Institutes of Latin grammar

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INSTITUTES

OF

LATIN GRAMMAR.

BY

JOHN GRANT, A.M.

Atque ut Latine loquamur, non solum videndujn est, ut et verba efferamus
ea quse nemo jure reprehendat ; et ea sic et casibus, et temporibus, et genere,
et numero conservemus, ut nequid perturbatum ac discrepans aut prwposte-
lum sit ; sed etlam lingua, et spiritus, et vocis sonus est ipse moderandus.

Cic. de Oral. lib. iii.

SECOND EDITION, ENLARGED.

LONDON :

rRINTED FOR G. AND W. B. WHITTAKER,
AVE-MAIIIA-LANE.

182.3.

BR ARV

Jan

1^

1987

■^"\

Printed by Kicliard Taylor,
Slioc-Lane, London.

TO
THE REVEKEND

ALEXANDER CROMBIE, LL.D.

THE PRESENT WORK

IS

WITH THE GREATEST RESPECT

INSCRIBED,

AS A GRATEFUL THOUGH INADEQUATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

OF HIS LONG AND DISINTERESTED FRIENDSHIP,

AND A SMALL TESTIMONY

OF THE HIGH ESTIMATION IN WHICH THE AUTHOR HOLDS .

HIS EXTENSIVE AND TRULY CRITICAL ACQUAINTANCE WITH

THE LATIN LANGUAGE,

BY HIS MUCH OBLIGED

AND MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT,

J. GRANT.

THE PREFACE.

1 HE Latin Grammars commonly used in schools are
so well established, and, in general, so deservedly ap-
proved, that any attempt to supersede them would
justly be thought to savour of temerity or presump-
tion. A new Latin grammar on a small scale could
not be essentially different from most of them ; and
one upon a more extended plan would not be calcu-
lated for the purpose of initiation, to which they are
chiefly adapted.

It has, however, been a prevailing sentinient among
teachers of Latin, that, notwithstanding the acknow-
ledged utility of our common grammars as initiatory
books, something is still wanting to facilitate the im-
provement of the more advanced student Ruddi-
man's larger grammar, a work supplementary to the
Rudiments, though truly a valuable production, is de-
fective in several particulars. These deficiencies are
partly supplied in his largest grammar ; but the last
is now difficult to be procured, and it treats merely of
Etymology and Syntax. — To furnish, therefore, a
grammar, which shall combine a more minute and
correct detail of the mere elements, than is to be found
in our common grammars, with an ample elucidation
of the higher and more difficult principles, has been
the writer's leading object in the present work. In

a 3

VI

the prosecution of it, he has directed his chief atten-
tion to the improvement of the senior scholar ; and
has, therefore, thrown the Etymology into tables and
synopses, which, he hopes, will be useful in imparting
a clear and comprehensive idea of the mechanism of
the language. In treating of Syntax and Prosody,
the two divisions on which he has expended most at-
tention, he has laboured to combine the important
requisites of conciseness, comprehension, and perspi-
cuity.

Much novelty of matter is not to be expected in a
work of this nature. Some explanations, however,
and critical remarks, are here given, which are not to
be found in any grammar with which the author is
acquainted. But novelty is a merit which it is far from
the intention of the writer to claim. If, by an ample,
and, as he trusts, a correct digest of the Latin rules,
with a copious enumeration of anomalies and excep-
tions, he has furnished the senior scholar with useful
instruction, and the master with a convenient book
of occasional reference, he will have completely at-
tained his aim.

How far he has succeeded, it does not become him,
nor will he be permitted, to determine. The work,
such as it is, he submits to the candour of the public.
He has not the presumption to suppose, that, while it
professes to correct some errors, and to supply some
deficiencies, it is itself free from faults and imperfec-
tions, either in plan or in execution. Conscious, how-
ever, that he has been actuated by an earnest desire
to promote the improvement of the learner, and to fa-
cilitate the labour of the teacher, he indulges the hope
of a liberal reception. And he begs leave to assure

vu

those who may adopt the work, that, should it be so
favourably received, as to arrive at another edition, he
will gratefully avail himself of every judicious sugges-
tion offered for its improvement.

ADVERTISEMENT

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The favourable reception which this work has expe-
rienced, is truly gratifying to the author ; and has
encouraged him to employ his best efforts, to render
the present edition more worthy of attention. The
whole has been carefully revised, and, he would hope,
considerably improved. It will be found to be aug-
mented by a variety of information on interesting to-
pics, to a much greater extent than is indicated by
the mere number of additional pages. Defects and
inadvertencies, almost necessarily incidental to such a
publication, he fears, may still be discoverable ; but,
while he trusts they are but few, he anticipates, with
well-grounded confidence, that they will experience the
same indulgence as was so kindly shown to those of
the former impression.

Crouch-End, Feb. 18, 1823.

By the same Author.

Lately published by Sherwood, Neely, and Jones,
Paternoster-Ro'w.

1. A GRAMMAR of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE, con-

taining a complete Summary of its Rules, vvith an Elucidation
of the general Principles of Elegant and Correct Diction : ac-
compained with Critical and Explanatory Notes, Questions for
Examination, and appropriate EXERCISES. Price 6*. bound.

2. An ABRIDGMENT of a GRAMMAR of the ENGLISH

LANGUAGE ; for the Use ofthe Junior Classes. Price Is. bound.

3. A KEY to the EXERCISES in the GRAMMAR ofthe
ENGLISH LANGUAGE; with Notes and Explanations, in-
tended chiefly for private Learners, or such Persons as are their
own Instructors. Price 3s. bound.

THE CONTENTS.

Page.

OF ORTHOGRAPHY .... 1

OF ETYMOLOGY 4

Of a Noun 4"

Of a Pronoun 53

Of a Verb 65

Of an Adverb 140

Of a Preposition 144

Of a Cojijunction 156

Of an Interjection 158

Of the Figures 159

OF SYNTAX 161

Of the Four Concords 162

Oj' Government 173

Of the Goxm-mnent of Substantives 173

Of the Government of Adjectives 178

Of the Government of Verbs 193

Of the Construction of Circumstances .... 245

Of the Construction of Adverl)s 260

Of the Construction of Prepositions .... 263

Of the Construction of Interjections .... 266

Of the Construction of Conjunctions .... 267

(Of Qui and tlie yubj. mood) 275

Lists 285

Of Neuter Verbs variously construed under the

same sign if cation 289

Of Verbs sometimes employed as Active or Neu-

tery in the same or a siynilar sense .... 295
Of Neuter Verbs re?idered Transitive by a Pre-
position 306

Remarks on the classification of certain Verbs . 307
Of Verbs which vary their construction^ accord-
ing to their Sense 310

Of certain Verbs Deponent 312

Of Verbs Passive used as Deponents . . . . 314

Of Verbs Common 315

Of certain Participles 317

X

Page.

Of the Aym7igcment or Position of Words in a Sentence 2 1 8

Of Figurative Syntax 325

Of Ellijysis 325

Of Pleonasm 327

Of Enallage 328

Of Hijperbaton " . . 332

Of the Tropes and Figures of Plietoric 333

OF PROSODY 340

Thefoitr General Rides . 341

Of the initial S, X, Z, (Note) 344

Special Rules 350

For the First and Middle Sijllahles of Deriva-
tives, Co7npo7inds, Preterites, Sujnnes, aiid

Participles 350

Of certain Greek Words .... (Note) 358

For the Increments of Nouns 362

For the Increments of Verbs 370

An Appendix containing the Qjiantity of the First

and Middle Syllables of certain other Words 374

{On the arrangement qf Tc7ises, a Note) . . . 374

For Fi7ial Syllables a7id Mo7iosyllables . . . '"378

Of Accent 398

Rides for the Acce7its, isoith observatio7is . . . 398

O/i Accent, Q7ia7itity, Emphasis, Rhythm, %c. . 403

Of the Figtires 419

Of CcEsura 419

Of Sy7ialccpha . . . . ' 422

Of Ecthlipsis 423

Additio/ial observatio7is on the last tiSJO . . . 424

Of Syrueresis 425

Of F)i(vresis 429

Of Systole 430

Of Diastole 432

Additional observatio7is on the last fwo . . . 433

Of Synapheia . 434

Of Poetry 435

' Of the differ e7i.t kinds of Feet 436

Of Compositio/is m verse, 7iamed Sinij)le or Mo-

nocolon 438

Of Hexa7neter 438

Ohservatio7is on IIexa77ieter 440

Obserxiaiious 07i the Poetry of Virgil , . . 447

Of certain other Dactylic verses 453

Of Pentatneter 455

XI

Page*

Observations on Pentameter and Elegiac verse ^56

Observations on the Ovidian Distich . . . 457
Of the Asclepiadic, the Glyco7iic, and other Cho-

riambic verses 460

Of the Sa^yphic [a Trochaic) "iSoith the Adonic [a

Dactylic) 462

Observations on the Sajjphic verse .... 463

Of the Phaleucian verse [a Trochaic) .... 464

Of the Pherecratic {a DactyHc) 465

0/ Iambic verses 465

Of the Scazon {an Iambic) 469

Of the Anacreontic [an Iambic) 469

0/ Trochaic verses 469

Q/"Anapestic verses 472

Of the Carmen Horatianum 474

On the Verbal Structure 476

Of the Pyrrhic 481

Of the Ionic 482

Of Mixt verses 484

Of Compositions, in which the verse is varied, named

Compound or Polycolon 487

Of the Carmen Dicolon Distrophon .... 488

Of the Carmen Dicolon Tristrophon .... 492

Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetrastrophon . . . 493

Of the Carmen Dicolon Pentastrophon . . . 493

Of the Carmen Tricolon Tristrophon . . . 493

Of the Carmen Tricolon Tetrastrophon . . . 495

The method of scanning Horace 495

INSTITUTES

OF

LATIN GRAMMAR.

Latin Grammar is the art of speaking, and of writing,
the Latin language, according to certain estabhshed rules.

It is di\dded into four parts : Orthography, Etymology,
Syntax, and Prosody.

The first treats ot* letters and syllables. The second, of
die nature and properties of single words. The third, of
the disposition of words into sentences. And the fouith,
of the quantity of syllables.

OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

In the Latin language, there are twenty-five letters :
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S,
T, U, V, X, Y, and Z.

Of these, K, Y, and Z, are found only in words of Greek
origin.

They are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel makes a perfect sound of itself.

A consonant cannot be sounded without a vowel.

<7, e, i, o, u, and y, are vowels.

The other nineteen are consonants, of which h is gene-
rally considered as only a note of aspiration.

The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels.

The mutes are defined to be those letters, which entirely,
and at once, obstruct the sound of the vowel, and prevent
its continuation.

The semivowels are defined to be those consonants, which
do not entirely obstruct the voice, but whose sounds may be
continued at pleasure, thus partaking of the nature of vowels.

The semivowels are Jl 1, 7n, n, r, s, v. The rest are mutes.
S is called b}' some Grammarians a letter of its own power.

B

3

Of the semivowels, four are called liquids, /, 7/2, n^ and r.
— They are thus named, because they readily unite with
other consonants, and glide, as it were, into their sound.

Two are called double letters, x and z ; the x being equal
to cs, ks, or gs^ and z, to ds or ts ; as dux^ dues, \\hence the
genitive ducis ; rex, irgs (which, however, is generally pro-
nounced as if recs), whence the genitive regis ; zona, dsonCy
in which the d must be sounded very softly.

j is sometimes reckoned among the double letters ; but
in words of Greek origin it is, in reality, a vowel ; as Idsony
Jdpetus, not Jason, Japetus ; and also in such words as Troja
and Ajax, although, in these, pronounced as the English j.

OF DIPHTHONGS.

A diphthong consists of two vowels forming one syllable,
and pronounced by one impulse of the voice.

The diphthongs are eight, (f or ae, as cetas ,• ce or oe, as
cce7ia ; an, as aurum ; eu, as euge ,- ei, as hei ,- ai, as Mala ;
01, as Troia ; ui or yi, as huic, harpuia, or harpy ia.

Of these, two are called improper, because the sound of
- the first letter is lost, ce and ce, pronounced like e. The
others are called proper, because, in pronouncing them, tlie
sound of each letter may be distinguished.

OF THE PRONUNCIATION.

c, before e, i, y, a, ce, is pronounced like 5 ; before a, 0,
«, and consonants, like k.

g, before the vowels a, o, and u, and also before conso-
nants (itself sometimes excepted), has the hard or guttural
sound, as in the English words give, gone,- before e, i, and
y, or another g followed by e, it is pronounced like j ,- as
gemma, gigno, gyms, agger ,• excepting some Hebrew words,
as Gethsemane, some Greek words as Gyges, and a few Latin,
as gibber, gilvus, in whicli it has its proper hard soimd.

ck is pronounced like k.

ti, before a vowel, sounds like si or ci ; as 7'atio, pruden-
tia ; excepting Greek words, as asphaltion ; words in which
it is preceded by s or x, as istius, mixtio ,- words beginning
with ti, as tiara ,- and infinitives formed by paragoge, as
fiectier, mittier.

u has but little sound, when, with .any other vowel, it fol-
lows g, q, or 5 ; as sanguis, lingua, aqua, qui, suadeo, in
which its sound resembles that of xc, or of u in the English
word persuade.

OF THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

A syllable is one distinct sound. It may be either a
vowel, a diphthong, or one or more consonants with a
vowel.

There are five rules for the division of words into sylla-
bles:

1. A sing-le consonant between two vowels must be joined
to the latter, as a-mo, le-go ; except x, which is joined to
the first vowel, as cx-ul.

2. Two consonants between two vowels are to be sepa-
rated, as il-le, an-7ius.

3. Consonants which caiuiot begin a word cannot begin
a syllable, as ar-duus, por-cus.

4. Consonants that can begin a word ought generally to
begin a syllable, as pu-blicus, do-ctus.

5. A compound word is to be resolved into its consti-
tuent parts, as ah-ittor, abs-condo*.

• THE MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.

A. Auhis; C. Caius; D. Decius, Decimus; G. Gaius; L. Lucius; M, Mar-
cus; M' Manias; N. Numerius; P. Publius; Q. Quintus, Quirites, Quajstor;
T. Titus; Ap. Appius; Cn. Gnreus; Op. Opiter; Sp. Spuiius ; Ti. Tiberius;
Mam. Mameicus; Sex. Sextus; Ser. Servius; Tul. Tullius. In the praenomen
of a woman, the capital was often inverted, as 3 for Caia, j\[ for Marca, j,
for Tita.

F. is put for filius ; N. for nepos.

P. C. patres conscripti ; P. R. populus Romanus; R. P. Respublica; S C.
senatus consultum ; A. U. C. anno urbis conditas ; S. salutem; S. P. D. salutem
plurimam dicit ; S. P. Q. R. senatus populusque Romanus ; D. D. D. dat, di-
cat, dedicat ; D. M. P. diis manibus posuit ; D. D. C. Q. dat, dedicat, conse-
cratque; H. S. or L. L. S. sestertium or sestertius; Imp. imperator; Cos.
consul ; Aug. Augustus ; Impp. imperatores ; Coss. consules, Augg. August!,
&c. doubling the last letter of the contraction, for tlie plural.

THE POWER OF LETTERS IN NUMERATION.

The letters made use of by tlic Romans, in numeration, were C, I, L, V, X;
of which the value and order are as follow :

I. denotes one.

V five.

X ten.

L fifty.

C a hundred.

I3 five hundred.

CIg a thousand.

I33 five thousand.

CCI33. . . ten thousand.
^DDD- ' • 'i^'ty thousand.
CCCI333. a hundred thousand.
Kote 1. The antienta, PUny obscn-es, went no further; but, if nece^s^ry,

B 2

OF E'rVMOLO(;Y.

In Latin, are eight different kinds of words, called parts
of speech :

Noun, pronoun, verb, participle, declined;

Adverb, preposition, interjection, conjunction, unde-
clined.

The changes made in the termination of the noun, pro-
noun, and participle, are called their declension.

Tiiose made in the termination of a verb, its conjugation.

'Die general changes made in the declinable parts of
speech are called their accidents.

Tlie accidents are six : gender, case, number, mood,
tense, and person.

Gender and case are peculiar to noun, pronoun, and par-
ticiple ; mood, tense a!id person are peculiar to the verb ;
and number is common to all.

OF A NOUN.

A noun (nomen) has been defined to be that part of
speech which signilies the name or quality of a j^erson or
thing. If it signiiy the name of a person or thing, it is
called a substantive noun : as vir, a man ; arbor, a tree. If
it signify a quality or property, as belonging to any ])erson
or thing, it is called an adjective : thus bonus, good, denotes
the quality of goodness, but always in concreto, or in con-
junction with some substantive; thus, bonus vir, a good man,
a man having the quality of goodness.

Bonus, or good, has been termed the concrete.

Bonitas, or goodness, the abstract.

Substantives are of two kinds, proper and common.

A proper noun is that which is appropriated to an indi-
vidual, or to one particular thing of a kind ; as Georgins,
Geoi'ge ; Londinum, London.

An appellative, or common noun, is that which is com-
mon to a whole class of things ; as vir, a man ; fcemina, a
. woman ; arbor, a tree.

they repeated the last number, thus CCCIODO, CCCI303 stand for two
hundred thousand.

'2. By a combination of these letters, any intermediate number may be ex-
pressed ; thus II denote two, XV fiftean, &c.

3. If the less numeral letter be set before the greater, it takes away from
tlie groaler as much as It imports, thus XC, ninety.

4. Writers of later d<Ue use D for five hundred, and M for a tliousand-

A proper name apjjlied to more than one, becomes an
ap}:!eliative ; as duodccim Cccmres, the twelve Caesars.

I. Nouns receive names according to their signification :
thus,

1. A collective noun in the singular number signifies
many ; as popidus, a people,

2. An interrogative asks a question; as quis? who? uter?
which of the two ?

Such nouns used without a question are called indefinites.

3. A relative refers to something spoken of before; as
qui^ who; ille, he; oliiis, another; &c.

4. A partitive signifies the whole severally; as omfiis^
every one ; quisquc, every one : — or part of many, as qui-
damy aliqnis, &c.

II. With respect to signification and derivation.

1. Patronymics are nouns signifying pedigree or extrac-
tion, generally derived from tlie name of the father; as
Priamides, the son of Priamus : but sometimes from some
remarkable person of the family; as JEacides the son, grand-
son, or one of the posterity of ^^]acus : or from the founder
of a nation, as Romidida', the Romans, from Romulus ,- or
from coimtries and cities, as SiciliS, Troas, a v»'oman of
Sicily, of Troy.

2.. An abstract denotes tlie bare quality of an adjective ;
as honitas^ goodness, from bonus.

3. A gentile, or patrial, is a noun derived fi'om the name
of a country, and expressing a citizen of that country ; as
Scotusy a Scotsman; Macedo, a Macedonian; from Scotia^
Macedonia.

4. A possessive is an adjective derived fi'om a substantive,
proper or appellative, signifying possession ; as Scoticns, oi,
or belonging to, Scotland, from Scotia ,- 2)aternus^ fatherly,
from -pater.

5. A diminutive is a substantive, or an adjective, deriA'^ed
from a substiintive, or adjective, denoting diminution ; as
libellus, a little book, from liOer ; pai'Vidiis, very little, from
panms. They generally end in Ins, la, or hmi.

6. A denominative is any noun tlerived from another
noun; as gratia, favour, from gratus ; ccelestis, heavenly,
from ccelum.

7. A verbal is any noun derived fi'om a verb ; as amor^
love, from amo ; capax, capable, from capin.

8. Some nouns are derived from participles, adverbs, and

prepositions; as JiciitzuSy counterfeit, (ronxjictus; crastintiSf
belonging to tomorrow, from a-as ; coni7-arius, contrary,
from contra.

Note, That the same noun may be ranked under different
classes; as quis is an interrogative, relative, or partitive;
jiietas, an abstract, or denomhiative.

OF GENDER.

Genders are three ; the masculine, the feminine, and the
neuter ; denoted sometimes by hie for the masculine, hcec for
the feminine, and hoc for the neuter.

Gender is, in English, the distinction of sex ; for, in this
language, with very few exceptions, males are masculine;
females, feminine; and, unless under particular circum-
stances, all things inanimate, being without sex, are neither,
or neuter*, which last has, notwithstanding, received the
name of a gender. But, in Latin, although males are mas-
culine, and females, feminine, there are many nouns, hav-
ing no sex, which belong, some to the mascuhne, some to
the feminine, and some to the neuter gender, die termina-
tion and declension, not the sex, determining the gender.
The former has been called natural gender; the latter, gram-
matical gender.

Nouns which have either the masculine or the feminine
gender, according to the sense, are called common ; as pa-
rens, hie or hcec, a parent ; if a father, masculine ; a mother,
feminine.

Nouns, admitting the masculine or feminine gender in-
dependently on the sense, are called doubtfid ; as hie or ha;c
unguis, a snake.

When, under one gender, a noun signifies both the sexes
of brutes, it is called epicene ; as hie passet^ hie mus, a spar-
row, a mouse, male or female ; hcec aquila, hcec mdjjes, an
eagle, a fox, male or female. When it is necessary to di-
stinguish the sex of such words, mas, male, or fceviiiia, fe-
male, is added to them.

• There is an obvious analogy between the gender of nouns and the per-
sons of verbs. In the first, there are, naturally, but two genders ; in the se-
cond there are not, necessarily, but two persons, the speaker and hearer. As
there is a third gender given to nouns, which is neither of the other two, so
there may be a thud person, who is neither hearer nor speaker, but the ob-
ject or subject of both In the same manner their various terminations inti-
mate various relations and circumstances.

OF NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of one from more than one,
or many.

Numbers are two : the singular, which denotes one, or
t}ie aggregate of many, collectively ; as homo, a man ; mul-
titiido, a multitude : the plural denoting more than one ; as
homines, men.

Some Latin nouns of the plural number signify but one ;
as Athence, Athens; others, one, or more than one, as
nuptice, a marriage, or marriages.

OF CASES.

It is necessary to distinguish the several relations which
objects bear to one another ; and this is done, in English,
generally, by means of certain particles prefixed to nouns ;
but, in Latin, by a variation in the termination of a noun,
which is termed a case.

Cases, (cas2is, fallings,) or the inflexions of nouns, are so
called, because they have been supposed to fall or decline
from the nominative, vvhich has been represented by a per-
pendicular hne, and called casus rectus, or the upright case,
indicating the primary form of the noun ; tlie others being
named casus ohliqui, or oblique cases.

There are six cases; the nominative, the genitive, tho
dative, the accusative, the vocative, and the ablative.

The nominative simply expresses the name of a person
or thing, and marks the subject of discourse ; as Alexander
inter fecit, Alexander slew.

The genitive* is said to express a variety. of relations,
chiefly comprised under that of ori^^in, or the relation of
possession, or of property, and has, in English, the sign of
before it, or '5 added to it; as amor Dei, the love of God,
or God's love.

The dative is used to mark the object to which any thing,
whether acquisition or loss, is referred ; and is often equi-
valent to an English noun having the signs to said for, (both
sometimes understood, ) from and by ; as Hoc viihi datm',
seritur, adimitur; This is given to me, this is sown^/o?-
me, this is taken VLway from me. Nee cernitur ulli — Virg.,

• Some have derived the word genitive, from genus, kindred or familv, as
if a case used to express alliance or extraction. From its expressing many
^iffercnt relations, this case was named by the Greeks the general case; and
it has been supposed, by others, that by mistaking the import of this word,
Latin grammanans named it the jjenitive or generative case. In Latni, and
in o^her languigrps, when a twofold relation snhsists bet^'■ppn two objects, this
case involves an pmbigiiity. amnr Dei denoting either the love n'lh which
f'od loves us, or Ihe love v^iili which he i-. loved bv u?

Nor is he perceived hy any one. Expedi hoc negotium
mihi. Dispatch for me this business. It sometimes receives
the action of the verb ; as Antonius nocuit Ciceroni^ Antony
hurt Cicero.

The accusative indicates the object to which the action
of the verb passes ; as Alexander interfecit Clitum^ Alex- ~
ander slew Clitus.

The vocative points out the object called upon, or ad-
dressed, with or without the sign O ; and is, in general, for
an obvious reason, the same in termination as the nomina-
tive ; as O fclix f rater, Mv hanpy brother. Audi, Deus^
Hear, O God. ' '

The ablative, whose derivation implies a taking aivaj/,
has been defined to be a case denoting the concomitancy of
circumstances*; as Ingressus est cum glad to, He entered
v/ith a sword ; i, e. having at that time a sword along with
hrni, m his possession. But vvhen, by inference, the ac-
companying circumstance is understood as the cause, man-
ner, or instrument of an action, tiie preposition cum is never
expressed; as He killed him v.ith a sword, i. e. a sword
was the instrument with which, or fo/ which, his death was
effected, Eum gladio interfecit. I am pale with fear, Palleo
metu, i. e. not only xmtli fear, but for fear, fear being not
only an accompanying circumstance, but the cause of pale-
ness. They v.ent to church with noise, Templum clamore
petebant, noise being an accompanying circumstance, and
denoting the manner of their going.

In English it has before it such signs as x<oith, from, for,
hy-\, in, through, and in Latin is governed by a preposition,
sometimes expressed, but generally understood.

Observe, That nouns form all their oblique cases from the
genitive singular, except the vocative singular of masculine
and feminine nouns, and the accusative and vocative of neu-
ter nouns.

• See Encytlop. Bi-it article, Cni^e, in Grammar.

f The English particles, usually denominated signs of cases, arc not,
generally, a true criterion of the Latin cases. From, fur, and hy, are no-
ticed as signs of the dative, and of tlie ablative also. But there appears
to be, in Latin, a striking affinity bet^veen these two cases. Indeed, it has
been contended, that the Latin dative, like the Greek, was originally
"■overncd by prepositions, and included, in itself, the force of wh^t is called
The ablative ; and hence perhaps it is, that it still denotes the person or
thinf^ lo which any thing is j^'un-n, or from wliich it is Udrn awrn/ ; but that,,
afterwards, when (liis case was divided into two cases, and a little distinction
was made between thein, prepositions were restricted to that form which
receivcl the name of ablative. We know that their termination is the
same ir. Greek, or, rather, that the Greeks generally use their dative ni
the i.:uMC way in which, most probably, their ablative, .if they had one,

OF DECLENSION.

Declension is the regular distribution of nouns, accord-
mg to theu' terminations, so that they may be distinguished
from one another.

There are five declensions of substantives, distinguished
by the endmg of the genitive case.
The genitive of the Jir&t ends in c€.

second in /.

third in is.

fourth in iis.

Jifth in ci.

OF ADJECTIVE NOUNS.

The adjective, as has been already observed, expresses
some quality belonging to a substantive.

An adjective properly has neither genders, numbers, nor
cases, but certain terminations answering to the gender,
number, and case of the substantive with which it is joined.

All Adjectives are either of the first and second declension
conjointly, or of the third only.

When of the first and second declension, thev have three
different terminations ; one for the masculine, one for the
feminine, and one for the neuter ; as bonus, bona, bonum *.

When of the third, they have either two terminations,
the first of which is masculine and feminine, and the se-
cond neuter, as iristis, masculine and feminine, tristc, neu-
ter, or only one termination lor the three genders, as folix,
masculine, feminine, and neuter.

Adjectives are varied as substantives of the like termina-
tion and declension.

would be used ; and that the Romans were fond of imitating the Greeks :— •
to which it may be added, tliat, in Latin, the dative and ablative, both
singular and plural, may be found, in certain forms at least, alike in
every declension, as will hereafter be seen in the Rules for the Ablative of
the Third Declension, and in the Observations on the Declensions, in regard
to certain Datives of the Third and Fifth Declension, ending in e, and of the
fourth in u : the ditt'erence between the dative singular and the ablative
of the first declension being the principal exception to this remark, not no-
ticed. But, in regard to this anomaly, it may be observed, that the
dative of the first declension ends in ae, diphthong, and that it ended some-
t'mes in ai; that ;hc ablative of the first declension is tlie only case ending
in a long, so that it is not in-.probable that formerly it may have had tlie
vowel annexed to it, which it has since dropped, altliuugh it still retains the
quantity belonging to a contraction, or to the original diphthong; and in the
same mani-er, the ablative of the fiAh declension may have ;7.s long e, from
a contraction of a, or, in some nouns, from tlie long i; of the dative.

* But eleven, which will hereafter be mentioned, having cr or ii masculine,
is feminine, and c neuter, belong to the third only.

10

The following sjiiopsis will show the declension of substantives and
adjectives, with the quantities of the final syllables :

A general view of the declension of substantives and adjectives.

0* ^ ,•» •

•H aj 01 tf)

0) a> cA

eq 3 3

. Qj '^ ._

o 1-1 _C ^'^

2t)3 c

- u

y DjDj-H r-; yo

^ ^ ^ 9-. -^

ft.S

oi

ir.

N.

G.

D.

A.

V. e,

Ab. o

N.

G.

D.

A.

V.

Ab,

us, -
1
5
iim

1

orum

IS
OS

1

IS

en

u
^

3 ^-S

Hi

^< s

C

ae

SB

am

a

a

;e

arum

is*

as

Si

-a

3

o

o

M

s

II.

■um

1

5

um

um

o

a

orum

Is

a

a

IS

N.
-uvi

e
O

(5

53

a. M

rJ5 O

c

6'-'

-a

e O 0)

=a

^

o

to

a

•< I— I

jG 1) O 01

III.

M.
Thus, Bomis
Tener

Likewise mcus, tints, situs, nos-
ter, vester. Tit us, su us, uexf t'r, want
Vocat. Mens has 7nnts or nii,
Voc. masc.

Adjectives in er drop e in de
dining, except tener, alter (lus),
ispcr, exter, vesper, gibber, lacer,
'iber (free), miser, prosper. Iber
(?/•(), also compounds of Jero
jiid gero. Deiter has dextra,
icldom dcxtera.

See No(e I. on irregulars.

All Participles in us.

IS

1

em, (im)

e, 1

es

um, lum
lb us
es
es

Ibiis
M. F.

e, 1^
a, la
um, lum
Ibiis
a, la
a, li
Ibus
N.

O 3

3
o

S «

■o S

S -o
o» 3

2 o

3 o •

4:«

3 3

01

« c3

'CSj

3

3 bC

IV.

-us
lis
ui
um
us
u
us

uum

Ibus, ubus*
lis
us
Ibiis, iihus •

3
o

C

3

o
a

01

3
C
a>
bC

3

a

o

3

H

u

u

ii

ii

u

ii

fui

uum

ibus

I'la

ua

"ibus

0 ^o

01 •^
01 .

^<:

1°

a.

_0>

'o

o

Thus, Jelix, milis, jiiilior,
all adjectives of one temiina-
tion, or of two; the pronouns
nostras, vesti-as, cirjas.

For adjectives having in the
ablative i only ; or e and i; e
only, and for those which in
the plural haven, or in, um, or
ium, see Rule VI.

For comparatives see Rule
VII. Participles, Rule VIII.

For acer, alacer, &c. see
Note 1. on Adjectives.

All participles in 7is.

11

GENERAL RULES.

L Nouns of the neuter gender (which are generally of
the second and third declension) make the nominative, the
accusative, and vocative singular alike; and these three
cases, in the plural, end always in a *.

IL The vocative plural is the same as the nominative
plural ; and the vocative singular, as the nominative singu-
lar, except in nouns of the second declension, in us^ which
have e ,- in proper names in i-us^ which throw away us ; as
also in geni-us, and Jili-us ,- in Deus, which makes Deus ;
and in Greek nouns, which drop the s of the nomuiative,
as Thomas, vocat. Thoma ,- Paris, vocat. Pari\.

IIL The dative and ablative plural are always alike*.

IV. Proper names, used as such, want the plural.

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.

Note L The following adjectives are of the first and se-
cond declension, but make their genitive singular in lus\f
(but alter, tiis) and dative in I: unus, totus§, solus, zdlus,
nullus, uter, neuter, alter, alius, isle, ille, ipse, of which the
three last are pronouns. Alius, iste and ille have d m the
neuter gender instead of m,

• In attending to the mechanical structure of language, it is not unworthy
of being remarked, that, except in neuter nouns, the ablative singular
of every declension is fonned from the accusative, by dropping m : thus
musam, musli ; lapidem, lapide ; navem, navim, nave, navi ; gradiim, gradu ;
rem, re. The second declension may appear an exception to this remark ;
but it is to be remembered, that the antients wrote the nominative, in os,
as dominos, avos, atavos ; and the accusative, in om, as dorninom, avom,
cequoTn ; and hence, in this declension lilcewise, was the ablative formed,
by dropping the m. It may be likewise observed, that, in the two first de-
clensions, the dative and ablative plural end in is ; but that the dative singu-
lar in i fonns bus, which happens to the third declension, and to the fouitfa
and fifth, which are but varieties of the third.

f The poets sometimes use tis in the vocative of some substantives,
and adjectives, after tlie Attic dialect; a.^ Jilius, Jiuvius, patricius, populut
(people).

\ In prose. In poetry the i is common. But the i of alterius is always
short, that of alms (wliicli is a contraction for aliius) always long.

§ Totiis, having ins, should be distinguished from tolus, so great, which
is regularly declined. Some of these adjectives, as totus, nullus, solus, neuter,
form their genitive and dative regularly, in some old anthors.

13

Unus, totiis, solus, iste, ille, ipse, have vocatives. Con-
cerning the vocatives of the others, grammarians are di-
vided.

THIRD DECLENSION.

This has the greatest number of varieties in its cases.
They are chiefly in the genitive, accusative, and ablative
singular ; and in the genitive plural.

I. The genitive singular ends in is without increase, or

with increase, after the following manner

Nom.

Genit.

1

a.

-atis.

2

e,

is.

3

i,

-itis.

4

y»

yos.

5

o,

-onis.

6

do, (fern.)

inis.

7

go, (fem.)

inis.

8

c, d, 1,

-is.

9

nj

-is.

10

en, (neut)

inis.

11

r,

-is.

12

as.

atis.

Nom.

Genit.

is.

is.

Otis.

oris *.

yis, yos.

bis.

pis.

itis.

tis.

tis.

cis.

But to these are the following exceptions.

A.

Ales,

itis.

13

Abies, etis,

13

Anio,

enis.

5

Accipiter, tris,

11,

Antistes,

Itis,

13

Acer, (adj.) acris,

11

Anceps,

Ttis,

18

Acus, eris.

16

Apollo,

luis.

5

Adeps, ipis.

18

Arbos, -or.

oris.

15

^s, ajris.

13

Areas,

adis.

12

Alacer, (adj.) alacris,

13

As,

assis.

12

Allobrox, ogis,

20

Aquilex,

egis,

20

• It would have been as well to say us, eris, for the greater number have
eris; as, acus (clmff),fcedus,funus, genus, glo7nus, latus, munus, olus, onus, opus,
pondus, rudus, scetus, sidics, vellus, Venus, vetiis, viscus, ulcus, twlnus. These
have tiris ; pecus, tergus, fccnus, Icpus, nemus, frigus, penus, pignus, pectus,
stercus, decus, dedecus, lUtus, tempus, corjnis.

13

Kom.

Gen it.

Aries,

etis,

Astyanax,

actis,

Auceps,

lipis,

B.

Bes,

bessis,

Bib rax.

actis.

Biceps,

It is.

Biturix,

igis,

Bos,

bovis,

13
20
18

13
20
18
20
15

Campester (adj.) tris, 11

Cardo, iiiis, (in. or f.) 5

Caro, earn is,

Capis, idis,

Cassis, idis,

Celeber, (adj.) bris,

Ceres, eris,

Chamaeleon, lis,

Charon,

Chlamys,

Charis,

Chremes,

Cinyps,

Concors,

Ccelebs,

Conjux,

Cor,

tis,

vdos, vdis,

itis,

is, etis,

yphis,

dis,

ibis,

lims,

cordis.

5
14
14.
11
13
9
9
17
14
13
18
19
18
20
11

Nom.
Dives,

Genit.
Itis,

Crates, a viarCs ?iame, etis, 13

Crenis,

Cres,

Crus,

Cucumis,

Cupido,

Cuspis,

Custos,

idis, 14

etis, 1 3

cruris, 1 6

is, eris, 14
in is, (ni. or f.) 6

idis, 14

odis, 1 5

Dares,

Deceipber,

Dido,

Dis,

D.

etis, is,
bris,
us, dnis
itis,

13

11

6

14

Duplex, icis,

Ebur,
Eques,

E.

oris,
itis,

13
20

11
13

Far, farris, 1 1

Fel, fellis, 8

Femur, oris, 1 1

Fidicen, nis, 9

Flainen, a priest, inis, 9
P'los, oris, 1 5

Foedus, eris, 16

Forceps, ipis, 1 8

Fraus, audis, 16

Froiis, a leaf, ondis, 1 9 ; but
Frons, ontis, the forehead^

Frux,
Fun us,

regular.

ugis,

eris,

Genus,
Gigas,
Glans,
Glis, gllris,

Glis, glldis,

Glomus,

Glos,

Graphis,

Grex,

Grus,

Gryps,

Harpax,

Hebes,

Haores,

Hepar,

Heros,

G.

ens,
ntis.

glandis,
a dormouse,

but
mojddiness,
eris, i,
otis, oris,
idis,
egi^s,
griiis,
yphis,

H.

agis,
etis,
edis,
atis,
ois.

20
16

16

12

19

14,

14
16
15
14
20
16
18

20
13
11
11

15

14

Nom. Gen it.

Hipponax, actis, 20

Hasresis, eos, los, is, l^

Homo, inis, 5

Honos, -or, oris, 15

Horizon,

ontis,

9

Hylax,

actis,
I, J.

20

lapyx,

igis,

20

Jaspis,

Tdis, idos,

14

Jecur,

oris,

11

lens, (part.) euntis.

19

compounds also.

but

Ambiens,

tis, regular.

Imber,

bris,

11

Incus,

udis,

16

Index,

icis.

20

Indiges, (adj.) etis,

13

Interpres,

etis,

13

Intercus, (adj.) utis,

16

Iter,

itineris,

11

Judex,

Tcis,

20

Jupiter,

Jovis,

11

Jus,

juris,

16

Juventus,

utis,
L.

16

Labos, -or,

oris.

15

Lac,

lactis,

8

Laches,

etis, is,

13

Lampas,

adis.

12

Laomedon,

tis,

9

Lapis,

idis.

14

Lar (or Lars) tis, a man^s

7iame, 1 1

Lar, laris, a houseJiold god^ 1 1
Larynx, yngis, 20

Latus, eris, 1 6

Laus, laudis, 16

Lens, lendis, a nit, 19, but
Lens, lentis, pulses regular.
Lex, legis, 20

Libripens, dis, 1 9

Ligus, -ur, iiris, 16

Nom.

Genit.

Limes,

itis,

13

Lis,

litis,

14

Locuples, (adj.) etis.

13

M.

Margo, m.(

orf.) mis,

S

Manceps,

ipis,

18

Magnes,

etis,

13

Mansues,

etis,

13

Mas,

maris.

12

Mater,

tris.

11

Mendes,

etis.

13

Merces,

edis.

13

Merges,

itis,

13

Metropolis,

eos, los, is,

14

Miles,

itis.

13

Minos,

ois.

15

Misericors,

dis.

19

Municeps,

ipis.

18

Munus,

eris,

16

Mos,

moris,

15

Mus,

uris,

N.

16

Nefi-ens,

dis,

19

Nemo,

inis.

5

Nerio,

enis,

5

Nesis,

Tdis,

14

Nix,

nivis,

20

November,

bris.

11

Nox,

noctis,
O.

20

Obses,

idis,

13

October,

bris.

11

Oedipus,

odis,

16

Olus,

eris.

16

Onus,

ens,

16

Onyx,

ychis,

20

Opois,

oentis.

14

Opus,

eris, "isoorkf

16

Opus,

untis, atown^lG

Ordo,

inis, m.

5

15

Nam.

Genit.

Orpheus,

Os,

Os,

eos, 1 6

oris, the mouth, 15

ossis, a honCy 1 5

P.

Pallas, adis, a goddess, 1 2
Pallas, antis, a man's name, 1 2

Palus,

Pater,

Palmes,

Paries,

Paris,

Particeps,

udis,

tris,

itis,

etis,

idis,

ipis.

16
11
13
13
14.
18

inis.

ydis, ydos,

pedis,

etis.

vnis.

ynos.

Idis,

ygis,

Tdis, (Pyxis) 14

9
17
13
13
20
17
14
20

Peous, udis, a sheep, 1 6 ; but

Pecus, oris, cattle, regular.

Pecten,

Pel amy s.

Pes,

Perjjes,

Phalanx,

Phorcys,

Phosphis,

Phryx,

Pixis,

Plus,

Pollex,

Pondus,

Proeceps,

Princeps,

Praepes,

Praes,

Praeses,

Promulsis,

16
20
16
18
18
13
13
13
14

Pubes, ^ris or is (adj.) 13
Puis, tis, the only noun in Is.
Pulvis, eris, 1 4

Pus, iiris, 1 6

Pyrois, oentis, 1 4

uris,

icis,

eris,

itis,

ipis,

etis,

aedis,

idis,

idis.

Quies,
Quiria,

Q.

etis,
itis.

Nam.

Remex,

Robur,

Ros,

Rudus,

Rus,

Genit.

R.

igis,
oris,
roris,

ens,
iiris,

S.

13
14

Salamis, Tnis,
Saluber, (adj.) bris,
Salus, litis,

Samnis, Itis,
Sanguis, inis,
Scelus, eris,

Sedes, words derived

idis,
Seges, etis,

Semis, issis,

Senectus, litis,
Senex, is,

September, bris,
Servitus, litis,
Sidus, eris,

Silvester, (adj.) tris,
Simois, entis.

Simplex, (adj.) Tcis,
Sospes, (adj.) itis,
Sphjnix, gis, gos,
Strix, igis,

Subscus, udis,
Supellex, ectilis,
Supplex, (adj.) icis,
Sus, siiis.

Syrinx, gis,

T.

Tapes, etis,

Teges, etis,

Tellus, iiris.

Teres, (adj.) etis,
Termes, itis

20
11
15

16
16

14
11
16
14
14
16
from,
13
13
14
16
20
11
16
16
11
14
20
13
20
20
16
20
20
16
20

13
13
16
13

IS

16

Kom.

Genit.

yum.

Genit.
U, V.

Thales,

etis, is,

13

Vas,

vadis, a surety,

12

Themis,

idis,

14

Vas,

vasis, a vessel.

12

Thos,

ois,

15

Veles,

Ttis,

14

Thus,

uris,

16

Velhis,

eris.

16

Tibicen,

Tnis, masc.

9

"N'^enus,

oris,

16

Tiryns,

ynthis,

19

Vetus, (adj.) ^ris,

16

Trachys,

ynis, ynos,

17

Mscus,

eris,

16

Trapezus,

untis,

16

Virtus,

litis,

16

Tripus,

odis,

16

I'lcus,

&is,

16

Tros,

ois.

15

Unedo,

m. onis,

6

Tubicen,

in is, masc.

9

Vokicer

, (adj.) eris.

11

Tudes,

itis, is.

13

Voniis,

oris,

14

Turbo,

mis.

5

Uter,

utris,

11

Tyrannis,

Tdis,

14.

Vuhius,

eris,

16

(The figure refers to the termination to which its respec-
tive word is an exception. By means of the figure, all the
exceptions may be collected, and classed according to their
termination ; which is the way in which they ought to be
learned. Their present state is most adapted to occasional
reference.)

II. The accusative of masculine and feminine nouns ends
in e?n ; but some have cm, and im, and these have e or i in
the ablative singular, others have im or in, and these have
i only. (See the list.)

