THE
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, BY AiNSWORTH RaND SpOFFORD, Librarian
of Congress 823

APPENDIX

PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE INSTITUTION,

Compiled by William Jones Rhees 833

INDEX 843

HISTORY OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

JAMES SMITHSON

By Samuel Pierpont Langley

^jlHE founder of the Smithsonian Institution was
known in his earlier years as James Lewis
Macie, his mother, Elizabeth Keate Macie,
being at the time of his birth, in 1765, the
"'^'^^ widow of James Macie, a country gentleman
of an old family resident at Weston, near Bath. She was
of the Hungerfords of Studley, a great-grandniece of
Charles, Duke of Somerset, through whom she was lineally
descended from Henry the Seventh, and was cousin of that
Elizabeth Percy who married Hugh Smithson (who later
became Duke of Northumberland, and by act of Parliament
took the name of Percy).

An unverified story represents Smithson's mother as at one
time hoping to have contracted a marriage with the Duke
of Northumberland, and seeking, for that purpose, a divorce
from her husband, which he successfully opposed; but, in any
case, the subject of our sketch, who only apparently after his
mother's death applied to the Crown for permission to take
the name of Smithson, describes himself in his final will as
" son to Hugh, first Duke of Northumberland, and Elizabeth,

2 The Smithsonian Institution

heiress of the Hungerfords of Studley, and niece of Charles,
the proud Duke of Somerset."

We need not, then, practise a reticence which Smithson
himself did not desire to observe, especially since the facts
are already public. There is, indeed, the further reason that
it is especially to these facts that the foundation which bears
his name is due, for Smithson always seems to have regarded
the circumstances of his birth as doing him a peculiar injus-
tice, and it was apparently this sense that he had been de-
prived of honors properly his which made him look for other
sources of fame than those which birth had denied him, and
constituted the motive of the most important action of his life,
the creation of the Smithsonian Institution.

By the student of human nature every man's conduct is
judged in reference to its determining motives, and if we try
Smithson's from the point of view of his own time, not of ours,
we shall not judge too hardly the fact that the circumstances
of his birth and his feeling that he was by right a Northum-
berland and a Percy were a subject of pride to him as well as
of pain. He once wrote : ^

"The best blood of England flows in my veins; on my
father's side I am a Northumberland, on my mother's I am
related to Kings,^ but this avails me not. My name shall live
in the memory of man zvhen the titles of the Northtimber lands
ajid the Percys are extinct and forgotteni'

It has been wondered that Smithson should have left his
fortune for the purpose he did, but not by those who have
considered the sentence placed here in italics, where we surely

1 Rhees's "Smithson and his Bequests." the ill-fated Lady Jane Grey, great-grand-
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," daughter of King Henry VII, grandniece of
volume XXI. Henry VIII, and cousin of Elizabeth. His

2 Doctor Goode pointed out in his "Account ancestor in the ninth generation, Edward Sey-
of the Smithsonian Institution," written for the mour, the first Duke of Somerset and Protec-
Atlanta Exposition, that : " Smithson was of tor of England, was thebrother of Queen Jane
royal descent, through his maternal ancestor, Seymour and the uncle of King Edward VI."

James Smithson 3

scarcely need to read between the lines to see the genesis of
the institution which perpetuates the name he bore, in place
of the titled one he was denied.

It will be observed from facts given later that it was only
under circumstances which showed that he had no right to
the name of Macie (which seems to have been first imposed
upon him under circumstances which left him free to change
it) that he in later life had that of Smithson, to which he had
every moral right, legally confirmed to him. After pointing
out that the change was obtained under circumstances which
do him no discredit, we are chiefly concerned with this sense
of the injustice under which he labored from its after results;
for if the kind of pride which dictated the first sentence I
have above quoted be one which, from the point of view of
the present day, attracts little sympathy, we can feel more
with the worthier spirit which resulted from it, and in which
he wrote the second. We are in no ways concerned with the
ancestral honors or titles of the Percys, as such; but if there
be anything in heredity, we may supplement our limited
knowledge of him by some consideration of that very remark-
able man, the first Duke of Northumberland, whose child
Smithson declared himself to be, and undoubtedly was; for
the father was remarkable, not in having been born great,
but in having achieved greatness, — at least a greatness of
that sort which his less fortunate son must always have
envied him.

Hugh Smithson, the father of the founder of the Smithso-
nian Institution, was the son of Langdale Smithson, who, ac-
cording to another unverified tradition, occupied for a time the
then relatively unconsidered position of a medical practitioner.
The Smithsons, however, were an old family, which was, in
fact, remotely connected by lineage with the Percys. As
country gentlemen they were reared in the habit of person-

4 The Smithsoniaft Instihttion

ally managing their estates ; and, notwithstanding his culture
and his refined and artistic tastes, the business aptitude of
his race was strong in Smithson's father.

The entertaining story of his courtship of the grand-
daughter of "the proud Duke" of Somerset is told in the
"Annals of the House of Percy," and it is not necessary to
repeat it here further than to remark that in it, as in every-
thing else, he showed the tact, persistence, and ability which
raised him from the position of a private gentleman to one of
the first dukedoms of England at a time when such a transi-
tion was regarded as transcending all possibility, and became
the subject of wonder after it had happened.

As a landlord. Sir Hugh Smithson (as he afterwards be-
came) ^ had been conspicuous for good management. After
his marriage to the heiress of the Percys he restored Aln-
wick Castle, and lived there so expensively that Horace
Walpole wrote of the new groom and bride that they would
soon have no estate left ; but the prophecy was falsified by the
marked ability of the future Duke, who, though he continued
to maintain what was even then considered magnificent state,
showed such extraordinary administrative capacity as enabled
him not only to keep undiminished but to very greatly increase
the important possessions which became his wife's after their
marriage; for at the date of Sir Hugh Smithson's marriage,
in 1749, the rent rolls of Alnwick Castle amounted to ^8,607,
while in 1778 they had increased to ^^50,000, and all this
while a liberal and even magnificent scale of expenditures
appears to have been adopted.^

If he be a benefactor to mankind who makes two blades
of grass grow where one grew before, then the new Lord of

1 He succeeded to the title of Baronet on 2 See "Annals of the House of Percy," by

the death of his grandfather, Sir Hugh Smith- Edward Barrington de Fonblanque, London,
son, which took place in 1729. i887,Volume 11, page 531, and Appendix xxvi.

James Smithson 5

Northumberland did indeed entitle himself to the gratitude
of those within the influence of his kindly rule.

"He found the country almost a desert," says the Bishop
of Dromore, "and he clothed it with woods and improved it
with agriculture."^ For more than twenty years he is said
to have planted annually over twelve hundred trees; he im-
ported specimens of hitherto unknown timber, fruits, and
flowers from various parts of the world, and expended large
sums not only in the reclamation and drainage of lands, but
in the improvement of the dwellings of his laborers, at a time
when the physical comfort or moral well-being of the poor
rarely occupied the thoughts of the lords of the soil.

He showed a like ability in his dealings with the Crown,
which procured him the unprecedented step from the baro-
netcy to the dukedom, and in every part of his life (with which
we are not further concerned here) he showed himself an ex-
ceptionally able man.^

American history and poetry remember his son, the half-
brother of Smithson, who —

" Fought for King George at Lexington,
A Major of Dragoons,"^

1 See " Annals of the House of Percy," by
Edward Harrington de Fonblanque, London,
1887, Volume II, page 531, and Appendix
XXVI, citing Collins's [Peerage] 5th edition.

2 The Duke showed the independence of
his character, as well as the soundness of his
judgment as a statesman, by opposing the
party in power upon the question of war with
the Colonies, obtaining leave of absence for
his son, Lord Percy, who was ordered to
America. Of this, however, Lord Percy re-
fused to avail himself, contending that he
could not at such a juncture withdraw. He
accordingly embarked for Boston in the
spring of 1774, and his journal and letters
during the succeeding years throw light upon
many of the incidents of the struggle.

3 The fact that the heir of the house of
Percy commanded the force of the British

troops which saved the retreat from Concord
made a strong impression upon the fathers
of New England who fought on the memor-
able day, and is often mentioned. This asso-
ciation of the story of the defeat and pursuit
of the British troops with the name of Percy,
in the minds of the rustic victors, is alluded
to by Lowell :

" Old Joe is gone, who saw hot Percy goad

His slow artillery up the Concord road . . .

Had Joe lived long enough, that scram-
bling fight

Had squared more nearly with his sense
of right,

And vanquished Percy, to complete the
tale.

Had hammered stone for life in Concord
jail."

6 The Smithsonian Institution

and who, it might be added, saved to the King the remnant
of his forces, which, without Percy's timely succor, would have
been utterly destroyed. As an indication of family traits, it
may be interesting to note the memorable action of the half-
brother of Smithson, and his modest description of it.

General Gage had placed him in command of the camp
formed at Boston, whence he writes to his father on July 5,
1774:

"As I cannot say this is a business I very much admire, I
hope it will not be my fate to be ordered up the country. Be
that as it may, I am resolved cheerfully to do my duty as long
as ever I continue in the service. If I do not acquire any de-
gree of reputation in it, it will be my misfortune, but shall
never be my fault."

Throughout the ensuing winter he remained in the camp
around Boston, whence on April 20 he writes to inform his
father of that first bloodshed which was the prelude of the
War of the Revolution :

"I was ordered out yesterday morning to cover the retreat
of the Grenadiers and Light Infantry who had been sent upon
an expedition up the country.-^ I had with me my brigade
and two pieces of cannon. We met them at a town' about
fifteen miles off, sharply attacked and surrounded by the rebels,
and having fired away all their ammunition, I had the happi-
ness of saving them from inevitable destruction, and arriving
with them at Charlestown, opposite Boston, at eight o'clock
last night ; not, however, without the loss of a great many,
havinof been under an incessant fire for fifteen miles. The
rebels, however, suffered much more than the King's troops.
I have not myself received even the least scratch, and I beg
that you will not either of you be uneasy on my account.'

" 3

1 The memorable expedition to Concord, which gave rise to the battle of Lexington.

2 Lexington.
3 "Annals of the House of Percy," Volume li, page 552.

James SmitJison 7

Lord Percy was too good a soldier to fall into the error of
despising his enemy. He had never shared in that contemp-
tuous estimate which Englishmen, ignorant of the country and
its population, had formed of the military capacity of the
American colonists, and which had led the King, under the
prompting of such advisers as Lord North and Lord George
Germain, to declare that all resistance would collapse on the
first menacing advance of half a dozen English regiments.

** Whoever," he writes to his father, " looks upon them as
merely an irregular mob will find himself much mistaken ;
they have men amongst them who know what they are about,
having been employed as rangers against the Canadians and
Indians . . . nor are their men devoid of the spirit of en-
thusiasm, as we experienced yesterday, for many of them con-
cealed themselves in houses and advanced within ten yards
to fire at me and the other officers, though they were morally
certain of being put to death themselves in an instant."

The father died in 1 786, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey, where he is described as "the most high puissant and
most noble prince Hugh Percy, Duke and Earl of Northum-
berland, Earl Percy, Baron Warkworth and Lovaine, Lord
Lieutenant and Gustos Rotulorum of the Gounties of Middle-
sex and Northumberland and of all America, one of the lords
of His Majesty's most Honourable and Privy Gouncil and
Knight of the most noble Order of the Garter, etc., etc., etc." ;
but we are here concerned with these honors only as an
evidence of the character of the man who did not inherit, but
who conquered them by the force of his will.

Let us, after noting the essential qualities of his race in the
father and brother, return to the immediate subject of our
memoir, the date of whose birth is fixed by the Pembroke
College record as 1765. His mother, Elizabeth Hungerford

8 The S^nithsonian Institution

Keate (Macie), is described in the will of Penelope Keate,
grandmother of Smithson, in a bequest dated July 13, 1764,
as "my daughter, Elizabeth Macie, of Bath, widow," so that
at this time her husband was already dead. This fact, only
recently ascertained, is important in the estimate it leads us
to put on one of the principal actions of Smithson's life, his
taking of his father's name instead of that of Macie, by which
he was previously known.

Something of the facts of the young man's birth were gen-
erally surmised, and we shall see that he was apparently not
allowed as a youth even to describe himself as Macie's son, a
thing to be remembered in connection with his subsequent
action in taking the name of Smithson.^

There has been found no record of the Macies at Weston
in the years preceding his birth ; there is no reference to him
in the accessible archives of the Northumberland family, nor
do we know more of the subsequent circumstances of his
mother than that she inherited the property of the Hunger-
fords of Studley in 1766, on the death of her brother, Lumley
Hungerford Keate, — a matter of interest as indicating the
probable source of a considerable portion of the Smithson
bequest.

We have after this no knowledge of the founder of the In-
stitution until his name is entered in 1782 as James Lewis
Macie, a Gentleman Commoner, at Pembroke College, Ox-
ford, but entered in a way which, as the copy of the record
indicates, omitted the prescribed form of stating the name of
the father, which others were obliged to comply with.

He was at this time but a lad, and as we are assured only

lln 1880, when Mr. Rhees's memoir was the married life of Mr. and Mrs. Macie, and

prepared, the dateofSmithson'sbirth.obtained put a less favorable construction on young

from an erroneous inscription on his tomb, Macie's action in taking the name of Smithson

was 1754, which would have placed it eleven from that it bears, under the circumstances

years earlier than the actual event, during which are now for the first time detailed.

James Sniithson 9

very powerful influence could have procured permission for
this departure from rule, we may presume that his action,
whether acceptable or not to him, was dictated by an author-
ity to which he had in any case to yield.

In 1894 I ascertained through the kindness of Chester
Waters, Esquire, that Reverend Frederick Brown had
occupied himself during a large part of his life with the
biographies of the Hungerford family, and learned from his
surviving daughter that his manuscript was deposited in the
British Museum. This manuscript (which is numbered
33,412), I, with Doctor Cyrus Adler, spent some time in ex-
amining, with the results here given. Among other facts I
learned that Smithson was born in France, and was brought
to England for his education, and naturalized. I further was
fortunately led to consult the Oxford records, which show that
he in his early years entered as a Gentleman Commoner at
Pembroke College, where he matriculated in 1782, his age
then being given in the registry, here appended,^ as seventeen,
so that this matriculation record shows him to have been born
eleven years later than was supposed. This is material,
for it will be seen from what has preceded that his mem-
ory is thus cleared of the imputation under which it at one

1 Coll: Exon : 25° Carolus Ofspring Blackall 17 Theophili de Dodbrooke

Com : Danmon :

Cler: Fil:

Coll: Wad: 26" Robertus Harbin 17 Swayne de Newton Com: Somerset: Arm: Fil:
Mali 1°

Coll: Hert : Gulielmus Bragge 17 Joannis de Dillington Com : Somerset: Arm: Fil:

Coll : Wadh : 2^1° Joannes Higgins 19 Joannis de Dicheatt Com : Somerset : Gen : Fil :

Coll : Mert : 3? Henricus Lloyd 18 Erasmi de Civitate Vigorniensi Gen : Fil :

Coll: Di. Jo. Bap. 4? Thomas Keck 17 Samuelis de Civitate Londin : Gen: Fil:

changed to Smithson

Coll: Pemb : 7" Jacobus Ludovicus Macie 17 de Civit : Londin: — Arm: Fil:

Coll: Ball: 8? Hon. Archibaldus Cathcart 18 Carolide Aloa Com: Clackmanan: Baro! Fil

Coll: Di : Jo: Bap. 9? Thomas Dethick 17 Thomae de Bombay apud Ind : Orient:
Arm : Fil

Coll: On: Nas: io™° Arthurus Townson 18 Joannis de Ben tham Com : Eboracensi

Pleb: Fil

Coll: Christi \o'^° Calverley Joannes Bewicke 17 Benjamin de Clapham Com: Surriae
Gen : Fil :

Coll: Magd: 11° Isaacus Williamson 21 Josephi de Withburn Com : Cambr : Gen: Fil:

lo The Sinithsoniaji Institution

time seemed to rest, of his having adopted the name of
Smithson in circumstances where a son should have re-
mained silent.

We have also an authentic contemporary portrait of him in
the dress of an Oxford student, here reproduced, which, it is
interesting to observe, confirms the age thus given, by repre-
senting him as a mere youth.

Nothing material is remembered of his life at the college,
except a tradition that he was the best chemist and miner-
alogist of his year, though in his journal, when but a youth
of nineteen, he gives a description of a geological tour in
1784 through Oban, Staffa, and the western islands, in com-
pany with De St. Fond, "the celebrated French philosopher,"
and the Italian Count Andrioni, in which he carried on ob-
servations on the methods of mining and manufacturing pro-
cesses, made with all the minuteness which the conditions of
the journey permitted. The journal indicates that the tour at
that time was undertaken, if not at any considerable risk, yet
not without a considerable amount of privation and self-
denial, such as would not be met by the modern traveler, and
shows that he was far more occupied with science than with
the ordinary pleasures of so youthful a tourist. We learn
also that the young student was noted for diligence, applica-
tion, and good scholarship, attracting attention by his pro-
ficiency in chemistry, then a novel study, while his vacations
were ordinarily passed in such excursions as that just referred
to, and devoted to the collection of minerals and ores, which
it was his favorite occupation to analyze. At Oxford, then,
at a time when the study of physical science was almost
unknown in the University, he appears to have already
conceived that devotion to scientific research which charac-
terized all his future life.

He was graduated at Pembroke College, with the degree

James SmitJison ii

of Master of Arts, on May 26, 1786, as James Lewis Macie,
and admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on April 26,
1787, on the following- recommendation:

"James Lewis Macie, Esq., M.A., late of Pembroke College,
Oxford, and now of John Street, Golden Square, — a gentle-
man well versed in various branches of Natural Philosophy,
and particularly in Chymistry and Mineralogy, being desirous
of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society, we whose names
are hereunto subscribed do, from our personal knowledge of
his merit, judge him highly worthy of that honour and likely
to become a very useful and valuable Member.

Richard Kirwan,
C. F. Greville,
C. Blagden,
H. Cavendish,
David Pitcairn."

Cavendish, whose name appears here, was the eminent
physicist, and, as we learn elsewhere, was an intimate friend.

Smithson's lodgings were for some time in Bentinck Street,
where Gibbon wrote much of his "Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire." Here he apparently prepared his first
scientific paper, which was signed James Lewis Macie, and
was read on July 7, 1791, before the Royal Society. It
is entitled "An ^Account of Some Chemical Experiments on
Tabasheer."^ We learn of him incidentally in 1792 as jour-
neying from Geneva to Italy through the Tyrol, and find him
in the same year in Paris writing from the Hotel du Pare
Royal, Rue de Colombier, a letter in which he expresses
sentiments which represented what would have been then
called advanced Jacobinism. " pz ira,'' he says, "is grow-
ing the song of England, of Europe, as well as of France.

1 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Londott Volume LXXXI, part II, page 368.

12 The Smithsonian histihition

Men of every rank are joining in the chorus. Stupidity and
guih have had a long reign, and it begins, indeed, to be time
for justice and common-sense to have their turn . . . the
office of king is not yet aboHshed, but they daily feel the
inutility, or rather great inconvenience, of continuing it, and
its duration will probably not be long. May other nations,
at the time of their reforms, be wise enough to cast off, at
first, the contemptible incumbrance." Smithson here shares
the opinion of a large and influential portion of Englishmen
of the time in which he wrote, but the excesses of the French
Revolution, which immediately followed, caused a general
revulsion of feeling, and it would not be fair to argue from
this youthful expression as to his maturer judgment.

The date of his application to the Crown for permission to
take his father's name has not been ascertained, but in the
will of his half-sister, Dorothy Percy, he is referred to as
"Macie" in 1794 (eight years after his father's death). The
name of Smithson is first certainly known to have been used
by him in connection with his second communication to the
Royal Society, "A Chemical Analysis of Some Calamines,^
by James Smithson, Esquire," read November 18, 1802.

In this paper the author remarks that " Chemistry is yet so
new a science ; what we know of it bears so small a propor-
tion of what we are ignorant of; our knowledge in every de-
partment of it is so incomplete, consisting entirely of isolated
points, thinly scattered, like lurid specks on a vast field of
darkness, that no researches can be undertaken without pro-
ducing some facts leading to consequences which extend
beyond the boundaries of their immediate object."

The Abbe Haiiy had advanced the opinion that calamines
were all mere oxides or "calces" of zinc. Smithson's analy-
sis completely overthrew this opinion, and established these

1 Philosophical Transactions, Volume XCIII, page 12.

James Srnithson 13

minerals in the rank of true carbonates, while his remarks on
the action of the ores of zinc before the blowpipe evince much
discernment ; and the paper, on the whole, is altogether a
creditable one.j

At this period he seems to have ceased his contributions
to the Royal Society, and later we find his name more
frequently in the "Annals of Philosophy," a journal of high
character, where there is a communication from him dated
Paris, May 22, 1819, on " Plombe gomme," and about the
same time a paper on a native sulphuret of lead and arsenic,
with numerous other papers, among which is one in 1822,
"On the Detection of Very Minute Quantities of Arsenic and
Mercury," where he contributed a method which was gener-
ally used by chemists until quite modern tests superseded it.
The papers^ in all number twenty-seven, of which eight
here cited were published in the " Philosophical Transac-
tions of the Royal Society," between the years 1791 and 1807,
one in the "Philosophical Magazine" in 1807, and eighteen
in "Thomson's Annals of Philosophy," between 1 819 and 1825,
and these all give the idea of an assiduous and faithful
experimenter, an impression enlarged by the last one of
the series, bearing date of June, 1824, which contains some
observations on the formation of the Kirkdale Cave, forcibly

1 Smithson's subsequent communications " On a Saline Substance from Mount Ve-
to the Philosophical Transactions are six in suvius," 1813. (Volume cm, page 256.)
number : " A few Facts relative to the Coloring Mat-

"An Account of a Discovery of Native ter of Some Vegetables," 1817. (Volume

Minium," submitted in a letter dated from cvili, page no.)

Cassel, in Hesse, March 2, 1806. (Volume A paper by him " On Quadruple and Bi-

XCVI, part I, page 267. ) nary Compounds, particularly Sulphurets,"

" On the Composition of the Compound was also published in the " Philosophical

Sulphuret from Huel Boys, and an Account Magazine," 1807. (Volume xxix, page 275,)

of its Crystals," 1808. (Volume xcviii,page 2 These papers were collected and edited

55- ) by William J. Rhees, and are contained in

"On the Composition of Zeolite," l8ll. Volume xxi of the "Smithsonian Miscella-

(Volume CI, page 171.) neous Collections," under the title of " The

" On a Substance from the Elm Tree, called Scientific Writings of James Srnithson"

Ulmin," 1813. (Volume cm, page 64.) (1879).

14 7 he Smithsonian Institutio7i

combating (with what was then originaHty) the theories of
the time, which referred the bones there found to " The
Deluge."

" The most notable feature of Smithson's writings, from the
standpoint of the modern analytical chemist," says Professor
Clarke,^ "is the success obtained with the most primitive and
unsatisfactory appliances. In Smithson's day, chemical ap-
paratus was undeveloped, and instruments were improvised
from such materials as lay readiest to hand. With such
instruments, and with crude reagents, Smithson obtained
analytical results of the most creditable character, and en-
larged our knowledge of many mineral species. In his time
the native carbonate and silicate of zinc were confounded as
one species under the name 'calamine'; but his researches
distinguish between the two minerals, which are now known
as Smithsonite and calamine respectively.

" To theory Smithson contributed little, if anything ; but
from a theoretical point of view the tone of his writings is sin-
gularly modern. His work was mostly done before Dalton
had announced the atomic theory, and yet Smithson saw
clearly that a law of definite proportions must exist, although
he did not attempt to account for it. His ability as a rea-
soner is best shown in his paper upon the Kirkdale bone
cave, which Penn had sought to interpret by reference to the
Noachian deluge. A clearer and more complete demolition
of Penn's views could hardly be written to-day. Smithson
was gentle with his adversary, but none the less thorough for
all his moderation. He is not to be classed among the lead-
ers of scientific thought ; but his ability, and the usefulness of
his contributions to knowledge, cannot be doubted."

The President of the Royal Society, in a necrology for the
year 1829, associated the name of Smithson with those of

1 Communication from Professor Frank W. Clarke, Chief Chemist, United States

Geological Survey.

James Smithson 15

Wollaston, Young, and Davy, saying that "he was distin-
guished by the intimate friendship of Mr. Cavendish, and
rivaled our most expert chemists in elegant analyses " ; while
at the annual meeting of the Royal Society held on Novem-
ber 30, 1830, the President, Davies Gilbert, after referring to
other members recently deceased, said :

" The only remaining individual who has taken a direct
and active part in our labours, by contributing to the ' Trans-
actions,' is Mr. James Lewis Smithson, and of this gentleman
I must be allowed to speak with affection. We were at
Oxford together, of the same college, and our acquaintance
continued to the time of his decease.

" Mr. Smithson, then called Macie, and an undergraduate,
had the reputation of excelling all other resident members of
the University in the knowledge of chemistry. He was early
honored by an intimate acquaintance with Mr. Cavendish ; he
was admitted to the Royal Society, and soon after presented
a paper on the very curious concretion frequently found in the
hollow of bambu canes, named Tabasheer. This he found to
consist almost entirely of silex, existing in a manner similar
to what Davy long afterwards discovered in the epidermis of
reeds and grasses.

" He was the friend of Dr. Wollaston, and at the same
time his rival in the manipulation and analysis of small quan-
tities. 'AYctGy] §' l[AQ -?]§£ ppoTolai.

" For many years past Mr. Smithson has resided abroad,
principally, I believe, on account of his health ; but he carried
with him the esteem and regard of various private friends,
and of a still larger number of persons who appreciated and
admired his acquirements."

His writings exhibit clearness of perception, terseness of
language, and accuracy of expression. He was an intimate
friend of Cavendish, and later of Arago ; he was a corre-
spondent of Black, of Banks, of Thomson, and of most of the

1 6 The Smithsonian Instittttion

names then renowned to science, and he himself contributed
in those early days honorably to the enlargement of those
" lurid specks in the vast field of darkness," of which he spoke,
towards the coming light.

His industry was the more creditable to him in that he was
at this time a man of large means, with every temptation to
devote himself to amusement, and this industry will be seen
to be still greater when it is remembered that these pub-
lished papers are but a small portion of his writings ; for 200
manuscripts were forwarded to the United States with his
effects, and, besides these, thousands of detached notes and
memoranda.

Unhappily, with the exception of one small volume, of all
these nothing remains, the whole of the originals having been
destroyed in the disastrous fire at the Institution in 1865, just
one hundred years from the date of his birth. We know
something of these manuscripts from the paper by Mr. John-
son, who had access to them before the formation of the Insti-
tution, and from it we learn that they are connected not only
with science, but with history, the arts, language, rural pur-
suits, gardening, the construction of buildings, and kindred
topics, "such as are likely to occupy the thoughts and to
constitute the reading of a gentleman of extensive acquire-
ments and liberal views derived from a lone and intimate
acquaintance with the world," while his cabinet, which was
also destroyed by the fire, is described as consisting of a
choice collection of minerals, comprising probably eight or
ten thousand specimens, in exceedingly perfect condition, in-
cluding examples of most of the meteorites which had fallen
in Europe during several centuries, and forming what was at
the time very much the richest and rarest collection in the
United States.

If, then, we ask whether Smithson had such a competent

JAMES SMITHSOIS^.

FOUNDER OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

.11 con LI
ment of those
which he spoke,

npta.

ill be seen
.ib-
:oo
;1tp TTnited States wi

all

iavin$
^'"^'■■' in 186 J, j^.^L
We know

:nt!e]: re-

in ti mate

:t^ryRHTiMR

'^^-t;

rfi

1 8 The Smithsonian Institiitio7i

health, whose Hfe, save a few hours given to repose, was
regularly divided between the most interesting scientific re-
searches and gaming. It was a source of great regret to me
that this learned experimentalist should devote the half of
so valuable a life to a course so little in harmony with an intel-
lect whose wonderful powers called forth the admiration of the
world around him. Unfortunately there occurred fluctuations
of loss and gain, momentarily balancing each other, which led
him to conclude that the advantages enjoyed by the bank
were neither so assured nor considerable as to preclude his
winning largely through a run of luck. The analytical for-
mulas of probabilities offering a radical means, the only one
perhaps of dissipating this illusion, I proposed, the number
of the games and the stakes being given, to determine in ad-
vance, in my study, the amount, not merely of the loss of a
day, nor that of a week, but of each quarter. The calculation
was found so regularly to agree with the corresponding dim-
inution of the bank-notes in the foreigner's pocketbook that
a doubt could no longer be entertained."

I owe to Doctor B. A. Gould the interesting statement that
Arago was not merely an acquaintance, but an intimate friend
of Smithson, and that Arago personally told him that "the
distinguished foreigner " in question was Smithson himself,
and added that Smithson resolved, not to absolutely discon-
tinue play (in which he found the only stimulus which could
make him forget his physical suffering), but to do so with a
care that the expenditure for this purpose was a definite one,
and within his means.

We see him next entering the confines of old age, approach-
ing the task (with such enfeebled health, a solemn one) of
making his last will, and looking back upon a life which his
circumstances have made lonely, which has been uncheered by
domestic affection, and which, though filled with honorable
activities, has not brought the fame to which he once aspired

James Smithson 19

with the hope that it would bring some compensation for the
accident of birth.

The most important act of his Hfe was the execution of this
will, a copy of which follows :

THE WILL OF JAMES SMITHSON.

" I James Smithson Son to Hugh, first Duke of Northumber-
land, & Elizabeth, Heiress of the Hungerfords of Studley,
& Niece to Charles the proud Duke of Somerset, now
residing in Bentinck Street, Cavendish Square, do this
twenty-third day of October, one thousand eight hundred
and twenty-six, make this my last Will and Testament:

"I bequeath the whole of my property of every nature &
kind soever to my bankers, Messrs. Drummonds of Charing
Cross, in trust, to be disposed of in the following manner, and
I desire of my said Executors to put my property under the
management of the Court of Chancery.

"To John Fitall, formerly my Servant, but now employed
in the London Docks, and residing at No. 27, Jubilee Place,
North Mile end, old town, in consideration of his attach-
ment & fidelity to me, & the long & great care he has taken
of my effects, & my having done but very little for him, I
give and bequeath the Annuity or annual sum of One hundred
pounds sterling for his life, to be paid to him quarterly, free
of legacy duty & all other deductions, the first payment to be
made to him at the expiration of three months after my death.
I have at divers times lent sums of money to Henry Honore
Sailly, formerly my Servant, but now keeping the Hunger-
ford Hotel, in the rue Caumartin at Paris, & for which sums
of money I have undated bills or bonds signed by him. Now,
I will & direct that if he desires it, these sums of money be
let remain in his hands at an Interest of five per cent, for five
years after the date of the present Will.

"To Henry James Hungerford, my Nephew, heretofore
called Henry James Dickinson, son to ni)- late brother,
Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Louis Dickinson, now residing

20 The Smithsonian Institution

with Mr. Auboin, at Bourg la Reine, near Paris, I give and
bequeath for his life the whole of the income arising from my
property of every nature & kind whatever, after the payment
of the above Annuity, & after the death of John Fitall, that
Annuity likewise, the payments to be made to him at the time
of the interest or dividends becomes due on the Stocks or
other property from which the income arises.

"Should the said Henry James Hungerford have a child or
children, legitimate or illegitimate, I leave to such child or
children, his or their heirs, executors, & assigns, after the
death of his, or her, or their Father, the whole of my property
of every kind absolutely & forever, to be divided between
them, if there is more than one, in the manner their father
shall judge proper, or, in case of his omitting to decide this,
as the Lord Chancellor shall judge proper.

"Should my said Nephew, Henry James Hungerford,
marry, I empower him to make a jointure.

" In the case of the death of my said Nephew without leav-
ing a child or children, or the death of the child or children he
may have had under the age of twenty-one years or intestate,
I then bequeath the whole of my property, subject to the
Annuity of One hundred pounds to John Fitall, & for the
security & payment of which I mean Stock to remain in this
Country, to the United States of America, to found at Wash-
ington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an
Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge
among men.

"I think it proper here to state, that all the money which

will be standing in the French five per cents, at my death

in the names of the father of my above mentioned Nephew,

Henry James Hungerford, & all that in my names, is the

property of my said Nephew, being what he inherited from

his father, or what I have laid up for him from the savings

upon his income. t o r t »

^ James Smithson. [l. s.]

We see that he begins by recalling the parentage which
had denied him the name of his father and the position in the

James Sniithsoit 21

world he believed should have been his, and, in the void
places of father, brother, or family, he seems to look for some
object of affection, and to find only an old servant (whom he
remembers with thoughtful liberality) and a nephew, to whom
he bequeaths his property. He has provided for the continu-
ance of the property to any possible heir to this nephew, and
there seems to remain nothing more.

But there must have remained, in the retrospect of such a
life as his, a sense of failure of that purpose with which he
entered it, when he hoped, with youthful ambition, to create
a greater name than that which birth had denied him, and
when he wrote, *' My name shall live in the memory of man
when the titles of the Northumberlands and the Percys are
extinct and forgotten," and there must have come up on such
an occasion the question whether this was, indeed, the end of
hope and the time only for renunciation.

We see that he has not utterly renounced this hope even
now ; but it is so faint that he writes between a clause which
concerns a legacy to a servant and one which concerns an
investment in the funds, and, as it were, almost casually, the
words which have perpetuated his name.

Probably no man ever made a more remunerative invest-
ment in the direction in which he would like best to see a
return than was brought out by these words of Smithson,
for we now all know that his bequest, when accepted by the
United States Government, formed the initial step in the
creation of an institution whose position has been altogether
exceptional, for it is likely to remain without successor, as
without precedent, in perpetuating, as it does, the fame
of a private individual, whose wishes have been adopted
and carried into effect by a great nation, which has con-
sented to take the position of a guardian to a ward in the
care of his property, and which has subsequently made his
2*

22 The Smithsonian Instihition

private fortune the nucleus to which have been added ap-
propriations for objects of national importance, yet appro-
priations which are still administered in association with
his name.

The will was proved in the Prerogative Court of Canter-
bury, the value of the effects being sworn to be under ^120,-
000. The property disposed of by it is believed to have been
received chiefly from Colonel Henry Louis Dickinson, a son
of his mother by a former marriage, though he is known
to have received a legacy of ^3,000 from Dorothy Percy, his
half-sister on his father's side; but, unless through this, it is
proper to state that there is no indication that any portion
whatever of the Smithson bequest was derived from the
Northumberland family.

The motives which actuated Smithson in mentioning the
United States as his residuary legatee, rather than any other
government or institution, must remain in doubt, for he is not
known to have had any correspondent in America, nor are
there in any of his papers any reference to it or its distin-
guished men. In selecting the nation itself as the depository
of his trust, he yet certainly testified his confidence in its in-
stitutions and his faith in their perpetuity, while it has not
escaped attention that he uses language in the determining
clause of his will remarkably similar to that already employed
by Washington, who in his farewell address, says: "Promote,
as an object of primary importance, institutions for the gen-
eral diffusion of knowledge."

Smithson died June 27, 1829, at Genoa, Italy. He is
buried in the little English cemetery on the heights of San
Benigno, in a tomb which originally bore no reference to him
as the founder of this Institution ; but the Institution has re-
cently placed a tablet there remedying this omission, has sur-
rounded the tomb with evidence of continued care, and has

James Smithson 23

placed in still further remembrance a similar tablet in the
English church of the city.

Smithson's wishes have been carried out by those im-
mediately administering them with a constant scrupulous
thought of the intent of the founder, while in doing this the
best results have flowed from a ritrid construction of his own
words, so briefly expressed, and from a division of the activi-
ties of the Institution into two great distinct but parallel
paths, the "increase" and "diffusion" of knowledge.

What has been done in these two paths the reader may
partly gather from this volume — in the former, from the va-
rious articles by contemporary men of science, describing its ac-
tivities in research and original contributions to the increase of
human knowledge; in the latter, in numerous ways, — among
others, from the description of the work of one of its bureaux,
that of the International Exchanges, where it may be more
immediately seen how universal is the scope of the action of
the Institution, which, in accordance with its motto, PER
ORBEM, is not limited to the country of its adoption, but
belongs to the world, there being outside of the United States,
at the time I write, more than 12,000 correspondents, scat-
tered through every portion of the globe ; indeed, there is
hardly a language or a people where the results of Smithson's
benefaction are not known and associated with his name.

If we were permitted to think of him as conscious of what
has been, is being, and is still to be done, in pursuance of his
wish, we might believe that he would feel that his hope, at a
time when life must have seemed so hopeless, was finding full
fruition ; for events are justifying what may have seemed at
the time but a rhetorical expression, in the language of
a former President of the United States, who has said,
" Renowned as is the name of Percy in the historical annals
of England, ... let the trust of James Smithson to the

The Smithsonian Institution

United States of America be faithfully executed, ... let the
result accomplish his object, the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men, and a wreath more unfading shall en-
twine itself, in the lapse of future ages, around the name of
Smithson than the united hands of history and poetry have
braided around the name of Percy through the long ages
past."

The principal sources of information for
this chapter have been as follows :

1. Gentlematis Magazine for March, 1830,
page 275.

2. The documentary evidence which,
though meager, may be found in the report
of Richard Rush to the Department of State,
in 1838.

3. The manuscripts and diary of Smithson,
which are described as comprising about two
hundred titles, besides numberless notes of an
encyclopaedical character, " such as are likely
to occupy the thoughts of a gentleman of
extensive acquirements and liberal views,"
These manuscripts were destroyed by the fire
of 1865, but not until extended extracts had
been made from them by Walter R. Johnson,
a member of the National Institute of Wash-
ington, in whose possession the papers and
books of Smithson remained until the forma-
tion of the Institution. The paper by John-

son will be found in Volume xxi of the
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,"
and these lost papers are the original sources
of some statements made here which can no
longer be verified by comparison with the
originals.

4. These sources are not only contained
in, but are largely supplemented by, the ex-
cellent memoir on " James Smithson and his
Bequest," by Mr. William J. Rhees, form-
ing part of Volume xxi of the " Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections," without which
the biography of Smithson can hardly be
written, and from which the writer has here
frequently quoted textually, without other
acknowledgment than this general and ex-
plicit one.

5. Another source of information is the re-
searches made by the writer with the aid of
Doctor Cyrus Adler, Librarian of the Smith-
sonian Institution, in England, in 1894.

THE FOUNDING OF THE INSTITUTION,

1 835- 1 846

By George Brown Goode

"/HEN Smithson died in Genoa in 1829 his
estate became the property of his brother's
son, Henry James Hungerford, then about
twenty-three years of age, who was privi-
leged to enjoy its income during his own life-
time, and to whose heirs it was to pass at his death. Hun-
gerford, then known as the Baron Eunice de la Batut, died
in Pisa, June 5, 1835, unmarried and without heirs.

There was now no one to contest the claim of the United
States to the estate except his mother, Madame de la Batut,
who declared herself to be satisfied by the granting of a small
annuity payable during her own lifetime.

The fact of the Smithson bequest first became known in
this country in September, 1835, when there was received at
the State Department a letter from Aaron Vail, charge d'af-
faires of the United States in London, transmitting a copy of
the will, tOQfether with certain information obtained from
Smithson's solicitors in London.^

1 For the letter of these gentlemen, — and the full text of all documents referred to
Messrs. Clarke, Fynmore, and Fladgate, — in this chapter, see " The Smithsonian Institu-

2 6 The Smithsonian Instihition

The proposed gift of Smithson was first publicly announced
by President Jackson in a message to Congress, dated De-
cember 17, 1835.

The President's message was referred in the Senate to the
Committee on the Judiciary, which promptly reported in favor
of accepting the legacy. Its recommendations were strongly
antagonized by Senators Calhoun and Preston, of South
Carolina, who, from their customary standpoint of opposition
to centralization, maintained that Congress had no power to
accept the gift, and that it would be beneath the dignity of
the Nation to receive benefits from a foreio^ner. Senator
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, and Senator Leigh, of Vir-
ginia, took strong ground on the other side, and their counsel
finally prevailed after the report had lain upon the table
for several months.

In the House of Representatives the announcement was
received with more generous appreciation, and the message
was referred to a select committee, of which John Quincy
Adams was made chairman. The venerable statesman, now,
ten years after his retirement from the presidency, a Repre-
sentative in Congress from Massachusetts, at once took the
measure under his protection. His mind seized with almost
prophetic grasp upon the advances which the gift of Smithson
made possible, and the arguments so eloquently presented in
his report of January 19, 1836, no doubt did much to deter-
mine Congress upon the decision that the gift should be
accepted :

" Of all the foundations of establishments for pious or char-
itable uses which ever signalized the spirit of the age or the
comprehensive beneficence of the founder, none can be named

lion: Documents relative to its Origin and archives of the Institution and of the govern-

History," edited by W. J. Rhees, Washing- nient, provided with an excellent analytical

ton, 1879, 8vo, pages i-xiv, 1-1013, a most index. It also contains an abstract from the

careful and exhaustive compilation from the diary of John Quincy Adams.

Foundiug of the Ijistihttion 2 7

more deserving of the approbation of mankind than this.
Should it be faithfully carried into effect, with an earnestness
and sagacity of application and a steady perseverance of pur-
suit proportioned to the means furnished by the will of the
founder and to the greatness and simplicity of his design as
by himself declared, 'the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men,' it is no extravagance of anticipation to declare
that his name will hereafter be enrolled among the eminent
benefactors of mankind.

"The attainment of knowledge is the high and exclusive
attribute of man, among the numberless myriads of animated
beings inhabitants of the terrestrial globe. On him alone is
bestowed, by the bounty of the Creator of the universe, the
power and the capacity of acquiring knowledge. Knowledge
is the attribute of his nature which at once enables him to
improve his condition upon earth, and to prepare him for the
enjoyment of a happier existence hereafter. It is by this at-
tribute that man discovers his own nature as the link between
earth and heaven ; as the partaker of an immortal spirit ; as
created for a hisfher and more durable end than the count-
less tribes of beings which people the earth, the ocean, and
the air, alternately instinct with life, and melting into vapor
or mouldering into dust.

"To furnish the means of acquiring knowledge is, there-
fore, the greatest benefife^ that can be conferred upon mankind.
It prolongs life itself and enlarges the sphere of existence.
The earth was given to man for cultivation, for the improve-
ment of his own condition. Whoever increases his know-
ledge multiplies the uses to which he is enabled to turn the
gift of his Creator to his own benefit, and partakes in some
degree of that goodness which is the highest attribute of
Omnipotence itself

"If, then, the Smithsonian Institution, under the smile of
an approving Providence and by the faithful and permanent
application of the means furnished by its founder to the pur-
pose for which he has bestowed them, should prove effective
to their promotion, if they should contribute essentially to
the increase and diffusion of knoiulcdge anio?ig men, to what

2 8 The Smithsonian Institution

higher or nobler object could this generous and splendid
donation have been devoted?

" In the commission of every trust there is an implied
tribute of the soul to the integrity and intelligence of the
trustee ; and there is also an implied call for the faithful ex-
ercise of those properties to the fulfilment of the purpose of
the trust. The tribute and the call acquire additional force
and energy when the trust is committed for performance after
the decease of him by whom it is granted, when he no longer
exists to witness or to constrain the effective fulfilment of his
design. The magnitude of the trust and the extent of con-
fidence bestowed in the committal of it do but enlarge and
aggravate the pressure of the obligation which it carries with
it. The weight of duty imposed is proportioned to the honor
conferred by confidence without reserve. Your committee
are fully persuaded, therefore, that, with a grateful sense of
the honor conferred by the testator upon the political institu-
tions of this Union, the Congress of the United States, in ac-
cepting the bequest will feel in all its power and plenitude
the obligation of responding to the confidence reposed by
him with all the fidelity, disinterestedness, and perseverance
of exertion which may carry into effective execution the
noble purpose of an endowment for the increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men."

After much debate a bill was passed to authorize and en-
able the President to assert and prosecute the claim of the
United States to the legacy bequeathed by James Smithson,
and pledging the faith of the United States to the application
of the bequest to the purpose of founding an institute in
Washinofton under the name of the Smithsonian Institution
— an establishment for the increase and diff"usion of know-
ledge among men.

On the first of July, 1836, this bill became a law through
the approval of the President, who at once appointed an
agent to prosecute the claim. The man selected was Richard

Founding of the Instihition 29

Rush, of Pennsylvania, a lawyer of high standing, who had
been Attorney-General of the United States, Secretary of the
Treasury, and a candidate for the office of Vice-President.
He had also been Minister to France and to England, and
his official residence of eight years at the Court of Saint
James fitted him admirably for the mission which he now
undertook. He proceeded at once to London, entered a
friendly suit in the Courts of Chancery in the name of the
President of the United States, and, notwithstanding there
were eight hundred cases ahead of this, he obtained a favora-
ble decision in less than two years, an event without example
in the annals of chancery, for the English lawyers them-
selves admitted that a chancery suit was a thing which might
begin with a man's life, and its termination be his epitaph.

The success of Mr. Rush was due in a large degree to the
extreme friendliness and consideration manifested by the Brit-
ish law officers from the Attorney- General down, without
which it would have been scarcely possible for him to have
accomplished in so short a period what in the ordinary course
of events would at that time have required twenty or thirty
years. His skill in the conduct of the case also counted for
much, the American Minister testifying that no litigant ever
displayed a more ardent zeal, or a more sagacious, devoted,
and unremitting diligence, in the prosecution of a suit.

A still more potent influence, however, must have been his
own enthusiasm for the work in which he was engaged, an
enthusiasm which he succeeded in imparting to all with
whoni he came in contact. "A suit of higher interest and
dignity," he wrote, " has rarely, perhaps, been before the tri-
bunals of a nation. If the trust created by the testator's will
be successfully carried into effect by the enlightened legisla-
tion of Congress, benefits may flow to the United States and
to the human family not easy to be estimated, because oper-

30 The Sinithsonian Ijistitittion

ating silently and gradually throughout time, yet operating
not the less effectually. Not to speak of the inappreciable
value of letters to individual and social man, the monuments
which they raise to a nation's glory often last when others
perish, and seem especially appropriate to the glory of a
republic whose foundations are laid in the presumed intelli-
gence of its citizens, and can only be strengthened and
perpetuated as that improves."^

On May 9, 1838, a decree of the Court of Chancery
was solemnly pronounced, adjudging the Smithson bequest
to the United States, and the estate was immediately trans-
ferred to Mr. Rush, who took passage for America in the
packet ship Mediator; which sailed from London July 17,
and reached New York August 29, 1838.

The various securities were converted into gold sovereigns
for convenience of transportation, and these were packed at
the Bank of England in one hundred and five bags, each
containing 1000 sovereigns, except one which contained 960
sovereigns and certain change which Mr. Rush minutely
records as amounting to " eight shillings and sevenpence
wrapped in paper," a minuteness somewhat entertaining, since
in another place he records with equal minuteness that he
delivered eight shillings and sixpence at the Mint.

The money was deposited with the Bank of America until
September i, when Mr. Rush, accompanied by two agents
of the Bank, took stage for Philadelphia, and on the same
day delivered his charge to the Director and Treasurer of
the United States Mint. The contents of the bags, ^^104,-
960, 8s., 6d., was found to be the equivalent of $508,318.46,
which was the amount for which Mr. Rush obtained a receipt.

1 Letter to the Honorable John Forsyth, England, see Rhees, "The Smithsonian

Secretary of State, dated London, May 12, Institution : Documents relative to its

1838. For all the correspondence and other Origin and History"; Washington, 1879,

documents relating to Rush's mission to pages 3-122.

Founding of the Institution 31

The sum was subsequently increased by the repayment of
certain amounts expended in the prosecution of the claim,
freights, insurances, etc., so that the original trust amounted
in all to ^106,374, 9s., yd., or $515,169. The sum of
;!^50i5 sterling which was held back during the lifetime of
Madame de la Batut, after her death, in 1862, was added to
the fund, and in February, 1867, the Board of Regents was
informed that the amount of the Smithsonian Fund in the
Treasury had been increased to $550,000.^

As soon as the trust fund reached the United States, in
1838, it was invested by the Secretary of the Treasury in
stocks of States, chiefly in 500 bonds of the State of
Arkansas for $1000 each, bearing six per cent, interest.^
The State of Arkansas having failed to pay its interest
in 1846, Congress made good the deficiency from the
public funds, as in duty bound by the pledge given in the
bill approved July i, 1836, and has ever since paid interest
at six per cent, on the sum of $538,000, which was the total
amount at that time invested in Arkansas securities.

Shortly after the convening of Congress in 1838, President
Van Buren, in a message dated December 6, informed both
Houses that the legacyhad been received and invested, and
invited their attention to the obligation devolving upon the
United States to fulfil the object of the bequest. His mes-
sage was accompanied by several letters from " persons
versed in science and in matters relating to education," who
had been invited by the President to communicate their
views to aid his judgment in presenting the subject to
Congress.

Eight years passed by before a definite plan of organiza-

IRhees^ loc. cit., page 133. tion of the President, to invest all the money

2 This was done in accordance with the arising from the bequest of Smithson in stocks

Act, approved July 7, 1838, directing the of States. This Act was repealed September

Secretary of the Treasury, with the approba- il, 1841, through the agency of Mr. Adams.

32 The Smithsonian Instihttion

tion was determined upon, although at each session of Con-
gress the President urged prompt action. Though at the
time the delay seemed irksome, no one can doubt that it was
in the end advantageous. At first the importance of the
occasion was not fully appreciated, and the projects pre-
sented were limited in scope. Suggestions were offered by
a large number of persons, and almost every suggestion was
embodied in one or more of the bills which were brought up
for discussion during this formative period. The broad and
liberal plan at last adopted was the result of a process of
selection by which unworthy features were thrown out, and
only those retained which commended themselves to the
wisdom of an intelligent majority.

When the subject was first considered in the Senate, it
seems to have been generally believed that the intention of
the testator was to establish a university, and this was the
preference of those to whom, in July, 1838, the Secretary of
State, by direction of the President, addressed letters asking
advice in regard to the proper application of the bequest.^
Seven communications elicited by this invitation were under
consideration in 1838, and of these, five favored a school
corresponding to what would now be called a postgraduate
university. Doctor Wayland suggested an institution which
should occupy "the space between the close of a collegiate
education and a professional school"; Doctor Cooper, "an
institution of the character of a university," open only to
graduates of other colleges; and President Chapin, of Colum-
bian University, "an institution for liberal and professional
purposes and for the promotion of original investigations —
to carry through a range of studies much above those of the
ordinary collegiate course." Professor Dunglison, of the Uni-

1 The persons addressed were the Honor- of South Carolina ; the Honorable Richard
able John Quincy Adams, ex-President; Rush; Doctor Francis Wayland, President
Thomas Cooper, M. D., of the University of Brown University; and others.

Founding of the Institutmi ZZ

versity of Virginia, advocated " a central school of natural
science," where natural philosophy, chemistry, geology, miner-
alogy, philosophy, and all other sciences could effectually be
taught, to be supplemented in time by a botanical garden, an
observatory, a zoological institute, and other similar agencies.
Mr. Rush objected to a school of any kind, and proposed a
project which corresponds more nearly than any other of
those early days to that which was finally adopted. In a
shadowy yet far-seeing way he outlined a system of scientific
correspondence, of lectureships, of general cooperation with
the scientific work of the government, a liberal system of
publication, and collections — geological, zoological, botanical,
ethnological, and technological.

Ex-President Adams urged the establishment of a great
astronomical observatory, "equal to any in the world," and
he continued to urge this from year to year, and to introduce
bills in which this feature was included, until, indeed, provision
for astronomical work was made by the establishment of an
observatory in connection with the navy. The bill consid-
ered by Congress in 1839^ provided for the establishment of
an observatory fully equipped, with provision for the publica-
tion of its observations 'and the annual preparation and pub-
lication of a nautical almanac. This, which had evidently
been prepared by a minority of the joint committee, was re-
inforced by two sets of resolutions proposed by Mr. Adams in
the House.

One, reported from the committee, January 26, provided :

"That the first appropriations from the interest or income
of the Smithsonian fund ouorht to be for the erection and es-
tablishment, at the city of Washington, of an astronomical
observatory, provided with the best and most approved in-
struments and books, for the continual observation, calcu-

1 House Bill No. 1161 ; Senate Bill No. 293.

34 The Smithsonian Institution

lation, and recording of the remarkable phenomena of the
heavens, for the periodical publication of the observations
thus made, and of a nautical almanac, for the use of the mari-
ners of the United States and of all other navigating nations."

The second, reported February 6, recited the opinion :

" That the education of the children of these United States
is a duty of solemn and indispensable obligation incumbent
upon their parents and guardians, not for the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men, but to qualify them for
the enjoyment of their rights and the performance of their
duties throughout life, [and therefore] that no part of the
Smithsonian fund ought to be applied to the education of the
children or youth of the United States, nor to any school,
college, university, or institute of education."

These resolutions were evidently intended to antagonize
the views still held by many Senators, and urged in the
speech of Senator Robbins, of Rhode Island, in January, 1839,
who declared " that this institution should make one of a
number of colleges, to constitute a university, to be estab-
lished here, and to be endowed in a manner worthy of this
great nation and their immense resources."

On February 18, Senator Robbins offered a counterpoise to
Mr. Adams's anti-university resolution in the following:

" I. Resolved, That it is the duty of the United States, they
having accepted the trust under the will of Mr. Smithson, of
London, to execute that trust bona fide, according to the true
intent and meaning of the testator.

" 2. Resolved, That the trust being to found an institution
in the city of Washington for the increase and diffusion of
knowledore amono- men, the kind of institution which will
have the effect intended and described, in the most eminent
degree, will be the kind of institution which ought in good
faith to be adopted, as being most in accordance with the true
intent and meaning of the testator.

Founding of the Institution 35

"3. Resolved, That all experience having shown scientific
and literary institutions to be by far the most effectual means
to the end of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men,
the Smithsonian Institution should be a scientific and literary
institution, formed upon a model the best calculated to make
those means the most effectual to that end.

"4. Resolved, That to apply said trust fund to the erection
and support of an observatory would not be to fulfil bona fide
the intention of the testator, nor would it comport with the
dignity of the United States to owe such an establishment to
foreign eleemosynary means."

The Twenty-fifth Congress adjourned without action, and
Senator Robbins having retired from public life, the univer-
sity idea was not afterward so prominent. At this time addi-
tional petitions were received. One was from Professor Walter
R. Johnson, of Philadelphia, pleading for an institution for
researches in physical science, especially in connection with
the useful arts, which would have corresponded in a general
way with the scientific branches of the present Department
of Agriculture, though he proposed work in many other
directions.^

Another was from Charles L. Fleischmann, a graduate of
the Royal School of Agriculture in Bavaria, proposing the
establishment of an institution for the promotion of agricul-
ture, with experimental farms of 1360 acres, manufactories,
mills, and workshops, a considerable staff of teachers and in-
structors, and one hundred students at the commencement."

The Agricultural Society of Kentucky was pleading for an
agricultural school, the Superintendent of the Coast Survey
for a school of astronomy, and Mr. James P. Espy for a me-
teorological bureau with a system of wide-spread simultaneous
observations.

1 Presented to the House of Representa- 2 Reported to the House of Representa-

tives May 21, 1838. See Rhees, op. ciL, tives January 9, 1S39. See Rhees, op. cit.,
pages 171-186. pages 186-198.

36 The Smithsonian Institution

The interest of the public became much greater ; earnest
discussions were printed in the newspapers and reviews ;
letters urging speedy action were written to Congress by
persons in all parts of the country, and the Corporation
of the City of Washington also presented a vigorous me-
morial to the national legislature.

Soon after the Twenty-sixth Congress convened, President
Adams ao-ain introduced his bill for the establishment of a
national observatory, accompanied by a learned and exhaust-
ive report upon the importance of astronomical work, sup-
plemented by a statement from the Astronomer Royal of
Great Britain concerning the observatories at Greenwich and
elsewhere. His ideas did not meet with favor. In his jour-
nal for 1843 he records with much disgust that the Secretary
of the Treasury said to him in conversation that the prejudice
against his plan of an astronomical observatory was insur-
mountable because he had once called observatories "light-
houses in the skies."

Strenuous as was his desire for an observatory, it was fee-
ble in comparison with his apprehension lest the fund should
be "squandered upon cormorants, or wasted in electioneering
bribery," and his desire to save it " from misapplication, di-
lapidation, and waste." His dread became almost morbid, and
he looked with suspicion upon every one who was interested
in the disposition of the bequest, even those whose names are
now remembered in connection with his own as the most
public-spirited promoters of the interests of the Institution in
its days of embryonic existence. He would cooperate with
no one, and his influence must be characterized as conserva-
tive rather than formative, his most important service being
his opposition to the bill for investing the fund in State
stocks, which, in 1841, he succeeded in having repealed.

While these things were happening at the Capitol, new

Founding of the Instihdion 37

agencies were coming into existence which were destined to
exert a very positive and decisive influence upon the charac-
ter of the new organization. Chief among these was the Na-
tional Institution, a society organized May 15, 1840, by the
adoption of a constitution and a declaration of objects, which
were, " To promote science and the useful arts, and to estab-
lish a national museum of natural history," etc. Its constitu-
tion, as printed on the cover of the second bulletin of the
society, was decidedly prophetic of the future plan of the
Smithsonian Institution. The society was established in a
broad and liberal way. Its membership was strong, includ-
ing at the beginning about ninety representative men of
Washington, among them members of Congress, scientific
men, clergymen, and prominent citizens, and an equal num-
ber of corresponding members, including all the leading men
of the country. Among its officers were ex-President Ad-
ams, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the
Chief of Engineers of the Army, and other prominent offi-
cials. Its meetings were largely attended, its promoters were
enthusiastic, gifts of books and specimens began to come in,
and its prospects were in every way flattering.

From the beginning, the Smithson legacy and its proper
disposition was the subject most frequently discussed by the
founders of the National Institution. For years, indeed, it
was the opinion of many influential men that this society
ought to be made the custodian of the Smithson fund. How
strongly this was urged is indicated in the letter addressed to
the Secretaries of War and of the Navy in 1842, in which the
managers stated that the object of the National Institution is
''to increase and to diffuse knoivlcdgc aviong ?nc?i,'' making
prominent the words of Smithson. instead of the official
designation of the objects of their own society.

The influence of the society was strongly and continuously

38 The Smithsonian Institution

exerted upon Congress during the six years from its organi-
zation until the Smithsonian Act was eventually passed, and
resulted in the final engrafting of a national museum upon
the Smithsonian project, and also in the addition of various
features of organization which have since become such char-
acteristic elements in the plan of the Smithsonian Institution.

The controlling mind in this movement was undoubtedly
that of the Honorable Joel R. Poinsett, of South Carolina,
who was Secretary of the Navy in 1840, and at whose resi-
dence the society was organized. Mr. Poinsett was, under
the first plan of organization, senior director, and occupied
the chair at every meeting until, in 1841, under an amended
constitution, he was elected its first president. Notwithstand-
ing the fact that officers were annually elected, he told Mr.
Adams soon after this election that he should for two years
to come preside over the National Institution, a clear indica-
tion of the controlling influence which he consciously exerted.
He was in fact reelected to the presidency at each annual
meeting until 1845, when, having declined the candidacy, he
was elected an honorary member, and Senator Woodbury, of
New Hampshire, became president in his place. From this
period the decline in the prosperity of the society was marked.

It is certain that as early as 1838, when the bequest was
first received, Mr. Poinsett was thinking seriously about its
disposal. This is made clear by an entry in the diary of John
Quincy Adams, under date of December 8, in which the ex-
President describes his interview and was evidently impressed
with the idea that Mr. Poinsett did not give him his entire
confidence.

In April, 1839, they discussed the matter again, and in
1 84 1 Mr. Adams wrote again in his diary: "April i. Mr.
Poinsett called upon me and now fully disclosed his pro-
ject, which is to place the investment and disposal of the

Founding of the InstiUttion 39

Smithsonian funds under the management of the American
Institution for the Promotion of Literature and Science [evi-
dently meaning the National Institution]. He concurs entirely
in my views of confining the appropriations to the annual
interest, leaving the principal unimpaired, and of making the
first appropriations for the establishment of an astronomical
observatory. . . . He said he had at present no other occu-
pation on hand, and would be willing to devote two years en-
tirely to organizing this establishment and getting it into full
operation." "I know not," added the aged statesman, "that
it could be accomplished more effectively, and think I must
acquiesce in this arrangement and endeavor to carry it through.
The chief obstacle, however, will now be to extricate the
funds from the fangs of the State of Arkansas. Mr. Poinsett
thought that they paid the interest upon the bonds punctu-
ally; but the law requires that the interest should, when paid,
be immediately reinvested in State stocks, and I struggled
in vain at the last session of Congress to obtain a repeal of
that law. Mr. Poinsett said he was now going in a very few
days to South Carolina, but should soon return here ... to
preside over the National Institution for the Promotion of
Science ; and, as he expressed a wish that the Smithsonian
fund might be connected with that Institution and placed un-
der its management, I requested him to take the bill reported
to the House with my report of 5th March, 1840, and prepare
any amendment to it which would carry out his views, and
send it to me before the approaching session of Congress ;
which he said would do."^

1 Extracts from the memoirs of John his advocacy of the project. (See remarks,

Qiiincy Adams, Rhees, " The Smithsonian In- March 8, \%\\, Proceedings of the National In-

stitution : Documents relative to its Origin j-Z/Vm/zV^w, page 69, and letter, February 7, 1842,

and History," pages 769, 774, 779, 780. Proceedings of the National Institution, page

Mr. Poinsett was not only the first to pub- I57-) Dr. Peter S. Duponceau, president of

licly suggest the union of the Smithsonian with the American Philosophical Society, in a letter

the National Institution, but was constant in to the institution in November, 1840, re-

The Smithsoniait Institittion

Poinsett, when elected to the presidency of the National
Institution, was a man of sixty-two. He had lived an event-
ful life, full of opportunities for observing the institutions of
Europe, Asia, and South America. His culture was broad
and sympathetic, and he was better fitted, perhaps, than any
of the public men of his time to appreciate the necessity of
organizing our institutions in accordance with a liberal and
comprehensive plan. In his interviews with those who advo-
cated an observatory as the first result of the Smithson be-
quest, he showed a full appreciation of the value of such an
institution, but seems to have kept before his own mind a
much more comprehensive ideal. In his address upon the
"Objects and Aims of the National Institution for the Promo-
tion of Science," delivered at the first anniversary meeting,
January 4, 1841, he referred pointedly to the Smithson be-
quest, saying that it offered a favorable occasion for carrying
into effect all the important objects connected with the Na-
tional Institution, such as that which he was then addressing,
enabling the government to afford all necessary protection to
the promotion of science and the useful arts,^ without the ex-
ercise of any doubtful power.

Soon after this, in February, Senators Linn, of Missouri,

marked : "Congress cannot find abetter oppor-
tunity to execute the will of that beneficent tes-
tator than by laying hold of yourinstitution and
making it its own." {Proceedings, page 12.)
The Honorable Virgil Maxey, Charge d'Af-
faires at Brussels, wrote in December, 1840,
that in his opinion no better use could be
made of the bequest than to place it under
the direction of a society organized for the
proper carrying into effect views identical with
those contemplated by the philanthropical
and philosophical testator. {Proceedings,
page 46.)

See in this connection letters from Richard
Rush, on the Smithsonian Bequest {Proceed-
ings 0/ the National Institution, 1842, pages
201-204); from Peter S. Duponceau, on the

Smithsonian Bequest (('/.<-//■., pages 204-208);
from Honorable Virgil Maxey, Charge d'Af-
faires of the United States at Brussels {op. cit.,
pages 46-47) ; Opening Address by John
Tyler, President of the United States, patron
of the National Institute {op. r/A, pages 437-
438) ; letter from the Honorable Levi Wood-
bury, United States Senate {op. cit., pages
451-453); Smithsonian Bequest, by the Hon-
orable Richard Rush {op. cit., pages 455-
460) ; address of Honorable Mr. Preston, of
the United States Senate {op. cit., page236);
letter of John Pickering, of Boston, Septem-
ber I, 1841 {op. cit., pages 107-110).

1 These were the avowed objects of the
National Institution, as can be seen by ref-
erence to its constitution.

Founding of the Institution 41

and Preston, of South Carolina, both members of the Na-
tional Institution, proposed new bills for the organization
of the Smithsonian Institution, at the same time report-
ing a bill to incorporate the National Institution for the
Promotion of Science. By these bills, the entire man-
agement of the Smithsonian foundation was to be intrusted
to the National Institution. Its officers, a superintendent,
and six professors, were to be nominated by that society,
which was also to prescribe their duties. Provision was
made for joint occupancy by the two institutions of build-
ings to be erected at the cost of the Smithson bequest, and
finally it was required that all collections of works of art
and of natural history owned by the United States, not other-
wise assigned (or " all works of art, and all books relating
thereto, and all collections and curiosities belonging to the
United States in the possession of any of the Executive De-
partments and not necessarily connected with the duties
thereof") shall be deposited in said buildings (or "shall be
transferred to said institution, to be there preserved and
arranged ").

Poinsett's enthusiasm was contagious, and his arguments,
manifestly based upon careful observations and judicious
reasoning and inspired by hopeful patriotism, brought him
many sympathizers. Among these the Honorable Levi
Woodbury, who had been a member of the same Cabinet
with Mr. Poinsett, and was subsequently in the Senate,
Senator Preston, of South Carolina, one of the directors of the
Institute, Senator Walker, of Mississippi, and Senator Linn,
of Missouri, corresponding members, appear to have been es-
pecially friendly to the plans of Mr. Poinsett, and on various
occasions from 1841 to 1846 promoted the interests of the
National Institution on the floor of the Senate.

In June, 1842, Mr. Poinsett was again in Washington, and

42 The Smithsonian Institution

presided at a meeting for the purpose of connecting the or-
ganization of the National Institution with that of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

" Mr. Preston," wrote John Ouincy Adams, " has introduced
into the Senate a bill for combining these two institutions,
and now stated to the meeting his views on the subject, em-
bracing an appropriation of $20,000 and the occupation by
law of a large portion of the Patent Office building, for the
preservation and arrangement of the objects of curiosity col-
lected by the exploring expedition under Lieutenant Wilkes,
now daily expected home ; and he called on me to say how
far my purposes may be concurrent with these suggestions.

" I said I had the warmest disposition to favor them, and
thought there was but one difficulty in the way, which might
perhaps be surmounted. I had believed that the whole bur-
den and the whole honor of the Smithsonian Institution should
be exclusively confined to itself, and not entangled or com-
mingled with any national establishment requiring appropria-
tions of public money. I exposed the principles upon which
all my movements relating to the Smithsonian bequest have
been founded, as well as the bills which at four successive
Congresses I have reported, first, for obtaining the money,
and then for disposing of the fund.

"At the motion of Mr. Walker, of Mississippi, the Presi-
dent, Mr. Poinsett, was authorized to appoint a committee of
five members of the Institute, to confer with Mr. Preston and
me upon the means of connecting the Smithsonian Institution
with the National Institute."

Nothing resulted from these deliberations.

On June 13, at a stated meeting of the National Insti-
tution, Senator Preston was present, and delivered, as the
records relate, "an eloquent speech, in which he descanted
at length on the history and labor of the Institution, what
it had done, and what it proposed to do, its capacity to be
eminently useful to the country and Congress, the advan-

Foimding of the Institittion

tage of uniting the Smithsonian Institution with it, etc., and
appealed to Congress and to the Hberal citizens of the United
States to come forward in aid of a glorious cause and in the
accomplishment of the great national objects which the Insti-
tution has in view," ^ etc.

Senator Preston's bill for the union of the two establish-
ments came to naught.^

During this session, however, the act to incorporate the
National Institute, as it was henceforth to be called, passed
in a much modified form, and was approved July 27, 1842,^
and the society now seems to have felt much more secure in
its project of retaining control of the National Museum, and
of gaining eventually the management of the Smithson fund,
or, at least, of obtaining an appropriation from Congress.

Senator Woodbury,* of New Hampshire, in commenting
upon the form of the charter, remarked that " care was taken
originally to make the Institute different from all other char-
tered bodies, even in this District, so as to elevate it above
every motive of personal gain, dedicating its labors exclu-
sively to objects of a public character and vesting all the pro-
perty possessed for this purpose in the government itself;
and thus, by rendering it national in substance as well as
name, to obviate any constitutional objection which might
arise agfainst measures in its behalf."

The chanofe of the name from " Institution" to " Institute"
was made in deference to a suggestion by Doctor Peter S.

"^Proceedings of the National Institution,
page 236. A copy was requested for publica-
tion (/(?<:. cit., page 241), but I cannot learn
that it was ever put in type.

2 It was laid upon the table July 18, 1842,
and never again came up.

3 See " Charter of Incorporation, Constitu-
tion and By-Laws " in Proceedings of the Na-
tional Institution, pages 3S8-392. See also
"Bill to Incorporate the National Institution,"
etc., reported by Senator Preston (Senate Bill

No. 258), February 17, 1841, in Rhees,"Doc-
uments," etc., pages 239-341. See also "Me-
morial of the Officers of the National Institu-
tion for the Promotion of Science, January 21,
1842" (House Documents No. 59, Twenty-
Seventh Congress, Second Session, II.), sub-
milting draft of a bill of incorporation.

4 For a thorough understanding of the mat-
ter see the remarks of Senator Woodbury in
full, which were printed in the Proceedings of
the National Institution, pages 336, 337.

44 The Smithsonian Instihttion

Duponceaii in a letter written in April, 1842, in which he
said:

" I have seen with great pleasure the bill brought into the
Senate by the Honorable Mr. Preston. It fully coincides
with the views that I have expressed. The object, in my
opinion, is to preserve the superiority of the National Institu-
tion over the Smithsonian, and of the government over both.

" I would beg leave to suggest whether it would not be
advisable to make some small alteration in the name of the
National Institution so that it should not bear exactly the
same name with the Smithsonian, but one expressive of some
degree of superiority. I would recommend, for instance, that
of Institute, which appears to me more dignified than that of
Institution, which is equally applicable to a school or college
as to a great national establishment for the promotion of
science. My idea would be to call the national establishment
the ' National Institute for the Promotion of Science,' and
the subordinate one the * Smithsonian Institution,' without
more."

No appropriation came, however, and the charter and
changed name failed to add to the prosperity of the society.
At a meeting on June 20,-^ 1842, a resolution was passed ap-
pointing a committee to solicit private contributions of money
and property. On August 8, 1842, a report was made by
this committee proposing to institute an annual scientific con-
vention at Washington, during the session of Congress, and
under the auspices of the Institute, and also recommended
an extensive system of exchange of specimens for the benefit
of the museum.

At the meeting of September 12, 1842, Mr. Poinsett, the
president, proposed a series of resolutions^ intended to put
the recommendation of the report into effect.

1 Evidently not June 13, though so stated in one portion of the minutes.

See Proceedings of the National Institntiott, pages 236, 241, 335.

^'^QQ Proceedings o/t/ie National Institution, page 336.

Founding of the Institution 45

All of these resolutions and reports were issued in the
form of circulars/ but the appeals "to the liberality and
public spirit of our countrymen " were without avail. Con-
sequently a special meeting of the board of management was
held December 23, 1843, at the office of the Secretary of
State. That the society was regarded at that time as one of
national importance is shown by the presence at the meet-
ing of Mr. Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of State, who took an
active part in the proceedings ; the Honorable John Quincy
Adams, who presided ; Senator Levi Woodbury, late Secre-
tary of the Treasury, who agreed to represent the meeting
in Congress; the Honorable Joseph R. Ingersoll, who acted as
secretary, and who wrote out in his preamble to the minutes
of the meeting a forcible statement of the needs of the so-
ciety; the Honorable Charles J. Ingersoll, Senator Robert
J. Walker, besides the Honorable Peter Force, Colonel John
J. Abert, Colonel Joseph G. Totten, Lieutenant Matthew F.
Maury, and the officers of the society.

The issue of this meeting was the decision " to memorialize
Congress on the subject of the condition and wants of the
Institute." The memorial was presented in due course, and
in June, 1844, Senator Choate, of Massachusetts, presented
a report upon the character and uses of the Institute, recom-
mending that its property should be vested in the United
States and an appropriation made for its benefit.

In the mean time, on the occasion of the first annual meet-
ing of the National Institute under its new name and in its
capacity as a corporation, in April, 1844, the meeting of the
friends of science, including, besides all the members and
patrons of the National Institute, the members of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society and of the Association of American
Geologists and Naturalists (the predecessor of the American

1 October 15, 1842, and February 24, 1843.

46 The Smithsonian Institution

Association for the Advancement of Science), had been held
in Washington. The occasion was a brilliantly successful
one. The President of the United States presided at the
first meeting and some prominent public man at each of the
others.

The National Institute received its full share of encomium.
President Tyler, in presiding at the first meeting, lauded it
highly, held out the hope that the government would "con-
tinue to it a fostering care," and expressed in a general way
the hope that it should be identified with the future National
Museum and the future Smithsonian Institution. "Where
can the government find," said he, "a safer depository for
the fruits of its expeditions, fitted out to explore distant and
unknown regions, than the National Institute? What can it
better do for the ' increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men ' than by patronizing and sustaining this magnificent
undertaking ? "

Senator Walker, of Mississippi, one of the directors of the
Institute, delivered an address on the present condition and
history of American science, ending with an appeal to scien-
tific men to come forward and unite with the people in sus-
taining and advancing the National Institute.

Senator Woodbury, of New Hampshire, in a letter to the
secretary, expressed himself strongly in favor of making the
society the agent of the government in the matter of caring
for collections, patents, and copyrights, and also in the exe-
cution of the Smithson trust.

John Quincy Adams closed his address in these words :

" I avail myself of this occasion to express my regret that,
having taken an humble part in the establishment of this
institution from its first foundation, under the auspices of
Mr. Poinsett, I have been able to contribute so little to its
promotion and advantage, and to add my heartfelt satisfaction

Founding of the Instihition 47

at the prosperity which, by the untiring exertion and fervid
zeal of its executive officers, it has attained. I believe it
eminently deserving of the fostering care and liberal patron-
age of the Congress of the United States, and could antici-
pate no happier close to my public life than to contribute, by
my voice and by my vote, to record the sanction of the
nation's munificence to sustain the National Institute devoted
to the cause of science."

The Honorable Richard Rush, in a paper on " The Smith-
sonian Bequest," submitted to this meeting, urged that the
Smithsonian fund should be "engrafted upon the National
Institute," and submitted an elaborate argument in favor of
his proposal.

It was a gala week for the Institute. The meeting was in
every respect a success, and there was reason to believe that
Congress would share in the general enthusiasm, take the so-
ciety under its patronage, and even give it the control of the
Smithson fund.

In the circular of invitation, dated March 5, 1843, the ob-
jects of the meeting as a means of strengthening the position
of the society had been boldly stated, and the committee did
not hesitate to say that " should the meeting prove as suc-
cessful as the hopes of the managers in relation to it are ar-
dent, they will expect hereafter to welcome all who may visit
the association in apartments peculiar to itself, stored with
the objects of its honest pride and worthy of its distinguished
visitors." Such a paper, signed by such influential names as
those of John C. Spencer, Secretary of the Treasury ; Rob-
ert J. Walker, William C. Rives, Rufus Choate, of the Senate;
Joseph R. Ingersoll and William C. Preston, of the House of
Representatives ; Alexander D. Bache, Superintendent of the
Coast Survey ; and Abbott Lawrence, of Boston, was surely
a powerful campaign document. None the less weighty was

48 The Smithsonian Institution

the "Memorial of the Friends of Science who attended the April
meeting of the National Institute," signed by nearly forty rep-
resentative scientific men and college presidents from all parts
of the United States, speaking in terms of high commenda-
tion of the National Institute, and particularly of the extent
and value of its museum material, and expressing the hope
" that the enlightened and intelligent members of Congress
will distinguish the present session by the appropriation of
funds to an object so truly national and so truly republican."

The hopes of the promoters of the Institute were doomed
to disappointment. Congress adjourned without making any
provision for its needs.

In July a new scheme was proposed for collecting money
from private sources by the efforts of trustworthy agents, and
in December a committee was appointed to again memorialize
Congress.^ The movement had, however, received its death-
blow. The failure of the tremendous effort of April, 1844,
disheartened all its friends. At the next annual meeting Mr.
Poinsett declined reelection to the presidency. The society's
publications were discontinued, and even the annual address
of Senator Woodbury, solicited for publication by the society,
seems to have remained in manuscript unprinted. No more
meetings were held, and the list of 350 resident and 1250 cor-
responding members began to grow shorter. An effort was
made to revive it in 1847, and a meager report was made
once afterward by the corresponding secretary. In 1855 it
was brougfht into existence for a time as a local scientific so-
ciety,^ and issued a new series of proceedings. Its glory de-
parted, however, with the first annual meeting, in 1844, and
the attention of Congress was directed exclusively to the or-
ganization of the Smithsonian Institution.

1 Proceedings of the N'ational Institute, page 375.
2 Professor Henry was for a time an officer, and endeavored to have its name changed to

"MetropoUtan Institute."

Pounding of the Institution 49

The influence of the National Institute upon the history of
science in the United States, and particularly in educating
public opinion and the judgment of Congress to an applica-
tion of the proper means of disposing of the Smithsonian
legacy, cannot well be overestimated. If the Smithsonian In-
stitution had been organized before the National Institute
had exerted its influences, it would have been a school, an
observatory, or an agricultural experiment-station.

In 1846, however, the country was prepared to expect it
to be a general agency for the advancement of scientific in-
terests of all kinds — as catholic, as unselfish, as universal as
the National Institute had been prepared to be.

The National Institute, after nearly five years of activity,
suddenly ceased to be a center of public interest. The strug-
gle over the Smithsonian bequest, however, was still going
on. During the Twenty-seventh Congress (i 841 -1843) ^^
Senate did nothing. The House of Representatives ap-
pointed a select committee on the subject, and Mr. Adams as
chairman reported a new bill, providing still more thoroughly
for the erection of an observatory and the publication of a
nautical almanac to be called the Smithsonian Almanac.

The Twenty-eighth Congress (1843-1845) brought its
deliberations in regard to the Smithsonian bequest more
nearly to an issue. The astronomical observatory bill ^ was
again presented by Mr. Adams, but not acted upon. In the
Senate, in the first session, a bill for the Smithsonian Institu-
tion was reported June 6, 1844, from the Joint Committee on
the Library, by Senator Tappan, of Ohio, who in the second
session, December 12, introduced another bill, somewhat
similar, but presenting the character of the books to be
bought. This bill, before being finally voted upon, was
brought into a form somewhat resembling that which was

1 House of Representatives 418, Twenty -eighth Congress.

50 The Smithsonian Instihttion

finally adopted. It provided, however, for the appointment
of various professors and lecturers, for a school of agriculture
and mechanical arts, as well as for experimental gardens, a
library of science and economics, and a museum.

The museum clause of this bill was much the same as that
finally agreed to, and contained a provision that the natural
history objects, and geological and mineralogical specimens
belonging to the United States, " in whosesoever custody the
same may be," should be transferred to the custody of the
board of managers of the Smithsonian Institution. This was
evidently worded with the purpose of withdrawing from the
possession of the National Institute the various collections,
including those which had belonged to Smithson, which had
fallen into its hands between 1840 and 1845. Indeed, the
National Institute seems to have already become the object
of some distrust and prejudice. A proposition that two of
the seven "managers," not ex officio members of the board,
should be selected from the membership of the National In-
stitute, caused a vigorous debate in the Senate, in the
course of which at least two Senators objected strongly to
placing the administration of the Smithsonian Institution,
even to so slight a degree as this, in the hands of a private
corporation.

The bill finally passed the Senate, January 23, 1845, but
was not acted upon by the House.

In connection with Mr. Tappan's bill, in January, 1845,
Senator Choate, of Massachusetts, first appeared in advocacy
of the establishment of "a noble public library, — one which,
for variety, extent, and wealth, should be equal to any in the
world," — and delivered an eloquent oration upon the influence
of books. The amendment at that time proposed by him,
together with other amendments urged by Mr. George P.
Marsh, in connection with the Owen- Hough bill, brought

Founding of the Instittttion 5 1

forward in the following session, had a great influence upon
the final adjustment of the plan of administration.^

To the Twenty-ninth Congress (1845-1847) belongs the
honor of finally formulating the act of incorporation by which
the Smithsonian Institution was established. This was at
last accomplished under the leadership of Robert Dale Owen,
of Indiana, who reported the bill nearly in its final form,
though somewhat modified in a substitute offered by Mr.
William J. Hough, and still more by the refusal of the House
to agree to Mr. Owen's favorite feature of a normal school.
John Ouincy Adams was a member of the select committee to
which it was referred, together with Mr. Owen, chairman ;
Mr. Timothy Jenkins, Mr, George P. Marsh, Mr. Alexander
D. Sims, Mr. Jefferson Davis, and Mr. David Wilmot.

Mr. Adams was now for the first time willing to cease his
advocacy of a Smithsonian Astronomical Observatory, the
Naval Observatory having been organized on a plan "at
least equal in everything but the experience of its observers
to the Royal Observatory at Greenwich."

In the Hough bill, which was a modification of that of
Owen, there was an attempt of another kind to weld together
the Smithsonian Institution and the " National Cabinet of
Curiosities," by giving to the Board of Regents the authority
to erect a building by the side of the Patent Office, so as
to form a wing of that structure, and to connect it with the
hall then containing the National Cabinet, so as to constitute
that hall in whole or in part the depository of the cabinet of
the Institution. This was discretionary, however, with the Re-
gents, who fortunately did not look upon the plan with favor.

Reference has been made to the marked similarity between
the plans of organization of the National and Sniithsonian
Institutions. The former, like the Smithsonian, had a su-

1 See report of Honorable James Meachani, 1854, pages 10-12.

52 The Smithsonian Institution

perior board of officers, composed of the President of the
United States and the members of his Cabinet. It had also
a board of directors, which inchided in its membership dele-
gates from the Senate and House of Representatives, corre-
sponding in function to. the Smithsonian Board of Regents,
In other respects, still more markedly than in the constitution
of its governing board, the Smithsonian seems to have been
organized with the plan of the National Institute in view.

The objects, as defined in the Congressional act of estab-
lishment,^ correspond very closely to those announced in the
early publications of the National Institute, which at its foun-
dation divided its members into eight classes, as follows: (i)
Astronomy, Geography, and Natural Philosophy ; (2) Nat-
ural History; (3) Geology and Mineralogy; (4) Chemistry;
(5) The application of same to useful arts ; (6) Agriculture ;
(7) American History and Antiquities ; (8) Fine Arts.

The term "manager" to designate a member of the gov-
erning board, and which was derived from the organization
of the National Institute, was employed in every bill except
in the substitute proposed only a few hours before final action,
when it was replaced by the term " regent," which was doubt-
less suggested by Mr. William J. Hough, the mover of the
substitute, a representative of the State of New York, and
familiar with the organization of the University of the State
of New York, which was under the control of a board of
regents.

Ten years after the announcement of the bequest, and
eight years after the beginning of the contest as to its dis-
position, the bill to incorporate the Smithsonian Institution
received the approval of Congress and the President. The
charter in its final form did not represent the views of any
one party, except in some degree that which favored the

1 Sections 5 and 6.

Founding of the Institution 53

library and incidentally the museum. The bill as finally pre-
sented contained several special provisions not harmonious
with the spirit of Smithson's bequest as at present under-
stood. These were, for the most part, eliminated in the final
discussion, and the Act finally passed by Congress, and ap-
proved by the President, August 10, 1846, while broad enough
to permit almost any work for intellectual advancement, was
fortunately expressed in such general terms as to allow a
large degree of liberty to the governing board.

The Board of Regents was appointed without delay, and
their meeting was held on September 7 in a room in the
General Post-Office Building set apart for their use by
direction of the President of the United States. Though
many wise men participated in the councils in which the man-
ner of executing the trust of Smithson was decided, there are
certain names which are especially significant as those of the
statesmen and patriots who made the interests of the infant
institution their own special care, and who, by their wisdom
and earnest advocacy, shaped its destiny. It seems proper
that in this memorial volume an attempt should be made to
show what each of these contributed to the final result.

John Ouincy Adams was perhaps the most influential in
securing the acceptance of the bequest and in creating a high
ideal for its administration. He antagonized the idea of using
it to found a university, and defeated Owen's project for a
normal school, which was only eliminated from the bill a few
minutes before final action. He opposed all projects for
making its work directly practical. His influence was limited
by his pertinacious advocacy of the idea that the founding
of an observatory was the only proper distribution of the first
income of the fund. His position in this matter has been
misunderstood. He wished that the income for seven suc-
cessive years should go to found an observatory. " During

54 The Smithsonian Institution

this period," he said, "there will be ample time for consider-
ing the best means of appropriating the same income after-
ward to promote establishments for increasing and diffusing
knowledge among men. A botanical garden," he contin-
ued, "a cabinet of natural history, a museum of mineralogy,
conchology or geology, a general accumulating library —
all institutions of which there are numerous examples among
the civilized Christian nations, and of most of which our own
country is not entirely destitute — all are undoubtedly in-
cluded within the comprehensive grasp of Mr. Smithson's de-
sign — all may receive, in turn, and with progressive utility
and power, liberal contributions from the continually grow-
ing income of the trust. Nor did the committee believe that
the moral or political sciences, the philosophy of language,
the natural history of speech, the graces of polite literature,
the mechanic or the liberal arts, were to be excluded from the
benefits prepared for posterity by the perpetuation of this
fund." He did not desire that a permanent organization
should be formed, believing, though wrongly, as the event has
proved, that such an organization could not be kept efficient
and pure under the control of a government like ours ; and
his suspicions in regard to the motives of those who seemed
interested in the project undoubtedly lessened his power of
controlling it.

His most important service was to establish the principle
that only the interest of the fund should be used, and that the
principal should be permanently invested in the Treasury of
the United States. This, after all, was his chief ambition — "to
secure, as from a rattlesnake's fang, the fund and its income,
forever, from being wasted and dilapidated in bounties to
feed the hunger or fatten the leaden idleness of mountebank
projectors and shallow and worthless pretenders to science." ^

1 Rhees, "The Smithsonian Institution: Documents," etc., page 849.

JOHX QUIIS'CY ADAMS.

MEMBER OP THE COMMITTEE OF THE HOUSE

OF REPRESENTATIVES ON THE ORGANIZATION OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

:: ,1

irH T

'ii<

miAaA YOTlTTTp ZHOT,

HHT 'iO ^ITASr/IAf)aO aHT KO ^.aYTTAT>ia8aH^I?TH TO

Fotmciing of the Institution 55

John Davis, of Massachusetts, was the one in the Senate
who, in 1836, stoutly maintained, against much opposition,
that the government had the right to accept the bequest and
to apply it for the purpose indicated by Smithson, saying
that "he deemed the establishment of institutions for the
diffusion of knowledge a vital principle of a republican gov-
ernment."

Joel R. Poinsett, of South Carolina, aided by his associates
of the National Institute, exercised an influence greater per-
haps than any other in shaping the final disposition of the
fund. The Smithsonian Institution became in time almost
the equivalent of the National Institute, as in 1841 he hoped
it would be, — an institution which, having at its command an
observatory, a museum containing collections of all the pro-
ductions of nature, a botanic and zoological garden, and the
necessary apparatus for illustrating every branch of physical
science, would attract together men of learning and students
from every part of our country, would open new avenues of
intelligence throughout the whole of its vast extent, and
would contribute largely to disseminate among the people
the truths of nature and the light of science. To Poinsett
are due: (i) the idea of an important building, which should
be a permanent feature at the capital ; (2) the plan for a
national museum of science and art, with a staff of curators ;
(3) the determining of the location of the Institution upon
the Mall ; (4) the main features of the plan of organiza-
tion, with the President and his Cabinet as trustees, and a
subordinate board of trustees selected by Congress in part
from among its own members ; (5) the inauguration of a
system of international exchanges of books, under the inspira-
tion of Alexander Vattemare, which, though not provided for
in the organizing bill, was actually in operation as early as
1 84 1, with indirect aid from the government.

56 The Smithsonian Institution

Rufus Choate, of Massachusetts, and George P. Marsh, of
Vermont, were instrumental in giving prominence to the
library project, upon which so much of the fund was expended
during the first few years — a feature which, though at the
time almost perilous, undoubtedly had great effect not only
upon the development of the National Library, but of the re-
lationship of the Smithsonian Institution to other institutions
of learning at home and abroad. To Mr. Choate and to
Benjamin Tappan was due in large degree the defeat of the
aspirations of the National Institute toward the control of
the Smithsonian fund, and to Senator Asher Robbins, of
Rhode Island, the defeat of Mr. Adams's plan for an obser-
vatory, to which at the time he opposed, with considerable
prospect of success, a counter-project for a great postgraduate
university.

Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, not only rendered material
service in securing the legacy, but was the first to propose
a staff of scholarly investigators resident in the national
capital, who, by their researches, publications, and lectures,
should aid in keeping the United States in touch with the
scientific progress of the rest of the world ; and a press for
publishing the communications of learned societies and of
individuals eminent in science and letters in every part of
the world. Most significant, however, was his conception
of a permanent national organization, under the wing of the
government and indirectly under its control, which should be
a center of intellectual activity, and not only maintain its own
staff of learned men, but cooperate with and stimulate the
scientific and educational work of the government — a plan, as
has already been indicated, quite in contrast with that in the
mind of Mr. Adams.

Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana, was the first to bring into
harmonious and generally acceptable form the various plans

Fo2tnding of the Institution 57

which had been under consideration for ten years before.
He prepared the final act of incorporation, which was drawn
up by him in 1845, ^'''*^ which was, except in the elimination
of his plan for a national normal school, but slightly changed
in the substitute which was finally passed. As a member of
the first Board of Regents, he was instrumental in selecting
and carrying out the plan for the Smithsonian building, and,
as chairman of the Organization Committee, drew up, with
the assistance of Alexander Dallas Bache, the " Report on
Plan of Organization," in which the organizing Act was ana-
lyzed and expounded, and many of the possibilities of the
future for the first time clearly set forth. From this Com-
mittee was also reported at an early meeting the following
resolution, from the adoption of which, and its legitimate out-
come, there have been more significant results than through
any other act of this or any succeeding board :

"■Resolved, That it is essential, for the advancement of the
proper interests of the trust, that the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution be a man possessing weight of character,
and a high grade of talent ; and that it is further desirable
that he possess eminent scientific and general requirements ;
that he be a man capable of advancing science and promoting
letters by original research and effort, well qualified to act as
a respected channel of communication between the Institution
and scientific and literary individuals and societies in this and
foreign countries ; and, in a word, a man worthy to represent,
before the world of science and of letters, the institution over
which this board presides."

The successful organization of the Institution has been the
result of long-continued effort on the part of men of unusual
ability, energy, and personal influence. No board of trus-
tees, no succession of officers serving out their terms in rota-
tion, could have developed from a chaos of conflicting opinions

58 The Smithsonian Listitution

a strongly Individualized establishment like the Smithsonian
Institution. The names of Henry and Baird are so thor-
oughly identified with the history of the Institution during
its first four decades that their biographies would together
form an almost complete history of its operations. A thirty-
two years' term of service was rendered by one, thirty-seven
by the other. Perhaps no other organization has had the
benefit of so uninterrupted an administration of forty years,
beginning with its birth and continuing in an unbroken line
of consistent policy a career of growing usefulness and
enterprise.

The first meeting of the Board of Regents took place Sep-
tember 6, 1846, and before the end of the year the policy of
the Regents was practically determined upon, for, after decid-
ing upon the plan of the building now occupied, they elected
to the secretaryship Professor Joseph Henry, and thus ap-
proved his plan for the organization of the Institution which
had previously been submitted to them.

Henry was succeeded in the office of Secretary by Profes-
sor Spencer Fullerton Baird, then the leading authority on
the mammals, birds, fishes, and reptiles of America, the foun-
der of the United States Fish Commission, and of "public
fish culture," elected in 1878; and he in turn by Samuel
Pierpont Langley, preeminent as physicist and astronomer,
the inventor of the bolometer, the discoverer of the greater
portion of the infra-red spectrum, and the highest authority
upon the physics of the atmosphere, elected in 1888.

''Vi

THE ESTABLISHMENT AND THE
BOARD OF REGENTS

By George Brown Goode

^)HE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION is a

corporation or Establishment, created by the

act of Congress approved August lo, 1846,

" for the increase and diffusion of knowledge

^m:i^r^^ among men."

Its statutory members are the President of the United
States, the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief
Justice of the United States,^ the Secretary of State, the
Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the
Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of
the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, and the Secretary
of Agriculture.

The duty of the Establishment is the "supervision of the
affairs of the Institution and the advice and instruction of the
Board of Regents." The Establishment has, from time to

1 The original act of incorporation also
named as members of the Establishment the
Commissioner of the Patent Office of the
United States and the Mayor of the city of
Washington. This act was amended March
20, 1871, so as to substitute the Governor
of the District of Columbia as an ex officio

Regent, in place of the Mayor of Washington,
the latter office ha\Tng ceased to exist. In
1874 the office of Governor of the District of
Columbia was in turn abolished. In 1877 the
Secretary of the Interior, and in 1894 the Sec-
retary of Agriculture, were added as members
of the Establishment.

6o The Smithsonian Institution

time, selected eminent citizens of the United States to be hon-
orary members of the Institution, and to share with them the
responsibihties with which they are charged. The persons
thus honored^ have been Doctor Robert Hare, of Philadel-
phia ; the Honorable Albert Gallatin, of New York ; Professor
Benjamin Silliman, of Connecticut; Washington Irving, of
New York; Professor Parker Cleaveland, of Maine; Doctor
Augustus B. Longstreet, of Mississippi ; and the Honorable
Columbus Delano, of Ohio.

The first meeting of the Establishment was held August i,
1849, in the newly completed eastern range of the Smith-
sonian building, Zachary Taylor, President of the United
States, occupying the chair. Eight meetings have since
been held, the last on May 5, 1877, adjourning to meet at the
call of the President.

The Establishment, though exercising constant supervision
over the affairs of the Institution, being represented upon the
Board of Regents by two of its members, one of them the
Chancellor, as its presiding officer, has never deemed it nec-
essary to take any formal action at its meetings, save to
adopt, May 17, 1853, a code of by-laws,^ and to listen from
time to time to general statements by the Secretary in regard
to the condition and affairs of the Institution.

The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution are charged
by the act of incorporation with the duty of conducting the
business of the Institution. Two members of the Establish-
ment, the Vice-President of the United States and the Chief
Justice, are, in virtue of their office, members of the Board of
Regents. There are also three members of the Senate, three
members of the House of Representatives, and six citizens,
no two of whom may be from the same State, though two

1 The law as amended on March 12, 1894, no honorary member has been elected since
omits the phrase " such other persons as the year 1873.
they may elect honorary memljers," and 2 See "Smithsonian Report," 1853, page 98.

The Board of Regents

must be residents of the city of Washington. The presid-
ing officer of the Board of Regents is the Chancellor of the
Smithsonian Institution, who is elected by the Board of
Regents from among their own number. This office has,
however, always been held either by the Vice-President or
by the Chief Justice.^

The executive officer of the Board of Regents is the Sec-
retary of the Institution, who is elected by them. The duties
and responsibilities of Secretary are such as in other institu-
tions usually belong to the office of Director : the name by
which this officer is designated is that which in Washington
is associated with the highest grade of executive responsibil-
ity. The Secretary makes all appointments on the staff, the
members of which are technically his "assistants." He is re-
sponsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of
the Institution, is the legal custodian of all its property, and,
ex officio, its librarian and the keeper of its museum.

He presents to the Regents an annual report upon the
operations, expenditures, and condition of the Establishment,
which is transmitted by the Board to Congress for publica-
tion. By a special act of Congress in 1879 and amended in
1884, an Acting Secretary is provided for, in case of the ab-
sence or disability of the Secretary, the designation being left
with the Chancellor of the Institution.

1 Vice-President Dallas was the first Chan-
cellor, and was succeeded by Vice-President
Fillmore. When Mr. Fillmore was elevated
to the Presidency of the United States, in
1850, Chief Justice Taney was elected Chan-
cellor. In 1857 Mr. Taney resigned the
place on the ground that the Vice-President,
the liighest in rank of the ofticers of the gov-
ernment who are ex officio Regents, was the
proper person to preside. " Unfortunate
events," he continued, " have for some time
past left the government without a Vice-Pres-
ident elected by the people. And when that
office was vacant the Regents conferred on
me the office, which had always before been

filled by the Vice-President. And "when I
accepted it I regarded the appointment as a
temporary one. The reason for the appoint-
ment has now happily ceased, and I desire to
give the Regents an opportunity of restoring
the original plan of organization, in which I
fully concurred when it was adopted." Mr.
Breckinridge, Vice-President of the United
States, who was present at this meeting,
moved that the present Chancellor, Chief Jus-
tice Taney, be reelected to that oftice. The
precedent thus established of electing the
Chief Justice to be Chancellor of the Institu-
tion has never since been abandoned.

62 The Sniithsoiiian Institution

The first meeting of the Regents for the purpose of or-
ganization was held on September 7, 1846, in a room in the
Patent Office building, assigned for the purpose by the
President of the United States.

At this meeting were present George M. Dallas, of Penn-
sylvania, Vice-President of the United States; Roger B.
Taney, of Maryland, Chief Justice of the United States ; Wil-
liam W. Seaton, Mayor of the city of Washington ; Senator
George Evans, of Maine ; Senator Isaac S. Pennybacker, of
Virginia; Robert Dale Owen, Representative from Indiana;
William J. Hough, Representative from New York ; Henry
W. Hilliard, Representative from Alabama; the Honorable
Rufus Choate, of Massachusetts; Doctor Gideon Hawley, of
New York; and Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, citizens at
large; Doctor Alexander Dallas Bache and Colonel Joseph
G. Totten representing the National Institute of Washing-
ton. Senator Sidney Breese, of Illinois, was present at sub-
sequent meetings during the course of organization.

Since the date of organization, the Board of Regents have
held 218 meetings, an average of about four to each year.
The record of their proceedings up to 1876 occupies a volume
of three hundred pages, and if extended up to the present
year would require four hundred pages.-^ This record, it need
scarcely be said, relates only to the actual transactions of the
Board and its committees at its regular meetings. The re-
ports of the Board to Congress occupy fifty volumes, includ-
ing in all about thirty-eight thousand pages.

The regular annual meetings of the Board are held in
January. Since January, 1890, the day has been fixed for the
fourth Wednesday of the month.

The Executive Committee of the Regents provided for by

1 "The Smithsonian Institution : Journals J. Rhees, Washington; published by the
of the Board of Regents, Re|)orts of Com- Smithsonian Institution, 1879. Octavo, pages
mittee's Statistics," etc. Edited by William v-vii, 844.

The Board of Regents (>z

the law holds quarterly meetings for the purpose of auditing
the accounts for expenditures made in accordance with the
appropriations voted by the Board at its annual meeting.
The Executive Committee has also customarily performed
the duties of a Committee of Ways and Means, besides acting
upon many matters directly referred to it by the Board. Two
of its members have always been the two Regents resident in
Washington, and the third some other member, not a Sena-
tor or Representative, living near enough to Washington to
be readily accessible. The Executive Committee, therefore,
soon became an Advisory Committee, practically always in
session, which the Secretary constantly consults in regard
to the interpretation of questions of policy, and the method
of carrying out the instructions of the Board. The citizen
residents have usually served for longer periods than others
as members of the Executive Committee, and many of them
have become intimately associated with the executive work
of the organization.

Since the organization of the Board of Regents, fifty years
ago, the names of 129 persons have appeared upon its roll.
Among these are a large number of the most distinguished
citizens of the United States, — men eminent in statesmanship
and diplomacy, in governmental administration, in science,
in literature, and in arts. Each one of these has contributed
his share to the prosperity of the Institution by his counsel
and good judgment.

The long list of distinguished names here given shows
how carefully the Regents have been selected, so that repre-
sentative men from every section of the Union might be in-
cluded in that important body.

From the Middle States: William J. Hough, Gideon Haw-
ley, Millard Fillmore, Samuel Sullivan Cox, John V. L.
Pruyn, William B. Astor, William A. Wheeler, Andrew D.

64 The Smithsonian Institution

White, and Levi P. Morton, from New York ; William L.
Dayton, Professor John Maclean, of Princeton University,
and William Walter Phelps, from New Jersey ; George M,
Dallas, Richard Rush, Edward McPherson, Hiester Clymer,
Robert Adams, Jr., and President Henry Coppee, of Lehigh
University, from Pennsylvania.

From the Southern States : Chief Justice Taney, Henry
Winter Davis, James A. Pearce, from Maryland ; Isaac S.
Pennybacker, James M. Mason, Robert E. Withers, General
Joseph E. Johnston, from Virginia ; William R. King, George
E. Badger, from North Carolina ; William C. Preston, from
South Carolina; William F. Colcock, Robert M. Charlton,
John M. Berrien, Hiram Warner, Lucius J. Gartrell, Benjamin
H. Hill, and Alexander H. Stevens, from Georgia; General
Henry W. Hillard and General Joseph Wheeler, from Ala-
bama; Jefferson Davis, Otho R. Singleton, Randall L. Gibson,
from Mississippi ; President William Preston Johnson, of
Tulane University, from Louisiana; Garrett Davis, John
Cabell Breckinridge, John W. Stevenson, and William C. P.
Breckinridge, from Kentucky ; Andrew Johnson, from Ten-
nessee ; William Lyne Wilson, from West Virginia ; Samuel B.
Maxey, from Texas.

From the New England States: Rufus Choate, Henry Wil-
son, E. Rockwood Hoar, George F. Hoar, Cornelius C. Fel-
ton. Professor Louis Agassiz and Professor Asa Gray, of
Harvard University, and Henry Cabot Lodge, from Massa-
chusetts ; Lafayette S. Foster, President Theodore D. Wool-
sey, Noah Porter, and Professor James Dwight Dana, of Yale
College, from Connecticut ; James W. Patterson, from New
Hampshire ; George P. Marsh, James Meacham, Luke P.
Poland, Justin S. Morrill, and George F. Edmunds, from
Vermont; George Evans, William Pitt Fessenden, Hannibal
Hamlin, Nathan Clifford, from Maine,

The Board of Regents 65

From the Western States : Benjamin Stanton, Salmon P.
Chase, Benjamin F. Wade, James A. Garfield, Chief Justice
Waite, Ezra B. Taylor, John Sherman, and Benjamin Butter-
worth, from Ohio ; Robert Dale Owen, Graham N. Fitch,
Thomas A. Hendricks, William H. English, and Schuyler
Colfax, from Indiana; Sidney Breese, Stephen A. Douglas,
Lyman Trumbull, John F. Farnsworth, Shelby M. Cullom,
David Davis, and Chief Justice Fuller, from Illinois; George
W. McCrary, Stephen F. Miller, and Nathaniel C. Deering,
from Iowa; Robert McClelland, Lewis Cass, David Stuart,
Thomas W. Ferry, and President James B. Angell, of the
University, from Michigan ; Gerry W. Hazleton, from Wis-
consin; John J. Ingalls, from Kansas; George Gray, from
Delaware ; and Aaron A. Sargent and Newton Booth, from
California.

As representatives from the District of Columbia, the fol-
lowing Mayors of Washington served from 1846 to 187 1,
ex officio, upon the Board of Regents :

William Winston Seaton, Walter Lenox, John W. Maury,
John T. Towers, William B. Magruder, Joseph G. Berret,
Richard Wallach, Sayles J. Bowen, and Matthew G. Emery ;
followed in 1872 by Henry D. Cooke, and in 1874 by Alex-
ander R. Shepherd, Governors of the District.

Those who have served as citizens from the city of Wash-
ington have been Professor Alexander D. Bache, Superinten-
dent of the United States Coast Survey ; General Joseph
G. Totten, U. S. A. ; General Robert Delafield, U. S. A. ;
the Reverend Peter Parker, D. D, ; General William T. Sher-
man, U, S. A.; George Bancroft; General Montgomery C.
Meigs, U. S. A.; President James C. Welling, of Columbian
University; ex-Senator John B. Henderson; and Gardiner
G. Hubbard.

Among the Congressional Regents, those who were long-

66 The Smithsonian Institution

est in service were : Representative Samuel S. Cox, from
1861 to 1865, from 1870 to 1875, from 1882 to 1883, a"'^
again from 1888 to 1889; Senator James A. Pearce, from
1847 to 1862; Representative James A. Garfield, from 1865
to 1873, ^'^'^ from 1878 to 1880; Senator James M. Mason,
from 1849 to 1861 ; and Senator Justin S. Morrill, from 1883
to the present.

The chairmanship of the Executive Committee was held
by Mayor Seaton from 1846 to 1849, by General Totten in
1850 and again in 1862, by Professor Bache in 1851 and
again in 1863, by Senator Pearce from 1852 to 1861, by
Mayor Wallach in 1864 and 1865, by General Delafield from
1866 to 1870, by Doctor Parker from 1871 to 1883, by Pro-
fessor Maclean from 1884 to 1885, by President Welling
from 1886 to 1893, by President Coppee in 1894, and by ex-
Senator Henderson in 1895 and 1896.

Upon the rolls of this committee also appear the names of
Robert Dale Owen, General William T. Sherman, Honorable
George Bancroft, General Montgomery C. Meigs, Honorable
Gardiner G. Hubbard, and Honorable William L. Wilson.

Among this company of distinguished men, including many
of the Americans most eminent in their day, there have been
some who had opportunities to identify themselves more ac-
tively than others with the work. It would, perhaps, not be
proper, or indeed possible, to make particular mention of any
of these but for the fact that the Regents themselves have
from time to time recorded in their Journal of Proceedings
special words of commendation and appreciation of such of
their associates as they considered to have rendered extraor-
dinary services.

On the occasion of the death of Richard Rush, at the meet-
ing of the Board on January 28, i860, Senator Pearce, after
alluding to the very important services rendered by him in

The Board of Regents 67

England for the recovery of the fund bequeathed by Smith-
son, remarked :

"The act of Congress of 1846 having established the
Smithsonian Institution, he was appointed one of its first
Regents, and was constantly continued by Congress a mem-
ber of their Board. His zeal for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men, and his sound judgment, contributed
to the adoption of the system of operations which, so far, has
borne the happiest fruits ; and his interest in and care for its
successful management furnished one of the enjoyments of
a tranquil old age, ' attended by reverence and troops of
friends.' "

At a meeting held January 31, 1863, Professor Bache, in his
eulogy of Senator James Alfred Pearce, of Maryland, said :

"Asfain has death invaded our circle, and taken from
our councils and our active sympathies one of the most ad-
mirably gifted intellects which has at any time been called
upon to shape the destiny or direct the labors of the Smith-
sonian Institution. A member of the Executive Committee
from nearly the second year of the organization under the
act of Congress of 1846, attentive to every detail, whether
scientific, administrative, or financial, Mr. Pearce was always
prompt at the call of every duty. His entire and cordial ac-
quiescence in the form of organization adopted for the Insti-
tution, his liberal and zealous cooperation with the Board of
Regents, his earnest support of, and unfaltering confidence in,
the discretion and integrity of its Secretary, were as conspicu-
ous as they were productive of the most lasting and important
benefits. And though it is true that the general form and
policy of the Institution were determined under the authority of
Congress, by the first Board of Regents, yet it is quite as cer-
tain that strenuous action was afterwards needed to maintain
it in its adopted course, and secure it from projected innova-
tions which, though strenuously advocated at the time, few
now regard with aught but disfavor. To this end no one

68 The Srnithsoiiiaji htstitntion

lent more effectual aid than our lamented colleagfue. Al-
thouorh from taste and the conditions of his active life he
might more properly be styled a literary man, yet were his
scientific attainments by no means inconsiderable, and a lib-
eral and cultivated mind, which admitted of no narrow views,
enabled him to embrace, in all its comprehensive simplicity,
the idea of the generous foreigner who, in founding this In-
stitution, consecrated his fortune to 'the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.'

" The objects which in Congress occupied most of his at-
tention, and which it gave him most pleasure to defend and
sustain, were those connected with literature and science, and
in these he showed the same qualities which, as chairman of
our Executive Committee, he has here so often exhibited.
With the great interests of State and the high objects of na-
tional politics he was abundantly qualified to grapple ; in fact,
he shrunk from no occasion in which to exert himself when
enlarged views and skilful powers of debate could be ren-
dered serviceable to his country or the world. But if duty
called upon him from time to time for such efforts, still it was
to objects promotive of art and science and high civilization,
to means for man's moral and intellectual improvement, and
the enlargement of his knowledge and power over nature,
that he turned with ever new and unwearied interest. To
him probably more than to any other Senator the library of
Congress was indebted for the augmented fund which it has
now for some years enjoyed, and for the care taken in the se-
lection of the materials which render its shelves so useful.
The exploring expedition was more than once indebted to his
earnest and persistent efforts for the continuance of the means
of publication of its results ; the Coast Survey for expositions
of its importance to the country and the world ; the Smith-
sonian for warding off assaults and reconciling enthusiastic
but misguided opposition; the naval and military expeditions,
boundary surveys, and explorations, for close, searching in-
vestigations which led to important improvements and to cor-

The Board of Regents 69

dial support. The great work of the extension of the Capitol
found in him a wise advocate and judicious friend. Not
afraid of what was new, yet he aimed at nothing for the sake
of novelty. In connection with the decoration of our public
buildings, our sculptors and painters found in him a most en-
lightened appreciator of their works, and one always ready to
promote the great cause of their art by legitimate means."

At the meeting of January 28, 1867, a resolution was
passed referring to the long and gratuitous services of Wil-
liam W. Seaton. In this connection. Professor Henry spoke
of his association with the Institution in the following terms:

" At the first meeting of the Board of Regents he was
elected Treasurer, and subsequently one of the Building Com-
mittee. The former office he continued to hold until the time
of his death, and during the whole of this period, nearly
twenty years, discharged its duties without other compensa-
tion than the pleasure he derived from an association with
the Institution, and the laudable pride he felt in contribut-
ing to its prosperity and usefulness. It is well known that
at the time of the organization of the Institution a wide
diversity of opinion existed as to the practical means which
would be most suitable for realizing the objects of the legacy.
Mr. Seaton, on mature reflection, finally gave his cordial
support to the policy which sought to impress on the Institu-
tion a truly cosmopolitan character. He strenuously advo-
cated the plan which the Secretary, then recently elected, had
been invited to submit to the Board of Regents, and which
looked to the advancement of knowledge chiefly through the
encouragement and publication of original researches, a sys-
tem which, without neglecting other available means for the
promotion and difl'usion of scientific enlightenment, may be
claimed, without undue pretension, to have made the Institu-
tion favorably known, and to have exerted a well-recognized
influence wherever men occupy themselves with intellectual
pursuits.

70 The Smithsonian Institution

"The relation borne by Mr. Seaton to the city of Wash-
ington, the deHght with which he watched and aided its pro-
gress, a certain native taste also for artistic embellishment,
led him to take special interest in the architectural character
of the Smithsonian building and the ornamentation of the
public grounds around it.

" Mr. Seaton was a constant attendant at the meetings of
the Board of Regents, and from his familiarity with the early
history of the Institution and the state of the funds, as well
as from his long experience in public office, was enabled to
offer suggestions, always marked by clearness of conception
and soundness of judgment. The social attentions which he
was accustomed to extend to the Regents, especially those
who were called from abroad to attend the annual meetings,
and to gentlemen invited to lecture before the Institution,
were but the expression of his characteristic hospitality ; but
by thus adding to the pleasure of their sojourn in Wash-
ington, he contributed largely to increase the number of its
friends and supporters. The columns of the ' National Intelli-
gencer,' under his direction, were always open to the defense
of the policy adopted and the course pursued by the Insti-
tution, and he rarely failed to soften, by the courtesy of his
manner and the moderation of his expressions, any irritable
feeling which might arise in the discussion of conflicting
opinions. It would, indeed, be difficult to say in how many
and in what various ways he contributed to the popularity as
well as to the true interests of the Institution. The Secretary,
who was in the habit of conferring with him on all points
requiring mature deliberation, may with justice acknowledge
that he never failed to derive important assistance from the
wisdom of his counsels."

At a meeting on February 22, 1867, similar resolutions
were passed in honor of the memory of Professor Alexander
Dallas Bache, who had served as a Regent and one of the
Executive Committee from its first organization to the time of
his death. In a eulogy prepared by Professor Henry, at the

The Board of Regents 71

request of the Regents, the following statement in regard to
his services, which were by the Secretary deemed more sig-
nificant than those of any other of its early members, is
made :

*' In 1846 he had been named in the act of incorporation as
one of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and by
successive reelection was continued by Congress in this
office until his death, a period of nearly twenty years. To
say that he assisted in shaping the policy of the Establish-
ment would not be enough. It was almost exclusively through
his predominating influence that the policy which has given
the Institution its present celebrity was, after much opposition,
finally adopted. The object of the donation, it will be re-
membered, had been expressed in terms so concise that its
import could scarcely be at once appreciated by the general
public, though to the cultivators of science, to which class
Smithson himself belonged, the language employed failed not
to convey clear and precise ideas. Out of this state of things
it is not surprising that difference of opinion should arise
respecting the proper means to be adopted to realize the in-
tentions of the founder of the Institution. Professor Bache,
with persistent firmness, tempered by his usual moderation,
advocated the appropriation of the proceeds of the funds
principally to the plan set forth in the first report of the Sec-
retary, namely, of encouraging and supporting original re-
search in the different branches of science. Unfortunately
this policy could only be partially adopted, on account of the
restrictions of the enactment of Congress by which provision
was to be made for certain specified objects. He strenuously
opposed the contemplated expenditure of a most dispropor-
tionate sum in the erection and maintenance of a costly edi-
fice; but failing to prevent this, he introduced the resolution
adopted by the Board as a compromise, whereby the mischief
which he could not wholly avert might at least be lessened.
This resolution provided that the time of the erection of the
building should be extended over several years, while the

72 The Sjuithsonian histitntion

fund appropriated for the purpose, being in the mean time in-
vested in a safe and productive manner, would serve in some
degree to counterbalance the effect of the great and unneces-
sary outlay which had been resolved on. It would be diffi-
cult for the Secretary, however unwilling to intrude anything
personal on this occasion, to forbear mentioning that it was
entirely due to the persuasive influence of the Professor that
he was induced, almost against his own better judgment, to
leave the quiet pursuit of science and the congenial employ-
ment of collegfe instruction to assume the laborious and
responsible duties of the office to which, through the partial-
ity of friendship, he had been called. Nor would it be pos-
sible for him to abstain from acknowledging with heartfelt
emotion that he was from first to last supported and sus-
tained in his difficult position by the fraternal sympathy, the
prudent counsel, and the unwavering friendship of the la-
mented deceased.

" His demeanor in the Board was quiet and unobtrusive,
and his opinions sought no support in elaborated or premedi-
tated argument ; but when a topic likely to lead to difficulty
in discussion was introduced, he seldom failed, with that ad-
mirable tact for which he was always noted, to dispose of it
by some suggestion so judicious and appropriate as to secure
ready acquiescence and harmonious action. The loss of such
a man in the councils of the Institution, when we consider
the characteristics which it has been our aim to portray, must,
indeed, be regarded as little less than irreparable."

At a meeting on December 19, 1873, Mr. Garfield, speaking
of the death of Chief Justice Chase, said:

"As the Chancellor of this Institution, we saw in happy
and harmonious action his ample knowledge of our institu-
tions, his wide experience of finance, his reverential love for
science and art, and his unshaken faith in the future of his
country as the grand theater for the highest development of
all that is best and greatest in human nature. No contribu-
tion to science offered to this Board escaped his attention.

The Board of Regents 73

Nothing that was high or worthy in human pursuits failed to
elicit his appreciative and powerful support."

At a meeting, January 18, 1882, Chancellor Waite thus
referred to the services of President Garfield :

" General Garfield first took his seat in Congress at the
end of the year 1863. He was then but thirty-six years old.

"At the beginning of his second term he was appointed a
member of this Board by the Speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives, and was present at the meeting of February 3,
1866. He continued to hold the same position until 1873,
when another was appointed in his place. He appeared
again, however, in 1878, and we were never afterwards de-
prived of his counsels until he was elected President of the
United States, which made him ex officio the presiding officer
of the Smithsonian Institution.

" From the beginning his presence here was felt. He was
eminently fitted for such a trust.

" He was himself a scholar, and the 'increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men ' always gave him the greatest
pleasure.

"At every meeting of the Board during his successive
terms, when he could be present, his name appears among
active and thoughtful members. He manifested his appre-
ciation of the place he filled by always doing what it was his
privilege to do, and doing it well. When on former occa-
sions the Board has given expression to its feelings upon the
death of a member his words of heartfelt sympathy have often
been heard. The records show that he knew and appreciated
the great and good qualities of Chief Justice Chase, and that
he fully realized the debt science owed to Agassiz. But the
crowning act of all was when, out of the fullness of his heart,
at the memorial services in the hall of the House of Repre-
sentatives, he made those who heard him feel how great the
life of Professor Henry had been.

" It is not for us to say he ought to have been spared

74 The Smithsonian Institution

longer. Few men seemed to possess greater power for good.
He died as he lived, an honor to human nature."

At a meeting on January 21, 1885, on the occasion of the
resiofnation of Doctor Peter Parker from the Board, resolu-
tions were passed expressing " high appreciation of the valu-
able and efficient services he had rendered to the Institution,
for, when required, he had worked without weariness and
watched without flagging, even after he had begun to feel the
burden of age."

On the occasion of the death of Chancellor Waite, in 1888,
it was by the Regents resolved :

" That while an obvious sense of propriety must dictate
that we should leave to others in that great forum which was
the chosen arena of his life's career the sad privilege of depict-
ing, with minute and detailed analysis, the remarkable com-
bination of strong and lovely traits which met in the person
of the late Chief Justice and gave to the symmetrical char-
acter of our beloved friend its blended sweetness and light,
we cannot omit, even in this hour of our special sorrow, to
bear our cheerful testimony to the pleasing amenity with
which he presided over the deliberations of this council
chamber as the Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution ;
and sharing, as we all do, in a profound admiration for the
intelligence he brought to our discussions while ever moder-
ating them by the guidance of his clear thought and mild
wisdom, we can but render our reverent homage to the en-
gaging personal qualities which endeared him to us as a man,
while at the same time gratefully confessing our obligations
to him for the provident care and deep interest which he
always brought to the discharge of his official duties in this
place, where, through all the years of his honorable and use-
ful service at the head of this Board, the Secretary of the In-
stitution, in common with ourselves, has leaned on him as the
wise and true counsellor who could be trusted as well for the

The Board of Regents 75

rectitude of his moral intuitions as for the clear perceptions
of his calm and judicious intellect."

At a meeting on January 18, 1889, on the occasion of the
death of Professor Asa Gray, after fifteen years of service, a
committee of Regents reported as follows :

" Upon the Smithsonian Institution his loss falls with par-
ticular weight, since his active interest in its welfare is almost
continuous with its existence, for he was one of the Com-
mittee of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
report of which upon the ' plan proposed for the organization
of the Smithsonian Institution,' rendered in 1847, has exer-
cised so active an influence upon the subsequent history of
this Establishment.

"Appointed a Regent in January, 1874, to succeed Pro-
fessor Louis Agassiz, his efficient and active interest in the
welfare of this Institution has been one of its most valuable
possessions, and it is with deeper feeling than formal reso-
lutions of regret usually convey that we now endeavor to
express some part of our sense of irreparable loss."

On the death of the Honorable Samuel S. Cox, in 1890,
after a period of service as Regent which, though occasion-
ally interrupted, continued in the neighborhood of thirty
years, at a meeting of the Board on January 8, 1890, a com-
mittee reported that —

" While he was not a regular attendant at all the meetings
of the Board, he was ever ready to advance the interests of the
Institution and of science, either as a Regent or as a member
of Congress ; and although such men as Hamlin, Fessen-
den, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, Gray, and Waite, in
a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Chief Justices,
and Senators of the United States, were his associates, there
were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be
remembered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes
more than to Mr. Cox."

76 The Smithsoitiaji Institution

In 1892, General Montgomery C. Meigs, U. S. A., who
had been for seventeen years a member of the Executive
Committee, died, and Doctor Coppee, in a memorial record
presented at the annual meeting, said :

" His valuable services to the Institution began, indeed,
before he was officially connected with it as Regent, and con-
tinued until his death, rendering most important service in
1876 by designing the new building for the National Mu-
seum, a marvel of economic design. Directly upon his en-
trance into the Board, December 26, 1885, he became an
active member of its Executive Committee. He was always
present, extremely painstaking, and eminently judicious in
his counsel and judgment on important points of business and
policy. He had just been nominated as Regent for another
term of six years when he was taken away from us by sudden
illness. Few Regents have been of such importance to the
Institution."

Appropriate action was taken at the meeting held on Jan-
uary 23, 1895, by the adoption of suitable resolutions in
honor of the memory of President Welling. On that oc-
casion Doctor Coppee said :

" Doctor Welling was one of the most valuable citizens
of Washington, to whom was confided many trusts, among
them the presidency of the Columbian University and the
chairmanship of the Executive Committee of this Institution ;
and he did well everything that was confided to him. He
was a man pure in thought, honest in purpose and action,
and intelligent in judgment. He held a ready pen, and how
polished his public utterances were, all here would remember
who had heard him when he presented papers and other
matters before this Board."

Also the following tribute to his interest in the Institution
was made by Secretary Langley :

The Board of Regents TJ

" I will only add, speaking of him still chiefly in his rela-
tionship to this Institution, that in 1884 he was chosen one
of its Regents, to succeed the Reverend Doctor Peter Parker.
For ten years he gave conscientious attention to its interests,
and upheld in every way those conservative and dignified
traditions of which I have already spoken of him as almost
the living embodiment ; and while he did this primarily be-
cause of their harmony with his own personal tendencies and
convictions as to their value, he did so also because of his
affection and reverence for the first Secretary, Joseph Henry,
whose pupil he had been in his youth, and with whom in
middle life he maintained the relation of friend and confidant.
After Henry's death, Doctor Welling consented to add to his
already burdensome duties those of the chairman of the
Executive Committee, which he performed till his own death,
so that he may be said to have been a link between the past
and the present in the history of this Institution, though
happily not the only one, since it has preserved others in
his contemporaries."

The death of Doctor Henry Coppee was announced by
the Chancellor at the meeting held on March 21, 1895. The
following resolutions were presented by Senator Henderson :

"That the Board of Regents feels sincere sorrow in the
loss of one whose distinguished career as a soldier, a man of
letters, and whose services in the promotion of education
command their highest respect and admiration. That in the
death of Doctor Coppee the Smithsonian Institution and the
Board of Regents have suffered the loss of a tried and valued
friend, a wise and prudent counsellor, whose genial courtesy,
well-stored, disciplined mind, and sincere devotion to the in-
terests of the Institution will be ever remembered."

General Wheeler said that " forty years ago he was a pupil
of Doctor Coppee, and from that time to his death, owing to
various connections and associations, by correspondence and

78 The Smithsonian Institutio7i

by visit, he had known him, and therefore felt well fitted to
speak of the high qualities referred to in the resolutions."

It should be remembered, however, that the passing of
resolutions and the delivery of eulogies have only been cus-
tomary when a member of the Board has continued actively
associated with the Institution until the time of his death.
It should not be forgotten that several of the Regents who
were most active in the defense of the Institution and in
the advancement of its interests were so remote in time
and place from the organization at the time of their death
that no reference to their services stand recorded upon the
Journal.

In this connection, then, it seems but just to refer to the
activities of Robert Dale Owen, in securing the passage of
the act organizing the Institution, and as chairman of its
Building Committee ; the intense interest shown by Rufus
Choate, in the promotion of the library and bibliographical
work of the Institution in its days of organization, thus sup-
plementing the valuable services rendered at a still earlier
day in the Senate in preventing the diversion of the fund to
unworthy ends ; the courageous attitude of Henry W. Mil-
liard, of Alabama, in defending the Institution and its Re-
gents from an attack in the House of Representatives on the
part of Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, who desired to see
the organization, still in its infancy, destroyed ; the effective
service of Jefferson Davis, in preventing the repudiation by
the government of the responsibility which it had incurred
by ordering the investment of the Smithson bequest in State
bonds which had become worthless, and in securing the res-
toration to the Treasury of the money thus misapplied and
lost; also the bold stand taken by Mr. Davis in 1850, in the
Senate, resisting the demand to force upon the Institution
the miscellaneous collection of curiosities then housed in the

The Board of Regents 79

Patent Office and called "The National Cabinet of Curiosi-
ties," without financial provision for its maintenance.

Reviewing the history of fifty years, one cannot fail to be
impressed with the belief that Congress acted with great wis-
dom in determining the character of the corporation to which
it intrusted the affairs of the Institution. It was at first pro-
posed that the Directors of the Institution should be citizens,
selected like those of private institutions, without reference to
official connection with the orovernment durin^: their time of
service. The plan finally adopted brought the Smithsonian
Institution into much closer relationship with the govern-
ment, securing for it the administrative supervision of a body
of men the majority of whom have always been thoroughly
representative members of the executive and legislative
branches of the government ; men in the prime of their vigor
and trained to the highest administrative responsibilities. To
be a Regent of the Institution has always been regarded as a
high honor, and those who have held this position, as mem-
bers of the Senate and House of Representatives, have been,
without exception, eminent for scholarship and general cul-
ture, as well as in statesmanship. The citizen members of
the Board associated with them have been equally eminent
in the fields of scientific, literary, and educational work.

Being residents of Washington during their terms of ser-
vice, the majority of this group of wise and experienced ad-
ministrators had the opportunity of acquiring familiarity witli
the activities of the Institution from day to day, and have,
without special effort, controlled and regulated all its work.
Familiar with affairs, able to feel, almost unconsciously, the
workings of manifold interests simultaneously in operation, in
constant communication with the executive officers of the Es-
tablishment, the supervision which they have exercised has
been of the most wholesome and effective character.

8o The Smithsonian Institution

Notwithstanding the fears so generally entertained fifty
years ago, the Institution has never, in any respect, fallen
under the influence of political interference. No member of
its staff has ever been appointed because of the influence of
powerful friends or for any reason except that he was believed
to be the best man available for the place. No sinecures have
been created, and no breath of suspicion has ever tarnished
the reputation of any officer or employee.

Since this can be said in regard to the first fifty years of the
Smithsonian Institution, it may fairly be claimed as demon-
strated that the plan of organization was wisely and judi-
ciously conceived.

Regents of the Smithsonian Institution

Biographical Notices by William Jones Rhees

ROBERT ADAMS, Jr.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 20, 1895.

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, February 26, 1849. A. B., University
of Pennsylvania, 1869. Ph. B., Wharton School of Economy and Finance,
University of Pennsylvania, 1884. Admitted to the Bar. Member of United
States Geological Survey, i87i-'75. Member of Pennsylvania Senate, 1883-
'87. U. S. Minister to Brazil, 1889-90. Member of U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives from Pennsylvania, January 3, 1894- March 4, 1899.

LOUIS AGASSIZ.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent elected by Congress, February 21, 1863 ; reelected March 2, 1869.

Bom in Motier, Canton Fribourg, Switzerland, May 28, 1807 ; died in Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, December 14, 1873. Educated in College of Lausanne,
1823. Studied medicine in Zurich, 1824, also in Heidelberg and Munich.
M. D., Munich, 1829. Ph. D., Erlangen, 1830. LL. D., Edinburgh, 1834;
Dublin, 1835; and Harvard, 1848. Member of French Academy of Sciences,
1836. Professor of Natural History in College of Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1832.
Professor of Zoology and Geology in Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1848. Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in the
Medical College, Charleston, South Carolina, 1851-54. Curator of the Mu-

The Board of Regents 8i

seum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1859. Professor
(non-resident) of Natural History, Cornell University, 1868. Director
Penikese Island School of Natural History, 1873. Original member National
Academy of Sciences, 1863. Received Monthyon prize from the Academy
of Paris, and Wollaston medal from the London Geological Society.

JAMES BURRILL ANGELL.

MICHIGAN.

Regent elected by Congress, January 19, 1887 ; reelected January 9, 1893.

Born in Scituate, Rhode Island, January 7, 1829. Educated in Seekonk,
Massachusetts, and North Scituate, Rhode Island. A. B., Brown, 1849. LL. D.,
Brown, 1868; and Columbia, 1887. Professor of Modern Languages and Lit-
erature in Brown University, 1853. Y.i\\\.ox rnn'idcuce Daily Journal, i86o-'66.
President of University of Vermont, 1 866-71. President of University of
Michigan, i87i-'96. U. S. Minister to China, 1880-82. Commissioner to
negotiate a new treaty with China. Commissioner to form treaty with Great
Britain in settlement of the fisheries dispute, i887-'88.

CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR.

NEW YORK.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1881.

Born in Fairfield, Vermont, October 5, 1830; died in New York City, No-
vember 18, 1886. A. B., Union, 1848. LL. D., Princeton, 1884; and
Union, 1884. Principal of an Academy in North Pownal, Bennington County,
Vermont, 1851. Admitted to the Bar, New York, 1853. Engineer-in-Chief,
as Brigadier-General on Governor Morgan's staft", January i, 1861. Acting
Quartermaster-General of New York. Inspector-General, 1862. Collector of
the Port of New York, 1871-78. Vice-President of the United States, 1881.
President of the United States, July 20, 1881-84.

WILLIAM BACKHOUSE ASTOR.

NEW YORK.

Regent elected by Congress, March 2, 1861.

Born in New York City, September 19, 1792 ; died in New York, November
24, 1875. Educated in public schools, New York; later in Heidelberg and
Gottingen. Engaged with his father John Jacob Astor in trade with China,
i8i5-'27. President of the American Fur Company, 1827. Gave $550,000
to the Astor Library,

ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846; reelected January 13, 1853,

January 17, 1859.

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 19, 1806; died in Newport, Rhode
Island, February 17, 1867. Graduated United States Military Academy, West

82 The Smithsoiiimi histitntion

Point, New York, 1825. A. M., Yale, 1830. LL. D., University of the City
of New York, 1836; University of Pennsylvania, 1837; and Harvard, 1851.
Assistant Professor of Engineering in United States Military Academy, 1826.
Lieutenant of Engineers, 1827-29. Engaged in constructing Fort Adams
and other pubHc works. President of Girard College, Philadelphia, 1832-39.
Professor of Mathematics in University of Pennsylvania, iS27-'32. Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry in University of Pennsylvania, 1828-41,
and 1842-43. Principal of Central High School, Philadelphia, i84i-'42.
Superintendent of Public Schools. Superintendent United States Coast Sur-
vey, November, i843-'67. Vice-President United States Sanitary Commis-
sion. President American Philosophical Society, 1855. President American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1850. Original Member and
President National Academy of Sciences, 1863.

GEORGE EDMUND BADGER.

NORTH CAROLINA.
Regent elected by Congress, February 27, 1856; reelected January 17, 1859.

Born in Nevvbern, North Carolina, April 13, 1795; died in Raleigh, North
Carolina, May II, 1866. A. B., Yale, 1813. A. M., Yale, 1825. LL. D., Uni-
versity of North Carolina, 1834; and Yale, 1848. Admitted to the Bar in
Raleigh, North Carolina. Major in War of 181 2. North Carolina State
Legislature, i8i6-'2o. Judge of North Carolina Superior Court, i82o-'25.
Secretary of the Navy, March, 1841. Member of U. S. Senate from North
Carolina, December 7, 1846-March 3, 1855,

GEORGE BANCROFT.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.
Regent elected by Congress, December 11, 1874.

Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, October 3, 1800; died in Washington
City, January 17, 1891. Educated in Phillips Exeter Academy, New Hamp-
shire. A. B., Harvard, 181 7. Ph. D., University of G5ttingen, 1820. D. C. L.,
Oxford, 1849. D. J., University of Bonn, 1868. LL.D., Harvard, 1843;
and Union, 1840. L. H. D., Columbia, 1843. Tutor in Harvard. Principal
of Round Hill School, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1824. Elected to Massa-
chusetts Legislature, 1830. Collector of the Port of Boston, i838-'4i. Can-
didate for Governor of Massachusetts, 1844. Secretary of the Navy, 1845.
Acting Secretary of War, 1846. U. S. Minister to Great Britain, i846-'49.
U. S. Minister to Prussia, 1867. U. S. Minister to North German Confeder-
ation, 1868. U. S, Mmister to Germany, 1871-74.

JAMES GABRIEL BERRET.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.
Regent ex officio, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1858-June, i860.

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, February 12, 1815. Member of House of
Delegates of Maryland, 1837-39. Clerk in Register of Treasury's office,

The Board of Regents 83

Washington City, 1839-48. Chief Clerk of Pension Bureau, 1848-49.
Postmaster of VVashington City, 1853-58. Mayor of Washington City,
i858-'6r. Apj)ointe{l Commissioner by President Lincohi on Abolition
of Slavery in the District of Columbia, 1862. Member of Washington Police
Board, i875-'77. Elector for Maryland, and President of the Electoral
College, 1888. Member of Maryland Legislature and Chairman of Com-
mittee of Ways and Means, 1891. First Vice-President of Washington Na-
tional Monument Society.

JOHN MCPHERSON BERRIExN.

GEORGIA.
Regent elected by Congress, January 13, 1853.

Born in New Jersey, August 23, 1781 ; died in Savannah, Georgia, January
I, 1856. A. B., Princeton, 1796. LL. D., Princeton, 1829; University of
Georgia, 1850; and University of Alabama, 1852. Admitted to the Bar in
Georgia, 1799. Solicitor-General of Georgia, 1809. Judge of Eastern Cir-
cuit, 1810. Colonel in War of 1812. Member of Georgia Legislature, 1822.
Member of U. S. Senate from Georgia, i824-'29, i84o-'46, and i847-'52.
Attorney-General of United States, 1829. Judge of Supreme Court of
Georgia, i845-'47.

NEWTON BOOTH.

CALIFORNIA.
Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed March 21, 1879.

Born in Salem, Lidiana, December 25, 1825; died in Sacramento, Califor-
nia, July 14, 1892. A. B., Asbury University, 1846. LL. D., De Pauw,
1872. Admitted to the Bar in Tcrre Haute, Indiana, 1850. Member of
California State Senate, 1863. Governor of California, i87i-'74. Member of
U. S. Senate from California, March 9, 1875-March 3, 1881.

SAYLES JENKS BOWEN.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.
Regent r^ ^<rw, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1868-June, 1870.

Bom in Scipio, Cayuga County, New York, October 7, 18 13; died in
Washington City, December 16, 1896. Educated in Aurora Academy, New
York. Clerk in United States Treasury Department, 1845-48. Commis-
sioner of Police in District of Columbia, 1861. Disbursing Officer of United
States Senate, 1861. Collector of Internal Revenue, 1862. Postmaster
City of Washington, 1863-68. Mayor City of Washington. June, 1868-
June, 1870. Trustee and Treasurer of Public Schools for Colored Children
in the District of Columbia, to which he devoted much time, labor, and
money.

84 The Smithsonian Instihition

JOHN CABELL BRECKINRIDGE.

KENTUCKY.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1857-

March 4, 1861.

Born near Lexington, Kentucky, January 21, 1821; died in Lexington,
Kentucky, May 17, 1875. A. B., Centre College, 1841. LL. D., Centre,
1857. Studied law at Transylvania Institute. Admitted to the Bar, Lexing-
ton, Kentucky. Major in Mexican War. Member of Kentucky Legislature.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Kentucky, December i,
1851-March 3, 1855. Declined the Spanish Mission. Vice-President of the
United States, 1857. Member of U. S. Senate from Kentucky, March 4,
1861-December 4, 1861. Major-General Confederate Army, 1862.

WILLIAM CAMPBELL PRESTON BRECKINRIDGE.

KENTUCKY.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 15, 1892;

reappointed January 4, 1894.

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, August 28, 1837. Admitted to the Bar in
Louisville, Kentucky, 1857. Educated in Transylvania University and Centre
College. LL. B., University of Louisville, 1857. A. M., Centre College, 1855.
LL. D., Cumberland University, 1874 , Central University, 1881 ; and Centre
College, 1886. Captain and Colonel Confederate Army, 1862. Professor
in Cumberland University. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from
Kentucky, March 4, 1885-March 4, 1895.

SIDNEY BREESE.

ILLINOIS.
Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed August 10, 1846.

Born in Whitesborough, New York, July 15, 1800; died in Pinckneyville,
Illinois, June 27, 1878, Educated in Hamilton College. A. B., Union,
1818. LL. D., Union, 1871. Admitted to the Bar in Illinois, 1821. Assis-
tant Secretary, State of Illinois. Postmaster of Kaskaskia, Illinois, 1800. At-
torney-General of Illinois, i822-'27. Attorney of the United States for Il-
linois, 1827. Lieutenant in Black Hawk War. Circuit Judge, 1835. Member
of U. S. Senate from Illinois, December 4, 1843-March 3, 1849. Speaker of
Illinois House of Representatives, 1850. Chief Judge of Circuit Court,
Illinois, 1855. Justice of Supreme Court of Illinois, i857-'78.

BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH.

OHIO.
Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 6, 1890.

Born in Warren County, Ohio, October 22, 1837. Educated in public
schools and Ohio University. Graduated in Cincinnati Law College, 186 1.
Admitted to the Bar. Member of Ohio Senate, i873-'75. Member of U. S.

The Board of Regents 85

House of Representatives from Ohio, March i8, 1879-March 3, 1883, De-
cember 7, 1885-March 4, 1891. U. S. Commissioner of Patents, 1883. Sec-
retary and Solicitor-General of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.

LEWIS CASS.

MICHIGAN.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed January 18, 1847.

Born in Exeter, New Hampshire, October 9, 1782 ; died in Detroit, Michi-
gan, June 17, 1866. Eklucated in Exeter Academy. LL. D, Hamilton, 1825 ;
Harvard, 1836; and Jefferson, 1837. Admitted to the Bar in Marietta, Ohio,
1802. Member of Ohio Legislature, 1807. Marshal of Ohio, i8o7-'i3. Colo-
nel and Brigadier-General in War of 181 2. Governor of Michigan, 1813-31.
Secretary of War, 1831-36. Minister to France, 1836-42. Member of
U. S. Senate from Michigan, December i, 1845-August 14, 1848, December
3, 1849-March 3, 185 1. Secretary of State, 1857-60. Negotiated many
treaties with the Indians. Candidate for President, 1848.

ROBERT MILLEDGE CHARLTON.

GEORGIA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed August 24, 1852.

Born in Savannah, Georgia, January 19, 1807 ; died in Savannah, Georgia,
January 18, 1854. Admitted to the Bar, 1825. Member of Georgia Legisla-
ture. U. S. District Attorney. Judge of the Supreme Court of Eastern
Georgia, 1834. Member of U. S. Senate from Georgia, December 6, 1852-
March 3, 1853. Mayor of Savannah, Georgia.

SALMON PORTLAND CHASE.

OHIO.

Regent ex officio, as Chief Justice of the United States, December 6, 1864.

Born in Cornish, New Hampshire, January 13, 1808; died in Washington
City, May 7, 1873. Educated in Cincinnati College. A. B., Dartmouth, 1826.
LL. D., Miami, 1865. Admitted to the Bar, 1829. Member of U. S. Senate
from Ohio, December 3, 1849-March 3, 1855. Governor of Ohio, 1855-57.
Elected to U. S. Senate from Ohio, i860. Secretary of the Treasury, i86i-'64.
Chief Justice of the United States, 1864-73.

RUFUS CHOATE.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846; reelected December 19, 1848, and

December 27, 1854.

Born in Ipswich, Massachusetts, October i, 1799; died in Halifax, Nova
Scotia, July 12, 1859. Tutor in Dartmouth College. A. B. and A. M., Dart-
mouth,'1819. LL. D.. Yale, 1844: Harvard, 1845; Dartmouth, 1845; and
Amherst, 1848. Studied law in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Washington
City. Admitted to the Bar in Dan vers, Massachusetts, 1824. Member of

86 The Smithsonian histitittion

Massachusetts Legislature, 1825-28. Member of U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives from Massachusetts, December 6, 1830-July 30, 1834. Member
of U. S. Senate from Massachusetts, May 31, 1841-August 10, 1846.

NATHAN CLIFFORD.

MAINE.

Regent ex officio, as Acting Chief Justice of the United States, May 7, 1873, and
Chancellor /r£» tern, pending the appointment of a Chief Justice.

Born in Rumney, New Hampshire, August 18, 1803; died in Cornish,
Maine, July 25, 1881. Educated in Haverhill Academy and Hampton Liter-
ary Institution. LL. D., Bowdoin, i860; Dartmouth, 1862 ; Brown, 1868; and
Harvard, 1878. Admitted to the Bar in New Hampshire, 1827. Member of
Maine Legislature and Speaker, i83o-'34. Attorney-General of Maine, 1834-
'38. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Maine, December 2,
1839-March 3, 1843. Attorney-General of the United States, i846-'48. Com-
missioner to Mexico, 1849. v. S. Minister to Mexico, 1848-49. justice of
United States Supreme Court, 1858-81. Member of the Electoral Commis-
sion, 1876.

HIESTER CLYMER.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14, 1875 ;
reappointed January 14, 1878, and April 4, 1879.

Born in Berks County, Pennsylvania, November 3, 1827; died in Read-
ing, Pennsylvania, June 12, 1884. Educated in public schools, Reading.
A, B., Princeton, 1847. Admitted to the Bar, 1849. Member of Pennsylvania
Legislature, i860. Candidate for Governorship of Pennsylvania, 1866. Mem-
ber of the State Board of Public Charities, 1870. Member of U. S. House of
Representatives from Pennsylvania, December i, 1873-March 4, 1881.

WILLIAM FERGUSON COLCOCK.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1850;
reappointed January 2, 1852, and January 11, 1853.

Bom in Beaufort, South Carolina, November 5, 1804; died in Charleston,
South Carolina, June 13, 1889. A. B., South Carolina College, 1823. Admitted
to the Bar. Member of South Carolina Legislature. Speaker of South Caro-
lina House. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from South Carolina,
/ December 3, 1849-March 3, 1853. Collector of Port of Charleston.

SCHUYLER COLFAX.

INDIANA.

Regent on liehalfofthe House of Representatives, appointed December 19, 1861. 'Kq-
g&nXex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, i869-March4, 1873.

Born in New York City, March 23, 1823; died in Mankato, Minnesota,
January 13, 1885. Educated in public schools. New York City, Ad-

The Board of Regents 87

mitted to the Bar, Indiana, 1836. Member of Indiana State Constitutional
Convention, 1850. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Indiana,
December 3, 1855-March 4, 1869. Speaker of the U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives, i863-'68. Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1869-
March 4, 1873.

HENRY DAVID COOKE.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Governor of the District of Columbia, February 28, 1871-

September 13, 1873.

Born in Sandusky, Ohio, November 23, 1825 ; died in Georgetown, District
of Cokimbia, February 24, 1881. Educated in Allegheny College. A. B.,
Transylvania University, 1844. Admitted to the Bar in Sandusky, Ohio, and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Attache to American Consul in Valparaiso, Chile,
1846. Presidential Elector, 1856. Journalist in Philadeljjhia, Sandusky, and
Columbus, Ohio. First Governor of District of Columbia, February 28, 187 1-
September 13, 1873.

HENRY COPPEE.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent elected by Congress, January 19, 1874; reelected December 19, 1879,
December 26, 1885, and January 26, 1892.

Born in Savannah, Georgia, October 13, 1821; died in Bethlehem, Penn-
sylvania, March 22, 1895. Educated in Yale, 1839. Graduated United States
Military Academy, 1845. A. M., University of Georgia, 1848. LL. D.,
Union, 1866; and University of Pennsylvania, 1866. Served through Mexican
War, brevetted Captain, 1847. Professor of French, i848-'49; Professor of
Geography, History, and Ethics, i85o-'55; Assistant Professor of Geogra-
phy, History, and Ethics, U. S. Military Academy, 1855. Professor of Eng-
lish Literature and History, University of Pennsylvania, 1855-66. President
of Lehigh University, 1866-79, '9°' '93~'95- Professor of English Literature
and History, and of International and Constitutional Law, Lehigh University,
1874-95. U, S. Assay Commissioner, 1874 and 1880.

SAMUEL SULLIVAN COX.

OHIO-NEW YORK.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 19, 1861 ;
reappointed December 23, 1863, February 2, 1870, December 18, 1873, January
9, 1882, and January 5, 1888.

Boni in Zanesville, Ohio, September 30, 1824; died in New York City,
September 10, 1889. Educated in public schools, Zanesville, Ohio. A. B.,
Brown University, 1846. A. M., Brown. LL. D., Brown, 1S85. Admitted
to the Bar, Cincinnati, Ohio. Secretary of Legation to Peru, 1855. Mem-
ber of U. S. House of Representatives \xoxxv Ohio, December 6, 1857-March

3, 1865. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from New York, March

4, 1869-March 3, 1885, December 5, 1887-March 3, 1889. U. S. Minister
to Turkey, i885-'86.

88 The Smithsonian histitution

SHELBY MOORE CULLOM.

ILLINOIS.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed March 23, 1885 ; reappointed March 28,

1889, and December 18, 1895.

Born in Wayne County, Kentucky, November 22, 1829. Educated in Rock
River Seminary, Mount Morris, Illinois. Admitted to the Bar in Spring-
field, Illinois, 1855, City Attorney of Springfield, 1855. Presidential Elector,
1856. Member of the Illinois Legislature, i856-'6o, i872-'74, and its
Speaker, 1861, '73. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Illinois,
December 4, 1865-March 3, 187 1. Governor of Illinois, January 8, 1877-
February 5, 1883. Member of U. S. Senate from Illinois, December 4, 1883-
March 3, 1901.

GEORGE MIFFLIN DALLAS.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, August 10, 1846-

March 4, 1849.

Born in Philadelphia, July 10, 1792; died in Philadelphia, December 31,
1864. A. B., Princeton, 1810. LL. D., Princeton, 1854. Admitted to the
Bar, 1813. Secretary of the Russian Commission, i8i3-'i4. Deputy Attor-
ney-General for Philadelphia County, 18 17. Mayor of Philadelphia, 1829.
U. S. Attorney for Pennsylvania, 1829-31. Member of U. S. Senate from
Pennsylvania, December 5, 1831-March 2, 1833. Attorney-General of Penn-
sylvania, 1833-35. U. S. Minister to Russia, 1837-39. Vice-President of
the United States, i845-'49. U. S. Minister to Great Britain, i856-'6i.

JAMES DWIGHT DANA.

CONNECTICUT.
Regent elected by Congress, January 19, 1874; resigned December 27, 1877.

Born in Utica, New York, February 13, 1813; died in New Haven,
Connecticut, April 14, 1895. Educated in Bartlett Academy, Utica, New
York. A. B., Yale, 1833. Ph. D., Munich, 1872. LL. D., Amherst, 1853;
Harvard, 1886; and Edinburgh, 1889. Instructor of Mathematics to United
States Naval Officers, 1833-36. Assistant in Chemistry, Yale, i836-'38.
Mineralogist, Geologist, and Zoologist of the United States Exploring Expe-
dition, i836-'42. Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale,
i85o-'9o. YA\ior oi American Journal of Science, 1846-95. Received Wol-
laston and Copley medals and Grand Walker prize. President of American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1854. Original Member National
Academy of Sciences, 1863.

DAVID DAVIS.

ILLINOIS.

Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate pro tern., October 13, 1881-

March 4, 1883.

Born in Cecil County, Maryland, March 9, 1815; died in Bloomington,
Illinois, June 26, 1886. Educated in Newark Academy. A. B., Kenyon.

GEORGE MIFFLII^ DALLAS.

FIRST CHANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

1846-1849.

ALLAS.

d in Rock

ng-

8, 1877-

•R9,

Cnryrij^'it. iSgij by The Century Co.

The Board of Regents 89

1832. LL. D., Williams, 1873; Beloit; and Illinois Wesleyan. Studied law
in New Haven. Admitted to the Bar, Pekin, Illinois, 1835. Member of
Illinois Legislature, 1844. Member of State Constitutional Convention,
1847. Judge of 8th Circuit, i848-'62. Justice of the U. S, Supreme Court,
i862-'77. Member of U. S. Senate from Illinois, December 3, 1877-March
3, 1883. President of the Senate/w iem., i88i-'83.

GARRETT DAVIS.

KENTUCKY.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed January 16, 1863 ; reappointed

March 21, 1867.

Born in Mount Sterling, Kentucky, September 10, 1801; died in Paris,
Kentucky, September 22, 1872. Admitted to the Bar, 1823. Member of
Kentucky Legislature, 1833-36. Member of State Constitutional Conven-
tion, i839-'47. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Kentucky,
March 4, 1847-March 3, 1849. Member of U. S. Senate from Kentucky,
December 3, 1861-September 22, 1872.

HENRY WINTER DAVIS.

MARYLAND.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 23, 1863.

Born in Annapolis, Maryland, August 16, 1817; died in Baltimore, Mary-
land, December 30, 1865. A. B,, Kenyon, 1837. LL. D., Hampden-Sidney.
Studied law in University of Virginia. Admitted to the Bar, Alexandria, Vir-
ginia, and Baltimore, Maryland. Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Maryland, December 3, i855-June 14, 1858, December 7, 1863-March
3, 1865.

JEFFERSON DAVIS.

MISSISSIPPI.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 30, 1847; reappointed March

6, 1851.

Born in Christian County, Kentucky, June 3, 1808; died in New Orleans,
Louisiana, Deceml)er 6, i88g. Educated in Transylvania College. Graduated
United States Military Academy, 1828. LL. D., Bowdoin, 1858. Served in
Black Hawk War, 1831-32 ; Mexican War, 1846. Second Lieutenant Infantry,
i828-'33. First Lieutenant Dragoons, 1833-35. Member of U. S. House
of Representatives from Mississippi, December 8, 1845-August 10, 1846.
Member of U. S. Senate from Mississippi, December 6, 1847-March 3, 1851,
December 7, 1857-March 2, i86r. Secretary of War, 1853-57. Major-Gen-
eral and President of the Confederate States, 1861.

WILLIAM LEWIS DAYTON.

NEW JERSEY.

Regent elected by Congress, March 2, 1861.

Bom in Baskinridge, New Jersey, February 17, 1807; died in Paris, France,
December i, 1864. A. B., Princeton, 1825. LL. D., Princeton, 1857. Ad-

90 The Smithsonian Institution

mitted to the Bar, Trenton^ New Jersey, 1830. Member of the New Jersey
Legislature, 1837. Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of the State, 1838.
Member of U. S. Senate from New Jersey, December 5, 1842-March 3, 1851.
Attorney-General of New Jersey, 1857-61. U. S. Minister to France, 1861-
'64. Candidate for Vice-President, 1856.

NATHANIEL COBB DEERING.

IOWA.
Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 9, 1882.

Born in Denmark, Oxford County, Maine, September 2, 1827; died in
Osage, Iowa, December 8, 1887. Educated in public schools and North
Bridgeton Academy, Mame. Member of Maine Legislature, 1855-56.
Removed to Osage, Iowa, 1857. Clerk in U. S. Senate, 1862-65.
Special Agent in Post Office Department, 1865-69. National Bank Ex-
aminer for Iowa, i8-j2-'jj. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from
Iowa, October 15, 1877-March 3, 1883.

RICHARD DELAFIELD.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.
Regent elected by Congress, February'14, 1865.

Born in New York City, September i, 1798; died in Washington City,
November 5, 1873. Graduated United States Military Academy, 1818.
Served in Engineer works, i8i9-'38. Superintendent of United States Mili-
taryAcademy, 1838-45, i856-'6i. Superintended the defenses of New York
Harbor, 1846-55. Brigadier-General and Chief of Engineers, i864-'7o.
Major-General, 1865.

CHARLES DEVENS.

MASSACHUSETTS.
Regent elected by Congress, May 20, 1890.

Born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, April 4, 1820; died in Boston, Massa-
chusetts, January 7, 1891. Declined appointment as Regent on account of a
provision in Constitution of the State of Massachusetts that " Justices of the
Supreme Judicial Court of the Commonwealth shall not hold any other place
or office, or receive any pension or salary from any other State, Government,
or powei whatsoever." A. B., Harvard, 1838. LL. D., Columbian, 1876;
and Harvard, 1877. Studied law in Cambridge. Admitted to the Bar,
1841. Member of Massachusetts Legislature, i848-'49. U. S. Marshal
for Massachusetts, 1849-53. Major, Colonel, Brigadier-General, 186 1-
'62. Major-General, 1864. Justice of Superior Court of Massachusetts,
1867. Justice of Supreme Court of Massachusetts, 1873-77, '81, Attorney-
General of the United States, 1877.

The Board of Regents 91

STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.

ILLINOIS.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed February 21, 1854; reappointed

January 26, i860.

Born in Brandon, Vermont, April 23, 1813; died in Chicago, Illinois, June
3, 1 86 1. Educated in public schools, Brandon, Vermont, and Canandaigua,
New York. Taught school in Winchester, Illinois, 1833. Admitted to the
Bar, 1834. Attorney-General of the State of Illinois, 1834. Member of the
Illinois Legislature, 1835. Secretary of State of Illinois, 1840. Judge of
the Supreme Court, 1841. Registrar of the Land Office of Illinois, 1837.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Illinois, December 4, 1843-
August ID, 1846. Member of U. S. Senate from Illinois, December 6, 1847-
March 2, 1861. Candidate for President of the United States, i860.

GEORGE FRANKLIN EDMUNDS.

VERMONT.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed January 20, 1883 ; declined February,
21, 1883. Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate /w ievi., i883-'85.

Born in Richmond, Vermont, February i, 1828. Educated in public
schools. A. M., University of Vermont, 1855. LL, D., Middlebury, 1869;
and University of Vermont, 1879. Admitted to the Bar in Richmond,
Vermont, 1849. Member of Vermont Legislature, 1854-59, i86i-'62; and
Speaker, 1855-57. Member of U. S. Senate from Vermont, December 3,
1866-March 3, 1 89 1. President pro tern, of the United States Senate,
i883-'85.

MATTHEW GAULT EMERY.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1870-June, 1871.

Bom in Pembroke, New Hampshire, September 28, 181 8. Educated in
Pembroke Academy. Member of Board of Aldermen, Washington City,
many years. Captain of Company of Militia in the District of Columbia,
May 16, 1861. 'rreasurer of New Hampshire Soldiers' Association, i86i-'65.
Trustee Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. Mayor of Washington City, June,
1870-June, 1871. Vice-Chancellor of National University, Regent and Treas-
urer American University, Washington City.

WILLIAM HAYDEN ENGLISH.

INDIANA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14. 1853;
reappointed February 26, 1856, December 14, 1857, February 21, i860.

Born in Lexington, Indiana, August 27, 1822 ; died in Indianapolis, In-
diana, February 7, 1896. Educated m Hanover College. Admitted to the
Bar, 1846. County Clerk ; Postmaster in Lexington. Secretary of Indiana

92 The Smithsonian Institution

State Constitutional Convention, 1850. Member and Speaker of Indiana
Legislature, 185 1. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Indiana,
December i, 1851-March 4, 1861. Candidate for Vice-President, 1880.
President Indiana Historical Society.

GEORGE EVANS.

MAINE.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed August 10, 1846.

Born in Hallowell, Maine, January 12, 1797; died in Portland, Maine,
April 5, 1867. Educated in Hallowell and Monmouth Academies, Maine.
A, B., Bowdoin, 1815. LL. D., Bowdoin, 1847. Admitted to the Bar in
Gardiner, Maine, 1818. Member of Maine Legislature, 1825-28, and
Speaker, 1828. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Maine,
December 7, 1829-March 3, 1841. Member of U. S. Senate from Maine,
May 31, 1841-March 3, 1847. Attorney-General of Maine, 1853-56. Com-
missioner of Board of Mexican Claims, i849-'5o.

JOHN FRANKLIN FARNSWORTH.

ILLINOIS.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 21, 1865.

Born in Eaton, Quebec, Canada, March 27, 1820. Admitted to the Bar
and practised law in Chicago. Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Illinois, December i, 1857-March 4, 1861, December 7, 1863-March 4,
1873. Colonel, Brigadier-General, i862-'63.

CORNELIUS CONWAY FELTON.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent elected by Congress, February 27, 1856; reelected March 2, 1861.

Born in West Newbury, Massachusetts, November 6, 1807; died in Ches-
ter, Pennsylvania, February 26, 1862. Educated in Franklin Academy,
Andover. A. B., Harvard, 1827. LL. D., Amherst, 1848; and Yale, i860.
Latin tutor, 1829; Greek tutor, 1830; Professor of Greek, 1832; Professor
of Greek Literature, 1834; President of Harvard College, 1860-62.

THOMAS WHITE FERRY.

MICHIGAN.

Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate pro tern., Acting Vice-President,

December 20, 1875.

Born in Mackinac, Michigan, June i, 1827; died in Grand Haven, Michi-
gan, October 14, 1896. Educated in public school. Member of Michigan
Legislature, 1850-56. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Mich-
igan, December 4, 1865-March 3, 187 1. Member of U. S. Senate from
Michigan, March 4, 1871-March 3, 1883. President //v tern. United States
Senate, 1875-79. As Acting Vice-President presided and delivered the ad-

The Board of Regents 93

dress in Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876. Presided at impeach-
ment trial of Secretary Belknap and the Joint Electoral Commission, iSyG-'yy.

WILLIAM PITT FESSENDEN.

MAINE.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 4, 1861 ; reappointed

March 7, 1865.

Bom in Boscawen, New Hampshire, October 16, 1806; died in Portland,
Maine, September 8, 1869. A. B., Bowdoin, 1823. LL. D., Bowdoin, 1858 ;
and Harvard, 1864. Admitted to the Bar, Bridgeton, Maine, 1827. Member
of Maine Legislature, 1832-40, 1845-46, and 1 853-54. Presidential Elector,
1852. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Maine, May 31, 1841-
March 3, 1845. Member of U. S. Senate from Maine, July 4, 1854-December 6,
1864, December 4, 1865-April 10, 1869. Secretary of the Treasury, July, 18C4-
March, 1865,

MILLARD FILLMORE.

NEW YORK.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1849-1850.

Born in Summer Hill, Cayuga County, New York, February 7, 1800;
died in Buffalo, New York, March 7, 1874. D. C. L., University of Oxford.
Admitted to the Bar, Buffalo, New York, 1823. Member of the New York
Legislature, 1828-32. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from New
York, December 2, 1833-March 3, 1835, September 4, 1837-March 3, 1843.
Comptroller of the State of New York, 1847. Vice-President of the United
States, March 4, 1849. President of the United States, July 9, 1850.

GRAHAM NEWELL FITCH.

INDIANA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1850; re-
appointed January 2, 1852.

Born in LeRoy, New York, December 6, 1809; died in Logansport, In-
diana, November 29, 1892. Educated in Middlebury and Geneva, New
York. M. D., Medical College, Fairfield, New York. Practised medicine
in Logansport, Indiana, 1834. Professor in Rush Jvledical College, Chicago,
1844-49. Professor of Surgery, Indiana Medical College, i878-'83. Mem-
ber of Indiana Legislature, 1836-39. Member of U. S. House of Represen-
tatives from Indiana, December 3, 1849-March 3, 1S53. Member of U. S.
Senate from Indiana, December 7, 1857-March 2, 1861. Colonel in War of
the Rebelhon, 1861-62. Presidential Elector, 1844, 1848, 1856.

LAFAYETTE SABINE FOSTER.

CONNECTICUT.

Regent as President of the Senate, Acting Vice-President jjJrc /<;«., April 15, 1865.

Born in Franklin, Connecticut, November 22, 1806; died in Norwich,
Connecticut, September 19, 1880. A. B., Brown, 182S. LL. D., Brown,

94 The Smithsonian Institution

185 1. Admitted to the Bar, Centerville, Maryland, and Norwich, Connecti-
cut, 1830, '31. Member of the Connecticut Legislature, i839-'4i, 1846-
'48, and i854-'7o; and Speaker, 1847-48, 1854, and 1870. Mayor of Nor-
wich, Connecticut, i85i-'52. Member of U. S. Senate from Connecticut,
March 4, 1855-March 4, 1867. President of the Senate /r<? tern., 1865-67.
Justice of Supreme Court of Connecticut, i87o-'76. Professor of Law in
Yale, 1869.

MELVILLE WESTON FULLER.

ILLINOIS.

Regent ex officio, as Chief Justice of the United States, October 8, 1888.

Born in Augusta, Maine, February 11, 1833. A, B., Bowdoin, 1853.
LL. D., Northwestern University; Bowdoin, 1888; and Harvard, 1890. Stud-
ied law in Bangor and at Harvard. Admitted to the Bar, 1855. President
of Council of Augusta and City Solicitor, 1856. Member of Illinois Con-
stitutional Convention, 1862. Member of Illinois Legislature, 1863-65.
Chief Justice of the United States, 1888.

JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD.

OHIO.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 21, 1865 ;
reappointed January 7, 1868, February 2, 1870, January, 1872, January 14,
1878, April 14, 1879.

Born in Bedford, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November 19, 1831 ; died in
Elberon, New Jersey, September 19, 1881. Educated in high schools,
Chester and Hiram, Ohio. A. B., Williams, 1856. A. M., Williams, 1859.
LL. D., Williams, 1872 ; and University of Pennsylvania, 1881. Tutor of Latin
and Greek in Hiram College, 1856. President of Hiram College, i857-'59.
Member of Ohio Senate, i859-'6o. Lieutenant-Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier-
General, Major-General, 1861-63. Member of U. S. House of Represen-
tatives from Ohio, December 7, 1863-June 16, 1880. Elected to U. S. Senate
from Ohio, 1880. President of the United States, March 4, 1881.

LUCIUS JEREMIAH GARTRELL.

GEORGIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14, 1857;

reappointed February 21, i860.

Born in Wilkes County, Georgia, January 7, 1821 ; died in Adanta, Georgia,
April 7, 1891. Educated in Randolph-Macon, Virginia, and Franklin College,
now University of Georgia. Admitted to the Bar, 1842. Solicitor-General
of Georgia, i843-'47. Member of Georgia Legislature, 1847-51. Presiden-
tial Elector, 1856. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Georgia,
December 7, 1857-March 2, 1861. Colonel and Brigadier-General in Con-
federate Army.

The Board of Regents 95

RANDALL LEE GIBSON.

LOUISIANA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 19, 1887; reappointed

March 28, 1889.

Born in Spring Hill, Kentucky, September 10, 1832; died in Hot Springs,
Arkansas, December 15, 1892. Educated in Lexington, Kentucky, and
Terre Bonne, Louisiana. A. B., Yale, 1853. Graduated in law, University
of Louisiana, 1855. Declined Secretaryship of Legation to Spain, 1855.
Captain, Colonel, and General in Confederate Army. Member of U. S.
House of Representatives from Louisiana, December 6, 1875-March 3, 1S83.
Member of U. S. Senate from I-ouisiana, March 4, 1883-March 3, 1892.
President of the Board of Administration of the Tulane Educational Fund.
Trustee of the Peabody Educational Fund. Administrator of the Howard
Memorial Library,

ASA GRAY.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent elected by Congress, January 19, 1874: reelected December 19, 1879,

and December 26, 1885.

Born in Paris, New York, November 18, 1810; died in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, January 30, 1888. Educated in Fairfield Academy, New York,
1825-29. M. D., College of Physicians and Surgeons, Fairfield, 1831.
A. M., Harvard, 1844. LL. D., Hamilton, i860. Harvard, 1875; McGill,
1884; University of Michigan, 1887; and Edinburgh, 1887. D. Sc, Cambridge,
1887. D. C. L., Oxford, 1887. Botanist to United States Exploring Expedition,
1834-37. Curator New York Lyceum of Natural History, 1836. Elected
Professor of Botany and Zoology, University of Michigan (declined), 1838,
Professor of Natural History, Harvard, 1842-73. Curator of the Herbarium,
Harvard, 1873. Original Member of National Academy of Sciences, 1863.
President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, i863-'73. Pres-
ident of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1872.

GEORGE GRAY.

DELAWARE.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 20, 1892; reappomted March

20, 1893.

Born in New Castle, Delaware, May 4, 1840. A. B., Princeton, 1859.
A. M., Princeton, 1862. LL. D., Princeton, 1889. Studied law in Harvard.
Admitted to the Bar, 1863. Attorney-General of Delaware, 1879-85. Mem-
ber of LT. S. Senate from Delaware, March 19, 1885-March 3, 1899.

HANNIBAL HAMLIN.

MAINE.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4. 1 861 -March 4,
1865. Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed January iS, 1870.

Born in Paris, Maine, August 27, 1809; died in Bangor, Maine, July 4,
1891. Educated in Hebron Academy, Maine. LL. D., Waterville (now
Colby) University, 1859. Admitted to the Bar, Paris, Maine, 1833. Mem-

96 The Smithsonian Institution

ber of the Maine Legislature, 1836-40, and 1847. Speaker of the Maine
House, 1837-39, ^"^ 1840. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from
Maine, December 4, 1843-March 3, 1847. Member of U. S. Senate from
Maine, June 12, 1848-March 3, 1851, March 3, 1857-March 3, 1861, March
3, 1869-March 3, 1881. Governor of Maine, 1857. Vice-President of the
United States, i86i-'65. Collector of Port of ^Boston, i865-'66. U. S.
Minister to Spain, 1881-85.

GIDEON HAWLEY.

NEW YORK.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846; reelected December 19, 1848, and

December 27, 1854.

Born in Huntington, Connecticut, September 26, 1785; died in Albany,
New York, July 16, 1870. Educated in Academy, Ballston, New York.
A. B., Union, 1809. LL. D., Rutgers, 1833. Admitted to the Bar in Albany,
1813. Secretary of the Regents of the University of New York, 1814-41.
State Superintendent of Common Schools, i8i3-'2i; known as " the Father
of the Common School System of the State." Regent of the University of
New York, 1842-70. Trustee ot Albany Academy, 18 18. Trustee of Al-
bany Female Academy, 182 1. Member of Executive Committee of State
Normal School, i845-'52. Master in Chancery, 181 2.

GERRY WHITING HAZLETON.

WISCONSIN.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 18, 1873.

Born in Chester, New Hampshire, February 24, 1829. Educated in Pinker-
ton Academy, New Hampshire. Admitted to the Bar, 1856. Member
of Wisconsin Senate, i860. Collector of Internal Revenue, 1866. U. S.
Attorney for Wisconsin, 1869. Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Wisconsin, March 4, 1871-March 3, 1875.

JOHN BROOKS HENDERSON.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, January 26, 1892.

Born near Danville, Virginia, November 16, 1826. LL. D., University of
Missouri, 1882. Admitted to the Bar in Missouri, 1848. Member of Missouri
Legislature, 1856. Presidential Elector, 1856-60. Member of U. S. Senate
from Missouri, January 29, 1862-March 3, 1869. Commissioner to the In-
dians, 1867. Assistant U. S. District Attorney, 1875.

THOMAS ANDREWS HENDRICKS.

INDIANA.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1885.

Born in Muskingum County, Ohio, September 7, 1819; died in Indianapolis,
Indiana, November 25, 1885. A. B., South Hanover College 1841. Ad-
mitted to the Bar in Shelbyville, Indiana, 1843. Member of Indiana Legis-

The Board of Regents 97

lature, 1845. Member of Constitutional Convention, 1850. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from Indiana, December 1, 1851-March 4,
1853. Commissioner of the General Land Office, i855-'57. Member of
U. S. Senate from Indiana, December 7, 1863-March 3, 1869. Governor
of Indiana, i873-'77. Vice-President of the United States, 1885.

BENJAMIN HARVEY HILL.

GEORGIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14, 1875.

Born in Hillsborough, Jasper County, Georgia, September 14, 1823; died
in Atlanta, Georgia, August 19, 1882. A. B., University of Georgia, 1844.
Admitted to the Bar in La Grange, Georgia, 1S45. Member of the Georgia
House of Representatives, 1851 ; and Senate, 1859. Member of Confederate
Senate, i86i-'65. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Georgia,
December 6, 1875-March 3, 1879. Member of U. S. Senate from Georgia,
March 5, 1877-August 19, 1882, Presidential Elector, 1856, i860.

NATHANIEL PETER HILL.

COLORADO.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed May 19, 1881.

Born in Montgomery, New York, February 18, 1832. A. B., Brown, 1856.
Tutor in Chemistry, 1858; Professor of Chemistry applied to the Arts,
1859-64, Brown University. Member of the Colorado Territorial Council,
i872-'73. Mayor of Black-Hawk, Colorado, 1871. Member of U. S. Senate
from Colorado, March 3, 1879-March 3, 1885. Member of International
Monetary Commission, 1891.

HENRY WASHINGTON HILLIARD.

ALABAMA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed August 10, 1846; re-
appointed December 22, 1847, and January 7, 1850,

Born in Fayetteville, North Carolina, August 4, 1808; died in Atlanta,
Georgia, December 17, 1892. A. B., South Carolina College, 1826. A. M.,
South Carolina College, 1829; and University of Alabama, 1834. Ad-
mitted to the Bar in Athens, Georgia, 1829. Professor in Alabama University,
i83i-'34. Member of Alabama Legislature, 1838. U. S. Minister to Bel-
gium, i842-'44. Member of U. S. House of Rei)resentatives from Alabama
December i, 1845-March 3, 1851. U. S. Minister to Brazil, i877-'8i,
Presidential Elector, 1840, 1856, i860. Brigadier-General in Confederate
Army, 1862.

ROBERT ROBERTS HITT.

ILLINOIS.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed August 11. 1S93; re-
appointed January 4, 1894, and December 20, 1895.

Born in Urbana, Ohio, January 16, 1834. Educated in Rock River Semi-
nary (now Mount Morris College), Illinois. A. B., De Pauw University, 1855.

98 The Smithsonian Institittion

A. M., De Pauw, 1858. LL. D., De Pauvv, 1894. First Secretary of Legation
and Charge d'Afifaires ad interim at Paris, December, 1874-March, 1881.
Assistant Secretary of State, 1882. Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Illinois, November 7, 1882-March 3, 1899.

EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 18, 1873.

Born in Concord, Massachusetts, February 21, 1816; died in Concord,
Massachusetts, January 31, 1895. A. B., Harvard, 1835. LL. B., Harvard,
1839. LL. D., Williams, 1861 ; and Harvard, 1868. Admitted to the Bar in
Concord and Boston, 1840. Member of Massachusetts Legislature, 1846.
Judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1849-55. Judge of the State Supreme
Court, i859-'69. Attorney-General of the United States, 1869-70. Member
of the Joint High Commission that framed the Treaty of Washington with
Great Britain, 187 1. Presidential Elector, 1872. Member of U. S. House of
Representatives from Massachusetts, December i, 1873-March 4, 1875.

GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, February 21, 1881.

Born in Concord, Massachusetts, August 29, 1826. Educated in Concord
Academy. A. B., Harvard College, 1846. LL. B., Harvard, 1849. LL. D.,
William and Mary, 1873; Amherst, 1879; Yale, 1885; and Harvard, 1886.
Admitted to the Bar in Worcester, Massachusetts. Member of Massachusetts
House of Representatives, 1852 ; and State Senate, 1857. City Solicitor, i860.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts, March 4,
1869-March 4, 1877. Member of U. S. Senate from Massachusetts, March
4, 1877-March 3, 1901. President of American Antiquarian Society; Ameri-
can Historical Association, 1895. Member of the Electoral Commission,
1876. Overseer of Harvard College, 1 874-'8o.

WILLIAM JARVIS HOUGH.

■ NEW YORK.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed August 10, 1846.

Born in Eaton, Madison County, New York, March 6, 1795; died in Syra-
cuse, New York, October 4, 1869. Admitted to the Bar in Cazenovia, New
York. Member of New York Legislature, 1855-56. Member of U. S. House
of Representatives from New York, December i, 1845-March 3, 1847,

GARDINER GREENE HUBBARD.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, February 27, 1895.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, August 25, 1822. Educated in Boston.
A. B., Dartmouth, 1841. LL. D., Columbian, 1888; and Dartmouth, 1893.

The Board of Regents 99

Admitted to the Bar in Boston, 1843. Founder of the first school estab-
hshed in United States for teaching the deaf to speak, in Chelmsford, Massa-
chusetts, 1846, afterwards moved to Northampton and incorporated as the
Clark School for the Deaf. Member of State Board of Education of Massa-
chusetts for ten years. Special U. S. Commissioner on Railroad Mail
Transportation, 1876. Commissioner from Massachusetts to the Centennial
Exposition, 1876. President of the Joint Commission of the seven Scientific
Societies in Washington, 1895. President National Geographic Society.

JOHN JAMES INGALLS.

KANSAS.

Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate /ri? tern., February 26, 1887-89.

Born in Middletown, Massachusetts, December 29, 1833. A. B., Williams,
1855. LL. D., Williams, 1884. Admitted to the Bar, 1857. Secretary of
Kansas Territorial Council, i860. Member of the Kansas Senate, 1862.
Member of U. S. Senate from Kansas, March 4, 1873-March 3, 1891.

ANDREW JOHNSON.

TENNESSEE.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1865.

Bom in Raleigh, North Carolina, December 29, 1808; died in Carter County,
Tennessee, July 31, 1875. Self-educated. LL. D., Columbia, 1865 ; and Uni-
versity of North Carolina, 1865. Alderman in Greenville, Tennessee, 1828-30.
Mayor, 1830-33. Trustee of Rhea Academy, 1831. Member of Tennessee
Legislature, 1835, 1839, 1841, and 1843. Presidential Elector for State-at-large,
1840, Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Tennessee, i843-'53.
Governor of Tennessee, 1853-57. Member of U. S. Senate from Tennessee,
December 7, 1857-March 4, '62-March 4, 1875-March 24, 1875. Military
Governor of Tennessee, 1862-64. Vice-President of the United States, 1865.
President of the United States, April 14, 1865-March 4, 1869.

JOSEPH EGGLESTON JOHNSTON.

VIRGINIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed April 4, 1879.

Bom near Farmville, Virginia, February 3, 1807 ; died in Washington City,
March 21, 1891. Graduated LTnited States Military Academy, 1829. Second
Lieutenant in Fourth Artillery, 1829. In Black Hawk expedition, 1832. First
Lieutenant, Fourth Artillery, 1836. Aide-de-camp to General Scott in the
Seminole War. First Lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, 1838. Brevetted
Captain for gallantry in the War with the Florida Lidians. \\\ charge of many
important river and harbor improvements, i838-'42. Boundary surveys,
1842-46. Brevetted Major, Lieutenant-Colonel, and Colonel for gallantry in
the Mexican War. Quartermaster-General of the Army, i86o-'6i. Major-
General in Confederate Army, 1861-65. Member of U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives from Virginia, March 18, 1879-March 4, 1S81. Commissioner of
Railroads of the United States, 1887.

loo The Smithsonian Institution

WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON.

LOUISIANA.

Regent elected by Congress, January 26, 1892.

Born in Louisville, Kentucky, January 5, 1831. A. B., Yale, 1852. LL. D.,
Washington and Lee, 1875. Colonel in Confederate Army. Professor of His-
tory and English Literature in Washington and Lee University, 1867-80.
President Louisiana State University, 1880. Elected President Tulane Uni-
versity, 1884.

WILLIAM RUFUS KING.

ALABAMA.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1853.

Born in Sampson County, North Carolina, April 6, 1786; died in Dallas
County, Alabama, April 8, 1853. A. B., University of North Carolina, 1803.
Admitted to the Bar in Fayetteville, North Carohna, 1806. Member of North
Carolina Legislature. Solicitor of Wilmington District. Member of U. S.
House of Representatives from Alabama, December 3, 1810-16. Secretary
of Legation to Naples, 1816. Secretary of Legation to Russia, 1818. Dele-
gate to Convention to Organize State Government for Alabama, 1819. Mem-
ber of U. S. Senate from Alabama, December 6, 1819-June 17, 1844, Decem-
ber 4, 1848-53. U. S. Minister to France, 1844-46. Vice-President of the
United States, 1853.

WALTER LENOX.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent i?.r <j^r/^, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1850-June, 1852.