III. Neuters ending in e, al, ar, have i in the ablative
singular ; ia in the nominative plural ; and iiim in the geni-
tive. Exceptyr/r, par (a pair, neut.) juhar, nectar, hepar,
with proper names in c, which have e in the ablative. Neu-
ters having e in the ablative make their nominative and ge-
nitive plural, in a, and um. (For a different distinction with
regard to par, supported by some grammarians, see Par in
the following list.)

IV. Nouns ending in es and is, not increasing in the geni-
tive singular, and in ns, make the genitive plural in ium.
Except vates, canis,juvenis, panis, strigiJis, (because formerly
strigil,) volncris, parens, opes pi. ^^■hich have vm. Apum
from apis, (or apes ^\uvq\,) volucrum, jyarentum, are used, as
many others, by syncope, instead of the regular apium, vo-
lucrium, parentinm. To nouns having ium, may be added
the names in as, from countries, as Arpinas, -aiium : nostras,

vestras, -atitim. Ufilitatium, and ntiUtatwn ; civitatium

and civitatum .• ajjinitatium and ciffinitatum ,- /ur-reditatium

17

and hisreditatum^ are both found, but the latter fonn is much
preferable. Optimafium^ and, by syncope, optimatwn^ are
both used.

V. Nouns of one syllable in as, is, and s and x after a
consonant, make iwn in the genitive plural ; as as, assium ,-
lis, litium : urhs, urhium ; mcrx, merciwn. To these may
be added caro, cohors, cor, cos, dos, faux, lar, linter, mus,
nix, nox, os (ossis), Quiris, Samnis, utei; venter, and the
compounds of as and uncia ; as bes, sextans, septunx. Ex-
cept gryps,^ gryphum ; lynx, lyncum ; sphinx, sphingimy
and some similar Greek words. The obsolete nominative
ops, (in the plural, opes,) though belonging to the rule, has
opum.

Obs. The following words are not found in the genitive
plural ; and many of them have no plural : Pax, fax, fcx,
nex, pix, lux, mel,fel, os {oris), sol, glos, pus, ros, vicis, tabes,
soboles, and proles. To these maybe added crux and plebs,
although, in some authors, cruxum or aucium, and plebium,
are found.

VI. Adjectives having e in the nominative singular neuter,
have i only in the ablative ; but adjectives of one termination
have e or /,• both having ia and ium in the plural. (There
are some which have e only in the ablative, and um in the
genitive plural, which in the following list are noted with *.
There are others having i, or e and i, which likewise have
um, and they are denoted by f . Adjectives having e or /,
when used as substantives, generally prefer the termination
e. Par and memm- ^ have i only in the ablative. Compar,
impar, dispar, have e or i.)

VII. Comparatives have i, or more commonly e, in the
ablative singular, and therefore a in the neuter of the nomi-
native, accusative, and vocative plural, and um in the geni-
tive. Veins likewise has veleri, vetera, vetn-um.

VIII. Words of three genders, ending in ns, have e or i
in the ablative. When used in an absolute sense, as parti-
ciples, they generally prefer c. As adjectives, they have e
or /. Such words often suffer a contraction in the genitive
plural, as prudentum for prudentium ,- sajnentum for sapi-
entium ; parentum for parentium ; adolescentum for ado-
lesceMium,

IX. The genitive plural of words having no nominative

' Merior was formerly dcclincfl mcmnris, memorr ; hence tlic ablative
r/umori.

c

by R. III.

IS

singular, or no singular, is formed, by analogy, as if tliey
had one, or, from some obsolete nominative.

Thus, Mccnia, -ium, from inrxjic, by K. III.

Ccclites, -urn, from copHs^ or cceles, by inference

from R. IV.
Penates, -ium, from penas, or, rather penatis, by

R. V.
Priitunrs, -?//«, from primor.^ by R. VII.
Saturnalin, -ium, (& -oriun) from

sahiniale ;
Florenlia, -ium, (& -orum) from
Jloreale,

These two last, and others of a similar kind, had formerly
anotlier nominative, in urn, and therefore they had a geni-
tive in orum, from the second declension ; but in the dative
and ablative they are of the third declension only.

OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN UNCOMMON CASES.

(1.) The genitive singular of the first declension formerly
ended in <7,>c, after the manner of the Greeks, which is still
retained \i\ familins, when compounded with pater and ma-
ter ; to which Jilius and ^filia have been added. Paterfa-
milice is likewise used. The antients likewise formed it in
ai, which is sometimes used by the poets, with a diaeresis;
thus dives pictui vestis — Virg. Thus also Uuiai — Pers. terrain
aqvai, &c.

Vi'hen the genitive of the second declension ends In zV,
the last i is often cut off' by the poets ; as tuguri for tugurii.

The genitive of the fourth formerly ended in i ,- as hoc
fructi pro labor c ah /lis Jero — Ter. ; also in ids, after the
manner of tlie third, as ejus anuis caiisa — Ter.

The genitive of the fifth is found in es ; as rabies wide
nice hccc germina surg?iiit — Lucret. ; sometimes in ii, when
the nominative ends in es pure, as quorum nihil p^crnicii
causa — Cic. pro Rose. ; sometimes in e, as vix decima parte
die reliqua. — Sail.

The genitive plural of the first four declensions is some-
times contracted, especially by the poets ; thus ccelicolum for
ccdicolarum ; deiim for deorum ; mensum for mcnsium ; cur-
rum for cnrruum.

(2.) The dative singular of the third declension is found
in a few instances In e, as viro sitiente — Juv,.to her thirsty
husband ; morte mccc — Propert. ; tibi senc — Catul.

19

The dative of the fi)iirth u? found in ?/, by Apocope ; as
parce mcfu — Vil'g.; airnique volans dat lora sccundo — Id.;
thus also impetu, exercifu, for impelui, excrcihti.

The dative of the fifth is found in e, as nil cedas die —
Plant. ; prodidcrit commissafide — Hor.

(3.) The accusative phiral is found, in the third declen-
sion, in is and eis, when the genitive ends in ium ; aspttppeis,
adis — Plant. Amph. 1. 1. 194. Omiiis homines deed —
Sail. Cat. 1.

(4.) The ablative singular of the third declension has
been shown to be in many nouns the same as the dative
singular. From the resemblance of many cases of tlie
fourth and fifth declensions to those of the third, it is evi-
dent that they may be considered as varieties of the third
declension.

PECULIARITIES IN THE GENDER OF CERTAIN ADJECTIVES.

(1.) Masculine gender redundant.

The following have a double masculine in the nominative
and vocative singular, aeer, alace?-, celer, eelebe>\ campestei-y
equesler, palustc)\ Sylvester.^ ^jcc/c^/^fr, saluber, volnccr : as
nominative, vocative, masculine, acer or aeris ; feminine,
acris ; neuter, acre. Their ablative singular is in / only.

(2.) Masculine gender deficient.

Cater (of the first and second declension) is not used in
the masculine, singular.

Victrix and uUrix are feminine in the singular, seldom
neuter ; and, in the plural, they are feminine and neuter.

Such verbals in ix partake of the nature of substantives
and adjectives. They correspond, as feminines, to mascu-
lines in or : thus, victor^ victrix ; tdior, ultrix ; J'autor,
fautrix. They have their ablative in e or i -, but when
added to a neuter noun, i is preferred : Thus, victor exerci-
tus : victrix mulier ; ferro victrici ; bella, arma, fulmina^ Sfc.
victricia.

(3.) Neuter gender deficient.

Adjectives ending in er, or, es, os, fex, are seldom found
in the neuter, singular, or nominative, accusative, vocative
plural : such as pauper, puher, degetier, id)er, memor, dives,
loaiplcs, sospes, superstes, compos, artifex. Also, comis,
inops, iyisons, impubis, pubis, intercus, particcps, princeps,
supplex, sons, vigil. Except, hebes and teres singular, the
adjectives in No. 1, and others of three endings.

C2

20

{^.) Masculine and feminine deficient.

Plus (the comparative of multus) has only tlxe neuter
gender in the singular, being declined as a substantive ; it
wants the dative and perhaps the vocative, and has e ore in
the ablative ; in the plural, plures masculine and feminine,
and plura (or pluria^ rarely), and, in the genitive, jjlurium.
Its compound, complures, has no singular.

A LIST OF SOME OF THE IRREGULARITIES MENTIONED IN
THE FOREGOING RULES, AND OF SOME OF THE EXAMPLES
WHICH WERE NOT PARTICULARIZED.

A.

Adolescens, ...

Amnis,

Amussis, ......

Anguis,

Aprilis,

Aqualis, §

Araris,

As and com-
pounds,

Avis,

Adjectives.

Ales, f

Anceps, f

Artifex, f ..

B.
Boetes, || ..
Bilbihs, ....
Bipennis, %
Bos,

Buris,

C.

Canalis,

Cannabis,

Carthago, || ...

Caro,

Cent ussis, ....=.

Ace. Sing.

im.

em,

im, or em,...
im,

im or in, ...

im.

im.

em,
im.

im.

Abl. Sing.

e or 1 rare.

i.

e or i.

i.

i or e.

e.

e or 1.

e or 1, ,
e <?r i, ,

e ori,

i or e.

i.

i.

1.

i or e.

i or e.

Gen. PL
tium, rather
tum.

mm.

itum.
itum, (ia,

7iom.)
um.

bourn, (bo-
bus, (/a^)

niuuL

21

Civis,

Classis,

Cohors, ,

Clavis, § .....

Cor,

Cos......

Collis,

Cucumis,

Cutis,

Adjectives.
Capio, comp. of

Ace. Sing.

ini, em,

im,
im.

tji

-ceps

Caput, comp. of
171 -ceps, ....

Celer, f

Coelebs, *

Compar, f ....
Compos, * ....
Concolor, * ...
Color, cofiip.

of*

Corpus, comp.

of in -or, *
Consors, f ....
Concors,

D.
Decussis,

Dos,

Adjectives.
Degener, f ...

Dispar, f

Dives, *

F.
Familiaris, J ...

Faux,

Febris, § ......

Finis,

Fornax,

Fustis,

Facio, comp. of

Lit " X"X • •••DOC

im.

im, em.

Abl. Sing.
e or i.
e or i.

1 or e.

e or 1.

i.

i or e.

e or I,

e or 1,

1,

e or 1,
ote, ...
e,

e or 1,

i or e, rarely.^

Gen PI.

e or 1,

e or i,

e, sometimes i,

i or e.

1, e.
i, e.

e, I.

e or 1,

tium,

dium,
tium.

um.

um.
um.
um.
um.
um,
um.

um-

um,
um.
ium.

tium.

um,
um,
um.

cmm.

cuim.

um.

22

G.

Ga\\saipe{pcrh.

iyidecl.)

Glis,

Gummis,

Genus, comp.

of in -er,

H.

Hffiresis,

Hospes, adj. *

I.

Ignis,

Imber,

Infans, R. IV.
Jus,

Ace. Sing.

nu.

nil, ni,

Juvenis,

Adjectives.

Inipos,*

Impar, f

Impubes, * . ..
Inops,f

L.

Labes,

Lar, ,

Lens, §

Linter,

Lis,

Locuples, adj.

M.

Mepliitis,

Messis,

Molaris, I

Mons,

Mugil,

Mas,

Memor, adj. f
{olim Memo-
ris),

Abl. Sing.

e.
i.

ite.

e Of 1.
e or i.

jure,
e, ...

tun, tern.

nn,

ote, ..
e or i,
ere, ..
c or i.

e or I.
ti, te.

e 07- 1,

1.

e or i.

i.

c or i.

e or i.

Gen. PL

num.

um.

um.

tium.

imi, iiun sel-
dom.
um.

um.
um.
um.
um.

mm.

ium.
tium.

um, ium sel-
dom.

um.
rimn'-

um.

• Semcl spud Ciceroncm tntiriDiu

23

N.

Natalis,:}:

Navis, § .......

Nix,

l^ovemher{and
such),

O.

Occiput, §

October,

Orbis,

Os, ossis,

Ovis,

P.

Pelvis, §

Par, 7)1. 4'J- • • .

Par, n

Palus,

Pars,

Postis,

P"gi^§

Pu})pis, §

yldjecth'cs.

Par,t

Particep.s,f ...

Pauper, *

Pes, co?}?p. oJ\ *
Princeps, f ...

Ace. Sing.

im, eui.

em,

em.

Pr

aeceps

Plus,

Pubes, *

Q.

Quintilis {a7id

such),

Quiris,

R.

Ratis,

Ravis, .,

Restis,

Rivalis, :}■

Rus, §

Rudis,

em, im,
im, em,

\m, em,

em.

em, im,
im,
im, em

Abl. Sing.
i or e.
i or e.

1 or e.

i.

e or i.

e or 1.

1 or e.

e or I.
e or i.
i or e.
i or e.

u

e or 1,
ere, . . .
e, .....
e or i,
i, e, ..
ri, re,
ere, ..

1.

e, 1.
i.
c.

i or e.
i or e.
e.

Gen. PL

nivium.

ossurni.

mm.
ium.
udium.

mm,

um.

um.

um.

um.

turn (ia, no)n.)

rium.

um.

iti^m, itum.

24

S.

Sal,

Samnis, ...
Securis, ...

Seges,

Sementis, §

Senex,

Sentis,

Septunx, ..
Serapis, j] .
Sextans, ...
Sextilis, ...
Sinapis, ...

Sitis,

Sodalis, X • •

Sordes,

Sors,

Strigilis, . . .

Supellex, § ..

Adjectives.
Senex, *

Ace. Sing.

im, em,

im, em,

em, mi.

im,

em,
im,
im.

Abl. Sing.
e or i.

e.

e or i.
i or e.

e,

e or [.

Sospes, *

Superstes, * ...
Supplex, f

T.

Tibris, II

Tigris, II

Tridens,§

Turris, §

Tussis,

Adjectives.
Tricorpor, * . . .
Tricuspis, * ...
Tripes,*

U, V.

Vectis,

Venter,

Vigil,§...

Vis, pi. vires, . .

Unguis,

Volucris, J

em, im sel-
dom,

1, e 7-a7'0.

i.

i or e.

e or i.

e or i.

e.
i or e.

mi, in,
im, in,

im, em,
im, em,

vim,

e,

ite,

ite,

ici or e, .

i, e, ide.
i, e.
i or e.
i or e.
i or e.

Gen. PL

e or 1.

e or 1,

VI,

e or 1.
i or e,

tmm.

mn.

cium.

tium.

um.
um.
um.
um.

I • e 4 I • • <

um.
um
um

lum
um.
riuni

um.

25

Uter, .......

Adjectives.
Uber,t ....
Vetus, * ....
Vigil,t ...,

Volucris,f

Ace. Sing.

Abl. Sing.

e or I,

i, e seldom^ ...
i, e,

Gen.
ium.

um.
um.

PL

um, ium sel-
dom.

um, ium sel-
dom.

X Such substantives have /, because they are formed from
adjectives having i only, in the ablative. Though used as
substantives, they are, in reality, adjectives, the substantive
with which they agree being understood.

§ Substantives thus marked, take either termination in-
differently : those not marked, take, in general, the first-
mentioned termination.

* t See Rule VI.

II Carthago and such nouns have e or ^, when at a place is
signified, that is, when the question is made by Ubi^ where?
The names of gods, rivers and cities, in is, take, in general,
im or in, in the accusative, z, or sometimes e, in the ablative.

A Synopsis of the Declension of Greek Nouns.

I. Declension. II. Declension. III. Declension.

IV,

r

1.

2.

N. as.

Cfi.

e.

G. jc.

BE.

es.

D. tc.

ae.

e.

A. am

an.

em,

en.

en.

V. a.

e.

e.

A. a.

e, a.

e.

■^r

4.

05, OS, us. on, um.

6, i. i.
5 o.

5n, o. on,um. on,um.

OS, e. on, um.

o. o.

9.

, is. isjios, eos.
i.
a,em. im,in.
i.

ys. o.

yos,yis, us.
yi. o.

ym,yn. o.
y. o.

y. ye. o.

I. According to this declension are declined such nouns
as j^neas, Anchises, Epitome ,• likewise patronymics in des,
as Pelides, with the following proper names, Acestes, Acha-
tes, Agyrtes, Antiphates, Bootes, Butes, Laertes, Leucates,
Mencetes, Philoctetes, Polites, Procrustes, Ther sites, Thy-
estes, Zetes. Add names of jewels and wines; as Achates,
Aromatites. Other nouns in es beloni? to the third.

Nouns in stes make sta in the vocative: as Thyestes, Thy-
esta. When nouns of this declension have a plural, it is
regular.

II. According to this declension, decline such nouns as
Tenedos, Androgeos, Athos, Panthus, Pelion. Os short makes
;' in the genitive and e in the vocative.

In tlic \QCdt.\\\c Panthus has Panthu ; Chorus hiHi rhurr

26

or chorus ; Chaos and Athos, have Chaos^ and Aihos.

When they have a phn'al, it is regular : its genitive is some-
times in oil, as Gcorgica, Gcorgicon.

Some nouns in 7/5 of this declension belong likewise to
the third; thus,

G. D. A. V.

feon, \
\ eum, j
ea, eu,

um,
odeni,
Proper names in cs, of the third, sometimes take this form,
Achilles, > ^, Achillis, Achilleos, 1 o/'Me M/;fif.

Nom.

Orpheus,

1 ei,

(^eos

Oedipus, 1;.^^.^^

(?0,

o,
odi,

A.

<5o ; of the second.

— ; of the third.
o; of the second.
ode; of the third.

^^' ^' Achille

s, "i p Achillis, Achilleos, 1 o/'M(

us, J ■ Achillei, 4"<^. ^ of the second.

III. (6) According to this form are declined, nouns in-
creasing impure ; that is, with a consonant before is or os of
the genitive; such as Stemma, Poema, hijdromcli, oxymcli
(both neuter) -tis -, Delphin, -is ; lampas. Areas, naias, -dis ;
Hectoi\ ~is; JaspiSy Parisy Themis, -idis ; Minos, Tros, he-
ros, -ois (although pure); monoceros, -otis ; Oedipus, -odis ;
Trapezus, opus, -iintis ; Chlamtjs, pelamys, -ijdos, -j/dis, but
Trachys, Phorcys, -ijnos, -ynis ; Cj/nips, -phis ; Pirj/ns,
-ynthis ,- Onyx, -jjchis ; Mylax, Bibrax, -actis.

fPan, delphin, acr, (Ciher have generally a.
I Men's names in is, have im, or in, or idem.

Accusative. <{ Women's, have ida or idem ; (never im, or
I ?V?,) so chlctmys.
[_Cities, have im, ida, idem.

(7), (8) By these forms are declined those nouns which,
as in Latin, have is in the genitive of the same number of
syllables as the nominative ; or which increase pure, as hcc-
resis, basis, poesis ; names of cities in j)olis ,- misy, moly, -os ,-
(both neuter), chelys, Prinnys, halys, Capys, -yos, -yis. —
Nouns in ens have in the genitive eos, and in the accusative
ea, as Tyd-'eus, Thes-eus, Orph-cus, Tcr-eus, genitive -eos,
accus. -ea.

Neuter nouns have the N. A. V. alike in the singiilar, in
the plural in a. Genitive plural is in uju or on. Nouns in is
increasing pure have ium, sometimes eon.

Dative plural, and ablative, are in bus, or, following the .
Greek form, in si or sin ; as Troasi, naiasi, hcroisi, Arcasij
&c. Accusative plural is in as or cs.

Greek nouns often lose the s of the nominative, m their

' >See Fcnlaptolfs Chn<?n is foup-d as the ace. sing- of Chaos pci-sonifiscl.

27

vocative ; as Thoma, Palla (from Pallas^ -ntis) Phillip Capij^
Orpheiij Ada.

Greek nouns in ma^ as poema, epigramma, have iis ra-
ther than tibus, in the dative and ablative plural, because
the antient Latin writers used them, as if of the first de-
clension.

IV. (9) By this form are declined such nouns as Manto^
Sappho, Dido, Echo. Dido sometimes belongs to the third
declension of Latin nouns, having Didonis. Juno has Juno-
. nis only.

NUMEUAL ADJECTIVES.

These are divided into cardinal, ordinal, distributive, and
multiplicative.

The cardinal numbers are :
UnuSj One,
Duo, Two,
Tres, Three, ^-c.
From qualuor to centum, they are all indeclinable. IJnm
is not used in the plural, unless when joined to a noun
which wants the singular; as iina mocnia, a wall; Seqiiani^
uni, the Scquani alone. Milk is generally considered as an
indeclinable adjective, significant of one thousand ; millia as
a substantive, expressing a plurality of thousands. This di-
stinction, however, though generally, is not universally, ob-
served. Thus we have tcrcenium miUe cadi — Hor. Millia
passuum for mille — Cic.

The ordinal numbers are :

Cenfesimus, the 100th.
Millesimi/;:, the 1000th.
Bis millesimm, the 2000th.
Decies millesimiis, the 10,000th.
Note. Hannibal primus super avit Alpes, means, Hanni-
bal was the first man who crossed the Aljis. Plamiibal pri-
mum, implies that Hannibal for the first time, in respect to
himself, or in the first place, crossed the Alps.
The distributive numbers are :
Singuli, one by one ; bini, two by two ; terni, three by-
three, Sfc.

The multiplicative arc :
Simpler, simple ; duplex, double, or two-fold, S,'^-

' This is Ihc f^oncriil rulo ; and Init a few instances are mentioned which
seem to militate against it ; such as Uni$ vrsfimmd.-; atlribiitvJ to Citeio ; and
lj\a: quin(iiie remorantui miner; and Quia ego rurc dmn sum uiios sex umwf,
to riautub.

Primus, the first,
Sccundus, the second,
Tcrtius, the third,
Qiiartus, the fourth, S,r.

•2ft

Note 1. Some have thought, that, from twenty to an
hundred, if two numbers be coupled, the less should be put
before the greater ; but to this there are many exceptions.
Cicero says viginti et quatuor.

2. After centum^ the inferior number is put with or with-
out a copulative ; as centum et duo, or centum duo ,- centesi-
mus secundus, or, centesimus et seamdus.

3. For octodecim and novemdecim, duodevtginti and tmde-
viginti are elegantly used ; in the same way duodetriginta
for twenty-eight. Also for decimus octavus, and decimus
nanus, are used duodevicesimus and tindevicesimus. In the
distributive numbers also; as duodevice?ii.

4. Instead of primus, and seamdiis, we often find tmus
and duo before vicesivius, tricesimus, &c.; as uno et octoge-
simo anno — Cic. So too in English.

5. The cardinal and distributive numbers may be thus
distinguished :

The cardinal express a number absolutely ; as one, two,
&c.

The distributive are those which distribute to every single
person of many, the same number. Example :

Dedit Us trcs asses. He gave them three pence (to be di-
vided among them).

Dedit ternos asses. He gave them three pence each.

But poets, and sometimes prose writers use the distributive
for the cardinal numbers.

The multiplicative numbers also are sometimes used for
the cardinal by the poets ; as Duplices tende?is ad sidera pal-
mas, instead of duas palmas.

6. Unus, when used as a numeral, takes de or e, or ex,
after it, and seldom the genitive plural ; as tinus ex Us,
one of them. But when used for solus it takes the geni-
tive plural ; as Lampedo una fceminarum, Lampedo the only
woman.

GENDERS OF NOUNS.

GENERAL RULES.

By the Signification.

I, Names of males, and nouns denoting general employ-
ments of men, are masculine; as, Mars, Nwna, pater,
scriba, mar it us.

29

IL Names of winds, months, rivers and mountains, are mas-
culine. Names of mountains often follow the gender
of the termination. Rivers likewise.

III. Names of females are feminine; as Venus, Anna, soror^

/ilia.

IV. Names of trees, plants, countries, cities, ships, islands,

gems, and poems, are feminine; as alnus, naidiiSy
halus, Epirus, Lacedccmon, Ceniaunis, sapphirus, eu-
nuchus.

EXCEPTIONS.

Trees. Masculine; Uhamnus, spinus, and those ending in

-ster.

Herbs. Masculine; Intijbus, helleborus, raphanus, seldom fe-
minine : if feminine, planta is under-
stood.

Trees. Doubtful ; Larix, lotus, rubus, cupressus. Two first

rather feminine.

Herb. Doubtful ; Cytisus ,- but rather masculine.

Trees. Neuter ; Siler, suber, robur, thus, acer ; those end-
ing in um, as buxum.

Cities. Masculine ; Sulmo, Pontus, Parisii, Agragas.

Neuter; Argos, Tibur ,- nouns in e and um, as

Prceneste, Pccstuin. Anxur is mascu-
line and neuter.

Gems. Masculine ; Carbunculus, pyropus, opalus, beryllus,

smaragdus ,- if feminine, gemma is un-
derstood.

LILY'S THREE SPECIAL RULES.

By the endiiig of the Getiitive Case.

[Those words whose genders are so easily ascertained by
the general rules, are omitted, such as midi-er, anus, socrus,
sai-or, uxor. Pros, Areas, Ligur, satrapa, athletes, &c. The
error of placing in the 2nd special rule, sus, grus, scrobs, mas,
pes, vas (vadis), &c., words increasing short, is corrected.
Other errors are likewise corrected. Those doubtfuls that
have an in marked over them are commonly masculine ;
those having an/i feminine. The words which are common
in sense and gender, are thus marked*. The otbers are
common in sense, but not in gender.]

30

THE FIRST SPECIAL RULE.

Nouns not increasing in the genitive, as nuheSy ymbis, are
feminine.

EXCEPTIONS.

MASCULINES.

Nouns in nis are masculine; (Greek nouns feminine.)
Cum callis, cassis, caulisque, comcta, planetOf
Axis, ce7ichris, collis, follis, fascis, aqucilis.
Fastis, mensis, piscis, postis, sentis, et ensis ;
Ch'his, torris, vectis, vepres, vermis, et u?iguis.
To these may be added Adria ; nouns from the Greek in
as, as tiaras ,• in es, as acinaces ; and the compounds of as,
as centussis, {and pajidecta pi.)

{a) Nouns in er and us are masculine. Except these fe-
minine :

Vannus, aciis, Jiciisque, colusque, domusque, ma?msque,
Carhasus, atque tribus, porticus, alvus, humus :
with words of Greek origin ; as Abyssus, antidotus, atomus,
dialcctus, diphthongiis, cremus, meihodus, jyeriodus, ^?/ia;7«,
&c.

\JSfotc. These feminine nouns, though exceptions to this
part of the rule, are regularly feminine according to the first
special rule.]

NEUTERS.

Nouns in e of the third declension are neuter.

Nouns in 7im are neuter.

Nouns undeclined are neuter.

Virus and pelagus are neuter. Vtilgus masc. and neut.

Likewise, Cacoethes, hijjpomanes, nepenthes, panaces, neuter.

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED.

f. f. m. m.

These are doubtfuls : talpa ', dama, canalis, cytisus, bala-

m. m, m. m. f, f.

nus, Jinis'^, clunis, pemis^, anmis, pampinus, corbis, linter,

ni. m. m. m.

torquis, specus^, anguis, phaselus, grossus, paradisiis, bar-
bitus, palumbes.

' Talpa and dama are masculine in two instances in Virgil.
' Fines, borders or territories, is always masculine.
3 renvs and specus, of the third declension, are neuter.

SI

COMMONS EXCEPTED.

Nouns compounded of verbs, ending in a ; as agricola,
from colo ; advcna from venio. Add scmex, auriga, vet'na,
soda/ Is, vatcs*i extorris, patriielis* , qffinis* ,juvenis* , testis*,
c/w'i'*, cam's*, hostis*, lierdtiellis, conviva*.

THE SECOND SPECIAL RULE.

Nouns increasing long in die genitive, as virtus, virtUtis,
are feminine.

EXCEPTIONS.

MASCULINES.

Nouns in er, or, and os, are masculine (except cos and dos,
which are feminine).

Nouns of more than one sj-llable in n, c?is, as a?itis, and
the names of numbers and substances in o, are masculine.
Add,
Sol, 1-en, splen, Jons, mons, po7is, mus, as, besc\\\e, meridi-
es, dens, sermo, lebes, magnes, t/ioraxqne, tapesque.
The compounds likewise of as, as quadrans, dodrans.

NEUTERS.

Nouns of more than one syllable in al, and ar. Add

Cms, jus, pus, riis, thus, f el, met, vas (vasts), et halec,
jEs, spinther, cor, lac, far, ver, os (oris, et ossis).
Sal (salt) is masc. rarely neut. Sales (plural), always mas-
culine.

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED.

m. m. m.

These are doubtfuls: Arrhaho, serpens, bubo, rudens,

f. f. f.

perdix, lynx, Umax, stirps ', when it signifies a trunk of a
tree, and calx^ a heel. Dies is doubtful in the singular, and
masculine in the plural. Animaiis is of all genders.

COMMONS EXCEPTED.

Parens*, auctor*, i^ifans*, adolcsce7is^, dux*, illex,
hieres*, exlcx: derivatives fi'omyyo;?^, as bifrons; also custos*,
bos*, fur, sacerdos*f cliens*, prces*. But ctistos (a shoot)
is masculine.

' 5'^(>/).'; parents, or cliil(]rcn, always feminine.
- Cc/jr lime, feminine.

S2

THE THIRD SPECIAL RULE.

Nouns increasing short in the genitive, as sanguis, sail-
gulnis, are niascuUne.

EXCEPTIONS.

FEMININES.

Nouns of more than two syllables in do and go are femi-
nine.

All nouns in as adis, and in is idis, (except lapis, masc.)
J unge pecm fpecudisj, coxendix, trahs<\we, supellex,
Appendix, crux, fax, nex, nix, nux, pixc^e, ^lixqxxe,
Grando, Jides, compes, forceps, seges, arbor, /iye7)isqne,
. Scobs, carex, J'orfex, res, spes, sand^xqvie, tegesque.

NEUTERS.

Nouns in a, ar, en, put, ur, us, and names of plants in er,
are neuter (except pecten and furfur, both masculine).
• His quoque marmor, ador, neutris jungasque cadaver.

His (Xquor, Uiber^, verber, et uber, iter.

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED,
m. m. m. ' m. m. m. m. m

Cardo, margo, cinis, obex, scrobs, pumex, imbrex, cortex,

m. f. m. rn. m. f.

pulvis, grus, adeps, culex, natrix, silex, and onyx'^, (with its

m. m.

compounds)^ varix, hystrix, and rumcx.

COMMONS EXCEPTED.

. .Vigil, jn^'S^l^ exul, prcvsid, homo, nemo*, martyr*, augur*,
antistes*, miles*, pedes, i7ite7'pres*, comes*, hospes, ales^
jjrceses, prificeps*, auceps, eques, obses*, cojijux*, judex*,
vindex*, opfex, aruspex, sus*, mimiceps*.

Note. To the Second Special Rule may be added these
masculine exceptions.

Spadix, 7cis, m. a certain colour.
Volvox, ocis, m. a vine-fretter.
Sala7; dris, m. a young salmon.

' Tuber, a imisliroom, or wen, neut. ; name of a tree, fem. ; tlie fruit, masc,
* Om/T, a gem, fern. ; marble, or a vessel, mt.c.

S3

To the Third Special Rule, leuiiuine exception!?.

Tomcx^ ta's, f. a cord.

Merges^ if is, f. a hanilful of corn.

Smilax\ acis, f. a yew-tree, or lierb.

THE EXCEPTIONS ARRANGED, WITH A FIGURE REFERRING
TO THE RULE TO WHICH THEV BEI.ONCi.

A. I

Abyssus, si, a bottomless pit, ]

./: 1 («)

Acinaces, is, a scimitar, m. 1 .
Acus, us, a needle, f. 1 {a)
Adeps, ipis, fiitness, d. 3. m.
Adolescens, iis, a young man

or woman, r. 2 *
Ador, oris, wheat, ?.'. 3.
Adria, a, a sea, m. 1.
Advena, ce, a sti'anger, c. 1.
udEquor, oris, the sea, n. 3.
JEs, co-is, brass, K. 2.
Affinis, is, a relation, c. 1 *
Agricola, (S, a husbandman

or -woman, c. 1 .
Ales, itis, a great bird, c. 3.
Alvus, i, the paunch, f,\{a)
Amnis, is, a river, d. 1. m.
Anguis, is, a snake, d. 1. m.
AvJidotiis, i, an antidote, f.

Ardistes, itjs, a priest or

priestess, c. 3 *
Appendix, wis, an addition,

/3.
Aqualis, is, an ewer, w. 1.
A} ooi; oris, a tree, f. 3.
Ati'habo, onis, an earnest, c?.

2. m.
Arnspex, Icis, a soothsayer,

c. 3.
As, assis, a pound, ?«. 2.
Atoinus, i, an atom, y.' 1 (c)
Auceps, cupis, a fowler, c. 3.
Auctor, oris, an author, r. 2 *

Augur^ uris, a soothsayer, c,

Auriga, (T, a waggoner, r. 1.
^a7>, w, an axle-tree, m. 1.

B.

Balayins, i, a chesnut, ^. 1.
Barbiliis, i, a lutCj ^/. 1.
Bes, 6«s«, eight ounces, tk. 2.
Bijrons, tis, double-faced, c.

2.
Bos, bovis, an ox or cow. c.

2*
Bubo, onis, an owl, (t'. 2. vt,

C.

Cacbelhes, is, abad habit, ??. 1.
Cadaver^ris, a carcase, n. 3.
Cidlis, is, a path, ot. 1.
C'c/jT, cis, the heel, </. 2.
Ccfnalis, is, a channel, r/. 1 . m.
C^Tiis, is, a. Ciofr or hiich,c. 1 *
Carbas2(s, i, fine Imen, J] 1

Cardo, mis, a hinge, <f. 3. ;«.
Carex, tcis, sedge, f. 3.
Cassis, Idis, an helmet, _/I 3 :

biit.
Cassis, is, a net, OT. I.
Caulis, iSf a stalk, m. 1 .
Cenchris, is, a serpent, ?/?. I.
Ce7itussis, is, Roman money,

77?. 1.

Cims, eris, ashes, d. S. m.

Civic, i:'.^ a citizen, c. i *
D

34.

Cliens, tls, a client, c. 2*
Clunis, is^ a buttock, d. 1. m.
Collis, is, a hill, m. 1.
Coli/s, /, or us, a distaff, Jl 1.

Comes, itis, a companion, c.

3*
Cometa, a, a comet, ?«. 1.
Compcs, edis, a fetter, yj 3.
Conviva, cc, a guest, c. 1 *
Co7ijux, iigis, Imsband, a?-

wife, c. 3 *
Cor, dis, the heart, n. 2.
Corhis, is, a basket, d. \.f.
Cortex, wis, a bark, (/. 3. ?«.
Coxendix, icis, the hip, yi 3.
Cms, firis, a leg, n. 2.
Cna', ?Ycw, a cross, f. 3.
Culex, Icis, a gnat, ^. 3. ??2.
Custos, odis, a keeper, c. 2 *
Cytisus, i, hadder, d. I. m. '

Dama, cc, a deer, d. I. Jl
Dens, tis, a tooth, m. 2.
Dialectus, i, a dialect,y^ 1 («)
Dies, ci, a day, ^. 2. plural,

DiphthonguSy i, a diphthong,

/ 1 («)
Dodraiis, tis, nine ounces,

7». 2.

Domus, i, or W5, a house, y^

1 («)
Dux, ncis, a guide, c. 2 *

E.

Ensis, is, a sword, m. 1.

Eques, ttis, a horseman o?-
-woman, c. 3.

Eremus, i, a wilderness, y^
1(a)

Exlex, legis, a lawless per-
son, c. 2.

Extorris, is, a banished per-
son, c. 1.
jE^?^/, w/Zi*, an exile, c. 3.

F.

P«;-, Jarris, bread corn, w. 2.
Fascis, is, a iaggot, 77i. 1.
Fax, dcis, a torch, f. 3.
i^^'/, fellis, gall, /i. 2.
Ficus, i, or ?<5, a fig, yi 1 [a)
Fides, ei, faith, yi 3.
Filix, icis, fern, y^ 3.
Finis, is, an end, c/. 1. w.
Follis, is, a pair of bellows,

w. 1.
Fons, tis, a fountain, m. 2.
Forceps, cipis, a pair of tongs,

/3.
Forfex, icis, a pair of shears,

y: 3.

Fur,filris, a thief, c. 2.
Fust is, is, a club, ??/. 1.

G.

Grando, inis, hail, /^ 3.
Grossus, i, a green fig, c?. 1 .
Gr'us, uis, a crane, d. 3. y^

H.

Halec, L'cis, a herring, «. 2.
Hccrcs, edis, an heir, c. 2 *
Hippomaiics, (indecl.) a poi-
son, n. 1.
Homo,hiis, a human being,

c. 3.
Hospes, 7 tis, a guest, r. 3.
Hostis, is, an enemy, r. 1 *
i^?//???/5,z, the ground, y; 1 (a)
Hyems, hnis, winter, f. 3.
ii/i/5/na',zcw, a porcupine, c?. 3.

I.

///^'O', Zt'^w, a lawless person,
c. 2.

35

Imbrex^ jcis, a giitter-tile, tl
3. m.

liijans, tiSf an infant, c. 2 *

Inter pros, ctis, an interpre-
ter, c. 3 *

Iter, jtinerisy a journey, n. 3.

Judex, icis, a judge, c. 3 *

Jus,jnris, right, 7^. 2.

Juvenis, is, a youth, c. 1 *

L.

Zmc, lactis, milk, «. 2.
Lebes, ctis, a cauldron, w. 2.
Limax, ucis, a snail, </. 2. yi
Linter, tris, a boat, <^. l.yj
Lynx, cis, a spotted l^ast,
a. 2./

M.

Magyies, ctis, a loadstone,

?«. 2.
Manus, US, a hand, yi 1 (a)
Margo, hiis, a margin, ^. 3.

Martyr, ijris, a martyr, c. 3 *
iW(?/, mcllis, honey, n. 2.
Mensis, is, a month, tw. 1.
Meridies, ci, noon, vi, 2.
MctJiodus, i, a method, j^ 1.

(«) _
Miles, itis, a soldier, c. 3 *

Mons, tis, a mountain, ???. 2.

ikf?/5, zJ/v"^, a mouse, m. 2.

Municeps, ipis, a freeman, c.

3*

N.

Natrix, jcis, a water-snake,

£?. 3. in.
Nemo, mis, nobody, c. 3 *
Nepenthes, is, bugloss, n. 1.
Nex, ccis, death, f. 3.
Nix, tiivis, snow, f. 3.
Niix, niicis, a nut, f. 3.

O.

OZ'j^.?, idis, a hostage, c.

3*^
Obex, icis, a door-bolt, t/. 3.

7n.
Onyx, ijchis, an onjTC-stone,

d. 3.
Opifcx, icis, a workman, c. 3.
Orbis, is, a round thing, w. 1.
Os, ossis, a bone, 7i. 2.
Oi', a;/5, the mouth, w. 2.

P.

Palumbcs, is, a ringdove, £?.

1.
Pampijius, i, a vine-leaf, r/.

1. m.
Panaces, is, an herb, n. 1.
Pandectce, drum, pandects,

m. 1.
Paradisus, i, paradise, d. 1.

we.
Parens, tis, a parent, c. 2 *
Patruelis, is, a cousin-ger-

man, c. 1 *
Pecus, iidis, small cattle, yi 3.
Pedes, ttis, one-on-foot, c. 3»
Pelagus, i, the sea, w. 1.
Pcnus, i, or z/.'^, provisions,

d. 1.
Perducllis, is, a traitor, c. 1^
Pei-dix, icis, a partridge, f/*

2./
Phanis, i, a watch-tower, yi

Periodus, i, a period, f.\ [a)
Phasclus, i, a barge, d. 1. ?»4
Piscis, is, a fish, 7n. 1.
Pix, piicis, pitch, y^ 3.
Planet a, ce, a planet, 7W. L
Pons, tis, a bridge, m. 2.
Porticus, lis, a gallery, y^ 1

D2

iii

Posiis, is, a post, m. 1 .
Plies, dis^ a sui-ety, c. 2 *
Prases, )dis, a })re.sideiit, c. 3.
Pncsid, nils, a prelate, c. 3.
Princeps, ij)!S, a prince or

princess, c. 3*
Pugil, ilis, a champion, c. 3.
Pulvis, eris, dust, i/. 3. m.
Pumex, "ids, a pumice stone,

d. 3. w.
P^^, I'lris, filth, 7Z. 2.

Q.

Quadrans, tis, a quarter, ot. 2.

R.

72f;2, r^n/5, a kidney, m. 2.
i?^.*;, 7«, a thing, /.' 3.
Riidens, tis, a cable, r/. 2. m.
Bus, rUris, the coinitry, n. 2.
Pumex, wis, sorrel, d. 3. 7«.

S.

Sace7-dos, otis, a priest or

priestess, c. 2 *
Sandyx, icis, a colour, y^ 3.
Scobs, obis, sawdust, f. 3.
ScrobSf obis, a ditch, <Z. 3. 7;?.
Seges, etis, standing corn,

Ssnex, IS, an aged person, c. 1.
Sentis, is, a thorn, 7«. 1.
Sermo, onis, a speech, 7?j. 2.
Serpe7is, tis, a sequent, t/. 2.
Silex, ids, a flint, <:/. 3. yi
Sodalis, is, a companion, c. 1 .
(So/, solis, the sun, 7?i. 2.
Specus, i, or i.v'", a den, d. 1.
iS/J^'s, £/", hope, Jl 3.
Spinther, eris, a buckle, 7i. 2.
Splen, enis, the spleen, ?». 2.
Stirps, pis, a stump, t/. 2.

Siipellex, -lecfdls, tin*niture,

/3.
Sus, silis, a sow, c. 3 *

T.

T(dpa, cc, a mole, d. \. f-
Tapes, etis, tapestry, m. 2.
Teges, etis, a mat, /.' 3.
Testis, is, a witness, c. 1 *
Thorax, cicis, a breast-plate,

7?Z. 2.

TAi^i-, Uris, fi'ankincense, n. 2.
Tiaras, ce, a turban, /«. 1.
Torqiiis, is, a chain, r/. 1. m.
Torris, is, a firebrand, ?«. 1.
Trabs, is, a beam, y.' 3.
Tribus, us, a tribe, yj 1 («)
Tuber, eris, a swelling, 7i. 3.

V;

Varix, wis, a swoln vein, d.
3. m.

Vannus, i, a fan, f. 1 (o)

Ftfs, ms/s, a vessel, u. 2.

Vales, is, a prophet w pro-
phetess, c. 2 *

L^/6tv, ^;7'.<^, a dug, jt. 3.

Vectis, is, a bar, ???. 1.

Vepy-es, is, a brier, 7«. 1.

/'''tv, wr/5, the spring, 7i. 2.

Vcrbcr, eris, a stroke, 7i. 3.

Vermes, is, a worm, 7?;. 1.

Venia, a;, a slave, c, 1.

/^^o-zY, ^&, a sentinel, c, 3.

Vindex, wis, an avenger, c.
3*

Virus, i, jioison, n. 1.

Unguis, is, a man's nail, tw.
1.

Vulgus, i, the common peo-
ple, 11. and 7rt. 1.

It may be observed, that, — as Lily's Rules pre-suppose a
knowledge of prosody, so far, at least, as concerns the quan-
tity of the genitive increasing; — for those wlio are entirely
ignorant of prosody, the following rules for the genders, ac-
cording to the termination of the nominative, are preferable.

GENDERS BY THE TERMINATION.

The following six lines contain the general rules for the
genders of I-atin termhiations; and the other lines, from the
X'S^estminster Grammar, contain the priiicipal exceptions,
arranged by the genders.

I'oemineum a primae. Mas est us, rque sccundiB.

JJin neutrum est. Ej\ or, as, o' mascula tertiaj habentur.

Foeminea, impv^wn s, x, mcs, as fere et es, is,

Et Vethale in io^, al pohjsyllahon in do^ vcl in goK

Ilcec siuit omnia neutra, en, ar, ur, t, c, us, e, I, ma.

Us quarta' mas: L'^ neutrum est. Es ftx'mina quintjie.

VARIATIO GENERIS.

1. MAScuLiNA alien.t: terminationis.

Mascula, neutro fine ; lien cum pcctine, rcn ; sol ,•
Furfur, item turtur, vultur ; salar ; et lepus, et mus.
Mascnla, foemineo ; dens, J'o7is, mons, pons ; Tiides, ames,
Cespcs, item fomes, gurges, cum limite, merges.
Pes, j^aries, palmes, foples, cum stipite, termes,
Trames ,- mer idles, formoe vox unica quintoe.
Callis, caitHs, coll is, J'oltis, mensis, et cnsis,
Eascis, J'ustis, jriscis, post is, sentis et unguis^
Et torris, vcctis, vermis, siuiul orbis, (^t axis :

' Observe, tliat all nouns in o, inc'lii<iing f/arj>(li;o ; words o{ two syllables,
in r/o and go, Mich as ciirdu, urclo, teitdo, udo, Ug,u, cudo, and inargo (Uiis last
rarely f'ciiiinine) ; nouns in io. denoting number, or bodilt/ substance, such as
uiiio, duerniu, trndo, &c., scipio, ])ugio, papilio, cutcuHo, tilio, are masculine.

But words of mon" than two si/llablcs, in do and go, with grando and caro ,■
also nouns in io derived from verbs, nouns or adjectives, as opiio (from opto),
rcbcUio (from bdlum), tulio (from talis) ai"e feminine.

The genders of Greek nouns may be determined by the following lines :
Mascula in -as nxii -Ps, sed in -c nnilielnia. Prima; ;
Mascula item quamphirima in -cs, per -a versa Latinis.

'I'utrds, I'ldiirlis -eld, C'dmrlcs -tta, Kpitomc, Musice,

Omnia in -rus sunt mascula, in -on sunt ueutra secunda*,

'J'hi'scits, Ilidn.

IMasciila in -no, -en, -in, -on, -es, -us ,■ paucula in -as, -is,
Tertia'; in -o forma' muliebria singula Quarta;.
Titan, spkn, dc/phin, Memnon, Chrcmes, Euripus; adamas, Simo'is; Sappho,
Echo.

38

Et vox In '7iis, lit ignis ; item saftgnis, lapis, et glis,
Vomisqiie et vomer, nmgilque et mugilis ; atque
As cum compositis in -is omnibus ; ut ceiitussis.
Sic pars assis in ~ans, vel in -ens, vel in unx ,- itidem bes,
Adde Jf-utex, caudex, codex, cimex(\aQ, latexqiie,
Grex, mnrex, pollex, pulex, sorexqae, cidexqwe,
Ramcx, et vertex, et apex, fornix(\'\e, calixque.
His plura inveniet tyro, sed rarius, usu.

2. FGSMINEA.

Vannus, humus, facit i ; tribus -us ; sic porticus, Idiis,
Sic acus, et majius : unica sed domus, -i facit aut -us,
Additur his caro : quaeque a talis, talio, nata est.
Arbor ; cos, dos ; cum tcllure, salus, palus, incus ;
Servi -que -tus, viy-iusque, juventus, atque sc?iectus,

3. NEUTRALIA.

Suber, acer, siler, uber, iter, ver ; junge cadcwer.
Tuber, item cicer, et j^ipcr, et siser, atque papaver ;
JEqiu)r, marmor, cor ; as ; vas -is ; et os -sis, et os -ris.
Oimie etiam nomen casu invariabile ; ceu Jas.

4. communia'.

Omnibus his commune genus ; plerumque sed hscc sunt
Mascula ; adeps, Jinis, torquis, pulvis, cinis, anguis,
Vepres, linter, viargo, rudens, scrobs, pampinus, obex.
Index, calx, cortex : Haec foeminea ; ut colics, alvus,
Grando, silex, corbis, rubiis, et lux, carbasus, imbrex :

Plura, utriusque notae, genera in diversa feruntur.

Sunt, quse dcficiunt, generum adject iva duorum;
Qunlia in -es sunt ; ut locuples : neutralia raro.
Foemineum in -trix phu'ali solo ordine neutrum est.

SPECIAL RULES BY THE TERMINATION AND

DECLENSION.

FIRST DECLENSION.

(1) Nouns of this declension ending in as and es are mas^
culine; and in a and c, feminine.

' The words named common, in these verses, are, properly, denominated
doubtful. The nouns that are common are contained in the following linca :

Commons.
Conjux atque parens, infans, patrnelis ct hares,
Aftinis, vindcx, judex, dux, miles et hostis.
Augur, ct antistes, juvenis, conviva, sacerdos,
. Munii/«t'ceps, vates, adolescens, civis el auctor,
Custos, nemo, comes, testis, su"-, hosqiic, canisryxc,
Intcrprcsyac'j clicns, priucep-^;, pra:s, martyr ci obses.

39

SECOND DECLENSION.

(2) ns, OS, r, masculine. Um, on, neuter.

THIRD DECLENSION.

(3) or, er, o, n, as, masculine.

(1) as, aus, es, x, s (after a consonant), is, ys, do, go, and
io, are feminine.

(5) c, ar, ur, us, ma, 7nen, I, e, f, neuter.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

(6) us is masculine; u is neuter.

FIFTH DECLENSION.

(7) es is feminine. (All but mevidics, which is masculine.)
THE EXCEPTIONS.

A.

Adria, cc, m. 1, the Adriatic
sea.

Ames, riis, m. 4, a stake.

Adamas, antis, m. 4-, a dia-
mond.

Achiaces, is, m. 4, a scimitar.

Axis, is, m. 4, an axle-tree.

Aqualis, is, m. 4, a water-
pot.

-ax, Greek nouns in, in. 4 ;
as

Abax^, (Ids, m. 4, a desk.

Apex, ids, m. 4, a top.

As, a^sis, m. 4, a pound-
weight.

•— its ofmipounds and parts,
in, 4, except unda, f.

Alvus, i, f. 2, the belly.

Antidotus, i,f. % an antidote.

Abijssus, 7, J'. 2, a bottomless
pit.

Arctiis, i, f. 2, a certain con-
stellation.

Arbor, oris, Jl 5, ^ tree.
Acdon, onis, J". 3, a nightin-
gale.
Acus, ils, f. 6, a needle : but
Acus, i, 7)1. a sea fish, and
Acus, eris, 7i. chaff.
JEquor, oris, ii. 3, the sea.
Ador, oris, ?i. 3, fine wheat.
^s, ceris, n. 4, brass.
-as, Greek nouns ending in,

71. 4.
Augur, Tiris, c. g. s. an au-

Antistes, itis, c. g. s. a cliief
priest.

Auctor, oris, c. g. s. an au-
thor.

AdolesceTis, lis, c. g. s. a
youth.

Af/inis, is, c. g. s. a cousin.

Advc7ia, a;, c. s. m. a stran-
ger.

Agricola, ce, c. s. m. a hus-
bandman.

' And such words psvj/cl'icom.T, arts, (w.) an owl ; tliorai, adx, the brcnst;
dropar, acis, (m.) a certain ointment ; storar, aci^, a gum, Abax is hardly I.a-
lin, but Abacus is used.

40

Auriga, t£, c. s. m. a chari-
oteer.

Auceps, iipis, c. s. m. a fow-
ler.

AnispcjT, ids, c. s. m. a sooth-
sayer.

Ah's, it is, (!. a bird.

Adcj)s, ipisy d. fat.

Angiiis, is, d. a snake.

Amnis, is, d. m. a river.

Aioirws, i, d. f. an atom.

Animans, iis, m. f. n. an ani-
mal.

p.

Bomhijx, ids, m. 4, a silk-
worm: but

Bombi/x, f. the finest cotton.

Bidens, lis, m. 4, a fork: but

Bidens, f. a sheep.

Bodily substance, words in io
denoting, in.

Bos, bovis, c. g. s. an ox or
cow.

Balanus, i. d. an acorn.

Barhifos, i, d. a lute.

Bubo, dnis, d. m. an om'L

C.

Comcta, (V, m. 1, a comet.
Callis, is, VI. 4, a path.
Caidis, is, m. 4, a stalk,
ColJis, is, 7)1. 4, a hill.
Caiidrx, ids, m. 4, a stock

of a tree.
Cidcw, wis, m. 4, a gnat.
Cimcx, "ids, VI. 4, a bug.
Calix, ids, m. 4, a cup.
Calyx, yds, vi. 4, the cup of

a flower. .
Coccyx, jjgis, cis, vi. 4, a

cuckow.

C/ialybs, j/bis, vi. 4, steel.

Cardo, mis, jn. 4, a hinge.

Cudo, Of I is, m. 4, a fur cap.

Curcidio, 5nis, m. 4, a mite.

Carbasus, i, f. 2, fine linen.

Colus, 7, f. 2, a distaff.

Cos, cotis, J". 3, a. whetstone.

Cai-o, iiis, J'. 3, flesh.

Chaos, -0 Dat. n. 3, confusion.

Cadaver, cris, n. 3, a carcase.

Cica; cris, n. 3, a vetcli.

Cor, dis, v.. 3, the heart.

Cacoethes, (indecl.) n. 4, a bad
habit-

Co?iviva, cc, c. g. s. a guest.

Cus/os\ odis, c. g. s. a keep-
er.

Civis, is, c. g. s. a citizen.

Co7ncs, itis, c. g. s. a compa-
nion,

Ca?iis, is, c. g. s. a dog or
bitch.

Conjux, iigis, c. g. s. a mar^
ried person.

Cliens, tis, c. g. s. a client.

Calx, cis, d. the heel.

Cliinis, is, d. a buttock.

Candlis, is, d. a channel.

a ft is, eris, d. m. ashes.

Camcliis, i, d. vi. a camel.

Cortex, 'ids, d. m. the bark.

Cupido % utis, VI. 4, Cupid.

D.

Devs, tis, ?ii. 4, a tooth.
Dialect US, /', f. 2, a dialecu
Dij)hthovous, i, f. 2, a di"

phthot'.g.
Diametros, i, f. 2, a diame-r

ter.
Dos, dvlis, f. 3, a dowry.

1 Custns, a shoot, is masculine.

- Cirpldo, tiiis, m. the god of desire : l)ut Cvficlo, Ynif, J. desire it!«lf«
Horace used cujiido .so?f/(V/Ks for desire itriclf.

41

Domus, I's, Jl 6, a house.
Unx, duds, c. g. s. a leader.
Dies, iei, d. a clay.
I)ie%, (plur.) m. days.
Dama, ce, d. f. a doe.

E.

Elephas, anils., m. t, an ele-
phant.

J^nsis, /s, m. 4, a sword.

JEjJoj^s, bpisy m. 4, a kind of
bird.

Eremtis, i, f. % a wilderness.

Eos^, (indecl.)j^3, themorn-
ino-.

Epos, (indecl.) n. 3, Epic
poetry.

Exlex, egis, c. s. m. a lawless
person.

Equcs, 'ill's, c. s. m. a rider.

Exul, iilis, c. s. m. an exile.

Extorris, is, c. s. m. an exile.

F.

Femes, 1tis, m. 4, fuel.
Easels, is, m. 4, a faggot.
Funis, is, in. 4, a rope.
Fustis, is, VI. 4, a club.
Follis^ is, m. 4, a pair of bel-
lows.
Frutcx, ms, m. 4, a shrub.
Fornix, U'is, in. 4, an arch.
Eons, tis, in. 4, a fountain.
Furfur, liris, m. 5, bran.
Fie us, vSy f. 6, a fig.
Fruits in r, names of, n. 3.
Fas, (indecl.) n. 4, justice.
Fur, finis, e. s. in. a lliief.
Finis, is, d. an end. ~
Fines, (plur.) m. confines.

G.

Gigas, antis, m. 4, a giant.

Gurges, itis, m. 4, a whirl-
pool.

Glis, gUris, m. 4, a dor-
mouse.

{Glis, glidis, J', mouldiness.)

Grex, egis, m. 4, (seldom
fem.) a flock.

Gryps, yphis, in. 4, a griffon.

Gluten, mis, n. 3, glue.

Grajngena, cc, c. s. m. a
Greek born.

Grossus, i, d. a green fig.

Gnis, His, d. Jl a crane.

H.

Herpes, etis, in. 4, St. An-
thony's fire.
Elelops, opis, m. 4, a kiad of

fish.
Hydrops, opis, m. 4, the

dropsy.
Harpago, bnis, in. 4, a hook.
Humus, i, f. 2, the ground.
Halo\ unis, Jl 3, a, circle

round the sun.
Haleyon, bnis, J'. 3, a king's

fisher.
Hippomanes, (indecl.) n. 4, a

ratrinor hmiiour.
Hceres, edis, c. g. s. an heir

or heiress.
Hostis, is, c. g. s. an enemy.
Homo, vnis, c. s. in. a human

beinnf.
Hospes, itis, e. s. m. a guest.
HysLrix, wis, d. a porcupine.

I.

Icon, onis, f. 3, an image.

' 7-ii.s is ranked among ^ronoptotes ; yet tdw Gen. is found.

^ The gender of this word seems uncertain. Some call it masculine, as,
according to its termination, it ought to be considered.

■12

Jncu,% udis^ f. 5, an anvil.
IduSj uum, f. 6, the ides

(plur.)
Ingucn, mis, n. 3, the groin.
Iter, itineris, n. 3, a journey.
Indedinables, n.
Instar, (indecl.) 7i. bigness.
Iiifcms, tis, c. g. s. an infant.
Litcrprcs, ctis, c. g. s. an in-

tei^ireter.
Illex, egis, c. s. m. an outlaw.
Imbrex, ids, d. a gutter-tile.
Index, ids, c. s. g. a disco-

verer.

J.

Jwventns, fclis, f. 5, youtli.
Juvcnis, is, c. g. s. a youth.
Judex, Ids, c. g. s. a judge.

L.

Limes, ilis,. m. -i, a limit.

Lehcs, ('lis, m. i-, a kettle.

Lapis, ulis, m. 4, a stone.

Latex, ids, 7n. 4, water.

Ligo, onis, m. 4, a spade.

Lepus, oris, vi. 5, a hare.

Laser, cris, n. 3, benzoin.

Laver, cris, n. 3, water-par-
sley.

Linter, iris, d. a little boat.

Lynx, cis, d. f. a lynx.

Umax, cicis, d. f. a snail.

Lagopus, odis, f. 5, a certain
bird.

M.

Merges, Itis, m. 4, a reaping-
hook.

Magnes, His, m. 4, the load-
stone.

Mcnsis, is, m. 4, a month.

Mugilis, is, m. 4, a mullet

Moldris, is, m. 4, a mill-
stone.

Mons, tis, m. 4, a mountain.

Merops, bpis, w. 4, a wood-
pecker.

Mus, milris, m. 5, a mouse.

Meridies, iei, m. 1, noon.

Methodus, i, f. 2, a method.

Manus, vs, J". 6, a, hand.

Marmor, oris, n, 3> marble.

Miles, itis ', c. g. s. a soldier.

Mimiceps, ipis, c. g. s. a free
person.

Martyr, ijris, c. g. s. a martyr.

Marge, inis, d. m. a margin.

N.

-nis, Latin nouns in, m. 4,
but Greek nouns, f.

Natdlis, is, m. 4, a birth-day.

Nefrens, f parens J -dis, m. 4,
a barrow-pig.

Number, nouns in io denot-
ing, ;«. 4.

Nihil, (indecl.) n. nothing.

Nepenthes, (indecl.) n. 4, bu-

gloss.

Nemo, mis, c. g. s. nobody.

Natrix

, icis,
snake.

d. m. a water-

O.

Orbis, is, m. 4, a circle,
Onjx,Tjgis, m. 4,akind of goat.
Occidcns (sol), -tis, m. 4, the

west.
Oricns (sol), -tis, nt. 4, the

east.
Ordo, mis, m. 4, order.
Os, ossis, n. 3, a bone.
O.s, oris, n. 3, the mouth.
Obses, ^dis, c. g. s. a hostage.

' Xi^rn viUrs crnvi — Ovid; Aujiuv capo fuliiri — Stat., and the like, arc not
lo be iiuilalcd. Lhi^', liukw, tinder, I'vcjn, priucq'f, (cslix, and t.-ome others, are
rarely ieiuinine.

Oj)lfeX) iciSf c. s. m. an arti-
ficer.
Obex, ids, d. m. a bolt.

P.

Planeta, a;, m. 1, a planet.

Pandectce, drum, m. 1, pan-
dects.

Paries, etis, m. 4, a wall.

Palmes, liis, m. 4, a branch.

Poplcs, iiis, in. 4, the ham.

Postis, is, m. 4, a door-
post.

Piscis, is, m. 4, a fish.

PolUs, mis, 7)1. 4, fine flonr.

Pantex, icis, m. 4, the
paunch.

Pudcx, icis, m. 4, the breech.

Pollex, icis, m. 4, the thumb.

Pal ex, wis, m. 4, a flea.

Phoenix, Icis, m. 4, a phoe-
nix.

Pons, lis, m. 4, a bridge.

Profluens (Jluvius), -tis, m.
4, a stream.

Pugio, ofiis, m. 4, a dagger.

Papilio, onis, in. 4, a moth.

-pus, Greek nouns in, m. 5,
except perha])s lagCpiis,/'.
a certain bird.

Pecus, udis, f. 5, (or ?n.) a
sheep : but

Peais, oris, n. a flock of
sheep.

PJiarus, i, f. 2. d. a watch-
tower.

Perimetros, i, f. 2, a circum-
ference.

Palus, udis, f. 5, n marsh.

Porticus, its, f. 6, n portico.

Pclagus, i, n. 2, the sea.

Pollen ', Inis, n. 3, fine flour.

Piper, eris, n. 3, })e])pcr.

Papdver, eris, 7i. 3, a poppy.

Pajiaces, (indecl.) w. 4, all-
lieal.

Parens, tis, c. g. s. a parent.

Patruelis, is, c. g. s. a cou-
sin-jrerman.

Princeps, ipis, c. g. s. a
prince or princess.

Prccs, dis, c. g. s. a sm*ety.

Prases, Mis, c. s. ?n. a pre-
sident.

Pedes, itis, c. s. m. one-on-
foot.

Pugil, ilis, c. s. 7n. a cham-
pion.

Prccsid, idis, c, s. m. a pre-
late.

Perducllis, is, c. s. m. an ene-
my.

Phaselus, i, d. a pinnace.

Palumbes, is, d. a ring-dove.

Pumex, icis, d. m. a pimiice-
stone.

Puh)is, eris, d. m. powder.

Perdix, Icis, d.f. a partridge.

Penus, 7, or ih, d. provi-
sions.

Pcnus, oris, n. provisions.

R.

Ramcx, tcis, m. 4, a rupture,
Rumcx, tcis, d. m. sorrel.
—r, names of fruits in, n. 3.^
Rudens, tis, d. vi. a cable. ""

S.

Stipes, ttis, m. 4, a stake.

Sanguis, inis, m. 4, blood.

Sorex, icis, ?n. 4, a rat.

Spadix, Icis, m. 4, scarlet
colour.

Scps, s<''j)is, m. 4, a serpent.

Senio, onis, ?n. 4, the num-
ber six.

' The gender of ihis noun does not 6ccra aL-ccrtaiucd ; nor ihc termination.

u

Scipio, o/iis, m. 4, a sUifT.

Sol., solis, m. 5, tlu; sua.

Salar, dn's, m. 5, a trout.

Sipiodiis, i, f. % a synod.

Siiidon., ovis, J". 3, fine linen.

Salus, fdis, /.' 5, safety.

SeyiccUis, utis^ f. 5, old age.

Scrvitus, litis, f. 5, slavery.

Sidjscus, uclis, f. 5, a joint.

Sphithei\ eris, n. 3, a buckle.

Saccrdos, otis, c. g. s. a priest
or priestess.

Sus, sia';;, c. g. s. a hog or
sow.

Senear, ?V, c. s. rti. an old per-
son.

Sardovij.r, jjc/i/y, d. a pre-
cious stone.

Silcx, ic/.s, d. a flint-stone.

S/irps, is, fl". a root of a
tree.

ScrjJciis, /is, d. a sei'pent.

tScrobs, oOis, d. a diteli.

Sandyx, Ids, d. f. a kind of
colour.

Sal, sdlis, m. sonietiines n.
salt.

Sales, (plur.) ??«. jests.

Spccus, ns, 7)1. J\ n. a den.

Scxus, i, n. 2, a sex : but

Sex lis, lis, in. a sex.

T.

Tramcs, "itis, in. ■!•. a path.
Tcrwi's. Ills, m. A; a bough.
Tapes, efis, m. 4, tapestry.
Torris, is, m. 4, a firebrand.
Thorax, dcis,vi. 4, the breast.
Tradux, iicis, in. 4, a graft.
Tridcns, tis, m. 4, a trident.
Torrens, /is, in. 4, a torrent.
Trndo-, inis, m. 4, a tendon.

Ternio, onis, m. 4, the num-
ber three.
Ti/io, onis, m. 4, a firebrand.
Turtnr, vris, m, 5, a turtle.
Tclliis, firis, f. 5, the earth.
Trilms, lis, f. 6, a tribe.
Tuber, eris, n. 3, a wen : but
Tuber, his, in. a fruit.
Testis, is, c. g. s. a witness.
Torquis, is, d. a cliain.
Talpa, (£, d. f. a mole.

v.

Unguis, is, in. 4, a nail.
Udo, otiis, m. 4, a sack.
Unio, onis, m. 4, a pearl.
Unguev, inis, ii. ?>, an oint-
ment.
Uber, Pris, n. 3, an udder.
Urpex, Icis, m. 4, a harrow.

V.

J'ectis, is, m. 4, a bar.

Vermis, is, in. 4, a worm.

Fomis, t'i'is, in. 4, a coulter.

Vertex, iris, in. 4, the top.

Voi-tex, U'is, m. 4, a whirl-
pool.

Volvox, ocis, VI. 4, a vine-
fretter.

Vul/ur, iiris, vi. 5, a vulture.

J'annus, i, f. 2, a Ian.

Virtus, fi/is, f. 5, virtue.

Virus, i, n. 2, poison.

Ver, eris, n. 3, spring.

Vas, vdsis, ii. 4, a vessel.

Vindex, leis, c. g. s. an a-
venger.

Votes, is., c. g. s. a prophet
or prophetess.

Verna, ic, c. s. m. a slave.

' Sl'iryia for a tree, masc. or fcm. ; for parents or children, always fem.
2 An uncommon word ; generally plural.

45

FnriXjU-is, J. m. a swolnveln.
I'tdgus^ i, m. and «. tlie vul-
gar.

Z.

"Jnziher, en's, n. 3, i^irifrer.

The figure points out the rule to wliich tlie word is an ex-
ception, c. s. m. denotes the word to be connnon in sense
or signification, but inasculin.e in gender.

c. g. s. sliows the word to be eoinnion in sense, but tliat
it varies its render, accorthno; to its siy-nification. d. m.
means doubttlil, but that the mascunne is preferable, d. J.
doubtful likewise, but teniinine in preference.

By the referring figure, all the exceptions may be classed
either accordin<>- to the ijender, after the manner of the Latui
verses, since in each letter thev are arranged in the oi'der of
masculines, feminines, neuters, &c. ; or they may be classed,
as in the second form, according to their declension and
termination.

HETEROCLITES.

Nouns differing from the common declension, are generally

named Ileteroclites.
jyeficif, aut vcirinf, heteroclita vox, vel ahundaf.

I. Abundants have difierent terminations to the same case.

II. Variants change from one declension or gender to an-

other.

III. Defectives want case, sometunes number.

Observe (1), some vv'ords are of douhle-decleJisio7i^ as the

bllowing

•

Sing.

Plur.

■ N.

Jus-jurandum,

Jura-juranda,

G.

Juris-jurandi,

Jurum-jurandorum,

D.

Juri-jurando,

Juribiis-jurandis,

Ac.

Jus-jurandum,

Jura-juranda,

V.

Jus-jurandum,

Jura-juranda,

A.

Jure-jurando.

Jurib us-jurandis.

N.

Res-publica,

Res-publicae,

G.

llei-publicae.

Rerum-pnblicarum,

I).

Rei-publicse,

Rebus-publicis,

Ac.

Rem-publicam,

Res-publicas,

V.

Res-publica,

Res-publicc3e,

A.

Re-publica.

Rebus-publicis.

The genitive, dative and ablative plural oi jns-jurandum
are not used. Jxis is a siibstantive neuter, of the third de-
clension ; jiirandmn the neuter gender of the future parti-

40

ciple passive of the verb juro. Res is a noun feminine of
the 5th declension, agreeing with puhlicus, an adjective of
the 1st and 2nd. In double words nominatives only are
declinable ; juris-peritus declines jjeritus only. Alter-vter
declines its last nominative only. Pro consule^ for pi'oconsulf
and the like, may be found.

Observe (2), some words are of peculiai'-declcnsion, as the
following :

JL LU/ at.

1

Sins;.

Sin"-.

^ Amb-
^* Du-

-V M. F. N.

j- o, -ae, -o,

Jesus,

Jupiter.

G.

-orum, -arum, -

orum,

Jesu,

Jovis,

D.

-obus, -abus, -

■obus,

Jesu,

Jovi,

Ac.

-OS, o, -as.

■o,

Jesum,

Jovem,

V.

-o, -ae,

-o,

Jesu,

Jui^iter,

Ah.

-obus, -abus, •

-obus.

Jesu.

Jove.

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.

Plur.

N. Vis,

Vires,

Bos,

Boves,

G. Vis,

Virium,

Bovis,

Bourn,

D.

Viribus,

Bovi,

Bobus, bubus,

Ac. Vim

, Vires,

Bovem

, Boves,

V. Vis,

Vires,

Bos,

Boves,

Ab. Vi.

Viribus.

Bove.

Bobus, bubus.

I. Abundants.

1. Some abound in termination, as arbor, arbos.

2. Some are of the first and third declension, as Calchas,
ce or antis.

3. Of the second and third, as Iber^ eri or erw, sequester^
ri or ris.

4. Of the second and fourth. Colus, Jicus, Imirus, pimis,
have u in the ablative singular, and lis in the nommative,
accusative, vocative plural.

Qjiei-cus of the fourth makes qnej'corum, and -mim. Versus
has versi, versoriim, versis, as well as its regular cases.
Domus is declined according to the verse of Alstedius,
" Tolle 7ne, mi, mu, mis, si declinare domus vis."

Singular.

Plural.

N. V.

Domus,

Domus,

G.

Domi [at home), Domus,

Domorum, uum,

D.

Domui, Domo,

Domibus,

Ac.

Domum,

Domos, us,

Ab.

Domo.

Domibus.

47

5. Of the third and fifth, as ;plehSf is; or jplches, ei ; fames,
is or ei.

6. Some abound in gender only, as dies^ masculine and
feminine in the singular.

7. In termination and declension, as mcnda, a: ; mendiinif
i.

8. In termination and gender, as ionitrus, 7is, masculine —
fo7iiiru, neuter.

9. In declension and gender, as pe?uis, i, or pe7ms^ us,
masculine and feminine; o-wd. pcniim, ?, or j^enus, yr/.s-, neuter.

10. In termination, declension, and gender, as at her,
eris, masculine ; and (Ctlira, a, feminine.

11. In oblique cases, as Tigris^ idis or is ; Chremes,
Dares, Laches, Thales, have ctis or is.

12. Some adjectives abound in termination and declen-
sion, as declivus, -is ; imbecillus, -is ; semisomnus, -is ; cxatii-
mus, -is.

II. Variants.

1 . In gender and termination.

Sing.
Neift.

Elvsium,
Argos, (eos)
Fraenum,
Rastrum,

Sing.

Plur.

Masc.

Neuter.

Avernus,

a, orum.

Dindymus,

Ismarus,

Masstcus,

Msenalus,

Pangseus,

Tffinarus,

Tartarus,

K-

Taygetus.

Feminine.

Carbasus,

Pergamus.

Masculine.

Locus,

i or a.

Jocus,

i or a.

Masculine

> and neuter.

Sibilus -um.

a.

Balteus -um.

a.

Plur.
Masc.

i\

i, (or, a 7ieut.)
i, (or, a neut.)

2. In gender and declension.

2 decl. 7ieut. P.

Delicium, aO rji -r ^
^ 1 ' )- of the first.

Jl,})ulum, 33 j -^ ^

Balneum, se, [or, a of the

second.)

3. In dcclensio7i only.

2 decl.

Jugerum, a, of the third.

Of the third, neut.
Vas, a, orum, of the

second.

4. The following vary their
sense according to their
nmnber : rostrum, for-
tuna,facultas, mos, opis,
ccdis or cedes, sal, j^opu-
lus fpoptdi, nations).

" CivU and cci'loi from the obsolete cxlus are uncommon.

48
III. DEFECTIVES.

DEFECTIVES IN CASE,

1. Called ajHotes, or indeclinahles.

Nouns in u are indeclinable in tlie singular, but regular
in the plural, as cornu ; plural cornua, -iium, Sec.

Most nouns in / are indeclinable in both numbers, as
gum7)ii.

Cardinal numbers, likemse, fi'om quatuor to centum.

Foreign words, like Job, Jerusalem, Abraham, Adam.
AbrahcC, Adce, are borrowed from a Latin nominative in
as.

Semis, frit, git, cepe, gausape, are singular aptotes.

Tot, quot, and compounds, totidem, aliquot, &c. plural
aptotes.

Nequam and frugi are aptotes in both numbers.

Poiido is an aptote, added to both numbers. Duo pondo^
two pounds.

Mille the adjective is a plural aptote of all genders.

Mille the substantive is an aptote in the singular ; but re-
gular in the plural : millia, -ium., -ihis.

Prcesto is generally considered an adverb. Satis also.

2. Monojjtotes, or V)ords having one case.

Nominatives. Eos (though some give it Eois), damyias (an
old law contraction for damiiatus), inquies ; the adjec-
tives, exspes, and potis, pote.

Genitives. Dicis and nauci. Dicis gratia, for form's sake.
Res nauci, a thing of no value.

Datives. Such words as despicatui, ostcfitui, &c., but they
are found in other cases.

Ablatives. Ergo (for the sake of), such verbals as accitu, natu,
jussii, injussu, jiromptu, permissu, admonitu, &c. noctu.
Dill and inter diu (in the day) are fonned from dies, as
7wctu from nox, but they are considered adverbs.

Accusatives plural. Injicias, incitas or incita. In/icias eo,
I deny. Ad. incitas [calces, understood, or tineas], or
incita [loca) redactus, reduced to wit's end: a meta-
phorical expression from a certain game : they come
from the adjective incitus.

Ablative plural. Ligraliis, or ingratis.

Ablatives singular, and all the plural. Casse, ccelite, annali,
fauce, anibage. This last wants the genitive plural.
Visce)-e is found; and the p^lural, viscera, complete.
Viscus nominative and visceris genitive are perhaps ob-
solete.

49

3. DiptoteS) words having two cases.

Nom, and Ace. Ncccsse, 7ieccssiim, adjectives neuter; voliijpe,
instar, hir {Jiiris seldom), astUy a city.

Nom. and Abl. Astus, astu (craft) ; sh-einps, sirempse.

Gen. and Abl. Impetis, inipete, plur. impctibus ,- spontis^
spojite ; vcrbcris, verhcrc ; jugeris^jugerc (\ioth entire
in the plural); compcdis (seldom), compede, no geni-
tive plural, but all the other cases.

Nom. and Ace. pi. Suppefice, suppdias ,• infcrice, iiiferias.

Gen. and Abl. pi. licpetundarum, repctundis.

Nom. sing, and pi. and Vocat. sing. Mactus [magis aiictus),
madi, made^ a common word of encouragement.

4. Triptotes^ xoords having three cases.

Nom. Ace. Voc. sing. Fas, nefas, nihil, nil ; seciis (an old
word for sexus) and specus, wlien of the third declen-
sion and neuter ; epos, cacoethes, hippomanes, and
other Greek neuters in es. See Pentaptotes.

Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. The neuters cde, Tempe, mele, pelage.

Nom. Gen. Ace. sing. Tantundem, tantidcm.

Nom. Ace. Abl. sing. Mane. In ablative sometimes mani ;
vesper {vesperem seldom), vespere.

Ace. sing, and pi. Dicam, dicas. Dica nominat. is seldom
used.

Gen. Dat. Abl. sing.; Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. Feminis, -i, -e.
femina,

Dat. Ace. Abl. sing. ; the plural complete. Preci, -em, -e ,-
prcces, -um, -ibns, &e.

Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. ; all the singular. Rus, thus, fel, mel,
hyems, hilum, solium. Jar, ehur, metus, and nouns of
the fifth declension (except res and dies complete).
The feminine, grates, has no singular.

5. Tetraptotes, words haviiig four cases.

Nom. and Voc. singular wanting. Frugis, apis, pecudis,
sordis (these have plural complete) ; ditionis (with-
out plural) ; vicis (having all the cases plural but the
genitive), and dajns ,- for daps is not usual : plural
dapes entire.

6. Pentaptotes, words having ^five cases.

Gen. pi. wanting. Fax, fax, sol, vicis, labes, soboles, moles,

E

50

lux^ OS (oris). Ni'cum and tieclhus are scarcely ever
found. Chaos, melos, (c])os% are Greek nouns neu-
ter, increasing in llie genitive singular, and therefore
belonging to the third declension. They have N. A.
V. shigular; and, as if from masculines of the second,
chaos and melos have sometimes chao and melo in the
dative or ablative. Melos lias jnele hi the nom. ace.
voc. pi. ; and it is sometimes found to have melos mas-
culine in the accusative plural. The word satias is
said not to be found in the oenitive sino-ular. It is a
contraction of satietas, -at is. (See Declensions R.
V. obs.) Vis seldom has the dative singular; vifes^
-ium, -ibus, plural complete. (See the Declension
of Irregular Adjectives, note 1.) Ne7no wants the
vocative suigular; and has no plural. Such words
as qualis, quantus, quotus, &c. have no vocative.

2. DEFECTIVES IN NUMBER.

These have only the Singular^.

Proper names, most names of places (except those which
have only the plural), most names of virtues, vices, herbs,
liquors, metals, abstract qualities, and many others which
may be known by the sense : as Hector, Dido, Italia, juS"

• See Triptotes.

' This is the general rule, but it must be confessed to be very vague ; for
many words belonging to these classes have the plui-al, such as :

1. Avcna, deer, f aba, far, frumenluni, faseolus, glajis, hordeiim, lupinvs, pi-
tum, vicia, most of whicli, however, are used in the singular when quanlity is
signified. Acus (chaff), farina, lomentum, furfur (bran), are generally sin-
gular. Furfur (a disorder) has the plural. Palea has the plural, though
used, in the singular, for a quantity. Pollen has the plural. P/pfj* and s^i/j-
Taber, with other names of spices, are singular only, except cinnamuTiu

2. The folloiving names of herbs are found in the plural.

Abrotonus
absinthium

biblus
brassica

cytisus
eruca

lapsana
linum

sagman
sanipsuchuta

acanthus

bulbus

filix

lolium

satureiura

aconitum

carduus

fcenum

malva

serpillum

alga
allium

casia
centaureura

gramen
belleboi-us

melissophyllor
mentha

I sesamum
stupa

amomum

cepe

intybum

nasturtium

thymus

anagallis
anthyllis

cicuta
colocasinra

intybus
inula

ocymum
papaver

tribulus
verbena

asparagus
betonica

coriandrum
corruda

juncus
lactuca

porrus
radix

ulpicum
urtiea.

beu

cunila

lappa

ruta

51

titia^ luxiis^ hi/ssopus, triticum, oleum, lac, mirum, seiiccius,
macieSi butijrum,

Aer

humus

omasum

sitis

£Ether
album
argilla

jubar

justitium

lardum

penum or

penus

peligus

supellex

tabes

tabum

barathrum

lethum

piper

venia

cestus

limus

plebs

ver

coenura
crociuii

lues
lutum

pontus
prolubium

vespera
vcternum or

diluculum

mane

pubes

veternus

fimus

meridies

pulvis

virus

glarea
gelu
glastum
gluten -uiUaII

mundus [ci])-

parel)
muscus
nectar

pus

sabulum -o
sal {neut.)
salum

viscum or
viscus [^lue)
vitrum
vulgus

gypsum
hepar

nemo
niliilum

salus
sanguis

zinziber.

hesperus

nitrum

senium

These, and some others, are sometimes found in the Plural.

Aer
bilis
cholera

gloria

labes

lux

pulvis

pix

quies

tellus.

[Nouns of
the 5th declen-

cutis

mel

ros

sion are seldom

fama
fames

pax
pituita

sopor
talio

found in the
plural/

Caryophilli, croci, hyacinthl, rosee, violce, refer to the flowers. Plants yield-
ing roots for food, often have the plural ; Inulee, napi, jiastinaccc, rapa, na-
phani, siseres, are in Pliny.

3. Arena, cinis, lana ; aqua, aura, cruor, fex, Jluor, latex, U<juor, mel, rmicuSf
mustum, ocsT/pum, saliva, spuma, sudoj; vinum, ulca, urina ; adeps, balsamutn,
cera, gummis, medvlla, pingue, used substantively, resina, thus; ees (for things
made of that metal), electrum, orichalcum, slannum, bitumen, ccEmenlum, ebur,

Jumus, glarea, lignum, marmor, rubigo, succinum, sulfur, pecunia has pecunus
(sums of money), nummus (money or coin).

4. The names of many affections of the mind ; as algor, ardor, angor, color,
candor, contemptus, fastus, fervor, furor, horror, languor, livor, metus, mceror,
pavor, jiudor, terror, vigor ; to which may be added, fragor, odor, stridor, nitor,
pallor, pcedor, rigor, splendor, squalor, tenor (tone or accent), tepor, tumor, and
many words of the like nature.

5. And although every abstract quality, metaphysically considered, must
be singular ; yet being considered as existing in a variety of f-ubjects, their
names are occasionally used in the plural number : hence, ambitio, avaritia,
amantudo, astulia, bonitas, eleganlia, dementia, fortitudo, formido, gloria, ira,
tnalitla, mors, sanclitas, sauitia, stultitia, vita, and many more of a siimlar kind,
ere found in the plural.

E2

52

The folluiiolng have onlij the Plural.

The names of several cities, books, feasts, and sciences :
also most adjectives of number ; as Atherns^ Theymojyijla;^
Parisii, Bucollca, Georgica ,- Baechanalia, Olympia ; miir-
sica, grammatica ; umbo, duo, tres, Sec, pauci, srngtili, bini.

Acta

adversaria

antes

antae -ise

apinae

argutias

arma

sestiva

Bona (goods)

branchiae

brevia, -imn

bellaria

calendae

cancelli

cani

castra {camp)

celeres

clitellae

codicilli

comitia

crepundia

cuna?

cunabula

dirae

divitiae

excubiae

exequiae

exta

exuviae

Add the follomng :

facultates {re~ lustra (dens)

sources) majores
fasces {a badge) manes
fasti arid -us manubias
facetiae magalia, -ium

feriae minae

hnes[territo7y) minores
flabra minutiae

fortunae {es- moenia, -ium

tate) multitia

furfures(scw?/") munia

natales {birth)

nonae

gerree

hyberna

idus

ilia, -ium

incunabula

inferi

induciae

induvise

insecta

insidiae

justa

lactes

lamenta

lapicidinae

lautia

lemures

lendes

luceres

nugae

nundinae
nuptiae

offiiciae {tricks)
opes {riches)

orgia

pandectae

parietinae

parapherna

penates

plagae {iiets)

posteri

phalerae

praecordia

proebia

primitia;

principia ffor

the tent)
pugillares
quisquiliae
reliquiae
repotia
rostra {the

court)
sales {laitti'

cisms ')
salinae
scaias
scatebree

scopae
scruta

sponsalia, -ium

stativa

superi

talaria, -ium

tenebrae

tesqua

thermae

tori {muscles)

transtra'

tricae

trifijas

valvae

vergiliss

vindicias.

■ Cicero uses sal in this sense. Salts Eometinics signifies salt.
• Tranitra is found in Perseus.

53

TJiese and some others are sometimes found in the Singular.

Angustiae crates mapalia quadrigae

artus decimae nares salebrae

cedes fores operae [xaork- tempora {tern-

bigee fori men) pies)

charites furia3 prim ores plerique

copiie fruges proceres vepres.

cibaria litevse (an epistle) praestigiae

It may be observed that many of the foregoing are ad-
jectives; such as bona, cani, adversaria, dinv, iiiferif superij
justa, majores, minores, posteri, stativa, &c.

PLURALS SIGNIFYING SINGULARLY.

The indefatigable Mr. R. Johnson has given, in his ex-
cellent Commentaries, the following list, confirmed by pro-
per citations, of words which are sometimes found (espe-
cially among the poets) in the plural number, with the sig-
nification of smgulars : — Alia (the sea), animi, aurce ; ca-
rince, cervices (the neck), colla, comce, connubia, corda, cor-
pora, crepuscula, ciirrus ; exilia ,- frigora ,• gaiidia, guttura ;
hymencei ; jejunia, judicia, igncs, inguina, jubce ; limina^
littora; mensce [^ coxxvse or service of dishes); numina; odia,
orce, ora (plur. of os), ortns, ofia ; pectora ; rictus (jaws of
one creature, or of more), robora ; silentia, sinus (the plait
of a garment); tcedce, terga, tempora (time), thalami, tori,
vice) vuUus, thura, amo^-es (sweetheart), &c.

SINGULARS USED PLURALLY.

Certain nouns are sometimes elegantly used in the singu-
lar, with a plural signification, such as, miles for milites (the
soldiery); cques for equites; liomanus for Ilomani ; pedes for
pedites, Sec.

The adjective multus likewise; as in the examples, Quis
multa gracilis te puer in rosa — Hor. Qiiam multo repetet
Grcccia milite — Hor. i. e. on many roses, or a bed of roses;
with many soldiers, w a large army.

PRONOUNS.

A pronoun is a word used, through necessity or for con-
venience, instead of a noun : it has gender, case, and num-
ber.

Pronouns are divided into four classes, viz.
1 . Demonstratives ; ego^ tu, sui.

2. Relatives; illc^ ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui.

3. Possessives ; 7neus, iuus, sims, noster, vaster.

4. Gentiles or Patrials ; nostras, vestras, cnjas.
Quis and cnjas are called also Interrogatives.

The declension of all these has been shown, except that
of ego, tu, sui ; and hie, is, quis and qid.

Ego, tu, sui, are substantives ; they have no gender of their
own, but assume the gender of the noun for which they are
placed. They are thus declined :

/

Sing.

Plur.

nos,

nostrum, i,
nobis,
nos.

Sing.

iu,

tuT,

tibT,

te,

til,

te.

Plur, S

vos,

vestrum, -I,

vobis,

vos,

vos,

vobis.

ing. ^- Phir.

J.V. cgu,

G. mei,
D. miliT,
Ac. me,
V.

Ab. me,

sui,

sibT,

se,

nobis.

se.

The preposition cum is put after these ablatives.
The compounds egomct, tutemet, suimet, are regular.

These are Monoptotes.

Nom. tuie. Ac. scse, tcte, the simple pronoun being
doubled.

Hie, Is, Qiii and Qiiis, are thus declined :

Sing.

Plur.

M.

F.

N.

M.

F.

N.

N.

hTc,

hsc,

hoc.

hi,

hs.

hSc,

G.

hujiis,

horum,

hiirum.

horum,

D.

huic ',

his.

Ac.

hunc,

banc.

hoc.

hos,

has.

hffiC,

V.

Ab.

hoc,

hue,

hoc.

his.

Sing.

Plur.

M.

F.

N.

M.

F.

N.

N.

IS,

ea,

id.

n,

ea",

ea.

G.

ejus.

eorum,

earum.

e5rum,

D.

el,

lis, vcl

els.