Born in Washington City, August 17, 1817 ; died in Washington City, July
16, 1874. A. B., Yale, 1837. Member and President of City Council, also an
Alderman of Washington. Mayor of Washington City, June, 1850-June, 1852,

HENRY CABOT LODGE.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 6, 1890;

reappointed January 15, 1892.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, May 12, 1850. Educated in private school.
A. B., Harvard, 1871. LL. B., Harvard, 1874. Ph. D., Harvard, 1876.
LL. D., Williams, 1893. Admitted to the Bar in Boston, 1876. University
Lecturer on American History, Harvard, i876-'79. Member of Massachu-
setts Legislature, 1880-81. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from
Massachusetts, December 5, 1887-March 4, 1893. Member of U. S. Senate
from Massachusetts, March 4, 1893-March 3, 1899,

The Board of Regents loi

ROBERT MCCLELLAND.

MICHIGAN.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 22, 1847.

Born in Greencastle, Pennsylvania, August i, 1807; died in Detroit, Michi-
gan, August 27, 1880. A. B., Dickinson, 1829. Admitted to the Bar in
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, 1831. Member of Michigan Constitutional
Convention, 1835. Member of Michigan Legislature and Speaker, i838-'43.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Michigan, 1843-49. Mem-
ber of Constitutional Conventions of Michigan, 1850 and '67. Governor of
Michigan, 1851-53. Secretary of the Interior, i853-'57.

GEORGE WASHINGTON M^CRARY.

IOWA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14, 1875.

Born near Evansville, Indiana, August 29, 1835; died in St. Joseph, Mis-
souri, June 23, 1890. Educated in public school and Academy. Ad-
mitted to the Bar in Keokuk, Iowa, 1856. Member of the Iowa Legislature,
i857-'65. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Iowa, March 4,
1869-March 4, 1877. Secretary of War Department, 1877-79. J^^g^ of
United States Circuit Court, 1879-84.

EDWARD MCPHERSON.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 19, 1861.

Born in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 31, 1830; died in Gettysburg, Penn-
sylvania, December 14, 1895. A. B., Pennsylvania College, 1848; and Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, 1848. A. M., Princeton, 1866. LL. 1)., University
of Pennsylvania, 1877. Admitted to the Bar. Member of U. S. House
of Representatives from Pennsylvania, December 5, 1859-March 4, 1863.
Deputy Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 1863. Cleik of the House of
Representatives, 1863-73, i88i-'83, i889-'9i. Chief of the Bureau of En-
graving and Printing, i877-'78.

JOHN MACLEAN.

NEW JERSEY.

Regent elected by Congress, January 11, 1868; reelected January 19, 1874,
December 19, 1879, and December 26, 1885.

Born in Princeton, New Jersey, March 3, 1800; died in Princeton, New
Jersey, August 10, 1886. A. B., Princeton, 1816. D. D., Washington Col-
lege, 184 1. LL. D., University of the State of New York, 1854. Tutor
of Greek in Princeton. Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
Princeton, 1822-29. Professor of Ancient Languages, i829-'47. President
of Princeton, i854-'68.

I02 The Smithsonian Institittion

WILLIAM BEANS MAGRUDER.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

'^tg&n\. ex officio f as Mayor of Washington, June, 1856-June, 1858.

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, February 11, 181 1; died in Georgetown,
District of Columbia, May 30, 1869. Studied medicine in Georgetown, Dis-
trict of Columbia. M. D., University of Maryland, 1831. Member of City
Councils of Washington twenty years. In charge of Cholera Hospital, 1832.
Mayor of Washington City, June, 1856-June, 1858.

GEORGE PERKINS MARSH.

VERMONT.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 22, 1847.

Born in Woodstock, Vermont, March 15, 1801; died in Vallambrosa,
Italy, July 23, 1882, A. B., Dartmouth, 1820. A. M., Dartmouth, i860.
LL. D., Harvard, 1859; Delaware, 1859; and Dartmouth, i860. Admitted to
the Bar in Burlington, Vermont, 1823. Member of the Vermont Legislature,
1835. Member of Supreme Executive Council of Vermont. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from Vermont, December 7, 1842-March 3,
1849, U. S. Minister to Turkey, 1849-53. Special U. S. Commissioner to
Greece, 1852. U. S. Minister to Italy, 1861-82. Member of National Acad-
emy of Sciences, 1866.

JAMES MURRAY MASON.

VIRGINIA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed March 6, 1849; reappointed March 6,

185 1, and March 6, 1857.

Bom in Fairfax County, Virginia, November 3, 1798; died near Alexandria,
Virginia, April 28, 1871. A. B., University of Pennsylvania, 1818. Admitted
to the Bar in Winchester, Virginia. Member of Virginia Legislature, 1826-
'32. Member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1829. Presidential
Elector, 1833. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Virginia,
September 4, 1837-March 3, 1839. Member of U. S. Senate from Virginia,
December 6, 1847-July 11, 1861.

JOHN WALKER MAURY.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1852-June, 1854.

Bom in Caroline County, Virginia, May 15, 1809; died in Washington
City, February 2, 1855. Alderman of Washington City, i85i-'52. Mayor
of Washington City, June, 1852-June, 1854. President of the Bank of the
Metropolis. Trustee of Columbian University, Washington City.

The Board of Regents 103

SAMUEL BELL MAXEY.

TEXAS.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed May 19, 188 1.

Born in Tompkinsville, Kentucky, March 30, 1825 ; died in Eureka Springs,
Arkansas, August 16, 1895. Educated in Monroe County, Kentucky.
Graduated United States Military Academy, 1846. Brevetted First Lieuten-
ant for gallant conduct in the Mexican War. Admitted to the Bar in
Albany, Kentucky, 1850. Elected to Texas State Senate. Brigadier-General,
1862. Major-General of Confederate Army, 1864. Member of U. S. Senate
from Texas, March 5, 1875-March 3, 1887.

JAMES MEACHAM.

VERMONT.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 2, 1852;
reappointed December 14, 1853, and February 26, 1856.

Born in Rutland, Vermont, 1810; died in Middlebury, Vermont, August 22,
1856. A. B., Middlebury, 1832. Tutor in Middlebury. Studied theology.
Professor of Elocution and English Literature in Middlebury College. Mem-
ber of U. S. House of Representatives from Vermont, March 3, 1849-August
22, 1856.

MONTGOMERY CUNNINGHAM MEIGS.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, December 26, 1885.

Born in Augusta, Georgia, May 3, 1816; died in Washington City, January
2, 1892. Entered University of Pennsylvania, 1S31. Graduated United States
Military Academy, 1836. First Lieutenant U. S. Engineers, 1838. Captain,
1853. Corps of Engineers engaged in engineering works, i84i-'5o. Colonel
of the Eleventh U. S. Infantry, 1861. Quartermaster-General United States
Army, 1861. Brigadier-General, 1862. Major-General, 1864. Designed and
constructed the Potomac Aqueduct, 1852. Superintended building of the new
wings and iron dome of the United States Capitol extension. Built the Cap-
tain John Bridge and U. S. Pension Bureau. Member of National Academy
of Sciences, 1865.

SAMUEL FREEMAN MILLER.

IOWA.

Regent ex officio, as Acting Chief Justice of the United States, March 24, 18S8, and
Chancellor /r^) km. pending the appointment of a Chief Justice.

Born in Richmond, Kentucky, April 5, 1816; died in Washington City,
October 13, 1890. M. D., Transylvania University, 1837. LL. D., Iowa
State University, 1S65; Iowa College, 1870; University of Michigan, 1887;
and National University, 1890. D. C. L., Georgetown University, 1870. Ad-
mitted to the Bar in Kentucky, 1844. Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States, 1862-90. Member Electoral Commission, iS-jS-'-j-j.

I04 The Smithsonian Institution

JUSTIN SMITH MORRILL.

VERMONT.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed February 21, 1883 ; reappointed
March 23, 1885, and December 15, 1891.

Born in Strafford, Vermont, April 14, 1810. Educated in public schools and
Academy. A. M., Dartmouth, 1857. LL.D., Vermont University and State
Agricultural College, 1874; and University of Pennsylvania, 1884. Member
of U. S. House of Representatives from Vermont, December 3, 1855-March
4, 1867. Member of U. S. Senate from Vermont, March 4, 1867-March 3,
1903.

LEVI PARSONS MORTON.

NEW YORK.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1889-

March 4, 1893.

Born in Shoreham, Vermont, May 16, 1824. Educated in public schools
and Academy. LL. D., Dartmouth, 1881; and Middlebury, 1882. Merchant
and banker. Honorary U. S. Commissioner to the Paris Exposition, 1878.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from New York, March 18, 1879-
March 4, 1881. U. S. Minister to France, 1881-85. U. S. Commissioner-
General to the Paris Electrical Exposition, 1888. Vice-President of the
United States, i889-'93. Governor of the State of New York, 1894-96.

ROBERT DALE OWEN.

INDIANA.
Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed August 10, 1846.

Born in Glasgow, Scotland, November 9, 1800 ; died at Lake George, New
York, June 17, 1877. Educated in Berne, Switzerland. LL. D., Uni-
versity of Indiana, 1872. Member of Indiana Legislature, 1835. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from Indiana, December 4, 1843-March 3,
1847. Member and Chairman of Indiana Constitutional Convention, 1850.
Member of Indiana Legislature, 1851. Charge d'Afifaires to Naples, 1S53.
U. S. Minister to Naples, 1855-58.

PETER PARKER.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, January 11, 1868; reelected January 19, 1874, and

December 19, 1879.

Born in Framingham, Massachusetts, June 18, 1804; died in Washington
City, January 10, 1888. A. B., Yale, 1831. A. M., Yale, 1858. M. D., Yale,
1834. Studied theology. Went to China as a missionary. Established a
hosi)ital in Canton, China. Secretary of United States Embassy and Acting
Charge d'Afifaires, China, i845-'55. Commissioner to China, 1855-57.

The Board of Regents 105

JAMES WILLIS PATTERSON.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 23, 1863 ;

reappointed December 21, 1865.

Born in Henniker, New Hampshire, July 2, 1823; died in Hanover, New
Hampshire, May 4, 1893. A. B., Dartmouth, 1848. LL. D., Iowa Col-
lege, 1868. Studied theology in Yale. Tutor, 1852-54; Professor of Math-
ematics, i854-'59; Professor of Astronomy and Meteorology, Dartmouth,
1849-65. Secretary of New Hampshire State Board of Education. Mem-
ber of the Legislature, i862-'77, and 1878. Member of U. S. House of
Representatives from New Hampshire, December i, 1862-March 3, 1867.
Member of U. S. Senate from New Hampshire, March 4, i867-March 3,
1873. State Superintendent of Public Instruction in New Hampshire, 1880.

JAMES ALFRED PEARCE.

MARYLAND.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed February 22, 1847; reappointed
June 19, 1856, and March 7, 1861.

Born in Alexandria, Virginia, December 14, 1805; died in Charlestown,
Maryland, December 20, 1862. A. B., Princeton, 1822. LL. D., Princeton;
and St. John's College, 1856. Member of Maryland Legislature, 1831. Ad-
mitted to the Bar in Baltimore, 1824. Professor of Law, Washington College,
Maryland. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Maryland,
December 7, 1835-March 3, 1843. Member of U. S. Senate from Maryland,
January 10, 1843-July 17, 1862. Offered and declined Judgeship of United
States District Court of Maryland, and Secretaryship of U. S. Department
of the Interior.

ISAAC SAMUALS PENNYBACKER.

VIRGINIA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed August 10, 1846.

Bom in Shenandoah County, Virginia, September 12, 1807 ; died in Wash-
ington City, January 12, 1847. A. B,, Washington College. Admitted to
the Bar in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Member of U. S. House of Representa-
tives from Virginia, December 5, 1836-July 9, 1838. District Judge, 1839.
DecHned office of U. S. Attorney-General, and that of Justice of the Supreme
Court of Virginia and nomination for Governor. Member of U. S. Senate
from Virginia, December 8, 1845-March 3, 1847.

WILLIAM WALTER PHELPS.

NEW JERSEY.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1884;
reappointed January 12, 1886, and January 10, 1888.

Born in New York City, August 29, 1839; died in Teaneck, New Jersey,
June 17, 1894. A. B., Yale, i860. A. M., Yale, 1863. LL. D., Rutgers,

io6 The Smithsonian histitution

1889; and Yale, 1890. LL. B., Columbia, 1863. Admitted to the Bar, 1863.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from New Jersey, December, 1873-
March 3, 1875, December 3, 1883-March 4, 1889. U. S. Minister to Austria,
1881. Member of International Conference on the Samoan Question in Ber-
lin, 1889. U. S. Minister to Germany, 1890-93. Judge of New Jersey
Court of Errors and Appeals, 1893-94.

LUKE POTTER POLAND.

VERMONT.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed March 7, 1867 ;

reappointed February 2, 1870.

Born in Westford, Vermont, November i, 1815; died in Waterville, Ver-
mont, July 2, 1887. Educated in public schools. A. M., University of
Vermont, 1857. LL. D., University of Vermont, 1861. Admitted to the
Bar, 1836. Member of State Constitutional Convention, 1843. Prosecuting
Attorney for Lamoille County, 1844-45. Judge of Vermont Supreme Court,
i848-'6o. Chief Justice of Vermont, 1860-65. Member of Legislature, 1878.
Member of U. S. Senate from Vermont, December 4, 1865-March 3, 1867.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Vermont, March 4, 1867-
March 4, 1875, December 3, 1883-March 3, 1885.

NOAH PORTER.

CONNECTICUT.

Regent elected by Congress, January 26, 1878; reelected March 3, 1884.

Born in Farmington, Connecticut, December 14, 181 1 ; died in New Haven,
Connecticut, March 4, 1892. A. B., Yale, 1831. A. M., Yale. D. D., Uni-
versity of City of New York, 1858. LL. D., Heidelberg, 1884; Edinburgh,
1886; Western Reserve College, 1870; and Trinity, 1871. Master of Hop-
kins Grammar School, New Haven, 1831-33. Tutorin Yale, 1833-35. P^^'
tor of Congregational Churches in Connecticut, i836-'43, and in Massachu-
setts, 1843-46. Professor of Moral Philosophy and Metaphysics in Yale,
1846-71. President of Yale University, i87i-'86.

WILLIAM CAMPBELL PRESTON.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846.

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 27, 1794; died in Columbia,
South Carolina, May 22, i860. A. B., College of South Carolina, 181 2.
LL. D,, Washington and Lee, 1842; and Harvard, 1846. Admitted to the
Bar. Studied law in the University of Edinburgh. Member of South Caro-
lina Legislature, 1828-32. Member of U. S. Senate from South Carolina,
1836. Professor of Belles-lettres and President o( College of South Carolina,

1845-5 1-

The Board of Regents 107

JOHN VAN SCHAICK LANSING PRUYN.

NEW YORK.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1868.

Born in Albany, New York, June 22, 181 1 ; died in Clifton Springs, New
York, November 21, 1877. Educated in private schools. Graduated in
Albany Academy, 1826. A. M., Rutgers, 1835. LL. D., Union, 1845; and
University of Rochester, 1852. Admitted to the Bar, 1832. Member of New
York Legislature, 1861. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from
New York, December 7, 1863-March 3, 1865, March 4, 1867-March 3, 1869.
Regent of University of State of New York, 1844, for thirty-three years,
during the last fifteen of which he was Chancellor (1862-77). President of
St. Stephen's College. President of State Commission of Charities. Presi-
dent of the Board of State Survey.

RICHARD RUSH.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846; reelected December 24, 1850, and

January 28, 1857.

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, August 29, 1780; died in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, July 30, 1859. A. M., Princeton, 1797. Admitted to the Bar in
Philadelphia, 1800. Attorney-General of Pennsylvania, 181 1. Comptroller
of the United States Treasury, 181 1. Attorney-General of the United States,
1814-17. U. S. Secretary of State, 1817. U. S. Minister to England, 1817-
'25. Secretary of the Treasury, 1825. Commissioner to England to obtain
the legacy of James Smithson, i836-'38. U. S. Minister to France, 1847-51.

AARON AUGUSTUS SARGENT.

CALIFORNIA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed January 13, 1874.

Born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, September 28, 1827 ; died in San
Francisco, California, August 14, 1887. Admitted to the Bar, 1854. District
Attorney of Nevada County, California, 1856. Member of U. S. House of
Representatives from California, July 4, 1861-March 3, 1863, March 3, 1869-
March 3, 1873. Member of U. S. Senate from California, March 4, 1873-
March 3, 1879. U. S. Minister to Germany, 1882. Declined mission to
Russia.

WILLIAM WINSTON SEATON.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

'Re'g(in\. ex officio, as Mayor of Washington, August 10, 1846-June, 1850.

Born in King William County, Virginia, January 11, 1785 ; died in Wash-
ington City, June 16, 1866. Educated in Richmond, Virginia. Mayor of
Washington City, June, 1840-June, 1850. Journalist. Editor of the Na-
tional Intelligencer, i8i2-'66.

io8 The Smithsonian Institution

ALEXANDER ROBY SHEPHERD.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Governor of the District of Columbia, September 13, 1873-

June 20, 1874.

Born in Washington City, January 31, 1835. President of Common Coun-
cil of Washington, 1861. Member of Levy Court of District of Columbia,
1867. Alderman, 1870. Member of Board of Public Works, 1871. Gov-
ernor of District of Columbia, September 13, 1873-June 20, 1874.

JOHN SHERMAN.

OHIO.

Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate /ri? tern., December 7, 1885-

February 26, 1887.

Born in Lancaster, Ohio, May 10, 1823. Educated in public schools.
Mount Vernon, and Homer's Academy, Lancaster, Ohio. Admitted to the
Bar, Springfield, Ohio, 1844. Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Ohio, December 3, 1855-61. Member of U. S. Senate from Ohio, March
4, i86i-'77, 1881-99. Secretary of the Treasury, March, 1877-81. Presi-
dent of the Senate pro tern,, December 7, 1885-February 26, 1887.

WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, January 30, 1871 ; reelected March 25, 1878.

Born in Lancaster, Ohio, February 8, 1820; died in New York City, Feb-
ruary 14, 1891. Graduated United States Military Academy, 1840. LL. D.,
Dartmouth, 1866; Yale, 1876; and Princeton, 1878. Served in Indian wars
in Florida, in California, etc., 1840-53. Counsellor-at-Law in Leaven-
worth, Kansas, 1858-59. Superintendent of the Louisiana State Military
Academy, i860. Colonel of Thirteenth Infantry, 1861. Brigadier-General,
1 86 1. Major-General, 1862. Lieutenant-General, 1866. General, 1869-84.'

OTHO ROBARDS SINGLETON.

MISSISSIPPI.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1884;

reappointed January 12, 1886.

Born in Jessamine County, Kentucky, October 14, 1814 ; died in Washing-
ton City, January 11, 1889. A. B., St. Joseph's College, Kentucky, 1836.
Graduated Lexington Law School, 1838. Admitted to the Bar. Member
of Mississippi Legislature, i838-'46. Presidential Elector, 1852. Member
of U. S. House of Representatives from Mississippi, December 5, 1853-
March 3, 1855, December i, i857-March 4, 1861, December 6, 1875-March
4, 1887. Representative in Confederate Congress, i86i-'65.

The Board of Regents 109

BENJAMIN STANTON.

OHIO.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed February 26, 1856;
reappointed Ueccmber 14, 1857, and Fel)ruary2i, i860.

Born near Mount Pleasant, Ohio, June 4, 1809; died in Wheeling, West
Virginia, June 2, 1872. Admitted to the 13ar in Steubenville, Ohio, 1834.
Member of Ohio Senate, i84i-'42. Member of Ohio Constitutional Con-
vention, 1850. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Ohio, Decem-
ber I, 1851-March 3, 1861. Lieutenant-Governor of Ohio, i862-'64.

ALEXANDER HAMILTON STEPHENS.

GEORGIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 14, 1878.

Born near Crawfordsville, Georgia, February 11, 1812; died in Atlanta,
Georgia, March 4, 1883. A. M., Franklin College (now State University),
1832. Admitted to the Bar, 1834. Member of Georgia Legislature, i836-'43.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Georgia, December 4, 1843-
March 3, 1859, December i, 1873-March 4, 1881. Vice-President of Con-
federate States, 1 86 1. Elected Professor of Political Science and History in
the University of Georgia, 1868. Governor of Georgia, 1882.

ADLAI EWING STEVENSON.

ILLINOIS.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1893-

March 4, 1897.

Born in Christian County, Kentucky, October 23, 1835. Educated in
Illinois Wesleyan University, and Centre College, Kentucky. Admitted
to the Bar, 1857. Master in Chancery, 1861-65. State Attorney, 1864-68.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Illinois, December 6,
1875-March 4, 1877, March 18, 1879-March 4, 1881. First Assistant Post-
master-General, 1885. Vice-President of the United States, March 4, i893-'97.

JOHN WHITE STEVENSON.

KENTUCKY.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 10, 1872.

Born in Richmond, Virginia, May 4, 1812; died in Covington, Kentucky,
August 10, 1886. Educated in Richmond. A. B., University of Virginia,
1832. Admitted to the Bar, 1841. Member of the Kentucky Legisla-
ture, 1847. Member of State Constitutional Convention, 1849. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from Kentucky, December 1, IS57-^Llrch 4,
1861. Lieutenant-Governor, 1867; and Governor of Kentucky, 1867-71.
Member of U. S. Senate from Kentucky, March 4, IS7I-^L1^ch 3. 1877.
Professor of Law in Cincinnati Law School, 1877. President of the American
Bar Association, 1884. Commissioner to prepare "Code of Practice," 1854.
Presidential Elector, 1852, 1856.

no The Smithsonian Instittition

DAVID STUART.

MICHIGAN.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed December 14, 1853.

Born in Brooklyn, New York, March 12, i86i; died in Detroit, Michi-
gan, September 12, 1868. Educated in Amherst College, 1842. A. B., Brown.
Admitted to the Bar in Detroit, Michigan. Prosecuting Attorney for Wayne
County, Michigan. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Michi-
gan, December 5, 1853-March 3, 1855. Attorney in Chicago. Lieutenant-
Colonel of Forty-second Illinois Infantry Volunteers, 1861. Colonel Second
Regiment, Douglas Brigade, Fifty-fifth Illinois Infantry, 1861. Brigadier-
General of Volunteers, 1862.

ROGER BROOKE TANEY.

MARYLAND.

Regent ex officio, as Chief Justice of the United States, August 10, 1846.

Born in Calvert County, Maryland, March 17, 1777; died in Washington
City, October 12, 1864. Educated in schools in Maryland. A. B., Dickin-
son, 1795. LL. D., Dickinson, 1831 ; and Union, 1835. Admitted to the
Bar, Annapolis, Maryland, 1799. Member of Maryland Legislature, 1800-01.
Attorney-General of Maryland, 1827. Attorney-General of the United States,
1 83 1. Secretary of the Treasury, 1833. Chief Justice of the United States,
March 15, 1836-October 12, 1864.

EZRA B TAYLOR.

OHIO.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 9, 1882.

Born in Nelson, Portage County, Ohio, July 9, 1823. Educated in public
schools and academies. Admitted to the Bar, 1845. Prosecuting Attorney,
1854. Removed to Warren, Ohio, 1861. Judge of Court of Common Pleas,
1877. Member of U. S. House of Representatives from Ohio, March 18,
1879-March 4, 1893.

JOSEPH GILBERT TOTTEN.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, August 10, 1846; reelected December 24, 1850, and

January 28, 1857.

Born in New Haven, Connecticut, August 23, 1788; died in Washington
City, April 22, 1864. A. M., Brown, 1829. Graduated United States Mili-
tary Academy, 1805. Secretary U. S. Survey of Ohio and the Territories,
1806-08; Military Engineer, i8o8-'64; First Lieutenant, 1810; Captain,
1813; Major, 1818; Lieutenant-Colonel, 1828; Colonel and Chief Engineer
U. S. Army, 1838; Inspector U. S. Military Academy, 1838-64; State
Commissioner for preservation of New York and Boston harbors. Served

The Board of Regents 1 1 1

in Mexican War, 1846. Member of Lighthouse Board, 1851-58, 1860-64.
Brigadier-General, 1863. Major-General, 1864. Original Member of Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, 1863.

JOHN THOMAS TOWERS.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Mayor of Washington, June, 1854-June, 1856.

Born in Alexandria, Virginia, February 21, 181 1 ; died in Washmgton City,
August II, 1857. Mayor of Washington City, June, 1854-June, 1856.

LYMAN TRUMBULL.

ILLINOIS.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed December 4, 1861 ; reappointed

March 21, 1867.

Born in Colchester, Connecticut, October 12, 1813; died in Chicago, Illi-
nois, June 25, 1896. LL. D., Shurtleff, 1852 ; Yale, 1858; and Northwestern,
1870. Principal of Academy in Georgia. Admitted to the Bar, 1837. Illinois
Legislature, 1840. Secretary of State of Illinois, 1841-42. Judge of Supreme
Court of Illinois, 1848. Elected Member of U. S. House of Representatives
from Illinois, 1854. Member of U. S. Senate from Illinois, March 4, 1855-
March 3, 1873.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN WADE.

OHIO.

Regent ex officio, as President of the Senate /r<7 tevi., March 2, 1867.

Born near Springfield, Massachusetts, October 27, 1800; died in Jefferson,
Ohio, March 2, 1878. Public school education. Admitted to the Bar in
Jefferson, Ohio, 1828. Prosecuting Attorney of Ashtabula County, Ohio,
i835-'37. Member of Ohio Legislature, 1837-41. Presiding Judge of Third
Judicial District, Ohio, i847-'5i. Member of U. S. Senate from Ohio, March
4, 1851-March 3, 1869. U. S. Commissioner to Santo Domingo, 1871.
President /r^ tern, of the Senate, April, 1865, and March 2, 1867.

MORRISON REMICK WAITE.

OHIO.

Regent ex officio, as Chief Justice of the United States, March 7, 1874.

Born in Lyme, Connecticut, November 29, 1816; died in Washington City,
March 23, 1888. A. B., Yale, 1837. LL. D., Yale, 1872 ; Kenyon, 1874;
University of Ohio, 1879; and Columbia, 1887. Admitted to the Bar, Maumee
City, Ohio, 1839. Member of Ohio Legislature, 1849-50. Counsel of United
States before the Tribunal of Arbitration in Geneva, Switzerland. 1871-72.
President of Ohio Constitutional Convention, 1873. Chief Justice of the
United States, March 7, 1874-March 23, 1888.

I 12

The S7nithsonian htstitutmt

RICHARD WALLACH.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent ex officio, as Mayor of Washington City, August 26, 1861-June, 1868.

Born in Alexandria, Virginia, April 3, 1816 ; died in Washington City, March
4, 1 88 1. Educated in Columbian College, Admitted to the Bar in Washing-
ton City, 1836. U. S. Marshal for District of Columbia, 1849-53. Member
of Common Council, 1848-49. Mayor of Washington City, August 26, 1861-
June, 1868. Under his administration the first fine public-school buildings in
the city were erected.

HIRAM WARNER.

GEORGIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed February 26, 1856,

Born in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, October 29, 1802 ; died in
Atlanta, Georgia, 1881. Admitted to the Bar in Knoxville, Georgia, 1825.
Member of Georgia Legislature, 1828-31. Judge of Superior Court of
Georgia, 1833-40. Judge of Supreme Court of Georgia, 1845-53. Member
of U. S. House of Representatives from Georgia, December 3, 1855-March
3> 1857. Judge of the Supreme Court of Georgia and Chief Justice, 1872.

JAMES CLARKE WELLING.

CITY OF WASHINGTON.

Regent elected by Congress, May 13, 1884; reelected May 22, 1890.

Born in Trenton, New Jersey, July 14, 1825 ; died in Hartford, Connecticut,
September 4, 1894. A. B., Princeton, 1844. LL. D., Columbian University,
1868. Studied Law. Associate Principal of New York Collegiate School,
1848. Literary editor of the National Intelligencer in Washington, i85o-'56;
its Chief Editor and Manager, i856-'65. Clerk of United States Court of
Claims, 1865-67. President of St. John's College, Maryland, 1867. Profes-
sor of Belles-lettres in Princeton, 1870-71, President of Columbian Uni-
versity, 1871-94. President of Board of Trustees of Corcoran Art Gallery,
i877-'94.

JOSEPH WHEELER.

ALABAMA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 10, 1888;
reappointed January 6, 1890, January 15, 1892, January 4, 1894, and December
20, 1895.

Born in Augusta, Georgia, September 10, 1836. Graduated United States
Military Academy, 1859. Lieutenant United States Cavalry, i86o-'6i. Colo-
nel, Brigadier-General, and Lieutenant-General in Confederate Army, and
Senior Cavalry General, 1861-65. Admitted to the Bar, 1866. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from Alabama, March 4, 1881-March 3,
1883, March 4, 1885-March 4, 1899.

The Board of Regents 113

WILLIAM ALMON WHEELER.

NEW YORK.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1877-

March 4, 1881.

Born in Malone, New York, June 30, 1819; died in Malone, New York,
June 4, 1887, A. B., University of Vermont, 1842. A. M., Dartmouth,
1865. LL. D., University of Vermont, 1867; and Union, 1877. Admitted
to the Bar in Malone, New York, 1845. U. S. District Attorney of Frankhn
County, New York, 1845-49. Member of New York Legislature, i849-'5o.
Member and President //v tern, of New York Senate, i858-'59. Member of
U. S. House of Representatives from New York, December 3, 1860-July 17,
1862, March 4, i869-March3, 1877. President of New York Constitutional
Convention, i867-'68. Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1877
March 4, 1881.

ANDREW DICKSON WHITE.

NEW YORK.

Regent elected by Congress, February 15, 1888; reelected March 19, 1894.

Born in Homer, New York, November 7, 1832. Educated in Hobart Col-
lege, New York. A. B., Yale, 1853. A. M., Yale, 1856. Ph. D., Jena,
1889. LL. D., University of Michigan, 1867 ; Cornell, 1886 ; and Yale, 1888.
L, H. D., Columbia, 1887. Professor of History and English Literature
in University of Michigan, i857-'62. Member of New York Senate, 1863-
'64. President of Cornell University, 1867, 1881-85. U. S. Commissioner
to Santo Domingo, 1871. U. S. Minister to Germany, i879-'8i. U. S.
Honorary Commissioner to Paris Exposition, 1878. U. S. Minister to Russia,
1892-95. Member of U. S. Venezuelan Commission, 1896. First President
of American Historical Association, 1884.

HENRY WILSON.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Regent ex officio, as Vice-President of the United States, March 4, 1873-

March 4, 1877.

Born in Farmington, New Hampshire, February 16, 181 2; died in
Washington City, November 22, 1875. A. M., Williams, i860. LL. D.,
Dartmouth, 1874. Member of Massachusetts Legislature, i84o-'43, 1850.
President of Massachusetts Senate, i85i-'52. Member of State Constitutional
Convention, 1853, Member of U. S. Senate from Massachusetts, February
10, i855-March 3, 1873. Vice-President of the United States, i873-'75.

WILLIAM LYNE WILSON.

WEST VIRGINIA.

Regent on behalf of the House of Representatives, appointed January 7, 1884 ; re-
appointed January 12, 1886. Regent elected by Congress, January 14, 1896.

Born in Jefferson County, Virginia, May 3, 1843. Educated in Charles-
town Academy. A. B., Columbian, i860. LL. D., Columbian, 1883;

114 The Smithsonian Institution

Hampden-Sidney, 1886, and University of Mississippi; Tulane; and Central
College, Missouri, 1895. Professor of Latin, Columbian College, 1865-71.
Admitted to the Bar, 1871. President of West Virginia University, 1882.
Member of U. S. House of Representatives from West Virginia, March
4, 1883-March 4, 1895. Presidential Elector, 1880. Postmaster- General,
i895-'97.

ROBERT ENOCH WITHERS.

VIRGINIA.

Regent on behalf of the Senate, appointed March i, 1877.

Born in Campbell County, Virginia, September 18, 182 1. M. D., Univer-
sity of Virginia, 1840. Practised medicine, 1840-58. Major and Colonel in
Confederate Army, 1861. Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia, January i, 1874.
Member of U. S. Senate from Virginia, March 4, 1875-March 3, 1881.

THEODORE DWIGHT WOOLSEY.

CONNECTICUT.

Regent elected by Congress, April 2, 1862; reelected January 11, 1868.

Born in New York City, October 31, 1801 ; died in New Haven, Connec-
ticut, July I, 1889. A. B., Yale, 1820. D. D., Harvard, 1847. LL. D.,
Wesleyan, 1845; and Harvard, 1886. Studied law in Philadelphia, 1821 ;
Theology in Princeton, i82i-'23. Tutor in Yale, i823-'25. Licensed to
preach, 1825. Professor of Greek Languages and Literature in Yale, 1831-46.
President of Yale University, 1846-71.

THE THREE SECRETARIES

By George Brown Goode

JOSEPH HENRY

j^HE early history of American science is very
closely connected with the life of Professor

m Henry. Born with the present century, he
participated in the early movements for the
^'Sz^^^^^w^g^ national organization of science. In his later
years he was an acknowledged leader in the work of main-
taining and extending these, in accordance with the tenden-
cies of modern thouo-ht.

Between 1827 — when he entered the little company of
American investigators, at that time few in number, and for
the most part young and inexperienced — and 1878, when he
died, a recognized leader of a numerous and well-organized
army of trained men, there intervened a full half century, and
one which was of great significance in the history of the
Western continents, since it was peculiarly a formative
period for all those interests upon which the moral and
intellectual welfare of our people depends.

ii6 The Smithsonian htstitntion

For two decades he lived in the laboratory and the lecture-
room, and at the end of that period he was accepted as one of
the world's great investigators, distinguished alike for skill
and originality in experiment and for breadth and philo-
sophic comprehensiveness in deduction. Three other dec-
ades of his life were given to the organization and develop-
ment of the scientific and educational interests of the nation.

It is impossible to estimate the extent of the influence of
those fifty years of intense, devoted toil, of constant, pains-
taking effort, all directed toward one consistent end. Few
men have combined so fully the characteristics of the scholar,
the teacher, the organizer, and leader ; and few have been
so placed that their capacities in such widely different fields
of activity could be constantly employed.

Henry's success as an administrator was unquestionably
due to the versatility of his talents and to the catholicity of
his sympathies, which forbade favoritism toward individual
interests or men. His lofty character and self-sacrificing de-
votion were so manifest in his face and in his actions that all
were impressed by them, and thereby rendered incapable of
opposition. Rivalry and enmity never entered into his rela-
tions to those with whom he worked. The noblest and best
of his associates were always valued and devoted friends, and
there were few of the greatest of his countrymen, whether
statesmen, divines, or men of letters, who were not proud to
say that they knew him well and loved him.

The organization of the Smithsonian Institution was the
task to which his later years were devoted. This will always
be regarded, by the few who appreciate the necessities and
difficulties of scientific administration, as his most important
achievement. There can be no doubt that he himself so re-
garded it, since he felt justified in practically abandoning the
career of an investigator at the time when it was full of the

The Three Secretaries 117

most brilliant promise, notwithstanding the protests of many
who considered it a waste of high talent for him to give up
his own investigations for the sake of providing opportunities
for the work of others.

The story of his administration will be found interwoven
with that of the Institution in every chapter of this book. In
this place attention will be directed chiefly to his contribu-
tions to science and to his personal traits and interests.

II.

Joseph Henry was born in Albany, December 17, 1799. His
father was William Henry, his mother was Annie Alexander.
His grandparents on both sides, the Henrys and the Alexan-
ders, came in the same ship from Scotland to the colony of
New York on June 17, 1775, landing while the first guns
of the American Revolution were sounding.

During early childhood he lived in Albany, and from the
age of seven to thirteen near the country village of Galway,
in the adjoining county of Saratoga.

He was seemingly an idle boy, whose mind was full of
romance, and whose time was chiefly occupied in the read-
ing of novels, poetry, and Shakspere. His young life was
full of dreams, and the efforts of his relatives to induce him
to give attention to practical matters were for a time fruitless.
He was apprenticed to a watchmaker ; but, notwithstanding
his natural taste for mechanism, the occupation was uncon-
genial, and was soon abandoned. For the time the theater
was more to his taste. When in Albany ^ visiting his rela-

1 There was from 1813 to 1816 an excel- Samuel Drake, Henry Placide, Norah M.
lent theater in Albany under the manage- Ludlow, and Frances Ann Denney (Mrs.
ment of Mr. John Bernard, one of the best Drake), all of whom were noted in the his-
of the English comedians, author of" Retro- tory of the American stage. See Sol Smith's
spectus of the Stage " and " Rctrospectus of " Theatrical Apprenticeship," which was pub-
America, 1 797-1 81 1." In his company were lished in Philadelphia in 1845.

ii8 The Smithsonian Institution

tives this was his chief interest. He became an amateur
actor, organized a juvenile theatrical company, "The Ros-
trum," and translated a play from the French, which his
young friends acted under his direction. Thus, perhaps,
were laid the foundations of subsequent success as a public
speaker and presiding officer.

His taste for books was first aroused by Sir Henry Brooke's
" Fool of Quality," which he chanced to open when a boy of
eight or ten. This philosophical romance aroused his interest
in social problems, and led him through the pathway of fiction
to form the habit of reading.

President Porter has pointed out the intimate relationship
between this early aimless life and his later career:

" His early musings and questionings, his boyish sports
and adventures, were fondly remembered by him as the in-
spiration of his rational and scientific life. ' The cultivation
of the imagination,' he writes, ' should be considered an es-
sential part of a liberal education; and this may be spread
over the whole course of instruction, for, like the reasoning
faculties, the imagination may continue to improve until late
in life.' ' Memory, imitation, imagination, and the faculty of
forming mental habits exist in early life, while the judgment
and reasoning faculties are of slow growth.' 'The order of
nature is that of art before science, the entire concrete first
and the entire abstract last.' These are wise and weighty
words, but they are of special interest when we bethink our-
selves that the writer, when he penned them, was doubtless
all the while thinking of a dreaming boy, half buried in the
grass, looking up wistfully into the sky, thinking wondrous
thoughts too deep for tears, perhaps peopling with phantoms
and fairies that world of nature which he subsequently pene-
trated by those wise questionings and ingenious theories
which his sagacious experiments turned into solid verities.
He certainly could have been thinking of no one else when
in the same connection he so positively affirms, ' The future

'^ i^>:|

^ nnk# vwvs r • >^ ■

JOSEPH HEI^RT.

FIEST SECRETARY OF THE S:M1THS0XIAX IXSTITUTIOX.

1846-1878.

f'ical company, ^.■

um the F^ "*- ^- cii hl-

irection. ihus, perhaps,
success :

<^ V_/ AV>_

boy ol
aroused h
thrc-

' ■"^•lons.aij./

iciiCi" oa.

ultivation

e cor

the reasoning

late

/ of

. . -if

the. pntire con>-_ .

^'-=^6 and V- ._y

oms
pene-

venties.
'Ise \v'
• ^Mi^^rV^e Jst^-V^^^ ^' he (v

,T^0ITTJTTT8"ZI ^AIT108HTIM8 HHT '50 YHATHaoaa T8fll'5

.8T8r-».^8I

TJie Three Secretaries 119

character of a child, and that of a man also, is in most cases
formed probably before the age of seven years.' "

It was not until 181 5 that he discovered the real tendency
of his mind toward scholarship, through the instrumentality
of a work entitled " Lectures on Experimental Philosophy,
Astronomy, and Chemistry, intended chiefly for the Use of
Young Persons," published in London, in 1809, by the Rev-
erend George Gregory, D.D., editor of the "New Annual
Register." The book, which the chance of fortune placed
in his hands, is still preserved by his family, and upon one
of its blank leaves, written by the hand of Henry, are the
following words :

" This book, although by no means a profound work, has,
under Providence, exerted a remarkable influence on my
life. It accidentally fell into my hands when I was about
sixteen years old, and was the first book I ever read with
attention. It opened to me a new world of thought and
enjoyment ; invested things before almost unnoticed with
the highest interest; fixed my mind on the study of nature,
and caused me to resolve at the time of reading it that I
would immediately commence to devote my life to the acqui-
sition of knowledge. J. H."

The purpose of his life having been determined, his future
might easily have been predicted by any one familiar with his
peculiar mental and physical endowments. An iron constitu-
tion, capable of fatigueless effort for sixteen hours or more
each day, year in and year out, and an indomitable will, even
more powerful in control of self than in that of others, to-
gether with a mind clear and original, shaped by many
generations of ancestors living in the rural simplicity of old
Scotland; a pleasing presence, and an attractive personality,
were his heritage. The community in which he lived was

I20 The Smithsoman Institution

intelligent and liberal, and all gates were open to a young
man of integrity and enterprise.

He now entered upon serious work — first as a pupil in a
night school ; then in the Albany Academy, as scholar and
teacher ; later as a medical student, a private tutor, and a
surveyor. At the age of twenty-six he was appointed Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the Albany Academy, and his
scientific life was fairly begun.

His famous paper in Silliman's "American Journal of
Science," printed in January, 183 1, demonstrated his right to
a place among advanced investigators in the field of electro-
magnetism, and led to his election, in 1832, to the professor-
ship of Natural Philosophy in the College of New Jersey,
where he remained for fourteen years. Of his life at Prince-
ton Professor Asa Gray has written :

" Here he taught and investigated for fourteen fruitful and
happy years ; here he professed the faith that was in him,
entering into the communion of the Presbyterian Church, in
which he and his ancestors were nurtured ; and here he
developed a genius for education. One could count on his
being a clear expositor, and his gifts for experimental illus-
tration and for devising apparatus had been already shown.
But now, as a college professor, the question, how to educate,
came before him in a broader way. He appreciated, and he
made his associates and pupils appreciate, the excellence of
natural philosophy for mental discipline, for training at once
both the observing and the reasoning faculties. A science
which rises from the observation of the most familiar facts,
and the questioning of these by experiment, to the considera-
tion of causes, the ascertaining of laws, and to the most re-
condite conceptions respecting the constitution of matter and
the interplay of forces, offers discipline to all the intellectual
powers, and tasks the highest of them. Professor Henry
taught not only the elementary facts and general principles
from a fresh survey of both, but also the methods of philo-

The Three Secretaries 121

sophical investigation, and the steps by which the widest
generahzations and the seemingly intangible conceptions of
the higher physics have been securely reached. He exercised
his pupils in deducing particular results from admitted laws,
and in then ascertaining whether what was thus deduced ac-
tually occurred in nature ; and if not, why not. Though very
few of a college class might ever afterward undertake a phys-
ical or chemical investigation, all would, or should, be con-
cerned in the acquisition of truth and its relations ; and by
knowing how truth was won and knowledge advanced in one
field of inquiry, they would gain the aptitude which any real
investigation may give, and the confidence that springs from
a clear view and a sure grasp of any one sul^ject.

" He understood, as few do, the importance of analogy and
hypothesis in science. Premising that hypothesis should al-
ways be founded on real analogies and used interrogatively,
he commended it as the prerequisite to experiment, and the
instrument by which, in the hands of sound philosophers, most
discoveries have been made. This free use of hypothesis as
the servant and avant-courier of research — as means rather
than end — is a notable characteristic of Henry."

In 1830 he married his cousin Miss Harriet L. Alexander,
who on the death of her father, Alexander Alexander, an
active and successful business man of Schenectady, had come
to live in Albany. It was largely through Henry's influence
that her elder brother, Stephen Alexander, was called to
Princeton in 1833, where he subsequently became" professor
of astronomy. Mrs. Henry survived her husband but a few
years, and died in Washington City on March 25, 1882.

The memory of Henry is lovingly cherished at Princeton,
where a bronze tablet by Augustus St. Gaudens was erected
in 1885, to commemorate his connection with the University.-^

IThe memorial address delivered by'Ed- of the most eloquent and satisfactory appre-
ward N. Dickerson, LL. D., upon the occa- ciations of the cliaracter and achievements of
sion of the presentation of this tablet, is one Professor Henry.

122 The Smithsonian Institution

III.

Henry's experimental work was done, for the most part,
between 1826 and 1847. Many of his broader generaHzations
were published later, though these were largely based upon
the work of early years.

His studies in electricity began in 1827, while he was a
teacher in the Albany Academy, and it was not long before
Sir David Brewster was moved to say: "On the shoulders
of young Henry has fallen the mantle of Franklin ! " His
laboratory work in Albany included the only continuous series
of physical investigations which any one had up to that time
attempted in America.

In the course of these researches he transformed an ineffi-
cient piece of electrical apparatus — the significance of which
had been but partially understood by Ampere, Arago, and even
Sturgeon, by whom it had been greatly improved — into the
powerful electro-magnet, and laid the foundation for the most
important discoveries of the century, — not only his own, but
those of the great masters of Europe. The electro-magnet
in 1828 was still an ineffective instrument. Barlow had tested
its capabilities in London three years before, and had found
its effect so diminished at the distance of only two hundred
feet that he pronounced telegraphy by its use impossible.

In Henry's hands the feeble toy of Sturgeon was converted
into instruments of infinite possibilities. He made two dis-
tinct forms of magnets, one capable of excitation at a distance,
which he named the "intensity magnet"; another having
possibilities of infinite development of strength, to which he
gave the name of " quantity magnet."

He so named the magnets because he had discovered that
with the one, in order to overcome the resistance opposed to
the passage of electricity by the long, fine wire of which it

The Three Secretaries 123

was composed and the long circuit in which it was placed, it
was necessary to use an "intensity battery," — that is, a bat-
tery of many plates — for the reason that this battery pos-
sesses more electromotive force ; while with the other, formed
of many coils of short, thick wire, offering less resistance, a
"battery of quantity" should be employed. "I was the first,"
he wrote, " to point out this connection of the two kinds of
battery with the two forms of the magnet in my paper in
Silliman's Journal, January, 1831, and clearly to state that
when magnetism was to be developed by means of a com-
pound battery, one long coil was to be employed, and when
the maximum effect was to be produced by a single battery
a number of single strands were to be used."

The importance of this discovery of the necessary law of
proportion between the electromotive force in the battery and
the resistance in the magnet cannot be too highly estimated ;
not only does the telegraph depend upon this law, but every
action of galvano-magnetism.

As has well been said by his daughter, " he married the
intensity magnet to the intensity battery, the quantity mag-
net to the quantity battery, discovered the law by which their
union was effected, and rendered their divorce forever impos-
sible." The intensity magnet is that which is to-day in use
in every telegraph system.

With the discovery of these two agents began a new epoch
in science and in the arts. They brought the force of electric-
ity, hitherto only in part subdued, fully under the control of
man. Before Henry, the only electro-magnet which had been
made, though under the influence of a battery of 125 plates,
was incapable of lifting more than nine pounds ; but he, after
a few months of experiment, produced one which, with one
pair of plates, sustained 39 pounds, or fifty times its own
weight; in 1830, 750; in 1831, 2300; and in 1834, 3500

124 ^^^ Smithsonian Institution

pounds. These improvements rendered possible not only his
own subsequent discoveries, but also those of Faraday, which
began first to assume importance after the invention of
Henry's magnets.

The quantity magnet perfected by Henry in 1830 was the
means by which both he and Faraday discovered magneto-
electricity. It has been used in almost all electrical work,
scientific or practical, which has since been attempted. Stur-
geon wrote in 1832 : " Henry has been enabled to produce a
magnetic force which completely eclipses every other in the
whole annals of magnetism ; and no parallel is to be found
since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated Oriental
impostor in his iron coffin."^

"The importance of this discovery," wrote Professor Wil-
liam B. Taylor of the intensity magnet, " can hardly be over-
estimated. The magnetic 'spool' of fine wire — of a length
tens and even hundreds of times that ever before employed
for this purpose — was in itself a gift to science, which really
forms an epoch in the history of electro-magnetism. It is
not too much to say that almost every advancement which
has been made in this fruitful branch of physics since the time
of Sturgeon's happy improvement, from the earliest researches
of Faraday downward, has been directly indebted to Henry's
magnets. By means of the Henry ' spool ' the magnet almost
at a bound was developed from a feeble childhood to a vigor-
ous manhood. And so rapidly and generally was the new
form introduced abroad among experimenters, few of whom
had ever seen the papers of Henry, that probably very few in-
deed have been aware to whom they were really indebted for
this familiar and powerful instrumentality. But the historic
fact remains, that prior to Henry's experiments in 1829, no
one on either hemisphere had ever thought of winding the
limbs of an electro-magnet on the principle of the 'bobbin,'
and not till after the publication of Henry's method in January
of 1 83 1, was it ever employed by any European physicist.

"^ Philosophical Magazine, London, March, 1832, Volume xi, page 199.

The TJiree Secretaries 125

" But in addition to this large grift to science, Henry (as
we have seen) has the preeminent claim to popular gratitude
of having first practically worked out the differing functions
of two entirely different kinds of electro-magnet : the one
surrounded with numerous coils of no great length, desig-
nated by him the ' quantity' magnet, the other surrounded
with a continuous coil of very great length, designated by
him the ' intensity ' magnet. The latter and feebler system
(requiring for its action a battery of numerous elements,)
was shown to have the singular capability (never before
suspected or imagined) of subtle excitation from a distant
source. Here for the first time is experimentally established
the important principle that there must be a proportion be-
tween the aggregate internal resistance of the battery and
the whole external resistance of the conjunctive wire or con-
ducting circuit. This was a very important though uncon-
scious experimental confirmation of the mathematical theory
of Ohm, embodied in his formula expressing the relation be-
tween electric flow and electric resistance, which, though pro-
pounded two or three years previously, failed for a long time
to attract any attention from the scientific world.

" Never should it be forgotten that he who exalted the
'quantity' magnet of Sturgeon from a power of twenty pounds
to a power of twenty hundred pounds, was the absolute crea-
tor of the 'intensity' magnet; and that the principles in-
volved in this creation, constitute the indispensable basis of
every form of the electro-magnetic telegraph since invented."^

The first labor in which this infant giant was employed
was to demonstrate the practicability of the telegraph. By
its aid Henry was enabled in 1829 or 1830 to pass a current
throuorh a wire 1060 feet in length and to lift at its end a
considerable weight.

"This was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic
current could be transmitted to a great distance with so little
diminution of force as to produce mechanical effects." So
said Henry in 1857, critically reviewing the progress of elec-

1 Taylor, W'illiam B. "Memorial of Joseph Henry," page 226.

126 The Smithsonian Institution

trical science during the period of nearly thirty years which
had elapsed since this early experiment was made/

To strike signals upon a bell at the distance of 8000 feet
was a result accomplished in the same year in the commence-
ment hall of the Albany Academy. The importance of this
experiment in connection with the history of the telegraph is
discussed at greater length elsewhere.

All these experiments were made in the autumn and early
winter of 1829 or 1830, as seems to be very clearly shown by
Miss Mary A. Henry in her recent essays.^ The fixing of
these dates is of considerable moment, since upon them de-
pend the dates of two other discoveries, that of self-induction
and that of magneto-electricity.

The former, that of the so-called "extra current," made
August, 1829 or 1830, though it was not announced until
1832,^ is now conceded to him by all* and it was chiefly in
recognition of the discovery of self-induction that his name
was given to the standard unit of inductive resistance
at the International Congress of Electricians in Chicago, in
August, 1893, thus bestowing upon him, as Mendenhall ex-
presses it, " the high honor of a place in the galaxy of famous
physicists whose names shall be perpetuated in the metro-
logical nomenclature of all languages." At this congress,
composed of twenty-six representative men of science, from
nine great nations, Professor von Helmholtz presided.

" It was gratifying to the American delegates in the
Chamber at Chicago," writes Mendenhall,^ " that the motion

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1857, page 1 10. 3 A7tierkan Journal of Science, 1832, Vol-

2 Henry, Mary A., "America's Part in the ume xxil, page 403.

Discovery of Magneto-Electricity — A Study 4 This was, in 1834, rediscovered by Fara-

of the Work of Faraday and Henry." I-V, day, who did not until some time after per-

The Electrical Engineer, 1892, Volume xiil, ceive the relation of his work to that which

page 27 et seq. "The Electro-Magnet; or had preceded.

Joseph Henry's Place in the History of the 5 Mendenhall, T. C, "The Henry," At-

Electro-Magnetic Telegraph," I-XII ; //'/(/., lantic Monthly, \o\\\m& i.xxill, pages 613-

XVII, 1894, page I et seq. 614, No. 439, May, 1894.

The Three Secretaries 127

to adopt * henry ' as the name of this unit came from Professor
Mascart, the distinguished leader of the French delegation,
for among the French, some years ago, another name, the
'quadrant' or 'quad' had been proposed, and since that
time much used ; that it was seconded by one of the leading
delegates from England, Professor Ayrton, who had himself,
a few years ago, proposed the word 'sec-ohm,' as being a
proper name for the unit of induction, a proposition which for
a time found much favor; and finally, that it received the
unanimous approval of the entire Chamber, thus furnishing a
testimonial of the highest order of the estimation in which the
work of Joseph Henry is held, and a recognition of his rank
as a natural philosopher which some of his own countrymen
have been somewhat tardy to appreciate and acknowledge."

The discovery of magneto-electric induction in 1830 fol-
lowed that of the extra or self-inductive current, which, for that
matter, Henry always maintained should be considered to be
identical with magneto-electricity,^ and in connection with
which he, first of all men, obtained electrical manifestations
from a magnet.

"An electric current," writes Kennelly, "was in 18 19 found
[by Oersted] to have magnetic properties. Here in 1830
the converse relation was first noticed, [by Henry] that a
conductor in motion through magnetized space developed
electrical properties. The propositions in these terms did
not receive full proof or recognition for some years, but Henry
seems to have been the first to observe an electrical cur-
rent induced by a magnet." -

Faraday made the same discovery in 1831 with the aid of
Henry's two forms of magnets, and was the first to print the

1 The Electrical Engineer, March 9, 1892, American Inventions," in " The United States
Volume XVII, page 249. of America," edited by X. S. Shaler, New

2 Kennelly, A. E., in chapter on "Typical York, 1894, Volume II, page 143.

128 The Smithsonian Institution

results of his observations.^ Since discovery without announce-
ment cannot claim a place in history, except as a matter of
biographical incident, this discovery is generally accredited
to him. It is proper that this should be so, and Henry him-
self was too generous a man ever publicly to claim any honor
in this connection. He often, however, mentioned to his
friends the fact that he had anticipated Faraday by nearly a
year.^

It is even pathetic to read the words of praise which he
somewhere printed concerning Faraday, speaking of him as
"the discoverer of magneto-electricity, which had made his
name immortal."

It surely cannot be unjust to the memory of Faraday that
Henry should stand in the records of science as an original
and independent discoverer of magneto-electricity, nor just
to Henry, not to state the fact, that, although anticipated in
publication, he was actually the first.

While in Albany he constructed the electro-magnetic en-
gine, which will be referred to later, and also, as his daughter
has shown, began the construction of an instrument corre-
sponding to the modern dynamo.^

After his removal to Princeton, he carried on many re-

1 It was by the same means that Faraday Unfortunately he failed to publish his dis-
subsequently investigated the phenomena covery. In continuing his remarks, he added
of magnetism, and the effect of magnetic that Faraday, some time after, successfully
action upon polarized light. See Franklin L. tried the same experiment, and at once an-
Pope, Joicrnal of the American Electrical nounced it, before Professor Henry's success
Society, 1879, Volume II, page 126. was publicly known."

2 George W. Carpenter, his associate and The Reverend Doctor Cuyler, one of his
assistant in Albany, in 1826-32, writes : "In earliest pupils in Princeton, said he often
a well remembered conversation with me he spoke to him of his disappointment about
alluded to an incident in his own experience. that discovery. " I ought to have published
After retinng one night, he worked out men- earlier," he used to say. "I ought to have
tally how he could probably draw a spark pul^lislied, but I had so little time. I desired
from the magnet. Upon rising in the morning to get out my results in good form, and how
he hurried to his working room, arranged could I know that another on the other side of
the apparatus, tried the experiment, when the Atlantic was busy with the same thing? "
success crowned his labor. He had accom- 3 The Electrical Engineer, Volume Xlli,
plished what had never been done before. pages 54, 251.

The T J tree Secretaries 129

searches, all of which are described in Doctor Taylor's well-
known discourse.^ There he prosecuted his later studies
upon induction. He developed his apparatus for the combi-
nation of circuits, the principle of which underlies the various
forms and uses of the relay magnet, and the receiving magnet
and local battery, since employed in the telegraph. He car-
ried on his classical investigations upon successive orders of
induction.^ He found that a second induced current could
induce a third, and the third a fourth, and so on indefinitely ;
that a current of intensity could produce one of quantity, and
the converse ; and that these currents could be induced at a
distance. He obtained an induced current in one room from a
primary current in the next room. From two wires stretched
perpendicularly several hundred feet apart, and finally con-
necting the tin roof of his house with his study, he mag-
netized needles by induction from a thundercloud eight miles
away.

The discovery of the oscillatory character of the discharge
from the Leyden jar — one of his most important contribu-
tions to science — followed in 1842. He ascertained that in
the discharge of a jar an equilibrium is not instantaneously
effected by the spark, but is attained only after several oscil-
lations of the flow; a fact which was not only in itself signifi-
cant, but led to important advances in theory.^ As Doctor
Oliver Lodge has shown, the explanations offered by him in
connection with these early experiments were almost pro-
phetic of the great generalizations subsequently made by
Clerk-Maxwell and others, but which in the state of electrical

1 Taylor, William B., " The Scientific Work 3 See Barker, George F., " Physics," New

of Joseph Henry." Bulletin of the Philo- York, 1892, page 613; Lodge, Oliver J.,

sophkal Society of Washington, 1878, Vol- " Modern Views of Electricity," London,

ume II, page 230. "Memorial of Jo;,eph 1889, page 369; Taylor, W. B., "Memorial

Henry," 1880, pages 205-425. of Joseph Henry," page 255; Houston,

'-2 Transactions American Philosophical So- Edwin J.," Electricity a Hundred Years Ago

ciety, 1838, Volume vi, page 303. and To-day," New York, 1894, page 61.

130 The Smithsonian Institution

science at that day it was impossible that any finite mind
should have reached.

In addition to his brilliant contributions to electrical science,
he carried on studies in many other departments of physics.
Those in meteorology were very extensive. His experiments
upon the effect of the discharge of lightning from the clouds,
and upon the condition of lightning-rods while transmitting
discharges of electricity, were perhaps the most conspicuous
of these. In molecular physics his attention was given to
capillary absorption and the cohesion of liquids, as well as
to a discussion of the atomic hypothesis of Newton.

He made investigations on certain phenomena connected
with light and heat. By his experiments on the phosphoro-
genic ray of the sun, he first demonstrated that it is polariza-
ble and refrangible by the laws which govern light. In con-
nection with Professor Alexander, he carried on a series of
experiments on the relative heat-radiating power of the sun-
spots. He reflected heat from concave mirrors of ice, and
from his experiments drew conclusions as to the source of the
heat derived from the moon. He constructed a thermal-tele-
scope, composed of a common pasteboard tube, covered with
gilt paper and blackened internally, with which he measured
the heat of distant objects : with this he could detect the heat
of a man's face a mile off, and that of a house five miles off;
and with it ascertained that the coldest spot of the sky is at
the zenith. He also invented the method now generally em-
ployed for determining by the use of electricity the velocity
of the flight of projectiles.

Not only in ingenious experiment and the interpretation of
its results, not only in the practical application of Nature's
laws, but still more in his philosophical comprehension of
Nature was manifested the greatness of Henry. The English
physicist Fleming, in a recent work, writes :

The Three Secretaries i ^ i

"At the head of this long line of illustrious investigators
stand the preeminent names of Faraday and Henry. On
the foundation-stones of truth laid down by them all sub-
sequent builders have been content to rest. The 'Experi-
mental Researches' of the one have been the guide of the
experimentalist no less than the instructor of the student,
since their orderly and detailed statement, alike of triumph-
ant discovery and of suggestive failure, make them indepen-
dent of any commentator. The ' Scientific Writings' of
Henry deserve hardly less careful study, for in them we have
not only the lucid explanations of the discoverer, but the sug-
gestions and ideas of a most profound and inventive mind,
and which indicate that Henry had earl)- touched levels of
discovery only just recently becoming fully worked."

Such praise as this is excellent evidence of the influence of
Henry's discoveries upon the marvelous progress of electri-
city during the past five or ten years, and what Fleming has
written concerning electricity is equally true of his work in
many other branches of science.

IV.

The relation of Henry to the beginnings of the telegraph
have been for half a century the subject of much discussion
and of controversies in which, during his lifetime, he stead-
fastly refused to participate. In 1857, however, statements
were made concerning- some of his acts which he felt it his
duty to bring to the attention of the Board of Regents, by
whom his relation to the whole matter was carefully inves-
tigated. The testimony presented by himself and others at
this time is of the greatest interest and importance.

It is not my purpose to make far-reaching claims for him,
yet a biographical sketch would be incomplete which should

132 The Smithsonian Institution

make no reference to the facts upon which such claims have
been founded by others.

His own position in regard to these matters should not be
misunderstood. He was professedly a discoverer, and not an
"inventor." He said: "My ambition is to add to the sum
of human knowledge by the discovery of new truths which
may be of some use to the world. The practical application
of these I leave to others." When asked why he had not
patented his application of the electro-magnet to the tele-
graph, he only replied, simply: "I thought it unbecoming
the dignity of true science to curtail the use of discovery to
personal and selfish uses ; on the contrary, I thought it right
to give it to the world as a means of advancing humanity."

His testimony on behalf of the defendant in the Supreme
Court case of Morse vs. O'Reilly, in 1849, is convincing evi-
dence of his magnanimity, for he made no allusion to his own
experiment in Albany in which long-distance telegraphic
signals had been made. " Had he done so," writes Pope,
"and had others then living and familiar with the circum-
stances been brought forward to corroborate his statement,
the result would inevitably have proved fatal to Morse's
claim to the process of producing sound-signals at a distance
by electro-magnetism, and would virtually have thrown the
whole invention open to the public, a result which Henry
could not but have foreseen."

Before Henry's magnets, and his discoveries in relation to
them, had been made, the modern telegraph was still an im-
possibility. It is true that when he began his work the idea
of an electro-telegraph was nearly a century old. Morrison,
of Greenock, Scotland, had as early as i 753 suggested a prac-
tical mode of transmitting messages by frictional electricity,
and galvanic and chemical telegraphs had been in use from
the time of Salva of Barcelona to that of the first projects of

The Three Secretaries 133

Davy and Morse. The modern, or electro-magnetic, tele-
graph was not proposed, however, until 1820, after the revi-
val by Oersted of the knowledge of the power of the galvanic
current to deflect a suspended magnetic needle.

The " needle-telegraph," that in which intelligence is trans-
mitted by the motion of the galvanoscopic indicator, was the
form to which the attention of European theorists and in-
vestigators was now directed. Ampere, before 1823, had
worked out the theory of a telegraph with several needles.
The first operative system of this type was that devised in
1828 by Triboaillet, who employed a single wire and a gal-
vanoscopic indicator. Schilling exhibited in Russia in 1832
a single-circuit instrument with thirty-six needles. This was
improved and used in experimental work at a distance of
9000 feet in Gottingen, in 1833, by Gauss and Weber, who
utilized the discoveries of Henry and Faraday.^ The needle-
indicator used by these investigators was essentially the same
as that still occasionally employed, especially in connection
with long submarine cables.

The other form of telegraph is that in which sounds and
permanent signs are made by the attraction of an electro-
magnet. It was this system which Henry devised and used
in a simple form, and this which Morse and his staff,
acting avowedly under the advice of Henry, were first to
develop into a practical agency for the transmission of
words. Henry was the first, as already remarked, to demon-
strate the fact that a galvanic current could be transmitted to
a great distance with so little diminution of force as to pro-
duce mechanical effects adequate to telegraphic uses. He
actually constructed, and operated in Albany, as early as
1830, the first electro-magnetic machine for producing at will
sounds that could be heard at a distance, and published at

1 Gray, Thomas, "Proceedings and Addresses, Patent Centennial Celebrations," page i8i.

134 The Smithsonian Instihition

this time a statement that the improvements made by him
were "directly appHcable to the project of forming an electro-
magnetic telegraph."^

In other words, he was the first to construct and use an
electro-magnetic acoustic telegraph of a type similar to that
which is at present more generally employed than any other
form. The code of signals now in general use was yet to be
invented. Provided with such a code, any operator could, by
the use of Henry's apparatus, have transmitted, in 183 1, mes-
sages of unlimited length, though of course at slow speed. ^

Before Henry made his magnets, and his discoveries in re-
lation to them, the telegraph was an impossibility, for until
then science was not ripe for the telegraph. Henry's inten-
sity magnet was the only electro-magnet which had ever
responded to electrical influence at any distance. Before it
was created there could be no electro-magnetic telegraph.
Equally essential was his discovery of the law by which mag-
net and battery were bound together in mutual proportion.

Henry was also the first to use the earth for a return cir-
cuit, although the credit for this is usually given to Steinheil.
This practice was in some degree foreshadowed by Watson
and Franklin, both of whom used water to conduct a return
current. Watson in this manner lighted alcohol on the further
side of a pond ; Franklin, across the river Schuylkill. Watson
passed a current through the earth ; Franklin immediately
showed by experiment that this was due to the constant
moisture of the earth. It was Henry, however, who first
practically used the earth for a return current. It is true that

3 Atnerican Journal of Science, January, telegraph was the invention of the steel style

1831, Volume XIX, page 404. in the extremity of the sounding lever, and a

2 The introduction of the second voltaic bat- grooved roller into which it could strike the

tery rendered possible results in respect to paper as it was drawn onward over the roller

speed not at that time within the range of to emboss upon it the alphabetical characters,

human achievements. All that was needed (F. O. J. Smith, letter to the Regents of the

to perfect Henry's invention into a recording Smithsonian Institution, March 30, 1S72.)

The Three Secretaries 135

in his testimony before the Supreme Court in 1849, he, with
characteristic modesty, alluded to Steinheil as a discoverer of
this use of the earth, ^ In 1876, however, with the fuller
knowledge which he then possessed, he wrote to Reverend
S. B. Dod in Princeton :

" I think the first actual line of telegraph, using the earth
as a conductor, was made in the beginning of 1836. A wire
was extended across the front campus of the college grounds,
[in Princeton] from the upper story of the library building to
the philosophical hall on the opposite side, the ends termi-
nating in two wells. Through this wire, signals were sent,
from time to time, from my house to my laboratory."^

Another step was his device, used in Princeton as early as
1833, of opening one circuit by means of another. By this
he was able to carry out his plan of utilizing the power of a
quantity magnet at great distances, through the agency of the
more sensitive intensity magnet. Of the utmost importance
has this combination proved to the telegraph — its principle
underlying all the various forms and uses of the relay magnet
and the receiving magnet and local battery since employed.^

"One morning," writes Professor Trowbridge, "he came
into my laboratory at Cambridge, and, after I had shown him
various pieces of scientific apparatus, he stood before an elec-
tro-magnet which was working a relay and looked long at
the magnet, and then at the battery which was coupled for
quantity, and remarked in a quiet tone, as if half to himself.
' If I had patented that arrangement of magnet and battery
I should have reaped great pecuniary reward for my discovery
of the practical method of telegraphy.' "

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1857, page 113. 3 A circuit-breaker made and used by

2 "Memorial of Joseph Henry, "' i8So, Henry in Princeton is now in the United
page 150. States National Museum.

136 The Smithsonian Instittition

Sir Charles Wheatstone, who, with his associate, Sir Wil-
liam Fothergill Cooke, developed the system of Schilling after
it left the hands of Gauss and Weber, was the first to bring
tlie telegraph into practical commercial use ; and although
his plan, involving as it did the employment of a number of
separate line wires and needle-indicators, was soon abandoned
on account of its expense and perplexity, it is still the popular
belief in England that Wheatstone was the inventor of the
electric telegraph. The reason for this is, in part, that he was
the first in England to secure patents for the telegraph; and,
in part also, that he at one time claimed to have been the
discoverer of the intensity magnet. There is, nevertheless,
good reason to believe that Wheatstone was directly indebted
to Henry for the information which enabled him to utilize the
intensity magnet in connection with his telegraph. He was
engaged in his experiments when visited by Henry and
Bache at King's College, in April, 1837, and his apparatus
was examined and his plans discussed by them. He had al-
ready found the electro-magnet inefficient as a sound-signal,
and was endeavoring to introduce a secondary circuit as a
remedy for the diminution of force encountered in the long
circuit. Henry has recorded that he then explained to
Wheatstone a different method of bringing the second gal-
vanic circuit into action, and it was Henry's method which
Wheatstone employed in his final successes.^

"It is evident," writes Mr. Fahie, an English expert, "that
it was not until after the interview with Henry that Wheat-
stone recognized the applicability of Ohm's law to tele-
graphic circuits."^ Mr. Fahie, however, ignores the fact that
it was Henry's discovery, and not Ohm's formula, which was

1 Cooke records that on many occasions in 2 Fahie, J. J., " A History of Electric Tele-
March and April the efforts of Wheatstone graphy to the Year 1837," London, 1884,
and himself to excite magnetism at long dis- page 515.
tances were unsuccessful.

The Three Secretaries 137

adopted by Wheatstone, for Ohm's law was at that time un-
known in England, as well as in America.

Although Wheatstone in his controversy with Cooke, in
1 84 1, claimed as his own the discovery that electro-magnets
may be so constructed as to produce the required effects by
means of a direct current, even in very long circuits, he sub-
sequently, in 1856, referring to the same early experiments,
wrote: "With this law and its applications, no persons iii
England who had loefore, occupied themselves with experi-
ments relating to electric telegraphs, had been acquainted."^
This can only be interpreted as an admission of Henry's
priority." There was never, it is true, an acknowledgment
from Wheatstone of his indebtedness to Henry for advice
which enabled him to perfect his experiment in 1837; but, as
has been pointed out, it is a very significant fact that in
March, 1837. the magnet was discarded by Wheatstone ; in
April his interview with Henry took place, and in April the
magnet was again employed and the success of the English
telegraph secured.

The following summary is quoted from a well-known Eng-
lish authority :

" It was only by Henry's discoveries that the electro-mag-
netic telegraph of Morse became possible, and Morse himself,
before he became involved in patent ligitation, freely acknow-
ledged his indebtedness to Henry. But Professor Henry, long
before Morse's telegraph came before the world, had sug-
gested the application of his electro-magnets to telegraphy,
and had even constructed a form of bell-telegraph for experi-
mental purposes which answered remarkably well. Henry,
however, had for his object 'the advancement of science,

1 Cooke, William Fothergill, " The Elec- 2 The Electrical Engineer, January 13,

trie Telegraph: Was it Invented by Pro- 1892, Volume xili, page 30 (footnote) ; Pope,

fessor Wheatstone ? " Part li, London, 1857, Franklin Leonard, "Life and Work of

page 57. A series of controversial papers Joseph Henry," iS"]^, Journal 0/ the Ameri-

between Cooke and Wheatstone. can Electrical Society, Volume 11, page 134.

138 The Smithsonian Institution

without any special or immediate reference to its application
to the wants of life or useful purposes in the arts.' He
sought no patents for inventions, and solicited no remunera-
tion for his labors, other than credit for having done what it
was in him to do for the promotion of scientific knowledge.
He gave freely to the world the results of his researches, and
others devoted themselves to the practical applications of the
principles which he discovered. Of these were not only
Morse in America, but Wheatstone and Cooke in this coun-
try. It has been amply demonstrated that these inventors
were at a standstill in the early part of 1837 for the want of a
means of producing a strong effect at the receiving station.
Although Henry had clearly shown the advantage of employ-
ing closely wound coils of fine wire in 1831, Wheatstone
knew nothing apparently of this, and remained in ignorance
until April, 1837, when he was enlightened by Professor
Henry himself. We are firmly convinced that Henry did
more for the advancement of the telegraph than has ever yet
been adequately acknowledged." ^

Another practical outgrowth of his early investigations in
connection with which his name has less frequently been
mentioned, because perhaps there has been less controversy
in regard to its history, was the production of mechanical
power by electro-magnetism.

Henry in 1829 constructed the first electro-magnetic motor,
an oscillating machine with automatic pole-changer. This he
described in 1831." In 1833 Sturgeon constructed the first
rotary motor, which he exhibited to the learned men in Lon-
don, giving to Henry credit for priority in construction of
electro-magnetic engines.

The English electrician Joule writes :

"It is to the ingenious American philosopher that we are
indebted for the first form of the working model of an engine

1 Electrical Revic7v, London, August 12, 1887, Volume xxi, page 162.
2 American Jomita I of Science, 183 1, Volume xx, page 340.

The Three Secretaries 139

upon the principle of reciprocating- polarity of soft iron by
electro-dynamic agency." ^

Henry's oscillating machine was the forerunner of all our
modern electrical motors. The rotary motor of to-day is the
direct outgrowth of his improvement in magnets.

It should also be stated that he had as early as 1832, or
before, applied one of his great magnets to the separation of
magnetic iron from other substances, and in 1833 this system,
which has since become one of great industrial importance,
was put into actual use at the Penfield Iron-Works, in the
village of Port Henry, named at that time in honor of the
Albany professor.

Thomas Davenport, a blacksmith from Salisbury, Vermont,
who visited the Port Henry iron-works about this time,
bought one of the magnets and used it in the experiments
which led not only to the construction by him of the earliest
operating rotary motors, but which within two years led " to
the beginning of the electric railroad; for he exhibited in
1835, in Springfield, Troy, and Philadelphia, not only rotary
motors in action, but a model engine carrying its own magnet,
which ran around upon a circular track.

Even more sicrnificant than the invention of this enoflne
was Henry's philosophic and far-reaching appreciation of
what it meant for the future. "So far from giving way to the
natural enthusiasm of the successful inventor," writes Pope,
** Henry proceeded, with calm sobriety of judgment, to fore-
cast the future possibilities of the new motor. He was soon
led to see that under the conditions of knowledge then exist-
ing, the power could only be derived from the oxidation of
zinc in a galvanic battery, and hence the heat energy re-

1 Joule, James P., " Historical Sketch of the cal, Statistical, and Technical."' A paper read
Rise and Progress of Electro-magnetic En- before the New York Electric Club, January
gines for Propelling Machinery." 22, 1891, by Franklin Leonard Pope. See

2 " Notes on the Electric Railway : Histori- The Electrical Etigimer, January 28, 1891.

140 The Smithsonian Institution

quired in the original smelting of the metal must represent at
least an equal amount of power. Hence his conclusion that
the fuel required for that purpose might with better advan-
tage be employed directly in performing the required work.

"While feeling thus sure that electricity could not hope to
compete with, much less to supersede, steam as a primary
source of power, Henry, nevertheless, did not hesitate to pre-
dict that the electric motor was destined in the future to oc-
cupy an extensive field of usefulness, particularly in applica-
tions in which absolute theoretical economy was subordinate
to more important considerations.

" Time has shown that Henry's conception of the legitimate
held of the electric motor was prophetically accurate.'

" 1

With the oreanization of the Smithsonian Institution in
1846 came an entire change in Henry's life. Many years
before, while he was still a teacher in Albany, Smithson had
died in Genoa, leaving his bequest "for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men." When Henry first visited
Europe, in 1837, the bequest had only just become known,
and the claim of the United States was in course of prosecu-
tion in London. To this circumstance may, perhaps, be at-
tributed the interest which he seemed always to have felt in
the disposition of the Smithson fund. In the fall of 1846, after
the Regents of the new Institution had been appointed, a
committee of their own number was chosen to digest a plan
to carry out the provisions of the Act to establish the Smith-
sonian Institution. Henry's advice was sought by them, and
the plan proposed by him was embodied in the report which
they presented to the Board on the first of December. It

1 The Electrical Engineer, London, February 13, 1891, Volume Vll, page 169.

The Three Secretaries 141

was with a knowledge of this fact that, at their meeting of
December 3, he was elected to the Secretaryship, after the
following resolutions had been passed:

" Resolved, That it is essential, for the advancement of the
proper interests of the trust, that the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution be a man possessing weight of character,
and a high grade of talent ; and that it is further desirable
that he possess eminent scientific and general acquirements ;
that he be a man capable of advancing science and promoting
letters by original research and effort, well qualified to act as
a respected channel of communication between the Institution
and scientific and literary individuals and societies in this and
foreign countries ; and, in a word, a man worthy to represent
before the world of science and of letters the institution over
which this Board presides."

" It does not need to be said," writes Doctor Welling, " that
Professor Henry did not seek this appointment. It came to
him unsolicited, but it came to him from the Board of Regents,
not only by the free choice of its members, but also at the
suggestion and with the approval of European men of science
like Sir David Brewster, Faraday, and Arago, as also of
American scientific men like Bache and Silliman and Hare.
I well remember to have heard the late George M. Dallas (a
member of the constituent Board of Regents by virtue of his
office as Vice-President of the United States) make the re-
mark on a public occasion, immediately after the election of
Professor Henry as Director of the Smithsonian Institution,
that the Board had not had the slightest hesitation in tender-
ing the appointment to him * as being peerless among the
recoQfnized heads of American science.' "

He accepted the election on December 7, and on the 21st
appeared at a meeting of the Board of Regents and en-
tered upon the duties of his ofiice. The first duty imposed

10*

142 The Smithsonian Instihttion

upon him by the Board was the preparation of a program
of organization, which was presented on December 8, 1847,
and in its essential features adopted on the 13th. By this
•'Plan of Organization" and the brief essay in which it was
explained and illustrated, the future character of the Institu-
tion was determined. It was shown that the Institution is not
a national establishment in the sense in which institutions
dependent on the government are so, and that its operations
ought to be mingled as little as possible with those of the
government, and its funds applied exclusively and faithfully
to the diffusion of knowledge among men ; that the bequest
is intended for the benefit of mankind in general, and that its
influence ought not to be restricted to a single district or even
nation ; that the terms "increase" and "diffusion" of know-
ledge are logically distinct, and should be literally interpreted
with reference to the will ; that the increase of knowledge
should be effected by the encouragement of original re-
searches of the highest character and its diffusion by the pub-
lication of the results of original research, by means of the
publication of a series of volumes of original memoirs ; that
the operations of the Institution should not be restricted in
favor of any particular kind of knowledge, though if prefer-
ence is to be given to any branches of research, they should
be to the higher and apparently more abstract, to the dis-
covery of new principles rather than of isolated facts.

These were, in brief, the principles announced in this mas-
terly treatise.

In the second part of the program propositions were
made in regard to the promotion of certain interests pre-
scribed in the plan adopted by Congress: the accumulation
and care of collections of objects of nature and art, the de-
velopment of a library, the providing of courses of lectures,
and the organization of a national system of meteorological
observation.

The Three Secretaries 143

It was from the beginning Henry's belief that expenditures
from the Smithson fund for objects such as those last men-
tioned were not justifiable, and that museums, libraries, and
lectures, being in one sense local objects, should be supported
from the revenues of the government. Still more strenuously
was he opposed to the erection of an expensive building, and
by painstaking economy during his long period of office he
succeeded in restoring to the fund the amount which, in his
opinion, had been improperly invested in stone and mortar.
He never ceased to urge upon the Regents and upon Con-
gress the impropriety of burdening the legacy of the founder
with expenditures which he deemed in large degree local,
either to the City of Washington or to the United States, and
to urge that "the bequest was intended for the benefit of man
in general." As the result of this policy he had the satis-
faction, before his death, of seeing the library, which soon
became great and cumbersome, received and cared for at
government expense in connection with the Library of Con-
gress; the meteorological service transformed into a perma-
nent weather bureau and transferred to the War Department ;
the National Museum supported by direct appropriations, and
the system of international exchanges in large part main-
tained by government grants; while the resources of the In-
stitution were left comparatively free, to be used for the
increase and diffusion of knowledge for the benefit of the
entire world.

Concerning the details of his administrative work, more
cannot be said than that in the routine of each day he em-
ployed the same conscientious methods and the same powers
of mind which he had been accustomed to use in his investi-
gation of the laws of nature. But for the man, the devotion
with which he worked, and the fact that his life was spared to
labor for the Institution for nearly a third of a century, it is

144 The Smithsonian Institution

not impossible that the uncanny predictions of John Quincy
Adams as to the fate of the Smithsonian bequest might have
been fulfilled.

It was much for the Institution to have secured as an or-
ganizer a man of such commanding abilities, of such wide
and lofty aims, and one whose character was noble beyond
the possibility of any tarnish. It was much, on the other
hand, for Henry to abandon the life of an investigator, at the
very time when the promise of the future was so brilliant.
He was fully conscious of his own great powers and that he
was sacrificing, as he expressed it, "future fame to present
reputation." He understood, however, the opportunities for
good which the new position would afford, and, with a full
appreciation of what he was doing, cheerfully sacrificed his
own scientific career to what he knew would be for all time a
powerful aid to the work of investigators without number.
By this act he did much toward establishing the profession
of scientific administration — a profession which in the com-
plexity of modern civilization is becoming more and more es-
sential to scientific progress. That he himself appreciated
this fact is clearly shown in his loving eulogy of his friend
Alexander Dallas Bache ; and yet it is not impossible that he
was mistaken in supposing that this change of activities had
lessened the chance of future fame. For so lono- as the

Smithsonian Institution endures, the name of its first Sec-
retary will be remembered with it.

VI.

After his election to the Secretaryship, Professor Henry,
although by a special resolution of the Board of Regents,
January 26, 1847, "requested to continue his researches in
physics, and to present such facts and principles as may be

TJie Three Secretaries 145

developed for publication in the ' Smithsonian Contributions,'"
did not find it consistent with his duties, as he understood
them, to take time necessary for any continuous laboratory
work in connection with the labors of organizing and shap-
ing the character of the new foundation.

His annual reports, which were models of full and exact
administrative treatment, were always written by himself, and
abounded in critical and philosophical remarks bearing not
only upon the work of the Institution, but also upon the sig-
nificance of the work in which it was engaged, and its rela-
tions to the scientific questions of the day. During the first
ten years his papers were but few. At the meeting of the
American Association in 1850, he remarked, at the conclusion
of a brief conversation, that for the last three and a half
years all his time and all his thought had been given to the
details of the business of the Smithsonian Institution ; he had
been obliged to withdraw himself entirely from scientific re-
search ; but he hoped, now the Institution had been gotten
under way, and the Regents had allowed him some able as-
sistants, that he would be enabled, in part at least, to return
to his first love — the investigation of the phenomena of
nature.

His anticipations were not, however, to be realized in the
manner hoped for. His subsequent work in science was for
the most part that which grew out of his official connections,
and his published papers such as embodied trains of thought
suggested by the administrative work which he was directing.
His studies upon direct and reflected sound grew out of
his experiments to remedy the defects of a Smithsonian hall
intended for public speaking. His generalizations in regard
to the primary powers in connection with which he expressed
his views on the correlation of physical and organic forces,
were developed in an address upon "The Improvement of

14^ The Smithsoniait Institution

the Mechanical Arts,"deHvered at an exhibition of the Wash-
ington Mechanics' Institute. His classical "Thoughts on
Education " were delivered by him on the occasion of his re-
tirement from the presidency of the Association for the Ad-
vancement of Education. Out of the wealth of his obser-
vations and reflections in connection with the Smithsonian
meteorological work was developed his memoir upon "Meteor-
ology in Connection with Agriculture," which was published
in the reports of the Commissioner of Agriculture for five
successive years, 1855 to 1859. This forms a volume of four
hundred pages, by far the most extensive of his published
writings, which is still a standard work of reference among
students of this science. There was, indeed, no subject in
which he took a keener interest than meteorology, and to his
practical methods was due the daily weather map, essentially
in its present form. How early this interest began is shown
by the following extracts from his note-books, hitherto un-
printed.

Under date of February 9, 1849, occurs the following
entry :

" I have had in my mind a fine scheme with the telegraph.
Instantaneous observations, on the Aurora, on the thunder-
storm, the beginning of storms, etc., etc."

Also, under date of March 12, the following:

" Mr. Redfield highly approves plan of using telegraph for
meteorological purposes. The following places should be
made stations: Portland, Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Washington, Norfolk, Charleston, Savannah, Mo-
bile, Pensacola, Augusta, Nashville, New Orleans (northern
and southern).

"Galena, St. Louis, Chicago, Buffalo, Albany, Boston
(western).

The Three Secretaries 147

"Times — mornino-, noon, and night, or morning and night.
Most important observations : i. Barometer. 2. Face of the
sky. 3, Direction and force of the wind. The rise of the
barometer will precede a fall."

Under May 19, is the following entry :

"Wrote to Judge McLean to give me an account of his
obs. on thunderstorms. Thunder storms come from the
west at Washington — on the opposite side of the river divide,
one part down, the other to Baltimore. Prepare circulars
relative to storms of this kind."

The "Instructions for Meteorological Observers" were writ-
ten by his own hand. The instruments for distribution were
tested by him, and that magnificent corps of observers whose
contributions, covering a period of thirty years, constitute
a considerable portion of the foundation of meteorological
science, was kept together by his personal labor in corre-
spondence.

His original study was not limited, however, to electricity
or to physics. He entered every field into which human
thought may enter.

He was, perhaps, the first to work out a theory of the cor-
relation of physical, chemical, and vital forces. This was in
1844. His conclusions were essentially as follows: ^

"They who are disposed to continue the speculation . . .
may extend the generalization so as to reduce all mechanical
motion on the surface of the earth to a source from without.
Thus . . . the mechanical power exerted by animals is due
to the passage of organized matter in the body from an un-
stable to a stable equilibrium [or, as it were,] (from the combus-

"^ Proceedings of the American Philosophical page 215; The London, Edinburgh, and
Society, 1844, Volume iv, page 127; Anier- DuUin Philosophical Magazine, 1845, Vol-
ican Journal of Scietue, 1845, Volume XI.VIII, ume xxvi, page 541.

148 The Smithsonian Institutioti

tion of fuel).^ It would therefore appear to follow that animal
power is referable to the same sources as that from the com-
bustion of fuels [namely, the decomposing- energy of the sun's
rays]. . . . Vitality is that mysterious principle which propa-
gates a form and arranges the atoms of organizable matter,
while the power with which it operates, is derived from the
divellent power of the sunbeam." ^

Later, in 1857, his theory was more fully elaborated, and
even then long antedated Doctor William B. Carpenter's bet-
ter known essay, "On the Application of the Principle of the
Conservation of Force to Physiology," 1884, in which much
of the same ground was gone over as if for the first time,
the author being evidently in ignorance of Henry's previous
paper. Others had, however, been at work between 1844
and 1857, and it was to this fact that Professor Lovering
alluded when he said :

" In this connection Henry's views on the correlation of
the physical and organic forces may be recalled, which only
lacked the fuller development and wider publication which he
finally gave to them to have secured for him the first com-
plete announcement of one of the grandest generalizations of
modern science." ^

The latest and most comprehensive generalization in phy-
sics— that which culminated in the researches of Hertz —
seems also in a certain way to have been foreseen by Joseph
Henry, much as those of Joule were foreseen by Lord Bacon
and by Thompson.

"Faraday's immortal researches, Clerk Maxwell's pro-
phetic investigations, and Hertz's convincing experiments,"

1 This condensation is Henry's own, and is 2 «< Scientific Writings of Josepli Henry,"

contained in Professor Taylor's " Memorial Volume I, page 222.
of Joseph Henry," page 273. 3 « Memorial of Joseph Henry," page 438.

The Three Secretaries 149

writes Preece, "have definitely and conclusively proved the
existence of one medium throughout all space, called the
ether, through which waves of energy, called radiations, are
propagated with the same velocity, but in different forms and
with different frequencies, although all of the same charac-
ter. At one end of the scale we have actinic disturbances
producing photographic impressions ; at the other end of the
scale electric waves producing electro-magnetic disturbances,
while the intermediate radiations give light and heat." ^

Compare now the summary of present opinions just quoted,
omitting only the words within the brackets (which I have
myself added), with what Henry wrote nearly half a century
before :

"We cannot avoid the conclusion [that] all the phenomena
of the imponderables result from the different actions of one
all-pervading principle. . . . An iron rod, rapidly hammered,
becomes red hot, or, in other words, emits heat and light.
The same rod, insulated by a non-conductor, exhibits electri-
cal attraction and repulsion. Again, if this rod be struck with
a hammer while in a vertical position, it becomes magnetic.
We have here the evolution of the four classes of phenomena
by a simple agitation of the atoms. We cannot, in accor-
dance with the known simplicity of the operations of nature,
for a moment imagine that these different results are to be
referred to as many different and independent principles."^

So far as theory goes, it would seem that Clerk Maxwell's
proposition in 1865, that light is an electro-magnetic distur-
bance, was simply a variation of the previous proposition of
Henry, and that Henry's utterance was an indication of the
deep insight into the inevitable future course of experimental
research in this direction. The facts brought out by Max-

1 " Electric Signalling without Wires," '^ Proceedings of (he American Association

Journal of t/ie Sociefy of Arts, Volume XLII, for the Advancement of Science, 1851, Vol-
pages 274, 275, February 23, 1S94. ume VI, pages S4-91.

150 The Smithsonian Institution

well, taken in connection with the experiments of Hertz, have
demonstrated that optics is a department of electricity.

"To produce radiation," comments Barker, "it is necessary-
only to produce electric oscillations of sufficiently short period.
An atom of sodium vibrates five hundred million times in one
millionth of a second. Could we produce electric atomic
oscillations at this rate and permanently maintain them we
could produce light. The problem of the age is, how to con-
vert some other form of energy into the energy of light.
That this is possible in theory, Rayleigh long ago showed.
That it is actually accomplished in nature, Langley's remark-
able measurements upon the glow-worm abundantly confirm."^

Another evidence of the penetration, as well as the inde-
pendence of his thought is shown by the fact that he was
among the earliest of American men of science to approve
the theory of evolution, as announced by Darwin. In 1864
he wrote to Asa Gray, who soon after the publication of the
" Origin of the Species" had become one of the warmest and
most influential of its authorized champions, in these words:

"I have given the subject of evolution much thought, and
have come to the conclusion that it is the best working hy-
pothesis which you naturalists have .got. It, in fact, gives
you the first basis or real scientific foundation to stand upon
which you have ever had."

Doctor Gray was at that time in the midst of a vigorous
controversy upon this subject with many of the principal
American naturalists, the most uncompromising of whom was
Agassiz. Although Henry's views were not made public, it
was generally understood that he sympathized with Darwin
and Gray. Agassiz, at that time a Regent of the Institution,
earnestly remonstrated with him and urged that he should

1 Barker, George F., " Physics," New York, 1892, page 873.

The Three Secretaries 151

take no stand for or against the theory; and his remon-
strances were supported by those of a number of his friends
in Washington, members of the church which he was accus-
tomed to attend, who were greatly disturbed that he should
entertain opinions which seemed so heterodox and dangerous.
His attitude was never shaken, however, although he never
felt called upon to express his views publicly. " I am a physi-
cist, and not a naturalist," said he, "and it is not proper for
me to participate in this discussion ; but if there is any science
in natural history, this is the first step which has ever been
taken to demonstrate it."

Much of his most careful work was in connection with eco-
nomic problems submitted to him individually, or as a member
of various commissions, by the government of the United
States. In 1851 he was actively concerned in the modes of
testing building materials, in connection with the examination
of marble for the extension of the United States Capitol. In
1855 he used the great tower of the Institution building for
experiments to test a new process for procuring alcohol, for
which a patent had been granted.

In 1852, when the Lighthouse Board of the United States
was organized. President Fillmore appointed him one of its
members ; and on this Board he served until his death, and
from 1 87 1 to 1877 was its chairman. He thus had opportunity
to make his famous researches on sound in relation to foe-
signaling, in connection with which grew up his discussion of
the subject with Professor Tyndall, These researches were
of the highest scientific value, and at the same time led to
immediate practical results of the greatest importance. He
also conducted the experiments on illuminants which resulted
in a complete revolution in the methods of lighthouses, re-
placing sperm-oil by lard-oil in 1866, which substitution, com-
petent authorities estimated in 1877, ^"'^^ already saved to the

152 The Smithsonian Institution

government not less than one million dollars. To these ex-
periments he gave much attention, devoting to them the time
of his summer holiday for many years. It is generally con-
ceded that the high efficiency of our national lighthouse system
is largely due to his labors.

During the Civil War he was, together with Professor
Bache and Admiral Davis, the member of a commission to
examine and report upon various investigations and experi-
ments intended to facilitate the operations of war and to im-
prove the art of navigation. Many of the experiments were
conducted at the Institution. From the top of the great
tower, night after night, lights were flashed to distant stations,
in connection with tests of methods of signaling; and many a
time Professor Henry's companion in these studies was Presi-
dent Lincoln, glad to leave the scene of turmoil in which his
days were passed and to seek rest and inspiration in the quiet
companionship of such a man as Henry.

Out of the labors of this commission grew the National
Academy of Sciences, established in 1863 by act of Congress,
to advance science and to report upon such questions of sci-
entific character as might be connected with the operations
of the government. Bache was its first president, and Henry
succeeded him, holding that place until his death.

VII.

It has already been shown that his original investigations
during his thirty years at the Smithsonian Institution were
not of great extent ; but his influence, not only upon the de-
velopment of scientific work in the United States, but upon
its character, cannot be overestimated. His official position
brought him into constant contact, either personally or by
letter, with all in the United States who were engaged in

The Three Secretaries 153

scientific work, and the inspiration and the direct control which
he exercised were constant and far-reaching. The cordial
hospitality of his home in Washington was never forgotten
by any to whom it was given, and all who came to it received
a hearty welcome. He lived, from 1855 until his death, in
the east wins;- of the Smithsonian buildinor. His wife, whom as
Miss Harriet L. Alexander he married in 1830, and his three
daughters, aided him to make it one of the centers in the
intellectual life of Washington, and there were few distin-
guished visitors to the city who did not enter his doors.

Many remember his presence at the meetings of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science, and the
impression made by his brief addresses, often simply a few
words of greeting, not even reported in the proceedings. In
his later years, in 1871, the Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton was organized, and he was its president as long as he
lived. The meetings, occurring every two weeks through the
winter, were events in Washington, and were attended not
only by students of science, but by many of the greatest
of our public men, while visiting men of science who made
communications were not few. Here, for the first time, was
announced the discovery of the telephone. The discussions
were often remarkable for their brilliancy and weight, and the
society in those days, unaffected by the withdrawal of special-
ists to form organizations devoted to particular branches, was
a very remarkable one. The spirit of Henry dominated the
whole, and his stately presence as he presided and his im-
pressive remarks when, as not infrequently happened, he par-
ticipated in the discussions, made every meeting memorable.
His address on the organization of a scientific society, at the
time of its foundation, presents the highest ideal of what a
local scientific society should be. And the height of his
ideals for science and for men of science is shown by his
II

154 The SiuitJisouian Institution

closing address to the National Academy of Sciences, a few
days before his death :

"Whatever might have been thought as to the success of
the Academy, when first proposed by the late Professor Louis
Agassiz, the present meeting conclusively proves that it has
become a power of great efficiency in the promotion of sci-
ence in this country. To sustain this effect however much
caution is required to maintain the purity of its character and
the propriety of its decisions.

" For this purpose great care must be exercised in the
selection of its members. It must not be forgotten for a
moment that the basis of selection is actual scientific labor in
the way of original research, (that is in making positive addi-
tions to the sum of human knowledge,) connected with unim-
peachable moral character.

"It is not social position, popularity, extended authorship,
or success as an instructor in science, which entitles to mem-
bership, but actual new discoveries ; nor are these sufficient
if the reputation of the candidate is in the slightest degree
tainted with injustice or want of truth. Indeed, I think that
immorality and great mental power actually exercised in the
discovery of scientific truths are incompatible with each other,
and that more error is introduced from defect in moral sense
than from want of intellectual capacity."

A few clays before his death, unable to pursue his custom-
ary routine of work, his mind became more than usually con-
cerned upon the mystery of existence and the meaning of
human life ; and at this time, without the knowledge of his
family, he wrote to his friend Mr. Patterson a letter, in which
he recorded the results of his lifelong thoughts upon this
subject :

"After all our speculations," he wrote, "an attempt to
grapple with the problem of the universe, the simplest con-
ception which explains and connects the phenomena is that

The Three Secretaries 155

of the existence of one Spiritual Being — infinite in wisdom,
in power, and all divine perfections, which exists always and
everywhere — which has created us with intellectual faculties
sufficient, in some degree, to comprehend His operations as
they are developed in Nature by what is called ' Science.'

"This Being is unchangeable, and, therefore, His operations
are always in accordance with the same laws, the conditions
being the same. Events that happened a thousand years
ago will happen again a thousand years to come, provided
the condition of existence is the same. Indeed, a universe
not governed by law would be a universe without the evidence
of an intellectual director.

" In the scientific explanation of physical phenomena, we
assume the existence of a principle having properties suffi-
cient to produce the effects which we observe ; and when the
principle so assumed explains, by logical deductions from it,
all the phenomena, we call it a theory. Thus, we have the
theory of light, the theory of electricity, etc. There is no
proof, however, of the truth of these theories, except the
explanation of the phenomena which they are invented to
account for.

" This proof, however, is sufficient in any case in which
every fact is fully explained, and can be predicted when the
conditions are known. In accordance with this scientific
view, on what evidence does the existence of a Creator rest ?

'' Fn'st. It is one of the truths best established by experi-
ence in my own mind, that I have a thinking, willing /'r/;^-
ciple within me, capable of intellectual activity and of moral
feeling.

" Second. It is equally clear to me that you have a similar
spiritual principle within yourself, since when I ask you an
intelligent question you give me an intellectual answer.

" Third. When I examine the operations of Nature, I
find everywhere through them evidences of intellectual ar-
rangement, of contrivances to reach definite ends, precisely
as I find in the operations of man ; and hence I infer that
these two classes of operations are results of similar intelli-
gence.

156 The Sjuithsonian Institution

"Again, in my own mind, I find ideas of right and wrong,
of good and evil. These ideas, then, exist in the universe,
and, therefore, form a basis of our ideas of a moral universe.
Furthermore, the conceptions of good which are found among
our ideas associated with evil, can be attributed only to a
Being of infinite perfections, like that which we denominate
* God.' On the other hand, we are conscious of having such
evil thoughts and tendencies that we cannot associate our-
selves with a Divine Being, who is the Director and Governor
of all, or even call upon Him for mercy, without the interces-
sion of One who may affiliate himself with us."

Notwithstanding his sacrifice of investigation to adminis-
tration, there is no greater name in American science. What
Franklin was to the last century, Henry is to this, and as the
years go by his fame is growing brighter. The memorial
service in his honor, held in 1878, in the hall of the United
States House of Representatives, was a national event. In
1883 his monument in bronze, by the greatest of American
sculptors, was erected by Congress in the Smithsonian Park.
The bestowal of his name upon the unit of induction in 1893
was an indication of his foreign appreciation, while, as a still
nobler tribute to his fame, his statue has been placed under
the great rotunda of the National Library, the science of the
world and of all time being symbolized by these two great
men, Newton and Henry.

The Three Secretaries 157

SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD

NO name occupies a more honorable place in the annals
of American science than that of Professor Baird, His
personal contributions to systematic biology were of great
extent. His influence in inspiring and training men to enter
the field of natural history was very potent. As an organ-
izer, working at a most fortunate time, he knew how to
utilize his extraordinary opportunities, and he has left his im-
press forever fixed upon the scientific and educational institu-
tions of the United States, more especially upon those under
government control.

He was one of those rare men, perhaps more frequently
met with in the New World than elsewhere, who give the
impression of being able to succeed in whatever they under-
take. Although he chose to be a naturalist, and of necessity
became an administrator, no one who knew him could doubt
that he would have been equally eminent as a lawyer, physi-
cian, mechanic, historian, business man, soldier, or statesman.

II.

It is always interesting to search for the sources of intellec-
tual force and capacity, especially so in this country, where
the races of the Old World have mingled with such rapidity
and in such volume as to develop very remarkable phases in
the problem of heredity.

For an inquiry of this kind there is excellent material in
the case of Professor Baird, for though he gave little atten-
II*

158 The Smithsonian Institution

tion to such matters in his later busy life, there is still in ex-
istence an elaborate "genealogical tree," prepared by himself
at the age of sixteen, by the aid of which it has been practi-
cable to identify his ancestors up to and including all those of
the fifth degree, thirty in number, and in many lines far beyond.

His grandparents were all the children of colonial Pennsyl-
vanians. He was emphatically an American, for over eighty
per centum of his progenitors in the sixth degree were living
in the colonies during the seventeenth century. Out of the
total number of thirty-two, one, or perhaps two, were of
Swedish blood; one a Huguenot, and one or two others from
the Palatinate — companions of Pastorius in the founding of
the first German community in America. The others were
either natives of Great Britain or their descendants estab-
lished in the American colonies. Of these there were several
of Scotch, Irish, or Scotch-Irish blood, and one or two from
Wales.

Although in one sense only agencies in the concentration
and transmission of the various traits derived from previous
generations, his immediate ancestors — with their personal
traits, the results of education and environment — were those
who had the most direct influence upon his character.

His father, Samuel Baird (i 786-1833), was a lawyer, a
man of fine culture, an independent and original thinker, and
a lover of nature and of outdoor sports.

His mother, Lydia McFunn Biddle (i 797-1861), who sur-
vived her husband nearly forty years, was a woman of fine
executive powers, fascinating manners, and of a sunny and
equable temperament.

His father's father, Samuel Baird, served as a quartermas-
ter in the Revolutionary Army ; he was a surveyor, and was
interested in the opening of coal-mines in eastern Pennsyl-
vania, in association with his cousin, Colonel Thomas Potts,

SPENCER FULLEBTON BAIRD.

SECOND SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

1878-1887.

158 "" ■' Hon

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The Three Secretaries i59

who was the first to discover the valuable properties of an-
thracite coal, and who interested Franklin and Rittenhouse
in devising methods for its use as a fuel. Samuel Baird's
father, Thomas Baird, was of Scotch- Irish origin ; he came
to the colony before the middle of the century, and following
the current of westward travel, settled as a frontiersman in
the beautiful Cumberland Valley, near the present site of
Chambersburg, the westernmost of the Pennsylvania settle-
ments, and at the very verge of civilization. His wife, Mary
Douglass, was of the same race. At the close of the Revolu-
tion, her husband having died, she, with all her children but
the eldest son, joined the train of emigrants which for a quar-
ter of a century she had seen wending westward past her
door, and removed to the new territory of Kentucky, and
later to Fort Vincennes, Indiana, where she was still living
in 1785.

His father's mother, Rebecca Potts (i 753-1830), was the
daughter of Thomas Potts (1721-62), of Colebrookdale, and
eranddauofhter of Thomas Potts, who came from Wales to
Germantown early in the eighteenth century, and was a
pioneer in the development of the American iron industry.
His descendants owned the region in which the Continental
Army was encamped in 1778. The Valley Forge belonged
to Colonel Dewees, the husband of Rebecca Potts' sister, in
whose house she was living at that time, while Washington
occupied the home of her uncle on the other side of Valley
Creek. During that long winter Mrs. Washington taught
her how to net, and gave her a silver netting-needle, still
treasured by the family. Her mother was the daughter of
William Pyewell (1685-1769), of Philadelphia, one of the
earliest wardens of Christ Church, and her grandmothers
were Magdelen Robeson, descended from Swedish colonists
on the Delaware, and Mary Rutter. of Huguenot origin.

i6o The Smithsonian Institution

Professor Baird's mother's father, William McFunn Biddle,
was the son of William McFunn, an officer of the British
Navy, who was present with the fleet at the siege of Quebec,
and while stationed on the Delaware was married, in 1752, to
Lydia Biddle. Ordered to duty at Antigua, he contracted a
disease which caused his death, at Philadelphia, in i 768. In
that most interesting volume, the " Autobiography of Charles
Biddle," are occasional references to Captain McFunn, who
was evidently a bluff and hardy English seaman of the old
heroic type. His son, William Biddle McFunn, became, by
transposition of his two last names, William McFunn Biddle.
He was a banker, an accomplished musician, and the friend
of Robert Morris, and became involved in some of the ambi-
tious projects which "the financier of the Revolution" or-
ganized in the early days of the Republic — especially the
American Land Company. At one time the richest young
man in Philadelphia, he went with Morris to a debtor's cell,
where he remained until relieved by the passage of the first
United States bankrupt law, in 1800. His mother, Lydia
Biddle, belonged to an old Philadelphia family, for many gen-
erations prominent in commercial and banking enterprises
and as officers in the Army and Navy, the descendants of
William Biddle, one of the first Quaker colonists of Penn-
sylvania. She was descended maternally from Nicholas
Scull, the friend of Franklin, one of the earliest members of
the American Philosophical Society, and the first surveyor-
general of Pennsylvania.

His mother's mother, Lydia Spencer Biddle, survived her
husband for half a century, and died in 1858 at the age of
ninety-three. Her memories of the Revolution were vivid,
for her father was the patriot preacher Elihu Spencer, who
had been a chaplain in the French and Indian Wars, and was
despatched by Congress to North Carolina to aid in winning

The Three Secretaries i6i

over the Scotch colonists, who were slow to abandon their
allegiance to the British Crown — a man whose eloquence
rendered him so conspicuous that a reward was offered for
his head. Her sister's husband, Jonathan Dickinson Ser-
geant, was a member of the Continental Congress. As a
young lady at Trenton she talked with General Mercer just
before he marched to his death at Princeton, and on Christ-
mas night in 1776 saw Washington depart for the crossing
of the Delaware. Her father was the brother of General
Joseph Spencer of the Revolution, second cousin to Timothy
Edwards, the great New England theologian, and own cousin
to John and Edward Brainerd, missionaries to the Indians;
she was aunt to John and Thomas Sergeant, of Philadelphia,
eminent lawyers, the former a candidate for Vice-President
with Clay in 1832, the latter judge of the Supreme Court of
Pennsylvania. Through her mother, Joanna Eaton, she was
descended from Thomas Eaton, one of the earliest American
Quakers, who came to Rhode Island in 1761, and also from
Thomas Wardell and Isaac Perkins, first-comers to Massa-
chusetts Bay (1630-35), who, as disciples of Anne Hutchin-
son in the Antinomian controversy, were banished from the
colony as heretics, and went with the Reverend John Wheel-
wright beyond the limits of the colony into the forests of
New Hampshire. Among her nearest of kin, the children
and grandchildren of her aunts, were all the LeContes, emi-
nent in science as zoologists, geologists, and chemists ; John
McPherson Berrien, of Georgia, the "American Cicero,"
early Attorney-General of the United States and Regent of
the Smithsonian Institution; as well as Admiral Montgomery
and Commodore Berrien, of the United States Navy.

These were all representative men and women, leaders in
the communities in which they lived, a group even more re-
markable for their abilities than for their diversity in origin

1 62 The Sniithsoniaji Institution

and character. Many of them were Quakers, but there were
also Churchmen, Lutherans, and Presbyterians. Among them
were soldiers, sailors, clergymen, lawyers, financiers, survey-
ors, miners, farmers, mechanics, military officers, British and
American ; patriots and loyalists, Whigs and Tories, Feder-
alists and Republicans. With such ancestral resources to
draw upon, it is not strange that Professor Baird should have
been a man of varied and commanding abilities. His admin-
istrative capacity, his power of directing and controlling men,
and his personal charm of manner, came to him perhaps
chiefly from his mother; while to his father's family he owed
his love of outdoor life, his taste for the study of nature, and
his magnificent physique, a heritage from generations of pio-
neers and frontiersmen. Those who knew him best may be
disposed to attribute to his Quaker ancestry his quiet and
unassuming manner, his dislike for publicity, and his prefer-
ence for a simple garb of gray.

III.

Spencer Fullerton Baird was born February 23, 1823, in
Reading, Pennsylvania. His father died when he was ten
years old, and his mother soon removed with her family to
Carlisle, a village in the beautiful Cumberland Valley, which
was the seat of Dickinson College and of a government
military post, and the home of many people of culture and
refinement.

When he was eleven he was sent to a Friends' boarding-
school, kept by Doctor McGravv, in Port Deposit, Maryland ;
a year later entered the grammar school in Carlisle, and in
1836 Dickinson College, from vvliich he was graduated in
1840, at the age of seventeen.

His interest in collecting and classifying facts and in ob-

The Three Secretaries 163

serving nature began when he was still a boy. His early
note-books contain systematic lists of various kinds. He
gathered specimens of the wood and leaves of plants, and at
the age of fourteen joined his elder brother William, who had
similar tastes, in making a collection of the game-birds of
Cumberland County. Specimens prepared by these boys
sixty years ago are still preserved in the National Museum.

After leaving college, since he was too young to enter any
profession, he was allowed to follow his own tastes for a time,
and his inclination for science developed in such a remarkable
manner that his mother felt that she was justified in allowing
him to devote himself for several years to his favorite pur-
suits. There were at that time no schools for young natural-
ists, and his education was in a large degree self-directed.
He began to read medicine, attended a course of lectures at
the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York in the
winter of 1841-42, and made excursions, often on foot, in
search of specimens and to visit collections. He made long
visits to friends in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington,
and thus saw the museums and important private collections
and became familiar with what were at that time the principal
centers of learning. In those days were formed many of the
friendships and scientific partnerships which influenced his
after life.

Among his early companions and correspondents were
George N. Lawrence (1841), Charles Pickering and John
Torrey (1842), John Cassin and James D. Dana (1843),
Thomas M. Brewer, Stephen S. Haldeman, Joseph Leidy, and
Frederick E. Melsheimer (1844), John G. Morris (1845),
Jared P. Kirtland (1847), and Philo R. Hoy and John S.
Newberry (1850).

Still earlier was his friendship with Audubon, with whom
he began a correspondence in 1838, and from whom he re-

164 The Smifhso7uan Institution

ceived instruction in making drawings of birds ; and it was
to him, and perhaps still more to his own kinsman, Major
John LeConte, one of the early Southern naturalists, that was
due his determination to devote his life to natural history.

In 1843 he translated Ehrenberg's work on the corals of
the Red Sea for Dana, who was then engaged upon his re-
port for the Wilkes exploring expedition. In 1846 he ap-
pears to have been occupied in the preparation of a synonymy
of North American birds, and to have visited Boston to con-
sult in the libraries of Amos Binney and the Boston Society
of Natural History certain books not to be found in Phila-
delphia. That he was already at that time a trained student
is shown by the fact that the material then gathered was
utilized by him twelve years later in his " Birds of North
America."

During all this time he was engaged in organizing a
private cabinet of natural history, taking long excursions
through the mountains of Pennsylvania; in making dissec-
tions and preparing slides for the microscope ; and in pre-
serving specimens, most of which are still in existence and
available for scientific study in the National Museum.

In 1841 he walked 420 miles in twenty-one days; on the
last day 60 miles between daylight and rest. In 1842 he
walked more than 2100 miles. In the course of these excur-
sions he visited Audubon, Haldeman, Melsheimer, and Morris,
in order to examine their collections. His fine physique and
capacity for work in after days were perhaps due in part to
these years of outdoor life.

I find in his note-book a memorandum that on his birthday
in 1840, at the age of seventeen, his height was five feet ten
and a quarter inches; a year later he measured five feet
eleven and three quarters inches, and weighed one hundred
and fifty pounds. During his long walk in the following fall

The Three Secretaries 165

he made some curious experiments upon himself. At night,
after carrying a load of forty pounds for ten miles, he mea-
sured five feet eleven and a quarter inches, and the next
morning six feet, showing that his height had been com-
pressed by weight three quarters of an inch.

His home studies were carried on for a number of years,
and were scarcely interrupted by his election in 1846 to the
chair of natural history and chemistry in Dickinson College.
In this capacity he taught the seniors physiology ; the sopho-
mores, geometry ; freshmen, zoology ; and the preparatory
students, something else. He found time, however, to carry
on the work begun in previous years and to make each sum-
mer an extended collecting expedition: in 1847, ^^ ^^^ Adi-
rondacks; in 1848, to Ohio, to collect, in company with Doctor
Kirtland, from the original localities of the types, the species
described by him in his work on the fishes of Ohio; in 1849,
to the mountains of Virginia, with C. B. R. Kennedy; and in
1850, to Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario.

He remained in Carlisle until 1850, and there he married,
in 1846, Mary Helen Churchill, the daughter of General Syl-
vester Churchill, Inspector-General United States Army. He
used to say that his wife won his heart as a girl by the beau-
tiful labels she wrote for his collections, and she was always
afterward his companion and assistant in his work.

The coming of Agassiz to America in 1846 was an inspira-
tion to the young naturalist. One of the first great works
projected by the Swiss savant was a memoir upon the fresh-
water fishes of North America, in the authorship of which
Professor Baird was to be his associate — a work which was
never completed.

Agassiz did not establish himself in Cambridge until 1848,
and to Baird should belong the credit of having introduced
into American schools the system of laboratory practice and

1 66 The Smithsoniaji htstitiition

field exploration as an essential part of instruction in natural
history. Doctor Moncure D. Conway, one of his pupils, has
often spoken to me of his fascinating explanations of natural
phenomena, and how the contagion of his enthusiasm spread
among his pupils, who frequently followed him over the hills
twenty or thirty miles a day. Once, while collecting insects In
the field, they were surrounded and captured by a party of
German farmers, who thought they were escaped lunatics
and proposed to take them to an asylum.

IV.

His mentor at this time was the Honorable George P. Marsh,
of Vermont, who was always his friend and admirer, and to
him Professor Baird always felt that he owed his real start in
life. Mr. Marsh, feeling that his protege was disposed to
bury himself in the technicalities of a specialty, insisted that
he should undertake to translate and edit an edition of the
** Iconographic Cyclopaedia," a version of Heck's " Bilder-
Atlas," published in connection with the famous " Konversa-
tions-Lexikon " of Brockhaus. This, his first extensive liter-
ary task, though exceedingly laborious and confining to a
man so young and entirely untrained in literary methods,
was efficiently and rapidly performed. The result was a
great expansion in his tastes and sympathies, while the train-
ing and confidence which he acquired served as an excellent
preparation for the tremendous literary tasks which he un-
dertook without hesitation in later years.

It was also to Mr. Marsh, who was one of the earliest
Smithsonian Regents, that he owed his election as Assistant
Secretary of the Institution, then recently organized. His
selection, as is indicated by a statement in Professor Henry's
fifth report, was due quite as much to his training in editorial

The Three Secretaries 167

methods as to his professional acquirements. His appoint-
ment, as is there stated, was made at that time more particu-
larly that he might have charge of the publications, and that
the Institution might take advantage of the ample experience
which he had gained in editorial work.

He first met Henry, as his diary shows, on July 17, 1848,
visited with him the building then being constructed, and
undertook to collect natural history objects for the Smith-
sonian.

The Regents of the Institution did not, of course, appre-
ciate the fact that he had originated, in connection with his
work upon his own private collections, a system of museum
administration which was to be of the utmost value in the
management of the great National Museum, which developed
so rapidly under his charge.

All the efficient methods which are now in use in the Na-
tional Museum were practised in the little museum which he
had organized at home, and which he brought with him to
form the nucleus of the Smithsonian collection. Among the
treasures of his cabinet, which filled two large freight-cars,
and which are still cherished by the Institution, were a num-
ber of the choicest bird skins collected by Audubon, who en-
tertained for him a sincere friendship from the time when he
proposed to him, a boy of nineteen, that he accompany him
on a voyage to the headwaters of the Missouri, and who
sought him as partner in the preparation of the great work
" Quadrupeds of North America."

The position of Assistant Secretary was accepted Jul)- 5,
1850, and on the third of October, at the age of twenty-
seven years, he entered upon his life-work in connection with
the Smithsonian Institution.

1 68 The Smithsonian Institution

It would be interesting to dwell upon the details of his
work, but his life was so full of interests that it is only by-
careful condensation that even an adequate outline of its
eventful features can be presented in this volume.

There were several distinct activities in his career, dis-
tributed somewhat as follows: (i) a period of twenty-six
years (1843-69) devoted to laborious investigation of the
vertebrate fauna of North America; (2) forty years (1840-80)
of continuous contribution to scientific literature, of which at
least ten were devoted to scientific editorship ; (3) four years
(1846-50) devoted to educational work; (4) forty-one years
(1846-87) devoted to the encouragement and promotion of
scientific enterprises, and the development of new workers
among the young men with whom he was brought into con-
tact; (5) thirty-seven years (1850-87) devoted to adminis-
trative work as an officer of the Smithsonian Institution and
in charge of the scientific collections of the government —
twenty-eight years (1850-78) its principal executive officer
and nine years (1878-87) the Secretary and responsible
head of the Institution; (6) sixteen years (i87i-'87) as head
of the United States Fish Commission, a philanthropic labor
for the increase of the food supply of the world, and inciden-
tally for the promotion of the interests of biological and phys-
ical investigation.

VI.

The published list of his writings contains over one thousand
titles. Although very many of these are brief notices and
critical reviews, and a considerable number are reports and
other official publications, there still remain two hundred
which are formal contributions to scientific literature.

The Three Secretaries 169

His work in ornithology was, perhaps, the most extensive
and that which contributed more than any other to his repu-
tation ; for although he published only eighty papers, several
of them were monographic, and so exhaustive and critical in
their character that their publication was epoch-making.

The first of his large works, the " Birds of North America,"
which constituted the ninth volume of the reports of the Pa-
cific Railroad Survey, was published in 1858, a quarto work
of more than one thousand pages, which for twenty years re-
mained the principal authority. Indeed, this and his " Re-
view " are still regarded by every American ornithologist as
absolutely indispensable for constant reference. Coues has
declared that with its publication began the "Bairdian Period "
in American ornithology, a period covering almost thirty
years and characterized by an activity without a parallel in
the history of the science. " It represents the most impor-
tant single step ever taken in the progress of American or-
nithology in all that relates to the technicalities. The no-
menclature is entirely remodeled from that of the immediately
preceding Audubonian period, and for the first time brought
abreast of the then existing aspect of the case. It was
adopted by the Smithsonian Institution, and thousands of
separately printed copies of the * List of Species ' were dis-
tributed during succeeding years to institutions and individu-
als ; the names came at once into almost universal employ,
and so continued, with scarcely appreciably diminished force,
until about 1872."

** The appearance of so great a work, from the hands of a
most methodical, learned, and sagacious naturalist, aided by
two of the leading ornithologists of America [John Cassin
and George N. Lawrence], exerted an influence perhaps
stronger and more widely felt than that of any of its prede-
cessors, Audubon's and Wilson's not excepted, and marked

170 The Smithsonian Institution

an epoch in the history of American ornithology. The syn-
onymy and specific characters, original in this work, have
been used again and again by subsequent writers, with vari-
ous modification and abridgment, and are in fact a large basis
of the technical portion of the subsequent ' History of North
American Birds ' by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway. Such a
monument of original research is likely to remain for an in-
definite period a source of inspiration to lesser writers, while
its authority as a work of reference will always endure."

In pursuance of the same thought, Coues, Stejneger, Dall,
and Ridgway have united in the characterization of what they
call the " Bairdian School of Ornithologists"; a school char-
acterized by exactitude in matters of fact, conciseness in de-
ductive statement, and careful analysis of the subject in all its
various bearings ; a school whose work is marked by a care-
ful separation of the data from the conclusions derived from
them, so that the conclusions or arguments can be traced
back to their sources and duly weighed.

As Doctor Stejneger has shown, the writings of the older
European naturalists afford little basis for analysis, and the
investigator has no recourse but to accept an author's state-
ments and conclusions on his own responsibility.

It is scarcely probable that any American naturalist would
have ventured to claim for a fellow-countryman so radical an
advance in scientific method, but I am not aware that the
generalization of Stejneger has met with any opposition
abroad. Indeed, during the twelve years which have passed
since Stejneger's characterization of the Bairdian School, its
methods have been generally adopted among advanced work-
ers on the other side of the Atlantic.

The development of this school was due not alone to the
publication of the " Birds of North America," but still more to
the direct influence of its author, exerted by personal inter-

The Three Secretaries 171

course and by correspondence upon a large number of Amer-
ican naturalists and collectors, and it is due in part to his
influence that ornithology is to-day being pursued in this
country by a larger number of competent and well-equipped
naturalists than any other branch of natural history.

The publication of the "Review of American Birds" was
begun in 1864, but ne«ver completed, having ceased with the
issue of the first volume. This has been described by com-
petent authorities as a work of unequaled merit, displaying
in their perfection the author's wonderful powers of analysis
and synthesis — a work which has received unstinted praise
from all competent to estimate it, and one which has made a
more profound impression on foreign ornithologists than any
other single work on American birds.

There were numerous minor contributions to ornithology,
but no other great one from his unaided pen. The monu-
mental " History of North American Birds," in five volumes,
by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, presented fully the results
of the labors of the Bairdian School up to 1874; and his
favorite pupil and assistant, Mr. Ridgway, is now engaged
upon a most important systematic treatise, which, as a sum-
mary of all that is known of the morphology and classifica-
tion of the birds of north and middle America, will, when it
is published, repeat in its effect the volume of 1858.

In his early years he published many minor papers upon
the mammals of the West, and in 1857 appeared the eighth
volume of the Pacific Railroad Survey Reports, which was
devoted almost entirely to the mammals of North America.
Nearly forty years have elapsed, and still no general work
has been published to take its place. Everything which has
been said in previous pages about his " Birds of North Amer-
ica," published in the same series in the following year,
applies with equal or greater force to his work upon the

172 The Smithsonian Institution

mammals. The greatest of living American mammalogists
said to the writer not long ago, that in his work to-day, when
he had a description by Baird before him, he did not deem
it essential to examine the specimen to which it related ;
something, he added, which he could not say about any other
writer.^

In the field of herpetology Professor Baird was still more
of a pioneer, and, with the exception of Cope, to whom he
resigned the field in 1859, as his chosen successor, his formal
memoirs in this department were more extensive than those
of any other. In his day material did not exist for a compre-
hensive work covering the entire continent, but in his elab-
orate reports upon the collections of the transcontinental sur-
veys, and in his catalogue of North American Serpents in
the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, as well as in
his scattered papers, he very nearly covered the same field
which was occupied by his two great volumes on birds and
mammals.

Nearly two hundred new species and numerous new genera
of reptiles were discovered and named by him, either under
his own name or in association with his assistant, Charles
Girard. To illustrate the fundamental character of this work,
it may be said that when the great collection of snakes, con-
taining several thousand specimens, was taken up for study,
each specimen was individualized by attaching a number tag,
which served as a key to its locality. They were all then
thrown into one great pile, and by a process of compari-
son with absolute disregard for what had previously been
written, assorted, first into families, then into genera, and then

1 To illustrate his methods of work and writing July, 1858, and printing October,

the facility which he acquired with practice, 1858; having in the last instance written

it may be stated that he began the mammal about two thousand quarto pages of original

volume in Elizabethtown, New York, August, matter of the most technical character within

1853, and finished printing July, 1857; he a period of eleven months, and put it through

began the bird book in August, 1857, finished the press in the three which followed.

The Three Secretaries 173

into species and varieties. After this had been done, de-
scriptions and analytical keys were prepared and provisional
names were given to each. Last of all, the books were con-
sulted in order to determine which of them had already been
described and provided with names. Never in the history of
zoology has a continent been classified in a manner so free
from complications of previous discussion.

He published little on the morphology and classification of
fishes. A few papers, in association with Girard, upon new
forms found in the fresh-waters of the Southwest, and a
report upon the fishes observed upon the coast of New Jersey
and Long Island during the summer of 1854, were early and
useful pieces of work, though not especially significant.

After he became Commissioner of Fisheries his time was
so occupied that he was obliged to carry on his studies
through the agency of others. In his first annual report,
however, — that for 1871, — he discussed the life-histories of
two important economic species, the bluefish and the scup-
paug. These were the beginning of a new method in ich-
thyological work, and served as a model and guide for all the
more recent American students. These essays were life-his-
tories of the most comprehensive type. In them he discussed
geographical range, migrations, movements, habits of life,
phenomena of reproduction and growth, questions of food,
enemies, temperature, and all the manifold relationships of
each form to its environment. Then followed a discussion of
the relation of these fishes to man, the relative destructive-
ness of different methods of capture, and the effects of these
methods in the past. The evidence in regard to the diminu-
tion of numbers was critically examined, and the statistics for
the region, with which he was familiar, were treated in an ex-
haustive manner. A life-history equal to that of the bluefish.
then printed, has never been \vritten by any other naturalist.
12*

174 The Smithsonian Institution

It was his intention to have continued this series of papers,
and had the scope of the Fish Commission not been subse-
quently expanded so as to include artificial culture, he would
probably have been able to do this for all the fishes of the
Atlantic coast. His material in resfard to the herrino- and
menhaden was particularly abundant and important.

After six years of waiting, however, he decided that it was
impossible for him to give his personal attention to work of
this kind, and in 1877 he proposed to me to take up the
work, at the same time handing over a great mass of classi-
fied material — his own observations supplemented by letters
and extracts relating to all the economic fishes of the United
States. This was the foundation of the somewhat voluminous
publication entitled "The Fishery Industries of the United
States," which was published under his direction by the writer
and a staff of associates.

Although he had abandoned this portion of the work, he
by no means lost interest in it, but had in preparation at the
time of his death a paper which, had he completed it, would
have been one of the most important contributions to the lit-
erature of the fishes ever issued, dealing as it did in the
broadest and most philosophical manner with the principles
underlying the whole subject of fishery economy.

He attempted in later years no personal work upon the
fishes, but he saw every specimen obtained by the Commis-
sion and inspected every collection, as soon as it was re-
ceived, with eager enthusiasm. He was often the first to
detect undescribed or novel forms, and knew more about
them all than the men whom he designated to write accounts
of them.

It was so also with the invertebrates, especially in the early
years, before the extension of the investigation into the deep
sea brought in such an overwhelming wealth of new material.

The Three Secretaries 175

It was so in the Museum in every department, and each of
his associates knew that he was many times competent to do
the work which he had made over to others.

Particularly keen was his insight into North American
archaeology. The great collection of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution grew up under his hands, and up to the time of his
death every single object was handled by him as soon as it
was received. No one was so quick to perceive a new fact
or so keen in the detection of a fraud, and although he never
published a formal contribution to archaeology, there was in
his day no archaeologist in America who was so learned.
He was, indeed, an "all round " naturalist — one of the last of
a school which has now almost ceased to exist.

But that he, like Professor Henry, was willing to give up
the pleasure of doing things himself, in order that he might
provide the means by which hundreds of others might be
enabled to work, the sum total of his contributions to science
would have been much greater.

It was his self-chosen task to amass material for research,
to secure the money for the prosecution of studies upon it, to
select the men, to train them and point out to them the
results to be accomplished, to watch their progress, and, when
satisfied that an adequate result had been reached, to secure
its publication. Like most men of active mind, he delighted
to enter unfamiliar regions, to become thoroughly familiar
with all that was known, and to begin some research in each
field in order to satisfy himself of his competency to enter it
if he chose. This having been done, he was quite willing to
hand over his accumulations of notes and material to some
one else, and to this trait of his character many naturalists
since prominent have owed their first establishment in the
fields of research which they have since occupied.

Reference has been made to the characteristics of the

176 The Smithsonian Instihttion

Bairdian Period and School of Ornithology, which have been
recognized. No one has proposed similar periods and schools
in other departments of zoology, but in mammals particularly
there is even more justification for the use of these terms, for
his influence is here even more dominant to the present day.
Indeed, these terms might well be extended to cover the en-
tire field of systematic zoology in North America, in which he
has been even more prominent than was his contemporary
Agassiz in the related field of animal morphology.

VII.

The most judicious estimate of the biological work of Baird
is, perhaps, that presented by Doctor Billings in his memoir
read before the National Academy in 1889.

Doctor Billings points out that his writings contain not
merely descriptions of a large number of new species, but a
general revision of the classification and nomenclature, and
that the principles upon which these were founded have for
the most part stood the test of time, showing the keenness of
his insight into what may be called "fundamental morphol-
ogy." His larger works are still standards of reference, and
the additions which have been made to them are mainly the
work of his own pupils or of those who have been trained in
his methods. His work was necessarily confined to descrip-
tive morphology, systemizatlon, and nomenclature, but his
early training as a field naturalist entirely removed him from
the category of mere species describers. His determinations
were founded mainly on bones and skins, which formed the
bulk of the material available at the time.

"It is not," continues Doctor Billings, "an easy matter to
estimate fairly the importance of this kind of work and the
influence which it has on scientific progress and general cul-

The Three Secretaries 177

ture, and it is very likely to be either under- or over-valued by
those who are not familiar with the study of living organisms.
Classification, description, and naming of the different forms
are the essential foundations of scientific biology, for until this
has been done identification of particular forms is either diffi-
cult or impossible, cooperative work on the part of scattered
students is greatly restricted, and broad generalizations can
only be put in the form of theories and conjectures. Such
work as was done by Professor Baird in this direction gives a
starting point to many observers and investigators in different
localities, stimulates farther inquiry, and, when done on the
extensive scale on which he did it, based on the examination
and comparison of a large number of specimens from widely
different localities, exercises a powerful influence for years to
come on lines of exploration, collection, and critical research.
To those who have never tried it, it may seem an easy matter
to sort out specimens of different kinds when a large number
are brought together, or to prepare descriptions sufficient to
enable another man to identify his specimen ; but in reality
it requires not only much experience and careful study, but a
certain aptitude, power of grasping salient points, and of put-
ting aside unessentials such as are rarely possessed by any
man."

As an example of Professor Baird's ability in generaliza-
tion, Doctor Billings cites his paper on the distribution and
migrations of North American birds. In this he maps out
the country into regions corresponding to the distribution of
different kinds of birds ; discusses the relations of these re-
gions to surface topography, altitude, temperature, mountain
chains, etc. ; points out that there are certain correspondences
in the distribution of reptiles and fishes, and draws the con-
clusion that North American birds of wide distribution in lati-
tude, whether migrants or residents, will be found to be larger

178 The Smithsonian Institution

the higher the latitude of their place of birth ; that specimens
from the Pacific coast are apt to be darker than those from
the interior, and that specimens from near the line of junction
of two well-marked provinces or regions often show the influ-
ence of hybridization. When he comes to discuss migrations,
it is in their relations to the laws of the winds of the Northern
Hemisphere that he studies them, and concludes that the trans-
fer of American birds to Europe is mainly due to air currents.

He did not himself produce much of this sort of scientific
literature, for he had not the opportunity, since at the very
period of his career when he was best fitted to make such
studies, he had to give almost his whole time and energy
to routine administrative duties. "This paper alone," says
Billings, " is sufficient evidence of his capacity for general-
izing from a series of isolated facts."

"The two men," continues Billings, "who have exerted the
strongest influence upon natural history studies in this country
are Louis Agassiz and Professor Baird. In many respects
they were very unlike ; circumstances gave them widely
different fields, and they worked on different plans and by
different methods. They began their public career in this
country almost together ; but Agassiz was already famous as
the result of seventeen years' incessant work, while Baird
was an almost unknown youth. Agassiz was a born teacher,
a fascinating lecturer, gifted with eloquence which won its
way everywhere ; Baird could only speak freely in the pres-
ence of a few, and for the most part taught only by the pen
and by example. Each of them created a great museum in
spite of many obstacles, the first winning the means largely
from private contributions, which were a tribute to his elo-
quence ; the second gaining his end more indirectly, through
his connection with the Smithsonian Institution and gov-
ernment. Each of them gathered around him young men

The Three Secretaries 179

who were stimulated and encouraged by his example, who
followed his methods, have continued his work, and have
tauorht others, so that there are now observers and workers
almost everywhere. The first made great use of the micro-
scope and of embryology ; the second very little, for he had
to use the material available. The first had a vivid imagina-
tion which led him to frame many theories and hypotheses to
be verified or disproved by future investigation and research ;
the second classified the facts before him, but theorized very
little. Professor Baird's career as an original investigator
was hampered and finally stopped by his administrative work,
but in proportion as this latter increased he was able to fur-
nish materials and opportunities for others. The pupils of
Agassiz and Baird are the working naturalists of to-day and
the teachers of those who are to come, and the two methods
of study are being combined and developed to produce re-
sults of which we already have good reason to be proud, and
the end of which no man can foresee."

VIII.

The influence of Professor Baird in the encouragement of
scientific enterprise was exceedingly great. The relation of
the Smithsonian Institution to scientific exploration, espe-
cially in natural history and ethnology, is for all time in-
separably connected with the history of the country. This
department of its work was from its inception under the di-
rection of the Assistant Secretary, and so intimately through
him was the Institution connected with the scientific work of
the exploring expeditions that the annual reports from 1851
to 1871 contain what is practically a complete history of the
work of the government in the exploration of the great un-
known reoions of the West. This constitutes, in fact, the

i8o The Smithsonian Instihttion

only systematic record of government explorations for this
period which has ever been prepared.

The decade beginning with 1850 was one of great activity
in exploration. Our frontier was being rapidly extended
toward the West, but in the territory between the Mississippi
were immense regions which were entirely unknown. Nu-
merous government expeditions were sent forth and enor-
mous collections were gathered and sent to Washington to
be reported upon. The Institution had been designated by
law custodian of these collections, and within its walls as-
sembled the naturalists by whose exertions they had been
brought together. Professor Baird was surrounded by con-
ditions most congenial and stimulating, for he found full scope
for his energy in arranging scientific outfits for these expedi-
tions, preparing instructions for explorers, and, above all, in
inspiring them with enthusiasm for the work.

To him also fell in large part the task of receiving the col-
lections, arranging for the necessary investigations, and the
accumulation and publication of the results.

The natural history portion of the reports of the Mexican
Boundary Surveys, the Pacific Railroad Surveys, and the
expeditions of Ives, Marsh, Stansbury, McClellan, and
others, as well as those of the Wilkes exploring expe-
dition, which remained still under investigation, were all
prepared with his cooperation, and in large degree under
his supervision.

This, however, was only a small part of his work, for he
maintained relationships with numerous private collectors,
who derived their materials, their books, and, to a consider-
able extent, their enthusiasm from him. The various "In-
structions to Collectors," which have passed through several
editions, as well as numerous circulars written with a similar
purpose, originated with him.

The Three Secretaries i8i

As a result of this work, a large number of men were
trained as collectors and observers ; among them not a few
who have since become eminent in various departments of
science: Gill, Hayden, Girard, Kennicott, Dall, Bannister,
Culbertson, Stimpson, Ridgway, Rathbun, Bean, Ryder,
True, and Gushing. The list might be extended for many
lines. Amone the older men who were thus associated with
him were Meek, Cooper, Kennerly, Suckley, Gibbs, New-
berry, Parry, Powell — all names familiar in the history of
American exploration.

Many army officers detailed for this same work became
enthusiastic naturalists, and sent in important collections and
notes. Some of these men subsequently became famous as
military leaders. I have seen a manuscript on the "Moun-
tain Sheep," written by General George H. Thomas and pre-
pared for the press by Professor Baird. General Winfield
Scott and General George B. McClellan both made collec-
tions of reptiles in the West, the genus Scotophis and the
species PituopJiis McClellanii commemorating their names ;
and among other monuments to men also known as military
heroes are the species named for McCall, Van Vliet, Graham,
Couch, Fremont, and Emory.

Even more striking was the enthusiasm of the officers of
the Hudson Bay Company in the far North, and with all
these men an active personal relationship was m.aintained.

" Collections and correspondence," writes Dall, " poured in
upon Professor Baird in extraordinary quantity. Not alone
was the shedding of its horn by the antelope on the Western
plains, or the nesting of the canvasback among Alaskan
marshes, the theme of eager letter writing. The ladies of
his household might often have been seen among the shops,
seeking novels for the army officer at some isolated post, a
necktie for a Northern voyager, or the dress goods for a

1 82 The Smithsonian Instihition

wedding to come off on the banks of the Mackenzie during
the crisp Arctic September."

The war of 1861-65 broke rudely into these happy days,
and after it closed the old relationships were never entirely
resumed, although the Institution was closely related to the
natural history work of the early surveys of Hayden, Wheel-
er, King, and Powell. Many of the Polar expeditions, and
still earlier, the natural history survey of Alaska under the
direction of Kennicott and Dall, were largely under the influ-
ence of Professor Baird ; while later his interest in Arctic zo-
ology manifested itself in the pains which he took to secure
the appointment of naturalists as observers at the various
stations of the International Meteorological Service. The
important explorations of Nelson, Turner, and Murdoch in
the far Northwest, and of Kumlien and Turner in Labrador,
were thus provided for.

IX.

Natural history and the directing of explorations were only a
portion of that for which he was held officially responsible,
for his first duty was from the start in connection with cer-
tain departments of routine. The system of international
exchanges, for instance, was organized by him in all its de-
tails. His first task after entering upon his duties on Octo-
ber II, 1850, was to distribute the second volume of the
" Contributions to Knowledge." In connection with his pri-
vate enterprises he had already developed a somewhat
extensive system of exchanges with European and Amer-
ican correspondents, and the methods thus established were
expanded to meet the wider needs of the Institution.

He had in charge also the details of organizing the corps
of meteorological observers, and for twenty years wrote out

The Three Secretaries 183

with his own hand daily a large number of briefs of letters
for the signature of the Secretary.

The development of the natural history collections was the
work for which he cared the most. As has already been in-
dicated, the private collection which he brought with him to
Washington formed the nucleus of the Smithsonian Museum.
The only specimens in the possession of the Institution at the
time of his arrival were a few boxes of minerals and plants.
The gatherings of the Wilkes expedition — the legal nucleus
of the Museum — were at that time under the charge of the
National Institute and arranged in the Patent Office building;
but it was not until 1857 that the Regents finally consented
that this material should be transferred to its building. Be-
fore this time Congress had granted no funds for the support
of the Smithsonian cabinets, and its collections had been ac-
quired and cared for at the expense of its own endowment.
They had, however, become so large and important before
1857 that the so-called "National Collection" at that time
acquired was but small in comparison.

The National Museum had thus a double origin, its actual,
though not its legal, nucleus having been the collection as-
sembled at the Smithsonian prior to 1857. Its methods
of administration were the very same which had been de-
veloped by Professor Baird in Carlisle as early as 1845,
and are still in use, having stood the test of nearly fifty
years without any necessity for their modification having
become apparent.

In the fifth annual report of the Institution, now exceed-
ingly rare, is a communication by the Assistant Secretary in
charge of the Natural History Department, which after enu-
merating the specimens belonging to the Museum January i,
1 85 1, discussed fully the possibilities for the development of
natural history collections in W^ashington — a remarkable

184 The Smithsonian Institution

paper in which the germs of all future development were
embodied.

The period of the Civil War was one of comparative quiet,
though much was accomplished by Baird and his pupils ; and
his two most scholarly memoirs — the " Review of Amer-
ican Birds " and the " Distribution and Migrations of North
American Birds" — were then written.

During this decade were continued the summer expedi-
tions, usually extending through a period of two or three
months, which were yearly more and more exclusively de-
voted to the investigation of aquatic life, and ultimately led
to the organization of the Fish Commission in 1871.

During this period, too, the tendencies toward interest in
the problems of general science growing out of his early
connection with the " Iconographic Cyclopaedia" began to
revive, and he felt a new interest in the popularization of
scientific subjects.

At the solicitation of Mr. George W. Childs, he took charge
in 1867 of the column of scientific intelligence in the Phila-
delphia Public Ledger, and about 1870 became the scientific
editor of the periodicals published by Harper & Brothers,
of New York. His connection with this firm continued until
1878, and in addition to his contributions to other periodicals,
there resulted eight volumes of the "Annual Record of Sci-
ence and Industry." About the time he became Secretary
of the Institution these editorial labors were abandoned, but
the idea of the annual record was continued in the appendices
to the Smithsonian Report until 1888 under the title of
" Record of Progress."

In 1 87 1 an entirely new interest was intrusted to his care,
when he was appointed by President Grant United States

The Three Secretaries 185

Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. The duties of this
office, although not permitted to interfere with his other offi-
cial work, occupied nevertheless a large portion of his time
and much of his best thought for the remaining years of his
life.

The interests of the Fish Commission, so limited at first
that they were performed largely by himself and a few volun-
teer associates, soon became so extensive that he was obliged
to give up personal studies and to work entirely through the
agency of others. So rapidly did the work extend in later
years that notwithstanding the large and competent staff
which the increased appropriations enabled him to employ,
the burden of routine grew greater than he was able, with his
other responsibilities, to endure, and led to his untimely
death.

The work of the Fish Commission while under his charge
was the most prominent of all the efforts of the government
in the way of aggressive scientific research.

The law which authorized the appointment of a Commis-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries defined his duties as follows :

"To prosecute investigations and inquiries on the subject
[of the diminution of valuable fishes], with the view of ascer-
taining whether any and what diminution in the number of
the food-fishes of the coast and the lakes of the United States
has taken place ; and, if so, to what causes the same is due ;
and also whether any and what protective, prohibitory, or
precautionary measures should be adopted in the premises ;
and to report upon the same to Congress."

The same resolution required that the Commissioner should
be a civil officer of the government, of proved scientific a?id
practical acquaintance with tJie fishes of the coast. Only one
man was eligible under these conditions. Indeed, the office
had been made for Professor Baird.

1 86 The Smithsonian Institution

The work of the Commission was at first limited to the in-
vestigation of the causes of the decrease in the food-fishes of
the Atlantic coast, and it was in this connection that the sum-
mer stations were established in successive years at Eastport,
Noank, Portland, Newport, Gloucester, Providence, and finally
at Woods Hole, where a permanent station and biological
laboratory were erected. It soon came to pass that the Great
Lakes and also the rivers were included in the province of
the Commission, and that the Commissioner was required to
undertake extensive operations in practical fish-culture. This
last has now become the most prominent part of the work of
the Commission, but was in early years regarded by Profes-
sor Baird as incidental to his own interest, which was to dis-
cover the facts upon which fish-culture, fishery legislation, and
fishery economy in general, must of necessity forever rest.

In making his original plans, he had insisted that to study
only the food-fishes would be of little importance, and that
useful conclusions must need rest upon the broad foundation
of purely scientific investigation. The life-histories of econo-
mic species were to be understood from beginning to end, but
no less requisite was it to know all about the animals and
plants upon which they feed or upon which their food is nour-
ished ; the habits of their enemies and friends, and the foes
and friends of their friends and enemies ; as well as the cur-
rents, temperatures, and other physical phenomena of the
waters which are so intimately related to migration, repro-
duction, and growth.

In furtherance of these views, he carried on an exhaustive
biological survey of the waters of the United States and of
the adjoining regions of the Atlantic and Pacific. What was
done by the Fisk Hawk and the Albatross, vessels designed
by him and constructed under his personal supervision, has
given to our nation a most honorable place among the Gov-

The Three Secretaries 187

ernments of the world in the field of deep-sea research.
The achievements of the British ship Challenger are famous
throughout the world on account of the magnificent series of
reports, published by the Government, based upon its collec-
tions. The material accumulated by Professor Baird's ves-
sels was quite as extensive, and had he lived the reports
would have been equally famous.

The marine biological laboratory at Woods Hole is the
most extensive, and at the time of its completion was one of
the best equipped, in the world. Had his plans for it come to
fruition, it would have been without a rival among such es-
tablishments.

Notwithstanding his own taste and inclinations, all per-
sonal work in natural history was soon abandoned to others,
and his own great powers of administration applied to the
practical side of the work — a task for which he had little per-
sonal liking. He nevertheless did it with enthusiasm, since
he was convinced that the increase in the food supply which
he was thus rendering practicable was of the greatest impor-
tance to millions of his fellow-citizens. To him was due the
inception of what I have termed "public fish-culture," to dis-
tinguish it from all previous work of this kind, performed, as
it always had been, upon a limited scale, and for the benefit
of a few individuals.

"Public fish-culture" is fish-culture for the benefit of the
masses. It does not depend for its effectiveness upon the as-
sistance of protective legislation. It is based upon the idea
that it is better so to increase the supply of fishes by artificial
propagation that protective laws are not necessary ; that it is
cheaper to make fish so abundant that the fisheries need not
be restricted, than to spend large sums of money in prevent-
ing people from fishing. " Public fish-culture " is essentially
democratic and American. In 1S83 I wrote: "'Public fish-

1 88 The Smithsonian Institution

culture ' scarcely exists except in America, though in Europe
many eminent men of science appreciate its importance and
are striving to educate the people up to the point of support-
ing it." These words, after the lapse of thirteen years, are
still true.

In 1883 Professor Huxley remarked: " If the people of
Great Britain are going to deal seriously with the sea fisher-
ies, and not let them take care of themselves, as they have
done for the last thousand years or so, they have a very
considerable job before them, and unless they put into the
organization of the fisheries the energy, the ingenuity, the
scientific knowledge, and the professional skill which char-
acterize my friend Professor Baird and his assistants, their
efforts are not likely to come to very much good." " I do
not think," he added, " that any nation at the present time
has comprehended the question of dealing with fish in so
thorough, excellent, and scientific a spirit as the United
States."

The juries of the Fishery Exhibition in Berlin in 1880 said
in their official report : " We must thank America for the prog-
ress which fish-culture has made during the past decade."

The principal French authority, M. Raveret-Wattel, wrote:
" Nowhere has a Government given so much enlightened care
to the rational cultivation of the waters, and afforded such
efficient protection and generous encouragement."

The importance of his services to fishery economy were
perhaps more fully recognized in Germany than elsewhere. At
the first great International Fishery Exhibition, — that held in
Berlin in 1880, — the magnificent silver trophy, the first prize
of honor, was awarded to him by the Emperor. His portrait
was placed over the entrance to the American court, and
Herr von Behr, president of the German Fishery Union,
never passed beneath it without taking off his hat in honor of

The Three Secretaries 189

the man whom he deHghted to call the " first fish culturist of
the world " : he insisted that whoever might be in his com-
pany should follow his example, and the late Emperor Fred-
erick, at that time Crown Prince and " Protector of Fisher-
ies," did homage in the same manner to the American phil-
anthropist.

The German Fishery Union issued a circular immediately
after his death, which contained the following appreciative
eulogy :

" Ein edler Freund in weiter Feme, — ein Wohlthater des
Deutschen Fischerei-Vereins, ist dahin geschieden. Wir
trauern am Grabe des uneigenniitzigen, schlichten Gelehrten,
der ein langes Leben lang den Austausch geistiger Arbeit
zwischen Europa und Amerika auf vielen Gebieten der Na-
turkunde gepflegt hat, der seit Jahren auch unermiidlich be-
strebt war, von dem Reichthume amerikanischer Gewasser an
Deutschland abzugeben. Keines Lobes oder auch nur Dan-
kes gewartig, hielt sich Professor Baird taglich und stiindlich
bereit, Fragen zu beantworten und Aufschliisse zu ertheilen.
Noch mehr ; aus eigenem Antriebe bot er dem befreundeten
deutschen Fischerei-Verein das beste an, was nach seinem
gewiegten Urtheile sich fiir uns eignen konnte. Ihm ver-
dankt die Fauna unserer vaterlandischen Strome seit 1878 die
Zufiihrunsf von nicht weniger als vier der edelsten Fische aus
dem Salmonidengeschlechte, die sammtlich bereits durch
Nachzucht unser bleibendes, gesichertes Eigenthum geworden
sind, namlich : des Binnensee-Lachses (landlocked salmon),
der Regenbogenforelle (rainbow trout), des Bachsaiblings
(brook trout), und der amerikanischen Marane (white fish).
Auch den in Amerika sobeliebten Black Bass und den Catfish
(Zwerwels), von dem wir uns Nutzen fiir die heimischen
Strome versprechen, danken wir ihm. Nicht weniger als zehn
Millionen befruchteter Eier mogen in seinem Auftrage aus
den unermesslichen Schatzen, iiber welche die ' United States
Commission of Fish and Fisheries ' zu verfiigen hat, iiber den
Ocean uns zuorecrancren sein.

13*

iQo The Smithsonian Instihition

" Herr Spencer F. Baird war es auch, dessen kraftiger For-
derung wir i. J. 1880 den Entschluss der Bundesregierung,
die berliner Internationale Ausstellung zu beschicken, we-
sentlich verdanken. Mit solcher Umsicht und mit so s^ross-
artiger Vollstandigkeit wurde die amerikanische Abtheilung
derselben ausgeriistet, dass man sie ohne Weiteres als die
lehrreichste und wichtigste aller Ausstellungen der Fremde
bezeichnen konnte, so dass der grosse Ehrenpreis Sr. Maje-
stat des Kaisers dem Professor Baird zugesprochen wurde.

*' Moge Amerika die Verdienste des edlen Mannes einge-
hend darstellen und dauernd ehren, der das Ehrenamt als
Vorsitzender der ofenannten Kommission, durch iiberreiche
Zuwendung der Bundeskasse und die Freigebigkeit der Ei-
senbahngesellschaften unterstlitzt, mit so kraftiger Initiative
zur Erneuerung des bereits dezimirten Fischbestandes aus-
nutzte, — der die nur in einzelen Stromgebieten heimschen
Fische alien andern im Osten und Westen des gewaltigen
Landes zuganglich machte, — der sogar Dampfschiffe bauen
liess, um sie als bewegliche Bruthauser zu benutzen, — dem
auch jeder Versuch willkommen war, europaische Fische
driiben zu akklimatisiren. Dass wir in letzterer Hinsicht
dem unvergesslichen Freunde auch unserseits haben dienst-
bar sein konnen, gereicht uns zur lebhaften Genugthuung.
Zwei dem amerikanischen Festlande frliher unbekannte Ar-
ten, der Karpfe und die Forelle, sind von Deutschland aus
dort eingefUhrt worden. Beide mit staunenswerthem Erfolge.
Der Karpfe, namentlich, hat driiben (wenn der Ausdruck ge-
stattet wird) ein neues Leben begonnen. Wie er in kijrze-
ster Frist zu kaum gekannten Massen heranwachst, so bemii-
hen sich die Amerikaner ihrerseits mit wahrhafter Vorliebe
um den Ankommling; eine eigene Zeitschrift beschaftigt sich
seit Kurzem mit den Schicksalen des Karpfen in jedem Theile
der Union. Wir vernehmen mit Befriedigung, dass sein mehr
jahriger Mitarbeiter, Herr Professor Brown Goode, nunmehr
seine Stelle iibernehmen soil. Moo^e der liebenswUrdio-e Ge-
lehrte, dessen sich viele von unserer Fischereiausstellung her
erinnern werden, in die Fusstapfen seines Vorgangers voll
und wiirdiglich eintreten. Uns wird er allezeit bereit finden,

The Three Secretaries 191

mit ihm in demselben Geiste der Briiderlichkeit, der uns niit
dem Verewigten verband, waiter zu arbeiten.

"Spencer F. Baird war am 8 Februar 1823 zu Reading in
Pennsylvanien geboren. Er war Vorsteher des Smithsonian
Institute zu Washington. Am 18 August d. J. verschied er
zu Wood's Holl. Im Herzen seiner deutschen wie seiner
amerikanischen Freunde wird er lange, lange fortleben. Ave,
cara anima / " ^

XI.

In May, 1878, he was unanimously elected to succeed Pro-
fessor Henry as the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
In this position he continued the policy of his predecessor,
though with more attention to exploration. The number of
publications was increased and more attention paid to the
development of the library. He secured legislation authoriz-
ing the expansion of the endowment fund invested in the
Treasury to one million dollars, and began to agitate the
question of scholarships in connection with the Institution.
During his administration, too, was erected the annex build-
ing to contain the overflow of the collections of the National
Museum, which had been so suddenly expanded through his
influence at the Philadelphia Exposition. To the construc-
tion of this building, which covers an area of nearly two and
a half acres, he gave his personal attention, and completed it
for less than the amount of the appropriation, turning a small
balance into the Treasury, something which has rarely hap-
pened in the erection of government buildings, and which is
still remembered in Congress as remarkable.

The building has been severely criticized because of its
lack of architectural dignity, but it is by far the cheapest
structure of the kind ever built, the cost for each square foot
of floor space available for exhibition having been only two

1 Circular No. 4 (pages 59, 60), Berlin, October 13, 1887.

192 The Smithsonian Institution

dollars and a half, while no other museum building has cost
less than eleven dollars for the same unit. It was regarded
by Professor Baird as a temporary structure, and he acted
upon the theory, which experience has shown to be a wise
one, that in order to secure for the future a museum worthy
of the nation, the first necessity was a building of great ca-
pacity, in which the extraordinary opportunities at that time
presented for accumulating and organizing great collections
could be utilized.

The larger portion of his time was still occupied by his
duties as Commissioner of Fisheries, yet the Institution and
its dependencies were constantly in his mind, and the ten
years of his incumbency were marked by an extraordinary
expansion in every direction of the Institution's potentiality
for the future.

Honors were showered upon him from every quarter of
the world. The King of Norway and Sweden, in 1875, made
him a Knight of the Order of St. Olaf; in 1878 he received
the medal of the Acclimatization Society of Melbourne ; in
1879 the gold medal of the Societe d'Acclimatation de France.

He was an honorary member of many scientific societies in
England, Germany, Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, Austra-
lia, New Zealand, Holland, Switzerland, Canada, and the
United States. Even Japan was not unmindful of his services
to science, and from distant Yezo came soon after his death
a little volume printed on silk containing his portrait and an
appreciation in Japanese.

A few months before his death, at the 250th anniversary
of Harvard University, he received the degree of LL. D.
This was one of the few occasions upon which he was ever
induced to ascend the platform in a public place.

The village of Baird, in Shasta County, California, was
named for him in 1877.

The Three Secretaries 193

His most lasting memorials, however, are those living-
monuments which commemorate the activity of naturalists —
the animals which are named for them by their disciples. Of
these there are more than forty, conspicuous among which
are Baird's Tapir {E lasmogiiatJius Bairdii), a large mammal
of Central America ; Baird's Dolphin {Delphinus Bairdii),
a species found in the Pacific waters of the United States ;
and Baird's Octopus, the first conspicuous new form of inver-
tebrate discovered in the early explorations of the Fish Com-
mission on the New England coast.

The most modest of men. Professor Baird cared not for
public recognition. Mis indifference to self was his most
conspicuous characteristic. He could never be induced to
address an audience, something which seems all the more
remarkable to his friends, who remember how winning was
his eloquence when he talked in the presence of a few.

The power of his persuasive suavity was never better seen
than when in the presence of the committees of Congress be-
fore whom he was summoned from year to year to justify his
requests for money to be used in the extension of his work.
He was always received with the heartiest welcome, and these
keen, bustling, practical men of business, who ordinarily
rushed with the greatest of expedition through the routine of
the day, forgot their usual hurry when Professor Baird was
before them, and listened so long as he could be induced to
talk, and not infrequently would wander from the business
before them to ask him questions upon subjects which his re-
marks suggested. A very practical evidence of their appre-
ciation was the prompt action upon the bill, passed soon after
his death, giving twenty-five thousand dollars to his widow in
recognition of the uncompensated services which he had ren-
dered as Commissioner of Fisheries.

194 The Smithsonian Institution

XII.

His personal traits have been sympathetically described by
intimate friends in the many eulogies which were published
soon after his death, and the appreciations of his character
presented by Billings, Dall, Ridgway, Sharpe, and Powell
have a peculiar interest, since each writer has depicted a
phase of his character especially familiar to himself To
these are now added two others, the first written by Pro-
fessor John S. Newberry, who had known him as early as
1850, and the other by Professor Harrison Allen of Phila-
delphia, whose acquaintance was of somewhat later date.
Professor Newberry writes :

" His most marked characteristics, and those which gained
the affection and admiration of all who were brought into
contact with him, were his great knowledge, his geniality,
and his phenomenal industry. His courtesy was proverbial,
and his remarkable success in dealing with jealous and often
antagonistic government departments was largely due to his
tact and sagacity. He seemed always to get what he wanted,
but it was by a geniality which melted down all opposition,
and never by the tricks and subterfuges so common among
politicians. His suavity was irresistible, making allies and
helpers of friends, and disarming all antagonists.

" As a consequence of the possession of all these charming
qualities, and as a reward for the kindness he was sooner or
later doing to every one about him, he was without an enemy,
and more popular and beloved than any other man I have
known.

" I have said that his industry was phenomenal : he really
seemed never to waste a moment ; he had a wonderful head
for details and was an ideal business man. All the innumer-
able ramifications of the practical work of the Smithsonian
were not only known to, but were really controlled by him ;

The Three Secretaries 195

every moment of his time was occupied, and he worked with
singular speed and efficiency ; yet he was never hurried or
flustered and never so much engrossed in his work but that
he had a pleasant word for strangers, and an open ear to all
the wishes or complaints of his numerous assistants and em-
ployees. When busiest in tabulating the results of the enor-
mous collections which were accumulated at the Smithsonian
by his means, if his daughter, then a child, came with any
request, he turned from his work to listen to her prattle,
and lent himself to her wants and wishes as though he had
nothing else in the world to attend to. His wife was a great
invalid, and there were days when, very nervous, she could
scarcely spare him from her sight. I have known him to sit
for many hours at her bedside, holding her hand in one of
his while with the other he went on with his writing, ready
at any instant to administer to her wants and wishes, and yet
utilizing every free moment.

" His administrative abilities were of the very highest
order. As has been said, he not only managed the business
of the Institution in all its arrangements with remarkable
success, but he instituted and carried out a system of observa-
tions and collections in natural history that covered the entire
North American continent. All the departments of govern-
ment were ready to make their machinery tributary to his
wants ; the express companies and other lines of transporta-
tion carried all his articles free, the agents of the Hudson
Bay Company even to the Arctic Circle ; and both officials
and private persons in Mexico and the West Indies constituted
themselves representatives of the Smithsonian, and were con-
stantly sending in gratuitously collections which would have
cost, if paid for, thousands of dollars. Within the United
States Professor Baird had friends and correspondents every-
where, who were working along his lines in the interest of
science. In all this he really was Napoleonic, and the result
was that the old Smithsonian building was crowded with
priceless treasures in every department of natural science,
and the National Museum, his creation, was erected and
filled ; and now the channels he opened are bringing to

196 The Smithsonian Insfitufion

Washingfton such a flood of material that a new museum is
absolutely indispensable for its reception.^

"The Fish Commission, with all its grand results, is the
product of his enterprise and good management. This in it-
self would constitute a monument that should satisfy the am-
bition of any man, but it is only one of the good works of the
purest, best, kindliest, and most useful man of science America
has yet produced.

" He was constantly doing good to others, and was the
most unselfish of men. Nothing gave him greater pleasure
than to encourage and push forward the young men about
him.

"Among the collections which I brought from Oregon was
a woodpecker, supposed to be new. Of this he wrote and
published a description, crediting the species to me without
my knowledge or consent, for the credit of the discovery all
belonged to him. He was just as generous in his dealings
with all others, and he seemed to be entirely free from the
desire for notoriety which is so common among scientific men.
He had his ambition, of course, but it was of a lofty and un-
selfish kind, for the advancement of science ; and for the ac-
complishment of this he preferred to encourage and help all
true workers rather than to monopolize material and gain
honor and fame for himself.

" Only once did I have any difference with Professor Baird.
I questioned the policy of Professor Henry, who desired to
make the Smithsonian a mere bureau of information and an

1 Doctor Billings writes : " It was the pos- friend, Mr. Marsh, about a scheme for a na-
sibility of creating a great museum of natural tional museum, and a year later he got so far
history that inducedhim to come to the Smith- as to consider plans and size of buildings,
sonian, and he never lost sight of this object ; having in view apparently something like the
but for a long time he had to work largely by Crystal Palace. He was not working aim-
indirect methods. He did not directly op- lessly all those years. He could not have
pose the policy of Professor Henry, and al- what he wanted just then, but he had faith
ways worked harmoniously with him, but he in the future, and meantime went on with his
lost no opportunity of increasing the collcc- duties, which Mr. Marsh [Life and Letters
tions, and constantly urged that the best way of George P. Marsh. Volume i, page 262].
to induce Congress to grant the means of characterized as 'answering of foolish letters,
caring for such things was to accumulate ma- directing of packages to literary societies,
terial worth caring for until its amount and reading of proof-sheets, and other mechanical
value should be such that pulilic opinion ojierations pertaining unto tlie diffusion of
would demand ample accommodation for it. knowledge.'" ("Biographical Memoirs of the
So early as 1853 we find him writing to his National Academy." Volume III, page I45.)

The Three Secretaries 197

office for the publication of such scientific papers as were too
voluminous or abstract to be given to the public through
other channels. The library and museum were, therefore,
looked upon by him with little favor. On the contrary, I
thought the Smithsonian should be a bureau of investigation,
where scientific material should be accumulated and studied
by the help of a fine scientific library. So I opposed the
transfer of the library to the Capitol as the giving up of an
important part of the machinery of the Smithsonian. What-
ever Professor Baird's private views on this subject may have
been he was so loyal to his chief as never to encourage or
countenance any opposition to his wishes. I felt, as I feel
now, that the influence exerted by the Smithsonian on the
government and the people of Washington will be measured
by the space it occupies and the tangible evidence it furnishes
to the public of the work it is doing. So I rejoice that the
Smithsonian has preserved and greatly increased its collec-
tions, until its museum is now the finest in the country, and a
source of instruction and delight to the thousands on thou-
sands who visit the capital. Time has, I think, vindicated
my views with reference to the library, and it is recognized
that, as one of several collections of books, a scientific library
is an indispensable part of its machinery.

" An effort was made by those who were envious of the
great success of Professor Baird in accumulating scientific
material to have the abundant collections brought to the
Smithsonian by governmental expeditions distributed to
other museums. Fortunately, Professor Baird's opposition to
this scheme prevented its success ; yet no one, except those
who were about him at the time, knows how much labor and
anxiety the retention of the museum cost him. But for him,
the splendid array of scientific material which is now the
glory of the Smithsonian would never have been gathered or
retained."

Professor Allen writes :

"My acquaintance with Professor Baird began in 1861.
At that time I was studying medicine in Philadelphia, and.

198 The Smithsonian Institution

since the study of the natural sciences was recommended, I
was in the habit of frequenting the library of the Academy of
Natural Sciences. One day, while reading Griffith's transla-
tion of Cuvier's " Regne Animal," I was approached by a gen-
tleman who asked me what I was reading. I chanced to be
looking over the chapter which treated of the bats. In the
course of the conversation that ensued he advised me to go
to the specimens rather than to content myself with reading
about them. This was the first notice I had ever received
from any one, and the advice made a deep impression upon
my mind. I afterward ascertained that the strange gentle-
man was Professor Baird. He was often in Philadelphia,
being in constant communication with Mr. John Cassin, the
ornithologist, and I had many opportunities of meeting him.
The training in habits of exact observation gained by study-
ing zoology has been of great advantage to me in my profes-
sion, and I have always felt an indebtedness to Professor
Baird for his advice and encouragement.

" During the period that I remained in the army as assis-
tant surgeon, Professor Baird exerted his influence to obtain
for me posts of duty which permitted me to pursue my stud-
ies in natural history. I remained for the most part from
1862 to 1865 in close association with him at the Smithsonian
Institution.

" Professor Baird impressed me as a great organizer. His
interest in men was much the same as that taken by a gen-
eral in the officers under his command. It appeared to be
created by a desire to get certain work done by his lieuten-
ants, but ended in awakening in his mind an affectionate con-
cern for their happiness. The field before him was so vast
that he had need of all collaborators. Nothing appeared to
give him more satisfaction than to hear of new students com-
ing forward.

" It is too soon to estimate the value of his achievements in
perfecting a scheme of a national collection. But this much
can be temperately said — namely, that the plan of the magnifi-
cent museum at Washington is entirely of his own creation.
The difficulties which attended the formation of this plan

The Three Secretaries 199

were greater than is generally known. On one occasion, at
least, these would have led in any other man less sagacious
than himself to failure of the entire conception. He came to
the Smithsonian Institution at a time when its policy was not
defined. No one can now estimate as he did the obstacles
to be overcome in giving shape to the materials about him ;
for not only the apathy of the public, but the opposition of
men of influence, both in and out of Washington, had to be
overcome and changed to sympathy at every step.

" Professor Baird was optimistic in his views of life, judi-
cial in temperament, liberal in religion, catholic in his opin-
ions, wise and shrewd in his conduct of affairs. He had a
genial vein of humor. In his literary tastes he was singularly
free from pedantry, and entertained a sympathy so wide that
he was the most approachable of men. I have often won-
dered at his patience. Nothing appeared to excite him. I
never saw him in ill-temper. To an extent probably without
parallel in the history of science, he combined the functions
of administrator and investigator. This combination did not
interfere apparently with the kind of work he selected. This
was purely descriptive and was pursued in a fragmentary
way, — subject to innumerable interruptions and revisions with-
out impairment. He once told me that he wrote his book on
North American birds in sittings which could not have aver-
aged over fifteen minutes. His industry was enormous. He
lost no time either by impaired health or by misdirected ef-
forts ; indeed, he was a personification of systematic energy.
Thus doubtless it came to pass that the ends for which he so
persistently fought were achieved, and his name will be asso-
ciated for all time with the first comprehensive plan for the
organization of science in America."

XIII.

About sixteen years before his death, his elder brother, to
whom he was devotedly attached, and who had been his as-
sociate in his earliest natural-history work, died of heart dis-

200 The Smithsonian Institution

ease. As early as 1855 Professor Baird had been conscious
of weakness in the same organ, probably the result of the
sudden change from athletic outdoor pursuits to desk-work
which accompanied his coming to the Smithsonian. In 1873,
when he proposed to me to become his confidential assistant,
he told me that his condition was such that all exertion, and
even mental anxiety, was to be avoided at any cost. I do not
doubt that this knowledge of physical weakness and the re-
sultant discipline contributed to strengthen the calmness and
self-control to which so much of his success in later years
was due.

This habit had been formed in very early life. Only twice
was he ever known to show anger : when, at the age of
twenty, some one abused his favorite Newfoundland dog ;
and once in the first years of his connection with the Institu-
tion, when a confidential letter from his aged mother was
opened and read by a clerk in the course of official routine.

From early youth until failing strength forbade he kept a
journal of his daily pursuits, and this, together with immense
piles of copy-books and letter-files, will afford a treasure to
his biographer. When the history of his life and times shall
be written, it will be a history of the natural sciences in
America in the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century.

He once remarked to me that he was satisfied that no
man's life was of such importance to the people among whom
he lived that he might not easily be replaced by another who
would fully fill his place. As I looked at the man before me,
a giant in body and in mind, a treasury of untransferable ex-
perience and wisdom, it seemed to me that if his judgment
was in general a true one, in him at least there was an ex-
ception. And so it has proved. Ten years have passed by
since he died, and his like has not been found.

The T J tree Secretaries 201

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY was born in Rox-
bury, Massachusetts, August 22, 1834. At the age of
eleven he entered the Boston Latin School, and afterward
the Boston High School, from which he was graduated in
1 85 1. He was not sent to college, since his tastes tended
at that time entirely toward mathematical and mechanical
pursuits. Astronomy, the study which attracted him most,
could scarcely in those days be expected to offer a career.
He decided to become a civil engineer, since in that profes-
sion he would find employment for his mathematical taste,
for his natural manual dexterity, and his aptness in the use
of mechanical methods.

From engineering to architecture is not a distant remove,
and he presently entered the office of a Boston architect, as
student. In 1857 he began the practice of his profession in
the West, but the panic of that year interfered seriously with
his prospects. The next few years were passed in Chicago
and St. Louis, leading to little profit at the time, though the
business discipline and the skill as a draughtsman which he
then acquired were to be fruitful of results in later years.

In 1864 he returned to Boston, having decided to abandon
architecture, but with no other plans for the future. His
brother, John Williams Langley, also at this time returned to
his old home in Roxbury, having just finished three years of
active service as surgeon in the navy. The two brothers
devoted some months to the building of a telescope, and then

202 The Smithsonian Institution

went together to Europe, where they remained for nearly a
year. Here they studied the Continental languages and
made leisurely visits to the principal art collections and to
places of historic interest. In the fall of 1865 they returned
to New England.

Still uncertain as to the future, but not yet supposing that
its promise could possibly be in the direction of astronomy,
he learned that the observatory in Cambridge was to be
reorganized, and that new assistants were being selected.
Presenting himself to the Director, Professor Joseph Win-
lock, he was cordially received, and the dream of his life was
realized. He was at last to become an astronomer.

Thus at the age of thirty he began the serious work of his
life. He was by no means a novice, for he had been an eager
student of astronomical works, and had made with his own
hands telescopes of successively larger size, one of which,
with a seven-inch aperture, was mounted so effectively that it
could be used in serious work of observation. Strange to
say, however, he had never formed the acquaintance of any
astronomer, and had scarcely, except as a tourist in Europe,
visited an astronomical observatory.

From this time on progress was sufficiently rapid to make
amends for his diversion to other interests in earlier years,
and before he had reached the age of forty he was recognized
as one of the most brilliant observers and one of the most
original philosophic reasoners and astronomers of the century.

In 1866 he went from Cambridge to Annapolis, having
been offered the place of Assistant Professor of Mathematics
in the United States Naval Academy. Here, in connection
with his other duties, he reorganized the small observatory
which had been projected by Professor Chauvenet about i860
but abandoned upon the removal of the Academy to Newport
during the Civil War. He remounted and put into service

The Three Secretaries 203

the equatorial and the meridian circles, and prepared the
observatory for practical work, an experience which was to
be of much service to him in the greater responsibilities of
his next field of duty.

In the following year he was invited to become Director of
the Allegheny Observatory, and Professor of Astronomy and
Physics in the Western University of Pennsylvania, with
which this observatory was connected. The university was
in Pittsburg, but the observatory was seated on the crest
of a lofty hill in the adjacent city of Allegheny. This posi-
tion he accepted with the expectation of occupying it for a
short time only ; but in Pittsburg and Allegheny he was
to remain and labor for twenty years to come.

In 1887 he was appointed by Professor Baird First Assis-
tant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in charge of
Library and Exchanges. He still retained his place in Pitts-
burg, where he passed part of the year, but owing to the
failing health of Professor Baird it soon became necessary
for him to assume the duties of Acting Secretary. After the
death of Professor Baird in 1887, he was elected to the Sec-
retaryship.

II.

From early boyhood he was interested in the very questions
to which the studies of his later years have been devoted. In
regard to this he has recently related some very suggestive
reminiscences :

" I cannot remember when I was not interested in astron-
omy. I remember reading books upon the subject as early
as at nine, and when I was quite a boy I learned how to make
little telescopes, and studied the stars through them. Later
I made some larger ones, and though they were, of course,
nothing like those we use here, I think myself they were very

204 The Smithsonian Institution

good for a boy. One of the most wonderful things to me
was the sun, and as to how it heated the earth. I used to
hold my hands up to it and wonder how the rays made them
warm, and where the heat came from and how. I asked
many questions, but I could get no satisfactory replies, and
some of these childish questions have occupied many years
of my later life in answering. I remember, for instance, one
of the wonders to me was a common hotbed. I could not
see how the glass kept it warm while all around was cold,
and when I asked, I was told that ' of course ' the glass kept
in the heat ; but though my elders saw no difficulty about it,
I could not see why, if the heat went in through the glass, it
could not come out again. Since then I have spent many
years in studying the way that that great hotbed, the earth
itself on which we live, is, by a like principle, made warmer
by the atmosphere that covers it."

Professor John W. Langley, of the Case School of Applied
Sciences in Cleveland, writes in response to a recent letter
of inquiry :

" My brother quite early in life showed a marked fondness
for astronomy. I remember that when he was about twenty
years old he used to make small telescopes. In this work I
used to help him, and being his junior in years, my position
was that of first assistant.

'* With these early telescopes it was possible to see Jupi-
ter's moons, and the phases of Venus ; Saturn appeared as
an elliptical object with a faint indication of a separation
between the planet and its ring.

"Somewhat later, in the autumn of 1864, we had about
three months in which both of us were free from fixed duties,
and we decided to build a reflecting telescope. My brother
and I had made the acquaintance of Alvan Clark, Sr., who
at that time was a portrait painter. He had a studio in
Tremont Street, Boston, but he was just abandoning art for
optics, and his studio contained about as many lenses in an
unfinished state as it did portraits, also incomplete. At this

SAMUEL PIERPOI^T LANGLEY.

THIRD SIOCRKTAIiY OF THE SMITHSOXIAX INSTITrTrOX.

ELECTED IN 1887.

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The Three Secretaries 205

time the Smithsonian Institution had recently published a
monograph by the younger Draper, of New York, on the
making of a reflecting telescope. This, and the advice of Mr.
Clark, were all we had to go upon. We had a small foot-
lathe and a few tools in the barn belonging to the house
where we were living, and with this outfit we undertook to
make a reflecting telescope seven inches in diameter by five
feet in focal length, all the work on which, both optical and me-
chanical, was to be by our own hands, and nothing but crude
material and a few necessary tools were to be purchased.
Above all things, no lenses or other completed optical appara-
tus were on any account to be bought; we were to make it all.
** Under these conditions of limited outfit and no experi-
ence, progress was slow, but we persevered. After weeks of
labor, a speculum would be assumed to have the right shape,
and ready for an optical test. This generally showed all
stars with wings, like small comets, and single objects like a
distant flag-staff, as a double stick with an attendant company
of ghosts. Then the speculum went back into the grinding
bed and was wholly reshaped. Eventually all the spare time
of nearly three years was spent on this telescope, but suc-
cess was finally reached, the instrument showing practically
perfect definition for one of its type and size ; but probably
the finished reflector represented at least twenty others
abandoned or reground before this result was reached. My
brother's interest in astronomy and his perseverance would
not allow us to be satisfied with anything short of a practical
degree of perfection."

In those days of boyhood, as the writer has often heard
Mr. Langley relate, he was deeply interested in the question
of flight, and spent many an afternoon watching the motions
of hawks and other birds.

His taste for mechanical pursuits was early developed.
He made all kinds of tools and instruments which were re-
quired in his boyish experiments, and the degree of his skill
may be judged from the fact that he was able to grind mir-

14*

2o6 The Suiithsonian Institution

rors, sufficiently accurate for good astronomical work, with
apparatus entirely of his own making.

III.

The career of which an outline has now been presented is
full of susfo-estions for those who have under consideration
the theory of educational methods. Still more instructive is
it to the student of heredity ; all the more so because there
exists in this case a somewhat unusual opportunity for the
examination of the sources whence has doubtless been de-
rived the power of this sturdy and potent intellect.

It often happens in America, that "smelting-pot of the
nations," as Froude has called it, that among the ancestors
of any individual are included not only several European
races, but the residents of a number of different colonies,
almost as distinct in mental characteristics and tendencies, in
early days, as the several European nations. In this case it
is not so. Mr. Langley's forefathers all came, in the first
instance, to Massachusetts, mostly in the early part of the
seventeenth century, and in Massachusetts their descendants,
with few exceptions, remained until the end of Colonial days.
The names of nearly one hundred and fifty of them are
known, and they bear for the most part old English sur-
names with a slight intermingling of Welsh, and one which
has a French sound. All are characteristic of Boston, and
of the neighboring towns which are now actually or practi-
cally absorbed in it.^ The mingling, in this case so potent

1 The names, for which, for tlie most part, Hayward, Hills, Howell, Kettell, Langley,
I am indebted to the antiquarian knowledge Ludkin, Lynde, Mather, Mayo, Phillips,
of Mr. A. Howard Clark, are the following : Pierce, Pierpont, Pratt, Reynn, Shapleigh,
Allen, Anderson, Bachelder, Baker, Boyls- Sheperdson, Smith, Sprague, Stalham, Sum-
ton, Bradish, Branson, Call, Clap, Clark, ner, Sweetser, Thompson, Tufts, Upham,
Corbin, Cotton, Crosswell, Davis, Deming, \Vaite,Ward, West, Wetherell,WharfT, White,
Dowse, Fosdick, Foster, Franklin, Goffe, Wigglesworth, Williams, \\'ise, Wood.

The Three Secretaries 207

in result, has been that of famiUes of diverse origin and
occupation, such as would scarcely have been likely to come
together in an old and established community.

If one were asked to say what elements it would be best
to mingle to produce Mr. Langley's peculiar type of mind,
the theoretical response would probably be very close to that
which is found to exist in fact. Of the eighty male ancestors
who have been identified, the occupations of only about thirty-
five are certainly known ; most of the others were probably
farmers or others of quiet, retired pursuits, who lived to ripe
old age, handing down to their descendants great vitality and
powers of long-living. An unusual number, at least eighteen
or twenty, were skilful mechanics and artisans ; six at least
were mariners, and most of these were sea captains. On the
other hand is found a group of the most intellectual men of
early New England ; four of them clergymen, three school-
masters, one a physician, five at least graduates of Harvard,
one of Oxford, and one of Cambridge. Besides these, there
were a number who were leaders in public affairs, and who
aided in extending the frontier of the infant nation, and in
protecting it against invaders, Indian and European. Six
were members of Colonial legislative bodies, three were
lawyers and judges, eight held military commissions in the
Colonial wars, or in the Revolution, while among the col-
laterals closely related to these same ancestors were many
who held representative places in the intellectual life of the
young colony.

Among the ancestors were the Reverend Richard Mather,
who came from Lancaster, in England ; his son, the Reverend
Doctor Increase Mather, President of Harvard College, and
author of the first American work upon astronomy; ^ and his

1 Kometographia, or a Discourse Concern- Stars is Enquired into: With an Historical Ac-
ing Comets ; wherein the Nature of Blazing count of all the Comets which have appeared

2o8 The Smithsonian Institution

grandson, the Reverend Cotton Mather, the last two both
early members of the Royal Society of London ; also, the
Reverend John Cotton, D.D., author of nearly fifty books,
all published in London, — he who introduced into New Eng-
land the custom of keeping the Sabbath from evening to
evening. Others were Colonel John Phillips, of Charleston,
treasurer of the Province of Massachusetts ; Lieutenant Ralph
Sprague, lieutenant of the Provincial forces in the Pequot
War, and Captain John Sprague, his son, both members of
the Massachusetts General Court ; William Sumner and his
son. Lieutenant George Sumner, of Dorchester and Milton,
both deputies to the General Court ; Edward Howell, Esquire,
one of the founders of Southampton (in 1642, the first Eng-
lish settlement within the present limits of New York), and
his son. Major John Howell, both members of the Provincial
Legislature of Connecticut; Captain Stephen Williams, of
Roxbury, who commanded a troop of horse on the frontier
from 1707 to 1 71 2, and Colonel Joseph Williams, his grand-
son, who served in the Mohawk War, the Canadian campaign
of 1758, and in the Revolution, Captain Samuel Langley,
Mr. Langley's great-grandfather, was also a Revolutionary
soldier and commanded a company of veterans engaged in
the suppression of Shay's Rebellion. And then there was
another military ancestor, remembered in family tradition,
who always wore a red coat, and who " when he saw a man
whose face he did not like, knocked him down." This may
have been Joseph Pierpont, of Roxbury, who, local history
tells, fought with the Honorable Captain William Montagu,
brother of the Earl of Sandwich, commonly called " Mad
Montagu," and drubbed him within an inch of his life ; so

from the beginning of the World into this pre- Boston, in New England. . . . Boston in

sent year MDCLXXXIII. . . . As also two New England. Printed by S. G. for S. S.

Sermons Occasioned by the late Blazing Stars. and sold by F. Browning. . . . 1683. octo-

By Increase Mather, Teacher of a Church at decimo, pages (12) I-143+I.

■ The Three Secretaries 209

thoroughly, Indeed, that Montagu held him in high regard
ever after. ^

Among those who were close of kin to Mr. Langley's
forefathers were Michael Wigglesworth, author of that stern
Calvinistic poem, "The Day of Doom," and the Reverend
Nathaniel Ward, the earliest of political satirists in America,
whose pamphlet, "The Simple Cobler of Aggawam," is one
of the classics of our literature. There were also Doctor
Zabdiel Boylston, of Boston, the successful pioneer of small-
pox inoculation in America, elected to the Royal Society in
1785, in recognition of his achievements as a naturalist, and
his son John Boylston, founder of the Boylston Fund ; the
Reverend John Cotton, who revised and edited Eliot's Indian
Bible, and his brother Josiah, missionary, and author of the
first vocabulary of the language of the Indians of Massa-
chusetts ; and all the Mathers, — a wonderful group of men.
A little further removed were John Adams and John Quincy
Adams, Presidents of the United States, and John Cotton
Smith, Governor of Connecticut.

These facts, however interesting in themselves, are men-
tioned here solely because of their bearing upon the
question of heredity. Traits and tendencies transmitted
from parent to child cannot be measured and summed up
in a statistical manner. The character of these can only
be suggested by an enumeration like the one which has
just been attempted, following in some degree the method
of Galton.

It is interesting to note, in passing, that Mr. Langley,
though a Yankee of the Yankees, descended on all sides from
families resident in New England from two hundred to two
hundred and sixty years, has none of the traits, physical or
mental, which are popularly, though erroneously, supposed to

1 Drake, Francis Samuel, " The Town of Roxbury," Boston, 1878, page 326.

2IO The Smithsonian Institution

be characteristic of New England, but would in Great Britain
pass anywhere as an excellent example of the very best Eng-
lish type.

He was, a-s a boy, a most diligent and omnivorous reader,
interested alike in literature, art, and science, and utilized the
excellent public libraries of Boston, especially that of the
Athenaeum, and was often in attendance at the lectures of
the Lowell Institute.

At the beginning of his scientific career his intellectual
capital appears to have been quite remarkable in extent and
character. His mind was well stocked with the best thoughts
of the great minds of the past. He possessed a cultivated
literary taste, ripened by an acquaintance with the art of the
Old World, the effect of which was at once evident when he
began to write for publication. He had skill in the manipu-
lation of tools, machinery, and instruments of precision, and
was able to direct others in their use. He was a practical en-
gineer, familiar with the computations and the applications of
mechanics and physics ; so familiar, indeed, that they were
mere pastime to him in their ordinary forms, and that his
mind was free to rove, like that of Leonardo da Vinci, in
search of abstruse and curious variants. He was a skilful
mechanical draughtsman. He was a trained man of business,
thrifty, alert, and progressive. Beyond all this his unjaded
mind, while mindful of the most minute details, was quick to
grasp the essence of the problems which he was studying.
His thoughts were almost prophetic in regard to the probable
result of experiments which he was about to begin, yet he was
ready to seize upon new developments as they occurred, no
matter how unexpected. His inquiries were forced to their
results with vigorous insistence. His conclusions were de-
veloped so clearly, definitely, and positively that it was im-
possible to misunderstand his meaning. So clearly were

The lliree Secretaries 211

these fixed in his thought that he was able to explain them
even to those entirely unfamiliar with the subject. Notwith-
standing this freedom from ambiguity so characteristic of all
his statements, scarcely any of the conclusions of the past
twenty-five years have been called in question, or given occa-
sion for general criticism or debate. These characteristics, it
may safely be said, he brought with him to his work, as a
part of his equipment. His publications of 1874 exhibited
these as fully as do those of 1896; yet at the age of sixty-
two he retains them all. " His eye is not dim nor his natural
force abated."

IV.

When Mr. Langley went to Pittsburg in 1867, he found
there an observatory only in name. It consisted of a build-
ing in which was mounted an equatorial telescope of thirteen
inches aperture, bought by the university from a local club of
amateur astronomers. Besides this, there was no apparatus
whatever, not even a clock, and the equatorial itself was with-
out the necessary accessories. There was neither library nor
endowment, and the director of the observatory was at liberty
to carry on original investigations only when this could be
done without neglecting his duties as instructor in the
college.

Before beginning his work as an astronomer, it was
imperatively necessari^ that he should find some means
by which this work could be carried on, and to secure an
income to provide for the instrumental expenses of the
establishment, his object in going to Pittsburg having been,
not primarily to teach, but to secure opportunity for original
investigation.

From the poverty of the Allegheny Observatory came

212 The Smithsonian Institution

forth a result which was of great importance to the entire
country; this was the inauguration of "time service" sys-
tems.

Although the transmission of time signals from the
Greenwich Observatory to the city of London was suc-
cessfully accomplished a few years after the introduction
of the electro-magnetic telegraph in 1844, the service in
Great Britain was confined to a limited area during the
next twenty-five years.

The British Astronomer Royal in 1869 stated: "The time
signals pass, amongst other places, to the chief London of-
fices of the Electric and International Telegraph Company,
and thence this company sends signals automatically to about
twenty of the chief towns of England, Ireland, and Scotland.
The signals are also thus sent to the principal London rail-
way stations."^

In America the Naval Observatory in Washington, the
observatory of Harvard College, and Doctor Benjamin A.
Gould, of Albany, had prior to 1869 sent out time signals for
short distances, "but only in a tentative and discontinuous
fashion."

Late in that year Mr. Langley, as Director of the Allegheny
Observatory, submitted a proposal " for regulating from this
observatory the clocks of the Pennsylvania Central and other
railroads associated with it." Upon the Pennsylvania Sys-
tem, then comprising over 2500 miles of railroad east and
west of Pittsburg, over 300 telegraph offices were located.
In the year 1870 Mr. Langley inaugurated the system by
which accurate time signals were communicated automatically
twice daily to each of these offices, and " eventually some
8000 miles of railway were run by this single Allegheny

1 See letter to Mr. S. P. Langley, quoted in circular of December i, 1S69, issued by

Allegheny Observatory.

The Three Secretaries 213

Observatory clock " ; and to this was added the supply of
the time to the adjacent cities by a system which made it
accessible to every inhabitant.

The Pennsylvania was the first great railway to establish
and put into effect a systematic and permanent plan for the
simultaneous transmission of time signals throughout its
entire line, and to Mr. Langley is due the credit of first
successfully solving the problem of transmitting time
signals over this American line, many times greater in
extent and much more complex in character than the com-
paratively short English railways, where by the method
then in vogue the accuracy of the clocks in the inter-
mediate stations depended entirely upon a comparison
with watches, which, after being set by the standard clocks
in the terminal stations, were sent out along the line by
trainmen charged with the duty of regulating the time-
pieces and reporting inaccuracies.

The present system by which the railroad service of the
whole continent is regulated may be said to be an out-
growth of that developed nearly thirty years ago at Alle-
gheny by Mr. Langley. In a letter to Mr. Langley dated
May 27, 1872, William Thaw, Vice-President and execu-
tive officer of the Pennsylvania Company, and Chairman
of the Board of Trustees of the Allegheny Observatory,
wrote : "I regard the time service as peculiarly your crea-
tion and dependent solely on you." Mr. Thaw also stated
that he had communicated the fact officially in writing in
a report to the Board.

The income thus derived from the regulation of the time
service was applied exclusively to the uses of the Allegheny
Observatory, which obtained from this source almost all its
regular means for original research, amounting during the
administration of Mr. Langley to more than sixty thousand

2 14 The Smithsonian Institution

dollars. The utility of such service having been demon-
strated at the Allegheny Observatory, the example was
followed a year later at Harvard College Observatory, and
afterward "time services " were for some years an important
source of income for quite a number of the observatories of
the United States.

In the course of two or three years the affairs of the obser-
vatory became somewhat stable, and there was time for orig-
inal work in astronomy. Mr. Langley now began a period
of laborious and minute study of the features of the disk of
the sun. Indeed this was the one of the heavenly bodies
which could be most advantageously studied in Pittsburg,
where the heavens are usually obscured by clouds of smoke
and dust. In 1869 he was chosen a member of the party
sent out by the United States Coast Survey to observe the
total eclipse of August 7, and was stationed at Oakland, Ken-
tucky. His report, at this time submitted to Professor Joseph
Winlock, was his first published contribution to science. In
the winter of 1870 he accompanied another eclipse expedi-
tion to Jerez de la Frontera, in Spain, where he made impor-
tant observations upon the coronal rays, and found that the
polarization of the corona is radial.

From this period dates the beginning of that brilliant series
of researches upon the solar atmosphere to which he has
since devoted so much of his time, and which soon gave him
high reputation at home and abroad.

His telescope study of the sun's face, completed in 1873, re-
vealed the true character of the "granules " upon its disk, from
which, according to his estimate, much over three-quarters
of its light are derived. It also resulted in a better under-
standing of the structure and appearance of the sun-spots.
His picture of "A Typical Sun-spot," first exhibited in 1873
at the Portland meeting of the American Association for the

The Three Secretaries 215

Advancement of Science, was the result of three years' study.
This was based directly upon micrometrical measurements,
pictorial effect having been considered only so far as it was
incidental to minute fidelity. Even now, twenty-three years
after it was made, it is conceded that this drawing gives a
better idea of the minute structure of the surface of the sun
than is afforded by the best photographs.

His paper on "The Minute Structure of the Solar Photo-
sphere," published in February, 1874, may be taken as a type
of his best work.

" It possesses," writes Holden, " that hardly-definable qual-
ity by which we become aware that it was written from a full
mind. It is only fifteen pages long, yet we are not conscious
of undue brevity. One has a sense in reading that every
statement of fact, or every expression of opinion, is based
upon a hundred single instances like the one which is chosen,
or upon a hundred concurring judgments. It is not that you
are overborne by weight, but convinced by character. This
most important paper came at exactly the right time. It first
summarizes the works of other recent observers which, though
important, had left the subject in an entirely unsatisfying con-
dition, and then proceeds straight to the subject in hand.

" The minute details, both of the general solar surface and
of the extraordinarily complex spots, are one by one satisfac-
torily and lucidly described, with indications of the physical
conditions to which they are due ; and, finally, the general
bearings of all this on the received solar theories are briefly
set forth. We may fairly say that this paper is fundamental.
It treated of a subject of which little had been actually
known, and it leaves this subject in a satisfactory and settled
condition."

His detailed study of the distribution of the heat of the
solar surface was begun in 1870, with the thermopile. It re-
sulted in the discovery of the previously unknown thermo-

2i6 The Smithsonian Institution

chroic action in the solar atmosphere, by reason of which,
owing to the difference in wave length, it transmits heat
more readily than light. Two years later, in 1876, another
discovery was announced as a result of his measures of the
heat from various parts of the sun's disk; this was in regard
to the direct effect of sun-spots on terrestrial climates. Fol-
lowing up the observations made by Joseph Henry in 1845,
Mr. Langley found that sun-spots exercise a direct influence
on terrestrial climates by decreasing the mean temperature
of the earth at their maximum. This decrease, however, he
found to be so minute that it is doubtful whether it is directly
observed or discriminated from other changes. Its whole
effect is represented by the change in the mean temperature
of our globe in eleven years, not exceeding three-tenths and
not less than one-twentieth of one degree of the centigrade
thermometer; but this refers merely to the direct action by
the observation of the surface, and is not to be considered as
the only one.

His early work upon solar heat was done with the aid of the
thermopile, an instrument which, though it had been effec-
tively used for nearly fifty years in the study of radiant
energy, was found by him not sufficiently sensitive and trust-
worthy to be used for the more minute work which he found
it desirable to undertake. It was equal to the task of meas-
uring the radiation from different parts of the sun's disk.
When, however, the heat from a given part had been spread
out into a heat-spectrum, some new means of measuring the
minute difference between the various parts was indispensa-
ble ; and this was specially the case with the spectra formed
by "gratings," now coming into general use, which, with the
great advantage of distributing the energy in a " normal "
spectrum, had the defect of giving extremely little heat for
examination.

The Three Secretaries 217

He, therefore, invented a new instrument, which he called
the bolometer, — a thermometer of almost infinite tenuity and
delicacy, which measured minute degrees of radiant heat with
an accuracy unknown to the thermopile and greater than that
of any photometric process, and which at the same time pos-
sesses a sensitiveness to radiant energy only less than that of
the eye, being able in its recent constructions to recognize
variations of this energy corresponding to not over one-
millionth part of a degree on an ordinary thermometer.

This instrument was made in part at the cost of the Ameri-
can Academy of Arts and Sciences, as administrators of the
bequest of Count Rumford, and its completion was announced
in the paper sent to the Society December 8, 1880, and read
at its meeting of January 12, 1881. The years 1879 and
1880 were devoted to elaborating and perfecting it.^

The action of the bolometer is based upon variation of
electrical resistance produced by changes of temperature in a
metallic conductor, such as a minute strip of platinum. This
strip forms one arm of an electric balance, and the change in
the strength of the electric current passing through it, be-
cause of this change of resistance, is registered by a delicate
galvanometer. Its sensitiveness is greater than that of the
most delicate thermopile possible, and its accuracy of meas-
urement has a corresponding advantage. One of the earliest
results of the bolometer work was the demonstration experi-
mentally that the maximum of heat in the normal spec-
trum is in the orange, and not, as was formerly supposed,
in the infra-red portion ; but a larger field opened for it in
the exploration of the infra-red portion, whose existence
was first suspected by the elder Herschel. The bolometer
showed that this region contained three-quarters of the solar
energy. Before the invention of the bolometer the distribu-

1 "The Bolometer and Radiant Kncrgy." Proceedings of the American Academy of
arts and sciences, 1880-81 ; Volume xvi, pages 342 to 358.

2i8 The Smithsonian Institution

tion of heat in the spectrum was so almost utterly unknown
that the remark by Sir John Herschel that its heat was dis-
continuous contained almost all our knowledge of the subject
up to that time.

At the time of which we speak, comparatively recent as it
is, only a few advanced thinkers held the now universal view
that heat and light were not two different things, but differ-
ent effects of the same thing, and the investigations now
commenced with the bolometer did much to prove the cor-
rectness of the latter opinion. By continuous studies involv-
ing great labor, and the record of extremely numerous
experiments (over one thousand galvanometer readings being
taken on the average to a single line), there was in the course
of three years' patient work established the material for a map
of the principal lines in this hitherto unknown region, and
the material for a new method of study of the inter-action of
the solar heat and our atmosphere, which latter was shown to
be a principal agent in causing them.

The bolometer has been made much more effective and
has been still more recently reinforced by the holograph, in-
troduced in 1 89 1 and lately perfected — a device for register-
ing by photography the fluctuations of the needle, which thus
permanently records the bolometer's indications, while by a
further step these tracings are automatically converted into a
linear spectrum by the use of a cylindrical mirror, a method
of translation by which the fluctuations caused by the infra-
red tract are reduced to a form comparable to that of the
upper portion of the spectrum, as ordinarily visible. In the
infra-red spectrum many hundred lines have since been lo-
cated in this manner.

With these instruments Mr. Langley has opened up a new
department of physics. He has not only shown the existence
of, but has measured the energy in, rays having a wave-
length nearly twenty times that of extreme luminous ones.

The Three Secretaries 219

While the visible or photographic spectrum includes rays of
only about an octave of vibration between the waves of
violet and red, the full spectrum, from the ultra-violet rays
to the longest of those measured by the bolometer, embraces
between five and six octaves, and still more are indicated.
In one sense these investigations have partly bridged over
the gulf between the longest wave-length of heat and the
shortest waves due to other causes. "This work," says
Lockyer, " has done for the lower spectrum what that of
Kirchhoff did for the upper rays."

Father J. Van Geersdale, of Louvain, in an article on "The
Infra-red Spectrum and the Bolometer," written in 1896,
remarks :

" Newton would be very greatly surprised if, coming back
for a moment to this world, he should have placed before
him a map of the spectrum as it is known to-day. Not only
would he be astonished at the numberless rays which were
unknown to him, but he would be still more taken aback if
he saw the spectral image lengthened until it had assumed
dimensions fifteen and twenty times as great as those which
he gave to it. In his day, below the violet (X= 0,42), and
above the red (X = 0,67), there was absolutely nothing. To-
day the researches of Cornu, Mascart, Schumann, and others
have expanded the limits of the ultra-violet to the neighbor-
hood of A =0,1. In the other direction, the investigations
undertaken by Mr. Langley in the infra-red region have
resulted in an acquaintance with bands and rays the wave-
length of which reaches to six microns and beyond.

" Without depreciating the value of the researches which
were made in the less refrangible portions of the spectrum
previous to the discovery of the bolometer, it must be ad-
mitted that they were of very slight moment if we now com-
pare them with those which Mr. Langley has obtained by the
aid of his marvelous little instrument." ^

l"Le Spectre Infra- Rouge et le Bolometre," Revue des Questions Scientifiques,
Volume X, page 26, July, 1896, Louvain.

2 20 The Smithsonian Institution

Another result of these experiments was the establishment
of the fact of selective absorption of the solar rays by the
earth's atmosphere. In regard to this Mr. Langley wrote at
the time :

" Our observations at Allegheny had appeared to show
that the atmosphere had acted with selective absorption to an
unanticipated degree, keeping back an immense proportion
of the blue and green, so that what was originally the strong-
est had, when it got down to us, become the weakest of all,
and what was originally weak had become relatively strong,
the action of the atmosphere having been just the converse
of that of an ordinary sieve, or like that of a sieve which
should keep back small particles analogous to the short wave-
lengths (the blue and green), and allow freely to pass the
large ones (the dark-heat rays). It seemed from the obser-
vations that the atmosphere had not merely kept back a part
of the solar radiation, but had totally changed its composition
in doing so — not by anything it had put in, but by the selec-
tive way in which it had taken out, as if by a capricious in-
telligence. The residue that had actually come down to us
thus changed in proportion was what we know familiarly as
'white' light, so that white is not 'the sum of all radiations,'
as used to be taught, but resembles the pure original sun-
light less than the electric beam which has come to us through
reddish-colored glasses resembles the original brightness.
With this visible heat was included the large amount of in-
visible heat, and, if there was any law observable in this
' capricious ' action of the atmosphere, it was found to be this,
that throughout the whole range of the then known heat-
spectrum the large wave-lengths passed with greater facility
than the shorter ones."

Most of these observations were carried on in Allegheny.
In 1878, however, he made observations of the solar eclipse
from the summit of Pike's Peak, at an elevation of fourteen

The Three Secretaries 221

thousand feet, and observed the extension of the corona to
the hitherto unsuspected extent of nearly ten million miles.

During the winter of 1878, in the course of a visit to Eu-
rope, he spent some time upon Mount Etna, making obser-
vations upon the character of astronomical vision, in order to
enable comparisons to be made with observations taken under
similar conditions in the territories of the United States. The
station here was at Casa del Bosco, situated at the height of
about 4,200 feet on the southeastern slope of the mountain.
There he remained from Christmas until January 14. The
conclusion reached was that though the ideal station where
atmospheric tremor does not exist, and the observer pursues
his studies in an ever transparent sky, is not to be found
on any part of the earth's surface yet examined, there is in
such stations as this and in the upper and elevated tablelands
of Colorado and New Mexico every condition which experi-
ence has shown to be favorable.

In 1 88 1 Mr. Langley organized an expedition to the top of
Mount Whitney, in California, for the purpose of applying
his new methods and instruments under the most favorable
conditions. Here he remained with his party from July 25
until September 10, making observations at stations nearly
fourteen thousand feet above the sea. The expenses of this
expedition were borne in part by the United States Signal
Service and in part by William Thaw, of Pittsburg, who had
for some years taken great interest in the work of the Alle-
gheny Observatory and to whose liberality and appreciation
of scientific work many of Mr. Langley's greatest opportuni-
ties for investigation were due. A report on the results of
this expedition was published in 1884, as one of the profes-
sional papers of the United States Signal Service.

The Mount Whitney observations resulted, first, in the
discovery of an entirely unsuspected extension of the solar

15*

222

The Smithsonian histittttion

spectrum ; second, in a calculation of the relative intensity
of the different rays of the sun before they have entered the
earth's atmosphere, which was illustrated by an extra atmo-
spheric curve in the spectrum ; third, in the indication that
scarcely sixty per cent, of the solar rays penetrate to the
earth's surface, the atmosphere as a whole exerting a power-
ful selective absorption ; and finally, in a new and important
estimate of the "solar constant." The effect of such absorp-
tion on the visible rays is to throw out the shorter wave-
lengths much more effectively than the longer ones, so that
to an eye outside the earth's atmosphere the sun would ap-
pear far bluer than to one within, and the estimated amount
of heat before absorption is correspondingly measured.

The total absorption of the heat rays was found to be sur-
prisingly great. These experiments then demonstrate that a
much greater amount of solar heat reaches the earth than
had previously been supposed, sufficient, in fact, to melt each
year an ice shell encrusting the earth to the thickness of 1 79
feet, instead of 1 10 feet, as had before been believed. It was
also found that the law of selective absorption modifies pro-
foundly the terrestrial manifestations of the heat supplied by
the sun, and that were there no such selective absorption, the
temperature of the soil in the tropics under a vertical sun
would probably not rise above freezing point.

"The temperature of the earth's surface," he wrote, ....
"and with it the existence not only of the human race, but of
all organized life on the globe, appears in the light of the con-
clusions reached by the Mount Whitney expedition to depend
far less on the direct solar heat than on the hitherto little
regarded quality of selective absorption in our atmosphere."

The bearing of these observations on such questions as the
temperature of the sun and the radiation from the sky is

The Three Secretaries 223

manifestly very important. The extent of the solar spectrum
previously known was but a fraction of that discovered by
this expedition.^

Mr. Langley's determination of the power of the sun's light
and heat, as made at Pittsburg in 1878, is one based upon
definite standards of comparison. He then demonstrated that
the sun's disk radiates fifty-three hundred times as much
light, and eighty-seven times as much heat, as would an equal
area of metal in the converter of a Bessemer furnace in full
blast.

Of Mr. Langley's numerous subsequent investigations with
the bolometer, there can only be mentioned his researches on
the temperature of the moon, which entirely changed the
conclusions previously held from the statements of Sir John
Herschel and the experiments of Lord Rosse, and his meas-
ures of the amount of energy realized in the form of light by
different natural and artificial methods of producing it.

Extremely significant in this latter respect were his ob-
servations made in Washington upon the spectrum of the
firefly, PyropJiorus noctiluciis. He showed that its radiation
consists wholly of visible radiations, or, in other words, that
there exists in use a natural process by which all the heat
generated is converted into light, a process probably imitable,
and which if successfully imitated would be of immense indus-
trial importance. In the gas flame only two per cent, of the
heat is utilized in visible radiation and ninety-eight per cent,
is wasted.

Within comparatively few years Mr. Langley has taken up
the study of the physics of the atmosphere and the conditions
of artificial flight. This is a subject in which he has been in-
terested from boyhood, though it was not until 1889 that he

1 In this connection reference should be Allegheny Observatory, upon the influence of
made to the work of J. E. Keeler, one of his absorption of certain rays in the visible spec-
students, and his successor as director of the trum by the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere.

2 24 The Smithsonian Institution

began serious work. Many of these investigations have been
carried on at the Smithsonian Institution, although some of
the earHer elaborate experiments with the whirling table were
carried on at the Allegheny Observatory.

In 1 89 1 he published his now famous paper entitled "Experi-
ments in Aerodynamics," in which he first made public the
results of his studies upon this subject. This paper threw
new light on the motion of certain forms of bodies through
the atmosphere, and resulted in a practical revolution in the
conclusions drawn from the study of aerodynamics. His
paper on "The Internal Work of the Wind," presented to the
International Conference on Aerial Navigation, held in Chi-
cago, in 1893, made even a greater impression, especially
upon the minds of those engaged practically upon the prob-
lem of artificial flight. The importance of the views then
for the first time advanced was universally admitted, as is
evident from two recent authoritative general works on the
subject of aerial navigation, those of Mr. Octave Chanute, of
Chicago, and Doctor von Salverda, of Holland. In March,
1894, Lieutenant- Colonel Elsdale, of the Royal Engineers,
in an article in the Cotitempora^y Revieiv, wrote :

" Professor Langley may fairly be said to have laid down,
for the first time, a really sound and reliable scientific basis
for the study of aerial locomotion, by a series of careful ex-
periments and well-reasoned deductions from them. What-
ever its ultimate measure of success is, new experiments with
it cannot fail to advance the cause of aerial navigation another
stage."

To a letter of inquiry in regard to the significance of these
contributions to the science of aerodynamics, Mr. Octave

The Three Secretaries 225

Chanute, of Chicago, responded to the writer, April 10, 1896,
as follows :

" In my judgment the principal contributions thus far made
by Doctor Langley to the science of Aerodynamics consist in
his having given to physicists and searchers firm ground to
stand upon concerning the fundamental and much-disputed
question of air resistances and reaction.

"When I was in Europe in 1889, I inquired into the state
of knowledge on this important question, and found utter dis-
agreement and confusion. There were numerous formulae,
promoted by various physicists, but these gave such discor-
dant results that arrangements were being proposed in France
to try an entire set of new experiments, with air currents to
be procured by an enormous fan -blower. A fair idea of the
state of knowledge can be had from Professor Marey's careful
work on " Le vol des oiseaux," published in 1890. Oblique
pressures were then still generally held to vary according to
the Newtonian law, or as the square of the sine of incidence,
although this gives but five to ten per cent, of the true reac-
tions at acute angles of incidence.

" Doctor Langley has shown us, by experiment, the general
accuracy of which cannot be questioned, that the empirical
(based on experiments) formula of Duchemin is sufficiently
correct to calculate the radiations upon planes; so that the
French, who had ignored this formula since 1836, now claim
its inception and accept it (as they do some wines) retour
(T Amerique. Doctor Langley has also shown us that the va-
riation of the center of pressure on an inclined plane, observed
by Sir George Cayley and by Avanzani as well as by Kummer,
follows approximately the law formulated by Jossel, so that
now, for the first time, searchers are enabled to calculate the
sustaining power, the resistance, and the center of pressure
of a plane, with confidence that they are not far wrong; and
this, together with the further law, formulated first by Doctor
Langley, that within certain limits ' the higher speeds are
more economical of power than the lower ones,' has made it
possible to assert that the problem of artificial flight is not in-

2 26 The Smithsonian Institution

soluble as theretofore affirmed by many of the most eminent
scientific men.

"Whether Doctor Langley's scientific labors in this depart-
ment of physics will soon result, like those of the preceding
Secretaries, in the practical application of his discoveries to
the use of mankind, it is perhaps too early to assert positively,
I think, myself, that they will so result before many years, but
there are so many intricate questions to be solved before com-
mercial success can be achieved that another generation may
pass before the problem of flight is fully solved.

" Moreover, Doctor Langley's labors and discoveries are
by no means over. He has thus far published only the
result of his investigations on planes, while saying in
the penultimate paragraph of his summary that it is not
asserted that planes are the best forms to use. Lilienthal
and Phillips have since shown that concave-convex surfaces
are more efficient forms, and it is very much to be desired
that Doctor Langley shall next publish some data concerning
such forms.

"The practical development of a scientific truth is some-
what like the growth from a new seed. We recognize the
existence of the plant, we ascertain some of its virtues, but
we cannot tell its full uses, how soon it will mature, nor how
large the tree will be.

" It is significant, however, that, prior to the publication of
Doctor Langley's work, it was the rare exception to find
engineers and scientists of recognized ability who would fully
admit the possibility of man being able to solve the twenty-
century old problem of aviation. Professor Joseph Le Conte,
in the Popular Science Monthly of November, 1888, has
very recently taken the ground, flatly, ' that a pure flying
machine is impossible.' This was probably based on the fact
that the then accepted formula of Newton, and the calculation
of Napier and other scientists, if correct, rendered the solution
practically impossible. Since the publication of 'Experiments
in Aerodynamics,' however, it is the exception to find an in-
telligent engineer who disputes the probability of the eventual
solution of the problem of man-flight. Such has been the

The Three Secretaries 227

change in five years. Incredulity has given way, interest
has been aroused in the scientific question, a sound basis has
been furnished for experiment, and practical results are being
evolved by many workers. Much remains to be discovered
concerning curved surfaces, with which alone practical flight
is likely to be achieved, but when this is accomplished it is
probable, in my judgment, that the beginning of the solution
will be acknowledged to date back to the publication of Doctor
Langley's book, and that he will be distinguished as Secretary
Henry is now with regard to the development of electrical
appliances."

In the brief interval between the date of the letter just
quoted and the sending of this sketch to the printer, an aero-
drome, constructed by Mr. Langley, has made two successful
flights, each to a distance of rather more than half a mile,
practically demonstrating the correctness of the principles
which it has been seen were generally accepted, on theoretical
grounds, as soon as they were made public.^

1 A description of these flights, which took wheels ceased turning, and the machine, de-
place on May 6, 1896, was communicated to prived of the aid of its propellers, to my sur-
the Coviptes Rendus of the French Academy prise, did not fall, but settled down gently,
of Sciences, by Professor Alexander Graham and without the least shock, and was imme-
Bell, who was an eye witness, and an Eng- diately ready for another trial,
lish translation of the same is contained in "In the second trial, which followed di-
Natiire, Volume Liv, page 80. rectly, it repeated in nearly every respect the

Professor Bell states that two ascensions actions of the first, except that the direction

were made by the aerodrome which was built of its course was different. It ascended

almostentirely of metal, and driven by a steam again in the face of the wind. I estimated

engineofextraordinary lightness, the absolute that the actual length of flight on each occa-

weight of the aerodrome, including the engine sion was slightly over three thousand feet,

and all its appurtenances, being about twenty- It is at least safe to say that each exceeded

five pounds, and the method of propulsion by half an English mile."

aerial propellers, without any gas or other aid He continues : " I cannot but add that it

for lifting it in the air, except its own internal seems to me that no one who was present on

energy. this interesting occasion could have failed to

"On the occasion referred to," says Pro- recognize that the practicability of mechanical

fessor Bell, "the aerodrome, at a given sig- flight had been demonstrated."

nal, started from a platform about twenty A third and still longer flight was made on

feet above the water, and rose at first directly November 28, 1896, with another machine

in the face of the wind, moving at all times built of steel like the first, and driven like

with remarkable steadiness, and continually that by propellers actuated by a steam engine

ascending until its steam was exhausted, of between one and two horse power, making

when, at a height I judged to be between a horizontal flight of over three-quarters of a

eighty and one hundred feet in the air, the mile, and descending in safety.

2 28 The Smithsonian Institution

The significance of these experiments is summed up by a
recent writer as follows :

" In both its matter and manner, Professor Langley's in-
vention, or discovery, is of unique interest. His machine is
built upon exactly the opposite principle from that upon
which other flying machines have been built, and his inven-
tion represents a clear triumph for pure inductive science.

"When Stephenson built his locomotive he proceeded in
his work upon certain definitely known facts ; that is, he was
perfectly sure that if he could find a way to push his wheels
around by steam, his engine could run over the ground just
as an ordinary wagon would. He was venturing into no un-
known field of physics. With Professor Langley it was just
the opposite. Although men of science for two centuries or
more have been studying the dynamics of the air, have
weighed it and determined its compressibility, its action un-
der heat, etc., yet up to the time Professor Langley took hold
of the matter there existed no definite data as to the plan or
principle upon which a flying machine, if it is to successfully
navigate the air, must be built. To find out these new data
was his first work.

" Put in a less technical way, Professor Langley's problem
was this : He says, ' Did you ever think what a physical mir-
acle it is for such a bird as one of our common turkey buz-
zards to fly in the way it does ? You may see them any day
along the Potomac, floating in the air, with hardly a move-
ment of their feathers. These birds weigh from five to ten
pounds ; they are far heavier than the air they displace ; they
are absolutely heavier than so many flatirons.

" ' I fancy if you saw cannon-balls floating through the air
like soap-bubbles you would look upon it as a sufficiently sur-
prising matter, if not as a miracle. The only reason that we
are not surprised at the soaring bird is that we have seen it
from childhood. Perhaps if we had seen cannon-balls float-
ing in the air from our childhood we would not stop to inquire
how they did it, any more than we now do how the turkey
buzzard does it. I am speaking now, of course, not of birds

The Three Secretaries 229

that fly by flapping their wings, but of those that fly without
flapping their wings, and with almost no visible expenditure
of force.'

" It was from watching the soaring birds that Professor
Langley came to conclude that it was possible to build solid
models very much heavier than the air and drive and direct
such a machine with such an ordinary force as steam. That
is to say, he became convinced that there are certain shapes
in which matter can be disposed so that the more rapidly it
moves through the air, in a sense, the less power it takes to
move it, and that a machine could be built to skim through
the air very much as a skater skims along the surface of very
thin ice — the faster you go the less danger.

" Professor Langley believed that soaring birds have an in-
tuitive knowledge of certain properties in the air by which
they are able to skim along — rising and falling, soaring up
and sailing down, and turning about in circles without any
flapping of their wings or apparently any other effort. Just
what these properties were he attempted to find out and de-
velop by experiment.

*' Well, the upshot of the matter was that from these experi-
ments it was demonstrated that a machine, not a balloon, can
be made which will produce enough mechanical power to
support itself in the air and fly. 'Though,' Professor Lang-
ley adds, ' this is not saying that we have got skill enough to
manage this power so as to rise and fly about in the air and
descend safely.' What is actually demonstrated, repeated
hundreds of times in the laboratory, and, finally, with the suc-
cessful machine which Professor Langley built, is that the fly-
ing machine is possible. All that now remains is to perfect
it and learn how to manaofe it.

" The experiments which Professor Langley carried on re-
sulted in showing that an expenditure of one horse-power, in
horizontal flight, will support about 200 pounds, and at the
same time carry this burden at a rate of fifty miles an hour
through the air. Now, there have recently been built steam
engines which, with fuel and water for a short flight, weigh a
good deal less than twenty pounds. The relative weight of

230 The Smithsonian Institution

an engine decreases with the number of its horse-power, so
that there seems no reason to doubt that what Professor
Langley has done on a small scale may be done on a large
one, and very shortly at that.

" Professor Langley's machine measures but fourteen feet
from tip to tip ; weighs, complete, twenty-four pounds, is sol-
idly built of steel, and, compared with the air which supports
it, has a weight of a thousand to one. It has no balloon
arrangements of any sort, and instead of trying to build a
vessel lighter than the air and filling it with gases to make
it rise. Professor Langley has practically built a machine as
heavy as he likes and relied upon its shape and power for
successful flight.

"This is just the opposite of what almost every other ex-
perimenter in this field has tried to do, although it was appar-
ent to every one that a flying machine, to be of any commer-
cial or practical value whatever, would have to be heavy
enough and powerful enough to drive straight against or
across and in and out of the stoutest gale that blows. Other-
wise it would forever be at the mercy of the element. What
was necessary was a ship that would ride a storm in the air
as a great ocean liner rides a storm at sea.

" Professor Langley has been very careful to say that he
never expressed his opinion that man could fly of his own
strength. But he has demonstrated that powerful machines
thousands of times as heavy as the air itself can be built to
navigate the air."

VI.

Concerning the administrative side of Secretary Langley's
work during the past ten years, it seems scarcely necessary
to speak at length in this place. The story told by this vol-
ume, at the end of his first ten years of service, is ample evi-
dence that the efficiency of the Smithsonian organization has
not diminished while under his charge, and that the care of
this, rather than of his scientific pursuits, has occupied the

The Three Secretaries 231

greater portion of his time and thought during the period
of his incumbency.

No one can ever make so strong an impression upon the
character of an institution as he to whom the task of organizing
it is intrusted. It is manifestly impossible that his successors
should be able to modify materially the policy of an institu-
tion which has been organized for a definite purpose and by
the hands of a person whose judgment and ability they hold
in respect. Their work, however, is none the less important
in that it is conservative rather than entirely constructive.
Their task is to maintain the efficiency of the organization
and to keep it abreast of the times. They must be alert to
appreciate the demands which arise from changed conditions
and secure the means for a growth which shall not only be
constant but symmetrical.

The history of the Institution bears evidence that it has
been under the constant control of men of unusual ability,
energy, and personal influence. No boards of trustees, or
regents, no succession of officers serving out their terms in
rotation, could possibly have developed from a chaos of con-
flicting opinions a strongly individualized establishment like
the Smithsonian Institution.

The names of the first two Secretaries are so thoroughly
identified with the history of the Institution, by reason of their
constant connection with it during its first four decades, that
their biographies together could form almost a complete his-
tory of its operations. The period during which the third
Secretary has served is of comparatively less length, yet of
great importance from the fact that he has done so much to
render permanent the work which his predecessors began.

Each of the three, in addition to his general administrative
work, has made some features of the general plan peculiarly
his own. Secretary Henry gave especial attention to the

232 The Smithsonian Institution

publications, the system of international exchanges, and the
development of that great system of meteorological obser-
vations, the storm predictions, which has since become the
Weather Bureau.

Secretary Baird continued the development of the Museum,
which had been under his special charge during the twenty-
seven years of his service as Assistant Secretary, secured the
erection of the Museum building, gave much attention to
zoological and ethnological exploration, and, in connection
with his special work as Commissioner of Fisheries, secured
the construction of the exploring ship Albatross, and car-
ried on extensive investigations in American waters. In ad-
dition to his Smithsonian work he will always be remembered
as one of the greatest of naturalists, the founder of the United
States Fish Commission and of " public fish-culture."

Und.er the administration of Secretary Langley there has
been renewed activity in the library and exchange work, and
a new system has been introduced for the encouragement of
original research in physical and biological science. During
his administration important donations and bequests have
been added to the permanent fund of the Institution. The
limit of one million dollars which may by law be deposited in
the United States Treasury, at six per cent., has nearly been
reached, and Congress has recognized the authority of the
Institution to receive and administer other funds beyond this
limit, thus making it possible for it to undertake the adminis-
tration of financial trusts for any purpose within the scope of
its general plan.

Secretary Langley will always be remembered as the
founder of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and
of the National Zoological Park, in which his assiduous per-
sonal labor was largely instrumental in securing to the nation
the most picturesque, and up to this time the largest, tract of

The Three Secretaries 233

land in the world devoted to such uses. His contributions to
science during his Secretaryship will also always be asso-
ciated with his career at the Smithsonian, though they have
been necessarily subordinated to administrative duties which
are the principal occupation of the Secretary.

VII.

Mr. Langley's contributions to science have been numerous.
They have been published in the transactions ot various
learned societies and in the scientific journals, especially the
Coinptes Rcndits of the French Academy of Sciences and
the American Journal of Science.

He published a series of articles in The Century Ma-
gazine in 1884 and 1886 upon astrophysical research, based
upon a series of lectures delivered by him at the Lowell In-
stitute in Boston in 1883. These articles have since been re-
published under the title of "The New Astronomy," which is
one of the most successful of modern scientific books written
in popular style.

Mr. Langley is a correspondent of the French Institute (in
the Academy of Sciences), a foreign member of the Royal So-
ciety of London, a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society
of London, a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
and of numerous other foreig"n and American scientific bodies.
In 1878 he was made Vice-President of Section A of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, and
in 1886 was elected President of that association, delivering
the presidential address at the Cleveland meeting in 1888, en-
titled the "History of a Doctrine." He has received numer-
ous degrees from universities, among them that of LL. D.
from the University of Wisconsin in 1882, the University of
Michigan in 1883, from Harvard University in 1886, and

2 34 The Smithsonian Institution

Princeton University in 1896; and in 1894 that of D. C. L.
from the University of Oxford. He was the first to receive, in
1886, the Henry Draper medal of the National Academy of
Sciences for work in astronomical physics. In 1887 he w^as
awarded the Rumford medal by the Royal Society of London,
and the Rumford gold and silver medals by the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences. It seems especially fit that
the American who has in this century been most eminent as
a student of the laws of heat should thus come into posses-
sion of the two memorials, American and English, of the
great American who in the last century made such important
contributions to the same branch of science.

More than all these formal honors, by far, is the world-
wide recognition of his achievements in the formulation of
the principles of aerodynamics and the discovery of so much
of the solar spectrum.

THE BENEFACTORS

By Samuel Pierpont Langley

^'HE original bequest of James Smithson, to-
gether with the accrued interest and savings,
constituted a fund of over seven hundred thou-
sand dollars. The sum now placed to the credit
of the Smithsonian deposit in the Treasury of
the United States, together with some securities undeposited,
lacks but little of a million, about one quarter of a million of
dollars having been added to the original fund in the past
five years.

The addition has been made by several benefactors who
have recognized, as years go on, the ever-increasing ability
of the Institution to act as trustee for the funds whose grivers
have aims in consonance with those of the founder.

I shall briefly sketch the biography of these men who have
given of their means to promote the usefulness of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and who have expressed their confidence
in the policy and permanency of the Institution by making it
their trustee in carrying out their design for the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men. Before passing to these,
however, the fact should be recalled that the earliest addition

to the Smithson fund came from the first Secretary, Joseph

235

236 The SniitJisonian Institution

Henry. In the year 1847 Professor Henry was invited to
deliver a course of lectures in Princeton, the college of whose
faculty he had been a member prior to his acceptance of the
chief executive office of the newly-founded Institution. Prince-
ton University, — or the College of New Jersey, as it was
then known, — paid him for this course of lectures an honora-
rium of $1000, which Professor Henry placed to the credit of
the Board of Regents.

't>

In 1874 a bequest of $1000 was received from the estate of
James Hamilton, " the interest to be appropriated biennially
by the Secretaries, either in money or a medal, for such con-
tribution, paper, or lecture on any scientific or useful subject
as said Secretaries may direct."

Mr. Hamilton was born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Octo-
ber 16, 1793, and died there January 23, 1873. He was
graduated from Dickinson College in 181 2, and was ad-
mitted to the Bar in 18 16. For a few years he followed
the practice of his profession, and then retired to devote
himself to the more congenial pursuits of science and litera-
ture. He was a close student of astronomy, botany, and
mineralogy, and his interest also extended to education, for
he was a trustee of Dickinson College in 1824-33, and was
almost continuously a school director in Carlisle from the
inception of the school system there in 1836, till his death.
His philanthropy and public spirit showed itself in many
ways. Not only was he one of the organizers and trustees
of the Presbyterian Church, but he was also active in its
work as well. His .charities were numerous and his will
included more than a thousand items of benefaction.

In 1879 a bequest of $402.59 was received from Doctor
Simeon Habel. This sum was increased from the income

THE HODGKINS MEDAL.

[OBVERSE.]

236 77/. Institution

^ xofessor Henry was

:ii Princeton, the c" e

-: niber prior to his acceptance o

. he newly-founded Institution. Prince-
New Jersey, as it was

tt i Ji a 1 "%_, ■

■J, Wl.

ofR

quest , joo was received fr A

jam '^"'^ *' Hie interest \.., ...^ appro^^.x^x,.

/ or a m^ ^ ' r i ^^j^_

r use

1 1

^cto-

January

!i 10 1 or a tew years -^wed

profession, and tiien retire vote

nimself to the more congenial pursuits ence and li

-^ -" close stud""^ of astronomy, buLci
ana his interest aiso extender'

ckinson Cc 1824-3;-' was

\ director in C e

>Lees

In 1879 a beque- : • ■ ivca n-om '' )r

, H<t54.(iaM,sa^I30aOH ainj.on, the income

[.aaaavao3

The Benefactors 237

of the Institution to $500, and placed to the credit of the
Smithsonian fund.

Doctor Habel was of Austrian birth and was grad-
uated at the University of Vienna in 1846. He came to
America and undertook an extended tour throucrh Central
and South America. Before doing this he spent several
months at the Institution familiarizing himself with the work
of the Geological Department. In 1877 he prepared a me-
moir for the Institution entitled "The Sculptures of Santa
Lucia Cosumalwhuapa, in Guatemala, with an account of
Travels in Central America and on the Western Coast of
South America," which was published in the "Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge."

In 1889 a bequest of $5000 was received from Doctor
Kidder, to be used for the promotion of physical research.

Doctor Jerome Henry Kidder was born in Baltimore
County, Maryland, on October 26, 1842, and was graduated in
1862 at Harvard University, where he is still remembered as
foremost in the gymnasium as well as on his class-rolls. He
immediately tendered his services for the Civil War, and was
placed in charge of the sea-island plantations near Beaufort,
South Carolina, where he contracted yellow fever, and was
sent home early in 1863 ; but upon recovery he enlisted in the
Tenth Maryland Infantry, in which he served as private and
non-commissioned officer until the following year, when he
was selected to be medical cadet, and in that capacity was
employed in the military hospitals near the capital. During
this time he was prosecuting the study of medicine, and in
1866 received from the University of Maryland the degree of
M. D. In the same year he was commissioned an assistant
surgeon in the United States Navy, becoming full surgeon in
the month of May, 1876.
16*

238 The Smithsoniaji Institution

Doctor Kidder's first duty was in Philadelphia. After a
year he went to Japan, where he quickly acquired the lan-
guage of the country, and in other ways established the repu-
tation which attached to him throughout his career for his
"capacity for taking pains." While on this foreign service
he was decorated by the King of Portugal in recognition of
services to a distressed vessel of his Majesty's navy.

Doctor Kidder took part in observing the transit of Venus
at Kerguelen Island, in 1874, as surgeon and naturalist of the
expedition, and the excellent results of his scientific labors
and researches therewith were described in bulletins of the
United States National Museum. After the return of this
expedition. Doctor Kidder arranged his specimens and col-
lections in the Smithsonian Institution, and began those
kindly and intimate relations with it which continued through
the remainder of his life.

In 1878 Doctor Kidder married, in Constantinople, Annie
Mary, daughter of the Honorable Horace Maynard, Minister
of the United States to Turkey, and in 1884, having inherited
an adequate fortune, he resigned his commission and estab-
lished his home in Washington, and organized the bacterio-
logical laboratory in connection with the Navy Museum of
Hygiene, and also made a sanitary survey of the site pro-
posed for the Naval Observatory. Later he was appointed
chemist of the United States Fish Commission, and in that
capacity became one of the most trusted advisers of Pro-
fessor Baird. His laboratory was in the Smithsonian build-
ing; and, under the direction of the Secretary of the In-
stitution he made, at the request of Congress, an exhaustive
study of the ventilation of the Capitol and of the air in the
Senate chambers and the hall of the House, and submitted an
extended report for the use of the committees engaged upon
the sanitary reform of the building. In 1887, after the death

The Benefactors 239

of Commissioner Baird, he served for a time as Assistant Com-
missioner of Fisheries, under Commissioner Goode. While
connected with tlie Fish Commission he carried on a suc-
cessful series of experiments to solve the problems relative
to the temperature of living fishes, which have been made
public through the reports of the Fish Commission. Besides
the reports just referred to. Doctor Kidder contributed valu-
able papers to various professional and educational publica-
tions, and held for years a place on the literary staff of the
New York Woi'ld, and maintained membership in many
learned societies. He was one of the founders of the Cosmos
Club, one of the organizers of the Harvard Club in Washing-
ton, and a prominent member in the Masonic fraternity.

In 1888 Doctor Kidder accepted the appointment of
curator of laboratory and exchanges ; and the writer cannot
speak in too warm terms of the character of Doctor Kidder
as shown in their business relations. His liberal educa-
tion and views, served by the " capacity for taking pains "
already referred to, were all under the control of the most
conscientious regard for duty, and made him a valued admin-
istrator of the department under his charge. He knew how
to maintain, together with exact order, the kindliest relations
with all employed in it, who, it is safe to say, remember him
with an affection and regard due to his excellent personal
qualities, a feeling which the writer profoundly shares. Just
in his best work, in his fullest physical vigor. Doctor Kidder
was stricken with pneumonia, and died after a brief illness in
Washington on April 8, 1889.

He was a man most worthy of trust in every relation of life,
and deeply mourned by those who enjoyed his friendship.

In 1 89 1 Alexander Graham Bell presented to me $5000 to
aid in scientific researches I was carrying on, which sum was,

240 The Smithsonimi Institution

with his consent, placed under the general charge of the In-
stitution, where it has been employed for objects cognate with
those contemplated by the donor.

The present brief notice of Doctor Bell would have been a
fuller one were it not that a reluctance to be the object of
public notice has made it difficult to find the necessary facts
for the biographer.

We know of his life little more than that he was born in
Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847; that he is under-
stood to have been educated in London and Edinburgh; that
in 1870 he removed to Canada, and that in 1872 he settled
in Boston, where he introduced the system of visible speech
invented by his father, which was especially for the benefit
of the deaf and dumb, and where he became professor of
vocal physiology in the Boston University.

At this time the transmission of sound by electricity at-
tracted his attention, and he made the invention which
brought him his present great and deserved fame. It was at
the Centennial Exhibition held in Philadelphia in 1876 that
the telephone was first exhibited. It attracted the immediate
notice of Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), and
other eminent electricians, and almost at once it engrossed
the attention of the public, and the news of the discovery
spread over the civilized world.

Doctor Bell's scientific work was by no means confined to
the telephone, although it is in connection with that invention
that his name is best known. He has added various devices
connected with the transmission of speech by electricity, among
which is that described by Antoine Breguet in the Coviptcs
Rendus of the French Academy of Sciences of 1880.^

Doctor Bell, among other rewards of his invention of the
telephone, received the Volta prize of fifty thousand francs

1 Volume xci, pages 595 and 652.

The Benefactors 241

from the Institute of France in 1880, and with this and con-
siderable additions, he founded in 1883 the Volta Bureau, and
erected a building in Georgetown, where it is installed. It
includes a library and facilities for investigations into the
condition of the deaf and dumb, in which subject Doctor
Bell has always continued to take a deep interest.

In his adopted country, Doctor Bell's contributions to
science have been recognized by an election, in 1883, to the
National Academy of Sciences, and the recent conferment
of the degree of LL.D., while the decoration of the Legion
of Honor has been received by him from the French gov-
ernment.

In 1 89 1 Thomas George Hodgkins gave $200,000 to the
Smithsonian Institution, stipulating that while that sum should
be included with the original Smithson Foundation, the in-
come of one-half of it should be devoted to researches and
investigations on atmospheric air in connection with the wel-
fare of man. Subsequent to his death an additional sum of
nearly $50,000 was received by the Institution from his es-
tate, making the total gift one of about a quarter of a million
dollars.

Mr. Hodgkins was born in London, England, in 1803,
and died in Setauket, Long Island, on November 25, 1892.
His ancestors were clergymen, and belonged to the class of
English gentlemen, but his father, who was in reduced cir-
cumstances, was unable to keep him at Eton or Harrow,
and sent him to France, where he remained for his educa-
tion until he was about fifteen years old. During this time
his language, habits, and manners, became rather French
than Enorlish.

He returned to England; but troubles with a stepmother
made his home unbearable, and, against the urgent entreaty

242 The Smithsonian Listitittion

of his father, he shipped before the mast in a trading vessel
bound for Calcutta. The vessel was wrecked near the mouth
of the Hoogly, and young Hodgkins found himself penniless
and friendless in Calcutta, where he was taken ill and carried
to the hospital. He has since said that it was here, while
he was a sick lad, and was told that he had not six months
to live, that he made up his mind that he would live, that he
would acquire a fortune, and that he would devote it to large
and philanthropic ends.

He recovered sufficiently to prepare a petition to the Gov-
ernor-General of India, who was then the Marquis of Hast-
ings, asking for aid to return to England ; and he walked a
long distance into the country, where the Governor-General
was staying at his country-seat, to deliver it. He arrived at
the viceregal residence barefooted and ill-clad, and asked
an audience with the ruler of India with such persistence that
the attendants, who at first refused, finally consented to pre-
sent his petition. This so impressed the Viceroy when he
read it that he directed that the young sailor should be ad-
mitted to see him, and the interview that followed ended by
his offering young Hodgkins a position in his household
which any gentleman's son might have been willing to ac-
cept, but which he refused from his overmastering wish to
return to his father.

I think this curious adventure (as it may almost be called)
deserves narration as an instance both of the remarkable force
of Mr. Hodgkins's character and of the evidence of gentle
breeding his manners always bore, and of the influence both
had on others even in his earliest years.

After going home he went to Spain ; later, returning to
England, he married, and in 1830 came to this country. He
immediately engaged in business, which he pursued with un-
remitting energy for thirty years, when he retired on what was

The Benefactor's 243

at that time considered a handsome fortune. The fifteen
years following this he spent in traveling over Europe and
America, and finally in 1875 he settled down in Setauket,
Long Island, upon his place " Brambletye F"arm," which he
rarely left, except for an occasional visit to New York City,
until his death.

Mr. Hodgkins was a man of remarkably self-poised mind,
singularly independent in his modes of thought, and indepen-
dent also of the need of social converse or of adventitious
interests. His opinions were his own, and he found in the
reading which confirmed them and in the care of his little
farm abundant and agreeable occupation for the leisure of
his declining years.

He was a man of keen intelligence, and by nature, perhaps,
still more a thinker and a scholar than a man of affairs, though
even in the latter capacity his ability was proven by his suc-
cess in business. He possessed a strong will, and had delib-
erately formed and tenaciously held opinions of his own in
relation to religious and philosophical questions. In regard
to the former, it may be sufficient to say that his mind was
of a devout cast, and that while he had thought much for him-
self, he retained to the last an absolute trust in the divine
guidance as the leadinor motive of his life.

Mr. Hodgkins had for more than thirty years made a spe-
cial study of the atmosphere in its relations to the well-being
of humanity. He believed that most of the physical evils to
which mankind are subject arise from the vitiation of the air
which they breathe, and that the study of the atmosphere is
not unimportant even with relation to man's moral and spirit-
ual, as well as his physical health ; and though he did not
point out any line of investigation likely to bear fruit in the
latter direction, it was his hope that the concentration of
thought upon the atmosphere and its study from every point

244 The SmitJisonian Instittttion

of view would in time lead to results which would justify his
almost devout interest in the subject.

He was very explicit in his statements that it was not
for sanitary science or for meteorology, or for the like
branches of study alone, or for those which might seem most
obviously suggested by the words of his trust, to profit ex-
clusively by it, for he believed that every department of
philosophy (using the term in its widest sense) would be
found to be finally connected with every other, through this
common bond of union ; so that it was his particular desire
to have such varied investigations in the atmosphere made as
would aid in the enlargement of each and all of these aspects
of knowledge.

Mr. Hodgkins brought to all his studies, as to this, a very
retentive memory, while general reading and travel had
stored his mind with singularly varied information. He was
a good French scholar and loved to quote from the French
classics. His catholicity of mind was sufficient to include a
not inconsiderable sense of humor, and his favorite quotation
from Boileau pointed to his consciousness of a perhaps too
imagfinative indulo^ence in his favorite themes. He was a
punctilious correspondent, and what it is not too much to call
his real literary ability was never shown more happily than in
his letters, which were in many respects models of epistolary
ease, and even of charm of diction. He was hospitable and
enjoyed entertaining the few friends whom he admitted to his
table, where his manner, as a host of the old school, was a
happy one.

Mr, Hodgkins had no family and no known blood relations,
and, recognizing the difficulties which often arise over the
settlements of large estates, he chose to be his own executor
rather than leave the disposition of his affairs to those who
might either misinterpret or disregard his requests when he
could no longer appear as a witness in his own behalf. He,

The Benefactors 245

therefore, gave away his entire estate, amounting to about
half a milHon dollars, to various public institutions.

His funeral was unostentatious, as he requested it should
be, only his intimate friends attending. Among these I was
numbered ; for while I felt it an official duty to represent this
Institution at the funeral of one to whom it owed so much, I
was there also from a feeling of real friendship and regard to
an old man whose singular powers, whose lonely life, and
whose — perhaps often unmet — affection had drawn me to
him as to a personal friend.^

In 1894 a bequest was received from Robert Stanton Avery,
consisting of almost all of his small estate, to establish "the
fund constituted by Robert S. Avery and his wife Lydia T.
Avery for the extension of the sciences."

Robert Stanton Avery was born near Preston, Connecti-
cut, May I, 1808; and died in Washington City, September
12, 1894. After spending nearly fifteen years in teaching
and studying, he entered Harvard Divinity School and was
graduated in 1846. Failing health prevented his acceptance
of a pastoral charge, and while settling up his father's estate
he began the study of the mathematics and their application to

1 The Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- in her left hand, and in her right a scroll em-

tution issued a circular on March 31, 1893, blematic of knowledge and the words "Per

announcing a series of prizes for contribu- Orbe/n" while the reverse is adapted from the

tions to knowledge in regard to the nature seal of the Institution as designed by Augus-

or properties of atmospheric air. The same tus St. Gaudens, the map of the world being

circular announced the establishment of a replaced by the words "Hodgkins Medal."

meiial to be known as " The Hodgkins Medal No impression of the Hodgkins medal in

of the Smithsonian Institution," to be awarded gold has as yet been awarded, but four im-

"for important contributions to our know- pressions in silver and eight in bronze were

ledge of the nature and properties of atmo- awarded to successful competitors for the

spheric air or for practical applications of our Hodgkins prizes. In future the medal will

existing knowledge of them to the welfare be awarded from time to time as some grand

of mankind." The medal itself — the ob- scientific discovery is made that is worthy of

verse and reverse of which are shown in the such recognition. The medals were struck

accompanying illustration — was designed by at the French Mint in Paris, and are seven

Monsieur J. C. Chaplain, of Paris, a member and a half centimeters in diameter (about

of tlie French Academy and one of the most three inches), and the gold medal was to

eminent medalists in the world. It bears on have had a bullion value of $240 to $300.
its obverse a female figure carrying a torch

246 The Sniithsonian Institution

the physical sciences. In 1853 he received an appointment
in the Coast Survey, and was assigned to the reduction and
compilation of tide-tables, becoming after several promotions
chief of the tidal division of the Survey, which place he held
until 1885, when he resigned. Subsequently he devoted him-
self to the preparation of school-books designed to extend the
teaching and use of phonetic spelling.

Mr. Avery's property lay chiefly in real estate in Wash-
ington, which has still to be disposed of, and his bequest has
not yet become effective. He has indicated a wish that it may
be employed partly in researches connected with the ether,
as well as in the printing of some mathematical tables.

THE SMITHSONIAN BUILDING
AND GROUNDS

By George Brown Goode

«-■ ^v^

^^HAT the Smithsonian Institution, before it

could begin active operations, must have a

|;^|\0\ home of its own would doubtless have been
^=^^ regarded as a necessity by any one consider-
''^^^^^^^^^^ ing the requirements of the future. Richard
Rush, however, appears to have been the first to state this
idea in words, which he did in a letter addressed November
6, 1838, to the Secretary of State, in response to a request
of the President for suggestions in regard to the proper
manner of carrying out the bequest.

In the bill prepared by John Ouincy Adams, and presented
February 18, 1839, it was provided that the observatory,
which was to be the first of the Smithsonian buildings,
should be erected, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Treasury, upon land belonging to the United States, which,
after its selection, should be granted for the purpose and con-
veyed as a deed of gift to the trustees of the Smithsonian
fund. In those days the locality known as Camp Hill, near
the banks of the Potomac, opposite Analostan Island, near
the mouth of Rock Creek, seems to have been under consid-

247

248 TJie Smithsonian Institution

eration. This site was the one which was designated by
Washington for the National University, and reserved for that
purpose upon the original plan of the city. It was subse-
quently used for the purpose Mr. Adams had in mind,
namely, as the site of the United States Naval Observatory,
a building for which was erected upon it in 1843-44, and
occupied until 1893, when a group of finer structures were
built upon Georgetown Heights.

In another bill, introduced by Lewis F, Linn into the Sen-
ate February 10, 1841, the whole of the tract known as the
Mall was appropriated for the uses of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, with the provision that the buildings should be
erected in accordance with the plans prepared by and under
the supervision of the National Institution, to be approved by
the President of the United States.

In bills introduced into the Senate in June and December,
1844, by the Library committee, — Rufus Choate, Benjamin
Tappan, and James McP. Berrien, — appeared the first defi-
nite characterization of the building, which was to be plain
and durable, without unnecessary ornament, and to contain
provisions for cabinets of natural history and geology, and
for a library, a chemical laboratory, and lecture-rooms. This
building was to be placed upon a site to be selected in that
portion of the Mall lying west of Seventh Street. The cost
was at that time limited to eighty thousand dollars. In 1846,
however, the bill of Doctor Robert Dale Owen, without
change of phraseology from those which had preceded it
in re2"ard to location and character of the structure, was
adopted, but the limit of the cost was increased, and $242,-
129, the exact amount of the Smithsonian interest which had
at that time accrued, " together with any additional interest
which might remain after paying the current expenses of the
succeeding years," was designated for that purpose.

Building and Grounds 249

After the present site had been selected, there appears to
have been some dissatisfaction in regard to it ; nor is this to
be wondered at, since at that time the Mall was remote from
the inhabited portion of the city, being a part of what was
then known as "The Island," now called South Washington.
This portion of the city was cut off by an old and unsightly
canal, running to the Potomac, and crossed by simple wooden
bridges at four points between the Capitol and the Potomac
River. It was unfenced and waste, occupied from time to
time by military encampments and by traveling showmen.
After the completion of the east wing in 1850, when the first
lectures were held in the Institution, the Regents were
obliged to build plank walks for the accommodation of visit-
ors. Indeed, with the exception of the Capitol grounds and
those surrounding the Executive Mansion, the open places in
the city were entirely unimproved.

Soon after the selection of the present site, the question
was reconsidered by the Board, and a committee appointed
to obtain, if possible, another location. In the bill as it finally
passed Congress, permission had been given to locate the
building on the space between the Patent Office and Seventh
Street, now occupied by the building used for the offices of
the Interior Department. This was partly to enable the Insti-
tution to utilize for its collections the large hall in the Patent
Office then assigned to the " National Cabinet of Curiosi-
ties," partly, no doubt, to secure a more central location. To
obtain this ground, however, it was necessary to have the
approval of the President of the United States and other
public officials, which was not found practicable. The Com-
mittee fixed upon Judiciary Square, an open space of rough
ground, in which at that time the City Hall (a portion of
the present structure), the Infirmary, and the City Jail
were located. Though the adjoining streets were entirely
^7

250 The Smithsonian Institution

vacant, this site was regarded as much more accessible
than the Mall.

A proposition was submitted to the Common Council of
the City of Washington, that the site of the City Hall should
be resigned for the use of the Smithsonian Institution upon
its offering to pay to the city $50,000, a sum deemed suffi-
cient to erect a building for the use of the city government
upon the site south of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Sev-
enth and Ninth streets, now occupied by the Center Market.
A bill was introduced into Congress, authorizing the Regents
to purchase the City Hall, but the Common Council refused
to consider the proposition, and the site of the Mall was
used.

From the very beginning Doctor Owen was the chief ad-
vocate of a large and showy building. In this matter he was
supported by the sympathy of the people of Washington,
and especially Mr. William W. Seaton, Mayor of the city and
one of the Regents, whose interest in the realization of the
plan of Smithson undoubtedly did much at last to secure
action from Congress. Outside of Washington, there was
much opposition to an expensive building, owing partly to
the manner in which the bequest of Stephen Girard had
been rendered for many years inoperative by the action of its
trustees.

Doctor Owen himself was earnest in his denunciation of
such abuses. " Of the noble Girard fund," said he, "three
quarters of a million of dollars are lost forever, and though
half a generation has passed away since the eccentric Phila-
delphian died, not one child has yet reaped the benefit of his
munificent bequest. A temple has, indeed, arisen that out-
shines Greece and her Parthenon ; its sumptuous Corinthian
pillars, each one costing a sum that would have endowed a
professorship, are the admiration of beholders and the boast

Building and Grounds 251

of the Quaker City ; but years must yet elapse before the
first son of indigence can ascend the steps of that princely
portico and sit down within those marble halls to receive the
education for which its simple and unostentatious founder
sought to provide."

Doctor Owen, nevertheless, more than any other person at
that time concerned in the establishment of the Institution,
seems to have felt that much of its future success depended
upon the erection of a building which should perform a legit-
imate duty in dignifying and making conspicuous the work
of the organization to which it belonged. Scarcely any one
can doubt that Doctor Owen was rio^ht and that the useful-
ness of the Smithsonian Institution has been materially aided
by the fact that its building has for fifty years been one of the
chief architectural ornaments of the national capital.

The first act of the Regents, after appointing the commit-
tees on organization and library, was to instruct the Chancel-
lor, Secretary, and Executive committee to obtain plans for
the erection of buildings. Doctor Owen, Mr. Hough, and
General Totten, on behalf of this committee, visited several
of the principal cities, examined their prominent public build-
ings, and conferred with several architects. At a meeting
on November 30, 1846, they reported that out of thirteen
plans submitted to them they had unanimously selected two,
by Mr. James Renwick, Jr., of New York City, one in the
decorative Gothic style, the other in Norman, or Lombard ;
the latter was recommended as being simpler and less ornate.^

The style of architecture of the preferred plan is that of

1 Both of these plans are shown in per- and show the structure as it was before the

spective in Owen's " Hints on PubHc Archi- reconstruction of the east wing,

lecture," the Gothic design facing page 99, The battleniented cornices were not pro-

Ihe Norman, pages 104 and io8. The draw- vided for in tlie first plans, but were an after-

ings of the accepted plan already possess thought, it having been found by experience

some antiquarian interest, since they were that too much of the roof was visible from

lithographed from drawings by the architect, the city.

252 The Smithsonian Institution

the last half of the twelfth century ; the latest variety of the
rounded style, as it is found immediately anterior to the
merging of that manner in the early Gothic. In the general
design and most of the details the architect adhered to the
period to which this style is referable. The general feeling,
however, which permeates the design, especially in the upper
towers, is that of a somewhat later era, when all lingering
reminiscences of the post and lintel manner had been dis-
carded and the ruling principles of arch architecture were
recognized and carried out. The semicircular arch stilted is
employed throughout, in doors, windows, and other open-
ings. The windows are without elaborately traceried heads.
The buttresses are not a prominent feature and have no sur-
mounting pinnacles. The weather-moldings consist of cor-
bel courses, with bold projection. The towers are of various
shapes and sizes ; and the main entrance from the north,
sheltered by carriage porch, is between two of unequal
height.

The design originally consisted of the main center build-
ing, two stories high, and two wings, of a single story, con-
nected by intervening ranges, each of these latter having, on
the north, or principal front, a cloister, with open stone
screen.^

The extreme length of the building, from east to west, is
447 feet. Its greatest breadth, across the center of the main
building and towers, and including the carriage porch, is
i6o feet. The east wing is 82 by 52 feet; the west wing,
including its projecting apse, is 84 by 40 feet, and 38 feet
high ; and each of the connecting ranges is 60 by 49 feet.
The main building is 205 by 57 feet, and, to the top of its
corbel course, 58 feet high.

1 The east wing has since been entirely disappeared, whde in the west connecting
rebuilt, and the connecting range being now range it has been inclosed to form a ]iart of
four stories high, the cloister at this end has the Iniilding.

Building and Grounds 253

The main building has in the center of its north front two
towers, of which the higher reaches an elevation of 145 feet.
On its south front it has a single massive tower, 2)1 ^^^t
square, including buttresses, and 91 feet high. On its north-
east corner stands a double campanile, 1 7 feet square, and
measuring to the top of its finial 1 17 feet high. At its south-
west corner is an octagonal tower finished with open-work
in its upper portion ; and at its southwest and northwest
corners are two smaller towers. There are nine towers in
all, including a small one at each wing.

In concluding his description of the plan given in " Hints
on Public Architecture," Doctor Owen writes :

"I am not acquainted with any actual example yet remain-
ing from what has been variously called the Lombard, the
Norman, the Romanesque, and the Byzantine school, with
which the Smithsonian building will not favorably compare.
In so far as the architect has permitted himself to innovate
upon ancient precedents from the style in which he designed,
he has done so, in my judgment, with discretion and advan-
tage. ... I esteem myself fortunate in being able in this
book to refer to an actual example, at our seat of govern-
ment, the architect of which seems to me to have struck into
the right road, to have made a step in advance, and to have
given us in his design not a little of what may be fitting and
appropriate in any manner (should the genius of our country
hereafter work out such) that shall deserve to be named as a
National Style of Architecture for America."

In compliance with the requirements of the organizing law,
the building contained provision for objects of natural history
and a geological and mineralogical cabinet, a chemical labo-
ratory and library, and gallery of art, and lecture-rooms.

A building committee of three was appointed, consisting of
Doctor Robert Dale Owen, wdio acted as chairman, Mayor
17*

2 54 The Smithsonian Institution

William W. Seaton, and General J. G. Totten/ This com-
mittee, having been empowered to enter into contracts for the
completion of the building, began its sessions February 1 7,
1847, and within thirty days had decided upon the materials
to be used, and awarded the contract for building.

It was at first intended that the plan should be executed
in white marble. The quarries at Cockeysville, Maryland,
whence was procured the stone used in building the Wash-
ington Monument, were carefully examined with this in view.
Other quarries and materials were also considered, and about
twenty- five different samples were tested with reference to
their weathering qualities by Professor Charles G. Page.
Doctor David Dale Owen, of Indiana, was invited to Wash-
ington to make surveys of the marble quarries in Baltimore
County, and the sandstone quarries in Montgomery County,
Maryland. Doctor Owen reported that the brown freestone
obtained in the neighborhood of Seneca Creek, on the Poto-
mac river, about twenty-one and a half miles from Washing-
ton, was of great beauty and durability, and he strongly re-
commended its use. This was found to be attended with so
much economy that it was finally decided upon ; the offer
of the lowest bidder for construction having been $205,250
for the building in Seneca ashlar, while white marble ashlar
would have cost $23,000 more.

The journal of the building committee for the year shows
that between February 17 and November 26 it held forty-one
meetings. Its transactions are reported with great minute-
ness in the appendix to the second report of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,' and also in the vol-

1 During General Totten's absence in Mex- Smithsonian Institution, January 6, 1848;
ico in the early part of the year, his place ThirtiethCongress, First Session, Senate Mis-
upon the committee was taken by Mr. Wil- cellaneous Document, No. 23. The report of
liam J. Hough. the building Committee is contained in tliis

2 Report of the Board of Regents of the volume and forms pages 4-156. This report

Building and G7'ottnds 255

lime entitled " Hints on Public Architecture," which was pre-
pared by Doctor Owen, with the assistance of Mr. Renwick,
and was one of the earliest oublications of the Institution.

The actual location of the building" was determined March
20, 1847, t)y a resolution of the committee that it should be
placed "upon the center of the lot, or site, of the said Institu-
tion, from north to south, and upon the center of Tenth Street."

On May i, 1847, the corner-stone of the building was laid
with imposing- ceremonies. The event was made the occasion
of a public holiday. A procession was formed at City Hall,
under the direction of William Beverly Randolph, Marshal-in-
Chief The procession, which was more than a mile in length,
was composed of the militia of the District of Columbia, the
various local Lodges of Free and Accepted Masons, together
with delegations of Masons from Baltimore, the District of
Columbia, and Alexandria, and marched to tlie music of three
military bands. The column moved along F Street to the
Executive Mansion, where the President and his cabinet, the
heads of Departments and the Diplomatic Corps were re-
ceived in line. It then proceeded by the way of Pennsylvania
Avenue and Twelfth Street to the site of the building. A
platform was erected on the south side of the site, and to this
the high officials, the Regents of the Institution, the Mayor
and Corporation of Washington, and other guests were es-
corted. The Masonic bodies then passed up to the corner-
stone, which was laid by the Grand Master of the District of
Columbia, Mr. Benjamin B. French, accompanied by Colonel
James Page and Mr. Charles Gilman, Grand Masters of
Pennsylvania and Maryland. Mr. French held in his hand
the gavel used by President Washington in laying the corner-
stone of the Capitol of the United States, and wore the Ma-
is not included in the first five reports of the " nals of the Board of Regents, Reports ol
Institution, issued in iS52,and but few copies Committee," etc., by William J. Rhees, Wash,
are in existence. It is reprinted in '• Jouin- ington, 1879, pages 597-695.

256 The Smithsonian Institution

sonic apron presented to Washington by tlie Grand Lodge
of France through General Lafayette, also worn by Wash-
ington on the earlier occasion. A prayer was offered up
by Grand Chaplain Mcjilton, of the Grand Lodge of
Maryland.

An address was delivered by Chancellor Dallas and a
national salute was fired by the Columbia artillery, while the
band played a national air. Benediction was then pro-
nounced by the Reverend French S. Evans, "and thus,"
writes a witness, "were concluded the ceremonies of the
day, which were witnessed by at least six or seven thousand
persons."^

Although the time estimated as necessary for the comple-
tion of the building was five years, considerable progress had
been made before the end of 1847. The work was carried
on under the superintendence of James Renwick, Jr., the
architect, and of Robert Mills, assistant architect.

In April, 1849, the east wing of the building was ready for
occupation by the Secretary and his staff, and before the
end of the year the west wing was also completed and was
being temporarily fitted for occupation by the library.

During the year 1850 the work continued on the interior
of the center building, but as the committee had adopted a
resolution, "directing the interior of the center building to
be constructed in fire-proof, and that the time be extended
until the accumulating interest would be sufficient to meet
the additional expense," the completion of the building pro-
ceeded very slowly. As far as the employment of fire-proof
material was concerned, the committee wisely argued that
the additional cost would be repaid by the permanence of the

1 Second Annual Report, pages 132-143, Smithsonian Institution, May I, 1847," by

where the address of the Chancellor is given. George M. Dallas, Chancellor of the Institu-

It was reprinted as "Address delivered on tion. Washington: Printed at office of Blair

occasion of Laying the Cornerstone of the & Rives. 1847, October. Pages 1-8.

BMilding and Grounds 257

building-, and the perfect security that would be afforded to
the valuable collection that would be preserved in that por-
tion of the building". It was hoped that the towers would
be finished and roofed in during the winter, but this unfor-
tunately proved impossible.

The construction of the interior of the main building was
continued during 1852, and the materials used were fire-
proof.

It was during this year that the contract between the
Board of Regents and the builder was declared completed by
the architect. This included the finishing of the exterior of
the entire building, the interior of the exterior wings and
connecting ranges, and the interior of the towers, leaving
the whole interior of the main building to be finished. This
covered a space 200 feet long by 50 feet wide and about 60
feet hieh, to be divided into a basement and two stories. The
valuable services of Mr. Renwick were discontinued, and
Captain Barton S. Alexander, of the United States Engineer
Corps, was detailed to take charge of the construction. Cap-
tain Alexander promptly prepared plans for the completion
of the work. The consideration of these and the procuring
of estimates required some time, so that the new work did
not begin until June 13, 1853.

In the Report for 1853 the building committee reported that
the roof had been temporarily secured, the wooden frame-
work which had occupied the interior of the building re-
moved, and that an excavation had been made for a cellar.
It was further reported that the foundation walls, piers, and
arches of a large basement had been completed ; piers built
in the main story, and, in fact, about nine-tenths of the brick-
work finished as well, leaving as unfinished work the neces-
sary stairways for lecture-room and gallery, the supporting
of the roof in such a manner as to do away with the columns

258 The Sinithsonian Institution

in the second story, flooring, plastering-, and painting to com-
plete the interior finish, and providing seats for the lecture-
room.

According to the Report of the committee for 1855, it would
appear that early in the year the edifice was completed, and
the final report of the architect approved by the committee.

As various changes were made in the original plan, the
following brief description of interior arrangements will not
be inappropriate. The interior of the east wing was sepa-
rated into two stories, the upper of which was divided into a
suite of rooms for the accommodation of the family of the
Secretary ; the lower story comprised principally a large
single room, appropriated to the storage of publications and
the reception and distribution of books connected with the
system of exchange. The upper story of the eastern con-
necting range was divided into a number of small apartments
devoted to the operations in natural history, and the lower
story was fitted up as a working laboratory.

The interior of the main edifice, 200 feet long by 50 feet
wide, consists of two stories and a basement. The upper
story was divided into a lecture-room capable of holding two
thousand persons; and into two additional rooms, one on
either side, each 50 feet square, one of which was appropri-
ated to a museum of apparatus, and the other at that time to a
gallery of art. Both were occasionally used as minor lecture-
rooms and for the meetings of scientific, educational, or in-
dustrial associations. The lower story of the main building
consisted of one large hall for a museum or a library. It
was unoccupied at first, but was used, as the means were
provided for furnishing it, with proper cases for the exhibi-
tion of natural history and other collections. The basement
of this portion of the building was used as a lumber-room
and as a receptacle for fuel.

TTIE SMITIISONIAJSr BUILDING

258 . ...stituti'-^'^

tering, and painting t-
iMM providing seats for the Ic^*:'

nittee for 1855, it
ice was compi
t of t hv the commi

original '^^
fo ments w

ate. oi the east wing was sepa-

into two stories, the upper of which was divided in
'^or the accommodation of ^he fami- ,

^■"^' i.^ed principally a ictigc

iblications -

), and the lo\vti
itorv.
ce, 200 feet long by 50
ement. The u]
'tnrv was divided into a lecture-room capable of holding

"•"^ persoiia, cind into two additional rooms, one ui;
50 feet square, one of which was appro-
ad the other at that time

minor lecture-

were

prov

rinn of Thr basen:

M tills )er-ro^ji.i

■ IS

.TJ

6Titd::mrrf"m:t7iOHnTTM8 ariT

Building mid Grounds 259

The west wing was occupied as a library and was suffi-
ciently large to accommodate all the books that were received
during the ten years following its completion.

The principal towers were divided into stories, and thus
furnished a large number of rooms of different sizes, which
came in time into use in the varied operations of the Institu-
tion. A large room in the main south tower was appro-
priated to the meetings of the Establishment and the Board
of Regents ; three rooms in one range, in the main front
towers, were used as offices ; and two rooms below, in the
same towers, were used for drawing, engraving, and work-
shops. There were in the whole building, of all sizes, ninety
different apartments, of which eight were of a large size, and
were intended for public exhibitions.

In order that the principal of the Smithsonian fund should
not be encroached upon for building purposes, it was neces-
sary, as has been shown, to proceed slowly, and this proved
of further advantage, for, to quote Secretary Henry:

"The delay in finishing the building has not only been
attended with advantao-e in husbandino- the funds, but also
in allowing a more complete adaptation of the interior to
the purposes of the Institution. It is surely better, in the
construction of such an edifice, to imitate the example of
the mollusk, who, in fashioning his shell, adapts it to the
form and dimensions of his body, rather than that of an-
other animal who forces himself into a house intended for
a different occupant. The first point to be settled, in com-
mencing a building, is the uses to which it is to be applied.
This, however, could not be definitely ascertained at the
beginning of the Institution, and hence the next wisest step
to that of not commencing to build immediately was to
defer the completion of the structure until the plan of
operations and the wants of the Establishment were more
precisely known,"

26o The Smith soman Institution

In 1857 the building committee reported that the object for
which they had been appointed might be considered accom-
pHshed, although a large portion of the interior of the edifice
was still unfinished. Thereafter the building was carried on
very slowly, and for some time only a very few workmen were
employed on its construction.

The expenses for furnishing the interior, including the
alcoves and galleries for books in the library, as well as the
cases for the specimens in the museum, were defrayed by a
special appropriation from Congress. The building com-
mittee was continued in charge of such matters, although no
formal report was made between 1857 and 1866.

On January 4, 1865, a fire occurred in the Smithsonian
building which destroyed the roof and all of the interior of the
upper story of the main portion of the edifice, the interior of
the two large north towers and also of the large south tower.
Fortunately, the loss to the Institution was not very great,
although the burning of the roof of the main building caused
the destruction of the contents of the second-story rooms
immediately beneath it, and also those of the three principal
towers adjacent. Besides the official correspondence and other
papers, and the duplicate copies of published documents, the
personal effects of Smithson, including numerous manuscripts
written by himself, were almost entirely destroyed. The
apparatus presented by Doctor Robert Hare, the lens used
by Priestley in the evolution of oxygen, and many other pieces
of apparatus in the collection were seriously damaged, but not
sufficiently to prevent their restoration. The most important
loss was the destruction of a large collection of paintings be-
longing to Mr. J. M. Stanley, but as these were his personal
property and not insured, the loss fell on him.

The first steps toward the reconstruction of the building
was to secure the services of a competent person as architect

Building and Grounds 261

and engineer to prepare the plans and superintend the work.
F'or this purpose Mr. Adolph Cluss was employed, under
the direction of a building committee consisting of Richard
Delaficld, Richard Wallach, and Joseph Henry. He made a
critical survey of the building to ascertain the actual state of
the walls and to determine what parts it was necessary first
to repair. This survey revealed the fact that the original con-
struction was defective, and in many respects the building was
unsuited as a repository for records and other valuable arti-
cles. In consequence it was determined to not only restore
the ravages made by the fire, but also to rebuild the defective
parts so as to render the building thoroughly fire-proof and
entirely stable both as regards material and mode of construc-
tion. The expense of this reconstruction was estimated to
be about $150,000, and the building operations were con-
tinued until 1867, during the summer of which year the
building was again ready for occupancy.

Since that date changes have been made from time to
time in accordance with the requirements of the Institution.
Of these perhaps the most important have been the transfer
of the executive offices to the east wing of the building, for-
merly occupied by Secretary Henry as his private residence,
and the reconstruction of this wing and the connecting range
in 1884, whereby more commodious quarters were secured.

In 1880-81 the growth of the museum compelled the
erection of an annex building, to contain the overflow of the
collections; and an appropriation of $250,000 was made by
Congress and a simple structure of brick, iron, and glass was
built close to the Smithsonian building, upon the southeast.
This building is entirely devoid of architectural pretensions,
and does not require many words of description. It should
be stated, however, that the object of the building committee
having it in charge was to obtain the largest possible amount

262 The Smithsonian Institution

of space with the very limited appropriation. The plan was
designed by General Montgomery C. Meigs, U. S. A., well
known as an engineer and as the superintendent of the ex-
tension of the United States Capitol, aided by Adolph Cluss,
by whom the plans were drawn and the structure superin-
tended. The building is 300 feet square and one story in
height, with pavilions three stories high at each corner, and
in the center of each side. In addition to the seventeen ex-
hibition halls, there are in the pavilion 160 rooms for offices
and workshops. The amount of floor space available for
exhibition purposes is 90,000 feet, the cost for each square
foot having been less than $2.50. Notwithstanding the ex-
treme economy of the structure, which has cost less than
25 per cent, as much for the accommodation afforded as any
other permanent building ever erected, it was completed for
less than the amount of the appropriation, and a small balance
recovered into the treasury. The floors are laid directly
upon the earth, and the building is absolutely without base-
ment rooms. There is thus no opportunity for work rooms
and store rooms, which is a most serious defect. In other
respects, however, as the experience of 15 years has demon-
strated, the building is admirably suited for its purposes, and
has been much more useful than many far more pretentious
and costly structures.

In 1890 a small structure for an astrophysical observatory
was erected on the grounds immediately south of the Smith-
sonian building and a description of it, together with the
ground plan showing the location of the principal instruments,
is given in the chapter on the Astrophysical Observatory.

The grounds were first laid out under the directions of the
Regents in 1849, and planted with trees and shrubs, com-
prising about one hundred and fifty species, chiefly Amer-
ican, and were inclosed in a hedge of Pyrocanthus, Osage

Building and Grounds 263

Orange, and Cherokee Rose, and ornamental gateways gave
access to the grounds from the adjoining streets.

The original planting was soon replaced, however, by a
more elaborate system, designed by Andrew J. Downing,
who was invited by President Fillmore to lay out the entire
Mall, from the Capitol to the river. This plan is the one
still in use, although the untimely death of its designer inter-
fered with its proper execution, since many trees planted for
temporary purposes were allowed to remain, and to injure
or destroy more hardy species, intended to be permanent in
the final effect. The conception was, however, one of the
most successful of all ever carried out by Mr. Downing, and
has done much to perpetuate his fame as the earliest and one
of the greatest of American landscape gardeners. His mem-
ory is honored by a monument in the form of a marble vase^
which stands in these (grounds northeast of the Smithsonian
building. It is about 200 feet east of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution and about 640 feet north.

A bronze statue of Professor Henry, by William W. Story,
was ordered by provision of Congress enacted in 1880, and
was erected in the Smithsonian grounds about one hundred
and fifty feet to the northwest of the building. The statue
was unveiled on April 19, 1883, at the time of the annual
meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, on which oc-
casion a brief address by Chief Justice Waite was delivered,
in which he said, "llie statue which will now be unveiled has

1 The design for this memorial was made On the base of the pedestal are the follow-

by Calvert Vaux, who for many years was ing words :
Mr. Downing's associate in business. Its "THT9 AfFMORT\T

execution was by Robert Launitz, a well- ,,, . j j i »• j .

•' ' Was erected under a resolution passed at

known sculptor. On the front side of the t>i -i a ^ ^ •

" rhiladelphia,

monument is the following inscription : . ^ . .o,, i .1

^ ^ in Sept., I052, by the

" This vase American Pomological Society,

Was erected by his Friends of which Mr. Downing was one of the

IN MEMORY OF Original founders."

Andrew Jackson Downing,

Who died July 28, 1852, aged 37 years."

264

The Smithsonimi Institution

been erected by the United States as a token of gratitude for
the labors of his useful life, and for his faithful administration
of the important public trust so long in his keeping."

Subsequent to the unveiling an oration was delivered by
President Noah Porter, of Yale College.^

1 A full report of the proceedings is given in the Smithsonian Report, 1883, page 17.

THE SMITHSONIAN LIBRARY

By Cyrus Adler

^)HE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION is a
world institution ; its funds are held in trust
by the government of the United States for
the benefit of all men ; its influence, spread
''52£:2^^^^^5^ as it is throughout the world, cannot be
readily seen, nor counted, nor measured. In spite of the
evidences of its work in the promotion of science, through
the publications, the Museum, the Bureau of Exchanges, the
Bureau of Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory, and
its other well-known agencies, no one acquainted with its in-
ner working can doubt that all of these put together represent
but a fractional part of its share in the intellectual activities
of the world. Of no department is this statement so true as
of the library.

The idea of the formation of the library may be said to be
contemporaneous with the first announcement of the Smith -
son bequest, and to antedate the establishment of the Institu-
tion itself In all the discussions in Conofress relatinsf to the
utilization of the bequest, the idea of a library played a promi-
nent part. In the Twenty-sixth Congress (1839-41) a bill
was introduced " to provide for the disposal and manage-

18 ==^5

266 The Smithsonian Institution

ment of the fund bequeathed by James Smithson to the
United States." This bill would have appropriated the larger
part of the sum for the establishment of an astronomical ob-
servatory, but even with this as the main purpose, it included
the following items :

"For the library, one year, $30,000; $10,000 for the first
supply; $20,000 for a fund for an income of $1,200 a year,
for a constant supply of new works and periodical publications
upon science in other parts of the world, or in America."

Senator Choate, of Massachusetts, strongly advocated the
use of a large part of the fund for library purposes. In a
speech delivered on January 8, 1845, ^^ said:

"We cannot do a safer, surer, more unexceptionable thing
with the income, or with a portion of the income — perhaps
twenty thousand dollars a year for a few years — than to
expend it in accumulating a grand and noble public library
— one which, for variety, extent, and wealth, shall be, and
be confessed to be, equal to any now in the world."

At the conclusion of his speech, Mr. Choate moved to
amend the bill under consideration by the insertion of the
following clause :

"And whereas, an ample and well-selected public library
constitutes one of the permanent, constant, and effectual
means of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men ;
therefore, be it further enacted that a sum not less than
$20,000 be annually expended, of the interest of the fund
aforesaid, in the purchase of books and manuscripts for the
formation of a library of the institution aforesaid, which, for
its extent, variety, and value, shall be worthy of the donor of
the said fund, and of this nation, and of the age."

On January 9, 1845, ^^ debate in the Senate was resumed.

The Smithsonian Library 267

The first section of the bill contained the followino- clause :

" Provided, That the books to be purchased for said institu-
tion shall consist of works on science and the arts, especially-
such as relate to the ordinary business of life, and to the
various mechanical and other improvements and discoveries
which may be made."

Mr. Choate moved to strike out this proviso "to avoid a
premature decision on the point at issue as to the plan of
a general library, or a special one limited to works on physi-
cal science."

Senator Tappan, of Ohio, opposed the motion. " He
argued that a library limited to the works on sciences and
the arts, specified in the proviso, would be the only suitable
and appropriate library for the institution."

Senator Pearce, of Maryland, agreed with Mr. Choate and
desired that the Institution should become a "complete na-
tional library."

Mr. Choate's resolution to strike out the provision finally
prevailed.

Mr. Choate next moved to strike out the eighth section,
and to substitute the amendment given above.

Senator Crittenden, of Kentucky, moved to add a proviso
limiting the classes of books which might be purchased.

" Mr. Choate argfued that this limitation was not onlv un-
necessary, but would most certainly prove injurious. It was
unnecessary, because no national library, such as he contem-
plated, and such as he hoped the Senate would authorize,
could be made complete without every one of the works on
science and the arts which the Senators for Ohio and Ken-
tucky could possibly desire."

Senator Rives, of Virginia, thought "if we were to have a
library at all to carry out this great object, it really seemed

268 The Smithsonian Institution

to him that the Hbrary ought to be coextensive with the
Hmits of human knowledge."

Senator Niles, of Connecticut, " did not think it came
within the purpose of the donation to establish a great na-
tional library. If the donor thought that the best way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge among men, he would
have enjoined the establishment of such a library."

Mr. Tappan moved an amendment to add "$91,862 out
of the interest due, to the original fund, so that the invest-
ment should be $600,000."

" Mr. Choate objected to this as, in effect, cutting off the
means for establishing a national library."

The amendment was rejected.

The bill was recommitted to the Committee on Library,
which on January 21, 1845, reported a new bill. It provided
for a building "for the reception of an extensive library, equal
to the first-class libraries in the world."

"An annual expenditure of not less than $20,000 out of
the interest of the fund is authorized to be made in the pur-
chase of books and manuscripts for the library of the institu-
tion, which library is to comprehend in due proportion, with-
out preference or exclusion of any branch of knowledge,
works pertaining to all the departments of human knowledge,
as well as physical science, and the application of science to
the arts of life, as all other sciences, philosophy, history,
literature, and art ; and for its extent, variety, and value, said
library shall be worthy of the donor of the fund, and of this
nation and the age. The managers to employ a librarian
and assistants, and to fix their salaries ; also to prescribe the
regulations under which the library shall be kept, visited and
used."

Senator Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, said he "had arrived
at the conclusion that the best mode of distributinof this fund
was by the purchase of a great library."

The Sinithsonian Library 269

It will thus be seen that Senator Choate, who believed
most strongly in the establishment of a great library in the
United States, was a determined advocate of employing the
Smithson bequest in this manner. He actually succeeded in
having adopted by the Senate of the United States, on Jan-
uary 23, 1845, the bill concerning the provision of which the
foregoing is a discussion, — in effect, to devote the greater part
of the income arising from the bequest to the establishment of
a library. This bill failed of passage in the House, and was
referred to in later debates as "the library plan."

The leading spirits in the Senate would have devoted the
larger part of the fund to a library. The members of the
House interested in the matter were opposed to this plan.
Mr. Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana, in a debate on April 22,
1846, after reviewing the discussion in the Senate, introduced
a bill which allowed an expenditure of $10,000 a year for books.
He argued against the attempt to make a general library.
He asserted that Smithson's tastes were scientific, and not
antiquarian, and that had he desired to found a great librar)-
he would have said so. Mr. Ingersoll and some other mem-
bers of the House agreed with Mr. Owen in his objection to
the establishment of a great library, while Mr. Stanton, of
Ohio, thought "that the annual appropriation of $10,000 for
the gradual formation of a library might have been limited
to a smaller amount." "The library plan," however, had
friends as well as opponents in the House. Mr. George P.
Marsh, of Vermont, on April 23, 1846, in speaking of the pro-
vision for the annual expenditure of $10,000 a year for the
library, said: "I consider this the most valuable feature of
the plan, though I think the amount unwisely restricted."
And he proceeded to argue at great length in favor of a
general library. He also moved several amendments, all
with a view, as he said, to direct the appropriations entirely
18*

270 The Smithsonian Institntion

to the purposes of a library. Mr. Owen argued, in reply, that
a library might diffuse knowledge, but would not increase it.
One of the ideas which was broached during these discus-
sions was that the library should be peripatetic.

The Act which finally passed establishing the Smithsonian
Institution was in effect a compromise between the views
urged in the Senate and in the House ; for whereas a library
was mentioned as but one of the objects of the Institution,
yet Section 8 of this Act expressly provides for a library in
the following terms :

"The said Regents shall make, from the interest of the
said fund, an appropriation, not exceeding an average of
twenty-five thousand dollars annually, for the gradual forma-
tion of a library, composed of valuable works pertaining to
all departments of human knowledge."

At the second meeting of the Board of Regents, held on
September 8, 1846, a committee of three, appointed to digest
a plan, reported a scheme which was adopted by the Board on
January 25, 1847.

This report practically recommended that half of the income
be set aside for a library and museum, and that the Smith-
sonian Institution become a center of bibliographical informa-
tion for the entire country. The report fully expresses the
aim of the Institution with regard to its own library, and
the other libraries of the country. It begins with a state-
ment that the proposition that the building about to be
erected should contain library room sufficient to receive
one hundred thousand volumes was made rather in the spirit
of the charter and against the deliberate conviction of the
committee, and then proceeds as follows :

" But, without a vast accumulation of books in this metrop-
olis, your committee conceive that the Librarian of the

The Smithsonian Library 271

Smithsonian Institution may, under a proper system, become
a centre of literary and bibliographical reference for our en-
tire country. Your committee recommend that the librarian
be instructed to procure catalogues, written or printed, of all
important public libraries in the United States, and also, in
proportion as they can be obtained, printed catalogues of the
principal libraries in Europe, and the more important works
on bibliography. With these beside him, he may be consulted
by the scholar, the student, the author, the historian, from
every section of the Union, and will be prepared to inform
them whether any works they may desire to examine are to
be found in the United States, and, if so, in what library ; or,
if in Europe only, in what country of Europe they must be
sought. Informed by these catalogues, it will be easy, and
your committee think desirable, for those who may be charged
with the selection of books, to make the Smithsonian Library
chiefly a supplemental one ; to purchase, for the most part,
valuable works, which are not to be found elsewhere in the
Union ; thus carrying out the principle to which your com-
mittee has already alluded as influencing all their recommen-
dations, that it is expedient, as far as may be, to occupy
untenanted ground.

"Exceptions to this rule must here, of course, be made; as
in the case of standard works of reference required for the
immediate purposes of the institution, and also of the very
numerous works, many of current science, which, by a proper
system of exchanges, we may procure without purchase. In
this latter connection, the Transactions and Reports of the
institution will obtain for us valuable returns."

In all the early discussions of the Board of Regents the
library received the fullest consideration. Indeed, one of the
first definite acts of that body was a resolution passed at its
third meeting, September 9, 1846:

" That the Secretary be requested, without unnecessary de-
lay, to collect, on behalf of the institution, all the documents.

272 The Smithsonian Instihition

Congressional and others, connected with the history of the
Smithsonian bequest, and of its legislation, and cause them
to be substantially bound, as a commencement of its library."

In a letter written by Professor Charles C. Jewett to Pro-
fessor Henry, the former proposed that the library should
consist of three classes of books ; first, those which may be
immediately needed in the scientific department; second, the
bibliographical works and descriptions, histories, and cata-
logues of similar institutions; third, a general collection con-
sisting of memoirs, transactions, and journals of the learned
societies of Europe and America. " These three classes of
books," he says, "will form a library quite unique, and one
of great utility." There were other details of Professor
Jewett's plan which will be referred to later.

These various ideas were reduced to form in the program
of organization presented to the Board of Regents by Profes-
sor Henry on December 8, 1847, the following portions of
which relate to the library.

" To carry out the plan before described, a library will be
required, consisting, ist, of a complete collection of the trans-
actions and proceedings of all the learned societies in the
world ; 2d, of the more important current periodical publica-
tions, and other works necessary in preparing the periodical
reports.

" With reference to the collection of books, other than those
mentioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in
the United States should be procured, in order that the valu-
able books first purchased maybe such as are not to be found
in the United States.

"Also catalogues of memoirs, and of books in foreign libra-
ries, and other materials, should be collected for rendering
the institution a centre of bibliographical knowledge, whence
the student may be directed to any work which he may
require."

7 he Smithsonian Library 273

Professor Henry submitted this plan of organization in
advance to a number of learned societies and individuals
throughout the country for their criticism ; and among the re-
plies the following, from the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences at Boston, is of unusual interest. This reply was
signed by Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, Benjamin Pierce,
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Asa Gray. It stated:

"A library is one of the objects contemplated in the act of
Congress establishing the Board for the management of the
trust. It is requisite for carrying out the plan above proposed.
At the same time it will be observed that the distribution by
exchange of the publications, which that scheme of operations
will call into existence, will rapidly provide the Institution,
without farther expense, with the class of works, often of a
costly character, which are most directly important as the
means of advancing and diffusing positive knowledge. It is
accordingly in these that the Secretary proposes to lay the
foundations of the library; forming, ist, a complete collection
of the Transactions and Proceedings of all the learned socie-
ties in the world; and, 2d, a similar collection of all the current
periodical publications, and other works necessary in prepar-
ing the contemplated periodical reports. . . . Such a library
as the plan proposes may be fairly regarded as an impor-
tant instrument for the increase and diffusion of knowledofe."

It will thus be seen that, with very slight dissent, all the
persons concerned in the early conduct of the Institution, —
the members of Congress, the Regents, Professor Henry, and
Professor Jewett, — concurred in the idea that the library
should be, first, a library of science, and second, a collection
of catalogues and bibliographical apparatus. While it may
be said that portions of the original plan have, by force of
circumstance, been somewhat modified, the most important
has never been deviated from :

2 74

The Smithsonian Institittion

"To procure a complete collection of the memoirs and
transactions of learned societies throughout the world, and an
entire series of the most important scientific and literary
periodicals."

This may be said, in brief, to have been the policy of the
Institution, with regard to its library, from the beginning to
the present day ; although while making this its primary
object the Institution has acquired many valuable works
other than serials and journals, in almost every department
of human knowledge.

The first librarian of the Smithsonian Institution was
Charles C. Jewett, who was nominated Assistant Secretary
acting as Librarian, by the Secretary, which nomination
was approved at a meeting of the Board of Regents held
on January 21, 1847.

While it is beyond the purpose of this chapter to discuss
the personnel of the library of the Institution, Mr. Jewett is
so unique a figure in the history of library work in America,
and so much of his activity in behalf of the libraries of the
country is contemporaneous with his stay in the Institution,
that a brief reference to him is essential.^

Charles Coffin Jewett was born in Lebanon, Maine, on
August 12, 18 16. He studied in the Latin School in Salem,
Massachusetts, and entered Dartmouth College in 1831,
leaving it in his sophomore year for Brown University, and
graduating in 1835. For two years (1835 to 1837) he was
principal of the Academy in Uxbridge, Massachusetts. In

1 The first biographical sketch of Professor
Jewett was a brief address by Doctor Reuben
Guild, printed in the Providence Evening
Press, Friday, February lo, 1868, two days
after Mr. Jewett's death. This notice was
reprinted in Providence, in octavo form, and
also in the "Smithsonian Report" for 1867,
page 128. The most extended notice was

also by Doctor Guild, being a memorial
sketch of Professor Jewett, published in The
Library Journal, Volume XII, November,
1887, pages 507-511. See also "Historical
Catalogue of Brown University," Providence,
R. I. (1764-1894), Providence, 1895, page
116; N'e'iv England Historical a7id Genealogi-
cal Register,'^ oXvane. XXII, 1868, page 365.

The Smithsonian Library 275

1838 he received the degree of Master of Arts from Brown
University, and in 1840 was graduated at the Andover Theo-
logical Seminary. He had devoted himself more especially
to philology, Oriental languages, and antiquities ; and had
made a plan for extended travels through the East.

"He was unexpectedly delayed in the accomplishment of
this plan by the misdirection of a letter, and that apparently
slight circumstance determined his subsequent course, and
gave complexion to all his after life." ^

While pursuing his theological course in Andover he as-
sisted in the arrangement of the library and the preparation
of its catalogue. From 1840 to 1841 he was the principal of
Day's Academy in Wrentham, Massachusetts.

Brown University had been for some time making an effort
to increase its library, and the Honorable Nicholas Brown
had erected a special building for a library and chapel. It
had been the custom for a member of the faculty, in addition
to his teaching functions, to take charge of the library, but
this plan was found unsatisfactory, and on October 7, 1841,
the Board of Trustees passed a resolution that " Mr. Charles
C. Jewett, of Salem, Massachusetts, be employed, under the
direction of the library committee, to make out a new and
approved catalogue of the University library."

This catalogue was completed and published in the autumn
of 1843. It consists of two parts, a descriptive catalogue of
the works in the library and an index of subjects, and at once
brought Mr. Jewett into favorable notice, being declared "so
original and intrinsically valuable, that it at once placed him
at the head of the bibliographers of this country."- In 1843
Mr. Jewett was appointed professor of modern languages and

1 New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Volume XXII, 1868, page 365.

2 Ibidem.

276 The Smithsonian Instittition

literature in Brown University, a place which he held, as well
as that of librarian, until 1848. His appointment was made
with the understanding that he should have the opportunity
of traveling for the purpose of familiarizing himself with the
modern languages, and of making the acquaintance of libra-
rians and library methods abroad. During this time he also
purchased for the Brown University Library a collection of
7,000 books, which still forms one of the most choice por-
tions of that valuable library.

As stated before. Professor Jewett was appointed assistant
secretary and librarian by Professor Henry in 1847, but it
was some little time before he actively began the work ol
collecting books. Meanwhile, he formed various projects
which were of high importance for the development of Ameri-
can libraries. His ideas as to the proper functions of the
Smithsonian Institution in library and bibliographical work
entirely coincided with those of Professor Henry, and he
early made an attempt to secure a complete catalogue of
all the libraries in the United States. The method that
he proposed was to secure two, or even three, copies of the
printed catalogues of the various libraries, to supplement
these by manuscript copies, and to make in this way a cat-
alogue on slips, or cards, of all the libraries in the United
States. It was this activity, and the correspondence which
it occasioned, that brought about the publication of his
"Notices of Public Libraries in the United States of America"
by the Smithsonian Institution in 1851, which was "the pi-
oneer attempt to give a description of all our libraries."^

1 "Public Libraries in the United States States, and British Provinces of North Amer-

of America." Special Report of the Bureau ica." Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.,

of Education. Washington, 1876, page xviii. 1859. The various reports of the Bureau

A most useful elaboration of this work was of Education as to the libraries in this coun-

published in 1859 by Mr. W. J. Rliees, un- try are its legitimate successors. See also

der the title " Manual of Public Libraries, The Library Journal, Volume xi, 1886,

Listitutions, and Societies in the United page 199.

The Sinithsonian Library 277

Speaking of this publication Professor Henry said :

"The Report on the statistics of Libraries of the United
States, prepared by Professor Jewett, has been ordered to be
printed by Congress, as an appendix to the Regents' Report.
A sufficient number of extra copies will be presented to the
Institution, for distribution to all the libraries from which
statistical information was received. It forms a volume of
about two hundred and twenty-five pages, and will, I am sure,
be considered an important contribution to Bibliographical
Statistics." ^

"This report is intended merely as a beginning, to be
followed by others on the same subject. It has been sent to
all the libraries of the United States, with the request that its
deficiencies may be pointed out and additional materials fur-
nished to render it more perfect. The great interest which
is felt in this work is manifested by the amount of statistical
information which has already been received and returned
for the copies distributed."^

Professor Jewett had begun already in 1849, as a prelimin-
ary to his plan of making a general catalogue of books in the
United States, to prepare a catalogue of all the books in
the libraries of Washington ; and much progress was made.
Meanwhile, his plan for forming a general catalogue of the
libraries of the United States was being carried on in con-
junction with another plan, that of furnishing catalogues
by a cheap and satisfactory process to individual libraries.
Professor Jewett was of the opinion that the printing of cata-
logues of American libraries, most of which were repetitions
of titles already printed, was a great waste of money and
effort. He, therefore, proposed the plan of printing these
catalogues by preparing a set of stereotyped titles, which

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 14.
2 Professor Henry in " Smithsonian Report," 1851, page 14.

278 The Smithsonian Institutiori

were to be under the control of the Smithsonian Institution,
but at the disposal of any librarian upon application. This
plan he had already worked out in 1847, and had communi-
cated it to Mr. Henry Stevens before the latter went abroad.
He first proposed it in public at the fourth meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, held
in 1850; and later described it more at length in a pamphlet
issued by the Institution, entitled " On the Construction of
Catalogues of Libraries and a General Catalogue, and their
Publication by Means of Separate Stereotyped Titles." A
second and enlarged edition of this pamphlet, with quite a
number of changes, was published in 1853.

It will be seen by a study of the rules drawn up by Pro-
fessor Jewett, as well as by an examination of the specimens
which accompanied the reports, that he is entitled to the
credit of having paved the way for the valuable work in
scientific bibliography to which so many of our countrymen
have since contributed, and which is now assuming so great
an importance to the learned men of the world. His description
of a book is most accurate ; a publication was to him as much
an object of careful study as is a natural history specimen to
a naturalist. His annotations were of great value and made
with the most exact discrimination. He was, it is true, pre-
paring catalogues and not bibliographies, and himself drew a
careful distinction between these two classes of works. Yet
he felt that the library catalogue should give some of the
information which was in theory appropriate only to the bib-
liographical dictionary.

The scheme attracted at the time most favorable notice.
In accordance with a rule of the Smithsonian Institution, it
was referred to a commission, consisting of Edward Everett,
Charles Folsom, librarian of the Boston Athenaeum; Joseph
G. Cogswell, superintendent of the Astor Library; George

The Smithsonian Library. 279

Livermore, of Boston ; Samuel F. Haven, librarian of the
American Antiquarian Society, and Edward Everett Hale.
This commission made a report favorable to the scheme,
reserving-, however, an opinion as to the merits of a new
system of electrotyping which had been proposed as the
more economical.

This plan of Professor Jewett has continued to meet with
the commendation of librarians and bibliographers. Sabin ^
describes it as "a well written summary of all that has been
done towards solving this difficult subject. Librarians and
private collectors will find in it many valuable practical
hints." Mr. Charles A. Cutter says : ^

"Mr. Jewett's plan for a general catalogue of all the libra-
ries in the country is well known. Something might have
been done by the aid of the Smithsonian Institution, of which
he was then librarian ; but as the directors resolutely con-
fined their efforts to the propagation of science, and as there
was at that time no other national organization sufficiently
strong to move in the matter, the plan came to nothing. It
has been often mentioned since, in terms of regret and long-
ing; but no one has had the courage or seen the way clear
to make any definite proposal."

Doctor William F. Poole, at the Milwaukee conference of
the American Library Association in 1886, spoke of Professor
Jewett's "rules" as a simplification and improvement on the
plan then employed at the British Museum. He said further:

" Another project he was much interested in at the time ;
and it was highly creditable to his enterprise and ingenuity.
It is an honest attempt to lessen the cost of printing elabo-
rate catalogues, which were then, and are now, absorbing
funds which ought to be expended in books."

1" Bibliotheca Americana," Volume ix, 1877, page 268.
2 The Library Journal, Volume I, 1877, page 220; see also Volume xiii, 18S8, page 107.

28o The Sniifhsonian Institution

Mr. George Watson Cole ^ says :

"We shall come back to Professor Jewett's ideas upon
these points as being in all respects the most satisfactory.
The recent revival of his method of printing by separate
stereotyped titles, by the Publishers Weekly, attests the
soundness of his judgment."

The experiments with materials continued, the plan receiv-
ing the heartiest support and approval, both on the part of
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and the Board
of Recrents. Inasmuch as the Institution had not then a suffi-
ciently large library on which an experiment could be made,
it was decided that it would be advisable to attempt to pub-
lish a catalogue of the Library of Congress upon this plan,
and the Secretary and the Regents called the attention of the
Library Committee of Congress to the matter. Congress
promptly appropriated $3,000 to begin the preparation of a
catalogue of its library on the plan proposed by Professor
Jewett. The work was immediately begun, and in 1853
Professor Jewett reported that upwards of 6,000 volumes had
already been catalogued.

It has frequently been asked what became of this plan.
No better description has ever been given of the causes of
its failure than that of Doctor Poole before the American
Library Association in 1886. He said:

"The material he [Jewett] used was a sort of clay from
Indiana. Congress made an appropriation for executing the
plan. I recollect that the librarians of the country generally
favored it, and that I did not. I remember that I spoke of it
at the time as ' Professor Jewett's mud catalogue.' My views
concerning it were based on some practical knowledge of
legitimate typography, and from specimens of the work which

l"The Future of Cataloguing," The Library Journal, Volume xv, 1890, page 174.

The Smithsonian Library 281

Professor Jewett exhibited.^ .... It failed .... from me-
chanical defects in the process, — the shrinking and warping
of the blocks in baking, and the intractable nature of the
material when baked, which made the exact adjustment of
the blocks on the press impossible. ... It is not necessary,
to be a successful man, that one should be successful in every-
thing he undertakes. Errors, mistakes, and blunders even,
mark the path of all the great inventors, and the benefactors
of the race. One who was so full of resources and expedi-
ents in library economy as Professor Jewett could afford to
make an erroneous judgment on the process of using baked
clay in typography."

The first conference of librarians which ever assembled in
the world was held in the city of New York, in 1853. Of
this convention Professor Jewett was, says Doctor Guild,
"to my certain knowledge the prime mover." He was the
president of the convention, and upon its adjournment was
appointed the chairman of its executive committee, and its
reassembling was made subject to his call. The convention
met on September 15, 1853, and was in session for three
days. In speaking of this conference Doctor Poole said:

" Professor Jewett was the leading spirit in the call and
management of the convention, and its President. Indeed,
he may justly be ranked as the ablest and most zealous of the
early American reformers in the methods of library manage-
ment." "The convention of 1853 .... made a lasting im-
pression on the minds of all the librarians who were present,
and must be regarded as an era in American bibliography."

Sir Anthony Panizzi, the distinguished librarian of the
British Museum, was invited to be present by Professor
Jewett, and we learn from his "Life and Correspondence,"

1 See also " Some Notes on Co-operative or Labor-Saving Methods of Printing Library
Catalogues," by A. Growoll, The Library Journal, V o\\kme. xill, l888, page 280.

282 The Smithsonian Institution

by Louis Fagan, that though he earnestly desired to accept
this invitation, he was unable to attend. He writes to Mr.
Haywood, July 21, 1853 :

"As to my going anywhere, I have to tell you of a dream
which I should like to become a reality. There is going to
be a congress of librarians in the United States, which is to
open on the fifteenth of September next, and where all the
great questions connected with the management of a great
library are to be discussed, and uniform principles adopted
.... They wish me to go, and I should like it amazingly ;
but the expense is too heavy. I will try, if possible, to get
enough from the trustees. Do you think it possible, in case
of my going, that, if the packet is not full, I might have a
cabin to myself? "

As bearing on Professor Jewett's own plans, this conven-
tion adopted the following resolutions :

'^Resolved, That the thanks of this convention be presented
to the Board of Regfents and officers of the Smithsonian In-
stitution for their steady and effective efforts for the increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men ; and particularly for
the measures which they have adopted for the encourage-
ment and promotion of the public libraries of our country."

''Resolved, That we have considered attentively the plan
for constructing catalogues of libraries, and a general cata-
logue of the public libraries of the United States, by means
of separate stereotype titles, originated and prepared by Pro-
fessor C. C. Jewett, and developed by him while librarian of
the Smithsonian Institution. That we regard it as an object
of high importance to the interests of our public libraries, and
to the promotion of learning, and worthy to share in the
funds of the Institution and the zealous exertions of its offi-
cers ; the more so as it is an enterprise which cannot be
successfully prosecuted, except under the guidance, protec-
tion, and pecuniary support of this central establishment for
the increase and diffusion of knowledpfe.

The Smith so7tiaji Library 283

^'Resolved, That we have learned with pleasure that Con-
gress, on the recommendation of the library committee, made
an appropriation for the practical testing of the plan in its
application to the Library of Congress, and that the work is
now in successful progress."

In 1855 a difference of opinion between Professor Henry
and Professor Jewett caused the latter's retirement from the
Institution. Both Doctor Guild and Doctor Poole expressed
the opinion that Professor Jewett's retirement represented
the culmination of a struggle between science and literature,
in which science prevailed. It is hardly necessary to say that
a struoftrle between science and literature would in no wise
involve the question of a library. Science has much greater
need of books than has literature; under the conditions which
prevail among scientific investigators of the present day, and
even of the earlier day, collections of books were absolutely
essential for the prosecution of their studies. It was not so
much a question of policy as it was a question of administra-
tion which occasioned the retirement of Professor Jewett.

His name will always be held in grateful remembrance at
the Smithsonian Institution, as it is among all the librarians
of America. The Institution has more than carried out the
idea of the establishment of a great library in Washington,
by the very substantial aid that it has given to the Library
of Congress, and by its policy of cooperation with that
library, on every occasion, to make it a truly national library.
While it has abandoned the idea of publishing catalogues of
libraries, it has probably rendered a greater service to libra-
ries by the publication of a large number of scientific bibli-
ographies.

Professor Jewett's retirement created a profound sensation
in the Board of Regents and Congress. Senator Choate,
who had been from the first an ardent supporter of the

284 TJie Smithsonimi Institutioii

library, pure and simple, tendered his resignation as a Con-
gressional Regent thereupon. An investigation of the policy
of the Institution followed; but the investigating committee,
both in the Senate and in the House, supported the policy
which Professor Henry had pursued.

Although offered the presidency of a college and a profes-
sorship in another college, Professor Jewett preferred to
accept the office of Superintendent of the Boston Public
Library, whose new building had just then been completed.
The next ten years of his life were devoted to the develop-
ment of this great library.

"It was a fortunate misfortune," said President D. C. Gil-
man, of the Johns Hopkins University, "that removed Pro-
fessor Charles C. Jewett from the Smithsonian Institution
and placed him at the head of the Boston Library."^

" He was chosen," says Doctor Guild, "because he was,
by common consent, the ablest bibliographer and most ac-
complished librarian in the country. . . . For more than ten
years Mr. Jewett has thus been identified with the best inter-
ests of learning in the metropolis of New England. The
catalogues which he has prepared, and the rules for the gov-
ernment of the library which he has suggested, have served
as models for similar libraries in all parts of the country."

He had the largest share in the preparation of the index to
the catalogue of the Boston Public Library (1861), and pub-
lished in the same year a plan for the circulation and use of
the books in the upper hall of the Public Library. He pro-
posed a system of charging books, which, with minor excep-
tions, is still in use there, and is the prevailing practice in
most of the large libraries of this country. ^

1 " Development of the Public Library in Oilman (formerly librarian of Yale College)

America." An address delivered at the open- published by the University, 189 1, page 4.

ing of the Cornell University Library, Octo- ^ The Library Journal, Volume xiv, 1889,

ber 7, 1891, Ithaca, New York, by Daniel C. page 206.

The Smithsonian Library 285

Of the catalogue of Bowdoin College library, 1863, which
was compiled mostly in accordance with Professor Jewett's
rules, Mr. Sabin says that it was a model catalogue. "Our
profession," says Doctor Poole, "is a debtor to Professor
Jewett for his early and scholarly services in bibliography
and in library economy"; and Mr. W. I. Fletcher, the
accomplished librarian of Amherst College, mentions him as
one of the five librarians who " should be held in everlasting
remembrance." ^

During the twenty years of the existence of the American
Library Association hardly a conference has passed at which
his name has not been mentioned with a full appreciation of
his services.

Professor Jewett was then, by common consent, one of the
most active librarians of his time ; the originator of much of
the system of methodical practice in library work which is
now so generally adopted in the United States, and is begin-
ning to be regarded with favor in the countries of Europe.
Under his care the Smithsonian collection grew, in six years,
to 32,000 volumes. He was one of the first imbued with the
spirit of cooperation, out of which so much valuable library
work has grown, and to which all the hope of future biblio-
graphical work turns.

The decided indorsement by Congress of the policy pur-
sued by Professor Fienry marked, in a certain way, an epoch
in the history of the Institution, releasing it from the obliga-
tion of creating a great library, as one of its main objects.
Indeed, its more active cooperation with the library of Con-
gress was foreshadowed at this time. One of the sources of
the increase of the library was the copyright system. At
one time, the Institution was actually charged with the
granting of copyrights, and it published, in good bibliograph-

1 " Public Libraries in America." Boston, 1894, page 80.
19*

286 The Srnithsoniajt Institution

ical form, in the Report for 1850, a complete list of copyright
articles (August 10, 1846, to December 31, 1849), the first of
the kind, I believe, ever published, and one which has only
been followed in recent years by the list issued by the Treas-
ury Department. The care of the copyright articles, however,
was more burdensome than advantageous to the Institution,
and the Secretary and the Librarian repeatedly urged either
the repeal or a modification of the law. The charge of the
books and other articles, which came by virtue of the copyright
act, and which added but little of any real value to the collec-
tion, was a serious drain on the funds of the Institution. In
1864 Congress had appropriated a considerable sum of money
for the enlargement of its own library ; and as the large collec-
tion of books, which almost entirely filled the west half of the
Institution, had become, both for its preservation and care,
too great a charge upon the resources of the Institution, and
as the Secretary of the Institution was at this time alarmed
by the fire which had recently taken place and had threatened
the entire building, Congress, at the request of the Board of
Regents, passed an act to provide for the transfer of the
custody of the library of the Smithsonian Institution to the
Library of Congress. Professor Henry said on this point,
in 1865 :

*'The suggestion has been made in previous reports that
considerable relief might be afforded to the Institution by the
transfer of its library, under certain conditions, to the new
and spacious halls which Congress is providing for its own
library, and the importance of the proposition has been much
enhanced by considerations connected with the recent disas-
ter. The west wing of the building, in which the library is
now contained, is not fire-proof, and is already filled to over-
flowing. To provide another depository for it, which shall
render it entirely secure from fire, and be sufficient for its
continued increase, will far exceed the means of the Institu-

The Smithsonian Library 287

tion, and, although some inconvenience would be experienced
in regard to ready access to the books, yet, in consideration
of the great value of the collection, by far the most perfect of
its kind in the United States, it has been thought proper to
ask Congress to allow the deposit of this library to be made
in one of the new fire-proof rooms preparing for the exten-
sion of its own collection of books.

" I am informed by Mr. Spofford, the librarian of Congress,
that these two new rooms will be sufficient to accommodate
the Smithsonian library, and to furnish space for the growth
of the Congressional library for the next fifteen or twenty
years. The object of the transfer is, of course, not to sepa-
rate this unique and highly-prized collection of books from its
relations to the Smithsonian Institution, for it must still bear
its name and be subject to its control, but merely to deposit
it where its preservation will be more certain and its useful-
ness more extended."

This act made it incumbent upon the government to care
for the collection, preserved to the Institution its customary
use of its library, gave to it, through the Secretary, the use of
the Library of Congress, and authorized the Institution to
withdraw the library upon reimbursement to the Treasury for
the expenses incurred in binding and care.

The passage of this bill through Congress aroused consid-
erable interest. Senator Sumner, of Massachusetts, said, on
March 22, 1866, "I am very much interested in that question.
I have paid some little attention to the subject in advance."
On March 27 the bill again came up. Senator Hendricks,
of Indiana, inquired

"whether this bill contemplates the permanent transfer of
these books to the Congressional Library ? These books
belong to the Smithsonian trust fund, which I think ought
not to be diverted."

2 88 The Smithsonian Institution

To which Senator Howe, of Maine, who was in charge of
the bill, replied: "The Senator will see, if he looks over the
bill, that it does not transfer the title of the books. It is the
custody of the books that is transferred to the Congressional
library for safe keeping, as well as for the better accommo-
dation of the public." Senator Trumbull, of Illinois, enforced
this statement:

" I will state to the Senator from Indiana that this is a
mutual arranorement entered into between the Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution and the Committee on the Library,
satisfactory to both parties. It is thought to be safer to have
them deposited there. There is danger of them at present,
as the building in which they are is not fire-proof."

Professor Henry said, in speaking of the transfer of the
books to the Library of Congress :

"To those who have not fully considered the subject, it
might, at first sight, appear that this transfer of a large number
of rare and valuable books from the building of the Institution
would be attended with serious inconveniences, and be a vir-
tual relinquishment of the control of property procured at the
expense of the Smithsonian fund. But it will be evident,
on a statement of the facts, that the advantages accruing to
the Institution and the public from the transfer far outweigh
any inconvenience which may arise on account of it; and that
it will tend to increase the efficiency of the funds, while it adds
to the security and even facilitates the general use of the
library."

Mr. A. R. Spofford wrote in 1876 as follows:

" In the year 1866, the Library of Congress received a most
important accession in the transfer to its shelves of the whole
collection of books gathered by the Smithsonian Institution,
and representing twenty years' accumulation since its estab-

The Smithsonian Library 289

lishment. This collection was a most valuable complement
to the library already gathered at the Capitol. . . . With this
large addition (numbering nearly 40,000 volumes) the Library
of Congress became at once the most extensive and valu-
able repository of material for the wants of scholars which
was to be found in the United States. By the terms of trans-
fer of the Smithsonian library, Congress became its custodian
durine such time as the Rejjents of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion should continue the deposit, it being stipulated that the
expense of binding and cataloguing of all books should be de-
frayed by Congress in return for this valuable and annually
increasing addition to its stores. This arrangement, while it
relieves the funds of the Smithsonian Institution from an an-
nual charge in maintaining a library, secures to the National
Library an invaluable scientific department without material
cost ; and the deposit, supplying as it does a much larger
library of use and reference to the scholars of the country than
is to be found in any one body elsewhere, is likely to be a
permanent one." ^

"The union of the library of the Institution with that of
Congress still continues to be productive of important results.
The Smithson fund is relieved by this arrangement from
the maintenance of a separate library, while at the same time
the Institution has not only the free use of its own books, but
also those of the Library of Congress. On the other hand,
the collection of books owned by Congress would not be
worthy the name of a national library were it not for the
Smithsonian deposit. The books which it receives from this
source are eminently those which exhibit the progress of the
world in civilization, and are emphatically those essential to
the contemporaneous advance of our country in the higher
science of the day." ^

The books were actually transferred in 1866, and Doctor
Theodore Gill, who had been for some time the librarian of

1 " Public Libraries in the United States," Washington, 1876, page 256.
2 "Smithsonian Report," 1S73, page 27.

290 The Smithsonian Institutioit

the Institution, was appointed an assistant librarian of the
Library of Congress, and, as his especial duty, had under his
care the publications of learned societies and scientific pe-
riodicals, which constitute the bulk of the Smithsonian library.

From this time on the Institution became, in a certain way,
an office for receipt and record of publications. Exchanges
were continued, but there was no other source of increase,
while the entire care of the books was assumed by the Li-
brary of Congress.

With the great growth of the museum, consequent upon
the accessions after the close of the Centennial Exhibition in
Philadelphia in 1876, and the very much enlarged scientific
activity which grew up in the Institution through the work
of the body of scientific men placed in charge of these
collections, it was found absolutely essential to have a work-
ing library of books at the Institution. The first consider-
able impetus to this collection was the gift by Professor
Baird of his library, to form the nucleus of a library for the
National Museum. This important gift he announced in the
following words :

" In the increasing amount of routine work with which I
am charged in the several capacities of Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, Director of the National Museum,
and Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, it has become en-
tirely out of the question to continue those special researches
in zoology to which I devoted so much time in the early
years of my connection with the Smithsonian Institution, and
for which I had accumulated, at my own expense, a large
number of important works. These I have now formally pre-
sented to the Library of the National Museum, feeling as-
sured that they will do the most good in that connection."

To which he added the statement :

" The most important source of supply to the Library of the
National Museum consists in the direct exchanges of publi-

The Smithsonian Library 291

cations for those of foreign museums, and of scientific socie-
ties, and of specialists in natural history. Little, if anything,
however, comes in not obtained under similar circumstances
by the exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution.

" 1

In 1887 the present Secretary, Mr. S. P. Langley, when
Assistant Secretary, in charge of the library and exchanges,
inaugurated a new policy for the further increase of period-
ical and serial literature in the library of the Institution. He
obtained, by correspondence with a large number of scientific
men as well as through the aid of institutions of learning, an
extensive list of learned societies and scientific periodicals,
embracing thirty-six hundred titles, a fair proportion of
which have since been added to the library by the exchange
of publications. He drew up, at the same time, a code of
regulations for the conduct of the library, which, with one or
two additions, is still in force.

The library of the Smithsonian Institution, whose incep-
tion and development have been sketched above, consists of
a methodical collection of the transactions of learned socie-
ties and scientific periodicals, and publications of acade-
mies and universities, throughout the world, made by steady
effort, on a systematic plan, for a half century, and reinforced
by liberal purchases in the early years to secure the back sets
of important publications of this kind.

A collection of this sort was the ideal from the beginning.
It was proposed in the first letter for the plan of the library
sent by Professor Jewett to Professor Henry, before the for-
mer came to the Institution. In his fifth Report, Professor
Henry, speaking of the collections of transactions and pro-
ceedings of learned societies, said :

" In a few years it is believed as complete a collection of
these will be gathered as it is possible to obtain."

1" Smithsonian Report," 1882, page 34.

292 The Smithsonian Institution

In 1854, in the ninth Report, he stated :

" The reading" room of the library receives the leading peri-
odicals of this country and Great Britain, together with a
number from France, Germany, etc. ; and, therefore, offers de-
sirable facilities for the reading community of Washington,
and for those who visit the seat of government, to keep up
with the general progress of knowledge ; while by means of
the more profound transactions of learned societies the
student is afforded the opportunity of becoming acquainted
with the advances made in special branches of literature and
science."

In the next Report it is emphasized

"that the Smithsonian library is intended to be a special
one, as complete as possible in Transactions and all works of
science."

In the Report for 1856 he stated :

"The series of transactions and scientific periodicals is
gradually becoming more and more complete ; and, in the
course of a few years, this collection will be as extensive as
any to be found in the Old World."

In 1858^ Professor Henry said:

" The fact has been repeatedly mentioned in preceding
reports that the principal object aimed at in the collection
of the library is to procure as perfect and extensive a series as
possible of the transactions and proceedings of all the learned
societies which now exist or have existed in different parts
of the world. It is to works of this character that the student
of science is obliged to refer for the minute history of the pro-
gress of any special branch to which he may be devoted,
and to ascertain accurately what has been published on his
particular subject previous to commencing his own labors, or
at least before he gives the results to the world, in order that

1 •' Smithsonian Report," page 36.

MILLARD FILLMORE.

SECON'D CHANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

1849-1850.

-\~

un liis

■ iTTTTTTHvir ZAiM08HTiMa am oJjaOKAH) avTcnsH

The Smithsonian Library 293

he may do justice to those who have preceded him in the
same path, and have due regard to his own reputation in not
pubHshing facts and principles as new discoveries which have
long since been recorded in the annals of science."

In 1864^ Professor Henry wrote:

" It was therefore deemed preferable and more consonant
with the purposes of the Institution to form a special library,
which might constitute, as it were, a supplement to the
Library of Congress, and consist, for the most part, of
complete sets of the proceedings and transactions of all the
learned societies in the world, and of other serials essential
for reference by students specially engaged in original scien-
tific research. The efforts of the Institution to carry out this
plan, which has since been sanctioned by Congress, have been
eminently successful. Principally through exchanges, and
occasionally by purchase, a more complete collection of the
works above mentioned has been procured than is to be
found in any library of the United States, or is easily met
with even in Europe. The Institution has been assisted in
making this collection by the liberality of many of the older
libraries abroad, which, on application, have furnished from
their duplicates volumes, and even whole sets, to complete
series of works long since out of print, and which in some
cases could not have been obtained through any other means."

Mr. Spofford^ wrote in 1876 of this collection that it consists

"of the publications of more than two thousand societies
and institutions without the limits of the United States,
besides nearly all American societies whiTi print their
transactions or proceedings,"

which, he says, affords

"a rich repository of scientific results, continua. v increasing,
for the reference and use of American scholars.'

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1S64, page 57.
2 " Public Libraries in the United Stales," Washington, 1876, page 684.

294 The Smithsonian Institution

And, again/ he says that the collection is

"quite unique in the multitude of publications of learned
societies in all parts of the world and in nearly all of the
modern languages."

Between the years 1887 and 1894 new periodicals to the
number of 1853 were added to the list, while 1042 defective
series were either completed or filled out as far as the pub-
lishers were able to supply missing numbers.

In the year 1895 the Institution was currently receiving
3045 periodicals, magazines, and publications of learned so-
cieties. This number did not include all such publications
arriving at the Institution, as many societies whose publica-
tions are issued irregularly had not been included in the
periodical record. These publications were roughly divided
into three classes, of which 1565 were devoted to pure sci-
ence, 704 to applied science, and 776, called miscellaneous,
included literary, artistic, and trade publications. All the
well known modern languages were represented, and even
some of the less known, among which might be mentioned
Arabic, modern Greek, Finnish, and Japanese ; and two publi-
cations in Volapiik. Nearly one hundred publications have
been added since this report was prepared.

Various catalogues have been printed, but none in recent
years. The catalogue of these publications belonging to the
library up to 1883 was at that time typewritten and bound
together in thirteen large volumes, some of them consisting
of more than one thousand pages ; while since that time they
are cataloofued on a card record.

But although the library is devoted mainly to these pub-
lications, yet it is not wholly wanting in works of a differ-
ent nature. Some of these have come through special gift.

1 Page 256.

The Smithsonian Library 295

Thus, the Hbrary of the founder, James Smithson, which con-
sists of 1 15 volumes and a collection of manuscripts, became
the property of the Institution.^

The Duke of Northumberland presented, in 1859, a series
of expensive illustrated works, privately printed, relating to
the local history of the county which bears his name.'^

The library whicli belonged to the National Institute and
contained a large number of valuable books, especially relat-
ing to meteorology and ethnology, passed into the possession
of the Smithsonian Institution.^

A large number of catalogues of libraries and of public
institutions of the United States were collected; those of
colleges were turned over to the Bureau of Education, form-
ing the nucleus of its present collection.

In 1852 the Institution received from Mr. J. O. Halliwell,
of England, 54 volumes, mostly folios, of original documents,
consisting of bills, accounts, inventories, legal instruments,
and other business papers, extending from 1632 to 1729, and
intended to illustrate the history of prices in England.

The Prussian Government presented a copy of the great
work on Egypt by Lepsius, and later that distinguished
scholar himself presented a complete collection of his own
works. The Ministry of Public Instruction at Paris sent the
" Description de I'Egypte," published by order of Napoleon
the First.

The Royal Library of Dresden presented a series of 232
original discourses or theses and tracts written by Luther
or his contemporaries. The Reverend Doctor Morris, then
librarian of the Peabody Institute at Baltimore, said of this
collection that it was interesting to the bibliographer because
all the copies were first impressions, and not reprints.

1 See " Smithsonian Report," 1857, page 35.
2 Ibidem, 1859, page 103. 3 Ibidem, 1862, page 16.

296 The Smithsonian Institutioit

He added : ^

"They present specimens of paper and printing which are
very creditable to the artisans of that day, ranging as they
do from 15 18, the year after the Reformation began, to 1546,
the year of Luther's death. These writings have come to us
in the same type and paper in which they were distributed
by thousands over the land at the dawn of the Reformation.
While the language in which they are written, both German
and Latin, is not as refined as that employed by scholars
of the present day, and while the pictorial illustrations are
coarse, yet these productions show the extraordinary progress
which the typographic art had already made in the early part
of the sixteenth century. Many of them have the title-pages
ornamented with a broad margin of wood-cut figures, most
of them mythological and grotesque, and all curious. They
are specimens of the engraving of that day, exceedingly in-
teresting to the student of the history of art, for these are
undoubted originals, which collectors of ancient prints prize
so highly. A few of them are unskilfully illuminated, prob-
ably executed by some incipient artist, who tried his hand
on these coarse and cheap wood-cuts. The subjects of the
pamphlets are diverse and curious, and the titles of many of
those which are controversial, as was the general custom of
that day, are expressed in language more forcible than re-
fined."

The University of Tubingen presented twenty-eight folio
and quarto volumes of rare and curious incunabula.

From the Honorable G. V. Fox, Assistant Secretary of the
Navy, there were received 179 volumes, illustrating the phys-
ical geography, ethnology, and resources of the Russian
Empire, which had been given to him by the Czar on the
occasion of his visit to St. Petersburg to present a resolu-
tion of Congress congratulating that monarch on his escape
from assassination.^

1 " Smithsonian Report," l866, page 30. '^ Ibidtni, 1867, page 60.

The Smithsonian Library 297

From the Secretary of State for War of Great Britain
there came, in 1868, a series of facsimiles of the national
manuscripts of England, including documents belonging to
each reign, from William the Conqueror to Queen Anne,
arranged chronologically, so as to illustrate the changes in
handwriting and the language of the different periods of
English history.^

It sometimes happened that books were presented to the
Institution by a special act of Congress, the report of the
Wilkes Exploring Expedition and the works of Thomas
Jefferson, Jolin Ouincy Adams, and Alexander Hamilton
being notable instances.

From Mariette Bey came facsimiles of the Egyptian
papyri in the Boulak, now the Gizeh, Museum in Cairo.

Another most interesting collection was received in 1874,
being the gift of Major- General Lefroy, Governor of Ber-
muda, through his relative, Mrs, Dundas, of Canon Hall,
Larbert, New Brunswick. Concerning these Mr. Spofford
made the following report : ^

"These original records form a collection of the highest
interest and value as materials of personal and political his-
tory at a period which must ever remain the most important
era in the annals of the United States. One of the volumes
contains twelve reports submitted to the lords of Her
Majesty's treasury by John Wilmot, Colonel Dundas, and
the other commissioners, upon the losses and services of the
claimants who were loyal to the British crown during the
revolutionary war, and who were afterward indemnified by
act of Parliament. Six reports in addition, signed by Colonel
Dundas and Mr. J. Pemberton, commissioners, and extend-
ing from A. D. I 784 to I 789, are also embraced. Thirty-four
of the manuscript volumes contain a large amount and variety
of facts and testimony regarding the landed possessions and

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1868, page 43. "^Ibidem, 1874, page 25.

298 The Smithsonian Institution

personal property of hundreds of British subjects in the New-
England States, as well as in New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, etc. As most of these papers have never been
published, they are the more valuable and original and
unique repositories of information regarding the persons to
whom they relate, the descendants of many of whom still
survive among the people of the United States."

Alexander Dallas Bache, so intimately connected with the
Institution in many capacities, presented his collection of rare
scientific pamphlets.

The library of Henry R. Schoolcraft, containing many
valuable ethnological works, has been permanently deposited
with the Institution.

Robert Stanton Avery, who left the greater part of his
estate to the Institution, also bequeathed his library of pam-
phlets and periodicals.

Another special feature of the library is the large collection
of pamphlets and of books relating to scientific matters, and
of the theses of universities ; a great number of maps and
works of a general literary nature, and books of reference.
Among the sciences, meteorology was one which was espe-
cially represented by a rich collection of manuscript and
published material. In accordance with its general plan of
cooperation, the Institution delivered to the Weather Bureau
all its manuscript material relating to meteorology.

In 1 85 1 a very valuable collection of etchings, engravings,
and books which had been made abroad with great care by
George P. Marsh was purchased for the Institution. In report-
ing on this collection in 1850, Professor Jewett said : "This
collection, though not the largest in the country, is believed
to be the choicest." It contains the work of nearly every
engraver of celebrity, among whom may be mentioned Diirer,
Rembrandt, Da Vinci, Claude Lorraine, as well as special

The Smithsonian Library 299

folios of old Italian and German masters; also a collection
of works relating to the history of art, very complete in its
day. Another collection of engravings was presented to the
Institution by Mr. C. B. King, in 1861.^ From time to time
there have been additions to this collection, largely by gift
and occasionally by purchase.

The plan formulated by Secretary Langley, and executed
under his direction, for the greater increase of the library of
the Institution by exchange than had heretofore obtained,
has been described above. This plan was so successful that
the library has almost doubled in size within the past five
years, the normal increase for a year now amounting to from
thirty to thirty-five thousand entries of the record book.
In fact, it may be fairly said that the library is now on a
more favorable footing, so far as increase is concerned, than
it was at the time when the Institution was first organized,
and when almost half of its endowment was assigned for
library purposes.

In addition to the library of the Institution proper Secre-
tary Langley began, in 1891, the collection of

" a limited number of books, not forming part of the Smithson-
ian deposit in the Library of Congress, obtained by purchase
from the Smithsonian fund and retained at the Institution
under the name of the ' Secretary's Library.' These books
are mostly, but not exclusively, books of scientific reference,
certain art serials being included among them."-

Various other small collections are now beinQf made for
the use of the Astrophysical Observatory, the Zoological
Park, for the immediate use of the Institution, denominated
" OfiEice Library," and files of popular literary magazines for
the employees.

1 A catalogue of this collection is contained in the " Smithsonian Report," l86l, page 86.
2 " Smithsonian Report," 1 891, page 12.

300 The Smithsonian Institution

To state the number of volumes which this collection rep-
resents is now almost impossible, since they have not been
counted for a number of years; but it will give some approxi-
mate idea of the size of the library to say that, at present,
that portion which is known as the " Smithsonian Deposit," in
the Library of Congress, numbers 357,000 books, pamphlets,
periodicals, and maps; and other collections, independent of
the "Smithsonian Deposit," would considerably increase this
number.

Yet this vast collection is not assembled in any one place
so as to be visible to the eye and to make an impression by
its mass. The greater portion of it is deposited in the
Library of Congress, and it is expected that with the com-
pletion of the new building for that library a section of it,
adequate for the purpose, will be assigned for the use of the
Smithsonian Deposit, so that this great body of scientific
literature will again become really available.

The Institution at present maintains a reading-room con-
taining 500 bins for periodicals, and a reading-room for the
complete sets of transactions of the six or seven great acade-
mies of the world. It is collecting such works of reference
as are indispensable for the use of its staff, and maintains, in
connection with the Museum, a working library, which had
its origin in the gift of the library of Professor Baird. This
collection now numbers some 25,000 works and about 10,000
pamphlets, which, while accessible to scientific men in Wash-
ington and elsewhere, are primarily intended for the use of
the scientific staff of the Institution. The Museum library
is itself divided into twenty-three sections, placed in the
work-rooms of the specialists, containing most valuable
books and series. These special collections range in number
from 200 to 3000 titles. They are all received, accessioned,
and catalogued in the central library. Each book or pam-

The Smithsonian Library 301

phlet delivered to a sectional library is receipted for, the
receipt cards being so arranged as themselves to form a
catalogue of the sectional library. The curator or officer in
charge of each department is responsible for each book de-
livered to him, and his receipt therefor is held by the libra-
rian. All general books of reference, all works relating to
explorations, and all serials devoted to more than one subject
are kept in the central library. The librarian may at any
time recall any book from a sectional library, and a person
coming to the central library to use a book which is in a
sectional library can get it almost as readily as though it
were actually on the shelves ; so that the sectional libraries
are, in fact, little else than alcoves distributed around the
building, each one in charge of a specialist whose interest
in his own department aids materially in the growth of the
whole library, while the control of these sections is absolute,
and no general interest suffers because of this specialization.

Realizing that in the near future it may be desirable
that many important works belonging to the Institution
(which it has been found more convenient, in view of the
crowded condition of the Library of Congress, to care for at
the Museum and the Institution) may be sent to the new
library building, the Museum has made a steady effort to
develop an independent library for the use of its scientific
staff; but no clashing has ever taken place, and the entire
work proceeds on a uniform plan, under entire cooperation.

It is thus manifest that the Smithsonian Institution, while
not unmindful of the demands of general literature, and even
art, has been steadily collecting the periodical literature of
the world. It aims to gather from all quarters the memoirs
of learned societies, the publications of museums, institutions,
academies, and of scientific departments of government.
Other libraries in America devote themselves to special sub-
20*

302 The Smithsonian Institution

jects ; no one has found the means, or has had the desire, to
make a great collection of this nature.^ Professor Henry fre-
quently said that cooperation, not monopoly, is the watch-
word of the Smithsonian Institution. Its policy has always
been to devote itself to such useful fields of labor as no other
institution could be found ready to take up.

The growth of its own library has been specially favored
by the magnitude and value of the publications which it has
had to offer in exchange, both those issued by Congress and
those printed from its private fund. By means of its publica-
tions, and by means of its exchange service, the Smithsonian
Institution has incidentally secured a library more valuable in
actual amount and more unique in character than it could
possibly have obtained had the plan of a library, pure and
simple, so ardently advocated by Senator Choate, been car-
ried out. Doctor G. Brown Goode, the Assistant Secretary
of the Institution, estimated in 1895 that "the value of the
books distributed since the Institution was opened has been
nearly $1,000,000, or nearly twice the original bequest of
Smithson." ^

I have little doubt that the Institution has received in ex-
change more than the entire value of all the money expended
for publications, and that its collection of scientific transac-
tions and periodicals is one of the two most important, and
possibly the most important, in the world.

1 In accordance with the plan adopted for 2 « An Account of the Smitlisonian In-

the federation of the libraries in Chicago, the stitution, Its Origin, History, Objects, and

John Crerar Library will devote itself in part Achievements." City of Washington. For

to scientific and literary periodicals. distribution at the Atlanta Exposition, 1895.

THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL

MUSEUM^

By Frederick William True

^MONG the powers conferred on Congress by
the Constitution is authority "to promote the
progress of science and useful arts, by secur-
ing for Hmited times to authors and inventors
the exclusive right to their respective writings
and discoveries." " A result of this provision was the estab-
lishment of the Patent Office and the assembling in connec-
tion therewith of numerous models of inventions.

A building for the Patent Office was erected in 1812, but
it was destroyed by fire in 1836, and with it the models and
records it contained.

" In the Patent Office building, and with it destroyed,"
writes Doctor Goode,^ "there was gathered a collection of
models which was sometimes by courtesy called the ' Ameri-
can Museum of Arts,' and which afforded a precedent for the

1 Nothing could have been more desirable,
or in every way more fitting, than that this
chapter on the National Museum should have
been from the pen of the late Doctor Goode,
who alone possessed the ability to present
the subject adequately. I have quoted from
his printed papers as extensively as circum-
stances would permit, and the first part of

the chapter is little more than a paraphrase
of portions of his writings. — F. W. T.

2 Article i, section 8.

3 Goode, G. Brown. " The Origin of the
National Scieniific and Educational Institu-
tions of the United States.'' "Annual Re-
port of the American Historical Association
for the year lS89,"page 7.

303

304 The SmitJiso7tian Institution

larger collection of models and natural products, which re-
mained under the custody of the Commissioner of Patents
until 1858, when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution and became a part of the present National Museum."

Though an assemblage of objects of more or less scientific
interest was thus early formed as an indirect result of the
policy pursued by the government, the establishment of a
national museum was earlier in the minds of many American
statesmen, especially in connection with the educational in-
stitutes which it was thought the government should found
for the intellectual advancement of the people.

In the plan for a federal university published in the Penn-
sylva7iia Gazette in 1788, and commonly credited to Madi-
son,^ section 8 relates to natural history, and in connection
therewith the remark is made :

"To render instruction in these branches of science easy,
it will be necessary to establish a museum, and also a garden,
in which not only all the shrubs, etc., but all the forest trees
of the United States should be cultivated."

The plan for a " National Institution " put forth by Joel
Barlow in 1806 includes mention of the natural history and
art museums of France in the preamble, and in the plan
itself (though ambiguously worded) are provisions for collec-
tions of minerals and philosophical instruments.

While these and other similar plans show that the forma-
tion of national collections of art and science was thought
desirable by the fathers, they did not result directly in the
establishment of museums under the government. The first
really scientific collection that came into the possession of the
government was probably, as Doctor Goode has remarked,^

1 See Goode, ibidem, pages 66, 126, who 2 Goode. "Genesis of the National Mu-

believed Benjamin Rush, of Pennsylvania, to seum." Report United States National Mu-
have been the author of the plan. seum, 1891, page 273.

The United States National Mnseiim 305

Smithson's cabinet of minerals, which was deHvered, with
the remainder of the Smithson estate, into the hands of
Richard Rush, the agent of the United States, in 1838.
The collection is described by a committee of the Na-
tional Institute as follows :

"Amoncr the effects of the late Mr. Smithson is a cabinet
which, so far as it has been examined, proves to consist of a
choice and beautiful collection of minerals, comprising prob-
ably eight or ten thousand specimens. The specimens,
though generally small, are extremely perfect, and consti-
tute a very complete geological and mineralogical series, em-
bracing the finest varieties of crystallization, rendered more
valuable by accompanying figures and descriptions by Mr.
Smithson, and in his own writing. The cabinet also contains
a valuable suite of meteoric stones, which appear to be suites
of most of the important meteorites which have fallen in
Europe during several centuries."

Three years later, in 1841, there was formed in Washing-
ton, chiefly through the exertions of Honorable Joel R.
Poinsett, of South Carolina, a scientific organization under
the name of the National Institute, with the avowed pur-
pose of assembling scientific collections. Article 14 of the
bill of incorporation reads thus :

"The resident and corresponding members shall exert
themselves to procure specimens of natural history, and so
forth ; and the said specimens shall be placed in the cabinet,
under the superintendence of a board of curators, to be ap-
pointed by the directors. All such specimens, and so forth,
unless deposited specially, shall remain in the cabinet ; and,
in case of the dissolution of the institution, shall become the
property of the United States."^

The Institute was dissolved in 1861 and its collections
deposited in the Smithsonian Institution, "By this so-

1 Rhees, W. J. " The Smithsonian Institution : Documents Relative to its Origin," page 240.

3o6 The Smithsonian Institution

clety," remarks Doctor Goode, "the nucleus for a National
Museum was gathered in the Patent Office building in Wash-
ington, and public opinion was educated to consider the es-
tablishment of such an institution worthy of the attention of
the government of tHe United States." ^

The first collections of any magnitude which the National
Institute took under its care were those of the United
States Exploring Expedition which was sent out by the
Navy Department, under Lieutenant Wilkes, in 1838. Ear-
lier expeditions under the auspices of the government had
been organized, but they either made no collections or de-
posited such as they did make in private museums outside
of Washington.

The first collections of the exploring expedition were re-
ceived in Philadelphia in 1840 and were temporarily stored
in a room belonging to the Philadelphia Museum. Poinsett
induced the Secretary of the Navy, James K. Paulding,
to forward these collections to Washington, and interested
himself to secure from Congress an appropriation of $5000
to defray the cost of their transportation and subsequent
arrangement.

In April, 1841, the collections were deposited in a portion
of a room in the new Patent Office, designated for the
purpose by the Secretary of State. Doctor Henry King, a
geologist and mining expert and curator of the National
Institute, was in direct charge. The compensation of the
curator was paid from the appropriation of Congress already
referred to.

With what rapidity collections accumulated under the
charge of the National Institute may be learned from the

1 Report of the United States National to the Smithsonian Institution, by Doctor
Museum, 1893, page 3. For a full account Goode, the reader is directed to pages 38-48
of the National Institute and its relation of the present work.

The United States National Museum 307

report of the committee of the Institute dated January i,
1842. This report recites that "the entire collection is de-
posited in the upper rooms of the Patent Office; it con-
sists of:^

"Donations from foreign governments.

" Donations from other institutions, foreign and domestic.

"Donations from ministers and consuls abroad, and from
officers of our Army and Navy.

" Donations from individuals and from members of the
Institution. The Iowa collection of mineralogical and geo-
logical specimens, made by R, D. Owen, Esquire, under the
direction of the Treasury Department.

"The collection of mineralogical and geological specimens
which had been on deposit in the bureau of the Corps of
Topographical Engineers.

"The collection of portraits of distinguished Indians, and
the collection of Indian curiosities which had been on deposit
in the War Department.

"The minerals, books, papers, and personal effects of the
Smithsonian bequest.

"The two shipments which have been received from the
exploring squadron, consisting of minerals, specimens of nat-
ural history, works of art, implements of war, and curiosities.

"The books, minerals, and works of art belonging to the
late Columbian Institute.

"The books, papers, and proceedings of the late American
Historical Society.

" Cabinets and specimens, deposited by members in trust,
for public use."

These collections, according to the same report, comprised
about 1000 books and pamphlets, 50 maps and charts, 500
castings in plaster (medals and seals), 186 paintings, about
1600 bird-skins, 160 skins of quadrupeds, 50 skins of fishes;
200 jars, 2 barrels, and 10 kegs of fishes, reptiles, etc., in

1 Goode. " Genesis of the United States National Museum," page 347.

3o8 The Smithsonian Institution

spirits ; 50,000 botanical specimens, 3000 insects, several
hundred thousand shells, 500 corallines, more than 2000 crus-
taceans, 300 starfishes, etc., 100 sponges, 7000 separate speci-
mens of minerals, and 50 boxes of the minerals and geological
specimens. Those engaged in caring for the collections at
this time were the curator of the Institute, Doctor King,
a taxidermist, a botanical assistant and two other assistants,
a mechanic, and a laborer.

Thus was established what in reality was a National Mu-
seum, containing collections belonging to the government,
sustained by an appropriation from Congress, and employing
a curator and assistants. For a time prosperity seemed
assured, but complications soon arose which proved disas-
trous in the highest degree not only to the museum but to
the National Institute itself.

The room in the Patent Office set apart for the collections
by direction of the Secretary of State was needed for the
display of models of inventions, and the Commissioner of
Patents made strong protests against its occupancy by the
Institute.

In August, 1842, Congress authorized the occupancy,
"until other provisions be made by law," and also appro-
priated $20,000 for the care and arrangement of the collec-
tions, but in addition ordered that the persons having the
work in charge should be appointed by the Joint Committee
of the Library.

Only a month earlier a charter had been granted to the
Institute, in which all trusts previously held were confirmed.
"The supporters of the Institute," writes Doctor Goode,^
"were disposed to urge that this was applicable to the col-
lections of the * exploring squadron ' at that time in the cus-
tody of the Institute. The question did not come up in a

. 1 Goode. " Genesis of the United States National Museum," page 311.

The United States National Mitseimi 309

troublesome way at this time, for the Library Committee, at
that time [not] unfriendly, simply confirmed the choice of cura-
tor made by the National Institute, and appointed Doctor
Pickering" to the position, Doctor Pickering being thenceforth
subject to the Congressional Committee, and only by courtesy
acting for the National Institute."

A little later, in 1843, ^^ Library Committee having no
longer any consideration for the Institute, without consult-
ing its officers, appointed the Commissioner of Patents to have
general charge of the government collections, and Captain
Wilkes, the head of the exploring expedition, to arrange
and display them. Captain Wilkes proceeded with the work,
pushing aside the collections of the Institute to make place
for those of the government, yet professing an interest in
the welfare of the Institute and the security of its prop-
erty. The drift of matters came to the attention of the
officers of the Institute only by rumor, but Colonel J. J.
Abert initiated a correspondence with Captain Wilkes, in-
quiring whether he or his assistants would devote any time
to the care of the collections of the Institute, and stating
that if such was not the case the attention of the Institute
would be immediately called to the necessity of otherwise
protecting its property. The replies were not satisfactory.
Captain W^ilkes held that as he and his assistants were
paid by the government they could not spend any time in
working upon collections belonging to a private organiza-
tion. Nevertheless, he expressed an intention not to dis-
turb the collections of the Institute more than should be
really necessary in working out those of the government,
and to watch over them as far as possible.

A few months later, in a correspondence relative to the
"Ontonagon" copper boulder now in the National ^luseum,
the Commissioner of Patents took the same ground, and held

3IO The Smithsonian Institution

also that he had entire control over the room in which the
property of the Institute was deposited.

At the end of 1843, therefore, the National Institute
found itself bereft of the control of the government collec-
tions, without funds, except the membership dues, which
were much in arrears, and without quarters for its large and
rapidly accumulating collections.

"The real cause of the decline of the National Institute,"
writes Doctor Goode,^ " was simple enough. Failing to
secure grants of money from Congress, the society was over-
whelmed by the deluge of museum materials, which in re-
sponse to its enthusiastic and widely-circulated appeals came
to it from all quarters of the world. The annual receipts
from the assessment of members were insufficient to pay for
the care of the collections, and although by virtue of the long
term of its charter the collections were kept together until
1 86 1, there was little science and little energy manifested in
this administration."

While the events we have mentioned were taking place
extended discussions were going on in Congress, and in the
country generally, regarding the proper disposition to be
made of the bequest of James Smithson. It is unnecessary
in the present connection to consider the various views put
forth further than to remark that several schemes included
provisions for museums of natural history and the arts.

The act of incorporation of the Smithsonian Institution
passed August 10, 1846, provided that the Regents, having
selected a proper site, " shall cause to be erected a suitable
building of plain and durable materials and structure, without
unnecessary ornament, and of sufficient size, and with suitable
rooms or halls for the reception and arrangement, upon a
liberal scale, of objects of natural history, including a geologi-

1 Goode. " Genesis of the United States National Museum," page 328.

TJie United States National Museum 3 1 1

cal and mineralogical cabinet; also, a chemical laboratory, a
library, a gallery of art, and the necessary lecture rooms."

It is further provided that the Regents "may so locate
said building, if they shall deem it proper, as in appearance to
form a wing to the Patent Office building, and may so con-
nect the same with the present hall of said Patent Office
building, containing the National Cabinet of Curiosities,^ as to
constitute the said hall, in whole or in part, the deposit for

the cabinet of the said Institution, if they deem it expedient
to do so." This plan was not adopted.

Section 6 of the same act provides that "in proportion as
suitable arrangements can be made for their reception, all
objects of art and of foreign and curious research, and all
objects of natural history, plants, and geological and minera-
logical specimens belonging, or hereafter to belong, to the
United States, which may be in the city of Washington, in
whosesoever custody the same may be, shall be delivered to
such persons as may be authorized by the Board of Regents
to receive them, and shall be arranged in such order and so
classed as best to facilitate the examination and study of
them, in the building so as aforesaid to be erected for the
Institution."

Considering the section relating to buildings mandatory,
and under the belief that the collections beloncrino- to the
government must be accepted and housed, the Board of
Regents of the newly-established Institution proceeded at
once with the erection of a lar^je brown-stone structure.

For various reasons the building was many years in con-
struction, and during this period the first Secretary, Joseph
Henry, became more and more pronounced in his opinion
that the government collections should not be cared for at the
expense of the Smithsonian fund. Indeed, he was in doubt

1 See Goode, op. cit., page 301,

312 The Sifiithsonian Institution

whether the Institution ought to form extensive miscellaneous
collections to be maintained permanently at the expense of
its funds, although he fully appreciated the value of collec-
tions, and, as will presently appear, labored to carry out the
program adopted for the Institution by acquiring and caring
for such special collections as could be made the direct means
of increasing and diffusing knowledge. In the Report for
1850 he remarked:

" It would not be in accordance with the spirit of the or-
ganization to expend the income in the reproduction of col-
lections of objects which are to be found in every museum of
the country. Natural history can be much more effectively
promoted by special collections of new objects, by appropri-
ations for original explorations and researches, and, above
all, by assistance in the preparation of the necessary drawings,
and by presenting to the world, in a proper form, the labors
of naturalists. In conformity with these views, it has been
resolved to confine the collections, principally, to objects of a
special character, or to such as may lead to the discovery of
new truths, or which may serve to verify or disprove existing
or proposed scientific generalizations."^

Again, in the Report for 185 1, perhaps thinking that his
position regarding museums might be misunderstood, he
wrote :

" I would distinctly disavow the intention of underrating
the importance of collections in themselves. On the con-
trary, it ought to be the duty of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion to point out the means by which they may be made,
and to aid in the work, to the extent of its ability, by
embracing all opportunities which may offer for procuring
specimens for distribution, and by facilitating exchange and
assisting explorations." ^

1 " Smilhsonian Report," 1850, page 21 (reprinted in Report for 1853, page 202).
2" Smithsonian Report," 1851, page 24 (reprinted in Report for 1853, page 227).

The United States National Mttsetim 313

In the same connection he expressed his views regard-
ing the importance of a National Museum, in the following
words :

"Though the formation of a general collection is neither
within the means nor the province of the Institution, it is
an object which ought to engage the attention of Congress.
A general museum appears to be a necessary establishment
at the seat of government of every civilized nation. . . . An
establishment of this kind can only be supported by govern-
ment ; and the proposition ought never to be encouraged of
putting this duty on the limited, though liberal bequest of a
foreigner. The Smithsonian Institution will readily take
the supervision of an establishment of this kind, and give
plans for its organization and arrangement, provided it be
requested to do so, and the means for effecting the object be
liberally supplied." ^

In 1850 Professor Spencer F. Baird was appointed Assist-
ant Secretary of the Institution in charge of publications and
museum. He brought with him from Carlisle, Pennsylvania,
not only a considerable zoological collection assembled by his
own activity, but, what was vastly more important, a system
of recording, assorting, and distributing collections which was
sufficiently comprehensive and elastic to meet the needs of a
great museum. In December, 1850, he placed in the hands
of Secretary Henry a full outline of operations which he after-
ward carried into practice with the most signal success. He
perceived that the numerous surveying parties which the
government was sending out from year to year into the
Western territories would be powerful agencies in increas-
ing the knowledge of the natural history of the country if
they could be induced to make collections of natural objects
along the various routes they traversed. To this end the

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1851, page 25 (reprinted in Report for 1854, page 227).
21

SH The Smithsonian Institution

influence of the Institution was brought to bear on those
officials of the government who had the several surveys in
charge.

The extent and form of participation by the Institution in
the explorations of the government surveys varied in different
cases. In some instances the Secretary of War was induced
to grant an officer of the Army leave of absence for the pur-
pose of making scientific explorations in some little known
part of the country. Again, the Institution furnished outfits
and directions for collecting to such surgeons and other offi-
cers of the surveying and exploring parties as manifested an
interest in natural history explorations. In some cases the
personnel of an exploring party included a naturalist of
known abilities and experience, and the Institution furnished
every facility for collecting.

On this point Professor Baird, referring to the Mexican
Boundary and Pacific Railroad surveys, reported in 1853 as
follows :

"Without a single exception, all these parties have been
fitted out at the Smithsonian Institution with all necessary
instruments and apparatus for natural history research, much
of it contrived with special reference to the exigencies of
the particular service involved. Full instructions were also
supplied, by which persons without previous practice were
enabled to master all the general principles required for mak-
ing observations and collections of every kind."^

The participation of the Institution also took the form of
aid in the publication of results. Every year one or more
publications based on the collections of the government
parties were issued.

Fostered by the Institution, to whose interest Professor

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1853, page 52.

The United States National Museum 315

Baird lent enthusiasm and untiring energy, the work of col-
lecting yielded abundant fruits. In 1853, three years after
his arrival at the Institution, Professor Baird, having worked
along the lines laid down by Henry, in procuring such series
of specimens as were calculated to open up new fields of study
and to increase knowledge, was able to report on the wonder-
ful development of the natural history collections in the fol-
lowing words:

" It may be well to call attention to the fact that it has
been the work of but three years to raise this collection
from nothing to the front rank among American cabinets,
exceeding all perhaps in the number of new species first
brought to light within its limits. Nor has effort been con-
fined merely to the acquisition of specimens, but to their con-
centration in mass, so as to supply all working naturalists
with the materials of research. As already stated, applica-
tions for such assistance are constantly being received, and
always met with all possible promptness ; so that scarcely any
natural history monograph or memoir of any extent has been
published in this country within a year or two which has not
been indebted in this way to the Institution. From the care,
too, taken to keep separate all the localities, however near
together, of any species, the collection affords information in
reference to the geographical distribution of species of the
very highest value." ^

At the end of a decade, in i860. Professor Henry was able
to say :

"The scientific material thus collected is very valuable,
and, in number and variety of specimens and duplicates to
illustrate the natural productions of the North American
Continent, far excels any other collection ever made.""

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1853, page 54.
2 " Smithsonian Report," i860, page 44.

3i6 The S^nithsonian Institution

While the Institution was thus exerting itself to obtain
special collections to serve as the basis of research, the Com-
missioner of Patents was growing each year more desirous
of having the use of the space occupied in the Patent Office
by the national collections, and appealed frequently to Con-
gress and to the Regents of the Institution to relieve him
of their care.

In 1857, when Professor Henry brought the matter before
them anew, they finally agreed that the transfer of the collec-
tions to the Smithsonian building should take place, but
stipulated that an appropriation should be made to cover the
expense of the transfer and the construction of cases in the
Smithsonian building, and that the Secretary of the Interior
should undertake to obtain from Congress, as before, an
annual appropriation for the care of the collections. In his
report for 1856 Secretary Henry said:

" For the present, it may be well to adopt the plan suggested
in a late report of the Commissioner of Patents, namely, to
remove the museum of the Exploring Expedition, which now
fills a large and valuable room in the Patent Office, wanted
for the exhibition of models, to the spacious hall of the Insti-
tution, at present unoccupied, and to continue, under the direc-
tion of the Regents, the appropriation now annually made for
the preservation and display of the collections.

" Although the Regents, a few years ago, declined to accept
this museum as a gift, yet, since experience has shown that
the building will ultimately be filled with objects of natural
history belonging to the general government, which, for the
good of science, it will be necessary to preserve, it may be a
question whether, in consideration of this fact, it would not
be well to offer the use of the large room immediately for a
national museum, of which the Smithsonian Institution would
be the mere curator, and the expense of maintaining which
should be paid by the general government."^

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1856, page 22.

The United States National Musetim 317

"I can find no record in the minutes of the Regents,"
writes Doctor Goode, " but have been informed by Mr. W.
J. Rhees, of the Smithsonian Institution, that an urgent re-
quest for the use of the hall was made by the Commissioner of
Patents and the Secretary of the Interior, and that the Board
decided to grant this request on the condition that Congress
should appropriate money for the construction of the cases
and the transfer of the collections, and that the Secretary of
the Interior should provide for the expenses of the care of
the collections after their transfer in the same manner as
before."^

The collections were transferred to the Institution in 1858.
Professor Baird reported that year ^ that twelve separate col-
lections were received from the Patent Office, of which the
most considerable was the collection of the exploring expe-
dition under Captain Wilkes. He estimated that the Patent
Office collections together constituted about one-fifth of the
objects in the Smithsonian museum. He pointed out also that
there were then in the museum twenty-three other govern-
ment collections which had never been in the Patent Office.
These were chiefly assembled by the different field parties of
the Pacific Railroad Survey, the Mexican Boundary Survey,
and other government expeditions engaged in exploring the
national domain.

The policy relating to the treatment of the collections
adopted by the Institution was fully explained in the report
of the Secretary for 1861, though in most of its essential
features it was in operation as early as 1857. Secretary
Henry remarks: ^

"The specimens may be divided into two classes — first,
those which have been described in the reports of govern-

1 Goode. " Genesis of the United States National Museum," page 342.
2 " Smithsonian Report," 1858, page 52. '^ " Smithsonian Report," 1861, page 41.

21*

3i8 The Smithsonian Institution

ment expeditions or the transactions of the Smithsonian and
other institutions ; and second, those which have not been de-
scribed, and which consequently are considered of much value
by the naturalists who are interested in extending the several
branches of natural history. Of both classes the Institution
possesses a large number of duplicates, in the disposition of
which some general principles should be kept constantly in
view. After due consultation with naturalists, the following
rules, which were presented in the last report, have been
adopted relative to the described specimens :

"First. To advance original science, the duplicate type
specimens are to be distributed as widely as possible to scien-
tific institutions in this country and abroad, in order that they
may be used in identifying the species and genera which have
been described.

" Second. To promote education, as full sets as possible of
general duplicates, properly labeled, are to be presented to
colleges and other institutions of learning that profess to
teach the principal branches of natural history.

" Third. It must be distinctly understood that due credit
is to be given to the Institution in the labeling of the speci-
mens, and in all accounts which may be published of them,
since such credit is not only due to the name of Smithson,
but also to the directors of the Establishment, as vouchers to
the world that they are faithfully carrying out the intention
of the bequest.

"Fourth. It may be proper, in the distribution to institu-
tions abroad, as a general rule, to require, in case type speci-
mens to illustrate species which have been described by
foreign authors may be wanted for comparison or other uses
in this country, that they be furnished at any time they may
be required.

"Fifth. In return for specimens which may be presented
to collecres and other educational establishments, collections
from localities in their vicinity which may be desirable shall
be furnished when required.

" In the disposition of the undescribed specimens of the
collection, it is impossible to be governed by rules quite as

The United States National Mtiseiini 319

definite as those which relate to the previous class, but the
following considerations have been adopted as governing-
principles:

" I. The original specimens ought not to be intrusted to
inexperienced persons, or to those who have not given evi-
dence of their ability properly to accomplish the task they
have undertaken.

" 2. Preference should be given to those who are engaged
in the laborious and difficult task of preparing complete
monographs.

"3. As it would be illiberal to restrict the use of the speci-
mens, and confine the study of them to persons who can visit
Washington, the investigator should be allowed to take them
to his place of residence, and to retain them for a reasonable
time.

"4. The investigator must give assurance that he will pre-
pare a set of type specimens for the Smithsonian museum,
and will return all the duplicates, if required.

" 5. In any publication which may be made of the results
of the investigation, full credit must be accorded to the In-
stitution for the facilities which have been afforded."

All these provisions on the part of the Institution were car-
ried out as far as the circumstances would permit. The

money available was insufficient for employing paid assist-
ants to any considerable extent, and the Institution had the
benefit of the voluntary assistance both of many recognized
authorities in the several branches of science and of young
students. The extent and importance of this aid cannot be
overestimated. Collections which would have remained use-
less for years were rapidly classified by competent naturalists
and separated into series, some to be reserved by the In-
stitution, and others to be distributed to kindred scientific
establishments and to colleofes and schools.

The list of collaborators includes almost every name prom-
inent in American natural history in the last half century. Nor

320 The Smithsonian Institution

is this a matter for wonderment. The collections made by the
exploring parties of the government in the twenty-five or
thirty years following the founding of the Institution contained
a great number of highly interesting forms of animals and
plants previously unknown to science, and the naturalists in
whose hands the various series were placed constantly en-
joyed the delight of discovering these and making them
known to the world. The boundaries of American natural
history were widened in every direction. As regards verte-
brates, Professor Baird remarked as early as 1856:

"Messrs. Audubon and Bachman describe about 150 North
American species of mammals. This Institution possesses
about 130 of these; and about 50 additional species have
already been detected, although the examination of the entire
collection has not yet been completed.

"Of North American birds, the Institution possesses nearly
all described by Audubon, and at least 150 additional species.

"Of reptiles, the North American species in the Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution amount to between 350 and 400.
Of the 150 species described in Holbrook's ' North American
Herpetology,' the latest authority on the subject, it possesses
every genuine species, with one or two exceptions, and at
least 200 additional ones. It has about 130 species of North
American serpents for the 49 described by Holbrook.

" Of the number of species of North American fishes it is
impossible to form even an approximate estimate, the increase
having been so great. It will not, however, be too much to
say that the Institution has between four and five hundred
species either entirely new or else described first from its
shelves." ^

The scientific elaboration of the collections resulted in the
publication of a great number of monographs and preliminary
papers in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge" and

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1856, page 60.

The United States National Museum 321

"Miscellaneous Collections," in the reports of the government
surveys, and in the journals of learned societies at home and
abroad. Many of the more comprehensive of these works
remained as standards for a quarter of a century, and some
have not been supplanted at the present day.

In this work no one labored with more enthusiasm or more
success than Professor Baird, who, while carrying the burden
of caring for the collections and planning for the exploration
of new fields, prepared and published a series of works on
North American vertebrates which commanded the admira-
tion of naturalists throughout the world.

Side by side with the activities resulting in the increase of
knowledge, the work of diffusing knowledge by the distribu-
tion of named natural history specimens was carried forward
on an extensive scale. In the first twenty years of its history the
Institution, according to the estimate of Professor Baird, ^ dis-
tributed more than one hundred thousand specimens, of which
the larger part were identified and labeled.

In 1861 the charter of the National Institute expired and
the various objects belonging to that organization became the
property of the government and were transferred to the care
of the Smithsonian Institution.

At this date, therefore, all the scientific and art collections
belonging to the government and the collections made by
the Institution itself were assembled in the Smithsonian
building. They comprised many thousands of objects, and
were administered by Professor Baird as Assistant Secretary
of the Institution.

From the time the government came into possession, in
1 84 1, of the collection made by the Wilkes Exploring Expe-
dition Congress appropriated each year a small sum for the
preservation of the objects accumulated in the Patent Office,

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1865, page 85.

322 The Smithsonian Institution

which money was disbursed at first by the National In-
stitute, afterward by the Commissioner of Patents or the
Joint Library Committee of Congress.

After these collections were transferred to the Smithsonian
Institution in 1858, the appropriations for maintenance con-
tinued year by year, though small in amount. In 1858 the
appropriation was $3,650; in 1859, and for eight years fol-
lowing, $4,000. The Institution never received any compen-
sation for the occupancy of its building. As early as 1856,^
Professor Henry expressed the opinion at an early day that
the government might with propriety and advantage purchase
the Smithsonian building from the Institution for housing the
government collections "of natural history and the fine arts,"
but no action in that direction was ever taken.

When these collections were transferred from the Patent
Office a series of new cases designed by Thomas U. Walter
were erected in the main hall of the Smithsonian building
for their display. Great progress has been made in museum
methods in the last two decades, but the cases, arrangement,
labeling, and taxidermy in the Smithsonian museum thirty-
five years ago were probably as good as could be found in
any scientific museum in the world at that time. The exhibi-
tion of many examples of a single species of animal or min-
eral, or of a single kind of ethnological or geological object,
was not considered objectionable, and it was a common prac-
tice to mount and exhibit type specimens of animals. To
such matters as the size of glass in cases, the color of wood-
work and labels, the effect of different groupings of speci-
mens, little attention was devoted. Indeed, the amount of
money spent upon scientific museums was not sufficient for
great refinement in display. Collections were exhibited for
the satisfaction of the mature man of science, rather than the

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1856, page 22.

The United States National Museum 323

youthful student and the layman. Yet these latter classes
were neither purposely neglected nor did they complain of
the methods in vogue.

It is with interest that we read the following comment by
Professor Henry on the Smithsonian museum in 1861 :

" During the past year Washington has been visited by a
greater number of strangers than ever before since the com-
mencement of its history. The museum has consequently
been continually thronged with visitors, and has been a never-
failing source of pleasure and instruction to the soldiers of
the Army of the United States quartered in this city or its
vicinity. Encouragement has been given them to visit it as
often as their duties would permit them to devote the time for
the purpose.

" 1

In 1865 an event of much importance occurred. A fire
broke out in the second floor of the Smithsonian building and
destroyed the upper portions of the edifice. Many collections
were entirely destroyed or injured beyond repair, among
which the most important were Smithson's personal effects
and cabinet of minerals, a large series of portraits of Indians
painted and owned by J. M. Stanley, and the collection of
physical instruments, including Hare's experimental apparatus
and "the lens used by Priestley for the evolution of oxygen
from the oxide of mercury, and by means of which the first dis-
tinct recognition of this elementary substance was effected."^

This event produced results affecting the museum in many
ways. It called attention to the fact that the library of the
Institution was kept in rooms not fireproof, and the transfer
of the books to the Library of Congress was hastened, the
space being subsequently occupied by the less valuable por-
tions of the natural history collections. By the destruction
of the Stanley portraits of Indians, which, though really an

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1861, page 44. 2 <« Smithsonian Report," 1865, page 18.

324 The Smithsonian Institution

ethnological collection and only on deposit in the Institution,
formed an important part of what (with frequent apologies)
was called "the gallery of art," the attempts to form an art
collection of merit received discouragement. The reconstruc-
tion of the building, made necessary by the fire, led to a new
assignment of rooms for the ethnological collections. Pre-
vious to the fire the upper story had been used principally as
a lecture-room, but the interest in lectures flagging for a
time, it was determined after the reconstruction to place the
ethnological collections in that portion of the building, but
the transfer was not effected until several years later.

Though the formation of an art gallery was provided for
in the organization of the Institution and a few art objects
came into the possession of the government from time to
time. Professor Henry took the position at an early day that
with the funds available the establishment of an art collection
worthy of the name was impossible. When Mr. W. W. Cor-
coran first took active steps toward the formation of the
"Corcoran Art Gallery" in 1869, Henry recommended that
art objects belonging to the Institution should be deposited
therein. In 1873 the Board of Regents approved the plan,
and in the following year a few paintings, sculptures, and
engravings were transferred.

In the early days of the Institution the valuable collection
of engravings made by Honorable George P. Marsh was pur-
chased (the only large purchase by the Institution in the
direction of art), and soon after the fire in the Smithsonian
building it was transferred to the Library of Congress.

By 1874, therefore, the Institution had definitely aban-
doned all efforts toward the establishment of an art gallery,
and though some few objects connected with the fine arts
have come under its care in later years, they have never
been assembled so as to form a proper "gallery."

The United States National Museum 325

In 1 87 1 Congress established the United States Fish Com-
mission and Professor Baird was placed at its head. The
organization of the Commission on this basis had a most im-
portant effect upon the development of the National Museum
in certain directions. The work of the Commission had to
do largely with the natural history of fish and other aquatic
animals, and in the course of a few years very large collec-
tions of marine life were deposited in the Museum. Later
the work of the Commission turned toward the investigation
of the phenomena of the deep sea, and in 1882 a sea-going
steamer, the Albatross, was built, and extensive sounding
and dredging operations in great depths were carried on.

The collections made during the progress of this work,
and deposited in the Museum, were of the highest scientific
interest, and the results already published by Goode, Verrill,
Bean, Rathbun, Smith, and other naturalists have attracted
worldwide attention. In many other ways, which cannot
be detailed in the present connection, the work of the Com-
mission was of direct and indirect benefit to the Museum,
and the cooperation of these two governmental organizations
has continued until the present.

Not many years after the organization of the Commission
the question of the desirability of holding a great World's Fair
to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the Declara-
tion of Independence began to be agitated in the country.
The movement culminated in the organization of the Cen-
tennial Exhibition of 1876, held in Philadelphia. This event
was destined to have a more important effect upon the Na-
tional Museum than any which had occurred since the
founding of the Smithsonian Institution.