Ac.

eum,

earn.

Yd,

eos,

eas.

ea,

V.

Ah.

CO,

ea,

eo,

lis vel eis.

» Gr hmc, but

Ics? common .

i5

Sing, Flur.

M. F. N.

j^ (Qius), (quid or quod),

* Qui, quae, quod,
G. Cujiis,
D. Cui',
Ac. Queni, quam, quod (qmd),

V.

Ab. Quo, qua, quo.

Qui, qua-, qujp,

Quorum, quarum, quorum*
Quibiis vel quels,
Quos, quas, quS,

Quibus vel quel So

Qjii is put for the ablative singular in all genders, rarely ab-
lative plural. Cum is put after the ablatives of qui and quis.

COMPOUND PRONOUNS.

(1) Compounds of /i/c are: N. isthic, isthcec^ isthoc vel
isthuc. Ac. istkunc, isthanc, isthoc vel isthuc. Ab isthoc^
isfhac^ isthoc. So illic. Hicce has all the cases that end in c
or 5, before ce'^ ; and hiccine all the cases haAang c before cine,

(2) The compound of ?5 is, idem, eadem. Idem, which, like
qnidam, changes in before d into n,

(3) Compounds of quis formed by prefixing ne, mm, ecj
si and ali {alius) to quis ; or adduig nam, quam, que, piam,
or doubling quis, are : uequis, numquis, ecquis, siquis, ali"
quis ; quisnam, quisquam, quisque, quispiam, quisquis. The
compounds of quis, when quis is put last, have qua in the
nominative singular feminine and neuter plural. Siquis and
ecquis have qua or q?/^. Quisquis is thus declined : N. quiS"
quis, quidquid or quicquid. Ac. quidquid or quicquid. Ab.
quoquo, quaqua, quoquo. Quisquam has qucsquam, quod-
quam, and quidquam or quicquam : Ace. sing, quenquam, the
feminine wanting. The plural is seldom used. Some are
doublv compounded : as ccquisnam, used in the nominative
only? and unusquisquc, which wants the plural.

(i) The com])ounds oi' qui are quida7n, quicunque, quivis,
and quiiibcf, which are regular.

Ali these pronouns want the vocative.
Qiieis is not used in composition.

BIONOPTOTES.

Gen. Ejusce, ciijusce, hujusmodi, ejusmodi, cujusmodi, hu~
juscemodi. Ac. Eccum, eccam ; eccos, eccas (from ecce, and
is). Ellum, cllam ; cllos, ellas (from ecce and illc).

' Or ciii, but less common.

" Tills is a ccimiijoii lulo ; but liicc ma)' be found in Tcifnrp, Enn. 2. 2. f^B.
Horuace and haruncn, and, by apocope, Iwrunc and liaruiic' mjty liJicwibC ba
found ; but they aic uaconunun,

56

Abl. Pie is put after the ablatives 7nea, iud, sua, nostra,
vestrciy and sometimes after the mascuhne of these.

Observations on some pronouns.

(1) Aliquis and Qiiidam may be thus distinguished: the
former denotes a person or thing indeterminateli) ; the latter,
deter minately.

(2) Uter refers to two, and is therefore joined to compa-
ratives.

(3) Qjds may refer to many, and is therefore joined with
superlatives.

(4) Hie and Hie are often found to refer to two words
going before them. Hie refers to the latter; Ille to the
former ; but in a few instances, where no ambiguity is oc-
casioned by it, this distinfction is reversed '.

(5) As demonstratives. Hie refers to the person nearest
to me ; Iste to the person nearest to you; Ille to any inter-
mediate person. In the same manner Hie is for the first
person ; Istie for the second; Illie for the third. — Is may re-
fer to a person absent.

(6) Ijise?LVL(S. Idem are joined to any person. Ipse is often
joined to the primitives ego^ tu, ille, siii. It may agree with
these; but when the nominative, and the word governed
by the verb, refer to the same person, it is better to be put
in the nominative ; as, Mihi ipse placeo ,- Te ipse laudas ,-
Cato se ipse oceidit. It is often used emphatically, for per
se : as, Ipse prccfuit cxereitui, He commanded the army in
person.

(7) ///e denotes honour ; /s/c contempt.

(8) Thus is used when we speak to one; as, Siiinnc, Co-
riola?ie, in iuis eastris captiva, an mater? V ester, when
we speak to more than one; as, Gives, miseremini cceli vestri,

(9) Omni;, Qidsque, and Uierquc, have been thus distin-
guished : Omnis and Qjusque are generally used when we
speak of more than two ; Uter que always when we speak of two.

(10) Alter is in general applied to one of two; Alitis to
one of many. But Cicero uses Primus, Seaaidns et Alter.
In general Alter when repeated is to be translated by the one
and the other ; but there is a passage in Cicero, in which
the former Alter refers to the last antecedent ; viz. Ut e7iim
cum civi aliicr contendimus, si est inhnicus, aliter si compe-
titor : cum altero [competitore) certamen lionnris, cum altero
capitis et famcB. De Off. lib. 1, 12. — Alius is, in Caesar,

' In such instances as~-pintns el aer, Fluctibus hie tnmidus, nubibus illc
ininar —Ovid. Sic deus et rirgn e.tl ; hir x;;c relcj-, ilia liinore — Ovid, tiie rela-
tive situations of ihe objcctfj mny have been regarded, not the poiiuon oi' the
nouns in \)w sentence.

57

applied to one of two; as, Duas leges promiilgavil ,• unam
quce mercedes liahitationum annuas conducioribn?, donavit ;
aliam tahulamm novarum. C.e.s. 3. Bel. Civil. Alter is
sometimes used like Alius. — When in a sentence alius is
repeated, it is expressed in English by different terms coi'-
responding with each other ; such as one., another ,- sonWy
others, &c. Thus, Alii domos, alii monies petehant., Some
were going to their homes, and others to the mountains.
Qiiorum alius, alia causa illata, petebat. Of whom one as-
signing one cause, another, another, asked ; or Each of whom
assisninu a different cause, asked.

(11) (r^uivis, any whom you please; Qiiisquam, any one;
and Ullus, any, are thus used : Qiiivis affirms ; as, Qiiidvis
mihi sat est, Any thing pleases me. Qiiodvis pati mallemy
I would rather suffer any thing. JJllus never affirms, but
asks or denies, that is, it may be used in an interrogative
sentence, or in a sentence negatively expressed : as also
Qiiisquam. Thus, Ncc nlla res ex omnihis m,e angit — Cic.
Nor does any thing of all these things distress me. Nee
qiiisquam eorum te novit. Nor does any one of them know
you. In an interrogative sentence ; as. An qnisquam duhi-
tabit F Cic. Will any one doubt it ? UUjis is used in the
same way.

(12) Mei, iui, sui, nostri, vestri, the genitives of the pri-
mitives, ai*e generally used when passion, or the being acted
upon, is denoted ; as amor mei, means, the love whercivith I
am loved.

(13) Mens, tuns, suns, rioster, vesfer, the possessives, de-
note action, or the possession of a thing ; as amor metis, is
the love which I possess and exert tcAvards somebodij else. But
these two distinctions are sometimes reversed: thus the first;
Nam neque tud negligentid, neqiie odio id ^ fecit tuo — Ter.
Neither did he do it out of neglect towards you, nor of
hatred towards you; in which the possessives tud and tuo
are used instead of tui, denoting the neglect with which you
are neglected, and the hatred with which you are hated.

The second; Ex iinius tui vita pendcre omnium — Cic. That
the lives of all de})end upon your life; in which Iui is put
instead of the possessive tud. Cicero uses insidicv alieujus,
passively, for the snares which are laid against a man, not
for those which a man lays.

(14) Adjectives, participles, and verbs, which have a ge-
nitive after them, take that of the primitives ; as, Similis mei ;
memor nostri ; observdns tui ,- indigetis mei.

(15) Partitives, nimierals, comparatives, and superlatives

58

take after them nostrum, vestrum ; as, utcrque noslnhn ,-
primus vestrum ; major, maximus vestrum. But Cicero, in
his Orations, pays no regard to this distinction.

(16) The possessives often take after them ijisius, solius^
tinius, duorum, trium, &c., omnium, plurium, paucoriim, CU'

jusque, and the genitives of participles hkemse ; which words
have a reference to the primitive understood ; as, Dixi med
uuius opera rempuhlicam esse salvam — Cic. I said that the
state was preserved by the service of me alone. Meum soliiis
peccattim coi-rigi non potest — Cic. The offence of me alone

cannot be amended. Scripta cum mea nemo legat, iml-

gb recitare timentis — Hor. Since nobody reads the writings
of me, fearing to rehearse them publicly. De tuo ipsius
studio conjecturam ceperis — Cic. You may conjecture from
your own study. In sua c?/jusque laiide prcestantior — Erasm.
More excellent each in his own skill. Nostra ojunium me-
morid — Erasm. In the memory of us all. Vestris paiico-
rum respojidet laudibus — Cic. He answers to the praises of
you few.

It is evident, that to all these the primitive Is tmdcistood:
thus, Meum sulius pcccatum is the same as Mci solius pecca-
tum ; but, as meum was expressed, mei became unnecessary.

RECIPROCALS.

(17) ^ui and E>uus are called reciprocals, because they al-
ways refer to some preceding person or thijig, generally the
principal noun in the sentence : thus, Caesar Ariovisto dixit,
non sese (Casarem) Gallis, scd Gallos sibi [Ccvsari) helium
intidisse, Caesar told Ariovistus, that he had not made war
upon the Gauls, but the Gauls ui)on him; in which se and
5/^/ refer to Caesar, the principal noun. But when different
persons are spoken of pronominally, other pronouns are ne-
cessary for distinction's sake : thus, Cato confesses that he
(Cato) has erred, Cato sc peccdssc fafetur. Cato thinks ill
of Ciesar, and says that he (Caesar) aims at a revolution ;
De Cccsarc male sentit Cato ,- cum stud ere novis rebus arbi-
tratur. Cato killed himself with his (Cato's own) sword;
Suo se gladio confccit Cato. He killed himself with his sword
(diat is, with the sword of any body else); illius gladio se
confccit.

These distinctions will be more fully explained by the
following remarks :

I. When he or his refers to the case which precedes the
vc)-b, sui and siiiis are used : as. Homo Justus nihil cuiquam,
quod in sc Iransftrat, detrahel — Cic, .: hi which sc rd'ers to

, 59

homo. Pythius piscatores ad se [Pijthium) cotwocavif, et ab
his j)etivit, ut ante sues {Pythii) hortulos piscareniur — Cic.
Had the fishermen's gardens been intended, the expression
would have been ante i_psorum hortulos. Change the nomina-
tive; Piscatores erant a Pythio rogati, ut ante suos hortulos
j)iscare?itur : here suos refers to piscatoi'es ; and if his is to
refer to Pythius, it must be expressed by ante ejus hortulos.
The noun preceding the verb is sometimes in the accusative:
as, Dicunt Cererem antiquissimam a C. Verre ex suis templis
esse sublatam — Cic. ; in which suis refers to the accusative
Cererem, which is virtually a nominative, and resolvable into
quod Ceres &c. If I say C. Vcrres sustulit Cererem ex tem^
plis suis, suis refers to Verres the nominative ; and if I wish
to apply the pronoun to Ceres, I must say ex templis ejus.

In such sentences as, Pater jussit Jilio^, id iret in cuhicu-
lum suum, and, Verres rogat Dolahellam, ut de sua proimcia
decedat, m which there are two verbs, and two third persons,
we must distinguish by the context which is the principal
person, in order, generally, to refer the reciprocal to this as
its proper nominative.

II. The reciprocals may likewise be applied to the word
which follows the verb, provided that it is capable of being
turned into the nominative, without altering the sense: thus,
Trahit sua quemque voluptas — Virg. ; in which siia refers to
quemque, the object of tlie verb, because it may become the
subject, as in the equivalent expression, Quisque trahitur a
voluptate sua. In the same manner, Pegis est gidjernare
SUOS; in whidi suos refers to regis, because we may say. Regis
officium est ut (rex) gubernet cives suos. Hunc sui cives eje-
cerunt — Cic. Sui refers to hunc, because we may say, Hie
ejectus est a suis civibus.

III. Provided no ambiguity should arise, the reciprocals
may be used instead of relative pronouns ; and especially
when the first or second person is used : as, Gralias mihi
agunt quod se {cos) med sentcniid reges appellaverim — Cic;
Suam rem sibi salvam sistam — Plant.; in which ejus and ci
might be used; llmet ne deseras se, or, earn — Ter. Relatives
may be used instead of reciprocals : as, Omnes boni, quan-
tum in ipsis (or se) J'uit, Cccsarem occiderunt — Cic; Per-
suadent Rauracis ut una cum iis (or secum) prqficiscantur —
Cecs. Perjuga Fabricio p)ollicitus est, si j^rccmium ci (or sibi^

' This is an uncominon constniction ; for although Tacitus says, Ubi Bri-
liinnko jnssil ej:urgerc. jubeo has commonlj the atcubati^c and intinilive mood
after it.

60

viz. pofu^rcv) propos7a'ssef, se Pz/rrhum veneno necaturum —
Cic. Qiiaproptcr mm petit ul ilium {sc) misenim putctis, nisi
et innocens fuei'it — Quiiict.

( 1 ) Sometimes sui and ipse are applied to the same per-
son, in the same sentence : ns, Abisari Alexander nunciari

jussit^ si i^ravarefnr ad se {Alexandrnm) venire, ipswn {Alex-
andrum) ad cum esse venlururd — Curt. Ei legatiuni Ariovis-
tus respondit^ si quid ipsi (Ariovisto) a Cccsare opus esset, sese
{Ariovistum) ad cum ventmmm fuisse ; si quid ille {Ccesar) a
se {Ariovisto) velif, ilium (Ccesarem) ad se {Ariovistum) ve-
nire oportere — Caes. Sometimes the recij)rocals refer, in the
same ^ sentence, both to the primary and secondary noun,
especially when the latter becomes important, and no ambi-
guity is thereby produced. Thus Ariovistus tells Ceesar,
Neminem secum sine sua pernicie co7itendisse ; that no one
had contended with him, without sulfering his own ruin.
Secnm refers to Ariovistus ; sua to nenmicm. It is evident
that Ariovistus laid great stress on sua pernicie', and that
these two words must refer to neminem, since it was Ario-
vistus himself who was then speaking, and whose destruc-
tion, consequently, could not, at that time, have taken
place.

(2) Suus, Is, or Ipse, may likewise be used, indifferently,
in certain cases. We may say, Cepi columbam. in nido sua,
or, /;/ nido ejus, or ipsius. The first is equivalent to, Co
lumba a me capta est in nido su6. And ejus or ipsitis may
he used, because nidus can refer to columba only. Suns may
likewise be used for other pronouns, vvhen its use canno^
from the sense, cause any ambiguity ; as, in Virgil, when,
speaking of Dido's nurse ; he says, Namque suam patrid, an-
tiqua ei)iis ater hahchat, in which suam cannot refer to cinis
atcr, either according to the sense, or the gender used, but
evidently to her nurse.

&ui also ; as, Dionysius Jilias suas tondere dociiif, instituit-
que ut candentibus jwj^landium ptifaminibus harbam sibi, et
capillum adurerent — Cic. Flere sibi cannot refer to his daugh-
ters, although they are the nominative to adurereiif, but to
Dionysius himselii since his daughters, it is presumed, had
no beard. Had the sentence been, Dionysius instiliiit ut Ji-
licc sulc capillum sibi adurerent, sibi must refer to Jilicv, the
nominative to the verb. To remove any ambiguity in this
sentence, and to make his applicable to Dionysius, we should
say, ut caj)illum ipsi adtirercnt.

(3) When two oblique cases are connected by a con-
jimctionj the relative pronoun is rather to be used: as, Sup^

61

pliciim siimpait de fure et soch's ejus, not suis, lest suis should
refer to he, the nomhiative to the verb. If the preposition
cion be used, we generally say dc Jure cum xociis suis.

(4) If the nominative or accusative precede mtn; the re-
ciprocal sui only is used : as, the nominative ; Fratrcs ge-
mini mter se cum forma turn ?norib?(s similes — Cic. The ac-
cusative ; as, Fcras inter sese partus atque educaiio et nalura
couciliat — Cic. But when the genitive, dative, or ablative jire-
cede, sui, or, ipse, or sometimes istc, may be used ; as, after
the genitive, Una spes est salutis istorum inter istos disscnsio
— Cic. Inter se or ipsos might have been used. After the da-
tive ; as, Latissime patens hominihus inter ipsos socielas est
hcec — Cic. After the ablative ; as, In magnis quoquc aucto-
ribus incidunt aliqua vitiosa etiam a doclis inter ipsos mutub
reprehcnsa — Quinct.

(5) Suns is sometimes put for wiicuique j^roprins, peculi-
ar: as, India mittit ehur, moll cs sua thura Sahai — Virg. The
country of the Sabaei was particularly famous for myrrh,
cassia, frankincense, and such productions. It sometimes
indicates Jitness or congruity : as, Sunt et sua dona parenti
— Virg. There are likewise for my father, fit, appropriate,
or suitable presents.

(6) Suus is often used without the substantive being men-
tioned to which it refers : as, Suum cuique trihuito. Give every
man his own (thing, negotium). Sui responderunt. His sol-
diers or countrymen answered [civcs or niilites being under-
stood).

(7) The reciprocals alone, are used with quisq?ie, and they
generally are placed before it : as, Pro se qiiisque acriter in-
teiidat animum — Liv. Sua cjijusque animantis natura est —
Cic. Every animal has its own peculiar nature. Suus is put
after quisque in this example from Virgil ; Qiiisque suos pa-
timur manes.

(8) Sihi and sometimes tihi, mihi, &c., though not indis-
pensably necessary, are used for the sake of elegance : as,
Suo sihi gladio Jmncjugulo — Ter. Ex ard Jiinc sume libi ver-
benas— Ter. Expcdi mihi hoc negotium — Ter.

(9) The reciprocals may be applied to two distinct sub-
jects coupled by a conjunction ; as. Inter se contendebant
Indutiomarus et Cingetorix — Cses. The manner of usinc; cer-
tain pronouns should be exemplified by such sentences as
the following: " Quod ubi Caesar rescivit; quorum per fines
ierant his uti conquirerent et reducerent, si si hi purgati esse
vellent, imperavit. Tulingos, et Latobrigos, in fines suos
unde erant profecti, reverti jussit; Allobrogib us imperavit

62

ut Ills fvumentl copiam facerent; ipsos, opplda vicosque qiios
inqenderant, restituere jussit." — Cses.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

I. Regular comparison is made by adding to die first case
of the positive in i, or for the mascuhne and feminine, and
lis for the neuter of comparatives ; and -s&imus -a -um, for
the superlative.

1. Some adjectives in lis change is into linnis for the su-
perlative ; as agil-is, Jcicil-is, gracil-isy si?nil-is, humil-is, -li-
mus. Imbecillis has -linms, and from imhecillus, -issimus.

2. Adjectives in er, add to er, rimus, for the superlative.
Ccler has, from celeris, sometimes celcrissimus.

II. Adjectives in dicus, volus,Jiciis, loqiius, change us into
entior\ and entissimus. Mirificus has viiri/icissimiis or miri-
Jiccntissimus.

IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, OR UNUSUAL COMPARISbN.

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

Adolescens, .... adolescentior, * .

.... anterior, .

Aprlcus, apricior, *f apricissimus. * f

Bellus, bellior,*f bellissimus. *

Bonus, melior, optimus.

citerior, citimus.

Consultus, consultior,*f consultissimus.*

Crispus, crispior5*f crispissimus.* f

Deter {obsol.).., deterior, * deterrimus.*

Dexter, dexterior, * dextunus.

Diversus, diversior,*f diversissimus.*f

Dives, divitisl divitior*f cont. \ divitissimus * f , coni.

cont. ditis, J ditior, J ditissimus.

Diuturnus, diuturnior, * ; — .

Exter, exterior,* extimus, extremus.

Falsus, falsissimus.*f

■Fidus, fidior,*f fidissimus.*

Jejunus, jejunior, *f

Inclytus, inclytissimus.*

Inferus inferior,* infimus, imus.

Infinitus, infinitior, * f .

\x\X.QXVi'i,{phsolete^ interior,* mtimus.

Ingens, ,..., ingentior.* • '-*

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

Invlsus, lnvisior,*f invisissimiis.*-|'

Invitus, invitior,*f invitissimus.*

Iiivictus, invictissimus.*

Juvenis, junior, .

Licens, licentior,* .

Magnus, major, maximus.

Malus, pejor, pessimus.

Maturus, niaturior,* maturrimus, -issimus^

Mellitus, mellitissimus.*

Meritus, meritissimus.*

Multus, plus {sing, neuter)^, plurimus.

Nequam(2V2c/fi'c^.)'nequior,* nequissimus.*

Novus, novissimus.*

Nuperus, nuperrimus.

ocyor, ., ocyssimus.

OpTmus, opiniior, * .

Par, ...... parissimus.*

Parvus, minor, minimus.

*

Persuasus, ... persuasissimus

Posterns, posterior,* posttemus or postu-

Potis, pote {ino- mus.

noptote), potior,* potissimus.*

Pronus, pronior,* .

prior, pnmus.

propior, proximus.

Sacer, sacerrimus*.

Satur, saturior,* .

Senex, senior, .

sequior,.
^satior. .

Sinister, sinisterior,f sinistimus.

Silvester, sil-") -i , . *

, . > silvestrior, * .

vestris, j

Supinus, supinior,*f .

Superus, superior,* supremus, summus.

Vetus, veterior,* veterrimus.

. ulterior, ultimus.

Words marked* are regularly compared. Those marked f

are not often found.

ADDITIONAL SUPERLATIVES WANTING.

Most adjectives in llis and dlis, and in bilis ; as juvenilist

• Ncquam forms its comparison as if fioiQ nequi the genitive.
' Siitiui only, I btlieve, i^ found.

64-

c'lviUs^ capitalis, regalis^ lalerahilis. Add alsOj arcaiiKSi de-
clivis, prod his, luvginquus, propinquus.

COMPARISON WANTING.

Particijiles in rus and diLS^ adjectives in bundus^ imtis, inus,
orus, /cus, and us after a vowel (except -cptus), diminutives
in lus (which are in reaUty a sort of comparison); as cwia-
turus, amandus, pudibundus, llnms, maiulinus^ odurus, famcli-
cuSf tenellus, dubius, have no simple comparison. Add to
these, most nouns in ivus, and adjectives compounded of
verbs and nouns ; as fugitivus^ versicolor^ tardigradus^ de-
gener, consomis, yestifer, armiger ; and aim us, mirus, egenus,
lacer, memor^ sospcs.

( 1 ) Some adjectives in us pure, are found, having simple
comparison, such as arduus, assiduus^ cxigtcus, ]nus \ perpe-
tuus, strcmtus, xiacuus, to which add tenuis; but they have
generally compound comparison, by magis and maxime.

The comparison of substantives, as l>lero, Ncronior; of
pronouns, as ipse, ipsissimus ; of words already compared,
3lS proximus, proximior ; postrcmus, postremissimus, is not to
be imitated.

(2) When the adjective does not vary its termination in
comparison-, and the sense admits further intension, this is
done by prefixing magis (more), and maxime (most); or, for
diminution, nwius (less), and minime (the least). The compa-
rison of eminence denoted by very (in adjectives likewise that
are susceptible of termmational comparison) is made by
valde and admodmn, or by de, per, or pra prefixed ; as de-
2)arcus, very sparing; />c;-- or pra-facilis, very easy ; permulti^
very many ; perpauci, very few^ In this state they admit no

' Pientissirmis is found in inscriptions.

- It may be more a metapJiysical than a fframmatical remark, that, pro-
perly speaking, no words, but such as admit of further intension, can be com-
pared. But, in Englisli, the word perfect, and, in LaUn, jKrfectus, plenus,
satur, Sec, are compared. It is evident, that nothing can be jnore perfect than
jmfcclion, nor more full than fuhiess. These words, therefore, do not increase
upon the absolute sense of the positive ; but, being compared, indicate a com-
parative increase over something not possessing tlic full quality implied in the
positive, in its absolute and complete sense ; and must, therefore, denote np-
proximalion or tendency. Thus, "One thing is fuller than another," must
mean, that one thing approaches nearer to fulness than the other, and presup-
poses that neither is absolutely full.

In nearly a similar way may be explained, the manner in which certain
comparatives seem greater than superlatives, in the following quotations from
Cicero :

" Ego autem hoc sum miscrior quam tu, qua; es viiserrima." " Persuade
tibi te mihi esse cliarissinnim, sed multo fore clmriorem, si &c." In these sen-
tences the superlative is to the comparative, as a sort of positive, upon which
the comparative is formed.

3 Adjectives compounded with certain prepositions increasing or diminishing
tlie signification of the simple nctun, if the simple noun be in use and admit
comparison, are seldom compared j such Zixc prccdivee, pradnrus ; dqjarcuy.

65

simple comparison, although the word perpaucissimi^ a very
very few, is found.

(3) When the superlative is wanting, the comparative is
sometimes used in its stead : as, Adolesce7itioTes apum. The
younger or youngest of the bees. Jimiorcs patrum. The
youngest of the senators. In such instances, the bees and
the senators are divided into two parties ; and then the com-
parative is strictly applicable.

For the comparison of adverbs^ see Adverbs.

OF THE VERB.

A Verb has been defined to be " that part of speech which
signifies to be, to do, or to suffer : " or, more correctly, " that
part of speech which predicates some action, passion, or
state of its subject : " as, amo^ mdneror^ sto. Its essential ser-
vice consists in affirmation, and by this property it is distin-
guished from every other part of speech.

To the verb belong, conjugation, voices, moods, tenses,
numbers, and persons.

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS.

Verbs are either simple, as amo ; or compound, as rcdamo.
Primitive, as legO; or derivative, as lectito. Regular, as ajno ;
or irregular, as volo; defective, as inquam ; or redimdant, as
cdo, I eat. Their termination is in o, as amo; in w, as amor ;
or in m, as sum.

Verbs have been likewise divided into substantive, and ad-
jective. A substantive verb denotes the affirmation of being
or existeiice : as, sum, fo, existo.

An adjective verb denotes existence, but with the addition
of some attribute or quality belonging to the subject: as, lego^

edurus ; subhorridus, subtristis, Sec. Except prcedarus, which has both a com-
parative and a superlative. Unt praislans, prcestabilis, &c. which come imme-
diately from verbs, admit comparison ; to which add pr^Esens, whose simple
noun is not in use, and prccfractus, -ior, in which the signification of the simple
noun is changed. The compounds of per derived from verbs follow the
same rule as those with prce : thus may be found pcrquisitior, pervagatior, ^>er-
vagatissimus, perjurior, perjurissiriius, from perquiro, pervagcn; perjuro or pejero.
But when, for the sake of intension, per is prefixed to adjectives admitting
comparison, it is joined only to the positive ; os in percarus, pcrdiligens, per-
pulclior; nor are such words as percanor, -issimus, found. Vossius and Ursinus,
however, contend that the superlative also admits per, from the supposed oc-
currence o( perpaucissimus in Columella, R. R. iii. 20; oi pcrlenuissbmtSy
Senec. N. QuKst. ii. 10; of peroptimus, Plant. Mostell. iii. 1. 113; of perdif-
fxcUlimus, Liv. xl. 21 ; o( perplurimum, Plin. ii. 54. But better editions have|
in these places, teninssima, oplimo, per diffkiUiynum, plurimum,

F

66

I read, or am reading. In regard to their having a person
as their subject, or not admitting one, they are divided into
personal, and impersonal.

Personal verbs are divided into active, passive, neuter
(and neuter passive), deponent, and common.

A verb active is tliat which aiKrms that the person or no-
minative before it is doing something : as, amo^ luquor, cur^
roj I love, I speak, I run.

A verb passive denotes that tlie person or nominative, is
suffering, or in the condition of being acted upon : as vcrhe-
ror, I am beaten.

A verb neuter denotes the state, posture, or quality of its no-
minative: as,palleo, I am pale; sedeo, I sit; gaudeo, 1 am glad.

The verb active may be considered as either transitive, or
intransitive. When the energy or action passes from the
agent to something else, the verb is transitive : as, «7?/o, I
love. Every active transitive verb is necessarily placed be-
tw^een two substantives, the agent or nominative, and the
object or accusative. Thus when we say, "Achilles slew,"
our conception of the meaning is incomplete, till we supply
" Hector," or some other object on which the agent acts ;
which, in Latin, is always expressed in an oblique case ; as,
Achilles inteijccit Hectorem. Sometimes a clause or sentence
supplies tlie place of this last: as Siipcrhia fccerat, Pride had
occasioned. What? ut h(sctihe)ius esset Icetior — Liv.

When the energy does not pass from the agent to any
extrinsic object, the verb is intransitive : as, curro^ I run.
Tliis class contains verbs of loco-motion : as, co, rcdco, am-
bulo, &c. ; — verbs of internal or involuntar}^ motion: as, stillo,
cadOf cfcsco, &c. ; — verbs denoting certain employments: as,
bajulo^fccneror, regno, &c. These are sometimes classed with
neuter verbs. It may be here observed, that some intran-
sitive verbs, whicli, as such, cannot have an accusative after
tliem, may be rendered transitive, and in this case have a pas-
sive voice, by means of a preposition prefixed to them, which
gives to the verb a direction of its energy. Thus some of the
compounds of eo : as, adco (used passively chiefly in the
third persons), ambio, circumco, coco (used chiefly with so-
cietas), ineOy obeo, pnctereo, subeo, transeo. Some compoimds
of venio : as, circumvenio, invenio, pravenio, and convenio,
which last is generally intransitive, and used passively chiefly
in the perfect participle ; with some others'.

' Some of those intransitive verbs which seem to be rendered transitive, by a
preposition, govern either an^accusatlvc, or the case of the preposition : as, Egir.i-
tusjines— Sail. & Cxs, E^rediveritatcm — PUu. Urbey tectisegredi'^Ck. & Ov,

61

A neuter-passive verb is partly active, and partly passive,
in termination; and is passive or neuter in signification: as,
^fio, /actus swn, to be made: or neuter; as, audco, ausus simiy
to dare ; gaudeo, gavisus sum, to rejoiced

A deponent verb has a passive termination, witli an ac-
tive, or neuter signification : as, loquor, 1 speak ; morior, I
die. It is a verb active, or a verb neuter, in or. It is called
Deponent, from its having deposed or forsaken the active
form.

A common verb has a passive termmation, with an active
and passive signification: as, criminor, I blame, or am blamed.
It is generally considered as deponent, excepting in the per-
fect participle, which, in some verbs, has either an active, or
a passive, signification.

Verbs receive different names, according to their various
7iatures or tendencies.

Frequentatives denote frequency of action, and are formed
from the supine of the primitive, by changing in tlie first
conjugation, Citu into ito ,- and in the other conjugations, u
into o ; as clamUo, dormito, jndso, from clamo, dormio, pello^.

Inceptives denote an action begun, and going on, and are
formed from the second person singular of the primitive
verb: thus, caleo, cedes, calcsco^.

' Fio, with vapido and venen, %rords which, under an active termination,
have the signification and construction of passive verbs, are sometimes named
neuter-passives, and sometimes passive-neuters. To them have been added
exulo, mtbo, and Ikeo; but these do not, as the former three, admit after them
an ablative of the efficient cause with a or ab. Indeed, the real signification
oiiuiho may perhajis be considered as active ; and the other two seem to de-
note rather an accidental state, than actual suffering.

- lueqiientatives end in to, so, xo, and, when deponent, in or : as, damito,
jndso, ne.ro, m'udtor. K(Uo, which comes from ?io, iialii, is irregular in forma-
tion. Scitor, or, more frequently, sciscitor, comes from scio, scilu, or from
scisno. Pavito from pavco ; sector from sequor ; loquilor from lorjuor, are formed
as if the primitives had pavitu, scclti, loqidtu. Qiitrrito, fnndllo, agito, and
Jlidto, are formed from quads, fundis, agis, and Jhus, or, perhaps, from obso-
lete supines. — Some seem to be formed by changing ti into ito : thus, from
aclu comes acliio ; from licesit, hccdLo ; Icctu, lect'do ; scrtplu, scnjUi'o, &c. But
perhaps these may be formed from other frequentatives now obsolete ; indeed,
Iccto and scripto are both in Horace. — From frequentatives are formed others:
as, gero, gesto, geslito ; jacio, jacto, jact'Uo, &c. They are all of the first conju-
gation.

3 Inceptives arc also derived from nouns, by changing the last vowel of
the genitive into asco or csco : as, pucrasco, igncsco, dulc.csco, from pucr, ignis,
dtdcui. They are neuter, and of the third conjugation. Those wliich are
formed from nouns want the preterite and supine ; the others borrow tlicm
from their primitives.

F2

68

Deslderatives or meditatives denote desire, or an attempt,
to do a thing, and are formed fi-om the last supine of tlie
primitive, by adding rio : as, esurio, I desire to eat, from edo,
esu ; cccnaturio, I desire to sup, from cceno, ccenatu.

Diminutives generally end in //o, and diminish the sig-
nification of the primitive: thus, cantillo, I sing a little, from
cano ; sorhilloy I sup a little, from sorheo.

There are some verbs in sso, derived from other verbs,
whose precise import and signification are not ascertamed
among grammarians : such as, capesso^ facesso, petcsso, ar-
cesso, incesso, lacesso. Capesso and faccsso are termed in-
choatives, or words importing the commencement of going ;
thus, capesso, I am going to take ; faccsso, I am going to
make ; to which some add viso, I am going to see. Ursinus
calls them, with greater propriety, intensives : thus, capesso
and faccsso mean, I am taking, or doing, a thing in an ear-
nest or urgent manner ; thus also, petesso, I very much de-
sire.

Incesso and lacesso may be reckoned frequentatlves. Ai"
ccssOf incipisso, vibrisso^ have nearly the same signification
iis their primitives,

OF VOICES.

A voice is that accident of a verb, which denotes whether
an action or energy is confined to the agent or nominative :
as, cado, I fall ; or is exerted by the )iominative upon an ex-
ternal object, as Amo virum, I love the man ; or is exerted
by an external object upon the nominative, as Fh' amahir.
The man is loved.

As only active transitive verbs exert an energy on extrinsic
objects, and cause suffering, so these only admit a passive
voice. The voices are two, the active and passive ; the one
in o, as amo ; the other in m\ as a7nm\

As an active verb denotes that the nominative to it is
doing something, and a passive verb, that it is Suffering ;
hence, to distinguish whether an English verb is to be ren-
dered, in Latin, in the active or passive voice, nothing more
is necessary than to consider whether the nominative be
doing or suffering; Exa. John is buildmg, Joannes (cdi-
Jicat. The wall is building, Mums cedificatur. The English
is the same in both examples, but in the one, John is active;
in the other, the wall is passive.

69

OF MOODS.

Action and states of being may be predicated, as either
certain or contingent, free or necessary, obligatory or op-
tional ; hence arises the accident or circumstance of verbs,
called a mood or mode.

There are four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive,
imperative and infinitive.

The indicative asserts, and interrogates; as Atno^ I love;
Non amo, I love not; Dixit aliquidP Did he say anything?

When the sense is purely indicative, and the second form
of the verb is subjoined to some conjunctive, adverbial, or
indefinite term, the mood is said to be subjunctive; as Eram
miser, cum amarem. When I was in love. In tantd 2Jciu~
periatc deccssif, ut qui efferretur vix reliquerit — Nep. that
he scarcely left. — When the word expresses what is contin-
gent or hypothetical, having the same signification as debeo,
nolo, jwssum, with an infinitive, and thus denoting duti/, isoill,
ability, or liberty, the mood is, strictly speaking, potential.
When subjoined, it has been termed the subjunctive poten-
tial.— When it denotes a isoish, the mood is said to be opta-
tive. It may be remarked, however, that when the second
form of the verb is used potentially or optatively, the ex-
pression is, probably, elliptical; and that the periphrasis
with jwssnm, volo, licet, &c., is employed, and not this form
of the verb, when the proposition Is absolute and indepen-
dent, or where i\\e po'wer, liberty, will, or duty, is to be em-
phatically expressed '.

The imperative commands, entreats, or permits.

The infinitive expresses the mere energy of the verb, and
has neither number, person, nor nominative before it ; but
approaches nearly to the signification of a verbal noun.

OF T'^-NSES.

As all verbs have their essence in motion or in rest, and
as motion and the privation of it imply time, so vei'bs come
to denote time. And hence the origin and use of tenses,
which are so many different forms assigned to every verb,
to show the various times in which the attribute expressed
by that verb may exist.

The tenses are five : the present, preterimperfect, preter-
perfcct or preterite, preterpluperfect, and future.

- f ' For an ahlo and elaborate explanation of the nature and use of the subjunc-
tive and the potential mood, see Crombic's Gymnasium, '2nd ed. vol, ii p. 320.

70

OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS.

A personal verb admits a person or a^ thing as its subject
or nominative. As one or more persons may speak, be
spoken to, or spoken of, there are two numbers ; the singu-
lar, which speaks of one, and the jilural, which speaks of
more than one ; and three persons in each number. Ego,
tu^ ille or ilia, are the first, second and thii'd persons singu-
lar ; W05, vos, illi or illcc, the first, second and third persons
plural ; and to each of these the verb has appropriate varia-
tions in its termination : thus, Ego amo, I love ; Tu amas.
Thou lovest, &c. Two or more persons may become the
subject ; but, as the first person is preferred to the second,
and the second to the third, ego joined to itc or ille is equi-
valent to 710S ; tu joined to ille or illi, to vos.

All nouns in the singular, belong to the third person sin-
gular ; those that are plural, to the third person plural.

Pronouns, participles or adjectives, having nouns under-
stood to them, belong to the third person.

Qxii takes the person of the antecedent.

Ipse may be joined, according to the sense, to any person.

OF rARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES.

To verbs belong participles, gerunds, and supines.

A participle is a part of speech derived from a verb, par-
taking 6f the nature of the verb, and of an adjective; of the
latter, as agreeing with a noun ; of the former, as being di-
stinguished into diflerent times, and governing the same
case as tlie verb, but differing from it in this, that the parti-
ciple implies no affirmation.

Gerunds are so called because they signify the thing as it
were in gerendo (antiently written genmdo), and, along with
the action, convey an idea of the agent. j

A gerund is a participial noun, of the neuter gender, and M

singular number, declinai)Ie like a substantive, having no 1^

vocative, construed like a substantive, and governing the
case of its verb.

A supine is a verbal substantive, of the singular number,
and fourth declension, having the same signification as the
verb. There are two ; one in inn, called the first supine,
vi'hich governs the case of the verb, and is supposed to be
an accusative; another in w, called the second supine, suj>

{)osed to be an ablative, governing no case, and generally
lavhig fl passive signification.

There are four participles ; one ending in ans or f «<?, and
another in ;7/.s-, both generally active ; — one ending in dus,
always passive ; and another ending in tus, sus, or xus (and
one particijile in wis, mortum), generally passive, but some-
times active, or common, according to tlie nature of the
verb.

Active verbs have two participles : the present ending in
7/5, as amans ; the other in rus, as cnnaturus.

Verbs passive have two : one ending in tus, sus, or xuSf
as amatus, vis7is,flcxus ; the other in dus, as amandus.

Neuter verbs have two particij^les : as sedcns, scssurus.

Active intransitive verbs have frecjuently three: as carenSi
carihirus, carendus ; and sometunes four, as jurans, juratii-
rns, jurains, jurandus.

Neuter-passive verbs have generally three : as gauderis,
gavisus, gavisur-us ; audens, ausus, ausurus — from gaudeo and
audeo. Audcndus is found in Livy. Fido has only fidcns
and Jlsus ; solco, salens and solitns. Fio, though ranked
among these, is a passive verb, and has four participles'.

Deponent verbs of an active signification have generally
four participles ; as sequeiis, sccuturus, sccutus, sequcndus,
from sequar.

Those of a neuter signification have generally but three ;
as lahens, lapsjis, lapsunis, from labor. But J'ruendus, fun*
gcndus, gloriandus, mcdendus, jMiuudus, vesccndus, utendns,
as'€ found; the reason of which is, tluit their verbs originally
governed an accusative, or were considered as active.

Common verbs have generally four participles : as dig-
7ia}is, digiuituruSf dig7iatus, dig^iandns, from dignor. Their
perfect participle sometimes signifies actively, and sometimes
passively : as, Adcptus victoriam. Having obtained the vic-
tory, or Viclorid adejjid, The victory being obtained.

All participles are adjectives ; those ending in 7is of the
third declension ; the rest, of the first and second.

Gerunds and supines come from active, neuter, and de-
ponent verbs : as, doce7idwn, ctirraiditm, loquendum ; Icctwn,
Icctu ; cubitum, cubitu ,• deprecatum, dcprccahi — from docco,
lego, cubo, deprecor,

' Diomedcs mentions /ic«5 as the present particii>Ic of fw. Fio is now con-
sidered as the passive voice of facin, which has two active and two passive pur-
tic'ipU^, fiiciens,f(icUirus, /actus, facimdus, the two last being formed from
the antieiityffcjor.

72
OF THE USE AND SIGNIFICATION OF THE TENSES.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. — Amo.

1. The present tense denotes that an action is going on:
as, csdificat^ he builds ; domus cedificatm', the house is build-
ing. Historians and poets sometimes describe past actions,
in this tense, in order to give animation to their discourse,
by bringing them, as it were, under immediate observation.
Thus Livy ; Ad equites dictator advolat obtestans ut ex eqiiis
descendant. Dicto paruerey desiliunt ex equis, provolant in
primum, et pro antesigriatiis parmas objiciunt. The dictator
flies forward to the cavalry, beseeching them to dismount
from their horses. They obeyed; they dismount, fly forward
to the front, &c. It may be observed that both present and
past tenses are used together; as parueremihe last sentence.

2. Any general custom, if still existing, may be expressed
in this tense: thus, Apud Parthos signum datur tympano, et
non tid>d — Justin. Among the Parthians the signal is given
by the drum, and not by the trumpet.

3. Those truths which are at all times true, are generally
expressed in this tense : as. Ad pceyiiteiiduni properat, cito
quijudicat. He hastens to repent, &c.

4. In Latin, as in English, this tense may express futu-
rity : as, Qiidm mox navigo Ephesum — Plant. As soon as I
sail, or shall sail, &c.

Preterimperfect tense, — Amaham.

1. The preterimperfect expresses an action as passing,
some tune ago, but not yet finished ; as cedificabat^ he was
building : domus (Ed'ificabatur^ the house was building. Ibam

forte via mora — Hor. I was going accidentally, &c. In-ue-
rant Danai, et tectum omne tenebant. And were, at a cer-
tain time referred to, in possession of the house.

2. It likewise denotes what is usual or customary : as, le-
gcbatj aiebaf^ he was wont to read, he was wont to say. In
agmine nonnunquam cquo, scvpius pedibus anteibat — Su^t. He
was wont to go, or in the habit of going ; or, as it is some-
times expressed in familiar language, he would go before,
&c.

3. It is sometimes used instead of the imperfect subjunc-
tive : as, Anccps certamen erat, ni equites sjipcrvenissent, The
battle had been, or would have been, cssct.

73

Preterperfect tense. — AmavL

1. When we mean to say that an action was completed
in past time without particular reference to the present, a
circumstance which is expressed in English by a perfect ge-
nerally ending in cd ; or that an action was finished in any
portion of a space of past time which is bounded by the
present, and not supposed or considered to be interrupted
by any intervening circumstance, which is expressed in En-
ghsh by have and the perfect participle, we use the preter-
perfect tense: as, amavit, he loved, or has loved. Ora-
tionem hujuscemodi habuit — Sail. He made a sj^eech, &c.