The government determined that the various departments
and bureaus should make extensive exhibits indicating their
several functions, and on January 23, 1874, the President

326 The Smithsonian histitution

appointed a government board to have general charge. The
Smithsonian Institution was represented by Professor Baird.
In the first plans of the board the National Museum exhibit
was included under that of the Institution, and the Fish Com-
mission apparently under the Interior Department. They
included also an item of $200,000 for an exhibition building
which should be "capable of removal to Washington after
the close of the Exhibition, to be used as a National Museum
at the capital of the nation."^ Congress, however, saw fit to
modify these plans and provided for the erection of a general
government building, to be paid for pro rata from the ap-
propriations of the several departments and bureaus, and to
be sold at the close of the Exhibition. An appropriation
of $67,000 was made for the Smithsonian Institution, and
of $5000 for the Fish Commission, the provision for the
National Museum being included in the former. When the
several officers of the Board began to examine the situation
in detail it became apparent that different bureaus would
duplicate one another's exhibits unless some compromise were
made. Accordingly the exhibits of the Institution, the Na-
tional Museum, and the Fish Commission were merged into
one comprehensive exhibit; while, on the other hand, the
National Museum cooperated with the Indian Bureau of the
Interior Department in an exhibit representing North Amer-
ican anthropology. The combined exhibit was divided into
five sections — Smithsonian Activities, "Animal Resources,"
Fisheries, Mineral Resources, Anthropology.

In the preparation of the exhibits of "animal resources"
and fisheries Professor Baird (then " Curator of the National
Museum ") had the assistance of G. Brown Goode ("who held
the position of Assistant Curator of the National Museum "),
Tarleton H. Bean, and H. C. Chester; in ethnology, Charles

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1875, page 59.

The United States National Mtisenni 327

Rau, Edward Foreman, and F. H. Gushing; in mineral re-
sources, William P. Blake and Thomas Donaldson.

When the idea of holding a great exhibition under the
government was first put forth, both Secretary Henry and
Professor Baird foresaw that the effect on the National
Museum must be of the greatest moment. The objects
purchased and exhibited by the government of the United
States would find their final resting-place in the Museum,
and many foreign governments and private exhibitors would
doubtless present their exhibits to the United States, with
the result that they also would find their way into the
Museum.

''The results of the operations of the Institution in con-
nection with the Centennial Exhibition," wrote Professor
Henry in 1875, "will probably have a much greater effect
on the future of the establishment than is at first sight ap-
parent. The large number of specimens which have been
collected by the several Departments of Government and by
the Institution itself in view of this Exhibition will greatly
increase the contents of the National Museum, and if we add
to these the specimens which will be presented by foreign
powers, of which we have already had intimations, the num-
ber will be swelled to an extent far beyond the capacity of
the present building to contain them, and an additional edifice
will be required for their accommodation,

"In the consideration of this matter, the questions will arise
whether the building required shall consist of an extension
of the present Smithsonian edifice, or an entirely separate
building; and these questions will involve another, viz.,
whether it is advisable to continue, at least without some
modification, the connection which now exists between the
Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum.

"The Museum is destined to an extension far beyond its
present magnitude. It is an object of much interest to all
who visit the National Gapital, and is of great value as ex-

328 The Smithsonian Institution

hibiting the natural resources of the country, as well as a
means of public education."

Professor Baird, as Exhibition representative of the Institu-
tion, wrote in the Report of the same year as follows:

" It will, however, be readily understood that the Smith-
sonian Building will be entirely inadequate to accommodate
this collection on its return from Philadelphia, especially as
even now it is overcrowded and packed from top to bottom
with thousands of boxes, for the proper exhibition of the con-
tents of which there is no space or opportunity at the present
time. It is to be hoped that action at an early day will be
taken by Congress looking toward a proper provision for this
emergency, especially when it is realized that the materials
are thus available for a National Museum that shall be equal,
in its extent and completeness and in its educational advan-
tages, to that of any nation in the world.

"The collections made directly through the Government
appropriations will also be very largely supplemented by the
donation of series of American and foreign exhibitors, a very
large proportion of which will be placed at the disposal of the
United States Government."

The anticipations of Henry and Baird were fully met. In
the Report for the Centennial year Professor Baird wrote :

" At no period in the history of the National Museum, from
the time when it was organized to the present, has the in-
crease been so great as during the year 1876."^

After referring to the accessions from the government ex-
hibits, he remarks :

" In addition, however, to the sources of increase to the
Museum during the years 1875 and 1876, mentioned above,
still another presented itself of perhaps even greater pro-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1876, page 38.

ROGER BROOKE TANEY.

THIRD CHANCELLOR OF THE S.MITHSOXIAX IXSTITFTIOX

1850-1864:.

328

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The United States National Miisetim 329

ductiveness, viz., acquisitions from foreign exhibits. With
scarcely an exception, the best and most important of these
were presented to the United States at the close of the exhi-
bition, embracing, as they did, many complete series of objects,
illustrating the geology, metallurgy, the ethnology, and the
general resources of all nations. Of about forty governments
and colonies, the choicest of the exhibits of thirty-four were
presented to the Smithsonian Institution for the National
Museum, the remainder either having nothing to give or
being restricted in the disposal of their articles.

** It was, however, not from foreign commissions alone that
collections were received by the Institution. Several entire
State exhibits and many belonging to private parties were
also added to the general increase. Nevada, Montana, and
Utah presented the whole of their mineral exhibits, while par-
tial collections were received from several other States and
Territories."

The Reofcnts of the Institution submitted a memorial to
Congress the same year (1876) asking an appropriation of
$250,000 for a building for the National Museum. A bill
was introduced, but failed of passage that year, and it was
not until 1879 that the amount asked for was provided.

As soon as the law was enacted a building commission ap-
pointed by the Regents of the Institution was organized, con-
sistino- of the resident members of the executive committee
of the Institution (Honorable Peter Parker and General
William T. Sherman) and Secretary Baird. General Sher-
man was chosen as chairman and General M. C. Meisfs was
invited to act as consulting engineer.

The commission selected the firm of Cluss & Schulze,
whose design for the building had been approved by Con-
gress, as superintending architects, and received the benefit
of the advice of Mr. Edward Clarke, architect of the Capitol.

The erection of the building was begun April 17, 1879, and
22

33^ The SmithsoiiiaJi Institution

completed in 1881. In design the structure is of the type
commonly employed for exhibition buildings, being entirely
open above the ground floor. It covers a space of two and a
third acres. On account of the relatively small amount ap-
propriated for the building and the enormous growth of the
national collections, it was necessary to use building materials
of low cost and to cover in as much space as possible. The
building is regarded as one of the cheapest of its size ever
erected. While admirably adapted in most respects for the
purpose for which it was built, it does not, of course, present,
either externally or internally, an appearance as pleasing or
diofnified as would have resulted from the use of a more ex-
pensive system of construction and more costly materials.

While the building was under construction. Congress de-
cided that the United States Government should be repre-
sented at the Berlin Fisheries Exhibition of 1880 by the Fish
Commission. Professor Baird, then both Secretary of the In-
stitution and Fish Commissioner, appointed G. Brown Goode,
the Curator of the National Museum, as his deputy at the
exhibition. By this fortunate combination of circumstances.
Doctor Goode, the working head of the National Museum,
was afforded an opportunity to study the museums of Ger-
many and other parts of Europe, and brought home with him
a knowledge of the most approved methods of installation of
collections, labeling, and storage which was invaluable. Far
more fortunate was it that the Museum at this critical time in
its history had as its curator a man of such surpassing merit
as the lamented editor of this volume. Gifted with a philo-
sophical mind, a profound love of nature, a marvelously re-
tentive memory, and untiring energy, he acquired a range of
knowledge and a grasp of affairs which astonished his asso-
ciates, while his modesty, gentleness, and love of fair play
attracted to him and bound to his service men of the most

The United States National Mnseiun 331

diverse capacities and opinions. His genius was known to
Secretary Baird, but hitherto he had not found a sufficiently
wide field for the exercise of his powers. The reorganization
of the Museum afforded an opportunity, and Baird gave him
free scope for the development of his plans, aiding him as no
one else could have done, from the stores of a lifetime of ex-
perience along the same lines.

Out of the heterogeneous materials accumulated by the
government, especially as a result of the Centennial Exhibi-
tion, Doctor Goode organized, under the approving guidance
of Secretary Baird, a public museum of wide scope, attractive,
instructive, orderly, and full of the elements of life. He elabo-
rated with the greatest pains a philosophical and compre-
hensive classification for the collections of the Museum, and
planned a complete reorganization of the staff of curators
and assistants. He devised an entirely new series of cases
and other fixtures, for the installation of both the collections
exhibited to the public and those reserved for the use of in-
vestigators, adopting the best features then developed in
European museums, and adding many of his own invention.

This regeneration of the National Museum soon made
itself felt in similar ororanizations throuQfhout the United
States and in other parts of the world, and the methods of
installation and labeling employed in Washington have
been widely copied.

The influence of the National Museum has not, however,
stopped here. Already at the Berlin Fisheries Exhibition of
1880, with the experience gained during the Centennial Exhi-
bition, Doctor Goode was able to secure for the United States
Fish Commission and the National Museum the Emperor's
prize for the highest excellence of display. Not satisfied
with this recognition, and always aiming to advance, he
endeavored to install the exhibits of the Institution and Mu-

33^ The Smithsonian Institution

seum at later foreign and domestic exhibitions, in accordance
with the best museum methods. As a result the exhibits of
the Institution always won high praise, and it is not too much
to say that the work of the National Museum in this direction
has had a powerful influence in revolutionizing exhibition
methods in America.

Since the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, few years have
passed in which the Museum has not been engaged in pre-
paring for a public exposition of greater or less magnitude.
It made displays at London in 1883, at Louisville in 1884, at
Minneapolis in 1887, at Cincinnati and Marietta in 1888, at
Madrid in 1892, at Chicago in 1893, and at Atlanta in 1895.
The necessity of carrying on exhibition work outside of
Washington has affected the National Museum in many
ways. Probably no other great permanent museum in the
world has had constantly before it the problem of guarding its
treasures from deterioration, and at the same time transport-
ing no inconsiderable portion of them thousands of miles and
displaying them under the ordinarily unfavorable surround-
ings of temporary exhibitions. The advantages lie in the
direction of making the work of the Museum known to the
people of the Republic and the world at large, and securing
new objects with which to fill out the deficiencies in its vari-
ous collections. The disadvantages are found in damage
done to objects in the collections by breakage or otherwise,
the interruption of the regular Museum work, and the dissi-
pation of the energies of the scientific officers ; for a mu-
seum, like any other permanent institution, requires abundant
time and uninterrupted activity for its best development, and
does not flourish in the midst of commotion and excitement.

Thus far I have considered the National Museum in its
historical aspects. It remains to explain briefly its function

The United States National Miiseitm zzz

and aims, and to mention the most notable objects in its
collections.

It will be perceived, from the statements already made, that
the Museum is essentially a natural development springing
from the activities of the government, growing with their
growth, and expanding with their expansion. It had its ori-
gin in the great naval exploring expedition which the gov-
ernment organized in the early part of the century, and found
an important expansion in the long series of topographical
surveys of the public domain, and geological surveys of later
years. The scientific investigation of the primary indus-
tries— agriculture, fisheries, and mining — by the govern-
ment has also resulted in large additions to the Museum.
Finally, the desire on the part of the government that the
people should gain a better understanding of its practical
workings, through representative displays of processes and
objects in the great public exhibitions, has broadened the
activities and increased the wealth of the Museum, both
directly and indirectly; — directly, because the Museum has
need to bestir itself to bring together and arrange exhibits
which will be acceptable to the public ; indirectly, because
the participation of the government of the United States often
leads other governments to participate, and the exhibits of
these, in greater or less proportion, are ultimately presented
to the United States for its National Museum.

The field of activities of the government has had a strong
influence on the character of the collections of its National
Museum. While European governments have been engaged
in exploring new regions and founding colonies in distant
sections of the globe, that of the United States has confined
its attention almost exclusively to North America. The col-
lections of the National Museum, therefore, are predomin-
antly North American. Leaving out of consideration the

22*

334 The Sjiiithsoriimi Institution

important foreigri collections of a few early expeditions, and
those resulting from the deep-sea investigations of the United
States Fish Commission, the additions in this direction have
chiefly come from the activities of private explorers, by gift
of foreign governments at expositions, by exchange of speci-
mens, and only in a few instances by purchase.

In the organic law of the Smithsonian Institution already
cited it is provided that

" In proportion as suitable arrangements can be made for
their reception, all objects of art and of foreign and curious
research, and all objects of natural history, plants, and geo-
logical and mineralogical specimens belonging, or hereafter
to belong to the United States, which may be in the city of
Washington, in whosesoever custody the same may be, shall
be delivered to such persons as may be authorized by the
Board of Regents to receive them, and shall be arranged in
such order and so classed as best to facilitate the examina-
tion and study of them."

In the act of June 30, 1880, making appropriations for the
sundry civil expenses of the government, it is enacted that
''all collections of rocks, minerals, soils, fossils, and objects
of natural history, archaeology, and ethnology, made by the
Coast and Interior Survey, the Geological Survey, or by any
other parties for the government of the United States, when
no longer needed for investigations in progress, shall be
deposited in the National Museum."^

In the same year, as we have said. Congress appropriated
money " for a fire-proof building, y^r tJie use of the National
Micsetcm."

As may be seen from the statutes cited, the National Mu-
seum is the recognized depository for all objects of scientific
and artistic interest and value which come into the possession

1 Statutes United States Forty-fifth Congress, third session, chapter 182, page 394.

The United States National Miiseiun 335

of the government. Its function is to preserve these treasures
perpetually and to administer the collections in such a man-
ner as to render them of the highest service to research and
education. In pursuance of these ends it exhibits a portion
of the collections for public inspection and instruction; an-
other portion it assembles in laboratories for the use of
investigators. Out of the surplus accumulations it selects
series of specimens for distribution to educational institutions,
and it encourages publications which will make its treasures
known to the world. Of these latter activities it will be
necessary to speak somewhat more in detail before closing,
and I will return to them presently. It is desirable to
point out here the fact, which will become evident to any
one upon reflection, that an institution such as the National
Museum, with its facilities for investigation and its corps
of trained specialists, soon becomes a center of intellectual
activity, attracting to itself students and sava7its, and being
called upon to impart technical information and advice.
In these lines lies no inconsiderable part of its labor and
usefulness.

It is to be said further that the Museum of to-day, owing in
part to a natural development, and in part to the labors of a
few advanced leaders, among whom none have rendered more
important service than the late Doctor Goode, is no longer con-
tent with a passive existence, but strives, by the arrangement
of its collections, by its labels, its hand-books and other
publications, and its lectures, to impart instruction of a def-
inite character and in definite lines. It assembles great col-
lections of natural objects and treasures of art not merely to
satisfy idle curiosity, but to diffuse knowledge among men.
Thus it allies itself to the university and the library, and
must be counted among the chief agencies for the spread
of culture.

33^ The Smithsonian Institution

To describe in detail all the more important objects in the
National Museum would require more space than can be de-
voted to such an enumeration in this volume, but it will be of
interest to point out the chief excellences of the collections
and to mention some of the treasures.

The collections are at present divided among the following
Departments and Sections :

Zoological Departments : Mammals, Birds (with a Section
of Birds' Eggs), Reptiles and Batrachians, Fishes, Mollusks,
Insects, Marine Invertebrates (with a Section of Parasitic
Worms), Comparative Anatomy.

A Botanical Department.

Geological Departments : Geology, Mineralogy, and Pale-
ontology.

Anthropological Departments: Prehistoric Anthropology,
Ethnology (with a section of American Pueblo Collections),
Oriental Antiquities.

A Department of "Arts and Industries," with the following
sections at present: Historical Relics, Transportation and
Engineering, Naval Architecture, Physical Apparatus, Elec-
trical Collections, Technological Collections, Materia Medica,
Forestry, and Graphic Arts.

The Department of Mammals comprises the collection of
the Wilkes Exploring Expedition and of the numerous geo-
graphical and geological surveys of the public domain, in-
cluding the type-specimens of species described by Baird in
his great work on North American mammals, and numerous
types of J. A. Allen, Elliott Coues, Harrison Allen, and other
American naturalists. The collections from the Mexican
boundary recently made by Doctor E. A. Mearns, U. S. A.,
are large and of high scientific value.^

1 The very extensive series of North Amer- Hart Merriam, the finest ever assembled, is
ican mammals made by the United States deposited in the Museum building and cata-
Department of Agriculture under Doctor C. logued in its registers.

The United States National Museum zzi

A series of casts of porpoises and other cetaceans, includ-
ing a young humpback whale, forms a unique feature of the
Department.

The representation of foreign mammals, though deficient in
many directions, includes a considerable number of type-spe-
cimens, and some important local collections, chief among
which are those from German East Africa and from Kash-
mir and Eastern Turkestan, made and presented by Doctor
William L. Abbott.

The collection of skulls of North American mammals is
probably unrivaled elsewhere in extent, and the Department
also contains a large alcoholic series.

Of the Department of Birds, the Curator, Mr. Robert Ridg-
way, writes :

"Among the most important collections and single objects
contained in the Department of Birds are the following :

" (i) The collections made by the Wilkes Exploring Expe-
dition, the various Pacific Railroad Surveys, the Mexican
Boundary Survey, the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth
Parallel, the Geological Survey of the Territories, Geo-
graphical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian,
the United States Astronomical Expedition (Gilliss), and
various other government expeditions.-^

" (2) The collection made by Colonel A. J. Grayson in
Western Mexico, including the Tres Marias and Revilla-
Gigedo Islands ; collections made by Professor F. Sumichrast
on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and by Professor C. Sartorius
in the State of Vera Cruz, Mexico ; collections made by
F. A. Ober in the various islands of the Lesser Antilles.

" (3) The collections made by the United States Fish Com-
mission during a cruise of the steamer Albatross around Cape
Horn and in the Bahamas.

IThe valuable collections of birds made Merriam in the United States and Mexico
by the United States Department of Agiicul- are deposited in the Museum building, as in
ture under the direction of Doctor C. Hart the case of the mammals.

338 The Smithsonian Institution

" (4) Specimens from Audubon's collection, among them a
considerable number of types of his new species, that is, spe-
cimens from which the descriptions and colored plates in his
great work were taken. These formed part of Professor
Baird's private collection, to whom they were given by Mr.
Audubon.

" (5) The private collection of Professor Baird, numbering
nearly 4000 specimens, which formed the nucleus, or begin-
ning, of the present national collection.

" (6) Other private collections donated to the National
Museum.

" (7) The collections made by Doctor William L. Abbott in
Eastern Africa, Madagascar, etc., generously presented to
the National Museum and embracing a very large number of
species entirely new to the Museum collection, many of them
being new to science. These collections of Doctor Abbott,
moreover, represent practically all that the Museum possesses
from the countries named.

" (8) The collection of several thousand specimens from
various parts of the world, presented by Mr. A. Boucard, of
Spring Vale, Isle of Wight, England.

" (9) Extinct Birds : Great Auk (one specimen), Labrador
Duck (several), Guadelupe Caracara (good series, old and
young), and Philip Island Parrot, the latter purchased for the
Museum by Doctor William L. Ralph, of Utica, New York.

"(10) Very rare species, or those nearly extinct, as the
Carolina Paroquet, Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Black-capped
and Jamaican Petrels, Hawaiian Coot, Cuban Macaw, Peale's
Sandpiper (several specimens, the only ones known to exist
in collections), and numerous other species.

"(11) Unique types, such as Fisher's Petrel, Townsend's
Bunting, Cooper's Sandpiper, Cooper's Hen- Hawk, Riker's
Woodhewer.

"The National Museum collection of North American birds
is by far the most complete in existence, and is the basis of
every important work on North American birds since Audu-
bon's time. That of the birds of the West Indies is also the
most important, although exceeded greatly in number by that

The United States National Mttseum 339

of Mr. C. B. Cory, now the property of the Field Columbian
Museum, in Chicago, Illinois. That of Central American and
South American birds is exceeded in extent and value only
by the British Museum's series of birds from the same region,
and has been freely used by Messrs. Sclater, Salvin, God-
man, Count von Bcrlepsch, and others in their various pub-
lications on neotropical birds, and is also largely the basis of
Professor Baird's 'Review of American Birds.'

" Museums throughout the world have been supplied with
American birds by the United States National Museum, and
the existing specimens of several species, such as the Roseate
Gull, Greenland Redpoll, and several Alaskan species, have
mainly, — in some cases exclusively, — been distributed by
the National Museum.

" It can safely be said that no collection of birds in the
world compares with that of the United States National
Museum in value or importance as a basis for scientific inves-
tigation already accomplished or yet to be done, since as
many species as possible, with the facilities at command, are
represented by large series of specimens from all parts of
their geographical range, and of all known variations de-
pendent on climate, sex, age, or other circumstances.

"The unparalleled collection of North American birds'
eggs in the United States National Museum is the result of
many years' growth. In the early years of the Institution
Professor Baird interested the naturalists of the various
government surveys and members of the Hudson Bay Fur
Company in the subject, and from them (and especially
the latter) thousands of eggs were received. Mr. R. Mc-
Farlane^ was particularly active, and with him were associ-
ated B. R. Ross, James Lockhart, John Reid, M. INIcLeod,
A. McKenzie, and others, who sent not only eggs, but large
collections of other kinds. The Institution sent Robert Ken-
nicott to Arctic America in 1859, where he remained three
years, collecting the natural productions of the region, and
with them many eggs of Arctic birds.

1 See his report in "Proceedings of the United States National Museum," Volume XIV,

pages 413-446.

340 The Smithsonian Institution

"Naturalists visiting Alaska and Labrador also made large
contributions to the oological collections. The eggs of the
rare Northern water-birds and waders so difficult to obtain
for private collections were thus sent (often in large series) to
the Institution.

"In 1884 Major Bendire added to the already large collec-
tion his unrivaled series of eggs of Western birds, obtained
during twenty-five years of duty in the Territories, This
collection numbered eight thousand or more beautifully pre-
pared specimens. From that time till his death Major Ben-
dire was untiring in his efforts to obtain the desiderata of the
collection. More recently Doctor William L. Ralph, of Utica,
New York, has presented his magnificent collection of eggs
to the Institution, and is now actively engaged in filling gaps
in the series,

"To mention specifically all the rarities in the North
American series of the oological department would be an
almost endless task; a few of the more important ones are
the following :

"Great Auk, i Qgg\ Heermann's Gull, 2 eggs; Craveri's
Murrelet, 2 eggs; Jabiru, i &gg\ Purple, Aleutian, Coues's,
Baird's, Pectoral, White-rumped, and Curlew Sandpipers;
Sanderling, 2 specimens (McFarlane); Heath Hen, one speci-
men ; Passenger Pigeon, about thirty eggs ; California Vul-
ture, I &gg; Harlan's, Krider's, and Short-tailed Hawks;
Peale's, Richardson's, and Aplomado falcons ; Elf, Flammu-
lated, and Californian Pigmy Owls; Carolina Paroquet;
Ivory-billed Woodpecker; White-throated and Vaux's Switts;
Clarke's Nutcracker, several eggs; Western Evening-Gros-
beak; American and Mexican Crossbills; Pribilof Snowflake,
several eggs. Among the rare warblers may be mentioned :
Brewster's, Virginia's, Lucy's, Cape May, Olive, Sennett's,
Grace's, Townsend's, Hermit, Golden-cheeked, Gray, and
Connecticut Warblers ; Rio Grande and Belding's Yellow.
throats; Red-faced Warblers,

"Of foreign eggs may be mentioned those of the Kamts-
chatkan Sea Eagle and the Ouesal ; also various series of eggs,
like those collected by Doctor Jerome H. Kidder on Kerguelen

The United States National Museum 341

Island, Doctor William L. Abbott in Africa, Seychelles Isl
ands, Asia, etc. On some of these reports have been made

" 1

Of the Department of Reptiles and Batrachians, the Cura-
tor, Doctor Leonhard Stejneger, remarks :

" The distinctive characteristic of the reptile collection in the
Museum is in the completeness with which it illustrates the
geographical distribution and morphology of the species in-
habiting North America. In this respect it stands unrivaled.
As the depository of the types of the species described by
Baird, Girard, Kennicott, Cope, and other distinguished
American herpetologists it also takes first rank.

" The importance of the individual collections must there-
fore be judged with reference to their richness in such types
and the advance in our knowledge of the reptiles and batra-
chians of this continent that has ensued. The collections
which have undoubtedly contributed most in these respects
are those of the Pacific Railroad Surveys, the first Mexican
United States Boundary Survey, and the Wilkes Exploring
Expedition."

The collections of fishes are almost exclusively North Amer-
ican, with one notable exception in the case of the deep-sea
fishes dredged by the United States Fish Commission
steamer Albatross in the North Atlantic and North Pacific.
The latter collection is of equal importance with that of the
Challenger expedition, if it does not surpass the same, and
formed the basis of the recent work of Doctor Goode and
Doctor Bean on " Oceanic Ichthyology."

The Department contains the most extensive collections of
fresh-water and littoral fishes of the United States anywhere

1 " Contributions to the Natural History of of Nests and Eggs of Some New Birds, col-

Kerguelen Island, made in connection with lected on the Island of Aldabra, Northwest

the American Transit of Venus Expedition, of Madagascar, by Doctor W. L. Abbott."

lS74-'75," lacing Bulletin No. 3, United Proceedings of the United States National

States National Museum. Also" Description Museum, Volume xvii, 1894, pages 39-41.

342 The Smithsonian Institution

assembled, consisting chiefly of the great series formed by the
United States Fish Commission, supplemented by the collec-
tions of many American naturalists. The collection of Alas-
kan fishes is very large, and is not extensively duplicated
elsewhere.

The series of fishes collected in connection with the Pacific
Railroad Surveys and the first Mexican Boundary Survey
are of special importance as containing the types of a large
proportion of the species of the middle and western United
States. They have been supplemented in recent years by
important series collected under the auspices of the Fish
Commission and by private collectors.

The Department contains also many single specimens of
great value, which have been made the basis of new families
and genera.

Regarding the Department of Mollusks, Mr. William H.
Dall, the Honorary Curator, writes as follows :

" The collection of mollusks was founded primarily upon
the specimens gathered by the United States Exploring Ex-
pedition under Wilkes during 1838-42, which formed the
types of the folio volume on the mollusks and shells by Doc-
tor A. A. Gould, included in the series of United States
Exploring Expedition reports published by Congress. To
these were added the types of the mollusks of the North
Pacific Exploring Expedition under Ringgold and Rodgers,
collected by Doctor William Stimpson, and described by
Gould. The collections were very rich and valuable, for the
time, but underwent serious vicissitudes before and after be-
ing received by the Smithsonian Institution previous to the
organization of the museum, so that the series as it now
exists is by no means complete. Nevertheless these shells
form an interesting and important portion of the collection.

" Next in point of number and value comes the collection,

The United States National Mtisettm 343

especially of Unionidae, given by Doctor Isaac Lea, and
subsequently enriched by his son-in-law and daughter, the
Reverend and Mrs. L. T. Chamberlain. This collection is,
in its specialties, the freshwater mussels of the world, unri-
valed for extent and value, comprising an enormous number
of types and having full data in relation to the habitat, etc.,
in nearly every case.

"Almost as important for the mollusks of Great Britain,
Northern Europe, the Mediterranean, and especially for the
various deep-sea dredging expeditions sent out under British
auspices before the Challenger expedition, is the Jeffreys
collection, purchased from Doctor J. Gwyn Jeffreys, and
comprising the results of nearly half a century of active
collecting, exchanging, and purchase — in all some 25,000
lots of specimens, by far the most important and complete
series of British shells in existence, and forming the basis
of some hundred publications.

" The fauna of West America, both littoral and deep-
sea mollusks, is represented by the combined collections of
Robert E. C. Stearns, William H. Dall, the United States
steamer Albatross of the Fish Commission, the Arctic cruis-
ers of the United States Revenue Marine, and many private
donations, in all representing the most complete existing rep-
resentation of the fauna, with full data in nearly every case.

" The fauna of the east coast of North America is repre-
sented by the unrivaled collections of the United States Fish
Commission, augmented by a series of those of the Blake
and many private collectors in the West Indies and on our
southern coast.

"The land and freshwater shells of North America, apart
from the freshwater mussels, are represented by the best
existing collection derived from many sources, including
types of Binney and Bland, Lea, Lewis, Dall, Stimpson, and
many others.

"To sum up, the collection of mollusks has the best series
in the world, supplied with the fullest data, in the modern
sense, of the land, freshwater, shore, and deep-sea mollusks
of North America, the Arctic regions, the North Atlantic and

344 The Smithsonian Institution

Pacific and the British Islands. In the total number of spe-
cimens, the collection is the largest in the world, including
over six hundred thousand specimens of dry shells and five
thousand jars of alcoholic molluscan material. The collection
of Cenozoic fossil shells comprises the largest existing series
of the tertiary fauna of the United States ; and probably the
largest series of Antillean tertiary shells in any museum, though
much remains to be done in naming and classifying the fossil
material.

" It may be said without fear of contradiction, that for the
regions mentioned, the Department of Mollusks is unrivaled,
not only in the amount and variety of material it contains,
but especially in the full and correct data recorded in respect
to the specimens, and which gives to them a really scientific
value, which is wanting in most of the great collections of the
world, which were mostly made at a period when the impor-
tance of such data was not fully recognized. No other col-
lection contains nearly as many American and British type
specimens ; and only the British Museum rivals ours in the
number of species represented from the whole world. No
other collection has so large a representation of deep-sea
mollusks and brachiopods, for the study of which the National
collection is indispensable."

Of the Department of Insects, Doctor L. O. Howard, the
Honorary Curator, writes :

"Taking the collection as a whole, and aside from the con-
sideration of the individual collections of which it is composed,
I should say that its most important features are, first, the
rapidly accumulating number of types in all orders, amounting
already to more than thirty-five hundred species; and second,
the biologic features of the collection, due largely to the fact
that the original deposit by Doctor Riley was mainly biologic in
its character, and to the further fact that the biologic accumu-
lations of the United States Department of Agriculture for
seventeen years, which have been very great, are now in the
possession of the Museum.

The United States National Museum 345

"The subjoined statement refers to the source of the
different collections now brought together. Looking at the
collection as a whole, however, the departments which stand
out conspicuously are {a) the collection of North American
Noctuidae (probably the most complete in existence), {b) the
collection of Parasitic Hymenoptera (undoubtedly the largest
collection of bred specimens in the world), {c) the Orthop-
terous family, Acrididre, {d) the Homopterous families Coc-
cidae, AphididcX, and Psyllidre (without doubt the largest
accumulation of North American species), (e) the Dipterous
families Syrphidse and Empidae, {/) the collection of Myri-
opoda.

"The Department is at present in excellent working con-
dition. It contains a very great amount of material in all
orders, and in many unusual directions surpasses any collec-
tion in the country. Among others the following are of special
interest :

" I. The large collection, in all orders, of Doctor C. V.
Riley.

" 2. All of the material gathered during the past eighteen
years by correspondents, field agents, and the office staff of
the Division of Entomology, United States Department of
Agriculture.

" 3. The greater part of the collection of Asa Fitch.

"4. The large collection, in all orders, of G. W. Belfrage.

" 5. The collections in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera made by
Doctor John B, Smith down to 1889, together with the types
of the Noctuidae since described by Doctor Smith.

"6. The collection of Lepidoptera of O. Meske.

" 7. The collection of Lepidoptera of G. Beyer.

"8. The collection of Coleoptera of M. L. Linell.

" 9. The bulk of the collection, in all orders, of H. K. Mor-
rison.

" 10. The collection of Diptera of Edward Burgess.

" II. The type collection of Syrphidae made by Doctor S.
W. Willision.

" 12. The collection of Lxodidae of Doctor George Marx.

346 The SniitJisoiiian Institution

" 13. The collection of Myriopoda of C. H. Bollman.

" 14. Sects of the neotropical collections of Herbert H.
Smith.

" 15. The collection of Hymenoptera of William J, Fox.

" 16. The collection of Tineina of William Beutenmiiller.

" 17. The large Japanese collection, in all orders, of Doctor
K. Mitsukuri.

" 18. The African collections, in all orders, of Doctor W. L.
Abbott, William Astor Chanler, J. F. Brady, the Eclipse
expedition of 1889-90 to West Africa, and of several mis-
sionaries.

" 19. The large collection from South California of D. W.
Coquillett, in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and
Orthoptera.

" 20. The Townend Glover manuscripts and plates.

" In addition to this material, there are minor collections
which have been the result of the work of government ex-
peditions, or are gifts from United States Consuls and many
private individuals."

The most beautiful, and in many respects the most im-
portant, of the numerous series in the Department of Marine
Invertebrates is the collection of corals made by the United
States Exploring Expedition, and described by Dana. It
includes many types of new forms. The great deep-sea col-
lections from the North Atlantic and North Pacific made by
the United States Fish Commission deserves notice; as do also
the exhaustive collections from the New England coast and
the Fishing Banks, and from the west coast of Alaska, re-
ceived from the same source. All the collections are very
rich in the types of new species and higher groups.

Among the notable specimens in the Department of Com-
parative Anatomy should be mentioned the skulls and partial

The United States National Mtisenm 347

skeletons of the great extinct Arctic Seacow (Rytina) ; several
skeletons of huge Galapagos Tortoises ; and an unrivaled
series of bones of the Great Auk. The collection is rich in
skulls and skeletons of the various species of porpoises.

In the Department of Geology the following series and
separate objects are pointed out by Doctor George P. Merrill
as deserving special mention :

" I. The Leadville (Colorado) collections of rocks and ores,
comprising some three hundred and eighty specimens, illus-
trating the work of S. F. Emmons and Whitman Cross. ^

" 2. The Washoe collections, comprising one hundred and
ninety-eight specimens as selected and studied by George F.
Becker. ^

" 3. The collections of the Fortieth Parallel Survey. These
comprise some three thousand specimens of eruptive and sedi-
mentary rocks collected by members of the Fortieth Parallel
Survey, under the direction of Clarence King, in 1867-73.
The eruptive rocks of the series were described by Professor
Ferdinand Zirkel. ^

"4. The Hawes collections. These comprise some three
hundred and fifty specimens of eruptive altered rocks, repre-
senting in part the work done by Doctor Hawes in connection
with the New Hampshire surveys.* It also includes the
small fragments described in his paper^ on the Albany granites
and their contact phenomena.

" 5. The Pacific Slope Quicksilver collections. These
comprise several hundred small specimens (mostly 4x6 cm.),
rocks and ores from the quicksilver regions of the locality
above noted, as collected and described by G. F, Becker^

1 Emmons, Samuel Franklin. "Geology States Geological Explorations of the For-

and Mining Industry of Leadville, Colorado, tieth Parallel, Volume vi, 1876.

with Atlas." Monograph xii of the United 4 "The Geology of New Hampshire."

States Geological Survey, 1886. Concord, 1878, Volume III, Part iv.

'^" Geology of the Comstock Lode and the 5 American Journal of Science, 1881, Vol-
Washoe District, with Atlas." Monograph ume XXI, pages 21-32.
Ill of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1S82. 6 Monograph XIII of the United States

3 " Microscopic Petrography." United Geological Survey, 1 886.

348

The Smithsonian Institution

and colleagues in ' Geology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the
Pacific Slope.'

** 6, Pigeon Point collections. These comprise four hun-
dred specimens illustrating various contact phenomena as
occurring at Pigeon Point, on the north shore of Lake
Superior, and as described by Professor W. S. Bailey in a
bulletin ^ of the United States Geological Survey.

" 7. Menominee Valley and Marquette River collections.
These comprise two hundred and fifty-four specimens illus-
trative of the dynamic metamorphism of eruptive rocks as
described by Professor George H. Williams. ^

" 8. The Eureka (Nevada) collection, comprising some
five hundred and six specimens, rocks and ores, as studied
and described by Arnold, Hague, ^ Whitman Cross, and J. S.
Curtis."*

"9. The Cripple Creek (Colorado) collections. These
comprise some eight hundred specimens of rocks and ores.
The material studied by Whitman Cross and R. A. F. Pen-
rose and described in their report on the ' Geology and
Mining Industry of the Cripple Creek District.'^

" 10. The Silver Cliff collections, comprising three hundred
specimens of rocks and ores. The collection upon which is
based the report by Whitman Cross and R. A. F. Penrose.

" II. The Tenth Census collection of Building and Orna-
mental Stone comprises some three thousand specimens,
mainly in the form of four-inch cubes, and two thousand thin
sections.^ These formed the basis of the results criven in ' The
Collection of Building and Ornamental Stones; a Handbook
and Catalogue.' '^

1" The Empire and Sedimentary Rocks on
Pigeon Point, Minnesota, and their Contact
Phenomena." 1S93. Bulletin, No. 109.

2 " The Greenstone Schist Areas of the Me-
nominee and Marquette Regions of Michi-
gan." 1890. Bulletin No. 62 of the United
States Geological Survey.

3 Hague, Arnold. " Geology of the Eureka
District, Nevada, with Atlas." 1892. Mono-
graph XX of the United States Geological
Survey.

4 Curtis, Joseph Story. " Silver-lead De-
posits of Eureka, Nevada, 1SS4." Monograph
VII of the United States Geological Survey.

6 Sixteenth Annual Report of the United
States Geological Survey, Part II, 1894-95.

6 Merrill, George P. Special Reports on
Petroleum, Coke, and Building Stones, Tenth
Census of the United States, 1880, Vol-
ume X.

7 Report United States National Museum,
1886, page 277.

The United States National Mttsenm 349

"12. The Tenth Census collection of Iron Ores, compris-
ing" some two thousand two hundred hand specimens and five
hundred and six thin sections. This formed the basis of Pro-
fessor Raphael Pumpelly's report.^

" 13. The collection illustrating Kirkaldy's experimental
inquiry into the mechanical properties of Fagersta steel.

" 14. Collections from the Archaean Division of the United
States Geological Survey made in Vermont and Massachu-
setts, and forming the basis of the petrographic work to be
published in a forthcoming monograph.^

"Among the materials of greatest historical importance
may be mentioned :

" (^.) A mass of iron smelted by members of the Frobisher
expedition during their stay at Frobisher Bay in 1578.

** ibi) A piece of metallic tin smelted by Doctor T. C. Jack-
son in 1840 from ore found at Jackson, Carroll County, New
Hampshire, and believed to have been the first tin smelted in
America.

" (^.) The first steel car axle made in America and bent
cold.

" id.) Copper medal. Struck from the first copper pro-
duced in Colorado in 1866.

" (^.) Placer gold. First gold discovered in California,
from tail-race two hundred yards below the mill, panned
by J. W. Marshall on the evening of the 19th and 20th of
January, 1848. Marshall's Claim, Sutter's Mill, Coloma,
El Dorado County, California.

" (yi) Sample of petroleum from the first flowing well in
the United States. Drilled in 1829 near Burkesville, Ken-
tucky.

"Amons: the more strikino^ collections of the exhibition
series may be mentioned the one illustrating limestone cav-
erns and associated phenomena. This includes not only a
large and variegated series of stalagmitic and stalactitic min-

1 Report on the Mining Industries of the United States, with special investigations into

the iron resources of the Republic, and into the cretaceous coals of the
Northwest. Volume xv., Washington, 1886.

2 See also Thirteenth and Fourteenth Annual Reports of the United States Geological Survey.

-J

350 TJie Smithsonian Institution

erals, but also representative forms of animal life such as
inhabit caverns. The collection as a whole is doubtless the
most complete and systematic of its kind in any museum in
the world.

" In the economic section are very full and systematic
collections illustrating the mineral resources of the United
States, arranged geographically, and also a systematic series
in which minerals of the same nature and from world-wide
sources are arranged by kinds. This collection comprises
probably not fewer than ten thousand specimens."

Mr. F. V. Coville, Honorary Curator of the Department
of Botany, furnishes the following brief account of the collec-
tion of plants :

" With reference to the collections in the Department of
Botany, it may be said that they constitute what is commonly
known as the National Herbarium. The nucleus of the
herbarium consisted of the plants collected by the Wilkes Ex-
ploring Expedition during the years 1838 to 1842. To these
were added later the material from the North Pacific Explor-
ing Expedition of Ringgold and Rodgers, followed by those
of Fremont, the Mexican Boundary Commission, the Pacific
Railroad Surveys, and all the later explorations and expedi-
tions of the government,

"In recent years the largest amount of material received has
come from the Division of Botany in the Department of Agri-
culture, material brought together in the pursuit of the investi-
gations of that establishment. Especially noteworthy among
these is the collection of grasses which Doctor George Vasey
gathered during his studies of the forage plants of the United
States during a period of about twenty years.

" To the collections of the exploring expeditions and those
of the Department of Agriculture has been added a large
amount of material donated by American botanists or pur-
chased from collectors, besides large consignments of plants
received from various foreign institutions or individuals prin-
cipally as gifts or in exchange.

The United States National Museum 351

"The collections of the exploring expeditions and the col-
lection of grasses are especially rich in type-specimens.

" Mention should be made of the collections of George
Joad, comprising about ten thousand species of representa-
tive plants of the globe, more especially those of Europe ; and
the collection of Professor Lester F. Ward, comprising the
specimens on which his " Flora of Washington and Vicinity "
is based, in addition to important collections made by Profes-
sor Ward and his correspondents in other parts of the United
States. Both the Ward and the Joad collections were ac-
quired by the museum in 1885."

The important collections of the Department of Minerals
are summarized by Mr. Wirt Tassin, Assistant Curator, as
follows :

" At the request of Professor F. W. Clarke, the Honorary
Curator, I have prepared, and transmit herewith, a list of some
of the most important collections and single objects in the Min-
eral Department. They are:

" The Isaac Lea collections, including a collection of min-
erals, a collection of micas and quartzes, and a collection of
gems and ornamental stones, among which may be noted as
of especial interest a fine green tourmaline of fifty-seven car-
ats, a red specimen of eighteen carats and a hair-brown one
of sixteen carats, from Mount Mica, Paris, Maine. A doubly
terminated emerald crystal from Stony Point, Alexander
County, North Carolina, one of the largest ever found, meas-
uring three and one-tenth by two inches and weighing eight
ounces and three pennyweights. A crystal ball cut from
North Carolina quartz. A silver nugget weighing four hun-
dred and forty-eight ounces, from near Globe, Arizona. One
of the largest known cut Ceylon essonites. Four large Cey-
lon asteria. A fine suite of opals in argillaceous limonite,
Baracoo river, Queensland.

" The Leidy collection of minerals, received from the United
States Geological Survey.

" A series illustratingf the occurrence and associations of

352 TJie Smithsoniaii Ijistitiition

the zinc and lead minerals of Southwest Missouri, collected
by W. P. Jenney.

" A series illustrating the mineralogy of the Pikes Peak
region collected by Whitman Cross, of the United States
Geological Survey.

"A series of original and type zeolites from Table Moun-
tain, Gunnison County, Colorado, collected by Whitman
Cross, of the United States Geological Survey.

" A series of uranium minerals used in the work leading to
the discovery of nitrogen in uraninite and later of argon,
given by Doctor W. F. Hillebrand.

"A series of copper carbonates from Copper Queen Mine,
Arizona, a gift of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining
Company, through James Douglas, President.

" A series of azurite crystals and associated minerals from
the copper regions of Arizona, together with a series of van-
adium minerals from New Mexico, collected by Doctor W.
F. Hillebrand.

** A series illustrating the occurrence and association of the
zinc minerals of New Jersey, collected by Wirt Tassin.

"The type-specimens of warrenite.

" A slab of sodalite, size two by two inches ; a polished slab
of labradorite, two by two inches ; a slab of calcite crystals
four by four inches ; two large sections of agatized wood from
Arizona, deposited by the Drake Company ; the ' Ontona-
gon' copper boulder; a series of Sicilian sulphur crystals;
the Shepard collections of meteorites ; the Ring or Irwin
meteorite; a suite of meteoric irons from Caiion Diablo, Ari-
zona, varying in weight from 964 pounds to a few ounces.

" To the list may be added the Stroud collection, the Hawes
collection, the Abert collection, the various accessions received
at different times from the United States Geological Survey,
and other smaller collections containing valuable material of
scientific and other importance."

Of the Department of Paleontology, Mr. Charles Schuchert,
Assistant Curator, writes :

The United States National Museum 353

" The feature of greatest importance is that much of our
material has served in government reports, and is the basis
for the geological and paleontological work treating of the
western part of our country. This fact is well exemplified in
the great number of species which have served in description
and illustration, many of which are the original type-speci-
mens. There are of such species five thousand seven hun-
dred and forty-one. These are distributed in the sections of
this department as follows :

Paleozoic Invertebrate species 1^55

Mesozoic " *' 1024

Cenozoic Invertebrate species 1304

Vertebrate species 161
Paleozoic plant species (Lacoe collection) 504

Mesozoic and Cenozoic plant species 1531

Insect species 62

"The most complete series is the 'Lacoe collection of
American Paleozoic plants,' the labeled specimens of which
alone number upwards of eighteen thousand, and of these
more than five hundred species have been described or illus-
trated by Lesquereux and White. This magnificent collec-
tion is the result of many years' accumulation, and cost
upwards of $50,000. It was donated to this museum in
1 89 1, by Mr. R. D. Lacoe, of Pittston, Pennsylvania.

"The collection of Cambrian fossils is very large, and
when Mr. Walcott shall have completed his studies upon this
material, it will be the most complete and valuable series of
fossils of this system extant.

" The Cretaceous collection is also quite extensive and
represents much work by F. B. Meek, C. A. White, and
T. W. Stanton.

"The Tertiary collection of Mollusca is one of the conspic-
uous features of this department. This collection was accu-
mulated chiefly by William H. Dall.

"Among single objects the following deserve mention:

"A composite slab of Lower Carboniferous fossils measur-
ing four by six feet, and showing in high relief one hundred
and six crinoids (sixteen species) and other tossils.

354 The Smithsonian Institution

"A Lepidodendron trunk three feet wide and thirty feet
long (Lacoe collection).

" A series of six cycad trunks from the Lower Cretaceous
of South Dakota.

" Bones representing a nearly complete Zeuglodon cetoides
from the Eocene of Alabama, and of which a life-sized restora-
tion is exhibited.

" Skulls and limb bones of the huge Cretaceous Dinosaur,
Triceraiops, from Wyoming.

"An excellent skeleton of the Irish Elk, Megaceros hiber-
nicus, Owen."

The collections of the Department of Prehistoric Anthro-
pology are thus described by the Curator, Doctor Thomas
Wilson :

''There are three great stages of culture, or civilization,
represented in this Department, which are separated and
installed according to locality.

"The first, and probably the earliest, is that of Western
Europe, of which the museum possesses an extensive col-
lection, the largest in the United States, showing the culture
of prehistoric man, from the earliest times down to the
Bronze Age and the Etruscans, where it joins history.

"The second great division represents the territory of the
United States and British Columbia. This constitutes the
bulk of the collection, and comprises the hatchets, axes, im-
plements, and other objects of stone. The mounds of the
Ohio and Mississippi valleys have yielded large represen-
tations of pottery.

"The third stao-e of culture is that belonorinor to Mexico
and Central America, variously called Aztec and similar
local names. While it comprises many stone implements, it
extends further and wider than either of the foregoing, hav-
ing jade, obsidian, and gold objects and ornaments. Its
pottery is fine and beautifully made and decorated; while
some of the ruder pieces, representing gods, especially from

The United States National Museum 355

Mexico, are made with a wealth of detail that has increased
the difficulty of manufacture almost beyond the belief of pos-
sibility in savage life.

" The display from South America is important, resem-
bling the culture of Central America more than that of
North America.

" The Department has one of the richest displays of pre-
historic objects in the United States. It contains more than
two hundred and fifty thousand objects, which it is impossible
to name. They, however, are divided both technologically
and geographically, and by comparison in these two regards
the endeavor is made to determine the stage of culture and
obtain some insight into the history of prehistoric man,"

Regarding the Department of Ethnology, the Curator,
Professor Otis T. Mason, writes:

"The ethnological collection of the museum relates chiefly
to the North American Indians, but it includes also valuable
series of objects from Polynesia, obtained by the United
States Exploring Expedition, such as the old Tapa cloths
and weapons, which are no longer obtainable at present.

"The Eskimo collection is unrivaled. The collections of
the Bureau of Ethnology and other government surveys on
the west coast of the Pacific Ocean in North America, and in
the Pueblo region of the southwestern United States, are the
most extensive and valuable ever assembled. Amone sinele
objects of high value and rarity may be mentioned a large
jade knife from Alaska, obtained by E. W. Nelson ; a fine
series of boats and totem posts from the west Pacific coast
of America, by J. G. Swan. In the Powell collection there
are rare old pieces of pottery from the ruined Pueblos. A
Hawaiian feather cloak, of large size and well preserved, also
deserves mention.

" I present the following list of the most conspicuous and
useful collections in alphabetical order, by collectors:

" A collection of great value from Eastern Africa, Kashmir,

35^ The Smithsonian Institution

and southeastern Asia, by Doctor William L. Abbott, of
Philadelphia ; a collection illustrative of the ethnography of
Korea, by Lieutenant J. B. Bernadou, U. S. N. ; a collection
from the Department of Education in Japan to illustrate the
practical industries of this country, in comparison with the
tools and appliances brought home by Commodore Perry;
the collection of Doctor Franz Boas, illustrative of the cere-
monial usages of British Columbia and the Northwest coast ;
of Captain John G. Bourke, U. S. A., gathered from Indian
tribes in the United States during his long engagements on
the frontier ; of Doctor J. F. Bransford, U. S. N., pottery and
other materials from the graves of Nicaragua ; enormous col-
lections from the great Interior Basin and Pueblo region to
illustrate the costume and arts of the Shoshonean and Pueblo
tribes, also materials gathered by James Mooney and others
of the Bureau of Ethnology from the tribes in the Indian
Territory; collection of Heli Chatelain, from Angola; large
collection from the Chinese Imperial Commission of the
Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia ; a rare old collection
from Liberia and vicinity, made by the Colonization Society
of Washington ; collection illustrative of the games of the
world, by Stewart Culin, of Philadelphia ; collections espe-
cially from South America made by the government agents
for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago ; collec-
tions of William H. Dall, associated with Doctor Tarleton
H. Bean and Marcus Baker, in various parts of Alaska; col-
lections, well labeled, from the Tlingit Indians, by Lieuten-
ant George T. Emmons, U. S. N, ; a small but extremely
valuable collection from west Greenland, by Governor Fenck-
ner ; a precious collection of pottery and other objects from
old ruined pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona, by Doctor
J, Walter Fewkes ; collection of William J. Fisher from the
Eskimo and Aleuts on the Alaskan Peninsula, the Island of
Kadiak and vicinity ; collection of William M. Gabb from
Central America ; old and precious collections from Oregon
and British Columbia, by George Gibbs ; a small and rare
collection from the west coast of South America, by Lieu-
tenant J. M. Gilliss, U. S. N.; a small and extremely rare

The United States National Museum 357

collection from Fury and Hecla Straits, by Captain Charles
F. Hall ; collections of the Geographical and Geological Sur-
vey of the Territories, by Doctor F. V. Hayden ; small col-
lection from North Greenland and Grinnell Land, by Doctor
I. I. Hayes; collection from the Amazon River, by Lieu-
tenant Herndon, U. S. N.; collection from the Ainos and
northern Japanese, by Romyn Hitchcock; collections from
the Indians of the western Great Lakes, by Doctor W, J.
Hoffman ; collections from the Swiss Lake dwellings, by Pro-
fessor Joseph Jillson ; collections from southeastern Japan, by
P. L. Jouy ; collections from the Mackenzie River district, by
Mr. Robert Kennicott ; royal gift from the King of Siam,
through General J. A. Halderman; collection from Cumber-
land Gulf, by Ludwig Kumlien ; a priceless collection of an-
tiquities from Porto Rico, by George Latimer ; collection
from Bristol Bay, by Charles L. McKay; extremely valu-
able collection from Mackenzie River district, by Robert
MacFarlane, of the Hudson Bay Company ; collection from
the Congo region, by Dorsey Mohun ; collection from the
Sioux tribes of Dakota, by Doctor Washington Matthews,
U. S. A. ; an immense collection, covering many thousand
numbers, from Alaska, by E. W. Nelson ; collections from
the Southwest and Mexico, by Doctor Edward Palmer; col-
lections from Japan, by Commodore Perry, U. S. N. ; collec-
tions from the tribes of Utah, by Major J. \<! . Powell, of the
United States Geological Survey; collections from northern
and central California, by Stephen Powers ; collections from
Kotzebue Sound and of the Hupa Indians from northern
California, by Captain P. H. Ray, U. S. A.; collection from
Thibet, by the Honorable W. W. Rockhill ; collection from
the Chiikchis country and Alaska, by Commodore John
Rodgers, U. S. N.; collection from the Mackenzie River
district, by B. R. Ross, of the Hudson Bay Company; collec-
tion from Peru, by Lieutenant W. E. Safford, U. S. N. ; col-
lection by Reverend George W. Samson, from the Holy
Land ; collection by Paul Shoemaker on the shell heaps of
the West Coast, especially Santa Barbara Island ; collection
of Lieutenant G. M. Stoney, U. S. N., from Kotzebue Sound ;

35^ The Smithsonian Institution

collection by James G. Swan, from the North Pacific Coast
of America ; collection by Talcott Williams, from North
Africa; collection by Lieutenant E. H. Taunt, U. S. N., from
the Congo region ; collection of Doctor William M. Thomson,
U. S. N., from Easter Island ; collection of Honorable W. P.
Tisdell, from the Congo region ; collection of Lucien M.
Turner, from Labrador and North Sound ; collection of Cap-
tain G. M. Wheeler, U. S. A., from Southern California ; col-
lection of Captain A. W. Whipple, U. S. A., from Southwest ;
collection of Rouncevelle Wildman, from eastern China ; col-
lection of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition from Polynesia
to the west coast of America.

" In addition to those already named should be mentioned
the various branches of the United States executive service,
the Department of State, the War Department, the Navy
Department, and the Department of the Interior."

Of the Section of Oriental Antiquities and Religious Cere-
monials, Dr. Cyrus Adler writes :

" This Section comprises a small collection, interesting, not
so much because of the intrinsic value of the objects as be-
cause of the relation in which they are shown. It may be
divided, according to religions and nations, into nine sections :
I, Biblico-Judaic ; 2, Christian; 3, Mohammedan; 4, Egyp-
tian; 5, Assyro- Babylonian ; 6, Hittite; 7, Graeco- Roman ; 8,
Brahman ; 9, Buddhist.

" Of the Biblico-Judaic section, the collection of manu-
scripts and editions of the Bible and its versions (forty-one
in number) may be considered as the most important, having
both a literary and paleographic interest. Next to this may
be mentioned the collection of objects of Jewish ceremonials,
which, besides being a complete set of the objects used by the
Jews in their religious observances, is of much artistic and
historical value.

*' In the Egyptian section the mummy with its cases and the
facsimile of the 'Book of the Dead' rank foremost. In the
Assyro- Babylonian section the most imposing objects are the

The United States National Miisemn 359

two colossal composite figures and the model of a temple
tower of Babel, the latter being unique. For purposes of
the study of the mythology and culture of Mesopotamia the
collection of seals (upwards of three hundred in number) is
important.

" The whole collection of Hittite casts (thirty-eight) is
unique in America, and affords a basis for the study of the
history and civilization of this people who played such an
important part in the ancient history of the Orient.

" In the Grseco- Roman division rank foremost the Serpent
Column of Delphi and the reliefs of the pedestal of the Obe-
lisk, both from the Hippodrome in Constantinople. These
casts are unique.

" In the Buddhist section there are some fine images of
Buddha of carved wood and bronze, models of pagodas from
Japan, and a rare collection of musical instruments as well as
other religious implements from China.

" A rare piece of Mosaic representing a lion attacking a
horse, from an ancient temple in Carthage, also deserves
especial mention."

The varied collections grouped together in the department
of "Arts and Industries" are not readily summarized, but the
following statements of those having the most important
series in charge will be of interest :

"In the Section of Historical Collections," writes Mr. A.
Howard Clark, Honorary Curator, " are exhibited personal
relics of representative men and memorials of events and
places of historic importance. The nucleus of the collection
was the Washington relics transferred from the Patent Office
in 1883, and these still comprise the choicest of the his-
torical treasures, including, as they do, so many objects
intimately associated with General Washington during his
home life as well as military campaigns. Furniture, porce-
lain, glassware, and ornamental articles from Mount Ver-
non, Royal Worcester vases presented to him by Samuel

360 The Smithsonian Institution

Vaughan, the Martha Washington china, presented by Van
Braam, a beautiful Niederweiler bowl, personally presented
in I 792 by the Comte de Custine, and a nearly complete din-
ner service of Chinese-ware decorated with the insignia of
the Society of the Cincinnati ; and besides these, the tents,
camp chest, field-glass, and writing-case used by Wash-
ington durinor the War of the Revolution, as also miniature
portraits of the General and Martha Washington painted on
wood by the artist Trumbull,

" Next in importance to the Washington relics are the
almost priceless memorials of General Grant : the saddle,
sword, field-glasses, and other objects used by him during
his military career, all his commissions in the army from
Lieutenant by brevet during the Mexican War up through
the several grades to General, and his certificate as Presi-
dent of the United States ; handsomely mounted swords ; and
the great gold medal with which he was honored by Con-
gress for his military services ; many elegant gifts received
during his tour of the world, including the beautiful jade vase
and ornamented bell standard given him by Prince Kung of
China.

" By the side of these treasures are valuable gifts to Presi-
dents of the United States and to statesmen, soldiers, and
other representative Americans ; some Moorish guns highly
decorated with gold and coral, and a gold-mounted sword,
gifts to Thomas Jefferson from the Emperor of Morocco ;
jeweled and gold-scabbard swords presented by citizens of
States and cities for military bravery to General Ripley,
Commodores Elliott and Biddle, Admiral Trenchard, Gen-
erals Hancock, Paul, and others.

" Here, too, are exhibited the great gold medal presented
by Congress to Joseph Francis for his service to the world
as inventor of life-saving appliances ; the beautiful vase pre-
sented to Professor Baird by the Emperor of Germany as
the grand prize of the Berlin International Fishery Exhibi-
tion ; the silver urn from the citizens of Baltimore to Com-
modore John Rodgers for his services in defense of that city
during the War of 181 2 ; the garrison flag of Fort Moultrie

The United States National Museum 361

in December, 1 860, when that fort was evacuated by Anderson ;
the war saddle of Baron de Kalb, who gave his life for Ameri-
can independence ; the uniform worn by General Jackson at
the battle of New Orleans, and many other individual objects
of great historic value.

"A most instructive historic treasure is the Copp collection
of household objects and wearing apparel, illustrating the
home-life of the New England colonists from 1635 to the
period of the War of the Revolution, the gift of Mr. John
Brenton Copp.

" As a precious treasure in memory of the immortal Lin-
coln, there is the original plaster life-mask. Equally interest-
ing are the molds of the hands made by the sculptor Volk, in
i860, just prior to the nomination of Lincoln for President of
the United States.

"As a most conspicuous object, and a treasure as well, may
be mentioned the original full-size plaster model of ' Liberty '
by Crawford, from which was cast the bronze statue sur-
mounting the United States Capitol."

Of the Sections of Transportation, Engineering, and Naval
Architecture and Physical Apparatus, Mr. J. E. Watkins,
Curator, writes as follows :

" The collections in transportation, engineering, and naval
architecture, although not great in extent, are particularly
valuable on account of the historical interest of almost every
object which has been collected and is now on exhibition.
Notable among the objects is the cylinder of the first steam-
engine erected on the Western Continent, by Josiah Horn-
blower, in 1753, sixteen years before James Watt began his
investigations of the properties of steam. The museum has
also been fortunate in obtaining the original machinery of the
Stevens twin-screw propeller steam-boat, constructed and
operated in the year 1804, three years before Robert Fulton
operated the ' Clermont' on the Hudson River. The original
multitubular boiler of the Stevens locomotive of 1825, which

ran in Hoboken, New Jersey, four years before Stephenson's
24

3^2 The Smithsonian Institution

'Rocket,' also forms a part of this collection. A cylinder and
other portions of the locomotive 'Stourbridge Lion,' the first
locomotive built for traffic on the Western Continent, was
obtained several years ago through the cooperation of
Horatio Allen, who, in August, 1829, first ran this locomotive
near Honesdale, Pennsylvania. The series showing the de-
velopment of permanent way in America is unique, as are the
two collections of models showing the development of wheel
vehicles and machinery of the steamboats invented by Rumsey,
Fitch, Fulton, and Ericsson.

"The Ramsden dividing engine, used in the last century to
divide equally the circles of quadrants and other mathematical
instruments, which is the earliest machine of this kind extant,
also forms a part of the collection of apparatus. A very im-
portant and valuable recent addition to this section is the
seismological apparatus displayed at the World's Columbian
Exposition in the Japanese exhibit, and since presented to
the museum by that government.

"The electrical collections contain objects of extreme im-
portance and value. Among these may be mentioned one of
the first three large horseshoe electric magnets, wound and
experimented with by Henry, together with the battery, first
motor, and other similar appliances constructed by Henry
while in Princeton ; and the original telegraph apparatus in-
vented by Professor Morse. The original telegraph instru-
ment from which was received the historic message, ' What
hath God wrought,' in Baltimore, 1844, also forms part of this
collection, together with objects illustrating the beginnings
and development of the storage battery and electric incandes-
cent and arc lamps, and other electrical apparatus.

"The telephone which Johann Philipp Reis, of Frankfort,
invented in i860, is another object of much interest and
value."

The collection of Materia Medica is probably the most
complete and most carefully labeled collection of its kind ex-
hibited in any museum. It is very full in many directions,

SAT.MON POETLANI) CHASE.

FOURTH CITANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSOXIAX

INSTITUTIOX.
1864- 1873.

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The United States National Museum 363

and is especially rich in specimens of cinchona. Of the latter
series Doctor J. M. Flint, U. S. N., the Honorary Curator,
writes :

" I regard the collection of cinchona products as the most
important in the Materia Medica Section. This collection
embraces specimens of nearly all the natural cinchona barks
of South America, every variety of the cultivated product
from the government plantations in India, together with
most of the cultivated sorts from Java, Ceylon, Jamaica, and
Mexico. The India and Jamaica collections comprise also
herbarium specimens of the leaf and flower, and in many
cases the fruit of each variety of cinchona tree from which
the bark is taken."

Of the Section of Graphic Arts, Mr. S. R. Koehler writes :

"This Section was definitely organized in January, 1887,
although its beginning goes back to at least the year 1884.
From a very few specimens then on hand the collectors in
this section have increased to the number of five thousand
six hundred and twenty specimens at the present writing, but
as many of the entries on the catalogue cover more than one
specimen, it will be safe to say that the total number is about
six thousand.

"The aim of the Section is to illustrate the various pro-
cesses of making pictures by lines and masses, either black
or in colors, by hand, or with the aid of machinery, and the
application of these processes in the industrial arts. To
reach this aim, all the methods of making pictures that have
ever been essayed are eventually to be illustrated. — and many
of them are already illustrated, — by the tools and materials
used, by the product in the various stages of progress, and
by historical examples showing the development of each pro-
cess, from the invention to the present time."

In addition to the collections already noticed, the museum
possesses a good series of musical instruments, assembled

3^4 The Smithsonian Institution

under the immediate direction of Doctor Goode ; a collection
of porcelains, bronzes, and ivory carvings ; a large and va-
ried collection illustrating fisheries, which was brought to-
gether chiefly in connection with the Fisheries Exhibition of
Berlin and London ; a small forestry collection ; a collection
of foods ; a collection representing the utilization of industrial
products derived from animals ; a collection of fibers and tex-
tiles ; and a series of objects illustrating the chemical com-
position of the human body.

I have already alluded to the work done by the Museum
in the direction of supplying from its surplus the needs of
other scientific and educational establishments.

This undertaking was inaugurated at an early date, as I
have stated on a preceding page (page 323), and already
in 1866, at the end of the second decade of the Institution,
110,000 specimens from the collections had been distributed.
At the close of the fifth decade, in 1896, the number had
risen to 521,000 specimens. These included animals of every
class and many geological and mineralogical specimens and
plants.

Every State and Territory in the Union has received a share
of these collections, and numerous institutions outside the
United States have also been beneficiaries in the distribution.

The majority of these specimens were distributed without
demand for, or expectation of, a return ; but the National
Museum has received from other institutions in exchange for
the collections sent out a body of specimens amounting in all
to perhaps one-third the number distributed. Important ad-
ditions have been made to the Museum in this way, and,
indeed, its surplus collections, owing to the comparatively
small amounts available for purchases, have constituted its
chief capital. The system of exchanges, however, has its

The United States National Musenm 365

limitations, which are soon felt. Few institutions carry large
quantities of surplus material, and none, of course, dispose
of their most precious possessions. Exchange, therefore,
takes the place of purchase only to a limited extent.

The Smithsonian Institution has carried on the distribution
of surplus specimens from its own collections as a part of its
regular activities, having for their object the diffusion of
knowledge. The government has shown its acquiescence in
this policy, so far as the national collections are concerned,
by several enactments making appropriations for the work,
and in other ways.

In 1878 the Museum began the publication of a scientific
journal, which has become well known to the world of science
under the name of " Proceedings of the United States
National Museum." The object of this journal, as indicated
in the "advertisement" inserted in the volumes, is "the
prompt publication of freshly acquired facts relating to
biology, anthropology, and geology ; descriptions of re-
stricted groups of animals and plants; the settlement of par-
ticular questions relative to the synonymy of species, and the
diaries of minor expeditions." Eighteen volumes had been
published to the close of 1895, containing in all no fewer than
1 100 papers, comprising 12,056 printed pages. All the
papers relate directly or indirectly to the collections of the
Museum and serve to make them known to specialists. The
volumes include ^ a large share of the scientific publications
of the curators of the Museum, whose investigations have
very naturally been based for the most part on the collections
under their care. The "Proceedings" is a great store-
house of facts relating to natural histor)-, and especially in

1 With the " Bulletins " to be mentioned presently.
24*

366 The SrnitJisonian Institution

the field of systematic zoology, but the work of every depart-
ment of the Museum is reflected in its pages.

A few years before the establishment of the " Proceedings,"
in 1875, the Museum began the publication of a series of
monographic works, under the general title of the " Bulletin
of the United States National Museum," which in 1895 had
reached 49 numbers. This series does not differ essentially
in character from the " Proceedings," but comprises for the
most part works too large to be conveniently included in the
latter journal, and generally of a more comprehensive scope.

The regular series of both "Proceedings " and "Bulletin" are
in octavo, but the Museum has also published three numbers
of the latter series as " Special Bulletins" in quarto. Two
of these contain " Life Histories of North American Birds,
with special reference to their breeding habits and eggs," by
Major Bendire, and the third a treatise on "Oceanic Ichthy-
ology," by Doctor Goode and Doctor Tarleton H. Bean.

The Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution until 1884 consisted each year of a single volume
in which was included a statement of the operations of the
National Museum. The Report of 1884, however, and those
of subsequent years have been published in two volumes,
of which one is devoted exclusively to a statement of the
work of the Museum. In connection with the administrative
reports contained in these volumes have been published a
series of illustrated papers of a non-technical character de-
scriptive of various collections in the Museum. These papers
have the same interest for non-professional readers that the
technical papers in the " Proceedings" have for investigators,
and the demand for them reveals a widespread interest in
zoology, botany, anthropology, and those other subjects with
which the work of the Museum has been most closely con-
nected.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

By W J McGee

I^HE germ of the ethnological bureau was an
exploration of the canons of the Colorado
fostered by Joseph Henry, organizer of the
Smithsonian Institution. Begrun in amateur
■^S^ fashion among the Rocky Mountains during
the summer of 1867, by Major John W. Powell and a few
associates, the exploration was gradually pushed down the
tributaries to Grand River, then to the Green, and later to
the mud-tinted Colorado; and in 1869 the rugged gorge
of Green River and the fitly named "Grand" canon of the
Colorado were traversed by Powell and his intrepid com-
panions. This exploration was the boldest in design and
the most perilous in execution among the scientific expedi-
tions recorded in the annals of the nation.

Before, during, and after the passage of the canons, ob-
servations were extended over the country drained by the
rivers, and gradually the exploration became a survey, first
geographical, then geological, and finally anthropological.
At first the plan was simple and the work was prosecuted
at the cost of the surveyors ; as the difficulties increased the

plan was elaborated that they might be overcome, and a

367

368 The Smithsonian Institution

number of persons who had become interested in the work
contributed toward the means required for carrying it on ;
finally, in 1871, the Congress made an appropriation, to be
expended under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,
for continuing the explorations and surveys. Both before
and after this enactment, Professor Henry warmly encour-
aged the work and guided it by wise counsel. His aid is
commemorated, and will be so long as our language lives,
in a noble monument — the Henry mountains.

When the survey was organized under Congressional pro-
vision it was designated "The United States Geographical
and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region." The
work was placed in Major Powell's charge. In pursuing the
researches, much attention was given to the aboriginal in-
habitants, and extensive collections representing their arts,
languages, institutions, and beliefs were made, and the ob-
jects collected were preserved in the Smithsonian Institution.
On July I, 1874, the survey was transferred to the Depart-
ment of the Interior, while its plan was extended, though not
materially modified save that the anthropological researches
were made more prominent; and in 1876 a series of reports
on the Indians, entitled " Contributions to North American
Ethnology," was projected, with the concurrence of the Sec-
retary of the Smithsonian Institution, and during the ensu-
ing year two volumes of the series were published. At this
stage the work seemed to be definitely established under
federal auspices, and, in accordance with a wise and liberal
custom, the head of the Smithsonian Institution withdrew
from active investigation of the Indians and freely transferred
to the survey the rich collection of linguistic manuscripts
accumulated during the preceding thirty years.

At the opening of 1879 there were four organizations en-
gaged in surveys and researches in the Western Territories,

Buremt of American Ethnology 369

including the " Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountain Region ; " by an act of Congress approved
in March of that year the work was reorganized, and the
four bureaus were united in the United States Geological
Survey, while provision was made for continuing the an-
thropological researches under the direction of the Smithso-
nian Institution ; and Professor Spencer F. Baird, then
Secretary of the Institution, confided the direction of the
work to Major Powell. This was the beginning of the
Bureau of American Ethnology.

Appropriations for continuing the researches concerning
the American Indians at the cost of the federal government
and under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution have
since been made annually by Congressional action. The
new bureau at once began and has since continued the publi-
cation of annual reports, and also carried on the "Contribu-
tions to North American Ethnology " until the series was
brought to an end by the printing law of 1895 ! i" addition a
series of bulletins and certain special publications have been
issued.

On April I, 1880, Major Powell was made Director of the
United States Geological Survey, but continued in charge of
the bureau of ethnology, and devoted a part of his energies
to researches concerning the Indians. In 1893 his health was
precarious, and on July i of that year the writer was ap-
pointed Ethnologist in Charge. A year later Major Powell
resigned the control of the Geological Survey, but retained
that of the bureau, and has since devoted himself wholly to
the completion of the researches begun on the headwaters
of Rio Colorado in 1867.

In the original exploration, in the official survey of the
Rocky Mountain region, and later in the present bureau,
Powell pursued a liberal policy, with great enthusiasm, under

Z7^ The Smithsojiian Institution

which expert collaborators were enlisted, and the aid of men
of genius was sought ; and he, more than all others, realizes
that whatever of value may be found in the results of the
work is to be credited in great part to devoted collaborators,
some of whom gained international repute through researches
in the bureau, A few of the workers, like the Mindeleff
brothers, Jeremiah Curtin, and Doctor Walter J. Hoffman,
have turned into other paths, while Professor William H.
Holmes has gone to a position of honor for which his bureau
training was a preparation. Doctor Albert S. Gatschet and
Professor Cyrus Thomas have grown old in constant duty,
but retain their vigor and wealth of experience ; Frederick
Webb Hodge and J. N. B. Hewitt, James Mooney, and
Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson have grown up with the
bureau, and Frank Hamilton Gushing has spent half his
career in its service ; while Doctor J. Walter Fewkes has
recently been added to the corps. Henry W. Henshaw
broke in his prime, and his complete restoration is still
in the future ; Stevenson, Reynolds, Mallery, Dorsey, and
Pilling fell in harness, and live only in their works — their
names are enrolled in the fane of science.

When the bureau was instituted, the experience and the
tangible results of the preceding years of research were util-
ized by Director Powell in shaping its plan. It was recog-
nized that anthropology is a young and imperfectly organized
science ; it was also recognized that the subject matter of an-
thropology is more complex than that of any other science.
Accordingly it was deemed important to design and conduct
the researches in such manner as both to organize and diffuse
anthropological knowledge. Moreover, the American natives
were regarded as offering a field for research more extensive,
more clearly defined, more completely virgin, and more easily

Bureau of Afnerican Ethnology 3 7 1

wrought than any other within reach of students working
under governmental auspices; and from the beginning it was
the aim to cuhivate appreciatively this vast and fertile field,
and to join the anthropologists of the world in harvesting
improved and extended knowledge. Such was the primary
plan of the Bureau of American Ethnology — to found as
well as to extend the science of man.

When the researches began, certain general methods were
adopted. In accordance with the best scientific usage, re-
search began with actual observation on the ground ; recog-
nizing the complexity and elusiveness of human phenomena
and the fallibility of human perception, observations were
repeated and usually verified by others before acceptance ;
nothing was taken for granted, and even the most widely
accepted theories were held in abeyance until tested by
trained observers. As observations multiplied, they were
compared in order that relations might be discovered, and
ultimately the facts were grouped by relation. In this work
the several collaborators cooperated with the original stu-
dent, in order that the chance of erroneous grouping might
be reduced. When the detailed observations were of wide-
spread interest, they were published in part or in full ; when
they were of technical character, or for other reasons of in-
terest to few persons only (as in linguistics), only typical col-
lections were published, the mass being held for comparative
study. As research progressed the relations themselves were
compared and grouped, for the purpose of educing laws of
relation, or principles. This work was performed largely by
Director Powell, who not only originated, but constantly co-
ordinated the various lines of research ; though collaborators
were always encouraged to seek relations and educe princi-
ples, and to publish under their own names such results of
their work as were not inconsistent with those of other in-

372 The Smithsonian Institution

vestigators ; for it was recognized that research is best pro-
moted by encouraging the investigator. Such have been the
general methods in the bureau ; they are in no way pecuhar,
and are worthy of statement only as the basis on which the
researches of the bureau have always rested.

As the researches progressed the plan matured in special
methods growing out of special conditions. It was found
that the native Americans are grouped in tribes bearing dis-
tinct names, possessing more or less distinctive attributes,
and occupying more or less definite areas, so that in current
thought and in history the tribe had come to be regarded as
a primary ethnic unit ; and the work became accordingly an
investigation of American tribes. The questions asked by
anthropologists concerning the native tribes commonly run
in a certain order. The first demand is for definition or more
extended description ; the second is for the geographic posi-
tion or distribution of the tribe ; while the third is frequently
connected with the social and other relations of the tribes-
men ; somewhat less frequently questions arise concerning
the history and prospects of individual tribes, and ethical
questions of such character as to fall within the legitimate
domain of official inquiry occasionally arise. To all such
intellieent and definite demands for information it seemed
desirable to make answer, and thereby the special methods
of the bureau were shaped ; and, so far as conditions per-
mitted, the tribes have been classified, their distribution has
been determined, their organization and institutions have
been ascertained, and their history has been deciphered and
recorded. Yet it was recognized throughout that each tribe
is but a minute part of a great assemblage — the American
people ; and it has ever been sought to so shape the re-
searches as to contribute toward answering all legitimate in-
quiries concerning the relations of this important branch of

Bureau of American Ethnology zil

mankind among each other as individuals and tribes, as well
as to the other peoples of the world.

The operations have varied from time to time with condi-
tions, including official requirements, administrative necessi-
ties, and the demands of growing science. The most potent
of these conditions in shaping the operations of the bureau
was an official demand to which the institution of the bureau
was a partial response. Statesmen and administrative offi-
cers concerned with placing the Indians on reservations felt
the need of a practical classification of the Indian tribes under
which they might be arranged in amicable groups; this need
was urged on Major Powell while Director of the Rocky
Mountain Survey, and the anthropological researches of the
survey were bent to meet it ; and when provision was made
for continuing the work it was understood that the primary
duty of the new bureau should be the classification of the
Indian tribes for practical as well as for scientific purposes.
One of the effects of this requirement was to give a name to
the office, which thus came to be designated a bureau of eth-
nology ; another effect was to confine the early operations of
the bureau to the United States, though it was planned
by statesmen to extend operations over North America
at the outset and finally over the hemisphere, and the terms
of the law were fixed in accordance with this purpose. The
most profound and far-reaching effect of the plan was the
rapid development and early application of a mode of classi-
fication, which has guided the subsequent operations of the
bureau. In the infancy of anthropology the races of men
were classed by color of skin, character of hair, form of
cranium, attitude of eyes, and other corporeal or physical
features; even before the creation of the bureau certain an-
thropologists, notably Gallatin in the second quarter of the
century, realized that, while the American aborigines may

374 The Smithsonian Institution

perhaps be discriminated collectively on the physical basis,
the tribes, the confederacies into which they are sometimes
united, and the clans and gentes of which they are composed,
are defined by purely human attributes growing out of the
preeminently intellectual character of mankind. The studies
of the Rocky Mountain Survey had shown that the human
attributes are essentially collective, at once the product and
parent of cooperation among individuals ; and hence that the
classific unit among mankind is not the individual, as among
lower animals, but the cooperative group. When the force
of the official demand for a practical classification of the
Indians was felt, and it was recognized that a physical classi-
fication was incompetent, the collective or demotic characters
were carefully considered; and it was soon perceived that
the tribes of identical belief are commonly harmonious, and
might safely be grouped on reservations; it was also found
that similarity in institutions usually accompanies similarity
in belief and conduces to harmonious relation; and it was
found too that similarity in arts prepares the way for pacific
association. Further study showed that tribes having related
arts commonly spoke related tongues, that tribes of related
institutions almost invariably spoke cognate dialects, and that
similarity in belief was always accompanied by close similarity
or identity in speech. Thus it was ascertained that the tribes
might be classified roughly by arts, more definitely by insti-
tutions, and with sufficient refinement for all practical pur-
poses by beliefs ; and at the same time that language is
equally useful with belief as a basis for classification, while
its data are more easily obtained. Accordingly the linguistic
classification was adopted ; and through the aid of collabo-
rators and correspondents material pertaining to the native
languages was rapidly collected.

Through administrative necessities each collaborator has

Buremi of American Ethnology 375

been compelled to distribute his energies among" different
tribes, often among different stocks; for it has never been
deemed wise by statesmen interested in the work to maintain
a force sufficiently large to permit the assignment of a col-
laborator to each tribe, confederacy, or stock. In consequence
the collaborators became specialists in departments of re-
search concerning matters common to many or all tribes,
some in linguistics, others in arts, still others in institutions
and beliefs. It was soon noted that this differentiation in
labor on the part of the anthropologists reflected a differen-
tiation in activity among the aborigines; and it was found
convenient to recognize formally this original differentiation
and classify the work of the bureau thereby. Foremost among
these, not only as the basis of all the others but in immediate
importance, is language, including speech and the germ of
writing; second in order of development and importance
come the arts, esthetic and industrial; next in order are insti-
tutions; and perhaps youngest in origin and most interesting
to thoughtful investigators are beliefs. These categories
of activities are characteristic of all mankind, and have been
called the humanities by Major Powell and some other stu-
dents; they correspond with the chief lines of research in the
bureau of ethnology.

At the outset it was the intention to devote energy largely
or exclusively to researches among living tribes and tribal
remnants in order that rapidly passing facts might be seized,
and little attention was given to the more permanent relics
of prehistoric art. In 1881 the Congress was petitioned to
so enlarge the scope of the bureau as to include a study of
the archaeology of the United States ; and without the know-
ledge of the Secretary of the Institution, or the Director of
the Bureau, an item making the requisite provision was
added to the law. Under this specific official requirement.

Z1^ The Smithsonian Institution

researches concerning the prehistoric works of the country
were undertaken.

Much efifort has been devoted to investigation of the rela-
tions of the Indians among each other and to different peo-
ples, partly with the view of facilitating collateral researches.
Various methods and criteria of classification have been
tested in the different departments of ethnology, and new
methods and new criteria have been devised. These com-
parisons and studies have resulted in the adoption of a gen-
eral classific method in which the phenomena are grouped
first by origin or genetic relation, and second by conditions
of development. Always at the beginning and sometimes at
the end of an investigation important relations are unknown,
when it is necessary to adopt arbitrary classific systems based
on any convenient criteria; but it is the aim to replace
the arbitrary systems by natural arrangements whenever the
state of knowledge permits. On this basis the object-matter
(the Indians) and the subject-matter (the knowledge) of the
bureau's researches are classified.

The first demand for a practical classification of the Indian
tribes was met by grouping the Indians north of Mexico and
a part of those occupying the territory of that republic in
fifty-nine linguistic stocks (or families), each usually compris-
ing a number of tribes. These stocks, with the approximate
number of tribes in each, are shown in the accompany-
ing table. This classification of the American Indians was
originally published in the seventh annual report of the bu-
reau, and has been generally adopted in encyclopedias, text-
books, and other standard works relating to the American
aborio^ines in this and other countries.

Bureau of Americmt Ethnology

Z11

INDIAN STOCKS OF NORTH AMERICA, NORTH OF CENTRAL MEXICO.

Algonquian 36

Athapascan 53

Attacapan 2

Beothukan i

Caddoan 9

Chimakuan ........ 2

Chimarikan 2

Chimmesyan 8

Chinookan 11

Chitimachan i

Chumashan 6

Coahuiltecan 22

Copehan 22

Costanoan 5

Eskimauan 70

Esselenian i

Iroquoian 13

Kalapooian 8

Karankawan i

Keresan 17

Kiovvan i

Kitunahan 4

Koluschan 12

Kulanapan 30

Kusan 4

Lutuamian 4

Mariposan 24

Moquelumnan 35

Muskhogean 9

Nahuatlan ?

Natchesan 2

Palaihnihan 8

Piman 7

Pujunan 26

Quoratcan 3

Salinan 2

Salishan 64

Sastean i

Serian 3

Shahaptian 7

Shoshonean 12

Sioiian 68

Skittagetan 17

Takilman i

Tanoan 14

Timuquanan 60

Tonikan 3

Tonkawan i

Uchean i

Waiilatpuan 2

Wakashan 37

Washoan i

Weitspekan 6

Wishoskan 3

Yakonan 4

Yanan i

Yukian 5

Yuman 9

Zunian i

While this classification of the tribes is immediately and
ostensibly based on linguistic characters, it has a much
deeper significance than might appear at first glance. In
the first place, the linguistic characters have been found to
be interrelated with other characters, including those ex-
pressed in arts, industries, institutions, and beliefs, and were
used in the classification only because, of the essentially
collective or demotic features of the Indians, they were most
easily ascertained. In the second place, the several cate-

37^ The Smithsoitian Institution

gories of characters represented by language have been
found, through study of traditions and direct survivals, to
express the actual phylogenic development of the tribes and
stocks. Accordingly each linguistic character is treated not
merely as an external adventive feature, but as a product
of evolution, a record of the past, and a precursor of the
future. The classification of American Indians devised and
applied by the bureau is accordingly a condensed expres-
sion of the sum of present knowledge concerning the origin
and development of the native American people.

It has been ascertained that certain words in American
languages are related in meaning to words of similar sound
in transoceanic tongues ; that the arrow of America is like
that of the Orient and other parts of the world, not only in
general form and function, but even in symbolic markings;
that certain hieroglyphics of the Occident are similar to those
of Egypt and the East in form and significance ; that the
calendar of Mexico duplicates in essential features the cal-
endars of India and Arabia ; that some social customs of
America resemble those of Africa and Australia; and that the
beliefs and ceremonials of the American aborigines simulate
and sometimes exactly repeat those of India, China, and other
countries. These parallelisms in the intellectual products of
mankind have carefully been considered and weighed in the
effort to trace general ethnic relation, and it has been found
that in the vast majority of cases they cannot be regarded as
indicating connection among peoples, and seem rather to in-
dicate a law of mental action — the law that different minds
of equal capacity respond similarly to like stimuli. This con-
clusion is expressed in different publications, notably a chap-
ter by Powell entitled "On Activital Similarities" in the
third annual report, and appears to be generally accepted
among American anthropologists.

Bureau of Americaji Ethnology 379

The linguistic researches and the classification of the native
tribes by the bureau may be considered the continuation of
the admirable work of Gallatin, who in 1836 published a
" Synopsis of the Indian Tribes ... in North America," ^ in
which eighty-one tribes belonging to twenty-eight families
were enumerated. Even more closely were the researches
connected with the plan communicated to the Smithsonian
Institution in 1851 by Professor William W. Turner; for it
was in accordance with this plan that the earlier linguistic
collections were made under the auspices of the Institution,
while these collections formed the nucleus of the material
conveyed to the Rocky Mountain Survey and inherited by
the bureau. Time has shown the wisdom of Professor Tur-
ner's plan, a part of which is worthy of repetition :

" Let the writer . . . describe the particular language un-
der consideration ; let all fanciful comparisons with Hebrew,
Greek, etc., be excluded. Each grammar should note the
dialectical peculiarities of the language of which it treats, and
also the changes that may be taking place in it — that is to say,
such as have been observed by the whites since they have
been familiar with it, and especially such as are indicated by
differences in the speech of old and young persons. To each
grammar should be appended one or more specimens of com-
position in the language, with an interlinear English transla-
tion. For the purpose of comparison, the parable of the
Prodigal Son is superior on many accounts to the Lord's
Prayer, although it would be well to give both. But it is
very desirable that to these should be added some origi-
nal production of the native mind, — some speech, fable,
legend, or song, — that it may afford samples of aboriginal
modes of thought as well as of expression. It seems strange
that so apparently obvious and easy a means of obtaining an
insight into the workings of the mind of rude nations, which

1 " Archajologia Americana," Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian
Society, Worcester, 1836, Volume 11, pages 1-422.

380 The Smithsonian Institution

would prove of the highest interest to the philosophical
inquirer, should have been hitherto almost entirely over-
looked." ^

So far as native speech is concerned, the methods and pur-
poses thus set forth have been pursued, and the linguistic
material has been collected not only for linguistic purposes,
but as a means for the interpretation of the primitive mind ;
indeed the plan has been modified only by extending it to
sign-language, pictography, hieroglyphics, decoration, paint-
ing, and tattooing.

The material in possession of the bureau representing the
speech of the American aborigines is vast. During the
seventeen years of its existence a considerable part of its
energies has been devoted to the collection of such material;
five quarto volumes of " Contributions " and two octavo
volumes of" Bulletins" relating exclusively to Indian vocabu-
laries, grammars, and texts have been published, besides nine
volumes of a "Bibliography of the Indian Languages," and
various special papers and chapters have been devoted to the
same subject; yet the greater part of the linguistic collections
remain unpublished, though in constant use. The catalogue
of linguistic manuscripts, some of which are extensive, reaches
1533 titles, including 332 transferred by the Smithsonian
Institution in 1876. The greater part of the material used
in classifying the fifty-nine stocks and over eight hundred
tribes above enumerated was collected by collaborators of
the bureau. No other linguistic collection of comparable
extent and variety is known to exist ; and since the ma-
terial was recorded in large part by trained linguists, and
since all the languages and stocks represent a widely dis-
tributed people in the simpler stages of intellectual develop-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1852, Appendix, page 100.

Btireait of American Ethnology 381

ment, the bureau collection is invaluable to students of the
origin and growth of language. The special treatises by
J. Owen Dorsey, Doctor Gatschet, and other collaborators
are well known to the students of all countries ; the more
comprehensive results are set forth in preliminary form only
in Powell's "Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages"
and in the earlier reports; yet these studies indicate many of
the laws and conditions of linguistic development from early
savagery well into barbarism.

The subject of sign-language was taken up soon after the
institution of the bureau, and was vigorously pursued for
some years, especially by Colonel Garrick Mallery. It was
ascertained that this is a veritable art of expression, logically
coordinate with lingual utterance, and perhaps of equal im-
portance in the formative stage of language. The signs were
originally demonstrative or mimetic, though many of them
were developed into partially denotive symbols. By the use
of these symbols the Indians were able not only to exchange
intelligence at distances, but also to communicate with each
other despite differences in dialects, and indeed, since the
signs were less completely differentiated than the phonetic
symbols, even when the speakers belonged to distinct stocks.

As the Indian spanned space by signals, so also he sought
to bridge time by means of symbols painted or carved or
embossed on the faces of cliffs or other suitable surfaces ; and
thus, long before the advent of white men, the aborigines
entered the stage of graphic expression. This subject also
was studied by Director Powell, Colonel Mallery, Doctor
Hoffman, and others. Some indications were found that
pictographic and decorative art sprang from the same ill-
defined stem, but early became differentiated ; and many in-
dications were found that, while originally demonstrative and
mimetic, the rude symbols of pictography soon began to
25*

3^2 The Smithsonian Instihition

acquire a denotive meaning, and some of them became
almost arbitrary. Colonel Mallery's memoir on this subject,
forming the body of the tenth annual report, has been favor-
ably received in this and other countries. The researches
in pictography illustrate the mode of origin of graphic art,
both linguistic and decorative ; and the laws and stages of
development exemplified by both signals and pictographs
are in harmony with those illustrated in the development of
speech.

The development of decorative art, which has been investi-
gated by Professor Holmes and others, has been found mea-
surably coincident with that of pictography on the one hand
and that of hieroglyphics on the other, though the designs,
always more or less definitely symbolic at the outset, were
modified to fit the conditions residing in the medium or sur-
face by which they were displayed. For this reason symbols
carved on arrow-shafts became elongated, and symbols repre-
sented by patterns in woven fabrics became angular, while
one of the consequences of the use of symbols in decoration
was the development of arbitrary forms and the strengthen-
ing of the denotive tendency. Of the score of reports re-
lating to this subject, that prepared by Professor Holmes in
1885 is, perhaps, the most noteworthy.^ The influence of
decorative art on the development of writing cannot be neg-
lected, and the results of the researches concerning decoration
are in accord with those flowing from the study of phonetic
symbolism.

In certain groups, notably the Nahuatlan and Mayan, pic-
tography was so well advanced at the time of the discovery
that the symbols were conventionalized, sometimes into ideo-
grams and phonograms, though some retained the original

1 "A Study of the Textile Art in its Relation to the Development of Form and Orna-
ment," in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1888, pages 189-252.

Bureau of American Ethnology 383

pictorial character, so that an inchoate hieroglyphic system
existed among the Indians. As the investigation of speech,
sign-language, and pictography progressed, it was found de-
sirable to extend observation to the more highly developed
native autographic records in the form of codices and carvings
and paintings. The studies were conducted chiefly by Doctor
Thomas ; and several memoirs, relating in large part to the
native calendar system, have been published. In three of
these a system of interpreting hieroglyphics was set forth and
applied ; ^ another showed conclusively, for the first time, that
the Maya year includes a bissextile ; ^ while a memoir now in
press elucidates the calendar more fully, and indicates the
derivation and significance of the day symbols. The Ameri-
can hieroglyphics are especially important as marking the
beginning of a definite art of graphic expression, thus throw-
ing light on the critical stage in the development of writing.
The laws of linguistic development discovered in the hiero-
glyphics are in accord with those educed from the study of
speech, sign-language, pictography, and decoration.

The researches concerning the development of speech and
the beginning of graphic art have served to define an im-
portant transitional stage in the growth of culture. Among
enlightened peoples thought is crystallized and perpetuated
by means of arbitrary characters which are combined in
words, sentences, sums, and formulas, in such manner as to
express ideas clearly and simply ; while among primitive
peoples thought is crystallized and perpetuated largely by
means of arbitrary and often incongruous associations. The
researches have shown that the prescriptorial mode of

1 " Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican of the Manuscript Troano," in Contribu-

Manuscripts," in Third Annual Report of the lions to North American Ethnolog)^ Volume

Bureau of Ethnology, 1884, pages 3-65; v, part 3, 1882.

" Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices," in 2 Thomas, Cyrus. " The Maya Year," in

Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Bulletin No. 18 of the Bureau of Ethnology

Ethnology, 1888, pages 253-371 ; "A Study issued in 1894.

3^4 The Smithsonian Institntion

thought ^ is essentially distinct from that characteristic of the
stage of writing; that few civilized men have learned to grasp
primitive thought ; and that no primitive man grasps civilized
thought save at the end of a civilizing process. Indeed it
would appear that it is this diversity in mode of thought
rather than differences in arts, industries, institutions, and
beliefs, more indeed than all other things combined, that
separates primitive man from civilized.

Practically all the American tribes were in the domiciliary
stage when the continent was discovered ; and, while most
of them occupied temporary or portable habitations, some
resided in permanent villages, sometimes dominated by
temples, council-houses, and barbaric palaces. The vari-
ous types of structure have been investigated ; the Iroquois
long-house and the Siouan camp circle — products and ex-
ponents of social law — have been studied in detail ; Casa
Grande, the stateliest and best preserved prehistoric house in
the United States, has been described and illustrated,^ and
means have been adopted for its preservation ; the skin
lodges of the plains, the bark-thatched wigwams of the east-
ern forests, the snow houses of the Arctic, the earth lodges
of the northern interior, the brush tipis of the Cordilleran
valleys, the cactus-protected grass houses of the Southwest,
have been examined ; the cliff houses of the western canons,
the cavate dwellings of the mesas, and the stone-walled or
adobe villages of the arid region, have been made known and
classified as to type and function ; while the great mounds and
extensive earthworks of the Mississippi valley and other
portions of the continent have been subjected to survey in
the field and comparative study in the office. A noteworthy
report of the bureau is the memoir on American houses and

1 Defined in the Thirteenth Annual Re- 2 « Casa Grande Ruin," in Thirteenth An-

port of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1896, pages nual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,
22-24. 1896, pages 289-319.

Bureau of American Ethnology 385

house-life^ by Lewis H. Morgan, whose epoch-making re-
searches concerning the social organization of primitive peo-
ples marked him as a founder of demotic science; and the
monograph on mounds and earthworks^ by Doctor Thomas
was the first complete demonstration of the relations of the
long mysterious " mound-builders." The Mindeleff brothers
and the Stevensons, as well as Professor Holmes and Mr.
Cushine, also contributed much to knowledcre of the native
architecture of the Southwest through a dozen memoirs
published in the reports.

One of the earliest lines of study related to aboriginal cos-
tumery ; and it has been ascertained that the material, form,
and construction of dress interacted constantly with artistic
and other concepts. The relation between dress and deco-
ration was pointed out by Holmes, who in a recent publi-
cation showed also that the prehistoric fabrics from caves
and mounds were essentially similar to the fabrics found in
use by the white discoverers.^ The researches indicate that
the construction of articles of dress depends primarily on ma-
terial, yet at the same time reflects the culture-status of the
dressmakers, thus expressing the intimacy of connection
between local culture-grade and local environment.

When the Colorado was explored, and afterward when the
bureau was instituted, much time and energy were devoted to
the study of aboriginal handicraft through direct observation
followed by comparison ; it was soon found that the infer-
ences of civilized students concerning the manufacture and
use of primitive implements are frequently erroneous, since
primitive thought is unlike cultured thought; and accordingly

1" Houses and House-Life of the Amer- nual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,

ican Aborigines," in Contributions to North 1894, pages 3-730-

American Ethnology, Volume iv, 1881 (a 3 « Prehistoric Textile Art of the Eastern

compleuient to his "Ancient Society"). United States," in Thirteenth Annual Re-
s'' Report on the Mound Explorations of port of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1896, pages

the Bureau of Ethnology," in Twelfth An- 3-49-

386 The Smithsonian Institution

it was found desirable to transfer that branch of technology
relating to primitive implements and weapons from a specu-
lative to an observational basis. The work in this direction
shaped the later operations of the bureau, and laid the foun-
dation for most of the researches in archaeology. Notable
contributions to the scientific study of native American tech-
nology have been made by Professor Holmes, Doctor Thomas,
and Mr. Gushing. Through the researches of these and other
investigators it has been shown that native American art is
essentially a unit, and that while more or less distinct phases
sometimes overlap, the chronologic differences are no greater
than the geographic differences found in passing from one
portion of the continent to another. In brief, the researches
indicate that at the time of the discovery the American peo-
ple were in the stone age, though approaching the non-smelt-
ing age of metal ; and that this age was indivisible, each of
the known tribes making and using both crude and finished
stone tools.

Incidentally it has been shown that study of the handicraft
of primitive people affords the only key to prehistoric art,
and that foreign inferences as to culture stages are inappli-
cable to the western hemisphere.

The native domestic wares have received much attention.
The Stevensons, the Mindeleff brothers, and other collabo-
rators made extensive collections of pottery, particularly in
the Southwest, and these have been supplemented by the un-
precedentedly rich collections of prehistoric ware made by
Doctor Fewkes ; and the collections have been successfully
studied by Professor Holmes,^ who has thereby traced the
development of decoration, and by Doctor Fewkes, who has
traced the growth of the mythic symbolism of the pue-

1 Professor Holmes' investigations are Bureau of Ethnology, pages 3-152, and on
summarized in memoirs on aboriginal stone aboriginal pottery, accomjianying the Six-
art, in the Fifteenth Annual Report of the teenlh Annual Report (in press).

Bureau of American Ethnology z'^1

bios ; ^ while Gushing has worked out several important stages
in the development of the potter's art and of the associated
symbolism.^ The art of basketry is in many ways allied to
that of pottery, and the decorative designs are alike signifi-
cant. Much information has been gathered also concerning
wooden-ware and gourd-ware. The researches show that
the domestic arts of America are indigenous and essentially
a unit, and that the art products cover the entire range from
middle or lower savagery up to the borderland of feudal-
ism. Fully a score of memoirs published in the reports deal
with this subject.

In connection with the researches relating to native imple-
ments, weapons, and utensils, inquiry was made concerning
the sources of the materials employed in the arts. As these
inquiries were pushed, it was found that extensive quarrying
and mining operations were conducted by the Indians in dif-
ferent parts of the country. Several collaborators were en-
gaged in the work, notably Professor Holmes, who explored
extensive aboriginal quarries on the Atlantic slope and in the
interior, and examined the remarkable mines for copper on
Lake Superior and for gold and mica in the Appalachians.

Researches concerning prehistoric works have recently
been extended into Florida, chiefly by Mr. Gushing, and have
been rewarded by the most remarkable discoveries in the
history of American archaeology ; evidence has been found
that the keys and coastal lowlands skirting the Gulf below
the twenty-seventh parallel have been occupied, raised by
ramparts of shells, indeed artificialized, by a powerful and
well-organized sea-faring people; and the abundant imple-
ments, weapons, fabrics, and ceremonial objects found in the

1 Doctor Fewkes' results are incorporated 2 "A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustra-

in the Seventeenth Annual Report of the tive of Zuni Culture Growth," in Fourth An-

Bureau of Ethnology (in press), and general nual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,

papers in the Smithsonian Reports. 1886, pages 473-521.

388 The Smithsonian Instihition

rampart-protected bogs afford a striking record of the char-
acteristics of the people.

The games of the Indians have been carefully studied by
several collaborators, and have been found to illustrate the
natural history of amusement, and thus to form a basis for
the science of esthetology. The simpler games have been
found to be mimetic ; commonly the diversion mimics the in-
dustry, whether it be the care of children or house on the part
of the girl, or hunting, fighting, and racing on the part of the
boy ; while other games imitate social and religious obser-
vances. Some of the simplest amusements remain purely
diversional ; others develop into elaborate games and arts of
pleasure. An important factor in modifying native games
grows out of the mythologic tendency of the Indian mind ;
objects and forces which are not understood are deemed
" mysterious " (transcendental or supernatural, so far as civil-
ized language can express primitive concept), and thus the
result of a throw, a race, or a shot is ascribed to fate, and
througrh association effort comes to be reg^arded as an invo-
cation. In this way the organized games become divinatory.
This curious relation is well brought out in different publica-
tions by Mr. Gushing, Mr. Mooney, and Mrs. Stevenson, and
in a recent memoir by Doctor Hoffman which deals with
Indian jugglery.^ Other lines of esthetic development lead
toward graphic expression, and thus blend with decoration
and eventually with pictorial and conventional symbolism, in
which there is always a mythologic or divinatory element, as
shown by Doctor Fewkes.

Major Powell's researches among the Indians of the Rocky
Mountain region led to the discrimination of certain stages in
the development of social organization. The most fundamen-

1 "The Menomini Indians," in Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,
1896, pages 3-328. See also ibid., pages li-liv.

Bureau of American Ethnology 389

tal distinction brought to light was that between tribal society,
which is organized on the basis of actual or assumed kinship,
and national society, which springs from altruism and is com-
monly organized on a territorial basis. As the researches
progressed it was ascertained that tribal society, as exempli-
fied by the American Indians and other primitive peoples,
comprises two stages : in the earlier stage, commonly styled
savagery, kinship is reckoned in the female line, and the
kindred are grouped in clans ; in the second stage, which
corresponds with barbarism as properly defined, kinship is
reckoned in the male line, and the customary group of kindred
is a gens. Both clans and gentes are grouped in tribes, and
these groups may be combined in confederacies.-^

Nearly all of the American Indians belong to the tribal
stage of society, though it would appear that the germ of
feudal organization existed among some Mexican and Cen-
tral American peoples, and was fairly matured in Peru at the
time of discovery. Circumstances have thus far prevented
detailed study of the most advanced social organizations, but
the lower types have received much attention. Most of the
tribes of the United States have been found to follow the clan
system, though many are gentile ; it has been ascertained
that the chieftaincy is usually hereditary, in clans or gens,
and elective or selective among the individuals of the group
on the basis of actual or assumed seniority. The greater
part of the material accumulated and used in these studies
is incorporated in a manuscript "Cyclopedia of Indian
Tribes," now in preparation for the press chiefly by Mr.
Hodge, though memoirs bearing on the subject have been
published in several reports.

Soon after the researches among the Rocky Mountain In-

1 The earlier results of this work are summarized in the Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology, 1SS4, pages xxxv-lxii.

390 The SiJiithsonian Institution

dians began, Morgan's classic work on "Systems of Consan-
guinity and Affinity of the Human Family " ^ was published,
and the principles enumerated therein were carefully sub-
mitted to the test of field observation during several succes
sive seasons ; and when the bureau was instituted a part of
the researches followed the lines indicated in Morgan's trea-
tise. In this way a large body of material relating to abo-
riginal kinship systems was accumulated and was utilized in
the definition of stages in social development. It was ascer-
tained that, while primarily real, the recognized kinship
among primitive peoples is in part assumed, and that this
assumption of kinship has far-reaching consequences, too
numerous and complex for summary statement.

During the progress of the anthropological researches of
the Rocky Mountain Survey, Major Powell ascertained that
the Indians have a system of tribal laws which are notably
fair, comprehensive, and efficient. In the absence of writing
there are no statutes, yet through the intricate system of pre-
scriptorial association the laws are perpetuated almost as
completely as, and inculcated much more generally than, the
statutes of civilized peoples ; in nearly all tribes the code was
crystallized in the tribal organization, in the names of indi-
viduals and groups, in kinship and marital relations, in form
of salutation, in the position of individuals about the camp-
fire and of camps in the group, in the points of the compass,
in colors, in symbols on arrow-shaft or garment or habita-
tion, and in many other ways. When the bureau was insti-
tuted, aboriginal law was found to form a fruitful field for re-
search, and much information was collected. On comparing
the facts discovered among many tribes, it was ascertained
that the legal system of the Indians, while varying from place
to place and from stage to stage in degree of development*

1 "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," 1871, Volume xvii.

Bureau of American Ethnology 391

and while often singularly elaborate in plan and execution,
rests on a simple and definite basis; the primary purpose of
all Indian law is to prevent or settle dispute, and thus to
promote peace and the welfare of the group. ^

When the bureau was instituted Director Powell gave
careful attention to the subject of marriage, and ascertained
that in America the forms known as endogamy and exogamy
are simply two aspects of the same custom. In most tribes
the laws relating to marriage are strict, and are regulated
and enforced with prohibitions ; and, while the regulations
vary, it is a generally observed law that a man may not
marry in his own clan, but must marry in his own tribe, when
the marriage is commonly arranged by the council ; so that
the clan is exogamous, while the tribe is endogamous. Ac-
cordingly, so far as the American Indians are concerned,
endogamy and exogamy are correlative terms, useful in de-
scription, but not expressing distinct stages in development.
It was found that the regulations concerning marriage in the
different tribes tend toward complexity, and that various de-
vices are adopted to prevent them from becoming unduly
onerous and inimical to tribal welfare : thus a prohibited mar-
riage may be effected through elopement when, if the elopers
are able to avoid vengeance for some period, the offense is
condoned, and the couple eventually join the proper clan or
gens ; in some cases provision is made for settling rival
claims to the hand of a woman by wager of battle ; and in
some cases there are regulations relating to marriage by cap-
ture, in which the ordinary prohibition is suspended. A result
of the researches relatinof to marriao-e amonof the Indians is
the discovery that the blending of clans, the union of gentes,
the confederation of tribes, and in general the combination

1" Wyandot Government," in First Aiimial Bureau of Ethnology, 1S84, page Ivii. "On
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1881, Regimentation," Fifteenth Annual Report of
pages S7~69- Third Annual Report of the the Bureauof Ethnology, i897,pagesciv-cxxi.

392 The Smithsonian Institution

and demotic development of the people were brought about
through intermarriage, partly spontaneous, partly regulated
by common law, and sometimes adopted by leaders to termi-
nate intertribal strife. ^

The idea of property right was inchoate among the
American aborigines, though moderately developed among
the cultured people of the tropics and still clearer among
some of the tribes in the Arctic, the natural home of thrift ;
and the many stages in development exemplified among the
tribes have offered opportunity for making much progress
toward elucidating the natural history of property right.
The subject was extensively treated by Director Powell, with
primitive law and marriage customs, in several early reports.

The initial researches showed that the distinction between
opinions and beliefs among the Indians is vague, and does
not agree with that found among cultured peoples. As the
work progressed it was ascertained that the Indian philoso-
phy and belief are fundamentally mystical. Among many
tribes objects are vaguely supposed to have mysterious
doubles in a vague ideal counterpart of the actual world, and
the unknown is invested with shadowy and illimitable po-
tency; and all of the Indians so far investigated carefully
have been found to be mystics. The all-pervading "mys-
tery" of Indian belief is hardly susceptible of definite trans-
lation into civilized language, since the concept pertains to
the prescriptorial stage of thought. Several stages in the
development of the primitive belief have been discovered
and subjected to comparative study, chiefly by Powell, and
thereby light has been thrown on the natural history of so-
phiology. The earliest clearly defined stage is that in which
mysterious potencies are imputed to all objects, inanimate

1 "Tribal Marriage Law," in Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1884,

pages Ivi-lxii.

Bureau of American Ethnology 393

and animate; this has been called hecastotheism. In the
second definite stage the mysterious potency is limited gen-
erally to animate forms, though sometimes extending to plants
and rarely to inorganic things ; this has been called zoothe-
ism. Most of the tribes were in the higher of these stacjes,
and their belief was bound up with every-day conduct and
social organization in curious fashion. One expression of
the belief was found in the clan nomenclature: nearly every
clan or gens bore the name of an animal tutelary, and a picture
of, or conventional symbol representing this animal was used
as a clan totem. Some of the tribes were found to have
advanced partly into the third stage of belief, in which the
forces of nature are personified or deified; this is physithe-
ism. Contrary to a popular notion originating in the se-
cretiveness and shrewdness of the Indians with respect to
matters of belief, it was ascertained that none of the native
peoples thus far studied with care have advanced to the stage
of spiritual concepts, or of psychotheism. With the qualifi-
cations and limitations thus implied, all of the American
tribes have been found to be polytheistic. Numerous publi-
cations relating to this line of work, in which several collabo-
rators aided, have been issued ; notably Powell's " Sketch of
the Mythology of the North American Indians,"^ the basis of
the later work.

The beliefs of the Indians are crystallized in symbols and
ceremonials, which are often highly elaborate. The simpler
symbols, or fetiches, usually represent zoic deities ; these are
adored through the symbols which, although held to be
sacred, are not in themselves objects of worship. Commonly
the fetiches are crude, vaguely suggesting, through pre-
scriptorial association, the characteristics ascribed to the
deities; among some tribes the beast-gods are more defi-

1 First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, i88l, pages 19-56.
26

394 TJie Smithso7iia7t Institution

nitely represented by carvings and paintings, often in the
form of masks ; among the Pueblo people and the advanced
tribes of Mexico and Peru the deities were considered an-
thropomorphic or zoomorphic at will, and were sometimes
represented by idols of human form, either normal or mon-
strous, symbolizing the personages of the barbaric pantheon.
The more important symbols are intrusted to shamans or
priests, who become sacred through association, and are
kept in sacred places, sometimes developed into temples ;
among many tribes the priesthood is an important and even
dominant class. The simpler rights appear in every-day
conduct; higher ceremonials are oblations in the presence of
the fetiches, and these culminate in sacrifice of property, or
of animal and even human life. The ordinary ceremonial is
individual, but among the tribes investigated there are elab-
orate collective ceremonials usually extending over several
days, and occurring several times annually. In general, the
Indians are profoundly devout believers, whose faith controls
action in greater degree than is realized in higher culture.

Under the terms of law the collections made by the bureau
are transferred to the United States National Museum ; and
it has been found convenient and profitable to maintain inti-
mate relations with that branch of the Institution and con-
stantly to base the laboratory researches on the anthropologi-
cal material from all sources stored in the museum. Exten-
sive collections have been made directly for the enrichment
of the museum as an assemblage of objective material re-
lating to the American Indians. The collections made by
Director Powell while in charge of the Rocky Mountain
Survey are particularly noteworthy ; they comprise imple-
ments and weapons, costumery, gaming devices, symbolic
and ceremonial objects, and are especially rich in native veg-
etal food-substances ; they may be considered to form the

Bureau of Atfierican Ethnology 395

nucleus of the ethnologic department of the museum. Ample
collections were made also by the Stevensons, by Professor
Holmes and Mr. Mooney, and by other collaborators ; re-
cently Doctor Fewkes has gathered unprecedentedly abun-
dant stores of decorated pottery from the Pueblo country ;
and the writer has added some unique material from the
Papago country, as well as from the interior of Seriland,
never before visited by white men.

The publications issued to date comprise fourteen annual
reports embracing fifty-nine appended memoirs (three addi-
tional reports, embracing twelve memoirs, are in press) ;
twenty-four bulletins, each containing a special paper or
memoir; eight volumes of " Contributions to North Ameri-
can Ethnology"; four "Introductions" issued for the use of
correspondents and collaborators ; and a few miscellaneous
documents.

The manuscript collections are voluminous. Under the
plan of limiting publication to important descriptive matter
and to thoroughly digested scientific results, the major part
of the observations remain unpublished, though in constant
use. The unique manuscripts and most of the original
records are kept in fire-proof vaults under more than two
thousand titles; the material for the "Cyclopedia of Indian
Tribes " is recorded on a hundred thousand cards ; and there
are several hundred manuscripts prepared by the Director,
the different collaborators, and many correspondents which
are not catalogued. Advantage has been taken of every
opportunity to make or acquire photographs of Indians and
their works; and the files now include about twenty-five
hundred portraits, with some twenty-five hundred groups,
houses, ceremonials, and other subjects. During the last
three years publication has been pushed forward more rapidly
than hitherto, for it is realized that the material pertaining to

39^ The Smithsonian Institution

most lines of research is now sufficiently voluminous to war-
rant thorough study and final issue.

These paragraphs do no more than touch lightly on salient
points in the history, policy, and work of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology. The field is vast, and the lines of research
are many; and it has ever been the aim of Director Powell
and his collaborators so to select and pursue lines of work as
to aid in creating and diffusing among men definite knowledge
concerning the American aborigines as one of the great
branches of mankind. Accordingly the small library of re-
ports published and the small assemblage of objects collected
through the work of the bureau contribute toward the me-
morial to Smithson, the founder, and Henry, the organizer,
of the parent institution of American science. At the same
time the work of the bureau is a tribute to the foresight,
liberality, and wisdom of the statesmen who have endowed
and sustained the " researches concerning the American
Indians."

THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE

SYSTEM

By William Crawford Winlock

^1)HE "diffusion of knowledg-e," which, next to
its " increase," was so prominently in the
mind of the founder of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, was provided for in the program of
organization, submitted by Professor Henry
to the Board of Regents in 1847, by a system of pubHca-
tions and their exchange ^ and distribution throughout the
world.

In his report for 1851 Professor Henry describes the ex-
change system, organized for the purpose of distributing the
first volume of the Institution's publications, as an extension
of a system which had then been in operation, on a small
scale, for nearly half a century between the American Philo-
sophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences on this side of the Atlantic, and several scientific
societies abroad. While the Smithsonian Institution ex-
changes had no direct connection with those established

1 Reference should be made to a "History history of the exchange service with copies

of the Smithsonian Exchanges," by George of official documents relating to ils develop-

H. Boehmer, printed in tlie" Smithsonian Re- ment. This manuscript has been consulted

port" for 1881. Mr. Boehmer had also pre- in the preparation of the following brief ac-

pared the manuscript for a more complete count of the exchanges.

26* 397

398

The Smithsonian ItistiUition

between national governments by Vattemare,^ it soon super-
seded all other plans for international exchanges.

It is not without interest to briefly allude to the earlier
efforts of this kind. In 1694 the Royal Library of France
exchanged its duplicate volumes for new books printed in
foreign countries, and about the beginning of the present
century the American Philosophical Society and the Ameri-
can Academy of Arts and Sciences instituted the exchange to
which Professor Henry refers.

Monsieur Vattemare about 1832 made an effort to estab-
lish an exchange of duplicates between some of the principal
libraries of Europe, and succeeded in interesting many of
the governments in the work, though his efforts do not seem
to have been rewarded with the success they merited.

He visited the United States in 1839, and secured the
interest and cooperation of many prominent men in official
life. On his second visit to the United States in 1848 he
was designated as the agent for the Library of Congress to
conduct the exchange between France and the United States.

Another effort to establish a system of exchanges, chiefly
of natural history specimens, was made by the National Insti-
tute in May, 1840, which resulted in securing many valuable
additions to the national collection.

The United States government, in addition to assisting
Monsieur Vattemare, had on several occasions indicated its
desire of effecting exchanges with foreign governments. By

1 Alexandre Vattemare was born in Paris
November 8, 1796, and died there April 7,
1864. He was educated as a surgeon, but
became a professional ventriloquist, lieing
well known both in Europe and America.
Subsequently he gave up this occupation to
urge the adoption of a system of exchange of
duplicate books between libraries, especially
of government publications, but afterward
extended the system to include art objects,

maps, specimens of natural history, and other
siniilar articles. He came to the United
States in 1839, and again in 1847. He is
credited with being the means of adding
300,000 volumes to the liljraries of this coun-
try. The correspondence of M. Vattemare
with the National Institute, in which he has
set forth at some length the progress of
his i^lan for international exchanges, will
be found of much interest.

;«fe«

MORRISON REMICK WAITE.

FIFTH CHANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

1S74-1888.

398

- emare/ it soon ^'
..ciLi^nal exchange?
:st to briefly al' .rlier

In 1694 the Royal Library of

for new books printed in
'^•"nnino- of thp present

Arts arici bcicnces instituted the e: o

V i-^rotessor Hei "ers.

Monsieur mare about 1832 made an ef!

li^h an pvrhnnae of duplicates between some of ...^ ^.....^.^^.

"oe, and succeeded in interestr - of

his efforts

^Q, and secured the

ac^ in 184^ ^-

ijrary of ress to

c t the nd the United s.

:t to estab. stem of exchanges,

of natural history specimens, was made by the Natio'^ ,.,Ji-
tute in May, 1840, which rjssulted in securing man ^ '

ction.

ii addition to assisting

I He is

becan ng

v,l1 .1-

re
ion of a system c :»e has

''-•■' -f

■11

,KOITTJTITa>Ii /.AlKOaHTIi/.ci 'ART 'dO i-JOJJ30^AH0 HT^dra

.8SSt-kTSl

The International Exchange System 399

the Act of July 20, 1840, the Librarian of Congress was author-
ized to exchange duplicates in the library for other books or
works. By the act of March 4, 1846, he was directed "to
procure a complete series of reports of the United States
Congress and of the laws of the United States, and trans-
mit them to the Minister of Justice of France, in exchange
for works of French law presented to the United States
Supreme Court." "By a resolution of June 30, 1848, it was
ordered that the joint committee on the library be furnished
with twenty-five copies of the Revolutionary archives, twenty-
five copies of Little and Brown's edition of the "Laws of the
United States," and seven copies of the exploring expedition,
then published, and an equal number of subsequent publica-
tions on the same subject, for the purpose of international
exchange."^

The first volume of Smithsonian publications issued was
a memoir on the ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley
by Squier and Davis, published in 1848 and distributed in the
following year. It was found that after agencies were estab-
lished in different parts of the world for the exchange of the
Institution's own publications, other exchanges could be car-
ried on through them at slight additional expense, and the
Smithsonian Institution accordingly offered to other institu-
tions of learning, and in some cases to individuals, the
privilege of sending and receiving small packages through
these agencies.

The plan of conducting the foreign exchange was to issue
at stated periods a circular to the effect that the Smithsonian
Institution was then making preparations to send copies of
its publications to the different libraries and societies in Europe
and other parts of the world, and that it would undertake

1 '' Public Libraries in the United States of America, their History, Condition, and
Management." Special Report, Bureau of Education, 1876, part i, page 284.

400 The Smithsonian Institution

the transmission and safe delivery of the pubHcations of
other American institutions, in accordance with certain rules,
providing, in effect, that the packages should be properly-
wrapped, addressed, and delivered to the Institution in Wash-
ington accompanied by a detailed invoice.

No charge was made for the expense of sending from
Washington if the parcels were of moderate bulk, though
the right to make a charge proportional to the actual ex-
pense incurred by the Institution was reserved in some
instances.

These facilities soon proved of such value that the ex-
change service assumed a much wider importance than could
have well been anticipated, though, as far as the exchange
of the Smithsonian publications proper was concerned, the
principal object was not so much to procure a large library
for the Institution as to diffuse among men a knowledge of
the new truths discovered by the agency of the Smithsonian
fund.

Professor Henry said in 1852 :^

" The worth and importance of the Institution are not to be
estimated by what it accumulates within the walls of its build-
ing, but by what it sends forth to the world. Its great mis-
sion is to facilitate the use of all the implements of research,
and to diffuse the knowledge which this use may develop.
The Smithsonian publications are sent to some institutions
abroad, and to the great majority of those at home, without
any return except, in some cases, that of cooperation in
meteorological and other observations.

"In carrying out this plan, the Institution is much indebted
to the liberal course adopted by the government of Great
Britain, and to the ready cooperation of the Royal Society
of London. All packages intended for Great Britain, for
some parts of the continent, and the East Indies, are directed

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1852, pages 20 and 21.

The International Exchange System 401

to the care of the Royal Society, and, on the certificate of its
President, are, by a special order of the government, admitted
duty free, and without the delay and risk of inspection."

And in 1854: ^

"There is, therefore, no port to which the Smithsonian
parcels are shipped where duties are charged on them — a
certified invoice of contents by the Secretary being sufficient
to pass them through the custom-house free of duty. On the
other hand, all packages addressed to the Institution, arriving
at the ports of the United States, are admitted, without deten-
tion, duty free. This system of exchange is, therefore, the
most extensive and efficient which has ever been established
in any country."

An essential feature of the orLjanizatlon of the Smithsonian
exchange service was to secure the cooperation of an im-
portant scientific society or permanent library in the principal
foreicjn countries willingf to undertake the distribution of the
publications it might receive for institutions in its neigh-
borhood. In many instances, also, members of the diplo-
matic and consular service of the United States rendered
efficient aid, and several prominent publishing houses like-
wise acted as local agents.

The following communication" from Sir Edward Sabine,
who later became President of the Royal Society, shows the
deep interest manifested in this movement :

"Royal Society's Apartments,
"Somerset House, London, March 19, 1852.

"My Dear Sir:

"I duly communicated to the Earl of Rosse, President of the
Royal Society, your letter to me on the subject of the inter-

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1854, page 21. Reports of Committees, Statistics," etc.

2 Rliees, William J. "The Smithsonian In- Washington, 1S79, page 82. Also Boehmer,
stitution: Journals of the Board of Regents, George H.," History of Exchanges," page 1 1.

402 The Smithsonian Institution

change of scientific publications between the United States
and this country, and the admission into England, duty free,
of scientific books and memoirs presented to institutions or to
individuals here, either by or through the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. I accompanied this communication by a letter ad-
dressed to the President, which you will read in the enclosed
printed minutes of the Council of the Royal Society of January
15, 1852, The subject has since been brought by the Earl
of Rosse under the consideration of Her Majesty's govern-
ment, who have shown, as might be expected, much readiness
to meet, in the same spirit, the liberal example which has
been set by the United States, in exempting from duty scien-
tific books sent as presents from this country to the Smith-
sonian Institution, and through that Institution to other insti-
tutions, and to individuals, cultivating science in the United
States. The mode which has been suggested by our Board
of Customs, for admitting duty free scientific publications de-
signed for this country, and which, we hope, will receive the
approval of the Treasury, is, that a list should be furnished by
the Royal Society of the names of all institutions and indi-
viduals to whom such works may be expected to be addressed,
when the custom-house officers will have directions to pass
without duty all such publications having the names of such
institutions or persons inscribed either on the cover or on the
title-page, which are sent to this country in packages directed
to the Royal Society — the list to be amended or extended
from time to time. The Royal Society will gladly take charge
of and distribute under these regulations the books which the
Smithsonian Institution may send for institutions and indi-
viduals in this country, receiving them from the agent in
London appointed by the Smithsonian Institution ; and I
shall be obliged by your furnishing me, at your earliest con-
venience, with a list, as complete as you may be able to make
it, of the names of the institutions and persons to whom books
or memoirs are likely to be sent.

"The Royal Society will also gladly receive and forward to
their ultimate destination (where such assistance may be use-
ful) packages containing publications of a similar description,

The International Exchange System 403

designed for institutions and individuals on the continent of
Europe ; such packages being directed to the Royal Society,
and stated on the outside of the case or package to be from
the Smithsonian Institutio7i. The customs' duties will, in
such cases, be either altogether remitted or returned on re-
exportation.

"If it be a convenience to the cultivators of science in the
United States, that publications presented to them by insti-
tutions or individuals on the continent of Europe, or else-
where, should be addressed to the Royal Society as a channel
of communication, the same faciUties will be given by the
Board of Customs, and the Royal Society will, with pleasure,
make the required arrangements. It will be necessary, in
such cases, that packages arriving from the continent of
Europe or elsewhere should be marked on the outside, y^r///^
SmitJisonian Institution, and the foreign Secretary of the
Royal Society should be apprised of their being sent. Ex-
penses of freight would of course be defrayed by the agent
of the Smithsonian Institution.

"I remain, my dear sir, with great respect and regard,
"Very sincerely yours,

"Edward Sabine,

" Vice-President and Treasurer of the Boyal Society."

An interesting special use of the exchange system took
place in 1867, when, at the suggestion of the Honorable
John Bigelow, a former Minister to France, a request was
made by the Institution that some of the principal publishers
of school-books in this country should furnish copies of their
elementary text-books, in order that they might be presented
to Professor Laboulaye, of the College of France, for exami-
nation, with a view to the application of some of their pe-
culiar features to the purposes of instruction in his own
country. In response to this request, nearly two hundred
volumes of school text-books were furnished by the princi-

404 The Smithsonimi Institution

pal publishers In the United States, and received with warm
thanks by Professor Laboulaye.

In recognition of the disinterested work of the Institution,
many of the principal steamship companies granted to it im-
portant concessions in free freight, and without this friendly
aid the system could scarcely have grown to the proportion
it has now attained. Among others the Secretary made
special acknowledgment in earlier years of obligations to the
United States Mail Steamship Company, the Panama Rail-
road Company, and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company ;
to the North German Lloyd, to the Cunard Steamship Com-
pany, and to many of the principal publishing houses in this
country.

The Royal Society, after acting as the agent of the Insti-
tution for several years, found in 1862 the constantly increas-
ing duties of distributing exchanges somewhat burdensome.
It was, therefore, deemed necessary to establish a salaried
agency at the expense of the Institution, to be located in
London, for Great Britain and its colonies. Messrs. William
Wesley & Son, booksellers, at 28 Essex Street, Strand,
were appointed the London agents.

For the same reason that made a change necessary in the
administration of the affairs of the Institution in Great Brit-
ain, Doctor Felix Fliigel, of Leipsic, was appointed to at-
tend to exchange matters between Germany and the United
States, and subsequently exchanges between the United
States and Austria-Hungary and also Switzerland, were con-
ducted through the Leipsic agency.

With the exception of the agencies of the Institution in
Great Britain and Germany, there are at present no salaried
officers of the Institution in foreign countries, all transactions
being conducted gratuitously, either by foreign official ex-
change bureaus or by libraries or scientific institutions which

The International Exchange Systein 405

have willingly assumed the task for the benefit that may
accrue from the service.

So useful had this exchange system become within the first
ten years of its existence that in 1855 ^^ following commu-
nication ^ was forwarded by Professor Asa Gray, the Secre-
tary of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, to Pro-
fessor Henry :

"American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
" Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts,

"August, 1855.
" My Dear Sir :

"The following extract from the record of the annual
meeting in May last has just been furnished me by the re-
cording secretary :

" ' Professor Agassiz referred to the allusion in the libra-
rian's report to the Smithsonian Institution, and expressed in
strong language his sense of indebtedness of the scientific
world to that Institution, for its enlightened efforts to diffuse
knowledge, particularly as a medium of exchange of publica-
tions. In conclusion, he moved that the thanks of the acad-
emy be p7^esented to the Smithsonian Institution for its
efficient agcjicy in effecting for the acade7ny its exchanges
with societies and individuals, which was unanimously
adopted.'

"I have great pleasure in forwarding to you the vote of
the academy, in obedience to its instructions.

" And I remain, very respectfully,

" Your obedient, faithful servant,

" Asa Gray,

" Corresponding Secretary"

The Smithsonian exchange service was early taken ad-
vantage of by the bureaus of the United States government
to effect the distribution of their technical publications to

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1855, page 79.

4o6 The Smithsonian Instihttion

foreign libraries and the collection of similar reports in return,
and between the years 1851 and 1867 it is estimated that
over twenty thousand packages of such government publica-
tions were carried by the exchange service, at an approximate
cost to the private fund of the Institution of over eight thou-
sand dollars.

The government exchanges, however, were in a chaotic
condition until the enactment of a joint resolution, approved
March 2, 1867, that fifty copies of all documents printed by
order of either House of Congress, or by order of any de-
partment or bureau of the government, should be placed at
the disposal of the joint committee on library, who should
exchange the same, through the agency of the Smithsonian
Institution, for similar works published in foreign countries;
these works to be deposited in the Library of Congress.

Respecting this system Professor Henry said ^ in 1870, in
his testimony concerning the expenditure of the Smithson
fund, before an English government scientific commission,
of which the Duke of Devonshire was chairman and Sir
John Lubbock and Professor Huxley members :

" There is one part of the operations which I have not
sufficiently dwelt upon, and that is the system of international
exchansfes. In order to send the volumes of Smithsonian
Contributions over the world, the Institution has agents;
an agent in this city, an agent in Paris, an agent in Leip-
sic, an agent in Amsterdam, and another in Norway ; and
every year the volumes of the Institution are sent to these
aofents for distribution, and with them the transactions and
proceedings of all the societies of the United States, and
also of Canada, and of South America. For example, all the
Canadian institutions send copies of their publications to the
Institution, and then the Institution distributes them over the
world, and receives in return for the several donors the pro-

1 Rhees, William J, "Journals of the Uoard of Regents," etc., page 782.

The International Exchange System 407

ceedings and transactions of foreign societies. This part of
the operations costs about ^1,000 sterHng a year, but it is
considered of great importance in the way of making science
one in all countries. This is considered a very important
part of the plan of operations. Not only are books dis-
tributed, but the Institution has commenced the practice of
distributing specimens of natural history over the world and
getting others in exchange. As an interesting fact in con-
nection with this system, I may mention that all the lines of
steamers, the Cunard line of steamers, the German Lloyds'
steamers, and the lines from San Francisco, all convey the
Smithsonian packages free of cost, and also that they are
admitted through all custom-houses without being opened,
and free from all duties in all countries.

" Doctor Sharpey : Do you receive for the societies in
America, for example, from the societies in London, and dis-
tribute those exchanges to the societies in America? — Yes,
for all the societies. The great object is to facilitate in
every possible way the promotion of science, and especially
the fostering of original research, and enlarging the bounds
of human thought. It is a matter of surprise that the idea is
not more generally understood by statesmen and legislators,
that modern civilization depends upon science, including the
knowledge of the forces of nature, and the modes in which
they become the agents of man. Every discovery is con-
nected with good. Even the human body cannot be properly
understood without a knowledo-e of that of all other ororan-
ized beings."

The resolution of Congress carried no appropriation, so
that it was not until 1873 that the exchange actually began,
and its operation was necessarily restricted, owing to the
large drain made upon the funds of the Institution. Never-
theless, Mr. Ainsworth R. Spofford was enabled to say of
this work in 1876^ that "the Smithsonian Institution has

1 " Public Libraries in the United States of America, their History, Condition, and
Management." Special Report, Bureau of Education, 1S76, part I, page 684.

4o8 The Smithsonian Institution

rendered incalculable service to the scientific development
of this country through its broad and liberal system of ex-
chanpfes with learned societies throug-hout the world." And
in 1881 ^ Professor Baird stated that

" No one of the various operations carried on by the
Smithsonian Institution is of more importance in the advance-
ment of science than that of the international exchange of
publications between the governments and their bureaus, de-
partments, the learned institutions, and scientific men of the
two worlds. Notwithstanding the increase of the govern-
mental international system, in which quite a number of
nations have joined, the work of the Smithsonian Institution
still continues to be of preeminent magnitude and impor-
tance. Originally initiated for the purpose of distributing the
publications of the Smithsonian Institution to libraries, socie-
ties, and learned men abroad, and to receive returns for the
same, it was gradually extended so as to take within its
sphere all the establishments in the New World requiring
a similar service. Indeed, by its system of agencies in vari-
ous portions of the world to which packages were sent for
transmission to destination, and where returns were gathered
and forwarded to Washington, it maintained an arrangement
of its own, entirely independent of any other organization."

Congress had, as already mentioned, even as early as
1840, taken into consideration the exchange of its documents
for similar works of foreign governments, and, as the result of
Monsieur Vattemare's efforts, in 1846 provision was made for
exchanging a complete set of the laws of the United States
with the French government, while in 1848 the joint com-
mittee on the library was authorized to appoint exchange
agents for the exchange of books and public documents for
the use of the United States, for any single State, or for the

1 "Smithsonian Report," i88l, page 30.

The International Exchange System 409

Academy in West Point, or for the National Institute — all
these to be admitted free of duty.

Special acts for the exchange of specific volumes were
passed in 1848, 1849, and 1856, but the first general law for
the exchano^e of United States documents was that enacted
in 1867, a joint resolution being approved on March 2 of that
year to the effect :

"That fifty copies of all documents hereafter printed by
order of either House of Congress, and fifty copies additional
of all documents printed in excess of the usual number, to-
gether with fifty copies of each publication issued by any
department or bureau of the government, be placed at the
disposal of the Joint Committee on the Library, who shall
exchange the same, through the agency of the Smithsonian
Institution, for such works published in foreign countries, and
especially by foreign governments, as may be deemed by
said committee an equivalent ; said works to be deposited in
the Library of Congress."

While this resolution carried with it no appropriation,
Professor Henry at once undertook the preliminary corre-
spondence necessary to carry it into effect by addressing a
circular letter, through the Department of State, to the dip-
lomatic representatives of the United States and foreign
countries and to the foreign ministers accredited to this gov-
ernment, stating the object of the resolution, and asking the
cooperation of foreign governments in carrying it out. To
this circular letter very general and satisfactory replies were
received, each government responding offering to send com-
plete series of its publications in return for those of the
United States. It was not until 1873, however, that the first
transmission of documents abroad was made by the Insti-
tution.

In 1875 ^i^ International Geographical Congress was held
27

4IO The S^nithsonian Institution

in Paris, at which was discussed, as a matter closely allied
to the main objects of the Congress, a uniform system for
exchanging the scientific and literary publications of all coun-
tries. The commission, under the presidency of Baron de
Vatteville, submitted to the different governments repre-
sented, a detailed plan for international exchanges, and in
1878, as the result of correspondence between the Smith-
sonian Institution and the Department of State, the Institu-
tion was recognized by the Secretary of State as the special
agent for the United States government to carry out the
suggestion of the convention, which involved not only the
exchange of official documents, but of the publications of
learned societies as well, the exchange of official documents
with the governments represented being, in the case of the
United States, for the benefit of the Library of Congress.

Further conferences upon the subject were held in Brus-
sels in 1877 and 1880, and again, after six years' experience
of the working of the plan proposed in Paris, a general con-
ference was called by the Belgian government in 1883. The
United States government was represented at this latter
conference by its resident minister, Honorable Nicholas Fish,
and later by his successor. Honorable Lambert Tree, and the
draft of articles of agreement for the international exchange
system proposed was in due time communicated by the De-
partment of State to the Smithsonian Institution for criti-
cism. These articles of agreement having been submitted
to the contracting powers, a conference was called in Brus-
sels on March 15, 1886, at which they were signed by duly
accredited diplomatic representatives, and the convention was
laid before Congress and ratified by the President July 19,
1888. Ratifications were finally exchanged, and the conven-
tion was proclaimed by the President on January 15, 1889.
There were, in fact, two conventions adopted, the first for the

The Interyiational Exchange System 4 1 1

" International Exchange of Official Documents, Scientific
and Literary Publications," and the second for the "Imme-
diate Exchange of the Official Journals, Parliamentary
Annals and Documents " of the States interested.

The first convention was entered into by Belgium, Brazil,
Italy, Portugal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, and the United
States. Its essential provisions were that each State should
establish an Exchange Bureau, and should provide for the
interchange of the respective official documents, parliamen-
tary and administrative, and other works executed at govern-
ment expense, each State assuming the cost of packing and
transportation to the place of destination, except that where
the transmissions were to be made by sea special arrange-
ments might regulate the share of expense to be borne.

It was also provided that the official exchange bureaus
should act as intermediaries between the learned bodies and
literary and scientific societies of the contracting States,
for the reception and free transmission of their publications.

The second convention, which was adopted by the same
countries, with the exception of Switzerland, provided for the
transmission to the leg^islative chambers of each contracting
State immediately upon publication of copies of the respec-
tive official journals and the parliamentary annals and docu-
ments that are made public.

To these conventions Uruguay and Peru subsequently
gave their adherence, so that there are now ten States, in-
cluding the United States, under treaty obligations to main-
tain exchange relations. The carrying out of this obligation
on the part of the United States, as far as the first treaty was
concerned, did not change the prevailing conduct of the ex-
change service carried on by the Smithsonian Institution.
To the second treaty, the immediate exchange of official
journals, effect has not been given by the United States

412 The Smithsonian Institution

through lack of legislation placing the necessary documents
at the disposal of the Exchange Bureau and making an ap-
propriation for the clerical assistance and postage ; nor has
this treaty apparently been fully carried out, as yet, by any
of the contracting nations.

The absence of several of the principal nations — England,
France, Germany, and Russia — from the treaty will be
noted ; but with these countries, as the result of the informal
agreement reached with the Institution under the act of Con-
gress of 1867, special exchange relations have been main-
tained by the United States, and in France and Russia the
governments support official exchange bureaus as part of
their administrative service, while between England and Ger-
many and the United States special arrangements have been
made for the exchange of official documents, though with
none of these countries, with perhaps the exception of Eng-
land, is there any approach to an official exchange at all
equitable to the United States — a condition, in part, due to
the fact that no country publishes on so liberal a scale as our
own. That this may, perhaps, be remedied by personal rep-
resentation to the many and scattered publishing offices of
foreign governments seems probable from the results secured
in 1885, when Mr. George H. Boehmer, as representative of
the Library of Congress and of the International Exchange
Office, visited many of the principal countries of Europe, and
secured a large number of documents for the Library of
Congress.

The Institution now receives fifty sets of all documents
issued by the Government Printing Office, and despatches to
foreign countries forty-three sets. Each country receives in
four instalments an average, annually, of about two hundred
and thirty-one volumes, and three hundred and seven pamph-
lets, the transmissions being made to the designated gov-

The International Exchange System 413

ernment library corresponding to our own Library of
Congress.

The entire cost of the exchange service was borne at first
by the Smithsonian fund, although from the very first the
facilities of the service were placed at the disposal of govern-
ment bureaus engaged in scientific work. An idea of the
increase in the cost may be had from a glance at the accounts
of expenditures for this purpose, which shows that from 1846
to 1850 the cost of exchanges was $1,603. For the year
i860 alone it was $2,348.04. In 1870 it had grown to
$4,165.62. In 1876 the distribution of government docu-
ments was first made extensively, and the cost increased to
$10,199.10, while in 1885 it was $13,307.59, and in 1895,
$16,997.99.

The Institution continued to maintain the exchange service
at its own expense until 1881, when the first appropriation of
$3,000 was granted by Congress ; and without reference to
aid given by the Institution to government bureaus for their
exchange service between 1851 and 1867, during which
period it is estimated that over twenty thousand packages of
publications were transported for the national government,
at a cost of about $8,000, from January i, 1868, to June 30,
1886, the Institution advanced for the support of the Inter-
national exchange system in the interest and by the authority
of the national government, $38,141.01 in excess of the
appropriations for the exchange of official government docu-
ments and $7,034.81 in excess of appropriations from July i,
1886, to June 30, 1889, for the purpose of carrying out the
convention entered into by the United States — an aggregate
advance of $45, 1 75.82.

As now conducted, the rules for the control of the exchange
service provide, in addition to the distribution of the United
States government publications to foreign libraries, for the
27*

4H The Smithsonian Instihition

distribution to certain accessible points abroad of books,
pamphlets, charts, and other printed matter sent as donations
or exchanges from literary and scientific societies or individ-
uals to correspondents abroad, and involve no expense to the
sender beyond that of delivery to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in Washington. No charge is made to the receiver,
except in some instances the small cost of delivery from the
Smithsonian agent or correspondent nearest him. Similar
material sent from abroad to this country is forwarded to the
recipient without expense to him, the packages having been
delivered free of freight charges to the foreign agent or cor-
respondent of the Institution. The Institution is, by special
act of Congress, enabled to transmit packages in this country
under frank.

To describe somewhat more in detail the methods now
employed in the Exchange Office, I would say that a scien-
tific society or individual in the United States desiring to
send publications abroad as donations or exchanges should
have each package transmitted strongly wrapped and sepa-
rately and legibly addressed, being careful to give the full
local address, and should send them in bulk, carriage pre-
paid, to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. The
separate packages should not exceed one-half of one cubic
foot in bulk, and they should not contain letters or written
matter.

Before transmission, a list of packages, with the address
on each package, is to be mailed by the sender to the Smith-
sonian Institution when sent from the United States, or to
the foreign agent of the Institution when sent from abroad.
The Institution must be informed by mail of each sending on
the day of transmission.

Upon the receipt of the consignment at the Institution each
package is assigned an " invoice number," the same number

The Internatiojial Exchange System 415

applying- to all packages of that consignment, and a record is
made of the entire list of packages under the sender's name.
The separate packages are also entered under the name of
the person or office addressed. An account is thus estab-
lished with every correspondent of the Institution, which
shows readily what packages each one has sent or received
through the Exchange Bureau. The books are then packed
with invoices from other senders, and are forwarded by
freight to the bureau or agency abroad which has under-
taken to distribute exchanges in that country. To Great
Britain and Germany, where paid agencies of the Institution
are maintained, shipments are made about three times a
month ; to other countries at greater intervals.

Each package sent out contains a receipt card bearing an
"invoice number" identical with that upon the package.
This invoice number should be carefully noted, as it is the
only means of identifying the package, and it is of the
greatest importance that the recipient should sign and re-
turn the acknowledgment without delay. The receipt having
been filed in the Exchange Office the record of that particu-
lar package is made complete, while failure to return the
receipt card gives rise to a doubt as to the correctness of
the address, and future packages for that address may be
returned to the sender.

Transmissions from abroad are received by freight in large
boxes and are distributed in the United States under frank
by registered mail, a record first having been made of the
name of the sender and of the address of each package. A
receipt card, returnable by mail without postage, is sent with
each of these packages, and should be forwarded at once by
the recipient in acknowledgment of the package.

The Institution and its agents will not knowingly receive
for any address purchased books, nor apparatus and instru-

41 6 The Smithsonian Instittttion

ments, philosophical, medical, etc. (including microscopes),
whether purchased or presented ; nor specimens of natural
history, except where special permission from the Institution
has been obtained.

The first volume of " Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge " was distributed in 1849 to 173 foreign institutions,
virtually representing the Institution's foreign exchange work
at its inception.

In 1852, the first year for which any detailed report of the
exchange operations is given, 572 packages were sent out by
the Institution and 637 packages were received, though each
of the packages sent and received may embrace several " arti-
cles." In i860 a total of 4822 packages passed through the
Exchange Office; in 1870, 5510; in 1880, 20,845; in 1890,
82,572; in 1895, 107,118 — the entire weight in 1895 being
326,955 pounds, or about 164 tons.

It is difficult, without the actual presentation of statistical
tables, to give an adequate idea of the result of this exchange
system. Moreover, prior to 1885, when the government
exchange may be fairly said to have been begun, and when
Congressional appropriations enabled the Institution to em-
ploy a force which allowed of the collection of proper statis-
tics, 390,488 titles were received from all sources abroad for
the libraries of the United States; of which 217,140 came
to the Library of Congress, the library of the Smithsonian,
and the libraries of the various departments and bureaus of
the government, 136,810 to various institutions throughout
the country, and 36,538 to individuals.

During the past decade accurate statistics have been
kept not only for the entire country, but for the various
States in the Union. If I had space to discuss them,
the figures would present some most interesting features.
Roughly, it may be said that the number of titles received

The International Exchange System 417

from foreitrn countries and distributed to institutions and
individuals in the United States from 1886 to 1895 bor-
dered upon 344,078, being- almost equivalent to the activity
of the previous forty years, and fully justifying the treaties
made by the United States and the expenditure incurred.
It should be noted, however, that the return to this coun-
try from foreign countries is by no means equivalent
to the quantity sent abroad, since during the same period
601,637 titles were sent by the government, by institutions,
and by individuals of the United States for foreign distribu-
tion. The list by States is most instructive. In the ship-
ment abroad the District of Columbia naturally leads, the
older States with many institutions heading the list. Massa-
chusetts stands first. New York second, Pennsylvania third,
and Connecticut fourth. It is a matter to be noted, and one
in every way commendable to the scientific activity of the
great State on the Pacific Coast, that California stands fifth
in this list, being closely followed by Illinois; Missouri fol-
lows, Maryland stands next, being followed successively by
Ohio and Wisconsin. The returns are even more instruct-
ive ; and, strangely enough, the order in returns does not
agree with the order in the amount of sending. In this
second list the District of Columbia, as before, leads, Penn-
sylvania following, succeeded by New York, Massachusetts,
California, Missouri, Minnesota, Maryland, Wisconsin, and
Connecticut.

Without entering into the detail of the clerical work of the
office, it will be sufficient to say that a ledger account is kept
with each individual or institution from which a package is
received in the Exchange Office, or to which a package is
sent, the record identifying the sender as well as the receiver.
To facilitate this work and abbreviate the records, there was
compiled and published in 1862 a list of foreign addresses,

41 B The Smithsonian Institution

arranged geographically, and including the principal libra-
ries, societies, and government offices and journals with which
the Institution was in correspondence. To each of these
titles an arbitrary number was given for the sake of con-
venience of reference. A revision of this " List of Foreign
Correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution " was made in
1895 by Mr. George H. Boehmer, and it now embraces
10,765 libraries and 12,643 individuals — a total of 23,408
addresses, distributed in 3771 different cities or places.

The courtesy of many of the great transportation compa-
nies in extending to the exchange service the privilege of
free freight has been continued even to the present day, and
the assistance that has thereby been rendered to the Institu-
tion, and indirectly to libraries and scientific institutions
throughout the world, cannot be overestimated.

The influence that the Smithsonian Institution has exerted
through its international exchange service upon other in-
stitutions of learning at home and abroad, and how far its
aim in the diffusion of knowledge has been accomplished by
the methods whose history for half a century has here been
sketched, are touched upon elsewhere. The enrichment of
its own library has been but incidental. It can safely be said
that no large library in the world has not experienced its
benefits, while individual workers in science have been
reached upon the very outskirts of civilization, and have been
afforded encouragement and aid, and the means of communi-
cating with their fellow-workers for half a century.

THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY

By Samuel Pierpont Langley

N the view of one of those who did much to
shape the early history of the Smithsonian In-
stitution,— President John Quincy Adams, — no
more prominent object could be designed for
the expenditure of the Smithson bequest than
the erection and maintenance of an observatory — an institu-
tion which would be local in its site only, and devoted to
objects in which all men were interested.

In the bilP introduced at his instance to provide for the
disposal and management of the Smithson fund, it is enacted
that part of the accruing interest be appropriated toward
the erection and establishment in the city of Washington of
an astronomical observatory adapted to the most effective and
continual observations of the phenomena of the heavens, to
be provided with the necessary, best, and most perfect instru-
ments and books, for the periodical publication of the said
observations, and for the annual composition and publication
of a nautical almanac.

A like clause appears in a subsequent bill,- and though

1 House of Representatives, No. 386, Twenty-seventh Congress.

2 House of Representatives, No. 418, Twenty-eighth Congress.

419

420 The Smithsonian Institution

neither of these bills became law, it is well to remember how
strenuously the application of the Smithson fund to this pur-
pose was urged at the time when the Institution was taking
the shape it now bears.

At the time that President Adams submitted these bills
astronomy had departed little from the beaten track in which
it had moved for centuries, and in which its main object had
been to fix with precision the places of the heavenly bodies,
without determining their nature. As the writer has else-
where said :

" The prime object of astronomy until lately has been to
say zuhere any heavenly body is, rather than ivkat it is, but
within the present generation a new branch of astronomy has
arisen, which studies the heavenly bodies for what they are
in themselves and in relation to ourselves. Its study of the
sun, for instance, beginning with its external features, led to
the inquiry as to what it was made of, and then to the finding
of the unexpected relations which it bore to the earth and to
our daily lives on it, the conclusion being that in a physical
sense it made us and recreates us, as it were, daily, and that
the knowledge of the intimate ties which unite man with it
brings results of a practical and important kind which a gen-
eration ago were hardly guessed at."

As the aims of this new astronomy are different from the
old, so are its methods, in which it bears but an imperfect
resemblance to those of the older or classic astronomy ; and
this diversity of method influences even the external struc-
ture. In place of an imposing edifice, crowned by a dome
which shelters a great telescope, we are more likely to find
a modest installation in which the telescope, though present,
is not necessarily the important feature; in which there are
no great meridian instruments, but instead a room shel-
tering spectroscopes, photographic objectives, and the like;

The Astrophysical Observatory 421

while in place of the equatorial and of the meridian instru-
ments which are elsewhere used in the same way, night after
night during perhaps a large part of the lifetime of the ob-
server, the apparatus of the new astronomy is frequently
modified, and, in an active observatory for solar research, will
probably be found to be undergoing repeated change, the
work being more or less of the nature of discovery, and each
discovery leading probably to some alteration and improve-
ment of the means by which the last was attained.

In the half century which has elapsed from the time when
President Adams manifested so strong- an interest in astron-
omy, and after the government had erected and provided for
an observatory, — the United States Naval Observatory, at
the capital, necessarily devoted to the pursuit of the old
astronomy, since at that time there was none other, — the
conception of another form of astronomy arose in the minds
of men of science ; and in 1861, when Kirchhoff and Bunsen
published their researches on spectrum analysis, the "new
astronomy " may be said to have been born.

It has been modified since in many directions, and as its
public importance became recognized, it has at the hands of
various European governments had special establishments
consecrated to it. Thus, in France, in the Observatory of
Meudon, near Paris, constant observations have been carried
on upon the solar surface by Monsieur J. Janssen, by means
of photographic processes, which have greatly surpassed in
accuracy any preceding ones, while parallel researches have
gone on there upon the nature of the absorption which pro-
duces the various lines of the spectrum, and other matters of
interest in connection with solar studies.

The French government for two hundred years has had
an observatory, within the city of Paris, devoted to the
classical astronomy ; and this new installation, at the Pare

42 2 The Smithsonian Institution

de Meudon, overlooking the city, is a recognition both of
the public importance of the work and of its distinct charac-
ter from that prosecuted at the older establishments.

In Germany, the Prussian government, in addition to its
observatory in the city of Berlin, for the old astronomy of
precision, has erected and most liberally endowed an astro-
physical observatory in the park in Potsdam, not very far
from the capital. In Italy various establishments of the
same character exist, and in other continental countries, and
in England, there are several such observatories, due chiefly
to private beneficence.

In the United States there are fewer; one of those most
definitely devoted to the new class of investigation being that
in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, which was maintained
largely through the munificence of a private citizen, the late
William Thaw, of that city.

Owing to the nature of the investigations carried on, the
astrophysical observatory should be situated, as a rule, in
the open country : not in the precincts of a city ; for in many
cases it is even more important than in an ordinary observa-
tory that it should be remote from the tremor and disturb-
ance of such a neighborhood.

When the writer — whose professional life has been largely
given to these researches — was invited by Secretary Baird,
of the Smithsonian Institution, to come to Washington, it
was with the understanding that the government should be
asked for, and might be expected to furnish, the means and
the site for such an observatory ; but the death of Mr. Baird
prevented the matter having the aid of his weighty recom-
mendation before Congress.^

1 Concerning this it is remarked in the sions, the biological and the physical, and

Report of the Secretary of the Institution since it has been the case that of late years

for the year 1888 : the first of these has been almost exclusively

" Natural science falls into two great divi- encouraged by the Smithsonian, it was the

The Astrophysical Observatory

423

When the writer accepted the position as Secretary of this
Institution, in November, 1887, nothing had been done; but
Doctor Jerome H. Kidder, a friend of the Institution and of
the proposed observatory, had designed to interest wealthy
private citizens of Washington in the plan, and to obtain
from this source a fund which would be put at the disposal
of the Smithsonian Institution for this purpose/

The lamented death of Doctor Kidder put an end to this
plan also, but through the generosity of Doctor Alexander

desire of the late Secretary, Professor Baird,
to do something to restore the balance, and
with this end in view he had made prepara-
tions to secure an astrophysical observatory
and laboratory, and though these prepara-
tions were interrupted by his death, it is un-
derstood lliat through his action some friends
of the Institution have already offered to give
the means for the erection of the modest
structure needed for the accommodation of
such a special observatory. The site would
necessarily be suburban, on account of the
especial need of seclusion and the absence of
tremor in the soil, such as is felt in the
neighborhood of the streets of a city.

" No steps have yet been taken to secure
a site, but in view of the promise of means
for the building, and the fact that the con-
struction of the necessary apparatus will oc-
cupy a long time, I have ordered such of the
essential pieces as are not likely to be ready,
even under these conditions, till the building
is prepared to receive it." — Smithsonian
Report, 18S8, page 19,

1 This is referred to in the Report of the
Secretary for the year ending June 30, 1889,
(page 7) as follows:

" In my last Report I spoke of the prep-
arations made by the late Secretary for se-
curing an astrophysical observatory and
laboratory of research, and I mentioned that
through his action some friends of the Insti-
tution had already offered to give the means
for the erection of the simple structure needed
for the accommodation of such a special ob-
servatory. I added that the site would nec-
essarily be suburban on account of the special
need of seclusion and the absence of tremor
in the soil.

" I have elsewhere referred to the collec-
tions of the Institution in connection with the
purchase by Congress of a zoological park,
which it would appear tohave been the first in-
tent of Congress to place under the care of the
Regents. It had been my hope in that case
to place this observatory somewhere in the
park, but in view of the long delay which has
already arisen, and of the indefinite further de-
lay which may occur, I have thought it better
to put a wooden structure of the simplest
and most temporary character in grounds
immediately south of the Institution, al-
though this site is quite unsuitable for a per-
manent building. Such a shelter will proba-
bly be erected before the coming winter, and
will, while serving as a store-house for the
apparatus, enable observations to be com-
menced.

" The promotion of original research has
always in the history of the Institution been
regarded as one of its most important func-
tions, and the proper object of the personal
attention of the Secretary ; and I shall be
very glad to do something in this direction
on the most modest scale, rather than incur
the chance of indefinite further delay."

And also in the Secretary's Report ending
June 30, 1890 (page 10) :

" I take pleasure in reporting that the In-
stitution has been able to do rather more for
the encouragement of original research than
it has done for several years past.

" Referring to my two previous Reports in
regard to the project of Professor Baird for
securing an astrophysical observatory and
laboratory, I am able to say that this object
has assumed definite shape in the construc-
tion of the temporary shed which has just

424

The Smithsonian Institution

Graham Bell, a sum of $5000 was at this time put at the dis-
posal of the Secretary, for scientific researches, and Doctor
Kidder had given a legacy of the same amount, which was by
his wish to be devoted to advancing the interests of the new
observatory.

Under these circumstances, the writer, in 1890, made a re-
quest to Congress for the assignment of a site, removed from
the tremor of the city, on which it was proposed to erect a
building of such an extremely modest character as could be
put up for the sum in question, to be supplied with instru-
ments, in part at least, by the Institution, and to be main-

been mentioned. In this shed there have
been built, as the most expensive part of the
structure, a number of brick piers required
for the firm support of the delicate apparatus
employed.

"The principal instrument consists of a
siderostat constructed by Sir Howard Grubb,
of Dublin, Ireland, for the Smithsonian In-
stitution, to meet my special requirements.
This arrived in March, 1890, and has been
mounted and put approximately into position
for use. Another important and novel in-
strument, a spectro-bolometer, was made un-
der my directions to meet new and unusual
demands, and has also been received and
put in place. A third piece of apparatus, a
special galvanometer, also designed for the
particular class of work in view, has been re-
ceived ; and the only considerable instrument
now required to complete the outfit is a re-
sistance box, which has been ordered and is
expected from London before the end of the
calendar year.

"The siderostat is probably the largest
and most powerful instrument of its kind
ever constructed. The spectro-bolometer is
the largest instrument of its kind, and with
this improved apparatus it is hoped that in-
teresting investigations begun several years
ago will be continued.

" Supplementary to these there are a few
pieces of apparatus, the personal property of
the Secretary, so that at the close of the year
it might be said that the Institution was in
possession of the nucleus of a modern astro-
physical laboratory. With this apparatus

temporarily mounted, researches have already
begun, and one of a scientific and economic
character, upon ' The Cheapest Form of
Light,' has been the subject of a communi-
cation to the National Academy of Sciences.
This work is mentioned as indicating my in-
tention to give greater place to one of the
chief objects of the Institution, — the direct
addition to knowledge by original research,
— which, at least as regards the physical
sciences, has received comparatively little at-
tention since the time of Professor Henry.

" The prospects of renewed contributions
to physical science by the Institution in the
field of original research are happily now
better than for many years past. The late
Doctor Jerome H. Kidder, formerly an offi-
cer of the United States Navy, and later
attached to the United States Fish Commis-
sion and to the Smithsonian Institution, had
bequeathed to the Institution, in a will made
several years ago, the sum of $10,000, to be
employed for biological researches. Doctor
Kidder, having become especially interested
in the proposed astrophysical observatory,
had the intention of transferring this bequest,
or at least a portion of it, to such an end, and
he even ordered that a codicil giving $5000
to the Institution for an astrophysical ob-
servatory should be added to bis will, but he
was stricken with so sudden an illness that
he was unable to sign it. In view of these
circumstances and after careful deliberation
upon the matter, the Regents decided to ac-
cept as finally and decisively indicative of the
wishes of the testator the provisions of this

The Astrophysical Observatory

425

tained by an appropriation from Congress. In anticipation
of this, one or two of the principal instruments which would
take long in construction were ordered in advance of the
erection of the building which was to shelter them.

Owing to difficulties which it is not necessary to rehearse,
the granting of a site, which it had been first proposed to
occupy within the extended grounds of the new park, was
deferred, and the following appropriation was made by Con-
gress in the Sundry Civil Act of March 3, 1891.^ It is proper
to record that it was largely through the interest of Mr.
Joseph G. Cannon, Chairman of the Committee of Appropri-

codicil bequeathing $5000 for tlie purpose
of an astrophysical observatory, and this
sum was therefore paid by Doctor Kidder's
executor to tlie Institution.

"A further sum of $5000 was likewise
generously presented by Doctor Alexander
Graham Bell to the writer individually for
the prosecution of the researches in astro-
physics, to which he has devoted much of his
life, but it has seemed proper to him, under
the circumstances, tiiat this sum should be
placed to the credit of the Smithsonian In-
stitution upon the same footing as the Kidder
bequest, and with the consent of the donor it
has been so transferred. I am, therefore,
desirous of here expressing my own personal
as well as my official obligation to Doctor
Bell for this gift for the increase of know-
ledge.

" The initial step for the establishment of
an astrophysical observatory under the na-
tional government thus having been taken by
private individuals, it is hoped that Congress
will see fit to place it upon a firm footing,
and to make a small annual provision for its
maintenance. And it seems proper to men-
tion that the field of research to which such
a department of the Institution would be de-
voted, has been considered of sufficient im-
portance by the legislators of leading foreign
nations to justify the erection of costly spe-
cial observatories and to provide for their
maintenance with a staff of astronomers and
physicists of wide reputation.

"The class of work here specially referred
to does not ordinarily involve the use of the

telescope, and is quite distinct from that car-
ried on at any observatory in this country.
It would in no way conflict with the work of
the present United States Naval Observatory,
being in a field of work that the latter has
never entered.

" Briefly stated, the work for which the
older government observatories at Green-
wich, Paris, Berlin, and Washington were
founded, and in which they are for the most
part now engaged, is the determination of
relative positions of heavenly bodies, and of
our own place with reference to them.
Within the past twenty years all these gov-
ernments but our own have established
astrophysical observatories, as they are called,
tliat are engaged in the study of the constitu-
tion of the heavenly bodies as distinguished
from their positions ; in determining, for ex-
ample, not so much the position of the sun
in the sky as the relation that it bears to the
earth and to our own daily wants ; how it
affects terrestrial climate ; and how it may
best be studied for the purposes of the
meteorologist, and so on ; and it is an ob-
servatory of the latter kind that the donors
just mentioned appear to have had promi-
nently in view, and which it is proposed to
conduct (tliough on an extremely modest
scale) under the auspices of the Institution."

1 Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian
Institution, 1892. For maintenance of /Vstro-
physical Observatory, under the direction of
the Smithsonian Institution, including sala-
ries of assistants and the purchase of addi-
tional apparatus, ten thousand dollars.

426

The Smithsonian Institution

ations, and through that of Mr. J. D. Sayers, a subsequent
chairman, that the appropriation was made. It was given
with the understanding that this modest sum annually would
suffice for some years for the maintenance of the observatory
and for the provision of its apparatus, and this was the more
feasible as no expenditure would be involved for its manage-
ment and direction, which it was intended to leave in the
hands of the Secretary, whose services would be given with-
out cost to the government.

The Smithsonian Institution has the title to a park of about
twenty acres of land, forming a portion of the larger area
commonly known as "The Smithsonian Park," and in this
narrow area, in the portion immediately south of the principal
buildings of the Institution, surrounded by streets and traffic;
in this (from a scientific point of view) most unfit site there
was erected in 1890,^ at the cost of the Institution, — not of

1"A temporary wooden building of the
simplest possible construction has been
erected in the Smithsonian grounds just
south of the main building, having been be-
gun on the i8th of November, 1889, and
finished about the 1st of March, 1890. This
building is not to be regarded as an entirely
suitable or permanent housing for.the instru-
ments. Its location, close to traveled streets,
is unsuited for refined physical investigation,
but the preliminary adjustment of the instru-
ments and certain classes of work can be
effectively and conveniently carried on here.

" The principal instrument is a specially
constructed siderostat by Sir Howard Grubb,
of Duljlin, Ireland. This instrument is in
position. A spectro-bolometer, the outcome
of many years' experience, has been made,
under my personal direction, by William
Grunow & Son, of New York, and has been
received and mounted. A galvanometer, de-
signed for the particular class of work in
view, has been received, and was the last of
the principal pieces of apparatus (provided
for from the Smithsonian fund) to be put in
place. The outfit is now in the main com-
plete.

"This country has no observatory devoted
exclusively to astrophysical research, though
England, France, and Germany have main-
tained for a number of years at a considerable
expense observatories for the study of the
physical condition of celestial bodies. I
therefore indulged the hope that, in present-
ing the matter to Congress, as previously
reported, a request for a small annual appro-
priation for the maintenance of the observa-
tory thus founded and equipped might meet
with favorable consideration. I may say
that the amount asked for ($10,000 for an-
nual maintenance) has been appropriated,
and will be available during the coming fiscal
year.

" In adjusting and determining the constants
of the instruments, a work involving consid-
erable labor, I have had the valuable assist-
ance of Professor C. C. Hutchins, of Bowdoin
College, during a portion of the summer va-
cation. No i)ermanent appointments of the
assistants who will be required to carry on
the investigations contemplated will be made
until after the appropriation shall have be-
come available." — Smithsonian Report,
1 89 1, page 7.

The Astrophysical Observatory 427

Congress, — a one-story building, or rather shed, whose object
was to furnish an immediate shelter for the instruments al-
ready ordered, and to enable some work to be done under
the appropriation while a more suitable site and building were
being provided. This site has not yet, after a lapse of over
six years, been obtained, and the investigations which are to
be described have been carried on under all the disadvantages
of such an entirely inadequate installation.

It will be seen in the subsequent description of this work
that above any other department, even, of astronomical re-
search, it demands entire quiet and absence of tremor in the
surroundings, and that it has been necessary to give so long
a time to certain researches is due to the difficulties inherent
in the site rather than in the methods of observation.

I MAY preface a brief account of the work of this new observ-
atory by repeating a portion of what has been already said, in
laying before the committees of appropriations of the Senate
and House, the reasons which should induce government aid :

" The general object of astronomy, the oldest of the scien-
ces, was, until a very late period, to study the places and mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies, with little special reference to
the wants of man in his daily life, other than in the applica-
tion of the study to the purposes of navigation.

"Within the past generation, and almost coincidentally
with the discovery of the spectroscope, a new branch of as-
tronomy has arisen, which is sometimes called astrophysics,
and whose purpose is distinctly different from that of finding
the places of the stars, or the moon, or the sun, which is the
principal end in view at such an observatory as that, for in-
stance, at Greenwich.

"The distinct object of astrophysics is, in the case of the
sun, for example, not to mark its exact place in the sky, but
to find out how it affects the earth and the wants of man on

42 8 The Smithsonian histitution

it ; how its heat is distributed, and how it, in fact, affects not
only the seasons and the farmer's crops, but the whole sys-
tem of living things on the earth, for it has lately been proven
that in a physical sense it, and almost it alone, literally first
creates and then modifies them in almost every possible way.

" We have, however, arrived at a knowledge that it does
so, without yet knowing in most cases how it does so, and
we are sure of the great importance of this last acquisition,
while still largely in ignorance how to obtain it. We are,
for example, sure that the latter knowledge would form
among other things a scientific basis for meteorology and
enable us to predict the years of good or bad harvests, so far
as these depend on natural causes, independent of man, and
yet we are still very far from being able to make such a pre-
diction, and we cannot do so till we have learned more by
such studies as those in question.

" Knowledge of the nature of the certain, but still imper-
fectly understood, dependence of terrestrial events on solar
causes is, then, of the greatest practical consequence, and
it is with these large aims of ultimate utility in view, as well
as for the abstract interest of scientific investigation, that the
government is asked to recognize such researches as of na-
tional importance ; for it is to such a knowledge of causes
with such practical consequences that this class of investiga-
tion aims and tends.

"Astrophysics by no means confines its investigation to
the sun, though that is the most important subject of its
study and one which has been undertaken by nearly every
leading government of the civilized world but the United
States. France has a great astrophysical observatory in
Meudon, and Germany one on an equal scale in Potsdam,
while England, Italy, and other countries have also, at the
national expense, maintained for many years institutions for
the prosecution of astrophysical science.

" It has been observed that this recent science itself was
almost coeval with the discovery of the spectroscope, and that
instrument has everywhere been largely employed in most
of its work. Of the heat which the sun sends, however, and

The Astrophysical Observatory 429

which, in its terrestrial manifestations, is the principal object
of our study, it has long been well known that the spectro-
scope could recognize only about one-quarter; three-quar-
ters of all this solar heat being in a form which the ordinary
spectroscope cannot see nor analyze, lying as it does in
the almost unknown 'infra-red' end of the spectrum, where
neither the eye nor the photograph can examine it. It has
been known for many years that it was there, and we have
had a rough idea of its amount, with an almost total incapac-
ity to exhibit it in detail. Our imperfect knowledge of this
region is at present represented by a few inadequate types
of parts of it given in drawings made by hand, where the
attempts to depict it at all are even to-day more crude than
the very earliest charts of the visible spectrum made in the
infancy of spectroscopic science.

" One of the first pieces of work which this observatory has
undertaken is to explore and describe what may be properly
called 'this great unknown region,' by a method which the
writer has recently been able to bring to such a degree of suc-
cess as to give good grounds for its continued prosecution
and for the hope that a complete map of this whole region
will shortly be produced by an automatic, and therefore trust-
worthy, process, showing the lines corresponding to the so-
called Fraunhofer lines in the upper spectrum."

It is now well understood that nearly every movement
which goes on within the confines of this planet, not only
from changes of the seasons or of rain, or the movement of
wind, or storm, but every manifestation of life from that of
the lowest vegetable form, up through animal existence, to
that of man, including all his works and industries, comes
from the sun, so that man himself and all his works are, in
a physical sense, strictly its product.

It is known in some cases to what these effects are traced,

in the greater number we are still ignorant, but in all cases

we know that a something we call " energy " comes across the
28*

430 The Smithsonian Instihttion

void of space from the sun to the earth in its rays, and falHng
upon us affects our senses in various ways.

When it falls upon our bodies it produces a sensation of
warmth ; when it falls upon our eyes it produces a sensation
that we call "light" ; when it falls upon our skin it produces
also an effect different from either ; for instance, it tans the
cheek, by what we call chemical action, but these three dif-
ferent effects are caused by the same thing — solar energy,
which differs in its manifestations according to the body on
which it falls, but is one and the same always in its essence.
When it falls upon the ocean it draws the water up into the
sky to drop subsequently to the earth as rain ; when it falls
upon the land, it rears everything from the blade of grass to
the tree ; and so through all animate and a large part of
inanimate nature we find everything that affects man and
his interests on the earth to come to us in this sunbeam,
whose study gradually leads to conclusions of not merely
interesting but of an eminently practical character.

Sir Isaac Newton, letting these rays pass through a prism,
discriminated between them, pointing out that they were com-
posed of different colors, but he did not know that there was
anything in them beyond what the eye could see. Nearly
one hundred years later, in the first year of the present cen-
tury, it occurred to Sir William Herschel to move a thermom-
eter in the spectrum formed by a prism, and notice the heat
in the different rays. He found little heat in the blue, more
in the green, and more still in the red, where to the eye the
spectrum appears to end. Carrying the thermometer still
further, that is, entirely outside and beyond the visible spec-
trum at its red end, he found that the instrument rose still
more, showing that there was something there invisible to
the eye. It was recognized later that the heat in this invisi-
ble region was greater than all the heat in the region that

The Astrophysical Observatory 431

could be seen ; but beyond diis litde was known, except the
fact that this heat was of different kinds, and possessed of dif-
ferent properties, in the same way that hght is possessed of
different colors; there was no considerable investigation of
the matter, from the lack of any thermometer delicate enough
to appreciate the heat in very small portions, and capable of
being placed with such precision as to discriminate the posi-
tions of these portions one from another.

Since the beginning of this century, it had been known
that there had been made visible to the eye in the Newton-
ian spectrum certain sharply defined black lines called, from
their discoverer, "F'raunhofer lines," and which we now know
are caused by selective absorption in the atmospheres of the
sun and of the earth jointly. Some of these are due to our
atmosphere alone, and come and go with different states of
the weather, affording a direct means of predicting the ap-
proach of rain. All of them are of interest in other ways than
to the meteorologist, though all are interesting to him also.

Now, if we take a base line,
and at certain intervals, set off
upon it perpendicularly lines
proportional to the height of ^-
the thermometer in the corre- ^ fed ^^^^^^^^^
spending parts of the spectrum, lamanskys curve.

we obtain some such curve as is shown in the fio-ure.
where the portion on the right indicates what is invisible,
and shows three interruptions, discovered by Lamansky in
1871,^ and which as indicating nearly all that was known
before the writer commenced his work may be compared
with the curve given later. The invisible portion of the
spectrum contains a great deal more energy than all the

1 Lamansky M. S. "On the Heat-Spectrum of the Sun .and the Lime-light." London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, Volume LXlii, 1872, page 282.

432 The Sinithso7iian Institution

rest that is visible. The actions, then, to which nearly all
the changes on earth are due, go on principally in this invisi-
ble region ; but, with the exception of some investigations by
Draper and Becquerel in the part just below the visible red,
this was all that was known in the matter twenty years ago ;
for since these rays cannot be seen, and cannot be made evi-
dent by ordinary photography, there remains no way of in-
vestigating this most important region, except by means of
some instrument which, like the thermometer or the thermo-
pile, will register the heat. For lack, then, of a more sensitive
instrument than science possessed, in this way, very little had
been done until the year 1881, in which the writer invented
a more delicate method of measuring heat, by means of
an instrument which he called the " bolometer." This
consists essentially of a metallic tape, usually about a
third of an inch long, but narrower and far thinner than a
human hair, through which an electric current is kept con-
stantly passing. It is found that the slightest change in the
heat which falls on this tape will affect a distant galvanometer
connected with it, so that as the effects of vision are no way
concerned, but only of heat, this may be compared, figura-
tively, to an eye which sees in the dark. Moreover, as this
thread can also be pointed with extreme precision, as in the
case of a vertical thread of an ordinary transit instrument,
the greater sensitiveness is accompanied by a corresponding
accuracy of measurement.

This instrument was, at that time, able to indicate a change
of temperature of one one-hundred-thousandth of a degree,
and it had the incidental advantage that it could be pointed
so as to tell, within a fraction of a minute of an arc, in what
part of the spectrum the change to which it was sensitive was
found.

A full description of the bolometer must be sought else-

The As trophy steal Observatory 433

where ; but, in further explanation, it may be said that the
electric current always passing flows less freely when the
minutest degree of heat falls upon the strip, and more freely
when this is made in the least colder, so that the galvanome-
ter needle swings in the first case to the right, and in the
second to the left ; and this, at present, may be arranged to
record changes of temperature as small as one millionth of a
degree. When this minute strip, or tape, is moved through
the invisible spectrum, the tape being parallel to the Fraun-
hofer lines, since what is black to the eye is cold to it, its
contact with one of them produces cold, which increases the
flow of electricity, and the galvanometer needle moves as
described. When it passes into a warmer region, the needle
moves in the opposite direction; and in each case the amount
by which the needle moves is proportional to the degree of
heat or cold in question, so that the final result is the same
as if a thermometer could be constructed much finer than a
human hair, from which all of these indications could be read
on such an extended scale that the millionth part of a degree
was visible, this thermometer being moved through the spec-
trum, and falling or rising, according as it meets one of these
dark and cold lines or g^oes into a warmer reofion. This
rise or fall indicates, then, the presence of such a line, whe-
ther the eye can see it or not, and when we pass out of the
visible into the invisible region, this method remains trust-
worthy where the eye and photography both fail us.

When the instrument was first used, at least two observers
were required, one to note the reading of the circle which
fixed the place of the bolometer in the spectrum, and another
who sat at the galvanometer and noted through how many
divisions of the scale the needle swung, owing to the electric
disturbances, the whole process being comparable to a groping
in the dark, involvino^- oroing- over and over the work aeain

'000 o

434

The Smithsouian Institution

and again, month after month and year after year, with almost
interminable repetition, so that a galvanometer had, in fact, to
be read over a thousand times to obtain with sufficient accu-
racy the position and amount of a deflection of the energy
curve in any single part of the invisible region. It took
nearly two years to fix the position of twenty lines by this
process, with the degree of accuracy then aimed at.

DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN

THE SPECTRUM OF A

60° PRISM OF SALT.

ALLEGHENY OBSERVATORY.

The annexed figure shows the amount of heat in different
portions of the spectrum shown by the inflections of the curve
as obtained by this early process ; but since it took two years
to fix the position of twenty lines by this means, it would take
a hundred years to fix the position of a thousand lines, sup-
posing they existed; and it became evident that, if the bolom-
eter continued to be the only means available, new methods
of using it must be devised.

Accordingly, when this work was commenced at the Smith-
sonian Observatory, a plan which had been under study by
the writer for more than ten years was introduced, by means
of which the work could be carried on not only with far

The Astrophysical Observatory 435

greater rapidity, but with greater certainty, and by an auto-
matic process. The idea in its original simplicity is very
easily understood.

In the old process, just described, the deflection of a spot
of light upon a scale was read by one observer, while another
simultaneously read the position in the spectrum of the cold
band, or line, which caused the thermo-electric disturbance.

Now, in imagination, let us take away both the observer at
the circle and the one at the galvanometer, and in the latter
case remove the scale also, and put in its stead a photographic-
ally sensitive plate. As the needle swings to the right or left
the spot of light will trace upon the plate a black horizontal
line, whose leneth will show how far the needle moves and
how great the heat is which originated the impulse. If this
be all, when under an impulse originated by the movement
of the spectrum over the bolometer thread the needle swings
a second time, it will go over the same place; but if the plate
have given it by clockwork a uniform vertical movement pro-
portional to the horizontal movement of the spectrum, the
combination of the two motions of the needle and the plate
will write upon the latter a sinuous curve which will be, in
theory at least, the same as the curve formerly deduci-
ble, only with much pains, from thousands of galvanometer
readings.

If we suppose that the movements of the invisible spec-
trum, as well as of the plate, are controlled by the same
clockwork, so that this spectrum is caused to move uniformly
over the bolometer thread, and that these movements are, by
accurate mechanism, rendered absolutely synchronous with
those of the moving plate, it is clear that we shall be able
to readily deduce from the photographic curve traced on the
latter not merely the amount of the heat, but each particular
position in the spectrum of the thread of the bolometer,

43 6 The Smithsonian Institution

which alone can correspond with any given inflection of the
curve.

The theory is simple, but the practice is extremely difficult,
and it has, in fact, consumed nearly five years of continuous
labor to produce the results which are obtained by the pres-
ent apparatus, which works in the following manner :

A beam from the mirror of the siderostat is conveyed
through the slit of a telescope having a rock-salt objective of
about ten meters focal length to the prism, which is mounted
on the massive spectro-bolometer, the novel feature lying in
the mechanical connection of the large circle carrying the
prism with a distant photographic plate, susceptible of verti-
cal motion, and taking the place of the scale formerly in front
of the remote galvanometer, both circle and plate being now
moved by the same clockwork, through a continuous train of
shafting, which works with such steadiness and precision as
to make the two movements entirely synchronous.

To understand this better, let us suppose that the very
slowly moving circle carrying the prism moves the spectrum
through one minute of arc in one minute of time, across
the vertical bolometer thread. To the observer watching the
spectrum the motion is as slow as that of the hour-hand on the
dial, but it is continuous and uniform, and the same mechan-
ism which causes this motion of the spectrum of one minute
of arc in one minute of time causes the photographic plate to
move vertically, before the galvanometer mirror, at any given
rate, — for instance, at the rate of one centimeter of space in
one minute of time. It follows that during every second of
this minute a portion of the spectrum represented by one
second of arc will have glided before the bolometer thread,
and that during this same second the photographic plate will
have been lifted automatically through one sixtieth of a centi-
meter in space ; the essential thing being that the plate shall

The Astrophysical Observatory

437

CO
OQ
O

U
>-i

h
co

W
h

Q
Z

43 8 The Sinithso7iian Institution

show, on simple inspection, not only the inflection of the
energy curve there written down, but the exact relative posi-
tion in the distant spectrum which the bolometer thread oc-
cupied at the moment it caused the disturbance. By suitably
changing the wheels in the clockwork we may cause the
spectrum to move fast or slow, in the former case giving only
its principal inflections, in the latter case giving a great deal
more of detail, but with liabilities to error, which will be
spoken of later.

The building shown in the annexed sketch plan, which
was erected in 1890 at the cost of the Institution, has been
slightly modified from its original form to meet the wants of
this process as they have been developed by experiment, and
it is only lately that the small photographic room shown at
the right has been added. The observatory's latitude and
longitude as given by the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey is 38° 53' i7".3 and 5'' 08"" 06'' .24 respectively.

The building is essentially a room arranged so that it can
be closed to all light by means of sliding shutters before the
windows, and by a sliding shutter under the skylight in the
roof, and containing an inner chamber F F which can be kept
at a constant temperature. In the front is a small room L
containing books and writing materials, below which is a
cellar in which are stored the batteries and a furnace, the
latter being no longer used, having been replaced by steam
radiators R, operated from another building. Around the
walls are cases containing those pieces of apparatus which
are not in constant use, and, with the exception of the small
cellar, the floor joists are almost in contact with the soil, but
piers for the instruments rise to the level of the floor at A,
76 centimeters above the floor at B, and 40 centimeters
above the floor at J. When the shutters are closed the
only light which enters comes from the siderostat at C, which

The Astrophysical Observatory 439

sends a horizontal beam from north to south along the meri-
dian at a height of 1 10 centimeters from the floor, through
the tube T.

The principal piece of apparatus, the spectro-bolometer, is
shown at D. This instrument, made by W. Grunow & Son,
is a development of that already devised by the writer and
figured by him in the "American Journal of Science."^ Its
object is to enable researches to be made on that invisible
portion of the solar radiation below the red in which it is now
known that a greater part of all the solar energy lies, in a
region whose details have been, up to the present researches,
comparatively unknown.

This instrument consists of an azimuth circle of 52 centi-
meters diameter, reading by verniers to five seconds of arc.
Over the center of the azimuth circle is a prism, ordinarily of
rock-salt, a material pervious to the rays in question, which
do not freely pass through glass. This prism is fixed to a
mirror parallel to its rear surface, and it turns with it when
the circle is turned. A horizontal ray from the siderostat,
which falls upon the prism, passes through it at an angle of
minimum deviation, falls upon the plane mirror, and is by
that reflected to a distant concave mirror, 7n, by which an
image of the spectrum is formed at S. In the actual case,
the visible part of the solar spectrum is about nine inches in
length and one high, and filled with Fraunhofer lines, which
are visible to the naked eye when projected upon a screen.
The rays fall upon the strip of the bolometer at E.

If, now, the circle be moved by the clockwork K, and with
it the prism and its attached plane mirror, the spectrum is
put in motion relatively to the bolometer strip, so that this
is virtually carried through the spectrum, its exact position
in it being at all times determined by reference to the circle.

1 "The Selective Absorption of Solar Energy," Volume xxv, page 169, March 1S83, plate 2.

440 The Smithsonian Institution

As the strip of the bolometer passes through a dark line, its
temperature falls, less current passes through the cable con-
necting it with the distant galvanometer, shown at G, and the
needle of the latter instrument is deflected, showing how
great the radiant heat of the spectrum was at the precise
position in question. In the accompanying illustration are
shown two such curves obtained on different days, quite in-
dependently of each other, by two successive movements such
as have been described through the whole spectrum. They
represent nearly two hundred lines, which are otherwise
shown in the plate in the usual form as a line spectrum.
The general coincidence of the two curves one with another
affords the most convincing proof that could be desired of
the accuracy of the process, which thus obtains in a few
hours data which could hardly be obtained by a life-time of
assiduous labor with the old one. But this new method
is so sensitive that it can record more minute inflections
than are here set down, these inflections being intentionally
slurred over, as here given.

When, however, we proceed with the aim of developing all
the minute deflections that are caused by the changes in the
atmosphere of the sun and the earth, we are confronted with
the difficulty common to delicate physical measurements of
every kind, that, owing to the sensitiveness of our apparatus,
it will register deflections due to causes which we are not
concerned with, and do not want to record. For instance, if
a wagon be passing in a distant street the jar communicated
to the ground, although quite imperceptible to all ordinary
sense, will be registered by the galvanometer, forming a
minute inflection of the curve, which might be confounded
with those produced by the action of the sun itself, the distant
sun and the wagon in the next street registering their action
in the same place and in the same manner.

rNFRA-RED SPECTRUM OF A ROCK-SALT PRISM.

WAVE-LENGTHS 0.75jx TO -._.:.;j..

440 The Smithsonian Institution

ir passes throug

as have ceeii ccscriDcci tarougn cnc v.
represent nearly two hundred lines,
shown in the plate in the usual form as
oincidencp of the twc

' ^-'-^of that could

e old one. But this new method
t it ran record more mir
than .i •. 'se inflections ^nally

sli ven.

Vv ncj we proc' ith the aim of de

inute deflections that are caused by the chang

-. - . „--i and the earth, we are confrn-

the dui. ■ -■ ■-- to delicate physical men ■

kiiiu ' nsitiveness of our apparatus,

..■•a

itself, the disr

reet reeist. ._ their .:

M' " ■ bu.::e manner.

tr:
J-

_i
<

\^ — '..

/' ■ -y

are many other causes of local d t it

be understood that they are too slight to distort the
when we are only taking the main features of the
curve, as is shown in the exai- ' given. But it is

! the minuter f the solar • va-

are sought that these local distur are of

,ame order nf ma crn nme especK- . . .

n, the- lake a fuller m

ularities o\
e con.

MUllbi.

Ihe ler mus; eferred to pr

rs for ar of th ns of overcoming these d

^s, but that the ^ >f the

achieved, it is rema. -. that enrh inf!<

ivertible into a line 1 ^ ~

process of con

, wha .11 our knowle

;^een. Describing it ^.. ^ upon th'

al spectrum '"- —"-■'" lulcu that '-^ "^^'

ewton be unit
ould be represented by a li

29 iM"..^ HT-tr/:a:j-avAV/

f-uiii^"-":

mFRA-RED SPEOTEUM OF A ' ROOK- SALT PRISM.

WAVE-LENGTHS 2.09[i TO 5.69jj..

The Astrophysical Observatory 441

There are many other causes of local disturbance, but it
should be understood that they are too slight to distort the
record, when we are only taking the main features of the
solar curve, as is shown in the example just given. But it is
when the minuter details of the solar and terrestrial observa-
tions are sought that these local disturbances, which are of
the same order of magnitude, become especially troublesome.
When, therefore, we proceed to make a fuller map of the
irregularities of the invisible spectrum than shown above, we
are compelled to study the causes of these accidental deflec-
tions, and to try to eliminate them, and this necessity has
greatly delayed the work, a full account of which will shortly
be published.

The professional reader must be referred to professional
papers for an account of the means of overcoming these diffi-
culties, but that the general reader may conceive of the re-
sults achieved, it is remarked that each inflection of the curve
is convertible into a line by a nearly automatic optical process,
giving linear spectra, and while the measurements of pre-
cision are made upon the original curves, these linear spectra
are united by a process of composite photography for the
purpose of illustration. That presented on the accompanying
plate is obtained by another method.

With it is given on the scale of mean dispersion the length
of the spectrum as known to Sir Isaac Newton " (H — A)"
to show what the extent of the increase in our knowledge
has been. Describing it otherwise upon the scale of the
normal spectrum, it may be stated that if the length of the
spectrum as observed by Newton be unity, its length as here
given would be represented by a little over twelve, and very
nearly all of this addition has been made by the application
of the processes which have been described.

A comparison of the three superposed curves with the
29

442 The Smithsoniaji histitiition

vignette already given from Lamansky's drawing will show
in another way the progress which has been made by
bolometric research.

I have described here but one research, though that is not
the only one prosecuted at the observatory. Among others
one of more general interest is that on the "Cheapest Form
of Light," carried on by the joint use of the bolometer and
photographic processes, of which an account will be found in
the "American Journal of Science."^ The principal conclusion
of the research just named is that processes exist by which
light can be produced without the present waste of energy in
producing invisible heat along with it — a conclusion of much
practical importance.

Other and subordinate researches will be described else-
where; of the principal one here spoken of it is proper to
repeat that the difficulties have been enormously increased by
the unsuitability of the site, and that it is to be earnestly hoped
that the Institution may be enabled later to provide a more
fitting one.

1 Volume XL, page 97, August, 1890.

THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

By Frank Baker

NTEREST in living animals is a characteristic
of both savage and civilized man. Doubtless
this was at first a mere curiosity to know more
of the creatures he pursued in the chase or
against whose attacks he had to guard, but
later it rose to that desire to understand the phenomena of
life in general, to obtain some insight into the mysteries of
being, which is at the root of all scientific zoological studies.

Royal preserves and menageries are as old as the civiliza-
tions of Assyria and Egypt, and it was from the East, by
means of the Roman conquerors, that the first collections of
animals were brought to Europe. The displays of the Roman
triumphs and the conflicts of famishing beasts in the arena
were but little calculated to advance the interests of zoology,
but it is from these that we trace the genesis of the zoological
collections of to-day. Exhibitions of animals for the purpose
of impressing the populace with the wealth or power of the
ruling sovereign were common during the Middle Ages.
The Emperor Frederick II had at his Sicilian court a notable
collection, from which he sent to Henry III of England three
leopards, in compliment to the three animals of that species

443

444 The Smithsonian Institution

which appeared in that monarch's coat-of-arms. These ani-
mals, with an elephant sent not long after by Louis IX of
France, formed the nucleus of the famous Tower Menagerie,
that was kept up until 1834, when it was merged with the
Zoological Garden now in Regent's Park in London.

The well-known collection of exotic animals in the Jardin
des Plantes in Paris had a similar origin, being derived from
the royal menagerie maintained with different degrees of in-
terest by various kings, and finally, at the time of the French
Revolution, turned over to the people.

The conditions prevalent in these royal collections were
not as a rule favorable to the study of animals, and we con-
sequently find that with few exceptions they aided the ad-
vancement of zoology but little. The animals were usually
kept in small and badly ventilated cages with slight regard
to their proper food or natural habits, and it is therefore not
at all surprising that the mortality among them should have
been very great. It was not until the care of such collections
was intrusted to scientific zoologists that any improvement
was manifested.

The collections of Europe seem, however, to have been
surpassed in extent, variety, and magnificence by those of
the New World, where an equable climate, a rich fauna, and
a natural fondness of the natives for animals appear to have
combined to produce much better results. The accounts
of the menageries of Montezuma and the Incas read like
fairy tales. They were doubtless of great size and richness,
but the conquerors of Mexico and Peru left nothing of these
extraordinary collections.

In the United States the establishment of permanent col-
lections of animals for public exhibition is comparatively
recent. The menagerie in Central Park in New York was
not contemplated by the original plan of that park, but grew

The National Zoological Park 445

up from chance gifts made to the city authorities, from i860
onward.

In Philadelphia a zoological society, composed of public-
spirited citizens interested in natural history, succeeded in
1872 in raising sufficient funds to begin the construction of a
zoological garden in a retired portion of Fairmount Park.
This garden, though limited as to space, has always been con-
ducted with reference to the advancement of science, and is
now, probably, the most important collection in America. A
zoological society in Cincinnati also succeeded in 1874 in
securing a collection of animals for exhibition. It now has
an excellent garden in a flourishing condition. Collections
of living animals have been formed in San Francisco, Chicago,
St. Louis, Atlanta, Buffalo, Detroit, Pittsburg, and other
places. Some of these are controlled by the city authorities
as an attractive feature of public parks, others kept by priv-
ate parties for their own pleasure or profit in game preserves
thousand of acres in extent.

The collection of animals for exhibition as museum speci-
mens was early commenced by the Smithsonian Institution.
This necessarily involved the accumulation of skins and skele-
tons and the employment of skilled taxidermists to study the
natural forms of living animals in order that they might im-
part to the prepared specimens the grace and characteristics
of life. A considerable number of livinor animals was ob-
tained for this purpose annually, and as there were no
adequate arrangements for keeping them, they were, after
serving as studies for the modeler, either killed for their
skins, or, if not desired as specimens, sent to the zoological
garden in Philadelphia. During their temporary detention
at the Institution such specimens attracted much notice from
visitors. It early occurred to Mr. S. P. Langley, the present
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, that it would be
29*

44 6 The Sinithsonian Institution

easy to extend this method so as to secure a considerable
collection of livinof animals.

The National Museum was fortunate in having upon its
staff at that time Mr. William T. Hornaday, well known for
his unusual skill as a taxidermist, and for his travels in Bor-
neo and South America for the collection of specimens of
natural history. As his interest in the matter was very
great, a separate department of the National Museum, that
of living animals, was created, and of this he was appointed
curator. As a result of his energy and activity the museum
possessed, at the close of the fiscal year 1887-88, no fewer
than two hundred and twenty living specimens.

At this time public interest was much excited by the al-
most total extinction of the American buffalo or bison, which
once covered the country as far east as Virginia with herds
of almost countless numbers, and which, retreating before
civilization, had finally succumbed to the unchecked extrava-
gance of avaricious hunters and the repeating rifle until there
remained but a few herds, small in numbers and widely scat-
tered. This is one of the most striking and appalling cases
of the effect of the contact of man with animate nature, but
many others were also noted which, though less in degree,
showed all thoughtful people that most of the larger native
animals indigenous to this continent were doomed to extinc-
tion unless active measures were taken to protect and pre-
serve them. The great auk and the sea-cow of Steller are
now to be seen only in museum cases, and rank in the popu-
lar mind with the dodo and the megatherium ; the sea-ele-
phant has nearly if not wholly disappeared, and the manatee
is approaching extinction. The moose, the caribou, the
antelope, the mountain sheep and goat, the fur seal, the
sea otter, the Pacific walrus, and even the grizzly bear and
panther, are rapidly disappearing, and in a few generations

The National Zoological Park 447

may share the fate of the moa, the mammoth, and other
animals once widely distributed but now extinct.

The loss to zoological science in the disappearance of these
animals is, of course, very great, and from an economic point
of view the matter is by no means to be disregarded. When
we consider the enormous food value of the great herds of
bison, that, with a little care, might have been preserved
almost indefinitely upon those parts of the country fitted only
for grazing, we realize how shameful and unwise the waste
has been. The extirpation of the fur seal and sea otter
deprives this country of some millions of dollars of annual
revenue ; the elk and deer if carefully protected would yield
flesh and skins of considerable value ; the wild pigeon and
the prairie chicken, now nearly extinct, have had a definite
market value of no small amount. When we notice with
what care similar animals are preserved in European coun-
tries, and the prices that they readily command when brought
to market, the reckless extravagance with which the vast
animal resources of this continent have been wasted becomes
apparent. It seemed to Secretary Langley that the Institu-
tion might do something to bring this matter clearly before
the eyes of our legislators and of the public generally by
exhibiting specimens of the most important animals likely to
suffer extinction, placing them as nearly as possible in the
conditions natural to them so that they might breed and
thrive in captivity as in their native haunts. An enterprise
of this kind could also assist in the general difiusion of zo-
ological knowledge, especially if there were associated with
these animals that it was desired to preserve from extermi-
nation such specimens belonging to the fauna of widely
distant regions as might be useful for purposes of comparison
or illustration. There would thus be combined the advan-
tages of a park in which animals could be studied in nearly

44^ The Smithsonian Institntion

their native condition and the attractions of the ordinary
zoological garden.

It was believed that this project was entirely novel and that
it marked some advance over any scheme for the maintenance
of animals in captivity that had up to that time ever been
proposed. The zoological gardens of European capitals are
invariably situated in the midst of a numerous population,
where spacious grounds cannot be spared for their mainten-
ance. This greatly embarrasses their development and the
result is that the animals therein exhibited rarely if ever
appear in their natural conditions, and the old methods of
crowding, a heritage from the royal menagerie, yet prevail
to some extent. It is rarely possible to accommodate their
captivity to their obvious needs.

The question of a possible site for such an enterprise was
at once raised. Secretary Langley, with rare judgment,
turned his attention to the picturesque valley of Rock Creek,
a small affluent of the Potomac that empties at Georgetown.
This little stream, ordinarily very quiet and peaceful, drains
an area of about eighty square miles in the District of Col-
umbia and Montgomery County, Maryland. The steepness
of its watershed, which lies among the foothills of the Blue
Ridge, is such that in a few hours, after a heavy and pro-
longed rain, the little brook may swell to a foaming torrent.
This has caused an amount of erosion that seems quite out
of proportion to the size of the stream, and it accordingly lies
some two hundred feet below the level of the surrounding"
hills, in a valley varied greatly in its aspect according to the
devious windings of the stream and the nature of the soil.
It would be impossible to find in this latitude a situation
more admirably adapted to the preservation of wild animals,
combining as it does exposures of every variety, sunny slopes
and cool hillsides, level meadows and rocky cliffs, affording

The National Zoological Park 449

an abundance of excellent water, and sufficiently near the
city to make it easily accessible.

Fortunately the land along this beautiful stream, being
hilly and not immediately available for building purposes,
had not shared the general advance of prices that had
affected nearly all property in the vicinity of Washington.
Upon a hasty survey of the region made by Mr. Hornaday,
under the direction of the Secretary, it was found that a tract
of one hundred acres or more could be procured for a sum
that did not seem exorbitant.

It was not found difficult to interest public-spirited persons
in an enterprise of this novel and peculiar character, which
would not only afford an excellent opportunity for zoological
study, but would also give to the public a beautiful pleasure
ground, and preserve from devastation and the real-estate
agent a delightful region greatly needed as a park by the
inhabitants of Washington. Senator Beck, of Kentucky, and
Senator Morrill, of Vermont, were among the first to warmly
espouse the cause of the new park. The former introduced a
bill on April 23, 1888, which provided for a commission, com-
posed of the Secretary of the Interior, the President of the
Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which was to have
power to select and obtain land, to lay it out as a National
Zoological Park, and finally to turn the same over to the
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. This bill received
the earnest support of Senator Morrill and many other gen-
tlemen in both Houses of Congress. Attached as an amend-
ment to the sundry civil appropriation bill, it failed before the
conference committee appointed by the two Houses.

At the next session of Congress a measure of a similar
character was introduced by Senator Edmunds as an amend-
ment to the District of Columbia appropriation bill. With

450 The Smithsonian histitution

this was associated an appropriation of $200,000 for the pur-
chase of land for the desired site. It became a law upon
March 2, 1889.

The commission constituted by this act made an exhaust-
ive examination of all the land in the valley of Rock Creek
available for a site, and finally selected about one hundred
and sixty-six acres lying two miles from the Executive
Mansion and not far distant from frequented public roads
and street-car lines. Some difficulty was found in estab-
lishing the boundaries of some of the tracts, owing to the
fact that many of the landmarks described in the earlier
deeds had become obliterated by the lapse of time. This
was, however, satisfactorily overcome at last, and the survey
of the grounds was finally completed November 21, 1889.
It was not until November 4, 1890, that possession was
finally obtained of the entire site.

On April 30, 1890, an act was passed definitely placing
the National Zoologfical Park under the direction of the
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, authorizing them to
transfer to it any living animals in their charge, to here-
after make exchanges of specimens, and to administer the
Park "for the advancement of science and the instruction
and recreation of the people." Thus the National Zoological
Park became an accomplished fact, and the work of develop-
ing it was begun with great enthusiasm.

The first care was, necessarily, the preparation of the site
and the providing of means of access to it. The funds at
the disposal of the Regents for all objects, including roads,
walks, bridges, water-supply, sewerage, fencing, and build-
ings, were less than $100,000; and when it is remembered
that the zooloo-ical collections of other cities are housed in
buildings of modest proportions, it is true, but which have
cost from $300,000 to $400,000, it will be seen that no very

The National Zoological Park 451

great results were to be expected from such inadequate
means. The preparation of grounds alone must necessarily
be very expensive — the proper laying out, planting, and
improving for park purposes being estimated by experienced
authorities at from $3,000 to $5,000 an acre.

It was at once determined to procure the best possible
professional advice for the general planning and laying out
of the park, it being felt that the utmost care should be
taken to preserve the extraordinary natural beauties of the
region, and that none but a master could be expected to
adapt to the needs of the project so charming a piece of pic-
turesque rural landscape. Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted,
whose reputation as a landscape architect is world-wide, was
asked to give his advice, and visited the park on several
occasions for that purpose. While it has not been possible,
from want of funds, fully to carry out the plan outlined by
him, it is hoped that no serious errors have been made, and
that the leafy retreats of this lovely valley afford much the
same pleasure to the tired citizen that they did when their
beauty was known to few beyond the wandering naturalist
and the solitary rambler.

It being impossible, with the resources at command, com-
pletely to develop the entire area of the park, it was found
advisable to select a portion of the most available ground for
immediate improvement, leaving the remainder in a state of
nature. The area selected comprised about fifty acres situ-
ated in the most central part of the park, where previous
clearings had already made some open helds and grazing
land, and where the ground was sufficiently level to offer a
variety of suitable building sites.

Considerable sums were necessarily expended in lading
out roads, in protecting the banks of the stream, in form-
ing ponds for aquatic animals, and in planting and otherwise

452 The Smithsonian Institution

improving the grounds. There is at present a single main
macadamized road extending through the park. Though
this is by no means free from defects, as on the side next the
city the approach is so steep as to be dangerous for heavily
loaded vehicles, it has served the purpose of access. It is
expected that additional roads will be built at an early day.

In view of the probable future increase of the collection,
it seemed desirable that the principal buildings should be
planned in such a way as to admit of possible extension. It
was also thouofht best that all structures should be of a char-
acter adapted to the retired and picturesque natural scenery
of the neighborhood. Imposing buildings, even if they could
have been constructed within the small sums allotted by Con-
gress, would have been out of place and calculated to mar the
restful effect of the quiet valley in which they were located.

The offices of the park were established in an old and
dilapidated mansion, the only dwelling found upon the whole
area of the site. This mansion is one of the earliest built in
this region, dating back to 1805, and is in a most picturesque
spot encircled by a broad sweep of Rock Creek. Its isolated
situation makes it especially suitable for any matters of ad-
ministration desirable to remove from the general public,
such as laboratory work, the seclusion of sick animals, and
the growth of plants and shrubs for the grounds.

During the first year the entire park was fenced in, a
single roadway was established extending through the area
just referred to, and the creek was spanned by an inex-
pensive bridge.

While it would have been desirable to prepare at once
houses for different classes of animals, so that each could
have the treatment most appropriate to its needs, it was
impossible, for want of funds, to arrange for more than one
house which should shelter animals requiring heat during

llie National Zoological Park 453

winter. This included both animals from the valley of
the Amazon, that never in their native haunts experience
great changes of temperature, and those from the southern
portion of the United States, that thrive better when exposed
to considerable vicissitudes. The carnivorous nocturnal ani-
mals had to be housed with the timid herbivorous ones natur-
ally wakeful by day. Experience has shown, as was expected,
that better results would have been obtained had it been
possible to separate these groups.

The animals turned over to the management of the Na-
tional Zoological Park were one hundred and eighty-five in
number, large and small. They had been kept huddled to-
gether in such temporary quarters as could be provided in a
low shed and a few small paddocks upon the south side of
the Smithsonian building. They were then transferred to
their permanent quarters at the park.

The experience of the first year was in every way favor-
able. Great interest was taken by the public in the new
enterprise, a considerable number of valuable gifts were
made, among which was an Asiatic elephant presented by
Mr. J. E. Cooper, of the Forepaugh shows. A few valuable
specimens were purchased as opportunity offered of obtain-
ing them at reasonable figures. The whole enterprise took
on a healthy growth, and was evidently firmly established.

During the next year the mutations of politics caused a
change in the dominant political party, and there were elected
to the House of Representatives a large number of new
members to whom the park was a totally unknown project.
The Committee on Appropriations no longer regarded it
favorably, and the annual estimates, which were made only
with reference to the proper and economical development of
the original design, were much reduced. Further than this,
the authority to increase the collection by the purchase of ani-

454 The Smithso7iian Institution

mals, which had been contained in the previous appropria-
tion acts, was withdrawn, and it was evidently intended to re-
strict the operations of the park as much as possible. Indeed
the question of abolishing it altogether was at one time con-
sidered, but better counsels finally prevailed. This policy
naturally retarded to a considerable extent the growth so
auspiciously commenced. Instead of permanent structures
suited to the needs of each class of animals, temporary make-
shifts were necessarily erected, which, requiring to be fre-
quently repaired and renewed, involved in the end a waste
of public money.

In no matter was this policy more injurious than in its
effect on the growth of the collection. It now became impos-
sible to procure specimens except by gifts, by transfer, or by
collecting them at great expense within the limits of govern-
ment preserves, like the Yellowstone National Park. Expe-
rience has shown that the increase by gifts is very precarious.
The animals given are, it is true, sometimes very valuable ;
often, however, they are diseased or defective in some way.
They are usually the random, accidental finds made by
chance sportsmen or curiosity hunters, and are, naturally,
more numerous in certain classes than in others. Numbers
of opossums, raccoons, and small alligators are yearly pre-
sented, but no one has ever thought of presenting a moose, a
caribou, a manatee, a sea-lion, or any of the important ani-
mals for the preservation of which the park was especially
instituted.

The increase by transfer really amounts only to this, that
certain of the animals bred within the park may, if any one
chances to want them, be exchanged for others. Native
American animals are not much used in menageries, and
there is, therefore, but little demand for them. Slight use
has, therefore, been made of this privilege.

The National Zoological Park 455

By the kind cooperation of the Secretary of the Interior,
permission was given to the Smithsonian to make collections
of wild animals within the Yellowstone National Park. This
has become the only source of supply for certain species. It
was hoped that large numbers of buffalo, elk, deer, antelope,
moose, and beaver might be obtained there, and considerable
sums have been expended for the purpose of building corrals
and paddocks within that park for the capture and temporary
confinement of animals and their transportation to Washington.
This has proved an expensive undertaking. The isolation of
the Yellowstone Park enhances greatly the prices of labor and
material there, and its great distance from this city makes the
charges for transportation amount to as much or more than
the value of the animals.

Some interesting results have, however, been attained. A
colony of beavers was, with considerable difficulty, collected
and placed in the National Zoological Park, where the animals
at once made themselves at home and proceeded to build a
lodge and several dams after the most approved fashion. It
was thought that it would be necessary to isolate them entirely
from the public, but it is found that they readily become tamed,
those which have been properly treated having no fear of man,
eating from the hand and carrying on their building operations
undisturbed by the presence of the public.

With regard to results attained by the park, it may be said
that the popular interest in the collection is very great. On
Sundays and holidays the walks and buildings are crowded
with visitors, and any important accessions at once increase
the throng. On several occasions the attendance has ex-
ceeded ten thousand a day, and once, when a considerable
number of new animals had just arrived, it nearly reached
thirty thousand by actual count. Classes of children from
the public schools are constantly seen during fine weather,

45 6 The Smithsonian InsHhttion

in the school season, carefully examining the animals and
noting their characteristics under the guidance of their teach-
ers, who in this way are enabled to give them definite instruc-
tion in the elements of natural history. Art students may
often be seen making studies from life, drawing, painting, and
modelinor the animals. To the taxidermist such studies are
invaluable and indispensable.

It is, of course, impossible, even with as generous an area
as that afforded in the National Zoological Park, to reproduce
perfectly the conditions of nature. It would not be practica-
ble to give to moose a large forest in which to browse, or to
caribou a growth of the arctic lichens and mosses upon which
they thrive. Neither would it be desirable to allow the ani-
mals to prey upon each other as they do in a state of nature.
It is, however, perfectly possible to keep them in reasonable
health and activity, and to present them to the public in con-
ditions that are far more instructive than those which prevail
in ordinary institutions of the same sort.

One of the best tests of the salubrity of the conditions
under which the animals are kept is the readiness with which
they breed. The buffalo, elk, deer, panther, wild-cat, and
even the black bear, beaver, and porcupine, have all brought
forth young. In the case of the bear this result has rarely
been attained in captivity. There is no reason to doubt that
any of our native animals that can endure this climate will
increase without difficulty if appropriately treated.

The collection, though far from what it might be, is an ex-
cellent beginning. As the enterprise was conceived mainly
in the interest of preserving animals likely to become extinct,
much more attention has been given to native than to exotic
species. Herds of buffalo, of llamas, of elk, and of deer have
been formed. Two teams of Esquimaux dogs, one presented
by Mrs. Peary, and one loaned by Mr. Bruce, have bred

The National Zoological Park 457

freely, and the animals appear to endure the heat of our sum-
mers without serious inconvenience. A collection of domestic
dogs, intended to show the great variation of that species by
typical examples of well recognized breeds, has been com-
menced.

A few valuable exotic animals have been presented to the
park. Besides the large elephant given by Mr. J. E. Cooper,
there is a fine lion brought from the Matabele country of cen-
tral Africa by Mr. H. C. Moore; a female leopard from the
headwaters of the Congo by Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, and a
zebu presented by Mr. J. H. Starin.

It is hoped that all the restrictions that impede the growth
of the collection will in time be removed. Purchase of animals
should be allowed, both because it is the only practicable way
of properly keeping up the collection, and because it is desir-
able that certain exotic species should be introduced for pur-
poses of comparison. Unless this is done the park must
necessarily be relegated to a low rank as compared with other
zoological collections.

A considerable amount of material for study is derived from
the animals that die in the park. If suitable for museum
specimens their skins and skeletons are preserved by the
United States National Museum. It is hoped soon to estab-
lish a suitable laboratory for the adequate anatomical and
pathological investigations of this material, as is done in con-
nection with all European collections of living animals. This
promises much for the advancement of biological sciences, for
the anatomy of many of the rarer American animals is im-
perfectly known, and many of the diseases of animals in con-
finement are obscure and but little understood.

The future success of the park cannot be doubted. Popu-
lar interest everywhere is being awakened upon the subject
of the preservation of game and the care of animals in cap-

45 8 The Smithsonian Instihttion

tivity. In New York City a zoological society has been
formed which has recently had set aside for its use a tract
of land in one of the public parks two hundred and sixty-one
acres in extent. Upon this it is intended to erect buildings
at a cost of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, and to
maintain a large collection of animals both native and foreign.
It would seem proper that the National Park should have an
establishment at least equal to this. A feeling of national
pride should lead all public-spirited citizens to take an active
interest in the increase and suitable maintenance of the col-
lection. At present it is not as widely known as it should
be. When United States officials in all parts of the world
become interested in its advancement, it is believed that the
scope of the enterprise will be vastly increased.

EXPLORATION WORK OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

By Frederick William True

^\0 give a just conception of the work of the
Institution in connection with explorations in
the brief space which can be afforded in this
volume, is a task of much difficulty. Its in-
TT^^^^ fluence has been exerted in a thousand direc-
tions, and the extent and manner of its cooperation have
varied greatly in different instances. Furthermore, from its
policy of aiding where aid seemed most needed, it has very
naturally joined in enterprises from year to year which had
no essential connection with one another. In a single year
it assisted in explorations in Alaska, in Ecuador, and in
Ohio. The character of the explorations in which the In-
stitution has interested itself has varied no less than the field
they cover. While it may perhaps be said that more aid has
been rendered to zoological exploration than any other, re-
searches in anthropology, botany, geology, and geography
have also received a laree share of attention.

Though frequently showing itself willing to bear the bur-
den of expense, the funds of the Institution have never been
sufficient to enable it to defray the whole cost of explorations

459

4^0 The Sinifhsonian Institution

of great magnitude. Fortunately, so far as North America
is concerned, the government of the United States, a few
years after the founding of the Institution, inaugurated a
great series of surveys for railroad routes across the conti-
nent, and for the delimitation of boundary lines. These
have been followed by general topographical and geological
and biological surveys, and by explorations of the coasts and
of the rivers and lakes in the interest of commerce and the
fisheries. An extensive knowledge of the characteristics and
natural resources of the continent has thus been obtained
very largely at the expense of the general government. Yet
in all these undertakings the influence of the Institution has
been felt, and its aid has been of importance. Especially
was this true in the earlier years of its history, when the par-
ticipation of the government in scientific research was less
extensive and less varied than at present. In many lines the
Institution was a pioneer, and the government interested
itself only after the importance and the practical bearings of
the investigations had been demonstrated.

In explorations, perhaps, more than in any other form of
activities, the peculiar workings of the policy of the Institu-
tion can be seen to advantage. Established "for the increase
and diffusion of knowledge," its rule has nevertheless been
that of "not expending the Smithson fund in doing with it
what could be equally well done by other means"; but, on
the other hand, it has endeavored to foster those worthy en-
terprises which seemed likely to fail for want of proper sup-
port. In explorations, as in other lines of work, it has not
entered into competition with kindred organizations, but has
endeavored to make their work broader and more successful,
without the expectation of advantage to itself It has not
sought the credit which attaches to the management of great
explorations, but has found satisfaction in aiding other or-

Exploration Work of the Institution 461

ganizations to bring their labors in the cause of science to
fruition.

In the plan of organization of the Institution, among ex-
amples of objects for which appropriations may be made, the
following are cited :

"Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geologi-
cal, magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect mate-
rials for the formation of a Physical Atlas of the United
States.

" Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the
different races of men in North America ; also explorations
and accurate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the
ancient people of our country.

" 1

It so happened that the first scientific memoir submitted to
the Institution for publication was one on American archaeol-
ogy— the now famous work of Squier and Davis on the
** Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; comprising
the results of Extensive Original Surveys and Explorations."
This work was submitted to the Secretary of the Institution,
May 15, 1847, and by him referred to the American Ethno-
logical Society, of which Albert Gallatin was President. The
committee which examined it reported it "worthy of the sub-
ject and highly creditable to the authors," and its publication
by the Institution was therefore undertaken. The Institution
by this action expressed its recognition of the importance
of scientific explorations, and has shown a continued interest
in work of this character by publishing, year by year, in the
"Contributions" or the "Report," the results of other field
investigations in zoology, botany, geology, and ethnology.

The publication of Squier and Davis's work awakened an
interest in American archeeological investigation which has

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1846, pages 6 and 7.
30*

4^2 The SmitJisoiiian Institution

ever since been kept alive. In 1849, ^ ^^^ years after the
appearance of the first volume, the Institution evinced its con-
tinued interest in this subject by publishing a work by Squier
on the antiquities of New York, based on explorations made
at the joint expense of the Institution and the Historical
Society of New York.

The same year the Institution lent its aid in the increase
of the knowledge of the physical geography of the United
States by publishing a treatise on the hydrography of the
Ohio River "from actual surveys," written by Charles Ellet,
the engineer of the first Niagara suspension-bridge.

In the direction of botanical explorations, the first aid ren-
dered by the Institution took the form of a small appropri-
ation for the expense of an expedition to Texas, in 1849, by
Charles Wright, under the direction of Asa Gray. The re-
sults of this expedition were published in the "Contributions"
in 1852 and 1853.^

Of the collections made at that time Professor Henry re-
marked :

" Specimens of all the plants obtained by Mr. Wright be-
long to this Institution; and these, with sets collected by
Fendler and Lindheimer, form the nucleus of an important
and authentic North American herbarium."^

The sixth volume .of the " Contributions," published in
1854, contained a paper by Torrey on the botany of Cali-
fornia, based on the explorations of Fremont.

At this early day the Institution also rendered aid to ex-
plorations of especial importance to paleontology. In the
Report for 1850, Professor Henry remarked:

" The programme of organization contemplates the insti-
tution of researches in Natural History, Geology, etc.; and

1 Gray, Asa, " Plantse Wrightianse Texano-Neo-Mexicanre." Part I, 1852; part 2, 1853.

2 "Smithsonian Report," 1851, page 11.

Exploration Work of the Institution 463

though the state of the funds would permit of Httle being-
done in this line, yet we have made a beginning. Besides the
assistance rendered to the exploration of the botany of New
Mexico, by the purchase of sets of plants from Mr. Wright
and Mr. Fendler, as mentioned in my last Report, a small sum
was appropriated to defray the cost of transportation of the
articles which might be collected by Mr. Thaddeus Culbert-
son in the region of the Upper Missouri. This gentleman,
a graduate of the institutions at Princeton, had purposed to
visit the remote regions above mentioned for the benefit of
his health, and was provided by Professor Baird with minute
directions as to the preservation of specimens and the objects
which should particularly engage his attention.

"Mr. Culbertson first visited an interesting locality called the
Mauvaises Terres, or Bad Lands, where his brother had pre-
viously found the remains of the fossils sent to the Academy
[of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia].

"He afterwards ascended the Missouri to a point several
hundred miles above Fort Union. . . . Though he had
withstood the privations and exposures of the wilderness, he
sank under an attack of a prevalent disease, and died after a
few weeks' illness.

" He left a journal of all the important events of his tour,
which is thought of sufficient importance to be appended to
this report.

" 1

While doinof what it could to make successful the memor-
able journey of Culbertson, the Institution at the same time
lent its aid to geological exploration by defraying a portion
of the expense of researches of Professor E. Hitchcock, of
Amherst College, on the subject of erosion by rivers, and also
relative to ancient sea beaches and terraces. The results of
this work were published later, at large expense, in the ninth
volume of the "Contributions."

Thus the Institution made a beginning in many lines of
exploration.

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 19.

4^4 The Smithsonian Institntion

In connection with the explorations of Culbertson, already
mentioned, we first learn of the association of Professor Baird
with this branch of the work of the Institution. His services
had been recently engaged by the Institution, and he was des-
tined to play a most important part. Himself an enthusiastic
explorer in many lines of natural history, and withal a man
of most engaging conversation and industrious habits, he was
able greatly to aid the cause of exploration both by supply-
ing thoroughly practical directions for observation and by im-
pressing on those in authority the importance of investigations
of natural phenomena.

He was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Institution in
1850, and only three years had passed when the great series
of Pacific Railroad surveys and the Mexican boundary survey
were undertaken by the government, while at the same time
very numerous minor explorations, both under government
and private auspices, were instituted. Of the two years 1853
and 1854 Professor Baird writes:

"The number of important scientific explorations embraced
in this period mark it conspicuously in the history of Ameri-
can discovery. Most of these are due to the appropriation
for the survey of the China seas and Behring's Straits, and
that for a survey of the several routes for a railroad to the
Pacific (although many more private expeditions were set on
foot), in addition to the regular operations of the United
States and Mexican Boundary Survey, whose labors during
the past years were in continuation of those commenced
before. Many reports of explorations, commenced or com-
pleted prior to 1853, have been published during this period."^

He gives an account of twenty-six important explorations
undertaken in these two years, including the six Pacific Rail-

1" Smithsonian Report," 1854, page 79.

Exploration IVork of the Iiistitiition 465

road surveys, and of nineteen reports of explorations which
were pubHshed during the same period.

Of the participation of the Institution in these great activi-
ties, he writes :

" With scarcely an exception, every expedition of any mag-
nitude has received more or less aid from the Smithsonian
Institution. This has consisted in the supplying of instruc-
tions for making observations and collections in meteorology
and natural history, and of information as to particular desid-
erata ; in the preparation, in part, of the meteorological, mag-
netical, and natural history outfit, including the selection and
purchase of the necessary apparatus and instruments ; in the
nomination and training of persons to fill important positions
in the scientific corps ; in the reception of the collections
made, and their reference to individuals competent to report
upon them ; and in employing skilful and trained artists to
make accurate delineations of the new or unfigured species.
Much of the apparatus supplied to the different parties was
invented or adapted by the Institution for this special pur-
pose, and used for the first time, with results surpassing the
most sanguine expectations."^

A list of these government explorations, from the Report
of 1856, may be of interest in this connection. It is as
follows :

A. GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS.

1. The survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and a por-
tion of Nebraska, by Dr. David Dale Owen.

2. The survey of the Lake Superior district, by Dr.
Charles T. Jackson.

3. The survey of the same region, by Messrs. Foster and
Whitney.

4. The survey of Oregon, by Dr. John Evans.

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1854, page 79.

4^6 The Sniithsojiian Institution

B. BOUNDARY SURVEYS.

5. The survey of the hne between the United States and
Mexico, first organized under Honorable J. B. Weller, as
commissioner, and Major W. H. Emory, as chief of the scien-
tific department, then under John R. Bartlett, commissioner,
and Colonel J. D. Graham, chief of the scientific corps, suc-
ceeded subsequently by Major W. H. Emory, then under
General R. B. Campbell, commissioner, and Major W. H.
Emory, chief of the scientific corps,

6. The survey of the boundary line of the Gadsden pur-
chase, under Major W. H. Emory, commissioner.

C. SURVEYS OF A RAILROAD ROUTE TO THE PACIFIC.

7. Along the 47th parallel, under Governor I. I. Stevens.

8. Along the 38th and 39th parallel, under Captain J. W.
Gunnison.

9. Along the 41st parallel, under Captain E. G. Beckwith.

10. Along the 35th parallel, under Lieutenant A. W.
Whipple.

11. In California, under Lieutenant S. R. Williamson.

12. Along the 3 2d parallel, western division, under Lieu-
tenant J. G. Parke.

13. Along the 3 2d parallel, eastern division, under Captain
J. Pope.

14. In a portion of California, under Lieutenant J. G.
Parke.

15. In northern California and Oregon, under Lieutenant
R. S. Williamson.

D. MISCELLANEOUS EXPEDITIONS UNDER THE WAR

DEPARTMENT.

16. Expedition along the 3 2d parallel, eastern division, for
experimenting upon artesian borings, under Captain Pope.

17. Exploration of Red River, under Captain R. B. Marcy.

Exploration JVork of the Instihttion 467

18. Survey of Indian reservation in Texas, under Captain
R. B. Marcy.

19. Exploration of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone,
under Lieutenant G. K. Warren.

20. Construction of a wagon-road from Fort Leavenworth
to Bridger's Pass, under Lieutenant F. T. Bryan.

E. NAVAL EXPEDITIONS UNDER THE NAVY DEPARTMENT.

21. The United States naval astronomical expedition in
Chile, under Lieutenant J. M. Gilliss.

22. The Japan expedition, under Commodore M. C. Perry.

23. Exploration of the China seas and Behring's Straits,
first under command of Captain C. Ringgold, then under
Captain J. Rodgers.

24. Exploration of the La Plata and its tributaries, under
Captain T. J. Page.

25. Exploration of the west coast of Greenland and
Smith's Sound, under Dr. E. K. Kane.^

The participation of the Institution in explorations con-
ducted by the government continued actively for many years,
though the character of these explorations as a whole has
varied in the course of time. The surveys for railroad
routes and wagon-roads across the public lands of the West
form the first important series of explorations in which the
Institution was interested. Next after these interest centered
in the extensive geological surveys of the same region.
After these came the explorations of the sea-coast, rivers, and
lakes of the United States by the Fish Commission, and in-
vestigations of the North American Indians by the Bureau
of Ethnology.

In the case of the geological surveys, although the work
done was more strictly scientific in character than that of

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1856, page 6i.

468 The Smithsonian Institiitioii

many of the earlier surveys, the government supplied suffi-
cient means both for equipment and for publication, and the
Institution was seldom appealed to for aid. Its connection
with these government organizations was therefore, on the
whole, a more indirect one than in the case of the earlier
surveys.

It became the custodian, however, of large collections,
chiefly zoological, made by naturalists and surgeons con-
nected with the field parties. To these same naturalists,
when they returned from the field, the Institution opened its
great stores of natural history material, and supplied work-
rooms ; and in many of the zoological treatises published by
the geological and geographical surveys, by way of illustra-
tion, we find acknowledgment of the assistance rendered.

Thus, Doctor J. A. Allen, in his monographs of the North
American hares published in the eleventh volume of the
quarto reports of the United States Geological Survey of
the Territories, under the direction of Doctor F. V. Hayden,
remarks :

" The author has thus had access not only to the types of
the species described by Professor S. F. Baird in his great
work on the ' Mammals of North America,' published in 1857,
but also to nearly all the material used by him in his excel-
lent elaboration of this family in the above-named work,
together with the vast amount of material that has since ac-
cumulated at the Smithsonian Institution. This includes not
only the collections made by the different government expe-
ditions since 1857, but also the large collections made since
that date, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution,
in Alaska, the British Possessions, Mexico, and Central
America. By far the larger portion of the specimens ex-
amined from localities within the United States received from
any one source have been the collections made either by
Doctor F. V. Hayden personally or under his immediate

Exploration IVork of the histitution 469

direction, and especially during the prosecution of the geo-
graphical and geological survey of the Territories, now
[1876] in progress, under the auspices of the Department of
the Interior."^

In the prefatory note by Doctor Hayden in Doctor Elliott
Coues's work on " Fur-bearing Animals," which was pub-
lished by the United States Geological Survey of the Terri-
tories in 1877, we read :

" The Memoir is based upon specimens secured by the
Survey under my direction, together with all the material
contained in the National Museum, for the opportunity of ex-
amining which the Survey acknowledges, in this as in other
instances, its indebtedness to the Smithsonian Institution."^

The interest which the Institution has had in the explora-
tions of the United States Fish Commission has been of a
special character, due to the fact that the first Commissioner,
Professor Baird, was an Assistant Secretary of the Institu-
tion, and afterward its Secretary.

He served without compensation, and his status was, there-
fore, that of an officer of the Institution engaged in impor-
tant scientific explorations and investigations for the benefit
of the government and the people. On this point Professor
Henry remarked in 1877:

" It will be seen from the report of Professor Baird that a
large amount of his time has been expended in labor for the
general government, in relation to American fisheries.

"Almost from the first organization of the Institution until
the present time the officers of the Institution have rendered

1 Volume XI, page 267, Washington, 1877. dae." United States Geological Survey of

2 Coues, Elliott, "Fur-bearing Animals: the Territories, Miscellaneous Publications,
A Monograph of North American Musteli- No. 8, page 4, Washington, 1S77.

470 The SniitJisoniaii Institution

service to the general government without additional
salary."^

The operations of the Commission were reported upon
briefly by the Secretary of the Institution, from year to year,
and the manifold importance of the explorations was fre-
quently insisted upon. In the Report just quoted from, Pro-
fessor Henry remarked: "The labors of the United States
Fish Commission can scarcely be too highly estimated."^

The history of the Commission cannot be more than
lightly touched upon here.

In his first report Professor Baird acknowledges the aid
received from the Institution through the loan of nets,
dredges, and other apparatus, whereby the Commission was
saved "the considerable outlay which would otherwise have
been necessary." An equipment was soon secured which
was improved year by year, and at last received its most
important addition in the form of a sea-going steamer, the
Albatross, which enabled the Commission to carry on explo-
rations of the highest scientific interest in the deep sea, off
the coasts of the United States — a considerable portion of
the results of which have been or are being published under
the Institution.

The Bureau of American Ethnology is the most recently
organized bureau concerned in explorations with which the
Institution has had intimate relations ; but the subjects dealt
with, as I have already stated, were among the earliest which
it lent its aid in elucidating.

" It is well known," wrote Secretary Baird in his report
for 1879, "that the natural history of primitive man, espe-
cially in North America, has always been a special object of
the attention of the Smithsonian Institution. The first vol-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1877, page 51. "^Ibidem, page 50.

Exploratmi IVork of the Institution 471

lime of its series of publications consisted of a work by
Messrs, Squier and Davis, entitled 'The Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley,' which, appearing in 1848, gave a
stimulus to archaeological research in America, and aided
greatly in exciting that high degree of interest in the subject
which now pervades the whole country. The work, although
thirty years old [in 1878], is still a standard publication, and
greatly sought after." ^

An account of the history of the Bureau of Ethnology will
be found in another part of this volume, and it will suffice
here to remark that it originated with the explorations of the
Colorado River by Major J. W. Powell in 1867, 1868, and
1869, which were fostered by Professor Henry, and were ex-
tended afterward into a survey of the Rocky Mountain region
under the direction of the Institution.

The ethnological investigations were finally separated from
those relating to geography and geology, and in 1879 were
placed in the hands of a special bureau, under the direction
of the Institution.

In 1875 Secretary Henry, taking cognizance of the work
then being carried on by Major Powell, placed in his care, in
accordance with the policy pursued in all similar cases, the
linguistic manuscripts belonging to the Institution. The
Secretary remarked :

" For a number of years the Institution has been collect-
ing, as a part of its work in the line of ethnology, Indian vo-
cabularies, and of these the number amounts to 670. ... It
was the intention of the Institution to publish these vocabu-
laries as a part of the volumes of the Smithsonian Contribu-
tions to Knowledge, and also in a separate form for more
general distribution to philologists actually engaged in the
comparative study of languages of savage tribes. An offer,
however, was made by Major J. W. Powell, who had also

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1879, page 38.

472 The Smithsonian Institution

collected a series of Indian vocabularies, to adopt those of
the Institution, and to publish the whole in connection with
his researches under government in regard to the ethnology
of the Indian tribes inhabiting the country watered by the
tributaries of the Great Colorado of the West. In accordance
with the general policy of the Institution in not expending
its funds on anything which can be as well done by other
means, the proposition of Major Powell was accepted, the
only conditions exacted on which the transfer was made be-
ing that full credit should be given in the publication to the
name of Smithson for collecting and arranging the articles,
and also that extra copies be furnished the Institution for
liberal distribution." ^

For eighteen years the Bureau of Ethnology has carried
on important investigations of the distribution, languages,
customs, and beliefs of the North American Indians, and has
published a valuable series of works relating thereto. A de-
tailed account of the labors of the bureau has been given by
Mr. McGee in an earlier chapter of this volume, and need
not be recounted here.

The cooperation of the Institution in government explo-
rations cannot be dwelt upon more at length, and it is
necessary to return to the consideration of the explorations
which were set on foot through its influence and encourage-
ment and were sustained as far as possible by grants of
money. The number of these explorations is very great,
and the territory they cover is of vast extent. In importance
also they have varied greatly, and some — a majority per-
haps— are no more than collecting excursions. Yet, as no
earnest collector of natural objects in the field can fail to
make new observations of more or less value, even these col-
lecting expeditions may perhaps fairly be regarded in the
light of explorations. The policy adopted by the Secretaries

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1876, page 35.

Exploration Work of the Institution 473

of showing by prompt and full correspondence the appreci-
ation of the Institution of labors in the cause of science, how-
ever small, has led to the formation of an army of zealous
collaborators, scattered throughout the world, who are always
willing to advance the work of the Institution and to add to
the collections which have grown up in the National Mu-
seum under its charge. Indeed, it seems to have become a
fixed belief in many parts of the United States that all scien-
tific explorations in the country are conducted by the Smith-
sonian Institution, and that all explorers are its agents. The
fruits of these hundreds of minor explorations are to be found
in the collections of the National Museum, and the names of
thousands of contributors are inscribed in its record-books,
A simple list of these correspondents and their donations
covers a score or more of pages in each annual Report, and it
would be obviously impossible to do justice to such a roll in
the space here available.

It is desirable, however, to make mention of a few explo-
rations which show the generous response of individuals and
oreanizations to the endeavors of the Institution for the ad-
vancement of science. One of the earliest of these was the
exploration of the prehistoric mounds of Wisconsin by the
American Antiquarian Society, in relation to which Secretary
Henry made the following interesting statement in the Re-
port for 1 851 : ^

"The most interesting circumstance connected with the
study of the ancient remains of this country is a recent action
of the American x'^ntiquarian Society of Worcester, Massa-
chusetts, This Institution was founded in 181 2 by the zeal
and liberality of Isaiah Thomas, for the purpose of collecting
and preserving such manuscripts, pamphlets, and other articles
as relate to the history of this country, and for the explora-

1 Page 18.

474 The SinitJisonian Institution

tion and publication of its antiquities. It was at the expense
of this society that the original researches of Mr. Atwater, on
the mounds of the Ohio Valley, were first published ; and
during the last two years the condition of its funds has again
enabled it to take the field, and to direct its attention to the
remarkable antiquities in the State of Wisconsin.

"These antiquities, it is well known, consist of representa-
tions, on a gigantic scale, of birds, beasts, and fishes; and
though many of them have been surveyed, and accounts of
them given in the memoir of Messrs. Squier and Davis, com-
paratively few of those which are said to exist have been ex-
plored or delineated. For this reason, the council of the
society have engaged Mr. I. A. Lapham, an experienced en-
gineer, to make the explorations and surveys and drawings
of these mounds. He has been engaged in these operations
for two seasons, and is now employed in making up an
account of his labors.

"To insure harmony of action in the cultivation of the wide
field of research offered in the investigations of the ancient
monuments of this country, the Antiquarian Society has
agreed to present to the Smithsonian Institution the results
of the explorations of Mr. Lapham for publication, and to re-
serve its limited funds for further explorations. The me-
moirs will be examined and revised by the society, and will
be published under its auspices in the Smithsonian Con-
tributions.

"This arrangement is another pleasing evidence of the
feeling with which the efforts of this Institution are regarded,
and the willingness with which other Institutions cooperate
with it in the important work of promoting original know-
ledge."

The results of this exploration were published in the
seventh volume of the " Contributions to Knowledge."

The exploration of California by E. Samuels in 1855 is
another interesting example of friendly cooperation, not only
on the part of scientific organizations, but of private business

Exploration JVork of the Institution 475

corporations as well. Secretary Henry's statement in the
Report of 1856 is as follows:

" Brief mention was made in my last report of the fitting
out of Mr. Samuels by the Boston Society of Natural History
and the Smithsonian Institution, aided by the liberality of
the United States mail line to California, via Panama. Mr.
Samuels returned in July last, having thoroughly explored
the field of his labors, and gathered a rich collection of speci-
mens, embracing many rare and new species. The liberal
promises of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, the Panama
Railroad Company, and the United States Mail Steamship
Company have been more than realized in the free passage
home given to Mr. Samuels and all his large collections —
an act of generosity which may well excite the attention and
recognition of the lovers of science. Nor should less meed
ot praise be awarded to Messrs. Wells, Fargo & Co. for their
free transmission to San Francisco of Mr. Samuels' boxes,
thus facilitating their semi-monthly despatch to Washington.

" It may, perhaps, not be out of place here to state that
the above-mentioned mail line still continues its kind offices
by transporting, free of charge, all packages of the Smithso-
nian Institution containing books of specimens of natural his-
tory. The United States mail line, also, has furnished free
freight of a similar character from Cuba and New Orleans to
New York.

"The results of Mr. Samuels' explorations will shortly be
published in connected form in the journal of the Boston
Society of Natural History, illustrated with the necessary
plates and figures."^

The notable explorations of Robert Kennicott in British
America and Alaska were made possible by the cooperation
of several private individuals and scientific organizations and
the Hudson Bay Company. This intrepid explorer, whose
early death was a severe loss to American natural history,

1" Smithsonian Report," 1856, page 52.

47^ The S^nithsoniaii Institution

spent four years In the North and made most extensive
travels.

" During the whole exploration he was the guest of the
Hudson's Bay Company, the officers of which not only fur-
nished him with free transportation for the materials he
collected, but also extended to him in the most liberal manner
the hospitalities of their several posts, and facilitated in every
way in their power the objects of his perilous enterprise.

"The principal object of the exploration was to collect
materials for investigating the Zoology of the region visited.
Mr. Kennicott, however, also collected specimens of plants
and minerals, and gave considerable attention to the eth-
nology of the country, in observing the peculiarities of the
various Indian tribes, and forming vocabularies of the lan-
guages. He carried with him a number of thermometers, and
succeeded in enlisting a number of persons as meteorological
observers, as well as in exciting an interest in natural history
and in physical phenomena which cannot fail to be produc-
tive of important information respecting a region of the globe
but little known." ^

The interest aroused by these investigations has never
completely died out, and the Institution received year by
year for a long period the fruits of explorations carried on
by officers of the Hudson Bay Company in many parts of the
British territory.

Following immediately upon Kennicott's explorations, an
expedition was sent out under private auspices to Alaska and
Siberia for the purpose of establishing an overland tele-
graphic route between America and Europe. The enterprise
failed as a financial venture on account of the success of the
Atlantic cable, but large benefits accrued to science from the
labors of the naturalists who accompanied the expedition."

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1862, pag;e 40.
2 For an extended account of this expedition, see Science, 1896, Volume ill, pages 37 and 87.

MELVILLE AVESTO:X FULLEE.

SIXTH CHANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

ELECTED IN 1S8S.

((

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er
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prise.
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materials for investigating the gy of the ree

jMr. Kennicott, however, also collected s

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Exploratio7t Work of the Iiistihitioji 477

"The telegraph company not only afforded facilities for
making the collections, but also contributed, as did the
Chicago Academy of Sciences, to lessen the expense to the
Smithsonian fund in the purchase of the necessary articles
comprising the outfit of the naturalists of the expedition."^

After the disbanding of the telegraph expedition one of
the naturalists, William H. Dall, remained in Alaska and
made explorations particularly in the region of the Yukon
River. The support of his labors is a notable instance of the
cooperation which has existed between the Smithsonian In-
stitution and other scientific and non-scientific organizations.
Mr. Dall defrayed the first cost of his expedition from private
funds ; the transportation of his collections from the west
coast was undertaken by the Pacific Mail Steamship Com-
pany; and the expense attending their elaboration was borne
jointly by the Boston Society of Natural History and the
Smithsonian Institution, which latter furnished the necessary
work-rooms.

Mention has already been made of the services rendered
to science by the medical officers attached to the various gov-
ernment surveying parties. Hardly less important have been
the activities of the army surgeons stationed at the military
posts of the West. In the years when the Institution was
paying special attention to the investigation of the abo-
rigines of America, the pages of the annual reports are
thickly dotted with the names of medical officers who ren-
dered important service in this line of exploration. The
great collections of the National Museum tell of their zeal,
which even at the present day has suffered no abatement,
though the spread of population and the cultivation of waste
places have in large measure lessened opportunities.

Other branches of the public service no less than the army

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1865, page 61.

47^ The Sinithsonian Institution

have cooperated extensively with the Institution in explor-
ing the national domain, and there is hardly a department or
a bureau of the government whose operations include field
work which has not at some time joined with the Institution
in investigations. The good offices of the State Department,
the Navy Department, the Weather Bureau, the Life-saving
Service, the Lighthouse Board, the Land Office, the Indian
Bureau, and the Bureau of Education, come at once to mind
in this connection. In 1864, Professor Henry wrote in his
Report :

" In addition to the collections which have been received
from explorations organized under the direction of the Insti-
tution, large numbers of duplicate specimens have been pre-
sented by the meteorological observers and other Smithso-
nian collaborators, the whole forming a body of material for
the illustration and study of the products of the American
continent unequalled by any collection previously made.
The explorations, however, as might be inferred, have not
been confined to the collecting of specimens, but have also
furnished information relative to the topography, geology,
physical geography, ethnology, and the living fauna of the

regions visited."^

Though the explorations in which the Institution has in-
terested itself have centered chiefly in North America, its
influence has also extended to other parts of the world. As
an example may be cited the survey of Yucatan. This was
undertaken by Governor Salazar y Ilarregui in 1865, who,
upon the recommendation of the Institution, appointed
Doctor Arthur Schott to take charge of natural history
operations.^

The same year an exploration of British Honduras was
undertaken by Doctor H. Berendt, under the auspices of the
Institution.

1" Smithsonian Report," 1864, page 50. "^Ibidem, 1865, page 62.

Exploration Work of the Institution 479

"The outfit of physical instruments and apparatus, and
suppHes, for collections of natural history, were principally
furnished from the Smithsonian fund, while the personal ex-
penses were borne by a subscription of a number of gentlemen
interested in the advance of science, and by the Academies
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and Chicago."^

In 1867 an exploration of the northern parts of South
America was made by the Lyceum of Natural History of
Williams College, Massachusetts, under Professor James Or-
ton, and the Institution furnished instruments and a consid-
erable part of the necessary outfit, and took charge of the
transportation of the collections made.^

In 1882 an expedition to the Commander Islands in the
North Pacific was arranged for by the Institution, and Doc-
tor Leonhard Stejneger was selected for the work. One
of the special tasks committed to him was to collect bones of
the extinct Arctic sea-cow. His transportation was secured
through the Alaska Commercial Company, a corporation
which has always been ready to aid the Institution in scien-
tific enterprises. Doctor Stejneger obtained large collections,
including skulls and bones of the sea-cow, which were the
special object of his quest.

In 1883 Pierre L. Jouy, who has been in the ser\nce of the
Institution for a number of years, accompanied Honorable
Lucius H. Foote to Korea upon the occasion of the inaugu-
ration of official intercourse with that country, and later con-
nected himself with the civil service of the Korean govern-
ment. He made valuable observations and collections while
so engaged. Lieutenant J. B. Bernadou, U. S. N., also ex-
plored Korea under the auspices of the Institution.

Important explorations in the East, especially in Mongolia
and Tibet, were conducted, pardy under the auspices of the
Smithsonian Institution, by Honorable William W. Rockhill,

1 " Smithsonian Reporl," 1S65, page 62. 2 Ibidem, 1867, page 49.

4^0 The Sjnithsonian histitution

in 1888-89 ^^<^ 1891-92. Mr. Rockhill was especially fitted
for such work in view of his connection with the United
States Consular Service in China during several previous
years. At the time of revisiting the East he obtained much
interesting information concerning the manners and customs
of the people, and made extensive collections. An account
of his last journey was published by the Institution under the
title of " Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in
1 89 1 and 1892." Another illustrated paper by Mr. Rockhill,
on the "Ethnology of Tibet," in which his collections are de-
scribed, was published in 1893/

In 1890 an expedition was sent to the west coast of Africa
to observe an eclipse of the sun, and the Institution was af-
forded an opportunity to send an assistant of the National
Museum to make natural history observations.

These are but a few examples from a large series of for-
eign explorations in which the Institution has taken a more
or less prominent part. The appreciation of its labors in
foreign fields has been manifested in various ways, and per-
haps in no more conspicuous manner than by the generous
action of Doctor William L. Abbott, who has presented the
fruits of his own extended explorations in Africa and Asia
to the Institution.

Thus it is manifest that the Smithsonian Institution has
contributed to the work of exploring the domain of nature
not only directly by setting on foot expeditions supported
from its own funds, and indirectly by aiding and equipping
numerous government and private expeditions, but more re-
motely as well by influencing independent workers to explore
in many lands, and to add new treasures to the national col-
lections.

1 " Report of the United States National Museum," 1893, page 665.

THE SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS

By Cyrus Adler

It is chiefly by the publications of the Institution that its fame is to be spread
through the world, and the monument most befitting the name of Smithson erected
to his memory. —Henry.

^HAT a portion of the income arising from the
Smithson bequest should be devoted to the
pubHcation of scientific memoirs was an idea
early advanced in the course of the discussion
relating to its application. In the year 1840,
Peter S. Duponceau, then president of the American Philo-
sophical Society, described the benefit which that society
had received from the publication of a bulletin containing
its own proceedings.

One of the favorite plans for the application of the Smith-
son Fund was the establishment of an Astronomical Observa-
tory. The bills which would have authorized this disposition
of the fund were introduced into Congress in 1839, in 1841,
and again in 1844. All of these bills directed that the sum
of $30,000 be set aside, the income of which was to be used
for the printing of a nautical almanac, to be known as the
"Smithson Almanac." In a bill introduced into the House

of Representatives February 28, 1846, by Mr. Robert Dale

481

482 The Smithsonian Institution

Owen, for the establishment of the Institution, the following
provision for publications was contained :

Section 10. ''And be it further enacted, That it shall be
competent for the board of managers to cause to be printed
and published periodically or occasionally essays, pamphlets,
magazines, or other brief works or productions for the dis-
semination of information among the people, especially works
in popular form on agriculture and its latest improvements,
on the sciences and the aid they bring to labor, manuals ex-
planatory of the best systems of common school instruction,
and generally tracts illustrative of objects of elementary sci-
ence and the rudiments of history, chemistry, astronomy, or
any other department of useful knowledge ; also, they may
prepare sets of illustrations, specimens, and apparatus, suited
for primary schools."

Another proposition was submitted by Mr. Giles of Mary-
land, "providing for the publication and distribution of books
for the instruction of the blind."

The act establishinof the Smithsonian Institution did not
directly specify that publications should be issued. The last
sentence of the third section reads: "And the said Board [of
Regents] shall submit to Congress, at each session thereof,
a report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Institution." Upon the basis of this statement, the annual
Reports, the series of the Institution's publications issued in
the largest edition and most widely distributed, rest.

The first Report of the Institution presented to Congress
was printed as a Congressional document, and consisted of
thirty-seven pages. It was devoted entirely to the business
of the Board of Regents. This plan of report was followed
for several years; but the importance of making this docu-
ment something more than a mere record of receipts and
expenditures was recognized at the outset, the committee on

The Smithsonian Publicatioiis 483

organization recommending^ that "as an additional means of
diffusing knowledge, your committee suggest the publication
of a series of reports, to be published annually, or oftener,
containing a concise record of progress in the different
branches of knowledge, compiled from the journals of all
languages, and the transactions of scientific and learned
societies throughout the world."

Great care was taken that these Reports should be properly
distributed, the Board of Regents resolving, even before the
actual publication of the first Report,^ "That of this Report,
in such form as it may be ultimately adopted, five thousand
copies be printed, under the direction of the Secretary ; and
that he be required to transmit a copy of the same to each of
the principal scientific and literary societies both in this and
in other countries; and also to such individuals, of scientific
or literary reputation, as he may judge likely to find interest
in the proceedings of the Institution."

The second Report was a very much larger document,
consisting of 208 pages, and containing the program of organi-
zation, correspondence, reports of committees, and a descrip-
tion of the building. When this Report was laid before the
Senate, Senator Davis of Mississippi moved that a thousand
additional copies be printed for the use of the Senate. In
the House, objection was made to it by Mr. Johnson of
Tennessee as a "cumbrous document." In 1849, when the
third Report was laid before the Senate, objection was again
made to printing it, this time by Senator Rhett of South
Carolina. The proposition, however, was defended by Sen-
ator Davis of Mississippi. Opinion finally favored the pub-
lication of the Report, and the edition was increased to 3000
copies. Of the Report of 1850, 5000 copies were printed;
and the number from that time on fluctuated, rising some

1" Smithsonian Report," 1846, page 23. ^Ibidem, page 12.

4^4 The Smithsonian Institution

years as high as 20,000 copies, being maintained for a num-
ber of years at 15,500 copies, the standard edition of late
years being 10,000 copies.

As time went on, and the Institution had estabhshed itself
in the regard of Congress and of the people, objection was
rarely, if ever, raised against the printing of the Smithsonian
Report. For the first thirty years, the volume was limited
to 450 pages, and it never exceeded that size and often fell
somewhat below it. All illustrations were furnished at the
expense of the Institution ; but the entire cost of the type-
setting and press-work was borne by the government.
From the first Report of thirty-seven pages, published in
1846, these Reports have steadily increased in size; the last
published, 1894, consists of two parts, the first a Report of
the Institution containing 770 pages, and the second, that of
the National Museum, consisting of 1030 pages. Thus over
1800 pages annually published, in an edition of 10,000 copies
at the joint expense of the government and the Institution,
freely distributed to libraries and scientific men, most worthily
carry out the provision of the will of Smithson for the diffusion
of knowledge among men.

During the civil war, owing to the expense of paper, the
general cost of labor, and the vast drain on the government's
resources, the edition of the Reports was, for a few years, re-
duced to five thousand copies ; but as stereotype plates had
been made, it was provided in 1870, by act of Congress, that
two thousand additional copies of the Reports for the years
1865, 1866, 1867, and 1868 should be printed. It was
through the efforts of President James A. Garfield, then a
representative from Ohio, that the edition of 1872 was raised
to twenty thousand copies.

After the financial crisis of 1873, economy in expenditure
being felt necessary, a general resolution to limit the size of

The Smithso7iian Publications 485

the editions of publications passed the Senate. When the
usual resolution for the publication of the Smithsonian Re-
port came up, it occasioned a debate, in which a number of
distinguished senators participated. The proposition not to
cut down the Smithsonian Report was championed by Sena-
tor Hamlin of Maine as follows :

" I may say in behalf of the Smithsonian Institution that
I think this [report] is entirely distinct from the documents
which we publish sent to us from the departments, or which
emanate from our committees. This is purely a scientific
work. ... I think no man can ever examine a single report
of that institution without being impressed with its great
value. These reports . . . are of immense value to the
world, and they are transmitted all over the world, and we
receive back in exchange the scientific reports of the different
societies and different governments."

Professor Henry explained the theory of the annual Re-
ports in the following words :

"The Report of the Regents to Congress for 1858, besides
an exposition of the conditions and operations of the Institu-
tion for that year, was, as usual, accompanied by an appendix
containing the report of lectures, and other matter which has
proved highly acceptable to a large number of intelligent
persons in every part of the country. These Reports, copies
of which are especially solicited by teachers, besides furnish-
ing valuable knowledge not otherwise readily attainable,
serve to diffuse information as to the operations of the Insti-
tution which tends to increase the number of its friends and
cooperators, and to elevate popular conceptions in reference
to science, as well as to increase the number of its cultivators.

"The number of copies ordered to be printed at the last
session was less than that of the preceding year, yet the sup-
ply to the Institution was the same. Indeed it is a gratifying

"Smithsonian Report," 1859, page 32.

486 The Smithsonian Institution

evidence of the public estimation in which the Institution is
held, that Congress has been so favorably disposed, even
during the depressed condition of the treasury, towards the
distribution of this document."

It is difficult to epitomize the contents of these Reports.
During the early period of the Institution they were merely
reports to Congress, although an extensive appendix to the
Report of 1850 was printed. Beginning with the Report for
1854, the general appendix, so called, became a feature. In
speaking of this appendix in 1856, Professor Henry said that
its object was "to illustrate the operations of the Institution
by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence,
as well as to furnish information of a character suited espe-
cially to the meteorological observers and other persons in-
terested in the promotion of knowledge." Until 1865, many
important lectures by distinguished scientific men were de-
livered at the Institution, and their publication was a feature
of the Reports. It was also the custom of the Secretary, in
these Reports, to summarize the contents of the scientific
papers published in the other series, which will be alluded to
presently. There were added to the lectures, in each Report,
translations of articles relating to science which appeared in
foreign journals, descriptions of the organization of impor-
tant academies abroad, lists of prize questions announced by
various learned societies, reports of meteorological observers,
biographical sketches of distinguished scientific men recently
deceased, and a report of the progress of the science of
physics in recent years. Gradually, as the meteorological
work ceased to absorb so much of the attention of the Insti-
tution, less space was given to that branch of knowledge, and
more to North American ethnology and archaeology, con-
cerning which there are many contributions in the earlier
volumes of the Reports.

The Smithsonian Pttblications 487

As early as 1849, Professor Henry designed that the annual
Reports should "give an account of the progress of the differ-
ent branches of knowledge in every part of the world." He
called attention to the fact that the first reports of this
sort were due to the Emperor Napoleon, who directed the
French Academy " to present him with accounts of the pro-
gress of the different branches of knowledge." Reports on
special departments of science, which had already been pub-
lished abroad, were translated into English and printed under
this plan ; and reports on the state of knowledge in a few
fields were especially prepared for the Institution.

The plan, however, of having annual reports especially
prepared for the Institution, covering nearly all the branches
of science, was not carried out until Professor Baird became
Secretary. He had edited for the firm of Harper & Brothers
"The Annual Record of Science and Industry," from 1871 to
1878; and in the Report for 1880 there was begun a series
entitled " Record of Scientific Progress." The object of the
general appendix was there stated to be "To furnish sum-
maries of scientific discovery in particular directions ; occa-
sional reports of the investigations made by collaborators of
the Institution ; memoirs of a general character, or on special
topics, whether original and prepared expressly for the pur-
pose, or selected from foreign journals and proceedings ; and
briefly to present (as fully as space will permit) such papers
not published in the 'Smithsonian Contributions' or in the
* Miscellaneous Collections ' as may be supposed to be of
interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the
Institution."

Under this plan, reports of the progress of science were
given in astronomy, geology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy,
botany, zoology, anthropology, meteorology, vulcanology,
seismology, North American invertebrate paleontology, and

488 The Smithsonian Institution

oriental archaeology. It was the practice of Professor Baird,
for many years, in his report as Assistant Secretary, to give
an account of the natural history explorations of the United
States. Since 1889, however, most of these reports of pro-
gress have been omitted, though one or two continue to be
published, anthropology especially.

Secretary Langley stated in the advertisement to the gen-
eral appendix of the Report for 1889 that, owing to "the in-
completeness of the special record, the discouragement from
the increasing delays encountered in the printing of these
summaries, the recent multiplication by private enterprise of
special books and periodicals devoted to critical summaries,"
he had decided to temporarily suspend the printing of the
Reports, and would revert to what he believed the more ac-
ceptable plan, " of publishing yearly papers selected with a
principal view to their general scientific interest," rather than
to continue these summaries, which were " chiefly of impor-
tance to the professional student." This policy has been
continued to the present time.

Stress has been laid upon the Reports of the Institution,
not because they are the most important publications issued,
but for the reason that they are the only volumes the publica-
tion of which is based on a direct statement in the organic
law of the Institution, and because their lars^e edition has
given them the widest circulation.

The most important volumes issued in the name of the In-
stitution, those which have contained the greatest additions
to the sum of human knowledge and are most prized among
scientific men, are the quarto volumes of " Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge," thirty-two volumes of which have
appeared. This series was foreshadowed in the resolutions
appended to the report made January 25, 1847, ^^ ^^^ ^^st
committee appointed by the Board of Regents for the prepar-

The Smithsonian Ptiblications 489

ation of a plan ; it being proposed that the Institution procure
"original papers containing positive additions to the sum of
human knowledge ; and that these, together with other suit-
able papers, be published in 'Transactions of the Institution,'
to be entitled 'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,' and
to be issued periodically or occasionally, in quarto form, as
materials may be obtained."

These " Contributions to Knowledge " combine the two
features of the Smithson bequest : they both increase and dif-
fuse knowledge. The program of organization, submitted
by Professor Henry in 1847, "^^Y still be said to guide the
issuing of these volumes. It was proposed to stimulate re-
search by offering rewards for original memoirs on all sub-
jects of investigation :

" I. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series
of volumes, in a quarto form, and entitled 'Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge.'

" 2. No memoir on subjects of physical science, to be ac-
cepted for publication which does not furnish a positive ad-
dition to human knowledge, resting on original research ;
and all unverified speculations to be rejected.

"3. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be sub-
mitted for examination to a commission of persons of repu-
tation for learning in the branch to which the memoir
pertains, and to be accepted for publication only in case
the report of this commission is favorable.

"4. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the In-
stitution, and the name of the author, as far as practicable,
concealed, unless a favorable decision be made.

" 5. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the
transactions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to
be given to all the colleges and principal libraries in this
country. One part of the remaining copies may be oftered
for sale and the other carefully preserved to form complete
sets of the work to supply the demand from new institutions.

490 The Smithsonian Institution

"6. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of
these memoirs to be given to the public through the annual
Report of the Regents to Congress."

In illustration of this portion of the program. Professor
Henry wrote:

" The publication of original memoirs and periodical re-
ports, as contemplated by the program, will act as a power-
ful stimulus on the latent talent of our country, by placing in
bold relief the real laborers in the field of original research,
while it will afford the best materials for the use of those
engaged in the diffusion of knowledge.

" The advantages which will accrue from the plan of publish-
ine the volumes of the 'Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge,' are various. In the first place, it will serve to render
the name of the founder favorably known wherever literature
and science are cultivated, and to keep it in continual remem-
brance with each succeeding volume, as long as knowledge is
valued. A single new truth, first given to the world through
these volumes, will forever stamp their character as a work
of reference. The contributions will thus form the most be-
fitting monument to perpetuate the name of one whose life
was devoted to the increase of knowledge, and whose ruling
passion, strong in death, prompted the noble bequest in-
tended to facilitate the labors of others in the same pursuit.

"Again, the publication of a series of volumes of original
memoirs will afford to the Institution the most ready means
of entering into friendly relations and correspondence with all
the learned societies in the world, and of enriching its library
with their current transactions and proceedings. But per-
haps the most important effect of the plan will be that of
giving to the world many valuable memoirs, which, on account
of the expense of the illustrations, could not be otherwise
published. Every one who adds new and important truths to
the existing stock of knowledge, must be of necessity, to a
certain decree, in advance of his as^e. Hence the number of
readers and purchasers of a work is generally in the inverse

The Smithsonian Publications 491

ratio of its intrinsic value ; and consequently authors of the
highest rank of merit are frequently deterred from giving
their productions to the world on account of the pecuniary
loss to which the publication would subject them.

" Besides the advantage to the author of having his mem-
oir published in the 'Smithsonian Contributions' free of ex-
pense, his labors will be given to the world with the stamp
of approval of a commission of learned men ; and his merits
will be generally made known through the Reports of the
Institution.

" There is one proposition of the program which has
given rise to much discussion, and which, therefore, requires
particular explanation : I allude to that which excludes from
the contributions all papers consisting merely of unverified
speculations on subjects of physical science. The object of
this proposition is to obviate the endless difficulties which
would occur in rejecting papers of an unphilosophical char-
acter ; and though it may in some cases exclude an interest-
ing communication, yet the strict observance of it will be
found of so much practical importance that it cannot be dis-
pensed with." ^

Some objection was made to the publishing of original
memoirs by the Institution on the ground that in so doing
it was merely performing the duties of a learned society, to
which Professor Henry replied "that the learned societies
in this country have not the means, except in a very limited
degree, of publishing memoirs which require expensive illus-
trations, much less of assisting to defray the cost of the in-
vestigations by which the results have been obtained. The
real workingmen in the line of original research hail this part
of the plan as a new era in the history of American science.
The assistance which the Institution will thus render to origi-
nal research will occupy the place of the governmental patron-
age of other countries, and will enable true genius, wherever

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1847, page 179.

492 The Sfuithsonian Institution

found, to place its productions before the world, free of cost,
and in a manner most favorable for securing due attention and
proper appreciation."^

At the time of the publication of the first volume of the
" Contributions to Knowledge " the question of the propriety
of the Institution's securing a copyright was raised. Profes-
sor Henry decided this question in the negative:

" I had not an opportunity of conferring with the Execu-
tive Committee on this point, and was therefore obliged to
settle it on my own responsibility. I concluded that it would
be in accordance with the spirit of the Institution to decide
against the copyright. The knowledge which the Smith-
sonian Institution may be instrumental in presenting to the
world should be free to all who are capable of using it. The
republication of our papers ought to be considered as an evi-
dence of their importance, and should be encouraged rather
than prohibited. " ^

This policy has always been followed, the only provision
beingf that full credit should be griven to the name of Smith-
son for any extract which is made from these publications.
Professor Henry truly said:

"What prouder monument could any man desire than the
perpetual association of his name with a series of new truths !
This building and all its contents may be destroyed, but the
volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions, distributed as
they are among a thousand libraries, are as wide-spread and
lasting" as civilization itself" ^

Professor C. C. Felton, after returning from Europe, wrote
the following letter, which shows how as early as 1854 the
publications were appreciated abroad :

" It gave me pleasure to notice the high estimation in
which the Smithsonian Institution, under its present manage-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1849, page 26. '^Ibidem, page 24. 3 Jbidan, 185 1, page 10.

The Smithsonian Publications 493

ment, is held everywhere in Europe, The volumes pub-
lished under its auspices have done the highest honor to
American science and are considered most valuable contribu-
tions to the stock of knowledge among men. They are
shown to visitors as among the most creditable publications
of the age, and as highly interesting illustrations of the prog-
ress of science and the arts in the United States ; and the
eagerness to possess them is very great among the savants
of the Old World. They were shown to me wherever I
went, and the commendations bestowed on the civilization of
America, as evinced by the excellence of these works, both in
matter and form, was deeply gratifying to me."

In the course of the debate in Congress on Senator Choate's
resignation as a Regent, Mr. William H. English of Indiana
said, in the House of Representatives :

" Original researches have been stimulated, and many valu-
able memoirs upon scientific subjects published and distrib-
uted to all the principal libraries and learned societies in the
world. To show conclusively what has already been done in
this direction, I will give a list of some of the publications,
premising in the language of the secretary of the board, that
'the institution up to this time has scarcely published a single
paper the production of which has not been stimulated and
assisted, or whose character has not been improved, by the
agency of the institution, and, as a whole, they are such as
could not have been given to the world without the aid of the
Smithsonian bequest.' They are the product of American
genius, and have reflected the highest honor on American
science.

"These works are distributed gratuitously to most of the
incorporated colleges and libraries in the United States, and
to the leading literary institutions of other countries. They
are not copyrighted, and are sold by the trade at a low rate.

" It may be contended that researches and publications of
a character so purely scientific are not calculated directly to
diffuse knowledge among the great mass of mankind.

494 The Smithsonian Institution

"This is, no doubt, to a certain extent, true, and I shall be
glad to see the operations of the institution made as plain
and practical as the nature of the subjects will admit; but it
should not be forgotten that the grand object of the institu-
tion is to add to the sum total of the knowledge now existing
in the world, and to diffuse it among men, rather than to
scatter that more widely which is already accessible in a
greater or less degree to all."

While the distinguished naturalist, Professor Louis Agas-
siz wrote :

" If I am allowed to state, in conclusion, my personal im-
pression respecting the management of the Institution thus
far, I would only express my concurrence with the plan of
active operations adopted by the Regents, which has led to
the publication of a series of volumes equal, in scientific value,
to any productions of the same kind issued by learned socie-
ties anywhere. The distribution of the * Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge ' has already carried the name of
the Institution to all parts of the civilized world, and con-
veyed with them such evidence of the intellectual activity of
America as challenges everywhere admiration; a result which
could hardly be obtained by applying a large part of the
resources of the Institution to other purposes."

Of the contents of the " Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge," it would be impossible to speak here, but it is
not too much to say that from the valuable contribution to
North American archaeology by Squier and Davis, to the con-
tribution on Oceanic Ichthyology, by Goode and Bean, every
paper in each volume of this series has carried out the purpose
of the organizers of the Institution, to publish only such con-
tributions as would add to the sum of human knowledge.
Many of these publications are printed in so expensive a man-
ner, with plates and illustrations, that it is safe to say that
their appearance would have been greatly delayed, if not
altogether prevented, had not the Smithsonian bequest been

The Smithsonian PMblications 495

made. A summary of the contents of these memoirs is made
annually by the Secretary in his Report to Congress ; and an
"appreciation" of their importance for the advancement of
knowledge and of the new truths they contain is found in the
various chapters of the second part of this work. All of the
volumes of this series have been issued at the expense of
the Smithson bequest, without any assistance from Congress,
or from any other fund.

The same statement applies to the third Smithsonian series,
which is an octavo series, known as the " Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections," now consisting of thirty-five com-
plete volumes with three others in course of publication,
making in all thirty-eight. This series, which "is intended to
embrace all the publications issued directly in octavo form,"
was " designed to contain reports on the present state of our
knowledge of particular branches of science ; instructions for
collecting and digesting facts and materials for research ;
lists and synopses of species of the organic and inorganic
world ; museum catalogues ; reports of explorations ; aids to
bibliographical investigations, etc., generally prepared at the
express request of the Institution and at its expense." In the
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," as well as in the
"Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," each article is
separately paged and indexed, and the actual date of its pub-
lication is given on the special title-page.

A considerable proportion of this series is devoted to scien-
tific bibliography. When separate publications for the Mu-
seum were first established, it was the practice to reprint the
"Proceedingfs" and "Bulletin" in the "Smithsonian Miscellan-
eous Collections." It was also the custom, when the scientific
societies of Washington were in their infancy, for the Institution
to publish the proceedings of these societies, more especially
the Philosophical, Anthropological, and Biological, the estab-
lishment of all of which societies, it may be said, was directly

49^ The Smithsonian Instihttion

due to the initiative and encouragement of the members of
the staff of the Smithsonian Institution.

A very interesting suggestion was made in Congress in
1 85 1, by Mr. Thompson, of Mississippi. When the bill con-
taining the appropriation of money to purchase books for the
Library of Congress was under consideration, he proposed
an amendment requiring that the plates and engravings of
the report of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, which had
been made at the expense of the United States, should be
delivered to the Smithsonian Institution for the issuing of a
new edition. All students of science will deplore the fact
that this important amendment was lost.

In addition to these three series, and excepting the pub-
lications of the bureaus under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution, it has issued certain other publications which
may be, for want of any particular designation, called "Spe-
cial Publications." One of these is a quarto volume of almost
twelve hundred pages, entitled "The Results of Meteoro-
logical Observations made under the Direction of the United
States Patent Office and the Smithsonian Institution," and
published by the government in 1861 as a general report
of the Commissioner of Patents and the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. The memoirs of Professor James
P. Espy on Meteorology, one of which was embodied in a
message to the President of the United States, the others
being reports made to the Secretary of the Navy, were all
prepared as a part of the Smithsonian meteorological work,
the staff being the observers attached to the Institution.

The first publication of the Institution was entitled " Hints
on Public Architecture," being really a careful description of
the proposed building of the Institution, by Robert Dale
Owen, chairman of the building committee. A half dozen
detached papers which have never been included in any of

The Sinithsonian Publications 497

the regular series were also issued. The volume containing
the report on the exploration of the Colorado River of the
West and its tributaries, by Major J. \V. Powell, was pre-
pared under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution and
printed by order of Congress upon being submitted to that
body by the Secretary. Recently the Institution issued, as
a separate volume, not to be placed in any of its series, the
" Diary of a Journey through IVIongolia and Tibet," by
William Woodville Rockhill, First Assistant Secretary of
State, who undertook an expedition through these countries
with the aid of the Institution.

The Institution has also, in several cases, indirectly aided
the publication of valuable scientific memoirs. The most
notable of these was the series known as "The Library of
American Linguistics," now extremely rare and costly, edited
by John G. Shea. The manuscript of some of this series had
actually been in the possession of the Institution with a view
to publication. Mr. Shea, however, presented a memoir to
the Secretary, expressing a desire to publish them all in one
series, and asking for the aid of the Institution. They
were referred to a commission, of whom E. B. O'Callahan,
the well known bibliographer, Jared Sparks, George Gibbs,
and Peter Force were members. This commission recom-
mended to the Smithsonian Institution that "a subscription
which will insure the continuance of these series will be emi-
nently within the scope of the foundation, by preserving a
number of rapidly perishing monuments of human knowledge,
and securing to posterity, in the languages of the native tribes,
the surest clue to their ori<jin and affinities." All of these
volumes were printed at the Cramoisy Press, in New York,
"under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution." To the
" Grammar of the Mutsun Language " the following " adver-
tisement " was prefixed :

49^ The Smithsortian Instihttioii

" Material for this work was forwarded to the Smithsonian
Institution, with a number of other Indian vocabularies.
. . . The intention was to publish it with other manuscripts
in the course of several years, — as a part of the miscellane-
ous collections of the Institution, but it was afterwards
concluded that more service could be done in the way of
advancing knowledge, — with the small appropriation which
could be devoted to this purpose, by transferring the work to
Mr. John G. Shea of New York, to be published as a part of
his interesting series of American Linguistics. It is accord-
ingly presented to the student of ethnology by Mr. Shea,
under the auspices and in part at the expense of the Smith-
sonian Institution."

Since 1881, the National Museum has made separate an-
nual Reports. From 1881 to 1883 they were embodied in
the Smithsonian Report. Since 1884 they have formed a
second volume of the Smithsonian Report, and consist of an
account of the administrative work of the year, with an ap-
pendix containing papers by members of the staff concerning
, the collections, or by collaborators of the Institution, based
upon these collections. Some of these publications are large
and valuable documents, containing more than one thousand
pages and many illustrations.

Since 1878 the Museum has issued an octavo series en-
titled "Proceedings of the United States National Museum,"
the nineteenth volume of which is now in course of publication,
their character being indicated by the following statement:

" Many of the objects gathered are of a novel and import-
ant character, and serve to throw a new light upon the study
of nature and of man.

"The importance to science of prompt publication of de-
scriptions of this material led to the establishment of the
present series, . . . the distinguishing particularity of which
is that the articles are published in pamphlet form as fast as

The Smithsonian Publications 499

completed and in advance of the bound volume. . . . The
articles in this series consists: First, of papers prepared by
the scientific corps of the National Museum ; secondly, of
papers by others, founded upon the collections in the Na-
tional Museum; and, finally, of facts and memoranda from the
correspondence of the Smithsonian Institution."

The third series of the Museum, also published in octavo
size, is known as the " Bulletin of the National Museum,"
forty-nine numbers of which have now been issued. The
publication of the " Bulletin " was begun in 1875, constituting
the "elaborate papers based upon the collections of the
Museum." A number of these Bulletins contain scientific
bibliographies of American naturalists.

The Museum has also issued forty-six circulars of instruc-
tions, and four handsomely illustrated quarto volumes, two
of which are devoted to the "Life Histories of North Ameri-
can Birds," and the others to a description of the "Deep Sea
Fishes of the North Atlantic Basin."

The Bureau of American Ethnology, which is also under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, has issued the
following series : first, annual reports, making now thirteen
royal octavo volumes, devoted to North American ethnology;
second, twenty-four bulletins, in octavo, special monographs,
among the most valuable being the linguistic bibliographies
of Pilling ; third, a quarto series of eight volumes, entitled
"Contributions to North American Ethnology," being the re-
sults of the geographical and geological survey of the Rocky
Mountain Region, conducted under the immediate direction
of Major Powell, upon the initiative, and with the aid of the
Smithsonian Institution; fourth, a series of four "Introduc-
tions," in quarto form, issued in a very small edition, and in-
tended only for the use of the collaborators of the Bureau ;
and, finally, four miscellaneous publications, three of which

500 The Smithsonian Institution

were similarly issued for the collaborators of the Bureau, the
other being a map of North American linguistic stocks.

In 1889 the American Historical Association was in-
corporated by act of Congress, with the proviso that the as-
sociation should report annually to the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution concerning its proceedings and the
condition of historical study in America. Under this au-
thority, seven octavo volumes of historical papers and his-
torical bibliography have been issued.

All of these publications are distributed freely. The Re-
ports of the Institution and Museum are sent to all the prin-
cipal libraries in America, and in foreign lands, and to the
collaborators and friends of the Institution and of the Museum
throughout the world. The same is true, in a lesser degree,
owing to the fact that the edition is limited, of the " Proceed-
ings" and "Bulletin" of the Museum, which are sent to all
important American colleges, to all State libraries, to all State
historical societies, and to a specially selected list of scientific
men. The publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology
are distributed in like manner through the Director of the
Bureau. Owing to the expensive nature of the "Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge" and the "Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections," it has never been possible to pub-
lish a large edition of these series ; so that their distribution
has been limited to 1000 libraries, about 650 in the United
States, and the remainder in foreign lands ; a small edition
being reserved for the collaborators of the Institution.

It will thus be seen that the publications issued by the
Smithsonian Institution and under its direction, from its own
funds and with the assistance of the government, form in
themselves a library which records the progress and illus-
trates the advance of knowledge in every field of human
activity during the last fifty years.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF
GEORGE BROWN GOODE

By David Starr Jordan,

President of Leland Stanford Junior University.

hHE untimely death of George Brown Goode
has left a great break in the ranks of the sci-
entific men of America. One of the most ac-
curate and devoted of students, the ablest
exponent of museum methods, a man of the
most exalted personal character, Doctor Goode occupied a
unique position in the development of American science.
George Brown Goode was born in New Albany, Indiana,
on February 13, 185 1, and died of pneumonia at his home on
Lanier Heights in Washington City on September 6, 1896.
According to Doctor Marcus Benjamin, to whom I am in-
debted for many of the details of this sketch :

" Doctor Goode was of Colonial descent. His family lived
in Virginia, and he traced with pride his paternal line to
John Goode, who came to that colony prior to 1660, and set-
tled four miles from the present site of Richmond, on an
estate which he named 'Whitby.' John Goode was one of
the advisers of Bacon in 1676, in the first armed uprising of
the Americans against the oppression of royal authority. On

SOI

502 The Smithsonian Institution

his mother's side he was descended from Jasper Crane, who
came to New England before 1630, and afterwards settled
near the present site of Newark, New Jersey. Doctor Goode's
father was Francis Collier Goode, who married, in 1850, Sarah
Woodruff Crane, and their distinguished son was born at the
home of his maternal grandfather."

In 1857 Doctor Goode's parents moved to Amenia, in
New York State, where the boy passed his early youth, and
where he was prepared for college. In due time young
Goode was matriculated in Wesleyan University in Middle-
town, Connecticut, where he graduated in 1870, at the too
early age of nineteen.

The fixed curriculum of the college gave him little oppor-
tunity for the studies in which he was chiefly interested, and
his standincT in the conventional branches on which the hio^her
education was then supposed to depend was not unusually
high. He was, however, regarded as " a man exceptionally
promising for work " in natural history.

Doctor Goode spent part of the year of 1870 in graduate
work in Harvard, and there fell under the stimulating influ-
ence of the greatest of teachers of science, Louis Agassiz.
Before the year was over he was recalled to Middletown
to take charge of the Museum of Natural Science then just
erected by Orange Judd. His work in Judd Hall was a
prelude to his reorganization of the National Museum in
Washington, an institution which will always show in its
classification and arrano^ement the traces of his master hand.

In 1872 he first met Professor Baird in Eastport, Maine,
and in 1873, while at the meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, in Portland, Maine, he re-
newed this acquaintance. Professor Baird, with his character-
istic insight into the ambitions and possibilities of promising
young men, — one of his notable qualities, — invited Doctor

GEORGE BROW^^ GOODE.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE S^EITHSOXIAX

IXSTTTI^TION,

1887-1896.

^^< / n i I t L ^?i/ / ,■

he was d fasnpr Crane, who

-n.^ ' ' ,rds settled

-ah

T „

jariy ye
colie'. a due t iio-

Jated in Wesleyan University in M

^'- ^Vi^c .... ^, .le graduated in 1870, at ...^ -.^

"" :en.

lum of the " :]^e gave him iittie c

which he was chieflv interested, ana
•'anches

870 in
nd lL • the stimulating

<" '--^ teach'?' --^ '^f science, Louis Agassiz.
er he was recalled to Middletown
: ot a of Natural Science

jdd Hall wa;-
nization of the

and, Maine, he re-
ne ; , with his character-

istic ' : ssibilities of promisinQ-

• ' <L!4'diiics, — invited Doctor

VIAmOHHTlMH aHT ^50 YHAT:f[JT03R TKATRT^iHA

,W)IT'rTTTR'5^1
.8681-1881

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 503

Goode to aid in the work of the newly organized Fish Com-
mission. At that time Professor Baird was Assistant Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution in charge of the National
Museum, and also United States Fish Commissioner. The or-
ganizations were managed in similar fashion and all their activ-
ities directed to the same high ends. Very soon Doctor Goode
was brought into the service of them both. In the summer
he was employed by the Fish Commission in investigations
and explorations along the Atlantic Coast. In the winter he
divided his time between Wesleyan University and the Na-
tional Museum, until the former institution was reluctantly
compelled in 1877 wholly to give him up. Till that date his
only compensation for work done in Washington was found
in duplicate specimens of fishes and other animals, which in
turn were presented by him to the museum in Middlctown.

In 1887 he became Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution in charge of the National Museum. On the death
of Professor Baird he became for a time United States Fish
Commissioner, holding the office without pay until a change
in the law permitted the appointment of a separate salaried
head. In his later years Mr. Goode devoted his whole
energies to museum administration, a kind of work for which
no one in the world has ever shown greater aptitude. Two
important publications,^ "Museums of the Future" and
" Principles of Museum Administration," admirably embody
his views and experiences in this regard. His appreciation

1 " The Museums of the Future." Report
of the United States National Museum, 1889,
page 427. This paper was originally de-
livered as a lecture before the Brooklyn In-
stitute, on February 28, 18S9. " The Prin-
ciples of Museum Administration." Annual
Report of the Museums Association, 1895,
reprinted as an octavo pamphlet of 73 pages.

In addition to the foregoing, Doctor Goode
published the following papers on Museum

Administration : " Museum History and Mu-
seums of History," " Papers of the American
Historical Association," Volume II, 1889,
page 251 (495); "Genesis of the National
Museum." Report of the United States
National Museum, 1S91, page 273. In this
connection it is also proper to mention his
" Annual Reports " as director of the United
States National Museum, beginning with the
year 18S1.

504 The Smithsonian Institution

of the importance of such work is characteristically shown in
his dedication of an interesting genus of deep-sea fishes to
" Ulysses Aldrovandi, of Bologna, the founder of the first
natural history museum."

His interest in museum administration caused a large
amount of "exposition work" to be entrusted to his hands.
An exposition is a temporary museum with a distinctly edu-
cational purpose. It can be made a mere public fair on a
large scale, or it can be made a source of public education.
In Doctor Goode's hands an exhibition of material was
always made to teach some lesson. He had charge, under
Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian exhibits in the Centennial
Exhibition of 1876, in Philadelphia. He served as United
States Commissioner in the Fisheries Exhibition held in Ber-
lin in 1880, and in London in 1883. He was a member of
the Board of Management of the government exhibit in the
World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, and also prepared
the general plan of classification adopted for the Exposition.^
He was equally active in minor expositions held in New
Orleans, Cincinnati, Louisville, Atlanta, and elsewhere. He
was also concerned in the Columbian Historical Exposition
held in Madrid 1892-93, and for part of the time acted as
Commissioner-General for the United States.^ His services
in that connection were recognized by the conferment of the
order of Isabella the Catholic, with the rank of Commander.
From the Fisheries Exposition in London he received a
medal in honor of his services to the science of ichthyology.

Doctor Goode was always deeply interested in the histori-
cal and biographical side of science, and in the personality,

1 " First Draft of a System of Classificalion 2 «' The Report of the United Stales Com-

for the World's Columbian Exposition," sub- mission to the Columbian Historical Exposi-

mitted to the President of the World's Co- tion at Madrid, 1892-93, with Special Papers,"

lumbian Commission. Report of the United Washington, 1895, was prepared under

States National Museum, 1891, page 649. Doctor Goode's direction.

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 505

the hopes, and the sorrows of those who preceded him in the
study of fishes and other animals. This showed itself in
sympathetic sketches of those who had to do with the begin-
nings of American science as well as with the dedication of
new genera to those who had done honor to themselves by
honest work in times when good work was not easy, and was
not valued by the world. Among those thus recognized by
him was Thomas Harriott, of Roanoke (an associate of
Raleigh), who published the first work in English on Amer-
ican natural history.

His interest in the biographical side of science led him to
the scientific side of biography. From boyhood he was in-
terested in genealogy. His own family records were pub-
lished by him under the title of " Virginia Cousins." ^ This has
been regarded as a model genealogical monograph. Doctor
Goode believed that the way to do any piece of work is to do
it thoroughly. Nothing crude or incoherent ever left his pen.

Doctor Goode was one of the founders of the American
Historical Association, and a member of its executive council
from 1889 till his death. He contributed to its proceedings
in 1889 his valuable paper on the "Origin of the National
Scientific and Educational Institutions of the United States."
He was also a member of the " Southern Historical Society,"
organized in 1896. Much of his leisure during his last two
summers was given to the preparation of the material that
is used in the present volume, which was his project, and
which when published will be a monument to his knowledge
of science in this country during the first half-century of the
existence of the Smithsonian Institution.

1 "Virginia Cousins. A study of the an- or Good, from 1148 to 1887. By G. Brown

cestry and posterity of John Goode, of Whit- Goode, with a preface by R. A. Brock, secre-

by,a Virginia colonist of the Seventeenth Cen- tary of the Virginia and Southern Historical

tury, with notes upon related families. A Societies." Richmond, Virginia: J. W. Ran-

key to Southern Genealogy, and a history of dolph & English, MDCCCLX.XXVII. [Quarto,

the English surname Gode, Goud, Goode, xxxvi + 526 pages, 54 plates.]

5o6 The Smithsonian Institution

Doctor Goode was one of the founders of the Society of
the Sons of the American Revokition in the District of Co-
lumbia, and a-fter filHng various offices was, in 1894, made
President. He was also Vice-President of the Society of
the Sons of the Revolution, and Lieutenant-Governor of
the Society of Colonial Wars in the District of Columbia.

He was very prominent in the organization and conduct
of scientific societies, which he regarded as valuable agencies
in the spread of scientific knowledge. He had been Presi-
dent both of the Philosophical Society and the Biological
Society of Washington. He was elected to the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science in 1873, ^"*^ to the
National Academy of Sciences in 1888. He was also a
member of the Zoological Society of London. His work in
science was recognized in 1886 by the degree of Ph.D. from
the University of Indiana, his native State. It was the for-
tune of the present writer to accept as a thesis from him the
"Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas," and to move the
granting of this degree. His relation to general culture and
executive work was recognized by Wesleyan University by
the degree of LL. D. conferred in 1888.

The writer first met Doctor Goode in 1874, while he was
engaged in work for the United States Fish Commission in
Noank, Connecticut. He was then a young man of schol-
arly appearance, winning manners, and a very enthusiastic
student of fishes. In body he was of medium height, rather
slender, and very active. His countenance was intellectual,
and he seemed always to have a very definite idea of what
he wished to do.

Our first meeting was in connection with an effort on his
part to find the difference between the two genera of fishes
called Ceratacanthus and Alutera. At this time I was
greatly impressed with the accuracy and neatness of his

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 507

work, and especially with his love of what may be called the
literary side of science, — a side too often neglected by scien-
tific men. He detested an inaccuracy, a misspelled name, or
a slovenly record, as he would have despised any other vice.
Indeed, in all his work and relations moral purity and scien-
tific accuracy were one and the same thing. He had inher-
ited or acquired "the Puritan conscience," and applied it not
only to lapses of personal integrity, but to weaknesses and
slovenliness of all sorts. Hence he became in Washing-ton
not only a power in scientific matters, but a source of moral
strength to the community. His influence is felt in the Mu-
seum not only in the wisdom of its organization, but in the
personal character of its body of curators. The irresponsible
life of Bohemia is not favorable to good work in science, and
the men he chose as associates belong to another order.

As to Doctor Goode's moral influence and youthful char-
acteristics, the following extracts from a private letter of
Professor Otis T. Mason, Curator of Ethnology in the
United States National Museum, will be found valuable:

"Two characteristics of the man fixed themselves upon my
mind indelibly: I found him to be intensely conscientious, and
I could see that he was a young man who not only wished to
live a correct life himself, but abhorred the association ot
evil men.

"Another characteristic which forced itself upon me was
his devotion to the museum side of scientific investigation.
He wrote a beautiful hand, and on one occasion he told me
that it was just as much the duty of a scientific investigator
to write a good hand and spell his names correctly, so that
there would be no mistake in the label, as it was for him to
make his investigations accurately. You will find, if you will
look over some of the specimens which he marked at that
time, beautiful numerals, clear and distinct, so that there is
no mistaking one from the other.

5o8

The Smithsonian Institution

"Again, I discovered the pedagogic feeling to be very
strong in him, and the interests of the public no less than of
the investigator were constantly before his mind. Indeed,
there was nothing about Doctor Goode in his admirable
management of the Museum in later years that did not make
its appearance to some extent when he had the work to do
with his own hands. The germ of our present discipline
manifested itself in the discipline which he exerted over his
own conduct when he was junior assistant instead of director.

"About the time that Doctor Goode came to the Museum,
I undertook to arrange the ethnological collections. I can
remember the delight which it gave him to consider a classi-
fication in which the activities of mankind were divided into
genera and species subject to the laws of natural history, of
evolution, and geographic surroundings. The development
of the Department of Arts and Industries has been the result
of these early studies."

Doctor Goode had a wonderful power of analyzing the re-
lations or contents of any group of activities, or of any objects
of study. This showed itself notably in his two catalogues ^
of collections illustrating the animal resources of the United
States. These catalogues were written with reference to the
arrangement of material for the exhibits of the Smithsonian
Institution and the United States Fish Commission at the
Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. " It was," says Doc-
tor Gill, in his admirable biographical sketch,^ "the ability
that was manifested in these catalogues and the work inci-
dental to their preparation that especially arrested the atten-

1 "Classification of the Collection to Illus-
trate the Animal Resources of the United
States. A list of substances derived from
the animal kingdom, with synopsis of the
useful and injurious animals and a classifica-
tion of the methods of capture and util-
ization." Washington, 1876. " Bulletin
Number 6, United States National Museum."

" Catalogue of the Collection to Illustrate

the Animal Resources and the Fisheries of
the United States, exhibited at Philadelphia
in 1876 by the Smithsonian Institution and
the United St.ites Fish Commission, and form-
ing a part of the United States National
Museum." Washington, 1879. "Bulletin
No. 14, United States National Museum."

'•i Science, New Series, Volume iv, 1896,
page 665.

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 509

tion of Professor Baird and marked the author as one well
adapted for the direction of a great museum. For signal
success in such direction special qualifications are requisite.
Only some of them are a mind well trained in analytical as
well as synthetic methods, an artistic sense, critical ability,
and multifarious knowledge, but above all the knowledge of
men and how to deal with them. Perhaps no one has ever
combined, in more harmonious proportions, such qualifica-
tions than G. Brown Goode. In him the National Museum
of the United States, and the world at large have lost one
of the greatest of museum administrators."

The most striking character of Doctor Goode's scientific
papers was perhaps their scholarly accuracy and good taste.
He never wrote a paper carelessly. He was never engaged
in any controversy, and he rarely made a statement which
had later to be withdrawn. Yet no one was more ready to
acknowledge an error, if one were made, and none showed
greater willingness to recognize the good work of others.
The literature even of the most out-of-the-way branch of
zoological research had a great fascination for him, and he
found in bibliography and in the records of the past workers
in science a charm scarcely inferior to that of original obser-
vation and research. In his later years administrative duties
occupied more and more of his time, restricting the opportu-
nities for his own studies. He seemed, however, to have as
great delight in the encouragement he could give to the work
of others.

The great work of his life — " Oceanic Ichthyology " — was,
however, written during the period of his directorship of the
National Museum, and was published but a month before
his death. Almost simultaneous with this were other im-
portant publications of the National Museum, wliich were his
also in a sense, for they would never have been undertaken

5IO The Sinifhsonian Instifufion

except for his urgent wish and encouragement. If a per-
sonal word may be pardoned, "The Fishes of North and
Middle America," which closely followed " Oceanic Ichthy-
ology," would never have been written except for my friend's
repeated insistence and generous help.

In the earlier days of the scientific activities of the Smith-
sonian Institution, there was scarcely a young naturalist of
serious purposes in the land who had not in some way re-
ceived help and encouragement from Professor Baird. With
equally unselfish effectiveness and lack of ostentation, Doctor
Goode was also in different ways a source of aid and inspir-
ation to all of his scientific contemporaries. The influence of
the National Museum for good in the United States has been
great in a degree far out of proportion to the sums of money
it has had to expend. It has not been a Washington institu-
tion, but its influence has been national.

The first recorded scientific paper of Doctor Goode is a
note ^ on the occurrence of the bill-fish in fresh water in the
Connecticut River. The next is a critical discussion of the
answers to the question "Do snakes swallow their young?"
In this paper he shows that there is good reason to believe
that in certain viviparous snakes, the young seek refuge in
the stomach of the mother when frightened, and that they
come out when the reason for their retreat has passed.

The first of the many technical and descriptive papers on
fishes was the " Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas,"^
published in 1876. This is a model record of field observa-
tions and is one of the best of local catalogues. Doctor
Goode retained his interest in this outpost of the great West
Indian fauna, and from time to time recorded the various
additions made to his first Bermudan catalogue.

1 The American Nahtralist, Volume v, page 487.
2 "Bulletin Number 5, United States National Museum."

BiograpJiical Sketch of George Brown Goode 5 1 ^

After this followed a large number of papers on fishes,
chiefly descriptions of species or monographs of groups. The
descriptive papers were nearly all written in association with
his excellent friend, Doctor Tarleton H. Bean, then Curator
of Fishes in the National Museum.

In monographic work Doctor Goode took the deepest in-
terest, and he delighted especially in the collection of historic
data concerning groups of species. The quaint or poetical
features of such work were never overlooked by him. No-
table among these monographs are those of the Menhaden,
the Trunk-fishes, and the Sword-fishes.

The economic side of science also interested him more and
more. That scientific knowledge could add to human wealth
or comfort was no reproach in his eyes. In his notable
monograph of the Menhaden,^ the economic value as food or
manure of this plebeian fish received the careful attention
which he had given to the problems of pure science.

Doctor Goode's power in organizing and coordinating prac-
tical investigations was shown in his monumental work" on
the American fisheries for the tenth Census in 1880. The
preparation of the record of the fisheries and associated
aquatic industries was placed in his hands by Francis A.
Walker, Superintendent of the Census. Under Doctor
Goode's direction skilled investigators were sent to every
part of the coast and inland waters of the country. A gen-
eral survey of the aquatic resources, actual and possible, of
the United States was attempted, and statistics of every kind
were secured on a grand scale. His directions to field
agents, still unpublished, were models in their way, and no

1 " The Natural and Economical History 2 " The Fisheries and Fishery Industry of

of the American Menhaden." Contained in the United States." Prepared through the

Appendix A of Part 5 of " Report of United cooperation of the Commissioner of Fisheries

States Commission of Fish and Fisheries," and the Superintendent of the Tenth Census,

for 1877, Washington, 1879. Washington, 1884.

512 The Smithsonian Institution

possible source of information was neglected by him. The
results of all these special reports were received and con-
densed by Doctor Goode into seven large quarto volumes,
with a great number of plates. The first section of the
"Natural History of Aquatic Animals" was a contribution
of the greatest value. Although the information it gives
was obtained from many sources, through various hands, it
was so coordinated and unified that it forms a harmonious
treatise, while at the same time the individual helpers are
fully recognized.

All these works, according to Doctor Goode, belong to
Lamb's category of "books which are not books." His ex-
pressed ambition to write a book not of this kind, one that
people would buy and read, found actuality at last. In 1888
appeared his "American Fishes," a popular treatise on the
game and food fishes of North America,^ a work without a
rival because of its readableness, its scientific accuracy, and
the excellence of its text. The work is notable for its quota-
tions, which include almost all the bright things which have
been said about fishes by poets and anglers and philosophers
from the time of Aristotle to that of Izaak Walton and
Thoreau. In this book more than in any other Doctor
Goode shows himself a literary artist. The love of fine
expression which might have made a poet of him was devel-
oped rather in the collection of the bright words and charm-
ing verse of others than in the production of poetry of his
own. While limiting himself in this volume to fragments of
prose and verse in praise of fishes and their haunts, it is evi-
dent that these treasures were brought forth from a mind
well stored with riches of many fields of literature.

1" American Fishes." A popular treatise and methods of capture. With numerous
upon the Game and Food Fishes of North illustrations including a colored frontispiece.
America, with especial reference to habits New York, 1888.

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 5 1 3

The most important of Doctor Goode's scientific studies
have relation to the fishes of the deep sea. In all this work
he was associated with Doctor Bean, and the studies of many
years were brought together in the splendid summary of all
that is known of the fishes of the ocean depths and the open
sea. This forms two large quarto volumes, — text and atlas,
— published shortly before Doctor Goode's death under the
name of "Oceanic Ichthyology."^ The exploration of the
deep sea has been mostly undertaken within the last twenty
years. The monumental work of the Challenger, under the
direction of the British government, has laid the founda-
tion of our knowledge of its fauna. The Travailleur and
the Talisman, under French auspices, and the Investi-
gator, under direction of the government of India, have
added greatly to our stock of information. The great work
of Goode and Bean includes the results of these and of
various minor expeditions, while through the collections of
the Albatross, the Blake and the Fish Hawk they have
made great additions to the knowledge of the subject. In-
deed, the work of the Albatross in deep-sea exploration
is second in importance only to that of the Challenger.
In the work of the exact discrimination of genera and species,
this work shows a distinct advance over all other treatises
on the abyssal fishes. The fact of the existence of definite
though large faunal areas in the deep seas was first recog-
nized by Doctor Goode, and has been carefully worked out
in a memoir still unpublished. In "Oceanic Ichthyology"
and the minor papers preceding it, Goode and Bean have
made known numerous new forms of deep-sea fishes, naming
in the last-mentioned work alone one hundred and fifty-six

1" Oceanic Ichthyology. A treatise on Fish Hawk in the Northwestern Atlan-

the Deep-Sea and Pelagic Fishes of the tic, with an Atlas containing 417 figures."

World, based chiefly upon the collections 2 volumes, I., 553 pages, II., 123 plates,

made by the steamers Blake, Albatwss, and Washington, 1895. ,

5H The Smithsonian Instittttion

new species and fifty-five new genera belonging to the abyssal
fauna of the Atlantic.

But Doctor Goode's interest and sympathy were not con-
fined to the branch of science in which he was a master.
He had a broad acquaintance with general natural history,
with crustaceans, reptiles, birds, and mammals. On all these
groups he published occasional notes. Doctor Gill tells us
that "the flowering plants also enlisted much of his atten-
tion, and his excursions into the fields and woods were enliv-
ened by a knowledge of the objects he met with." "An-
thropology," Doctor Gill continues, " naturally secured a due
proportion of his regards, and, indeed, his catalogues truly
embraced the outlines of a system of the science."

Doctor Goode was, as already stated, always very greatly
interested in bibliography. No work to him was ever tedi-
ous, if it were possible to make it accurate. He had well
under way the catalogues of the writings of many American
naturalists, among others those of Doctor Gill and the pres-
ent writer. Two of these are already published under the
Smithsonian Institution as Bulletins of the United States
National Museum, being numbers of a series of " Bibliogra-
phies of American Naturalists." The first contains the writ-
ings of Spencer Fullerton Baird (1883). Another is devoted
to Charles Girard (1891), who was an associate of Professor
Baird, though for his later years resident in Paris. A bibli-
ography of the English ornithologist, Philip Lutley Sclater
(1896), has been issued since Doctor Goode's death.

Doctor Gill tells us that "a gigantic work in the same
line had been projected by him and most of the material
collected ; it was no less than a complete bibliography of Ich-
thyology, including the names of all genera and species pub-
lished as new. Whether this can be completed by another
hand remains to be seen. While the work is a great desid-

Biographical Sketch of George Brown Goode 5 1 5

eratum very few would be willing to undertake it or even
arrange the matter already collected for publication. In no
way may Ichthyology, at least, more feel the loss of Goode
than in the loss of the complete bibliography."

Doctor Goode was married on November 27, 1877, to
Sarah Lamson Ford Judd, daughter of Orange Judd, the well-
known publisher, and the founder of Orange Judd Hall at
Wesleyan University in which Doctor Goode's career as a
museum administrator began. The married life of Doctor
and Mrs. Goode was a very happy one. The wife and four
children are still living.

As to the personal qualities of Doctor Goode, I cannot do
better than to quote the following words of two of his warm-
est friends. Doctor S. P. Langley wrote: "I have never
known a more perfectly true, sincere and loyal character than
Doctor Goode's ; or a man who with a better judgment of
other men, or greater ability in moulding their purposes to
his own, used these powers to such uniformly disinterested
ends, so that he could maintain the discipline of a great
establishment like the National Museum, while retaining the
personal affection of every subordinate." " His disposition,"
says Doctor Theodore Gill, " was a bright and sunny one,
and he inoratiated himself in the affections of his friends in a
marked degree. He had a hearty way of meeting intimates,
and a caressing cast of the arm over the shoulder of such an
one often followed sympathetic intercourse. But in spite of
his gentleness, firmness and vigor in action became manifest
when occasion called for them."

Of all American naturalists Doctor Goode was the most
methodical, the most conscientious and the most artistic.
And of them all no one was more beloved by his fellows.
Neither in his life nor after his death was ever an unkind
word said of him.

APPRECIATIONS OF THE WORK OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

PHYSICS
By Thomas Corwin Mendenhall,

President of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute

j^HE half-century during which the Smithsonian
Institution has existed will always be distin-
guished by reason of the extraordinary devel-
opment of the physical sciences which has
■!^:*2^ occurred during that period. It is undoubtedly
true that at no other time in the history of the world have
the conditions of life been so seriously affected by the appli-
cations of scientific discovery. These are years that have
witnessed the perfected use of steam and steel, at sea and
on land, revolutionizing the methods of transportation of men
and merchandise. During the passage of these years the
various phenomena related to electricity have been magnified,
controlled, and directed in the interests of man, until the
results are little short of marvelous; and thus, by the use of
new forms of energy and material hitherto unavailable, all
nations and races are suddenly brought into relations with
each other of such unavoidable intimacy as to give rise to an
entirely new set of social and economical problems, the solu-
tion of which will demand the best efforts of the present and
future generations. In justice to the early half of the nine-

SX9

520 The Smithso7tian Institution

teenth century, and to the centuries that have preceded it, it
must be admitted that these great and significant changes are
to be attributed to a remarkable and successfijl activity along
the lines of applied science, rather than to a relatively greater
number of scientific discoveries of the first class. Indeed, the
present is the era of applied science, the foundations of which
were, in general, laid in the scientific discovery of fifty and
more years ago.

In view of this fact, it might be assumed that the Smith-
sonian Institution, whose function it is, and has been, rather to
restrict its interest to what is generally known as "pure"
science (believing that applied science will not lack support
from other sources), has not been an important factor in the
establishment of the dominion of physical science which char-
acterizes the close of the present century. Such a conclusion,
however, would be quite out of harmony with the facts, an ex-
amination of which will show that the name and fame of the
Institution will be forever inseparably linkecf with some of
the most important conquests of original research or ingenious
and far-reaching practical applications of scientific principles
for which the period is famous.

There might naturally have been created, in the early his-
tory of the Institution, through its first Secretary, who more
than any one else, or perhaps all others, determined its char-
acter and plan of organization, and who was himself one of
the most distinguished physicists of his time, a noticeable dis-
crimination in favor of physical science. Indeed, there are
occasional sentences in his early reports which show how
strongly his thoughts tended in that direction. In his first
report to the Board of Regents, submitted December 8, 1847,
in speaking of the fact that many important suggestions as to
the organization of the Institution had been offered by differ-
ent persons independently of each other, he says: "Indeed

Physics 521

the general plan of the increase and diffusion of knowledge,
as adopted by the Board, is such as would naturally rise in
the mind of any person conversant with the history of phys-
ical science and with the means usually employed for its ex-
tension and diffusion." But this unconscious leaningr toward
that department of human knowledge with which he was
most conversant, and in which he had already won distinc-
tion, did not influence him in the slightest degree in drawing
up the program of organization which he submitted to the
Regents on the same date as above, or in his administrative
execution of that program during the many years of his
secretaryship. In the introduction to the plan submitted to,
and approved by, the Regents, he says: "The will makes no
restriction in favor of any particular kind of knowledge ;
hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention." It is
to this broad and catholic spirit by which Joseph Henry was
controlled that the world is indebted for an instrumentality
for the general good which has no likeness among all the
many scientific, educational, or charitable establishments of
the Old World or the New.

In attempting to review the operations of the Smithsonian
Institution in any special field, it is of first importance that
the above considerations should be kept in mind. The will
of the man who had made the peculiar bequest was law to
the man who, most fortunately, had been selected as its first
administrator. The Institution was to have two distinct, but
closely-related, functions : to increase knowledge and to dif-
fuse it among men. Henry proposed to increase knowledge
by stimulating original research through suitable rewards
and pecuniary assistance, where it was necessary or desir-
able ; he would diffuse it by the publication of periodical
reports and occasional monographs or separate treatises.
But all of this was to be controlled bv the Qreneral and most
34

522

The Smithsonian Institution

pregnant principle that the Institution should do nothing which
can be equally well done through other agencies. It is to the
adoption of this rule, the farsighted wisdom of which cannot
be questioned, that we must attribute an apparent lack of con-
tinuity in its operations in physical science, which is probably
equally noticeable elsewhere ; for its policy has been to do
what could not be done otherwise ; to help only when help
was absolutely necessary.

In takinpf account of the contributions to the various de-
partments of physics which the cooperation of the Smithso-
nian Institution has made possible, or with which it has been
conspicuously related or associated, one must necessarily
begin with the splendid discoveries of its first distinguished
head. It is true that many of the most important of these
were actually made during that eventful period of his life
which preceded his appointment as Secretary of the In-
stitution, but it is also true that many of them did not find
their full development until after that date, and, indeed, it is
only during the last decade that some of the most important
have received recognition at their proper value.

Henry's contributions to physics covered a wide range, but
they are most numerous along the line of electricity, magnet-
ism, acoustics, and meteorology. They were originally pub-
lished, for the most part, in the earlier volumes of the
Atnerican yournal of Science, but much of his later work
was, until recently, to be found only by searching the pages
of various government publications, or in the transactions
of several of the learned societies. In 1886, however, by di-
rection of the Regents of the Institution, the then Secretary,
Professor Baird, published a collection of his " Scientific
Writings " in two large and handsome volumes, which are
among the most important of the Smithsonian contributions
to physics. As already stated, within a few years there has

Physics 523

been a great revival of interest in Henry's work, and the
appearance of these volumes was most timely.

Most physicists are well informed concerning his discov-
eries in electricity and magnetism especially, but the interests
of the general reader demand at least brief reference to them
in this place.

The work of an able, successful man is so mixed up with
his personality that it is often difficult to properly describe
the former without some reference to the latter. Of Henry
the man this is not the appropriate place to speak at
length, but his relation to contemporary discovery cannot be
fully understood without remembering that his leading per-
sonal characteristics were modesty, great patience, untiring
industry, and an attention to the minutest detail which is
rarely found among men of his class in intellectual power.
He was conscientious, almost to excess, in the performance
of any duty that came to him. He was educated in the
Albany Academy, in which, almost immediately after gradua-
tion, he was employed as a teacher. By one of his pupils
of that time he is referred to as one "who rose with the sun
to instruct his pupil, eager after knowledge," and as " giving
his heart and soul to the duties of the school." Notwith-
standing the fact that his duties demanded nearly his entire
time during the daylight hours, he found leisure to begin and
carry on a series of investigations that were destined to
render both him and the otherwise little-known Academy
famous for all time. His first important work was the de-
velopment and perfecting of the electro-magnet. With this
now commonplace but most important electrical device three
names will always be associated. Shortly after the announce-
ment of Oersted's brilliant discovery, which furnished the
first connecting link between electricity and magnetism, Arago
had announced the interesting fact that if rods of steel or

524 The Smithsonian Institution

iron were placed in a glass tube around which a wire was
coiled so that the adjacent rings did not touch each other,
they would become magnetic on the passage of a current
of electricity through the wire. Thus Oersted's discovery,
that an electrical current would influence a magnet, was sup-
plemented by Arago's, that it would ■dX^.o produce a magnet.
Three or four years later another notable step in advance was
made by Sturgeon, in England, who produced for the first
time what has since been known as an " electro-mao-net."
He bent a bar of soft iron into the shape of a horseshoe, thus
bringing the poles into the same plane for greater conve-
nience ; and he dispensed with the glass tube used by Arago
by varnishing his iron core, thus insulating the coils of naked
wire, which he wound in a spiral about it. But the most
powerful electro-magnets made by Sturgeon's method were
insignificant compared with what Henry was able to produce
a few years later. Instead of varnishing the iron core and
using naked wire, he insulated the copper-wire itself by cover-
ing it with silk, and this enabled him to coil the wire closely
and to make two or more layers about the core. This had
the effect of enormously increasing the strength of the mag-
nets produced, and Henry at once recognized the importance
of the discovery. But he carried the investigation much fur-
ther, examining into the relation of the battery to the mag-
net, developing two forms of the latter, which he called
"quantity" and "intensity" magnets, and by the aid of the
latter succeeded in making visible and audible signals at the
end of a long line, which had been declared to be impossible
by Barlow. He actually set up in the hall of the Albany
Academy a line more than a mile in length, through which
signals were transmitted without difficulty, and the principles
involved were so well understood by Henry that even then,
in 1832, he confidently declared that transmission through any

Physics 525

reasonable distance was possible. This system was the germ
of all modern telegraphy. At about the same time its devel-
opment in Europe began, but at first and for many years all
European systems were based on the phenomena discovered
by Oersted, — the deviation of a needle on the passage of an
electric current through a conductor near and parallel to it.
While Henry was exhibiting his perfectly-conceived and well-
executed scheme for electric transmission to visiting friends,
Baron Schilling, a Russian Councillor of State, set up a
model of his proposed electric telegraph before the Emperors
Alexander and Nicholas, the first of the many "needle" sys-
tems which prevailed in Europe for many years, but which
were finally driven out by the superior merits of the American
system. Schilling's telegraph required thirty- six needles for
its operation, besides a complicated device for an audible
signal, to attract the attention of the operator.

In connection with his study of magnets, Henry also de-
vised what is now generally known as a "relay," which is an
arrangement by means of which an electro-magnet operated
by one current is made to close the circuit of another bat-
tery, thus enabling a feeble magnet, requiring only a feeble
current, to set into operation another, at any point in the
circuit. Thus he had evolved all the essentials of a complete
telegraph system, lacking only mechanical details which en-
gineering skill and ingenuity might easily have supplied.

Had Henry been less a lover of pure science, or had his
commercial instinct been more highly developed, the Albany
Academy mile of wire would have grown into the telegraph
system of America, instead of furnishing, as it unquestionably
did ten years later, the principle upon which that system was
founded. It has required a good many years to dispel certain
illusions concerning the electric telegraph to which Ameri-
cans were inclined to cling, but it is now tolerably well known

34*

526 The Smithsonian Institution

among intelligent people that the first commercially suc-
cessful electric telegraph line was 7iot erected in this country ;
that the telegraph can in no sense be called an American in-
vention, although the American system has proved to be so
superior that it has long ago practically superseded all others ;
and that by far the larger share of the credit for the success
of this system is due to Joseph Henry for his discovery of
the scientific principles upon which that success depended.

In the mean time Henry was engaged in further researches
of the very highest importance. He sought to use the power-
ful magnets which he was now able to construct in the solu-
tion of a problem which had thus far baffled the efforts of the
ablest electricians in Europe. Having succeeded beyond all
others in producing niagnetisnt by using elechncity, he hoped
to be able to successfully attack the inverse problem, the
production of electricity from inagnetisfn. All ph}'sicists be-
lieved that this must be possible, but no one had hit upon
the method of doing it. Curiously enough, another great ex-
perimental philosopher, also a young man, had set for himself
the same problem and worked persistently upon it during
the month of August, 183 1. During the same month Henry
began a carefully-planned series of experiments, which, un-
fortunately, owing to his duties in the Academy, he was
obliged to give up, not being able to return to them for nearly
a year. Entirely ignorant of Henry's plans. Faraday, on the
30th of August, 1 83 1, — a memorable day in the history of
electricity, — made the capital discovery of induction, on which
practically all modern electrical development is based. En-
tirely ignorant of what Faraday had done, Henry again took
up the subject and had the good fortune to discover the iden-
tical phenomenon in another aspect, in which it is known as
self-induction. In the more recent advances in applied elec-
tricity, self-induction has come to be a matter of primary im-

Physics 527

portance, and time has served only to magnify the value of
Henry's discovery. Learning of Faraday's experiments, he
was led, through their verification, to discover induction by
induced currents, concerning which he made a most interest-
ing and valuable investigation. Of his many other important
discoveries in electricity there is one that must not be passed
without mention. It was, that the discharge of a Leyden jar
was oscillatory in character, in which he anticipated Helm-
holtz and Lord Kelvin in the recognition of a phenomenon
which has, within a very few years, come to have a deep im-
port. The present estimate of the value of Henry's work in
electricity is reflected in the following remarks, made not long
ago by one of England's leading electricians: "At the head
of this long line of illustrious investigators stand the names
of Faraday and Henry. On the foundation-stones of truth
laid down by them all subsequent builders have been content
to rest. ... In them [the scientific writings of Henry] we
have not only the lucid explanations of the discoverer, but
the suggestions and ideas of a most profound and inventive
mind, and which indicate that Henry had early touched levels
of discovery only just recently becoming fully worked."

Most of Henry's electrical investigations were carried on at
Albany, and afterward at Princeton, whither he was called, in
1832, as professor of natural philosophy in the College of
New Jersey. From Princeton he removed to Washington in
1846, to become first Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, then just established. During his more than thirty
years of service in this capacity, administrative duties pre-
vented, in a large measure, a continuation of the scientific
investigations for which he was now famous, but they did not
diminish his interest in research, nor prevent his doing a
good deal of it during the remainder of his life. It must be
admitted, however, that he was no longer master of his own

528 The Smithsonian Institution

time and energies in this respect. He could not follow his
own inclinations, and while the quantity of his scientific work
was by no means small, and much of it was of great importance,
it was to a large extent such as came to him through the sev-
eral official positions of great trust and responsibility which he
was induced to accept. It will be considered, in this review,
under various appropriate heads along with other products
of the great Institution to which he gave the best energies
of his life, and where, after all, his services have doubtless
been more widely useful, and the total integral of their value
to mankind greater than if he had devoted himself exclusively
to scientific investigation.

Following the general principles already referred to, the
Smithsonian Institution has promoted the science of physics
in two ways. Original research has been stimulated by the
occasional offer and award of prizes for accomplished work,
or pecuniary aid has been rendered those engaged in inves-
tigation, usually to the extent of assisting in the purchase of
necessary apparatus or appliances. Knowledge resulting
from investigation thus forwarded by the Institution or f7'om
other soiirces has been diffused by publication and extensive
distribution among libraries, learned societies, and scientific
men. The most tangible results are shown in its publications,
as, indeed, they often stand for the activity of the Institution
along the lines of both increase and diffusion of knowledge.
It is to them, therefore, that especial attention will be given
in this review ; and, for convenience, they will be classified
under the several well-known subdivisions of the subject of
physics. The limitation of time and space will not allow of
anything like an exhaustive presentation, even in abstract,
of all publications bearing the Smithsonian imprint, but the
most important will be briefly referred to in approximately
chronological order.

Physics 529

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

The first paper under this head which the Smithsonian Insti-
tution brought out was one on terrestrial magnetism, the
first of a long and valuable series of publications on that sub-
ject. It appeared in 1852, in the " Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge."^ The paper consisted of a series of obser-
vations made in the years i845-'46-'47 to determine the "dip
inclination and intensity " of magnetic force in various parts
of the United States. Its author was Doctor John Locke,
of Cincinnati, Ohio, a well-known pioneer in Western sci-
ence. Doctor Locke was the inventor of the chronograph,
which was first used in astronomical observations at Cin-
cinnati. The method of observing transits by its use rap-
idly came into favor, was adopted by the United States
Coast Survey, and came to be universally known as the
" American Method." Doctor Locke's observations on ter-
restrial magnetism were highly esteemed by Sabine, who
made use of them in his contributions to that subject.

The same volume of "Contributions" contained another
paper of great interest and theoretical importance on " Elec-
trical Rheometry," by Father Secchi, then recently made pro-
fessor of astronomy and director of the Observatory in Rome,
after having served for a few years as professor of physics in
the Georgetown College, District of Columbia. His astro-
physical work in later years brought him great fame. The
memoir is a mathematical solution, with experimental verifica-
tion of the problem, " to find the action of a closed current
on a magnetic needle, whatever be its position relative to
that of the current," and Secchi's treatment of the problem
is of much interest, even to electricians of to-day.

1 Volume III, page 5.

530 The Smithsonian Institution

Among earlier papers of great historical interest must be
included a lecture printed in the Smithsonian Report for
1854 on "The Fire Alarm Telegraph," by Doctor F. W.
Channing, who, with Moses E. Farmer, was the pioneer in
this most useful application of electricity. The lecture was
one of a course maintained during the years 1853-54 by
authority of Congress, in which a wide variety of topics re-
ceived popular treatment at the hands of distinguished
specialists. That of Doctor Channing was experimentally
illustrated, and furnished an excellent account of the be-
ginnings of electrical fire-protection.

The most notable contribution to physics during the next
two or three years is to be found in the translation and publi-
cation of a series of reports on " Recent Progress in Physics,"
by Doctor Miiller, the famous professor of physics and tech-
nology in Freiburg. These reports refer almost entirely to
progress in electricity, and the first, printed in the Smithsonian
Report for 1855, has to do with what was then almost uni-
versally known as " Galvanism." It fills one hundred and
fifteen pages, and furnishes an excellent summary of the
knowledge of the subject, based on theory and experiment,
at the date of its publication. It was followed by another on
the subject of " Electricity " (statical) in the Report for 1856,
and still others in 1857 and 1858. These summaries are val-
uable possessions in any physical library, even to-day, and at
the time of their publication they must have been a boon to
all American students of the subject, for original sources of
information were not as common then as now. In 1859 ap-
peared another contribution to terrestrial magnetism, in a
series of observations made by Elisha Kent Kane, the Arctic
explorer, while on his second expedition in search of Sir John
Franklin. These were published in Volume x of the " Con-
tributions." Indeed, for a long time the vSmithsonian Insti-

Physics 531

tution especially charged itself with operations in terrestrial
magnetism in the United States. In the same year, in Vol-
ume XI of the " Contributions," the publication of the very
extensive series of Girard College Magnetic Observations,
made by Professor Bache, begins, the discussion of the results
being largely due to Mr. Schott, of the Coast Survey. These
continued through several volumes and years, and there were
also included many other studies of terrestrial magnetism
made in different parts of the country. For a long time the
Institution aided in the development of the subject, both by
grants of funds and by publication ; the National Academy
also contributed largely from the Bache Fund, bequeathed
to it for the encouragement of original research, until a
comparatively recent time, since which the work has been
under government direction, in the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. The latter bureau shared with the Smith-
sonian Institution in the expense of the construction and
erection of a complete magnetic observatory, giving photo-
graphic registration of variations in the magnetic elements.
It was first placed on the grounds of the Institution, but in
i860 it was removed to Key West, Florida. The Smithso-
nian Reports about this time contain papers on magnetic
storms, by Sabine ; on " Observations on Terrestrial Magnet-
ism in Mexico," by Sonntag, and others of a similar character.
Interesting and valuable recent contributions to the same
subject will be found in the Reports for 1892 and 1893, ^'^^
former containing a reprint of Ewing's important Royal In-
stitution lecture on " Magnetic Induction," and the latter Pro-
fessor Dewar's interesting discourse, at the same place, on the
"Magnetic Properties of Liquefied Oxygen."

The publications of the Institution naturally contain much
important matter concerning the electric telegraph. Henry's
relation to its development has already been referred to, and

532 The Sniithsonian Institittiofi

in the Smithsonian Report for 1857 an invaluable contribution
to its history will be found. It includes his deposition taken
in Boston in 1849, as it appears in the record of the Su-
preme Court of the United States, which is itself a concise
history of the invention. In consequence of its appearance,
Professor Morse was induced to publish certain statements
reflecting upon the integrity and scientific repute of Henry,
and this led to an investigation of the whole subject, at
Henry's request, by the Board of Regents, resulting in the
unanimous adoption of resolutions exonerating him from any
charge made by Morse.

Henry's continued interest in meteorology led him to pay
much attention to thunder-storms, the effects of lightning, the
aurora, studies of atmospheric electricity, earth-currents, etc.,
all of which found recognition in the earlier publications of the
Institution. Among others were papers on "Atmospheric
Electricity," by Duprez; on "Earth Currents," by Matteucci ;
on "The Aurora," by Loomis ; and many reports upon the effect
of lightning. Henry himself prepared a very valuable circular
on " Lightning Rods," giving rules for their erection and
proper care. Mention should also be made of another paper
of great interest to students of electricity a generation and
more ago, on " The Use of the Galvanometer as a Measuring
Instrument," by J. C. Poggendorff. One of the earliest
methods of " calibrating " a galvanometer is here explained
and much information is given relating to what was then in
large measure an unexplored field.

Two of the most important papers relating to electricity
which the Institution has published are those of Helmholtz
and Maxwell in the Smithsonian Report for 1873, presenting
the (at that time) latest notions regarding its nature, and
Tunzelmann's account of Hertz's researches, which will be
found in the Report for 1889. In reprinting monographs

Physics 533

such as these, the Institution is discharging one of its most
useful functions by diffusing knowledge not easily accessible
among a large number of intelligent people who are gener-
ally cut off from original sources.

The Report for 1894 includes several interesting papers
relating to electrical subjects. These include one on " Light
and Electricity," by Poincare ; another on " The Henry," by
Mendenhall ; and one on " The Age of Electricity," by Mascart,
together with Professor Rucker's address at the Oxford
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, on "Terrestrial Magnetism." There is also an im-
portant paper, "On Atmospheric Electricity," by Professor
Arthur Schuster, in the Report for 1895.

RADIANT ENERGY— LIGHT AND HEAT

In 1855 there appeared as a part of Volume ix of the
"Contributions" a memoir by L. W. Meech, "On the Rel-
ative Intensity of the Heat and Light of the Sun upon
Different Latitudes of the Earth." A preliminary investiga-
tion, suggested by an inspection of monthly temperatures, had
been published in 1850 in \k\Q. American Jour7ial of Scie7icc.
The present investigation was intended to resolve the problem
of solar heat and light upon the single hypothesis that the
intensity of the sun's rays varies inversely as the square of the
distance. It is essentially a mathematical treatment on this
assumption, and an attempt is made to show that the conclu-
sions reached are in general accord with physical phenomena.
The effect of secular change in celestial constants is exam-
ined, and some interesting consequences are deduced. The
Smithsonian Reports during the several years following the
publication of Mr. Meech's memoir show that much interest

534 T^^^ Suiithsonian Institution

was manifested and that he received assistance in continuing
his investigations.

In the same year, 1859, the Smithsonian Report contains a
reprint of the highest importance on the subject of " Radiant
Heat." It included three reports on the " State of Knowledge
of Radiant Heat," made at the meetings of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1832, 1840, and
1854, by Professor Baden Powell. New ideas on the nature
of heat, based on the work of Joule, Helmholtz, Thomson,
and others, were just then beginning to prevail abroad, and
they were well known among a few in this country. The
reports of Powell, while dealing much more with experi-
mental results than with theory, were very suggestive. Full
accounts of Melloni's experiments were given, and some of
the early notions of Sir William Thomson about the origin of
the sun's heat. Nine years later, in the annual Report for
1868, the now well-established mechanical theory of heat was
fully exploited in three very important papers. The first is
on the " Recent Progress in Relation to the Theory of Heat,"
by A. Cazin, and it covers about fifteen pages of the Report.
In the second, which is on the " Principles of the Mechanical
Theory of Heat," by Doctor Miiller, of Freiburg, the new
doctrines are fully gone into, and its thirty-five pages consti-
tute not only a strictly scientific, but an exceedingly attrac-
tive, exposition of the dynamical theory. The third paper is
Tyndall's celebrated Rede Lecture on " Radiation," delivered
in 1865, in which, as every one knows, the mechanical theory
has full sway.

A large part of the Report for 1862 is devoted to a series of
lectures on the " Undulating Theory of Light," by President
F. A. P. Barnard. They constitute a tolerably exhaustive
treatise on the subject, largely mathematical, and including
a discussion of double refraction, polarization, interference

Physics 535

and diffraction, the solar spectrum, etc., with a good account
of different theories of Hght. The Report for 1864 contains
Delaunay's classical essay on the "Velocity of Light," the
translation having been made by Professor A. M. Mayer,
then professor of physics in Pennsylvania College, Gettys-
burg. The experiments originally projected by Arago to
determine the velocity of light, and to settle some controver-
sies regarding the undulating theory, realized so completely
by Fizeau and Foucault, are here set forth so perfectly, in a
translation so vigorous, that no physicist can fail to acknow-
ledge an indebtedness to the Institution for such an admirable
reproduction. In 1866 there appeared an important lecture by
Mr. Huggins, on the " Results of Spectrum Analysis Applied
to the Heavenly Bodies." This was, in a sense, the beginning
of the New Astronomy, in the promotion of which the Institu-
tion has been so active in recent years. Mr. Muggins's lec-
ture is a clear presentation of the wonderful discoveries which
so rapidly followed the beautiful researches of Kirchhoff and
Bunsen. He refers to the assumption, based on a single
analogy only, that the fixed stars are essentially similar to
the sun, and explains that the new analysis furnishes, for the
first time, some decisive proof of this. The principal conclu-
sions reached regarding the structure, material elements, color,
brightness, etc., of the stars, the nature of nebulae and comets,
and the possible cause of variable stars, are summarized in a
series of propositions which make one marvel at the rapidity
with which the new science had grown. The Report for 1877
contains an exhaustive and most timely article on " Color
Blindness in its Relations to Accidents by Rail and Sea,"
translated and somewhat abridged from the French transla-
tion of the original paper by F, Holmgren, of the University
of Upsala, Sweden. There is also an article on the same
subject by Professor Henry.

53^ The Smithsonian Institution

Little of moment in reference to light or heat appeared
in the publications of the Institution for more than a decade
after this date, but in 1889 the great advance made during
that time found expression in a reprint of Oliver Lodge's
excellent lecture on the " Modern Theory of Light," which is
a clear and forcible exposition of the electro-magnetic theory
of Clerk Maxwell, and of its beautiful verification by the bril-
liant experiments of Hertz. It is here distinctly recognized
that light is only a specially-restricted group out of a great
variety of waves emitted by the sun ; the importance of devis-
ing some means for selective production is emphasized, and
it is plainly intimated that the direction along which the next
advance is to be made is likely to be " to beat about for some
mode of exciting and maintaining an electrical vibration of any
required degree of rapidity." A fit accompaniment of Lodge's
essay is an address of Professor Joseph Lovering before the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at its meeting of
April 10, 1889, on the occasion of the presentation of the
Rumford medals to Professor A. A. Michelson. Naturally,
the address is a summary of Michelson's principal researches
in optics, beginning with his first determination of the veloc-
ity of light, by his modified Foucault method, at the Naval
Academy about 1878. Professor Lovering's address is not
only an account of Michelson's work (up to the date of its
delivery), but a very careful examination and presentation
of the most important experiments looking to the determina-
tion of light-velocity, either in a vacuum or in some transpar-
ent medium, together with a statement of the principal results,
especially as affecting the solar parallax, and with some refer-
ence to theories of light. It is a most admirable and useful
contribution.

The first part of Volume xxix of the " Smithsonian Con-
tributions " is a memoir by Michelson " On the Application of

EOBEET DALE OWEK

REGENT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

1846-1847.

53^ TJlC .'^rnv

or L .
^^^le tha'"
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is
heory
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plainly intimated that the directi^.i c^.w^^ v^.ll^.l lii>" "'""-♦^
'■■■■' made islik ^ ' " ■ ' ' '
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the mos. ^ experiments looking- to the cK

of Hght-velocity, either in a
ledium, t' ' :;r with a statemt

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ei: ories of light. It is a and useful

conti

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.T^8I- 8:^81

Physics 537

Interference Methods to Spectroscopic Measurements," pub-
lished in 1892, an investigation which had been aided by a
grant from the Institution. In this work Professor Michel-
son made use of his well-known interference method, which
proved to be very powerful in attacking problems usually
given to the grating and prism. He found it "easy to sepa-
rate lines whose distance apart is only a thousandth of that
between D^ Dg, and even to determine the distribution of light
in the separate components," and whenever the width of the
lines themselves is less than their distance apart there is no
limit to their resolvability.

The Smithsonian Report for 1893 includes a short, but
thoughtful, paper on the " Luminiferous Ether," by Sir
George G. Stokes, in which the difficulties of the problem
are well put and some hints given as to their possible
solution.

No account of the relation of the Smithsonian Institution to
the increase and diffusion of our knowledge of radiant energy
would be approximately complete without reference to the
splendid investigations of the present Secretary, Doctor S. P.
Langley. Begun originally by him in the Allegheny Ob-
servatory, he has not allowed the burden of administrative
duties to prevent their being continued in the new Astro-
physical Observatory, where they are still in progress. The
remarkable results of his use of the bolometer in the study of
the infra-red end of the solar spectrum hav^e revolutionized
our ideas of the radiations from the sun. A more complete
account of this work will be found elsewhere in this volume.

SOUND

Although the number of papers published on acoustics is
not large, some of them represent extremely important work.

53^ The Smithsonian Instittition

One of these is a paper read by Henry before the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1856. Its title
was " On Acoustics AppHed to PubHc Buildings." He had
been required by act of Congress to build a lecture hall in
the building: which was erected for the home of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and he desired to make it acoustically
perfect if possible. He had also been consulted, along with
Professor Bache, of the Coast Survey, as to the hall of the
House of Representatives, which was about to be constructed
in the new wing of the Capitol building. With characteristic
thoroughness he took hold of the problem, and in its study
combined both observation and experiment. He visited the
principal halls and churches of Philadelphia, New York, and
Boston, and also made an extensive series of experiments
upon reflection, resonance, and refraction of sound in rooms
and halls of various forms and sizes.

The results of these investigations were utilized in the con-
struction of the Smithsonian hall, which proved to be entirely
satisfactory. The paper in which they are embodied is one
of the few important and valuable contributions toward the
solution of a problem which is still perplexing.

The Report for 1875 contains a very interesting discussion
of the laws of refraction of sound, by Doctor William B.
Taylor. It is first shown that the velocity of a sound-wave
in passing through a gaseous medium may be disturbed by
variation in the density of the medium, or in its elasticity or
temperattire, and also by relative motion of the parts of the
medium ; that is, by the existence of currents. Whatever
produces variations of velocity in different parts of the wave-
front will cause refj^actioii, as the direction of a sound at
any point is perpendicular to the wave-front at that point.
Refraction due to variations of density is explained, and the
experiments by which Sondhauss demonstrated the existence

Physics 539

of this refraction in 1852 are described. There is a clear
presentation of Stokes's theory of sound-refraction due to
wind, abstracted for the most part from his paper in the re-
port of the British Association for 1857. He was tlie first to
show that on the side of the source of sound toward the point
from which the wind was blowing, the sound-waves would be
flattened and the sound "ray" reflected upward, so that
sounds would not be heard at distances as great as on the
other side, where the effect is to make the wave more con-
vex and to deflect the "ray" downward. This explanation is
in harmony with many observed facts, and especially one
noticed by Henry in 1865 — namely, that a sound moving
against the wind, and inaudible to the ear on the deck of a
schooner, became audible on ascending to the mast-head.
This observation had suggested the idea that sound was more
readily conveyed by the upper current of air than by the
lower. Some very important practical conclusions came from
this principle of wind refraction, one being that a continuous
sound, as from a horn or whistle, would be less likel)- to be
lost by refraction due to adverse winds than sounds of prac-
tically a single impulse, as from a bell or gun ; also that it is
more probable that sounds of a high pitch will be more inter-
fered with by refraction than those of medium tones or lower
pitch.

Refraction from inequality of the temperature of horizontal
layers is also explained at length. This may be of a nature
to deflect sound rays up or down, according as the lower or
upper stratum of air involved is at the highest temperature.
Variations of temperature in the atmosphere along vertical
lines are shown to be sufficient to account for many acoustic
phenomena with which all observing people are more or less
familiar. Among them may be mentioned the extraordinary
distance at which sounds may be sometimes heard, especially

540 The Smithsonian Institntion

at night, and also the remarkable observations made by Arctic
explorers, notably Captain Parry, who was able to carry on a
conversation with a man a mile and a quarter away. The
clearness of sound " over water," which is so generally recog-
nized, is accounted for on the same principles.

This interesting paper is a fitting prelude to the extended
and elaborate summary in the Report for 1878 of Henry's re-
searches in sound, conducted in the service of the United States
Lighthouse Board during the years 1865 to 1877. Henry's
long service as chairman of the Lighthouse Board consti-
tutes by no means the least important of his labors in the
interests of the general public. In this service he found
opportunity to utilize and apply his knowledge of physical
principles and the universally recognized high efficiency of
the Lighthouse establishment is due more to his intelligent
administration of its affairs than to any other single cause.
His researches in sound were among the most valuable of
his contributions toward the betterment of the service. As
every one knows, the presence of fog along the coast renders
the use of sound signals necessary; and for this purpose bells,
horns, trumpets, guns, etc., have long been in use. Many
curious and often contradictory phenomena have been noted,
especially in regard to variations in audibility under different
conditions, and the subject is one that has received much
attention among maritime nations. Generally under the direc-
tion of Professor Henry, the Lighthouse Board conducted an
extensive series of experiments during the years mentioned
above, the results of which were submitted as reports to the
Board and published by it, or, in some instances, read before
the Washington Philosophical Society, of which Henry was
President. On one of these occasions Professor Tyndall,
who was then in the country engaged in lecturing in the
principal cities, was present, being interested through his

Physics 54 1

connection with the Lighthouse service in England and by
reason of his own experiments on the absorption of sound.
A very decided difference of opinion was developed at a later
date between these two distinguished physicists, Professor
Henry disagreeing with Tyndall in the matter of the influ-
ence of fog, rain, snow, hail, etc., on the audibility of sounds.
Tyndall attributed many of the observed abnormal phenomena
"to the existence of acoustic clouds, consisting of portions of
the atmosphere in a flocculent or mottled condition, due to
the unequal distribution of heat and moisture which, absorb-
ing and reflecting the sound, produce an atmosphere of
acoustic opacity." Henry, on the contrary, while not deny-
ing the possible existence of such a condition, was inclined to
attribute such phenomena to the effect of the wind, in accord
with the hypothesis of Stokes, referred to in the remarks on
the paper by Doctor Taylor. The discussion growing out of
this difference of views was of such a nature, unfortunately,
as to give rise to some irritation, at least among the friends of
the two distinguished physicists, but it is generally believed
that subsequent observations have tended rather to confirm
the position taken by Henry.

Among the valuable practical results of these researches in
sound the development of the use of the siren as an instru-
ment for producing sounds of great intensity must be men-
tioned.

In his last report to the Lighthouse Board, not long
before his death, Henry summarized the results of all experi-
ments conducted by the Board up to that time, a few of the
more important conclusions being as follows : The audibility
of a sound at a distance (the state of the atmosphere being-
constant) depends on the character of the sound : to secure
audibility at a distance, the pitch of the sound should be
"medium"; the loudness, depending on the amplitude of vibra-

542 TJie Sniithsojiiau Institution

tion of the sounding body, should be as great as possible; and
the "quantity" of sound, depending on the magnitude of the
vibrating surface, should also be great.

The audibility also depends on the state of the atmosphere,
the best condition being that of perfect stillness and uniformity
of density and temperature. The most efficient cause of the
loss of audibility is the direct effect produced by the wind.
While, as a general rule, the audibility of a sound is greater
on the side toward which the wind "blows," this is due to
downward refraction, rather than to the simple " carrying
effect " of the wind, which would hardly be sensible. Further-
more, there are instances of a greater audibility on the wind-
ward side, which is to be explained by reference to a domi-
nant upper wind, opposite in direction to that near the earth's
surface.

There is not much utility in concave reflectors or other de-
vices for "directing" the sound along certain lines, for the
tendency of the wave is to spread with great rapidity, so that
within a distance of three or four miles of the source it fills
the whole space of air within the circuit of the horizon and
is heard nearly, if not quite, as well behind the trumpet as
before it. Neither fog, snow, rain, nor hail materially inter-
feres with the transmission of loud sounds, the siren having
been heard at a greater distance during the prevalence of a
dense and widely- extended fog than during any other condi-
tion of the atmosphere. Projecting portions of the land or
buildings may produce sound shadows, so that a sound easily
heard at a distance may be inaudible on nearer approach.
The existence of an " aerial echo " was established, the ex-
planation of which was not easy to see, although it is probably
due to reflection from the surface of the sea.

Investigations of a similar character have been prosecuted
in a more or less irregular fashion by the Lighthouse Board

Physics 543

since the death of Henry, but their importance would appear
to justify a more vigorous treatment of the subject.

Of a less technical and more strictly scientific character is
the reprint in the Report for 1890 of Professor Sylvanus P.
Thompson's presentation of Koenig's researches on "The
Physical Basis of Musical Harmony and Timbre." This is
the address made by Professor Thompson on the occasion of
Doctor Rudolph Koenig's exhibition before the London Phys-
ical Society of the experimental demonstration and illustration
of his theory of harmony. Professor Thompson proved him-
self to be a charming interpreter and exponent of one of the
most accomplished experimentalists and profound students of
acoustics of the present generation. Few have done as much
as he to advance the science of acoustics, ard this paper,
which embodies his advance beyond, and departure from,
the theory of Von Helmholtz, is a most valuable contribution
to science.

METROLOGICAL

A NUMBER of the publications of the Institution are purely
metrological in their character. Among these might, indeed,
be included the extensive " reduction tables," begun under the
direction of Professor A. Guyot, and continued in various
revisions and additions, under other editors, up to the pres-
ent time. They are mostly 7neteorological in character, and
doubtless will receive more extensive consideration under
that head. They have been of inestimable value to physi-
cists, however, and in their original issue and maintenance
the Institution aptly illustrated one of its most important
functions.

The early interest felt in systems of measurement is shown
in a paper by Professor Guyot, in the third annual Report

544 The Smithsonian Institution

of the Smithsonian Institution, now quite inaccessible. It was
on the "Advantages of the Metric System in Scientific In-
vestigation," and it doubtless did efficient duty in bringing
the system to the attention of Americans at that early day,
a half century ago.

The Smithsonian Report for 1863 contains two pages
of "Tables of Weights and Measures," and there is nothing
to show by whom they were prepared. They are mostly de-
voted to showing the English equivalents of the various units
and denominations of the metric system, although there is
also a partial table of English measures. While the Report
for 1865 was passing through the press, Congress passed the
"metric law " of 1866, the conversion tables in which had
been prepared by Professor H. A. Newton, of New Haven.
This law and these tables were added to the Report for 1865
as an appendix. As is well known, the fundamental metric
value of the yard as then adopted is now the recognized
best approximation. It is worthy of note that in the print-
ing of these tables, as well as those of 1863, the spelling
of "metre," "litre," etc., and their derivatives is that of the
French, and also that in universal use among the English ;
and it is to be regretted that the Institution has in later
years departed from an orthography which has everything
to recommend it, in order to adopt one to which there are
many serious objections.

Two brief papers, metrological in character, will be found
in the Reports for 1889 and 1891. They refer to time meas-
urement, the first being on " Time-Keeping in Greece and
Rome," by F. A. Seely ; and the second, " Modes of Keeping
Time Known Among the Chinese," by Doctor D. J. Magowan.
Mr. Seely traces the origin of time keeping apparatus, of
which the sun-dial and water-clock, or clepsydra, are among
the earlier forms, and both probably originated in the Orient.

Physics 545

Doctor Magowan shows that at a very early period the Chinese
possessed time-keeping devices of considerable complexity,
and that the subject of time division and measurement re-
ceived much attention at their hands many centuries before
the Christian Era.

Professor Harkness, in his presidential address before the
Philosophical Society of Washington, has given an interesting
study of the " Progress of Science as Exemplified in the Art
of Weighing and Measuring," and a reprint of it appears in
the Report for 1888. It contains much matter of historical
value, especially the carefully prepared appendixes showing
the principal comparisons of early English and other impor-
tant standards of lenorth and mass.

The Smithsonian Report for 1893 contains an article on
"Fundamental Units of Measure," by T. C. Mendenhall, be-
ing a reprint from the Transaciiojis of the American Society
of Civil Engi7teers, of a paper read before the International
Engineering Congress of the Columbian Exposition. This is
a brief sketch of the general principles of metrology, followed
by an account of the origin of the English system of weights
and measures, and a statement in some detail of the actual con-
dition of the question of " standards " in the United States.
The official announcement by the Secretary of the Treasury
is there given of the adoption of the national prototype meter
No, 27 and kilogram No. 20 as fundamental standards of
length and mass, the yard and pound to be defined in the
future in terms of these units. The article concludes with
the formal announcement of the Superintendent of Standard
Weights and Measures, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury, of the adoption of the units of electrical
measure, with their definitions as formulated and agreed
upon by the International Electrical Congress held in Chi-
cago in 1S93.

54^ The Smithsonian Institntion

It is a matter of interest to all metrologists to know that
through the generosity of Doctor Henry Morton, President
of the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, the
Ramsden dividing engine has recently been deposited in the
National Museum. The engine was built about 1775, and
for its construction Ramsden received a reward from the
English Board of Longitude. In an extremely interesting
paper printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1890, Mr. J.
Elfreth Watkins gives an account of this valuable relic, to
which he has added much important information regarding
the early history of the division of the circle. There are
also some details of the methods of circle graduation by lead-
ing artists of a century ago, and the whole forms an impor-
tant contribution to the literature of the subject.

Under this head should also be mentioned the recent
publication (1896) of a set of physical tables prepared by
Professor Thomas Gray. These give evidence of great
care in preparation, excellent judgment in selection, and a
broad knowledge of authorities and literature. Their ap-
pearance is very welcome to physicists and all students of
exact science.

TERRESTRIAL, DYNAMICAL, AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS

It has already been intimated, and, in fact, every one familiar
with its work knows — that the Smithsonian Institution was,
especially during the first quarter of a century of its exist-
ence, very active in the promotion of terrestrial physics. It
originated, cultivated, and maintained a wide- spread interest
in the subject of meteorology, organizing a remarkably large
and enthusiastic corps of volunteer observers and collecting
and discussing data from all reliable sources. In the first

Physics 547

Smithsonian Report were papers by Professors Espy and
Loomis, two of the great pioneers in meteorological investiga-
tion in this country. Much attention was given to the study
and description of American storms, and also to the devis-
ing of suitable instruments for meteorological observers. In
accordance with its traditional policy, however, the whole me-
teorological system, which had been developed with so much
care, was turned over to the War Department on the organi-
zation of the Signal Corps as a weather service, about twenty-
five years ago. The work of the Institution in furthering the
interests of meteorological science during the first quarter of
a century of its existence will be considered in another part
of this volume, and further reference to it here is unnecessary.
In the Report of 1855 is printed a " Circular Relative to
Earthquakes," which Professor Henry had drawn up for dis-
tribution after the occurrence of a shock. He submitted nine
questions to be answered by any one who had been disturbed
by it, none of them requiring any special technical knowledge.
He makes a single suggestion as to a " seismoscope " in ob-
serving that the direction of the impulse may be ascertained
by noting the direction in which molasses, or any viscid liquid,
was upthrown against the side of a bowl. Frequent commu-
nications descriptive of earthquake phenomena were received
and mostly published in the Reports, from time to time. In
that for 1859, one of Mallet's important papers, " On the Ob-
servation of Earthquake Phenomena," was published. This
is a well-known treatment of the subject, adniirable in its day,
but in large measure obsolete now, especially that part of it
which treats of instrumental seismology. An advance along
that line is shown in the publication in the Report of i8;o of
Palmieri's description of his electro-magnetic seismograph,
and the rapid growth of this science is again reflected in the
appearance for three years, beginning in 1884, of special Re-

548 The Sniithsonian Institutiojt

ports on the progress of vulcanology and seismology, prepared
by Professor C. G. Rockwood, Jr., of Princeton University.
Modern seismology is now represented in the collections of
the Smithsonian Institution by a very complete suite of seis-
mological apparatus, devised by Milne, Gray, Ewing, and
others, and mostly used in the investigation of seismic phe-
nomena in Japan.

Other phases of terrestrial physics are represented in a
paper published in i860 in the "Contributions," on the
" Fluctuations in the Level of North American Lakes," by
Whittlesey, and one on " Tidal OBservations in the Arctic
Seas," published at the same time, in the same place. To
these should be added a very valuable paper, which appeared
in the Report for 1874, on "Tides and Tidal Action in Har-
bors," by J. E. Hilgard. Closely related to these are the
monographs by General J. G. Barnard, of the United States
Engineers, the earliest being on the " Problems of Rotary
Motion presented by the Gyroscope, the Precession of the
Equinoxes and the Pendulum," which was published in the
"Contributions" in 1871. It consists, properly, of three
papers, which were separately read before the National
Academy of Sciences. The object of the first was to deduce
the analytical expression of the precession of the equinoxes
directly from the theory of the gyroscope, a suggestion of
which the author had made as early as 1857 in an article in
the American Jotirnal of Science. The second part was a
mathematical examination and analysis of the " Motions of
Freely Suspended and Gyroscopic Pendulums," and " On the
Pendulum and Gyroscope as Exhibiting the Rotation of the
Earth," and is an elaborate discussion of the very interesting
methods of proving the earth's rotation first suggested by
Foucault. The third part is " On the Internal Structure of
the Earth as Affecting the Phenomena of Precession and

Physics 549

Nutation." In this General Barnard attacked mathematically
one of the most important problems of recent years, and his
conclusion was, essentially in his own words, as follows :
" Regarding the crust as rigid, I incline to the opinion of M.
Delaunay, that the consideration of the phenomena of preces-
sion and nutation can furnish no datum for estimating the
greater or less thickness of the solid crust of the earth." The
second monograph referred to above, published among the
"Smithsonian Contributions" six years later, is, in fact, only
supplementary to the third part of the first. In the mean
time, much had been said upon the subject, especially by Sir
William Thomson, and General Barnard very carefully and
conscientiously reviews his own work, and in his conclusion
says that " the correction of grave errors of conclusion in
papers of mine published under the sanction of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and ostensibly deserving the ascription of
* Contributions to Knowledge,' is a peremptory motive for
this memoir." But he further desires to show that in these
papers are to be found essential elements of the correct solu-
tion of the " full problem of precession and nutation, and
what is now necessarily included in it, the tides, for a contin-
uous revolving, liquid spheroid, whether heterogeneous or
homogeneous."

The question is again taken up in a reprint from the
Philosophical Magazine, of an article by Henry Hennessy,
who had, in 1878, published a paper on the same subject in
the same journal. His attitude in the controversy may be
suspected from the statement that " geologists are the ultimate
judges of the matter, and not mathematicians." In his final
sentence he says that the earth cannot consist of an entirely
solid mass composed of equi-elliptic strata, and that it is,
therefore, partly composed of a solid shell . . . with an in-
terior mass of viscid lic^uid, such as is seen flowing from the

550 The Sniithsonian Institution

volcanic openings of the shell, arranged in strata conforming
to the laws of hydrostatics ; or, in other words, with strata
of equal density decreasing in ellipticity toward the earth's
center." The same Report contains Professor R. S. Wood-
ward's vice-presidential address before the Section of Mathe-
matics and Astronomy of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science at the Toronto meeting in 1889.
This is a historical summary, under the title of " Mathematical
Theories of the Earth," of the principal propositions which
have been from time to time advanced in reference to the
same subject, and is an extremely satisfactory performance.
Closely related to these papers are Clarence King's "Age
of the Earth," reprinted in the Smithsonian Report for 1893;
and Sir Robert Ball's article on "The Wanderino-s of the
North Pole," in the same volume. The former is a valuable
contribution to physical geology, the author being, for the
most part, in harmony with Kelvin, Von Helmholtz, New-
comb, and other mathematical physicists, who have insisted
on a much shorter period of past life for the earth, in any-
thing like its present condition, than is usually claimed by
geological writers. The article of Sir Robert Ball, reprinted
from the Fortnightly Review, is a popular exposition of the
recent investigations regarding variation of latitude, in which
Doctor S. C. Chandler has been the leader.

At an early period in its history the Smithsonian Institu-
tion recognized the importance of the art and science of
aeronautics. In the Report for i860 is an interesting letter
from "distinguished citizens of Philadelphia," requesting the
Institution to interest itself in a projected passage across the
Atlantic "by aeronautic machinery," evidently meaning a
balloon as the principal, if not sole, feature. To this Profes-
sor Henry replied, giving information regarding some winds
which might be depended upon for steadiness, and expressing

Physics

:)D

a lack of confidence in the feasibility of extensive aerial navi-
gation by any of the methods then proposed, except by float-
ing with the air current in a balloon of sufficient size and
of sufficient impermeability to gas to enable it to maintain
a high elevation for some time. As might be expected, he
counseled more extensive experimentation on land before
crossing the ocean was attempted.

The Report for 1863 contains an elaborate account by
Arago of several balloon ascensions made in the interest of
the advancement of science, and also a brief sketch of some
of Mr. Glaisher's ascents. The subject is continued in subse-
quent Reports, one paper, " On the Various Modes of Flight,"
in 1867, deserving especial mention, on account of the great
amount of information it contains and its clear enunciation of
fundamental principles. It is a reprint from the Proceedings
of the Royal Institution of a lecture given by Doctor James
Bell Pettigrew. A careful study of the flight of birds, bats,
and insects is followed by a discussion of the possibility of
human flight, and the importance of a "screw" in aerial navi-
gation is enlarged upon.

In the Report for 1869 the matter of flight in the animal
kingdom receives attention in the publication of Marey's
celebrated lectures on that subject. In the Report for 18S9
there is a reprint of a very able discussion of the subject
of aerial locomotion by Y . H. Wenham, first read before the
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, and published in the
annual report of that society for the year 1866.

In the mean time the study of the whole question of
aerial navigation, whether by animals or by men. was destined
shortly to receive a new impulse through the labors of a small
number of scientific investigators who, undismayed by the
prevailing belief in the absurdity of the thought of practical
flying machines, had attacked the problem in a manner in

552 The Sniithsonimi Institution

keeping with the present knowledge of physics and en-
gineering. Of these none has pursued the subject more
assiduously, or made more valuable contributions toward the
solution of the problem, than the distinguished Secretary of
the Institution, Doctor Langley. The work is still in active
progress, but it is proper to say here that the foundation for
it was laid, in a large measure, in a series of experiments
in aerodynamics, principally carried on in the grounds of
the Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pennsylvania. They
are to a great extent a study of the aeroplane, and Doctor
Langley's report of the work was published among the " Con-
tributions" of 1 89 1. A portion of the work done in Alle-
gheny, supplemented by additional studies made later at the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, gave rise to another
very important memoir by the same author, published in the
same series in 1893. Its title is "The Internal Work of the
Wind." The principal conclusions reached in the investigation
are as follows: "That the wind is not even an approximately
uniform moving mass of air, but consists of a succession of
very brief pulsations of varying amplitude, and that, relatively
to the mean movement of the wind, these are of varying
direction." From this fundamental proposition, established
by experiment, it is inferred that there is a potentiality of "in-
ternal work " in the wind which is probably large ; that it is
no contradiction to known principles of dynamics to declare
that an inclined plane or properly-curved surface, heavier
than the air and immersed in it, may be supported, or even
rise, indefinitely without expenditure of energy other than
that necessary to change the aspect of its inclination at each
pulsation ; also that the possibility of such a surface making
advance against the direction of the wind follows not only
relatively to the wind, but absolutely in reference to a fixed
point. It is hardly necessary to say that these conclusions

Physics 553

are of the utmost importance in the development of practical
aeronautics. In the same year the Smithsonian Report con-
tains a paper on " Problems in Flying," by Otto Lilienthal,
and another on " Practical Experiments in Soaring," by the
same author. The interesting performances of this indefatig-
able experimenter are well known, and these short papers,
taken in connection with the monographs of Langley, consti-
tute a striking illustration of the tremendous advances made
in this subject during the past few years.

In studies of molecular physics nothing has appeared in re-
cent years more interesting than the work of Plateau on
" Liquid Films and Figures of Equilibrium in Liquid Masses,"
the first of which appeared in the Smithsonian Report for
1863. Few investigations have exhibited more experimental
skill than these, and the exquisite illustrations of the laws that
determine the equilibrium of liquid films which Plateau de-
vised and described render his work classical. The wide
publications of these important papers, which were continued
from year to year in Smithsonian Reports up to that for 1866,
constitute almost an era in the development of our knowledge
of surface tension, liquid equilibrium, and capillarity. Among
other papers on molecular physics which are to be found
in the publications of the Institution, one on " Boscovich's
Theory," by Lord Kelvin, in the Report for 1887; another on
the " Molecular Structure of Matter," by William Anderson,
and still another on " Phenomena Connected with Cloud
Condensation," by John Aitken, should have special mention.
In the volume for 1893 there is a reprint from the Fort-
iiightly Review of Sir Robert Ball's article on " Atoms and
Sunbeams," which is a popular presentation of the molecular
theory of gases, with an application to the maintenance of the
sun's heat. The Report for 1892 reproduces two papers on
" Solution," one by Professor Ramsay, and the other by Pro-
36

554 The Smithsonian Institution

tessor Orme Masson; and that for 1891 contains an interesting
paper by Professor Hallock, on the "Flow of Solids," orig-
inally published as a bulletin by the United States Geological
Survey. Under the same general class is the memoir by
Professor Edward W. Morley on " The Densities of Oxygen
and Hydrogen and the Ratio of their Atomic Weights," which
appeared as one of the " Smithsonian Contributions" in 1895.
In this elaborate research Professor Morley was assisted by
grants from the Smithsonian Institution, and he was thus en-
abled to make by far the most exhaustive study of the subject
that has yet appeared, and his results are everywhere acknow-
ledged to possess a degree of accuracy hitherto unapproached.
Reference must not be omitted to a few papers of no great
length, but of extreme interest and value, more fully related
to dynamical problems, and especially to the theory and
measurement of the force of o-ravitation. Among: them is
one on the " Nature and Origin of Force," by Doctor William
B. Taylor, printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, and
another by the same author, on " Kinetic Theories of Gravi-
tation," published in 1876. The last is a particularly valuable
critical history of the most important theories regarding
gravitation from Newton to Clerk Maxwell. In the Report
for 1888 there is a somewhat condensed account of Wilsing's
determination of the density of the earth by his ingenious
"pendulum balance" method. It is worth while remarking,
in reference to this, that the Smithsonian Institution has for
many years rendered cooperative assistance to scientific men
engaged in the determination of the value of the force of
gravity. A special room in the basement of the building,
particularly adapted to this work, was long ago set aside for
use as a pendulum room, and it was for many years regarded
as the "base station" for the extensive gravity work of the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Physics 555

MISCELLANEOUS AND TECHNICAL

The publications of the Smithsonian Institution include a large
number of papers more closely related to physics than to any
other science, but yet of a miscellaneous or technical nature.
Brief reference to a few of these will be desirable. One of the
earliest is a " Syllabus of a Course of Lectures in Physics,"
prepared by Joseph Henry and published in the Smithson-
ian Report for 1856. It was originally intended to continue
this syllabus in subsequent reports, but this was not done.
As published, it is restricted to a general outline of the course,
with an abstract of the general properties of matter and a
beginning in mechanics. Although prepared forty years ago,
any instructor in physics will do well to examine it carefully.
In the same volume there is a paper on the "Mode of Testing
Building Material," also by Henry, originally read before the
American Association for the Advancement of Science. It is
essentially a report of the most important results obtained by
a commission appointed by the President of the United States
for the purpose of examining the marble used in the extension
of the United States Capitol, of which commission Henry was
a member. The paper contains a number of interesting con-
clusions based on the experimental work of the commission,
notably those relating to the use of lead plates in crushing
cubes of stone ; the composition of the marbles used in the
wings of the Capitol is given, and there are some thoughtful
remarks on the general subject of molecular cohesion, as illus-
trated in the use of the testing-machine. In the Reports for
i860 and 1 86 1 will be found a course of five lectures on
" Roads and Bridges," by Fairman Rogers, then professor of
civil engineering in the University of Pennsylvania. They
contain much extremely valuable material for a people among

556 The Sinithsoiiian Institution

whom even now, a generation later, road-building has hardly
passed the temporary stage.

Important technical papers are printed in the Smithsonian
Report for 1864, including an extract from the memoir on
the ** Preservation of Copper and Iron in Salt Water," by
Becquerel, the translation of which was furnished by Admiral
C. H. Davis, then Chief of the Bureau of Navigation of the
Navy Department. This is followed by an equally impor-
tant paper on the preservation of wood, in which the principal
mechanical and chemical methods of treatment are discussed.
There is also an interesting paper on " Caoutchouc and Gutta-
percha," and also one on the " Products of the Combustion
of Gun-cotton and Gun-powder," thus illustrating the mar-
velous parallel growth of the arts of peace and of war in the
United States during these years. In the Report for 1870
there is an almost prophetic letter by Henry, to an unknown
correspondent, in reference to the character and importance
of a "physical observatory." He refers to his interest in the
examination of several European institutions of this class
during a recent visit abroad, of the very interesting and im-
portant work which they may accomplish, and gives some
excellent advice as to their organization and management.
There is one sentence which cannot be too frequently quoted,
in which he says, " It is, therefore, in the highest degree in-
judicious in the founding of an establishment to exhaust the
source of its power by architectural display not absolutely
required, and which may forever involve a continual expense
from the remaining funds to keep them in repair." He speaks
of findinor in Encjland " observations which have challenged
the admiration of the world," carried on in a temporary
structure made of rough boards, unplastered, and hardly more
than fifteen feet square. This condition of things the Institu-
tion has itself practically repeated after a score of years.

Physics 557

In 1873 there was issued among the "Miscellaneous Con-
tributions " the beginning of a very important series of statis-
tical publications, under the general title of " The Constants
of Nature," by Professor F. W. Clarke. Part i of the series con-
sists of a table of specific gravities, boiling and melting points
for solids and liquids, and chemical formula;. It has been
supplemented and revised from time to time, the latest addi-
tion bearing date of 1888. Other volumes contained tables
of specific heats, coefficients of expansion, etc., and that con-
taining atomic weights was compiled by Mr. G. F. Becker.
The whole series, to which additions are being continually
made, has hardly a rival in any language, and its issue well
illustrates the usefulness of the publication feature of the
Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian Reports for 1873
and 1874 contain a technical paper of considerable length and
great value " On Warming and Ventilating Occupied Build-
ings," by the well-known French engineer and technologist,
Morin. Its reproduction was most timely, for little consider-
ation was given this important matter by architects and
builders a quarter of a century ago. The Report for 1880
contains a reprint from the report of the United States Light-
house Board for 1875 of Henry's "Investigations Relative to
Illuminating Material," made in the interest of the Lighthouse
establishment. This is a detailed account of the earlier
stages of the study of illuminants carried on by the Board
during the past thirty years, which has resulted in the exclu-
sive use of petroleum oils in the Lighthouse service. Pro-
fessor Henry's report brings the work down to the begiiiniiig
of this use.

With the Report for 1880 there was begun a series of an-
nual " Reports of Progress " in the various branches of sci-
ence, prepared by well-known specialists. This series was
discontinued in 1888, for reasons given in the Smithsonian
36*

55^ The Smithsonian Instittition

Report for that year. The editing of the " Progress in Phys-
ics " was during these years assigned to Professor George F.
Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, and no one else so
well fitted for the work could have been found. The series
of " Reports of Progress," which appeared from 1880 to 1887,
as far as it relates to the science of physics leaves nothing to
be desired ; the references to original sources are very com-
plete, and both the busy specialist and the intelligent student
of general physics willingly acknowledge their indebtedness
to Professor Barker and the Institution. It is not yet certain
that any other publication exactly fills the place of this.

A few other publications of a miscellaneous or technical
character remain to be noticed, one of the most important
being Professor Huxley's famous "Jubilee Year Address" on
the "Advance in Science in the Last Half Century," which
will always stand as a classical contribution to the scientific
history of a remarkable period. Emblematic of the growth
of engineering skill during the same period are the carefully-
prepared papers on the Eiffel Tower in the same volume. A
technical paper of much interest " On the Absolute Measure-
ment of Hardness," by F. Auerbach, is published in the Re-
port for 1 89 1, the English translation of which was furnished
by Professor Carl Barus ; while the volumes for 1890 and 1893
contain examples of splendid experimental skill, in two papers
by Professor Boys, the first being the celebrated Royal Insti-
tution lecture on " Ouartz Fibers," and the second that on
" Electric Spark Photographs of Flying Bullets," delivered
in 1892 at the Edinburgh meeting of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. The " Ouartz P"ibers "
lecture was almost epoch-making in character, for it intro-
duced to general use a simple and elegant device for the sus-
pension of light bodies, which has enormously increased the
accuracy of a large and important class of physical measure-

Physics 559

ments, a remarkable example of which is to be seen in the
work of Professor Boys himself in his classical determination
of the constant of gravitation.

By no means the least important publications of the Smith-
sonian Institution have been the series of memoirs, eulogies,
biographies, and autobiographies of distinguished scientific
men which have been printed in the Smithsonian Reports
from the earlier to the later issues. Great interest attaches
to the personality and private life and character of men of
distinction, and this is no less true in science than elsewhere.
Besides, these memoirs and eulogies often furnish the most
complete and concise account of the scientific work of their
subjects, and furnish information of this kind not elsewhere
available. The Smithsonian Reports have put into the hands
of physicists biographical memoirs of such men as Priestley,
Delambre, Faraday, Eaton Hodgkinson» Thomas Young,
Herschel, Laplace, De la Rive, \ olta, and Kirchhoff, among
others, and four of these came from Arago, whose own auto-
biography, entitled "The History of My Youth," published
in the Report for 1870, is one of the most charming sketches
to be found in any language. The memoir of Kirchhoff, by
Von Helmholtz, is full of interest to every physicist, and the
" Historical Sketch of Henry's Relation to the Telegraph,"
by Doctor W. B. Taylor, published in the Report for 1879, is
a document of great scientific value.