Turn freta diffudit, rapidisque tumesccre vcntis
Jussit, et amhitcE circumdare litora terra — Ov.
Then he poured out — and ordered, &c. Themistocles ad te
veni. I Themistocles have come to you. Hiijns ad. mcmo-
riavi nostram monumenta manserunt duo — Nep. Have re-
mained, &c.

The indefinite time of this tense is sometimes coupled
with the passing time of the imperfect : as, Conticuere om~
7ies, intetitique ora tenebant — Virg. All preserved silence,
and were keeping &c. Themistocles unns restitit ; et uni^
versos pares esse aiebat; dhpersos testahatur perituros — Nep.
Although the action implied in both perfects may have existed
j)rio7' to that which is contained in the imperfects, (which
tense may be used to show that the action was continued
and progressive,) yet it appears, that afterwards, notwith-
standing the diversity of tenses, the progression of the ac-
tion of both is contemporary.

2. This tense is sometimes used, like the present, to ex-
press an action of that kmd which may be mentioned in any
time : as, Neque ille aut doluit miserans inopem, aict invidit
hahenti ,- — in which the feelings resulting from the princi})les
of a Stoic, at all times the same, are here expressed by Virgil,
in past time.

3. It is sometimes used instead of the pluperfect indica-
tive: as,

Qiice postquam evolvit, ccEcoque exemit acervo,
Dissociata locis concordi imce llgavit — Ov.

Which after he sorted (had sorted) and took (had taken)

from the confused mass, &c.

4. It is poetically used instead of the im])erfect, or plu-
perfect subjunctive: as, iVi^r veni nisi fata locum scdemque
dedissent — V^irg, Neither would I have couie, vcrn'ssem.

5. In verbs in or, tliis tense is douljlo: as, amatus sum, vel

74.

fat. It has been generally supposed that the former of these
two expressions is used when we mention an action past,

■ without any regard to the precise time : as, Domus est ccdifi-
cata, The house was built ; and that sometimes it expresses
time just past, and consequently bounded by the present:
and that Donms ccdlficata Juit implies that the house was
built, that is, was finished at some remote period of time ;
but many instances can be produced of the promiscuous use
of these two forms'. Thus, Filius huic fato dkriim i^rolesque
virilis nulla Juit, j^rimuqtie oriens erepta jtmentd est — I^n.
Wiis snatched away, &c. Occisus est 45 imperii anno —
Eutr. He was slain. In quibus es venata montibns — Ov.
Have you been hunting. 2\ne es qusesita per oinnes, 7iata,
mild terras — Ov. Have you not been sought for, 8cc. As-
suetus studiis viollihus ipse fui — Id. I have been accustomed,
&c. Janua scd mdlo tempore aperta fuit — Ov. Has been.
Neqiie ve7'o non fuit apertum — Nep. Was it evident, &c.
But some of these may be considered as adjectives.
In some verbs the distinction seems to be maintained.
Linacer says that pransus sum denotes an action imme-
diately past; pransus fui, an action past at some distance
of time. And Cicero uses the expression, Qui in patrid

funditus delcnda occupati ct sunt, et fuerunt. Who are em-
ployed, or have been employed (up to the present time),

' TIic promiscuous interchange of several tenses which appear to be ilifTer-
ent ill their natino and conformation, may have arisen from a variety of causes.

1. From the imjiossiliility of fixing a standard, by a reference to wliich the
diflerent kinds and minute gradations of time might be a;>certained. All kinds
of time are relative, and to be ascertained by some fixed boundaiy. The present
time has been adopted as tliis boundary, lliat wliicli is on one side being called
past time, and tliat wliicli is on the other, future time. 13ut it hajijiens, tliat,
as time cannot be arrested, this boundaiy itself is every moment sliifting, and
what was future the last moment, is present this moment, and is, at tlie com-
mencement of the next, added to the past; the fact being that present time,
(althovigh we si)eak of the present moment,) like a mathematical point, can
have its momentary existence in idea only.

2. In relating past events it sometimes happens, that this portion of time
vliicli we denominate present, and by wliicli other times arc to be ascertained,
i.s supposed fixed at diflerent periods. We sometimes relate past actions, as if,
■while we are speaking, Ave were transferred back, and were ]5rescnt during the
time of their being carried on ; or, wliicli is nearly the same, we bring them
forward, and relate them in present time, as if they were happening during
the time of recital.

?>. When the sense has not been rendered ambiguous by tlic use of one
tense instead of another, they may have been used promiscuously j but tliis
does not prove the identity of their significations.

4. An inaccuracy in ascertaining the real import of some I>atin tenses may
have arisen from the ambiguous, or various waj's, in which we express the
import of certain tenses, in our own language. Thus, amor is expressed by
I am loving, I am a-loving, I am in-loving (all understood passively, in th«
same way as, when we say, He is training, or in-training, we mean that the
jierson is under a certain regimen), 1 am in the state of being loved, and,
usually, I am lovetl, &c. AnLtihur has been expressed, as tiie fc^rmei. 1 was

75

and who were employed (at some remote time past). It luis
been remarked that sum and eram with the perfect participle
are commonly used to constitute the perfect and pluperfect,
passive ; Jiii and J'ueram, very seldom.

The Preterpluperfect tense. — Amaveram.

1. Wlien w^e mean to say that an action was completed,
before some other action took place, which also is past, we
use the preterpluperfect tense: as, ccdijicavcrat, he had built.
Before the succours arrived, he had conquered tlie enemy
hostcs superaverat.

2. It is sometimes used among poets, and prose writers
too, for the perfect indicative, and pluperfect subjunctive :
as, Dixeram a jvhicij)^, iit de reimblicd silcrctiir — Cic. I
have said, &c. Si mens non Iccva Juissct^ impulerat, &c. —
^n. He would have impelled, imjmlisset, or, according to
the same idiom in English, had impelled, &c.

3. In verbs in or this tense is double : as, amatus cram, vel
fucram, the foraner denoting that I was loved at some time

past ; the latter, that I had been loved before some time past.
But like the compound jierfect, both forms (of which the
first is the more common) are used prouiiscuously, accord-
ing to the common signification of the pluperfect.

4. In some instances the participle seems to be considered
as little different from an adjective, and then cram is trans-
loving, I was in-loving, I was being loved, I was in the state, or custom, of
being loved, I was loved, &c. Now, it is evident that, in such expressions as
I am loved, the house is built, he was loved, lovvd and bmlt refer to an action
completed, and are inapplicable to an action incomplete and progressive, such
as must be predicated in that tense which expresses action going on, and ilot
finished; for, in a?»(ir, tlie suffering is unfinished, progressive and present,
and not perhaps to be clearly expressed in Enghsh by the perfect participle,
without circumlocution. Anmbur likewise denotes an action that was passing;
but in / wxis loved, as in I uin loved, the suifering is finished, the one in past
time indefinitely, and the other in past time connected witli present time. 'I'hc
progression of action can be indicated only by the i)articiple in ing : as, The
house is building, Donius ccdijlcalur. But as this participle has both an active
and a passive signification, its use in this way often becomes ambiguous, and
the meaning is then to be discovered by an examination of the context. In-
deed, if we say The man is teacliing, is miudering, or is esteeming, we are in-
varialily inclined to consider tlie man as acting, not acted upon ; for v hetlicr
it arises from habit, or from something in the nature of this participle, it is dif-
ficult to be reconciled to the use of it in a passive sense, when the subject is a
person ; and, as has been already observed, if we use loved, eslccmcd, we do not
mark inogressiou exclusively. l5ut, when the historian is relating past actions,
in present time, he uses with great proitriety the jierfect participle : thus. In.
(jui) faclo donuiiii revocatur, acciisatiis c«;«/w absolvilur ; multatur ^jyiicu /«•-
cnnvt, tjc. — Nep. He is recalled home, — he is acipiitted, — fined, &c. For
some further remarks on this subject, see Grant's Engllsii Granuuar, pp. 57,
€i, (>5, 85, RG. It would, there, ajipmr, that the perfect participles of verbs
cf /('cH)ig implv progression, ijv do not ntccssurily indicate cessation.

76

lated w«s : as, Nequc id tarn Artaxerxi, quam ceteris erat
apertum — Nep. Neither was that evident, &c. Finitusg-^/e
novcejam labor artis erat — Ov. And the labour -of the new-
art was now finished. Prima luce ex siiperioribus lucis, quce
Ccssm'is casiris erant conjuncta, cernebatur equitatvs — Caes.
Which were next to, or adjoining to.

The Future tense. — Amabo.

1. This tense is used when we mean to express that an
action will be going on, some time hence, but not finished :
as Coenabo, I shall sup, or be supping ; Domus cedificabitury
The house will be building.

2. In Latin, as in English, the second person of this
tense is used imperatively; as in the divine precepts, l^on oc-
cidcs, non furaberis, &c. Thou shalt not kill, steal, Sec. It
is used by profane writers likewise : as, Tu bccc silebis ; Cicc-
roneni puerum curabis, et amabis — Cic. You will keep these
things secret ; you will take care, &c.

The tense, as used in this last sentence, seems half impe-
rative, and half future; the former, as conveying, very faintly
and delicately, a desire that the tlnngs may be done ; and
the latter, as intimating the idea or belief that they will be
done.

ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE TENSES, AND ON THE IDIOM
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH TENSES.

The present, the imperfect, and the future tenses, are
used when we mean to express that an action is, was, or
will be, going on. The perfect, pluperfect, and perfect fu-
ture (sometimes called the second future, and sometimes,
though improperly, the future subjunctive, under which title
it will be hereafter explained) are used when we mean to ex-
press the perfection of an action.

According to the idiom of the English language, it some-
times happens that those actions which, in English, are pre-
dicated in the three latter tenses are expressed, in Latin, by
the three former : thus, when we mention that an action has
existed for some time, and is still contimdng, we use, in En-
glish, the perfect ; but in Latin, the present. And if, in En-
glish, the plu}:)erfect has been used, in Latin the imperfect
is used. Thus, I have been, and still am, is expressed in
Latin by the present. I had been, and, at a particular time,
was, is expressed by the imperfect '. Exa. Phis jam sum

» It is not improbable that this peculiarity in the English tenses arises from
the nature of the auxiliaries. For, ahhough have joined to l«ni, or to any
perfect participle, constitutes a past tense, huvo ih the present tense of a verb,

77

libera qiiinqiiennium — Plant. I have been free more than
five years. Una cum gente tot annas hella gero — -^ii. I
have been waging war (and now am), &c. Audiebat jam-
dudum verba querentis Liber — Ov. Had heard, or been
hearing, and, at a certain past time, was hearing. Te annum
jam aiidientem Cratippum — Cic. You wlio have been at-
tending to (and are still attending to) Cratippus. Huic lc~
gioni et Ccesar indidserat frcecijpue^ et propter virtutcm con-
fidebat maxime — Caes. He not only may have had great
confidence in it, but still did confide in it. The tokens of
esteem and kindness which he might have shown, had oc-
curred some time ago. They were transient and occasional ;
but his confidence was still existing, and was permanent and
habitual.

A similar analogy exists in regard to the future ; for that
action which, in English, is expressed in the perfect future,
is expressed, in Latin, by the future : as. Tomorrow we shall
have been three months in town. Cras erimus tres mensem
in urbe.

To the foregoing observations there are very few excep-
tions.

OF WHAT HAS BEEN TERMED THE FALSE SUBJUNCTIVE.

In Latin, some indefinite words and adverbial conjunc-

and denotes present possession. In the same manner, had, which, with a per-
fect participle, constitutes the pluperfect, is, in itself, the perfect of the verb
have, and denotes merely past possession : thus, I have been free more than
five years, means I now possess the action expressed by been-free, i. e. the ac-
tion, or ratlier the condition, of liberty, the existence of which is perfected. I
had been free more than five years, when a certain event happened, means I
possessed, as in the fonner example, the perfected existence of more than five
years' liberty, and at a time too identical with that of the other event — Erara
liber. Tomorrow I shall have been five years fiee, means I shall possess tlie
perfected existence of five years' liberty — Ero liber.

The idiom of the GeiTnan is the same as that of the English, in which hatv
and had, and, in some verbs, am and were, with the participle, constitute the
perfect and pluperfect, as our have and had. Thus, How long have you l>een
in London ? Wie lange sind sie zu London gewesen? How long had you been
in London, when — Wie lunge waren sie zu London gewesen, da^—

The idiom of the Greek is the same as that of the Latin : thus, n^Jv 'AS^uafc
ytviff^ai, lyu itfii, John viii, 58, translated, according to tlie Greek idiom. Be-
fore Abraham was, I am ; but expressed according to the English idiom, it
should be, Before Abraham was [born], I have been, or I have existed.

The modern languages, derived from the Latin, follow, I believe, the Latin
idiom. Of the Spanish and the French, I can speak with a little certainty.
Thus, How long have you been employed in this business? is expressed in
Spanish by, Quanta lienipo ha cjue esta Vm. cmpleado en cste asunio ? In French
by, Combien y a-t-il que vous etes emi^loyc dans cette affaire ? How long had

you been omi)loycd in this business, when ? In Spanish, Qxianlo lieinjio

habia que estaba Vm. enipleado en esle asunlo, quanda ? In French, Com-
bien y avoii-U que vous ctiez employe dans cette affaire, quand ?

78

tioiis may govern the subjunctive, wlien tlie sense is uncon"
ditionally assertive, or indicative. Certain conjunctions also
require the subjunctive mood after them, independently of
the sense. In English, conjunctions, as has been remarked
by Dr. Crombie in his learned and ingenious treatise on the
Etymology and Syntax of the English Language, govern
no mood, the sense alone determining the mood that should
follow them. Hence it happens, that, in Latin, certain in-
definite words and adverbial conjunctions' may, and certain
conjunctions must, govern the subjunctive, when, in the
English, the use of the subjunctive would, according to tlie
nature of the language, be inconsistent with, or not clearly
expressive of, the meaning intended to be conveyed ; and
from these circumstances, arising from contrasting the dif-
ferent ways of using the same mood in the two languages,
has originated what has been improperly named, in Latin,
the false subjunctive.

The following are examples : — Rogas me quid tristis ego
sim. — Ter. Why I am sad. Quam dulcis sit libertas, bre-

viter 'proloquar — Phaedr. how sweet liberty is. Quum

Caesar licec animadvertisset. Had observed. Adeo hcnevolus
erat, ut omncs amarent. That all men loved him. In all
tliese examples the verb is really subjunctive. In many in-
stances the meaning may be sufficiently obvious, whichever
mood may be used in English: thus, Vehement er eos incusat ;
jrrimum quod, ant quam in j)artem, aut quo consilio duceren-
tur, sibi qucerendum, aut cogitandum, imtarent — Caes. Into
what part, or with what design, they *isoere, or might be, con-
ducting (being conducted).

POTENTIAL AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present tense. — Amem.

The present tense expresses contingency going on either
in present or future time. It has generally the signs may,

' It appears to me that, strictly speaking, the real govprnmcnt of conjunc-
tions is seen only in what is termed the false subjunctive. In such expressions
as, Lego ut discam, Oro ut redeal, it is evident, that, independently of tlie con-
junction, the sense requires the potential mood. Not so, in such expressions
as, Adeo bcnevolus erat ut omnes amarent, Tliat all men loved him ; for here the
sense is purely assertive, or indicative, and yet the conjunction ut, by its own
power, causes the verb to be put in the subjunctive; and indeed, although, iu
speaking of these two moods, their names are generally used indifferently,
their terminations being the same, this seems the rful character of the subjunc-
tive, its proper English being indicative :thus wc say in the present also, Tarn,
dives cs ut nescias, You are so rich that you know not — not that you cannot, or
maij not, know.

mighty could, can, ivmuhl, sl/ould : and in many instances is.
equivalent to the verbs dcbeo, -posswu or licet, and volo, with
an infinitive, either in interrogative, or declarative sentences.
Mcdwcribus, et cjuls ignoscas vitiis tcncor — Hor. Which
you may excuse. Qjiam sancte jurahaf, uf qiiivis facile pos-
sit credere — Ter. Might' believe; not may. Orat a Ccvsare
lit det sibi vetiiam — Caes. He begs of Cajsar that he would
give him leave.

Dcbeo impHed.
Quid me ostentem ? — Cic. Why should I boast ?

Possian.

Plures reperias ad discendiim projiiptos. Yon may find
many ready, &c. Tamcn ea facialis c quibus aj)pareat vo-
luptatem vos, nan ofjicium, sequi. By which it may appear
that ye pursue pletisure, &c. Non habcs quid arguas — Cic.
You have nothing which you can blame.

This tense has this meaning, when the clause of the po-
tential signifies end, or purpose, with ut, (pio, ne : as, Lc^o
ut discam, I read that I may learn.

Volo.

Qjiod si ha:c nrbs voccm emittaf, non hoc pacto loquatur ?
Would it not speak?

Tliis tense may be used,

1st. When the clause of the relative is the predicate : as,
Erunt qui audaciam ejus reprehendant — Cic. There will
be persons who will censure (or blame) his boldness. Here
the verb is subjunctive.

2dly. When the clause denotes the end or effect of some
former verb : as, Ntmquam cfficies «/ judicem. You will
never cause me to judge.

3dly. When the clause is indefinite : as, Nescio vhi sit. I
know not where he is.

• May denotes present liberty ; niiiikt and mVjht Jinvc, past liberty. Cnn
denotes present ability ; could and could have, past ability. Would and .thoiild,
tlie preterites of will and slutll, denote, tlie one, past volition, and the other
past obligation. But might, could, would, and should, though preterites, are
iised to denote present time likewise ; but in this case congruity in the tenses
must be observed. Thus I may say — "1 may go if I choose," or, " 1 might
go if I chose." In the former, the liberty and inclination arc eacli expressed
as present. In tlie latter, although liberty and inclination be exjiressed in tlie
preterite, present time is implied. Thus also in Latin, tlie imiierfcct potential
expresses present time: as, Irem si vcllem, I might go if I chose. — The de-
pending action, which, in English, is expressed by an Infinitive, is future, or
subseijucnt to the time expressed by the auxiliary; hence it is, tliat the jjotcii-
tial mood implies, in regard to execution, futurity. 'J'hc modal time, however,
dependi upon the leading words which arc iaiplitd in the signification.

80

4tlily. When the clause signifies a probable consequence
of a conditional or contingent event : as, Nam si altera ilia
mag is instahit^ forsitan nos rejiciat — Ter. He perhaps will
(may) reject us.

5thly. It is used elegantly fx^tevfore or futurum esse, and

when the following verb wants the future participle: as, Con-

Jido fore ut utamur alio gcncre literarum. I trust that we

shall use another kind, &c. * In spem veniehat, fore, uti per-

tinacid desisteret — Goes. That he would desist.

6thly. It is generally used in interrogative sentences, when
m English we employ shall^ a sign of the future tense. Thus
eamne ? Shall I go ? Qiiid si non veniet, maneamne usque
ad vespcrum P — 1 er. Shall I remain ? The reason of this
usage seems to be that shall, originally equivalent to / oxve
or / ought, is implied in this tense. Thus, Qjml faciam ? i. e.
Qziid focere debeo ? What shall I do ? or, what ought I to
do ? Non eam ? Nonne ire debeo ? Should I not go ? Ought
1 not to go :

When the present potential implies volo, the will is ge-
nerally signified as present, and the execution as future; and,
therefore, the thing may be expressed in the present poten-
tial, or in the future indicative.

In regard to such examples as Hogo ut facias, I request
that you will do it, — it may be observed, that, although the
execution of the request must be future in regard to the re-
quest itself, yet as the one may be supposed immediately to
follow the other, so as in the mind of the speaker to be al-
most contemporary events, the Latins expressed it in the
present tense.

Preterimperfect tense. — Amarcm.

The imperfect is used to signify a contingent passing event,
either in past, present, or in future time. Si fota foissenf,
ut caderem, mervisse manu — Virg. If it had been my fate
that I should fall. JJtinam jam adesset — Cic. I wish he
were now present. Si possem, sa7iior essem — Ovi If I could,
I would be wiser. Adnlesccnti ipsi eriperem oculos : post hcec
prcecipitem darem — Ter. I would tear out the eyes of the
young man himself, and ailerwards would throw him down
headlong.

It likewise seems in some instances to imply possum, volo,
and debeo.

Possum.

Putares nunquam accidere posse, ut verba mihi dccsscnt^-'
Cic. You might think.

Volo,
li<yone. ishic facerem ? Would I do that ?

o

Deheo.

Non venirem ? Sliould I not come ?

The use of this tense, as well as of the present, depends
upon the tense of the preceding verb.

If the clause depend upon a verb implying past time, or
upon a future infinitive governed by a verb of past time,
this tense is used : as, Rogavi tit faceres, I requested you to
do it. In spent Vfmiebat fore lit desisteret. He was in hopes
he would desist. The sense will point out the exceptions ;
as, Mortuus est nt nos vivamus, He died that we may live.
When the sense of the leading verb is present-perfect, the
present subjunctive sometimes follows: as, Ea ne [lit non)
me c^et, consnefecijilium — Ter. I /;at;<? accustomed. If the
preceding verb be present or future, the present of the sub-
junctive must be used; as, Moneo ut caveas, I advise you to
take care. Legam ut discam, I will read that I may learn.
Corifido fore ut utamur, I trust we shall use. But these rules
are sometimes infringed ; as, Dumnorigi, ut idem conaretur^
jpersiiadet — Caes. No7i puto te expectare quibus verbis eum
commendarem — Cic. Yet on another occasion he says, Nihil
jam opus est te expectare quibus verbis eum commendem.
Subjunctively, Qiio factum est, ut brevi tempore illustraretur
— Nep. became famous.

Preterperfect tense. — Amaverim.

This tense denotes a contingent action which may be al-
ready past, or which will be past at some future time '. The
common signs are mai)^ might, inould, or should, have.

Errarim fortasse — Plin. Perhaps I might be in an error,
Injussu tuo, imperator, extra ordinem nunquam pugnaverim,
non si certain victoriam videam — Liv. I never would fiffht.

' The author of the article, Grammar, in the Encyclop. Brit, seems to deny
this tense the power of expressing past contingency, which indeed he tliinks
cannot exist. In adducing this opinion, he appears to me to confound two
things perfectly distinct, viz., objective, nnd subjective contingency. That
there can be no olycctive contingency in a past action, is sufliciently obvious.
What is past, is certain, and, therefore, cannot be contingent. A past action,
however, may be considered as an object of subjective uncertainty, or contin-
gency. Thus I may say, " Perhaps I may have written such words, but, if I
have, I have no recollection of it." — Forsan ita scripserim. It is, doubtless,
true that I must either have written, or not have written, and, therefore, the
affinnativo, or the negative, is objectively certain. But, subjectively, it is not
80 ; it is to me as uncertain aa any contingent future event. This distinction
is familiar to every logician. See Watts's Logic, part 2, chap. 2. Crombie
on Necessity, p. 1J7.

G

82

Quis hunc vere dixevit divitnn ? Who would truly call hiui
rich? Videor sperarc posse, si te viderim, ct ca qucc prcmant^
et ea qua impcndecnit mihi, facile fransittirum — Cic. If I
cau see you, or When I sliall be able to see you. It is not
coniinonly used to express past contingency ; for, as John-
son observes, Videris, si aJJ'uei'is, would not be used for. You
might have seen it, had you been there ; but Vidisscs si aj-
J'uisscs.

This tense is often usal by writers when they declare
tlieir own opinion : as, De Mcjiatidro loquor, ncc tamen ex-
cluserim alios — Quint. Nor do I (would I) exclude others.

In verbs in or, this tense is double, amatus sim velj'/ieiim,
as in the indicative moo<l.

It is sometimes used in concessions : as, Parta sit pccunia
— Cic Suppt)se the money were gotten. Or as an impera-
tive, as will be hereafter mentionetl.

Preterpluperfect tense. — Amavissem.

This tense is used to express a contingent event, to be
completed in time past ; which contingency is generally fu-
ture as to some past time mentioned in the context. The usual
signs are; had, might have, xvould have, cmdd have, should
have, or cnight to have. Si Jussissef, j^aruissem, If he had
commanded, I would have obeyed. Mortnn pugnans oppe-
tlsses, Thou shouldest have met death, fighting ; or oughtest
to have met. JBoni vicissent, The gocxi might have con-
quered, (^uid tibi aim pelago ? tara contenta fuisses — Ov.
You might have been content. Verum ayiceps fuerat pugncc ^
fortuna ; fuisset — Virg. It might have been so ; suppose
tliat it had been so.

It must often be expressed, in English, like the imperfect
subjunctive. Multa pollicens, si consei'vasset — Nep. Pro-
mising many things, if he would preserve him. Mesponde-
runt sefaduros esse, cum ilk vcnto Aquilone Lemman venis-
set — Nqi. They answered, that they would do it, when he
should come &c. Si se consulem fecissent, hrevi tempore
Jugurtham in potestatem P. R. rcdactiirum. If they would
make him consul, that he would soon reduce &c. l^ixerunt
sefacturos esse qucccunque imj^erasset. They said, they would
tio whatever he should command.

In such examples, when, at a certain past time referred
to, a thing is represented as future, and yet to be completed
before another thing which is also represented at that time
as future, took place, this tense is used. The past time re-
ferred to is expressed by dixcrunt, they said. When they
suld sc, ticir doing what he should command, and also the

83

command itself, were future. But as tlie command must
liave been oiven };)efoie they could execute it. the verb im-
pt-ro is rendered pluperfect, and Jaa'o is put in the future of
the infinitive. — They said that they would do it then, when
he should have connnanded it.

SubjunctiveJy, Cluum Cccaar lure animadvertisset — Caes.
had observed. Acaisatus jnodilioriis, quod a pugvd deces-
sisset — Neji. had come oft'.

Johnson observes that this tense is commutable with tlie
imperfect : as, Hrm pranliceres w prredixisses. At tu dictiSi
Alhane, maneres or mansisses'.

In verbs in or, this tense has tliree forms: as, amatus
esscniy fuisscm, or forcm. Etfdicisshna matrum dicta foret
Niobcy si non sibi visa esset- — Ov. Mi<2;ht have been called,
had she not seemed.

Future tense. — Amavero.

This tense is impro}->erly nametl the future subjunctive;
for it is a tense of the indicative, and seems to iiave tlie same
relation to the future of the intlicative, as the perfect definite
has to the present ; on which account it lias been named,
with more propriety, the perfect future.

When we mean to express that on action will be finished
before another action, which is also future, take place, we
use this tense. The usual sign is shall have, but it is often
omitted. Qiium cb stidtiticc pervenero, de 7ne actum erit,
"When I arrive (shall arrive, have arrived, shall have arrived)
at that pitch of folly, I shall be undone. Cum ccenavero,
jnofidscary When I sup (have supped, sliall have supped)
I will go.

From these examples, it may be seen that this tense is
not very different from the perfect subjunctive ; and that, in
many instances, it is innnaterial to the signification, whether '
the action be expressed as absolutely future perfect or con-
tingently I'uture perfect.

Mr. 11. Johnson, in opposition to Vossius, contends that
we may use this tense, in speakhig of a thing future, without
regard to its being finished before anoUier tiling also future,
and produces this among other examples : Si te crquo animn
fare accipiet, negligentcm feceris — Ter. If he shall hear duit
you take Uiis with indifference, you will render him careless.

Now Johnson contends, that, according to the doctrine
ot Vossius, as his hearing must have taken place before he
became careless, it shoidd have been expressed, ^i tc ccqiio

' In It few sentences the oiio tense may be found used instcail of the other ;
but their number i^ too small to warrant this veiieral observation.

G2

84-

animo ferre acceperit, negUgeiitem tacies. But as it is not
expressed in this manner, he differs from Vossius, and is of
opinion, that the future subjunctive may be used hke the
future indicative. But Ruddiman, agreeing with Vossius,
judiciously observes, that we may faintly hint at the finishing
of an action yet future, without considering the finishing of
an action on which it depends. He also observes, that the
occasionally promiscuous use of tenses is not sufficient to
make them formally the same.

In vei'bs in or, this tense has two forms : as, amatus ero
ovfiiero. The first form strictly denotes the completion of
a future action indefinitely. The second implies that it shall
be finished before another action, likewise future, shall take
place. There is no future subjunctive; but its import is ex-
pressed by the future participle, and the verb sum ; thus
amaturus sim, sis, sit, &c. ; as Hand dubito, quin facturus
sit, I doubt not but he will do it, quiri being joined to the
subjunctive.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

1. Tliis mood is used, when we address oiu'selves to a per-
son or thing, to command, exhort, entreat, and sometimes
to permit ; and consequently the second person is the only
part that is really imperative. Ama, love thou. Amatote,
love ye. Ne nega — Ter. Deny not.

2. The second person of the present subjunctive is used as
an imperative, especially in forbidding, after ne, nemo, nul-
lus. Ne me attingas, sceleste — Ter. Do not touch me.

3. The second person of the perfect subjunctive, or perfect
future, is used as an imperative. Tu videris de his — Liv.
I^ook upon these. Luant peccata, nee illos juveris mixilio
— ^^n. Nor assist them.

4. The third person of the imperative is permissive, and
generally is expressed by let. Faciat, quod lubet ,- sinnat,
consumat, perdat; decretum est pati — Ter. Let him do —
let him take, &c.

5. The tliird person of the perfect, and sometimes of the
pluperfect, subjunctive is thus used : Sed. p>^'i^num positum
sit, nosmet ipsos commendatos esse nobis — Cic. Let it be laid
down. Verum aneeps fuerat pugn/e fortuna ; fuisset — Virg.
Be it so — let it have been so — it might have been, &c.

6. The first person plural, which belongs to the present
subjunctive, is used only in encouraging or resolving. Mo-
riamur, et in media anna ruamus — ^^n. Let us die — and
let us rush.

Vossius and Priscian have contended, that the imperative,

8 a

m the passive voice, has a preterperfect tense. Johnson
denies it, and obsemes that the very nature of the impera-
tive has a strong repugnance to all past time.

If the command be regarded, and not the execution of it,
the imperative may be considered as implying present time.
But if respect be had to the execution, the imperative im-
plies future time. The examples which Vossius })roduces
to prove that it has a preterpeifect in the passive voice are
these : Primum positum sit, iw^juet ipsos commcndatos esse
7iobis — Cic. Hcec dicta sint pairibiis — Liv.; and a few others.

This controversy, like many others respecting the tenses,
arises from inattention to the proper distinction between pre-
terite and perfect, the former as referring to time only, and
the latter to action. That there can be no preterite olf the
imperative, — in other words, that a past action, in its nature
irrevocable, cannot form the subject of a present command,
— is sufficiently evident. But, though every command, con-
sidered simply as a command, and expressed imperatively
in the words of the speaker, must be present, yet, this com-
mand may be either definite or indefinite in respect to the
completion of the action. It may either order an action to
be done, without referring to the time of its perfection, or
it may command its being perfected in a given time. In
the latter case, as the action is ordered to be perfected, there
can be no impropriety in calling that form of the verb, which
expresses it, the imperative perfect. Thus, if I say, Liber
legilor, I give a general command, without referring to the
perfection of the action. If I say. Liber sit Icctus (^Jarsan)
intra horam, I imply that the reading is to be finished in the
space of an hour \ The latter may be called the imperative
perfect. The Greeks, in their imperati\'es, admit certain
tenses of the past, such as those of the perfect and two aorists.
But when they are so used, they either lose their temporary
nature, or imply such a quickness of execution, that the
deed should be, as it were, done, the very moment it is com-
manded. The same difference seems to be between our
English impei'atives, go and begone ,- do and have done. The
first allow time for going and doing ; the others call for the
completion of the act, at once.

So in Greek, ypa^e, (present imperative,) write tiiou;

' It should, however, be observed, that the command implied in such forms
really arises from an ellipsis of some present of tlic imperative, such as da or
jmta ; and that it is only the perfect participle which refers to the completion
or perfection of the action. The former expresses a command in present time ,•«.
the latter the perfection of an action, and, by inference, \n future time.

86

yp«4/oi/, (jierfccl. indefinite or aorisl of impcrntive,) get your
writinjjj linisl)ed as soon as ]}ossihlc ; yeypai^s, (perfect im-
perative,) have your writing finished.

Thus it ap})ears that the present imperative regards the
commencement, or progression of an action ; the other
imperatives seem particularly to have an eye to its comple-
tion.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

1. If the action of the infinitive is present or progressive,
at the time of the action of the preceding verb on which the
infinitive dei>ends, whether it be past, present or future, the
infinitive is in the present tense '. Vistie mihi auscultate ?
Will you listen to me ? Audivit mc stare, He heard that I
was standing. Fidi cnim nostras inimicos cupere helium —
Cic. Were wishinci:.

2. As in the present indicative, pcxits and historians some-
times relate ])ast events in the present infinitive. Fertur
Prometheus addere priii^ipi IJttw coadus partknlam undigtic
descctam — Hor. to add, meaning to have added.

3. When the action of the infinitive is meant to be past
at the time denoted by the leading verb, the infinitive is })Ut
in the past time, whatever tense the other may be in. Vic-
torem victce succubuisse queror — Hor. Had submitted.

' When in English two verba come together, past time is in certain inst^incea
expressed in llie preterite of the depending verb : as, I ought to have read. But
the reverse takes place in Latin : as, Delnii Icgere. When an action is repre-
sented as present at a certain time past, the past time is expressed in both Ian-
guages, in the leading verb alone, the other being put in the present. Hence,
in English it is proper to avoid, when the principal verb has a reference to
subsequent action, such double perfects as, I tinmglit to have icon, instead of/
thought In win- The following exaniides, in which possum, volo, nolo, malo, and
dijbco are the leading verl)s in Ijatin, seem, in their English, to infringe this
ride. Melius Keri no7i potuit — Ten It coidd not have been done better, i. e,
it was inijiossiblc to be done better. Volui dicerc — Plant. I would have said,
i. e. I wished to say. Suniere noluit nrma — Ov. He would not have taken
arms, i. c. he was unwilling to take armfu Maliiit regis opes augere.^Nep. He
would rather have increased the king's power, i. c. he was more inclined to
increase. Debuisti inihi ignoscere— Cic. You ought to have pardoned me,
i. e. it was your duty to pardon me. Dividi non oportuit — Cic. It ought
not to have been divided, i. c. it behoved it not to be divided. But it is to be
observed that ought, although the preterite of out, does not now, as formerly,
denote past, but present obligation ; and that could, woiild and might, as has
been already mentioned, do not always mark past time exclusively, but very
often present time also. In Latin, although the present of the infinitive be
used after memim, it must be expressed by the perfect, in English : as, Ego
i/lam vidi virgirwm : forma bona mcviini videre — Ter. I remember that I saw
her. The perfect is also used : as, Tibi me permisisse memini — Cic. In tliese
it seenia immaterial whether the circumstances are laid up in the mind, while
they are passing, or after they arc past; whether I remember the aeet'ng, or
permitting of a pernor., or the having Ken, oi permitied him.

87

Ctcsar rcppcr'il a Sucvis, aiuilia niiska esse — Ctva. Had
been sent.

4. Sometimes the present aiul ixjiiect may be interchanged.
Sed abundc erit ex its duo twcmjila retulisse — Val. Mux.j or
rcferre, to relate.

5. When the action of the infinitive maybe future to that
of the leading verl), it is put in the future, whatever the time
of the leading verb may i>e; (■lucm quidcm conjido omnibus
istU laudibus cxcellentcm fore — Cic. Would be. Postquam
audicrat nan datum \x\ Jilio uxorcm sua — Ter. That a wile
would not be given to his son.

Note 1. We sometimes iind the perfect participle passive,
and the future participle active, when employed with esse to
form the infinitive, used as if indeclinable, and joined to
nouns, without regard to their .<.';cnder or number ; thus,
Credo ego inimicos vieos hoc dicturum (esse) — C. Gracch.
Haiic sibi rem pvicsidio sperant futurum (esse) — Cic. Justam
rem et facilem esse t)ralum a vobis vglo — Plant. Ut cohortcs
ad me missum J'acias — Cic. But such constructions, arising
probably from oversight, or from considering such ii peri-
phrasis as oratum esse indeclinable, are not to be imitated.

Note 2. That the future ol" the infinitive passive is com-
posed of the verb of motion ///, and the sujiine in nm ,- and
the sentence maybe thus su})])lied: Pos/tp/am aiidurat id
non iri ab iilis datum uxorcm suojilio. That it was not going
by them (impersonally ; that is, that they were not going)
to give a wife to his son.

6. In many instances the })rescnt, as in English, may l)e
used when the signification is future; but in some, it appears
that the future would be preferable '. Omnia ei ptragere
promiscrunt — Cic. They promised to j.erform, that tliey
would perform. Nisi diclis staretnr, non, sc remitlere excr-
citum — Flor. That he woulil not send back, rcmissurujn esse.
Cras mihi argcntum dare dixit — Ter. \Vould give, daiurum ^

' Tlio iiilliiitivc seems to be sometimes us'jtl for the present siihjinicSiTe: fts,
Ni'c Jidlyliiniox Icntiiirls numcros, ut 7ru:liiis, rpiictpiid oit, jKili — Ilor. that, or
b^ Ihat, hij which, the better to suffer, i. e. tit, vd (/uo, iiuHuk jKstiari <, vd pcfi
possis i/uictjiud crit. Tliis is a Greek, idiom. I am not ignorar.l thnt some have
sail!, that, licri-, ut i;i u:;eii for ({uon'unn, and tliat tlie nicaiiing is, (;,i it h [irtUr
to sii/fcr, but the former interpretation I cieeni preferable.

- The u;)e and signirication of the iiiiinitive 'preceded by an atxosativ;', ntid
dejjcnditig upon anotlier verb, may be seen in tlie foUo'vin',^ examples :
J)i,

icU ~\ rile says tiiat I read, or am reading,

'kcbat ^ j Itc was saying that I was reading.

^iiU f ; "^1 \ He said that l wa^^ reading.

'licrat °'' ' j Me liad '-said that I \'>ai reading.

1)1
Dixit
Dij
Uicct

\_IIc wdl say that I am reading.

Dicit

88

7. Fore, tlie infinitive of sum, is joined to all participles in
us. Commissuni cum cquitatu pnelio fore videbat — Caes.
Deinde addh; te ad me fore venturimi — Cic. Fb quoque
mittendos fore Icmtos — Liv.

In sexeral instances it seems to approach to the significa-
tion o{ esse.

Note. That the use of the infinitive as a noun will be found
in Syntax: and its use after the word that, under Conjunc-
tions.

Gerunds and supines have been defined ; and their use
and signification will be found explamed in Syntax.

PARTICIPLES.

Present Part. Act. Amans, loving. Perf. Pass. Amatus, loved .

Some have supposed that the time of both these partioi
pies is present; some have supposed that they have no time,
and some have supposed that they are of all times. — The
first denotes an action incomplete, and progressive, and its
time may, therefore, be considered as present; the second
denotes the state of suffering finished, and, therefore, the
time in which it has been perfected may be considered as
past. For it does not appear that doctus ' is, if I may so ex-
press it, the precise counter-part passive of docens ; because,
although docens signifies a person at this moment teaching
another, doctus, it is known, does not denote the person who

D'leit

Diccbat

Didit

Dixerat

JDicet

Dicit

Dicebat

Dixit

Dixerat

Dicet

JJicit

Diccbat

Dixit

Dixerat

Dicet

me
legisse.

He
He
He
He
He
THe
He
> IcctuTum i. He

esse.

He
He
He

mc He

Iccturum ^ He
fuissc, I He
He

c, j]

says that T read, or, have or had read.

was saying that I read, or, have or had read.

said that I have, or, had read.

had said that I had read.

will say tliat I have, or, had read.

says that I will read.

was saying that I would read.

said that I would read.

had said that I would read.

will say that T am ahout to read.

says that I would have read.

was saying that I would have read.

said that I woidd have read.

had said that I would have read.

will say that I would have read.

' Mr. R. Johnson says that the time is the same in Vidi eum superantem
as in vidi eum superatum. The time of seeing tlie t^^'o men, expressed hy vidi,
is certainly the same ; but their situations, in regard to the action wliich the
one is doing, and in regard to the action which the other has completely suffer-
ed, are widely different. And I cannot conceive, but that such expressions
as, Vidi cum superantem, supcrare, and superari, denote an action present
and progressive at the time expressed by vidi ; and that Vidi exnn superatum
denotes an action past and completed in a time previous to that which is ex-
pressed !>y vidi.

89

is at this moment in the act of being taught by the former ;
but a man on whom, in a time previous to the present, the
act has been perfected, and whose suifering is completed,
vir doctus, a man ah'eady taught ; and, consequently, the
passive voice has no present participle.

But there are not wanting instances, in which, from the
nature of the verb, whose action seems susceptible of con-
tinuation, it appears that the action of the perfect participle
is continued into present time; and in these the perfect par-
ticiple has the force of a present participle passive : or, in
some instances, is to be considered as an adjective, denoting
the existence of some quality, the result of past action, but
divested of time. Thus: Notus cvolat Tcrribilcm jnccd tec-
tus caligine vultum — Ov. Not merely having been veiled,
(and possibly having ceased to be veiled,) but veiling his
countenance, or having it, at that moment, veiled. Stcr-
nuntur scgctes, et deplorata coloni Vota jacent — Ov. Not
merely having been lamented, or despaired of, but at that
moment despaired of, desperate, or hopeless. Perfection
does not in all cases necessarily imply cessation.

It is not inconsistent with the foregoing explanation, to
say that these participles are joined to verbs in all times, and
this too without losing their distinctive time and significa-
tion. For amans denotes an action which is present at the
time represented by the leading verb of the sentence, whe-
ther that verb be past, present, or future.

In the same manner, amatus represents an action which
is past, in regard to the time expressed in the context, whe-
ther past, present, or future. When divested of time, these
participles are called participial s, and may govern a geni-
tive: as, Patiens frigus, one bearing cold. Patiens J'rigoris,
one patient of, or able to bear, cold.

In the latter, patieiis is a participial, and denotes a qua-
lity belonging to some person, and not a transient act. Doc-
tus Latinam linguam, one taught the Latin language. Doc-
tus Imgucc Latincc, one skilled in the Latin language. As
participials, they admit comparison : as, ScrvaJitissimics ccqui
— Virg. A very strict observer of equity.

Future Participle Active, Amaturus, about to love.

This participle not only implies future time, but also some-
times denotes intention, or inclination : as, Ljccturus. sum^ I
am about to read, or I intend to read.

Joined to <?ro, it is translated as if it constituted another
form of the future : as, Mcrgitc mv flucLu^^ qmim rcditurus

90

ero — Mart. I shall be returning. Nihil ego ero //// datu-
rus — Plant. I shall give. Tu procul ahsenti cum futuru.s
eris — Ov. Qito die ad Sicam ventnrns ero — Cic.

Joined to esse or fuisse^ it forms the fnture of the infini-
tive active, agreeing, like an adjective, widi its substantive ;
amaturum esse^ to be about to love; amatunim fuisse^ to have
been about to love.

Future Participle Passive, Ainandus, to be loved.

This participle, coming even from verbs in or, signifying
actively, has always a passive signification. In conjunction
with the verb sum, it denotes that a thing nmst he done, or
oughi to be done ; and, hence, by inference it likewise im-
plies futurity. Dixi literas scriptum iri ab co, I said that a
letter would be written by him. Dixi literas scribendas esse,
I said tliat a letter should, or ought to, be written.

The former is the future of the infinitive, and implies bare
futurity ; in the latter sentence, dufi/ or necessity is implied.
Delenda est Carthago — Cato. Must be, ought to be, is to
be, destroyed. Lcgatos mittendos censuit senatiis — Liv.
Should be sent.

In the following examples, it is said to denote bare futu-
rity ; Ut tcrram invenias, quis cam tibi tradet habendam —
Ov. Dido ^n. To be possessed. Facta fugis ,- facienda
pet is — Ov. Dido iEn. Things that will liereafter be done.

It is also used as a gerundive adjective : as, Cur adeo de-
Icctaris criminibus inferendis ? Why are you so pleased with
bringing accusations ? Aliter — inferendo crimina. His enim
legendis, rcdco in mcmoriam mortuorum — Cic. By reading
these ; hac legendo. Ad. accusandos homines diici prccmio.
To accuse men, or, to the accusing of men. Qiuc ante con-
ditam, condendamve urbem traduntur — 'Liv. Before the
city was built or building: — In tliis example, it has some-
what of the force of a present participle passive ', in regard
to the progressive action of its building; and of the future
participle, in reference to the intention of that action.

All participles are found with all tenses oi' sum.

• Tlicre arc many instances in wliich the participle in dus seems to have the
import of the present : thus, ywa; w6i mlit audiritque scncr, velut si jam agendis
qu/v awlicbdt inlcrcssct—ljiy. i. c, the things while tlicy were doing. Thus also,
Tolvonda dies en attulij. ullrb — Virg. Perizonius is of opinion that it was ori-
ginally ft particijile of the present tense passive, and lays some stress on its be-
ing uniformly (lerivtd from the present participle active, following even its
iireguliivity in the only one which is irregular: thus, icns, cimtis, ciDtdus.

Dr. Crombie (Gyniuasiuin, 'Jnd ed. vol. ii. p. 3C3) likewise contends, and,
it appears to me, succesrsfully, that this word is a present participle of the jias-
sive voice ; and thai it does not, by its own power, ever express futurity, or

91

OF CONJUGATION AND FORMATION.

Conjugation is the regular distribution of the inflexions
of verbs, according to their different voices, moods, tenses,
numbers, and persons, so as to distinguish them from one
another.

There are four conjugations of verbs, distinguished by the
vowel preceding re of the infinitive mood.

The first conjugation makes arc long : as, Amdre.

The second conjugation makes ere long : as, Monere.

The third conjugation makes ere short : as, Regere.

The fourth conjugation makes Ire long: as, Audire.

There are four principal parts of a verb, whence all its
other parts are formed, viz. o of the present, i of the pre-
terite, um of the supine, and re of the infinitive: as, Amo,
amavi, amatum, amare ; and these are sometimes called its
conjugation.

It has been customary to form, from the infinitive, the
present participle, the future participle in dus, and the ge-
runds ; a formation which cannot be considered as correct,
in regard to verbs in to of the third conjugation, since those
verbs have not in tlieir infinitive the i which belongs to
those parts ; and even in the fomth conjugation, they are
formed with greater pro{)riety from the present. For simi-
lar reasons, the method which excludes the infinitive is
equally objectionable.

The following formation is not liable to such objections,
and seems preferable to the other two methods, for reasons
which will be found in the annexed explanation.

the obligation either of necessity or duty. In such phrases as (emjms prtcnda:
jmcis, neither futurity nor obligation is expressed, the expression being equi-
valent to tcmpus petcndi pacem, tetnjius quo pax pclatur, tcm]m$ jxicrc piiccm.
In volvcnda dies en (itlulit ultra — Virg., volvenda is clearly a participle of the
present tense passive, equivalent to sese volvcns, or dum volvitur, and expressing
neither futurity nor obligation. In such expressions aapermisil urbem diripi-
cndam, he contends that it h purjtosc, not futurity, that is directli/ expressed.
He does not, however, deny that the participle in dtis, when joined to the verb
stim, uniformly denotes moKxl or physical obligation ; but lie contends, that,
in such iihraseologies, there is no word expressive of futurity or obligation, al-
tliough the combination of the two words has by usage acquired this significa-
tion, in the same manner as in English, such expressions as *' /5 n vutn to be
punished for what he could not prevent? " in wliicli there is no word expressive
of duty, ol)ligation, or futurity, are reckoned equivalent to " ()uf;ht a man to
l)e jjuiiished ? " lie agrees with l*eri7/t)nius in consideringybn' to be understood
in Mocchatur ifiiiar viisericordid civiuin, (/uns iti/irficietldos vidclmt—^Cpc^i. I5e-
cause lie saw that many of his countrymen mn:.t fall, or would necessarily be
^lain, if he encountered the enemy in another battle.

92

The Formation of the Tenses of Verbs, from the Present,
the Perfect, the Supine, and the Infnitive,

I. From -o are formed, Names of the Tenses,

-ham, Imperf. Indie.

'\it. Indie, of the 1 st and 2d

^conjugation.

ubj. of the 2d; Pres.
'a?n,^ Subi. and Fut. Indie, of 3d

{Pres. Su
k5ubj. an(
and 4th.

Pres. Subj. of the 1st.
-ns. The Present participle.
-dus. The Fut. Participle, Passive.
-dwn, '\

-di, V The Gerunds.
-do, )

II. From -/ are formed,

-ratn, The Plup. Indie.
-ri?n, The Perf. Subj.
-ro. The Fut. Subj.
-ssem, The Plup. Subj.
-ssc. The Perf. Infinit,

III. From -um are formed,

-u, The second Supine.

-us, The Perf. Participle, Passive.

-rus, The Future Participle.

IV. From the infinitive, whether ending in -re, -le, or -se,

are formed the imperative, by cutting off the final
syllable; and the imperfect of the subjunctive, by
adding m to it.

Observatio7is o?i the Formation of Regular and Irregular

Verbs.

(1.) The first formation includes all verbs in -o and those
in -io of the third conjugation. These last have the i also
before -iint of the present indicative, and -u7ito of the impe-
rative. The principal irregularity of the irregular verbs, be-
sides their deficiency, consists in their deviating from the
usual mode of formation, chiefly in those parts that are
formed from the present. Thus :

93

Impcrf. Indie. Fut. Pres. Subj.

C Sum, has, eram, ero, sim.

< Possum, pot cram, 2.)otero, yossim.

i^Prosumy proderam, proderOy jyrosim.

CVolo, vclim.

-< Nolo, nolim.

{^Malo, malim.

Eo, ibam, ibo, earn.

Pres. participle, iens ,- gerunds, etmdnm, -?', -o. Fms from
su??i is obsolete. Its compound, potens, is generally consi-
dered as an adjective ; also, ahscns and jrytcseus.

(2, 3.) The second and third formations are followed by
all verbs having a perfect, or supine. Fio, though active in
its. termination, being a passive verb, has all the compound
tenses of the passive voice. Sum, though without a supine,
has the future participle, futurus, as if from fidtum or futum
of the obsolete fuo, whence it has also Jul its perfect, fore
of the infinitive, forem, &c.

(4.) The fourth formation includes regular and irregular
verbs : thus, infinit. imperat. and imperf, subj. Regere, rcge,
rcgerem ; Capere, cape, caperem; Ferre, fer, ferrcm ; Ire, i,
irem ,- Fosse-, Velle-, Malle-, Nolle-, m, the three first having
no imperative ; Esse, es, essem ; Prodesse, jn-odes, prodessem.
Except Die, due, fac, f, and noli. Fieri makes ferem ,- it
was orio-inally ^/7, 'dWfXjirem, regularly; and hence^of the
imperative.

94

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100

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

(1) The future of the infinitive, active, is composed of
the accusative of the future participle in rus, and esse vel
fuisse ; the former of which has been termed by some the
future imperfect ; the latter, the future perfect.

(2), In looking over the scheme of the conjugations, it
may be observed, that there is very little difference among
them, except in their characteristics. The future indicative
of the two first ends, in the active, in bo; in the passive, in
bor : of the two last, in the active, in ain ; and in the passive,
in ar. The present subjunctive of the first ends, in the ac-
tive, in em ,- in the passive, in er : that of the three last, in
the active, in am ,• and in the passive, in ar.

The following are the gen«ral terminations of the Indi-
cative and the Subjunctive, in the

Active.
Sing. Plur.

2 3 1

2 s

.V, t ; mus,

tis, nt.

The 2nd person singular perfect indicat
tion, being isti.

Passive.

ive is an excep-

Sing.

Plur.

2 3 1

2 3

re, i '

minZf ntur.

(3) In the imperative mood, both active and passive, the
second form of the third persons singular and plural, and
the first person plural, are evidently the same persons of the
present subjunctive of their respective voices. The termi-
nation -minor^ of the second person plural, passive, is but
little used.

(4) In the first conjugation the verb do alone jhas its in-
crease short.

Verbs of the first conjugation ; of the second and third,
having evi for the perfect ; and of the third and fourth,
having ivi, suffer a contraction, by syncope, of v, or of v and
the following vowel, in certain persons of the perfect of the
indicative, and in parts formed from it : also verbs in io of
the third conjugation, and verbs of the fourth, in the imper-
fect of the indicative. The quantities of which contractions
are as follows ;

101

I

First Conjugation.

Ind. Perf. dslV^ dsth; drunf.

Plup. dram, &c.

Subj. Pert', drim, &c.

Plup. dssem, &c.

Fut. dro, &c.

Inf. Perf. dsse.

The second and third conjugations, having evi, are con-
tracted and marked the same as the first, the e being long
like the a.

The third and fourth in ivi.

Ind. Imperf. Ibam, &c. Passive, Ibdr, &c.

Perf. Ti, iisti istt, lit it ,- listis istis, lerUnt lere,

Plup. ieram, &c.
Subj. Perf. lerim, &c.

Plup. iissem issem, &c.

Fut. zero, &c.
Inf. Perf. tisse issc.

Observe, that in those verbs in io, which have an / before
«, e, 0, u, the i is short.

PASSIVE VOICE.

(5) The simple tenses of the passive voice are formed
from the corresponding tenses of the active, in the following
manner. The Jirst persons singular of the passive, from the
first persons singular of the active, by adding r ,- or, if the
active end in w, by changing m into v.- the J^st persons plu-
ral.^ by changing s into r. The second persons singular, by
inserting ri between the two concluding letters of die same
persons in the active; but in the present of the indicative of
the third conjugation, by inserting er before the final is ;
and the second persons plural are formed by changing -tis
into -mini. The third persons singidar and plural, passive,
are always the same as those of the active voice, but with
the addition of ur.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The first form of the second person singular is formed by

' According to Priscian, it should be added, that uvit is con-
tracted into at. In omnibus, he says, qua; penultimam hahent cir-
cinvfiexnm, si pafmnfur syncopnm., eiindem aervamus acccnium in
uliima ; ut Jumdui : funidt ; cupivit, cupit. Page 629.

102

the addition of re to the same person active (and is the same
as the present of the infinitive active, and as the second per-
son singular of the second form of the present of the indi-
cative passive): the second persons plural are formed by
changing -te and -tote into -mini (which is the same as the
second person plural of the present of the indicative passive)
and -minor : and the other parts are formed by adding r to
o of the active.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

The present of the infinitive passive is formed, in the first,
second and fourth conjugation, by changing the final e of the
infinitive active into i s and, in the third, by changing ere
into z, or by taking away s fi'om the second person singular
of the present of the indicative active. Deponent verbs form
their infinitive in the same manner, an infinitive active being
supposed, which is the same as the first form of the second
person singular of their own imperative i or, by changing,
for the third conjugation, or or ior into i, and, for the first,
second, and fourth, re of the second person singular of the
present of their indicative into ri.

The Compound Tenses are thus composed.
Indicative mood.

Perf. The perfect participle prefixed to sum vel fui.

PI up. i to eram vel fueram.

Subjunctive mood.

Perf. The perfect participle prefixed to sim vel fuerim.

Plup. to essem vel fuissem^

Fut. to ero vel fuero.

Infinitive mood.

The accusative of the perfect participle with esse or fuisse,
constitutes the perfect and pluperfect; the first supine and
?V/, the future of the infinitive. This last, some have termed
the future imperfect ; and the accusative of the participle in
dus with fuisscy the future perfect,

103

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

GENERAL RULES.

I. If the verb has the letter a in the present, it has a Hke-
wise in the supine and infinitive, ahhough it may change it
in the preterite : as, Jacio, feci, factum., facere.

II. Whatever verbs are deficient in perfects, are without
supines also. Cieo, {civi being borrowed from cio,) citum ,•
and tundo, {tutudi being said to be borrowed from the obso-
lete tudo, and to be but little used, unless in composition,)
are perhaps the only exceptions.

III. The present of the infinitive is formed from the pre-
sent indicative, by changing, in the

First Conjugation, o mto are.
Second Conjugation, eo into ere.
Third Conjugation, o, and to into ere.
Fourth Conjugation, w into ire.

[Special rules for the formation of the perfects and supines
will be found under the different conjugations; and the rules
for the formation of compoimded verbs will be hereafter
mentioned.]

THE FIRST CONJUGATION.

The first conjugation makes dvi in the perfect, and dium
in the supine : as, amo, amavi, amatum, to love '.

EXCEPTIONS.

The following six having ut\ itum ;

Crepo', / make a noise ; sono, / sound (sonaturus, in
Horace); cubo^ I lie down ; tono, I thunder (intonatus, in
Horace): domo, I tame ; veto, I forbid.

' The present of the indicative of this conjugation generally
ends in o impure , but the following verbs in eo and io belong to
it : beo^ scrco, creo, meo, calceo, illaqueo, nauseoy enucleo, delineo ;
amplio, basio, brevio, cmicilio, crucio, furio, glacioy hio, lanio, lux-
urio, nuncio, pio, propitio, radio, repudio, satio, saucio, socio, som-
nio, spolio, suavio or suavior, vario, vitio.

• Discrepo has rather discrepavi.

* Thus, ac- re- ex- cuho, &c. For those that assume the letter
m, see Cumbo, in the third conjugation. Cnbdsse and incubavere
are found.

104

Do', dt?di, datum, to give.
Juvo, ju\4, jutum*, to help.
Frico, fricui, fiictum, to rub. (In- per- re- con- fricatus,

are found. )
Lavo, lavi, lavatum, to wash. (Lavavit, Plant.)
lautum,
lotum,

Mico^, micui, , to shme.

Plico*, *plicui, *plicitum, to /old.

* plicavi, * plicatum,
Poto, potavi, potum, to dimk.

potatum.
Seco, secui, sectum, to cut.
Sto*, steti, statum, to stand.
Labo, I totter ; nexo, I bind i plico, I fold-, have neither
perfect, nor supine.

THE SECOND CONJUGATION.

The second conjugation makes u/^, itum'' : as, habeo^
habuii habitum% to have.

' Thus, venundo, circuyndo, pessundo, saiisdo. See Do, third
conjugation.

* Hence jiitus, and adjutus ; the latter being more common.

' Emico has emicui, and emicatum. Dimico, diviicavi {se\do\xi
dimicui), dhnicatum. The sin)ple verb neco is regular, having
nccavi (sometimes necui), necatum. Its compounds eneco and
interneco have enecavi and enecui, enecatum and enectum ; internc-
cavi, -atwn and -ectum.

* Du- midti- re- sup-plicO) -avi, -atwm.

Ap- im- com- ex- j)lico, -avi, -atum. Complicavi, }

-ui, -Itum. Co7nplicui, J
Eiplico, I explain, has -avi, -atum ; I unfold, -ui, -itum.

* The words thus marked (*) are obsolete, and are introduced
only for the sake of their compounds.

* Its compounds have -stiti, -stitum, and more frequently -sta-
tum. The participle in rus is commonly formed from the latter.
Circum- inter- super, steti, are found.

*" These have no perfect, and, therefore, no supine : aveo, ceveo,
denseo, Jlaveo, glabreo, lacteo, liveo,mcereo, muceo, renideo, j^ollco,
scateo.

' These have no supine ; — neuter verbs having ui; timeo and si-
Ico (which are neuter and active, and have a passive voice) ; neu-
ters in veo. Except calco, carco, CQO.leO) dolco, Jacco- latco^ liccoi

10:

EXCEPTIONS.

Algeo, alsi^ , to be cold.

Ardeo, arsi, arsum, to burn.
Augeo, auxi, auctuni, to increase.

Calveo, calvi, , to grow bald.

Caveo, cavi, cautum, to beware of.
Censeo, censui, censum, to judge.
Cieo, civi "*, cituin, to stir up.

Conniveo, connivi, , to wink.

connixi,
Doceo, docui, doctuin, to teach.
Deleo, delevi, deletum, to blot out.
Faveo, favi, Ikutum, to favour.

Ferveo, ferbui, , to boil.

Fleo, flevi, fletum, to weep.
Foveo, fovi, fotuin, to cherish.

Fi'igeo, fi'ixi, , to be cold.

Fulgeo, fulsi, , to shine.

Heereo, liaesi, h»sum, to stick.
Iiidulgeo, indulsi, indultuni, to indulge.

raro indulsuni,
Jubeo, jussi, jiissum, to order.

Luceo, luxi, , to shine.

Liigeo, luxi", , to mourn.

Maiieo, mansi, maiisum, to remain.
Misceo, niiscui, mistum, to mix.

mixtum,
Mordeo, momordi, morsum, to bite.
Moveo, movi, motum, to move.
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsuni, to stroke.

mereo, noceo, oleo, pareo,placeo, taceo, valeo, and their compounds,
which are oftener found in the participle in rus, than in the supine.
Arceo lias no supine in use, but, co- ex- erceo, -iticm. Taceo and
lateo have a supine; but their compounds have none. Taceo, some-
times active, and sometimes neuter ; it has a passive voice.

^ Prceheo is put for prccliabeo or prohibeo. Prcchit -um, -uSf
'urus, and prcebcor are found, but are seldom used.

^ Alsus, as if from ahum, is found in Cicero.

'° Civi belongs to clo of the fourth conjugation, which its com-
pounds generally follow : as, accio, excio, &c.

" Luctum I can find in dictionaries only; whence oomes the
substantive hictus. Neither luctum nor the participles ludm and
luctuna are in use.

106

Mulgeo, niulsi, miilsum, to milk.

mulctum,
Neo, nevi, netum, to spin.
Oleo', olui, *olitum, to smellf or grow.
* olevi, * oletum,

Paveo, pavi, , (o be afraid.

Pendeo, pependi, pensuni, to hang.
* Pleo, * plevi, * pletimi, to Jill.
Praiideo, praiidi, pransum, to dine.
Rideo, risi, risum, to laugh.
Sedeo^, sedi, sessum, to sit.
Sorbeo', sorbui, sorptum, to sup up.
Spondeo, spospondi, sponsum, to promise.
spopondi,

Strideo, stridi, , to make a noise.

Suadeo, suasi, suasum, to advise.
Teneo*, tenui, tentum, to hold.
Tergeo, tersi, tersum, to wipe.
Tondeo, totondi, tonsiim, to clip.
Torqueo, torsi, tortum, to twist.
torsum (seldom),
Torreo, torriii, tostum, to toast.

Turgeo, tursi^, , to swell.

Urgeo% ursi, , to urge.

Video, vidi, visum, to see.
Voveo, vovi, votum, to vow.
Vieo, vievi, vietiim, to bind.

' The compounds of oleo, that signify to smell, have -ui, -itum ;
as, ob- per- red- oleo, -ui, -itum. Those that deviate from the ori-
ginal signification of the simple verb have -cvi, -etum : as, ex- in-
obs- oleo, -evi, -etum. But aboleOj -olcvi, -olltum. Adoleo, -olevi,
adultum.

* De- diS' per- prcB- re- sub- sideo, seldom have a supine. Dc'
dis' sideo, seldom the perfect.

' Absorbeo is rarely found to have -sorpsi ; ex-, re- sorptum are
not found.

* Attineo and pertineo have no supine; — abstineo, seldom ; al-
though abstentus is found. Teneo and tendo seem to have the same
origin; and they and their compounds are not easily distinguished
in their supines, and the formation therefrom, unless when the su-
pine tensum from tendo is used.

* Tursi is uncommon. Priscian attributes obtursi to Lucilius.

" Urgeo has ursum in the dictionaries ; but neither that, nor a
perfect nor future participle, is found.

107

THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

The third conjugation' forms its perfects and supines va-
riously, according to the termination of the present.

J5o' makes hij bUum : as, biboy bibi, bibitwrty to drink.

EXCEPTIONS.

*Cumbo', cubui, cubitum, to lie down.
Nubo, nupsi, nuptum, to marry.
Scribo, scripsi, scriptum, to tmite.

Co makes xi^ ctum : as, dicOf dixi, dictum^ to say.

EXCEPTIONS.

Ico, ici, ictum, to strike.
Vinco, vici, victum, to conquer.
Parco, peperci, parsum, to simre.
{rarely, parsi,) parcitum*,

Sco* makes viy turn: as, nosco, novi) notum\ to know.

EXCEPTIONS.

Disco', didici, , to learn.

' The third conjugation ends in o impure; but the following
verbs in io and ior belong to it: Jacio, jaclo, capio, rapio, *lacio,
* specio, Jbdio, Jiigio, cupio, sapio, pario, quatio ; graaior, patioVf
or ior y morior, and compounds, those oi pario excepted, which be-
long to the fourth.

' Lambo and scaho have no supines. Officio, likewise. Glubi
and gliibitum, i'rom glubo, are uncommon, Degluptus maybe found.

' Cumbo is the same as cube of the first. The following admit
the m : ac' co7i- de- dis' in- oc- pro- re- sue- superin- cumbo.

* If there be any perfect participle, it is parcitns. Parsurus is
found in Suetonius, and Livy. Parcilum is uncommon. Com-
parsit or compersit, from comparco, ov conquer co, is used by Terence.

• Inceptive verbs in sco, want both perfects and supines, un-
less they borrow them from the verbs whence they are formed : as,
ardesco borrows arsi, artmm, {ram ardeo, Ac- in- per- pro- suc-
su- per- cresco have no supine; the other compounds have. GliscOf
neither perfect nor supine.

" But ag- cog- noscn, -novi, -nitnm ; also rccognosco. The other
compounds, like nosco. The participle noscifurus, as if from nos-
citum, is found in Livy. Priscian makes mention oi^ignosciturus,
but it is without sufficient authority.

' Di!coha,d himei\y discilum i mddiH'tluriiiishundm A\)n\c'mi.

108

Pasco', pavi, pastum, to feed,

Posco"', poposci, poscituiu {rarely)^ to danand,

*Quinisco% *quexi, , to nod.

Do*' makes di, sum : as, scando, scandi, scanstmy to climb.

EXCEPTIONS.

The following nine, having 5/, sum) viz.

Claudo, / shut. Ludo, I play. Rodo, I gnatv.
Divide, I divide. Flaudoy I applaud. Trudo^, I thrust.
Lsedo, I hurt. Rado^, I shave. Vado^, I go.

The compounds of do% having didi, ditum, ^dz. •

Abdo, I hide. Dido, I give out. Prodo, I betray.

Addo, I add. Edo, I publish. Reddo, I restore.

Condo, I hide, build. Indo, I put iu. Subdo, J put under.

Credo, / believe. Obdo, / oppose. Trado, / deliver.

Dedo, I yield. Perdo, J destroy. Vendo, / sell.

Cado'^, cecidi, casmn, to fall.
Ciedo®, cecidi, cajsuin, to kill.
Cedo, cessi, cessum, to yield.

' Thus also covi' de- pasco. Epastus also is found. But com-
dis' pesco, -pescui, no supine.

* Exposcitum is found in Seneca, according to Vossius.

' Quinisco has but one compound, conquiiiisco. Both are un-
common words, and seldom found in their perfects.

* Strido and rudo have no supine. Nor sido ; but its compounds
borrow from sedeo: as, as- circurn- con- de- in- oh- per- re- sub -sido,
-sedi, -sessum. Some give cusi to cudo, but cudi rests on much bet-
ter authority.

* The perfects ofrado and trudo, and the perfect and supine of
xmdo, are seldom used, uncompounded.

" Thus also the double compounds decondo, recondo, coaddo,
snperaddoy deperdo, disperdo. Abscondo has abs-:ondi (seldom abs-
condidi), absconditum (seldom absconsum) . The compounds oido
with prepositions are generally of this conjugation. But circundo
is of the first. Literdare, supcrdarc, sitpcrdandus, introdabaf, may
be found, but are not to be imitated.

* The compounds ofcado; as, ac- con- de- ex- inter- pro- suc-cidof
have no supine. But, in- oc- re- ctdo, -casuyn. These are all neuter.

* The compounds change cb into I ; as, abs- coyi- circum- de- ex-
in ■ inter- oc- per- jnce- re- sue- cido. These are all active.

Distinguish abscido, nbscldi from ctrdo, and abscindo, absc7dr.
from scindo. Observe also that the compounds oi' ca:do have but

109

Edo\ edi, esum, edere, to cat,
[uncommon, estum, esse,)
Findo^ fidi, fissum, to cleave.
Fundo, fudi, fusum, to pour out.
Pando^, pandi, passiun, to open.
Pedo\ pep^di, *peditum, to Ineak licind,
Pendo, pependi, pensum, to xveigh.

(pendi, perhaps once in Lixy,)
Scindo\ scidi, scissuni, to ait.
Tendo% tetendi, tensum, to stretch.

tentum,
Tundo", tutudi, tunsum, to beat.
tusum,

Go and orwomake -xi, -cfum ; as, rego^, rexl, rectum, to ruie.

EXCEPTIONS.

Ago^ egi, actum, to act.

one s in their supine ; those o£ scindo have a double s. Neither
the compeunds of cado, nor of ccedo, retain the reduplication of
the perfect.

* Comestus is found, but it is better to say comesus, as we say
ambesus, perestis, &c. Edo and its compounds are generally regular.

* The participle ^/?.M?« i» to be distinguished from Jisii.'i oi'Jido.
Another verb in 7ido retains the 7t in the perfect, \\z, frendo, but
its participle is y]-fi.yM5, or J]-esus, as i^ from Jressum or fresuin.

' Some give pansum to pando. Expansus is found ; also dis-
panstis.

* Some deny peditum ; but the verbal peditum is found in Ca-
tullus.

^ Distinguish conscissum of conscindo from concisum of concldo.

* Tentum is most common in the compounds. Extensum and
extentum are used promiscuously. Ostendo has oftener ostensnm
than ostenhim. The compounds having tentus are not easily di-
stinguished from those oftenen.

' The compounds have commonly -tJisum.

" Pergo and surgo -rexi, -rectum. Thus also ar- cor- di- e-por-
sur- rigo. Some consider pcrgo as a compound ofrego, and some,
of ago.

Deago and conctgo become dcgo and cogo. Dego, degi, no su-
pine. Cogo, coegi, coactum.

Ambigo and vergo want perfect and supine. Clango, ningo, an-
go, safago, prodisro, have no supine. Sitgo and lingo, rarely. Svc-
tiu! is in Pliny. The supine of lin^o is lincfum, whence the ver-
bal linctus in Pliny, who uses also linctum xulp/iur.

110

Figo, fixi, fixuni, iofix^ (fictus, raro.)
Fingo, finxi, fictum, to feign.
Frango, fregi, fractum, to break.
Frigo, frixi, f'rixuni, to fry.

frictum,
Lego^, legi, lectum, to read.
Mergo, mersi, mersum, to sink.
Mingo, minxi, mictum, to make 'water.
* Pago^, pepigi, pactum, to fix in^ or bargain.
Pango'^ panxi, pactum, to strike.
Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint.
Pungo^ pupugi, punctum, to prick.
Spargo*, sparsi, sparsum, to spread.
Stringo, strinxi, strictum, to bind.
Tango*, tetigi, tactum, to touch.

Ho makes -t/, -ctum : as, traho^ fraxi, tractumj to draw.

lOf forms variously : as,

Capio*, cepi, captum, to take.
Cupio, cupTvi, cupitum, to wish.
Facio*, feci, factum, to make.
Fodio, fodi, fossum, to dig.
Fugio, fugi, ftigitum, to fee.
Jacio*, jeci, jactum, to throw.
*Lacio*, *lexi, * lectum, to allure.
Pario", pepcri, partum, to bring forth.
paritum,

» Di- Intel- neg- Ugo, -lexi. ■lectum. The rest as lego. Some
retain the e of lego : as, al- per- pro;- re- sub' lego. Others change
it into i : as, CoU de- e- recol- se- Ugo.

* Fago is obsolete, instead of which pad scor is used. The com-
pounds ofpango, especially those which change a of the present
into iy have the perfect of the obsolete pago: as, im- com- sup-
pingo, 'pegi, -pactum. Oppango also has -egiy -actum. Circum-
de- re- pango are said to be formed both ways ; but for -panxi,
there does not seem to be sufficient authority.

* The compounds have -punxi. Repungo has repupiigi or re-
punxi, but neither is common.

* The changes that take place in spargo, tango, capio, facio,
jacio, and in many others, when compounded, will be hereafter

explained in a connected summary ; as these, and the others,
undergo similar changes, in a state of composition.

* Thus the compounds, except elicio which has elicui, elicitiim,

* Its compounds belong to the fourth conjugation. Partum
contracted for jjaritum is the more usual. The participle pari-
turus is found in Cicero, Ovid, &c

Ill

Quatio, * quassi, quassum, to shake.
Kapio, rapui, raptum, to snatch.

Sapio ', sapui, , to be wise.

*Specio', *spexi, *spectum, to see.

Jo. — Mejo, minxi, mictum, to make isoater.

Lo^ makes -uiy -Itim : as, molo, molui, moUtum, to grind.

EXCEPTIONS.

Alo, alui, alitum, reg. to nourish.

(altum, by syncope) ,

* Cello*, *cellui, *celsum, to beat y excel.
Colo*, colui, cultum, to till.

Consulo, consului, consultum, to advise, or consult.
Fallo, fefelli, falsiim, to deceive.
Pello, pepuli, pulsum, to beat.

Psallo, psalli, , to play on an instrument.

Sallo, salli, salsum, to salt.
Tollo^ sustuli, sublatum, to lift up.
Velio ^, velli, vulsum, to pidl.
vulsi,

* The usual perfect is sapui; but it had sapivi and sapii; whence
its compounds resipio and desipio had also -ivi or -ui, but the lat-
ter is preferable. Resipisse and sapisti, formed by syncope, are
found, the one in Terence, and the other in Martial.

" This verb is obsolete ; but its compounds are thus formed.
Conspicor and suspicor, formed from it, are deponents of the first
conjugation.

* Nolo, volo, malo, refello, have no supine. Attollo and recello
no perfect or supine. Ante- ex-prce- celloy no supine.

* Celsus the adjective is used. Ante- ex- prce- cello, -cellui. Ex-
celsus and prcecelsus seem to be adjectives. The dictionaries give
recello a perfect, without sufficient authority. Percello has per-
culi, percidsum. Percidsi seems unwarranted.

* Thus its compounds, and occido, which changes o into u,
Accolo and circumcolo have no supines. Incidtus does not come
from incolo, but is a compound of the participle cultus.

^ The perfect and supine of /o/fo come from s?«fo^/o. They are
likewise borrowed by snffero. In the same way cxtidi and elaium,
from extollo, are lent to effero, when it is used in a similar signifi-
cation.

' Thus, a- con- e- inter- pro;- re- vcllo; but generally de- di-perm
vello, -vellif -vidsum. This distinction is not rigidly observed.

112
Mo^ makes ui, ttum : as, fremo^ frcmu'i^ fremitum, to j'oaro

EXCEPTIONS.

Como^, comsi, comtum, to deck.
Demo-, denisi, demtum, to take aiioay.
Emo, emi, emtum, to buy.
Premo, pressi, pressmn, to jn-ess.
Promo, promsi, promtum, to bring out.
Sumo, sumsi, sumtum, to take.

No forms variously : as,

Cano, cecini, cantum, to sing^ comp. -cirmi and -cenitm.
Cerno'*, cre\i, cretum, to sec.
Gigno*, genui, genitum, to beget,
Lino\ levi, Htum, to daub.

livi,

lini,
Pono, posui, positum'"', to place.
Sino'^, sivi, sTtum, to permit.
Sperno, sprevi, spretum, to despise.
Sterno'*, stravi, stratum, to lay jlat.
Temno^ *temsi, *temtum, to despise.

* Tremo and its compounds have no supine.

' The perfects and supines o^como, demo, promo, sumo, ternno,
and the supine of emo, are commonly written with a p ; thus,
compsi, emptus, &c. It has been wished to appropriate -psi and
-ptum to verbs in -po. The latter mode of spelling is certainly the
more common, but theformer may be more consonant with analogy.

' Thus, de- dis- ex- in- se- cerno. Cretum is but little used, nor
crevi, denoting seeing ; but it is used when it means, to declare
ones self heir, to decree, or to enter upon an estate.

* Gigno borrows its perfect and supine from the obsolete geno.

' The usual perfect is levi. Lini is said to be in Quintilian.
Levi may come from * leo. Livi is in Columella.

^ Repostus for repositus is a frequent poetical contraction ; also
compostus, for comjjositus.

' Sivi is sometimes contracted into sii, especially in the com-
pound : as, desino, desivi, but oftener desii. Sini is found in an-
tient authors. Some dictionai'ies give sinitum, but I find no autho-
rity for it.

* Consterno is of the first conjugation, when it denotes mattal
agitation ; when it is applied to body, it is of the third ; but this
distinction is not rigidly observed. The same remark is applicable
to exsterno.

' The perfect and supine of this verb ai-e not used out of composi-
tion; but contcmno, contemsi, contemtum. See note 2.

113

Po makes psi^ ptiim : as, carpo, carpsi, carptum, to pluck.

EXCEPTIONS.

Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, to break.

Strepo, strepui, strepTtum, to make a noise.

Qjio. — There are only two in quo ;

Coquo, coxi, coctinn, to boil.
Linquo', liqui, *lictiun, to leave.

Ro^ makes ssi, stum : as, gero, gessi, gesfum, to carry.

EXCEPTIONS.

Curro, cucurri, cursum, to ntn.

Fero, tuli, latum, to bear.

Quairo, quiesivi, quaesTtum, to seek.

*Sero^, *serui, *sertum, to lay in order.

Sero*, sevi, satum, to sow.

Tero, trivi, trltum, to voear.

Verro'', verri, versum, to siveep.

' De- re- ders- linquo, -liqui, -lictum.

* Furo and suffero have no perfecc or supines. This is said
ofsiiffero, signifying bearing or suffering ; but when it signifies to
carry army, it borrows sustuli and siiblatum from tollo or sustollo ;
yet, some grammarians deny a preterite and supine to suffero, m
any sense, and always refer sustuli and sublalitm to tollo. Indeed,
there seems some disagreement among grammarians, in regard to
these verbs ; many, guided by a certain analogy, asserting that the
preterite and supine commonlyassigned to tollo, come from suffero.
In the same way, they refer extuli and elatum to effero, which, they
say, lends them to extoUo. It seems clear to me, that tuJi and la~
turn (said to be a contraction ofiolatum,) are borrowed hy fero it-
self from tolo or iulo ; and that, if borrowed by the original, sim-
l)le verb, they must still be considered as borrowed by its com-
pounds. Altuli and allatum are, however, generally referred to
qffcro, as they are not used in the signification o^ alt oil a, which, in
course, is said to be without preterite or supine.

' The compounds of sero that denote arranging or linking to-
gether, are thus formed ; being As- con- de- dis- eclis- ex- in- inter-
sero.

* Those that denote ;;/a«//7/^ or solving, thus : as, ««- con- circum-.
de- dis- in- inter- pro- re- sid- trail- scro, -sevi, -situ»i, a being
changed into i, in the supines.

* Some give verro the perfect versi ; but verri is far prefe-
rable.

114.

So makes slvi, situm : as, arcesso ', arcesswi, arcessltum, to

send for.

EXCEPTIONS.

Depso'^, depsiii, depstum, to knead.

Incesso, incessi, , to attack.

Pinso, pinsi, pinsitum, to bake.
pinsui, pinsum,
pistum,
Viso', visi, , to visit.

To forms variously : thus,

Flecto, flexi, flexum, to Lend.
Meto, messui, messum, to reap.
Mitto, misi, missum, to send.
Necto, nexui, nexum, to tie.

nexi,
Peto, petTvi, petltum, to seek.
Pecto, pexi, pexum, to comb.

pexui,
Plecto*, plexui, plexum, to plait.

plexi,
Sisto, stiti, statum, to stop (active).

Sisto •', , - — , to stand, (neuter).

Sterto, stertui, , to snore.

Verto, verti, versum, to turn.

' Arcesso, capesso, facesso, lacesso, are said by some to have ii
and i, by Syncope. The syncopated perfect is the only one left to
incesso, Incessui is once found.

* Some grammarians give de2)so no supine. The dictionaries
give it depsitum, which, by syncope, becomes depstum ; and hence
the participle depstus, which Cato uses,

' Reviso and inviso are said by some to have supiijes ; but since
visum is denied to viso, as being the supine o^ video, whence viso
itself is formed, upon the same principle invisum and revisum are
to be referred to invideo and revideo.

* Whether in the sense oi plaiting or o^ punishing, either pre-
terite is very uncommon.

* Sisto (neuter) is said to borrow steti, statum from sto — The
compounds, have -stiti, -stitiim: as, as- circum- con- de- ex- in-
inter- ob- per- re- sub- sisto, -stiti, -stitum. Absisto has no supine ;
nor are the supines of the others authorized.

115

Uo^ makes ui, utiim: as, tribuo, iribui, tributum, to bestow.

EXCEPTIONS.

Fluo, fluxi, fluxuni, tojioia.
Ruo'-, rui, ruitum, to rush.
Struo, struxi, structum, to build.

Vo^ makes vi, utum: as, volvo, volvif volutum^ to roll.

EXCEPTION.

Vivo, vixi, victum, to live.
Xo* makes ui, twn : as, texo, tex'ui, text urn, to weave.

THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.

The fourth conjugation makes hn, iticm: as, audio %
audivi% auditum, to hear.

' These have no supines : mettio, pluo, congruo, ingruo, 7'cspiio,
annuo, abmio, innuo, remio. Luo has lid (luitum, seldom). Its
compounds, lut/on : as, diluo, dilui, dilutum. Batuo and duo have
no supines ; but the verbs themselves have become obsolete,

Fluo seems to have hadi Jluctum, as well as Jluxumj hence tlie
verbal Jluctus.

- The compounds have -mtum. Corruo and ii-ruo are not found
in the supine. Eruiturus is found as well as eruturus. Ruiturus
is in Lucan,

^ Calvo, calvi, calvere ; and calvor, calvi, are obsolete.

* Nexui and nexum come rather from necto than nexo. Nexo
belongs to the first conjugation. But some grammarians write
7iexo, nexis, nexui, nexum, 9iexcre.

• Eo and queo are the only simple verbs in eo that belong to
this conjugation, and both have itum in the supine. The com-
pounds likewise ; except ambio, amhitum. These want the su-
pine ; ccccutio, gestio, glocio, demoitio, ineptio, Jcroeio. Obedio
(perhaps obaudio) is a neuter verb; and consequently not used
in the passive voice, but as an impersonal verb> hence obeditum
est, in Livy. It has obcditurus, as if from obeditum, the supine
usually given to it. There is not sufficient authority for the su-
pines of «5- circum- sub- prO' silio ; but the verbs assulto and sub'
suite ; and the nouns asstdtu.s andsubsultus are found, formed from
a supine. Aio and J'erio want perfect and supine ; but aio has the
2d persons of the perfect. Likewise verbs denoting desire, and
ending in -urio ; except esurio, -ivi, itum ; pmiurio -ivi, but for
this last there is only modern authority, and perhaps nupturio Ivi.
Nupturisse — Apuleius. Esuriturus — Ter. Parturiit — Buchanan.

^ In one instance Cicero is said to have used pu7iitus es, instead
o? pu7iivisti i—'CuJus tu ini7nicissimum inulto crudelius punitus es.

12

116

EXCEPTIONS^

Amicio, amicui, amictum, to cover.

amixi, [seldom,)

amicivi, [male,)
Cambio, campsi, campsum, to change money, {ohs.)
Farck), farsi, fartum, to cram.
Fulcio, fulsi, tultiim, to support.
HaUrio', hausi, haustum, to ciraxv out.

(seld. hausum,)
Raucio, rausi, rausum, to be hoarse.
Salio^, salui, saltum, to leap.
Sancio^, sanxi, sanctum, to ratify.

sancivi, sancitum,
Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, to mend,
Sentio, sensi, sensum, to feel.
Sepelio, sepelivi, sepultum, to bury.
Sepio*, sepsi, septum, to inclose.

sepivi, (seld.)
Singultio^ singultivi, singultum, to sob.

Veneo'"', venii, , to be sold.

Venio, veni, ventum, to come.
Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, to bind.

1

Hauriturus is found. Hausurus, Virgil. Hausturus, Cicero.

" Salio makes salui or saJii, but for the former there are superior
authorities. The compounds have -silui or -silii, -sidtum. As-
circum- sub- pro- sultum, are unauthorized: but some verbs are
found which seem formed from nssnJtum and subsultiim. See
note 5, in the preceding page.

' Sancivi is sometimes contracted into sancii, as sancitum is into
sancturd ; and hence the participle sanctus. Sanxi is almost uni-
versally used ; and sanctus is much more common than sancitus,
and rests on much better authority.

* Sepivissent is in Livy ; or rather perhaps sepissCnt. But Gro-
novius conjectures that sepsissent ought to be read. The passage
is xLxv. 39.

' Singidtum, formed, by Syncope, from singultitnin, as sejndtmn
is from sepelilmn, is preferred to singuUitum, on account of the
noun singultus derived from it, but neither is common.

* Some give veneo a supine, venum ; but this is considered Ss a
noun, which, compounded with eo, forms veneo itself Venii may
be contracted from venivi.

117

Compounds o^ pario, a verb of ihe third conjugation.
Aperio '1 - , ^ to open.
Operio J ' ' ( ^o cover, •

T3 3 r "^'» -i'tum, to Jind out.

DEPONENT VERBS.

To form the perfect of a deponent verb, suppose an ac-
tive voice; from the supine of which, formed by preceding
rules, comes the participle in -tus, -sus, or -xtis, which, added
to SU771 or Jiii, constitutes the perfect: thus, gratulor, gratu-
latus sum, as if from gnitulo, gratulavi, gratulatum.

FIRST CONJUGATION.

In the first conjugation all the deponent verbs are formed
regularly.

SECOND CONJUGATION.

The second conjugation has the following

Exceptions.

Fateor, fassus sum, to confess.
Misereor, misertus sum, to pity.

miseritus, {Liv. and others.)
Reor, ratus sum, to think.

THIRD CONJUGATION.

Exceptions,

Apiscor^, aptus sum, to get.
Comminiscor, commentus sum, to devise.
Expergiscor, experrectus sum, to msoake.

' Thus also the double compounds, ndaperio, adopcrio, coope-
rio. Comperi, not compertus sum , is found as the preterite of co7H-
perior. Comperio and 7-eperio are perhaps compounds of the ob-
solete perio or perior, whence pcricidum, peritus, and experior, are
formed, rather than of pnrio.

' The verb sarrio or sarin belongs to this conjugation. It is
formed regularly by -ivi, -11117)1. It has also sarrui ; and Mr. R.
Johnson quotes two instances from Cat. c, 3, in which sarseris is
used as a part of this verb ; but may it not come rather from sarrio?
Columella uses sarrivisse, xi. 2. Sarucr/s is said to he found in
Cato; but some read sa7-rieris. In regard to the supine, sarTilurn
is found in Columella isartiori is in Pliny, xviii. 27, which implies
the existence o£ sarfutti, as well as sarritian.

^ Apiscor is but little used : its compounds arc adipiscor and in.
dipiscor, -eptus.

118

Fruor', frultus stim, to enjoy.

fructue,
Gradior, gressus sum, to go.