Another interesting and valuable feature of the Smithsonian
Reports is the publication from time to time of reports on
the transactions of various European societies, especially the
Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, abstracts
of whose transactions were published annually for nearly a
quarter of a century.

The publication of prize problems and of medals and
prizes offered by various scientific societies, including the In-

560 The Smithsonian Institution

stitute of Bologna, the Holland Society of Science, the Impe-
rial Academies of Science in Bordeaux and Vienna, the Lon-
don Institution of Civil Engineers, the Royal Academy of
Science in Brussels, the Royal Prussian Academy of Science,
and others, was a matter of interest to men of science in
America, and was greatly helpful in directing their efforts.
In the above review of the work of the Institution along
the line of physics, it has been impossible to look much
beyond what is reflected in its numerous publications.
Throughout its fifty years of existence there has been some-
thing besides this, however, — less tangible, it is true, but often
more effective, — in the ready disposition of its authorities
to render assistance to every man engaged in original inves-
tigation which was likely to prove of value, and for which
support was not easily obtained from other sources. Many
physicists, in America and elsewhere, can testify to the valu-
able cooperation of the Institution, To the general public it
has been easy of access, and its resources in the way of
obtaining information have always been at their command.
The Smithsonian Reports have been especially valuable as
a means of diffusing a knowledge of the more important
advances in physical sciente, for there is hardly a discovery
of moment, or a notable expression of opinion on the part
of a man of distinction, that has not found a place in this
most valuable annual. All scholars note with pleasure its
increase in size from year to year, and physicists welcome
the increasing recognition of their science. Under the wise
direction of one of the first physicists of the present time, it
is natural to indulge in the hope and expectation that in the
years to come the Smithsonian Institution will be, even more
than in the past, the center of intellectual activity of the
Western Continent, and the friendly patron of original re-
search everywhere.

MATHEMATICS

By Robert Simpson Woodward,

Professor of Mechanics, Columbia University

L'idee du progr^s, dii developpement, me parait etre I'idee fondamentale contenue
sous le mot de civilisation. — GuizOT.

M ON GST the causes which have made for
civiUzation during the past half-century, the
progress of science, it would seem, must be
given a very prominent, if not the first place.
Governmental, commercial, social, ethical, and
religious institutions and influences have each played an
important role in the general advance of humanity ; but the
pervading thought, the points of view, and the intellectual
activities have been predominantly scientific. To the world at
large the most striking results of this progress of science are
found in material benefits. The ease of intercommunication
by telegraph and telephone ; the facility of transportation
by railway and steamship ; the prevention of disease by ra-
tional sanitation, and the mitigation of pain by rational
surgery, along with a multitude of other benefits, appeal
directly and forcibly to the popular sense. To the student
of civilization, on the other hand, the most important results

of that progress are found in the development of a dis-

56.

562 The Smithsonian Institution

tinctively scientific method of investigation, and in the dis-
covery of two far-reaching laws of nature, namely, the law
of conservation of energy and the law of evolution of organic
forms.

The scientific method is not new. It has been followed
more or less closely throughout the history of modern science.
From Galileo to Newton, from Newton to Laplace, from
Laplace to Darwin, the same method of patient observation,
of measuring, of weighing, of correlating, is discernible. But
it has now reached such a degree of definiteness, and its effi-
ciency in the search for truth is now so generally recognized,
that it has come to be known by common consent as the
scientific method. Subjects as diverse as philology and cos-
mogony, substances as different as zinc and protoplasm,
media as distinct as the air and the ether, systems as widely
separated as those of Sirius and Jupiter, have each been sub-
jected to the observation, the experiment, and the reasoning
which are characteristic of this method. By its aid, indeed,
almost every field of inquiry has been cultivated, and few
fields have failed to yield fresh accessions to knowledge.

In the domain of the mathematico-physical sciences no
generalization of the period in question is comparable in
importance with that of the doctrine of energy. In this doc-
trine the earlier conception of the impossibility of perpetual
motion is replaced by the clearer and broader conception of
the impossibility of creating or destroying energy. All me-
chanical systems, and all of the varied mechanical phenomena
presented by the universe, are thus held to exhibit the com-
mon property of conservation of energy. It is to the recog-
nition of this law that are due in a large degree the recent
remarkable developments in the useful applications of ther-
modynamics, electricity, and magnetism; while the exigencies
of those developments have stimulated in a noteworthy man-

Mathematics s 6 ^

0^0

ner numerous researches in pure mathematics. As a corollary,
almost, has resulted also a more or less complete correlation
of the sciences of heat, light, electricity, and magnetism ; and
a still further correlation, if not a complete unification, is con-
fidently expected. In the rational investigation of physical
phenomena the question of the energy involved is everywhere
uppermost; and no such investigation meets the requirements
of the present day unless the source, the transformations, and
the resultant form of the energy are accounted for.

Along with the rapid growth and multiplication of the sci-
ences which have been such prominent characteristics of the
civilization of the past half-century, there is noticeable also a
rapid growth in the interrelations of those sciences. Chemis-
try, for example, has come to be closely allied to physics ;
physics is largely applied mechanics ; geology shades off by
easy gradations into physical geodesy ; physical geodesy is
only a branch of dynamical astronomy ; while mathematics
is an indispensable instrument for all of them, and biology
must evidently in the near future draw heavily on most of
them for the solution of its problems. It is in this growth
of interrelations that one may discern the beginnings of cor-
relations and generalizations which will simplify and unify the
appalling aggregate of knowledge now presented by the
sciences. And it is thus that the evils of specialization, which
have been somewhat deplored of late, evils necessary to the
fact-gathering stage of the sciences, will find their proper
correction.

If such have been the characteristic features of the progress
of science in general during the past fifty years, what role is
to be assigned to the mathematical work which has been pro-
moted directly or indirectly by the Smithsonian Institution in
the fields of American science ? To the casual reader of the
bulky catalogue of the "Contributions to Knowledge," "Mis-

564 TJie Smithsonian Institnfion

cellaneous Collections," and "Annual Reports," issued in
1886, it might appear that the Institution has done little
toward the increase and diffusion of mathematical knowledge.
But no such conclusion can be justly reached in the light of
anything like a comprehensive view of the work of the
Smithsonian Institution in the advancement of science. It is,
indeed, essential, first, to understand this work as a whole be-
fore any of its parts can be duly appreciated. Relatively, it is
clear that mathematics, the oldest and most perfect of the sci-
ences, has been much less in need of encouragement during
the period in question than the physical and natural sciences.
Moreover, the necessities of American life have called, until
very recently, for the applications rather than for the abstract
theories of mathematics. It is a natural and logical outcome,
therefore, of the conditions of science and of American life
that the bulk of the work of the Institution should be found
in the physical and natural sciences. But these, in the aggre-
gate, require for their interpretation the whole range of
mathematics ; and since it is through the concrete that the
abstract is approached, the diffusion of mathematical know-
ledge has doubtless been greater by this indirect process
than it could have been by any direct means. Thus the en-
couragement and aid given by the Smithsonian Institution
to astronomy, geodesy, meteorology, and physics, especially,
must be rated as of great importance ; for mathematical
studies in this country have been cultivated hitherto chiefly
as a means to the attainment of the objects of those other
sciences.

The history of the Smithsonian Institution is practically
coextensive with the history of the Naval Observatory, or-
ganized in 1842, and with that of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey as reorganized in 1843. ^^ these governmental
bureaus which make extensive use of pure and applied

Mathematics :; 6 ^

0^0

mathematics the Institution has always shown a Hvely inter-
est, and much of the success of their earher work seems to
be directly traceable to the wise counsel and warm support
of Joseph Henry. The more recent governmental organiza-
tions, the Weather Bureau and the Geological Survey, whose
work is also largely dependent on mathematical science,
have drawn their inspiration, as well as a great part of their
working data, directly from the Smithsonian Institution.

The interest taken by Joseph Henry in the progress of the
more abstruse mathematical theories of astronomy and geod-
esy forms a noteworthy feature of his annual reports. These
reports show that the Institution was in touch with the ablest
mathematicians of the country, and that no branch of their
science was so abstract as to be beyond the recognition and
aid of the Secretary. It seems strange in the present day
of open avenues to the publication of meritorious works that
at a time less than fifty years ago there could have been diffi-
culty in finding a publisher for so great a treatise as Pro-
fessor Benjamin Peirce's " Analytical Mechanics." Still more
strange does it appear that the cooperation of the Smithsonian
Institution with the Navy Department should have been es-
sential to secure the publication of so important a work as
Davis's translation of Gauss's "Theoria Motus Corporum
Coelestium." But publishers in those days found little demand
for, and less profit in, contributions to knowledge. Science as
such had not yet been recognized by the colleges, and there
were only a few men, mostly in the Eastern States, who found
in their surroundings any encouragement of their devotion to
abstract studies. Even the orovernment bureaus, like the
Naval Observatory, the Nautical Almanac Office, and the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, had not yet reached an indepen-
dent footing in regard to the publication of researches indis-
pensable to the progress of their work. It is only in the light

566 The Smithsonian Institution

of these circumstances that one can appreciate the value
of the services rendered by the Smithsonian Institution in the
encouragement of mathematical research in this country
during the fifteen years preceding the outbreak of the Civil
War. At the time of the publication of Peirce's "Analytical
Mechanics," in 1855, as appears from the list of subscribers,
there were in the United States only nine institutions or
libraries whose authorities or patrons evinced any desire for
such a work. Of these institutions the Smithsonian was the
leading subscriber, undertaking the distribution of twenty-
five copies of the treatise, while its merits were the subject
of special remark by the Secretary in his annual report of
the time. A little later, in 1857, through the good offices of
Joseph Henry, was brought out Davis's translation of the
master-work of Gauss already referred to. It was in this
period, likewise, that the Smithsonian Institution extended
its aid to the mathematical monthly founded by Professor J.
D. Runkle in 1858, which promised to give an important
stimulus to mathematical work in this country, but which
failed to secure adequate support with the advent of the ab-
sorbing questions of the Civil War. During these ante-
bellum days, also, were begun, largely through the influence
of Joseph Henry and the aid of the Smithsonian Institution,
those invaluable researches in terrestrial magnetism which
have since been so widely extended by the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey through the indefatigable labors of Mr. Charles
A. Schott. In the laborious and refined calculations required
by such researches Henry evinced, as shown by his annual
reports, the warmest interest, even going so far as to call
conspicuous attention to the application of Peirce's criterion
for the rejection of doubtful observations in the discussion
of magnetic and meteorological data. In later years, also, he
did much to stimulate mathematical research in dynamical

Mathematics 567

astronomy, physical geodesy, and mechanical meteorology,
some of the most important papers of the century on these
subjects being directly due to his suggestions and encourage-
ment. Throughout his career as Secretary he was in close
contact with the most profound mathematical thought of the
day, and although not a professed mathematician, few men
of his time could have been more fertile in suggesting sub-
jects for mathematical research. Science knows no nation-
ality, but the pride of Americans may be excused for enter-
taining a regret that Henry did not have his mathematician
as Faraday had his Maxwell.

Of the various mathematical, geographical, magnetic, me-
teorological, and physical tables giving numerical data and
rules for their application, published by the Smithsonian In-
stitution, little need be written here. Suffice it to remark
that these tables have been widely used, and are of great
utility ; while their educational value has doubtless been of
equal importance with their practical usefulness. Intimately
related to these tables, and in many cases incorporated with
them, is the information which the Institution has dissem-
inated with regard to the simplicity and advantages of the
metric system, whose adoption by our country seems now
near realization. Since the legalization of the use of the
metric system in the United States by act of Congress in
1866, the Institution has published many tables facilitating
the interconversion of English and metric weights and mea-
sures. The most elaborate of these were prepared by Pro-
fessor H. A. Newton in 1866. The importance of this in-
formation, freely disseminated by the Institution, can hardl\-
be overestimated by one who looks beyond his own day and
generation.

As an indirect means for promoting the cultivation of
mathematics, the numerous memoirs on mathematico-physical

568 The Smithsonian Institution

subjects published by the Smithsonian Institution must be
rated as of great importance. Among these may be cited the
astronomical papers of Walker, Gould, Runkle, Newcomb,
and Stockwell ; the papers on heat, light, electricity, and
magnetism, by Meech, Bache, Barnard, Miiller, De La Rive,
Helmholtz, Maxwell, and others ; the papers on meteorology
of Henry, Schott, Coffin, and Abbe ; the remarkable re-
searches of Plateau ; and the more recent elaborate summa-
ries of current progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology,
and physics. Falling, as these papers have, under the eyes
of a great many readers, they cannot have failed to produce
a wide-spread interest in the one science which is a common
necessity to all sciences that have to deal with quantitative
relations. To this general diffusion of mathematico-physical
knowledge by the Smithsonian Institution must be ascribed,
in a large measure, the noteworthy impulse which mathemati-
cal study and research have acquired in the United States
during the past two decades.

Another indirect means, no less potent than that just
mentioned, in stimulating mathematical inquiry is found in
the numerous memoirs on, and biographies of, distinguished
devotees to the mathematico-physical sciences published in
the annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution. Nothing
is more interesting and inspiring, for example, than Arago's
admirable biographical notices of Laplace, Young, Herschel,
Ampere, and others, which have been translated by the Insti-
tution and given wide publicity through those annual Reports.
In this connection, also, mention should be made of the semi-
popular addresses on various subjects in the physical sciences,
which have likewise reached the reading public through the
annual Reports. The seeds of knowledge and inspiration
sown broadcast in this manner have taken root in many
minds ; and it is doubtless due in no small degree to the

Mathematics 569

general enlightenment thus disseminated that something like
adequate provision has been recently attained in our colleges
and universities for the pursuit of the higher branches of
mathematical science.

A summary comparison of the status of mathematical
science in our country at the time of the foundation of the
Smithsonian Institution with the present status shows that
great progress has been made during the half-century which
has since elapsed. At the beginning of this period a few
only of our educational institutions afforded opportunities for
the pursuit of studies in mathematics beyond the elements of
algebra and geometry. Now almost every State in the Union
has a college or technological school whose curriculum em-
braces the calculus, with its applications to mechanics, astron-
omy, geodesy, etc. ; and not a few of our institutions of learn-
ing are provided with the libraries and the teaching staff
essential to the prosecution of research in the most advanced
fields of pure and applied mathematics. At the beginning
of this period there was no journal in the country devoted to
purely mathematical work. Now there are three such jour-
nals, while many others offer ready publication to the physi-
cal and technological applications of mathematics. During
the past two decades, particularly, there has been a note-
worthy development throughout the country of interest in all
branches of pure mathematics. Quite recently our mathe-
maticians have organized an association, under the name of
the American Mathematical Society, for the special purpose
of advancing their favorite science ; and the reproach of Eu-
ropeans that we have hitherto shown little capacity for cul-
tivating the more abstract domains of mathematics seems
destined to be removed in the near future by the formation
of a distinctively American school of mathematicians. Not
less striking and gratifying than these advances in a theo-

570 The Smithsonian Institution

retical and educational way are the advances made in the
way of appHcations in the mathematico-physical sciences.
Observational and dynamical astronomy, geophysics, meteor-
ology, thermodynamics, and engineering in all its branches
have nowhere been cultivated more diligently and success-
fully during the past fifty years than in the United States.
Many individuals and many institutions, of course, have con-
tributed to bring about this progress ; but all have been ani-
mated by the same desire that has been so effectively carried
out by the founder and the administrators of the Smithsonian
Institution, a desire to increase knowledge and to diffuse
knowledge among men.

ASTRONOMY

By Edward Singleton Holden

Director of the Lick Observatory

[T is the object of the present chapter to set forth,
with such fullness as is permitted by the neces-
sary limitations of space, the services of the
Smithsonian Institution to astronomy during the
half-century of its existence, from 1846 to 1896,
In this department of science, as in others, the Institution
has steadily kept in view the two high ideals formulated by
its founder — namely, the increase of natural knowledge and
its wide diffusion amonof men.

In the prosecution of these ideals it has engaged in the
most diverse investigations, either directly or indirectly.
Directly — by the individual researches of its Secretaries and
other officers: indirectly — in varied ways; by personal in-
fluence upon scientific societies and individuals and with Con-
gress ; by service upon scientific boards and councils ; by
advice in the formation of scientific programs ; by subsidies
freely granted in aid of research ; by the loan of its halls or
apparatus for special investigations ; by opening the pages
of its publications to the printing of scientific memoirs and

of popular summaries and bibliographies; and by distributing

571

5/2 The Smithsonian Institution

these and other pubHcations, without cost, to thousands of its
correspondents all over the civilized globe.

It is by these and like services to the world at large that
the Institution is known and valued among the wide commu-
nity of scientific men.

But this enumeration does not in itself exhibit the im-
mense influence which it has exerted in its own country.
Up to the beginning of the war of the Revolution American
science was in leading-strings as the child of British learn-
ing. It was not until the first third of the present century
had elapsed that any considerable part of the energies of
our young country could be turned from pressing material
needs and devoted to scientific ends. It was of the first im-
portance that the beginnings of independent investigation
among Americans should be directed toward right ends, and
by high and unselfish aims. In the formation of a scientific
standard among us, a few names will ever be remembered,
and among them that of Professor Henry, the first Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, stands preeminent. The
ardent spirit of his early manhood excited his contemporar-
ies to a generous emulation, and it ripened with time to a
broad, grave, and kind wisdom, which profoundly influenced
a younger generation of scholars, his successors and his scien-
tific children.

It is not unlikely that the greatest service of the Smith-
sonian Institution to the country has been the constant ex-
hibition, in its general policy and in its daily relations for
half a century, of a high and generous ideal. Its influence in
this direction cannot be over-estimated ; and the source of this
influence was in the character of its organizer. Any sketch
of its services would be most inadequate which failed to em-
phasize this fundamental point.

A complete list of all the publications of the Smithsonian

Astronomy 573

Institution during the fifty years of its existence is given
elsewhere. By consuking this Hst the chronological order of
its contributions to astronomy can be seen. I have chosen
to arrange the present chapter not chronologically, but by
subjects, so as to bring out more prominently the very varied
activities of the Institution and its unfailing and impartial
sympathy with any research likely to increase the sum of
knowledge.

SOLAR ECLIPSES

The Institution has taken an active part in researches con-
nected with solar eclipses by preparing and distributing in-
formation concerning them, and by subsidizing expeditions to
observe their phenomena.

In 1 85 1, Doctor Busch, of Konigsberg, had made a da-
guerreotype of an eclipse. The annular eclipse of May 26,
1854, was observed in the United States, according to instruc-
tions sent out by the Institution, and was photographed by
Professor W. H. C. Bartlett in West Point, and by Professor
S. Alexander in Princeton. The expense of these experi-
ments was borne by the Smithsonian Institution.

The eclipse of September 7, 1858, was observed by Lieu-
tenant J. M. Gilliss at Olmos, in Peru, by the aid of a subsidy
from the Institution, and his report is printed in \'olume xi
of the "Contributions to Knowledo-e"

The eclipse of July 18, i860, also was observed by expe-
ditions sent from the Smithsonian Institution under Professor
Alexander (to Labrador) and Lieutenant Gilliss (to Washing-
ton Territory).

Among the collections of the Institution is a map con-
structed by Professor J. H. Coffin, "on which are delineated
the paths of all the great solar eclipses of the nineteenth cen-

-.7*

574 The Smithsonian Institution

tury which traverse the United States. These are nine in
number. Seven of them have passed ; the first of the remain-
ing two will occur in October, 1865, and the other in August,
1869." The foregoing quotation, from the Report for 1854,
is interesting as showing, incidentally, how the distribution of
the population in the United States has changed since 1854,
for besides those named there were two other great eclipses
visible within our territory — namely, that of July, 1878, from
Wyoming to Texas; and that of January, 1889, in northern
California and Nevada; but in making his map of 1854
Professor Coffin did not think it worth his while to chart
these tracks which passed through unknown wildernesses.
They were both well observed, however, by parties who
traveled by railway from the Atlantic seaboard, bringing
complete equipments in photography and spectroscopy.

The Reports of 1878 and of 1879 refer to a work by Pro-
fessor D. P. Todd, undertaken under the auspices of the In-
stitution, relating to the interpretation of the observations of
ancient eclipses of the sun, with special reference to the de-
termination of the moon's secular acceleration. This work
has not yet been published.

A series of photographic prints of the corona as seen at
the total solar eclipse of January, 1889, was issued by the
Institution under the editorship of Professor D. P. Todd, as a
separate quarto, but was not included in the regular series of
"Contributions to Knowledge." It consisted of nine pages
of text, with two photographic plates, showing nine different
views of the solar corona during the total eclipse.

This comprises all of the active work pertaining to solar
eclipses that has been accomplished by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, although the United States National Museum has
profited greatly by collections that have been gathered by
the different parties sent out.

Astronomy 575

THE SOLAR CORONA DISCUSSED BY SPHERICAL HAR-
MONICS, BY PROFESSOR FRANK H. BIGELOW

The structure of the solar corona, as exhibited on photo-
graphs, consists of polar rays, four "wings" symmetrically dis-
posed on two axes, and extensive equatorial wings. These
appearances seen in the meridian section must be translated
into corresponding zones and sectors on the figure of revolu-
tion of the sun. The paper of Professor Bigelow proposes to
make this interpretation by the theory of spherical harmonics,
on the supposition that we see a phenomenon similar to that
of free electricity, the rays being lines of force and the coronal
matter being discharged from the body of the sun, or arranged
and controlled by these forces. The first business of the paper
is to put these pre-suppositions into mathematical form, and
to construct the theoretical lines of equipotential and of force.

This theory once formulated, the next step is to test it by
the corona, and for this purpose the corona of January, 1889,
is chosen, as exhibited on the photographs made by the par-
ties of the Lick Observatory and of the Harvard College
Observatory. The test has been applied by the author to the
two photographs, and his conclusion is that the phenomena
displayed on the photographs are explained by the theory.
The paper is admittedly a provisional one. and it forms part
of a much wider research now in progress on the problem of
the transference of energy from the sun to the earth.

This paper comprises twenty-two pages and is illustrated
with four diagrams, and one phototype plate. It was published
in quarto form in the same style as that of the " Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge," but was not included in the
volumes of that series. It was given to the public in 1889.

576 The Smithsoniaii Institution

LIST OF OCCULTATIONS VISIBLE IN THE
UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE

At the date of the foundation of the Smithsonian Institution
(1846) the vast territory west of the Mississippi River was
unmapped, and, in a large measure, unknown. One of the
first practical duties of astronomers was to take scientific
possession of it — to determine the latitude and longitude
of points within it which would serve as origins for detailed
surveys.^

The great precision of longitudes determined by obser-
vations of occultations was early recognized by American
astronomers,^ and from the year 1848 onwards, lists of such
phenomena were printed and distributed by the Smithsonian
Institution. The calculations and tables were made by Mr.
John Downes, and his results were of great service to the
officers of the United States Coast Survey, to the topograph-
ical engineers of the Army, and to other explorers and sur-
veyors. They were especially useful in the newly-acquired
territory on the Pacific Coast.

Faithful to its general and wise policy, the Institution
carried on the preparation and publication of these tables
until the establishment^ of the ** American Ephemeris" enabled
a transfer of this responsibility to be made to other competent
hands.

1 " When we consider the character and 2 Occultations were regularly observed at

condition of the vast Continent of North Harvard College Observatory during the

America, which it belongs to us chiefly to years 1846 to 1850. See " Memoirs of Anier-

reduce to a habitable and civilized state, ican Academy of Arts and Sciences, Second

we shall perceive that the practical scien- series," Volume iii, 1848.

tific explorer has no higher duty than to 3 The preparation of the " American Ephe-

settle the geography, the magnetism, the meris " was begun in 1849, and the theoreti-

natural history, and the climate of these cal portion of the work w.as placed under the

regions." — "Smithsonian Report," 1852, direction of Benjamin Peirce, of Harvard

page 237. University.

JAMES ABEAM GARFIELD.

REGENT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1865-1873, 1878-1879.

uized by ^\n

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:S pitjpciraLioii acu puuiiCc^iiuii oi uic-
:.ablishrnen ' ' ' " merican Ephemeris" enai
nsibility to be mad. her c-

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ddSf^^^^ .^At

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>w':

Astronomy 577

LUNAR PHOTOGRAPHY

The Report for 1893 contains the following paragraph on
this subject, written by Doctor Langley, explaining the plans
of the Institution :

" I have been interested for a considerable time in the
possibility of preparing a chart of the moon by photography^
which would enable geologists and selenographers to study
its surface in their cabinets with all the details before them
which astronomers have at command in the use of the most
powerful telescopes. Such a plan would have seemed chimer-
ical a few years ago, and it is still surrounded with difficulties;
but it is probable that within a few years it ma)- be success-
fully carried out.

" No definite scale has been adopted, but it is desirable that
the disk thus presented should approximate in size one two-
millionth of the lunar diameter ; but while photographs have
been made on this scale, I do not think any of them show
detail which may not be given on a smaller one. I have
been favored with the cooperation and interest in this work
of the director of the Harvard College Observatory, of the
Lick Observatory, and others, who, in response to a letter
addressed to them on February 10, 1893, have obliged me
with many valuable suggestions. This important work is
still under advisement."

In aid of experiments in lunar photography at the Lick
Observatory, several small and timely grants of money have
been made.

The present state of the research at Mount Hamilton is
that its focal negatives (about five and one quarter inches in
diameter) are being enlarged by photography to a scale of ten
feet to the diameter by Professor L. Weineck. Director of the
Observatory in Prague, and it is expected that a complete

578 The Smithsonian Institution

atlas of the whole moon will soon be published on this scale
from Lick Observatory negatives chiefly (a few sheets from
the excellent Paris negatives) by the aid of a grant from the
Vienna Academy of Sciences.

An enlarging lens provided by the Smithsonian Institution
allows direct enlargements in the telescope (5 diameters) to be
made, and the resulting grain of the plate is proportionally
finer. It is the hope of the Lick Observatory to prepare the
plates for two complete maps of the moon from these direct
enlargements,

First : To a scale of three Paris feet to the diameter (the
scale of Madler's map) ;

Second : To a scale of six Paris feet to the diameter (the
scale of Schmidt's map).

The first of these will serve for most observatory purposes,
and for a general portrayal of the lunar features. Several
sheets of this map have already been published.

The second will be especially fitted for a more detailed
exhibition of the geologic and topographic features in the
manner referred to by Doctor Langley. Nothing but the
great expense of the plates prevents the immediate prosecu-
tion of these plans.

THE ORBIT OF NEPTUNE

Neptune was discovered in 1846 by Professor Galle in Berlin
from predictions by Leverrier, and the announcement of this
brilliant achievement was received with enthusiasm in Europe
and in America.

It was essential to calculate its orbit as soon and as com-
pletely as possible from the short arc of its path traversed
since the first observation of Galle. If, by chance, the planet

Astrono7ny 5 79

had been previously observed as a fixed star, it would be of
f-reat importance to recover such an observation, and thus to
make a longer arc of the planet's orbit available.

Professor Sears C. Walker, at that time one of the astron-
omers of the United States Naval Observatory, undertook
the investigation, utilizing the first four months during which
the planet had been under observation.

He first computed a preliminary orbit, and traced the
motion of the planet backwards to determine in what portion
of the sky and at what time it might possibly have fallen
among the fixed stars of some catalogue and have been
observed as one of them.

His methodical manner of procedure was sure to detect
such an observation if it had been made, so that it was by no
accident that he discovered an ancient determination of the
position of the planet among the zone observations of Lalande
in 1795.

In this way a position of the planet was obtained fifty years
earlier than the date of its discovery, and a long arc of its
orbit was determined by observation instead of a very short
one. With the data thus available Walker calculated new
elements of the planet and prepared ephemerides of its
positions each year from 1846 onwards. Much of this
computation was done at the expense of the Smithsonian
Institution, and the results were duly printed in the "Con-
tributions to Knowledge " and they constitute a work of
sterling value.

The orbit of Neptune was also investigated by Professor
Peirce, of Harvard College, and the principal perturbations
calculated, so that the pure elliptic orbit of Walker could
be corrected for the action of the disturbing planets, and
the ephemeris correspondingly improved. The discovery of
Lalande's early observation, and the prompt utilization of it

580 The Smithsonian Institution

by Walker, was a genuine service to science by American
astronomy.

A perusal of this and other works of Walker — and of those
of Coffin, Gould, Gilliss, Hubbard, Peirce, and others, his col-
leagues and contemporaries — will go far to exhibit to students
of the present generation how thoroughly American astron-
omy of fifty years ago was grounded in the classic methods
of Gauss, Bessel, and Struve.

A very complete history of the discovery of Neptune, writ-
ten by Doctor B. A. Gould, was printed and distributed by
the Institution in 1850 as an octavo pamphlet.

The "Contributions to Knowledge"^ in 1866 contains
an investigation of the orbit of Neptune and tables of its
motion, being the first publication of the long series of
such researches which are owed to Professor Newcomb.

The theory of Neptune had previously been investigated
by Peirce and Walker in America, and by Kowalski and
Wackerbarth in Europe. But in 1863 the difference between
observation and calculation had risen to ^2!' ^^^ 22" in the
two coordinates, and the theory evidently required revision
in order to perfect the tables, on the one hand, to see if the
discrepancies might arise from a trans- Neptunian planet.
This is one of the four main problems proposed for solution
by the author, the others being a new determination of the
elements from the 40° already traversed by the planet in
its orbit ; a new determination of the mass of Uranus ; and the
construction of tables covering the dates from a. d. 1600 to
2000.

The formuLne for perturbations are developed in chapter
II, and seven normal places from 1846 to 1863 are formed.
Lalande's observation of i 795 receives a new and careful re-
duction, which shows it to differ from the adopted theory by

1 Volume x\% first paper.

Astronomy 581

only 2" . 3 in longitude, o". 7 in latitude. The normals formed
from modern observations differ about o". 3, which gives no
support to the suspicion of a trans-Neptunian planet, although
nothing is definitely settled, as a planet exterior to Neptune
might exist and yet give small evidence of its attractions dur-
ing the years i 795-1 863. The standard system of star-places
adopted is that of Gould. The mass of Uranus resulting
from the discussion is 21000- Observations with the great
telescope in Washington (made by Newcomb in 1874 and
later) give 2^0-

New elements of the planet are deduced, two of which
may well be quoted here, viz. : Mean distance, 30.07055 ;
periodic time, 164.782 Julian years.

THE ORBIT OF URANUS

Professor Newcomb's " Investigation of the Orbit of Uranus,"
with tables of its motion, was published as No. 262 of the
"Contributions to Knowledge" in 1873.

The work was undertaken as early as 1859, and the orbit
of Neptune, just referred to, was a part of the general re-
search.

The first chapter of the work is devoted to a method of
development of the perturbations which is novel in many
respects, and is especially suited to the particular problem in
hand. With improved elements and methods the research
was again begun in 1868, and carried to its termination in
1873, by the aid of the Smithsonian Institution and of the
"American Ephemeris."

In the Report for 1872 Professor Newcomb presents some
considerations on the scope of his researches, from which the
following is taken.

582 The Sniithsoiiimi Instihition

" The first chapter of the work gives an exposition of the
method employed in calculating the action of the disturb-
ing planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune on the motion of
Uranus. In the second chapter this method is illustrated by
quite a detailed calculation of the perturbations of Uranus
produced by Saturn, including, however, only those which
are of the first order with respect to the disturbing force. In
the third, the perturbations produced by Jupiter and Neptune
are given, but the computations are not presented with the
same detail. The fourth chapter opens with a preliminary
investigation of the orbit of Saturn, using Hansen's per-
turbations and the Greenwich observations, the object being
the accurate determination of the terms of the second order.
This is followed by the computation of the terms of the second
order produced by Saturn, which includes those containing as
a factor either the square of the mass of that planet or the
product of its mass by that of Jupiter or by that of Uranus.
The most remarkable of these terms is one of very long pe-
riod, in which the results differ materially from those of other
authorities, including Leverrier, Delaunay, Adams, and Han-
sen, who all agree among themselves. I cannot find any
error in my work, and so must, of course, retain my own re-
sult, leaving it to future investigators to find the cause of the
discrepancy. The difference is of such a nature that it cannot
affect the computed position of the planet until after the lapse
of more than a century.

" The sixth chapter gives a discussion of all the observations
of Uranus which have been published and reduced in such
manner as to be made use of The entire number is 3763.
The correction to a provisional theory given by each series
of observations is deduced. The object of the seventh chap-
ter is to apply such corrections to the elements of Uranus and
the mass of Neptune that the observations shall be repre-
sented with the smallest possible outstanding errors. The
mass of Neptune comes out Y9TF0' almost exactly the same as
that found by Professor Peirce more than twenty years ago.^

1 The mass of Neptune determined by Professor Newcomb's observations with the great
telescope in Washington in 1874 and subsequently is r^i?^. E. S. H.

Astronomy 583

The representation of the observations by tne concluded
theory will probably be regarded as good. The mean out-
standing difference during each five years since the discovery
of the planet only exceeds a second of arc in a single in-
stance— namely, during the years 1822-26, when it amounts
to i". \}

"This agreement is very much better than any obtained
before. Still, the vast number of observations used, and the
care taken to reduce them to a uniform standard, led me to
believe a better representation possible ; and the outstand-
ing differences, minute though they be, follow a regular law,
thus showing that they do not arise from the purely accidental
errors of observation. How far they arise from errors in my
own theoretical computations, how far from the reductions of
the observations themselves, and how far from the unavoid-
able errors of the instruments, I am unable to say without
further investigation. It would be desirable to learn whether
they may be due to the action of a trans- Neptunian planet,
but to do this would require an entire re- reduction of all the
older observations. Such a work is on many accounts an
astronomical desideratum ; but it could not be undertaken
except under the auspices of the government.

" In the eighth chapter the general formulae and elements
are collected and expressed in the form most convenient for
permanent use.

"The ninth, and concluding, chapter gives the tables by
which the position of the planet may be computed for any
time between the Christian era and the year 2300."^

Professor Newcomb's later works on planetary theory are
mostly printed in the volumes of Memoirs printed by the
"American Ephemeris."^

1 The angular diameter of Uranus is about and Nautical Almanac " from 1857 till 1897.

4". E. S. H. He entered the United States Xa\-j' in the

- "Smithsonian Report," 1872, page 25. first named year as computer on the Alma-

3 It is interesting to mention in this connec- nac, and became its Superintendent in 1877,

tion that Professor Newcomb was connected in which capacity he continued until his re-

with the office of the " American Ephemeris lirement.

584 The Sniitksoman Institution

VARIATIONS OF THE ORBITS OF EIGHT PLANETS

The following summaries from the paper ^ itself will give an
idea of its scope and of some of its principal results.

The reciprocal gravitation of matter produces disturbances
in the motion of the heavenly bodies, causing them to deviate
from the elliptic paths they would follow if they were attracted
only by the sun.

The inequalities in the motions of the heavenly bodies are
produced in two distinct ways. The first is a direct disturb-
ance in the elliptic motion of the body, and the second is
produced by reason of a variation of the elements of its elliptic
motion. The elements of the elliptic motion of a planet are
six in number — viz., the mean motion of the planet and its
mean distance from the sun, the eccentricity and inclination
of its orbit, and the longitude of the node and perihelion.
The first two are invariable ; the other four are subject to
both periodic and secular variations. The periodic inequali-
ties pass through a complete cycle of values in a compara-
tively short period of time ; while the secular inequalities
are produced with extreme slowness. The general theory
of all the planetary inequalities was completely developed by
Lagrange and Laplace nearly a century ago. Owing to the
immediate requirements of astronomy, more attention has
been bestowed upon the periodic than on the secular inequali-

1 Stockwell, John N.,"The Secular Vari- and right ascension," 1872, in Volume xviii
aliens of the Elements of the Orbits of tlie of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
Eight Principal Planets, Mercury, Venus, the ledge." The expense of printing this paper
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and was met by the gift of $1200 from Mr. Leon-
Neptune, with tables of the same ; together hard Case of Cleveland, Ohio, who preferred
with the obliquity of the ecliptic and the pre- at that time that his name should not be
cession of the equinoxes in both longitude mentioned.

Astronomy 585

ties, and in most researches it is sufficient to suppose that the
latter sort vary uniformly with the time.

The demonstration that the secular inequalities of the
planets are not indefinitely progressive, but are, in fact,
themselves periodic, is due to Laplace, who showed that the
elements of the planets will perpetually oscillate about their
mean values, provided only that all the planets revolve round
the sun in the same direction — as they do.

In order to calculate the limits of the variations of the
elements with precision, it is necessary to know the correct
values of the masses of all the planets.

The calculations of Lagrange (on the six planets known to
him) were based on erroneous values of their masses. Ponte-
coulant's investigations (1834) did not improve our knowledge
in this respect. Leverrier's researches (1839) on the seven
planets then known are far from being exhaustive. The ob-
ject of the present paper is to make as complete a determina-
tion of the variations of the elements of the eight planets of
the system as is possible.

By the introduction of new methods of research the author
has solved the problem in hand, and has obtained formulae
which will determine the secular variations of the planetary
elements with less labor than would be necessary for the
accurate determination of a comet's orbit.

Some of the conclusions derived may be briefly alluded to.
The object of the investigation is to determine the numerical
values of the secular orbits — namely, of the eccentricities and
inclinations, and the longitudes of the nodes and perihelia,
their values at any epoch, their rates of change, etc. A table
at the Tend of the volume covering thirteen quarto pages gives
these data, so far as they may be required by the astronomer
in the prosecution of his work.

A similar tabulation of the elements of the earth's orbit of
.;8

586 The Smithsonian Institution

sufficient extent to be useful in extended geological investi-
gations does not come within the scope of the work. The
nature of the results arrived at may be illustrated by quoting
a paragraph regarding the planet Mercury.

" For the planet Mercury, we find that the eccentricity is
always included between the limits 0.124923 and 0.231 7185.
The mean motion of its perihelion is 5". 463803 ; and it per-
forms a complete revolution in the heavens in 237,197 years.
The maximum inclination of its orbit to the fixed ecliptic of
1850 is 10° 36' 20", and its minimum inclination is 3^ 47' 8" ;
while with respect to the invariable plane of the planetary
system, the limits of inclination are 9° 10' 41" and 4° 44' 27".
The mean motion of the node of Mercury's orbit on the
ecliptic of 1850 and on the invariable plane is in both cases
the same, and equal to 5". 126 172, making a complete revolu-
tion in the interval of 252,823 years. The amount by which
the true place of the node can differ from its mean place on
the ecliptic of 1850 is equal to 30° 8', while on the invariable
plane this limit is only 18° 31'."

A knowledge of the elements of the earth's orbit is espe-
cially interesting and important on account of the recent
attempts to establish a connection between geological phe-
nomena and terrestrial temperature, in so far as the latter
is modified by the variable eccentricity of her orbit. The
amount of light and heat received from the sun in the course
of a year depends to an important extent on the eccentricity
of the earth's orbit; but the distribution of the same over
the surface of the earth depends on the relative position of
the perihelion of the orbit with respect to the equinoxes, and
on the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator. These ele-
ments are subject to great and irregular variations ; but their
laws can now be determined with as much precision as the
exigencies of science may require. A table of the eccentricity

Astronomy 587

of the earth's orbit for every 10,000 years during a period of
2,000,000 years is given. The equinoxes perform a revolution
in the average interval of 25,694.8 years. The maximum
variation of the tropical year is now shorter than in the time
of Hipparchus by 11.30 seconds. The mean value of the
obliquity is 23° 1 7' i 7'', and the limits are 24° 35' 58" and
21° 58' 36". A paragraph on the advantages we derive
from a spheroidal earth contains highly interesting conclu-
sions too long to be quoted here.

The duration of the different seasons is also greatly modi-
fied by the eccentricities of the earth's orbit. At present the
sun is north of the equator scarcely i86>^ days, and south
of it 178^ days.

In the past history of the earth these periods have been
changed so as to give a summer, in one hemisphere, of 198%
days, and a winter of only i66>^ days. The variations of
the sun's distance from the earth in the course of a year,
at such times, are also enormous, amounting to almost one-
seventh part of its mean distance — a quantity scarcely less
than 13,000,000 miles.

The foregoing illustration of a few of the results of this
memoir will show the far-reaching nature of the problems
with which it deals, and perhaps of others, of no less im-
portance, which it suggests. Its introduction of eighteen
pages presents these problems in a clear light.

HARMONIES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

In this paper,^ which is printed in the "Contributions," Pro-
fessor Stephen Alexander seeks to set forth certain numer-
ical relations between the distances of the planets and

1 " Statement and Exposition of Certain Harmonies of the Solar System," 1875 ; in
Volume XXI of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," first paper.

588 The Smithsonian Institution

satellites, and devotes special sections to a modification
of the nebular hypothesis of Laplace, and to a modifica-
tion of Jones's theory of the zodiacal light. The memoir con-
cludes with a summary of the coincidences between theory
and fact.

COMETS

In the early years of the activity of the Institution the dis-
covery of comets was rewarded, or, as it is better to say, com-
memorated, by the award of a gold medal founded by the
King of Denmark.

Miss Maria Mitchell, of Nantucket,^ discovered a comet
on October i, 1847, which was independently discovered in
Europe by Da Vico (October 3), Dawes (October 7,) Madame
Rumker (October 1 1), and which was known as Da Vico's
comet for some time, owing to the slow mails of those days.

To mark the fact of her discovery, the Institution gallantly
awarded a premium to Miss Mitchell, but the precedent so
set was not followed in subsequent discoveries by her male
rivals — Bond, Van Arsdale, Tuttle, and others. Miss Mit-
chell subsequently became a computer for the "American
Ephemeris," and the gallantry was continued by assigning to
her all the calculations relating to the planet Venus. The
account of Miss Mitchell's discovery is given in the second
volume of the "Contributions."

COMET-ORBITS

In the Report for 1862 is a most interesting letter from
Professor Hubbard, of the Naval Observatory, describing his

1 Miss Mitchell was professor of astronomy in Vassar College from 1865 till 1889.

Astrono7ny 589

researches on the orbit of Biela's comet for its six recorded
appearances from 1772 to 1852, and asking for the aid
of the Institution in calculating the perturbations over the
whole interval from 1772 to 1865 (the next appearance),
so as to unite, in a single theory, all the observed places
of the comet.

Professor Henry's printed note on this letter highly com-
mends the project of Professor Hubbard, but indicates that
the assistance desired could not be given at that time. Some
assistance was, I believe, subsequently given. At any rate,
astronomers have fully appreciated Hubbard's work on this
comet, which was printed in the early volumes of the Astro-
nomical Journal.

The Report for 1874 contains a notice of a work of the
same sort on the periodic comet of Tuttle (period 13.7 years),
which was done by Professor Ormond Stone and assistants
at the cost of the Smithsonian Institution. A careful compu-
tation of the perturbations from 1871 to 1885 served as the
basis for an ephemeris of the comet during its appearance
in 1885 (published in Circular No. i of the McCormick
Observatory), and the orbit is now in charge of Doctor
Rahts, of the Observatory of Konigsberg.

ORBIT AND PHENOMENA OF A METEORIC FIRE-BALL

The "Contributions to Knowledge" contain a paper ^ by
Professor James H. Coffin with the title given above. This
great fire-ball was visible about 10 r. m. from Lake Mich-
igan to a point at sea southeast of the island of Nan-
tucket,— a distance of 1300 miles. The observed path of the
meteor was its orbit with respect to the earth as a center of

l"Tlie Orbit and Phenomena of a Meteoric Fire-Bali seen July 20. i860," in Volume
XVI of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1869.'"

590 The Sinithsoniaii Institution

attraction. The velocity in the (hyperbolic) orbit was 9^
miles a second, approximately. As the meteor moved in
its path, successive explosions took place, and it was found to
be necessary to divide the orbit into three parts and to de-
termine three sets of elements corresponding to the parts.
The perigeal distances in the three sections were, for exam-
ple: 40,007 miles, 3974 miles, 3995 miles, respectively. The
meteor's nearest approach to the earth's surface was about 39
miles, which point corresponds to the end of the second sec-
tion of its path. From this point onwards its height above
sea increased. One of the employees of the United States
Lake Survey describes the meteor (near Lake Huron) to
have been nearly as large as the moon, at first. In a moment
it had burst and a piece " fell directly to the ground near the
place of observation, setting fire to the vegetable matter around
it ; the fire was put out, but the piece could not be found."
In Washington City the meteor was observed as two bodies
near together, "each as bright as Venus when close to the
earth." Its rate of motion was comparatively slow, so that
one observer in New Jersey wrote: "The movement of the
meteor appeared to be not much more rapid than the flight
of an eagle I think I could have kept sight on it with a gun
throughout its course."

In reading the various reports from persons scattered over
the Middle and Western States, it is remarkable to note the
names of the observers. An extraordinarily large proportion
of these names are well known to all Americans. All the
astronomers — Young, Bond, Peters, Bartlett, Mitchel, Lyman,
Newton, Swift, and others — appear to have seen it; there
are reports from many professors in colleges; and a great
number of the remainino- observers are well known in one
way or another. It is seldom that the data for such an
orbit are derived from reporters of such trained intelligence.

Astronomy 591

METEORITES

The Institution has paid great attention to the formation of
a collection of meteorites and to the gathering of accurate
information regarding the circumstances of their fall.

It is an instructive proof of the wide influence of the Insti-
tution to note that all phenomena of this kind are promptly
reported to its Secretary. The first thought of observers of
all classes is to communicate with the Smithsonian Institution,
and this is also an excellent witness to the general intelligence
of the country, as has been remarked by all who have had
occasion to observe how widely this desire is spread and in
what unexpected places it is found.

STAR- MAPS

A COMMITTEE of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, Pro-
fessor H. A. Newton, Chairman, prepared a large and very
convenient star-map of the north polar regions to aid in the
observations of the August meteors, which was widel)- circu-
lated at the expense of the Smithsonian Institution ; as well
as a copy of the smaller map, from the Toronto observations,
designed for observations of the aurora. Many observers
took part in the charting of meteors, and their results have
been discussed and published by Professor Newton and
others in various journals.

TRANSLATION OF GAUSS'S "THEORIA MOTUS"

Gauss's monumental work, "Theoria Motus Corporum
Ccelestium," was printed, in Latin, in the year 1809. The
first German translation of it was not published until 1865.
In the hope of familiarizing American students with the new

592 The Smithsonian Institution

methods, Admiral C. H. Davis, then Superintendent of the
"American Ephemeris," undertook an EngHsh translation,
which was finally published by the firm of Little & Brown,
publishers, of Boston, in 1857.

The expense of the publication was shared by the Institu-
tion, and a number of copies were subscribed for as exchanges
and distributed in exchange for other books among foreign
correspondents. Without this aid, the work, so essential to the
advance of practical astronomy, could not have been issued.

TABLES FOR DETERMINING PERTURBATIONS OF PLANETS

In determining the mutual action of any two planets in the
solar system, there are certain quantities depending upon the
ratio of the mean distances of these bodies from the sun, which
must first be computed. The number of these quantities, and
the labor necessary to compute each one of them, make this
first step in the reduction of the mutual action of the two plan-
ets to numbers a serious work. The tables^ published by the
Institution and calculated by Professor J. D. Runkle, accom-
plish in a very satisfactory way the desired end of shortening
the calculations referred to. Their use gives practically the
same advantage in the computations to which they are
applied that is afforded in arithmetical operations by a table
of logarithms. The tables and the supplements contain
the quantities which relate to the major planets and to the
asteroids also.

It is proper to add that the general theory, thus reduced
to numbers, is due to Leverrier ; and that Walker had pre-
viously printed (in an appendix to the "American Ephemeris"
for 1857) a tabulation of the Leverrier coefficients.

1 " New Tables for Determining the Values the ratio of the mean distances," 1856, in Vol-
of the Coefficients in the Perturbative Func- ume ix of the " Smithsonian Contributions
tion of Planetary Motion, which depend upon to Knowledge," lifiii paper.

Astronomy 59;

ON THE GENERAL INTEGRALS OF PLANETARY MOTION

This paper,^ on mathematical astronomy, is, in part, an ex-
tension and generalization of two former papers by Profes-
sor Newcomb, and is too strictly technical to allow of any
short account of its thesis in this place.

ASTRONOMICAL EXPEDITION TO CHILE

In the years 1849- 1852 an expedition under Lieutenant Gilliss,
of the United States Navy, was resident in Chile, engaged in
various researches which required the cooperation of Northern
and Southern observatories.

The Congress of the United States appropriated the sum
of $5000 to its use, but this amount was not sufficient to pro-
vide all the necessary instruments. Accordingly, the Smith-
sonian Institution stepped forward in 1849 to supply the
need with the gift of $2000 to purchase an equatorial tele-
scope, and in 1850 with a gift to supply an astronomical
clock and chronograph.

Congress subsequently appropriated funds to cover their
cost, but the prompt action of the Institution saved a year
to the observers. It is interesting" to remark that the in-
struments were subsequently purchased by Chile, and set
up in Santiago in a National Observatory, the first in South
America. The National Observatory of the Argentine Re-
public in Cordoba was also founded by an American, Doctor
13. A. Gould, in 1870.

This is not the place to write the history of the astronom-
ical expedition to Chile, honorable as it was to the country
and to Gilliss himself. It may be found in the report of the

1 " On the General Integrals of Planetary Motion," 1S74. It forms the second paper
in Volume xxi of the" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."

594 • The Smithsonian Institution

expedition, and, in a briefer form, in the eloge of Gilliss pre-
pared by Gould for the National Academy of Sciences."

Doctor Gould remarks that this expedition of Lieutenant
Gilliss is noteworthy in the history of the country as the
first instance of deference by the legislative and executive
authorities of the nation to the views of the organized repre-
sentatives of science within its borders. The appropriation by
Congress was made because Gilliss's plans were approved by
the American Philosophical Society and by the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Again, the first refracting telescope of any considerable
size made in America was constructed for use in Chile —
namely, a six-inch telescope by Mr. Henry Fitz. The cost
of the objective was $500.

Gilliss's assistants were officers of the Navy — Messrs. Mac-
Rae and Hunter, and subsequently Mr. Phelps.

A summary of the work accomplished may fittingly termin-
ate this brief notice.

"Between the 6th of December, 1849, ^-^^^ the 13th of
September, 1852, series of micrometric comparisons of Mars
were made on forty-six days during the first and ninety-three
days during the second apposition, and micrometric compari-
sons of Venus on fifty-one days during the first and twenty-
seven days during the second inferior conjunctions ; the
observations on each day being continued through several
hours, whenever the sky permitted." By a woeful lack of
cooperation on the part of Northern observatories, this work
of Gilliss's was rendered useless.

Fortunately for science, and happily for Gilliss, his obser-
vations were not limited to those which it was his special
duty to make. Even these on Mars and Venus, which failed
of their deserved fruit in affording those data they were in-

1 " Biographical Memoirs," Washington, 1877, Volume i, page 162.

Astro) 10 my 595

stituted to obtain, are yet of priceless value in the means
they afford for improving our knowledge of the orbits of our
two neighboring planets.

Among other astronomical fruits of the expedition to Chile
I may mention the following : 7000 meridian observations of
2000 stars. These, with their instrumental and tabular re-
ductions and a resultant catalogue, form a part of Volume iv
of the series of the results of the expedition.

Equal, if indeed not superior, in value to these are the
33,000 observations of about 23,000 stars within 2\\'^ of the
South Pole. These comprise stars to the loth magnitude in-
clusive, more than 20,000 of which had not been previously
observed.

Observations of earthquakes (124 shocks in three years),
a very extended series of meteorological observations, and
systematic observations of magnetism make another chapter
of results to the credit of the expedition.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS

The famous expeditions of Doctor Kane to the Arctic, in the
years 1853-54-55, yielded astronomical results of value, which
were discussed by Charles A. Schott and printed by the care
of the Institution.

The observations are chiefly useful in fixing geographical
positions on the chart of the expedition up to latitudes 81°
and 82°. Meteorological, magnetic, and tidal observations
of great value were also secured, and similarly discussed and
published ; and the scientific results of the expedition are most
satisfactory when the immense difficulty of work under such
abnormal conditions is kept in view.

The Arctic expeditions of Hall and Hayes were aided, in
many respects, by the Smithsonian Institution, and the astro-

596 The Smithsonian Instittttion

nomical observations of the former expedition made by
Doctor Emil Bessels, were all reduced in Washington.

TRANSATLANTIC LONGITUDE

The determination of longitude ^ by telegraph was, as is well
known, first practised by American astronomers. The differ-
ence of longitude between Baltimore and Washington was
fixed, in 1844, by Captain Wilkes, who compared his chro-
nometer at Baltimore with signals received from Washington.
Professor Sears C. Walker in 1845, "^^^ subsequently, put the
telegraphic methods into practical form, and they were soon
adopted as the work of a regular department of the Coast
Survey, with the cordial support of Professor A. D. Bache,
the Superintendent. Professor Loomis was a coadjutor of
Walker in this work ; and subsequently the longitude ser-
vice of the Survey was under the direction of Doctor B. A.
Gould, who improved it in many respects. By the efforts of
these astronomers, aided by the chronographs lately invented
by Bond and Mitchel, and by devices due to Saxton and
others, the methods of observation were brought to a high
degree of accuracy. The observations themselves were re-
duced by rigorous methods.

From 1846 to 1861, the date of the beginning of the Civil
War, the telegraphic determinations of longitude had followed
the extension of the commercial lines of wire until, in the lat-
ter year, they extended from the northeastern boundary of
the United States to New Orleans, covering 2>< hours of
longitude and 15° of latitude. The problem of the connec-
tion of American with European longitude was on a different
footinof. Until the Atlantic cable was available the ocean Ion-

1 Gould, Benjamin A., "The Transatlantic published in 1869 and forms the sixth pajier
Longitude as determined by the Coast Sur- in Volume xvi of the "Smithsonian Contri-
vey Expedition of 1866." This memoir was butions to Knowledge."

Astrono7ny

597

gitude depended on less exact methods. The following table,
abridged from Doctor Gould's memoir, gives the differences
of longitude :

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY — WASHINGTON OBSERVATORY, AS DETERMINED

BEFORE 1866.

From Occtdtatio7is and Eclipses.

n. M.

Walker: From his observations before 1843 5 8 11. 14

Peirce : From the eclipse of 185 1 ii-S7

Peirce : From emersions of the Pleiades, 1839. ... ii-45

Peirce: From emersions of the Pleiades, 1856-61 . , 'i^Z-'^Z

From Lunar Culminations.

Walker: From Cambridge observations, 1843-45. .

Loomis : From Hudson observations, 1838-44 . . .

Gilliss : From Capitol Hill observations, 1838-42 .

Newcomb : From Washington observations, 1846-60 .

Newcomb : From Washington observations, 1862-63 .

s.
10.01

9-03
10.04

1 1.06

9.08

From Transportation of Chronometers betiveen Boston and Liverpool.

Mean from 373 chronometers previous to 1849 12.52

Bond: From 175 chronometers, 1849 11.20

Walker: From 175 " 1849 12.06

Bond: From 175 " 1849 12.26

Bond: From 52 " 1855 1349

The Superintendent of the Coast Survey, Professor A. D.
Bache, determined to take advantage of the Atlantic cable as
soon as practicable, and plans for a longitude campaign were
made by Doctor Gould.

The methods employed on land lines required serious mod-
ifications in the transatlantic work, and even the Canadian
land-lines (Calais, Maine, to Heart's Content, in Newfound-
land), could not be worked according to the methods usual in
the Survey. The Astronomer- Royal, Professor Airy, had in-
tended to make a transatlantic longitude campaign in June,
1867; but with his characteristic devotion to science, he en-

59^ The Smithsonian Institution

tered into the Coast Survey campaign as if it were his own.
The steps of the program determined the longitudes.

H. M. S.

I. Greenwich-Foilhommerum (Ireland) o 41 33.29

II. Foilhommerum-Heart's Content (cable) .... 2 51 56.54
III. Heart's Content-Calais (Maine) o 55 37.72

Greenwich-Calais 4 29 7.55

or, after correcting for a sHght error first pointed out by Dr.
A. Wagner/ the result is —

H. M. S.

Greenwich-Calais 4 29 7.62

The numbers given above are the result of observations at
five stations, and by the observers Dunkin and others (at
Greenwich), Gould and Morgan (Foilhommerum), Dean and
Goodfellow (Heart's Content), Davidson and Chandler (Ca-
lais), Boutelle (Calais), It was not possible to eliminate the
personal equations of these observers by interchanging sta-
tions, and the observations for determining the corrections
on this account lead to quite anomalous results, entirely at
variance with the past experience of the observers.

The personal equations actually employed in the reductions
were obtained by assuming them to have such values as bring
the various steps of the program into the best accordance.
In the table below, column A gives the personal equations as
determined by observation, while column B gives the values
actually employed in the reductions :

A B

Observed. Adopted.

s. S.

Gould-Mosman 4-0-45 -I-0.02

Dean-Mosman -(-0.12 -|-o.ii

Goodfellow-Dean -I-0.03 -I-0.02

Boutelle-Goodfellow —0-13 — 0.14

Boutelle-Chandler —0.22 — 0.04

Dunkin-Gould unknown. unknown.

1 Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, 1871, page 136.

Astronomy 599

The longitude Calais-Washington depended upon the steps
Calais- Bangor, Bangor- Cambridge, Cambridge- New York,
New York-Washington, and the final result of the campaign
gives Greenwich-Washington 5 h. 8 m. 12.39 ^•' c»r, corrected
by Wagner, 5 h. 8 m. 1 2.46 s. It appears that the chronometer
expeditions by Bond gave the result nearest to the determi-
nation by cable.

A second campaign was made by Mr. Dean in 1866 over
the French cable from Brest to Duxbury, Massachusetts, and
a third campaign in 1872, which connected the observatories
of both Greenwich and Paris with the United States, and
therefore incidentally gave the earlier telegraphic difference
of longitude between these observatories. The resulting lon-
gitude Greenwich-Washington was 5 h. 8 m. 12.09 s., which is
the value now adopted (1896).

The expedition of 1866 was conducted under unfavorable
circumstances, and was not entirely satisfactory in all its
parts. It was, however, the first attempt of this sort, and the
first demonstration that such determinations could be success-
fully carried out in the face of new and peculiar difficulties.
The expeditions of 1870 and of 1872 followed the path traced
out by Doctor Gould and his associates in i866, and the re-
sults of the three expeditions taken together are a substantial
addition to geodesy and astronomy.

SURVEYS WEST OF THE ONE HUNDREDTH MERIDIAN

The geographical and geological surveys of the region of the
United States west of the one hundreth meridian, under
Major Powell, Doctor Hayden, and Lieutenant Wheeler, re-
spectively, were necessarily forced to pay much attention to the
determination of geographical positions. In one way or an-
other the Smithsonian Institution has forwarded their work

6oo The Smithsonian Institution

in this respect and in others, and at least a passing record of
its service should be made in this place.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES

In 1 87 1, Doctor C. H. F. Peters, Director of the Hamilton
College Observatory, addressed a letter to the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, asking that the Institution should
act as a central office for communicating by telegraph dis-
coveries of planets and comets. Steps were immediately
taken by Professor Henry to arrange for such service, and
from 1873 to 1883 it was carried out under the auspices of
the Institution.

Great pains were taken by Professor Henry and Professor
Baird to obtain the opinions of astronomers as to the best
form of message.

These telegrams were useful to American science, in spite of
many errors which arose mainly from the fact that the Institu-
tion had no astronomer to serve as critic and editor. The
telegrams received by the Institution from discoverers were
very often wrongly worded, and there was no control.

These telegrams were widely disseminated by Associated
Press despatches ; and in a more detailed and scientific form
by the circulars of the Boston Scientific Society, edited by
Mr. John Ritchie, from 1879 onwards. Mr. Ritchie and
Doctor S. C. Chandler, in 1881, devised a special cipher-code
for transmitting such telegrams, which was submitted to, but
not accepted by, the Smithsonian Institution. During 1882-
1883 arrangements were concluded which resulted in the trans-
fer of this service to the Harvard College Observatory.^

1 See the "Smithsonian Report," 1883, page The Astronotnical Journal, Vohime VI, page

33, and The Science Observer, Volume iv, 189 (1888), and The Publieations of the

page 33 (1883), for the contemporary and Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 1896,

official records of this transfer. See also Volume VI 1 1, pages 109 and 179.

Astrono7ny 60 1

Mr. Ritchie was appointed to take charge of this depart-
ment of the Observatory work, and Doctor Chandler cal-
culated comet orbits, ephemerides, etc., for quick transmission
to other observatories. The transfer of the Bureau of Astro-
nomical Telegraphy from the Smithsonian Institution to the
Harvard College Observatory was in exact conformity to
the settled policy of the former establishment, which is to
relinquish its own work to other responsible institutions so
soon as the latter are willing and competent to undertake it.

Under the new arrangement astronomers are sure of re-
ceiving early warnings of the appearance of a new comet,
etc., and orbits and ephemerides can now be quickly com-
puted and distributed. To any one who recollects the state
of such matters previous to 1873, ^'^^ improvement is most
striking. It is due to the original suggestion of Doctor
Peters, to its prompt adoption by the Smithsonian Institution,
to the subsequent devices and editorship of Messrs. Chandler
and Ritchie, and to the assumption of the necessary expenses
by the Harvard College Observatory.

The present astronomical service of Europe, under Pro-
fessors Kriiger and Kreutz, of the Observatory of Kiel, is
exceedingly prompt, able, and useful.^

EQUATORIAL OF HAMILTON COLLEGE OBSERVATORY

This telescope, which in 1856 was the largest ever constructed
in America — now the land of large telescopes — was made
for Hamilton College by Charles A. Spencer. The trustees
of the College officially requested the regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution to appoint a committee of experts to re-
port upon the instrument ; and the reasons alleged by the

1 Similar European telegrams were for- Professor Karlinski, of Cracow, in 1865.
merly distributed by the Vienna Academy {Asfrouomischc-u Xiuhrichteti, Volume LXVi,
of Sciences, according to a code devised by column 31 ; Volume LXXV, column 141.)

6o2 The Smithsonian Institution

trustees for the request are interesting as showing the uni-
versal confidence which the Institution had already con-
quered. The following quotations will make this point
clear.

''Again, the funds for the construction of this instrument,
and the Observatory to which it is attached, were contributed
by many persons interested in the advancement of science,
and scattered throughout the State of New York. To these
persons our Institution pledged itself to secure a first-class in-
strument. The college corporation desires to satisfy them by
an announcement from an authoritative quarter that it has
faithfully fulfilled the trust, etc.

•' Furthermore, . . . the undersigned, in behalf of the
College, would be glad to establish a precedent, which might
lead the purchasers of other astronomical instruments to sub-
mit the question of their proper construction to your body, as
being an institution central in its position and national in its
character."

The appointment of the Committee called for was one of
the early precedents for the service of officers of the Smith-
sonian Institution on boards and councils, in which their
work has been of very wide usefulness.

CORRECTION OF SEXTANTS FOR ERRORS

A PAPER ^ on the above subject was published in 1890. It
represents the results of thirty years' experience on the part
of its author, Mr. Joseph A. Rogers. The paper has two
main objects, the first being to set forth simple and practical
methods by which an observer may determine the errors of
any particular sextant ; the second, and perhaps more im-
portant, object being to point out to observers generally how

1 "Tlie Correction of Sextants for Krrors of I'kcentricity and Gradation." It was published
in 1890, in Volume xxxiv of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."

Astronomy 603

observations with any sextant may be made exceedingly
accurate by careful handling, and by the application of the
corrections named above, and thus to create among ob-
servers and instrument makers a higher standard of work
and a consequent improvement in processes of manufacture.

CONSTRUCTION OF A SILVERED-GLASS TELESCOPE

Doctor Henry Draper published in 1864, through the me-
dium of the Smithsonian Institution, a description of his con-
struction of a telescope that has become a text-book for those
engaged in the making of silver-on-glass reflectors.^

The reflector has in some special researches, as in photog-
raphy and in some parts of celestial spectroscopy, a distinct
advantage over the refractor ; and as the aperture increases,
the difference in cost between a reflector and a refractor of the
same size is very marked.

There is somewhere a limit to the size of a refractor due to
the fact that the incident light increases only as the square
of the aperture, while the absorption of the light in passing
through the glass increases in a far higher ratio. The ratio
of focus to aperture in large refractors must be relatively
large (in the Lick refractor it is 19 to i). On the other
hand, large reflectors can be built of relativel)- short focus (in
the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory the ratio of
focus to aperture is about 6 to i), and they can be constructed
at small cost, and mounted, — since they are comparatively
short, — in relatively small domes. They are very sensitive to
changes of temperature and to mechanical flexures, and for
these and other reasons lar^e reflectors are often inferior in
definition to refractors of equal aperture. But where, as

1 " On the Construction of a Silvered-Glass lished in 1S64, and is the third paper in Vol-
Telescope, 15^ Inches in Aperture, and Its ume xiv of the "Smithsonian Contributions
Use in Celestial Photography." It was pub- to Knowledge."

6o4 The Smithsonian Institution

in spectroscopy, the definition is the secondary and the
amount of Hght collected the primary consideration, large re-
flectors will have the advantage. If the difficulties due to
temperature, flexure, etc., are overcome, the reflector has
another advantage in that the rays of all wave-lengths are
brought to a single focus, which is not the case for the re-
fractor. This constitutes a marked advance in certain fields
of celestial photography.

In 1857 Doctor Draper visited Lord Rosse's observatory at
Parsonstown, and was privileged to see the operations of
grinding and polishing mirrors of speculum metal. In 1858
he began the construction of a 15-inch speculum in America.
In i860 speculum-metal was abandoned for silver-on-glass.
During 1861 three mirrors were constructed of i5>^ inches
aperture, and others smaller. In 1862 Doctor Draper was
with his regiment in the Virginia campaign; but in the winter
of that year two 1 5^2 -inch and two 9-inch mirrors were
completed. The greater part of the year 1863 was devoted
to lunar and planetary photography and to the enlargement
of focal negatives.

The various practical processes required for the manufac-
ture of a perfect mirror are described in detail and at length.
These descriptions are of the highest value, for they embody
the results of long practical experience described by an ob-
server of adequate theoretical knowledge. The first of these
sections relates to experiments on a metal speculum. The
next section refers to silvering the glass, and contains many
practical hints. It is interesting to note that the film of sil-
ver is about 2 0 0^) 0 0 ^^ ^-^^ \\\q\\ in thickness, and of the same
optical figure, therefore, as the glass surface. Its thinness
can be expressed in a striking form by remarking that the
value of the silver on a 15^ -inch mirror is not above one
cent. The durability of these films (when kept free from

Astronomy 605

sulphuretted hydrogen) is much greater than one might
think. Grinding and poHshing glass are treated in several
sections also. Rolled glass, such as was used for speculums,
has axes of rigidity, which must be considered in mounting
the mirrors. The effects of heat in deforming the image
formed by a reflecting surface are next studied. The grind-
ing-tools and the emery used with them are described, and,
again, many points of practical value are brought out. The
method of testing the optical surface is fully explained in de-
tail. A section of the paper is devoted to the description of
grinding-machines of various kinds. This is followed by sec-
tions relating to eyepieces, plane mirrors, telescope-mounting
(altazimuth), moving plate-holders for photographs, driving-
clocks, cameras, the construction of an observatory, observing
chair, the photographic laboratory, enlarging apparatus, mic-
roscopic photography, and the like.

In each and all of these sections, it is clear to the reader
that he is obtaining the results of first-hand experience ac-
quired not by one but by many trials.

After completing the i5>^-inch mirror, Doctor Draper con-
structed a 28-inch Cassigranian reflector, which he mounted
equatorially (on a stand constructed by himself) alongside
of an 1 1 -inch photographic refractor by Alvan Clark &
Sons. The reflectors were at first employed in producing a
large number of excellent photographs of the moon, and later
in researches in stellar spectroscopy.

Since Doctor Draper's too early death these and other in-
struments have been presented by Mrs. Draper to the Harvard
College Observatory. A large annual grant of money is
made by Mrs. Draper for the continuation and extension of
the researches begun by her husband, and under the skilful
direction of Professor Pickering, the publications of the Draper
Memorial have already been of high value to science. The

39*

6o6 TJie Smithsonian Institution

sound theoretical knowledge of Doctor Draper, and his very
extended experience in certain fields, are nowhere better ex-
emplified than in the memoir, of which only a brief summary
can be given.

PENDULUM OBSERVATIONS

The building of the Smithsonian Institution was early chosen
as a suitable station for the determination of the force of
gravity, and it has been used by the officers of the Coast
Survey (Charles S. Peirce, Erasmus D. Preston, Edwin
Smith, and others) and by foreign scientists for this purpose.

AID TO "THE ASTRONOMICAL JOURNAL"

In the year 1849, Doctor B. A. Gould began the publication
of The Astrono7nicaL Jour^ial, a periodical devoted solely to
the interests of astronomy, and issued always at a loss.
From the first the Institution has subscribed for a number of
copies, which are regularly distributed to foreign corre-
spondents, and this original subscription is still continued.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

The following bibliographies relating to astronomy and astro-
physics have been published by the Institution.

" Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relating to Neb-
ulae and Clusters, etc.," by Edward S. Holden (1877), in
"Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," Volume xiv.

" A Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William
Herschel," prepared by Edward S. Holden and Charles S.
Hastings, in the Smithsonian Report for 1880.

" Index to the Literature of the Spectroscope," by Alfred
Tuckerman (1888), In the "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-
lections," Volume xxxii.

Astronomy 607

" Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light," by
Alfred Tuckerman (1891), in "Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections," Volume xxxiv.

"Bibliography of Astronomy for 1887," by William C.
Winlock, in "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," Volume

XXXIV.

" The Index Catalogue of Nebulce, etc.," includes papers,
memoirs, and books on nebulae and clusters alphabetically
arranofed accordimj to authors, with a brief note to each
entry expressing its contents. The works of the elder Her-
schel on these subjects are analyzed at considerable length, in
order to partly supply the great want of an edition of his col-
lected works. The index is practically complete to 1877, and
comprises 1 10 octavo pages. The astronomical life of Sir
William Herschel covered forty-tw^o years. During this
period he published no less than sixty-nine different memoirs,
which are scattered through the annual volumes of the Phil-
osophical Tra7isactions of the Royal Society of London
from 1780 to 1818. In the absence of an edition of Her-
schel's collected w^orks. Doctors Holden and Hastings have
carried out the idea of making a full synopsis of every one
of his memoirs according to a model which he himself made
for one of his most important papers.^ Accordingl)- his me-
moirs on astronomical subjects have been analyzed, page by
page, by Professor Holden, and those on physics have been
treated in the same manner by Doctor Hastings. The w'ork
(of 114 octavo pages) supplies, in some measure, the crying-
need for a complete edition of his waitings.

Doctor Tuckerman's "Index to Spectroscopic Literature"
is a stout volume of 424 octavo pages, comprising references
to 3829 papers by 799 authors. The astronomical portion

'^Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, iSll,
Volume CI, part i, page 269.

6o8 The Smithsonian Institntion

of the bibliography is given in pages 66 to 133, and is sub-
divided into 45 sections, as comets, stars, meteors, ecHpses,
etc. An author-index, pages 363 to 394, is an admirable
complement to the index by subjects.

"The Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light,"
by Doctor Tuckerman (22 octavo pages) should be men-
tioned among astronomical bibliographies, as it gives the
scientific bases of photography.

An index to the literature of photography is (1891) in
preparation by the same author. The two works, taken to-
gether, will be of the greatest use in connection with the
application of the art of photography to astronomical re-
searches.

SHORT PAPERS ON ASTRONOMICAL SUBJECTS

In the early years of the Institution it was part of the plan to
provide for popular lectures on scientific subjects during the
sessions of Congress by distinguished specialists.

Among these lectures we may mention six on the " Prog-
ress of Astronomy," by Doctor B. A. Gould, and one by Pro-
fessor S. Alexander, on the "Relations of Space and Time"
(both referred to, but not printed, in the Smithsonian Re-
port, 1854); one by Professor E. S, Snell, on "Planetary
Disturbances" (Smithsonian Report, 1855); and lectures
on "Astronomy," by Professor Alexis Caswell (Smithsonian
Report, 1858).

The plan of regular lectures was not systematically main-
tained in subsequent years. They were replaced by pop-
ular papers on scientific topics, either original or transferred
from other periodicals. In looking over the Reports in the
Library of the Lick Observatory (not quite a complete set)
I have found the following references to papers of the sort.
This list may not be exhaustive :

Astronomy 609

AUTHOR. SHORT TITLE. YEAR. PAGE.

Charles Small wood .... Description of His Observatory . . 1856, 311

L. W. Meech Heat and Light of the Sun .... 1856, 321

Auguste Laugel On the Sun 1861, 175

John Lee On Astronomical Photography . . 1861, igi

Charles Dufour Scintillation of the Stars 1861, 220

R. Gautier On the Nebulae 1863, 299

J. Fourier filoge of Delambre 1864, 125

Charles Delaunay The Velocity of Light 1864, 135

J. Lamont Solar Eclipse of i860 1864, 240

William Huggins Spectrum Analysis 1866, 195

Appearance of the Sun's Disk . . . 1866, 209

filie De Beaumont .... Memoir of Legendre 1867, 137

Cleveland Abbe Dorpat and Poulkowa 1867, 370

G. Hagen Memoir of Encke 1868, 193

Joseph Henry Eulogy on Bache 1870, 91

Frangois Arago Biography of W. Herschel . . . 1870, 197

^, ^ .^ , ( Memoir of John Frederick William ) _

N- S- Dodge \ jj^^^^J \ .87., .09

, , ^, ^ , ,, ( On Secular Variations of the ) „

John N. Stockwell . . . ^ Planetary Orbits \ ^^^^ ^^x

.^ . . . _ , . ( The Cordoba Astronomical Ob- ) o n

Benjamm A. Gould . . . \ \ 1873, 265

' ( servatory )

Fran9ois Arago Eulogy of Laplace 1874, 129

Ed. Mailly Eulogy on Quetelet 1874, 166

WiUiam B. Taylor Kinetic Theories of Gravitation . . 1876, 205

_ . , -^. , , ( The Asteroids between Mars and ) o ^r o
Daniel Kirkwood . . . . } ^ . ^1876, 358

I Jupiter )

r, r 1 ^ T-, • ( Time- Reckoning for the Twcn- > 00^

Sanford C. Fleming ...}., ^ ^ } 1886, 345

^ I tieth Century ) ^^

R. Radau Astronomical Photography .... 1889, 469

Robert Simpson Woodward . Mathematical Theories of the Earth 1890, 183

Hubert A. Newton .... Memoir of Loomis 1890, 742

Wilham Huggins Celestial Spectroscopy 1891, 69

Agnes M. Gierke Stellar Numbers and Distances . . 1 891, 103

The Sun's Motion in Space . . . . 1 891, 109

A Southern Observatory 1 891, 115

Charles S. Hastings . . . . History of the Telescope 1892, 95

Sir Robert S. Ball Wanderings of the North Pole . . 1893, 75

A. C. Ranyard The Lunar Crater Tycho .... 1893, 89

Charles A. Young Variable Stars 1893, 107

Sir George G. Stokes . . . The Luminiferous /Ether .... 1893, 113

William Harkness Magnitude of the Solar System . . 1894, 93

William H. Pickering . . . Schiaparelli's Views on Mars . . . 1894, 113

J. Janssen Photographic Photometry .... 1894, 191

John K. Rees Variation of Latitude 1894, 271

6io The Smithsonian Institution

ANNUAL REPORTS ON THE PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY

Under the editorship of Professor S, F. Baird the firm of
Harper & Brothers, of New York, pubHshed a " Record of
Science and Industry" from month to month in "Harper's
Magazine," and as an annual vohrnie from 1871 to 1878.
The articles relating to the progress of astronomy were
written by Professor Cleveland Abbe till 1875, and for the
years 1876, 1877, and 1878 by Doctor Edward S. Holden.

From the year 1879 onwards this record of the progress of
astronomy was printed in the annual Report of the Smithson-
ian Institution, the articles for the years 1879 to 1885 being
written by Doctor Holden, and from 1885 to 1892 by Mr,
William C. Winlock, of the Institution.

In 1879 a circular was prepared by Doctor Holden and
sent by the Smithsonian Institution to different observatories.
The answers to this circular gave valuable information as to
the instrumental equipment of the different establishments, as
to their past work and that proposed for the future, etc., and
were printed in the Reports for 1879 (edited by Doctor
Holden) and for 1886 (edited by Mr. George H. Boehmer).

The inevitable limitations of space and the necessary omis-
sion of technical considerations made all these annual reviews
very unsatisfactory to their compilers ; but, after taking much
pains to be correctly informed, it is my opinion that they
have been of considerable value to unscientific readers, and
of some slight, though real, convenience to astronomers.
The "Bibliography of Astronomy" for the year 1888 (printed
in the Report for 1888), by Mr. Winlock, was an attempt to
vary the form in which astronomical information should be
given. In this case the essential benefit was to professional
astronomers and librarians.

CHEMISTRY

By Marcus Ben7amin

Fellow of the Chemical Society of London

l^'HAT James Smithson was an analytical chemist
of no mean abilit)- has been shown elsewhere
in this volume, but it is eminently proper to
emphasize that fact in connection with this
summary of chemistry, by the repetition of the
statements that while a student in Oxford he had "the repu-
tation of excellinor all other resident members of the Univer-
sity in the knowledge of chemistry," and that later he ac-
quired the well-deserved fame of being one of the " most ex-
pert chemists in elegant analysis."

In the preliminary legislation that resulted in the estab-
lishment of the Smithsonian Institution the practice of chem-
istry by James Smithson seems to have been borne in mind,
for not only in the act to establish the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, but also in the subsequent report of the organizing com-
mittee "a chemical laboratory" was provided for.

Later, when Professor Henry had been given the direction
of the Institution, he refers in his " Protrram of Oroj-anization "
to the "chemical analysis of soil and plants" as a means by
which "to increase knowledge,"* and in his first report dis-
tinctly avows his appreciation of the value of chemistry in the

6ii

6i2 The Smithsonian Institution

following words: "Agriculture would have forever remained
an empirical art had it not been for the light shed upon it
by the atomic theory of chemistry."

The first mention of any chemical activity in the history of
the Smithsonian Institution was in 1848, when an announce-
ment was made of an arrangement (among others) for "a
report on the present state of chemistry as applied to agri-
culture." A year later "a report on the application of chem-
istry to agriculture," prepared by Lewis C. Beck, of Rutgers
College, is announced as " nearly ready for the press," but it
does not appear to have been published, and it is probable
that the matter was given to the public in 1850 in a course of
lectures on the " Chemical Operations of Nature," delivered
by Professor Beck in the Smithsonian hall.

The failure to publish this report may be accounted for by
the statement so often made by Henry that "it is the policy
of the Smithsonian Institution, in order to employ its funds
most effectually in the way of increasing and diffusing know-
ledge, not to engage in any operation which could be as well,
if not better, carried on under the direction, and with the
funds of another institution," and as an appropriation was
made by Congress in 1848 to the Commissioner of Patents
for the purpose of investigating the relations of chemistry to
agriculture, it is more than likely that Henry deemed it
undesirable to encroach on that domain.

The first published contribution to chemistry was the
"Memoir on the Explosiveness of Niter," by Robert Hare.
It comprised twenty pages and formed the seventh memoir
in the second volume of the " Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge." Its history is interesting. A fire occurred in
New York City on July 19, 1845, during which two hundred
and thirty houses were destroyed, containing merchandise
valued at over two millions of dollars. A peculiar feature of

Chemistry 6 1 3

this catastrophe was a series of detonations successively in-
creasing in loudness, and followed by a final explosion which
tore in pieces the building where it occurred, threw down
several houses in the vicinity and forced in the fronts of the
houses on the opposite side of the street. These effects were
attributed to gunpowder, but the owner of the building de-
clared that he had none of that explosive, although a large
quantity of niter was stored in the house. Doctor Hare
showed by numerous experiments that explosions of a violent
character could be produced by forcibly bringing in contact
at a high temperature niter and substances of an inflammable
character. This memoir was referred to John Torrey and
Colonel John J. Abert, and on their recommendation accepted
for publication by the Smithsonian Institution in October,
1849. ^^ ^^^^ published in 1850.

It is interesting to mention that on the title-page of Doctor
Hare's memoir he refers to himself as an "associate of the
Smithsonian Institution." Among the six honorary members
created by the Establishment the names of Robert Hare and
Benjamin Silliman — both among the foremost chemists of
their time — are conspicuous; they were elected in 1849, "^^^
continued in that relation until their death.

The publication of periodic reports summarizing all the dis-
coveries of science and giving a well-digested account of
important additions to knowledge was an idea that Henry de-
rived from Berzelius, a Swedish chemist of high reputation.
A practical expression of the value of this scheme was demon-
strated in 1851 by the publication of a report "On Recent
Improvements in the Chemical Arts," compiled by James C.
Booth, Assayer of the United States Mint in Philadelphia,
and his associate, Campbell Morfit. It consisted of a digest
of articles that had appeared during the ten years previous
in the various journals of science and the arts in the English,

6i4 The Smithsonian Institution

French, and German languages. The great vahie of this
work is beyond dispute and its appreciation evidenced by the
fact that the first edition was soon exhausted and a second
one was issued. This is worthy of special note when it is re-
membered that chemistry was at that time just beginning to
receive recognition among colleges in the United States.

The diffusion of knowledge by means of public lectures,
especially during the sessions of Congress, had become part
of the recognized policy of the Institution, and during the
winter of 1852 the younger Silliman delivered a course of six
lectures on the four ancient elements : " Earth, Air, Fire,
and Water." In the Report for 1853 the announcement was
made that J. Lawrence Smith had been engaged to give a
full course of lectures on chemistry ; and, accordingly, during
the winter of 1853-54 a series of twenty-live lectures was
given by Professor Smith. The general character of the
course may be inferred from the title of the first. It was:
" The improvement of the study of chemistry and its close
connection with the progress of the arts and manufactures of
the present age ; also general notice of the nature of bodies,
more especially gaseous bodies."

Although the establishment of a chemical laboratory was
provided for in the law incorporating the Institution, it does
not appear to have come into existence until its organization by
Professor Smith. In the Report for 1854 Henry says : " The
laboratory of the Institution during the past year has been
used by Professor J. Lawrence Smith in the examination of
American minerals ; and on behalf of the Treasury Depart-
ment in investigations relative to the different kinds of mo-
lasses imported into this country. He also made a series
of analyses of meteorites, among which were fourteen speci-
mens belonging to the cabinet of James Smithson, the founder
of the Institution."

Chemistry 615

It was about this time that Smith was finishing his elab-
orate memoir on the " Reexamination of American Minerals,"
which, according to the younger Silliman, was " the most
important contribution yet made by any American chemist."
It is not improbable, therefore, that the work begun while he
was in the University of Virginia was completed at the Smith-
sonian Institution.

A year later it appears that a commodious room had been
fitted up with the necessary appliances for original research
in chemistry and other physical sciences ; still no regular
chemist was employed by the Institution, although Doctor
John D. Easter, who had studied chemistry for three years in
Germany, was allowed the use of the laboratory. For the
facilities afforded him he was required to keep the apparatus
in working order and to make such examinations of specimens
as would not require much labor. In the domain of chemistry
investigations were conducted on the application of some
newly-discovered substances to practical purposes in the arts,
and numerous examinations were made of minerals obtained
from the Pacific railroad and other expeditions.

During the winter of 1855-56 George J. Chace, of Brown
University, delivered a course of six lectures on " Chemistry
Applied to the Arts." No lectures on subjects pertaining to
chemistry were delivered for the next two winters, but dur-
ing 1858-59 Thomas Clemson lectured on "Water" and on
" Nitrogen," and during the same season Josiah P. Cooke,
of Harvard College, delivered lectures on " Atmospheric Air."
"Oxygen and Zinc," "Nitrogen," "Water," " Carbon," etc.
These were followed, during 1859-60, by a course of six lec-
tures on "Agricultural Chemistry," by Samuel W. Johnson,
of Yale College, and later by five lectures treating of the
relation of chemistry to geology, by T. Sterry Hunt, then
of the Geological Survey of Canada.

6i6 The Smithsonian Institution

Meanwhile the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge "
had been enriched by the publication of the results of a most
important series of " Researches on the Ammonia- Cobalt
Bases," conducted by Wolcott Gibbs and Frederick A. Genth.
Henry describes it as " a laborious series of investigations
relative to a very interesting part of chemistry." It still con-
tinues to rank high as a model investigation, and Doctor
Gibbs, now the foremost of American chemists, honored at
home and abroad, continues, in the honorable leisure of his
well-spent life, to devote part of his time, in his private labora-
tory in Newport, Rhode Island, to the development of certain
portions of this classic research. This memoir was referred
to John F. Frazer and John Torrey, and, on their recommen-
dation, accepted for publication in July, 1856, and issued in
separate form in December of that year. It is the fifth
article in the ninth volume of the " Contributions."

In returning to a consideration of the chemical laboratory,
it is desirable to recall those significant words of Henry,
already quoted in this article — that it was not the policy
of the Smithsonian Institution "to engage in any operation
which could be as well, if not better, carried on under the
direction and with the funds of another institution." For this
reason, perhaps, more than any other the chemical laboratory
has never been continuously occupied. During 1857 it was
used by Eugene W. Hilgard, who conducted a series of ex-
periments relative to the vapor from a modification of carbon
disulphide as a substitute for steam applied to mechanical
purposes. His results were unfavorable to the substitution.
Also a series of investigations relating to the prevention of
counterfeiting bank-notes was carried on. Soon after Pro-
fessor Hilgard accepted the appointment of State Geologist
of Mississippi, and George C. Schaeffer and Doctor Benja-
min F. Craig occupied the laboratory. During 1858 they

Chemistry 6 1 7

investigated a large number of specimens of guano. Pro-
fessor Schaeffer soon withdrew and accepted the more con-
genial post of librarian of the United States Patent Office,
where he remained until his death, always honored and
esteemed as a man of varied and exact learning. During the
first decade of the second series of the "American Journal of
Science," he prepared the chemical abstracts that appeared
over the initials of " G. C. S." Doctor Craig remained in
charge of the Smithsonian Laboratory, and continued to re-
port on various minerals sent to the Institution, also making
such private investigations as came to him from persons
desiring the services of a chemist. During 1862 a large
quantity of disinfecting fluid was made for the use of hos-
pitals, and during 1863 experiments on the properties of
different kinds of oil intended for lighthouse purposes were
carried on. In 1864 Doctor Charles M. Wetherill, already
well known as the author of "The Manufacture of Vinegar,
its Theory and Practice, with Special Reference to the Quick
Process" (i860), was given charge of the laboratory, and he
continued the examination of materials for lighthouse illumin-
ation. Also during 1864 Doctor Wetherill studied the condi-
tion of the air and the mode of ventilatimjf the United States
Capitol. On this subject he submitted a very elaborate re-
port to the Secretary of the Interior. In the laboratory he
was occupied in investigations on the nature of the so-called
ammonium amalgam, the crystallization of sulphur, and the
crystalline nature of glass.

Chemistry and physics arc allied sciences and the appH-
ances used in one science are frequently employed in the
other. Elsewhere mention is made of the early gift of
physical apparatus to the Institution by Doctor Robert Hare,
much of which was of interest on account of its association
with the history of the advancement of science in this coun-
40

6i8 The Smithsonian Institution

try, notably those pieces which had been used by Doctor
Hare in his isolation of calcium without the aid of galvanism.
To this collection were added in 1859, by the gift of J. R.
Priestley (a grandson of the discoverer of oxygen), a burning
lens and a condensing air-pump. It was with these instru-
ments that Joseph Priestley discovered the gas which is now
called oxygen. With this discovery, made on August i, 1774,
begins the history of modern chemistry.

From the greatest of the early American chemists we return
to the first of living American chemists for the purpose of
mentioning the grant, in 1859, of a small appropriation to
Wolcott Gibbs in order to defray the expenses of the neces-
sary material and apparatus for an investigation relative to
the ores of platinum, in which Doctor Gibbs successfully sep-
arated the different platinum metals and discovered a series
of compounds containing osmium, ruthenium, and iridium.
The results of this investigation were permitted by the
Smithsonian Institution to appear in the "American Journal
of Science," and four papers bearing the general title of " Re-
searches on the Platinum Metals " were published through
that medium in the years 1861, 1862, and 1864.

During the winter of 1862-63, Eben N. Horsford, of the
Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, delivered a
course of five lectures on "Munitions of War," and during the
same season Doctor Henry Wurtz, of New York, gave a
series of four lectures on " Gunpowder." Thereafter no lec-
tures on chemistry were delivered before the Smithsonian
Institution, and subsequent to 1865, owing to a fire that oc-
curred in the building on January 24 of that year, public lec-
ture courses were entirely abandoned.

The appendix to the Report for 1856 contains a paper "On
Tables of the Constants of Nature and Art," by Charles Bab-
bage, in which it is said that these constants should include

Chemistry 619

(among other things) : " The atomic weights of bodies, the
proportions of the elements of various compounds; acids with
bases ; metals with oxygen, etc. A list of metals, with col-
umns containing specific gravity, elasticity, tenacity, specific
heat, conductive power of heat, conductive power of electric-
ity, melting point, refraction power, proportion of rays re-
flected out of 1000 at an incident of go'^. List of specific
gravities of all bodies." Frank \V. Clarke, then of Boston,
had for his own purpose compiled certain information of the
above character, and in 1873 submitted to the Smithsonian
Institution his results, consisting of a table, exclusive of its
supplement, which, in his own words, " contains the specific
gravities of 2263 substances and over 5000 determinations in
all. There are over 2000 determinations of boiling point,
representing 1 205 different substances, and nearly 500 of
melting point for 326 substances. In all, the names of 2572
distinct bodies will be found in this table." This work, en-
titled "The Constants of Nature. Part i. Specific Gravities;
Boiling and Melting Points and Chemical Formula," was sub-
mitted for critical examination to Charles A. Joy, and Charles
F". Chandler, of Columbia College ; and on their recommen-
dation published in December, 1873. It consisted of 263
octavo pages, and was numbered 255 of the "Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections."

In April, 1876, the Smithsonian Institution issued the
" First Supplement to Part i " of " The Constants of Nature "
as an octavo pamphlet of sixty-one pages, which contained,
"in addition to determinations published during the past
two years, some materials which were overlooked in com-
piling the original work." At the same time there were is-
sued Part II of "The Constants of Nature," consisting of
"A Table of Specific Heats for Solids and Liquids" (58
pages), and also Part in, " Tables of Expansion by Heat

620 The Smithsonian Institution

for Solids and Liquids" (57 pages), both prepared by Pro-
fessor Clarke. They are all contained in Volume xiv of the
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections."

The chemical laboratory, concerning which mention has
already been made, was occupied during 1873-76 by Doctor
Oscar Loew, the chemist and mineralogist of the Geograph-
ical Survey under Lieutenant George M. Wheeler. Besides
his work for the Survey, he made analyses of minerals, min-
eral waters, and other substances that were referred to the
Smithsonian Institution for examination. He was succeeded
by Doctor Frederic M. Endlich, the mineralogist of the
Institution, who in turn gave way to Frederick W. Taylor.
The latter took charge of the laboratory in the autumn of
1877, and continued in charge until June, 1884. During his
administration many improvements were introduced, espe-
cially in 1 88 1, when the entire second floor of the southwest
pavilion of the Museum building was assigned to Mr. Taylor
for a chemical laboratory, which was then equipped with
much new apparatus. The work continued to consist chiefly
of the identification of minerals, both for the collections and
for persons who sent specimens to the Institution for exam-
ination. Still, from time to time questions involving chem-
ical research from other departments of the government came
to the laboratory for decision. Among those worthy of men-
tion was the controversy between the Custom House authori-
ties in New York and the importers of Apollinaris water, as
to whether the article imported under that name really came
uncharged from the springs, or was artificially charged with
other substances, especially carbon dioxide. A report on
this matter was prepared at the request of the Secretary of
the Treasury. During this period the Institution was fre-
quently called upon to act as advisor to the departments in
securing specialists for investigations too extensive for the

WILLIAM TECUMSEII SHEEMAX.

REOEXT OF THE SMITHSOXIAX INSTITUTIOX,

1871-187-1:, 1878-1884.

: or

aph-

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iiiiiuraii, min-

leferred to the

e was succeeded

minerci

^v-V.r. -■ 'iprick lylor.

nn of
'y his

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.ly

he Institution for exam-

1"^ involving cheni-

overnment came

worthy of men-

hori-

,'. on

rtmr

Chemistry 621

time and apparatus of its chemist, or which for other reasons
could not be undertaken by him.

With the resignation of Mr. Taylor the place of official
chemist to the Institution ceased to exist. An arraneement
was then made between the Secretary of the Institution and
the Director of the United States Geological Survey, by
means of which the laboratory in the Institution was placed
in charge of Professor Clarke, chief chemist of the Survey,
with the understanding that Professor Clarke should perform
such chemical work as might be called for by the Institution.
This procedure was in accordance with the policy of relin-
quishing such lines of work as could be satisfactorily carried
on by other departments of the government, and of fostering
only such branches of investigation as were not provided for
elsewhere. For nine years nearly all of the chemical work of
the Survey was done in the rooms assigned to that work in
the Museum building, but in 1892 the analytical work was
transferred to the new offices of the Survey. In addition to
the foregoing, considerable chemical work pertaining to me-
tallurgy and economic geology was performed during these
years in the departments of metallurgy and economic geology
and of lithology and physical geology by their respective
curators, Frederic P. Dewey and George P. Merrill. Since
1892 such chemical work as has been required by the Insti-
tution has been conducted in the laboratory now in the De-
partment of Geology under the direction of the curator,
Doctor George P. Merrill.

Soon after the publication of the three parts of the " Con-
stants of Nature," Professor Clarke began collecting data
relative to the determinations of atomic weights for the pur-
pose of preparing a complete digest of the entire subject, and
of recalculatinor all the estimations. Much material had been
collected and partly discussed when a manuscript entitled
40*

62 2 The Smithsonian Institution

"Atomic Weight Determinations: A Digest of the Investi-
gations PubHshed since 1814," by George F. Becker, was
received by the Smithsonian Institution. According to Pro-
fessor Clarke, to whom it was submitted, '• it brought together
all the evidence, presenting it clearly and thoroughly in com-
pact form." It was accordingly issued as Part iv of the
"Constants of Nature," in August, 1880, forming a pamphlet
of 149 pages in the octavo series. Two years later Part v of
the "Constants of Nature," consisting of " A Recalculation
of the Atomic Weights," by Professor Clarke, was published.
It discussed all existing data on the subject, and gave the
most probable value to each of the elements. Its publication
gained for Professor Clarke the reputation of being a high
authority in computing the atomic weights of the chemical
elements, and his values are now quoted in most chemical
text-books. His results were included in 271 octavo pages,
and, together with Mr. Becker's paper, formed the greater
part of Volume xxvii of the " Miscellaneous Collections."

In 1 88 1 Secretary Baird began, in the Report, the pub-
lication of a series of records of " Scientific Progress." That
on "Chemistry," published in 1881, was by George F. Barker;
those for i882-'83-'84-'85 and '86 were by H. Carrington
Bolton, and that for 1887-88 by Professor Clarke. Subse-
quent to 1888 the series was discontinued, because it was
found "impracticable to obtain all the desired reports in each
department within the time prescribed."

Mention has already been made of the gift of certain scien-
tific apparatus of a historical character to the Smithsonian
Institution, and in 1883 application was made by Baird to
Mrs, Priestley, of Northumberland, Pa., for the collection of
apparatus used by her husband's ancestor, Joseph Priestley,
which had been exhibited at the celebration of the centennial
of oxygen in August, 1874. It is gratifying to say that the

Chemistry 623

collection was subsequently presented by Mrs. Priestley to
the Institution for the Museum.

In 1884 the Committee on the Indexing of Chemical
Literature of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science announced that the Smithsonian Institution had
consented to publish indexes to chemical literature that had
been indorsed by the Committee. In accordance with this
agreement, the Smithsonian Institution has published " Index
to the Literature of Uranium, i 789-1885," by H. Carrington
Bolton (octavo, 32 pages) ; " Index to the Literature of the
Spectroscope, from the Beginning of our Knowledge of the
Subject until July, 1887," by Alfred Tuckerman (423 pages);
"Index to the Literature of Columbium, 1801-1887," by
Frank W. Traphagen (27 pages); "Index to the Literature
of Thermodynamics," down to the middle of the year 1889,
by Alfred Tuckerman (239 pages); "Bibliography of the
Chemical Influences of Light," 1891 (22 pages); "Bibliog-
raphy of Aceto- Acetic Ester," 1 840-1 892, by Paul H. Sey-
mour (148 pages) ; " Index of the Literature of Didymium "
(1842-1893), by A. C. Langmuir (20 pages), and "Indexes
to the Literature of Cerium and Lanthanum," 1751 — 1894, by
W. H. Magee (43 pages).

Much new material pertaining to density of various sub-
stances had accumulated since Professor Clarke submitted his
original compilation of the "Constants of Nature" to the
Smithsonian Institution. Therefore, in 1888 he presented a
new edition (revised and enlarged) of Part i, " A Table of
Specific Gravity for Solids and Liquids," that contained "the
specific gravities of 5227 distinct substances and 14,465 sep-
arate determinations." This table contained 409 pages, and
formed about one-half of Volume xxxii of the "Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections."

The announcement of the Hodgkins Fund prizes in 1893

624 The Smithsonian Institution

was not without value to chemistry. It created at once an
interest in the study of the air, and from every part of the
world papers were sent to the Smithsonian Institution in
competition for the prizes. Of the 218 papers submitted to
the jury for consideration, that by Lord Rayleigh and Profes-
sor William Ramsay, descriptive of their magnificent dis-
covery of a hitherto unknown element in the atmosphere,
received the first prize of $10,000. Under the title of
"Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere," the origi-
nal memoir, as submitted by the authors, was published in
May, 1896. It forms one of the papers contained in Volume
XXIX of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledoe." In
it are found the reasons that led the authors to suspect the
existence of a new element, and the steps in the investiga-
tion that developed the suspicion into belief and conviction,
culminating in the absolute proof by several methods, of the
presence of a hitherto unknown gas in the atmosphere, which,
owing to its chemical inactivity, was called argon.

The third prize, of $1,000, was awarded to Doctor Henri
de Varigny for his popular treatise entitled " L'Air et la Vie,"
which, under the title of " Air and Life," has been published
by the Smithsonian Institution, It is an admirable summary
of our knowledge of the atmosphere, chemical and otherwise,
written in a pleasant style.

The paper by F. A. R. Russell on " The Atmosphere in
Relation to Human Life and Health," which was honorably
mentioned and received one of the Hodgkins silver medals, is
also of a popular character. Among the papers that re-
ceived honorable mention is one on " Atmospheric Actinome-
try and the Actinic Constitution of the Atmosphere," by E.
Duclaux, of Paris, France. It was recommended by the award
committee for publication, and is included in Volume xxix
of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledofe." It is here

Chemistry 625

mentioned because of its chemical character, for it is essen-
tially a description of a series of experiments that show
how a weak solution of oxalic acid is oxydized by the in-
fluence of the chemical rays of sunlight, and hence that such
a solution can be used as an actinometric measure.

A paper entitled "The Air of Towns," presented by Doctor
J. B. Cohen, of Yorkshire, England, likewise received honor-
able mention. It consists of four popular lectures on " Close
Rooms," "Smoke," "Town Fog," and "Germs of the Air";
and these were of such practical character that they were
deemed worthy of prompt publication.

In the oriofinal circular concerninof the Hodcrkins Fund
prizes it says that " special grants of money may be made
to specialists engaged in original inv^estigation upon atmos-
pheric air and its properties." In accordance with this pro-
vision a grant of $500 was made to Doctor Otto Lummer
and Doctor Ernst Pringsheim of Berlin, Germany, for re-
searches on the determination of an exact measure of the
cooling of gases while expanding, with a view to revising the
value of that most important constant which is technically
termed " gamma " function. This grant was made on recom-
mendation of Professor von Helmholtz. In the same year a
second grant, amounting to $1000, was placed at the dis-
posal of Doctor John S, Billings, of Washington City, and
of Doctor S. Weir Mitchell, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
for an investigation into the nature of the peculiar sub-
stances of organic origin contained in the air expired by
human beings, with a specific reference to the application of
the results obtained to the problem of ventilation for inhabited
rooms. The investigation undertaken by these scientists was
carried on in the Laboratory of Hygiene in the University of
Pennsylvania, largely by Doctor David H. Bergey. and un-
der their joint names the Smithsonian Institution in Novem-

62 6 The Sinithsoniau Institution

ber, 1895, published their results with the title, "The Com-
position of Expired Air and its Effects upon Animal Life."
They concluded that dust particles are the only really dan-
gerous elements in the air, and that it is improbable that
there is any peculiar volatile poisonous matter in the air ex-
pired by healthy men and animals other than carbon dioxide.
It forms one of the papers contained in Volume xxix of the
"Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge." In June, 1896,
the " Methods for the Determination of Organic Matter in
Air" used by Doctor Bergey was published by the Institu-
tion, and is contained in Volume xxxix of the "Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections." Both of these papers are cred-
ited to the Hodo-kins Fund.

The year 1893 was conspicuously celebrated throughout
the United States as the four hundredth anniversary of the
discovery of America. In the annals of chemistry that
year stands out prominently as the one in which the Smith-
sonian Institution honored that science by the publication of
H. Carrington Bolton's magnificent " Select Bibliography of
Chemistry, 1492— 1892." Secretary Langley wrote: " It repre-
sents the labor of a lifetime on the part of a most industrious
student of the bibliography of chemistry, and is a work of
reference of such value that it is believed it will be a neces-
sity to every chemical investigator." It contains 12,000 titles,
and forms Volume xxxvi of the " Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections." The first edition was soon exhausted, and a
second one was issued. Dr. Bolton has in hand a supplement,
to include similar titles to 1895.

The granting of funds for the purpose of prosecuting origi-
nal investigations in science is one of the means of increasing
knowledge that has been more common in the recent history
of the Smithsonian Institution than was formerly the case.
The present Secretary has ever shown a kindly feeling to-

Chemistry 627

ward chemistry, and in his Report for 1891 he announced that
a sum of $600 had been placed at the disposal of Edward W.
Morley, to procure a special apparatus for determinations of
the density of oxygen and hydrogen, which he properly desig-
nates as "an investigation requiring extreme precision and
delicacy of manipulation, and promising results of wide appli-
cation," In the same Report mention is made of the grant
of $200 to Wolcott Gibbs, to aid in the completion of his
investigations of the physiological action of chemical com-
pounds. Doctor Gibbs subsequently published his results in
the American Cke?nicaL Jotcrnal.

The last item to be chronicled in this necessarily brief his-
tory of the relation of the Smithsonian Institution to chemis-
try was the purchase of a balance — more delicate than any
in the United States — which was loaned to Edward W.
Morley for use in his masterly redetermination of certain
physical constants of oxygen and hydrogen, concerning which
it has been well said that " the classical researches of Reg-
nault are far excelled by the investigations so far made by
Morley." The Smithsonian Institution has also published
Professor Morley's results " On the Density of Oxygen and
Hydrogen and on the Relation of their Atomic Weights," on
the recommendation of Frank W. Clarke and Carl Barus. It
contains 109 pages, and is included in Volume xxix of the
" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."

No more conspicuous illustrations of the perfect operation
of the exact wording of the will of James Smithson could be
shown than those just mentioned. Knowledge — and that of
the very best kind — has been increased by the promotion
of the research conducted by Professor Morley, and knowledge
has been diffused by the publication of his results, which con-
stitute, indeed, the finest physico-chemical investigation ever
undertaken and completed in this country.

62 8 The Smithsonian Institution

In conclusion, a list of the chemical papers that have ap-
peared in the annual reports is herewith appended :

"Oxygen and its Combinations," by George I. Chace, 1855.

" Memoir of Priestley," by M. Cuvier (translated by C. A.
Alexander), 1858.

" Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry," by Samuel W. John-
son, 1859.

"Scientific Congress of Carlsruhe " (Section of Chemistry),
by M. J. Nickles (translated by C. A. Alexander), i860.

"The Sun: Its Chemical Analysis," by Auguste Laugel,
1861.

" Notes on the History of Petroleum or Rock Oil," by T.
Sterry Hunt, 1861.

"Report on Nitrification," by Benjamin F. Craig, 1861.

" Explosibility of Coal Oils," by T. Allen, 1861.

" Destructive Effect of Iron Rust" (from the German), 1861.

" Memoir of Louis Jacques Thenard," by M. Flourens
(translated by C. A. Alexander), 1862.

"The Catalytic Force; or. Studies on the Phenomena of
Contact," by T. J. Phipson (translated by C. A. Alex-
ander), 1862.

" On Atoms," by Sir John Herschel, 1862.

"A Brief Sketch of the Modern Theory of Chemical Types,"
by Charles M. Wetherill, 1863.

"Purple Dyeing, Ancient and Modern" (from the Ger-
man), 1863.

"Ozone and Antozone," by Charles M. Wetherill, 1864.

"Vegetation and the Atmosphere," by J. Jamin, 1864.

" Extract of a Memoir on the Preservation of Copper and
Iron in Salt Water," by M. Becquerel, 1864.

" Preservation of Wood " (translated from the German by
C. A. Alexander), 1864.

Chemistry 629

"Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha" (translated from the
German), 1864.

"The Products of the Combustion of Gun-cotton and Gun-
powder under Circumstances Analogous to Those Which
Occur in Practice," by Lieutenant von Karolyi, 1864.

" Description of Apparatus for Testing" Results of Perspira-
tion and Respiration in the Physiological Institute at
Munich," by Max Pettenkofer (translated by A. Ten
Brook), 1864,

" Photochemistry," by M. Jamin (translated from the French),
1867.

" Notice of Christian Frederic Schoenbein, the Discoverer of
Ozone " (translated from the "Archives des Sciences
Physiques et Naturelles, Geneva"), 1868.

" Appendix to Notice of Schoenbein," by Joseph Henry, 1868.

"A Brief Account of the Processes Employed in the Assay
of Gold and Silver Coins at the Mint of the United
States " (from the Annual Report of James Pollock), 1868.

"On the Chemistry of the Earth," by T. Sterry Hunt, 1869.

" Hydrogen as a Gas and as a Metal," by Doctor J. Emerson
Reynolds, 1870.

" On Professor Thomas Graham's Scientific Work," by Will-
iam Odling, 1 87 1.

" Organic Bases," by Professor A. Bauer (translated from
the German), 1872.

"The Nitrogen Bodies of Modern Chemistry," by Professor
Kletzinsky (translated from the German), 1872.

" Scheme for the Qualitative Determination of Substances
by the Blowpipe," by Thomas Egleston, 1872.

"Eulogy on Gay-Lussac," by M. Arago, 1876.

" Chemistry," by George F. Barker, 1880.

"Chemistry," by George F. Barker, 1881.

"Chemistry," by H. Carrington Bolton, 1882.

630 The Smithsonian Institution

"Chemistry," by H. Carrington Bolton, 1883.

"Chemistry," by H. Carrington Bolton, 1884.

"Chemistry," by H. Carrington Bolton, 1885.

" Index to the Literature of Uranium," by H. Carrington
Bolton, 1885.

"Chemistry in 1886, with Bibliography," by H. Carrington
Bolton, 1887.

"Chemistry for 1887 and 1888," by F. W. Clarke, 1888.

"The Life-work of a Chemist" [Pasteur], by Sir Henry E.
Roscoe, 1889.

"Aluminum," by Horace C. Hovey, 1889.

"Alloys of Aluminum," by J. H. Dagger, 1889.

" The Chemical Problems of To-day," by Victor Meyer, 1890.

"Autobiographical Sketch of Justus von Liebig" (translated
from the German by J. Campbell Brown), 1891.

" Deduction from the Gaseous Theory of Solution," by Orme
Masson, 1892.

"Some Suggestions Regarding Solutions," by Professor
William Ramsay, 1892.

" Liquids and Gases," by Professor William Ramsay, 1892.

"Atoms and Sunbeams," by Sir Robert Ball, 1893.

" Magnetic Properties of Liquid Oxygen," by Professor
James Dewar, 1893.

"On Chemical Energy," by Doctor W. Ostwald, 1893.

"The American Chemist," by George C. Caldwell, 1893.

"The Waste and Conservation of Plant Food," by Harvey
W. Wiley, 1894.

"The Relations of Physiology to Chemistry and Morphol-
ogy," by Giulio Fano, 1894.

"The Place of Research in Education," by Henry E. Arm-
strong, 1895.

"Eulogy on Pasteur," by George M. Sternberg, 1896.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

By William North Rice

Professor of Geology, Wesleyan University

HE aim of the Smithsonian Institution, as de-
fined in the will of its illustrious founder, is
twofold — "The increase and diffusion of
knowledge." While its contributions in the
department of geology have been less exten-
sive than in some other departments of science, they have
been by no means unimportant. The Institution has ren-
dered valuable service in both the incj'case and the diffusion
of the knowledge of the constitution and history of the globe
on which we live.

I. PUBLICATIONS

Attention turns naturally first to the publications of the In-
stitution. These include both original papers and reprints
of papers published elsewhere. The original papers on
geology and mineralogy may be conveniently classified for
present purposes in three divisions: i. Miscellaneous papers;
2. Papers immediately relating to the collections in the Na-
tional Museum or displayed in the temporary expositions in
which the Institution has been represented ; 3. Reports of
the progress of particular branches of science.

631

6.32 The Smithsoiiian Iiistitutmi

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS

Among the somewhat elaborate publications included in the
quarto series (" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge"),
several have been of sufficient importance to the progress of
geology to deserve special notice.

J. W. Bailey's paper, entitled "Microscopical Examinations
of Soundings, made by the United States Coast Survey off
the Atlantic Coast of the United States " (185 i) is an interest-
ing piece of pioneer work in a field destined to be earnestly
cultivated, and to yield a rich harvest in the succeeding half-
century. The observation that, as the soundings increased
in depth (though none of them much exceeded 100 fathoms),
the quartzose and feldspathic constituents of the seashore
sands gave place gradually to the calcareous remains of fora-
minifera, was a discovery of prophetic interest.

Two important papers relate to surface geology, or the
geology of the Quaternary era. " Illustrations of Surface
Geology," by Edward Hitchcock (1857), is a valuable inves-
tigation in a department of geology which had then received
but little attention. The maps and sections of terraces of the
Connecticut River and its tributaries give evidence of most
thorough and conscientious work. The progress of science
in the past forty years has, indeed, very largely changed the
interpretation of the facts so faithfully observed and recorded.
The increased knowledge of the dynamics of glaciers has
answered the objections which compelled President Hitch-
cock to attribute the Drift to the action of ice-floes. The
marks of the action of glaciers, which he was sagacious
enough to recognize in various localities in Massachusetts
and Vermont, can now take their place as illustrations of
particular phases of the action of the same agency which
produced the Drift, instead of being arbitrarily distinguished.

Geology and Mineralogy 6

The dynamics of river action, also, we understand better than
forty years ago. Few, if any, geologists to-day would at-
tribute the formation of valleys to the ocean ; and most
geologists doubtless would approve Gilbert's elegant trans-
formation ^ of Hitchcock's diagram exhibiting the structure
of terraces. But the paper is an interesting monument of the
early stages of the history of glacial geology, and much more
of the same sort of conscientious study of the facts in detail
will be requisite before all the problems of the Drift are
satisfactorily solved.

The paper " On the Fresh- water Glacial Drift of the
Northwestern States," by Charles Whittlesey (1866), maps
approximately the southern boundary of the Drift from New
Jersey to Iowa (locating the boundary most of the way some-
what further north than more recent authorities). Attention
is called to the moraines far to the north of the boundary of
the Drift, and their characteristic surface pitted with kettle-
holes. Numerous small lakes and bays are attributed to gla-
cial erosion, and the basins of the Qreat lakes are believed to
have been somewhat modified by the same agency. The un-
stratified Drift is referred to the action of glaciers, and the
stratified deposits to fresh waters.

Colonel Whittlesey contributes also one paper in the depart-
ment of physiography, "On Fluctuations of Level in the North
American Lakes" (i860). This paper gives a large amount
of information bearing upon secular, annual, and transient
variations. Very curious are those transient oscillations,
which have been studied and described by a number of ob-
servers in the Swiss Lakes, under the name of "seiches," and
of which Colonel Whittlesey's paper is probably the first no-
tice in this country. They are doubtless connected with vari-
ations of atmospheric pressure. Although, in some cases

1 " Report on Geology of the Henry Mountains," Washington, 1877, Figures 64, 65.
41

634 The Smithsonian Institution

reported, there was no barometric fluctuation at the point of
observation at the time when the seiche was observed, the
explanation is doubtless, as suggested in a note by Professor
Henry, to be found in the occurrence of thunder-storms in
distant parts of the lake.

" Geological Researches in China, Mongolia, and Japan
during the years 1862 to 1865," by Raphael Pumpelly (1866),
is an important contribution to the knowledge of a field then
almost untrodden by geological explorers, though destined
soon after to be illustrated by the more extended travels and
researches of Baron von Richthofen. The loess of northern
China is in this paper considered a lacustrine deposit, though
the author afterward adopted Richthofen's view of its seolian
origin. The wonderful migrations of the Hoang Ho River
over the immense confluent delta which it shares with the
Yang-tse-Kiang is illustrated by a most interesting series
of maps. Much information is given in regard to the coal of
Chihli and adjacent provinces of northern China, which is
considered Mesozoic, on the evidence of ferns, cycads, and a
conifer described by Professor Newberry. The coal of Chihli
was pronounced Jurassic by Richthofen, though in other
parts of China coal of Carboniferous age is extensively de-
veloped.

The paper " On the Geology of Lower Louisiana and the
Salt Deposit on Petite Anse Island," by Eugene W. Hilgard
(1872), discusses a deposit whose scientific interest even ex-
ceeds that which arises from its economic value. The salt,
which is overlain by the Orange Sand, is held to be of Creta-
ceous age.

The subject of the physics of the globe is treated in two
papers by J. G. Barnard, the first on 'T-*roblems of Rotary
Motion" (1872), the second "On the Internal Structure of
the Earth" (1877). In both papers the question is discussed

Geology and Mineralogy

>3:)

mathematically, whether the phenomena of precession afford
conclusive evidence as to the constitution of the interior of
the earth. In the former paper, General Barnard holds that
the phenomena of precession require a solid globe. In the
latter paper, he holds that the precession of a liquid would be
substantially the same as that of a solid globe, having be-
come convinced, like Lord Kelvin, of the validity of Professor
Simon Newcomb's criticism.

Numerous short papers bearing upon geology and miner-
alogy occur in the annual Reports of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution and in the " Bulletins " and " Proceedings " of the
National Museum. Detailed comment on these papers is
precluded by the limits of this article, though many of them
have an importance disproportionate to their length. A few
of them are briefly mentioned.

Joseph Le Conte's "Lectures on Coal " (Report, 1857) are
a model of truly popular exposition of a scientific theme. The
treatment of the paleontological part of the subject belongs,
of course, to the pre- Darwinian epoch, then near its end.

T. S. Hunt's report "On the Chemistry of the Earth"
(Report, 1S69) is a very compact summary of the views on
chemical geology, which are more fully presented in his
" Chemical and Geological Essays," and other writings.

W. N. Rice gives results of studies on " The Geology of
Bermuda" (Bulletin, No. 25). He holds the islands to be
an atoll, originally formed by subsidence, in accordance with
the views of Darwin and Dana ; but supposes the subsidence
to have been interrupted by an epoch of elevation in which
enormous accumulations of aeolian limestone were formed.

T. Egleston's "Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms"
(Bulletin, No. ^^ is an exceedingly handy little volume
for reference. All mineralogical names are given in alpha-
betical order ; while names of recognized species are distin-

636 The Smithsonian Institution

guished by being printed in capitals, and are followed by
statements of chemical composition and crystalline form, and
by lists of synonyms and varieties.

G. W. Hawes (Proceedings, Volume iv) shows that the
Triassic diabases of the eastern United States contain not
only labradorite, but various other feldspars, among which are
andesine, anorthite, and albite. He also calls attention to the
frequent absence of twinning structure in the triclinic feld-
spars, and the consequent unreliability of optical determina-
tions not checked by chemical analysis.

G. P. Merrill has published numerous papers on mineral-
ogical and lithological subjects in the " Proceedings of the
National Museum." Among them is one somewhat elaborate
paper entitled, " Notes on Some Eruptive Rocks from Galla-
tin, Jefferson, and Madison Counties, Montana" (Volume xvii).
In several notes on " Serpentines," from various localities (Vol-
umes XI, xii), evidence is given of the derivation of serpentine
from olivine and other anhydrous magnesian silicates. The
glistening surfaces, like slickensides, in the serpentines, are
attributed to the friction of movements due to the expansion
of the mass in undergoing hydration. Interesting studies on
points of detail in geological structure are given in notes
"On Fulgurites" (Volume ix), "On Stalactites and Gypsum
Incrustations," and on "Sandstone Concretions" (Volume
xvii). A note " On Deposits of Volcanic Dust and Sand
in Southwestern Nebraska" (Volume viii) records the first
known observation of unaltered volcanic ashes or tufa in the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains.

C. T. Simpson discusses (Volume xvi) the Unios found in
the deposits near Toronto supposed to be interglacial. All
are species belonging to the fauna of the Mississippi Valley,
and most of them are no longer found in Canada. Their in-
troduction into the drainage basin of the St. Lawrence dates

Geology and Mineralogy 637

from the time when the St. Lawrence valley was filled with

ice, and the great lakes at the southern margin of the ice
sheet drained southward into the Mississippi.

PAPERS RELATING TO THE COLLECTIONS IX THE
NATIONAL MUSEUM

Among the interesting papers relating to the Museum should
be mentioned the " Catalogue of Meteorites," by F. W. Clarke,
and the description of " The Gem Collection," by G. V .
Kunz (Report, 1886). G. P. Merrill's paper on "The Col-
lection of Building and Ornamental Stones" (Report, 1886)
is much more than a catalogue, being an exceedingly val-
uable monograph, treating the stones in both geological and
economical relations. The same author has given, in his
"Preliminary Handbook for the Department of Geology"
(Report, 1889), and " Handbook for the Department of
Geology, Part I " (Report, 1890), not only admirable de-
scriptions of the collections, but also valuable treatises on
dynamical geology and lithology. Another such paper, far
transcending the character of a simple catalogue, and rank-
ing as an important treatise, is Y . P. Dewey's " Preliminary
Description of Catalogue of the Systematic Collections in
Economic Geology and Metallurgy " (Bulletin, No. 42).

REPORTS OF PROGRESS

As these papers are themselves abstracts of a mass of litera-
ture, any attempt to give abstracts of them would be use-
less. Nor is it necessary to comment on the utility of such
summaries of scientific work. The names of the authors are
sufficient guarantee of the quality of the work. These papers
are contained in the Reports for the years 1880 to 1S88.

41*

638 The Smithsonian Institution

The authors of the various accounts of progress were well
known men of science, as follows :

Geology, G. W. Hawes, T. S. Hunt, N. H. Darton, W J
McGee ; Mineralogy, G, W. Hawes, E. S. Dana ; Petrog-
raphy, G. P. Merrill ; Vulcanology and Seismology, C. G.
Rockwood, Jr.

REPRINTS

An appropriate memorial of the honored founder of the In-
stitution is afforded by the republication of " The Scientific
Writings of James Smithson," extracted from the " Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Royal Society of London," and from
" Thomson's Annals of Philosophy." Most of these papers are
now chiefly interesting as illustrating the character of one of
the benefactors of humanity. The paper entitled " A Chemi-
cal Analysis of Some Calamines " (1802) gives the proof that
one of the minerals formerly confounded under the name
calamine is a carbonate of zinc, while the other affords on
analysis silica and oxide of zinc. The former is now most
appropriately named smithsonite. The ingenious refutation
of Granville Penn's theory that the fossils found in Kirkdale
Cave were relics of the Noachian delude eives an interest-
ing illustration of the state of geological opinion at the close
of the first quarter of this century.

The scientific papers to which from time to time a wider
circulation has been given by their republication in the
Smithsonian Reports, have been sometimes selected as giv-
ing accounts of new and important discoveries, sometimes
as dealing with broad generalizations and correlations.

A. Geikie's brilliant address on " Geological Change, and
Time" (1892) affords an admirably clear and comprehensive
view of the spirit and method of geological study.

The important but difficult problems of the physics of the

Geology and Mineralogy 639

globe are treated in papers by A. Blytt, H. Hennessy, C.
Chree, and G. K. Gilbert.

C. D. Walcott, in a paper entitled " Geologic Time, as
Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America "
(1893), investigates especially the rate of accumulation of
Paleozoic sediments in the Cordilleran Sea. The general
conclusion is reached that geologic time " can be measured
by tens of millions but not by single millions or hundreds of
millions of years." This is in harmony with C. King's paper
on "The Age of the Earth," in the same volume, in which
the theory of the mode of cooling of the earth is investigated
in the light of recent experiments on the latent heat of fusion,
specific heat, and expansion in melting of diabase.

A. Daubree's paper on "Deep-sea Deposits" (1893) gives
an admirable summary of .the results of the voyage of the
Challe7iger, and other recent explorations, on a subject of
profound interest to the geologist.

Important contributions to the geology of particular re-
gions are given in T. Thoroddsen's " Volcanic Eruptions and
Earthquakes in Iceland within Historic Times " (1885), and in
A. Hague's "Geological History of the Yellowstone National
Park" (1892).

A. Brezina's "Explanation of the Principles of Crystallog-
raphy and Crystallophysics " (1872) is a remarkably compact
and elegant exposition of Miller's crystallographic system and
of the optical characters of crystals. The theory of crystal
formation is illustrated by valuable papers by J. W. Judd and
C. D. Liveinor.

The short paper by E. Orton on the " Origin of the Rock
Pressure of Natural Gas in the Trenton Limestone of Ohio
and Indiana" (1891) is valuable for the clearness and beauty
of its scientific reasoning, and for the economic importance
of the subject which it treats.

640 The S^nithsonian Institution

J. Geikie's "Glacial Geology" (1889) summarizes clearly
and comprehensively the recent progress in knowledge of
the events of the Quaternary in Europe. A. R. Wallace's
"The Ice Age and Its Work" (1893) affords an elegant
sketch of the rise of the glacier theory, and an able argument
in favor of the formation of lake basins by glacial erosion.
G. K. Gilbert's " History of the Niagara River " (1890) is an
elegant discussion of one of the most interesting problems of
American Quaternary geology.

E. Desor's " Palafittes, or Lacustrian Constructions of the
Lake of Neuchatel " (1865) was given to the American pub-
lic through the medium of the Smithsonian Report, most
seasonably, when the evidences of the antiquity of man were
beginning to attract the attention of thoughtful men.

II. EXPLORATIONS

A PROMINENT department of activity in all the history of the
Institution has been the exploration of regions imperfectly
known, especially in North America. In some cases expedi-
tions have been fitted out under the direction of the Institu-
tion. In other cases aid and counsel have been pfiven to
parties organized by private enterprise or by various depart-
ments of the government. These expeditions have resulted
in the acquisition of rich stores of knowledge of the geology
of the regions traversed ; and the National Museum has been
enriched with minerals, rocks, and fossils, as well as with
specimens illustrative of botany, zoology, and anthropology.

One of the earliest of these expeditions was that of Thad-
deus Culbertson to the Mauvaises Terres of the Upper Mis-
souri in 1850; and the spoils of this expedition were a part
of the material with which Doctor Leidy began the study
of the Tertiary mammalian fauna of the West, In the Re-

Geology and Mineralogy 641

port for 185 1 it is stated "that the specimens are of much
scientific interest, showing, as they do, for the first time, the
existence in this country of an Eocene deposit rivahng in the
number of its species of extinct animals the celebrated basin
of Paris." This was the modest prophecy of that wealth
of discovery in mammalian paleontology which was destined
to be made in the half-century of this history by Leidy,
Marsh, Cope, Osborn, and Scott.

Until the organization of the United States Geological
Survey, the Smithsonian Institution was the headquarters of
the geologists in the service of the government. The Insti-
tution aided in providing their outfit, its annual Reports
briefly announced their discoveries, and their collections were
received into its Museum, and studied within its walls or
under its direction. The geological work done by the Mexi-
can Boundary Survey, the Pacific Railroad Surveys, the
Colorado expedition of Lieutenant Iv^es, the expeditions of
Lieutenant (afterward General) Warren to the Yellowstone,
the Black Hills, and the Loup Fork, the explorations of Doctor
D. D. Owen, Foster and Whitney, Doctor Charles T. Jackson,
Doctor John Evans, and Doctor F. V. Hayden were all
more or less intimately related with the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Within its walls were carried on the patient and con-
scientious labors of F. B. Meek, by which the paleontology
of the United States was so greatly advanced.

The Institution activ^ely cooperated in the expedition to
Alaska under the auspices of the Western Union Telegraph
Company ; and Kennicott and Dall and the other naturalists
of that expedition were among the scientific men whose
headquarters was in the Institution. Much of geological
knowledge was gained by this expedition.

In 1867 geology acquired a more independent position than
it had previously held in relation to the government of the

642 The Smithsonian Institntion

United States. Prior to that date most of the geological
work under the auspices of the United States government had
been done by expeditions undertaken primarily for some
other object. The place of geology had been, as Clarence
King has well expressed it, that of a camp-follower. The
next few years were marked by the achievements of four
o-reat organizations devoted specifically to geological work :
the Survey of the Fortieth Parallel, under Clarence King ;
the Survey West of the One Hundredth Meridian, under Lieu-
tenant Wheeler ; the Survey of the Territories, under Doctor
Hayden ; and the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region,
under Major Powell. All these explorations were aided by
the Smithsonian Institution, and helped to enrich its Museum
by their collections.

After the organization of the United States Geological Sur-
vey in 1879, the geologists in government employ had a
headquarters of their own in Washington, and their work was
naturally less intimately related to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Yet the two organizations, entirely independent, have
been mutually helpful. Several of the geologists of the
Survey have been at the same time curators in the National
Museum.

One exploration deserves special mention in this connec-
tion, because placed by act of Congress specifically under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution — the exploration of
the Colorado River and its tributaries, by Major Powell, in
the years 1869-72. The report was submitted to the Sec-
retary of the Smithsonian Institution, though not published
as one of its series of documents. The intrepid and adventur-
ous character of the expedition and the brilliant style of the
narrative make the report of this exploration one of the most
interesting stories of scientific travel. But the report is of
greater importance as containing the formulation of the doc-

Geology and Mineralogy 643

trine of base levels, and the definition of antecedent, conse-
quent, and superimposed drainage. These ideas have proved
richly fruitful. As they have been developed by Gilbert,
Davis, and others, they have marked an epoch in dynamical
geology. With, perhaps, the exception of Dana's doctrine of
the permanence of continents, these conceptions in regard to
drainage have been the most characteristic contribution to
geologic science which this country has made. Nowhere else
in the world could these ideas have been so well developed as
in presence of the gigantic, yet strangely simple, features of
the plateau country through which the Colorado and its tribu-
taries have carved their way. The doctrine of base levels is
as natural a development of the American cordillera as the
notion of plains of marine denudation is of the wave-beaten
island of Great Britain.

It is, indeed, probable that the course of the Green River
through the Uinta Mountains is not a perfectly uncomplicated
example of antecedent drainage. Probably Davis is correct in
saying that "the mountains wrenched the saw that afterwards
cut them in two." ^ It may even be true, as supposed by Em-
mons,^ that the river is superimposed, rather than antecedent.
But, however this may be, the formulation of the general prin-
ciples of drainage in the exploration of the Colorado has been
no less truly epoch-making in its influence.

III. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM

The collections of the National Museum have exerted a potent
influence in the advancement and diffusion of knowledge in
the oreoloofic as in other scientific fields. The treasures
gathered by the various exploring expeditions, and studied
under the direction of the Institution by specialists both

1 Natiotuil Geographic Magazine, Volume II, page 103.
2 " Report of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel," Volume II, page 197.

644 The Smithsonian Institution

within and without its walls, have yielded rich results. Ref-
erence has already been made to the work of Leidy and Meek,
respectively, on the vertebrate and invertebrate fossils from
the West.

The exhibition collections, with their systems of arrange-
ment and labeling continually improved by earnest work on
the part of the curators, under the inspiration of that genius
for museum administration which distinguished the late di-
rector, the lamented Doctor Goode, have been widely and
beneficently influential for good. Apart from their value as a
means of scientific information to the general public, they have
been an object-lesson to geological instructors in colleges and
schools, and to curators of geological collections in local
museums. Thus they have served to increase the educa-
tional value of geological collections throughout the country.

Particular attention may well be called to the collection
illustrating dynamical geology, interestingly described by
Doctor Merrill in his " Preliminary Handbook of the Depart-
ment of Geology." Collections in mineralogy, lithology, and
paleontology are to be found in about all museums. But
systematically arranged and well-labeled collections illustrat-
ing the subject of dynamical geology have scarcely existed
in the past, and are still comparatively few. Yet a good
collection of dynamical geology can be made far more intelli-
gible, and therefore far more instructive, to the general pub-
lic, than collections in any other department of geological
science ; while its value to the student is inestimable. The
example of so instructive a collection of this sort in the
National Museum cannot fail to exert a wide influence upon
the schools and local museums of the country.

In still another way the National Museum has richly con-
tributed to the diffusion of knowledge in geology and the
cognate sciences — namely, by the liberal distribution of

Geology mid Mineralogy 645

material to the small museums scattered throughout the coun-
try. In many a school and in many a community, the collec-
tions of minerals and rocks presented by the Smithsonian
Institution, authentically labeled so as to serve as a standard,
have stimulated the pursuit of the studies which those col-
lections illustrate. Though no data are available for an
estimate of the amount of influence which these donations
to local museums have exerted, there can be no doubt that
it has been very considerable.

IV. LECTURES

In the early years of the Institution, free public lectures on
scientific subjects were given in its hall and under its aus-
pices, especially during the sessions of Congress. The Re-
port for 1849 nientioned a course on "Geology," given by
Edward Hitchcock, President of Amherst College. In 1851
the elder Silliman, of Yale College, delivered two lectures on
" Geology," and a year later he gave a course of twelve lec-
tures on the same subject. During the winter of i856-'57
Joseph LeConte, then of Georgia, delivered three lectures on
" Coal" and also three on " Coral." James D. Dana, of Yale
Colleee, lectured on " Coral Islands " durinor the winter of
i858-'59. During the following winter T. Sterry Hunt, then of
the Geological Survey of Canada, delivered five lectures with
titles as follows : " On Chemical and Physical Geology"; '' In-
troduction of Geological Agencies"; '' Chemistry of the Earth's
Crust"; " Life in Its Geological Relations"; " Geology of the
Metals, Mineral Springs, Metamorphism " ; and "Igneous
Rocks, Volcanoes, Mountain Chains." In 1862 Fairman
Rogers, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, gave three lectures on
"Glaciers." This was followed in 1863 by a course of three
lectures on "The Glacial Period," b) Louis Agassiz, of Harvard

646 The Smithsonian Institution

College. Lectures on related subjects were delivered by well-
known scientists, including Charles Henry Davis, Henry Dar-
win Rogers, Stephen Alexander, Daniel Wilson, and Arnold
Guyot. The regular delivery of these lectures was interfered
with by the progress of the Civil War, and in 1865 by the fire
that destroyed the lecture-room. For a time thereafter the
Institution subsidized lecture courses in other institutions
in the City of Washington. In the early years, when science
had scarcely naturalized itself in this country, these lectures
in the national capital, and under quasi-authoritative auspices,
served a most valuable purpose in stimulating public interest
in scientific subjects.

METEOROLOGY

By Marcus Benjamin,

Fellow of the Chemical Society of London

j^MERICAN meteorology began with the Rev-
erend John Campanius, a Swedish clergyman
who settled near the present site of Wilming-
ton, Delaware, in 1643. Campanius, the "first
meteorological observer on the western conti-
nent," kept an account of the weather, day by day, during
the years 1644-45.^

The systematic gathering of meteorological information
was continued by individuals at different places. Among
the observers worthy of special mention were: Doctor John
Lining, who, from 1738 till 1750, noted the climatic condi-
tions in Charleston, South Carolina, and was the lirst to make
a series of instrumental observations in the United States;^
John Winthrop, of Harvard College, who in i 742 began to
collect such data, and continued the practice for more than
twenty years; ^ and John Bartram, the botanist, who made
observations in his famous gardens on the Schuylkill in i 748,

1 Henry, Alfred J.," Early Individual Ob- Meteorological Congress held in Chicago,
servers in the United Stales." See page 293 Illinois, August 21-24, 1893." Washington,
of Part 2, " Bulletin, No. 11, of the Weather 1895.

Bureau," being a " Report of the International - Ibidem, page 295. 3 Ibidem, page 296.

647

648 The Smithsonian htstitntion

and again in 1758-59 and in 1761-77. His manuscript is
preserved by the American Philosophical Society in Philadel-
phia.^ Of conspicuous interest are the series of observations
made by Thomas Jefferson in Monticello in 1772-78, and
toward the close of this period he instituted, with James
Madison, a series of simultaneous observations in Monticello
and at William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Virginia.
These, it is believed, were the first simultaneous observations
made in this country.^

In i8i4the Army Medical Department issued a rule, mak-
ing it the duty of each hospital surgeon and director of a
department "to keep a diary of the weather."^ The collec-
tion of these observations was fostered by Surgeon- General
Joseph Lowell, and a systematic gathering of reports of tem-
perature, pressure, and moisture of the air, the amount of
rain, direction and force of wind, appearance of the sky, and
other phenomena ensued, resulting in the publication of three
volumes of " Meteorological Registers," the last of which,
issued in 1851, covered the period from 1831 to 1842. The
active operations of this service continued until the beginning
of the Civil War.

Contemporary with the foregoing was the collection of me-
teorological data begun in 181 7 by Josiah Meigs, then Com-
missioner of the General Land Office. He issued blank forms
of a meteoroloijical reorister to the officials of the various local
land offices scattered through the States. This service be-
came, in time, the parent of the observations made under the
direction of the Patent Office, and continued until 1859.*

1 Henry, Alfred J., " Early Individual Ob- iiient of Meteorology in the United States."
servers in the United States." Page 297. Page 208, "Bulletin No. 11 of the Weather

2 Harrington, Mark W.," History of the Bureau." Washington, 1S95.

Weather Map," page 327, " Bulletin No. n, 1 Goode, G. Brown, '• The Origin of the

of the Weather Bureau." Washington, 1895. National Scientific and lulucational Institu-

3 Smart, Charles, "The Connection of tlie tions of the United States." Report of the

Army Medical Department with the Depail- American Historical Society, 1889, page 138.

Meteorology 649

During the decade in which the Smithsonian Institution
came into formal existence three distinguished American
meteorologists — perhaps the three most distinguished that
this country has ever known — were actively studying the
phenomena of storms. These men were Redfield, Espy, and
Loomis. It was Redfield who advanced the circular theory
of storms, and it was Espy who accounted for their existence
by convectional indrafts, while the patient Loomis gathered
the essential truths from both and formulated them in his
" Contributions to Meteorology," which he later gave to
the world through the medium of the " American Journal of
Science." Redfield was occupied with many interests, and
Loomis was professor of mathematics in the University of
the City of New York. Espy, on the other hand, was a
professional meteorologist, and of the three he concerns
us the most.

The publication of his papers had gained for Espy a high
reputation, extending across the ocean, and in 1840 he was
invited to explain his theory of storms before the British As-
sociation. From England he crossed to the Continent, and in
Paris he spoke so acceptably before the French Academy of
Sciences that the great Arago exclaimed: " England has its
Newton, France its Cuvier, and America its Espy." ^

On his return to the United States he settled in Washing-
ton, and from 1840 till within a few years of his death he was
continuously engaged by the government in meteorological
work.^ In 1841 he published his "Philosophy of Storms."
and he was familiarly known as the " Storm King." Accord-

1 " A Few Incidents in the Life of Profes- Secretary of War under act of Congress,
sor James P. Espy, " by his niece, Mrs. L. August 23, 1842. The records of the Na\y
M. Morehead. Cincinnati, 1888. Page 17. Department show that he was appointed Pro-
s''The records of the War Department fessor of Mathematics in the United States
show that James P. Espy was appointed Navy on May 7, 1842, which place he held
clerk August 26, 1842, and resigned June 30, until July 5, 1845. ^^ ^'so served the Na\-y
1847." He was employed to perform meteor- Department as Meteorologist from August
ological work, and was appointed by the 10, 1848, until the close of the year 1857.

650 The Smithsonian Institution

ing to the memoirs of John Quincy Adams, a letter from Espy
was received in 1842 by the Committee on the Smithsonian
Bequest, in which he proposed that "a portion of the fund
should be appropriated for simultaneous meteorological ob-
servations all over the Union, with him for central national
meteorologist, stationed at Washington, with a comfortable
salary." ^

In December, 1846, Henry was elected Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, and, already familiar with the meteor-
ological work done at the Albany Academy^ during his ad-
ministration there, he was quick to urge in his "programme
of organization " "a system of extended meteorological obser-
vations for solving the problem of American storms."

In a letter to Jared Eliot, dated Philadelphia, July 16, 1747,
Franklin, our first great scientist, expressed the opinion, not
original with him, however,^ that " the course of the storm is
from southwest to northeast," The work of subsequent me-
teorologists had all tended to show that storms did progress
in accordance with definite laws, and that most storms began
in the west and traveled toward the east. Henry was not
satisfied with simply urging this matter upon the authorities,
for he returns to it in his first report and says: "Of late years,
in our country, more additions have been made to meteorol-

1 " The Smithsonian Institution : Docu- tural Report for 1855," P^g^ 369. Among the
ment Relative to Its Origin and History." academies where meteorological observations
Edited by William J. Rhees. Page 784. were taken was the Albany Academy. See
Washington, 1879. also page 212, " Memorial of Joseph Henry."

2 " A local system of meteorological ob- 3 Abbe, Cleveland, " Historical Notes on
serrations was established in the State of the Systems of Weather Telegraphy, and
New York, in 1825, and has been uninter- Especially Their Development in the United
ruptedly continued from that time until the States." American Journal of Science, '\o\-
present. Each of the academies, which par- ume II, page 82, August, 1871. In a foot-
ticipated in the literature fund of the State, note Abbe says, "Earlier than Franklin must
was furnished with a thermometer and rain have been Lewis Evans, who, according to
gauge, and directed to make three daily ob- Hon. T. Povvnall, M. P., published in 1749 in
servations relative to the temperature, the di- Philadelphia, the brief statement of this
reclion of the wind, cloudiness," etc. Joseph general law." See also Lorin Blodget's
Henry in his paper, " Meteorology in its " Climatology of the United States," page
Connection with Agriculture," in "Agricul- 379, Philadelphia, 1S57.

Meteorology 65 1

ogy than to any other branch of physical science."^ Then he
unfolds his plan : " It is proposed to organize a system of
observations which shall extend as far as possible over the
North American continent,"^

In the accomplishment of this purpose he wisely calls to
his assistance " the most experienced American meteorolo-
gists,"^ Espy and Loomis, both of whom prepared reports
on the subject, which are given as appendices two and three
to the first annual Report. The first, by Loomis, is a mas-
terly summary of all the knowledge then possessed on the
subject. He showed what advantages might be expected
from the study of storms, what had been already done in this
country toward making the necessary observations, and finally,
what encouragement there was to a further prosecution of the
same researches. He then presented in detail a plan for uni-
fying the work done by existing observers, and for supple-
menting it by that of new observers at needed points, for a
systematic supervision, and, finally for a thorough discussion
of the observations collected.*

The communication from Espy is a shorter one, but it is
of much value and specially pertinent in that it refers to his
" circular to the friends of science " sent out from the Sur-
geon-General's office before 1843, i'"* which he urged the
keeping of meteorological journals upon voluntary observers,
and requested cooperation in his efforts to develop the phases
of storms. It was also in this letter that he announced his
" intention to lay down on skeleton maps of the United States.
by appropriate symbols, all the most important phases of
great storms which might come within the range of our sim-
ultaneous observations ; and thus it was hoped that we
should be able to determine the shape and size of all storms ;

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1846, page 25. Work of the Smithsonian Institution." Page

- Ibidem. 217," Bulletin No. 1 1 of the Weather Bureau. "

iJ Langley, S. P., "The Meteorological 4" Smithsonian Report," 1S46, page 28.

652 The Smithsonian Institution

whether they are round or oblong, and if oblong whether
they move sideforeniost or e7idfore7nost, or obliq^iely ; and to
ascertain their velocity and direction in all the different sea-
sons of the year ; the course of the wind in and beyond the
borders of the storm ; the fluctuation of the barometer and
change of temperature which generally accompany storms,
and the extent to which their influence is felt beyond their
borders." ^

Henry's request, sustained by the weighty opinions of such
eminent authorities, easily convinced the Board of Regents
of the value of the proposition, and on December 15, 1847,
that body appropriated " for instruments and other expenses
connected with meteorological observations, one thousand
dollars." ^ Such was the beginning of the meteorological
work of the Smithsonian Institution.

With this very small appropriation it was impossible to put
into active operation the plan proposed by Loomis, if in-
deed, such was ever the intention of Henry, and the money
was properly diverted to the purchase of instruments. With-
out accurate appliances for the determination of observations,
no true results are possible in science, and no one knew this
fact better than Henry.

It was the policy of the Institution then as now to seek aid
"from every quarter whence it maybe obtained,"^ and the
cooperation of the meteorological services then in existence
was the evident ambition of Henry. In August, 1848, Espy
was appointed Meteorologist in the Navy Department, and

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1846, page 47. I am inclined to believe that the introduction

See also " Memoir of Elias Loomis," by Hu- of this simple method of representing and dis-

bert A. Newton, contained in " Smithsonian cussing the phenomena of a storm was the

Report," for 1890, page 754, where Professor greatest of the services which our colleague

Newton calls attention to the weather maps rendered to science."

made by Loomis in the year 1842, and points 2 Rhees, William J., " The Smithsonian In-

out the great similarity between the maps stitution : Journals of the Board of Regents,

now in use by the Weather Bureau and those Reports of Committees, Statistics, etc.,"

invented by Loomis. He says : "The great- page 43, Washington, 1879.

est inventions are oft-times the simplest, and 3 « Smithsonian Report," 1849, page 14.

Meteorology 65

in that year an appropriation was made by Congress for
meteorology under the direction of the Secretary of the
Navy. According to the Smithsonian Report for 1848, "in
order that the observations thus estabhshed may not interfere
with those undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution, that
officer [the Secretary of the Navy] has directed Professor
Espy to cooperate with the Secretary of the Institution."^

The plan had now reached that stage of development when
it could be definitely formulated, and Henry continues : " It
is contemplated to establish three classes of observers among
those who are disposed to join in this enterprise. One class,
without instruments, to observe the face of the sky as to its
clearness, the extent of cloud, the direction and force of wind,
the beginning and ending of rain, snow, etc. A second class,
furnished with thermometers, who, besides making the obser-
vations above mentioned, will record variations of tempera-
ture. The third class, furnished with full sets of instruments,
to observe all the elements at present deemed important in
the science of meteorology. It is believed that much valu-
able information may be obtained in this way with reference
to the extent, duration, and passage of storms over the coun-
try, though the observer may be possessed of no other ap-
paratus than a simple wind-vane. With the instruments
owned by private individuals, with those at the several mili-
tary stations, and with the supply of the deficiency by the
funds of the Smithsonian Institution, it is believed that ob-
servations can be instituted at important points over the
whole United States, and that with the observations which
we can procure from Mexico and the British possessions of
North America, data will be furnished for important additions
to our knowledge of meteorological phenomena."^

For the accomplishment of this plan there was required,

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1847, page 15. "^Ibidem.

42*

654 The Smithsonian Institution

first of all, a corps of meteorological observers, and a circular
signed by Henry and Espy, requesting the cooperation of
those interested in the subject was issued on November i,
1848. This document was distributed by members of Con-
gress^ during the winter of i848-'49, to such of their constit-
uents as were judged to be favorable to the undertaking,
including a list of all persons who, as far as they were known,
had hitherto been accustomed to make meteorological obser-
vations in North America. These names were furnished by
Professor James H. Coffin, of Lafayette College.^ Coopera-
tion was also solicited from the existing systems under the
direction of the Surgeon-General and of those in the States
of New York and Pennsylvania.^

A large number of communications were received in reply
to this circular, and in February, 1849, the necessary answers
were prepared and sent out with blank forms for the register
of the weather. The number of persons who volunteered
their assistance at that time, or from whom cooperation might
be expected, was 412, of which 143 were correspondents of
Professor Espy, and had been previously engaged in collecting
observations under the direction of the Navy Department*
At once the service came into active operation, and as a re-
sult Henry was able to report in 1849 that already "from lo-
calities widely separated from each other, and distributed over
the greater portion of the United States, about one hundred
and fifty monthly returns are now regularly received,"^ and
"it will be seen we are in a fair way of establishing a general
system of meteorology, extending over a great portion of
North America, including many stations furnished with com-
pared instruments referred to the same standard."*

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1 851, page 68. legislature. See Agricultural Report for 1855,

2 Thidein, 1847, page 15. P^ge 370.

3 A system of State observation was estab- 4 " Smithsonian Report," 185 1, page 68.
lished in Pennsylvania in 1837, by the ap|)ro- 5 f/iidcin, 184S, page 12.

priation of the sum of .$4,000 by the State ^Ibidem, 1848, page 15.

Meteorology 655

In 1848 Arnold Guyot came to the United States, and at
the meeting of the American Association held in Philadel-
phia in that year he met Henry, who at once consulted him in
regard to the development of the collection of meteorological
observations. Guyot was charged with the selecting and or-
dering of the improved instruments that were required.^ He
rejected the old barometers in favor of the cistern barometer
of Fortin as improved by Ernst, and further improved in ac-
cordance with his own suggestion as regards safety of trans-
portation, resulting in the instrument made by James Green,
of New York, and known as the " Smithsonian barometer."
Each instrument made according to this pattern was num-
bered and accurately compared with a standard.^ The set of
instruments sent out consisted of a barometer, thermometer,
hydrometer, wind-vane, and snow and rain gauge. ^ In the
Smithsonian Report for 1850, from which so much has
been quoted, Henry says: "The most important service the
Smithsonian Institution has rendered to meteorology during
the past year, has been the general introduction into the
country of a more accurate set of instruments at a reason-
able price."* The distribution of these sets of standard in-
struments accomplished much in the way of disseminating a
greater knowledge of meteorolog)-, for there were many per-
sons who were glad to purchase them for their private use,
but who were unwilling to bind themselves to the strict com-
pliance required by the rules of the service. The result was
the establishment of numerous small meteorological observa-
tories scattered throughout the country that became local
centers of scientific observation and contributed toward the
development of the science.

Guyot was further intrusted with the preparation of a

1 Dana, James D., "Memoir of Arnold '-'" Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 17.

Guyot," Biographical Memoirs, National 3 Ibidem.

Academy of Sciences, Volume 11, page 338. * Ibidevi,

656 The Smithsonian Institution

pamphlet of "Directions for Meteorological Observations,"^
which was issued in 1850, and he was also invited to compile
" A Collection of Meteorological Tables," which was issued
in 1852. The latter, consisting, when first published, of only
2 1 2 pages, passed through four editions ^ under Professor
Guyot, the last of which, appearing in 1884, contained 748
pages. Although designed primarily for the meteorological
observers reporting to the Smithsonian Institution, the tables
obtained a much wider circulation and were extensively used
by a large number of meteorologists and physicists in Europe
and the United States.

In 1847 Henry had recognized the value of the application
of the electric telegraph^ as " a ready means of warning the
more northern and eastern observers to be on the watch for
the first appearance of an advancing storm " ; * and a year
later he wrote, " As a part of the system of meteorology, it is
proposed to employ, as far as our funds will permit, the
magnetic telegraph in the investigation of atmospheric phe-
nomena," and then,^ "The advantage to agriculture and
commerce to be derived from a knowledge of the approach
of a storm, by means of the telegraph, has been frequently
referred to of late in the public journals."^ Realizing that
the time for action had arrived, Henry, in 1849, personally
requested the presidents of a number of telegraph companies

1 Dana, James D., "Memoir of Arnold says: "In the Atlantic ports of the United
Guyot," Biographical Memoirs, National States, the approach of a gale when the
Academy of Sciences, Volume il, page 338. storm is yet on the Gulf of Mexico, or in the

2 The second edition was issued in 1859. Southern or Western States, may be made
Concerning this volume Guyot wrote to known by means of the electric telegraph,
Henry in 1858 "that two-fifths of the pages which, will probably soon extend from Maine
of tables, representing 68,000 computed re- to the Mississippi." This is the first known
suits, were wholly new and were prepared published suggestion of the use of telegraphy
for the volume." Also, " It is essentially a for the transmission of meteorological infor-
work of patience, in doing which the idea mation, and is doubtless the source from
of saving much labor to others and facilitat- which Loomis obtained his idea, which, in
ing scientific research is the only encourag- turn, was passed on to Henry.

ing element." Dana's Memoir, page 338. 4 "Smithsonian Report," 1846, page 25.

3 In the American Journal of Science for 5 Ibidem, 1848, jjage 15.
September, 1846 (page 334), W. C. Redfield 6 Ibidem, 1848, page 16.

Meteorology

657

to allow the Smithsonian Institution "at a certain period of
the day, the use of their wires for the transmission of meteor-
ological intelligence."^

This request was favorably considered and thereafter, until
the beginning of the civil war, the system of daily telegraphic
weather reports thus inaugurated was continued. Such was
the beginning of the telegraphic weather service, and by means
of these reports predictions of coming storms, with all the
recognized advantages to the country at large, were made
possible.^ It is of this service that Cleveland Abbe has so
well said: "However frequently the idea may have been
suggested of utilizing our knowledge by the employment of
the electric telegraph, it is to Professor Henry and his assist-
ants in the Smithsonian Institution that the credit is due of
having first actually realized this suggestion."^

The next step was an important one, and in the annual
Report for 1850 Henry wrote: "For the better comprehen-
sion of the relative position of the several places of observa-
tion, now embraced in our system of meteorology, an outline
map of North America has been constructed, by Professor
Foreman. This map is intended also to be used for present-
ing the successive phases of the sky over the whole country,
at different points of time, as far as reported to us, and we

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1849, P^ge 15.

2 1 am not unmindful of the fact (for
which I am indebted to Professor Abbe) that
in March, 1848, the American Journal of
Science, page 297, contains the following item :

"Telegraphic Reports of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
" Messrs. Jones & Co., Merchants' Ex-
change, New York, have made arrangements
to give daily and hourly reports of meteoro-
logical phenomena, by telegraphic messages
from all parts of the country which are in
telegraphic communication with New York.
This novel and important enterprise will fur-
nish more extensive means of synchronous

comparison of the state of the barometer, di-
rection of the wind, and generally of all
meteorological phenomena, than were ever
before possessed by the scientific world. It
is hoped the colleges, scientific institutions,
and individuals favorably situated will com-
bine their efforts to give efficiency to this
scheme, which if properly encouraged by
proper hands, cannot fail of interesting re-
sults." With this brief notice the service
mentioned seems to have passed away — per-
haps even before it came into existence, for
no traces of it are to be found, even after a
most careful search. — M. B.

3 American Journal of Science, Volume li,
page 83, August, 1871.

658 The Smithsonian rnstitiition

have been waiting for its completion to commence a series of
investigations, with the materials now on hand, relative to the
progress of storms." ^

The value of this map soon became apparent, and it is not
too much to say that the ambition of Espy "to lay down on
skeleton maps of the United States, by appropriate symbols,
all the most important phases of great storms " ^ became an
actuality under the administration of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. As the data from various sources were received, the
meteorological conditions were indicated on the map ; and a
current weather map was the final culmination of the idea.

It is thus described by Henry himself: "The first practical
application which was attempted of the principle we have
mentioned was made by this Institution in 1856; the infor-
mation conveyed by telegraphic despatches in regard to the
weather was daily exhibited by means of differently-colored
tokens, on a map of the United States, so as to show at one
view the meteorological condition of the atmosphere over the
whole country. At the same time publication of telegraphic
despatches was made in the newspapers."^ This map was hung
where the public could have general access to it to observe
the changes, and its indications were first published at large
by signals displayed from the high tower of the Institution.*

The annual Report for 1858 describes it somewhat in de-
tail. It says: "An object of much interest at the Smithsonian
building is a daily exhibition on a large map of the condition
of the weather over a considerable portion of the United
States. The reports are received about ten o'clock in the
morning, and the changes on the maps are made by tempora-
rily attaching to the several stations pieces of card of different

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 19. 4 Langley, S. P., " The Meteorological

<2 Page 651, this volume. Work of the Smithsonian Institution," page

3 " Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry," 219, "Bulletin No. 11 of the Weather

Volume II, page 453, being an extract from Bureau," being a " Report of the Interna-

the " Smithsonian Report " ft)r 1865, page 56. tional Meteorological Congress," held in 1893.

Meteorology 659

colors to denote different conditions of the weather as to clear-
ness, cloudiness, rain, or snow."^ Soon an improvement fol-
lowed by the adoption of circular disks of different colors,
which were attached to the maps by pins at each station of
observation, and indicating by their color the state of the at-
mosphere, white signifying clear weather; gray, cloudy; black,
rain; etc. The disks had an arrow stamped upon them, and
as they were so arranged that they could be attached to the
map in any direction, the motion of the wind at each station
was shown by them.^ Henry wrote: "This map is not only
of interest to visitors in exhibiting the kind of weather which
their friends at a distance are experiencing, but is also of im-
portance in determining at a glance the probable changes
which may soon be expected." ^

It was also in 1856, to again quote Henry, that "several of
the observers publish the results of their observations in the
newspapers of their vicinity," concerning which, he adds: "We
would commend this custom to general adoption."* With
the growth of the telegraph came also a development of its
usefulness to the meteorological work of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, and the next step was the publication in the daily
newspapers of the telegraphic reports of the weather. In
1857 Henry acknowledges his indebtedness "to the National
Telegraph line for a series of observations from New Orleans
to New York, and as far westward as Cincinnati, Ohio, which
have been published in the * Evening Star ' of this city.
These reports have excited much interest, and could they be
extended further north, and more generally to the westward,
they would furnish important information as to the approach
of storms. We hope in the course of another year to make

1 This description is from "Smithsonian 219, "Bulletin No. 11 of the Weather

Report," 185S, page 32. Bureau."

2Langley, S. P., "The Meteorological 3" Smithsonian Report," 1858, page 32.

Work of the Smithsonian Institution," page ^Ibidem, 1856, page 35.

66o The Smithsonian Institution

such an arrangement with the telegraph lines as to be able to
give warning on the eastern coast of the approach of storms,
since the investigations which have been made at the Insti-
tution fully indicate the fact that as a general rule the storms
of our latitude pursue a definite course," ^ The last quota-
tion shows the results accomplished by the meteorological
service of the Smithsonian Institution. That storms pursue
a definite course was now an established fact, and the propo-
sition of Franklin that the storms of the southeast advance
in a northeasterly direction was recognized as a law. Of
practical value is the acknowledgment that the announcement
of the progress of storms by the telegraph had been accom-
plished, while the original simultaneous publication in the
newspapers and on a daily weather map of their advance are
incidental results in the development of the science. " It
will thus be seen that without material aid from the govern-
ment, but through the enlightened policy of the telegraph
companies, and with the assistance of the munificent bequest
of James Smithson, * for the increase and dift'usion of know-
ledge,' the Smithsonian Institution, first in the world, organ-
ized a comprehensive system of telegraphic meteorology, and
has thus given first to Europe and Asia, and now to the
United States, that most beneficent national application of
modern science, the Storm Warnings."^

In that which has preceded an attempt has been made to
show the development of the meteorological work of the

1 " Smithsonian Pvcport," 1857, page 26. the great system of observations, has im-

2 Abbe, Cleveland, American Journal of ported standard instruments, and rated and

Science, Volume II, page 85, August, 1871. constructed hundreds of barometers and ther-

The following from Norton's Literary Register mometers used all over the continent. It has

and Book-B/tyers^ A /manac {or lS$^,p3-ge 4<) published full directions for observing, has

is also pertinent as shown in the workings of now in press a series of hygrometrical, baro-

the Smithsonian at that time : " No institution metrical, hypsometrical and many other tables

or government in the world is now doing any- of prime importance, amounting to upward

thing like as much for meteorology as the of three hundred pages. This and much

Smithsonian. It has planned and executed more for meteorology alone."

Meteorology 6 6 1

Smithsonian Institution in the direction of reporting the con-
dition of the weather. That was not its only function. In
an excerpt from the "Transactions of the American Medical
Association," quoted by Henry, is the following description :
"The primary object of the Smithsonian Institution is the
advancement of the science of meteorology and the elucida-
tion of the laws of atmospheric phenomena ; that of the
Patent Office, to collect facts and deduce therefrom laws
which have immediate reference to agriculture ; while the
system of the Medical Department is intended to be pri-
marily subservient to the health of the troops and the ad-
vancement of medical science. These three Institutions are
now in harmonious cooperation, and it is believed that it is
no exaggeration to say that under their auspices more is now
being done to advance meteorology than has ever before
been attempted under any government." ^ Of the work
accomplished by the Patent Office a few words are necessary.
From 1854 to i860 an annual appropriation was made by
Congress for "the collection of agricultural statistics, investi-
gations for promoting agriculture and rural economy, etc."^
A portion of this income during the years mentioned was
devoted by the Commissioner of Patents to assisting the
Smithsonian Institution in collecting and reducing meteoro-
logical observations. Charles Mason, who was Commis-
sioner of Patents in 1853-57, says in his Report for 1856
"that the degree of heat, cold, and moisture in various locali-
ties, and usual periods of their occurrence, together with their
effects upon different agricultural productions, are of incal-
culable importance in searching into the laws by which the
growth of such products is regulated, and will enable the

1 Preface of " Results of Meteorological inclusive, being a report of the Commissioner

Observations made under the direction of the of Patents made at the first session of the

United States Patent Office and the Smith- Thirty-sixth Congress," Volume I (l86l).
sonian Institution from the year 1854 to 1859 - " Smithsonian Report," i860, page 34.

662 The Smithsonian Institution

agriculturist to judge with some degree of certainty whether
any given article can be profitably cultivated." ^

It was with this congenial cooperation that in 1855 a new
set of blank reports were prepared by, and distributed under,
the frank of the Patent Office. They were also returned,
when filled out, to Washington, under a similar frank, thus
accomplishing a large saving in the item of postage. From
the Smithsonian Institution the registers were sent to Profes-
sor James H. Coffin, of Lafayette College, and by him they
were reduced and discussed. According to the annual Re-
port of 1857 "from twelve to fifteen persons, many of them
females, have been almost constantly employed, under the
direction of Professor Coffin, in bringing up the arrears, and
in reducing the current observations." ^ Some idea of the
enormous amount of work involved may be gathered from
the following statement contained in the Report for 1857:
"During 1856 the records of upwards of half a million of
separate observations, each requiring a reduction involving
an arithmetical calculation, were received at the Institution.
Allowing an average of one minute for the examination and
reduction of each observation, the amount of time consumed
will be nearly 7,000 hours, or, at the rate of seven hours per
day, it will be 1,000 days or upwards of three years, or, in
other words, to keep up with the reduction of the current ob-
servations the whole available time of three expert comput-
ers is required. This is independent of the labor expended
in the correspondence, preparation and distribution of blank
forms, and the deduction of general principles."^ This was
subsequently increased quite materially, and while in 1854
there were 234 stations, in 1856 there were 320 and in 1859
the number had increased to 531.*

1 Quoted in "Smithsonian Report," i860, 2 " Smitlisonian Report," 1857, page 28.

page 34, where the entire subject is fully 3 Ibidem, 1857, page 27.

discussed. 4 Ibidem, 1861, j>age 36.

Meteorology 663

In the annual Report for i860 it appears that the appro-
priation from the Commissioner of Patents was " suddenly
and unexpectedly suspended,"^ so that thereafter it was im-
possible to continue the reduction of the results. Fortunately,
however, the general results of all the observations for six
years had already been presented to Congress in the joint
name of the Smithsonian Institution and the Patent Office,
and were in the hands of the Pul^lic Printer. The first vol-
ume, with the title of " Results of Meteorological Observa-
tions made under the direction of the United States Patent
Office and the Smithsonian Institution from the year 1854 to
1859 inclusive, being a Report of the Commissioner of Pat-
ents made at the First Session of the Thirty-sixth Congress,"
was published in 1861.^

The second volume of these " Results of Meteorological
Observations" was issued in 1864, and, although it bore the
same title as the earlier volume, the subject matter was
entirely different, for it consisted chiefly of a digest of " Ob-
servations upon Periodical Phenomena in plants and ani-
mals from 1 85 1 to 1859, with tables of the dates of opening
and closing of lakes, rivers, harbors, etc.,"^ arranged by
Doctor Franklin B. Hough, and also a critical study of three
storms of 1859 made from data collected from the records in
the institution and prepared for publication by Professor
James H. Coffin, of Lafayette College.

The first of the three papers demands more careful con-
sideration. Mention has already been made of the blanks
sent out in 181 7 by Josiah Meigs when in charge of the Land
Office, calling for information concerning the time of the
unfolding of the leaves of plants, the time of flowering, the
immigration of birds whether from North or South ; the im-

1 " Smithsonian Report," iS6o, page 3 }. tiie year in meteorology appears on page 36 of

2 A discussion of its contents together with the " Smithsonian Report " for 1861.
an account of the work accomplislied during 3" Smithsonian Report," 1864, page 25.

664 The Smithsonian Instihition

migration of fishes ; and similar information. No continuous
record of the results collected by Meigs has ever been pub-
lished, and it is not even definitely known what became of
the originals after his death in 1822.^ It remained for the
Smithsonian Institution to revive the collection of such infor-
mation, and therefore in 1851 a circular entitled "Registry
of Periodical Phenomena " was sent to all of its observers.
It was prepared by Doctor John Torrey and Doctor Ed-
ward Foreman and gave a list of plants to be observed for
the period of flowering and fruiting. Later the circular was
made to include information concerning phenomena of animal
life. The gathering of such facts was continued until 1859,
and the material was then tabulated by Doctor Hough. He
classified the observations under the following headings :
Dates of foliation or leafing of plants ; dates of blossoming of
plants ; dates of ripening of fruits ; dates of defoliation or fall
of leaf in plants ; dates of first appearance of birds ; dates of
first appearance of other animals (reptiles, fishes, and insects),
and a series of miscellaneous records, having to do chiefly
with the opening and closing of navigation at certain stations.
Doctor Hough in the introduction says : " These results will
be found to have a more direct application to meteorological
science, by indicating the progress of the seasons in different
localities, and their relative variability in different years. For
this purpose plants and animals afford indications as signifi-
cant as meteorological instruments as to temperature, and
other climatic conditions, because strictly dependent upon
them, and in the absence of all other records they would
furnish a reliable chronicle of the passing year." ^ At the
time of the publication of this second volume, Henry said :
" These two quarto volumes of meteorological results for the

1 Henry, Alfred J., "Early Individual Ob- "Report of the International Meteorological
servers in the United States," page 301, "Bui- Congress." Washington, 1895.
letin No. 11 of the Weather Bureau," being a 2 Page 6 of the introduction.

Meteorology 665

six years 1854 to 1859 inclusive, embracing nearly two thou-
sand pages, together with a volume covering very nearly the
same period of time published by the War Department,
probably form an unsurpassed body of materials for the
investigation of meteorological phenomena over so wide an
extent of country." ^

The corps of observers was in many respects a remarkable
body, and a cursory examination of the list shows the names
not only of men eminent in science at that time, but also of
men who have since become noted, and perhaps whose first
contributions to science consisted in meteorological observa-
tions. The training that was thus acquired developed the
powers of close observation and had much to do with the suc-
cess of the individual that came later. Indeed it could hardly
be otherwise. Only a student of nature would be intrusted
with the proper filling out of the "Registry of Periodical Phe-
nomena." The botanist would watch for the first budding of
plants, and the young naturalist would be equally alert to re-
cord new facts in regard to animal life. A few names taken
from the hundreds on record are therefore of special interest.
They include Cleveland Abbe, Michigan, i ; ^ Major J. \V.
Abert, South Carolina, i ; Spencer F. Baird, Pennsylvania,
I ; F'rank Baker, Illinois, 2 ; Adolf F. Bandelier, Illinois, 5 ;
William M. Beauchamp, New York, 9 ; Lorin Blodget, Penn-
sylvania, 3 ; William C. Bond, Massachusetts, 4 ; Parker
Cleaveland, Maine, 4 ; John L. Campbell, Virginia, 2 ; Alexis
Caswell, Rhode Island, 18; John Chappelsmith, Illinois, 22;
P. A. Chadbourne, Massachusetts and Connecticut, 2; George
H. Cook, New Jersey, 5 ; Doctor Elliott Coues, Arizona, i ;
W. H. Dall, Alaska, 2 ; Reverend J. Owen Dorsey, Dakota,
I ; John D. Easter, Georgia, 3 ; Doctor George Engelmann,

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1864, page 26. during which continuous observations were

2 This figure indicates the number of years carried on.

666 The Smithsonian Institution

Missouri, 14; M. C. Fernald, Maine, 4; L. R. Gibbes, South
Carolina, i ; Donald Gunn, British America, 5 ; C. F. Hartt,
Nova Scotia, 2 ; Jed Hotchkiss, Virginia, 7 ; Charles A. Joy,
New York, 6 ; Alexis A. Julien, Antilles and New York, 4 ;
Robert C. Kedzie, Michigan, 1 1 ; W. C. Kerr, North Caro-
lina, 2 ; Jared P. Kirtland, Ohio, i ; S. A. Lattimore, New
York, I ; Increase A. Lapham, Wisconsin, 20 ; Captain John
Henry Lefroy, Canada, 3 ; W. W. Mather, Ohio, 3 ; Alfred
M. Mayer, Maryland and Pennsylvania, 5 ; J. Meehan, Penn-
sylvania, 1 5 ; Marshall Macdonald, West Virginia, i ; W. A.
Norton, Delaware, i; David D. Owen, Indiana, 4; Reverend
Roswell Park, Wisconsin, i ; Henry W. Ravenel, South Car-
olina, 5 ; Professor Orin Root, New York, i ; Charles Sarto-
rius, Mexico, 14; A. P. S. Stuart, Nova Scotia and Illinois,
6; James M. Tower, New York, 3; Bela White, Nebraska,
4; R. B. Warder, Ohio, 2 ; Alexander Winchell, Alabama, 2;
Theodore G. Wormley, Ohio, 2 ; Charles A. Young, Ohio, 6;
and Ira Young, New Hampshire, 2.

Among those who reported on periodical phenomena in
plants and animals were not only many of the foregoing, but
also the following well-known names : James G. Cooper,
Washington Territory ; William Darlington, Pennsylvania ;
Chester Dewey, New York ; Franklin B. Hough, New
York ; Robert W. Kennicott, Illinois ; A. S. Packard, Jr.,
Maine ; F. Peyre Porcher, South Carolina ; John M. Ord-
way, Missouri, and N. B, Webster, Virginia.

Of these men Baird has well said :

*' The interest of the observers was maintained by a con-
stant correspondence with the Institution. Copies of the
Smithsonian Reports and other publications were duly trans-
mitted to them, and any inquiries or communications from
them on scientific subjects were promptly responded to. In
this way a body of collaborators was secured to the Institu-

GEORGE BANCROFT.

REGENT OP THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

1874-1878.

''hsOni .cuii

:wey,

rica, 5 ; '^ ^ u^ —
ork, 4 :

., - . .. w

id Pe ania, 5; J. Meehan, Penn-

all Macdoi.

David D, Owen, Indiai , , , .everend
'\ i; Henry W. Tf?-^ ---^ South Car-
New YorK, I ; L^narles Sarto-

•braska,

i^ma. 2;

la in
of the foregoing-, but

!an

.,.r,

oi:k ;

r r an ivuu 13

I, i\ew

Illinois; A.

', Jr.,

la ;

■

aic'LuLitii , ci cOn-

tion. -^ ^^-

mj iiunicatiGUS

th< responded to. in

^W'

.MOITTTTlTriKi MAIWOWllTIMg HHT 10 T"/iaf)aH

.8T8J:-:t'V8I

Meteorology 667

tion, whose services cannot be overestimated, since they not
only furnished information relating- to meteorology, but they
were always ready to supply information and assistance in
other directions. To that body of men the National Museum
owes a very large part of the extensive and complete series
of illustrations of North American natural history that gives
to it so great a prominence, this being the result of succes-
sive applications for aid from particular classes. Thus, when-
ever the attention of the Institution was directed to the fact
that some particular branch of natural history required its
fostering care, circulars were prepared and issued to the
meteorological correspondents, invoking cooperation, and
asking them to collect objects of the kind that might be found
in their neighborhood, so that, not only all North y\merican
species might be gathered, but accurate determinations made
of their geographical distribution. Very extensive responses
usually followed these appeals, and in many cases sufficient
material was secured to place the subject on a permanent and
satisfactory basis. The works of the Institution on many
orders of insects and on fresh-water and land shells, reptiles,
birds, mammals, etc., were all based more or less entirely on
collections and information obtained by the Smithsonian ob-
servers.

"As a result, therefore, of over twenty-five years' observa-
tions by such men, the mass of meteorological information
obtained became very great, and even though a certain per
cent, of the observations could not lay claim to that minute
accuracy which is generally required, yet it was found that,
for many purposes, such as the general indications of varia-
tions in temperature, barometrical pressure, rainfall, etc., in
the collation of all observations the errors disappeared, and
an average was secured which did not differ essentially from
what would have been derived from more accurate obser-
vations." ^

The Smithsonian Institution is also entitled to credit for
gathering the following material relating to the climate of the

1" Smithsonian Report," 1878, pages 25, 26.

668 The Sniithsotiian Institution

North American continent: i. A miscellaneous collection of
manuscripts and other tables relative to the climate of the
United States; 2. The observations made under the direc-
tion of the Smithsonian Institution subsequent to 1849; 3-
A series of observations made by Doctor Luis Berlandier in
Mexico ; 4. Observations made in the British Possessions ;
5. The record of observations made by government and
other exploring expeditions ; 6. Copies of the observations
made under the direction of the Surgeon -General at the mili-
tary posts ; 7. Copies of the observations made at the ex-
pense of the States of New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylva-
nia, Maine, and Missouri ; and 8. A series of observations
from Bermuda and the West Indies. ^ It was intended to
systematically arrange and reduce these observations so that
the results might be summarized into general laws, but the
civil war put an end to such work, and ultimately the col-
lected material was transferred to the custody of what is now
the Weather Bureau,

Certain special meteorological investigations were also car-
ried on in the Institution. During 1850 Espy conducted a
series of experiments on the variations of temperature pro-
duced by a sudden change in the density of atmospheric air.
The investiofation was carried on in one of the rooms of the
Smithsonian Institution " with articles of apparatus belong-
ing to the collection which constituted the liberal donation
of Doctor Hare."" It was during the same year that a
special circular was issued to the observers asking for infor-
mation relating to the aurora, and a valuable collection of
returns was received, which were placed in the hands of Cap-
tain J. Henry Lefroy, then in charge of the meteorological
work in Toronto, to be " incorporated with observations
of a similar kind, which he had collected in the British

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1857, page 65. '^ Ibidem, 1S50, page 16.

Meteorology 669

Possessions of North America." ^ Another early illustration
of meteorological investigation may be mentioned : Soon
after the occurrence of an earthquake in the central part of
the United States on April 29, 1852, a circular was issued,
requesting a report of any observations which had been made
or could be gathered relative to that event. Numerous re-
plies were received, embodying facts suHicient to enable the
Institution to mark the point of chief intensity and trace out
the diverging lines along which the earth-wave passed.^

Bare mention must be made of the reduction of the series
of Temperature Tables begun in 1851 by Lorin Blodget; and
also of Tables of Precipitation. Ultimately the entire mass of
material, excepting of course that which was published under
the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the Pat-
ent Office, was given into the hands of Charles A. Schott for
reduction and discussion. Three volumes resulted, of which
the first, issued in 1872, consisted of "Tables and Results of
the Precipitation in Rain and Snow in the United States,
and at some stations in adjacent parts of North America, and
in Central and South America." ^ The second was issued in
1876 and bore the title of "Tables, Distribution, and Varia-
tions of the Atmospheric Temperature in the United States
and some adjacent parts of America."* A third volume, issued
in 1 88 1, was essentially a reprint of the first and had for its
title " Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain and
Snow in the United States, and at some stations in adjacent
parts of North America, and in Central and South America." ^
It is manifestly impossible at this place to attempt any discus-
sion of the contents of these volumes, but it is suggestive of
the magnitude of the undertaking to repeat from the preface

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 19. arc discussed at length on page 23 of the

^Ibidem, 1852, page 74. " Smithsonian Report," 1875.

'^Ibidem, 1872, page 21. 6 See description on page 26 of " Smith-

4 The character and extent of this work sonian Report," 1881.

6/0 The Smithsonian Institution

of one of them ^ that of the eight sources of information from
which the tables were derived, the 300 and over foho vohmies
of the registers of the Smithsonian Institution was a single
source. They were published in the Contributions to Know-
ledge. In this connection mention must be made of the
"Three Rain Charts of the United States, showing the dis-
tribution by Isohyetal lines of the mean precipitation in rain
and melted snow: (i) for the summer months, (2) for the winter
months, (3) for the year" (1870); "Temperature Chart of
the United States, showing the distribution, by isothermal
lines, of the mean temperature for the year" (1873) ; "Three
Temperature Charts of the United States, showing the dis-
tribution by isothermal curves of the mean temperature of
the lower atmosphere: (i) for the summer months, (2) for the
winter months, (3) for the year" (1874); "Temperature Chart
of the United States, showing the distribution of isothermal
lines of the mean temperature for the year (1874); and a
Base Chart of the United States" (1880). All of which
were published by the Smithsonian Institution in the years
indicated by the parenthesis.

Mention has already been made of the valuable collection
of Meteorological Tables, by Arnold Guyot, the fourth edition
of which was published in 1884. This edition was exhausted
in a very few years, and Secretary Langley then decided to
recast the work entirely and publish it in three parts, one of
meteorological, one of geographical, and one of physical tables,
each representative of the latest knowledge in the field and
independent of the others, but the three forming a homogene-
ous series. The " Smithsonian Meteorological Tables," the
first volume of the new series was issued in 1893.^

Among the early volumes of the " Contributions to Know-
ledge" are numerous papers containing discussions of meteor-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1875, page 25. 2 Ibidem, 1894, page 9.

Meteorology

671

ological observations. They include the series made by
Alexander D. Bache, in the Girard College Observatory, in
Philadelphia, during i840-'45 and were published in six parts
issued between the years 1859 and 1865;^ those made by
Doctor Alexis Caswell in Providence, Rhode Island, from
December, 1830, till December, 1876;^ those made by Parker
Cleaveland in P)runswick, Me., during 1807-59 I^ those made
by Samuel P. llildreth and Joseph Wood from 181 7 to 1823
and from 1826 to 1859,* and those made by Doctor Nathan
D. Smith in Washington, Ark., from 1840 to 1859.^

The meteorological observations made in the Arctic regions
were all reduced and discussed by Charles A. Schott. They
included those gathered by Elisha K. Kane during 1853-55 ; ^
those collected by Sir Francis L. McClintock during 1857
and 1859;^ and last of all, those obtained by Doctor Isaac I.
Hayes during 1860-61.^

Of more special meteorological interest are the following
memoirs, likewise contained in the Smithsonian publications,
and for the most part written by scientists who were also in-
cluded among the staff of observers. They include "Winds
of the Northern Hemisphere," by James H. Coffin (1853);^
"Account of a Tornado near New Harmony, Indiana, April
30, 1852," by John Chappelsmith (1855);^*' "On the Recent
Secular Period of the Aurora Borealis," by Dennison Olmsted

1 Full descriptions of these parts may be
found on page i8 " Smithsonian Report,"
1859; page 26 "Smithsonian Report," i860;
page 17 " Smithsonian Report," 1862; page
16 " Smithsonian Report," 1863 ; and page 18
"Smithsonian Report," 1864.