(ol.) grassus,
Irascor-, iratus sum, to be angry.
Labor, lapsus sum, to slide.
Loquor, locutus sum, to speak.

loquutus,
Morior"', mortuus sum, to die.
Nanciscor, nactus sum, to get.
Nascor*, natus sum, to be born.
Nitor*, nisus sum, to endeavour.

nixus,
Obliviscor, oblltus sum, to forget.
Orior*, ortus sum, oriri, to rise.
Paciscor, pactus sum, to bargain.
Patior, passus sum, to svffer.
Proficiscor, profectus sum, to go.
Quei'or, questus sum, to complain.
Sequor, seciitus sum, to Jbllow.

sequutus,
Ulciscor, ultus sum, to i^evenge.
Utor, usus sum, to use.
The verb potior has potiri^ and belongs to the fourth con-
jugation ; but is used, by the poets, in the 3d and 4th, who,
however, prefer potlUir of the third *'.

FOURTH CONJUGATION.

Rxceptiovs.
Metior, mensus sum, to measure,
metitus, [male.)

. ' Fruitus is said to be the mote common ; notwithstanding, from
Jructtis come the noun Jrudus, and the participles peijructus and
Jructurus. Lucretius w^o:?, J'r^^ctus sum, iii. 953. Pc'r/r«cfz{s is at-
tributed to Cicero. Fruitus sum is in Seneca, epist.93.

* Iratus is considered as an adjective.

' The infinitive oi'morior is mori ; sometimes, as in Plautus and
Ovid, moriri. Emoriri is in Terence. The participle is moriturus.

* The future participles active of nascor and orior are also nas'
citurus and oriturus. In the imperfect subjunctive oriretur is uni-
versally found instead oforeretur; also in the compounds. In any
other parts, it is seldom found to follow the fourth conjugation.

* Con- in- ob- re- sub- nitor, -xus oftener than -sus. Annitor
-xus, and -sus^ promiscuously. Enixus is generally applied to a
birth ; otherwise, enisus.

^ Pofitiir, Virg. PoteretKr, V. Flacc. Potercmur, Ovid.
Polerentur, Propert.

119

Ordior', orsus sum, to Icgin.
Experior, expertus sum, to try.
Opperior^, oppertus sum, {Ter.) to "wait for.
opperitus, [Plant.)

COMPOUNDED VERBS.
GENERAL RULE.

Compounded verbs form their perfect and supine in the
same manner as the simple verbs: thus, red-amo, red-amavi,
red~amatum, to love again.

But tlie following changes, which happen to the preposi-
tion, and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit
attention.

A, Ab^ Abs.

A is used in composition before 7« and r. Ab before
vowels, and d, f, h,J, /, n, r, s. Before fero and /tigio^ it
becomes au : as, aufero, aufugio. Abs is used before c and
t : as, abscedOf abstuli.

Ad.

Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple, beginning
widi c, f, g, I, 71, p, r, s, t : as, accurro, qfflcio, aggero. In
some writers it remains unaltered, as a(lficio.

Am {cimbe or ambi from a\h^\, circum).
Am, before c, q, f, h, is changed into a7i : as, anquiro, an-
Jielo. Sometimes it assumes its own b : as, ambio.

Circum.
Circum remains unaltered. The vi is sometimes changed:
as, circundo for circumdo ; omitted : as, circueo for circumeo.

* Some give ordior, orditus, when it signifies to toeave ; but
this rests chiefly on modern authority.

' The following have no perfect; vescor, liquor, medeor, remi-
niscor, irascor, ringor, pra'vertor, diffitcor, divertor, defetiscor.
Divcrtor and prcevcdor are said to borrow perfects from diverto
and prceverto, for diver sus sum and prccversus sum are not used.
In the same way, revertor, though it has reversus sum, borrows
reverti from revcrto, which is an uncommon verb. The word rictus
is a substantive derived from the obsolete 7-ingn. Diffessus is
hardly to be found. Fatiscor is a very uncommon word. Such
words as ratus, iratus, Jessus, dc/cssus ; and cassus and lasstis are
considered as adjectives.

i20

Con (for cum).
Con, before a vowel or h, drops the « .- as, coaleo^ cohi-
beo i before /, its n becomes /, and before h^ p, w, it becomes
m : and before r it changes w into 7' ,• as, colligo, comhuro,
comparo, commeo, corripio. In comburo it assumes b after
it.

Z)/ is used before </, o-^ /, m^ ri, v : as, diduco, digladior.
Dis and c?/ before r : as, disrnmpo, dirumpo ,• Hkewise before
J : as, disjudico, dijudico. Dis is used before c, /?, q, s, t : as,
discuTnbo, dispello. Before sp and st, s is removed, and be-
fpreyit is changed intoy\- as, dispicio, disto, dijjiteor. Be-
fore a vowel, it assumes r : as, dirimo, from emo.

E, Ex.

E is found before b, d, g, /, vi, n, r, and before j and v :
as, ebibo, educe, cjicio, eveho. Ex is used before vowels, and
h, c, Pi ^, t, s : as, exarOf exkibeo, excutio ; before f, x be-
comes J; as, efficio.

In.

In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple
verb : as, illudo ; but before b^ ?n, jh it changes n into m : as,
imbibOf immineo, impleo.

Ob.

Ob generally remains unaltered. The b is sometimes
omitted, as in omitto ; or changed into the first letter of the
simple verb : as, offero.

Re, Pro.

Re assumes d before c/, a vowel, or h • as, reddo, redamo,
redeo, redhibeo. Pro likewise sometimes takes a d, as in pro-
deo.

Sub.

Sub changes b into the consonant of the simple, before c,
/■> Si ^'^ i^» ^' ^^' succedoj sjiffero, suggero. Submitto and sum-
mitto; suhmoveo and smnmoveo, are both used.

Trans.
Trans is generally contracted into tra, before d, j, n : as,
trado, trajicio, trano ; and sometimes before / and m : as,
traluceo, trameo. Post becomes pos in postidi. Few if any
changes take place in the other prepositions. Other pre-
fixes consist of verbs, as in calefacio, of caleo ; of adverbs,
as in benefacio, of bene ; of participles and adjectives, as in
mansuefacio, magnifico, oimansuehis and magnus; of substan-
tives, as in signi/i'co, of signum ; of a preposition and nomij
as in anmadverto, of ad and animus.

Arceo

fallo

* cando

farcio

capto ^

fatiscor

carpo

gradior

damno

iacto

121

OF THE PRESENT.

The following simple verbs, when in composition, change
a into e :

Iacto patro

mando sacro

pario scando

partio spargo

patior tracto.

But we find"ama?zfZo, prcjema7ido, jvcvdattmo, ahlacto (sel-
dom), desacro, pertracio, retracto. Parco makes comparco
or comperco. Paciscor makes depeciscor. Canto changes a
in occento. Halo with ex remains unaltered ; as, exhalo ;
but we find anhelo.

These change a, ce and «?, into i.

Cado habeo qusero statuo

caedo laido rapio taceo

cano lateo salio, to leap, tango

egeo placeo sapio teneo.

But we find com- per- placeo ; pczt- ante- habeo. Pra^
habeo becomes pnebeo ; oc- re- cano are sometimes found.

These change a and e into z, in the present only.
Ago fateor pango *specio,

apiscor frango premo

capio jacio I'ego

emo *lacio sedeo

Except coemo^ cogo (for con-ago\ dego (for de-ago\
circum- sat- per- ago. Sursiim-erigo [e-rego) becomes surgo.
and per-rego'^ heco}Xves pergo.

5

' Such words as the following may be formed at once from the
supine of the primitive compounded, viz. ciccepto irom accephim ;
dcledo from deledum, the supine of the obsolete delicio.

* I was at a loss to determine v/hether I should consider pergo
as a compound of rego, or of ago. From its having an x in the
perfect it seems to come from rcgn. But it may be observed, that
X is composed oi'gs, or of cj, and that the latter of these is some-
times omitted ; that/fl«o, although in feci it uses but one of these
letters, yet in fax im andjcixo (facsim anCifacso) uses both; that
lego, in some of its compounds, has the o- only, and in others, the
gs or X ; and that ago, in the language whence tlie Latin ago is
probably derived, has an x (g) in some of its parts ; so that the
coincidence of the ])erfects in regard to rrgo mu\ pergo, docs not
Bccm satisfactorily decisive of tlic derivation of the latter. To

122

Antecapio and anticipo ; super] acio and supajicio are both
used. Circwn- super- sedeo ; dc- oh~ re- pango. Facio com-
pounded with a preposition changes a into i ,- as, officio,
interjicio. Such compounds liave the imperative in e ; and
form their passive regularly, by adding /• to o. The other
compounds with verbs, nouns or adjectives, do not change
the a, and liave the imperative in c, tlirowing away the e ,-
and their passive voice is like ^o : as, calefacio, calefac, ca-
lefio. Some compounds with nouns and adjectives, throw
away the i which precedes o, and are of the first conjuga-
tion: as, significo, la^tijico^ magnifco'^.

Specio forms some compounds in the same way ; as, con-
spicor and suspicor, deponents of the first conjugation.

Lego, compounded with con, dc, di, e, inter, nee, se^
changes e into i : as, colligo, deligo ,• but al- prce- per- re-
sub- trans- lego.

Calco and salto compounded change a into u : as, incidco,
insidto.

Plaudo, compounded, changes au into a : as, explodo ;
except applaudo.

Audio changes an into e in obedio.

Causo, claudo, lava, quatio, throw away a, and lavo turns
V into u : as, accuso, recludo, deluo (or from luo), percutio.

Juro changes u into e in dcjero and pejero. Its other com-
pounds retain the u.

OF THE PERFECT.

Compounds throw away the reduplication of the perfect:
as, pello, pepuli ,- compello, compuli. The second conjuga-
tion drops the reduplication entirely: as, spondeo, spospondi;
respotidco, rcspondi. The compounds of do, sto, disco and
p)osco, retain it: as, circundedi, addidi, astiti, edidici, dcpo-
2)0sci. Prendo for prehendo has prendidi as well as prendi.
Repu7igo retains it in repupugi. Ac- con- de- dis- ex- in- oc-
per- prcE- pro- curro, sometimes have the reduplication, and

this it may be added, tl i at ^;ero-o, though neuter, is sometimes used
actively, in nearly the same sense as pcrago ; and that as cogo (con-
ago) and colUgo (cnn-lcgo) convey similar ideas, and are, neither
of them, very different from a-vv-ccycu, whence ago may be sup-
posed to be derived, it is not very improbable, that ago may, in
sense, at Ifeast, form the basis of 7rgo, lego, jicrgo and surgo. Still,
upon the score oCJonnation, it is expedient to consider pergo as
per-rego. The rest is mere conjecture.

' But bciiefacilo, calejacito and the like, arc more common than
bencJaCf &c.

123

sometimes not. Circum- re- sue- tj-ans- curro, seldom or never
have it. Some changes in the perfects of certain simple verbs
— as, salui into silui ; cecini into cinui — have been noticed
under their conjugations.

OF THE SUPINE.

These compounded change a into e.
Cantum carptum fartum partum sparsum.
captum factum' j actum rap turn

Also the participles, ajHas, fassus, and j^^sstis. Observe
that compounds in -do and -go ; and the compounds of
j>laceo, haheo, sapio, sallo and statuo^ though they change a
of the simple verb into i, do not take e in their supine : as,
recido^ recasum ; adigo, adactwn ; displiceo, displicitum ,• p7'o-
hibeo, prohibitum ; desipio (dcsipitum^) ,- i?isilio, insidtum ;
instituo, institiitum.

The simple verbs with w^hich the follow^ing are compound-
ed, are either obsolete, or but little known ; adipiscor^ indi-
piscor^ difendo^ qffendo., aspicio, conspicio, ejcperior, com2)e-
rior, escpedio, impedio, doleo, imhio, compello- as^ appello
-aSi incendo, accendo, ingruo^ congruo, injligo, ajjiigo, con-
Jligo^ instigo, iyjipileo, compleo, 7'enideo, connivco^ pcrcello^ im-
e- prcB- mineo, allicio^ illicio, induo, exiio^ and some others.

OF VERBS DEFECTIVE IN THEIR PRIMARY PARTS.

The following lines contain a connected view of the prin-
cipal verbs that are defective in perfects or supines.

SUPINES.

These have 110 supines :

The compounds of nuo and grtco.
Those of cado ,• except incido, occido, recido.
Neuters in -veo ,- and arceo^.

Neuters in eo, ui ,- except caleo, careo, coaleo^ doleOyjaceo,
laleo^, liceo, merco, noceo, oleo, pa7-eo, placco, taceo^, valed.
The rest are comprehended in these verses :

' In the compounds only that change a of the present into 7.

^ This word does not appear to have a supnie,

' See arceo, lateo, taceo, in the second conjugation, luo in the
third, and mico in the first. Several additional remarks on simple
and compound verbs will be found under their respective conju-
gations.

124.

Algeo cum tlmeo, sic urgeo, lugeo, fulgeo,
Frigeo, aim sileo, sic turgeo, luceo, strideo ;
Ango, clango, luo*, disco, compesco, quinisco,
Dego, lambo, mico', dispesco, posco, refello,
Incesso, metuo, ningo, cu/n prodigo, psallo,
Stride, scabo, pluo, sido, cu?n respuo, rudo,
Sterto, tremo, sapio, satago, cjwi veneo, viso;
Caecutit, glocio, dementio, gestit, ineptit,
His et \)Yos\\io^, pariterque krocio jimgas.

Tliese have neither 'perfect nor supine.

Verbs in -5co, that signify to gro'w, or to begi^i ;

Verbs in -urio, signifying desire ; except parttcrio, esurin^
and nupturio. Also

Flaveo, cum scateo, \\\Q.oque, renideo, polleo,

Nexo, aveo, denseo, glabreo, cum lacteo, moereo;

Ambigo, sisto ^, furo, ferio, labo, vergo, recello,

Divertor, plico, prasvertor, liquet et reminiscor,

Diffiteor, ringor, medeor, vescorg'?/^', Xxci^oxque.
Verbs 'mhich borro'w tenses from others :

Inceptives in -sco borrow their perfects from theii" primi-
tives: as, tcpesco^ tejmi, from tepeo : — their supines also: as,
abolesco, -evi, -ituin, from aboleo.

Ferio, percussi, percussuni, from percutio;

Fero, tuli, latum, from tulo ;

Furo, insanivi, insanitum, from insanio ;

Meio, minxi, mictum, from mingo;

Sido, sedi, sessum, from sedeo ;

Sum, fui, futurus, from fuo, obsolete ;

Tollo, sustuli, sublatum, fr-om. sufFero, or rather sustollo ;

Liquor, liquefactus sum, fr-om liquefio;

Medeor, medicatus sum, from medicor, deponent ,-

Reminiscor, recordatus sum, fr^om recorder ;

Vescor, pastus sum, y5om pascor*, ^c,

' See note 3, in the preceding page.

* See scdio, in the fourth conjugation.

' Sido neuter. See si&lo^ third conjugation,

* Whether, strictly speaking, all these perfects and supines
can be said to be really borrorvcd hy the defective verbs, or to be
used instead of their defective tenses, it is perhaps impossible,
nor is it of much importance, to determine. At any rate, they
are used in the same, or nearly the same, signification, in which
the defective tenses would have been used ; but still, it may be,
that they are used, not as upon lorut, but chiefly as tenses of their
own verbs, with whose signification that of the defective verbs
hiippens to coincide,

125

NEUTER.PASSIVE VERBS.

Audeo, gaudea, soleo, Jido^ and Jio. The first four, neuter
verbs, though they have an active termination, have a pas-
sive preterite ; and hence their name. The simple tenses
are active in termination, the compound, passive. They are
thus conjugated.

Audeo', ausus sum, audere, to dare, ") f iUp oj

Gaudeo, gavisus sum, gaudere, to rejoice, > •
Soleo-, solitus sum, solere, to 7isc, ) *'*

Fido^, fisus sum, fidere, to trust — of the 3d.
Fio*, factus sum, fieri, to be made — of the 3d or 'ith.

The following peculiarities happen to words which are
not commonly deemed defective, nor very irregular in their
ter^nination.

Neither dor nor der^, the presents passive of do, nor for
nor Jer are used; we say dan's vel dare, &.c. ; Jaris xelfare,
&c. But in composition we find addor, condor, &c. Effbr
and (tjfor are scarcely used.

Furo is not used in the first person singular of the present
indicative.

Sci, the second person singular of the imperative of scio,
is obsolete.

Die, due, fae, fer, are used as imperatives instead of dice,
duce, &c. Face, adduce, ahduce, dice, edice, addice and indice
are found, but very seldom. The compounds o^ facio, that
change a into i, as has been formerly mentioned, retain tlie
e ; as, office, irifice, ferjice.

ABUNDANTS.

Of the abundants, some abound in signification, being

' Audendns is used by Livy ; and auderi is used by Cornelius.

' Soluerat is attributed to iSallust.

' Thus confldo, and dijf'ulo. Confulo has conjidi also, accord-
ing to Livy ; and dijfidi is in Quintilian.

* Thus the conjpounds officio with nouns, verbs or adverbs.
Fio is the passive voice o^ facia. To these, some add vuereo,
mceslus sum, wcerere. Mcesliia sian belongs also to mcereor ; and
by some mcestus is considered merely as an adjective. Exulc,
liceo, vapido, and veneo, are neuter verbs, and, because expressed
in English by the passive voice, have been termed neuter-passives.
Liceor is a deponent verb, and has an active significatioji.

' Deris and demur, and the other parts oi' /a ris {except fat ur,
fare of the imperative, _/««.?, y«/«A' and fundus, fandi uniijaudo)
seem obsolele. Virgil uses' fnbor. ALu. i, 261.

126

either neuter, or active : as, maneo, I remain, or I wait for ;
some have an active or passive signification : as, crimincn\ I
blame or am blamed.

Others abomid in termination : as, assentio and assentior.
Others in conjugation : as, of

The Jirs.t, Lavo, lavas; of the thirds rarely^ Lavo, lavis.
The second^ Ferveo, ferves; Fervo, fervis.

Strideo, strides; Strido, stridis.

Tueor, tueris; Tuor, tueris.

Tergeo, terges ; {iised in both) Tergo, tergis.

Fulgeo, fiilges; Fulgo, fulgis.

The third, Fodio, fodis; of the fourth^rarehj^Yodivo, fodis.

Sallo, sallis ; Sallio, sallis.

Morior, moreris; Morior,moriris.

Orior, oreris ; Orior, orlris.

Potior, poteris; Potior, potiris.

'Note — That orior and -potior are always of the 4th, in the
infinitive.

Others abound in certain tenses. Thus the following are
said to have a perfect of an active or a passive termination ;
juro, 7iubo, placeo, pu7iio, suesco. The abundant impersonals
will be found among the Impersonals. Edo, an abundant,
will be found among the Irregulars. Among abundants (but
it is a misapplication of the term), have sometimes been
reckoned verbs which, in some of their principal parts, re-
semble each other; but which differ in their signification, and
often in their conjugation.

1 . Some agree ui the present : as,

Aggero, -as, to heap up. Aggero, -is, to bring together.

Appello, -as, to call. A}i[)eilo, -is, to arrive.

Compello, -as, to address. Comj)ello, -is, to compel.

Colligo, -as, to bind. Colligo, -is, to collect.

Consterno, -as, to astonish. Consterno, -is, to strexv.

Effero, -as, to enrage. Effero, -ters, to bring out.

Fundo, -as, to found. Fundo, -is, to pour out.

Maudo, -as, to command. Mando, -is, to chew.

Obsero, -as, to lock. Obsero, -is, to sow over.

Volo, -as, tofj/. Volo, vis, to will.

Some change their quantity likewise: as,

Colo, -as, to strain. Colo, -is, to till.

DTco, -as, to dedicate. Dlco, -is, to say.

Ediico, -as, to educate. Educo, -is, to bring out.

127

Lego, -as, to send. Lego, -is, to read.

Vado, -as, to zvade. Vado, -is, to go.

2. Some agree in dieir perfects : as,

Aceo, acui, to be sour. Acuo, acui, to sharpen.

Cresco, crevi, to groxv. Cerno, crevi, to see.

Frigeo, frixi, to be cold. Frigo, frixi, to fry.

Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. Fulcio, fulsi, to prop.

Luceo, luxi, to shine. Lugeo, luxi, to mourn.

Paveo, pavi, to be afraid. Pasco, pavi, to feed.

Pendeo, pependi', to hang. Pendc, pepeiidi, to 'weigh.

3. Some agree in dieir supines : as,

Cresco, cretum, to grow. Cerno, cretum, to see.

Maneo, mansum, to stay. Mando, mansum, to chew.

Sto, statum, to stand. Sisto, statum, to stop.

Succenseo, -censum, to be Succendo, -censum, to burn.

angry.

Teneo, tentum, to hold. Tendo, tentum, to stretch.

Verro, versum, to sweep. Verto, versum, to turn.

Vinco, victum, to conquer. Vivo, victum, to live.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

( 1 ) The verbs commonly reckoned irregular are sum, eo,
queo, volo, edo, fero, fo, and their compounds.

(2) The compoimds o^ s?im are ad- ab- de- inter- in-prcs-
ob- sub- super- pro- pos- sum. Insum wants the perfect and
the parts formed from it. Prosum takes in a d after proy
whenever sum begins with an e. Possum (which is Potsnm.^
{or potis- or pote- sum,) changes the t when it is followed by
an s, into 5. In other respects the t is retained, but the y of
S7im is thrown out ; as, potui, potueram, &c. Potessem and
potesse are contracted into possem and posse. Potestur is
found in the passive.

(3) The compounds of eo are all conjugated like eo, ex-
cept ambio, which belongs to the fourth coiijugation. Trans-
eo and prcetereo have sometimes -iam in the future indica-
tive. In the compounds, ivi, ivisti, &c. are generally con-
tracted into a, iistij &c.

' To these may be added the compounds of sto and of sislo :
thus, consto, constiti ; comisto, const il i ; insto, instiii ; insisto, in-
stiti, &c. Some have added the com[)ounds oi fero and iollo :
as, confero, contuli ; contollo, contuU ; cfero, extidi; extoUo, extidi ;
prcfero, pMidi ; profollo, protidi. But these preterites are better
referred iofero, exclusively. Concernw^ sustidi, which some re-
fer to siiffero, and some to iollo, or sudollo, mention has already
been made.

128

(4) Qi/t^o and nequeo ave conjugated like eo ,• but have no
imperative mood, or gerunds, and seldom {)articiples. Qititus,
queuntur, qiieatur ,- nequeor, ncquitur are rarely found.

(5) The compounds ol" volo are nolo [non volo) and mala
{tnagis volo). Their gerunds ieem to rest on no good au-
thority.

(6) Edo, although reckoned an^.ong the irregulars, is a
regular verb of the third conjugation ; but in some parts in
which it seems to fall in with sum, it is abundant. Its com-
pounds are conjugated like it. Estur, in the passive, is found
as well as edilur.

.(7) Fero borrows tuli, and latum (supposed to be con-
tracted for tolatum or tulaium) from the obsolete iulo. Its
compounds are conjugated like it.

(8) Fio is commonly considered as the passive oijacio^^
some of the compounds of which have their passive in -fio,
and others in ^cior, as has been explained under the Com-
pounded Verbs.

' The ingenious author of an excellent little Grammar observes, that " fio
is alsurcUy supposed to be the passive voice of facio ; whereas it came from
(piu, which gave birth to fid, the perfect of sum." Is not tliis remark rather
harsh ; and does it not involve the very circumstance which the intelligent
author wishes to reprehend ? It is certainly true that Jin comes from ipi/a ;
hence the obsolete _/i(o which gives to sian, fui, fueram, forem {or fuercm),
fuerim, fiilssem, fore (probably fnere), fuisse. Fuat occurs in Virgil, ^n. s.
108. Indeed, to complete the Latin verb of existence, another verb is pro-
l)ably added. "Ei^/ sum-, and 'iifti eo, seem to be kindred verbs, both apparently
derived from "w, to go, to come into existence, to be. The Latin sum is formed
either from 'iim, or from 'ire/aai, the future of i&i. According to Vano, the
ancients used to say csu7n, and csumus, estis, esunt. Erani, essein, ero, esse, ap-
pear, too, to come from the original eo or eio. Emm is, by termination, ob-
viously a pluperfect, denoting, I had come into existence, I was ; esscm, a plu-
perfect subjunctive or potential, denoting I had come into existence, / was,
or I would have come into existence, / ivould be ; ero, a future perfect, I shall
have come into existence, I shall be; esse, a perfect of the infinitive, to have
come, to be come, to be. The word escit occurs in Lucretius, and tlie com-
pound superesclt, in Ennius. Escuni, too, is said to occur in a jwssage of the
12 tables. The author of the P. Royal Grammar observes, that "escit is used
for erit." We ought, probably, however, to read essit ; for the ancients formed
their perfect subjunctive in ssim, as negassim for negiwerim : others, however,
doubtless contemplating the obvious relation between sum and' eo, conceive
thatf.ivo, erit, have been corrupted into esceo, escit, and that, in Lucretius
escif, exit, is used merely in the sense of est. We have little doubt, that a com-
mon affinity exists generally, in language, between verbs of existence, going,
becoming, standing, living, eating, birth, &c. Indeed, in the vei-y terms in
wliich we speak of sum, and some other verbs, as verbs of existence (ex sisto)
or as substantive (sub slo) verbs, we imply the relation of standing. In Latin,
slo is sometimes used substantively, or as a connecting verb, in a way little dif-
ferent from sum ; and in Spanish, estar, the verb denoting to be, or, etymolo-
gtcally, to stand, is always used, under certain established conditions, particu-
larly that of variability in the predicate, as the verb of existence. We say in
Latin, qunin placidum ventis staret mare, when the sea stood (was) tranquil ;
atul hove, too, the use of sto seems to be regulated by the same circirmstance
as that of the Spanish eslo ; for were quietness a property or usual attribute of

129

Their Co?ijugatio7i.

(9) Smn and its compounds cannot be classed under any
conjugation. It borrows its perfect and future participle
from the obsolete Jiio of the third.

(10) Eo and guco are irregulars, from the fourth.

(11) Folo^ noloy malo, few, from the third.

(12) Flo, whose infinitive was originally j^rz, and imper-
fect s\xh]\x\\ci\\Q Jirem, may be referred to the fourth.

Their Formation.

(IS) They are all regular in the formations from the per-
fect, supine, and infinitive. Their principal irregularity, be-
sides their deficiency, is in the formation from the present,
and in the terminations belonging to the present, and to the
formation from it, as has been already mentioned in the
Rules for the Formation of Verbs.

The follo-mng is a Synopsis oftWe
Irregular Verbs.

the sea, it is not probable that sto would be employed. If a Spaniard means
to say, " He is at present in ill health," he uses the substantive verb estar, to
be, equivalent to the Latin stare; thus, " El esta malo." If he speaks of a
man that is habitually or inhercntli/ wicked, he employs the substantive verb
ser, corresponding to the Latin esse ; thus, " El es malo," he is a bad man.

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133

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

Impersonal verbs are not declined in the first or second
person, but only in the third person singular; they never ad-
mit a person as their nomhiative ; and, when literally trans-
lated, have, in English, the word it before them.

OF THEIR VOICE, CONJUGATION, AND INFLECTION.

(1) There are impersonals in both voices.

Some belong to the first conjugation : as, constat, juvat,
2')rasiat.

Some to the second ; as, decet, oportet, pcenitct.

Some to the third : as, accidit, conducit, fugit.

Some to the fourth : as, convcnit, cxpcdit.

Some are irregular : as, interest and other compounds of
sum. Jit, prccterit, nequit, subit, confert, refert, &c.

The regular impersonals are inflected like the third per-
sons singular of their respective voices and conjugations; the
irregular, like the third person singular of those personal
verbs, whence they are formed, or with which they are com-
pounded. But in the perfect, miseret has misertum est ,• tccdet
has tdcduif, and the compound pcrtasum est ,- placet, lihet,
licet, pudct, piget, -uit and -itum est. Liquet has no per-
fect.

(2) Impersonals of the active voice have of the infinitive
the present and perfect only ; they want the imperative, (in-
stead of which is used the present of the subjunctive,) and
generally participles, gerunds, and supines.

Passive impersonals have all the infinitive.

(3) The first supine of the personal verb, or the neuter
gender of the perfect participle, with the verb sum, consti-
tutes the con)pound tenses of the passive voice.

PERSONALS USED IMPERSONALLY.

(4') Many j)ersonal verbs are used as impersonals, with
an infinitive after them, or the subjunctive mood and iit : as,
delecto, juvo, appareo, aliinco, incipio, couducn, cxpedio, con-
ve7iio, &c. But it is to be observed, that, although many of
these are used personailj' : as^ Tu mihi places ,• Filius patrcm
dcleclat ,- yet they are always used imjiersonally when fol-
lowed by an infinitive, or subjunctive mood. For we do not
say Si places audire, but Si jdacet tibi audire ; not Ego con-
tigi esse domi, but Me contigil esse domi ,- not Ilk cvenit mori,
but Ilium maii evenif, or td illc moreretur.

134.

The following is a rule foi* ascertaining when these and
similar verbs are to be used personally, and when imperson-

Observe, That if the person mentioned in English as con-
stituting the subject of these verbs be active, that is, doing
any thing, a personal verb must be used : as, I please you,
Placeo tibi.

But, if the person be suffering, an impersonal verb must
be used : as, I please to hear, or I am pleased to hear, Placet
mihi audire, i. e. to hear pleases me. If an infinitive follows
in English, the verb is impersonal; if not, it is generally per-
sonal.

IMPERSONALS USED PERSONALLY.

(5) On the other hand, impersonals are sometimes, thougli
rarely, used as personal verbs : as, Athenienses, siait pri7iii
defecerant, ita prhnt poenzterc cceperunt — Justin, instead of
primos pcenitcre ccepiL Non te hcEc pudent — Ter. Qiio in
gcjicre midta peccantur — Cic. This happens jiarticularly
with some adjectives of the neuter gender : as, Aliquid pec-
catiir vitio prcecipientitmi — Sen, Ne quid in eo genere pec-
cctur — Cic.

TWO SUPPOSED KINDS OF IMPERSONALS.

(6) Miseret^ T^g^^U pudct, pccnitet^ tccdct; lucescit^ vespcr-
ascif, phtif, t07iot, Julgurat, Juhmiat, Jiat, ningit, roraf^
kyemat, serenat, lapidct, gcl<^t, grandiiiaf, and the like ; and
neuter and active verbs used impersonally : as, curritur, vi-
viiur, itur, turhahir, agitur, &,c., are said to involve their no-
minatives in themselves ; although it may be observed, that
Miseret me tui is not essentially different from Ego iui mise-
rcor ; nor Pccnitct vie conditionis, from the words of Plautus,
Co7iditio me pocnitet ; and Pccnitct me hoc fecisse is not dif-
ferent from Hoc factum me pccnitct. The same thing may
be said of l^on me hoc dicere pudebit ,- so that, strictly speak-
ing, only those impersonals mentioned above, denoting cer-
tain operations of nature, and passive impersonals, formed
from active or neuter verbs, can be said to contain their no-
minatives in themselves ; and even to these, some would
supply Deus^ Natura, or the inatter of the verb, as their no-
minative.

(7) Other verbs, as, oportet, libct, liquet., licet ^ est and its
compounds, refcrt,, decet^ dclectat^ juvat^ &c., are supposed
to have hoc^ illudy or /W, referring to the words following,

135

understood, as a nominative, or the infinitive mood, or part
of a sentence'.

(8) The infinitive mood of botli kinds is used imperson-
ally: as. Terra muUifariam jduissc mmciatum est — Liv.
Quum nmltitudo .... resisti posse Appio crederct — Id.

THEIR ENGLISH.

(9) Although, in a literal translation, impersonal verbs
have it before them, it is better, according to the English
idiom) to adopt the person as the nominative : as, Licet mihi.
It is allowed to me ; rather, I am allowed. Pcenitet vic^ I
epent. Pugnatur a me, a te, ab illo, &c., I fight, thou fight-

1

est, he figlrts, &c

THEIR NOMINATIVE.

(10) There have been great disputes among grannnarians
about the nominative understood before impersonal verbs,
when it cannot he obviously suiiplied by some pronoun un-
derstood, infinitive mood, or part of a sentence. Some have
supposed resy negotium, natura, &c., or a nominative of cog-
nate signification with the verb, to be understood. None of
these suppositions is found applicable in every instance. The
truth, perhaps, is, that no nominative is, or ever was, un-
derstood ; but that such impersonals, before the distinctions
in language arising from the analysis o{' a proposition into
its constituent parts of a subject and predicate, (the latter
cotnprehending the copula, or woril of assertion, and the at-
tribute) were attended to, originally constituted a compen-
dious and simple method of expressing, in one word, an en-
tire event in the aggregate, especially in regard to those
operations of nature, beyond human power, and in which
the subject or agent is invisible; and that pluit, in itself, is
fully equivalent to It rains. Rain is or falls, Imbcr dccidit,
or Tcmpcstas est phtvialis.

But they have never been suj^posed to have a person as
their nominative, and hence arises the name, Impersonal.
This observation may be extended further, for they do not
admit as a nominative the name of any animated being.

' Caesar says, Ccesari quum id nuncialuni es.sel, cos per provin-
ciam nostrani iter Jiicere conari ; In whicli /// is the nominative to
the verb, and refers to the words whicli constitute the real subject,
or nominative, cos per provincial vostrani iter J'ace.re connri. Whe-
ther or not nuncialum est be here considered as impersonal, the
insertion of id seems unnecessaiy.

50
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140

THE PRETERITIVE VERBS,

( 1 ) So called from their having little more than preterites
and the formation from these, are odi, memini., and ccepi.
They have, in their perfects, the signification of the present
also ' : in the pluperfect, that of the perfect also ; and in the
future of the subjunctive, that of the future indicative also.
— It is because novi sometimes signifies / knotso^ that it is
ranked among these, for it is the perfect of the verb nosco,
which is complete.

(2) Odi has the participle osus, which signifies actively,
and the future participle osunis. Its compounds pcrosus
and exosus are used, but not perodi or cxodi ; and they sig-
nify actively, and sometimes passively.

(3) Mcmini has also the imperative, in the second per-
sons singular and plural, namely, mcmenlo, memcntote.

(4') Ccepi has also its perfect participle cceplus, which sig-
nifies passively ; and the future participle coepturus.

(5) Oditur, odiaris, odiatur^ odientcs ,- memiiiens ; cccpioy
ccepiam, coepcrct, cceptu, are sometimes foimd.

CONTRACTIONS.

The poets sometimes use sis for si vis ; sultis for si vultis ,-
sodcs for si audcs ; capsis for caiic si vis, or perhaps for ce-
peris ; to which may be added abisis, videsis, cavesis, apa-
gesis, in which sis seems to be added to diminish the harshness
of the imperative.

ADVERBS.

The principal thing to be considered in an adverb, is its
signification. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles, ad-
jectives, or to other adverbs, to express some circumstance,
or the quality and manner of their signification. Some are
})rinutive: as, eras, jam, ubi, iancrc.

They are, however, generally derivatives from nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions. 1. From nouns;
as, viritim from vir ,- doctc from doctus. Many of the words
deemed adverbs are nouns ; as words in um and o, primum,
primo, mutuo, modo, &c. ; comparatives, as, amplius, melius,
&c. ; and tempori, luci, vesperi, antient ablatives; rite for ritu,
din, nuciii, forte, &c.; alias may be alias reS; una, una opera ;
recta, recta via. In forming atlverbs from adjectives or par-

' It is doubtful, whether ccepi ever denotes present time. From ccepi conies
occa-pi, found in Terence and Tacitus. Occcpi and incepi, of occipio and in-
cipk), are formed, not from ricj>i, but the kindred verb capio. — Oilcril and odcrinf:
are sometimes used inijievatively ; as Udcrini, duin iiifluuni. Vide Cic, oH': i. ^S,
and Senec. de ha. i. 16,

141

ticiples, the o of the ablative seems to be generally changed
into ?, as, rccte. To the ablative in te^ r is added, to i is
added ter ; as, diligentcr^ fortiter. V>v\t facile, as well as
faciliter ; simul, together, as well as similiter, h'om similis;
omiiino, from onviis; and repentc, from repens. Yromjirmus,
too, we have Jirmitcr and foinc. 2. From pronoims ; as,
hie, eo, qui, from hie, is, quis. Most of these end in e, a,
or o, as, hue, ea, quo, many of which are really pronouns.
Qiiam, than, is an accusative ; and quum or cum, when, is
quern or quom, which appears to have been applied to all gen-
ders. Qiio, whither, is said to be an antient dative singular,
or accusative plural, to which may be added co and illo. Qui,
how, is an ablative, said to be used in both numbers, and in
every gender. 3. From verbs; as, cccsim, punctim, from cccdo,
pungo. These generally end in im, and seem to come from
the supine or perfect participle. 4. From participles ; as,
amantcr, simulate, mcrito, &c. 5. From prepositions; as,
intro, citro, ultra, clanculum, from intra, citra, ultra, clam.

They are likewise formed by composition, in various ways;
as, hodie, today, from hoc die-, postridie, the following day,
from postero die ; scilicet, namely, from scire licet ; quam-
obrem, wherefore, from ob quam rem, &c.

The numerous classes into which they are divided, may
be left to be learned by practice. The followhig distinction
in adverbs of place should be attended to.

In,

To,

Hie,

hue.

illic.

illuc.

istic,

istuc,

ibi.

eo.

ubi,

quo,

alibi,

alio,

ibidem.

eodem,

ubilibet,

quolibet,

Toumrds,
horsum,
illorsum,
istorsum,

quorsum,
aliorsum.

alicubi, aliquo,

foris, foras, ,

intus, intro, introrsum.

Adverbs are compared : as.

Positive. Comparative

Diu,

From,

hinc,

illinc,

istinc,

inde,

nude,

aliunde,

indidem,

undelibet,

alicunde,

foris.

intus.

Bij — a place.

hac.

iliac.

istac.

ea.

qua.

alia.

eadem.

qualibet.

aliqua.

Superlative.

diutius, diutissime.

satins, .

Secus, secius w sequius, .

Saepe, so^pius, sa'})issime.

Tuto, ■, tutius, tutissime.

Penitus, ,,,.,, penitius, penitissime.

142

They are generally compared like the adjectives, from
which they are derived : as,

Acriter, acrius, acerrime, from acer;

bene, melius, optime, from bonus ;

celeriter, celeriiis, celerrime, from celer;

facile, facilius, facillime, from facilis ;

male, pejus, pessime, yj-owzmalus;

^ . V fminime, 1 r

parum, minus, ^ • • ^ r from parvus ;

^ (mmnnum, J

multum, plus, plurimum, from multus ;

prope, propius, proxime, from propior ;

valde, for valdius, for 1 i • t • v r r i

Ti'"^ Tj-v '^ Vvalidissmie, /ro??? validus ;

valicle, validms, J ' "^ .

ultra, ulterius, ultimo -um, from ulterior.

Positive 'wanting.

Magis, maximc ; ocj^us, ocyssime ; prius, primo, or pri-
mum; potius, potiosimum. Potissime is found.

Comparative 'wa7ititig.

Pasne, paenissimc ; nuper, nuperrime ; nove and noviter,
novissime ; merito, meritissimo.

Supei-lative Ksoanti?ig.

Excusate, excusatius; tempore, or tempori, temporiiis;
satis, satiiis; secus, seciiis.

(Obs. 1) Instar and ergo^ not being declined, are often
ranked among adverbs, but the one maj' be considered as a
triptote, and the other a monoptote. That instar is used as
a noun may appear from the following : Unus ille dies mihi
quidcm immortalitatis instar f nit — Cic. Cnjits cqui instar pro
cede Veneris dedicavit — Suet. Instar 7nontis equum — Virg.
Ad. instar is attributed to later writers.

(2) Some indeclinable words are said to change their part
of speech, according to their signification. Cww, v:hen,\s
considered as an adverb ; althongli^ a conjunction ; and cum,
•with, as a preposition.

(3) Before, when joined to a verb, is expressed by the ad-
verbs of time, antequam, prinsqnam. Before, joined to an
oblique case of a noun, is made by ante, ad, apud, coram,
&c. The same distinction is to be observed between post-
quam, uhi, cum, ut ; and the prepositions, a, ah, de, ex.

(4) The neuter gender of adjectives, both in the singu-
lar and plural number, is sometimes used adverbially : as,
dulce-ridens, sweetly-smihng ; suave-rube?is, sweetly-biush-

143

ing; toyva-tiieiis^ sternly-looking; acerha-sonans, harshly-
sounding.

(5) Tantum, tantb, quantum^ quantb^ veriim, verb, solum,
cceteriim^ modb, fvimum, prima, certb., miniis, tempore, re-
verd, brein, profectb {pro facia), and such like, whether ad-
verbs or conjunctions, are in most sentences obviously re-
solvable into the nominatives, accusatives, or ablatives, of
the nouns or adjectives whence they are supposed to be de-
rived. Partim is an old accusative, the same as partem.

(6) Adverbs sometimes connect, like relatives: as. In
Hispania Jibi (i. e. quo in loco) nullus co7isul erat. In Spain
where there was no consul ; Non qutcsivit, tcbi ipse viveret
tutb, sod iinde pnesidio posset esse civibus. He did not look
out for a 2^l(tce in 'which he himself might be safe, but one

from xohich he might be of service to his countrymen.

(7) Adverbs of time, place, and order, are often used for
each other : as, nbi, where, or when ; ind-e, from that time,
or from that place.

(8) Some adverbs denote either past, present, or future
time : as, jam, already, now, or by and by ; olim, formerly,
or hereafter.

(9) Interrogative adverbs doubled, or compounded with
cunque, answer to the English soever: as, ubiubi, or ubi-
cuncpie, wheresoever. Likewise, some other hiterrogatives :
as, quolquot and quotcunque, how many soever; quantus-
quantus, and quantiisciinque, how great soever.

(10) In English the same word is sometimes an adverb
and an adjective ; it is necessary, therefore, in turning it into
Latin, to ascertain to which part of speech it belongs : thus,
if we say " He was only rich," only is an adverb, and the
Latin expression is Ille solum erat dives. But if we say " He
only was rich," oidy is an adjective, and this sentence will
be expressed in Latin by Ille solus erat dives.

(11) In Latin, as in English, two negatives in the same
clause destroy each other, and render the sense affirmative:
as, Hand ignara viali. Not unacquainted, {or, acquainted,)
with misfortune. 'Nan sum 7icscius, I am not ignorant, (or,
I know). But in many instances they convey the assertion
more faintly than an affirmative mode of expression ; as,
Nonparere naluit — Nep. He did not refuse to obey. Among
old authors two negatives are sometimes used to render the
negation stronger : as, Neque ille hand objiciet mihi — Plaut.
Special or particular negations do not destroy the general
negation : as, Nulla neque amnem libavit quadrupes, nee gra-
mijiis attigit herbam — Virg. Ncminem neque suo nomine, nee

144.

subscribens, accumint — Nep, In these, neque and nee must
be translated in English by either and or.

PREPOSITIONS.

A preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, generally
placed before nouns and pronouns, which it governs, and
of which it shows the relation to some other word. The
various ways of expressing, in English, their general mean-
ing, will be seen in the following examples.

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE.

Ad, to : as, oynncs ad unum^ all to a man. At : as, ad pr<r-
stitiitam diem, at the appointed day. According
to : as, ad. cursum luncBs according to the course of
the moon. After -. as, aliquaiito ad rem avidior,
a little too greedy after money. For : as, rebus ad
■profectionem comparatis, things being ready for a
march. Before : as, dnctiis est ad magistratum, he
was taken before the magistrate, or to the magis-
trate.

Apud, at or near : as, apud forum, at the forum. Amo7ig :

as, apud SequMios, among the Sequani. Wit/i : as,

potior apud exercitum, in greater credit with the

army. Before : as, causam apud regem dicere, to

plead before the king.

Ante, before (in respect to time or place, and opposed to
jwst) : as, a7itc, no7i post, horam deciinam, before,
and not after, ten o'clock ; ante aciem, non post
sen pone aciem, before, and not behind, the army.