2 See " Smithsonian Report," 1859, page
31 ; " Smithsonian Report," i860, page 21 ;
and " Smithsonian Report," 18S2, page 21,
for description.

3 See " Smithsonian Report," 1867, pages
23 and 28, for description.

4 See " Siuitlisoniau Report," 1867, page 32,
for detailed description.

5 See " Smithsonian Report," i860, page 22,
for detailed description.

<> See " Smithsonian Report," 1859, page 22,
for detailed description.

7 See " Smithsonian Report," 1S61, page 16,
for detailed description.

8 See" Smithsonian Report," 1865, page 26,
for description.

9 This most important work costing many
years' labor is described in the "Smithsonian
Report," 1851, page 12, and "Smithsonian
Report," 1S53, page 13.

10 See " Smithsonian Report," 1853, page
14, for analysis.

672 The Smithsonian Institution

(1856);^ "Record of Aurora Phenomena observed in die
Higher Northern Ladtudes," by Peter P^orce (1856);'" "On
Certain Storms in Europe and America," by EHas Loomis
(1860);^ "The Orbit and Phenomena of a Meteoric P"ire
Ball seen July, i860," by James H. Coffin (1869),^ and "The
Winds of the Globe," by James H. Coffin (1875).^ To this
splendid collection of meteorological works there might well be
added certain smaller monographs that are contained in the
Miscellaneous Collections and Smithsonian Reports, but space
is wanting.^ In the series of Records of Scientific Progress,
meteorology was not neglected, and from 1879 till 1884^ the
admirable summaries of this science that were contributed to
the Smithsonian Reports were from the able pen of Professor
Cleveland Abbe.

With the beginning: of the civil war came the loss of the
appropriation by means of which it had been up to that time
possible to secure the reduction of the observations. At the
same time the telegraphic service became unsatisfactory. In
the annual Report for i860 Henry says: "We regret that
frequent intermissions take place in the receipt of the tele-
grams from places direcdy west of the city of Washington,
especially as we are more immediately interested in these,
since they afford the means of predicting with considerable
certainty the character of the weather sometimes a day or
more in advance."^ A year later the popular system of daily
telegraphic reports of the condition of the weather from dis-
tant parts of the United States had been discontinued ; " the

ISee "Smithsonian Report," 1854, page 6 "The Scientific Writings of Joseph

12, for analysis. Henry " contain his Meteorological Essays

2 Ibidem. and cover more than 400 pages, and consist

3 See " Smithsonian Report," 1859, page chiefly of those published during the years
28, for detailed description. 1855 - '59.

4 See "Smithsonian Report," 1868, page 7 These were contained in the annual Re-
49, for description. ports for 1881, 1S82, 18S3, 1884, and 1885, and

5 See " Smithsonian Report," 1875, page were also issued as separates.

20, for detailed description. 8" Smithsonian Report," i860, page 36.

Meteorology 673

continuity of thti lines to the South having been interrupted,
and the wires from the North and West being so entirely occu-
pied by public business that no use of them could be obtained
for scientific purposes."^

Toward the close of 1862 "the daily telegraphic bulletin
of the state of the weather"" was partially resumed, and in
1864 an important addition to the means at the command of
the Institution for meteorological purposes was received by
the liberal action of the North American Telegraphic Asso-
ciation, which gave the free use of all its lines for the scien-
tific objects of the Institution. "The association embraces the
Western Union, the American, the Montreal, the Southwest-
ern, and the Illinois and Mississippi Telegraph companies,
covering the entire United States and Canada, including the
overland line to San Francisco, which, by its charter, is re-
quired to transmit without charge scientific despatches for
the Institution."^ The same report adds that "the telegra])h
companies on the Pacific Coast have also liberally granted
the same privileges."*

In 1863 came the culmination of the misfortunes that al-
ready so seriously interfered with the development of the
meteorological service. It came in the way of a law passed
by Congress which prevented " the correspondents on agri-
culture and meteorology from sending their reports by mail
unless prepaid."^ Henry adds : "This arrangement almost
entirely stops the reception of these articles, for, since the
service rendered is ofratuitous, the observers cannot be ex-
pected to bear this additional burden." Also, "owing to this
restriction, the number of meteorological registers received
during the past year has been diminished, and the transmis-
sion of nearly all of them would have been discontinued had

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1861, page 35. ^ IbiJe/u.

- /(^/(/<v//, 1S62, page 29. B See "Smithsonian Report," 1863, page

3 Ibidem, 1864, page 28. 31, where the entire subject is discussed.

674 The Smithsonian Institution

not the Commissioner of Agriculture, in view of their vahie
to his department, decided to advance to some of the observ-
ers the necessary postage stamps to affix to their registers." ^

This condition of affairs was not long continued, and the
law was changed so that the meteorological registers could
be sent to the Commissioner of Agriculture without pay-
ment of postage. With the organizing of the Department
of Agriculture and the appointment of a commissioner inter-
ested in the collection of meteorological statistics, it was de-
cided to begin the publication of " a monthly bulletin giving
the state of the crops, the conditions of the weather and vari-
ous other items of importance which are daily received from
observers, and which would lose a considerable portion of
their value were they suffered to remain unpublished until
the end of the year." For this bulletin the Smithsonian In-
stitution supplied " the meteorological materials, consisting
of the mean, maximum, and minimum temperature and
amount of rain for each month in different States, and also,
for the purpose of comparison, the mean temperature and
amount of rain for a series of five years, grouped by States ;
together with tables of important atmospheric changes, and
notices of auroras, meteors, and other periodical phenomena."^

Step by step the history of the meteorological work of the
Smithsonian Institution has been traced in these pages from
its inception down to the beginning of 1866. In the Report
for 1865 Henry summarizes the work accomplished in the
followingr succinct manner :

"The Smithsonian meteorological system was commenced
in 1849, and, with occasional aid in defraying the expenses, has
continued in operation until the present period. It was, how-

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1863, page 32. discontinued in 1S71, by order of Commis-

"^ Ibidem, 1863, page 33. Tiiis Monthly sioner Watts. See "Smithsonian Report,"
Bulletin of the Agricultural Department was 1871, page 105.

Meteorology 675

ever, much diminished in efficiency during the war, since from
the Southern States no records were received, and many of
the observers at the North were called to abandon such pur-
suits for military service in the field. The efforts of the in-
stitution in this line have been directed to supplementing and
harmonizing all the other systems, preparing and distributing
blank forms and instructions, calculating and publishing ex-
tensive tables for the reduction of observations, introducinor
standard instruments, and collecting all public documents,
printed matter, and manuscript records bearing on the mete-
orology of the American continent, submitting these materials
to scientific discussion and publishing the results. In these
labors the Institution has been in continued harmonious coop-
eration with all the other efforts made in this country to ad-
vance meteorology, except those formerly conducted by the
Navy Department under Lieutenant Maury." ^

The reestablishment of the meteorological observations in-
terrupted by the civil war was somewhat impeded by the fire
that occurred in 1865 destroying very many of the records and
instruments. This catastrophe naturally diverted funds from
the meteorological work owing to the expenses incurred for
repairs, so that beyond the gradual restoration of the ser-
vice nothing worthy of note occurred subsequent to 1866.
It may even be mentioned that during 1867 the attempt
made by the Institution to resume by the cooperation of
the telegraph lines the system of telegraphic indications of
the weather, which was interrupted b)- the war, was unsuc-
cessful. "Indeed," says Henry, "it can scarcely be expected
that without some remuneration to the companies, the use
of the telegraphic wires and the time of the operators should
be given for the purpose."^

Meanwhile agritation was beine created in favor of "a me-

lit is proper to say that the quotation thosemadeat the same time on land," "Smith-
continues : " These were confined exclu- sonian Report," 1S65, page 52.
sively to the 5ea, and had no ref?r?nce to 2 « Smithsonian Report," 1867, page 28.

676 The Smithsonian Instihition

teorological department under one comprehensive system with
an adequate appropriation of funds." In 1865 Henry wrote:
" The present would appear to be a favorable time to urge
upon Congress the importance of making provision for reor-
ganizing all the meteorological observations of the United
States under one combined plan, in which the records should
be sent to a central depot for discussion and final publication.
An appropriation of $50,000 annually for this purpose would
tend not only to advance the material interest of the country,
but also to increase its reputation. It would show that al-
though the administration of our government is the expres-
sion of the popular volition, it is not limited in its operation
merely to objects of instant or immediate utility, but that, with
a wise prevision of the future, it withholds its assistance from
no enterprise, however remote the results, which has for its
end to advance the well-being of humanity." ^

It was not, however, until 1869 that Congress took final
action on this matter. During the winter of that year Hon.
Halbert E. Paine, of Wisconsin, secured the passage of a joint
resolution creating the Weather Bureau of the United States
Signal Service. This resolution was approved on February 9,
1870. It appropriated $25,000 for " taking meteorological
observations at the military stations in the interior of the con-
tinent, and at other points in the States and Territories of the
United States, and for giving notice on the Northern Lakes
and the seacoast of the United States by magnetic telegraph
and marine signals of the approach and force of storms." ^
The general direction of this service was given to General
Albert J. Myer.

In the Report for 1870 Henry expresses his gratification at
the culmination of his desires by the creation of the new

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1865, page 57. 1870 to 1891." "Bulletin No. il, Weather

2 Abbe, Cleveland, "The Meteorological Bureau," page 236. Report of Meteorological
Work of the United States Signal Service Congress held in Chicago, 1893.

Meteorology 677

Weather Bureau. He suggests that "a still larger appropri-
ation be made by Congress to the War Department for estab-
lishing, besides the reports for weather signals, a series of
intermediate stations, also furnished with compared instru-
ments, to record daily observations to be transmitted to Wash-
ington weekly or monthly, and also that provision be made
for the support of a number of competent persons to carry on
the reductions and prepare the results for publication." ^
And in conclusion he says: "It has been the policy of this
Institution from the first to do nothintr which can be done as
well or better by other means, and in accordance with this
policy the Institution would willingly relinquish the held of
meteorology, which it has so long endeavored, though im-
perfectly, to cultivate, turning over to the Signal Office all the
material which it has accumulated up to a given epoch." -
The transfer of the meteorological work of the Smithsonian
Institution alluded to in the foregoing paragraph was accom-
plished in 1873, and in the Report for that year Henry refers
to it as follows: "This transfer, which has just been made, we
trust will meet the approbation of the observers generally, and
we hope they will continue their voluntary cooperation, not
with the expectation of being full)- rej)aid for their unremitted
labor, in many cases for a long series of years, but from the
gratification which must result from the consciousness of hav-
ing- contributed to increase the sum of human knowledofe." ^
The work of publishing the results obtained by the reduc-
tion of meteoroloirical observations continued, and for the
most part these have been specihcall)- mentioned elsewhere
in this chapter. As a contribution to the physical part of the
science. Doctor Langley's "Internal Work of the Wind"
may be cited as "the last word" on this important subject.

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1870, page 44. •* On page 31 of the Report for 1S73, the

- Ibidem. details of the transfer are given.

678 The Smithsonian Institution

In 1 89 1 Secretary Langley deposited in the United States
Signal Office all the voluminous monthly records of the Insti-
tution and all the manuscripts and printed observations re-
lating to meteorology, subject to recall, but with the under-
standing that the entire official record of research and pro-
gress in this connection should be preserved intact by that
office, now the Weather Bureau, which has these investiga-
tions in charge.^

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1891, page 13.

PALEONTOLOGY

By Edward Drinker Cope

Professor of Mineralogy and Geology, University of Pennsylvania.

^i^^^OTH in its quarto and octavo publications the
Smithsonian Institution has made important
contributions to the Hterature of the science
of paleontology. A number of able paleontol-
ogists have been associated with it, and since
the establishment of the United States Geological Survey, its
paleontologists have been among the honorary curators of the
United States National Museum.

The publications of the Smithsonian Institution concerning
the fossil flora of the United States date from 1882. The
first works issued were Lesquereux' " Miocene Flora of
Alaska" and Newberry's "Tertiary Fossil Plants from West-
ern North America," both of which appeared in the " Proceed-
ings of the United States National Museum " for that year.
Lesquereux' descriptions and determinations of the material
then in the National Museum were published from 1887 to
1890, inclusive. It was at this time, also, that Frank H.
Knowlton's interesting studies in paleobotany were issued in
a series of papers, beginning in 1888. The first of these re-
lates to material which came from the vicinity of P'ort Win-

679

68o The Smithsonian Institution

gate, New Mexico, consisting of three specimens of fossilized
tree trunks. The specimens were described as a new species,
and called Arancarites Arizonicum.

The second paper, issued in 1888, is founded on coniferous
specimens, and describes two species of the genus Cnpressi-
noxylon. The horizon of one of the species is probably Cre-
taceous, the other is Laramie.

A third paper, published in 1889, embraces descriptions of
fifty species of the genus Araucarioxylon of Kraus, with
compiled descriptions and partial synonymy of the species.
As the evidence which has led to the separation of Cordaites
is of interest, Knowlton presents it in full.

Descriptions of new species of fossil plants from the Fort
Union group of Montana appeared in 1893, and a review of
the extinct flora of Alaska in 1894.

The latter paper gives a historical review of works and
papers relating to the fossil flora of Alaska, and incident-
ally shows the geographical distribution of the plant beds.
This is followed by a systematic enumeration of the fossil
plants, with descriptions of new species from Herendeen
Bay, a table showing the distribution of the plants in other
parts of the world ; and, finally, a discussion of the geological
age of the beds as indicated by the plants.

Other important works during this period were Lester
F. Ward's " Paleontologic History of the Genus Platanus,"
published in 1888, and Holm's "Notes on the Leaves of
Liriodendron," issued in 1890. The object of the latter is to
prove that there is no greater diflerence in the foliage between
many of the extinct species of Liriodendron than between a
series of leaves from a very young tree or from a branch of
an older plant of recent species.

The list of paleobotanical papers published up to date ends
with D. P. Penhallow's "Notes on Some Devonian Plants from

Paleontology 68 1

the Eastern United States" (1893); W. M. Fontaine's "De-
scriptions of Fossil Plants from the Great Falls Coal Field,
Montana" (1892) ; and notes by the same author on " Fossil
Plants from the Trinity Division of the Comanche Series in
Texas" (1893). The species described in the latter paper
are known as the Glen Rose fossils. From a tabular state-
ment it is seen that all the species of Glen Rose fossils
hitherto known occur in the Lower Cretaceous, ranging
from the Wealden to the Urgonian. The Potomac includes
both these epochs. Omitting the species that have no value
for fixing the age of the flora, because they are not sufficiently
characterized, the author has nineteen for comparison. Four
of these are peculiar to the Trinity division ; of the fifteen
remaining, no fewer than twelve are identical with plants from
the older Potomac, or so near them that nearness in age of
the two formations is extremely probable. The circumstances
under which the basal Trinity beds were laid down indicate
that the fossils entombed in them form a portion of a flora
that was established on the land that was encroached upon
by the Trinity sea. It is probable that this same flora ex-
tended northward to Virginia, where, somewhat later, it was
preserved by a similar encroachment.

The publications on invertebrate animals antedate those
concerning fossil flora by almost a score of years, the record
showingr that Meek's check-lists of North American inverte-
brate fossils were issued in 1864. These form part of the
" Miscellaneous Collections," and consist of check-lists of all
the species of Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Miocene invertebrate
fossils of North America which had been described up to the
end of 1863. They constitute an important aid in the labor
of cataloQ^uino- and labelino- collections. Meek's lists were
supplemented by those of Conrad in 1866, and his in turn by
Marcou in 1885 and 1886.

682 The Smithsonian Institution

Conrad's work contains a list of all the species from the
Eocene formations of North America up to its publication,
and is intended to facilitate the distribution of duplicate speci-
mens, while Marcou listed the Mesozoic and Cenozoic in-
vertebrate types in the collections of the National Museum.

These different series of check -lists have fully answered
the purpose intended, in supplying a want long felt by stu-
dents of natural history.

The year 1865 is marked by two important publications:
Leidy's " Cretaceous Reptiles," which will be referred to
again, and Meek and Hayden's report on the " Paleontol-
ogy of the Upper Missouri."

The latter work is in quarto form, and contains figures and
descriptions of the various geological formations of Idaho,
Dakota, Nebraska, and portions of Kansas. About three
hundred and seventy species of invertebrates, nearly all of
which are new, are fully described, and the descriptions are
accompanied by remarks on the relations of each species to
allied forms from other districts in this country and Europe,
both living and fossil — their geological range and geograph-
ical distribution. The illustrations consist of about one thou-
sand figures, occupying forty-five quarto plates.

A considerable number of the specimens described and fig-
ured were collected by Doctor F. V. Hay den in the several
expeditions into the regions of the Upper Missouri and Yel-
lowstone, sent by the government under the command of
Lieutenant G. K. Warren, of the United States Topographical
Engineers, to whose scientific zeal and liberal encouragement
science is indebted for much of the material upon which the
work is founded. But besides these, a large number were
collected by Doctor Hayden himself, previous to his connec-
tion with the exploring expeditions of the government. The
specific descriptions of the fossils described in this work are

Paleontology 683

to be regarded as appearing in the joint names of IVIeek and
Hayden, while the descriptions of the genera and famiHes,
and the discussion of their relations, geological range, and
geographical distribution, are by Meek.

From 1865 to 1878 there is another period during which
paleontological publication ceased. During this time, how-
ever, specialists in this province were not idle. Dall was
working up the Plistocene and other Tertiary invertebrate
fauna of California, and his results, embodied in three sepa-
rate papers, were published in 1878 in the " Proceedings."
Later communications by Dall to the same medium, entitled
"A Subtropical Miocene Fauna in Arctic Siberia," "A Mono-
graph of the Genus Gmithodon, Gray (^Rangia, Desmoulins),"
and " New Tertiary Fossils from the Southern United
States," appeared respectively in 1893, 1894, and 1895.

The Miocene fauna, referred to in the first of these papers,
included six species of fossil shells, of which five were new
and belonged to the following genera : Semele, Siphonaria
Conus, Cerithium, and Diloma. They were assigned to a
Miocene age. P'aunally, the species point to a distinct anal-
ogy with those of the China and South Japan seas.

While Dall's work was in progress the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic material collected by the museum from the south-
ern and western United States was being studied by Charles
A. White. The results of his work were published in the
"Proceedings" from 1879-1894.

Heilprin's "Eocene Mollusca" appeared in 1880. It con-
tains descriptions of species from southern United States,
now in the National Museum.

In 1888 the publication of Walcott's brilliant series of
papers on the Cambrian and pre- Cambrian fauna was begun,
and continues up to the present. The first of the series
contains descriptions of thirteen species and varieties, referred

684 The SmitJisonimi Institution

by the author to nine genera, two of which, Karlia and
Ogygopsis, are new. The latter genus is founded on Ogygia
klotsii, Rominger. It differs from Ogygia in having a well-
defined ocular ridge, and in the narrow palpebral lobe.

A second paper, issued in the same year, describes a fossil
Lingula which preserves the cast of the peduncle. The
specimen shows the interior of the anterior portion of the
ventral valve of the Lingtila ceqiialis, Hall, collected near
Rome, New York, from the upper portion of the Lorraine
Terrane. The portions of the shell remaining in the mat-
rix show the median ridge extending back from the divari-
cator muscular scar, the reflex portion of the shell forming
the false area and the groove for the passage of the peduncle.
The portion of the peduncle preserved is nearly as long as
the entire length of the shell.

The " Proceedines of the National Museum " for the fol-
lowing year (1889) contains descriptions by the same author
of new invertebrate forms from the Trenton limestone, and
from the Olenellus zone of North America. The material
from the latter horizon consists of corals, trails, burrows, and
tracks of animals, shells, and trilobites. Twenty-four new
species were recognized, which were referred to twenty-two
genera. Of the latter three were new, comprising one trilo-
bite, Avalonia, and two shells, Coleoloides and Helenia.

New forms of Upper Cambrian fossils appeared in 1890,
and the discovery of Oldhamia in America was published in
1894. The specimens referred to in the latter paper are pre-
served as casts on the surface of a smooth siliceous slate.
They were found in great abundance in the gorge of the
Poestenkill, near Troy, New York. The slates are post-
Lower Cambrian and pre-Trenton, but their exact strati-
graphic position is not fully determined. But one species is
described. It is closely related to Oldhamia antiqna of the

Paleontology 685

Cambrian rocks of Ireland, but differs in some particulars, so
that the author considers it a distinct species, and proposes
for it the name Oldhamia {Murchiso7iites) occidens.

Another important work issued during this period is "The
Genesis of the Arietidte," contained in the twenty-sixth
" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," by Alpheus
Hyatt. This memoir forms a quarto volume of over two
hundred pages, including introduction, index, and explanation
of plates. The general plan of tlie treatise is a discussion of
the genealogy, genesis of characteristics, geologic and faunal
relations, and, finally, descriptions of genera and species of
Arietid Ammonitoidea.

The work sets forth the successional development of the
different types of the ammonites of this division through the
successive geologic ages, and is an important contribution to
the general doctrine of evolution, since these forms illustrate
the nature of direct evolution in definite directions, or ortho-
genesis, as it is called.

The illustrations consist of thirty-five figures in the text,
six folding charts or tables, and fourteen plates, of which ten
are heliotypes.

Simpson's papers on " Fossil Unionidct " complete the list
of invertebrate publications. These appeared in 1893 and in
1896, respectively. The first contains descriptions of Unios
and other fresh-water shells from the Drift at Toronto, Can-
ada, and a review of the distribution of the Unionidae of
northeastern North America. The second paper comprises
diagnoses of some new Triassic Unios from the Staked Plains
of Texas. The material on which this paper is based was
obtained from the Dockum beds, an extensive Triassic fresh-
water formation deposited in shallow water, underlying the
Staked Plains of Texas. Four species are recognized. Taken
as a whole, these Unios closely resemble in form, and are
44*

686 The Smithsonian Institution

apparently nearly related to those of the Jurassic beds of
North America, while three of the species bring to mind
most strongly the species which now inhabit Europe and
western Asia, and a small group belonging to the Mississippi
area. The variety of characters displayed by these Triassic
Unios go to show that the genus must have been well estab-
lished at the time the Dockum beds were laid down, thus
tending to overthrow Neumayer's theory that the Unionidse
were derived from the genus Trigonia, which probably does
not date back to a period earlier than that of the shells under
consideration.

The first work published by the Institution in vertebrate
paleontology was a memoir of the Mosasaurus and three
new genera, Holcodus, Conosaurus, and Amphorosteus, by
Robert W. Gibbes, and was issued in 1850.

The material upon which this memoir is based was found
in the Cretaceous and Eocene marls of South Carolina and
Alabama, The review of the literature of the subject is
accompanied by two plates, showing the five species of Mos-
asaurus then known, and a third displaying the three new
genera. This memoir was a quarto.

In 1852 Joseph Leidy's "Memoir on the Extinct Species
of American Ox" was published, and was followed in 1853
by his celebrated report upon the Bad Land collections, enti-
titled " Ancient Fauna of Nebraska." Both of these works
belong to the " Contributions to Knowledge " series, and are
handsomely illustrated.

In the first paper Doctor Leidy indicates the former existence
of four species of ox, which were probably contemporaneous
with the Mastodon and the Megalonyx. Fossil remains of
these animals had been frequently found in the United States,
and descriptions of them are scattered through various works;
but no approach had before been made to a correct view

Paleontology 687

of the number and character of the species. Two of the
species of ox described by Doctor Leidy belong to the
genus Bison, and one of these is of gigantic size. The other
two species belong to a new genus called Bootherium, which
has been shown to be identical with Ovibos.

The material upon which the ancient fauna of Nebraska is
based came from the drainage region of the Missouri, from the
tract of country known by the name of " Mauvaises Terres," or
the " Bad Lands." This at one time was the bottom of an im-
mense lake, in which thousands of animals, having no repre-
sentatives at this time on the surface of the earth, perished.
The age of the beds is lower Miocene or Oligocene, and their
special name in the closer divisions of formations is the White
River Beds of Hayden.

This region having been brought to notice by a few fossil re-
mains procured through the agents of the American Fur Com-
pany, an appropriation of about $200 for its exploration was
made by the Smithsonian Institution to Mr. Thaddeus Cul-
bertson, who was about to visit, on account of his health, the
sources of the Missouri. The specimens of fossil remains which
were thus procured, together with a collection subsequently
presented to the Institution by Captain Stewart \^an Miet,
of the United States army, and several specimens kindly lent
by Doctor Front, of Missouri, were referred to Doctor Leidy
for examination. In addition to these he had the use of a col-
lection lent by Frofessor O'Loghland, of Missouri, specimens
belonging to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Fhiladelphia,
and a collection made by Doctor Evans, at the instigation of
Doctor D. Dale Owen, the whole embracing all the specimens
which had yet been brought to the East from the Bad Lands.
The bones were completely petrified, and their cavities filled
with silicious matter. They were preserved in various degrees
of integrity, some being beautifully perfect and others broken

688 The Smithsonian Instihttion

and imperfect, the latter having been evidently subjected to
violence while imbedded in a soft mud. Of hoofed animals,
there were seven species of four genera, belonging to the
Booidea, or cud-chewing animals ; two species of one genus be-
lono-ing to the Suoidea, or hog-like animals; one species of the
Solipedia, or solid-hoofed animals; and four species of three
genera belonging to the Perissodactyla, or uneven-toed animals.

The first specimen described belonged to a peculiar genus
of ruminants which, among recent animals, is more nearly
allied to the musk-deer, and was hornless. The next is of
a remarkable genus of ungulata, representing a type which
occupies a position in the wide interval existing between
recent ruminants and the anomalous fossil animal called the
Anoplotherium. Another genus was called Oreodon, and con-
stituted one of the links necessary to fill up the very wide gap
between existing ruminants and an exceedingly aberrant
form of the same family now extinct. There were also two
remarkable species of rhinoceros, differing from any remains
of this animal found in other parts of the globe.

Another fossil belonged to the feline family, about a fifth
smaller than the American panther, and is probably the most
ancient known eenus of this animal. Hundreds of fossil
turtles were found in the " Bad Lands," belonging to the
genus Stylemys, of which five species are described. The
memoir occupies one hundred and twenty-six pages, and is
illustrated by twenty-four plates, one of which is a folio.

In 1855 a third memoir by Doctor Leidy, on "The Ex-
tinct Sloth Tribe of North America," was issued in the same
series. This work forms an interesting addition to our know-
ledoe of the extinct o^io^antic sloth tribe of North America.
It comprises a description of remains of the genera Megal-
onyx, Mylodon, Megatherium, and of a new genus which he
called Ereptodon.

Paleontology 689

The scientific world is indebted for the first account of the
remains of a large extinct quadruped of the sloth tribe to Presi-
dent Jefferson. He described them in a memoir published in
the "Transactions of the American Philosophical Society" in
Philadelphia, in 1797, and gave to the animal to which they
belonged the name of Megalonyx, or the great claw. The
materials in his possession, however, were too scanty to allow
of his determining the true character of the quadruped. Doctor
Wistar, of Philadelphia, suspected the animal to have been a
gigantic sloth ; and this opinion was confirmed by Cuvier, from
the ample materials for comparison at his command. The
original bones described by Jefferson are preserved in the
collection of the Philosophical Society ; but, besides these.
Doctor Leidy had access to specimens of the remains of the
same animal found in different parts of the United States.
P>om the study of all these he was enabled to throw much
additional light upon the characters of Megalonyx. He con-
sidered that the only remains of this animal yet known were
those found in the United States, and satisfactorily proved
that the lower jaw of an extinct quadruped discovered by
Charles Darwin in South America, and referred by naturalists
to the Megalonyx of Jefferson, does not belong to an animal
of the same genus.

The remains of the Mylodon, or gigantic sloth, were first
discovered by Darwin in his researches in the southern part
of South America. Remains of another species found in North
America were described by Doctor Harlan, but were erron-
eously referred to the Megalonyx. Doctor Leidy, in his
memoir, described the collection of the remains of this animal
belonging to the New York Lyceum.

The Megatherium, which is the largest of all the extinct
sloth tribe, when full grown, was more than fourteen feet long,
including the tail, and eight feet high. It was first discovered

690 The Smithsonian Institution

in South America, but has since been found in Georgia ; and
it was from this locahty, the only one in the United States
then known, that the remains described by Doctor Leidy
were obtained.

The fourth and new genus of American sloths, called the
Ereptodon by the author, was established upon a peculiar
form of teeth which belonged to an animal of about the size
of the Megalonyx, the bones of which were also found in
the state of Georgia.

Doctor Hays, one of the commission to which this memoir
was submitted, says in his report, that "the author has not
only made valuable additions to our knowledge of an inter-
esting tribe of animals, but has also collected and arranged
the facts previously known so as to throw new light on the
subject, and to render his memoir an important starting-point
for future investigfators."

A fourth memoir by Doctor Leidy was published in 1865.
It consists of descriptions of remains of reptiles discovered in
the Cretaceous formations of the United States, and, like the
preceding ones, is one of the quarto series.

Multitudes of fossils are found in the American Cretaceous
formations, though the species appear not to be so numerous
as in those of Europe. The mollusks are particularly abun-
dant, and among them are a great many species of cham-
bered shells. A species of ammonite was found on the Upper
Missouri as large as an ordinary fore-wheel of a wagon.
Remains of fishes were likewise numerous, sometimes in excel-
lent preservation and sometimes fragmentary. The teeth of
sharks were especially numerous. Bones of reptiles were also
abundant, and their remains form the subject of Doctor
Leidy's valuable memoir.

Nothing further was published in vertebrate paleontology
until 1883, when Edward D. Cope's memoir on "The Con-

Paleontology 69 1

tents of a Bone Cave in the Island of Anguilla " (West In-
dies) appeared in the quarto series. This memoir gives a
description of the fossil vertebrates, shells, and also of the
indications of human occupation discovered during the exca-
vation of a cave in the West Indian island of Anguilla. The
remains were discovered in 1868, and notices of them made,
but the publication of a full account was delayed, in the hope
that other objects might be added to the collection.

The importance of the subject is shown by the fact that it
is the first investigation of the life of the cave age in the
West Indies ; that it gives the first reliable indication of the
period of submergence, and hence of separation, of the West
Indian islands, and that it describes some very peculiar
forms of animal life not previously known.

The paper consists of thirty-four pages, and contains five
plates, with one hundred and five figures, the illustrations
being made particularly full on account of the archaeological
interest attaching to these animals, which were probably the
contemporaries of the earliest men of tropical America.

A second work by Professor Cope was published in 1891
in the " Proceedings." This paper is a discussion of the
" Characters of Some Paleozoic Fishes." It contains, in addi-
tion, descriptions of five new species and one new genus
(Styptobasis) of fishes, and the cranial structure of Macropet-
alichthys is given for the first time. The author first referred
this genus to the Placodermata (Arthrodira), in a review of
Professor Newberry's work on "The Paleozoic Fishes of
North America," in "The American Naturalist" for Septem-
ber, 1890, and the view has been adopted by A. Smith
Woodward, and later authors.

In addition to the foregoing, the following reprinted papers
from the annual Reports, and elsewhere, have been published
as separates: Marcou's "Bibliographies of American Natu-

692 The SmitJisonian Institution

ralists " (1885); "Records of North American Paleontol-
ogy," compiled for the years 1884, 1885, and 1886 by John B.
Marcou, and for 1887-88 by Henry S. Williams.

The first of these works forms the third volume of the
" Bibliographies of American Naturalists," and is devoted
entirely to a catalogue of the writings of those who have
labored in the field of invertebrate paleontology, in connec-
tion with the researches and collections made by the Insti-
tution and the National Museum. The list of memoirs
embraces : first. The published writings of Fielding B. Meek,
numbering one hundred and five titles of papers (of which one
was in conjunction with James Hall, seventeen in conjunction
with F. V. Hayden, and twenty-five in conjunction with A. H.
Worthen), and occupying one hundred pages ; second. The
published writings of Charles A. White, numbering one hun-
dred and fifty-one papers (of which two were in conjunction
with H. A. Nicholson and two in conjunction with O. H. St.
John), and occupying sixty-six pages; third. The published
writings of Charles D. Walcott, numbering twenty-seven
papers and occupying fifteen pages ; and fourth, A collection
from fifteen authors of " Publications Based upon the Paleon-
tological Collections of the United States Government," in-
cluding the titles of three papers by Jacob W. Bailey, twelve
papers by T. A. Conrad, five papers by James D. Dana, two
papers by Christian G. Ehrenberg, seven papers by James
Hall (one in conjunction with F. B. Meek, above referred to),
two papers by Angelo Heilprin, three papers by Alpheus
Hyatt, ten papers by Jules Marcou, two papers by John S.
Newberry, one paper by I. N. Nicollet, four papers by David
Dale Owen, and five by Owen and Shumard, two papers by
Hiram A. Prout, one paper by James Schiel, seven papers by
Benjamin F. Shumard, and five in conjunction with Owen
(above referred to); and lasdy, five papers by Robert P.

Paleontology 693

Whitfield, these occupying seventy-two pages. An index of
genera and species of invertebrate fossils occupies fifty-two
pages. The work is supplied with a general index of sub-
jects and authors, and forms an octavo volume of over three
hundred pages.

In accordance with its policy, the Institution subscribed in
1857 for a few copies of a work on "The Pleiocene Fossils of
South Carolina," by M. Tuomey and F. S. Holmes. This
work received the commendation of some of the distino^uished
members of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, at its meeting in Charleston, in 1850, and its pub-
lication was undertaken at the risk and cost of the authors.
To aid this enterprise, the Institution was induced to make
the subscription above mentioned for copies to be distributed
to foreign societies.

In 1856 the Institution considered favorably the proposition
made by Doctor James Deane, of Greenfield, Massachusetts,
to publish a memoir containing a series of illustrations of his
researches relative to the celebrated fossil foot-prints in the
sandstone of the Connecticut valley. The number of plates
required to illustrate the memoir, as originally proposed, would
have involved too great an expense to be met in one or even
two years by the portion of the income of the Institution which
could be appropriated to any single publication. It was,
therefore, concluded that Doctor Deane should continue his
investigations, and endeavor, by means of photography, to
produce representations of all the most important specimens,
and that from these a selection should be made sufficient to
illustrate the characteristics of the different species of animals
by which the impressions had been left. To assist in the
experiments of photography and in lithographing the illus-
trations, a small appropriation was made, with which about
fifty drawings were finished on stone by Doctor Deane before

694 The Smithsonian Institution

his career was suddenly terminated by death. The work,
however, was in such an unfinished condition that it could
not be published.

During the years 1852-56, inclusive, the Smithsonian In-
stitution acquired a number of collections of fossils, partly as
gifts, but chiefly through the diligence of its own collectors
in the field.

In connection with the survey of Governor Stevens, Doctor
Evans revisited the Mauvaises Terres in 1852, and collected
a large number of specimens of the fossil vertebrata of that
region. These were put into the hands of Doctor Leidy,
who detected the presence of some additional new species.
In 1853 Alexander Winchell sent quite a full series of the
Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils of Alabama, and Major Em-
ory the same of Texas. In 1854 an interesting series
from the vicinity of Satow was forwarded by the Reverend
L. Vortisch ; G. Lambert, of Mons, presented a series of car-
boniferous fossils of Belgium ; specimens from Texas were
sent in by Lieutenant J. G. Benton, United States army, and
by Doctor Julius Froebel ; from Panama, by Doctor E. L.
Berthoud; from Illinois, by Doctor R. P. Stevens; from North
Carolina, by J. L. Bridger. A complete set of minerals and
fossils of the remarkable Brown-coal beds of Brandon, Ver-
mont, was received from David Buckland ; sharks' teeth
and mastodon bones of Florida, from Captain T. L. Casey,
United States army ; fossil- wood of California, from W. F.
Langton, and infusorial earth of Monterey, from Major T. G.
Barnard. The following year Doctor Hayden procured a
number of fossil mammals from the Mauvaises Terres of
White River and of the Blackfoot country, and a very valu-
able collection of minerals and fossils was received from the
Lake Superior mining region. This collection was made by
Foster and Whitney, to illustrate their government report,

Paleontology 695

and with other government geological collections, previously
secured, furnished rich material for representing the geologi-
cal features of the country. The Thomas Barnett set of
Niagara fossils and minerals was also" received in this year.

Various private collections were received in 1856, the prin-
cipal ones being contributed by Doctor Ferdinand V. Haydcn ;
I. Lippmann of Saxony; the Koenigliche Leopoldina Carolina
Akademie of Breslau, Prussia, and the Natilrforschende Ge-
sellschaft of Emden, Hanover.

In 1868 and 1871 important accessions were made to the
invertebrate department. William H. Dall sent part of the
collection made by him in Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and
Eastern Siberia in 1865-67, and other specialists contributed
Permian material from Kansas and Lower Silurian fossils
from Ohio. In 1875 the collections of fossil vertebrata from
New Mexico, obtained by Edward D. Cope, Paleontologist
of the United States Geographical Survey West of the looth
Meridian, were sent to the Museum. These collections form
the basis of the report by Professor Cope contained in the
fourth volume of the Reports of the above survey under
Lieutenant George M. Wheeler, of the United States Engi-
neers. The collections were from three horizons, and included
one hundred and six species, of which eighty-one were new.

During 1878, 1879, and 1880, the following valuable dona-
tions were received: Black Hills fossils, from Professor Henry
Newton ; Californian fossils, from Senator Sargent ; and the
large collection of invertebrate fossils made by Lieutenant
Wheeler, presented by B. H. Lyon and other paleontologists.

In 1884 the most important accession was that of Devonian
and carboniferous fossils from the United States Geological
Survey, many of them types of new species. Collections
were also received of Mesozoic and Cenozoic fossils from
California, Oregon, New Jersey, Florida, Alabama, and Mis-

696 The Smithsonian Institution

sissippi, and fifteen miscellaneous lots were sent from private
sources to the museum.

The F. W. Taylor collection, consisting of rare minerals
and fossils from the vicinity of Lake Valley, New Mexico, was
acquired in 1885, and the Jordan series of cretaceous fossils in
1889. During the latter year also C. D. Walcott collected
and presented to the museum a large series of Lower Cam-
brian fossils from Conception Bay, Newfoundland.

A few selections from the collections of vertebrate fossils
were made by the United States Geological Survey, under
direction of O. C. Marsh, and placed in the United States
National Museum in 1893. These included some specimens
of Dinosauria of the Laramie formation of the family Agath-
aumidae; skulls of Menodontidae from the White River beds;
skulls and bones from the Loup Fork beds of rhinoceroses of
the genus Aphelops. When these collections are placed in
the museum, the vertebrata of America will be as well repre-
sented as in any museum in the world.

In 1895 a valuable collection of remains of Zeuglodon was
made by Charles Schuchert, and work on this material is now
in progress.

BOTANY

By William Gilson Farlow

Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Harvard University.

^^]\HE numerous and important services rendered
to botanical science by the Institution may be
considered under the following heads: First, the
development of the knowledge of the phreno-
^al^^C^^^ gamic flora, especially of unexplored or little
known regions of the South and West, through grants made
to collectors in those regions, and more particularly by the
publication in the "Contributions to Knowledge" and the mis-
cellaneous publications of a series of important monographs
on the North American flora by eminent American botanists;
secondly, contributions to the knowledge of the algae of the
United States and of other low cryptogamous plants ; thirdl)-,
the diffusion of information in reofard to the local flora of
Washino^ton and certain exotic floras, toefether with miscella-
neous papers, either original or translated, on various botanical
subjects printed in the different annual Reports or as Bulletins
of the United States National Museum; and lastly, the forma-
tion of a National Herbarium.

The earliest reference to botanical work undertaken under

45 ''''

698 The Smithsonian Instihition

the direction of the Institution is to be found in 1848/ where
mention is made of some drawings and engravings of a paper
on the botany of Oregon, for which a small advance had been
made, and in the same volume ^ it is said that a " report on
the forest trees of North America," by Professor Asa Gray,
is in progress. The paper on the botany of Oregon refers
apparently to the work on the plants of the Wilkes expedi-
tion, of which the part by Gray appeared in 1854 and that by
Torrey in 1873. The Report of 1849 again mentions the
"report on the forest trees of North America," and says that
" this work will be completed in three parts, in octavo, with
an atlas of quarto plates, — the first part to be published next
spring."^ Numerous delays in the work are mentioned in
the different Reports, and in that of 1856,* after referring to
the pressing demands on the author's time and the difficulty
of obtaining the necessary drawings from the artist, Isaac
Sprague, it is said that "the work will be ready for the press
during this year." Nothing more is heard of the projected
flora beyond the statement in 1864 that work was to be re-
sumed upon it by Professor Gray, until 1884, when its final
abandonment by Gray was announced, and it was reported
that, although a proposition which had previously been made
by Professor C. S. Sargent to take up and complete the work
had been accepted, its magnitude had proved too great for
the funds at the disposal of the Institution, and that it had
been arranged with Professor Sargent that he should refund
the cost of the drawings which had been made by C. E.
Faxon and receive them for publication with a private pub-
lisher. In 1 89 1, the twenty-three beautifully colored plates
which had been drawn by Mr. Sprague between 1849 ^^'^^^
1859 were issued by the Institution without text; and thus
what was, as originally planned, to have been the first botan-

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1848, page 16. 3 Ibidem, 1849, page 18.

2 Ibidem^ page 19. 4 Jbidem, 1856, page 32.

ASA GRAY.

REGENT OP THE SMITflSONIAN INSTITUTION,

1874-1888.

li-

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n three parts, in e tii

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icl It w:

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,:H01TUTITa'PlI i«AIl^C)RTTTTT/:8 [JITT 'SO TKHOaa

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'^^W^i

Botany 699

ical publication of the Institution, in reality formed its last
quarto publication on a botanical subject.

In 1849 ^^ Institution contributed $150 toward defraying
the expenses of the botanist, Charles Wright, on an ex-
pedition to El Paso, Texas, and in 1852 appeared the first
contribution to phaenogamic knowledge, entitled " Plantae
Wrightianai Texano-Neo-Mexicanai," containing a description
by Gray of the plants collected by Wright, together with many
of those collected by Wislizenus in the valley of the Rio
Grande and Chihuahua, and by Doctor Gregg in the same
district and the northern part of Mexico. A second part of
the " Plantai Wrightianae " appeared the following year, both
parts with illustrations by Mr. Sprague. In rapid succession
appeared three other " Contributions to Knowledge" by Profes-
sor John Torrey. It had been hoped that arrangements would
be made by the government for publishing a general account
of the botany of California, including the plants collected by
Fremont on his different expeditions from 1842 to 1848, but
there being no immediate prospect of such a work, Professor
Torrey published in 1854, in the sixth volume of the "Con-
tributions to Knowledge," a monograph entitled "Plantoe Fre-
montianai," in which he gave an account of twelve of the most
characteristic genera and species collected by Fremont in
California, including the new genera Spraguea, Fremontia,
Coleogyne, Emplectocladus, Carpenteria, and Sarcodes, the
type of the latter being the then remarkable but now familiar
snow-plant of the Sierras, S. sa7iguinea.

In the same volume are two other important papers by
Torrey. In the first, " Observations on the Batis maritima
of Linnaeus," he gave the first full account of this anomalous
species, which is widely diffused in the West Indies and
South America, and placed it in a new order which he con-
sidered related to Empetracese. Although the genus was

700 The Smithsonian Institution

afterward placed in Chenopodiacea^ by Grisebach in his
" Flora of the British West Indian Islands" (1864), the genus
was still kept as the type of a distinct order by Bentham and
Hooker in their " Genera Plantarum," and also by Engler
and Prantl in " Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien," its natural
position being near Amarantacese and Polygonaceae.

In the second paper Torrey described the curious and
characteristic pitcher-plant, Darlingtonia Catiforjiica, of
which the first sterile specimens had been collected in Cali-
fornia by W. D. Brackenridge, of the Wilkes Exploring
Expedition. Flowering specimens were collected afterward
by Doctor G. W. Hulse, and, with this material, Torrey was
able to recognize the plant as the representative of a new
genus of the curious order Sarraceniacese.

For many years the Institution had intended to publish for
the use of those engaged in the study of Western plants a
complete list, with synonyms, of all the species known in the
region west of the Mississippi, and in 1870 Doctor Sereno
Watson, who had acted as botanist of the Fortieth Parallel
Expedition, was engaged to prepare such a work. The
expense of preparation was to be borne by private subscrip-
tion, the Institution paying for the clerical labor and for the
publication. Work on the Index progressed until 1877, and
one hundred and eighty- four pages had been stereotyped
when Doctor Watson found his time much occupied with
other work, and it was decided to publish the portion then
finished, which included the orders of Polypetalai, as Part i.
This part appeared in 1878 under the title of "Bibliograph-
ical Index to North American Botany," as one of the " Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections," forming an octavo volume
of four hundred and eighty-four pages. The " Index " was
very carefully and critically prepared, but, although of great
service to working botanists, the character of the work was

Botany 70 1

so laborious that Doctor Watson did not feel able to continue
it beyond the Polypetalae.

The " Flora of North America," by Torrey and Gray, of
which the first volume, including the Polypetalae, appeared in
1838-40, had never been continued beyond the second vol-
ume, including the Gamopetalce, from Caprifoliaceee through
the Compositce, issued in 1841-43. At that point the pub-
lication was suspended, for so large an amount of new mate-
rial had been brought together by the different government
expeditions and by numerous private collectors, that it was
decided by Professor Gray that, instead of completing the
"Flora" in its original form, the orders already published
should be entirely revised and, with the remaining orders,
treated in a more condensed form, omitting the longer notes
of the first edition, but retaining the essential part of the syn-
onymy and reducing the descriptions to as few words as
possible. The synoptical plan was adopted as being, all
things considered, the briefest and best. Since the cost of
printing such a synoptical flora was too great for private
resources, and since the work offered no prospect of pecu-
niary profit to publishers, the Institution determined to
aid the undertaking, and expended several thousand dollars
in furthering this important botanical work, which probably
cost its author nearly as much more. In consideration of
this. Professor Gray was allowed to issue, for his own benefit,
a first edition of five hundred copies of the work before the
Institution attempted to publish its own edition. The order
of publication was arranged so that the first part should in-
clude the Gamopetalae after Compositae, the subject treated
being, therefore, a direct continuation of the original " Flora"
of Torrey and Gray. This part, with the title of " Synoptical
Flora of North America," Volume 11, Part i, was issued by the
author in May, 1878, and formed a volume of four hundred

45*

702 The Smithsonian Instihttion

octavo pages. The next part to appear, including Capri-
foliaceae-Compositae, being a revision of the second volume of
the Torrey and Gray " Flora," was called Volume i. Part ii,
of the " Synoptical Flora," and was published by the Smith-
sonian Institution in July, 1884. In January, 1886, an addi-
tional part of about one hundred and fifty pages was published
by the Institution, and contained supplements and indexes to
the two parts previously issued. The death of Professor
Gray occurred on January 2,'^, 1888, and later in that year
the two parts already published, together with the supple-
ments, were bound together in one large volume and issued
as one of the "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections." The
further prosecution of the work was intrusted to Professor
Gray's successor. Doctor Sereno Watson ; but his death, a
few years later, delayed the appearance of any part of the
"Synoptical Flora" until, in October, 1895, Doctor B. L.
Robinson, the successor of Doctor Watson as Curator of the
Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, issued the first
fascicle of Volume i, Part i, including Polypetalae, from
Ranunculacese to Frankeniaceae, prepared, in part, from the
manuscripts of Professor Gray and Doctor Watson.

The " Contributions" relating to cryptogams, which have
been published by the Institution, treat mainly of algae. The
second volume of the "Contributions" included a paper by
Professor J. W. Bailey on " Microscopical Examination of
Soundings made by the United States Coast Survey off the
Atlantic Coast of the United States," and another on "Micro-
scopical Observations made in South Carolina, Georgia, and
P"lorida." These were the first papers published by the Insti-
tution in which reference was made to plant-life. Since they
did not treat exclusively of plants, but of animals as well,
only passing notice is required in this connection. In these
two papers, as well as in a later paper, " Notes on New Spe-

Botany 703

cies and Localities of Microscopical Organisms," contained in
the third volume of the *' Contributions," Professor Bailey in-
cluded numerous lists of Desmids, Diatoms, and other small
marine and fresh-water algae, with descriptions, notes, and
figures of the more interesting species and a few references
to marine Florideae.

We find in the Report for 1850,^ the first reference to one
of the most extensive and important botanical memoirs pub-
lished by the Institution, namely, that of William H. Harvey,
on the " Marine Algae of the United States." Professor Har-
vey, of Trinity College, Dublin, distinguished for his exten-
sive knowledge of marine plants, was invited in 1849 ^o &^^'^
a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute in Boston, and,
taking advantage of the presence of this expert algologist in
our country, arrangements were made with him by the In-
stitution for preparing a complete marine flora of our coast.
In preparation for the work Professor Harvey spent several
months on the Eastern coast, at Halifax, Massachusetts Bay,
Long Island, Charleston, and Key West, studying the algae
and examining the herbaria of local collectors. On his return
to Dublin he worked up the rich material he had brought to-
gether, and completed with his own hands the colored draw-
ings to be used as illustrations. The expense of printing the
text and plates being great, it was decided to issue the work
in three parts. The first part, including the Melanospermae,
was published in 1852 in the third volume of the "Contribu-
tions," with one hundred and fifty pages and twelve plates.
The second part, including the Rhodospermae, appeared in
the sixth volume the following year, but the third part, including
the Chlorosperma^ and supplement, did not appear until 1858.
The three parts were then bound in one volume, entitled
"Nereis Boreali- Americana ; or. Contributions to a History

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1850, page 12.

704 The Smithsonian Instihition

of the Marine Algae of North America." The memoir of Pro-
fessor Harvey forms the basis of our knowledge of the marine
flora of North America, and, although the study of algae has
advanced very much, the " Nereis" is still a classic work,
showing the skill of the author as a systematist.

In Harvey's "Nereis" there were included but a small num-
ber of fresh-water algae. Professor H. C. Wood, Jr., who had
published in 1869 a " Prodromus of a Study of North Ameri-
can Fresh-water Algae " ^ completed a more elaborate memoir
on the subject, which was accepted by the Institution and
published in volume nineteen of the "Contributions," 1874,
under the title "A Contribution to the History of the Fresh-
water Algae of North America." The classification adopted
by Professor Wood was, in the main, that of Rabenhorst's
" Flora Europaea Algarum Aquae Dulcis et Submarinae," in
which the generic and specific limitations differed consider-
ably from those of the present day; but the work of Professor
Wood has special value from the large number of new and
interesting species, particularly the two orders Nostochineae
and CEdogonieae.

Probably no work published by the Institution awakened
more interest in its day than the " Flora and Fauna within
Living Animals," published in 1853 in the fifth volume of the
" Contributions," by Professor Joseph Leidy. The subject
was a novel one, and the vegetable parasites described by
Leidy were exceedingly curious and quite perplexing. The
species grow attached to the mucous membrane of the cavities
in which they are found, and occasionally form the exterior
covering of worms infesting the cavities. They were con-
sidered by Leidy to be algoid in character, and some of them,
at least, appear to be related to certain genera formerly
placed in Nostochineae but now included in Schizomycetes.

"^Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1871, Volume xi, page 119.

Botany 705

The systematic position of the five new genera, Enterobryus,
Eccrina, Arthromitus, Cladophytum, and Corynocladus, must
be said to be still in doubt, for during the last forty years
neither mycologists nor algologists have ventured to assign
them definitely to their proper order, nor have they been able
to add much to the account first given by Leidy.

Of the less elaborate botanical publications we may mention
three papers on exotic floras: the "Flora of Alaska," published
in the Report for 1867, by Doctor J. T. Rothrock, who gave
an enumeration of the species, both of pha;nogams and cryp-
togams, collected by himself, as well as of those collected by
previous explorers; the "Flora of St. Croix and the Virgin
Islands," by Baron H. F. A. Eggers,^ being an enumeration
of phaenogams and higher cryptogams of that region, with
notes and introduction; and the "Botany of Bermuda," by
General Sir John Henry Lefroy, formerly Governor of Ber-
muda,^ a work similar in character to the preceding. A
"Guide to the Flora of Washington and Vicinity,"^ by Pro-
fessor Lester F. Ward, was also a museum publication. An
introduction, giving statistics and general character of the
local flora, was followed by a list of one thousand three hun-
dred and eighty-four species, excluding Thallophytes, to-
gether with a "Check-List" and "Descriptions for Collect-
ing and Preserving Plants," which were issued separately the
following year.

Scattered through the annual Reports of the Institution
are several miscellaneous botanical papers which deserve no-
tice. The Report of 1859 contains a paper by Doctor J. G.
Cooper on the " Distribution of the Forests and Trees of
North America," prepared in connection with some meteoro-
logical observations in progress under the direction of the In-

1 " Bulletin No. 13 of the United States National Museum," 1879.

2 "Bulletin No. 25 of the United States National Museum," 1884.

3 "Bulletin No. 22 of the United States National Museum," 18S1.

7o6 The Smithsonian Institution

stitLition. The Report for 1889 has a reprint of the address
of W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F. R, S., on " Botanical Biology,"
delivered at the meeting of the British Association in 1888,
and in 1890 there is a translation of a paper by Professor M.
Treub, "A Tropical Botanic Garden," giving an account of
the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg, Java, of which he was the
director. The Report for 1891 contains a paper by Professor
G. L. Goodale, " Some Possibilities of Economic Botany," an
address delivered before the American Association in 1891,
and a paper by James Rodway, "The Struggle for Life in the
Forest," reprinted from the "Journal of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of British Guiana." We may also mention the
account of " Progress in Botany " in various Reports : the ac-
counts from 1879-83 by William G. Farlow and those of
i887-'88 by Frank H. Knowlton.

The first step taken by the Institution toward the forma-
tion of a national herbarium was the arrangement made
with Charles Wright, mentioned in the Report for 1849,
to which we have previously referred. In consideration of
the $150 subscribed toward defraying the expenses of Mr.
Wright on his botanical trip to El Paso, the Institution was
to be entitled to a full set of all the plants he collected. At
about the same date, a set of the plants collected by Fendler
in 1847 i'"* ^^ vicinity of Santa Fe was purchased, and it was
proposed, further, to assist him by the purchase of a set of the
collections he might make in the future. The policy of the
Institution in regard to giving aid to collectors and receiving
in return sets of the plants collected was expressed in the
Report for 1849 in the following words: " By cooperating in
this way with individuals and institutions, we are enabled, at
a small expense, materially to advance the cause of science." ^
The Report for 1851, referring again to the sets of Wright

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1849, page 6.

Botany 707

and Fendler, states that these sets, together with plants col-
lected by Lindheimer, " form the nucleus of an important and
authentic North American herbarium." ^ The Reports for
1853 and 1856 refer to several additions to the herbarium —
mainly phainogams from Oregon, Alabama, and other locali-
ties, a small collection from the Dead Sea, and fungi from
South Carolina collected by Ravenel. Other additions were
from time to time reported, the most important being a set
of Doctor Berlandier's Texas plants, in 1855, and the unique
set of ferns collected by Bracken ridge on the Wilkes Explor-
ing Expedition in 1862.

Previous to 1868 the policy of the Institution with regard to
botanical collections had been to purchase sets of different col-
lectors, to encourage private donations of plants, and to act as
custodian of the sets of plants collected on the different gov-
ernment expeditions. In 1868, however, the herbarium con-
tained from 15,000 to 20,000 specimens from different parts of
the world, and it became necessary to adopt a more definite
policy with regard to the large and rapidly increasing collec-
tion. Up to this date the Institution had depended mainly
upon Professor Torrey and Professor Gray for the general
arrangement of its collection, but as the time at the disposal
of those botanists was limited, it became evident that the
constant superintendence of a competent botanist was indis-
pensable. The funds of the Smithsonian Institution were,
however, far too meager to enable it, together with its
other important duties, to undertake the proper care of the
herbarium. Since the Agricultural Department required
such a collection for continual reference, and had, in fact,
begun to form a collection; and, furthermore, since it required
the services of a practical botanist in the course of its investi-
gations, it seemed advisable to unite the two collections. The

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1851, page II.

7o8 The Smithsonian Institution

considerations of the transfer are given as follows, in the
Report of 1868 : "The transfer is made with the understand-
ing that the superintending botanist shall be approved by the
Institution, that the collection shall be accessible to the public
for practical or educational purposes, and to the Institution
for scientific investigation or for supplying any information
that may be asked for by its correspondents in regard to the
names and character of plants. It is further stipulated that
due credit shall be given to the Institution in the publications
of the department for the deposit of the original specimens,
as well as for the additions which, from time to time, may be
made to them by the Institution." ^ In return for this transfer,
the Agricultural Department agreed to turn over to the
Institution any specimens relating to ethnology or to other
branches of natural history than botany then in its posses-
sion or which might thereafter come into its possession. The
transfer of the herbarium to the Agricultural Department
was referred to again in the Report^ for 1870, where an ac-
count was given of the most important collections contained
in the herbarium at the time of the transfer in 1868 and
those subsequently received.

If we consider in its entirety the botanical work accom-
plished by the Institution during the first fifty years of its ex-
istence we find that it gives a picture of the gradual progress
of botany in a new, and to a great extent unexplored, country.
The first botanical problem to be solved in a new country is
of necessity the exploration of its different parts and the de-
scription of the native species. As the systematic knowledge
of the native flora increases, the important question as to the
causes of the distribution of the different species, the effects of
soil, temperature, and other climatic and biological conditions,
assume a greater and greater significance, and when a general

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1868, page 15. 2 Ibidem, 1870, page 36.

Botany 709

knowledge of the flora has become widely difl"used throughout
a country, the stage is reached where the more general and
abstract problems belonging to the domain of vegetable physi-
ology and the minute investigations in cytology and the study
of life-histories attract the attention of the rising generation
of botanists. In the early years of the Institution the main
object of botanists was to find out what plants grew in North
America. Fortunately, among the native botanists were such
well-trained men as Torrey, Gray, Engelmann, Bailey, and
Wood, upon whom the Institution could call to assist in the
working up of a great share of our native plants. In branches
in which there were no competent American experts the In-
stitution did not hesitate to secure the services of foreign
botanists, as in the case of the "Nereis" of Harvey.

The most important service rendered by the Institution to
botanical science has been the very liberal aid furnished
to specialists by enabling them to publish the various mono-
graphs which appeared in the "Contributions to Knowledge"
and in the "Miscellaneous Collections." No comment on the
great value of this series of publications is needed, for the mere
enumeration of the works to which we have already referred
is, to anyone at all familiar with the history of botanical liter-
ature, a sufficient indication of the debt we owe to the Insti-
tution. In the scientific presentation of the subjects treated,
in the admirable illustrations, and in the liberality with which
the memoirs have been distributed to public institutions and
private botanists throughout the world, the Institution has well
merited the praise which it has received at home and abroad.
Nor, in recognizing that the first desideratum was an accurate
account of our native species, did the Institution fail to en-
courage, as far as possible, the study of climatic and other
causes which affect the distribution of plants, for certain of the
botanical papers we have mentioned were prepared as collat-

7IO The Smithsonian Institution

eral aids to work done in meteorology and other branches of
science. If among the botanical contributions we find none
on physiological or histological subjects, it should be said that
the development of botany in this country has been slower
than that of zoology, and it is not until quite recently that the
study of botany with us has been expanded so as to embrace
all branches of the science. The period we are now consider-
ing was that in which descriptive botany prevailed. Circum-
stances are now favorable to a widening of the field in this
direction in the future.

The foresight of the Institution in collecting and preserving
the different collections of plants which were to form a nucleus
for a national herbarium is greatly to be commended. Acting
as a faithful custodian of this material, so valuable for future
study, until a date when circumstances indicated that it could
be intrusted with safety to other hands, and leave the limited
funds at its disposal to be spent on the care of collections in
other departments of science, the herbarium was transferred,
on conditions which were liberal, but also conservative, for the
Institution still has a voice in the selection of the botanist ap-
pointed to take charge of the collections. It is to be regretted
that the efforts of the Institution in 1855 to induce Congress
to establish an arboretum on its ofrounds did not meet with a
favorable response from that body.

ZOOLOGY

By Theodore Gill

Prof essor of Zoology , Columbian University

CCEPTING the terms of the fundamental or-
ganization of the Smithsonian Institution, the
consideration of its relations to the progress
of zoology might be expected from two points
of view : first, the " increase of knowledge " as
the result of original investigation, and second, the "diffu-
sion of knowledge among men " by publication. It will,
however, become obvious on reflection that the relation of
the Institution to the increase of knowledge must be chiefly
through the stimulus of means which it may furnish to the
original investigator. The actual increase of zoological
knowledo^e has been effected throusfh the investisrations of
those connected with the Institution directly or indirectly,
and as the result of studies of the collections amassed in the
museum. The increase of knowledge effected by the Insti-
tution is therefore to be found in the aggregate of individual
discoveries resulting from the study of material collected
through its agency, or first made known in its publications.
The most natural course, then, will be to review the further-
ance by the Institution of exploration for zoological material,

711

712 The Smithsonian Institution

the building up of a museum, and the publications which it
has stimulated or provided for in various ways. This review
will be a simple narrative of facts in which no criticism or
commendation will be indulged in.

EXPLORATIONS

One of the most efficient means by which the Institution has
advanced zoological science has been through the respect
which its chiefs have enjoyed from the heads of government
departments, and the consequent readiness with which the
government authorities have carried out suggestions for in-
vestigations in connection with various operations.

The general government had early recognized the advisa-
bility of exploration of the wild territory acquired from time
to time, and numerous surveying expeditions had been de-
spatched for that purpose. The first of special importance
was the famous expedition of Lewis and Clarke "performed
during the years 1804-06," and the narrative of which has
been published in many editions, culminating in the luxurious
one recently edited by Doctor Elliott Coues. This expedi-
tion was the precursor of many others. Attempts were made
in connection with some of them to further our knowledge of
the fauna and flora of the countries traversed ; but, with one
exception, zeal was unaccompanied by knowledge, and the
results were negative. (The exception was Major Long's
"Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains, per-
formed in the years 181 9-' 20," to which the first great Ameri-
can zoologist, Thomas Say, was attached as naturalist.) But
after the Smithsonian Institution had been housed and fully
organized, favoring conditions for scientific direction super-
vened. No important surveying party was then despatched
without a naturalist nominated or approved by the Institu-

Zoology 7 1 3

tion. Chief of such expeditions were the " Explorations and
Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah " (1852),
by Captain Stansbury; the "Expedition down the Zuni and
Colorado Rivers " ( 1 85 1 ), under Captain Sitgreaves ; the ' ' Ex-
ploration of the Red River of Louisiana" (1852), by Captains
Marcy and McClellan ; and the " United States and Mexico
Boundary Survey" (i857-'59), superintended by Major
Emory. The collections made by the peripatetic naturalists
were deposited in the museum of the Institution, and the
vertebrates and some of the invertebrates were reported upon
by Baird, Girard, and others.

But by far the most important of the collections and the
reports were the results of surveys for a Pacific railroad long
desired and at length undertaken.

In March, 1853, provision was made by Congress for "ex-
plorations and surveys to ascertain the most practicable and
economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to
the Pacific Ocean," to be made under the direction of the
Secretary of War. Under this Act, in 1853 and 1854 several
parties, commanded by officers of the corps of topographical
engineers of the United States army, were sent out to ex-
amine different routes suggested or proposed for a railroad.
Through the influence of the Institution, naturalists or col-
lectors were attached to the various parties, and the collec-
tions made by them of the vertebrates at least were "worked
up" soon after their reception by the Institution.

The collections were mostly studied within the walls of the
Smithsonian building; and the reports were published at
length in the great official work (extending to thirteen large
quarto volumes) devoted to the details of all the operations
connected with the surveys. But these detached reports had
been to some extent anticipated by preliminary accounts of
the results given to the world in many articles contributed
46

714 The Smithsonian InstiUttion

to the " Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia," and other periodicals. The species and genera
new to science were very numerous ; and the faunal char-
acteristics of reeions little or not at all known before were
revealed in considerable detail.

Scarcely any long stretch of coast in the entire world was
so little known, from a zoological standpoint, as was that ex-
tending from Alaska to Mexico. Especially true was this
for ichthyology. A number of the fishes of northern and
Russian America had been described by Tilesius, Pallas, and
Richardson ; but only about a dozen species had been authen-
ticated from the great stretch of coast just mentioned. A
few species had been described in 1836 by Sir John Richard-
son, a single one {Chimcera colliei) in 1839 by Lay and Ben-
nett, and another {Syngnathns californiensis) in 1845 ^Y
Storer. The literature otherwise was confined to brief
and insufficient indications, too unreliable or too meager for
positive identification. In 1853 and 1854, Louis Agassiz in-
troduced to public notice, with much eclat, the remarkable
viviparous perch-like fishes inhabiting the California coast,
which he called Holconoti or Embiotocoidse. These papers
and others by Gibbons slightly anticipated the publication of
the results of the explorations for the Pacific route. But in
1854 and following years, Charles Girard contributed descrip-
tions of the many new genera and species of fishes obtained
by the United States expeditions, and in 1859 a final report
embracine all the forms known from the Pacific coast of the
United States was issued. One hundred and forty-eight
nominal species of salt-water fishes were described, and most
of them illustrated ; and a fair idea was thus given of the pis-
cine fauna of that previously neglected coast. This mono-
graph of Girard's was included in the tenth volume of the
Pacific Railroad Reports.

Zoology 715

Still more important in some respects, although less re-
plete with startling novelties, were two volumes emanating
from the pen of Spencer F. Baird, then Assistant Secretary
of the Institution. Many new species of mammals and birds
had been collected by the naturalists of the Pacific Railroad
surveys, and the identification and correct classification of the
material obtained necessitated comparisons and consequent
studies of most of the species of the entire continent. To
such an extent was this the case that Baird deemed it expe-
dient to extend his researches to cover all the North Ameri-
can material described or contained in the Institution. The
result was the preparation and publication of two massive
quarto volumes comprising all that was known systematically
of the mammals and birds of America north of Mexico.
These volumes formed the eighth and ninth of the Pacific
Railroad Reports.

Extra sheets of the text of both of these volumes on mam-
mals and birds were subsequently published in connection
with the plates already issued (often retouched and consider-
ably altered) and some new ones. Copies of the plates pub-
lished in connection with the reports of the United States
and Mexican Boundary Survey were also incorporated.

The United States and Mexican Boundary Survey had
been organized for the delimitation of the boundary between
the United States and Mexico under the conditions provided
for in the treaty of 1853. Major W. H, Emory was the
United States commissioner, and the field work of the com-
mission was performed in 1854 (December) and 1855. The
naturalists of the survey were John H. Clark and Arthur
Schott. The mammals, birds, and reptiles were reported on
by Professor Baird, and the fishes by Doctor Girard. The
text in this report was less noteworthy than the plates : the
latter were numerous, and many of them very well executed,

7i6 The Smithsonian Institution

and among these were the ones subsequently modified to ap-
pear in the privately published volumes on the mammals and
birds. A like work was intended for the reptiles, and forty-
four plates appeared in the United States Pacific Railroad
Report, and forty-one in the United States and Mexican
Boundary Report, but the increasing duties devolved on Pro-
fessor Baird prevented its accomplishment.

The expeditions thus referred to have been specifically
mentioned because they were the first provided for in ac-
cordance with a new policy, and through them the general
peculiarities of the countries traversed were first made known.
Innumerable minor expeditions were subsequently sent out,
but few were accompanied by naturalists or reported upon by
experts connected with the Institution. A noteworthy vol-
ume was Simpson's " Report of Explorations Across the
Great Basin of the Territory of Utah in 1859," but not
published till 1876. The various geological surveys may
also be referred to in this connection.

After the civil war four independent geological surveys
were organized within a short time of each other, and
became for a time contemporaneous. These were (i) the
" United States Geological Survey of the Territories," ini-
tiated in 1867 through the efforts of Ferdinand V. Hayden ;
(2) the " Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel,"
under the leadership of Clarence King (also legislated into
existence in 1867); (3) the second division of the "United
States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri-
tories," organized by John W. Powell in 1870; and (4)
the " United States Geographical Survey West of the One
Hundredth Meridian," conducted by George M. Wheeler
of the United States Engineers, established in 1871. The
heads of all these orofanizations interested themselves more or
less with zoological investigations, and cooperated with the

Zoology 7 1 7

Smithsonian Institution in the collection of specimens, and
also published reports or memoirs on representatives of the
existing fauna. Eventually, however, all were superseded by
a new United States Geological Survey created by a law
approved March 3, 1879.

MUSEUM

When the Smithsonian Institution finally became established
it began to occupy a place that had been previously vacant.
In Washington there was practically no museum. The nu-
cleus of one was existent in the collections obtained by the
United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838
to 1842, under Commodore Wilkes, but that at first was
under no competent supervision. Excellent collections had
been made by the naturalists attached to that expedition,
and representatives of several classes had been placed in the
hands of well-known specialists. The mammals and birds
were referred to Titian R. Peale and John Cassin, the rep-
tiles and amphibians to Spencer F. Baird and Charles Gi-
rard, the fishes to Louis Agassiz, the classes of mollusks to
Augustus A. Gould, and the crustaceans and zoophytes to
James D. Dana. All of these, except Professor Agassiz,
made elaborate reports on the specimens intrusted to them,
and the collections, which were returned, thus became a very
considerable and more than ordinarily valuable basis for a
museum, inasmuch as a very large proportion of the species
collected and described were new, and thus types. The
American naturalists anticipated in many cases the results
of the contemporaneous British expeditions.

But although special provision was made, in the law pro-
viding for the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution,
for the transfer to the new institution of all of what may be
46*

7i8 The Smithsonian Institution

called museum material, the law was not made operative
till many years afterward. Meanwhile, the collections made
by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition and some minor ac-
cumulations remained in the Patent Office building under no
scientific supervision, and suffering from lack of care and
want of appreciation of their value. Tradition relates that
an occasional friendly visitor interested in conchology might
even be allowed to carry off desiderata for the increase of his
own collection. Little regard, too, was had for the labels or
tickets which had been applied by the describers to the spe-
cimens returned. In other ways the collections deteriorated.
It was not till 1856 that the Institution took advantage of its
right to secure what remained.

The original museum administered by the Smithsonian In-
stitution had grown up from humble beginnings and in spite
of adverse conditions. Its nucleus was a collection of verte-
brates of Pennsylvania and some other regions of the neigh-
boring States which Professor Baird had made in his stu-
dent days and while he served as a professor of natural
sciences in Dickinson College. This collection consisted
chiefly of skins of birds and mammals, as well as reptiles and
amphibians preserved in alcoholic spirits, and skeletons or
skulls of mammals, some of birds, and a few of reptiles, am-
phibians, and fishes. These were by small accessions grad-
ually added to by Professor Baird himself, and by many
amateur collectors.

In the ninth annual report it was even claimed that "a
museimi, the most complete of any in existence in several
branches of the natural history of the North American conti-
nent, has been collected, which has been valued at $30,000."^
But the then chief of the Institution (Professor Henry) did
not view with favor the employment of the funds of the

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1854, page 9.

Zoology 7 1 9

establishment for a general museum. In the fourth annual
Report he recalled that, "by the law incorporating this In-
stitution, ' all objects of art and of foreign and curious re-
search, and all objects of natural history, plants, and geologi-
cal and mineralogical specimens belonging to or hereafter to
belong to the United States, which may be in the city of
Washington, in whosesoever custody the same may be, shall
be delivered to such persons as may be authorized by the
Board of Regents to receive them.'" ^ Nevertheless, the Sec-
retary was loath to take advantage of this law, although, in
his own words, it "evidently gives to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution the museum in the Patent Office, the conservatory of
plants, and all specimens of nature and art to be found in the
several offices and departments of the government."^ It was
agreed that "the act, however, cannot be construed as ren-
dering it obligatory on the Regents to take charge of these
articles."^ It was considered that even "an annual appro-
priation for the support of the museum of the exploring ex-
pedition " would be "objectionable, since it would annually
bring the Institution before Congress as a supplicant for
governmental patronage";^ for the Secretary was "fully
convinced that the true policy of the Institution is to ask
nothing from Congress except the safe-keeping of its funds.""
The regents therefore "declined to accept this museum as a
gift," but "a few years "^ later they reconsidered their deter-
mination. It was found that "the cost of keeping the mu-
seum of the Exploring Expedition " then in the Patent Office
was "about $5000" a year, and for that sum the Institution
expressed a willingness to take charge of the natural history
collections in question.

In the Report for 1858 the Secretary announced that

1 "Smithsonian Report," 1849, page 20. "^Ibidem, page 21.

3 Ibidem, 1856, page 22.

720 The Smithsonian Institution

" this proposition was agreed to by the government, and the
contemplated transfer has accordingly been made."^ But an
annual appropriation of only $4000 was made, and this was
continued for many years.

The appropriation by the government in 1858 of $4000 a
year marks an epoch in the history of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution as well as of the National Museum. By the Act so
passed the sustentation of a special museum was to that ex-
tent recognized, and thus the National Museum may be con-
sidered to have been originated by the Act of appropriation.
It was indeed on a very small and inadequate scale, but
the beginning was made of a national museum.

Up to this time the collection had been almost exclusively
devoted to vertebrates, and "the following table exhibits the
additions made to the record books of the museum in 1857,
in continuation of previous years :

" 2

1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857

Mammals None 114 198 351 1200 2046 3200

Birds 4353 4425 5^55 8766

Skeletons and skulls . . . 911 1074 1190 1275 2050 3060 3340

Reptiles . . . . . . . . 106 239

Fishes 155 613

Although the collections of the Exploring Expedition had
become much deteriorated and suffered considerably from
spoliation under incompetent custodians, it was still a rich
one, and many types of the numerous new species described
by Dana, Gould, Peale, Cassin, and Girard remained. The
invertebrates of the sea at last began to be in evidence, and
quite a respectable nucleus of a general zoological museum
became existent.

The subsequent increase was quite rapid, and resulted from
many government expeditions, but was mostly confined to

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1858, page 14. 2 Ibjdetn, 1857, page 49.

Zoology 7 2 1

the acquisition of American material and to what was ac-
quired by donation.

In the Report for 1867 it was recalled that "when the
government museum was transferred to the Institution, it
was stipulated that an appropriation should be annually made
for it,"^ and that "the appropriation for this purpose had
been limited until the last session of Congress to the sum
of $4000."^ It was then announced that "the appropriation
was, last year, temporarily increased to $10,000, but," it was
added, "even were this continued, it would be still quite in-
adequate to the suitable maintenance of a national museum."

During all these years there were no paid curators for the
zoological part of the museum, and reliance was had only on
volunteer aid of persons too busily engaged in other pursuits
properly to take care of collections of which they were nomi-
nal curators. The difficulties of such curators were much en-
hanced, too, by frequent changes and removals of collections
from place to place without supervision. The collections even
suffered also by the very willingness to make them useful; for
example, in 1867 Doctor William Stimpson was authorized to
take most of the collection of American invertebrates, espe-
cially crustaceans and east-coast mollusks, to the Chicago
Academy of Science, of which he was director, for purposes
of study. He had engaged to prepare manuals of the marine
mollusks and crustaceans of the eastern United States, and
had prepared many descriptions and illustrations of mollusks
and shells, when the disastrous fire of 1873 destroyed a large
portion of the city of Chicago, and with it the building of the
Academy in which the collections had been housed. The
loss was irretrievable. The long labors of years were oblit-
erated, and the life of the author, unsupported by hope or
anticipation, and prostrate by grief, soon succumbed.

1 " Smithsonian Report," 1867, page 5S- ^ Ibidem, page 56.

72 2 The Smithsonian Institution

It was not till 1876 that systematic provision was made for
curators for the museum. The history from that period has
been given in the chapter on the United States National
Museum, to which reference may be made for the history of
its subsequent development.

PUBLICATIONS

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTORS AND ADJUNCTS

An important service has been rendered by the Institution
in inducing naturalists of eminence to prepare manuals or
guides for the determination of species belonging to various
classes or other groups of the animal kingdom.

The activity of many naturalists, ever increasing, not only
in the United States but elsewhere, had largely added to the
numbers of known species of many classes of animals, but
the literature was very scattered and to many students quite
inaccessible. The labor devolved upon the person who
would identify a species had become most onerous, and even
after long search it would often be doubtful whether he had
exhausted the sources of information. Thus, on the one
hand the Charybdis of imperfect knowledge and slovenly
work threatened, and on the other the Scylla of forced in-
activity. The time had come when the scattered informa-
tion should be collected and an abundant literature systemati-
cally indexed. The Secretary of the Institution received with
favor propositions to compile guides for the identification of
the species of various groups of animals.

As early as 1851 Doctor Charles Girard had published "A
Monograph of the Cottoids " as the first and only published
part of " Contributions to the Natural History of the Fresh-
water Fishes of North America." This was so well done that
regret must be entertained that it was not followed by others

Zoology 723

in like style. In 1853 Professor Baird and Doctor Girard
published a descriptive work on the "Serpents" of the coun-
try as the first part of a " Catalogue of North American Rep-
tiles " ; but this also was the last as well as the first of its kind.
The continuous work began later, and the publications, under
various guises, were essentially of two kinds — lists of spe-
cies and descriptive monographs. But first efforts were made
to obtain the requisite material, and circular letters asking for
specimens, and often accompanied by special instructions for
collecting were sent out broadcast. Entomologists were ap-
pealed to and instructed in numerous circulars and pam-
phlets; the earliest of which were published in the annual
Report of the Institution for 1858.

These were followed in subsequent years by many others
relating to insects, mollusks, fishes, reptiles, birds, and bird's
eggs, mammals, and skeletons.

Intimate relations had been established between the Smith-
sonian Institution and officers of the Hudson Bay Company,
through the friendly agency of Robert Kennicott, who had
been for some time a sojourner in the company's territory,
and had inspired a spirit of collecting and observation. A
special "Circular to the Officers of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany" was therefore published in i860, indicating desiderata
and contalnino- instructions for collectinor as well as for me-
teorological observations.

In 1867, when the United States acquired from Russia the
territory subsequently named Alaska, but then generally
known simply as Russian America, another pamphlet was
prepared for an expedition sent to the territory by the Trea-
sury Department. This pamphlet was entitled, "Suggestions
Relative to Objects of Scientific Investigation in Russian
America" (1867), and covered very largely the same field
as the preceding circular.

724 The Smithsoftian Instittttion

The Institution contributed to the needs of its correspon-
dents and collectors in another way. Under the title of
"Smithsonian Museum Miscellanea," in 1862, it published
sheets eivingf the abbreviated names of states, territories,
etc., often repeated, and intended especially for insect-collec-
tors, and also five sets of numbers of different sizes. These
were frequently called for.

Here, perhaps, is also the most apt place to mention a work
of much more general importance than any of the publica-
tions hitherto mentioned, but which belongs to the category
of adjuncts to the collector's and describer's outfit. The work
in question was compiled as well as published at the expense
of the Smithsonian Institution, and was entitled, " Nomen-
clator Zoologicus: an alphabetical list of all generic names
that have been employed by naturalists for recent and fossil
animals from the earliest times to the close of the year 1879."
The author was Doctor Samuel H. Scudder, and the com-
pleted work was published in 1882.

It is a rule observed by almost all naturalists not know-
ingly to give or adopt a name, already used for one genus, to
or for another. But the difficulty of finding out whether a
given name had already been used would be very great
under ordinary circumstances, and the task of doing so would
entail a disproportionate expenditure of time. With the ad-
vancing years and increasing number of investigators and
describers, the uncertainty and labor involved would be
greatly increased. In order to meet the demand for ready
reference, from time to time nomenclators or indexes to the
genera proposed have been published. The first important
one was prepared under the direction of Professor Louis
Agassiz, over half a century ago (1842-46), and another,
by Count von Marschall, was published about a quarter of a
century later (1873). ^^^ useful as both were, another was

Zoology 725

demanded. The names had increased manyfold since Agas-
siz's work appeared, and Von Marschall's work was not only
old, but much time had to be wasted on account of its divi-
sion into twenty-one separate lists. The work of Scudder, in
which all the names were arranged in a single alphabetical
list, was therefore a most welcome boon to naturalists. In-
stead of the twenty thousand (19,966) names of Agassiz's
time, about eighty thousand were given in the new work,
and the last " Nomenclator Zoologicus " became an indis-
pensable adjunct to the laboratory of every systematic zoolo-
gist. Even this has now become superannuated, and a new
edition, or rather new work, is already being prepared under
the auspices of the Institution, and may be expected before
the close of the century.

The earliest of the bibliographical aids published by the In-
stitution was by Charles Girard, and entitled, " Bibliographia
Americana Historico-Naturalis; or. Bibliography of Amer-
ican Natural History for the year 1851 " (1852).

Other aids furnished by the Institution for the benefit of
investigators are the bibliographies published from time to
time. Some of these form a special series entitled " Bib-
liographies of American Naturalists," and five have been
published, namely :

I. "The Published Writings of Spencer F. Baird. 1843-
1882" (1883).

II. ''The Published Writings of Isaac Lea" (1885).

III. "Bibliography of Publications relating to the Collec-
tion of Fossil Invertebrates in the United States National
Museum, including Complete Lists of the Writings of Field-
ing B. Meek, Charles A. White, and Charles D. Walcott"
(1885).

IV. "The Published WritinQs of Georore Newbold Law-
rence " (1891) ; and

726 The Smithsonian Institution

V. ''The Published Writings of Doctor Charles Girard "
(1891).

Another collateral to the series just considered, but never-
theless an independent volume, relates to an English natural-
ist long very active in the study of American birds. It is
"The Published Writings of Philip Ludey Sclater, 1844-
1896" (1896).

The Institution for a number of years also published in its
annual Reports, and again as separately paged pamphlets,
records of the progress of zoology and paleontology during
previous years.

The reports on zoology, seven in number, were by Theo-
dore Gill, and covered the years 1879 to 1886.

The reports on the progress of paleontology were four in
number, namely: those for the years 1884, 1885, and 1886, by
John B. Marcou ; and that for the year 1887, by Henry S.
Williams.

A party for the observation of the transit of Venus in. 1874
was sent by the government of the United States to Kergue-
len Island, and Doctor Jerome H. Kidder, Assistant Surgeon
of the Navy, served as naturalist. He published "Contribu-
tions to the Natural History" of the island visited, in two
parts (1875 and 1876); one embracing a general view of the
animals as well as plants, and the other containing an
account of the birds by Doctors Coues and Kidder.

Another biological memoir by a naval medical officer was
the result of Doctor Thomas H. Street's collections and ob-
servations, and was published in the form of a bulletin of the
National Museum.^

" Contributions to the Natural History of Arctic America,

^" Contributions to the Natural History of tiic United States North Pacific Surveying
tiie Hawaiian and Fanning Islands and Expedition, i873-'75," octavo, 172 pages,
Lower California, made in connection with Washington (1877). ;_

Zoology 727

made in connection with the Howgate Polar Expedition " in
1877-78 (1879), were by Ludwig Kumlein.

A contribution to zoogeography was a memoir "On the
Zoological Position of Texas," by Professor Edward D. Cope,
which was published in 1880.

The visits to the island of Bermuda, whose fishes were
catalogued in 1876 by Doctor Goode, further fructified in
1884 in "Contributions to the Natural History of the Ber-
mudas," edited by the same gentleman, and including articles
by seven other contributors on the various classes of animals,
as well as in botany and geology.

The Institution took an active part in various exhibitions,
and prepared catalogues of considerable general value as
guides for forming as well as for viewing the collections.
The most important of these, all of which were prepared by
Doctor G. Brown Goode are : " Classification of the Collec-
tion to Illustrate the Animal Resources of the United States.
A List of Substances derived from the Animal Kingdom,
with Synopsis of the Useful and Injurious Animals, and a
Classification of Methods of Capture and Utilization " (1876) ;
" Catalosfue of the Collections to Illustrate the Animal Re-
sources and the Fisheries of the United States, exhibited
at Philadelphia, in 1876, by the Smithsonian Institution and
the United States Fish Commission, and forming a part of
the United States National Museum" (1879); "Exhibition
of the Fisheries and Fish Culture of the United States of
America at the Internationale Fischerei-Ausstellung held at
Berlin, April 20, 1880, and forming a part of the Collections
of the National Museum, made by the United States Fish
Commission" (1880); and "Descriptive Catalogues of the
Collections sent from the United States to the International
Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, constituting a Report
upon the American Section" (1884).

728 The Smithsonian Institution

In 1878 the United States National Museum began the
pubHcation of its " Proceedings," and in the annual volumes
of that series numerous articles were published describing
new species, and often containing important discussions of
the affinities and relationship, and sometimes synoptical
monographs of various groups.

Although published under the general direction of the
Smithsonian Institution, the record of these belongs rather to
the history of the National Museum than to that of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and therefore no further reference need be
made to them in this connection.

INVERTEBRATES

The marine invertebrates, with the exception of the mol-
lusks, had been much neglected by American naturalists, the
only authority who had contributed much respecting any of
them during the first half-century having been Thomas Say.
In 1853 a "Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrates of Grand
Manan, or the Region about the Mouth of the Bay of Fundy,
New Brunswick," was published in the sixth volume of the
" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge." This memoir
has become a classic, and has made the locality whose fauna
is recorded in it famous as a collecting-ground. It was the
first complete view of the invertebrate animals of any
American territory that had been published in the United
States, and many now well-known species were for the first
time recorded in it.

"A Fauna and Flora within Living Animals" is the title
of one of the "Smithsonian Contributions" (published in the
fifth volume) embodying the results of observations by Doc-
tor Joseph Leidy of the Jnlus marginatus (the Spiroboliis
7narginatus of recent naturalists) and the Passalus cornutus.

Zoology 729

The former is a common myriapod or milleped ; the latter a
large coleopterous insect or beetle found abundantly in decay-
ing wood, and whose fat white grub is often met with. In the
milleped no less than seven species of lowly entozoans, and
in the beetle two, were found, described, and figured. In the
cockroach six species had been found, of which two were for
the first time made known. Several other new species of
entozoans from other insects were also described,

COELENTERATES

The only memoir on any Coelenterata published by the
Institution outside of the " Proceedings of the National Mu-
seum " was one on the " Lucernariai and their allies," by
Henry James Clark, and was in the twenty-third volume of
the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledore."

CRUSTACEANS

The Crustacea have received especial attention from the
Smithsonian Institution, and are well represented in the
United States National Museum ; much has also been pub-
lished by the officers in charge of the collection in the " Pro-
ceedings of the United States National Museum." But with
the exception of the two unimportant articles giving instruc-
tions for cooperation and asking for information respecting
crawfish, no independent publication on the class has been
issued by the Institution.

INSECTS

The insects have been treated of in a number of volumes,
in which various orders or other groups were systematically
dealt with.

730 The Sjmfhsoman Institntiori

The first publication was one of the "Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge," and appeared in 1850. It was on
"The Classification of Insects from Embryological Data," by
Louis Agassiz.

The Coleoptera were generally studied in the early days
of the Institution, as they still are. A " Catalogue of the
described Coleoptera of the United States" (1853), by F. E.
Melsheimer, led the way. Long afterward it was succeeded
by instalments of a " Classification of the Coleoptera of
North America," by Doctor John L. Le Conte (Part i, 1862 ;
part 2, 1873), and a " List of the Coleoptera of North Amer-
ica" (1866), by the same naturalist. It was not until 1883
that Doctor Le Conte, with the cooperation of Doctor G. H.
Horn, completed the " Classification of the Coleoptera of
North America."

"New Species of North American Coleoptera" were also
described by Le Conte in two instalments, the first of which
was published in 1863, and the second in 1873.

A "Contribution to Knowledge" of the faunal regions and
geographical distribution was published by Le Conte under
the title of "The Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New
Mexico" (1859).

The Lepidoptera form another order which received spe-
cial attention from the Smithsonian Institution.

A " Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North
America" (i860) was not long afterward followed by a
"Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America"
(1862); both of these were compiled by the Reverend Doc-
tor John Morris. The first part of the Synopsis, including
the diurnal and crepuscular Lepidoptera, was the only one
published.

The labors of the student who would seek to know what
has been published respecting the early stages of Lepidop-

Zoology J 2) I

tera have been much lightened by a " BibHographical Cata-
logue of the described Transformations of North American
Lepidoptera," by Henry E. Edwards (1889).

An important subdivision of nocturnal Lepidoptera has
been considered in two publications by Professor John B.
Smith. One is a " Contribution toward a Monograph of the
Insects of the Lepidopterous Family Noctuidae of Temperate
North America," in the form of a " Revision of the Species
of the Genus Agrotis " (1890); the other is "A Catalogue,
Bibliographical and Synoptical, of the Species of Moths of the
Lepidopterous Superfamily Noctuidae found in Boreal Amer-
ica, with Critical Notes" (1893). Both of these were pub-
lished as bulletins of the National Museum.

The Neuroptera were enumerated in a " Synopsis of the
Neuroptera of North America," by Doctor Hermann Hagen,
published in 1861.

The Orthoptera were also listed, Doctor Samuel H. Scud-
der having prepared a " Catalogue of the Orthoptera of
North America described previous to 1867," which was pub-
lished in 1868.

As early as i860 a special "Circular in Reterence to the
History of North America Grasshoppers" was sent to many
correspondents of the Institution ; but the specimens and in-
formation obtained in response were not directly utilized for
a special work on that group.

The Hymenoptera of the family Vespidai were partly
monographed by Henri de Saussure of Geneva, Switzer-
land, in a " Synopsis of American Wasps " ; but only the por-
tion treating of the tribes Masarinae (Parasitic Wasps) and
Odynerinae (Solitary Wasps) was published (1875). An-
other important hymenopterous family was described in " A
Monograph of the North American Proctotrypida^ " (1893),
by William H. Ashmead.

732 The Smithsonian Institntion

The Diptera also early received attention. A provi-
sional " Catalogue of the described Diptera of North Amer-
ica," by Baron Robert Osten-Sacken (1858), was replaced
twenty years later (1878) by an enlarged and critical cata-
logue bearing the same title.

A series of " Monographs of the Diptera of North Amer-
ica " was next provided for, and edited by Baron Osten-
Sacken. Four of these were published, of which the first,
second, and third were by Doctor H. Loew of Meseritz,
Prussia, and the fourth by Baron Osten-Sacken. The first
(1862) gives a sketch of the systematic arrangement of the
Diptera, and monographs of the North American Trypetidae,
Sciomyxidae, Ephydrinidae, and Cecidomyidae (the last by the
editor); the second (1864) is confined to the family Doli-
chopodidae; the third (1873) treats of the family Ortalidae ;
and the fourth (1869), of the North American Tipulidae.
Long afterward, in 1886, a monograph or "Synopsis of
the North American Syrphidae," also an important family, by
Professor Samuel W. Williston, was published as a bulletin
of the United States National Museum.

Another series of lists of species, with references to one or
more of the descriptions of each of the species, was also pub-
lished. Several orders of insects were thus catalogued, the
Diptera by Baron R. Osten-Sacken (1858 and 1878), the
Lepidoptera by Doctor John G. Morris (i860), and the Or-
thoptera by Doctor Samuel H. Scudder (1868).

MYRIAPODS

The so-called Myriapoda form a heterogeneous though gen-
erally recognized group which has been much neglected till
recent years. A young student, Charles H. Bollman, who
had been trained under the auspices of Doctor David S.

Zoology 733

Jordan, undertook the study of the species, and displayed
marked zeal and ability, publishing- a number of papers before
his early death in his twenty-first year. These papers were
combined in a bulletin of the United States National Mu-
seum, entitled " The Myriapoda of North America, by Charles
Harvey Bollman, edited by Lucien M. Underwood" (1893).
They have had much influence on the present trend of method
and treatment of the group in question.

MOLLUSKS

Enumerations with mere names of species of several classes
were early published; such were the "Check-lists of
the Shells of North America," by Isaac Lea, Philip P.
Carpenter, William Stimpson, William G. Binney, and Tem-
ple Prime. These lists were sometimes of families, as the
" Unionidai," by Lea, and the " Cyclades," by Prime ; some-
times of a class, or a large part of a class, as the "Terrestrial
Gasteropoda" and the " Fluviatile Gasteropoda," both by
Binney ; and sometimes of faunal regions, as the " West
coast" (separated into the "Oregonian and Californian prov-
ince" and the "Mexican and Panamic province"), by Car-
penter, and the " East coast," by Stimpson.

Various groups of shells were described and illustrated in
different ways under the general title, "Land and Fresh-
water Shells of North America," of which four parts were
issued between 1865 and 1875.

"Part I," including the land shells, or "Pulmonata geo-
phila," was the result of a joint authorship by W. G. Binney
and T. Bland, and was not published till 1869. At a much
later period what may be considered as a new edition of the
work on land shells was published, and quite properly ap-
peared under a new title, as will be hereafter seen. " Part

47*

734 The Smithsonian Institution

II," including fresh-water and marine Pulmonata, or " Pul-
monata Limnophila and Thalassophila," as well as "Part
III," embracing the Pectinibranchiate and Rhipidoglossate
gastropods (" Ampullariidae, Valvatidse, Viviparidae, fresh-
water Rissoidee, Cyclophoridse, Truncatellidse, fresh-water
Neritidae, Helicinidae"), appeared as early as 1865 ; and both
were prepared by William Binney alone. It may be added
that proof-sheets of both those parts were quite widely sent
out in book form to specialists ; and the investigations and
criticisms to which they were subjected entailed works differ-
ing very widely in their final form from the proof examples
circulated, and thus rendered evident the wisdom of the
course of seeking further information before final publication.
"Part IV" was devoted to the " Strepomatidse (American
Melanians)," and was not published till 1875. Its author was
George W. Tryon.

In the four parts of the " Land and Fresh-water Shells of
North America " thus published, all the species found in the
United States and the Dominion of Canada were described
and illustrated. The Gastropoda were the only forms in-
cluded, and these were for the first time embraced in a con-
tinuous series.

The species of the class known at the time of publication of
the several volumes were apportioned to various groups. Part
I included the pulmonate land shells; part II the pulmonate
aquatic shells; and parts III and IV the gilled aquatic and land
shells.

Part I.

Pulmonata Geophila . . .

286

Part II.

" ( Limnophila . .
" < Thalassophila .

. 127
4

Part III.

" ( (Siphonariidae) .
C Pectinibranchiata ....
( Rhipidoglossata

131

Part IV.

Pleuroceridae

444

Zoology 735

The census thus taken revealed no less than eight hundred
and twenty-nine nominal species of gastropods inhabiting the
United States. The aggregate of the species known at the
present day is not very much greater, and the figure is too
large for at least one family — that of the " Pleuroceridae," or
American Melanians.

The bivalves could not be treated in the same manner as
the gastropods. There are only three families represented
in the United States, but one of them — the Unionida; — is
an immense assemblage of species, and no one could be found
willing to undertake the task of monographing them. The
other families — Cyrenidae and Pisidiidaj — were then uni-
versally combined in one, and in 1865 were treated by
Temple Prime in a " Monograph of the American Corbicu-
ladae (recent and fossil)." In this monograph one hundred
and eleven species were recognized, of which ninety-three
belong to the family Cyrenidae and eighteen to the family
Pisidiidas. In these numbers, however, are embraced not
only the recent species of temperate and cold North America,
but also those of the warm regions and South America, as
well as the extinct species. Reduced within the limits cov-
ered by the other monographs, the numbers were as follows :

Cyrenidae 32 Pisidiidae 12

A small monograph, evoked by the differences of opinion
respecting questions considered in the "proof" of the third
part of the " Land and Fresh-water Shells of North Amer-
ica," was published meanwhile (in 1865) by Doctor William
Stimpson, and embraced the results of anatomical studies,
especially of the lingual ribbon, of the Hydrobiids.

In 1885 Mr. Binney resumed a consideration of the ter-
restrial Pulmonates in " A Manual of the American Land
Shells." This is the volume already alluded to in connection

72>^^ T/ie Smithsonia7i Institution

with "Part I" of the "American Land and Fresh-water
Shells." Most of the descriptions, synonymy, and illustra-
tions of that volume are reproduced in the "Manual," but the
classification is modified, and instead of the matter being in
a continuous systematic sequence, it is broken up and ar-
ranged under seven geographical categories — species ''a.
Universally distributed," " ^. Pacific province," " r. Central
province," "</." "^." and "yC" "Eastern province," "Northern
region," "Interior region," and "Southern region," and ''g.
" Locally introduced."

In addition to the foundation for future studies laid in the
several monographs here described, further aid to biblio-
graphical studies was given by the publication in 1863 and
1864 of a "Bibliography of North American Conchology."
The extent of this work may be judged by the fact that the
two parts cover nearly one thousand pages.

The other articles and memoirs of various kinds based
more or less on the material collected by the Institution are
numerous, but have appeared in other publications.

FISHES

As EARLY as 1 85 1 "Contributions to the Natural History of
the Fresh-water Fishes of North America" were initiated by
Doctor Charles Girard in "A Monograph of the Cottoids."
This monograph was an excellent article, and the entire
anatomy was described and illustrated in detail. Unfortu-
nately, "Part I" was also the last of the "Contributions,"
and no other separate publication on fishes appeared for
many years. " A Report on the Fishes of the New Jersey
coast, as observed in the summer of 1854, at Beesley's Point,"
by Professor S. F. Baird, was indeed published in the ninth
annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, and also issued

LOFTS AGASSIZ.

REGENT OF THE SMITHSOXIAX INSTITUTION,

1863-1873.

^ciLi L^.iiui iiijLi J icsh-water
Lions, synonymy, and illus
ie are :ed in the "Manual," but

odified, and instead of the matter being in
seauence, it is broken up and ar-
-^^ categories — species "a.
disini province," " c. Cer'

^/." " ': 1 province," " N<

and "Southern region," ai

LM^., Ibundciu, '"■"'- r,,fi,,-,. -♦-ndies laid e

re d<: cr ai' oiDiio-

given by th' Ucation in 1863 and

of North / Concholoo-y."

:-d hv thp

tions to the Natural His
merica " were initio

norrrnnli of the Col,.

1..;

en I

iUribi
, appeared for

Rnnort ■ hr^ of the Nrw Tprqev

' ' publi ' ' in th> ' h

,XTH8!Att)]/i!ahIIWrkIii'' 1 also issued

,KOITUTIT8PII ZAITlOBHTIMci SHT 'iO T'Ha+^ITFT

.8THr -p.dHi

Zoology yzi

separately, with an independent title-page and index, but
did not receive a serial number till many years later. Mean-
while "Memoranda of Inquiry" and "Questions relative to
the Food Fishes of the United States" were circulated to pro-
cure information. Fo serve as a basis for future work, an
"Arrangement of the Families of Fishes," a "Catalogue of
the Fishes of the East Coast of North America," and a " Bib-
liography of the Fishes of the Pacific Coast of the United
States " were prepared by Theodore Gill.

To the same or a like category belong a " Classification
of the Collection to Illustrate the Animal Resources of the
United States" (1876), and "Descriptive Catalogues of the
Collections sent from the United States to the International
Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, by Doctor Goode."

With the field thus surveyed and mapped, articles soon
appeared describing various groups or faunas.

The first published was a " Catalogue of the Fishes of the
Bermudas" (1876), by Goode, in which the nomenclature was
well considered and many useful data were given.

Next appeared several parts of " Contributions to North
American Ichthyology, based primarily on the Collections of
the United States National Museum," by Doctor David S.
Jordan, in which various families of fresh-water fishes were
elucidated and collateral questions inquired into. As a re-
sult of all previous studies, a "Synopsis of the Fishes of
North America" was given by Doctors David S. Jordan
and Charles H. Gilbert, brincrino- the information orathered
through many years and scattered in numerous volumes
well up to date. Quite full descriptions of the species
as well as including groups were given: 1340 species
were recognized and distributed under 487 genera, 130
families, 23 orders, and 4 classes. The contrast between
this work and one bearing the same title h\ Doctor D, H.

738 The Sjmthsonian iHstitittion

Storer, published in 1846, was a notable one, and a compari-
son between the two will give some idea of the progress of
the science between the two periods. A new edition of this
"Synopsis," or rather a new work bearing the title, "The
Fishes of North and Middle America," by Doctor Jordan
and Doctor B. W. Evermann, appeared later, the first vol-
ume having been published in 1896. With the increase of
region covered, a great increase of species is naturally in-
volved. The last work covers essentially the same ground
as Storer's "Synopsis" of 1846, both including the fishes
of the continent down to the Isthmus of Panama, as well as
those of the West Indian Islands.

The work of 1846 embraced notices of 729 nominal species,
representing 218 genera and 35 families. The work of

1896, as appears from the authors' " check-Hst," will embrace,
when completed, descriptions of more than 3100 species, rep-
resenting 1053 genera and 228 families. Even more notable
than the numerical acquisitions are the mode of treatment
and the aptness of diagnoses.

Last in time, but in some respects the most important of
the ichthyological contributions, was a work published as a
special bulletin of the United States National Museum. It
is also noteworthy as the last complete work emanating from
Doctor George Brown Goode, and appeared within a month
of his death. Doctor Tarleton H. Bean was his collaborator
in this as in many previous memoirs. The new work was on
" Oceanic Ichthyology, a treatise on the deep-sea and pelagic
fishes of the world, based chiefly upon the collections made
by the steamers Blake, Alhairvss, and Fish Hawk in the
northwestern Atlantic, with an Atlas containing 417 fig-
ures." As a summary of knowledge respecting the forms
under consideration, the work is an epochal one, and the
numerous species contrast remarkably with the few known

Zoology 739

not long-er ago than two decades. "Only twenty years ago,"
the authors write, "the fish fauna of the deep sea was repre-
sented in collections by forty or fifty specimens, representing
not more than twenty species at the most — accidental waifs
picked up at the surface or cast ashore by the waves."

A work whose place is rather in archa;;ology than ichthy-
ology may be referred to because of its interest to ichthyolo-
gists. It is on " Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North
America" (1884), by Charles Rau, and was published as one
of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."

AMPHIBIANS

As EARLY as 1853, ^ monograph on the "Anatomy of the
Nervous System " of the common bullfrog of the United
States, called, in conformity with the accepted nomenclature
of the day, Rana pipiens, but now known as Rana cates-
biana, was supplied by Doctor Jeffries Wyman to the "Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge." It was a creditable
and well illustrated memoir.

In 1875, Professor Edward D. Cope enumerated the re-
cent species of amphibians in his " Check-list of North
American Batrachia and Reptilia." In 1883, another " Check-
list of North American Reptilia and Batrachia " was prepared
by Doctor Henry C. Yarrow.

Finally, all the materials in the National Museum, as well
as the literature, were considered and discussed in a descrip-
tive and thoroughly illustrated volume entitled "The Batra-
chia of North America," by Professor Cope. In the "letter
of transmittal " it is stated that descriptions are given of fifty -
three Urodela and forty-seven Salientia, thus aggregating
just one hundred species.

Some remarkable specie? have been added to the North

740 The Sinithsoniau Institution

American fauna since the publication of Professor Cope's
monograph. The most notable are two blind forms de-
scribed by Doctor Leonhard Stejneger, one in 1892, a cave
salamander ( TypJilotriton spelceus) of the family Desmog-
nathidae, and the other in 1896, a tenant of subterranean
waters, and related to the Proteidse (Typhlomolge).

REPTILES

The earliest contributions to herpetology published by the
Smithsonian Institution were also contributions to paleon-
tology. The first was a " Memoir on Mosasaurus, and three
Allied New Genera," by Doctor Robert W. Gibbes, and ap-
peared in 1850. A second by Doctor Joseph Leidy, includ-
ing the tortoises from the *' Mauvaises Terres," of Nebraska,
was published in 1853. A third was a monograph of the
"Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States" (1865), and was
also from the pen of Leidy.

In the year 1853, ^'""^ ^^'st part of a "Catalogue of North
American Reptiles in the Museum of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution," by Spencer F. Baird and Charles Girard, was pub-
lished, and embraced diagnoses and detailed descriptions of
all the "Serpents" found in America north of Mexico, New
principles of classification were introduced in this work, and
on the whole the species were more naturally grouped than
in any previously published work and many unknown species
were added to the fauna. Indeed, the chief fault charged
upon the work was an undue multiplication of species, but
although amenable to the criticism, the fault has been exag-
gerated and the authors have been found to be often more
nearly fight than their early critics. Check-lists of all the
reptiles were published later. One by Cope appeared in
1875 and another by Yarrow in 1883.

Zoology 74 1

The numerous memoirs on various species and groups of
reptiles, for which the museum of the Institution furnished
the material in whole or part, were published chiefly in the
" Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia," and the " Proceedings of the United States Na-
tional Museum." The other separate publications, involving
the reptiles, were on their anatomy and physiology : one by
Doctor S. Weir Mitchell made known " Researches upon the
Venom of the Rattlesnake" (i860); another, by Doctors
Mitchell and Georo-e R. Morehouse, described " Researches
upon the Anatomy and Physiology of Respiration in the
Chelonia " (1863). A quarter-century after the publication
of the researches on the rattlesnake, the senior author
(Doctor Mitchell), seconded by another (Doctor Edward T.
Reichert), published the results of later " Researches upon
the Venom of Poisonous Serpents" generally (1886).

BIRDS

The earliest of the "Contributions to Knowledge" relatincr
to ornithology was the beginning of a " North American
Oology," by Doctor Thomas M. Brewer. A "first part,"
descriptive of the " Raptores and Pissirostres, ' was pub-
lished in 1857, but was never succeeded by another. In 1895
this field was covered by a new work entitled " Life His-
tories of North American Birds," illustrated by many plates,
in which the eggs are delineated. The new work was by
Major Charles Bendire, and was extended to two volumes,
but this must also remain unfinished on account of the death
of the author. The work of Bendire is noteworthy as open-
ing a new series in quarto form, published under the auspices
of the Institution and designated "Special Bulletin," the vol-
umes in question being the first and third "Special Bulletins."

742 The Smithsonian Institution

The several catalogues of North American birds issued
by the Institution — and especially the octavo edition of
1859 — were long in great demand among bird and ^^'g col-
lectors for cataloguing purposes. In 1881, however, they
were replaced by a new catalogue by Robert Ridgway, en-
titled " Nomenclature of North American Birds," and this in
turn served the purpose of most collectors until it was sup-
planted by the "check-list" published by the American
Ornithologist Union in 1886.

Professor Baird did not abandon his ornithological studies
after the publication of his great work on North American
Birds, but extended them to the species of Middle and South
America, and went over the ground he had already so well
surveyed. In 1863 the Institution issued a circular relative
to collections of birds from Middle and South America, and a
" List of the Described Birds of Mexico, Central America,
and the West Indies, not in the Collection of the Smithsonian
Institution," and solicited desiderata. With the new material
thus obtained, Baird began in 1864 the publication of " Part
I " of a " Review of American Birds in the Museum of the
Smithsonian Institution," includinsf those of North and
Middle America, and continued the issue in instalments till
1866, when increasing duties compelled him to abandon it
after having covered a number (fourteen of the system
adopted) of the families of Oscines.

In 1866 a separate issue of an "Outline of a Systematic
Review of the Class of Birds," by W. Lilljeborg, and an "Ar-
rangement of Families of Birds," containing only the names
of those divisions and including groups, by Spencer F. Baird,
were issued.

These general works on American ornithology were sup-
plemented by a number of special memoirs on various
avifaunas as follows : One such was a cataloeue of the

Zoology 743

" Birds of Southwestern Mexico, collected by Francis E.
Sumichrast," was prepared by George N. Lawrence in 1875,
and an Avifauna Columbiana, being a list of birds ascer-
tained to inhabit the District of Columbia, by Elliott Coues
and D. Webster Prentiss, was published in 1883. Another
was a catalogue of "The Birds of Bermuda," by Saville G.
Reid in 1884, and "Results of Ornithological Explorations
in the Commander Islands and Kamtschatka," by Leonhard
Stejneger, appeared in 1885.

Among the "Contributions to Knowledge" is a "Classifi-
cation and Synopsis of the Trochilidai," by Daniel G. Elliott,
which was issued in 1879, ^^^ ^^ ^'^^ same time also appeared
an independent " List of Described Species of Humming
Birds," by the same author.

MAMMALS

The earliest memoirs on the mammals published by the
Smithsonian Institution related to fossil forms, and were is-
sued as "Contributions to Knowledge." Three such contri-
butions were furnished by Doctor Joseph Leidy. The first
was a " Memoir on the Extinct Species of the American Ox "
(1852); the second was included in "The Ancient Fauna of
Nebraska" (1853); and the third was "A Memoir on the Ex-
tinct Sloth Tribe of North America" (1855). These were all
well illustrated.

A " Catalogue of North American Mammals," by Spencer
F. Baird, published in 1857, is merely an edition of the table
of contents of his work on North American mammals. An
analogous catalogue was published in 1884 as "A Pro-
visional List of the Mammals of North and Central America
and the West Indian Islands," by Frederick W. True.

No work on an extensive order was for a long time pub-

744 The Smithsoiiiau Institution

lished, except a "Monograph of the Bats of North America,"
by Doctor Harrison Allen (1864). Many years afterward
(1895) a new edition of this monograph by Doctor Allen
was published as a " Bulletin of the United States National
Museum" (1893).

In 1889 "A Review of the Family Delphinidse," by Fred-
erick W, True, was also issued as a Bulletin of the United
States National Museum."

The first part of an "Arrangement of the Families of
Mammals" (1872) was published by Theodore Gill, but the
completion of the work was prevented by the poverty of the
collections in foreign material.

Several physiological memoirs were also issued by the In-
stitution, as follows: "On Strain and Overaction of the
Heart," by Doctor J. M. Da Costa (1874), the "Dual Action
of the Brain," by Doctor C. E. Brown-Sequard (1874), and
"The Effect of Irritation of a Polarized Nerve" (1880), by
B. F. Lautenbach.

ANTHROPOLOGY

By Jesse Walter Fewkes

Editor of the Journal of American Ethnology and Archceology

I^HE influences on the many branches of the
science of anthropology which have sprung
from the Smithsonian Institution, during the
last half-century, have been far-reaching and
^2^^ profound. In this prolific epoch the science
has grown almost from infancy to manhood, from an humble
beginning to ever increasing conscious strength, and there is
no American institution which has so profoundly influenced
the development of the study of man.

Two aspects of this influence claim our attention, and it is
noteworthy that they are both directly related to those for
which the Smithsonian Institution stands — the advancement
of knowledije and its diffusion amonfj men. An indication of
the potency of the former is seen in the long series of original
researches made possible by the accumulation of collections
and systematic field explorations fostered by the Institution.
The publication of these researches has enlarged know-
ledge, stimulated scientific investigation in other intellectual
centers, and drawn to the museum scholars from all parts of
the world. Judged from the point of view of scholarship,
48

745

74^ The Sniithsojiian InstUiition

the Smithsonian Institution from its foundation, fifty years
ago, has been to the American anthropologist a foster parent
of oriofinal research.

This is, however, but one aspect of the influences which
this Institution has exerted on the study of man. A rich
and weh-arranged collection of anthropological material not
only attracts the scholar, forming the basis of the researches
of the specialist, but also is a great educational factor to the
community at large, A well-arranged museum is an un-
written encyclopedia, teaching many who are not reached
by other methods. The wealth of anthropological objects
spread before the visitor to the museum exerts a profound
influence on the intelligence of the community. Thousands
visit a collection, and inspect its anthropological treasures,
who never open a scientific book. The mind is, indeed, dull
that is not in some way aflected by simply strolling through
the museum, and hundreds of visitors have had an interest
excited in anthropology from such a visit. This method of
difiusion of knowledge is no less a function of a museum than
research and publication, and in point of fact it touches the
multitude, while technical science appeals to the few. From
what has been written it may be evident that a treatment
of the influences of the Smithsonian Institution on anthro-
pology, past and present, falls under two headings, — research
and publication ; collections and their installation. The
former appeals especially to the student, and commonly
measures the standing of an institution among scholars ; the
latter concerns the general public, and determines its value
as an educational institution among the many. While I
shall emphasize the former, since it more readily submits to
analysis, the greatness of my subject admits no such limita-
tion. The silent lessons daily taught by ocular demonstra-
tions we have no scale to measure, no statistics to tabulate

Anthropology 747

save number of visitors ; the museum teaches a lesson to
each visitor and exerts an influence which eludes analysis.

ARCHEOLOGY

The publications in this department of anthropology which
have emanated from the Smithsonian Institution are many
and comprehensive. As the large majority relate particularly
to the antiquities of North and Central America, they may
be considered under the following headings :

1. Appalachian Mountains and Atlantic Slope.

2. Rocky Mountains and Pacific Slope.

3. Central Region.

4. Mexico and Central America.

5. West Indies.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS AND ATLANTIC SLOPE

The prehistoric denizens of this region have received much
attention, and researches and publications on its archaeology
have been numerous and important.

The evidences of paleolithic man in the valley of the
Potomac and the Trenton gravels have been critically exam-
ined and ably discussed by assistants in the Institution ; and
the works of Abbott, Rau, Holmes, and Wilson have attracted
wide attention among students of this subject.

Professor Baird early recognized the great field for re-
search presented by the kitchen middens of the Atlantic
Coast, and personally carried on studies of these prehistoric
camping places on the coast of Maine. Doctor Rau dis-
cussed in 1872 a gold ornament from a Florida mound, and
six years earlier called attention to the artificial shell deposits
on the coast of New Jersey.

74B The Smithsonian Instihition

ROCKY MOUNTAINS AND PACIFIC SLOPE

By an interesting coincidence, in the same year that the
Smithsonian was founded, there was added to the territory
of the United States an immense domain in the Southwest,
rich in most interesting antiquities of a prehistoric race of
unique characters. Early explorers of this vast region
brought back fascinating accounts of ruins of a kind novel
to men of Anglo-Saxon blood — the cliff-houses and so-called
pueblos. The influence of the Institution can readily be
traced in the aims of several exploring expeditions, which,
one after another, enlarged our knowledge of this new arch-
aeological realm. Active work in this prolific field began
with the foundation of the Bureau of American Ethnology
in 1879, an account of which would naturally fall in another
chapter. The most important publication on the architecture
of the ancient pueblos of Cibola and Tusayan, as likewise
the most complete on the antiquities of the pueblo area which
has yet appeared, is to be found in one of the " Reports of the
Bureau of American Ethnology," a work of great industry,
both in office and field, by Victor Mindeleff. The expedi-
tions of James Stevenson brought enormous collections of
ethnological material from this region, enriching the museum
with many archaeological objects of great value.

Valuable archaeological work has been carried on under the
auspices of the Smithsonian Institution on the Santa Barbara
Islands, off the coast of southern California, and in the caves
of the Aleutian Islands, the character of which in the latter
locality can best be considered elsewhere.

The Alaska Commercial Company in 1875 presented to
the Institution a series of mummies from the Aleutian Islands
and Prince William's Sound. W. H. Uall prepared a memoir

Anthropology 749

on this collection, with an account of related tradition, history,
and other material such as he had obtained in eight years'
experience in the region of the globe in which they were
found. His memoir, which is well illustrated, was an im-
portant contribution to a little known subject.

CENTRAL REGION

The most striking of the many archaeological problems
of the central region are those connected with the mound
builders, the antiquities of the Mississippi valley and those
of the Saint Lawrence. The influence of the Smithsonian
Institution has always been wisely directed to fostering and
advancing the investigation of these mounds of the United
States, and its publications are recognized, both at home
and abroad, as most important contributions to this subject.
Previously to 1847 the unaided pioneer work of Caleb
Atwater and others had called attention to these antiquities,
but without awakening a widespread interest in the sub-
ject. To no one institution does archaeological science owe so
much as to the Smithsonian in quickening dormant interest
in the study of the mound builders, and there is probably no
department of anthropology where the publications of the
Institution have done more to arouse interest in research than
in this. The " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledgfe "
open with a most valuable article on the "Ancient Monu-
ments of the Mississippi Valley," by E. G. Squier and E. H.
Davis, a classic work illustrated by forty-eight lithographic
plates and two hundred and seven woodcuts. This volume,
which appeared in 1848, was followed two years later by
another written by the senior author on a related subject :
" Aboriorinal Monuments of the State of New York." These
memoirs, especially the former, may be regarded as epoch -
48*

750 The S7JtitJisojiian Instittttion

making, a worthy introduction to a subject which dates an
ever-growing interest from that year. If we may judge from
results, the fifty years during which " Squier and Davis"
have been famihar words with American and foreicrn archse-
ologists, whenever the mound builders are referred to, has
well justified the following quotation from a letter of Honor-
able George P. Marsh of equal age: "It is fortunate," he says,
"for the cause of American archaeology that the first sys-
tematic attempt at its elucidation — (referring to the problem
of the mound builders) — should have been conceived and
executed in so truly philosophical a spirit; and rich as this age
already is in antiquarian lore, it has, I think, received few more
important contributions. . . . The Smithsonian collections
could not begin with a more appropriate or creditable essay."
These two works were followed by a supplementary com-
munication by Charles Whittlesey and a memoir by I. A.
Lapham, both of great value. Lapham described figure
mounds from Wisconsin, representing a variety of fanciful
forms of animals which had been overlooked by previous
travelers. The figures represented men, bears, foxes, birds,
reptiles ; the style of mound seemed to have been limited to
the plains of the upper Mississippi river. But the memoir is
not confined in its treatment to these forms ; it includes like-
wise tumuli, embankments, and like structures.

This memoir presented the subject with accuracy and skill,
and had an important influence on the growing interest in
the antiquities of the west. Lapham's researches were car-
ried on under the direction of the Antiquarian Society of
Worcester, Massachusetts, by which his memoir was pre-
sented to the Smithsonian Institution for publication, a good
example of the harmony with which the Institution has
always worked with societies of kindred aims.

Mr. S. F. Haven, the librarian of the American Antiqua-

Anthropology 751

rian Society of Worcester, prepared, by special request of
the Institution, a memoir which formed a part of the seventh
volume of the " Contributions." This was a thorough and
able article with a bibliographical character, summarizing
the opinions of early writers on American antiquities, and
the existing knowledge of aboriginal monuments east of the
Rocky Mountains, The great labor performed by Haven in
gathering material from publications which were rare and
inaccessible did much to correlate accumulated observations,
and led to a hope, carried out forty years later, of publishing
a complete archaeological map of all the mounds east of the
Rocky Mountains. For twelve years subsequent to Doctor
Haven's memoir, however, nothing appears in the " Contribu-
tions" respecting the antiquities of the middle region of the
United States, save a short communication by Whittlesey on
"Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior." In 1872
Doctor Joseph Jones was aided by a small appropriation, and
pursued investigations with ardor and success. The refer-
ences to his work in the Reports from 1872 to 1S76 show the
wide range of studies pursued by him in historical and biblio-
graphical directions. His memoir forms a volume of one
hundred and eighty-one quarto pages, with many woodcuts,
and a very full index by Professor O. T. Mason. This work,
entitled "Antiquities of Tennessee," (1876) contains de-
scriptions of burial caves and mode of burial, mounds, earth-
works, forts, and relics, closinof with ireneral conclusions.

The exploration of the mounds was vigorously taken up in
1882 by the Bureau of Ethnology, and systematic excavations
carried on in the field for eight successive years under the
direction of Doctor Cyrus Thomas, aided by Doctor Palmer,
Norris, Ragan, Reynolds, Middleton, and others. These re-
searches were not confined to mounds, but it was found nec-
essary to include in them all anticjuities of the central region.

752 The Smithsonian Instittition

Many articles on the subject were published as a result of
these studies, culminating in a voluminous report by Doctor
Cyrus Thomas, the largest which has yet appeared on a
subject which was inaugurated by the opening volume of the
" Contributions."

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

The rich field presented to the archaeologist in Mexico and
Central America has received the attention of the Institution,
and several interesting publications on this subject have ap-
peared in the " Contributions." In 1878 an important memoir
by Doctor Habel entitled " Archaeological and Ethnological
Researches in Central and South America, with a Detailed
Account of the Sculptures at Santa Lucia Cosumalwhuapa,"
was accepted by the Institution for publication. Doctor Habel
had devoted seven years to exploration in this region, visiting
many of the great ruins described by Stephens in 1841.

The main portion of this contribution was devoted to a de-
scription of the great monoliths at Santa Lucia Cosumalwhu-
apa, a village in the department of Esquintla, near the Volcan
del Fuego. These stone slabs were discovered by a planter
who came upon a large pile of buried monoliths in preparing
his farm for cultivation. They were found to be richly sculp-
tured and ornamented in cavo-relievo with representations of
human figures of unusual carving, supposed to refer to the
adoration of the sun, moon, and other anthropomorphic
deities difficult to identify. Doctor Habel made true copies
of the originals with great care and on his return to the
United States was invited to visit Washington, where the ex-
pense of the preparation of his manuscript, and the plates,
which were made under his personal supervision, was borne
by the Institution. This publication attracted much attention,

Anthropology 753

and as in the later transportation of some of the monoHths to
Germany — it is to be regretted that they did not all find a
home in Washington — one of the most interesting was lost in
the Pacific ocean, the figure of it given by Doctor Habel will
always remain unique. The estimation in which the volume
by Doctor Habel is held by scholars is voiced by the late Pro-
fessor W. D. Whitney, who wrote: " It seems to me a story
refreshing by its brevity and simplicity, very unlike the pom-
pous and boastful way in which such things are often heralded.
One may not agree with all the inferences drawn at the end,
but that is a matter of very small im.portance ; no two persons
would arrive at precisely the same conclusions. So far as I
can judge, the Institution has every reason to take pleasure
and pride in the issue of such a contribution to American
archaeology."

The scientific discovery of these interesting monoliths and
a publication of the memoir upon them led to several interest-
ing studies by German archaeologists and to the final trans-
portation of the antiquities themselves to the Berlin Museum,
by which institution replicas have been distributed to the col-
lections of several European and American cities.

Of all the interesting ruins of Central America to which at-
tention was called by Stephens and Catherwood, none excited
more wonder at the culture they revealed than those of the
great city of Chiapas called Palenque. A portion of one of
the most interesting shrines of that ancient city, now known
wherever archaeology is cultivated as the Palenque Tablet,
came into the possession of the Smithsonian, and was de-
scribed and figured by Doctor Charles Rau in the twenty-
second volume of the " Contributions." This stone tablet is
one of the most precious archaeological treasures in the Na-
tional Museum. It was formerly the property of the National
Institution for the Promotion of Science, to which it was pre-

754 The Smithsonian Institution

sented in 1842 by Charles Russell, a former Consul of the
United States in Mexico. It was transferred to the Smith-
sonian in 1858, and its relation to the famous group of the
cross recognized by Doctor George A. Matile, who was en-
gaged in making a cast of it at the request of Professor
Henry. Del Rio and Dupaix gave a poor figure of it in
position in the Temple of the Cross, but it was probably
broken in 1832, and Stephens in 1839 noticed its scattered
fragments. The first trustworthy representation we thus
owe to Doctor Rau's memoir, as mentioned above.

The account of the Palenque treasure was followed by a
valuable contribution on "Archaeological Researches in Nica-
ragua," and preceded by " Observations on Mexican History
and Archaeology " by Brantz Mayer, both of which articles
were timely additions to a knowledge of a great subject.
Other smaller but no less important works on the "Antiqui-
ties of Guatemala" should not be overlooked, especially that of
Bransford and Kneeland, both of which are frequently quoted.

WEST INDIES

The Smithsonian possesses a most valuable collection of
ancient Carib art in stone, and has published several impor-
tant works on the antiquities of the Antilles. Professor E.
D. Cope in 1883 discussed the contents of a bone cave in the
island of Anguilla, giving an interesting insight into cave life
in a comparatively unknown quarter. The purchase of the
Latimer collection of stone objects from Porto Rico enabled
Professor O. T. Mason to prepare an elaborately illustrated
article on idols, or zemes, and Carib stone implements, a
picture of a style of stone working unsurpassed on the
American continent. Somewhat later he was able to sup-
plement this report by an examination of beautifidly exe-

Anthropology 755

cuted drawings of the Guesde collection of similar objects
from the island of Guadeloupe.

In the same year as the Centennial Exposition in Philadel-
phia, and directly connected with that work, a quarto volume
was written by Professor Charles Rau on the "Archaeologi-
cal Collections of the United States Museum," and dis-
tributed by the Institution. This work was in the form of
an illustrative catalogue, and, although not exhaustive in its
treatment, served to give a wider knowledge than had been
current of the wealth of archceological material in the mu-
seum. There can hardly be a question that this publication
should take hiofh rank with other influences which at that
time quickened public interest in American antiquities, and
led to a rejuvenescence of scientific activity in several centers
of learning. But perhaps of special importance in that line
ouofht to be mentioned the several articles on methods of
archaeological study which appeared at about that time. Of
these the more important were, " Circulars in Reference to
American Archaeology," written by Professor Mason and
signed by Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution. Those interested in the antiquities of the mound
builders were appealed to in a circular of somewhat different
character, prepared by Doctor Cyrus Thomas, at the inaugu-
ration of his extensive explorations in this field.

There is probably no more perplexing problem presented to
the anthropologists than the derivation of a prehistoric people
of Easter Island, one of the most isolated islands of the Pacific
Ocean. The colossal carvings in stone made by these people,
their quaint hieroglyphic slats and hideous figurines, have
attracted wide attention. A good representative collection
from this island is now housed in the National Museum,
and an exhaustive report, well illustrated, forms one o'i the
most interesting of the contributions to insular archaeology.

756 The Smithsonian Instihttion

Several articles of a comparative nature treating of collec-
tions of archaeological material in the museum have materi-
ally added to the progress of archaeology. Among these may
be mentioned a work, by Doctor Charles Rau, on •' Prehis-
toric Fishing in Europe and North America." This large
volume was published in two parts, forming an article of three
hundred and sixty pages with four hundred and six figures.
About one-third of the memoir was devoted to archaeological
relics of Europe, classified in the three epochs, of the palaeo-
lithic, neolithic, and bronze ages. The second part deals
with archaeological fishing implements, and relics of North
America, and considers such topics as " Fishing Implements
and Utensils," "Boats and Appurtenances," and "Aboriginal
Representations of Fishes, Aquatic Animals," etc. The chap-
ter on " Artificial Shell Deposits " is of great value. This
work has a historical side no less important than the archaeo-
logical, and embraces many early documentary and printed
references to aboriginal fishing scattered in various writings,
most of which are inaccessible to the public save with great
difficulty. Doctor Rau was an industrious contributor to the
Smithsonian Reports from 1864 to 1883, and his articles on
"Agricultural Flint Implements," " Drilling in Stone without
Metal," "North American Stone Implements," and "Ancient
Aboriginal Trade in North America " testify to the breadth
of his archaeological work in special lines.

Although the greater part of the archaeological industry
of the Institution has been turned to the antiquities of
America, other countries have not been neglected. The
publications have reprinted important articles by masters in
the science, as, Hamy, on the probable " Home of the
Troglodyte"; Tylor, on the "Prehistoric Races of Italy," and
Ouatrcfages, on " The Advent of Man in America." The
Re2:)orts contain likewise articles by Evans on "The An-

Anthropology 757

tiquity of Man," Desor on " Palafittes of Lake Neuchatel,"
and Adler on " Oriental Antiquities."

One important publication on Egyptian archaeology has
been issued by the Institution. Gliddon, the Egyptologist,
in 1842 presented to the national collection a portion of
the lid of a mummy case from Sacara. This was regarded
by Doctor Charles Pickering, of Boston, as older than the
third dynasty, and its inscription, which unfortunately gives
no indication of the date, appeared to him to have preceded
an important change in the character of hieroglyphic writing.
The lid had been divided into three parts, and distributed,
and the missing parts could not be traced. Doctor Pick-
ering, however, described the portion which came to the
Smithsonian, and gave a large plate of it, which was a fac-
simile in size and color, representing the figures upon it with
scientific accuracy.

LINGUISTICS

The Smithsonian Institution early recognized the value of
linguistics in the study of anthropology, and from 1850 to
1876 a large amount of work was done in collecting the vo-
cabularies of the American Indians. The keynote of the value
of linguistics is well indicated in one of the early reports,
from which I quote, "A language is not originally a thing of
man's device, or the result of conventional art, but the spon-
taneous production of human instinct, modified by the mental
character, the physical condition, and other peculiarities of
the people or tribe among whom it had its origin, or by
whom it is used. It is subject to definite laws of formation
and development, and is intimately connected with the his-
tory of the migrations and affiliations of the people by whom
it is spoken, and hence becomes an object of interest to the
student of the natural history of man."

758 The Smithsonian Institution

From its foundation to the present time efforts were made
to collect Indian vocabularies as part of the ethnological
work of the Institution, and in 1876 their number amounted
to six hundred and seventy. They were placed in charge of
Doctor J. H. Trumbull, of Hartford, Connecticut, for critical
study. It was the intention of the Institution to publish
these vocabularies in the " Contributions to Knowledge," and
in separate form for general distribution among philologists.
In that year, however, Major J. W. Powell, who had collected
a series of Indian vocabularies from the inhabitants living
near the Great Colorado River, requested that the manu-
script material be turned over to him to be published in con-
nection with his work. This proposition was accepted, the
only conditions of the transfer being that in the publication
of the material due credit be given to the founder of the
Smithsonian, and that extra copies of the publication be fur-
nished the Institution for distribution. The series of publica-
tions on linguistics began with an article by Doctor Francis
Lieber, " On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman, the Blind
Deaf Mute at Boston, compared with the Elements of Pho-
netic Lanofuaofe." The wonderful work of Doctor Howe in
opening the mind of this person to outward impressions has
become famous, and perhaps no more interesting problems
are presented to the psychologist than those connected with
the enlightenment of a mind apparently forever consigned to
darkness. Doctor Lieber had exceptional advantages to
study the sounds first used by Laura Bridgman as indicative
of ideas, and his psychological and philosophical deductions
naturally attracted wide attention among scholars. At the
time of the publication of this work modern psychology as
now understood was in its infancy.

For eighteen years missionaries among the Dakota Indians
industriously collected material for a grammar and lexicon of

Anthropology 759

that language, which, under the auspices of the Historical
Society of Minnesota, was arranged and edited by the Rev-
erend S. R. Riggs. Although primarily prepared to meet
the needs of missionaries, it was found to be an interesting
contribution to ethnology, and its publication was recom-
mended by several of the best philologists of the country.
By cooperation with the Historical Society of Minnesota, and
the American Board of Missions, which contributed al)out a
third of the cost of the work, the Smithsonian Institution
devoted the fourth volume of the " Contributions " to this
valuable memoir.

The appearance of this memoir led to the preparation of
others, which, although not all published, showed the wealth
of material and the awakening interest in this branch of eth-
nographic study. The Institution gave its fostering help to
this work, assisting in the elaboration of material, and coop-
erated with other institutions in its publication. Among
these may be mentioned a " Grammar of the Choctaw," by
the Reverend Harvey Byington, which was warmly recom-
mended by Professor Felton, of Harvard and George Gibbs.
It was published by the American Philosophical Society of
Philadelphia, having been much improved by the author and
Doctor D. G. Brinton, after the death of Mr. Byington. The
growing trade with Oregon rendered timely the publication
in 1853 of the "Vocabulary of the Jargon or Trade Lan-
guage of Oregon," edited by B. Rush Mitchell, and Professor
W. W. Turner, who at that time was librarian of the United
States Patent Office. The interest of the latter scholar in
philological studies appears also in the " Grammar and Dic-
tionary of Yoruba Language," published in the tenth volume
of the " Smithsonian Contributions." Yoruba is in West-
ern Africa, east of Dahomey, and is peopled with a primi-
tive race of simple and harmless character. The Reverend

760 The Smithsonian Institution

Thomas J. Bowen, a missionary of the Southern Baptist
Board, Hved with these people for six years, and collected
much information concerning the physical characters of the
country, the manners, customs, and language of the inhabi-
tants. With the aid of Professor Turner he revised and
rewrote his notes, which, when published, became a memoir
of great value to students of the languages of the African
race. To show the value of this work to specialists, I need
only refer to a commendation of it by the profound German
Egyptologist, Lepsius.

The influence of Gibbs and Shea on the study of the lin-
guistics of the aboriginal races of North America was most
important. They found in the Smithsonian Institution a
channel by which their ideas were impressed on the growing
study of ethnology. Morgan's suggestion of an ethnological
map, in a circular issued by the Institution, was adopted with
zeal and broadened in its scope to embrace all fields of an-
thropology. He proposed to enlist the help of several insti-
tutions, as the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Surveyor- General
of the Land Office, the Hudson Bay Company, in the distri-
bution of circulars calling for ethnographic information, and
proposed the association of several well known scholars in
perfecting his plan of an ethnological map of North America.
He found in Professor Henry, then Secretary of the Smith-
sonian, an appreciative helper, and in Professor Whitney an
adviser of great value. John G. Shea, of New York, had
devoted much attention to linguistics, and at his own expense
began the publication of a series of grammars, or dictionaries,
which he styled a " Library of American Linguistics." This
praiseworthy undertaking not only enlisted the sympathy of
the Smithsonian, but also active aid and association in the
work. A number of manuscripts presented to the Institution
for publication were transmitted to Shea to be published

Anthropology 76 1

in the series above referred to, and arrangements made by
which a considerable number of copies of each memoir were
secured from the pubHsher for distribution. In this way the
Smithsonian aided in the pubHcation of grammars or vocabu-
laries of the Mutsun language, spoken at the missions of
San Juan Bautista and San Antonio, California, and the
Yakima and Pima.

Instruction for research relative to ethnology and philology
prepared by George Gibbs and printed and distributed to
officers of the United States and other governments met
with a gratifying response. As supplemental to that work
blank forms for systematic records were sent out, resulting
in valuable returns of vocabularies, implements, and other
objects illustrative of the arts, customs, and mental condition
of American races. The vocabularies were intrusted to
Gibbs, whose work for many years was largely gratuitous.
He contributed to the publications several valuable articles,
of which his dictionary of the Chinook jargon and " Com-
parative Vocabulary " are good examples of his work.

The accumulated material on Indian linguistics passed into
the hands of the Bureau of Ethnology at its foundation, and
the continuation of its elaboration naturally will be found in
the account of that department of the Institution.

The " Instructions for Research relative to the Ethnology
and Philology of America," by George Gibbs, first published
in 1 86 1, stimulated investigation throughout the country, and
fifteen years later the demand for this work had been so
great that a second edition of more comprehensive plan was
prepared under the direction of Major J. W. Powell. The
elaboration adopted the following plan, as stated in the report
for 1876:

''First, It is found necessary to enlarge the alphabet so as
49

762 The Smithsonian Institution

to include a wider range of sounds which have been discov-
ered in the North American languages.

" Second. It is necessary to enlarge the vocabulary so as to
modify it somewhat as experience has dictated, and that new
words may be collected.

" Third. It is desirable that many simple sentences should
be given, so chosen as to bring out the more important char-
acteristics of grammatical structure."

The new edition, with the above mentioned improvements,
was widely distributed among Indian agents and traders,
missionaries, and local students, and resulted in the collection
of much data in the form of linguistic and other notes, and a
harvest of objects illustrating the manners and customs of the
aborigines of America.

Although the fruition of this plan will be considered in the
account of the work of the Bureau of Ethnology, I may refer
to the accomplishment of one of the plans of George Gibbs,
so often referred to in the Reports of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for 1862 and the following years. The plan of an
"Ethnographic Map" was successfully carried out by Major
J. W. Powell and his assistants as far as linguistic stocks
were concerned, thus giving a valuable contribution to the
cartography of the Indian tribes north of Mexico.

Of the many valuable articles on linguistics published by
the Smithsonian Institution, those of Dorsey on the "Com-
parative Phonology of Four Sioux Languages " and Roehig
" On the Language of the Dakota or Sioux " are noteworthy.
The " Lectures on Linguistics " by Professor Whitney was
a timely publication written by a master of philology, and
given a wide distribution by the Institution. Doctor Cyrus
Adler in his "Oriental Literature in America" treats a sub-
ject of ever growing interest to a large number of American

Anthropology 763

scholars. The valuable memoir of Lewis H. Morgan on
"Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family" was a remarkable work by a profound scholar.
Having been led by his studies of the system of relationship
among the Iroquois Indians to certain conclusions in regard
to consanguinity, Morgan was able to develop the fact that
the same law holds likewise among other Indian tribes of
America, and at his request circulars asking for information
on these points were distributed to consuls, missionaries, and
ethnologists by the Smithsonian Institution. This work was
officially facilitated by General Cass, Secretary of State, by
whom it was commended to diplomatic agents of the gov-
ernment in various lands. The effect of this circular in ad-
vancing anthropological knowledge was great not only in the
special line of inquiries which it specially concerned, but also
in other branches germane to social organization of primitive
society.

The National Museum has accumulated enormous collec-
tions of objects illustrating the ethnography of different races
of man. This material has served as the basis of many
valuable researches, furnishing valuable data on technology,
mythology, and many other departments of anthropology.
Several monographic accounts of different races from the
ethnographic standpoint enrich the publications of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

At the request of the Institution James G. Swan, an
agent of the government, prepared an account of "The
Indians of Cape Flattery," opposite Vancouver Island, in
the northwestern corner of what was then Washinofton Ter-
ritory. This article, published as a memoir, contained a full
description of the manners and customs, myths, and cere-
monials of these people, with a detailed account of imple-
ments, clothing, houses, and mortuary customs, and beliefs.

764 The Sfuithsoiiian Institution

It drew largely in its illustrations from specimens in the
museum, and was accompanied by a vocabulary of the Makah
tribe. The Institution was fortunate in having this memoir
edited by George Gibbs, whose valuable and enthusiastic
work in other departments of ethnology has been commented
upon elsewhere. A few years later Swan prepared another
work on the Indians of the Northwest coast, which was
published in the twentieth volume of the " Contributions to
Knowledge." This article, consisting of eighteen pages of
text, with seven plates, two of which were in color, treated
of "The Haidah Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands."
The people considered in this publication are best known by
their exquisite carvings of ivory, and the lofty heraldic poles,
called totem posts, which are placed before their dwellings
as indicative of the gentes of the occupants. The museum
collection is especially rich in objects from the Indians de-
scribed by Swan in these two memoirs, and their publica-
tion led to a new interest in northwestern coast villaores.
This rich vein of ethnographic material was found to extend
along the whole coast from Washington Territory to the
Aleutian Islands, and was successfully worked by Niblack and
Dall. The former author published, in the Report for 1888,
an elaborate monograph of " The Coast Indians of Southern
Alaska," in which will be found a detailed account, with
figures of many objects in the museum which were deposited
there by him. A large and unique collection, which can
probably never be duplicated, was made for the National Mu-
seum in this region by E. W. Nelson. John Murdoch, at one
time librarian of the Smithsonian, had earlier been attached
to one of the circumpolar stations at Point Barrow, Alaska.
He thus had a rare opportunity to study the Eskimo of
that high latitude, which he improved, bringing back much
valuable information. His ethnographic report, extended by

Anthropology 765

studies of the great collection of Eskimo material in the
museum, is the most important memoir on the people of the
Arctic coast of Alaska which has ever been published. The
publications of the Smithsonian Institution have been greatly
enriched by the articles of Boas on "The Indians of the
Northwest Coast," and the work of this eminent ethnologist
has made him an authority in this interesting field of re-
search. Many collections of objects used in ceremonials have
been added to the museum by his industry, and his contribu-
tions to folk lore, mythology, and linguistics are widely known
among scholars as most valuable additions to knowledge.

The ethnography of the pueblo area is a favorite child of
the Bureau of Ethnology, and this study was much stimulated
by the formation of that department of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. The large collections of pueblo pottery, stone imple-
ments, ceremonial objects, basketry, blankets, and other
specimens illustrating the primitive life of all the pueblos of
the Southwest, made by Powell, the Stevensons, Gushing,
the Mindeleffs and others, is unsurpassed in any museum.
From the time this collection was brought in from the field,
until the present, it has contributed material for specialists in
several lines of study. Specimens from it have been, perhaps,
more often figured than those of any other collection of pueblo
objects. To barely mention the articles which contain illus-
trations taken from this collection would swell this account
to undue proportions. The pottery, stone implements, cere-
monial paraphernalia, and other objects represented in the
richly illustrated report of Stevenson were drawn from this
collection, as well as many figures in the articles of Mrs.
Stevenson, whose devotion and industry contributed to the
value of the collection.

The remarkable collections from the Orient, from China,
Japan, and Tibet, the hermit nation, Corea, shows how broad

49*

766 The Smithsonian Institution

the scope of purely ethnographic objects is in the museum.
Of the many publications on these collections, it may be in-
vidious to single out any one, and not mention others. The
articles by Hitchcock and Hough give an idea of the wealth
of material from the far East, in the National Museum,
while the beautifully illustrated and carefully prepared de-
scription of the collections from Tibet by W. W. Rockhill
have been published in a typographical form worthy of their
great merit. Of particular interest to the student of eth-
nography are the aborigines of Japan called the Ainos, a
comprehensive collection of objects from which people has
been well described by Hitchcock.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A CLASSIFIED record of the yearly progress of science is of
utmost importance, and merits the attention of an Institution
so well equipped with exchanges as the Smithsonian. The
bibliography of anthropology, year by year, has been pub-
lished from 1879 to 1893, inclusive, and the Smithsonian is to
be congratulated in being able to call upon Professor O. T.
Mason for this work. This series, by one so signally fitted
by breadth of knowledge of anthropological literature, con-
tains not only a list of publications on this science during
each year by different institutions and societies of Europe and
America, but also a judicial summary of several, and valuable
abstracts or notices of the more important current articles.
In order to complete this series, the Smithsonian Report for
1879 gives an index to papers on anthropology from 1847 to
1878, thus carrying the bibliographical lists back to the time
of the foundation of the Institution.

By the acquisition of the famous Catlin Gallery the Smith-
sonian Institution gave a permanent home to one of the most

Anthropology 767

valuable collections of Indian portraits which has ever been
made. George Catlin was a wonderful man, and his work
as artist and ethnologist among the wildest tribes of Indians
did much to increase the scanty knowledge of the aborigines
of North America. He was one of the first to live among the
Indians, camping with them and following them in their mi-
grations. His accounts of several of the tribes are about all
that is known of them, and, as some of them have now disap-
peared, will ever remain the source of knowledge in the future.
The original paintings of this artist have a unique value and
their purchase for the national collection appropriate and
necessary.

In order to make this collection as efficient amonof eth-
nologists as it was widely known, a descriptive account was
published with copies in one of the publications of the Institu-
tion. A list of the photographic portraits of North American
Indians in the gallery of the Smithsonian Institution ap-
peared in the "Miscellaneous Collections" for 1867. The
unparalleled facilities for photographing typical Indians who
visit the capital have led to the collection of an unique assem-
blage of pictures of our aborigines nowhere equaled in the
world. It was an opportunity which can never recur, for
many of the famous Indians who sat for these photographs
are no longer living.

The publications on somatology have taken a wide range,
treating of physiology, anatomy, and craniology. Among
other articles of merit may be mentioned those of Carter and
Holmgren on "Color Blindness," Shute on the "Anatomy of
the Brain," Turner and Romanes on " Heredity." Doctor
Baker's "Ascent of Man" more properly belongs to another
line of Smithsonian work, but may well be mentioned in
our consideration of contributions by the Smithsonian to
somatology.

768 The Smithsonia}i Institution

TECHNOLOGY

The great collections of objects illustrative of arts and
manufactures gathered from all quarters of the globe have
offered unrivaled advantages for studies of technology. Sev-
eral prominent specialists have availed themselves of these
facilities, and publications on the arts have covered a wide
field of human activities.

The study of ceramics has been given great importance,
and the publications on this subject from time to time have at-
tracted world-wide attention. In 1866 Doctor Rau opened
the series with a valuable article on Indian pottery, a subject
which was later treated in so exhaustive and artistic a manner
by W. H. Holmes. From the rich storehouse of material in
the hands of aboriginal potters, Gushing and others have
drawn much in the preparation of their valuable paoers on
the primitive potter's craft and its origin and significance.

Professor O. T. Mason's studies of comparative technology
were broader in scope, more varied in subjects. From this
industrious worker, identified for so many years with the
growth of the museum, have come some of the most learned
and exhaustive articles which enrich the pages of the publica-
tions of the museum.

His work on throwing-sticks gave him a wide reputation
for its comprehensive treatment, while that on basketwork,
published in the same year, was of great importance. A
natural complement of the former article was a treatment of
the subject of bows and arrows, in which is found a wealth of
information and illustration only possible with the resources
of a large museum at the disposal of the author. Child-life
in all its phases is of greatest ethnological interest, and in
Mason's article on "Cradles of North American Indians" one

Anthropology 769

can obtain an aspect of technology which should not be over-
looked. A cradle is in a way an index of the evolution of a
method of carrying a burden, and the human beast of burden
in its various modifications, from the time the aboriginal
mother carried the child on her back, gives Professor Mason a
subject for interesting studies.

The immense collections of ceramics from many Indian
tribes have furnished most important material for several
monographs. From a study of these collections, made by
officers of the Smithsonian and acquired by purchase, almost
every phase of the potter's technic has been discovered, and
many peculiarities of symbolistic decoration made out.

From this source have been drawn most of the illustrations
in the beautiful monographs of W. H. Holmes on pottery,
while the types of many of the specimens used in the prepara-
tion of his articles on shell and bone working are found in
the museum.

Doctor Walter Hough, adopting the thought that one
could best study aboriginal arts by working with aboriginal
tools, experimented with primitive fire-drills, and as a result
he published an interesting article on " Fire-making Ap-
paratus" of many rude or uncultured people. Joseph D.
McGuire cultivated a somewhat different field, influenced by
a similar thought. With no other implements than those
used by primitive man, he was able to cleverly fashion any
of the various types of stone implements which characterize
lower stages of culture.

While the scope of the anthropological researches fostered
by the Smithsonian Institution has not been limited to the
study of the American race, a consideration of the preceding
pages shows how large a part of this work has been devoted
to American antiquities and aborigines. The reason for the
predominance is not far to seek. While occupying a position

770 The Smithsonian Institution

as one of the great scientific institutions and museums of the
world, the Smithsonian is naturally an American institution,
founded by individual munificence, aided in its development
by appropriations from public funds of the United States.
While renowned foreign scholars have deemed it an honor
to be associated with its work, the majority of anthropologists
who have aided in its growth have been American specialists
on subjects connected with America. Few countries have a
larger and more varied anthropological field to study than
our own. Fifty years ago the relative proportion of the
unknown to the known in American anthropology was much
larger than at present. It is an inevitable result of these and
other influences that, whatever its aspirations, the dominant
influence of the Smithsonian Institution on the study of an-
thropology must be, as we can say with pride it has been, in
fostering the study of American ethnology and archaeology.

As a national institution, there is but one ideal possible for
the Smithsonian Institution, and that the highest, the leading
scientific center of the intellectual life of a great nation. In
American anthropology it should stand, as it has stood, without
a rival in this field, not one of several institutions fostering
American science, but the leader, appealing to scholars through
the most profound researches, and to the public and students
through the most carefully arranged museum in the country.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL

COLLECTIONS

The enormous collections of material in the exhibits of the
Smithsonian Institution illustrating archaeology or the dis-
tribution of man in time, and ethnography or geographical
distribution, form but a part of those under charge of the
curator. Its wealth is known to the special student who

JxVMES OLAEKE AVELLi:^rG.

REGENT OF THE SMITHSONIAN TNSTTTUTK^N

1884-1694:.

as one :

Aw^v ciii American i'^"-
ccnce, aided in its deveiopmen.
he United
a scholars have deemed it
the majority of an

...^w its grow... ..^ve been An... .^

ccls connected with America. Few counLiicb a

i mor led a ' oological field to s

■ur own. /ears ar tive pre

mknown to the k. ican anthr< jy wa \

-^ .. n at present. It is .... ....„.._. result of these anO

'""-^r inflr " " ^hat, whatever its a?-"'^^' — ""^^-^ ^ — 'nam

le study of an-
ve can say witi. pride it ha

arch V

■ ]^ hr.t nvii r

itilic * tuai iiic ot a great natu i

■ stand, as it has stood, without
a r{\ a] in this fiel- - ne of several itions

A. . ... . ,.ence, but the leader, appealing to scholars ti ^.

he I ■'' - ^ — ^ -1, researches. -^^^ ' "-^ the public and students

carefully arrangcu museum in the coun

MTHP

1. the cxiUDits oi
Tchsology or the

di but a p

curatc;^^^^j.^^ 0feto:iO eMT/^l.

- i V* t ■-»-■-» V

Anthropology yyi

seeks the museum for his researches. That which is not
seen by the visitor is carefully preserved and freely placed
before the special investigator. All great museums are trea-
sure-houses to the student, repositories of unworked ma-
terial awaiting the advent of specialists. The Smithsonian
Institution thus draws visitors to the objects installed, and
special students to the rich collections stored in appropriate
places. Much of the material is unique, can never be dupli-
cated, and so long as it lasts will draw to this Mecca of
anthropologists both the sightseer and the investigator.

Although there are many sides to the discussion of the
question of the influence of the installations of the anthro-
pological material in the Smithsonian Institution, I can men-
tion but one or two points germane to this subject. One
aim of a museum collection is to attract and to teach the
public something. Every museum strives to accomplish this
object, but the means used often vary. In certain directions
the work of the Smithsonian Institution in the installation of
ethnological and archaeological material is unique.

The value of models is recognized by all curators, and
these representations have been used with great success in
all the foremost museums of the world. The Smithsonian
Institution had before it an exceptional problem in developing
this side of its anthropological exhibit. Peculiar conditions
presented themselves to those in charge of the illustration of
American ethnology and archaeology. While models were
considered indispensable, there were no models in existence
to illustrate aboriginal American life. European workmen,
adepts in their craft, were unfamiliar with our Indians, and
their attempts to represent them were often caricatures.
American modelers had not yet turned their attention to this
line of work when the Smithsonian Institution adopted the
method and carried it to a high perfection. An Indian group

"J"] 2 The Smithsojiian Institution

making pottery or basketry, a Navaho silversmith, tells a story
much more effectually than can be told in any other way.
In this method of installation the Smithsonian Institution is
not only a pioneer as far as the American Indians are con-
cerned, but preeminent among museums.

The models of pueblos and cliff-houses in the museum are
also unique ; their duplication elsewhere shows that they are
appreciated as a method of installation, and yet it is not say-
ing too much to declare that the Smithsonian Institution
was also a pioneer in this kind of installation. In this con-
nection may be mentioned an adaptation of photographs of
ethnographic material which has attracted much attention
among experts at home and abroad. I refer to the use of
transparencies in windows. These pictures of American
Indians, of pueblos, and similar objects have certainly not
been carried to the same perfection elsewhere.

From the influences which have been enumerated, and
others equally potent, anthropology in the last half century
has made enormous strides. In this short time in the history
of science many great ethnological museums have been born
and grown to exert widespread influences. Trained anthro-
pologists have taken the places of amateurs, ethnological re-
searches have become more exact, publications more special.
The mode of installation of ethnographic material has im-
proved, a science of museums is beginning to be recognized.
The history of the influences which have brought about all
this growth interests every one who studies the glorious part
which the Smithsonian Institution has played in the fifty
years now closing. The new anthropology nurtured into
vigor by great institutions reciprocates by claims which can-
not be disregarded ; it instinctively looks for future growth to
that influence to which it owes so much in the past.

GEOGRAPHY

By Gardiner Greene Hubbard

President of the National Geographic Society

^^PURING the half century that has elapsed since
t the Smithsonian Institution was organized,
more progress has been made in acquiring
knowledge of the geography of the earth than
in any previous century. More than a fourth
of the globe, which in 1846 was practically unknown, and
was represented by a blank on our maps, has been explored
in this half-century ; and in this work of developing our
knowledge of unknown regions, the Smithsonian Institu-
tion has played a far more prominent part tlian is popularly
supposed. Few expeditions have been equipped and sent
out by it; but of the expeditions organized by the United
States government for purposes of exploration, there are
few which have not been aided by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, either by additions to its personnel, by instruction,
counsel and advice, or by the working up and publication
of its results.

In these ways the fostering care of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution has been felt by many branches of science now rep-

773

774 The Smithsonian bistitution

resented by organizations under the general government.
The creation of these organizations, which was in large
part due to the Smithsonian Institution, constitutes one of
its greatest services to mankind.

It was Professor Henry's idea that the Institution should
make original investigations in all branches of geographic
knowledge, institute explorations, and collect specimens of
minerals, animals, plants, and ethnological objects for its mu-
seum, where they could be studied by specialists, and diffuse
knowledge by publications based upon them. This plan con-
templates increasing our knowledge, (A) by means of explor-
ing expeditions sent out, either at its sole expense or jointly
with other organizations; (B) by the collection of specimens
for the museum illustrating the geography, geology, biology,
and ethnography of the countries explored. It should diffuse
the knowledge thus gained, (A) by the preparation of maps;
(B) by the publication of its annual reports; and (C) by the
publication of memoirs.

Among the many expeditions which the Smithsonian Insti-
tution has aided in a greater or less degree, a few only can
be specifically mentioned.

NORTH AMERICA

If we look at the northern part of North America on a map
of 1846, we shall find the shore line of the Arctic Ocean ill-
defined and the outlines of the islands and the mainland fre-
quently confused. The river Yukon on that map enters the
Arctic Ocean near Point Beechey instead of flowing into Be-
ring Sea, several hundred miles to the southward, as is now
known to be the case. Although the general courses of the
rivers were then laid down with some approach to correct-
ness, this was more through theoretical than by actual know-

Geography 775

ledge. On one of the maps of this date, the Red River of the
North flows south instead of north, connecting- the great rivers
flowing into Lake Winnipeg and Hudson Bay with the Min-
nesota and the Mississippi. Alaska, then httle known, was
the property of Russia.

Professor Henry took great interest in the exploration of
the Arctic Ocean ; and aided by his counsel, advice and in-
struction, the second Grinnell expedition, under Doctor Elisha
Kent Kane, was undertaken in 1853, that of Doctor Isaac
I. Hayes in i860, and the Polaris expedition, under Captain
Charles F. Hall, in 1871.

The western part of Canada was then controlled by the
Hudson Bay Company. At its request Professor Henry
prepared circulars to its officers, with suggestions and direc-
tions for exploration of its territory. In accordance with
these suggestions much exploration was done between 1850
and 1870, at the joint expense of that company and the
Smithsonian Institution. In this way valuable additions to
our knowledge of its geography and biology were acquired.

In 1 86 1 the Western Union Telegraph Company organ-
ized an expedition for building lines of telegraph overland
through Alaska and Siberia to Europe. Robert Kennicott,
William H. Dall, and George Kennan accompanied the ex-
pedition, partly in the capacity of representatives of the In-
stitution, and made extensive explorations in Alaska and .
eastern Siberia; but before their work was tinished, it was
interrupted by the successful laying of the Atlantic cable.
Notices of these explorations were published in the Re-
ports of the Institution. Subsequently, when stations were
established in Alaska and the Arctic reofions of America
for the purpose of obtaining meteorological data, the In-
stitution selected observers to accompany the parties, and
furnished other material aid ; and the explorations made by

7^6 The Smithsonian Institution

the parties stationed at Point Barrow and Lady Franklin
Bay were in no small degree the result of the cooperation
of the Institution. By such means a large portion of the
Arctic regions of North America was explored, and extensive
collections, especially of biologic and ethnologic subjects,
were made.

In 1846 the greater part of the United States west of the
one-hundredth meridian was unknown. The most western
State was then Illinois, the region west of the Mississippi
being an unsettled region where Indians and buffaloes
roamed. Texas had just been admitted to the Union, but
California and the greater part of the country west of the
Rocky Mountains belonged to Mexico, and were ceded to the
United States in 1848. The explorations of Lewis and
Clarke, Pike, Long, Bonneville, and Fremont had laid down
the general course of the main streams, and the general dis-
tribution of the mountain systems, but little or nothing was
known of the details of the topography, and nothing what-
ever of the resources of the country. The only means of
reaching California was by sailing vessels around Cape
Horn. The Mormons were then located on the Mississippi
River, and several years passed before they took up their
dangerous march across the desert to Salt Lake.

Between 1849 and 1854 the United States government
.sent out a number of expeditions for the purpose of discov-
ering practicable routes for railroads across this great desert
region. These expeditions were conducted by the War
Department, but they were aided in many ways by the
Smithsonian Institution. They were accompanied by geolo-
gists, botanists and ethnologists, who received their instruc-
tions from the Institution ; and the magnificent series of
Pacific Railroad reports are in no small degree the work of
the Institution. After these expeditions followed many

Geography jyj

others, under the control of the War Department, wliich
were aided in greater or less degree by the Institution; but
they are too numerous to be mentioned here.

The early ex[)lorations of Professor F. V. Hayden, which
were mainly geological in character, were aided b)' the In-
stitution. In 1869 Major J. W. Powell, partly at the expense
of the Smithsonian Institution, and jjartly at that of the Illi-
nois State University, explored the Colorado River of the
West, traversing it from Green River to the foot of its can-
ons in boats. During subsequent years he continued ex-
ploration of the plateau region drained by this river and its
tributaries, under the Smithsonian Institution, mainly by the
aid of direct appropriations from Congress. Finally, in 1879,
the organizations of Major J. W, Powell, Doctor F". V.
Hayden and Lieutenant G. M, Wheeler, of the United States
Engineer Corps, were merged into the present United States
Geological Survey.

During the earlier part of this period of fifty years before
the general construction of railroads, the navigation of the
Ohio and Mississippi rivers was of the utmost importance
to the inhabitants of the IVIississippi Valley, for it afforded the
only means of intercommunication between the people living
in the northern and southern parts of the valley of this river.
Furthermore, the annual inundations of the Mississippi River
were often the cause of orreat devastation to the cotton and
sugar fields in the lower part of the great valley, as the
banks of the river are lower than the river at its hioh-water
mark. Moreover, the bar at the mouth of the river was a
serious impediment to sea-going vessels. The Ohio and
Mississippi rivers were examined by Charles Ellet. under
the general oversight of Professor Henry, and the contribu-
tions of Mr. Ellet were published at various times by the
Institution in iS49-'5o-'5 1, and were of great value not only
50

7/8 The Smithsonian Institution

as an aid to our knowledge of the physical geography of the
rivers, but also as determining the steps to be taken, and
which have subsequently been carried out, for improving the
navigation of the rivers and the prevention of inundations.

Great wisdom was shown by the Institution in its earlier
days in aiding other institutions unable to incur the whole
expenses of an expedition, by furnishing the means for send-
ing out skilled parties connected with such universities,
thereby obtaining more satisfactory results and interesting
broader circles than if the expeditions had been made solely
by the Institution. Thus Professor Charles B. Adams, of
Amherst College, was sent to the West Indies and Panama
on two expeditions in 1851-52, at the joint expense of the
Smithsonian Institution and the College. In 1868, Frederick
Sumichrast, of Kentucky University, was sent out to explore
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and he prepared an account
of his journey, which was made at the joint expense of the
University and the Smithsonian Institution,

In 1868 the remains of a bone cave were found in the
West India island of Anguilla and thoroughly examined
by experts of the Smithsonian. This investigation throws
light not only on the ancient life, but also on the geography
of the West Indies in prehistoric times, and the importance
of the research is shown, Professor Baird tells us, by the
following considerations:

First. It is the first investigation of the life of the cave
age in the West Indies.

Secoftd. It gives the first reliable indication of the period
of submergence, and hence of separation of the West India
islands from the continent.

Third. It furnishes the best evidence as to the antiquity
of man in the West Indies, and brings to light some very
peculiar forms of animal life not previously known.

Geography 779

There is not space to mention the many reports of different
travelers and collectors in the West India islands. Xo part
of the world seems to have been so frequently visited by
writers for the Smithsonian as the West India islands and
the different countries in Central America.

ASIA

Passing now from America, we will consider the work of the
Smithsonian Institution in extending our knowledge of the
Old World. Ten years after the Institution was chartered, an
exploring expedition was sent out by the United States, and
by the able management of its commander, Perry. Japan was
first opened to foreign trade. Since that time, and within
the last thirty years, greater changes have taken place in
Japan than ever before in any country — a country which
had been closed to the rest of the world for over two hun-
dred years, and where no changes had taken place in the
manner, habits or progress of the people for many centuries.
The Japanese in many ways differ from their neighbors
the Chinese and Koreans ; though they resemble them in
some of their habits and in their religion, yet their language
is very dissimilar. Inquiries have therefore been made to
ascertain their origin, and especially by Romeyn Hitchcock,
who visited Japan in 1887 and 1889. On traveling into the
northern part of the country his attention was called to the
Ainos, who were supposed to have been the earliest inhabit-
ants of that territory, and at some early period had been for-
cibly driven from the south, the richest portions ol Japan,
into Jeddo, the most northern and poorest of the islands. In
visiting northern Japan to learn more of the Ainos. he heard
of the Pit Dwellers, earlier inhabitants of Japan than the
Ainos, but greatly inferior to them, who probably had been

7^0 The SniitJisonian Institution

driven from their pits by the Aincs. This report is of great
value and interest, and was published in 1890 by the Smith-
sonian Institution.

The maps of fifty years ago show the general course of the
rivers of China (with several ranges of mountains), having
been largely constructed from the reports of Marco Polo,
who traveled through China six hundred years ago, for little
had been added to the knowledge of the interior of China
since his time. During the past fifty years intercouse with
China has been greatly increased, barriers have been thrown
down, the country has been partially opened to missionaries
and travelers, who have crossed and recrossed its territory,
so that we have now a oreneral knowledofe of the whole of the
Chinese Empire. Raphael Pumpelly was one of the first
Americans who traveled extensively through China, Mon-
golia, and Japan between 1862 and 1865, and his researches
were published by the Smithsonian Institution. He was the
first to describe the great Loess formation of the Hoang-Ho,
in northeastern China, which has been the chief source of its
agricultural wealth and the means of subsistence of its vast
population, and to ascertain the location of the vast coal beds
and fields of iron and copper. Various facts have been ascer-
tained in regard to the Loess formation, of interest to us, as
the same formation has been found in Iowa and some other
of the central States. These countries were again explored
in 1 88 1 by Pierre L. Jouy, who also visited Korea, and sub-
sequently by John B. Bernadou, each of whom made large
collections of the fauna of those countries and of the mortuary
pottery of Korea. It must not be forgotten that the latter
are not only valuable as interesting specimens of art, but
also as giving us a very accurate knowledge of the resources
of the country and the character and civilization of its inhab-
itants. Later William W. Rockhill, for several years con-

Geography 781

nected with the American Embassy in China, acquired suffi-
cient knowledge of the Chinese language to converse in it,
and also became acquainted with the habits and customs of
the people, and thus was fitted to travel in that country. He
traversed China, Mongolia, and Tibet, thous^di he was not
successful in reaching Lassa. A year or two later he visited
these countries a second time; and an account of the countries
and peoples visited by him in both of these explorations is
given in the reports published by the Smithsonian. South-
east of Tibet is the beautiful Vale of Kashmir and the deep
valleys of the Himalayas, with canons through which the In-
dus runs, as much deeper than our caiions as the mountains
are higher than those of our own country. These were
visited by Doctor William L. Abbott in 1893 ^^'^^ 1894.

AFRICA

Fifty years ago the interior of Africa was unknown ; the
maps of Africa delineated the coast-line, the course of the
Niger, the lower Nile, a small tract south of the Desert
of Sahara in the region of Timbuctoo, and Lake Tchad and
Cape Colony, while all the rest was unknown. U was re-
served for our times — for Livingstone and Stanley and Speke
and Baker, and a host of other eminent travelers, to explore
the different parts of Africa, until now the Dark Continent
has become better known than the interior of Asia. Negrroes
from our country were sent to Liberia, under the auspices of
the American Colonization Society, and founded the first
republic of Africa. This republic was visited by Reverend
R. R. Gurley in 1824, 1858, and 1867, who in his earlier
trips collected many specimens for the Smithsonian museum.
Near Liberia, and east of Dahomey, is Yoruba, the most
densely populated portion of Africa, — a country inhabited by
50*

782 The Smithsonian histitntion

a peculiar people more highly civilized than most other negro
tribes. It was visited by Reverend J. J. Brown in 1856-57,
who prepared a grammar and dictionary of their language,
of great value to ethnologists, with a description of the
country and people. In 1889, Reverend A. C. Goode visited
the Gaboon, a little to the north of the Congo, and about the
same time Heli Chatelain explored the coast of Africa south
of the Congo, near Loando, one of the most flourishing settle-
ments in Africa, founded by the Portuguese, where they have
large plantations and a railroad extending into the interior.
Their reports were published in 1891 and 1892. The river
Congo was visited by J. M. Camp between 1892 and 1895,
who collected many valuable specimens for the Museum,
and also by Dorsey Mohun, who sailed up the river to
the territory of the Ujiji people in eastern Africa. There is
one country in Africa, Morocco, partially civilized, of which
we know less than of any other similar country, as its in-
habitants oppose the entrance of travelers or any foreigner
into their country. Morocco has had a civilization of its own
for many centuries, and from there the Moors entered and
conquered Spain, and there they found a refuge when driven
from Granada. This country was visited in 1889 by Talcott
Williams, of Philadelphia, who prepared a most interesting
account of his visit for publication by the Smithsonian
Institution.

A number of scientific expeditions have been sent out by
our government to witness eclipses of the sun; one in 1889
to South Africa to observe the eclipse which took place
that year. In this connection the coast of the Congo region
was visited by William Harvey Brown, of the National
Museum, who later accompanied an expedition sent out by
the South African Exploring Company into South Africa, the
country of which we have recently heard so much ; for here

Geography -j^z

are the great diamond mines of Rhodesia and the gold fields
of the Transvaal, which so nearly involved England in a war
with the Boers, and were the cause of the rising of the Mata-
beles and Mashona tribes.

Eastern and northeastern Africa have also been visited
by two American explorers, who associated themselves with
the Smithsonian Institution by presenting large and valuable
collections of natural history and ethnological objects to the
National Museum. Doctor William L. Abbott visited that
part of eastern Africa now claimed ])y the Germans, in the
vicinity of the great snow mountain of Kilimanjaro, from 1889
to 1893, going from there to Madagascar. In 1892, W'illiam
Astor Chanler, of New York, after a full conference with
Doctor G. Brown Goode, determined on an expedition to
British East Africa, for the purpose of exploring the source
of the Yuba and the rivers of Abyssinia. His journey was of
great interest. He visited many localities in northeastern
Africa, and a report of his journey was published in 1893.

Besides the publications of the Smithsonian Institution
which have been mentioned in the preceding pages, in con-
nection with the story of its relations to exploration and travel,
the Institution has issued numerous publications of a geo-
graphical character. For five years, from 1882 to 1S86,
inclusive, it published in its annual report a summary of prog-
ress in geography, in which, in a few pages, the progress
made by mankind, in acquiring knowledge of its environ-
ment, was set forth. It has published a collection of geo-
graphical tables in several editions, the earliest of which were
edited by Professor Arnold Guyot, and the latest by Professor
Robert S. Woodward, which are of the greatest value to
geographers and scientific travelers.

It has published many short papers, among which are
"Promotion of Further Discovery in the Arctic and Antarctic

784 The Smithsonian Institntion

Regions," and "The Present Standpoint of Geography," by the
well-known English geographer, Clements R. Markham; "The
Renewal of Antarctic Exploration," by another celebrated
English geographer, John Murray; "The Mediterranean,
Physical and Historical," by R. L. Playfair; "Development of
the Cartography of America up to the year i57o,"by S. Ruge;
"Geographical Latitude," by W. B. Scaife; "The North Polar
Basin," by Henry Seebohm; "Physical Condition of the
Ocean," by W. J. L. Wharton; "How Maps are Made," by
H. O. Blakie; "Antarctica, a Vanished Austral Land," by
W, B. Forbes; "Antarctic Explorations," by G. S. Griffiths;
"Evolution of Commerce" and "The Relations of Air and
Water to Temperature and Life," by Gardiner G. Hubbard ;
"Stanley and the Map of Africa," by J. S. Kelte.

A compilation of data regarding altitudes in the United
States was first undertaken by the Institution. A generation
ago attempts were made by it to obtain profiles of the railroads
of the country, and great progress had been made in this work
when it was taken up on the one hand by the Signal Office,
and on the other by the Hayden Survey, and since carried
forward by that organization and its successor, the present
Geological Survey. The only outcome of this collection of
altitudes made by the Institution is the production of a small
hypsometric map of the United States, prepared by Charles
A. Schott, and published in the United States Statistical
Atlas of 1874.

Many maps have been published by the Institution, but in
practically all cases they are embodied in reports which they
serve to illustrate, and therefore require no separate mention.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

By Henry Carrington Bolton

Lecturer on the History of Chemistry and Professor of Bibliography,

Cohimbian University

ORD RAYLEIGH, in his presidential address
at the Montreal meeting of the British Asso-
ciation held in 1884, said:

" By a fiction as remarkable as any to be
found in law, what has once been published,
even though it be in the Russian language, is usually spoken
of as 'known,' and it is often forgotten that the re-discovery
in the library may be a more difficult and uncertain process
than the first discovery in the laboratory."

This well formulated truth, coming from so high an author-
ity, emphasizes very strongly the immense importance of
bibliographical publications, a fact which has always been
appreciated by the Smithsonian Institution. Having been
especially established to promote " the increase and diftusion
of knowledge among men," its officers have always regarded
as peculiarly within its province the means for making the
vast stores of learning in print available to students of science.
This feature was an object of particular interest to the first
Secretary, Joseph Henry, and in his " Programme of Organi-
zation," he recommended that the library should contain.

785

786 The Sniithsonian Institittioii

" first, a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceeding-s of all the learned societies in the world ; and second,
of the more important current periodicals, publications, and
other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports."
Subsequently he further recommended that "catalogues of all
the different libraries in the United States should be pro-
cured," as well as "catalogues of memoirs, and of books and
other materials for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graph ica I knowledge. "

Again, in his Report for 1851, Henry remarked: "One
of the most important means of facilitating the use of libraries
(particularly with reference to science), is well-digested in-
dexes of subjects, not merely referring to volumes or books,
but to memoirs, papers, and parts of scientific transactions
and systematic works."

He then refers to Doctor Thomas Young's " Catalogue of
Books Relating to Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts," published in 1807, and remarks: " I know of no richer
gift which could be bestowed upon the science of our day
than the continuation of this catalogue to the present time.
Every one who is desirous of enlarging the bounds of human
knowledge should, in justice to himself as well as to the pub-
lic, be acquainted with what has previously been done in the
same line ; and this he will only be enabled to accomplish by
the use ot indexes of the kind above mentioned."

These brief extracts show the mental attitude of Henry
toward bibliographical labors. Reference will be made later
to his splendid contribution to bibliography in suggesting
the work which led to the publication by the Royal Society
of London of the "Catalogue of Scientific Papers."

As in many other departments of activity, the foundations
laid by Henry for bibliography have been constantly built
upon by his successors in the secretaryship. Their policy

Bibliogj'aphy 787

has always been to foster bibliographical researches, both by
the labors of the staff of the Smithsonian, as well as by
scholars and specialists to whom the pages of its publications
have been freely opened.

The " Smithsonian Deposit," in the Library of Congress,
is especially rich in the publications of learned societies ; the
Smithsonian "Annual Report," "Miscellaneous Collections,"
and "Contributions to Knowledge" are replete with indexes,
catalogues, bibliographies, and check-lists to every branch of
knowledge, supplying to some extent the tools for the use
of bibliographers.

JEWETT'S PLAN FOR A GENERAL CATALOGUE

Professor Charles C. Jewett, Assistant Secretary of the
Institution and Librarian, in 1850, proposed an elaborate
plan for compiling a general catalogue of all the books in
the United States with reference to the libraries where each
might be found. To accomplish this Professor Jewett de-
vised a method of elcctrotyping titles separately, one on a
block, and he drew up a set of " Rules " for cataloguing to
secure uniformity on the part of the different librarians.
Professor Jewett seems to have anticipated some of the feat-
ures of the modern linotype method of printing catalogues,
as the process is stated to be " peculiarly adapted to the
stereotyping of separate titles or even of single lines." His
plan contemplated cooperation between the libraries in the
United States and the Smithsonian Institution on this basis:
the titles of books received were to be transcribed on a uni-
form system, and then to be stereotyped by the Smithsonian,
the latter Institution to pay the extra expense of stereotyp-
ing or such part as might be agreed upon ; the stereotyped
titles to remain the property of the Smithsonian Institution;

788 The Sjnithsonian Institution

and each library to have the right of using all the titles in
the possession of the Institution, as often as desired, for the
printing of its own catalogue by the Smithsonian Institution,
paying only the expense of making up the pages, or press-
work, and of distributing the titles to their proper place.
And lastly, the Smithsonian Institution to publish, as soon as
possible, and at stated intervals, a " General Catalogue of all
Libraries " coming into this system.

In urging the economy of this scheme, the interesting fact
was brought forward that the printed catalogues of libraries
in the United States comprised a total of 450,000 titles, but
of these not more than 150,000 titles were different. This
was in 1850; now there are several single libraries which have
on their shelves more books than all the combined libraries
of the United States then possessed.

Professor Jewett proposed an extension of the copyright law
to all books, and the publication of a monthly "Bulletin" as
well as a " General Catalogue" every five years. He favored
an alphabetical arrangement of titles on account of the dififi-
culties surrounding any attempt at classification. His scheme
provided for a superintendent to revise the titles so that they
conform to the "Rules," and to supervise the stereotyping.

The "Rules for Preparing Catalogues" embody detailed
instructions as to the transcription of titles, the choice of
headings, the treatment of foreign names in alphabeting, the
character of cross-references and the arrangement of data ;
they are followed by examples and a library check-list show-
ing in what American libraries (thirteen selected) the books
catalogued are to be found. The "Rules" have formed the
basis of all subsequent publications of like character, although
certain ones have been materially changed.

The plan of stereotyping separate titles was carried on
for several years by the Smithsonian Institution, but the

Bibliography 789

scheme for a " General Catalogue " was never accomplished,
though a beginning was made. Jewett further published
"Notes of Public Libraries in the United States" (1851), a
work which, though admittedly incomplete, excited great
interest; and the distribution of the volume brought into the
Institution a large amount of statistical information pertinent
to the subject.

HENRY AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY

The monumental work of the Royal Society of London, a
"Catalogue of Scientific Papers, 1800-83," had its origin
in a communication addressed by the first Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.

As early as 1854, Henry conceived the plan of preparing
an "American Scientific Bibliography," and sought to enlist
the cooperation of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in procuring, with its large resources, a
similar classified index for British and European scientific
literature. Henry's proposal was favorably received by the
British Association and referred to a committee comprising
Fellows of the Royal Society ; this committee approved the
suggestion, presented a general outline of the proposed work,
and eventually succeeded in interesting the Royal Society
itself in the undertaking. Ten years later, the Royal So-
ciety, aided by a government grant, published the first part
of its splendid "Catalogue of Scientific Papers." In the
preface occur the following words: "The present under-
taking may be said to have originated in a communication
from Doctor Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution." The eleven quarto volumes, covering the period
1800 to 1883, form one of the greatest tributes to Henry's

790 The Smithsonian Institution

sagacity. Being an author-catalogue arranged alphabeti-
cally, its use has been hampered by the lack of a subject-
index, but scholars have been recently delighted to learn that
the Royal Society contemplates supplying this very impor-
tant deficiency.

The Royal Society has recently opened correspondence
with the Smithsonian Institution concerning a continuation
of the Catalogue on an enlarged plan for the period begin-
ning with the year 1900.

In a letter dated March 31, 1894, Professor Michael Foster,
Secretary of the Royal Society, says :

"The Smithsonian Institution is, on historical grounds,
so closely connected with the efforts of the Royal Society in
cataloguing scientific papers, that I am directed to add to the
circular letter herewith sent, a few words expressing the hope
of the Committee of the Royal Society, which has the matter
in hand, that they may have in a special way the assistance
of your valuable body in coming to a decision on so important
a question."

The circular alluded to states that the Royal Society con-
templates the preparation of a continuation of the catalogue,
and inquires as to the feasibility of its being compiled through
international cooperation, and invites suggestions as to the
best methods for carrying out the plans.

Secretary Langley replied promptly, and his letter is thus
referred to in the report of the International Catalogue
Committee dated July 25, 1895 :

" It is a pfreat orratification to the Committee that the
matter has been taken up in a most cordial manner by the
Smithsonian Institution, the Secretary of which, in his reply,
refers to the desirability of a catalogue of the kind suggested
as being so obvious that the work commends itself at once."

Bibliography 79 1

An International Conference was held in London in July,
1896, to consider this important undertaking, in answer to
invitations sent by Lord Salisbury to twenty-one countries,
and the results of its labors are familiar to all.

CHECK-LIST OF SERIALS

From time to time the Smithsonian Institution has published
check-lists and catalogues of the publications of learned so-
cieties and of periodicals received and placed on file in the
library. The first of these bears the date 1853, " Check-list
of periodicals received in the reading-room," issued only as a
separate. This was followed by others in 1855, 1856, 1859,
1862, and culminated in the stout volume of nearly 600
pages, octavo, issued in 1866, entitled: "Catalogue of Publi-
cations of Societies and of Periodical Works, belonging to
the Smithsonian Institution, January i, 1866." At the time
of its publication it was the " most complete work on the
bibliography of publications of learned societies which has
yet appeared in the English language."

In 1882, Mr. William J. Rhees, chief clerk of the Smith-
sonian Institution, contributed an important bibliograph\- to
the series, entitled : " Catalogue of Publications of the Smith-
sonian Institution (1846-82), with an Alphabetical Index of
Articles in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
Miscellaneous Collections, Annual Reports, Bulletins and
Proceedings of the United States National Museum, and Re-
port of the Bureau of Ethnology." A second edition brought
down to date was published in 1886; this forms an indis-
pensable key to the articles, volumes, and numbers issued by
the Institution from its organization to the date of issue, a
period of forty years.

The alphabetical index contains in a single alphabet the

792 The Smithsonian Institution

names of authors and the titles of the specific articles, with
references to the series, volume, and number where each can
be found.

In this connection may be mentioned the several editions
of the " List of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution
for sale or exchange," edited by Mr. Rhees and issued at fre-
quent intervals for many years. Also the " List of the Pub-
lications of the Bureau of Ethnology, with Index to Authors
and Subjects," by Frederick Webb Hodge, which bears the
date 1894.

RECORDS OF PROGRESS IN SCIENCE

In the "Programme of Organization," approved by the Re
gents, December 8, 1847, provision was made for "the pub-
lication of a series of reports giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to
year in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional "
.... "The reports to be prepared by collaborators eminent
in the different branches of knowledge."

These reports have constituted for more than forty years
an important part of the appendixes to the "Annual Re-
ports." In 1880 they took the form of a systematic " Record
of Scientific Progress," and most of which contain full bib-
liographies, and this feature was, in part, continued until
1895. The reports comprised the following topics by the
persons named, at the dates given :

"Anthropology," 1879-93, by Otis T. Mason.

"Astronomy," 1879-84, by Edward S. Holden; 1885-92, by
William C. Winlock. From 1883 accompanied by par-
tial bibliographies. That for 1887 was published in the
" Miscellaneous Collections."

"Botany," 1879-83, by W. G. Farlow; 1887-88, by F. H.
Knowlton.

Bibliography 793

"Chemistry," 1879-81, by George F. Barker; 1882-86, by
H. Carrington Bolton; 1887-88, by F. \V. Clarke. [A
bibliography of chemistry for the year 1887, ^^y H.
Carrington Bolton, was published in the " Miscellaneous
Collections."]

"Geography," 1881-84, by F. M. Green; 1SS5, by J. K.
Goodrich; 1886, by William Libbey, Jr.

" Geology " (including Petrography, Vulcanology, and Seis-
mology), 1879-80, by George W. Hawes; 1881-83, by
T. Sterry Hunt; 1886, by N. H. Darton ; 1887-88, by
W J McGee.

"Meteorology," 1879-84, by Cleveland Abbe. "Dynamic
Meteorology," by Cleveland Abbe, 1887-88; 1889, by
G. E. Curtis.

"Mineralogy," 1879-80, by George W. Hawes; 1882-88, by
Edward S. Dana.

"Paleontology" (North American), 1884-86, by J. B. Mar-
cou; 1887-88, by H. S. Williams.

"Petrography" 1887-88, by George P. Merrill.

["A Bibliography of Works on Building Stones," forms
Appendix E to George P. Merrill's paper on "The Col-
lection of Buildinir and Ornamental Stones in the United
States National Museum; A Handbook and Catalogue,"
published in 1886.]

"Physics," 1879-86, by George F. Barker.

" Vulcanology and Seismology," 1883 -'86, by C. G.
Rockwood.

"Zoology," 1879-86, by Theodore Gill.

CONSTANTS OF NATURE

The eminent English mathematician, Charles Babbage. pro-
posed, as early as 1856, a great work, entitled "The Con-
stants of Nature and Art," intended to contain all facts which
can be expressed in numbers, in the various branches of
knowledge, such as the atomic weight of bodies, specific
gravities, elasticity, tenacity, specific heat, conducting power,

794 The Smithsonian Institution

melting-points, etc. This undertaking would require the
cooperation of a number of institutions, but it would neces-
sarily consist of many independent parts, any one of which
would be of immediate value.

Recognizing the utility of this suggestion, the Institution
began to collect material on several of the topics embraced
in the general plan, under the direction of Professors John
and Joseph Le Conte, but the outbreak of the Civil War in-
terrupted the work. In 1873, however, Frank Wigglesworth
Clarke offered a series of "Tables of Specific Gravities,
Boiling-points and Melting-points of Bodies," compiled from
the best authorities, and this was issued as Part I of the
" Constants of Nature " in the same year. Three years later
(1876) the same industrious worker published "A Table of
Specific Heats for Solids and Liquids," forming Part II of
the series named. Other volumes of this valued collection
followed :

Part III, "Table of Expansion by Heat for Solids and
Liquids," by F. W. Clarke, 1879.

" First Supplement to Part I ; Specific Gravities, etc.,"
1876.

Part IV, "Atomic Weight Determinations," by George F.
Becker, 1880.

Part V, "Recalculation of Atomic Weights," by F. W.
Clarke, 1882.

Of Part I, a new edition was issued in 1888, and of Part
V, a new edition was issued in 1897.

These works have become invaluable to all scholars and
investigators in the physical sciences.

SMITHSONIAN TABLES

In connection with the meteorolooical observations conducted
by the Institution, Professor Guyot compiled a volume of

Bibliography 795

"Meteorological and Physical Tables," which was published
in 1852. A second edition was issued in 1857, a third in
1859, and a fourth, prepared with the assistance of William
Libbey, Jr., was published in 1884.

The demand for these valuable tables soon exhausted the
edition, and in 1890 Secretary Langley planned a new work
in three independent parts, "Meteorological Tables," "Geo-
graphical Tables," and " Physical Tables." Of this scries
the first volume, " Meteorological Tables," was published in
1893 ; a second edition being required a year later.

The second volume of the series, " Geographical Tables,"
prepared by R. S. Woodward, was published in 1894; the
third volume, " Physical Tables," prepared by Thomas Gray,
was issued in 1897.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF INDIVIDUALS

In William J. Rhees's "Scientific Writings of James Smith-
son " (1878) there is a list of the publications of the founder
of the Smithsonian Institution.

The "Memorial of Joseph Henry," published by order of
Congress in 1880, contains a " List of the Scientific Papers"
of the distinoruished first Secretarv of the Institution.

In 1883 the National Museum began a series of bibliogra-
phies of American Naturalists, of much importance. These
include the following, issued as " Bulletins of the United
States National Museum " at the dates named :

I. "The Published Writings of Spencer Fullerton Baird,"

i843-'82, by G. Brown Goode. (1883.)
II. "The Published Writings of Isaac Lea," by Newton

Pratt Scudder. (1885.)
III. " Bibliography of Publications relating to the collec-
tion of fossil invertebrates in the United States Na-

796 The Smitkso7iian Institution

tional Museum, including a complete list of the
writings of Fielding B. Meek, Charles A. White, and
Charles D. Walcott," by John Belknap Marcou.

(1885.)
IV. "The Published Writings of George Newbold Law-
rence, 1844-91." By L. S. Foster. (1891.)
V. "The Published Writings of Dr. Charles Girard," by
G. Brown Goode. (1891.)

These monographs form splendid monuments to the natur-
alists named, exhibiting more perfectly than is possible in
bibliographical sketches their genius, industry, and fertility
of resources.

Four other bibliographies of individuals, not included in
the above series, have appeared in the Smithsonian Reports:

VI. " A list of the Writings of Alexander Dallas Bache,"

by Benjamin A. Gould.
VII. " List of the Writings of Arnold Guyot," following the
Biographical Memoir by James D. Dana.
VIII. " List of the Writings of Asa Gray, accompanying the
Memoir by William G. Farlow.
IX. "The Publications of Elias Loomis," attached to the
Memoir by H. A. Newton.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCIENTIFIC PERIODICALS

Volume XXIX of the "Miscellaneous Collections," issued in
1885, comprises a single work, bearing the title: "A Cata-
logue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1865 to 1882,
together with Chronological Tables and a Library Check-
list," by Henry Carrington Bolton. This contains the titles
of the principal periodicals of every branch of pure and
applied science, published in all countries from the rise of
their literature to the close of the year 1882 ; it embraces over

Bibliography 797

five thousand titles in twenty languages, not including, how-
ever, transactions of societies, or medicine. T^ollowing the
Catalogue are ninety-one pages of " Chronological Tables,"
arranged in columns by years, giving a synchronal conspectus
of all those periodicals having any considerable number of
volumes, and showing the precise number of the volume
published in any given year. To this succeeds a concise
index of subjects under ninety-four heads, arranged alpha-
betically. A novel feature of this comprehensive work is the
library check-list indicating the library or libraries in which
each periodical may be found ; each of the one hundred and
twenty-seven principal libraries of the United States and
Canada being designated by a symbolic abbreviation.

A new edition of this " Cataloo-ue," brouf^ht down to the
year 1895, with about 3500 new titles, is in preparation by
Doctor Bolton. It will contain a new library check-list.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES
NATIOxNAL MUSEUM

Bibliographies of the United States National Museum have
been prepared by G. Brown Goode, annually, since 1881 ;
these comprise : I. Publications of the Museum. II. Papers
by Officers of the Museum. III. Papers by Investigators,
not Officers, of the Museum, based on Museum material.

The record for 1894 contains the new genera and species
described in the publications of the Museum for that year, in
a supplement.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF SCIENCE

Anthropology. Exceedingly important works on bibliog-
raphy, in relation to the North American Indians, have been
published by the Bureau of American Ethnology. The Bureau

5'*

798 The Smithsonian Institution

has projected five series of bibliographies : those relating to
linguistics, amusements, industries, institutions and opinions
(mythology, folk-lore, etc.), and has made substantial con-
tributions in each. Mr. J. C. Filling's bibliographies of
the Algonquian, Athapascan, Chinookan, Eskimo, Iroquoian,
Muskhogean, Salishan, Siouan and Wakashan languages, as
well as his " Proof-sheets of a Bibliography of the Languages
of the North American Indians" (1885), are monuments of
the author's erudition and industry.

George H. Boehmer compiled an " Index to Anthropologi-
cal Articles in Publications of the Smithsonian Institution,"
published in the Annual Report for 1879; it covers the
period from 1847 to 1878.

Captain John G. Bourke's " Medicine Men of the Apache,"
in the Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, is
accompanied by a bibliography.

The " Study of Prehistoric Anthropology," by Thomas
Wilson (1888), contains a bibliography of the subject.

A partial bibliography of the " Ethnology of the Eskimo,"
by John Murdoch, accompanies his essay on "The Ethno-
logical Results of the Point Barrow Expedition," published
in the Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.

Another partial bibliography of the " Central Eskimo," by
Franz Boas, is published in his essay on the subject con-
tained in the Sixth Annual Report of the same Bureau.

Astronomy. Besides the bibliographies accompanying the
Records of Progress in Astronomy, noticed elsewhere, two
others should be named.

" Index-Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relating to
Nebulae and Clusters," by Edward S. Holden. (1877.)

" Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William Her-
schel," by Edward S. Holden and Charles S. Hastings.
(1880.)

Bibliography 799

Botany. Sereno Watson prepared a comprehensive " Bib-
liographical Index to North American Botany ; Part I, Poly-
petalse." (1878.) This contains citations of authorities for
all the recorded indigenous and naturalized species of the
flora of North America, with a chronological arrangement
of the synonymy.

Doctor Horatio C. Wood, Professor of Botany, University
of Pennsylvania, published in the " Contributions to Know-
ledge" a "Contribution to the History of the Fresh Water
Algae of North America," to which is added a bibliography.

Chemistry. The Committee on Indexing Chemical Litera-
ture, appointed by the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in 1882, two years later secured the consent
of the Smithsonian Institution to publish such chemical
bibliographies as might be recommended by the committee.
By means of this cooperation chemical students have been
provided with several indexes of a technical character, whose
value increases as their number multiplies ; they include :

" Index to the Literature of Uranium," b)- H. Carrington

Bolton, 1885.
" Index to the Literature of the Spectroscope," by Alfred

Tuckerman, 1888.
" Index to the Literature of Columbium," by Frank W.

Traphagen, 1889.
" Index to the Literature of Thermodynamics," by Alfred

Tuckerman, 1890.
"A Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light," by

Alfred Tuckerman, 1891.
"Bibliography of Aceto Acetic Ester," by Paul M. Seymour,

1894.
" Indexes to the Literature of Cerium and Lanthanum." by

W. H. Magee, 1895.
" Index to the Literature of Didymium," by A. C. Langmuir,

1895.

8oo The Smithsoman Institution

More comprehensive than these special works is the " Se-
lect Bibliography of Chemistry," compiled by Henry Car-
rington Bolton and published in 1893. This volume covers
the period 1492 to 1892, and embraces the titles of the prin-
cipal books on chemistry published in all parts of the world.
For convenience the titles are grouped under seven heads :

I. Bibliography; II. Dictionaries; III. History; IV. Biog-
raphy; V. Chemistry, pure and applied; VI. Alchemy;
VII. Periodicals. Within these sections are more than
twelve thousand titles in twenty-five languages.

According to Secretary Langley, it is "a work of reference
of such value that it is believed it will be a necessity to every
chemical investigator."

Doctor Bolton has in preparation a supplement which will
contain about eight thousand additional titles, including a
new section, No. VIII, devoted to "Dissertations and
Theses."

Natural History. Doctor Charles Girard, one of Baird's
assistants in natural history, published in 1852 a " Biblio-
graphia Americana Historico-Naturalis " for the year 185 1.
This work includes the doings of American naturalists, the
labors of foreign authors in reference to American natural
history, and abstracts of papers relating to foreign natural
history published in American periodicals.

Ornithology. In the " Proceedings of the United States
National Museum,"^ Elliott Coues published " Fourth Instal-
ment of Ornithological Bibliography, being a List of Faunal
Publications relatinof to British Birds." '^

This extensive bibliography undertakes to do for British
birds what the author had previously done for American
birds ; the latter were treated in three previous instalments
of this Universal Bibliography of Ornithology ; these are:

1 Volume 11, page 359, 1879. 2 "Miscellaneous Collection," Volume xix.

Bibliography 80 1

First Instalment. In appendix to ** Birds of the Colorado
Valley."^

Second. In " Bulletin of the United States Geological and
Geographical Survey of the Territories."^

Third. In the same "Bulletin."^

In the preface to this List of Faunal Publications, the dis-
tinguished authority on birds names the rules that governed
his action as a bibliographer, which deserves the attention of
others. He says : " In conducting this work I habitually re-
gard the title as inviolable, — to be transcribed in full, ver-
batim, literatim, et punctuatim"; and again, " No title in this
Bibliography has been taken at second hand." The an-
notations accompanying titles are critical, erudite, and enter-
taining.

Baird's " Review of American Birds in the Museum of the
Smithsonian Institution" (1864-66), contains a fund of bibli-
ographical matter, though not specifically prepared as a bib-
liography. This statement is also true of Baird's Catalogue,
published in the "General Report on Birds," contained in the
Pacific Railroad Reports.* This catalogue was succeeded by
Elliott Coues's "Check-list of North American Birds"^ (Salem,
1873), and by Ridgway's "Nomenclature of North American
Birds" (1881). These were followed by the "Code of No-
menclature and Check-list of North American Birds," pub-
lished by the American Ornithologists' Union in 1886 (second
edition, 1895), which contains references to the original de-
scription of each species. This work was prepared by a
committee of five, including Elliott Coues and Robert
Ridgway, Curator of Birds of the United States National
Museum.

1 Miscellaneous Publication, United States 4 Volume IX (1858).

Geological Survey, No. 11. 5 Published also as an Appendix to Coues's

2 Volume V, No. 2 (1879). " Field Ornithologj-" (1874), a second edition

3 Volume V, No. 4 (18S0). of which appeared in 1882.

8o2 The Smithsonian Institution

A chronological " List of the Books and Papers Relating
to the Great Auk" is appended to Frederic A. Lucas's account
of the "Expedition to Funk Island."^

Oriental Literatiux. A " Bibliography of Oriental Litera-
ture in the United States during 1888 " is appended to the
"Record of Progress of Oriental Science in America during
1888," by Doctor Cyrus Adler.

Physics. The principal contributions to bibliography under
this head have been named as forming parts of the series
" Constants of Nature," and the " Smithsonian Tables."
Besides these, however, may be mentioned the " List of the
Principal Authorities Consulted," by William Harkness, in
preparing his address on " The Progress of Science as Exem-
plified in the Art of Weighing and Measuring," delivered be-
fore the Philosophical Society of Washington in 1887.

Siirgery and Medicine. Doctor William W. Keen's lecture
on the " Surgical Complications and Sequels of the Contin-
ued Fevers"^ is accompanied by a "Bibliography of Works
on Diseases of the Joints, Bones, Larynx, the Eye, Gangrene,
Haematoma, Phlegmasia." (1876.)

The "Report on the Pharmacopoeias of All Nations," by
Doctor James M. Flint, United Sates Navy, originally printed
in the " Report of the Surgeon-General of the United States
Navy" for 1882, has been adopted for circulation by the
Smithsonian Institution. It contains critical reviews of the
Pharmacopoeias of the following countries: Argentine Re-
public, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Central American States,
Chili, China, Cuba, Denmark, England, France, Germany,
Greece, Hayti, Hawaiian Islands, Hungary, India, Italy,
Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay,
Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.

1" Report of the United States National Museum, 1888." 2 Toner Lecture, No. 5.

Bibliography 803

Vulcanology and Seismology. A " Bibliography of Volca-
noes, Earthquakes and Geysers of Iceland." compiled by
George H. Boehmer, was published in 1885. It forms an
appendix (of twenty- nine pages) to Mr. Boehmer's trans-
lation of Thoroddsen's " Oversigt over de islandske Vulka-
ners Historie."

The "Bibliography of Vulcanology " (1883-86), by Charles
G. Rockwood, Jr., has been mentioned under the Records of
Progress.

Zoology. The " Nomenclator Zoologicus " of Agassiz, pub-
lished in Solothurn in 1842-46, was succeeded by a volume
bearing the same title, compiled by Marschall, and issued in
1873. ^^ 1882 Doctor S. H. Scudder pul)lishcd a new
"Nomenclator ZooloQ^icus," ^ to which was added a " Univer-
sal Index to the Genera and Species named in the Works
of Agassiz, Marschall, and Scudder, as well as in tlic Record
of Zoological Literature." This Universal Index embraced
over eighty thousand names. Doctor Leonhard Stejneger is
engaged on a supplement to Doctor Scudder's work, which
will embrace about twenty thousand additional names ; the
author hopes to complete this bibliograph)- within a year.

Perhaps the most important contributions to the bibliog-
raphy of zoology are from the pen of that erudite and indus-
trious scholar. Doctor Theodore Gill ; the following is a
partial list of his treatises :

"Arrangement of the Families of Mollusks " (1S71); "Ar-
rangement of the Families of Fishes" (1872) ; "Arrangement
of the Families of Mammals" (1872); "Catalogue of the
Fishes of the East Coast of North America" (1873); Bibli-
ography of the P^ishes of the Pacific Coast of the United
States" (1882); "Bibliography of the Reports of Fishery
Commissions" (1874); "Materials for a I'ibliography of

1" Bulletin No; 19 of the United States National Museum."

8o4 TJie Smithsonian Institution

North American Mammals," by Theodore Gill and Elliott
Coues, in '' Monographs of North American Rodentia," by
Elliott Coues and Joel Asaph Allen (1877).

The "Catalogue of the Described Diptera of North Amer-
ica," by C. R. Osten-Sacken (1878), is accompanied by many
bibliographical notes.

In 1863-64 W. G. Binney compiled a "Bibliography of
North American Conchology Previous to the Year i860,"
published in two parts ; Part I contains the writings of Amer-
ican conchologists generally, and Part II the works of foreign
authors relating to the shells or mollusks of North America.
Each part is accompanied by an index of authors. Together
these comprehensive works fill over nine hundred pages of
the "Miscellaneous Collections" (1863-64).

A large number of bibliographies accompany, incidentally,
papers published in the "Proceedings of the United States
National Museum," in the "Annual Reports of the Bureau of
Ethnology," and in other series issued by the Smithsonian
Institution, of which space available prevents enumeration.

THE COOPERATION OF

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WITH

OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING

By Daniel Coit Oilman

President of Johns Hopkins University

NE of the officers of the Smithsonian, in re-
counting^ the services of one of its depart-
ments, has said that they might be expressed
in three words, Record, Research, and Educa-
tion ; and these are doubtless the most im-
portant functions of the entire Institution, if it is to proceed
upon the hne that was indicated by Washington and re-
affirmed by Smithson — the advancement and diffiision of
knowledge. But there has been another factor in the or-
ganization, and one that cannot be too frequently named or
too highly extolled. That coefficient is cooperation. In a
complex establishment almost everything depends upon the
spirit with which its functions are performed, and the intelli-
gence which guides its workv Old Mortality, Doctor Dryas-
dust, and Dominie Sampson were devoted to record, research,
and education; but these characters were not the t)pes ol
Smithsonian historians, investigators, or teachers.

It will not be proper to speak of the one who is living,

805

8o6 The Smithsonian Institution

however pleasant this would be; but in praise of the two who
are gone too much can hardly be said. Neither Henry nor
Baird sought popularity. They were so much absorbed by
their duties that they had not the leisure requisite for easy
and familiar relations with the multitude. Henry rarely,
Baird hardly ever, if at all, appeared as a public speaker.
Yet they were always at the service of those who for any
good reason desired of them counsel, or sought for informa-
tion. No one could come into relations with either of these
great men, orally or by correspondence, without being im-
pressed with his desire to be cooperative. As they grew
old, they did not enjoy attendance upon large assemblies,
even of a scientific character; but in the early days of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science they
were foremost among its supporters. To the end of their
days, they were not only efficient aids to all the learned men
of the country, but they had the disposition, far more un-
common, to be patient with and helpful to the uneducated
and ill-informed, the men who ride hobbies and the men who
turn cranks. They were examples to the country of in-
dustry, fidelity, suggestiveness, and kindliness. These per-
sonal qualities governed their official action during the
period of forty years in which they guided the Institution.
Those who are familiar with the intellectual development of
this nation must admit the justice of a claim put forth in
these words, that "the most important service which the
Smithsonian Institution has rendered to the nation — in-
tangible, but none the less appreciable — has been its fifty
years of constant cooperation with the government, with
public institutions, and with individuals, in every enterprise,
scientific or educational, which needed its advice, support, or
aid from its manifold resources." Each secretary in his own
way has been free, and has felt free, to open new roads and

THOMAS GEORGE noi:)GE:i:N^s.

DONOR OF THE HODGKIXS FUND.

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Cooperation of fJie SinitJisonian Institution 807

enter fresh fields when the pubHc good required it and the
funds at command permitted extension. Each head of an
important bureau, in his turn, has Hkewise contributed plans,
suggestions, and methods to the unique institution with which
he was connected. There has been but one restriction, laid
down by the first secretary, and thus explained by Asa Gray:
"In view of the limited means of the Institution, it oucfht
not to undertake anything which could be done, and well
done, by other existing instrumentalities. So, as occasion
arose, Henry lightened its load and saved its energies by
ofivino" over to other aofencies some of its cherished work."

It would have been easy for the managers to maintain
an exclusive theory, — to organize an academy of limited
membership sitting with closed doors, — to claim precedence
for the scientific officers of the United States government. —
to surround all proceedings with an air of mystery and re-
serve,— and to claim that territory once occupied by the
Smithsonian belonged forever to the original tenant, and
should not be invaded. But nothing of this kind has been
done in a period of fifty years. On the contrary, from its
inauguration until now there is an unbroken record of friendly
relations with every agency in the land devoted to the en-
couragement of learning. Without any patronage, without
the power to bestow much pecuniary assistance, without the
bestowal of diplomas, medals, or other badges of distinction,
without any official or paternal control, witliout even the dis-
position to criticize or correct, the Smithsonian has been and
is the great auxiliary of science and education throughout the
length and breadth of the land.

One of the earliest acts of the administration was peculiarly
adapted to a country in which everybody is encouraged to be
interested in the proceedings of the government. Corre-
spondents were enlisted in every part of the United States,

8o8 The Smithsonian Institution

and great consideration was paid to their inquiries and sug-
gestions. Many of these collaborators, perhaps a large
majority, were already connected with colleges, schools, and
local associations having a scientific purpose. Others were
isolated, lonely students or observers, far from good instru-
ments and books, deprived of intercourse with men of like
pursuits. Some were persons of great ability and influence ;
some were very humble. Many were enrolled as local me-
teorologists, and were led to keep accurate records of the
weather, and send their reports to Washington. The study
of local natural history and archaeology was encouraged in
these and other correspondents. The formation of libraries
and museums was promoted by many agencies, among which
the loan on deposit of objects to be exhibited and the gift of
valuable publications were especially noteworthy. It is diffi-
cult in these days, when traveling is easy and when endow-
ments, large and small, have been provided in every part of
the land for the benefit of science, to appreciate the educa-
tional influence of the Smithsonian, in places far distant from
the capital, during the first fifteen or twenty years of its active
operations. The actual, almost universal, appreciation of the
value of science among the American people is doubtless due
in a very considerable degree to the influences referred to.
There has been no "conflict" between men of letters and
men of science in our schools of learning, and the appre-
hensions of religious teachers with respect to the tenden-
cies of scientific doctrines have been transient and mild.
Far and near, the quiet, unobtrusive influence of the Smith-
sonian has contributed to this result.

The mode in which the Smithsonian publications were dis-
tributed aided not a little the building up of libraries. To
possess these works was the laudable ambition of many
people. The annual reports were widely distributed. They

Cooperation of the Smithsoniait Institution 809

might be obtained from a member of Congress, They con-
tained suggestive and stimuhiting papers in many branches
of knowledge — papers, moreover, that could not be found
elsewhere, or translations of articles accessible only to the
few. The publications which were printed under the name
of " Miscellaneous Collections " were not to be obtained by
everybody. They were not meant for general readers, but
for students. The scholar, however, whether young or old,
who showed a special bent could readily obtain access to
such papers in this series as were of interest to him. The
quarto "Contributions" were given to libraries of consider-
able importance. Many communities were thus stimulated
to enlarge their collections of books in order to present a
fair claim for the reception of these stately volumes.

To facilitate the exchange of printed papers among the
vast corps of correspondents, a system of international ex-
changes was begun in 1852. It must be remembered that
when this plan was initiated it was difficult to maintain rela-
tions with distant countries, especially beyond the western
part of Europe. The opportunities afforded by the book-
sellers, the express companies, and the mails were then quite
inferior to those now existent. Even to-day great advan-
tages are derived from the Smithsonian system, and its
curtailment or abolition would be a serious interruption to
the maintenance of friendly intercourse between the scientific
men of this country and those of distant lands. Some idea of
the extent of this work may be formed from the statement
that the number of enrolled correspondents is not far from
twenty-four thousand, of whom seventeen thousand arc in
foreign lands. A million and a half of packages have thus
been distributed in forty-three years. All this is to be
credited to the account of cooperation.

Publication is an important function of a scientific foun-
52

8io The Smithsonian htsiitMtion

dation. In early days there were those who thought the
issue of popular tracts, like the " Penny Magazine," or other
juvenile and elementary books, would be most useful. But
the secretaries took a different view. In their opinion, the
private publisher might be relied on to secure and set forth,
at very low prices, works for which there was a large de-
mand. What was needed in this country, at that time, was
encouragement for the publication of learned memoirs, often
elaborate and voluminous, which appealed to a very select
company of readers, and could not possibly be made to pay.
This service has been performed from the beginning, when
it issued an original memoir by Squier and Davis, on the
aboriginal mounds of the Mississippi Valley, until the present
time, when thirty quarto volumes of" Contributions to Know-
ledge " have appeared. But cooperation was not restricted
to typographical assistance. Books, apparatus, specimens,
and laboratory facilities have been generously accorded to
investigrators and writers. The "Contributions" have been
supplemented by the " Miscellaneous Collections," consisting,
usually, of less elaborate or less extended papers, as well as
by the publications of the National Museum and the Bureau
of American Ethnology.

Many persons favored the establishment of a great library
as an essential part of the Smithsonian ; for it was early
obvious that in addition to the purchase, large and valuable
series, the publications of governments and of learned so-
cieties, would be received as gifts and by exchanges. The
collectors of books are usually miserly, desiring to get all
they can and to keep all they get, but another disposition
was manifested here. The Congressional Library, it was
already evident, was destined to become the National
Library. Now, instead of building up a rival, or forcing
the government to duplicate costly books, the authorities

Cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution 8 1 1

of the Smithsonian transferred the principal parts of their
collection to the custody of the Congressional, and gave to
it yearly accessions. The magnitude of this renunciation is
apparent from the simple statement that more than three
hundred thousand volumes and parts of volumes have thus
become a part of the National Library, constituting perhaps
one fourth of its possessions. In the new building a separate
hall is assigned to this important department.

The chapter on Meteorology illustrates the principle of
Henry. As the study of the climate of this country seemed
of great importance, he devised methods, provided instru-
ments, prepared the requisite mathematical tables, and en-
listed far and wide the services of observers and recorders.
He initiated and for years maintained this great work, and
reached results which demonstrated its importance; and then,
when the government, with all the possibilities of army ser-
vice on the frontier and in stations remote from ordinary
settlement, indicated its readiness to establish a weather
bureau, he passed over all this work with its valuable
archives to the new organization.

The growth of the National Museum, and its management,
furnish additional illustrations of the cooperative spirit of
the Smithsonian. At the time of the Centennial Exhibition
in Philadelphia many great collections were brought together
from remote countries. Baird was quick to see what a valu-
able possession they would be in Washington. Many of
them were offered to our government, on the understand-
ing that they should be properly displayed. Already the
Smithsonian was the custodian of important collections
made by the explorers of this country in our Western Ter-
ritories and in foreign lands, including the objects brought
together by the Wilkes expedition. Baird saw the oppor-
tunity to combine these elements and institute a national

8i2 The Smithsonian Institution

museum. In this he succeeded, Congress being interested
and willing to make the requisite appropriations for a build-
ing and for administration. The generous contributions of
private persons, and the results of public expeditions now
brought together, show what may be accomplished by co-
operation. The last report of the Director, acknowledging
the accession of one hundred and twenty-seven thousand
specimens within a year, attributes this increase almost en-
tirely to a warm interest in the welfare of the museum on
the part of individuals, many of whom have at one time
or another received some courtesy from the officials of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Within the same year not far from forty thousand speci-
mens were distributed to universities, colleges, museums,
and normal schools, and the like distribution has been in
progress for years. Four hundred and sixty-seven " lots "
were sent to the museum for examination in the year 1895,
and the reports of the curators were extended outside the
United States and Europe to Canada, Central and South
America, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, India, Java,
Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and various islands of the
Pacific Ocean.

One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Smith-
sonian has been its power of adaptation to changing cir-
cumstances. This is shown not only by its renunciation
of the library idea, and of the meteorological bureau, but
by the expansion of other work. The Bureau of Eth-
nology, for example, has its own accomplished director and
staff, and it is supported by special appropriations from
Congress. Yet it has grown up under the protection of the
Smithsonian, and has shared in its reputation for scholarship,
sagacity, and economy. The evolution of this bureau is an
interesting chapter in institutional history. The responsi-

Cooperation of the Smithsonian Institiitioji 8 1 3

bility of studying the habits of the aboriginal inhabitants of
this continent, and of preserving, ere they totally perish, the
knowledge of their languages, religions, arts, manners, and
customs, was recognized when the Institution was first or-
ganized. The earliest quarto publication was a token of this
interest. For many years the Catlin portraits stared every
visitor in the face. The exploring expeditions in the trans-
Mississippi brought back curious relics of primitive men,
which were exhibited and studied by many young and en-
thusiastic investigators. The head of the Geological Survey,
under whom parties were annually sent forth into distant and
unknown regions, was keenly alive to the interest attached
to anthropological inquiry. Nothing was more fitting than
that he in due time should become the director of the Bureau
of American Ethnology.

Quite different was the growth of the Fish Commission, an
independent organization of which Baird was the originator
and the head, from its beginning, and until his death.
Technically, the credit of this branch of the government
service does not belong to the Smithsonian. It stands on its
own foundation. But it will undoubtedly be admitted that
without the knowledge, the official encouragement, and the
fine cooperative spirit of the second secretary, this com-
mission, which has been so significant in its economic and in
its scientific work, and has broucfht so much renown to the
country, would not, in the present generation at least, have
attained to its usefulness and distinction. It is here worth
while to note that each of the secretaries has added impor-
tant features to the Smithsonian which have had widespread
influence upon the development of science. This will ap-
pear fully in the historical chapters. The cooperative spirit
of Henry in initiating the Weather Bureau, of Baird in
developing the National Museum, the Fish Commission,
52^

8 14 The Smifhsonian Institution

and the Bureau of Ethnology, of Langley in estabhshing
the Astrophysical Observatory and the National Zoological
Park, and in advancing the art of aero-navigation, deserves
the highest praise.

No attempt has been made in this chapter to give the
details of the Smithsonian management, — but only to indi-
cate the impressions it has produced upon the mind of one who
has had no official connection with the establishment. Con-
stant intercourse with the collaborators, in Washington and
in distant parts of the country, as well as in foreign lands, has
never revealed one word of censorious criticism respecting
the spirit which has governed the administrations of Henry,
Baird, and Langley. Cooperation, the fundamental idea that
has here been discussed, may be mechanical and formal, gov-
erned by petty regulations and accompanied by ceremo-
nious exactions. But that is not the kind of cooperation to
which this record has called attention. On the other hand,
it has not been the cooperation of a spendthrift, throwing
away the opportunities of usefulness and influence. In con-
clusion, the Smithsonian has been never ready to take up,
and has always been ready to give up, those undertakings
which other institutions and individuals might be disposed
to assume and sustain with efficiency. Second, it has lent
encouragement to thousands of workers whose work would
have failed without a moderate amount of pecuniary assist-
ance. Third, it has always been ready to enlarge its domain
and sustain the burden of fresh responsibilities when it has
appeared to be the wish of Congress or of the scientific men
of the country that it should do so.

THE INFLUENCE
OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIBRARIES, THE OR-
GANIZATION AND WORK OF SOCIETIES, AND THE
PUBLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE IN THE
UNITED STATES

By John Shaw Billings

Director of the New York Public Library

-^^jHE more one becomes familiar with the early
If A history of the Smithsonian Institution, and

rK^v) with the ideas, plans, and work of its organ-
vHwv^ izers and first officers, so far as these can be
^ ascertained from the annual Reports and from
some of its special publications for the first twenty years
of its existence, the more will he become convinced that
this was a time of much seed-planting in many and various
fields, and that we are only now just beginning to see the
character and magnitude of the very great harvests which
are to result therefrom.

It is proposed in this paper to consider very briefly the in-
fluence which the Smithsonian Institution has exerted upon
library and bibliographical work in the United States, upon

the organization of societies of various kinds, and upon the

815

8i6 The Smithsonian Institution

publication of reports, memoirs, and other forms of contri-
butions to knowledge of the general government, by the
several States, and by the various societies in this country,
through the powerful stimulation which it has given, both
by example and by precept, to work of this kind as special
features of the second of its great objects: "the diffusion of
knowledge."

The fifth section of the Act which organized the Institution
required that it should form a library ; and the eighth section
provided that it should make an appropriation not exceeding
$25,000 annually for the gradual formation of a library com-
posed of valuable works pertaining to all departments of
human knowledge. To this end, also, the tenth section of
the Act directed that one copy of all copyrighted books, en-
gravings, maps, etc., published in the United States, should
be sent to this library.

In the original program of organization Professor Bache
proposed to render the Institution a center of bibliographical
knowledge to which students from all parts of the country
could apply, by letter or otherwise, for information as to
what books existed on particular subjects and in what library
they could be found. In accordance with this idea, the first
librarian, Mr. C. C. Jewett, began by collecting a large num-
ber of works on bibliography, and endeavored to procure
copies of catalogues of all libraries in this country. It was
at first proposed to secure three copies of each of such cata-
logues : one to be preserved in its original form, the others
be cut up so that each title could be pasted on a separate
card, these cards to be arranged in drawers so as to form a
general catalogue. After something had been done in this
direction, this work was set aside in favor of a system pro-
posed by Mr. Jewett for producing printed catalogues by
means of stereotyped plates of individual titles ; by which

InJlMence of the Smithsonian Instittttion 8 1 7

means he proposed to obtain a general catalogue of all
the books in the country, which catalogue should contain
references to the various libraries from which each book
might be obtained.

Much time and money were spent in vain on this scheme,
and it is evident that neither Mr. Jewett nor the managers
of the Institution had at first any adequate idea of the magni-
tude or cost of the work which they proposed to undertake,
or of the great development of American libraries which was
to occur in the near future. At the time this plan attracted
a good deal of attention, and there is no doubt that Mr.
Jewett's '* Notices of the Public Libraries of the United
States," published by the Institution in 1851, and his rules
for cataloguing, published in 1853, did exert a great influence
on the formation and arrangements of a great number of
the libraries of this country.

Professor Henry, the first secretary, soon perceived that
the formation and maintenance of a great library would leave
the Smithsonian Institution no funds for work which he had
more at heart. It was found that the copyright law was
rather a burden than an aid, and upon his representation it
was finally so modified as to relieve the Smithsonian of the
duty of receiving the publications which it provided for.
Finally, through his exertions, the library of the Institution
was transferred to the Congressional Library, under an
agreement that it should be kept separate ; that all ex-
penses for binding and care of the books should be paid
for by the general government; and that the Institution
should have the right to withdraw the books at any time,
upon payment of the expense which had been incurred. The
number of volumes which were thus transferred was about
forty thousand, largely the publications of learned societies
which had been received in exchange for publications ot the

8i8 The Smithsonian Institution

Institution, and which formed a collection of records of the
progress of the world which was unequaled in the United
States, and hardly surpassed in other countries.

The growth of this special collection was a very rapid one.
In 1853 it had already attained 25,000 volumes, and in 1895
it included 314,499 volumes, and formed over one quarter of
the National Library.

A most important influence was exerted by the communi-
cation addressed by the secretary of the Institution to the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, setting
forth the importance of the publication of lists of titles of me-
moirs or papers contained in all the transactions of learned
societies of the world, and offering to cooperate in this work.
The result of this suggestion was the undertaking of this
work by the Royal Society of London, which has now pub-
lished ten large quarto volumes of the " Catalogue of Scien-
tific Papers." The latest development of this movement was
the calling of an international conference, which met in
London in July, 1896, to consider a plan for cataloguing sci-
entific literature in such a way as to make readily accessible
the bibliography of any particular subject coming within the
scope of such an index.

The development of public libraries in the United States
since 1850, the date when the Smithsonian Institution began
to exert its influence in this direction, has been marvelous.
Jewett's " Notice of Public Libraries," referred to above, gave
the statistics for the year 1849, showing that the number of
libraries containing 1000 volumes and upward was 423, and
the aggregate number of volumes in these libraries was
2,105,652. In 1891, according to the Report of the Bureau
of Education, there were 3804 such libraries, containing about
27,000,000 volumes. In 1849 there were but five libraries con-
taining over 50,000 volumes and upward, the largest being

Influence of the Smithsonian Institution 819

that of Harvard College, with 84,200 volumes. In 1891 there
were 98 such libraries, and 30 of these had 100,000 volumes
and upward.

To the growth of many of such libraries the Smithsonian
Institution has largely contributed directly by supplying them
with its own publications and with books obtained tlirough its
system of international exchange, and indirectly througli the
stimulus which it has given to bibliographical work and to
the publications of societies.

When it undertook this work, the wisdom and foresight of
the organization was shown by the fact that many of the
library methods which have become prominent were fore-
shadowed in the first report of the Institution.

Soon after the organization of the Institution it undertook
to create and maintain a system of international exchange be-
tween the scientific and literary societies of the United States
and those in other parts of the world. Prior to 1850 ex-
changes between such societies were made difficult, in part by
the ignorance of some of them with regard to the existence
and publications of others ; in part by the custom-house re-
quirements of different countries, which often caused great
delay and considerable expense ; and in part by the fact that
each society had to provide its own agents and the means of
transmitting its own documents and packages. Through the
influence of the Smithsonian Institution and its ao^ents in
other countries most of the custom-house difficulties were
done away with. The need on the part of individual societies
of supplying agents disappeared, and by the publication of
lists of correspondents and lists of publications of learned
societies and of periodicals received, the Smithsonian Institu-
tion furnished libraries and associations with information as
to their deficiencies, and with data as to the channels through
which desiderata mioht be obtained.

820 The Smithsonian Institution

The story of the development and progress of the system
of international exchanges of the Institution is a very inter-
esting one, but it would occupy too much space to include it
in a paper of this kind.

The first volume of the Smithsonian " Contributions to
Knowledge," published in 1848, was widely distributed to the
libraries and societies of foreign countries, as far as the exis-
tence of such institutions was known ; but the total number
of copies thus circulated was only 173. At the present time
the number of foreign institutions receiving the Smithsonian
publications is 2588, and the number of institutions in the
United States is 2866.

In 1867 the Smithsonian Institution initiated another sys-
tem of foreign exchange in addition to the one for learned
societies and scientific men, which had at that time fully
developed. This second system was intended to include
everything printed at the expense of the United States gov-
ernment, no matter how trivial or apparently unimportant;
and a complete set of these publications was to be sent to
each government which agreed to make an equally ex-
haustive return. By 1879 this work had been fairly begun,
and thirty-two sets of documents were being disposed of
to as many governments.

For a number of years this work was done entirely at
the expense of the Institution, but finally Congress voted an
appropriation for a portion of the sum annually required for
this purpose. Under the provisions of the international
exchange the United States has sent out a very much
greater number of publications of the government than it has
received. This was in part due to the much greater amount
of matter published by the United States than by any other
government, but it also largely depended upon the fact that
other governments did not undertake to furnish annual lists

Injittence of the Sinithsonian Institution 821

of all official documents and to charge some department
with the collecting and forwarding of them.

The magnitude of the operations of this department of the
Institution may be estimated by the fact that during the fiscal
year 1894-95 the total number of packages received was
107,118, and the number of cases shipped abroad was 1364.
The number of government publications shipped abroad
to various sources was 23,023.

The example set by the Smithsonian Institution in pub-
lishing and widely distributing valuable contributions to
knowledge, and the advice and recommendations of its
secretaries and their co-workers, have exerted a powerful
influence upon the several departments of the general gov-
ernment in inducing them to encourage their officers to
make scientific investigations and explorations, and to pre-
pare careful and elaborate reports, in the belief that these
would be published at the expense of the government. Xo
doubt this has resulted in the publication by the government
of a considerable amount of matter the cost of which could
have been much more judiciously applied in other directions;
but this is really a small affair in comparison with the vast
educational work which has been accomplished both as re-
gards the great number of readers of and the contributors
to these " public records."

Many societies of various kinds in this country have been
induced to make special efforts to publish reports of trans-
actions in order to secure for their members some of the
benefits of the Smithsonian system of exchanges ; that is to
say, that they might have something to give in return for
the publications of other societies.

All this has led to the production of a very considerable
amount of valuable literature which does not primarily cir-
culate in trade channels and is not influenced by commercial

822 The Smithsonian Institution

considerations, and it has also been an important factor in the
higher education in this country. It has created a demand for
skilled observers and for scientific teachers and writers, and
the knowledge that good work would be published and brought
to the notice of those competent to appreciate it in all parts
of the world has had quite as much to do with the meeting
of this demand as has the mere pecuniary compensation
offered for the work.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AND THE

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

By Ainsworth Rand Spofford

Librarian of Congress

T was a signal good fortune which preserved the
valuable library of the Smithsonian Institution
from destruction by the fire of 1865, which so
seriously damaged the building, and destroyed
the Stanley Indian Gallery. Immediately fol-
lowing that event, Professor Henry, then at the head of the
Institution, impressed by the peril which the collection of
books had just escaped, sought a conference with the joint
committee on the Library of Congress, in conjunction witli
the librarian. He developed to them a plan for securing
the library from any future danger, while it might be
brought at the same time to enrich the great library of
the government. In the view of Professor Henry, several
highly desirable objects would be accomplished by the
union of the two libraries at the Capitol. As two spacious
and fire-proof wings, constructed of solid iron, had just
been added to the Congressional Library, there was then
ample room for the orderly arrangement of the Smithsonian

collection there, instead of attempting to continue it in the

823

824 The Smithsonian Institution

narrow quarters, already overflowed, which it occupied, and
which were greatly needed for other purposes during the re-
construction of the Smithsonian building. The removal
would also relieve the Smithsonian fund of the expense of a
library, including salary of librarians, and the cost of binding
books, leavine so much more of the annual income free to
be devoted to the promotion and publication of original re-
searches in science. The latter having always been the car-
dinal object of the Institution, in Professor Henry's view, he
had early taken the ground that the collection of a library
should be kept somewhat subordinate, and confined mainly
to the publications of scientific societies and aids to scientific
study, leaving to the general government the more com-
prehensive aim of building up in the city of Washington
a library of universal range.

On the other hand, it would clearly be to the advantage
of the Library of Congress to receive so extensive an acces-
sion to its collections; and the annual additions of scientific
transactions, through the Smithsonian exchanges, would com-
pensate for the expense of binding, cataloguing, and care of
such a collection, in the incidental saving of many purchases
which would otherwise be essential for the Congressional
Library in its progress toward completion.

These views, after due conference and comparison of ad-
vantages, prevailed with the committee representing Con-
gress, as well as with the Regents of the Institution ; and the
result was the passage of the Act of April 5, 1886,^ with the
provisions following:

"The library collected by the Smithsonian Institution
under the provisions of an act approved August tenth, eight-
een hundred and forty-six, shall be removed from the build-
ing of said Institution, with the consent of the Regents

1" United States Statutes at Large," volume xiv, page 13.

The Institution and the Library of Congress 825

thereof, to the new fire-proof extension of the Library of
Congress, upon completion of a sufficient portion thereof for
its accommodation, and shall, while there deposited, be sub-
ject to the same regulations as the Library of Congress,
except as hereinafter provided.

*'The Smithsonian Institution shall have the use thereof,
in like manner as it is now used, and the public shall have
access thereto for purposes of consultation.

"All the books, maps, and charts of the Smithsonian Li-
brary shall be properly cared for and preserved in like manner
as are those of the Congressional Library, from which the
Smithsonian Library shall not be removed except on reim-
bursement by the Smithsonian Institution to the Treasury of
the United States of expenses incurred in binding and in
taking care of the same, or upon such terms and conditions
as shall be mutually agreed upon by Congress and the Re-
gents of said Institution.

"The Smithsonian Institution, through its Secretary, shall
have the use of the Library of Congress, subject to the same
regulations as Senators and Representatives."

The removal of the library to the Capitol was effected
during the winter of 1866-67. It then comprised about
forty thousand volumes, now increased to more than eighty
thousand volumes (about two hundred and fifty thousand
titles), besides a great assemblage of pamphlets and unbound
serials ; and it completely filled one entire gallery of the
newly constructed south wing of the Congressional Library,
and overflowed into another gallery below. The Smith-
sonian librarian. Doctor Theodore N. Gill, was transferred
with the library to the Capitol, and continued to catalogue
and superintend the collection, in the service of Congress,
until he resigned some years later to devote himself to scien-
tific work. He was succeeded by Mr. John Murdoch, and
on his resignation, in 1892, the present incumbent, Doctor
Cyrus Adler, was appointed librarian.

826 The Sinithsoiiian Institution

The advantages confidently anticipated from the conjunc-
tion of the two libraries in the Capitol, although accompanied
by some serious drawbacks hereafter referred to, have been
in great measure realized. The Smithsonian collection, so
rich in the transactions and other publications of scientific
bodies throughout the world, formed a specially extensive
and invaluable complement to the already large miscellaneous
Library of Congress. The benefit to scientific students and
to the public of finding in one central repository so extensive
a collection of aids to research, without traveling to widely
separated localities to pursue their investigations, can hardly
be overrated. Economy of time, convenience of readers,
comprehensiveness of authorities, were all united in con-
tributing to the objects aimed at in such researches. No
class of men can be more impressed than scholars with the
supreme value of moments. The ideal university of modern
times is a library of universal range, in which the books shall
come to the reader as fast as wanted, without troubling the
reader to travel after the books. That concentration of mind
and of pursuit which is the secret of success in so many fields
is signally furthered by bringing all aids to research to one
common center.

That an ideal so much to be desired has not yet been
attained in the government library in Washington is due to
several causes which may be briefly summarized. They all
concenter in one pregnant fact — utterly inadequate space
within the Capitol for the reception and arrangement of a
great comprehensive library. Within two years after the
completion of the two library wings referred to, they were
nearly filled by the accession, first, of the large historical
library of Peter Force, and, secondly, by the reception of the
Smithsonian collection. Every step in the internal economy
of the library in the thirty years following has been a study

The Ijisfitittion mid the Library of Congress 827

of providing for an overflow. All available space within the
library having been exhausted by the introduction of movable
cases of shelves, storage-rooms in the basement of the Capi-
tol were next availed of To add to the embarrassment,
although directly contributing to the enrichment of the
library, the copyright law was enacted in 1870, by which
all records of copyright were thenceforth to be concentrated
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, and two copies
of all publications under that law to be there deposited. This
provision has entailed an enormous increase of library ma-
terial, consisting not only of books and periodicals, but of a
great variety and quantity of maps and works of graphic art,
and musical compositions, occupying large space, and pouring
in year by year in a constantly increasing flood. Thus the
very means which most powerfully contributes to increase
the library also adds incalculably to the difficulties of its
accommodation and arrangement in the extremely narrow
space provided. The evils of overcrowding, and the hope-
lessness of any remedy within the walls of the Capitol, were
urged upon Congress year after year by the librarian, and by
enlicjhtened members of both Houses of Conorress. In his
annual report for 1877, iiistar omnium, this language was
used by the librarian :

"While it may be said in extenuation that it is no function
of the Library of Congress to supply the public, whether
residents of Washington or the scholars of the countr)-, with
facilities for information, it cannot be forgotten that Congress
has itself invited such frequentation by the liberal policy of
accumulating a great library at the seat of government, and
throwing open its doors to all. It has also taken in charge
the rich scientific library of the Smithsonian Institution, as
a probably permanent deposit, with the contingent responsi-
bility of making its stores contribute to the diffusion of know-
ledge among men. And it would little comport with the

828 The Smithsonian Institution

theory or the practice of our popular institutions and form
of government that any new bars should be placed in the path
of the widest diffusion of intelligence. When it is considered
that, from the nature of the case, the embarrassment of pro-
ducing books and information from these accumulated heaps
is constantly growing; that Congress, by the act of 1870,
requiring two copies of every publication protected by copy-
right to be deposited in the library of the government,
settled the question of its possible permanent shelter in the
Capitol in the negative ; that this building, overcrowded in all
its departments so that several committees have to occupy
the same room, is crowded worst of all in the library depart-
ment, to which no possible outlet or addition of room can be
procured ; that the mere arithmetical computation of the
growth of the country's literature proves that space must be
provided within the century for a building at least two thirds
the size of the Capitol ; that there is no large capital in Eu-
rope in which the library of the government can be or is
provided for under the same roof with its legislature ; that in
our case, and in ours alone, there is added to the great gov-
ernment library the extensive and growing bureau of copy-
rights and copyright business for the whole country ; that
the attempt to get along with this double difficulty has
already produced great injury to the books, with partial ex-
clusion from their benefits, and must ultimately curtail the
usefulness of the library to an incalculable degree ; that even
if the remedy authorizing new space to be provided were
immediately applied, some years must elapse before the
requisite building accommodations could be complete: the
case becomes one of such pressing emergency, not to say
distress, that argument upon it should be unnecessary.
Suffice it to say that it scarcely becomes a government repre-
senting a nation of such wealth, intelligence, and power to
treat the assembled stores of literature and art of the country,
which its own laws have caused to be gathered at the Capitol
and thrown open to the people, with such indignity as to
subject them to injury and destruction, or to equally repre-
hensible exclusion from their benefits. Of the mode and

The Institution and the Library of Congress 829

manner of providing for the care and permanent preservation
of this treasury of l^nowledge, Congress is properly the sole
judge ; but should another session of that body be suffered to
pass without proper provision being in some way made for
its protection, Congress will hardly be held to discharge the
trust reposed in it as the custodian of what President Jefferson
called, with prophetic wisdom, "the Library of the United
States."

The provision for a library building, a want so pressing
and so universally acknowledged, was deferred from year to
year by difficulties and dissensions about a site, about plans,
about architects, and about cost, until in 1886 an act was
passed for the construction of a fire-proof edifice of ample
dimensions, upon ground adjacent to the Capitol. The new
building, which is recognized as a model of architectural and
artistic beauty, and in its interior arrangements is adapted
to the highest utility and facility of administration, was
completed for occupation in the spring of 1897. I'"" '^'^^ ^W2\
and long-deferred result, Congress acted with praiseworthy
and far-sighted liberality, and erected a fitting home for the
nation's books in this noble temple dedicated to literature,
science, and art.

In the new library edifice ample shelf-room is provided for
the Smithsonian Library collections, and a spacious room ad-
joining the eastern book-stack will be placed at the disposal
of the secretary for occupancy as an office, or record and
reception room.

In its new and commodious quarters it is expected that
the complete and thorough arrangement of the Smithsonian
books upon the shelves, allowing an adequate space for
expansion, will be followed by completion of the catalogue
and by the binding for ready use of all completed serials
and other works in the collection. Thus the utility of the

53*

830 The Smithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Library will be immeasurably increased, every
volume being rendered immediately available, instead of
being piled in compulsory disorder upon the floors, in the
absence, for years past, of any shelves to arrange and classify
them. And the conjunction of the great library of reference
in the reading-room of the public library adjoining will
enable all students, in whatever department of science, or
literature, or art, to prosecute their investigations with
every facility close at hand. The Smithsonian Institution
will for the first time be enabled to secure for its rich col-
lections in scientific knowledge a maximum benefit to the
world of readers who will resort to it for instruction in
years that are to come.

APPENDIX

PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE

INSTITUTION

Compiled by William Jones Rhees

1826

Oct. 2j, James Smilhson's will made.

1829
Jitne 2"/, Death of James Smilhsoa in Genoa, Italy.

1835

July 28, United States Government advised that it was entitled to bequest of Smithson.
Dec, ly. Congress notified by President Jai kson of the bequest.

1836

July r, Act passed by Congress authorizing appointment of agent to prosecute claim of

the United States for the legacy.
July II, Richard Rush appointed agent to prosecute the claim of the United States to the

bequest of Smithson.
Nov, 14, Richard Rush, as agent for the United States, entered suit in the British Court

of Chancery to obtain possession of the bequest.

1837
Feb. I, First hearing of the suit before Court of Chancery in London.

1838

May g, Chancery suit decided in favor of the United States.
June [5, Smithson bequest transferred to Mr. Rush.

Sept. I, Smithson's personal effects deposited with Collector of Port of New York.
Sept, I, Bequest deposited in the United States Mint in Philadelphia.
Dec, 6, President Jackson announced to Congress tiie receipt of the Smithson bequest
and asked for adoption of a plan to carry out the intentions of Smithson.

1841

July 12, Minerals, books, manuscripts, and other articles forming part of the Smithson be-
quest deposited in Patent Office by the Secretary of the Treasury.

1846

Feb. 2S, Bill passed House of Representatives organizing the Smithsonian Institution.

Aug. 10, Act of organization of Smithsonian Institution passed by Senate.

Aug. 10, Act of Congress organizing the Smithsonian Institution approved by President

Polk.
Sept. 7, First meeting of the Board of Regents held, at which George M. Dallas was

elected Chancellor of the Institution.

833

Jan.

28,

Feb.

^S,

March ig,

Apri

in.

May
Sept.
Dec.

I,
9.

834 TJie Sinifhsonian Institution

Dec. J, Joseph Henry elected Secretary of the Institution.

Dec. 4, Board of Regents adopted a plan of organization for the Institution.

Dec. 2j, Site for the Smithsonian building selected.

1847

Jan. 26, Board of Regents " requested the Secretary to nominate an assistant who shall
be librarian." The Secretary nominated Charles C. Jesvett for Assistant
Secretary acting as librarian, who was then elected.

Plans of Architect James Renwick, of New York, for the Smithsonian building
adopted.

Publication authorized by Regents of" Hints on Public Architecture," by Robert
D. Owen, a work cliiefly descriptive of the Smithsonian building.

Lectures "On the construction and use of the Rosse telescope," by William
Scoresby, begun in Odd Fellows' Hall, being the first delivered under the
auspices of the Institution.

Contract for construction of building awarded.

Work begun on laying out and beautifying the grounds (nineteen acres) by plant-
ing trees and shrubs, and erection of fences.

Corner-stone of the Smithsonian building laid.

Seal of the Institution, with likeness of James Smithson, adopted.

Program of organization proposed by Secretary Henry adopted.

1848

Atig. 7, Collection of chemical and physical apparatus of Robert Hare presented by him
to the Institution.

Aug. 12, Act for the improvement and care of the Smithsonian grounds by the Govern-
ment, passed by Congress.

Dec. 7, "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," the first volume of the Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge publisiied and distributed. It was decided
that no copyright should be taken of the publications.

July I, System of meteorological observations established, in connection with which it
was proposed by Secretary Henry to use the magnetic telegraph in the in-
vestigation of atmospherical phenomena, and the notice of approaching storms
given to distant observers.

1849

March 7, Vice-President Millard Fillmore elected Chancellor.

April 6, Course of four lectures on " Modern Athens " by Professor Koeppen of Denmark
begun. They were delivered in Carusi's Hall.

April JO, East wing of the building completed and occupied by the lecture-room and lab-
oratory, and apparatus rooms.

April 10, Library transferred to eastern range of the Smithsonian building from the Patent
Office.

April JO, Course of six lectures on "Geology" by Edward Hitchcock begun; being the
first given in the building of the Smithsonian Institution.
.System of international exclianges inaugurated.

May II, Reports on the progress of science begun.

June 2^, Appropriation made for collections in natural history.

Aug. I, First meeting of the " Establishment of the Smithsonian Institution " held. Presi-
dent Zachary Taylor in the chair.

1850

Jan. 22, Explorations under the auspices of the Institution, or aided by its funds, insti-
tuted, especially in Oregon, California, and Mexico.

Jt'h' J", Nomination by Secretary Henry of Spencer Fulierton Daird as Assistant Secre-
tary in the Department of Natural History, to take charge of the Museum and
aid in the publications, etc., approved by the Regents.

Sept. JO, Smithsonian grounds laid out anew, under the direction of Andrew J. Downing.

Dec. ji. East and west wings and ranges of the building finished, and the lecture-room
enlarged in the east wing so as to accommodate one thousand persons.

1851

Jan. 7, Chief Justice Taney elected Chancellor.

Jan. 18, Memorial to Congress presented by the Regents asking permission to increase

the permanent Smithsonian fund to $715,000.
Dec. JI, Exterior of the Smithsonian building, including tiie towers, completed.

Events in History of Institution

835

1852

Feb. 14, British Government admits free of duty, books, etc., sent by the Smithsonian

Institution to libraries in England.

1853

Feb. J, Magnetic observatory on the Smithsonian grounds authorized by the Board of
Regents.

March j. Congress appropriated $3000 to begin prejiaration of a catalogue of its library
on the Smithsonian stercotyjie plan pro]iosed by Charles C. Jewett.

March 12, Alteration ordered in the east wing of the l)uilding to convert it into a residence
for the Secretary.

March 12, Resolutions ado])tcd by the Board of Regents referring the subject of the distri-
bution of the income of the Institution to a Select Committee.

June /J", Distribution of duplicate specimens to other museums begun.

1S54

Jan. 28, District of Columbia Court decided that the Board of Regents could not be sued.

May 20, Special committee of the Board of Regents reported. "The law is declaratory
and positive in cliarging the Secretary with the enumerated duties, and therefore
invests him and him alone with the corresjionding powers. . . . lie is not
required to employ any f)ne, but is ])ermitted to em|)Ioy persons to assist him,
])rovidcd he satisfy the Board that their services arc necessary as aids to him.
This view of the intention of Congress so clearly expressed in the law would
be directly contradicted by the plan which has been suggested of organizing
the Institution definitely into several departments, placing at the head of these
departments different assistants, establishing their relative positions, describing
distinct duties for them, assigning certain shares of the income to be dis-
bursed by them, and staling their authorities, privileges and remedies for
the infringement of their official rights or of the interests entrusted to their
care. All this would tend not to secure a loyal and harmonious cooperation,
to a common end, of the assistants with the Secretary, but to encourage
rivalry, to invite collision, to engender hostility, to destroy subordination, to
distract the operations of the Institution, to impair its efficiency and to destroy
its usefulness."

Jiilv S, Preamble and resolution from the Select Committee adopted as follows:

"The Secretary of the Institution and of this Board is, by the seventh section of
the Act ' to establish the Smithsonian Institution,' required to discharge the
duties of 'librarian and Keeper of the Museum, having, with the consent of
the Board of Regents, power to employ assistants, the better to enable him to
discharge those duties; for a better construction whereof — Be it resolved,
that whilst power is reserved in the said section to the Board of Regents to
remove both the Secretary and his assistants, in the opinion of the Board,
power, nevertheless, remains with the Secretary to remove his said assistants."

December, Main portion of the Smithsonian Building completed.

1S55

Bancroft library

Jan. 12,
Jan. I J,

Jan. /J,

Jan. IS,

Jan. /J-,

Jan. ij,

Resolutions of the Select Committee adopted, repealing the equal distribution of
the income and providing that appropriations should be sjiecific.

Secretary Henry, at meeting of Board of Regents, stated that he had deemed it
his duty to remove Charles C. Jewett from the office of Assistant to the Secre-
tary.

Rufus Choate resigned his office of Regent, stating that he had done so because
of his inability to acquiesce in the interpretation, by a majority of the Board, of
the Act of Congress organizing the Institution.

Judiciary committee of the Senate instructed to inquire and report whether any
action of the Senate was necessary and proper in regard to the Smithsonian
Institution.

The following resolutions were adopted by the Board of Regents :

" Resolved, That while the Board regret the necessity of Mr. Jcwett's re-
moval, they approve of the act of the Secretary.

" Resolved, That the approval by the Board is not deemed by them to be es-
sential to the validity of the act of the Secretary in so removing Mr. Jewett."

Mr. Choate's letter of resignation was referred, in the House of Representatives,
to a Special Committee of five, to inquire into the management of the Institu-
tion, and with power to send for persons and papers.

836 The Smithsonian Institittion

Jan. 26, Committee of the House called upon Secretary Henry and on other officers
of the Institution for a statement of their acts, investigated the claim of an em-
ployee for additional remuneration for services, etc.

Fel>. 6, Unanimous report of the Senate Judiciary Committee served to establish the
legality of the action of the Regents, and the policy of the Board has since
been continued without objection, in the same line as that which was originally
marked out l^y Henry when he accepted the secretaryship of tlie Institution
in 1846.

Feb. 24, Board of Regents "resolved that all correspondence of the Institution shall be
conducted by tlie Secretary, and no assistant or employee shall write or receive
any official letter or communication pertaining to the affairs of the Institution,
except under the authority and by the direction of the Secretary, and all such
corresjjondence shall be duly registered and recorded."

March j, Numerous meetings of the House Committee were held, and finally two reports
were presented, with the testimony taken.

March j, Act passed by Congress allowing all copyright publications to be sent to the
Institution free of postage.

March j. Annual report for 1854 ordered by Congress, bemg the first to contain the lectures,
extracts from the correspondence, and miscellaneous papers in the form of a
General Appendix.

1856

March S, Free transportation of freight granted to the Institution by the Mexican Culf, Pa-
cific Mail, South American, and United States Mail Steamship Companies, and
by the Panama Railroad Company.

September, Monument erected in Smithsonian Park to the memory of Andrew Jackson
Downing, architect and landscape gardener.

1857

March j, Congress appropriated $2000 for the transfer of the collections of the Government
from the Patent Office to the Institution, and $15,000 for the construction of
cases.

A/arch j/, Personal effects of James Smithson removed from the Patent Office and de-
posited in the Regents' room at the Institution.

185S

May 79, Sjiecial committee of the Board of Regents made a report relative to Joseph

Henry's connection with the invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph.
J/nie 2, Congress appropriated $4000 for care of the Government collections, and $1000

for transfer from the Patent Office.
Ai/^^. 8, Government collections were transferred from the United States Patent Office

to the Institution.
Daily weather-map, from telegraphic reports received every morning at 10

o'clock, exhibited in the Smithsonian building.

1859

Jan. 2^, Free transportation granted to the Institution by the North German Lloyd

steamers.
Feb. J, Congress amended copyright law, and on the recommendation of the Board of

Regents repealed the requirement that copies of all copyrighted books, maps,

charts, etc., be sent to the Institution,

i860

Feb. 2^, Free transportation of freight granted by the Cunard Steamship Line to England.
Dec. ji, Magnetic observatory discontinued, and the instruments sent to Fort Taylor,
Key West, in care of the tidal station of the United States Coast Survey.

1861

June /J, Balloons sent up from the Smithsonian grounds by Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, to

test practicability of their employment for military purposes.
Oct. 21, Free transportation of freight granted by the Hamburg-American Packet Company.

Events in History of Institution

837

1862

Feb. 28, Institution co6[)Lrated willi Surgeon-General of tlie United States Army, and
with Sanitary Commission, in the improvement of the health and comfort of the
soldiers during tlie civil war.

April /J", Daily telegraphic bulletin of the weather, which had been discontinued for some
time on account of the demands of public business, partially resumed.

June 2, Series of publications in (;clavo called " Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections"
begun.

July sy. Charter of the National Institute expired, and in accordance with its act of in-
corporation its property was delivered by Secretary of the Interior to Smith-
sonian Institution.

1863

March j. Congress having incorporated the National Academy of Sciences, rooms were
furnished to it by the Institution for its meetings and library.

1864

June II, Residuary legacy of Smithson, on account of the death of the annuitant, Madame
La Batut, received by the Institution.

Aug. I, Application made to tlie North American Telegraphic Association, covering the
entire United States and Canada, for free use of its lines for the scientific ob-
jects of the Institution, which was subsequently granted.

1865

Jan. 9, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chnse elected Chancellor.

Jan. 10, Act establishing the Institution amended by Congress, repealing the section
that required two of the Regents to be members of the National Institute in
the city of Washington.

Jan. 24, Fire destroyed the j^rincipal part of the contents of the rooms in the upper
story of the Smithsonian building and the adjacent towers, including the per-
sonal effects of Smithson.

July I, Reconstruction of the building with fueproof materials begun, in accordance with
the plans and under the superintendence of Adolf Cluss, architect.

1 866

April ^, Act passed by Congress transferring the custody of the library of the Smith-
sonian Institution to the Library of Congress.

1867

Feb. 8, Act passed by Congress providing that the residuary legacy of Smithson should be
received and added to the Smithson Fund, and allowing the Regents to increase
that fund in the Treasury of the United States by savings, donations, and
otherwise, to one million dollars.

March 2, Act passed by Congress to provide for fifty copies of all documents printed by
either House of Congress, or by any Department or Bureau, to be exchanged
through the agency of the Smitlisonian Institution for similar works published
in foreign countries, and especially by foreign governments.

1S6S

Jan. I, National Herbarium transferred to the Department of Agriculture.
July 2^, Amendment to the law relative to the exchange of documents with foreign gov-
ernments passed by Congress.

1869

July 7, West range of the Smithsonian building, in addition to the main halls, assigned to
the use of the Museum.

1S70

June I, Secretary Henry visited Europe in behalf of the interests of the Institution, and
testified before an Fnglisii government Scientific Commission regarding the
objects and methods of the Institution.

Aug. 8, Secretary Henry represented the United States, by appointment of President
Grant, at the international Commission invited by the Emperor of France to

838

The Smithsonian Institntion

Oct. 20,

consider the best means of multiplying copies, for distribution, of the original
meter preserved in the archives of the government in Paris.
Leonard Case, of Cleveland, Ohio, contributed $1200 in aid of publications.

1871

Feb.

Spencer F. Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Institution, appointed United States
Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries by President Grant.

March j. Appropriation for continuing the survey of the Colorado River of the West by
John W. Powell, under direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, made by Congress.

March /j", Act establishing the Institution amended by Congress, by substituting the
" Governor of the District of Columbia " for the " Mayor of the City of Wash-
ington," as one of the Regents ex officio of the Institution.

Nov. 20, James Hamilton, of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, made a will bequeathing $1000 to the
Institution.

1872

June 8,

July g,

Jan. 20,

June 1 8,

Dec.
Dec.

19,

Law passed l)y Congress that " all publications sent or received by the Smith-
sonian Institution, marked on each package, ' Smithsonian exchanges,' shall
be allowed to pass free in the mail."

Collection of minerals, ores, and geological specimens which had been formed by
Joseph Wilson, Commissioner of the General Land Office, embracing samples
from every State and Territory in the Union, transferred to the Institution by
the Secretary of the Interior.

1873

Various ocean cable and inland telegraph companies granted the Institution the
privilege of tiansmitting without charge, between Europe and America, an-
nouncement of astronomical discoveries.

Exchange of sets of United States Government documents with foreign govern-
ments begun.

Justice Nathan Clifford elected Chancellor.

Smithsonian meteorological work transferred to the signal office. War Depart-
ment, under "the policy that the Institution should devote its energies to no
field of research which can be as well cultivated by other means."

1874

Jan. I, Annual income and receipts of the Institution deposited with the Treasurer of the
United States, who makes payments on checks signed by the Secretary.

Jan. 26, Secretary authorized by Board of Regents to receive aid from societies and in-
dividuals in defraying part of the expense of the exchange system.

Feb. ij, Paintings, statuary, engravings, and books on art belongmg to the Institution
deposited in the Corcoran Art Gallery.

Feb. 24, Bequest of James Hamilton of $1000 deposited in United States Treasury to
credit of Smithson fund.

March 2^, Assistant Secretary Spencer F. Baird appointed by the President a member of
the Government Board for the Centennial Exhibition to be held in Philadelphia.

April 27, Chief Justice Waite elected Chancellor.

March j,
March j,
Nov. 2J,

July jr,
Oct. iS,

May
May

^3,

1875

Act passed by Congress extending the use of the Library of Congress to the
Regents of the Institution.

Appropriation by Congress to aid in making an exhibit at the Centennial Exhibi-
tion in Philadelphia.

A series of publications entitled " Bulletin of the United States National Mu-
seum " begun.

1876

Use of the Armory Building in the Mall granted by Congress for temporary
storage of collections received from the Centennial Exhibition.

Medals, etc., awarded by the United States Centennial Commission to the Smith-
sonian Institution for certain of its exhibits in the Exhibition in Philadelphia.

1878

Death of Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Institution.
Spencer F. Baird elected Secretary.

Events in History of Institution

839

Jtme 12, Telephones introduced.

Dec. ij, East wing of the Smitlisonian building converted into offices and work-rooms.

1S79

Jan. 16, Memorial services in honor of Secretary Henry held in tlie U. S. Capitol.

Jan. 24, Act passed by Congress authorizing the Ciiancellor of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution to appoint an acting Secretary in certain cases.

Alarch /j", Bequest of $500 received from Doctor Simeon Habel of New York.

March j. Congress ajipropriated $250,000 for a fireproof building for llie National Museum.

March j, All official mail matter sent from the Smithsonian Institution allowed transmission
free of postage by Act of Congress.

March j, Congress ordered "all the archives, records, and materials relating to the Indians
of North America, collected by the Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountain Region, turned over to the Smithsonian Institution, that the
work may be completed and prepared for publication under its direction."

March j, Congress provided that books or documents from the Smithsonian Institution
should not be restricted to four pounds for each package to be sent through the
mails as fourth-class matter.

March j, Congress ordered " all collections of rocks, minerals, soils, fossils, and ob-
jects of natural history, arch;eology and ethnology made by the Coast and Inte-
rior Survey, the Geological Survey, or by any other parties for the Government
of the United States, when no longer needed for investigations in progress, to
be deposited in the National Museum."

July J, Secretary Baird designated John W. Powell to take charge of the Ethnological
work, as ])rovided liy Congress.

Aug. I, Series of publications entitled " Proceedings of the National Museum " begun.

1880

June I, Congress ajipropriated $15,000 for a bronze statue of Professor Joseph Henry, by

W. W. Story.
June 14, First report of the Bureau of Ethnology ordered to be published by Congress.

1881

March 4, Reception and ball in connection with inauguration of President Garfield held in
the National Museum building.

Sept. I to Sept. JO, Smithsonian Institution participated in the International Geographical
Congress in Venice.

Sept. 75" to Oct. J, Smithsonian Institution participated in the International Electrical Con-
gress in Paris.

October, Smithsonian National Museum Building occupied.

1882

Jan. 4, Midshipmen of the United States Navy assigned by the Navy Department to the
temporary service of the National Museum.

Nov. 3, Smithsonian Institution made a co-partner in the administration of a beneficiary
trust of a million dollars by Reverenil Alexander G. Mercer, of Newport,
Rhode Island, a Board being constituted of the Presidents of Harvard College,
and Vale College, and the Secretary of the .Smithsonian Institution, with three
other individuals, to establish scholarships in such colleges as they may select
for the education of " such poor students as have passed through public schools
with the best reputation for character and ability."

1883

Jan. 10, System of telegraphic announcement of astronomical discoveries inaugurated by

the Institution in 1S73 transferred to Harvard College Observatory.
March j, Congress appropriatetl $50,000 to reconstruct in a fire-proof manner the eastern

portion of the Smithsonian building.
April ig. Bronze statue of Joseph Henry erected in the Smithsonian grounds by order

of Congress, unveiled.
Alay I to Noi>. i, National Museum participated in International Fisheries Exhibit in London.
May ig, Washington relics transferred from Patent Oftice to National Museum.
July I, Publication of the Bulletin and Proceedings of the National Museum discontinued

as parts of the series of" Smithsonian Sliscellaneous Collections," and ordered

to be carried on independently.
July 2j, Electric lighting introduced in ^luscuni.

840 The Smithsonian Institntion

1884

May 13, Act passed by Congress to provide for the appointment of an Acting Secretary

of Smithsonian Institution.
Jii/v V Franking privilege extended to all official mail matter of Smithsonian Institution

by order of Congress.
St'pt. 2, Participation in the International Electrical Exhibition in Philadelphia, Pa.

Participation in the Louisville, Kentucky {August 16-October 2j), and Cincinnati,

Ohio {September j-October 4), and New Orleans, Louisiana {December 16, 1884,

{oMayji, 1885) Expositions.

1885

Jan. 21, Regents decided that " the fiscal year of the Institution shall terminate on
the 30th of June of each year, and that the annual meeting of the Board of
Regents shall be held on the second Wednesday of January in each year."

March 3, By order of Congress, "The annual reports of the Institution shall be hereafter
printed at the Government Printing Office, in the same manner as the annual
reports of the Heads of Departments are now printed, for submission in print
to the two Houses of Congress."

1886

Au'-^. J, Congress ordered the Grant medals and objects of value and art to be deposited
in National Museum.

1887

Jan. 12, Secretary Baird appointed Samuel P. Langley as Assistant Secretary in charge
of Exchanges, Publications, and Library, and G. Brown Goode as Assistant
Secretary in charge of the National Museum, which appointments were
approved by the Board.

March j. Congress provided that the Secretary of State, the Librarian of Congress, and
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and their successors in office, be
constituted a Commission, whose duty it shall be to report to Congress the
character and value of the historical and other manuscripts belonging to the
Government of the United States, and what method and policy should be pur-
sued in regard to editing and publishing the same, or any of them.

April J, New regulations made by the Secretary for the library, and efforts begun to
compiete imperfect sets of transactions of learned societies and to increase the
number of periodicals in all departments of knowledge.

July 7, " The Director of the National Museum directed to report annually to Congress
the progress of the Museum during the year, and its present condition."

Aug. ig. Death of Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Institution.

Aug. 31, Participation in the Minneapolis Industrial Exposition.

Nov. 18, Samuel P. Langley elected Secretary.

1888

Jan. II, Regents decided that all estimates for appropriations should be sent direct
by the Secretary of tlie Institution to the Secretary of the Treasury for trans-
mission to Congress.

Oct. 4, Disbursing Officer was appointed, duly qualified and bonded to the acceptance
of the Secretary of the Treasury, for the disbursement of all sums appropriated
by Congress to the Smithsonian Institution for the National Museum, Ex-
changes, Bureau of Ethnology, Zoological Park, and Astrophysical Observatory.

March 27, Justice Samuel F. Miller elected Chancellor //v? tern.

July 4 to Oct. 7, Participation in the Ohio Valley and Central States Exposition in Cincinnati,
Ohio, and

July 16-21, the Marietta Exposition, Marietta, Ohio.

Oct. 2, Congress ordered that the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution should submit
at the beginning of each session a detailed statement of expenditures of the ap-
propriations of the several bureaus under its direction.

1889

Jan. 4, American Historical Association incorporated by Congress and ordered to report
annually to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who shall com-
municate the whole or parts of such reports to Congress ; the collections,
manuscrijits, books, jiamphlets, and other material for history to be deposited
in the Smithsonian Institution or National Museum.

Events in History of histitution 841

Jan. g. Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller elected Chancellor.
March 2, National Zoological Park established by an Act of Congress.

1890

Jan. 8, Time of annual meeting ot Board of Regents changed to the fourth Wednesday

in January.
March i, Astrophysical Observatory established in a wooden edifice built at the cost

of the Smithsonian Institution, on the grounds south of the Smithsonian

building.
April 26, Bequest of Jerome H. Kidder of S5000 and June 5 a gift from Alexander

Graham Bell of $5000 for astro])hysical research received.
April JO, National Zoological Park placed under the direction of the Regents of the

Smithsonian Institution by order of Congress.
Aug. JO, Congress appropriated $25 000 to make the west wing of Smithsonian building

fireproof.

1891

March j, First appropriation ($10,000) made for the maintenance of the Astrophysical

Observatory by Congress.
Sept. 22, Gift of $200,000 received from Thomas G. Hodgkins of Setanket, New York.

1892

Oct. ji, i8g2, to Jan. ji, i8gj. Participation in the Columbian Historical Exposition m

Madrid.
Nffv. 2j, Death of Thomas G. Hodgkins, who left by will additional gifts to the Institution.

1893

Jan. 2J, New seal, designed by A. St. Gaudeiis, adopted by the Institution.

May I to Oct. ji. Participation in the World's Columl)ian Exposition in Chicago.

June I, Study table maintained at the Naples Zoological Station for occupancy by a stu-
dent in Biology designated by the Smithsonian Institution.

Oct. 2^, Received $42,000 West Shore Railroad four per cent bonds from bequest of
Thomas G. Hodgkins.

1894

March 12, Act amending Revised Statutes, title 73, relative to constituent members of
the " Establishment," and providing that the Institution may have power to
receive money or other property by gift, bequest, or devise, passed by Con-
gress.

May ig. An additional sum of $8000 received from the Hodgkins estate.

July 28, National Herbarium recalled from the Department of Agriculture.

Sept. 12, Death of Robert vStanton Avery, who bequeathed his property to the Institution.

1895

Jan. 28, Hamilton Fund increased to $2000 by deposit of accrued interest, in the United

States Treasury.
Aug. g, Award of prizes from the Hodgkins Fund made.
Sept. 18 to Dec. ji. Participation in the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta,

Georgia.
Dec. 2j, Complete set of the publications of the Institution deposited in the Library of

Pembroke College, Oxford, the college from which Smithson was graduated.

1896

June 18, President of the United States directed the application of the Civil Service rules

from July I, 1896, to all persons in the Bureaus under the Institution whose

salaries are paid out of government ajipropriations.
July iS, Paintinj^s, engravings, and other art works, deposited in the Corcoran Gallery ol

Art in 1874 and later, returned to the Institution at the request of the Regents.
Sept. 6, Death of G. Brown Goode, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in

charge of the National Museum.
Nov. 18, Bronze tablet directed to be placed on Smithson's tomb by the Institution, and a

replica in the English Church in Genoa, Italy.

INDEX

Abljott, Win. L., 337, 338, 341, 346, 356; explorations
of, in Africa and Asin, 480

Abort, J. J., 309, 352

Act of Congress, removing Library of Institution to
Library of Congress, 82<j

Act of incorporation of Snnthsonian Institution, 53, 310

Adams, John Quincy, 36; bill jiresented by, for erection
of Observatory, 247; efforts of, to erect Observatory
from Smithsonian fund, 419; favors endowing Na-
tional Institute, ^6; influence of, in final organiza-
tion of Smithsonian Institution, 53: introduces bill
in Congress for National Observatory, 36 ; member
of committee on final organization of Smithsonian
Institution, 51 ; objections to his plan, 36; jjroposes
establishment of astronomical observatory through
Smithson becpiest, 33, 34, 49; reports in favor of ac-
cepting the Smithson bequest, 26, 27, 28 ; secures
repeal of bill in Congress for investing Smithsonian
fund in State stocks, 36 ; views of, on union of Smith-
sonian Institution with National Institute, 42

Adams, Robert, Jr., Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 80

Adler, Cyrus, on Section of Oriental Antiquities and
Religious Ceremonials, National Museum, 358, 359

Advisory Committee, Executive Committee becomes,

Aerodynamics, Experiments in, by S. P. Langlcy, 224

Agassiz, Louis, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
75, 80, 165 ; on Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge, 494 ; opposition of, to the theory of
evolution, 150, 178

Agricultural School, its establishment through Smith-
son bequest, favored by Agricultural School of Ken-
tucky, 35

.\itken, John, on Phenomena connected with Cloud
Condensation, 553

Albany Academy, experiments on striking signals on
a bell at a distance at, 126

Albatross, steamer, cruises of, 186; work of, 325

Alexander, Annie, mother of Joseph Henry, 117

Alexander, Barton S., 257

Alexander, Stephen, brother of Mrs. Henry, 121; on
Harmonies of the Solar System, 587 ; photographs
solar eclipses of 1854-1860, 573

Allen, Harrison, 336; eulogy of Baird by, 197-199

Allen, Horatio, 362

Allen, J. A., 336; acknowledgment of aid received
by Hayden Survey from Explorations by the Insti-
tution, 468, 469 ; on value of explorations of Institu-
tion to Hayden Survey, 468, 469

Altitudes, data concerning, compiled by the Smithso-
nian Institution, 784

American Historical .Association, publications of, 500

American Museum of Arts, destruction of, 303

Ammonia-Cobalt bases, investigation of, by Wolcott
Gibbs and F. A. Genth, 616

Ampere, Andre M., 122, 133

Amphibians, publications by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion on, 739

Anderson, Wm., on Molecular Structure of Matter, 553

Andrioni, Count, tour of, with Smithson, 10

Angell, James Burrill, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 81

.\nnual Scientific Convention proposed, 44

Anthropological collections of Institution, 354, 746,

770-773

Anthropology, bibliography of, by O. T. Mason, 766

Appropriations for maintenance of collections in Smith-
sonian Institution, 322

Arago, Fran(,-ois, 17, 12:!, 141; The History of My
Youth, 539

Archaeology, American, remarkable discoveries in,
3S7: of Appalachian Mountains and -Atlantic Slope,
publications on, by the Smithsonian Institution, 747 ;
of Central Region, publications on, by the Smith-

sonian Institution, 749; of Mexico and Central
America, publications on, by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 752 ; of Rocky Mountains and Pacific Slope,
publications on, by the Smithsonian Institution, 748:
of United States, 375; publications on, by the Smith-
sonian Institution, 747-757; of West Indies, publica-
tions on, by the Smithsonian Institution, 754

Army Medical iJcpartment, meteorological observa-
tions by, 648

Arthur, Chester Alan, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 81

Astor, William Backhouse, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 81

Astronomical discoveries, announcement of, by Smith-
sonian Institution, 600; Astronomical Journal, pub-
lication of, 606; a.stronomical observations in the
Arctic Seas, 595 ; astronomical subjects, short papers
on, published by the Smithsonian Institution, 608

Astronomy and Astrophysics, bibliographies relating
to, 606 ; annual reports on the progress of, 610

Astronomy, beginning of the new, 535; methods of the
new 420; observatories in foreign countries for the
new, 421

Astronomy, The New, treatise by S. P. Langley, 233

Astrophysical Observatory, 262 ; appropriation for
maintenance of, 425 ; description of plan of, 438;
ground plan of, 437; small building erected in
Smithsonian Park for, 426 ; unsuitable position of,
426, 442 ; work of, 427-429

Atwater, Caleb, 474

Audubon, J. J., 163, 164, 167, 338

Auerbach, F., on the Absolute Measurement of Hard-
ness, 558

Avanzani, Giuseppe, 225

Avery, Lydia S., 245

Avery, Robert Stanton, bequest of, 245; biographical
sketch of, 245 : bequeaths library to Smithsonian
Institution, 298

Babbage, Charles, on Constants of Nature and Art, 618

Bache, Alexander I)., Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 47, 62, 65, 81, 141 ; assists in preparing Re-
port on Plan of Organization, 57: eulogy of Henry
by, 71, 144; eulogy of Senator Pearce by, 67; first
President of National Academy of Science, 152;
presents collection to Smithsonian Library, 298 ;
publishes Observations on Magnetism, 53

Bacon, Lord, 148

Badger, George Eximund, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 82

Bailey, J. \V., on Microscopical Examinations of
Soundings, 632 ; work on Cryptogams for Smith-
sonian Institution, 702

Bailey, W. S., 348

Baird, Samuel, father of Spencer FuUerton Baird, 158

Baird, Spencer F"ullerton, Secretary of the Smithso-
nian Institution, 162, 329, 338, 360; acceptance
of office of Assistant Secretary of Smithsonian
Institution by, 167; activities of, in connection with
Smithsonian Institution, 168; animals named for,
193 ; appointed Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries,
185 ; biological survey of waters of United States by,
186: biological work of, as presented by J- S. Hil-
lings, 176, 177; calmness and self-control of, 200;
collecting expeditions of, 165; connection of, with
explorations of the Institution, 464, 465; connection
of, with first International Fisherj- Exhibition, 188;
connection of, with Ptihlk Lfiigi'r and firm of
Harper and Brothers, 184 ; contribution of, to North
American Archaeology, 175; correspondence of, with
officers of Hudson Bay Company, 181; date and
placeof birth of, 162; date of election of, as Secretary
of Smithsonian Institution, i^i : degree of I.L. D.
conferred on, by Ilarvanl University, 192; designs
steamers Fish Hawk and Altatross, 186; devcl.

"^3

844

Index

opment of natural history collections by, 183 ; dis-
tribution of second volume, Contributions to Know-
ledge, by, 182; early companions and correspondents
of, 163 ; economy of, in erecting National Mu-
seum building, 191 ; election of, to professorship in
Dickinson College, 165 ; first meeting of Henry
with, 167; friendship of, with Audubon, 163; gen-
ealogical tree prepared by, 158; genealogy of,
157; gives his library to National Museum, 290;
gives zoological collection to Institution, 314; grad-
uation of, 162; honor paid to portrait of, 188; hon-
ors bestowed on, by foreign countries, 192 ; honorary
member of many foreign societies, 192; influence of
ancestors on character of, 162 ; influence of, on Ameri-
can natural history, 180; introduction of laboratory
practice and field exploration uito schools by, 165 ;
journal of, 200 ; long term of service of, 58 ; marriage
of, i6t ; memorandum from note-book of, on height
and weight of himself, 164; nationality of ancestors of,
158; new method in ichthyological work by, 173;
number of published writings of, 168 ; on mammals,
171 ; on mammals and birds of America, in Pacific
Railroad Reports, 715 ; on meteorological observers,
666; organizes corps of meteorological observers,
182 ; Pacific Railroad Survey reports of, 171 ; prepa-
ration of synonymy of North American birds by, 164 ;
prize awarded to, 188; remarks on international ex-
changes by, 407; school life of, 162; scientific edito-
rial work of, 184 ; special work of, in connection with
Smithsonian Institution, 232 ; specimens prepared by,
163; studies after graduation, 163; system of inter-
national exchanges organized by, 182; transfer of pri-
vate collections to the National Museum by, 167;
translation of Iconographic Cyclopedia by, 166; trib-
ute to character of, by Harrison Allen, 197-199; trib-
ute to character of, by John S. Newberrj', 194-197 ;
varied ability of, 157; walking excursions of, 164;
work as Commissioner of Fisheries, 173; work during
Civil War, 184: work in classifying reptiles, 172;
work in North American herpetology, 172

Baird, village of, named for Professor Baird, 192

Baird, Wm., 163

Bairdian Period, 169

Bairdian School of Ornithologists, 170

Baker, Marcus, 356

Ball, Sir Robert, 011 Atoms and Sunbeams, 553; on
Wanderings of the North Pole, 550

Bancroft, George, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
65, 82

Barker, George F., comments on Connection of Op-
tics with Electricity, 150; on Progress in Chemistiy,
622 ; on Progress in Physics, 558

Barlow, Peter, 122

Barnard, J. G., on Problems of Rotary Motion, pre-
sented by the Gyroscope, the Precession of the Equi-
noxes, and the Pendulum, 548, 634

Barnard, F. A. P., on Undulatory Theory of Light,

534
Bartlett, John R., 466
Bartlett, W. H. C., photographs solar eclipse of 1854,

^573 . .

Bartram, John, meteorological observations by, 647

Hatut(dela), Baron Eunice. See Henry Huiigcr/ord

Batut (de la), Madame, claim on Smithson estate re-
turned at death of, 31 ; mother of Hungerford, 25

Bean, Tarleton H., 356,366; assists in Smithsonian
exhibits at Centennial Exhibition, 326

Beck, Lewis C, on Application of Chemistry to Agri-
culture, 612

Beck, Senator James B., favors National Zoological
Park, 449

Becker, George F., 347; tables of atomic weights by,

557

Beckwith, E. G., 4C6

Bccquerel, A. E.,432; on Preservation of Copper and
Iron in Salt Water,556

Behr (von), F. F. M., President of the German Fish-
ery Union, 7&8

Belfragc, G. W., 345

Bell, Alexander tiraham, biographical notice of, 240 ;
gift of, to Astrophysical Observatory, 423 ; gift of, to
Smithson fund, 239

Ben dire, Charles, 340, 366

Bequest of James Smithson, amount of, 235

Berlepsch, Count (von), 339

I'erlin Fishery Mxhibition, effect on National Mu-
seum, 330; report of juries of, 188

Bernadou, J. B., 356; explorations of, in Korea, 473

Berret, James Gabriel, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 82

Berrien, John McPherson, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 83, 208

Bessels, Emil, astronomical observations on Hall's Ex-
pedition, made by, 596

Beutenmiiller, William, 346

Beyer, G., 345

Biographies of Individuals, list of, 795

Bibliographies of Astronomy, 798 ; of Botany, 799 ;
of Chemistry, 799 ; of Indian Languages, published
by Bureau of American Ethnology, 380; of Natu-
ral History, 800; of Oriental Literature, 802; of Or-
nithology, 800 ; of Physics, 802 ; of Science, 797 ;
of Scientific Periodicals, 746; of the United States
Natural Museum, 797; of Vulcanology and Seismol-
ogy, 803 ; of Zoology, 803

Biddle, James, sword presented to, in section of His-
tory, 360

Bigelow, Frank H., on the Solar Corona Discussed by
Spherical Harmonics, 575

Bill, Coiigessional, for the erection of observatory,
prepared by J. Quincy Adams, 247; appropriating
the mall for use of the Smithsonian Institution, 248 ;
for Astrophysical Observatory, 481; giving charac-
terization of the building of Smithsonian Institution,
248 ; to appoint Commission on Naiional Zoological
Park, 449; to erect observatory from Smithsonian
fund, 419 ; to establish library, known as " the library
plan," 269

Billings, J. S., comparison of Louis Agassiz and S. F.
Baird, 178, 179 ; estimate of Baird's work in biology,
by, 176, 177

Binney, Amos, 164

Biiiney, W. (j., 343

Biographical memoirs in Smithsonian Reports, 559 ;
notices of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, by William Jones Rhees, 80-114

Birds, list of species of, by Baird, sent out by Smith-
sonian Institution, 169

Birds of North America, by S. F. Baird, i6g; pub-
lications by the Smithsonian Institution on, 741-743

Blake, Wm. P., assists in Smithsonian exhibits in
Centennial Exhibition, 327

Bland, Thomas, 343

Boas, Franz, 356

Boehnier, Geo. H., 412

Bollman, C. H., 346

Bolograph, use of, 218

Bolometer, basis of action of, 217; description of ap-
paratus employed in new method of using, 436; in-
vention of, by Langley, 432 ; method ot use of, in
determining heat-Unes in spectrum, 433 ; new method
of using, 435; result of work of, 442

Bolton, H. Carrington, on Bibliography of Chemistry,
626; on Chemistry, 622

Booth, James C. , on Recent Improvements in the
Chemical Arts, 613

Booth, Newton, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,

65, 83

Botanical, papers, miscellaneous, published by Institu-
tion, 70s

Botanical science, services rendered to, by Institu-
tion, 697 ; work in Institution, beginning of, 698

Boucard, A., 338

Bourke, John Cj., 356

Bowen, Sayles Jenks, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 65, 83

Boys, C. J., on Electric Spark Photographs of Flying
Bullets, 558; on Quartz Fibers, 558

Brady, J. F., 346

Bransfoid, J. F., 356

Breckinridge, John Cabell, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 84

Breckinridge, William Campbell Preston, Regent,
Smithsonian Institution, 64, 84

Breese, Sidney, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
62, 6_s, 84

Breguet, Antoine, 240

Brewer, Thomas M., 163

Brewster, Sir David, 141 ; remarks on Henrj- by, 122

Brockhaus, Konversations-Lcxicon of, 166

Brown, Rev. Frederick, genealogist of the Hungerford
family, 9

Bruce, Minor W., 456

Brj'an, F. T., 467

Index

845

Buchanan, Senator James, views ol, on distribution of
Smithson Fund, 268

liuUetin of the National Museum, 366, 499

Hansen, Kobeit, 421

liureau of American Kthnolog-y, 470; Bibliography of
Indian Languages by, 380 : I'.ulletins of, 380 ; classifi-
cation of work of, 37s ; collections transferred to Na-
tional Museum by, 394; Contributions of, 380; Gil-
man on evolution of, 812 ; manuscript collections of,
395 ; methods of research of, 371 ; origin of, 369, 471 ;
primary plan of, 371 ; publications of, 395, 499

Bureau of Astronomical Telegraphy transferred to
Harvard University, 601

Burgess, Edward, 345

Burt, Charles, makes a bust of Smithson, 17

Busch, A. L., daguerreotypes solar eclipse of 1851,
573

Butterworth, Benjamin, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 84

Calhoun, Senator John C, antagonizes acceptance of
the Smithson bequest, 26

Campbell, R. D., 466

Cannon, Joseph G., 425

Caoutchouc and Gutta Pcrcha, paper on, in Smithso-
nian Report for 1864, 556

Carpenter, William B., on the Application of the
Principle of the Conservation of Force to Physiol-
ogy, 148

Casa Grande, ruins of, 384

Cass, Lewis, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65, 85

Cassin, John, 163, 169

Cataloguing scientific literiture, influence of Institu-
tion in work of, 818

Catalogue, plan for a general, by C. C. Jewett, 787

Catliu Gallery purchased by Institution, 766

Cavendish, H., intimate friend of Smithson, 11, 15

Cayley, Sir George, 225

Cazin, A., on Recent Progress in Relation to the The-
ory of Heat, 534

Centennial Exliibition of 1876, effect of, on National
Museum, 325

Ceramics, Indian, results of study of Smithsonian col-
lections of, 769

Chace, George J., on Chemistry applied to the Arts,

Challenger, H. M. S., 186

Chamberlain, L. T., Rev. and Mrs., 343

Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, 5i

Chandler, S. C, cipher-code for astronomical tele-
grams, 600

Chanler, Wm. Astor, 346

Channing, F. W., lecture on the Fire Alarm Telegraph
by, 530

ChaniUe, Octave, 224 ; on the contributions of Langley
to Aerodynamics, 225-226

Chapin, Stephen, President of Columbian University,
suggestion of, as to organization of Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 32

Chaplain, J. C, 245

Charlton, Robert Milledge, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 85

Chase, Salmon Portland, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 85

Chatelain, Heli, 356

Chauvenet, William, 202

Chemical papers in Smithsonian Reports, list of, 628-

^30 ....

Chemistry, lectures on, at Smithsonian Institution, 615

Chester, H. C , assists on Smithsonian exhibits at Cen-
tennial Exhibition, 326

Choate, Rufus, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 47,
62, 64, 85, 248; advocates formation of library, 266;
influence of,in final organization of Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 56 ; presents bill for public library in Smith-
sonian Institution, 50; promotes library and biblio-
graphical work, 78 ; recommends appropriation by
Congress for National Institute, 46; secures adop-
tion of library bill in Senate, 269

Cipher codes for astronomical telegrams, 600

Clark, A. Howard, on Section of Historical Collec-
tions, National Museum, 359-361

Clark, Henry J., on Lucemariae, 729

Clarke, Alvan, 204

Clarke, Edward, advisory architect for National Mu-
seum, 320

Clarke, F. W., criticism of Smithson's writings by, 14 ;

on Atomic Weight.s, 621; on Chemistry, 622 ; on
Constants of Nature, 557, 623; on Specific Giavilies,
6ig

Cleaveland, Parker, honorary member of Smithso-
nian Institution, 60

Clemson, Thomas, on Water and on Nitrogen, 615

Clerk Maxwell, J. C, generalizations in electrical
science by, 129; his theory of light a variation of
that of Henry, 149: paper on electricity by, re-
printed in .Smithsonian Report, 532

Cliflford, Nathan, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
86

Climate of North American Continent, material on,
668

Cluss & Schuize, architects for National Musciim, 329

Clymer, Hiester, Reg-int, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
86

Coffin, James H., on Meteorological Observations by
the Smithsonian Institution in connection with Patent
Office, 662 ; on the Orbit and Phenomena of a Me-
teoric Fire-ball, 589 ; remarks on solar eclipses of
nineteenth century, 573

Cogswell, Joseph, on Jewett's catalogue plan, 278

Colcock, William Ferguson, Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 64, 86

Cole, George WaLson, remarks on Jewett's catalogue
plan, 280

Colfax, Schuyler, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,

Collections, government, final transfer of, to Smithsonian
Institution, 321 ; made by Smithsonian Institution,
value in i860, 315; made by U. S. Fish Commis-
sion, v.alue of, 325; of Exploring Expedition, trans-
fer of, to the Smithsonian Institution, 317; of models
and natural products in the Patent Office, 304 ; policy
of the Institution relating to treatment of, 317-319

College of New Jersey, Henry elected Professor in,
120

Comet-orbits, researches of J. S. Hubbard on, 588;
work done by Ormond Stone on, 589

Comets, award of premiums for discovery of, 588

Congress, acceptance of the Smithson bequest by, 28;
act of, for final organization of Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 38; acts of, on international exchanges, 409:
announcement of the Smithson bequest to, 26 ; delib-
erations of the twenty-eighth, on Smithson bequest,
49; discussion in, as to acceptance of Smithson be-
quest, 26; formulation of final act of incorporation
for Smithsonian Institution by the twenty-ninth, 51 ;
reports of Board of Regents to, 62

Congress, Library of, new building for, 829; accom-
modations for Smithsonian Library in, 829

Constants of Nature, list of works on, 793

Contributions to American Ethnology, 368, 369, 395,

499

Conway, Moncure D., incident of field explora-
tion with Raird related by, 166

Cooke, Henry David, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 87 '

Cooke, Josiah P., on Oxygen and Zinc, Carbon, etc.,
615

Cooke, Sir William Fothergill, associate of Sir Charles
Wheatstone, 136, 137

Cooper, J. E., 457 • ,0 - .

Cooper, Thomas, suggestion on organization of Smith-
sonian Institution, 32

Cope, E. D., 172 ; on Bone Cave in .^nguilla, 691 ; on
Paleozoic Fishes, 691

Copp, John Brenton, 361

Copp(5e, Henry, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
87; memorial record of General M. C. Meigs by, 76 ;
on resolutions in memor>- of James C. Welling, 76;
remarks by General Joseph Wheeler on resolutions
at death of, 77 ; resolutions on death of, by Senator
John B. Henderson. 77

Coquillet, P. W., 346

Corcoran -Art Gallerj-, transfer of art objects to, 324

Corcoran, W. W., 324

Corporation of City of Washington presents memorial
concerning Smithson bequest, 36

Correspondence, system of, in Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 807

Cory, C. B., 33g

Cones. Elliott, characterization of Bairdian School of
ornithologists by, 170, 336, 469; on Bairdian Period
in ornithology, 169

Couch, D. N., 181

54*

846

Index

Court of Chancery, decree of, giving Smithson be-
quest to the United States, 30

Coville, F. v., on Department of Botany, National
Museum, 350, 351

Cox, Samuel Sullivan, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 63, 87 ; report of committee on death of, 75

Craig, Benjamin F., work in Smithsonian chemical
laboratory by, 617

Crawford, Thomas, 361

Crittenden, Senator, John J., views of, on formation
of library;, 267

Cross, Whitman, 347, 348, 352

Culbertson, Thaddeus, explorations by, 463

Culin, Stewart, 356

Cullom, Shelby Morse, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, S8

Curtin, Jeremiah, 370

Cashing, Frank Hamilton, 370, 386, 387, 388; assists
on Smithsonian exhibits at Centennial Exposition,
327

Custine, Comte de, 360

Cutter, Charles A., remarks of, on Jewett's catalogue
plan, 279

Cyclopaedia of Indian Tribes, 395

Dall, Wm. H., 170, 343, 35^, 356; account of corre-
spondence of Professor Baird with the officers of the
Hudson Bay Company, iSi ; on Department of
Mollusks, National Museum, 342-344 ; on Miocene
Faunse, 683 ; surveys of, 182

Dallas, George Mifflin, Chancellor and Regent, Smith-
sonian Institution, 64, 62, 88 ; delivers address at
laying corner-stone of Smithsonian Institution, 256;
endorses the election of Henry as Secretary of Smith-
sonian Institution, 141

Dana, James Dwight, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 88, 163, 164

Darwin, Charles, 150

Davenport, Thomas, experiments with Henry mag-
nets, 139 ; makes engine to run on circular track, 139

Davis, C. H., translation of Gauss's Theoria Motus
Corporum Coelestium by, 566

Davis, David, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65, 88

Davis, Garrett, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64, 89

Davis, Henry Winter, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 89

Davis, Jefferson, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
89 ; favors acceptance of the Smithson bequest, 26 ;
on Committee on final organization of Smithsonian
Institution, 51 ; secures return of money lost in State
bonds, 78, 483

Davis, John, influence in final organization of Smith-
sonian Institution, 55

Dayton, William Lewis, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 8g

Dean, George W., longitude observations made by, 599

Deane, James, on Fossil Foot-prints in Connecticut
Valley, 693

Decorative Art among American Indians, investiga-
tions by W. H. Holmes on, 382

Deep Sea Fishes of the North Atlantic Basin, 499

Deering, Nathaniel Cobb, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, C5, 90

Delafield, Richard, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
65, 90, 261

Delano, Columbus, honorary member of Smithsonian
Institution, 60

Delaunay, Charles, on Velocity of Light, 535

De St. Fond, F,, tour of, with Smithson, 10

Devens, Charles, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 90

Devonshire, Duke of, 406

Dewar, James, lecture on Magnetic Properties ol
Liquefied Oxygen, 531

Dewey, Frederic P., chemical work for the Institu-
tion, 621

Dickinson, Henry Louis, half-brother of Smithson, 22

Dolphin, Baird's, 193

Domestic wares, collections of native, 386

Donaldson, Thomas, assists on Smithson exhibits at
Centennial Exhibition, 327

Dorsey, J. Owen, 370, 381

Douglas, James, 352

Douglass, Stephen Arnold, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 91

Downes, John, prepares tables ol occultations, 576

Downing, Andrew J., design of, for planting the Mall,
263 ; vase erected to memory of, 263

Draper, Henry, on construction 01 a silvered-glass

telescope, 603
Draper, John W., 432
Dresden Royal Library, gifts of, to Institution Library,

295

Drummonds, Messrs., of Channg Cross, bankers to
Smithson, 19

Duchemin, Emile, 225

Dunglison, Robley, Professor of University of Virginia,
plan of, for the organization of Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 32

Duponceau, Peter S., 481 ; reasons for change of name
of National Institute, 44

Dupreez, F., on Atmospheric Electricity, 532

Easter Island, collection from, 755

Edmunds, George Franklin, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 91 ; introduces bill for National Zo-
ological Park, 449

Ehrenberg, Christian G. , work of, translated by Baird,
164

Electricity, discoveries of Michael Faraday in, 527;
discoveries of Henry in, 527

EUet, Charles, 462

Elliott, J. D., 360

Elsdale, Lieut.-Col. H., on Aerial Navigation as studied
by Langley, 224

Emery, Matthew Gault, Regent, .Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 91

Emory, W. H., 466

Emory, William H., 181

Emmons, George T., 356

Emmons, S. F., 347

Emperor Frederick does honor to Baird in Berlin,
i8q

Endlich, Frederic M., work of, in Smithsonian chemical
laboratory, 620

English, Wm. Hayden, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 91 ; remarks in Congress on value of Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, 493

Espy, James P., Memoirs on Meteorology, by, when
published, 496; pleads for the establishment of a
meteorological bureau through Smithson bequest,
35 ; work in meteorology by, 649

"Establishment" of the Smithsonian Institution,
changes in membership of, 60; duties of, 59; hon-
orary members of, 60; meetings of, 60; statutory
members of, 59

Ethnographic collections in the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 765

Ethnology of Thibet, by W. W. Rockhill, 480

Evans, French S., 256

Evans, George, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 62-
64, 92

Evans, John, 465

Everett, Edward, 273 ; on Jewett's catalogue plan, 278

Exchange bureaus, international, 411

Exchange of books, by Royal Library of France, 398;
by United States Government, 398, 406-408; efforts
of Alexandre Vattemare to promote, 398

Exchange office of Smithsonian Institution, clerical
work of, 417

Exchange of publications by American Philosophical
Society and American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

397
Exchange of specimens by the National Museum, 364
Exchanges, History of the Smithsonian, 397
Exchange system of the Smithsonian Institution,
agencies of, in Europe, 404 ; appreciation of, by
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 405 ;
appropriations of Congress for, 413; co-operation 01
Royal Society of London in, 400, 401 ; cost of 413 ;
description of, by Henry, 397, 406 ; distribution of
Government publications through, 405; influence of
Poinsett in inaugurating, 55 ; methods of, 414 ;
records of, 417; statement of Baird regarding, 408 ;
statistics of, 416, 417
Exchange systems, early efforts to establish, 398 ; in-
ternational conferences relative to, 410
Executive Committee becomes Advisory Committee,
63; duties of, 63; number of meetings held by, 63;
residence of members of, 63
Exhibition work of National Museum, 332
Expedition, to Africa, National Museurii sends a nat-
uralist with, 480; to Alaska and Siberia to establish
telegraph, 476 ; to Commander Islands, under Leon-
hard Stejneger, 479

Index

847

Experiments at Albany Academy, important connec-
tion of, with history of the telegraph, 126; on trans-
mission of signals, date of, 126

Exploration of California, by E. Samuels, remarks of
Henry on, 475; of mounds of Wisconsin, 473; of
northern South America, 479

Explorations by the Smithsonian Institution in British
America and Alaska, 475,477; cited in plan of or-
ganization of Institution, 461 ; connection of, with
Government surveys, 4C0; in liritish Honduras, 478 ;
in Korea, 475 ; in Mongolia and Thibet, 479, 480 ; in
Texas, 462; ui the West, 478; in Yucatan, 478; of im-
portance to pakontology, 462; varied character of, 459

Exploring Expeditions, aid to geology and mineralogy
by, 6^0-643

Extinction of animals, 446

Fahie, J. J., 136 ...

Faraday, Michael, 141 ; discovers magneto-electnc in-
duction, 127 ; first to print the discovery, 128 ; influ-
ence of discoveries of Henry on, 124

Farmer, Moses E. , 530

Farnsworth, John Franklin, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 92

Felton, Cornelius Conway, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 92; on foreign appreciation of Smithso-
nian Contributions to Knowledge, 492

Fenckncr, Governor of Greenland, 356

Ferry, Thomas White, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 92

Fessenden, William Pitt, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 93

Fewkes, J. Walter, 356, 370, 386, 388, 395

Fillmore, Millard, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,

^.63. 93

Fire m Smithsonian building, results of, 323

Fish Commission. See United States Fish Commis-
sion

Fish Hawk, steamer, cruises of; designed by Baird,
186

Fish, Nicholas, 410

Fisher, Wm. J., 356

Fishery Industries of the United States, Report of loth
Census on, 174

Fishes, publications by the Smithsonian Institution on,

736-739
Fitch, Asa, 345

Fitch, Graham Newell, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 93
Fitz, Henry, constructs refracting telescope for use in

Chile, 504
Fitzall, John, sers'ant to Smithson, 19

Flcischmann, Charles L., Royal School of Agriculture,
Bavaria, favors establishment of experimental farms
through Smithsonian bequest, 35

Fleming, J. \., tribute of, to discoveries of Henry, 131

Flint, J. Sl., on collection of cinchona products, Na-
tional Museum, 363

Floras, exotic, papers on, published by Institution, 705

Fliigel, Felix, agent in Leipsic for Smithsonian ex-
changes, 404

Folsom, Charles, on Jewett's catalogue plan, 278

Foreman, Edward, assists on Smithsonian exhibits at
Centennial Exhibition, 327; construction of meteor-
ological map by, 657

Fossil Flora of United States, Smithsonian publica-
tions on the, 679

Fossils, collections of, in Smithsonian Institution, 694,
696

Foster, John W. , 465

Foster, La Fayette Sabine, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 93

Fox, G. V. , gift of works to Smithsonian Library by, 296

Fox, William J., 346

Francis, Joseph, 360

Franklin, I'.enjamin, 134

Frederick II., zoiilogical collection of, 443

Fremont, John C, iSi, 350

French, Benjamin B.,256

Fuller, Melville Weston, Regent and Chancellor,
Smithsonian Institution, 65, 94

G.abb, Will i.am M., 856

G.tUatin, Albert, Honorary Member of Smithsonian

Institution, Co, 373, 461
Galvanic Current, tmnsmission of, without loss offeree,

125

Garfield, James Abram, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 94 ; efforts of, to increase number of copies
of Smithsonian Reports, 484 ; his services recorded
by Chancellor Waite, 73 ; his tribute to Henry, 73 ;
speaks on the death of Chief Justice Chase, 72

Garttell, Lucius Jeremiah, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 94

Gatschet, Albert S., 370, 381

Gauss, Carl F., 138

Geographical publications, issued by Smithsonian In-
stitution, 783

Geography, knowledge of, advanced by Smithsonian
Institution, 773

Geography of Africa, Smithsonian connection with
exploration of, 781

Geography of Asia, Smithsonian aid given to study of,

779

Geography of North America, expeditions increasing
knowledge of, 775

Geology and ^Iineralogy, aid from exploring expedi-
tion to, 640-643 ; lectures on, under auspices of Insti-
tution, 645; Reports of Progress in, published in
.Smithsonian Reports, 637; reprints in Smithsonian
Reports on, 638-640 ; short papers on, published in
Smithsonian Reports, 635

German Fishery Union, circuLir issued by, in memory
of Baird, 189, 190, 191

Germany, Emperor oC 360

Gibbes, Robert W., on Mososauru.s, 686

Gibbs, George, 356

Gibbs, Wolcott, on Platinum Metals, 618

Gibson, Randall Lee, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,

^4. 95 , ^ .

Gilbert, Davies, President of Royal Society, eulogy on
Smithson by, 15

Giles, William E., 482

Gill, Theodore, librarian of Smithsonian Institution,
289; extract from biographical sketch of Goode,
by, 508 ...

Gilliss, J. M., 356, 467; astronomical expedition to
Chile by, 593 ; reports solar eclipses of 1858 and
i8co, 573

Gilman, Charles, 256

Gilman, Daniel Coit, on work of Henry and Baird,
805 ; on retirement of Charles C. Jewett, 284 ; on
system of correspondence in Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 807

Gir.ird, Charles, assistant to Baird in classifying rep-
tiles, 172; on ichthyology, 714

Girard College Magnetic Observations, by A. D.
B.achc, published in Contributions to Knowledge, 531

Glover, Townend, 346

Godman, F. D., 339

Goode, George Brown, ancestry of, 501 : appointed
assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
503; Catalogue of the Fishes of the IScrmudas,
510; catalogues of collections by Institution in Ex-
hibitions, 727 ; college life of, 502 ; connection of, with
American Historical Association, and Southern His-
torical Society, 505 ; connection of, with U. S. Fish
Commission, 503 ; dateof birth and death of, 501; de-
grees conferred on, 506 ; domestic hfe of, 515 ; expo-
sition work of, 515: honors received for exposition
work of, 504 ; ichthyological work of, 511 ; interest of,
in general natural historj', 514 : investigation of .'\m-
erican fisheries for the Tenth Census by, 511 ; note on
royal descent of Smithson by, 2 ; on American Fishes,
512; personal characteristics of, 506; personal qual-
ities of, remarks of Langley and Gill on. 5 1 5 ; proposed
work in ichthyology of, 514; recognition of early
American scientists by, 505 ; special adaptation of,
to museum work, 508 ; work at Wesleyaii University
by, 502; work in bibliography by, 514.
Gould, A. A., 342

Gould, Benjamin A., history of discovery of Neptune,
580; Memoirs on Transatlantic Longitude, 596;
sends out time signals, 212
Government Explorations, list of, prior to 1856, 465,

467
Graham, J. D., iSi, 466

Grammar of the Mutsun language, extract from pre-
face of, 497
Grant, Ulysses S., 360

Gravity-work, in Smithsonian Institution, 554
Gray, Asa, Regent, Smithsoni.in Institution, 64, 95,
150, 273; botanical work of, for Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 698 ; letter of, on Smithsonian exch.inge of publi-

848

Index

cations, 405 ; 011 life of Henry at Princeton, 120, 121 ;
report of committee of Regents on death of, 75

Gray, George, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65, 95

Gray, Thomas, physical papers by, in Smithsonian
Report, 1896, 546

Grayson, A. J., 337

Great Britain, facsimiles of national manuscripts of, pre-
sented to Smithsonian Library, 297

Gregory, Rev. George, influence of, on Henry, 119

Gunnison, J. W., 466

Guyot, Arnold, meteorological work of, in connection
with Smithsonian Institution, 655 ; on Advantages of
the Metric System in Scientific Investigation, 544

Habel, Simeon, bequest of, 237 ; biographical sketch
of, 237 ; on the Sculptures of the Santa Lucia Cos-
umalwhuapa, 237

Hague, Arnold, 348

Haldeman, Stephen S., 163, 164

Halderman, J. A., 357

Hale, Edward Everett, on Jewett's catalogue plan, 279

Hall, Charles F., 357; Expedition aided by Smith-
sonian Institution, 595

Halliwell, J. O., gifts to Smithsonian Library by, 295

Hallock, William, on Flow of Solids, 554

Hamilton College equatorial telescope, 601

Hamilton, James, bequest of, 236

Hamlin, Hannibal, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 95; on publication of Smithsonian Report, 485

Hancock, Winfield S-, 360

Hare, Robert, 141 ; Honorary Member of Smithsonian
Institution, 60; gift of physical apparatus by, 617 ; on
explosiveness of niter, 612

Harkness, William, on Progress of Science as Exem-
plified in the Art of Weighing and Measuring, 545

Harvey, Wm. H., on Marine Algte, 703

Hawes, Geo. W., 347, 352

Hawley, Gideon, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 62,

63. 96

Hayden, F. V., 357, 468 ; collections of, 682 ; surveys
under, 182

Hayes, I. I., 357 : Expedition, aided by Smithsonian
Institution, 595

Hazleton, Gerry Whiting, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 96

Heck's Bilder-Atlas, 166

Helmholtz (von), H. L. F., 126; paper on electricity by,
reprinted in Smithsonian Report for 1873, 532

Henderson, John Brooks, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 65, 96 ; resolutions of, on death of Henry Cop-
pee, 77

Hendricks, Thomas Andrews, Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 65, 96

Henry, Joseph, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 261, 291, 362 ; account of life of, in Princeton,
by Asa Gray, 120, 121 ; address of, on The Im-
provement of Mechanical Arts, 145; address of, on
Thoughts on Education, 146 ; address of, to National
Academy of Sciences, 154 ; adds one thousand dol-
lars to the Smithson Fund, 236 : an English authority
on discoveiies in electro-magnetism of, 137; annual
reports of, to Board of Regents of Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 145; application of magnet to the separation
of magnetic iron from other substances by, 139 ; ap-
pointed Professor of Mathematics in the Albany
Academy, 120; approval of theory of evolution by,
150; capacity of, for work, 119; changes during life
of, 115; circular of, on lightning rods, 532; circu-
lar of, relative to earthquakes, 547 ; connection of
American science with life of, 115 ; connection of, with
invention of the electric telegraph, 525 ; connection of,
with mathematical work, 567; construction of electro-
magnetic engine by, 128; construction of first elec-
tro-magnetic motor by, 138; contributions of, to me-
teorology, 130; contributions of, to physics, 522;
credit due to, in construction of electro-magnetic
telegraph, 133, 134; daily weather map due to, 146;
date of birth of, 1 17 ; date ofelection as Secretary 58;
date ofelection as Secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, 141: discoveries by, in connection with
the Ley den jar, 129; discoveries by, on connection
of electricity with magnets, 122, 123 ; discovers mag-
neto-electric inducticm, 127 ; early childhood of, 117;
elected Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Col-
lege of New Jersey, 120; election of, as Secretary
of Smithsonian Institution, 141 ; eulogy of, on Alex-
ander Dallas Bache, 71, 72; experiments of, on illu-

minantsfor lighthouses, 151 ; extracts from note-books
of, on meteorology, 145, 146; father's name, 117;
greatness of, shown in philosophical comprehen-
sion of Nature, 130; home-life of, 153; import-
ance of discoveries of, in electro-magnetism, 123;
Investigations relative to Illuminating Material,
557; later studies of, in induction, 1 29 ; Lectures on
Experimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Chem-
istry, 119; letter of, to Asa Gray on the theory of
evolution, 150 ; letter of, to Joseph Patterson, on ex-
istence of a Creator, 155; letter of, to Rev. S. B.
Dod, on the first actual line of telegraph, 135; liter-
ary tastes of, as a boy, 117, 118 ; long term of service,
58; marriage of, 121 ; memberof Lighthouse Board,
151; memorial service for, 156; mode of testing
building materials by, 555; monument to, 156;
mother's name, 117; name of, given to the Unit of
Inductive Resistance, 126; On Acoustics Applied to
Public Buildings, 538 ; on aeronautic machinery,
550; on aid rendered by the government to explora-
tions by Institution, 478; on correlation of physical,
chemical, and vital forces, 147; on desirabihty of
forming a government meteorological system, 676;
on exchange of Smithsonian publications, 400, 401 ;
on expenditure of Smithsonian fund for inter-
national exchanges, 406, 407 ; on explorations by
Thaddeus Culbertson, 462 ; on Instructions for Me-
teorological Observers, 147 ; on Jewett's plan for
furnishing catalogues to individual libraries, 277 ;
on lightning-rods, 130; on meteorology, 650; on
phenomena of light and heat, 130; on physical ob-
servatory, 556 ; on publication of Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge, 490 ; on signaling during
Civil War, 152; on Smitlisonian Meteorological
System, 674; on the theory of the Smithsonian Re-
port, 485 ; on transfer of linguistic manuscripts to
John W. Powell, 471; on transfer of Smithsonian
library to library of Congress, 286, 287; on transfer
of Smithsonian meteorological work to Weather
Bureau. 677 ; on weather maps, 658 ; on work of bib-
liography in Smithsonian Institution, 785 ; on work
of tj. S. Fish Commission, 469; opposition of, to use
of Smithson Fund for local expenditures, 143 ; orig-
inates public fish-culture, 187; oscillating machine of,
139; papers of, in Smithsonian Publications, 555;
period of experimental work of, 122; plan of, for
utilizing power of quantity magnet through agency
of intensity magnet, 135; plan of organization pre-
sented to Board of Regents of Smithsonian Institu-
tion by, 142; Port Henry, N. Y., named in honor
of, 139; possibilities of the rotary motor as foreseen
by, 139 ; President of Philosophical Society of Wash-
ington, 153; production of mechanical power by elec-
tro-magnetism by, 138 ; professes to be a discoverer,
not an inventor, 132; publishes paper in American
Journal of Science, 120; refusal of, to engage in
controversies on the beginnings of the telegraph, 131;
remarks of, before American Association, 145; re-
marks of, on services of William W. Seaton, 69, 70;
remarks on discovery of transmission of galvanic cur-
rent by, 125 : reports of 1850-1851 by, concerning
care of government collections, 311, 312 ; reports of,
on character of Smithsonian library, 291 ; researches
of, on fog-signaling, 151 ; residence of, in Smithsonian
building, 261 ; results of the policy of, 143; sacrifice
of, in abandoning investigation for administration,
144; school-life of, 120; second President of National
Academy of Science, 152; sends circular letter to
foreign governments on international exchanges,
409 ; service of, as first Secretary of tlie Institution,
527; similarity of opinions of, with Michael Faraday
and J. Clerk Maxwell and H. Hertz, shown by
W. H. Preece, 149; special work of, in connection
with Smithsonian Institution, 232 ; statement of, in
fifth report concerning Baird's qualification for As-
sistant Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, 166;
statement of, on use of two batteries and two mag-
nets, 124; statue of, date of unveiling, 263 ; statue of,
in National Library, 156: statue of, in Smithsonian
grounds, 263 ; studies in electiicity of, 122; success
of, as an administrator, 115 ; syllabus of a course of
lectures in physics by, 555; tablet to memory of,
121 ; taste for books aroused in, ii8; teacher in Al-
bany Academy 122; testimony of, in Supreme Court,
132 : tribute of, to Rev. (jeorge Gregory, 119; use by,
of the earth for a return circuit, 134; views of, on
importance of a National Museum, 313 ; work of, at

Index

849

Albany Academy, 523; work of, for Government
of United States in testing building materials, and on
new process for procuring alcohol, 151; work of,
on meteorology in connection with agriculture, 146
Henry and the Royal Society, work in bibliography,

789 . . .

Henry, Mary A., gives date of experiments in Albany
Academy in transmission of signals, 126

Henry, William, father of Joseph Heniy, 117

Henshaw, Henry W., 370

Herndon, William L. , 357

Herschel, Sir John, 223

Hertz, Heiiirich, 148; experiments of, 150

Hewitt, J. N. B., 370

Hilgard, Eugene W. , on carbon disulphide, 616; on
Geology of Lower Louisiana, 634; on prevention of
counterfeiiing bank notes, 616

Hilgard, J. C, on Tides and Tidal Action, 548

Hill, Benjamin Harvey, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 97

Hill, Nathaniel Peter, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 97

Hillebrand, W. F., 352

HiUiard, Henry Washington, Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 62, 64, 78, 97

Hints on Pubhc Architecture, by Robert Dale Owen,
first publication of the Institution, 496

Hitchcock, Edward, on Surface Geology, 632

Hitchcock, Romyn, 357

Hitt, Robert Roberts, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 3, 97

Hoar, Ebenezer Rock wood, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 98

Hoar, George Frisbie, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 98

Hodge, Frederick Webb, 370

Hodgkins fund prizes, papers submitted for, 623-626

Hodgkins medal of the Smithsonian Institution, 245

Hodgkins, Thomas George, bequest of, to Smithson
fund, 241 ; biographical sketch of, 241

Hoffman, W. J., 357, 370, 381; on Indian jugglery,
388

Holmes, Wm. H., 370, 385, 395; on costume among
American Indians, 385

Holmgren, F., on Color Blindness in its Relations to
Accidents by Kail and Sea, 535

Hornaday, Wm. T., 446

Hornblower, Josiah, 361

Horsford, Eben N., lectures on Munitions of War by,
618

Hough, Franklin H., 250; on Periodical Phenomena
in Plants and Animals, 663, 664

Hough, William Jarvis, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 51, 62, 63, 98

House of Representatives shows generous apprecia-
tion of Smithson bequest, 26

Howard, L. O., on Department of Insects, National
Museum, 344-346

Hoy, Philo R., 163

Hubbard, Gardiner Greene, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 98

Huggins on Results of Spectrum Analysis Applied to
the Heavenly Bodies, 535

Hungerford. Henry James, nephew of Smithson and
principal legatee, 19, 20, 25; place and date of death
of, 25 ; title of, 25

Hungerfords of Studley, ancestors of Smithson's
mother, i

Hunt, T. Sterry, on relation of Chemistry to Geolog>',

615

Hunter, Henry C, assists J. M. Gilhss m expedition

to Chile, 594
Huxley, Thomas H., 406; Jubilee Year Address by,

558; remarks of, on Fish-culture in America and

Great Britain, 1S8
Hyatt, Alpheus, on Genesis of the Arietidae, 685
Hydrography of the Ohio River, treatise on, published

by Institution, 462
Hypsometric Map of United States, prepared by

Charles A. Schott, 784

Ilarregui (y) Salazar, Governor of Yucatan, 478
Immediate Exchange of the Official Journals, Par-
liamentary Annals and Documents, provision for a
convention to consider the, 411
Indexes to Chemical Literature published by Institu-
tion, 623

Indian Lingubtic Collections, plan by Wm. W. Turner
for, 379

Indians, American, beliefs among, 392 ; ceremonials
of, 394 ; classification of, by Bureau of Ethnol-
ogy. 373. 374. 376 ; classification of linguistic char-
acters of, 377 ; collection of vocabularies of, by the
Smithsonian Institution, 757; collections relating
to, made by J. W. Powell, 394 ; costume among,
385; games of, 388; habitations among, 584; handi-
craft among, 385 ; hieroglyphic system of, 383 ; idea
of property right among, 392; investigation of, 372;
laws of marriage among, 391 ; quarrying and min-
ing among, 387 ; sign-language among, 381 ; social
organizations among, 388; stocks, table of, of North
American, J77; symbols of belief among, 393 ; syn-
opsis of, by Gallatin, 379 ; system of trioal laws
among, 390; tribal society among, 389

Induction, discovery of, by Michael Faraday, 526; dis-
covery of, by Henry, 526 ; magneto-electric, date of
discovery of, 127

Ingalls, John James, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,

, 65, 99

IngersoU, Joseph R., 47, 269

Insects, publications by the Smithsonian Institution,
on, 730-732

International Congress of Electricians, name of Henry
given to unit of inductive resistance by, 126

International Exchange Conferences at Brussels, 410

International Exchange of Official Documents, Scien-
tific and Literary Publications, provisions of con-
vention for, 411

International Exchanges, 23; J. S. Billings on, 819;
D. C. (;ilnian on, 8oq

International Fishery Exhibition of Berlin, 288

International Geographical Congress, in Paris, plan
of, for international exchanges, 409, 410

Introductions to North American Ethnology, 395, 499

Invertebrate Animals, Smithsonian publications on,
681-686, 728

Invertebrate Paleontology, list of memoirs on, 692

Irving, Washington, Honorary Member of Smithso-
nian Institution, 60

Ives, Joseph C, expedition of, 180

Jackson, Andrew, 361

Jackson, Charles T., 465

Jackson, T. C, 349

Janssen, J., 421

Jardin des Plantes, origin of, 444

Jefferson, Thomas, 360

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, 343

Jenkins, Timothy, member of committee on final or-
ganization of Smithsonian Institution, 61

Jenney, W. P., 352

Jewett, Charles C., becomes Superintendent of Boston
Public Library, 284 ; biographical sketch of, 274,
275; library work of, 816; method proposed by, for
securing complete catalogue of all libraries in LJnited
States, 276: Notices of Public Libraries of the U. S.
of America by, 277 ; on apian for a general catalogue,
787 ; on the construction of catalogues of libraries,
278 ; plan of, for Smithsonian Library, 272 ; retire-
ment of, from the Institution, 283

Jillson, Joseph, 357

Joad, George, 351

Johnson, Andrew, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 99, 483

Johnson, Samuel W., on Agricultural Chemistrj', 615

Johnson, Walter R., pleads use of Smithsonian be-
quest in fostering researches in physical science, 35

Johnston, Joseph Eggleston,"" Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 64, 90

Johnston, William Preston, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 100

Joessel, J. G,, 225

Joule. James P., 148, gives priority to Henry in con-
struction of electro-magnetic engines, 138

Jouy, P. L., 357; work in Korea of, 479

Judd, Orange, 515

Kalb, Baron de, 361

Kane, Elisha Kent, 467 ; observations on terrestrial

magnetism by, 530 ; on Tidal Observations in the

Arctic Seas, 548
Keate, Luniley Hungerford, brother of Elizabeth Keate

Macie, 8

850

Index

Keate, Penelope, grandmother of Smithson, will of, 8

Kelvin, Lord, on Boscovich's Theorj-, 553

Kennicott, Robert, 339, 357, 475, 476; snrvey by, 182

Kidder, Jerome Henry, 340; bequest of, 237, 424;
biographical sketch of, 237

King, Clarence, 347; on Age of the Earth, 550; su---
vey under, 182

King, C. B., collection of engravings presented to
Institution by, 298

King, Henry, curator in charge of Exploring Expedi-
tion Collections, 306

King, William Rufus, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 100

Kirchhoff, G. R., 219, 421

Kirtland, Jared P., 163

Koehler, S. R., on Section of Graphic Arts, National
Museum, 363

Kumlien, Ludwig, 357; explorations of, 182

Kummer, Ernst E., 225

Kung, Prince, 360

Laboulaye, Edouard R. L., 403

Lacoe, R. D., 353

Lamansky's curve, illustration of, 431

Langley, John W., on early studies of Secretary

Langley in astronomy, 204
Langley, Samuel Pierpont, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, 58; accompanieseclipseexpedition
to Spain, 214; administrative work of, at the Smith-
sonian Institution, 230-231 ; aerodome constructed
by, 227; ancestors of, 206 ; becomes Assistant at the
Observatory in Cambridge, 202 ; becomes Assistant
Professor of Mathematics in U. S. Naval Academy
at Annapolis, 202 ; becomes Director of Allegheny
Observatory, 203 ; builds a telescope, 201 ; character-
istics of, 210 ; connection of, with scientific societies,
233 ; contributions of, to science, 233 ; data and place
of birth of, 201 ; degrees conferred upon, 233 ; early de-
velopment of mechanical taste by, 205 ; early interest
of, in question of flight, 205 ; expedition of, to Mount
Whitney, 221 ; First Assistant Secretary of Smith-
sonian Institution, 203 ; first contribution to science
by, 214; founder of Smithsonian Asttophysical Ob-
servatory and National Zoological Park, 232 ; in-
augurates system of time signals for Pennsylvania
railroads, 212-213; increase in funds in Smithsonian
Institution under administration of, 232 ; invents the
bolometer, 217; measurements upon the light of the
glow-worm, 150; measures of the energy of light
with bolometer, 223 ; medals received by, 234 ; ob-
servations at Mount Etna by, 221; observations on
solar eclipse at Pike's Peak by, 220; observations
upon the spectrum of the fire-fly by, 223; on Lunar
Photography, 577 ; on Selective Absorption of the
Solar Rays by the Earth's Atmosphere, 220 ; on The
Internal Work of the Wind, 552; on The Minute
Structure of the Solar Photosphere, 215; origin of
"time service" systems by, 212; practice of, as an
architect, 201; rapid progress of, in astronomical
studies, 202 ; reminiscences of boyhood of, 203 ; re-
searches of, on the solar atmosphere, 214; researches
of, on temperature of the moon with bolometer,
223; results obtained in use of bolometer and holo-
graph, 218, 223 ; school life of, 201 ; special work of,
in connection with Smithsonian Institution, 232 ;
studies of, on disk of the sun, 214 ; study of sun-
spots by, 214; study of the distribution of heat by,
with thermopile, 215; study of the physics of the
atmosphere and conditions of artificial flight by, 223 ;
succeeds Baird as Secretary of Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 203 ; work of, at Allegheny Observatory, 211

Lapham, I. A., 474

Latimer, Geo., 357

Lawrence, Abbott, of Boston, signs circular of invita-
tion to found the National Institute, 47

Lawrence, George N., 163, 169

Lea, Isaac, 343, 351

Le Conte, John, 164

Le Conte, Joseph, on flying-machines, 226

Lefroy, John Henry, gives collection to Smithsonian
Library, 297

Leidy, Joseph, 163 ; on Extinct Sloth Tribe of North
America, 088; on Extinct Species of American Ox,
686 ; on Flora and Fauna within Living Animals,
704 ; on Fossil Reptiles, 690

Leigh, Senator Benjamin W., favors acceptance of the
Smithson becpicst, 26

Lenox, Walter, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,
100

Lepsius, Carl Richard, gifts of, to the Institution Li-
brary, 295

Lewis, James, 343 .. .

Librarian of Smithsonian Institution, date of appoint-
ment of first, 274

Librarians, first conference of, 281

Librarians, resolutions passed by first convention of,
282

Libraries, public, of United States, growth of, 818

Library catalogues, plan of printing, by stereotyped
titles, proposed by Jewett, 277 ; cause of failure of,
2S0

Library of Congress, catalogue of, begun on Jewett's
plan, 280

Library of Smithsonian Institution, transferred to Con-
gressional Library, 817, 825; of office of Smithsonian
Institution, 299; policy toward formation of, 810;
Secretary's, Smithsonian Institution, 299

Library work of C. C. Jewett, J. S. Billings on, 816

Life Histories of North American Birds, published
by National Museum, 499

Light, cheapest form of, researches on, 442

Lilienthal, Otto, 226 ; on Practical Experiments in
Soaring, 553 ; on Problems in Flying, 553

Lincoln, Abraham, companionship of, with Henry, 152

Linell, M. L., 345

Linguistic Collections of Indian tribes in Bureau of
Ethnology, extent of, 380; plan extended, to include
sign-language, etc., 380

Linguistics, publications on, by Institution, 497, 7s8, 762

Lining, John, first meteorological observations in United
States, 647

Linn, Senator Lewis F., promotes interests of National
Institution, 41

List of Foreign Correspondents of the Smithsonian
Institution, by Geo. H. Boehmer, 418

Livermore, George, on Jewett's catalogue plan, 279

Locke, John, invents chronograph, 529

Lockhart, James, 339

Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 219

Lodge, Henry Cabot, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 100

Lodge, Oliver, on Henry's discoveries in connection
with the Leyden Jar, 129; on Modem Theory of
Light, 536 ...

Loew, Oscar, work in Smithsonian chemical labora-
tory, 620

Longifellow, Henry Wadsworth, 273

Longitude calculations by Coast Survey campaign,

598
Longitude, campaign in, made by George W. Dean,

599
Longitude, transatlantic, determinations by American

astronomers, 596

Longstreet, Augustus B., Honorary Member of Smith-
sonian Institution, 60

Loomis, Elias, on The Aurora, 532 ; work in meteor-
ology by, 649

Lovering, Joseph, remarks on Henry by, 148 ; on
Michelson's researches in optics, 536

Lowell, James R., story of Percy at Concord, 5

Lubbock, Sir John, 406

Lunar Photography, work of the Institution in con-
nection with Lick Observatory, 578

McCall, G. A., 181

McClellan, George B., expeditions of, 180; makes col-
lection of reptiles, 181

McClelland, Robert, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
65, 101

McCrary, George Washington, Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 65, loi

McGraw, Doctor, instructor of Professor Baird, 162

Mcjilton, J. N., Grand chaplain, 256

McKay, Charles L., 357

McKenzie, A., 339

McLeod, M., 339

McPherson, Edward, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, lOI

MacFarlane, Robert, 339, 357

Mac Rae, Archibald, assists Gilliss in Chile, 594

Macie, Elizabeth Keate, mother of James Smithson, i

Macie, James, i

Macie, James Lewis, early name of James Smithson, i ;
entered at Pembroke College, O.xford, 8

Index

851

Maclean, John, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,

lOI

Magnet, intensity, creator of, 125; quantity, 125.; quan-
tity, of Sturgeon, 125; quantity, perfected by Henry,
124 ; quantity, plan of Henry for using at great dis-
tances, 135

Magnetic Induction, lectures by J. A. Ewing on, re-
printed in Smithsonian Report, 531

Magnetic Observatory, removal from the Institution,

Magneto-electric Induction, date of discovery of, 127
Magneto-electricity, connection of Michael Faraday

and Henry in disco ver>' of, 128 ; date of discovery

of, 126
Magowan, D. J., on modes of keeping time known

among the Chinese, 544
Magruder, William Bean, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 65, 102
Mallery, Garrick, 370, 381 ; memoirs of, on Rictogra-

phy, 382
Mallet, Robert, On the Observation of Earthquake

Phenomena, 547
Mammals, collections of, in National Museum, 336,

337; publications by the Smithsonian Institution on,

743

Marcy, R. B., 180, 466, 467

Marey, E. J., lectures of, on flight in animal kingdom,
551 ; on " Le vol des oiseaux," 225

Mariette, Bey, gives facsimiles of Egyptian papyri to
Smithsonian Library, 297

Marsh, George Perkins, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 102 : arguments in favor of the library plan.
269 ; collection of engravings of, purchased by the
Institution, 298 ; collection of engravings of, trans-
ferred to Library of Congress, 324 ; connection of,
with Baird, 166; member of c'immittce on final or-
ganization of Smithsonian Insiitulion, 51; offers
amendments having important influence on organi-
zation of Smithsonian Institution, 50

Marshall, J. W., 349

Mary, George, 345

Mascart, M., name of Henry for unit of induction pro-
posed by, 127 : on The Age of Electricity, 533

Mason, James Murray, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 102

Mason, Orme, on Solution, 553

Mason, Otis T., on Department of Ethnology, Na-
tional Museum, 355-358 : on characteristics of Dr.
Goode, 507 ; on Comparative Technology, 768

Mathematical Science, progress of, in last half-century.

Mathematical work of Smithsonian Institution, char-
acter of, 563

Matteucci C, on Earth Currents, 532

Matthews, Washington, 357

Maury, John Walker, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 102

Ma.xey, Samuel Bell, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 103

Meacham, James, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
103

Mearns, Edgar A., 336

Meech, L. W. , memoirs by, 533

Meigs, Josiah, early collection ol meteorological data
by, 648

Meigs, ISIontgomcry C-, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 103, 329; member of E.xecutive Committee
of Smithsonian Institution, 76 ; memorial record by
Henry Coppee, 76

Melsheimer, f. E., 163. 164

ISIendenhall, T. C, on FundamentalUnits of Measure,
545; on "The Henrj'," 533

Merrill, George P., on Department of Geology, Na-
tional Museum, 347-350; work of, in Smithsonian
chemical laboratory, 621

Meske, O., 345

Meteoric Fire Ball, account of a, 589

Meteorites, work of the Institution on, 591

Meteorological investigations, special, carried on by
Institution, 668; in connection with Patent Office,
661

Meteorological memoirs and monographs in Smithso-
nian publications, 671

Meteorological observations in Arctic regions, reduced
by Charles A. Schott, 671; list of papers on, 671;
loss of appropriations for, 672; origin of American,
647

Meteorological publications of the Institution, 543-546

Meteorological records of Institution, transferred to
Weather Bureau by Langlcy, 678

Meteorological tables by Arnold Guyot, 670

Meteorological work, three classes of observers m,
653 ; aid from newspapers, telegraph reports, 659 ;
of Smithsonian Institution, an aid to agriculture,
661 ; use of telegraph by Henry in, 656

Mexican Boundary Commission, 350

Mexican Boundary Surveys, 180

Michelson, A. A., on the Applicatinn of Interference
Methods to Spectroscopic Measurements, J36

Miller, Samuel Freeman, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 65, 103

Mills, Robert, assistant architect of Smithsonian build-
ing, 256

MindcleflT, Cosmos, 385

Mindeleff, Victor, 370, 386

Mitchell, Maria, recognition of work of, by the Smith-
sonian Institution, 588

Mitsukuri, K., 346

Mohun, R. Dorsey, 357, 457

Mollusks, publications oy the Smithsonian Institution

on> 733. 736

Mooney, James, 356, 370, 388, 395

Moore, H. C., 457

Morgan, Lewis H , on Cons.anguinity and Affinity of
the Human Family, 763; on American Houses and
House-life, 385

Morin, A., on Warming and Ventilating Occupied
Buildings, 557

Morlcy, Edward W., on Densities of Oxygen and Hy-
drogen and the Ratio of their Atomic Weights, 554 ;
physico-chemical investigations by, 627

Morocco, Emperor of, 360

Morrill, Justin Smith. Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 104; favors Zoological Park, 449

Morris, John G., 163, 164

Morrison, H. K., 345

Morrison of Greenock, Scotland, 132

Morse, S. F. B., 362

Morton, Henry, deposits Ramsden dividing engine
in National Museum, 546

Morton, Levi Parsons, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 104

Motor, electro-magnetic, construction of first, 139, 159

Mounds of Wisconsin, exploration of, by American
Antiquarian Society, remarks of Henry on, 473,

474
Miiller, J., on Principles of the Mechanical Theory

of Heat, 534; on Recent Progress in Physics, 530:

reports on Galvanism and Electricity, published in

Smithsonian Report, 530
Museums of the Future, by G. Brown Goode, 503
Myriapods, Charles Har\-ey BoUman on, 732

Napier, John, 226

National Academy of Sciences, establishment of, 152;

National Herbarium, transfer of, to Agricultural De-
partment, 708 ; work of Institution on, 707

National Institute, appropriations lost, 48; attempts
by, to secure Smithson legacy, 41 : bill of incorpora-
tion of, 305 : bill to incorporate and unite with Smith-
sonian Institution, 41, 43; bills to give management
of Smithsonian foundation to, 41; cause of decline
of, according to Goode, 310; change of name to, 44;
collections of, deposited in Smithsonian Institution,
305 ; collections of, reports of committee in 1842,
307; constitution of. 37; date of organization of, 39;
dissolved, 305; division of. into classes, 52; first
meeting of, under new name. 45; gradual decjine of,
48 ; incorporated. 43 ; influence of, on organization
of Smithsonian Institution, 49 ; influence of. on
science, 49; John Tyler's endorsement ^^i, 46; library
of, presented to Institution, 295; members and offi-
cers of, 37; memorial to Congress, recommending
appropriation for, 48; memorializes Congress, 45; or-
ganization of, 305; plan for, by Joel Bariow. 304;
Senator Rufus Choate recommends an appropriaiion
by Congress for, 45 ; sends out circulars to secure
funds, 45; system of exchange of specimens by, 44

National Library, development of, due to Rufus Choate,

56
National Museum Building Commission, 329^
National Museum, building pro^^ded for, by Congress,

329

852

Index

National Museum, collections of, in mineralogy and ge-
ology, 643; connection of, with Institution, early his-
tory of, 717-722; date of erection of building for,
329; design of building for, 329; development of,
commensurate with activities of the Government,
333; development of, under Goode, 330,331; dis-
tribution of specimens by, 364 ; double origin of,
183; exchange of specimens by, 364; exhibition work
of, 332; functions of, 335; Gilman on formation
of, 810; influence of, 331 ; nucleus of, in Institute
Collections, 306; nucleus of, in Patent-Office build-
ing, 306; papers relating to geological collections
in, 637; publications of, 365-366, 498; synopsis of
collections of, 336-364; working plan of, 300
National Museum Library, gift by Baird to, 290
National Zoological Park, buildings in, 452; collections
made in Yellowstone Park for, 455 ; date of formation
of, 450; development of, 451 ; difficulty of procur-
ing specimens for, 454; gifts of animals to, 453;
material derived from death of animals in, 457; origi-
nal number of animals in, 453; popular interest in,
455; restrictions by Committee on Appropriations
upon, 453; salubrity of conditions of, 456; selection of
site for, 448 ; site of, transferred to Regents of Smith-
sonian Institution, 450
Natural Cabinet of Curiosities, attempt to join it with

Smithsonian Institution, 51
Naval Observatory, first site of, 248 ; site of second,

248
Needle-telegraph, forms of, 133
Nelson, E. W., 355, 357; explorations of, 182
Neptune, computations on the orbit of, 579
Newberry, John S., 163; eulogy of Baird, 194-197
Newcomb, Simon, investigations of orbit of Neptune
by, 580; on General Integrals of Planetary Mo-
tion, 593; on Investigation of the Orbit of Uranus,

Newton, H. A., on metric tables, 544; preparation of
metric tables by, 567; work on star-maps by, 591

Newton, Sir Isaac, 156, 226

Niles, Senator, John Tvl., views on formation of library,
268

North American Birds, History of, by S. F. Baird,
T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgwaj^, 170 ; Review of, 171

North Pacific Exploring Expedition, 350

Northumberland, Duke of, presents library to Institu-
tion, 295

Northumberland, Hugh Smithson becomes first Duke
of, I

Ober, F. A., 337

Occultations visible in the United States and elsewhere,

List of, 576
Oceanic Ichthyology, by Goode and T. H. Bean, 341,

509
Oersted, Hans Christian, 133

Office Libraiy of the Institution, 299

Ohm, George S., confirmation by Henry of mathe-
matical theory of, 125 ; formula of, adopted by Sir
Charles Wheatstone, 137

Olmstead, Frederick L., 451

Order of St. Olaf, Baird made Knight of, 192

Organization Committee, resolution of, concerning
character of Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, 57

Organization of Smithsonian Institution, how attained,
57 ; plans of, similarity of National and Smithsonian
Institutions, 51 ; suggestions offered as to, 32

Owen, David Dale, 465

Owen, Robert Dale, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
62, 65, 104, 250, 269; activities of, 78; adoption of
bill of, for erection of Smithsonian building, 248;
chairman of building committee, 78, 253; chairman
of organization committee, 57; denounces use made
of Girard fund, 250; introduces bill in Congress,
on publications, 482; Irish elk described by, 354;
member first Board of Regents, 57 ; on Hints on
Public Architecture, 253; on style of building
desired for Smithsonian Institution, 250; prepares
final act of incorporation for Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 57 ; reports final bill for incorporation of Smith-
sonian Institution, 51; secures passage of Organiza-
tion Act, 78

Pacific Railroad surveys, 180, 350
Page, James Page, 256
Page, T. I., 467

Paleontology, explorations aiding, 462

Palmer, Edward, 357

Palmieri on electro-magnetic seismograph, 547

Panizzi, Sir Anthony, on first conference of librarians,
282

Parke, J. G., 466

Parker, Peter, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,
104, 329; resolutions at his resignation, 74

Patent office destroyed by fire in 1836, 303

Patterson, Joseph, 154

Patterson, James WilUs, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 105

Paul, G. R., 360

Paulding, James K., 306

Pearce, James Alfred, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 105 : eulogy of, by A. D. Bache, 67 ; ideas
of, on formation of library, 267 ; remarks of, on the
death of Richard Rush, 65

Peary, Mrs. R. E., 456

Peirce, Benjamin, 273; aid from Institution in distn-
buting treatise on Analytical Mechanics by, 566

Pendulum Observations at Smithsonian Institution, 606

Penfield Iron Works, use of Henry's system for separa-
tion of iron from other substances at, 139

Pennsylvania Gazette, 178S, contains suggestion for
a National Museum, 304

Pennybacker, Isaac Samuels, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 62, 64, 105

Penrose, R. A. F., 348

Percy, Dorothy, half-sister of Smithson, leaves him a
legacy, 22

Percy, Elizabeth, wife of Hugh Smithson, i

Percy, Lord, command of camp at Boston, 6, 7 ; at
Concord, 5

Perry, Commodore, M. C, 356, 357, 467

Perturbations of Planets, Tables for Determining, pub-
lished by Institution, 592

Pettigrew, James Beel, on the Various Modes of
Flight, 551 ,.,.,.

Phelps, William Walter, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 105

Phelps, S. I.., assists Gilliss in expedition to Chile, 594

Philadelphia Museum receives first collections of
United States Exploring Expedition, 306

Phillips, J. S., 226

Photography, index to the literature of, by Alfred
Tuckerman, 608

Physical sciences, development of, during last half-
century, 519 ; promoted by Institution through
Henry, 519

Physics, papers on, published in Smithsonian Reports,

546-554

Pickering, Charles, 163; appointed curator by Library
Committee of Congress, 309 ; on Egyptian Archae-
ology, 757

Pilling, J. W., 370

Plateau, J., on Liquid Films and Figures of Equilibrium
in Liquid Masses, 553

Poggendorff, J. G , on The Use of the Galvanometer,
as a Measuring Instrument, 532

Poincare, M., on Light and Electricity, 533

Poinsett, Joel R., address of, on Objects and Aims of
the National Institute, 40; attempts of, to secure
Smithsonian legacy for National Institute, 38, 39;
efforts of, to secure U. S. Exploring Expedition
Collections, 306 ; influence of, on final organization of
Smithsonian Institution, 55

Poland, Luke Potter, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
64, 106

Poole, Wm. F., remarks on Professor Jewett's cata-
logue plan, 279

Pope, Franklin L., on testimony of Henry in case of
Morse sv^f. O'Reilly, 132; writes of the possibilities of
the rotary motor as foreseen by Henry, 139

Pope, J., 466

Port Henry, named in honor of Joseph Henry, 139

Porter, Noah, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
106, 264; points out relation between Henry's early
life and later career, 118

Powell, Baden, on State of Knowledge of Radiant
Heat, 534

Powell, J. W., 355, 357, 381 ; connection of, with U. S.
Geological Survey, 369 ; explorations in Colorado
by, 367 ; explorations of Colorado River by, 642 ;
survey by, 182

Powers, Stephen, 357

Precipitation, tables of, by Lorin Blodgett, 669

Index

853

Preece, W. H., points out the connections of the early
opinions of Henry, 140

Preston, William Campbell, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 42, 47, 64, 106; antagonizes acceptance of
the Smithson bequest, j5 ; promotes interests of Na-
tional Institute, 41, 42

Priestley, J. R., gives instruments used in discovery
of oxygen, 618

Priestley, Airs., presents chemical apparatus used in
discovery of oxygen, 622

Princeton University, tablet erected to Henry at, 121.
See College of New Jersey

Principles of Museum Administration, by G. Brown
Goode, 503

Proceedings, of National Museum, 365 ; character
of, 498

Pruyn, John Van Schaick Lansing, Regent, Smithso-
nian Institution, 63, 107

Public I'ish-culture, definition of, 188

Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, extent 01
distribution of, 500

Pueblo Area, collections from, in the Smithsonian In-
stitution, 765

Pumpelly, Raphael, 349; on Geological Researches in
China, Mongolia, and Japan, 634

Quadrupeds of North America, Audubon on, 167

Radiant Energy, Light, and Heat, papers on, published
by the Institution, 533-537

Rahts, Johannes, work on comet-orbits by, 589

Ralph, William L., 338, 340

Rainsdcn Dividing Engine, paper by J. Elfreth Wat-
kins on, 546

Ramsey, William, on Solutions, 553

Rau, Charles, assists on Smithsonian exhibits at Cen-
tennial Exhibition, 327; on Archa;ological Collections
of the U. S. Museum, 755 ; on Indian Potteiy, 768 ;
on Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and America,

Raveret-Wattel, M., on care for fisheries in America,
188

Ray, P. H.. 357

Rayleigh, Lord, 150

Reading-room of the Institution, contents of, 300

Record of Progress, appendix to Smithsonian Re-
port, 184

Records of Progress in Science, list of topics in, 792

Redfield, William C, work in meteorology, 649

Regents, Board of, adopts plan for library, 270; an-
nual meetings of, when held, 62 ; authority given
by Hough bill, 51 ; citizens of Washington mem-
bers of, 65; Congressional members of, 60; date of
first meeting of, 58 ; duty of, 60 ; executive committee
of, 62 ; executive officer of, 61 ; Ex-officio members of,
6c; first meeting of, 6.'; first treasurer of, 69; how
constituted, 60 ; Journal of Proceedings of, 66 ;
mayors of Washington formerly members of, 65 ;
members of, 60; number of meetings held by, 62 ; on
character of library for Smithsonian Institution, 270,
271; persons present at first meeting of, 62 ; presiding
officer of, 61 ; record of, 62 ; reports to Congress of, 62;
resolution of, requesting Henry to continue his re-
searches in physics, 144; resident members of, 60;
resolution passed at election of Henry as Secretary
of Smithsonian Institution by, 141 ; roll of, 66; state-
ments of Henry to, in reference to beginnings of the
telegraph, 131 ; lime and place of appointment of,
53 ; total number of names on roll of, 63

Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, biographical
notices of, by William Jones Rhees, 80-114 ; list of,
63-66 ; longest in service, 66

Regents, term, when and by whom suggested, 52

Reid, John, 339

Reis, Johann Philipp, 362

Ren wick, James, Jr., architect of the Smithsonian
building, 251

Reports of Progress begun on Smithsonian Report for
1880, 4S7, 557

Reports of the National Museum, contents of, 498

Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, value of, in
aiding mathematical science, 568

Reptiles, publication by the Smithsonian Institution
on, 740

Results of Meteorological Observations made under
the Direction of the U. S. Patent Office and the
Smithsonian Institution, where published, 496

Review of American Birds, by Baird, 169

Reynolds, H. L., 370

Rhees, William Jones, Biographical Notices of the
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 80-114; "i
transfer of exploring expedition collections to Smith-
sonian Institution, 317; work in bibliography, 791

Rhett, Senator Robert B , on printing Smithsonian
Report, 483

Ridgway, Robert, 170

Riley, C. V., 344, 345

Ringgold, Cadwalader, 350, 467

Ripley, E. W., 360

Ritchie, John, cipher-code for astronomical telegrams,
600

Rives, Senator, William C, 47; views on formation
of library, 267

Robbins, Senator, Asher, defeats plan for establish-
ment of an observatory through Smithson bequest,
56 ; favors establishment of a university through
Smithson bequest, 34

Rockliill, W. W., 357; his Diary of a Journey through
Moui^olia and Tibet, 480, 497 ; explorations in
Mongolia and Tibet, 479

Rock wood, C. G,, Jr., on volcanology and seismology,
548

Rodgers, John, Jr., 350, 357, 467

Rodgers, John, .Sr. , 360

Rogers, Fairman, lectures on " Roads and Bridges,"

555
Rogers, Joseph A., on Correction of Sextants for

errors, 602
Ross, B. K., 339, 357
Rosse, Lord, 223
Royal Society of London, cooperation of Smithsonian

Institution in cataloguing scientific literature, 818
Ruckcr, Arthur W, address on Terrestrial Magnetism,

533

Rumford, Count, 217

Runkle, J. S., prepares tables on Perturbations of
Planets, 592

Rush, Richard, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 62,
64, 107; agent to prosecute Smithson claim, rea-
sons for his success, 29; influence of, in final or-
ganization of Smithsonian Institution, 56; letter of,
concerning erection of Smithsonian building by, 247;
proposes plan for organization of Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 33 ; remarks of Senator James Alfred Pearce
on death of, 67; submits paper favoring National
Institute, 47

Sabine, Sir Edward, on exchange of publications, 401-
403 ; on magnetic storms, 531 ; on Jewett's cata-
logue plan, 279

Safford, W. E., 357

Sailly, Henry HonoriS, servant to Smithson, 19

St. (.Jaudens, Augustus, designs tablet commemora-
tive of Henry, 121

Salva, Francisco, of Barcelona, 132

Salverda, Doctor J. G. W. Fijnje Von, 224

Salvin, Osbert, 339

Samson, George W., 357

Samuels, E., 474

Sargent, Aaron Augustus, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 107

Sartorius, C, 337

Say, Thomas, on Marine Invertebrates, 728

Sayers, J. I)., 426

Schaeffer, George C, work in chemical laboratory of
Institution, 616

Schilling, Baron, 133

Schoolcraft, Henry R., presents books to Smithsonian
Library, 298

Schott, Arthur, 478

Schott, Charles A., discussion of E. K. Kane's expe-
dition by, 59s: work in terrestrial magnetism by,
566

Schuchert, Charles, on Department of Paleontology,
National Museum, 352-354

Schuster, Arthur, on Atmospheric Electricitj-, 533

Scientific Collections, the first, belonging to the Gov-
emnient, 304

Scientific Memoirs, published by the Institution, 49^

Scientific Writings of Henry, published by the Insti-
tution, 522

Sclater, Philip Ludey, 339 ; bibliography of, by
Goode, 514

Scott, Winfield, makes collections of reptiles, 181

854

Index

Seaton, William Winston, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 62, 65, 107, 254; remarks of Henry on ser-
vices of, 69

Secchi, P'ather, astrophysical work of, 529 ; on Electri-
cal Rheometry, 529

Secretarj', acting, of Smithsonian Institution, how
chosen, 61

Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, assistants of, how
appointed, 61 ; duties of, 61; significance of name, 61

Secretary's Ubrary, Smithsonian Institution, 299

Seely, F. A., on Time-keeping in Greece and Rome,

544

Self-induction, date of discovery of, 126

Senate Committee on Judiciary reports in favor of ac-
cepting the Smithson bequest, 26 ; discusses the
Smithson bequest, 26

Serials, check-list of, published by Institution, 791

Shea, John G. , editor of The Library of American Lin-
guistics, 497

Shepherd, Alexander Roby, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, 108

Sherman, John, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,
108

Sherman, William Tecumseh, Regent, Smithsonian
Institution, 65, 108, 329

Shoemaker, Paul, 357

Silhman, Benjamin, 141; Honorary Member of Smith-
sonian Institution, 60

Silliman, Benjamin, Jr., lectures on Earth, Air, Fire,
and Water, 614

Simpson, Charles T., on Fossil Unionidse, 685

Sims, Alexander D., member of committee on final
organization of Smithsonian Institution, 51

Singleton, Otho Robards, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 64, 108

Smith, Herbert H., 346

Smith, John B., 345

Smith, J. Lawrence, lectures on chemistiy, 614

Smithson Almanac, plans for printing of, 481

Smithson bequest, acceptance of, by Congress, 28 ; an-
nouncement to Congress of, 26 ; appreciation shown
by House of Representatives, 26 ; bill concerning,
with Museum clause, passes the Senate, 50; bill to
prosecute claim for, passed by Congress, 28; decree
of Court of Chancery concerning, 30; deliberations
of twenty-eighth Congress on, 49 ; discussion by
Committee on Judiciary on, 26 ; how invested,
31 ; knowledge of, received in this country, 25 ;
probable source of, 8; proposed applications of, 32-36;
total amount of, 31

Smithson estate, claims to, 25 ; securities obtained by
Richard Rush deposited in Bank of England, 30;
securities transferred to U. S. Mint, 30

Smithson, half-brother of, fought at Lexington, 5

Smithson, Hugh, succeeds to title of Baronet, 4; be-
comes Duke of Northumberland and takes name of
Percy, i ; death of father of, 7 ; epitaph in West-
minster Abbey, 7 ; life at Alnwick Castle, 4-5 ;
story of his courtship, 2

Smithson, James, admitted Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety, 11; applies to the Crown to change name —
time first used, 12; as a chemist, 611 ; born in France,
9; burial-place of, 22; bust of, 17; cabinet of min-
erals of, 305; contemporary portrait of, 10; date and
place of death of, 22 ; date of birth of, 7 ; date of|
matriculation of, in Pembroke College, 9; description
of himself in his final will, i ; early name of, i ; ed-
ucation in England, 9 ; geological tour of, 10 ; im-
portant fact relative to change of name of, 8 ; industry
of, 16; lodgings in Beutinck Street, 11; mother of,
inherits the property of the Hungerfords of Studley,
8; motives for making the United States his residu-
ary legatee, 22 ; overthrows Abbe Haiiy's opinion on
calamines, 12; Pembroke College record of birth of,
7; prepares first scientific paper, 11; published pa-
pers of, 13 ; residence of, in Paris, 17 ; royal descent
of, 2 ; son of first Duke of Northumberland, 3 ;
story of his mother's marriage, 1 ; takes degree i>f
Master of Arts, 4: traditions of College life of, 10;
visits Fiance, expresses sentiments favoring Jacobin-
ism, 11-12; will of, 19; will of, proved in Prerogative
Court of Canterbury, 22

Smithson Langdale, father of Hugh Smithson, 3

Smithsonian almanac proposed, 49, 481

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatoi-y founded by
Langley, 232

Siniths(jnian building, 260; annex of, 261; architect

of, 251 ; ceremonies connected with laying of corner-
stone of, 255; chemical laboratory, establishment of,
614; committee on, 253, 254; committee on recon-
struction of, 261 ; cost of construction of, 254 ; cost
of reconstruction of, 261 ; date of a fire in, 261 ; date
of laying of the corner-stone, 255 ; date of location
of, 255 ; date of occupancy of, 256 ; date of re-occu-
pancy of, 261 ; design of, 252; loss from fire in, 260;
objections to site of, 249 ; original plan of interior
arrangements, 258, 259 ; reconstruction of, 261 ; re-
port of building committee, 257; site of, 248; size
of, 252 ; stone used in construction of, 254 ; style of
architecture of, 252

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 320, 488 ;
contents of, 494; first distribution of, 416; Henry's
plan of, 4S9 ; origin of, 488 ; policy on question of
copyrighting, 492

Smithsonian fimd, bequest of James Hamilton, 236;
bequest of Simeon Habel to, 237; bill in Congress
for investing, in State stocks repealed, 36 ; earliest
addition to, 235; gift of A. G. Bell to, 239; gifts
of Thomas George Hodgkins to, 241 ; repeal of bill
for investing, in State stocks, 36

Smithsonian grounds, date of planting, 262; original
plan of planting of, replaced, 263

Smithsonian Institution, act of incorporation of, date
of> 53> 31° '' Acting Secretary of, how chosen, 61 ; ac-
tivities of, 23 ; advantages of close connection of, with
the Government, 7c); aid given to governmental bu-
reaus by, 564 ; aids in disseminating abstract scientific
works by, 567 ; appropriations for maintenance of
collections in, 322 ; assistants of Secretary of, how
appointed, 61 ; chancellor of, 61 ; committee of, on
Hamilton College equatorial telescope, 601 ; connec-
tion of, with scientific discoveries, 519; cooperative
spirit of Secretaries of, D. C. Gilman on, 813; dis-
astrous fire at, 16 ; Establishment of, 59 ; first trans-
mission of documents by, 183; governing principle
of, 521 ; manager of, term changed to regent of, 52 ;
motive of creation of, 2; officers of, 61; present
amount of fund of, 235 ; promotes physical science
by stimulating original research, by distribution of its
pubhcations, 528 ; proposition to purchase the City
Hall as site for, 250 ; relation of, to scientific ex-
ploration, 179; resolution of committee concerning
character of Secretary of, 57 ; Secretary of, duties
of, 61 ; significance of name of secretary of, 61

Smithsonian Library, character of, expressed in report
of Board of Regents, 270, 271 ; commencement of,
271 ; copyright system of, 285 ; early date of proposal
for, 265 ; gifts to, 294-298 ; Henry on the organization
of, 272; increase of, from 1887-1894, 294; increase
of, under Jewett's care, 285; most important idea
of, 273 ; periodical literature in, 301,302; policy of
Langley in regard to, 291 ; present character of, 291 ;
publications received by, 294 ; Jewett's plan for. 272 ;
special aim of, 301 ; transfer of, to Library of Con-
gress, 286

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 495

Smithsonian publications, 4S1 ; first, 496; Gilman on,
809, 810; plan of R. D. Owen for, 482; special, 496;
use of, in increasing library, 302

Smithsonian Report, 482; appendices to, 486; distn-
bution of, 483; epitome of contents of, 486-88;
Henry on the theory of, 485 ; plan of the first, 482 ;
plan of the second, 483 ; size and cost, 484 ; value
of, stated by Senator Hamlin, 485

Smithsonian Tables, issued by Institution, 794

Societe d'Acclimatation de France, Baird receives gold
medal from, 192

Solar eclipse of 1851, daguerreotype 0^573; of 1854,
experiments on, by Institution, 573; of 1858, report
of, in Contributions, 573; of i860, observations by
Smithsonian Institution, 573; of 1889, photographs
of, by p. P. Todd, 574

Solar eclipses, work of Institution in connection with,
573; of nineteenth century, map of, 573

Somatology, publications on, by Institution, 767

Somerset, Charles, Duke of, i

Sonntag, August, on Observations on Terrestrial Mag-
netism in IVtexico, 531

Sound, audibility of, discussion by Henry and John
Tyndall, 541; audibility of, summary of experiments
by Henry, in connection with U. S. Lighthouse
Board, 541 ; papers on, published by the Institution,

. 537-54^.
Spnrk-i, Jared, 273

Index

855

Special Bulletins, of the National Museum, 366
Special Publications of Siiiitlisonian Institution, 496
Species, named for military heroes, 181
Specimens, distribution of, in first twenty years by In-
stitution, 321
Spcctro-bolometer, di;scription of working of, 439, 441
Spectrum, as known to Sir Isaac Newton, 441 ; increase

of knowledge of, by use of bolometer, 441
Spencer, Jolin C, Secretary of Treasury, 47
Spofford, A. R., report of, on J. H. Lefroy collection in
Smithsonian Library, 297 ; on Smithsonian Library,
293, 294 ; remarks of, on international exchanges,
407 ; report of, to Congress on necessity for new li-
brary building, 827
Sijuier, E. G., on anlitiuities of New York, 4'>2
Squier, K. G., and l>avis, E. H., 474; on Ancient

Monuments of Mississippi Valley, 398, 461
.Stansbury, Howard, expeditions of, iSo
Stanton, Benjamin, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,

65, 109, 26^
Star-maps, ciiculalion of, by the Institution, 591
Stearns, Robert E. C, 343
Steinheil, C. A., credit given to, in the use of the earth

for a return circuit, 134, 135
Slcjneger, Lconhard, 470; characterization of Bair-
dian School of Ornithofiigy, 170; on I )cpartnieiit of
Reptiles and Batrachians, National .Museum, 341
Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, Regent, Smithsonian

Institution, 64, 109
Stevens, I. I., 466
Stevens, John M., 361

Stevenson, Adlai Rwing, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 109
Stevenson, James, 386, 388

Stevenson, John White, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, log
Stevenson, NIrs. James, 370, 386

Stimpson, William, 342; work on zoological collec-
tions, 721
Stokes, Sir Geo. G., on the Luminiferous Ether, 537
Stone, Ormond, work done by, on comet-oibits, 589
Stoney, G. M., 357

Storm-warning, development of, by Institution, 660
" Stourbridge Lion," 362
Stroud, Mary, 352
Stuart, David, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,

no
Sturgeon, William, 122; construction of first rotary motor
by, 138 ; estimate of, on discoveries of Henry, 124;
gives priority to Henrj' in construction of electro-
magnetic engines, 138; power of quantity magnet
of, 125
Sumichrast, K., 337
Sun, effects of the, on life, 429; determination ol power

of light and heat of, by Langley, 233
Supreme Court, case of Morse vs. O'Reilly in, 132
Surveys, government, collections made by, aided by
Smithsonian Institution, 314: West of tlie One Hun-
dredth Meridian, aid of Institution to, 599
Swan, James G., 355, 357; on Indians of the North-
west coast, 763
SystcmsofConsanguinity and the Affinity of the Human

Family, by Lewis H. Morgan, 390

Tables of Weights and Measures, 544

Tablets erected in memory of Sniithson, 22

Taney, Roger Brooke, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 62, 64, no

Tapir, Baird's, 193

Tappan, Benjamin, 248; defeats aspiration of National
Institute, 56; presents bill for Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 50; views of, on formation of library, 260, 269

Tassin, Wirt, on Department of Minerals, National
Museum, 351, 352

Taunt, E. H., 358

Taylor, Ezra B., Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,
no

Taylor, F. W. , work in Smithsonian chemical labora-
tory, 620; last official chemist to the Institution, 620

Taylor, Wm. B., description by, of researches carried
on by Henry at Princeton, 129 ; Historical Sketch of
Henry's Relation to the Telegraph by, 559 ; Kinetic
Theories of Gravitation by, 554; on Nature and Ori-
gin of Force. 554; paperon acoustics by, 538; remarks
on importance of the intensity magnet by, 124

Taylor, Zachary, Chairman of first meeting of the Es-
tablishment, 60

Telegraph, connection of Henry with the invention of,
525; form of, used by Henry, 133; history of the
invention of, 531

Telegraph, electro-magnetic, first use of, 133; credit
due to Henry in construction of, 134

Telephone, discovery of, announcement of, 153

Temperature Tables, 668

Thaw, William, 213; maintained observatory at Pitts-
burg, 422

Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium, by C. F. Gauss,
translation aided by the Institution, 591

Thomas, Cyrus, 370: on Indian hieroglyphics, 383

Thomas, G H., on the Mountain Sheep, 181

Thomson, Sir William, 148, 240

Thomson, Wm. M., 358

Thomp'-on, S. P., on Kocnig's researches on The Phy-
sical Basis of Musical Harmony and Timbre, 543

Time Service, income from, gives means for original
research, 213

Time signals, first use of, in America, 212 ; service of,
in Great Britain, 212

Tisdell, W. P., 358

Todd, D. P., on ancient eclipses, 574

Torrey, John, 163; on botany of California, 4'''2

Totten, Joseph Gilbert, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 62, 65, no, 254

Tower Menagerie, origin of, 444

Towers, John Thomas, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, III

Transits, American Method of observing, 529

Tree, Lambert, 410

Trenchard, S. D., 360

Triboaillct, Victor, de St. Amand, 133

Trumbull, John, 360

Trumbull, Lyman, Regent, Smithsonian Institution,
65, III • I •

Tubingen, University of, gift from, to Institution Li-
brary, 296

Tunzelmann, G. W. de, account of H. Hertz's re-
searches in Smithsonian Report, 1889 by, 532

Turner, Lucien RL, 358; explorations of, 182

Turner, William W., plan of, for Indian linguistic col-
lections, 379

Tyler, John, President, endorses National Institute, 46

Tyndall, John, on Radiation, 534

United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, work
of Institution in connection with. 715

United States Coast and Cleodetic Survey, research
in terrestrial magnetism, 566

United States Exploring Expedition, collections de-
posited in National Institute, 306; complications in
the control of the collections of, 308, 309 : suggestion
relative to, report of, 496 ; transfer of collections of,
to Smithsonian Institution, 317

United States Fish Commission, establishment of, 325;
explorations of, connection of Institution with, 469;
summer stations of, 186

United States Geographical and Geological Survey of
the Rocky Mountain Region, 367

United States Geological Survey aided by Smithsonian
Institution, 565 : first Director of, 369 ; formation of,
717 : union of four bureaus in, 369

United States Lighthouse Board, Henry's researches
in sound in connection with, 540

United States National Museum. See National Mu-
seum .

United States Naval (Observatory, help obtained from
Smithsonian Institution, 564

United States Weather Bureau aided by Smithsonian
Institution, 565: formation of, 676: receives the
manuscripts relating to meteorology, 29S

Vail, Aaron, sends information of the Smithson be-
quest, 25

Van Braam, M., 360

Van Buren, Martin, President, message of, concerning
Smithson legacv, 31

Van Geersdale, Father J., on the Infra-red Spectrum
and Bolometer, 219

Van Vliet, Stewart, 181

Vasey, George, 350

Vattem.are, Alexander, originates system ol interna-
tional exchauc'-s of books, 55 ; result of eflorts of, in
exchanges with French Government, 408; system
of exchanges by, 398

Vatterville, Baron de, 410

856

Index

Vaughan, Samuel, 360

Vertebrate paleontology, Smithsonian publications on,

686
Vertebrates, Smithsonian collection of, described by

Baird in 1856, 320
Virginia Cousins, by G. Brown Goode, tos
Volk, Leonard W., 361

Volta Bureau, founding of, by A. G. Bell, 241
Volta Prize received by A. G. Bell, 240

Wade, Benjamin Franklin, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 65, III

Waite, Morrison Renwick, Regent and Chancellor,
Smithsonian Institution, 65, in ; addressof, at unveil-
ing of Henry statue, 263 ; resolutions of Regents
on death of, 74

Walcott, Charles D., 353 ; on Cambrian and pre-Cam-
brian Faunae, 683

Walker, Robert J., Senator, 47; director of National
Institute, 46; promotes interests of National Insti-
tute, 41

Walker, Sears C, observation of, on orbit of Neptune,
579; tabulation of Leverrier co-efficients in perturba-
tions of planets by, 592; work on longitude by, 596

Wallach, Richard, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 65,
112, 261

Ward, Lester F., 351

Warner, Hiram, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
112

Warren, G. K., 467

Washington, George, 359, 360

Watkins, J. E., on Sections of Transportation, Engi-
neering, Naval Architecture, and Physical Appa-
ratus in National Museum, 361, 362

Watson, Sereno, botanical work of, for Smithsonian In-
stitution, 700

Watt, James, 361

Wayland, Francis, suggestion of, on organization of
Smithsonian Institution, 32

Weather map, description of, in Smithsonian Report,
658 ; issued by Smithsonian Institution, 568

Weber, William E. , 133

Weinbeck, L., work of, on lunar photography, 577

Weller, J. B., 4C6

Welling, James Clarke, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 65, 112; remarks of Henry Coppee on resolu-
tion by, 76; remarks of, on election of Henry as
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, 141; tribute to
memory of, by Secretary Langley, 77

Wenham, F. H., on aerial locomotion, 551

Wesley & Son, London agency for Smithsonian ex-
changes, 404

Wetherill, Charles M., work in Smithsonian chemical
laboratory by, 617

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, claims of, in electric discov-
eries visited by Henry and A. D. Bache, 1 36 ; admits
priority of Henry in discoveries concerning electro-
magnets, 137; the first to bring the telegraph into
commercial use, 136

Wheeler, George M., 358 ; survey under, 182

Wheeler, Joseph, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
112

Wheeler, William Almon, Regent, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 63, J 13

Whipple, A. W., 358, 466

White, Andrew Dickson, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 113

Whitney, J. D., 465

Whittlesey, Charles, on Glacial Drift, 633 ; on Fluctu-
ations of Level in North American Lakes, 548, 633

Wildman, Rouncevelle, 358

Wilkes, Charles, 306; Exploring Expedition, 180, 350,
358 ; gatlierings of, form nucleus of National Mu-
seum, 183

Williams, George H., 348

Williams, Talcott, 358

Williamson, S. R., 466

Williston, S. W., 345

Wilmot, David, committee on final organization of
Smithsonian Institution, 51

Wilsing, J., on Density of the Earth, 554

Wilson, Henry, Regent, Smithsonian Institution, 64,
113

Wilson, Thomas, on Department of Prehistoric Anthro-
pology, National Museum, 354

Wilson, William Lyne, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 66, 113

Wind, on Internal Work of, by Langley, 224

Winlock, Joseph, 202

Winthrop, John, meteorological observer, 647

Withers, Robert Enoch, Regent, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 64, 114

Woodbury, Levi, Senator, Second President of Na-
tional Institution, 38 ; favors National Institute re-
ceiving Smithsonian trust, 46 ; remarks on charter
of National Institute, 43

Woods Hole, marine biological laboratory at, 187

Woodward, R. S., on Mathematical Theories of the
Earth, 550

Woolsey, Theodore Dwight, Regent, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 64, 114

Word, H. C, Jr., on Fresh-water Algse, 704

Wright, Charles, works of, in botany for Smithsonian
Institution, 699

Wurtz, Henry, lectures on gunpowder by, 618

Zirkel, Ferdinand, 347

Zoological collections, origin of, 443

Zoological Garden, advantages of a, 448 ; of Cincin-
nati, 445 ; of Europe surpass those of New World,
444; of Philadelphia, 445; of United States, recent
origin of, 444. See National Zoological Park.

Zoological Park of New York City, 458

Zoology, collections in, for the Smithsonian Institution,
from governmentexplorations, 71? ; collections in, for
the Smithsonian Institution from railroad surveys,
713 ; publications on, by Institution, 722

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