Adversus, "^ against : as, adversus Jiostem, against the ene-

Adversum, j my. Towards : as, pietas adversus deos, piety
towards the gods. To : as, de ilia adversus hunc
loquere, speak to him of her.

Contra, against : as, contra naturam, against nature. Op-
posite to : as,' Carthago Italiam contra, Caithage
opposite to, or over against, Italy.

Circa, )_ about, applied to time, place, persons and things;

Circum, j generally to place. It is sometimes rendered
\i'ith : as, pauccc circum illam, the few with her, or
about her.

Circiter, about^ applied to time, place, and number.

Cis, 1 on this side : as, cis Euphratem, on this side the

Citra, j Euphrates. Without : as, citra necessitatem, without
necessity.

Erga, toxvaj'ds : as erga amicos, towards his friends. Before,
opposite to : as, qua modo erga cedes habitat, who
hves now before our house.

Extra, ivithout, opposed to i?iira : as, extra, hand i7itraf
scholam, out of, not in, schooL Beyond : as, ex-
tra modum, beyond measure. Besides : as, extra
Jumidos, besides the servants ; extra jocum, some-
times for sine joco.

Infra, under, below, beneath : as, infra se, beneath himself.

Inter, betij:cen, among : as, inter fratres, between brothers.
At, or, in time of: as, inter ccenam, at, in time of,
during, supper.

Intra, within .• as, intra decern annos, within ten years.

Juxta, near : as, juxta viam, by the way.

Ob, for : as, ob qiuestum, for gain. Before .- as, ob oados
exitimn versatur, destruction is before my eyes.
Phrase, Ob industriam, on purpose.

Propter, for : as, propter usum meum, for my use. Near to :
as, propter patrem cuba7itcs, lying near their fa-
ther. 21ie moving cause, or motive: as, propter
me, by my means ; propter misericordiam, out of

Per, during : as per dtem, during day time, or, each day.
By or through : as, per vim, by force ; loer campos,
through the fields. In : as, pei^ luduin et jocuvi,
in sport and jest. Per denotes the instrumenta-
lity, or subordinate agency : thus, per eumichum
epistolam misit.

Pone, behind : as, pone cedem, behind the temple.

PrsDter, beyond, except : as, nemi7iem prater Lucullvm vides,
you see no one except Lucullus. Beyond : as, jd7yp-
ter spem, beyond expectation. Contrary to : as,
prater aquum et bonnm, contrary to what is just
and reasonable. Befwe : as, prater oculos, beibre
my eyes. Without : as, prater ratio7ie7n, without
reason.

Penes, in the power of: as, pc7ies Po7npeiu77i, in Pompe^'-'s
power, Posscssio7i : as, que7n pe7ies est virtus, who
is possessed of virtue. Phr. Pe7ies te es ? are yon
in your senses ?

Post, after : as, post multos annos, after many years. Since :
as, ^05/ ho7ni7ium i7iemoriaT7i, since the memory of

146

man. Behind : as, post tergwn., behind or at the
back.
Secundum, according to : as, collandavi te secundum facta,
I praised you according to your deeds. Along :
as, secundum littus, along the shore. Near, hard
by : as, d?io tmlnera in capite, seamdum aiirem, ac-
cepit, he received two wounds in the head, near
his ear. Next after : as, secundum te, next to you.
For : as, secundum te decrevit, he gave judgment
for you.
Supra, above : as, stipra lunam, above the moon. Phr. Ecce
supra caput homo sordidus, lo a man extremely sor-
did. Cum hostes supra caput sint, since the ene-
mies are at hand.
Trans, over, on the other side : as, trans maria, bej'^ond seas.
Ultra, beyond : as, ultra Britanniam, beyond Britain. Ad-
verbially, nihil possit ultra, nothing can exceed it.
{Note 1.) Prepositions, when the word which they would
govern is suppressed, are often considered as adverbs, al-
though, in reality, they do not cease to be prepositions.

(2.) Many of the rules of syntax arise from a preposition
understood. The ablative after comparatives is governed
by pr<K understsod ; the ablative of cause, manner, and m-
sirum£7it, is governed by a preposition : as is perhaps the ab-
lative absolute, with many similar examples.

(3.) The pi'eposition is sometimes, however, omitted m

some examples, in an unusual manner : as, devenere locos

l<etos, supply ad ; viaria aspera juro, supply per ; ut se loco

movere tion possent, supply e or dc; si reijyublicce commodo

Jacere posset, supply cum.

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE.

A, ab, abs, from : as, ab ovo usque ad mala, from beginning
to end. By reason of: as, vir ab innocentid cle-
mcntissimus, a man very mild by reason of his in-
nocence. After : as, hi/Jus a morte, after his death.
Agai7ist,from oy because of : as, a frigore^ against,
from, or because ol^ the cold. For : as, a mendacio
contra vcntm stare, to stand for a lie in opposition
to truth. Phr. A studiis {rninisfer miderstood), a
director of one's studies ; a pedibus, a footman ; d
rationibus, an accountant.

Absque, without : as, absque causa, without cause. But for:
as, absque te csscf, but for you.

Coram denotes nearness, and refers to persons : as, coram

147

rege, in the presence of the king, or before the
king. Coram is nearly sjnionymous with rn con-
spectu.

Cum, "mill I : us, cum exetxitu^ with the army. At : as, cwn
prima luce, at break of day. Li : as, dum esses cum
imperio, while you were in authority. Phr. Cum
bund venid audire, to hear patiently ; cum j^^'i'^iis,
in the first place.

De, of, concerning: as, de hominihus, of, or concerning, men.
According to : as, de sentcntid med, according to
my opinion. After : as, somnus de jjrayidio, sleep
after dinner. From : as, de loco superiore, from the
higher ground. Phr. De integro, afresh ; de im-
pruviso, unawares; de industrid, on purpose; de
trans'oerso, across ; de mco, at my cost. For : as,
ecqnid nos amas dejidicina isthac P do you love us
for that musical girl ?

E, ex, otit of, from : as, e jiammd, out of tlie fire. Accord-
ing to : as, status e naturd, a condition according
to nature. By : as, ex consilio patrum, by the ad-
vice of the senators. For : as, magna ex parte, for
the most part. Since : as, ex eo die, since that day.
Amongst : as, ex lusionibus 7mdtis, amongst many
diversions.

Palam, openly : as, palam omnibus, before all the world.

Pras, in comparison : as, pr^s tiobis, in comparison to us.

Because of: as, pro; midtit.udi?ie, because of the

multitude. Before : as, pra^ ocnlis, before the eyes.

Through, out o/' (some passion of the mbid): as,

pra metu, through fear.

Pro, instead of ; or in exchange for : as, pro illo, instead of
him — hence, in defence of. According to : as, pro
merito, according to his merit. Before .- as, pro
castris, before the camp. Considering : as, pro no-
stra amicitid ie rogo, I ask you in consideration
of our friendship. Fm^ : as, pro me est, it makes
for me. In defence of: as, pro aris ct focis, in
defence of (lor) God and one's country. As: thus,
libertatem pro pramio dederunt, they gave him his
freedom as a reward.

Sine, xmthoid (not having), opposed to cum, with : as, sine
pondere, witliout weight.

Tenus, as far as, up to : as, capido tenvs, up to the hilt.
Crurum tenus, up to the legs. It follows the ge-
L 2

148

nitive when the word is plural. Also the ablative
plural : as, ipectorihus tenus^ up to the breasts.

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING TWO CASES.

Clam, unknown to, governs either the accusative or abla-
tive, but more frequently the ablative.

/w, into, &ub^ under, and supc)\ above, govern the accusative
when motion to a place is signified. But when motion
or rest in a place is signified, in and suh govern the ab-
lative : as, Cdosar in hihernd exercitum dechixit — C&es.
Magna mci sub terras ihit imago — Virg. Super agmina
incidit — Mrg. Ego in portu navigo — Ter. Recubans siib
tegmine fa<ii — Virff.

Super governs either case, when motion or rest in a place is
signified : as, Super Mccnandrum amnem posuit castra —
Liv. Sfrafoquc super discumbitur ostro — Virg. W'hen it is
particularly opposed to subtcr, it almost always governs
the accusative.

Subtcr governs either case, but most fi'equently the accusa-
tive, whether motion or rest be denoted : as, Subfer Jas-
tigia tecti JEnean dtixit — "N^irg. Ilia subter Caecum imbius
habes — Pers. Subter densd tcstudine — Virg.

PREPOSITIONS VARYING THEIR CASE ACCORDING TO THEIR

MEANING.

/n, put for erga, coiitra, jyej-, ad, usque ad, apud, super, go-
verns the accusative : as. Amor in pafriam — Cic. Impie-
tatem in deos — Cic. Crescit in si?igulos dies ho&tium nu-
merus — Cic. Siletur in noctem — Virg. Studebat in ccenac
tempus — ^Plin. &c.

In, for inter, governs either the accusative or ablative ; the
accusative, when motion to, or towards, is implied, and
the ablative, when motion or rest is denoted : thus, Ex'
ercitum in Bellovacos ducit — Cies. /. e. He leads his army
among (into the territories of) the Bellovaci. Postquam
in vulgus militum elatum est — Caes, After it was made
known among the common soldiers. In his fuit Ariovis-
tus — CiES. Among these was Ariovistus.

Sub, for circa, or paulo ante, or paulo post (about), governs
the accusative: as, Sub noctem 7iaves solvit — Caes. i. e. .
paulo ante. Sub dies Jestos — Cic. i. e. paulo post. Sub
idem tempus — Liv. i. e. circa or per idem tempus.

Super, for ultra, pnrfn; inter, governs the accusative; but

149

for dc, pro or oh, the ablative : as, Super ei Garamantas
et Indos Proferet imperium — Virg. Punicuvi exercitum
super morbum etiam fames ajfecit — Li v. De ejus vequitid
omnes super ccenam loquebantur — Pliu. Mac super re scri"
bam ad te — Cic. Nee super ipse sua molitur laude laborem
— Virg, His accensa super — Virg. i. e. ob Juvc.
Tenus and versus, and sometimes penes and tisque, are set
after the case which they govern ; and when the word is
plural, tenus generally go\'erns the genitive ; also, when
we speak of things of which we have naturally but two ;
as, crurum tenus, up to the legs.
Trope, versus, usque, procul and circiter may be considered
as adverbs : they seem to govern a case 'oy means of a
preposition which is generally understood, but sometimes
expressed. Clam may perhaps be added ',
Observe, that

A and e are used before consonants.

Ah and ex, generally before vowels.

Abs is generally placed before q and /.'

' Several prepositions seem to have had originally the nature of
adverbs : such as, adversus, Juxta, propter, secus, secundum, the ac-
cusative which followed them being supposed to be governed by
ad. Some of these are found governing other cases, and some-
times without any regimen. P(dam und poue hnve likewise been
excluded from the list of prepositions, the word which they seem
to govern being supposed to be governed by coram or post under-
stood.— Other words generally considered as adverbs are found
governing the accusative or ablative, like prepositions ; or some-
times the genitive. Intus is found with the genitive, the accusa-
tive, and the ablative. Foras, with the ablative, in Lucretius ; and
with the accusative, in the Vulgate. Cominus is found with an
accusative. Relro also. Seorsus or seorsum is found with an ab-
lative in Lucretius. Simul is found with an ablative in Horace
and Ovid. Desuper and insiipcr are found governing the accu-
sative, like the simple super. In such instances, either a prepo-
sition is imderstood, or the adverbs are used, after the manner of
the Greeks, as prepositions. To these might be added several
more ; but it niav be observed that, in general, such constructions
appear to be elliptical. That circiter is, in reality, an adverb, may
be inferred from its construction, when there is no ellipsis sup-
posed : as, Circiter pars quartn armis instructa erat — Sail. Vv'hen
it is followed by an accusative, ad, understood, is the governing
word. It is sometimes followed by the ablative also : as, Ipse hora
circiter diei quartu Britanniam atligit — Cajs. ; in which in may be
understood, or the ablative may be referred to the question by
quando, which will be noticed in Syntax.

• Ah is often found before consonants, especially tliose of a
softer sound ; such as, /, ;?, r, d, s, and J : as, ah Icgatis, ah nnllo,

150

A few instances are found in which in, signifying motion
to a place, governs the ablative ; and zVz, signifying rest, the
accusative: as, Cum divertisscm a Cmnis in Vesfiano — Cic.
Venit in se?iatH — Cic. JEsse in amicitiam ditionemqne popul i
Romani — Cic. Cum talcm virum in potestatem haberet'—
Sail.

[These observations properly belong to Syntax ; but the
division of the prepositions, according to their government,
naturally sunjgested their introduction here. The subject
will be afterwards resumed.]

Prepositions are either primitive : as, ad, apud, ante, &c. ;
or derivative : as, adversnm, from the adjective adversus ; se-
cundum, from secundus. The}^ are either simple: as, ad,
ante, ahs ; or compound : as, exadversum., absque.

There are certain prepositions named inseparable, be-
cause they are always found prefixed to a word. The other
prepositions also are sometimes used in this way. Their in-
fluence, as well as that of the inseparables, a7n, dis, re, se,
con, ve, will be seen in the following examples :

PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.

A, abs, ab, Jjom or aivai/ : as, avcrto, I turn away ; abstineo,
I abstain, or keep from : aufugio, I fly away. A is
likewise added to nouns as a privative ; as aniens,
mad.

Ad, to, or near to : as, accipio, I take to myself. It in-
creaseth : as, adamo, I love much ; adbibo, I drink
much.

Am, about, around -. as, amburo, I burn all about ; anqtiiro,
I seek about, or seek diligently ; anceps, that may
be taken both ways.

Ante, before : as, anteeo, I go before ; antemissus, sent be-
fore.

l)e, from, do'wn, much, or ceasing : as, dehortor, I dissuade
from ; depono, I lay down ; deamo, I love nuich ;
dedocco, I unteach ; dcspcro, I despair ; demcns,
mad; decolor, discoloured.

ah Romanis, ah ducibus, ab senatu, ah Jove. Ex is often used by
Cicero before consonants. In certain expressions c is generally
used^ and in others ex: as, e lo'iiglnqno, e regione, e vcstigio, e re
mea est, &c. In like manner, ex prceparato, ex parte, ex conipacto,
ex toto, ex seutentia, ex tempo?-e, &c. Ahs is sometimes found be-
fore s : as, Ahs Suessa nunciatiim est — \Av. Nou ahs re erit, in
which ahs is used before r, is a common mode of expressing Not
foreign from lite purpose.

151

Dis, dl, separation, or denial : as, distraho, I pull asunder ;
diffldo^ I distrust; disputo, I think tlifferently, I
dispute. By separating, it implies distinction : as,
dijudico, I judge distinctly.

Con, {for cum) together : as, concurro^ to run together ; coji-
tendo, to strive together, or to contend, to exert
or stretch [nervos) together ; congredior, to come
together ; hence, to engage in battle.

E, ex, from, avoajj, greatlij, negation .• as, expello, I drive
away ; exoro, I beg earnestly ; exuro, I burn up ;
exsanguis, bloodless ; exanimis, lifeless.

In, in, into, upon, o-oer or against : as, indo, I put in ; in-
jicio, I cast into or upon ; incipio, I take upon me,
I begin ; impono, I put over, I impose ; irruo, I
rush upon or against. It sometimes increases :
as, infringo, I break in pieces ; induro, I harden
much. In some participials or adjectives it is either
intensive, or privative : as, ivfractus, unbroken, or
broken in pieces ; invocatus, called upon, or unbid-
den ; impotcns, weak, or overmighty ; infrccnatus,
bridled, or unbridled ; immutatus, changed, or un-
changed. With adjectives it is generally privative :
as, ingratus, ungrateful.

Inter, among or between : as, interjicio, I cast between. Some-
times it increases : as, interbiho, I drink up all.

Ob, against, before, about : as, oppono, I place against or be-
fore, I oppose ; obambido, I walk up and down : —
intensive, used for ad : as, obedio, I obey.

Per, signifies through, entirely, very much : as, perlego, I
read through : perfcio, I finish ; peradolcscens, very
young. It is somethnes privative : as, perjidus, per-
fidious ; perjnrus, perjured.

Prae, before, or over : as, prcepono, I place before, I prefer ;
prcevaleo, I jirevail ; prccpolleo, I surpass. In ad-
jectives it augments : as, prcefacilis, very easy.

Pro, forth, forwards, to a distcmce: as, prodiico, I lead forth;
prosilio, I leap forwards ; p7-ospicio, I see at a di-
stance; prohibeo, I ward off, I prohibit. Some-
times it is privative : as, prof amis, {)rofane : — in-
tensive : as, procurvus, very crooked.

Post, after : as, piosthabeo, I account after, I postpone.

Re, back again, or against : as, repono, I place again ; ?r-
luctor, I struggle against ; rccipio, I take again, I
receive. It sometimes increases : as, rednndo, I

152

run over, I redound. It is sometiines negative:
as, retego^ I uncover ; recludo^ I unlock.

Se, aparU or a&ide : as, sevoco, I call aside ; secludo, I shut
up.

Sub, under^ a small degree^ or privily : as, suhjicio, I cast un-
der ; subi)ivi'deOy I envy a little ; sublrisfis, some-
what sad : surripio, I steal, or I seize privily.

Super, upon, or oy6^>-.- as, superscribo, I write upon.

Subter, z^/?.rf^,'r, privily : as, subtcrjluo, I run or flow under ;
mbteifugio, I escape privily.

Trans, over : as, transferor I carry over, I transfer.

Ve, is privative: as, t;ecor5, foolish ; vesajius, sickly. It is

intensive : as, vehemens ', vehement or violent, hav- -

ing strong passions or feelings. It is sometimes

both in the same word : as, vegrandisy very great,

or very slim. |

Other prepositions in composition have nearly the same
signification asf out of composition. For the changes which,
for the sake of sound, prepositions undergo in being pre-
fixed, see Compounded Verbs.

The Manner of expressing in Latin certain English PaV"
tides, some of 'which are denominated Prepositions^ and
some, the Signs of Cases.

Of after a substantive (or '5), is the sign of the genitive: as,
the father of the king, or the king's father, pater regis.

Of before an adjective of praise or disj^raise, joined to a
substantive, shows that it may be put in the genitive or
ablative : as, a man of no integrity, homo nulliiis fdci, or
nidla fde.

Of after adjectives of plenty or •want^ is the sign of the ge-
nitive or ablative: as, full of wine, plenvs vini or vino.

Of after ivorthy, unworthy, need, descended, born, is the sign
of the ablative : as, worthy of praise, dignus laude ; there
is need of action, opus eat facto ,• born of a king, natus

rege.

Of, after comparatives, superlatives, partitives, and certain
numerals, is the sign of the genitive : as, the elder of the
brothers, senior fratrum ; or it may be made by de, e, exy
or inter : as, the elder of the two sons, ex duobus fliis
natu major,

' VcUi?. ct vchemPHf!, says Stephanus, — " altcrum ab cctatis mag-
nitudine, alteruiii a mentis \\. compoiiituiu."

1.53

Of^ signifying the matter of which a thing is made, is ex-
pressed by de^ t', or ex : as, a buckler of gold, cli/peus ex
auro.

Of, for concerning, is expressed by de : as, a story of you,

fahula de te ; for hij ox from, by a, ah, e, ex: as, I received

the book oi [from is more common) tiie master, librum a

prcEceptore accept ; perhaps you had heard of somebody,

audisti ex aliquo fortasse ?

Of, after verbs of accusing, conde?mii?ig, acquitting, — and /
repent [pcenitet me), I am ashamed [pudet me), lam xocary
{tcedet me), it irkefh (piget), — is a sign of the genitive: as,
he accuses me of theft, accusat me furti ,- it irketh me of
(I am grieved for) my folly, me piget stultiticE mecc.

Of, after mereor, is made by de : as, he deserves praise of
you, de te laudem merctur.

Of, after verbs of unloading and depriving, is the sign of the
ablative : as, he robbed his friend of his character, amicum
famd spoliavit.

Of is sometimes included in the Latin verb : as, beware of
intemperance, intempcrantiam cave.

To and for are signs of the dative when they come before
a noun, and signify to the iise or hurt of any person or
thing : as, pleasant to his friends, jucundus amicis.

To, — after it belongs [attinet, pertinet), it regards {special),

and after some verbs of calling, exhorting, inviting, and

provoking : such as, voco, loquor, hortor, invito, lacesso, —

is made by ad : as, he invited me to supper, ad cccnam me

invitavit.

To and for, signifying motion, and after horn, ft, prone,
ready, are made by ad or iji : as, prone to peace, ad pa-
cem pronus.

To is sometimes the sign of the genitive : as, tmie to write,
tempus scrihendi, i. e. time of writing.

To is expressed, according to circumstances, by different
parts of a verb : as, I came to dine, veni j^y^nsum -, a boy
about to write, puer scripfurus ; I desire to be loved, cu-
pio amari ; god to be worshipped, deus colendus ; a man
worthy to be loved, dignus amatu.

To is sometimes included in the verb: as, see to your health,
valetudinem cur a ,- pray to the gods, precare dcos.

For ; — See the prepositions j^ro and prce, oh, j)roptcr, dc, ad,

in, per.
Tor, tlenoting the cause, is a sign of the ablative : as, worse

for liberty, licentid deterior,

154.

For^ before the jtricc^ is the sign of the ablative : as, all
things are sold for gold, omnia venduntur aura.

For, in the beginning of a sentence, is made by nam, enim,
etenwiy &c.

For is sometimes part of the noun or verb: as, a certain look-
ing-for of judgment, qucedam ejcpccfaiio judicii ; he sends
for a physician, medicum accersit.

With is found before the cause, manner and iyistrnment, and

is a sign of the ablative : as, he killed him with his own

hand, mami sua occidit.
With, denoting in company xioith, or together tvith, is made

by cu7n : as, he entered with a sword, cu?u gladio ingrcssus

est.
With, after verbs of anger, comparing, meeting, is the sign

of the dative : as, I am angry with you, tibi irascor ,• to

compare great things with small, partus compo?iere magna.
With, applied to a person with regard to situation, is made

by apud : as, he is with me, or at my house, apnd me est.
With is sometimes the same as concerning, and is made by

de : as, what have you done with that horse, quid, de isto

equofecim P
With, after verbs signifying to begin, is made by a or ab : as,

I had a mind to begin with that, ab eo exordiri volui.
With is sometimes part of the verb : as, he goes on with his

villany, prosequitur suum scelus.

From ; — See the prepositions a, ab, abs, e, ex, de.

From, after verbs of taking aivay, is the sign of the dative :
as, he took a book fi'om me, eripuit mihi librum.

From, after a verb of hindering or 'withholdifig, is expressed
by the infinitive mood, or Jie, quo minus, and quin, with
the subjunctive: as, the}' hinder them fi"om carrying, cos
Jh're prohibent ; he rescued himself from pleading his
cause, ne causam diceret, se eripuit ; weakness ke})t you
from coming, infirmitas fe tenuit quo minus voiires,- I can
scarcely refrain from flying in his face, vix me conti^ieo
quin involem in cajnllum.

From, before the name of a town, is the sign of the ablative:
as, he came from London, Fondino venit.

From is sometimes part of a verb : as, conceal this matter
from your wife, cela hanc rem uxorem.

In ; — See the prepositions /;/, npnd, ad.

In., referring to time, is made by in, de, per, infra, inter : as.

155

thieves rise by (or in the) night, de node mrgunt lalrones;

in the time of the truce, 7)^?' tcmpns induciarum.
in, for bij or after, is the sign of the ablative o^ manner: as,

he did it in this way, hoc modo fecit.
In is sometimes a part of the verb : as, they are held-in by

reason, a ratione rctinentur ; i. e. restrained.

Bjj ; — See the prepositions a, ab, c, ex, per, propter.

By, signifying near, is made by ad, ajmd, juxta, propc, se-
cundum and sid^ ; which see.

By denotes the ablative of manner or cause : as, by force and
arms, vi et armis.

By, after verbals in bilis and dm, after passive verlis and
perfect participles, among the poets, is the sign of the da-
tive : as, a grove penetrable by no star, lucus Jiulli penetra-
bilis astro ,- nor is he seen by any one, neqiie cernitur ulli
[ab ullo).

By, before the nam.e of a toion, is the sign of the ablative ;
as, he came by London, Londino, or, per Londinnm. venit.

By is sometimes included in the verb : as, I was by, ego ad-
eram.

At, near, ad, apud; during, in, inter, — which see.

At before names of towns, — see Syntax.

At, after verbs of anger, is the sign of the dative : as, he is
angry at me, mihi succenset^ .

At denotes the ablative of cause : as, I come at the command
of Jupiter, jussu Jovis venio.

At denotes the ablative of time : as, at one o'clock, hord
priind.

At denotes the ablative of price : as, he lives at an extrava-
gant rate, profusis sumjitibus vivit.

At is sometimes part of the verb : as, I laugh at, dei-ideo.

On, upon, a word o^ place, meaning Jiear, — a, ab, ad.
On, a word of )-est, in or super : as, on horseback, in equo.
On, a word of muiion, in: as, they leapt on the targets, in

scuta saliermit.
On, after to depend, or to beget, is made by a, ab, de, e, ex,

(but otherwise by in or super): as, this de})ends upon you,

hoe a le pendet.
On, before time, musical instruments, condition, terms, food,

* The English now say — " angry at a thing," " angry loilh a
person." It was not so formerly.

156

&c. is the sifrn of die ablative : as, on that day, eo die ;

he plays on the harp, lyrd modulatur ,- on this condition,

hac lege.
On, after verbs of pity, is the sign of the genitive : as, take

pity on so great misfortunes, miserere labonim tantorum.
On, after verbs of bcstotmng, ivasti7ig, or losi?ig, is made by

i?i : as, he bestowed kindness upon me, in me heneficium

contulit.
On is sometimes part of tlie verb: as, he employed his time

on his studies, temjnis studiis impendit i I am thinking on

a different thing, aliam rem cogito.

Than after the comparative degree is the sign of the abla-
tive, or it is made by qiiam and a nominative : as, I never
saw a man more valiant than Caesar, nunquam vidi homi-
nem fortiorem quam Ccesar est, or Ccesare, or quam Cce-
sarem ,- which last is governed by vidi, or is said to be
coupled by quam to hominem.

CONJUNCTIONS.

A conjunction is an indeclinable word, having no govern-
ment of nouns ; but which connects words and sentences,
and shows their dependence upon one another.

Conjunctions are divided into primitive: such as, et, ac,
sed, nam., &c., and derivative : as, quod from quis, veriim and
xvro from verus. From their structure, some are called
simple: as, at, nam, &c.; others are called compound: as,
atque, namque.

According to their meaning and use, they are divided into
numerous classes : as, copulative, et, ac, atque ,- disjunctive,
ant, vel, sen, sive, which two last have been called subjunc-
tive or explanatory : as, Diana sine Luna ; (\csar sive Dic-
tator, both words having the same application : concessive,
as, etsi, etiamsi ,- conditional : as, sin, si, dum, dummodo ;
with many other classes not necessary to be mentioned.

According to their position in a sentence, they are divided
into prepositive, or those which are placed first : as, nam,
quare, at, ast, atque, neque; subjunctive, or postpositive,
which are not placed first: such as, quidem, quoque, autcm,
vero, enim ; and the enclitics, (so called because they throw
the accent upon the preceding syllable of the word to which
they ai'e always annexed^ viz. que, ne, and ve. The follow-
ing are cither prepositive or postpositive, and are therefore

157

named common : etiam^ equidemy licet, quamvis, quanquam,
tamcti, attamen, namque, quod, quia, quoniam, quippc, utpotCy
ut, utiy ergo, ideo, igitur, idcirco, i/aqnc, proijidc, picpterea,
si, ni, ?iisi. — Qjtamvis, qnanquam, quod, quia, ut, uti, si, ni,
nisi, are generally placed fi)-st : iumen and igitur, second.

The same word in English having scnietimes different
meanings, and, according to the sense, being referred to
different parts of speech, it will be expedient for the young
learner, in turnino; Enolish into Latin, to attend to such di-
stinctions as the following.

( 1 ) The word but has two significations. In the first it
is equivalent to he-out, and is the same as imthoiit, or unless,
or sine and nisi, the former of which is a preposition, .and
the latter a conjunction. But, which in this sense is an ex-
ceptive, or word of exclusion, is synonymous with prccfer,
prccterquam or nisi : as, I sav/ nobody but John, Vidi nemi-
nem nisi, or prater, Joanne?)!. In the second, it means add,
or moreover, and is synonymous with at, ast, (probably con-
tractions for adsit,) autem, ccctcruvi. In this sense it is, in
Enghsh, a copulative, serving to connect what follows it,
with a sentence, or part of a sentence, going before :, as,

nunc omittc, quccso, hunc ; cseterum/JOs/Z/r/c si quicquam,

nihil precor. But hereafter if he shall do &c. i. e. add this,
or another thing, or one thing more, viz. if he shall do any
thing.

But, when equivalent to that, is made by quin : as, there
is no doubt but — , non est dubium quin — ; to only, by taih-
tum, modo, solum : as, they disagree but about one thing, in
re una solum dissident ,• to than, by quam or nisi ,- as, she
does nothing else, but grieve, 7iil alind Jdcit, qudm dolet.

(2) The word ijohcther, though, in reality, always a pro-
noun, is considered as sometimes a pronoun, and sometimes
a conjunction, because it corresponds to Latin words refer-
red by granmiarians to these two species : thus, whether is
the richer, uter est ditior P It is also expressed by ite, utrum,
an, num, &c. ; as, Bomcene, an Mityleyies, malles vivere.
Whether would you prefer to live at Rome, or at Mitylene?
Utrum inscienteni eum vultis contra fcedera fecisse, an scien-
icm ?

The same remark is applicable to the definitives,. or adjec-
tives, either and neither: as, I am not so strong as either of
you. Minus habeo viriuni quam vcstrum. utervis. Either two
or none, Vel duo, vel nemo. Neither is very blamable, iS^«^-
ter est valde reprchendendus. 1 neither bid you, nor forbid
you, Ego neq7ic tejubeo, neque veto.

158

(3) Both, followed by and, is made by et : as, Both Cse-
sar and Scipio, Et Cccsar et Scipio. Both the orators (se-
jjarately), is expressed by Uterque oratm: Both the Scipios
(together), Ambo Sclpioncs. This last distinction has not
always been attended to.

(4') For, in the beginning of a clause, implying a reason,
is made by nmn, enim, etenim.

For, before an oblique case, implying a purpose or inten-
tion, is made by the prepositions ob, propter, ad, in ,- imply-
ing an exchange, by pro.

But for is made by absque : as, But for him I should have
looked well to myself. Absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidis-
sent.

(5) As, denoting manner, similitu.de or comparison, is ex-
pressed by ut, sicut, uti, ac ; thus. As ui looking-glasses, Vti
in sprculis. As miserable as I am, Miser ceque ac ego.

As, when equivalent to since or because, is expressed by
quoniam, quia, quippe, quod.

(6) Cum and turn, or turn repeated, and tarn and quam,
are often used in instances in Avhich emphasis or contradi-
stinction is intended : as, He embraces not only all the
learned, but particularly Marcellus, Amplcctitur cum erudi-
tos omnes, turn imprimis Marcellum. He hates both learning
and virtue, Odit turn literas, turn virtutem. I love you as
much as myself, Tam te diligo, quam meipsum. The adverb
qua repeated is sometimes used in a similar way : as. Famous
both (as well) for his father's glory and (as) his own, Insig-
7iis qua paternd gloria quel sua.

INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections are indeclinable words, without any govern^-
ment, and expressing in a brief manner some affection or
emotion of the mind. They have been divided into the fol-
lowing classes—expressive of

1. joy; as, emx, hey, brave.

2. grief; as, ah, liei, heu, eheu, ah, alas, woe is me. ,

3. wonder ; as, papa;, oh, strange ; vah, ha.

4. praise ; as, euge, well done.

5. aversion ; as, apage, away, begone.

6. exchunation ; as, oh, proh, O.

159

Y. surprise or fear; as, ataty ha, aha.

8. imprecation; as, va, woe.

9. laughter ; as, ha^ ha, he.

10. silencing; as, au^ 'st, pax, silence, hush, 'st.

1 1 . calling ; as, eho, io, ho, so, ho, soho, O.

12. derision; as, hni, away with.

13. attention; as, hem, ha.

Some of these are merely instinctive or mechanical sounds;
others have an intrinsic meaning : as, apagc, and j)ax ; for
both nouns and verbs are sometunes used as if they were in-
terjections : thus, malum ! with a mischief! turpe, shameful;
sodes, amabo, qudeso, prithee. The same interjection some-
times expresses different passions : thus, vah ! may express
either joy, sorrow, or wonder.

OF THE FIGURES.

Changes in the form or position of words, (which are
named metaplasm) are produced by Prosthesis, Epenthesis,
Paragoge, Diceresis, Crasis, Apharesis, Syncope, Apocope,
Antithesis, Metathesis, commonly called the Figures of Ety-
mology, but belonging to Prosody likewise; to which may be
added Anastrophe and Tmesis, generally used for the sake of
the metre ; and Archaismus and Plellenismus.

Prosthesis adds a letter, or syllable, to the beginnuig of
a word : as, gnatus for natus ; tetuli for tuli ; eduram for du-
ram. Virg. Geo. iv. 145. — Perhaps, however, 7iatus and tull
may be considered as formed by Aphaeresis, from gnatus and
tetuli, the former derived from the obsolete geno, or from y<-
vojxaj, and the latter having an augment, after the manner
of the Greeks.

Epenthesis inserts a letter, or syllable, in the middle of
a word: as, navita, Timolus, alituum, lor nauta, Tmolus, ali-
tum.

Paragoge adds a letter, or syllable, to the end : as mcd,^
amarier, doce^'ier, avellier, audirier, for me, amari, doceri,
avelli, audiri.

Diuresis is the division of one syllable into two: as,
auldi for aula; ; siliue for silvce. Vossius is of o])inion that
etiam is formed a trisyllable by this figure, from et jam.

Crasis or Syn^resis is the contraction of two vowels

' The antients often addecl d to a word; thus in tlie laws of tlit- I'J tables,
SED. FUAVDEi). ESTOD. i. c. se {or sine) fraud,- eHo.

160

belonging to different syllables, into one syllable : as, veniens
for vehemens ,- pre?i(Io for prehcndo. This and the preceding
figure are confhied to the poets chiefly.

Aph^eresis cuts off the first letter, or syllable, of a word :
as, hrevlst, opusf, similisf, r/iabo, in Plautus, for brevis est, ojms
est, similis est, arrhaho ; and tendevant, in Seneca, Here. fur.
V. 538, instead oi tetenderant. See Prosthesis.

Syncope strikes a letter, or syllable, from the middle of
a word : as, oraclwn, poplus, vinchim, calda, valdius, aspris,
repos'iis, extinxcm, dixti, ohjecsem, coll ex em, percusti, surrexe^
amantum, deum, &c. ; instead of oraculum, popidus, vinculum,
calida, validius, asperis, repositus, extinxissem, dixisti, ohjc-
cissem, collegissein, [is being struck out, and gs turned into
X,) percussisti, siirrexisse, amantium, deorinn.

Apocope takes away the final letter, or syllable, of a word :
as, mcn\ Antom, tugwl, puer, p7^osper ,- for mene, Aiito7iii,
tugurii, puerus, prosperus.

Antithesis substitutes one letter for another: as, olli and
ollis, for illi and illis ; faciiindum iox faciendum; optumusior
optimns ,■ publicus for poplicus, or populicus ; vult, indtis, for
volt, voltis, contractions of volit, volitis.

Metathesis changes the order of letters in a word : as,
pistris ioY pristis ; Lybia for Libya.

Anastrophe inverts the order of words: as, dare circuvi,
Virg. ^^n. ii. 792 ; erit super, Ovid. Fast. v. 600 ;facit are^
Lucr. vi. 692; instead of circumdare, supererit, arefacit.
Thus also, Jovis cum fulmina contra, in Virgil ; and also
Transtra per et remos.

Tmesis separates compounded words, in order to put an-
other word between them : as, Qttce me cnnque vacant terra
— Virg. Super tibi crunt — Virg. Scptcm subjecta Irioni —
Virg. Inque salutatam — Virg. Ob esse scquentem — Plant.
Dum re non sit tamen apse — Lucr. ; instead of qucecunque,
supererunt, septemtrioni, insalutatamque, obseqnentem, reapse,
i. e. reipsa. The insertion of que is frequent in Lucretius :
as, conque-globata, conquc-gregantur, disqiic-sipatis, inque-
gravcscunt, perque-plicatis, 8cc.

Archaismus is the old way of writing : as, aulai, vias,
omneis or onmis, ornati, senati, anuis, curru, die, scibo, aun
dibo, prohibesso, negassim, duim, siem, expng7iasscrc, iTJipe-
trassere, capsinms, adaxiiit, moriri, fuat, here, quase, doni-
cum, nenu, endo or indu ; instead of aulcc, vice, omnes, orna-
tils, scnatus, anus, currui, diei, sciam, audiam, proliibuero^
negaverim, drm, sim, cxpugnaturmn, impetraiurum esse, cepc-
rimus, adegerint, mo7'i, sit, hcri, quasi, donee, non, in.

161

Hellenismus is an imitation of the Greek termination,
or declension : as, Helene, Crete, Ni/mphe, instead o^ Helena,
Creta, Nj/mpha. Also Antiphon, DemipJion, Milon, for An-
tipJio, Demipho, Milo. Thus likewise in the first declension,
Gen. auras ; in the second, Gen. Orphcos, Dat. Orphei,
Ace. Orpliea : in the third, Gen. Pallados, Ace. Pallada,
Dat. pi. Troashi, Ace. Troadas.

The following lines contain a concise explanation of the
Figures properly so called.

Prosthesis apponit capiti, sed Aphceresis aufert.

Syncopa de medio tollit, sed Epenthesis addit.

Abstrahit Apocope fini, sed dat Paragoge.

Constringit Crasis, distracta Diceresis efFert.

Litera si legitur transposta, Metathesis exit.

Antithesitif mutata tibi si litera, dices.

OF SYNTAX'.

Syntax is the arrangement^ of words in a sentence, ac-
cording to the established rules of Concord and Govern-
ment.

Concord is the agreement of one word with another in
certain accidents, as in case, gender, number, or person :
thus, Cicero orator, Cicero the orator : Ego amo, I love.

Government is the power which one word has in deter-
mining the state of another : as, Ego virum amo, I love the
man.

_ • Such as prefer an English Syntax, will find Mr. Ruddiman's plain, con-
cise, and yet comprehensive. The numerous notes subjoined to it deserve an
attentive perusal. An abstract of these rules is now given, with a consider-
able collection of such notes and observations, as, it is trusted, will be found
not undeserving of attention. Those who prefer the Latin Syntax, in the
Eton Abridgment of Lily, will find in these notes many things explained,
which are either wholly overlooked, or but slightly noticed, in that Syntax. —
Each of these two syntaxes, both of which are extremely popular, having a
useful system of exercises adapted to it, is one great reason that induced me
not to make any material alteration in this division of grammar, cither in re-
gard to the subject, the arrangement, or the number, of the rules. One thing
is, however, very obvious, that many of wliat are accounted rules of syntax
might be referred to the figures of apposition, ellipsis, &c.

- The arrangement, or order of words in a sentence, will hereafter be no-
ticed.

M

a

162

I. OF CONCORD.

The Concords are four ;

1. Ol'an Adjective with u Substantive.

2. Of a Verb with a Nominative.

3. Of a Relative with an Antecedent.

4. Of a Substantive with a Substantive.

Rule I. An adjective agrees with a substantive in gen-
der, number, and case : as,

Vir bonus, A good man.

Fcemina casta, A chaste woman.
Dulce pomum, A sweet apple.

Note 1 . Thus also. Nam tua res agifur, paries cum proximus
ardet--Hor. An Adjective is often joined in the same case with
a personal pronoun: as, Ut se totum eitraderei — Nep. Ipse ager
ago — Virg. i. e. ipse ego.

Note 2. Under adjectives are comprehended adjective pronouns,
and participles.

Note 3. The substantive is often omitted ; and in this case the
adjective takes the gender of the substantive understood ; as, Per
immortales ; supply r/co5. The substantive thivg [negotium) is
usually understood, the adjective being put in the neuter gender :
as, Triste lupus stabulis — Virg.

Note 4. Adjectives ai-e often used substantively; and sometimes
substantives are used adjectively : as, Fortunate scnex — Virg. Po'
pulum late regcm — Virg. i, e. regnantem.

Note 5. Several adjectives may agree with one and the same
substantive: as, Etiam externos multos claros viros nominarem —
Cic.

Note 6. An adjective joined with two substantives of different
genders generally agrees with that one which is chiefly the subject
of discourse ; as, JDein Puteoli, colonia Diccearchia dicti — Flin.
This refers chiefly to such adjectives as appeUatus, habitus, credi-
tus, visas, &c. It sometimes agrees with the nearest substantive,
although it may not be the principal one ; as, Non onuiis error
stultitia est diccnda — Cic. But if the principal substantive be the
name of a man or a woman, the adjective agrees with it: as, Semi-
ramis puer esse credita est — Justin, not creditus. A iew instances
occur in which the relative agrees with the appellative ; but they are
not to be imitated. — In such phrases as Maxima pars vulnerati —
Sail. Pars infugam effusi sunt — Liv. the adjective seems to agree
with some general word implied in the sense ; as, milites or homines.
—In some instances, the female seems the leading gender: as, Ille
meas errare boves permisit—Yirg,

165

Note 7. Part of a sentence may supply the place of a substan-
tive, the adjective being put in the neuter gender: as, Aiidito rnrrpm
Doroberniam proficisci — Eton Gram. Excspto quod non simul esses,
caicra Icctus — Hor.

Rule II. A personal verb agrees with its nominative, in.
number and person : as,

Ego lego, I read.

Tu scribis. Thou writest.

Praceptor doccty The master teacheth.

Note I. Thus also Quid ego cesso — Plaut. Sol ruit, et monies urn-
brantur — Virg.

Note 2. E^o and nos are the first persons ; tu and vos the se-
cond ; and all nouns belong to the third.

Note 3. The nominative of pronouns, especially of the first and
second person, is seldom expressed ; as, Nonjallam — Cic. Q,iiod
te dignum est, fades — Ter. But they are not omitted, when em-
phasis or a distinction of persons is intended: as, Tu dominus, tu
vir, tu mihi f rater eras — Ovid. Nos, nos, dice aperie, nos consules
desumus — Cic. Ego reges ejeci, vos tijrannos introducitls — Auct.
ad Herenn.

Note 4;. Ahint, dicunt,ferunt, sunt, narr ant, tradunt, and thfe
like, often have their nominative understood, when it is a person :
as, Aiunt solere senes repuerascere — Plaut. Sunt quos juvat — Hor.
homines is understood. For it is to be observed, that every no-
minative must have a finite verb, and every finite verb a nomina-
tive, expressed or understood; tlius, in Di meliora! — Virg. dent
may be understood ; in Nam Polydorus ego — Virg. the verb sum.

Note 5. The nominative is sometimes found with the infini-
tive; in which case ccepit or ccejjerunt is generally supposed to be
understood: as, Invidere omnes mihi — Ter, Ccesar JEduos fru-
mentumjlagitare — Caes. But in some instances, other verbs may
be supposed, according to the sense, to be understood ; and in
others, the infinitive seems to be of the same import as the im-
perfect of the indicative.

Note 6. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, may be the
nominative of the third person ; as, Nnn est meniiri meum — Ter.
Incertum est quam longa nostrum cujusque vita futura sit — Cic. E
ccelo descendit, Nosce tcipsum — Juv, The adverb or antientaccusa-
tive, parti7n, sometimes appears as a nominative : thus, Sed eorurn
partim in pompu, partim in acie iUustres esse vohieru7it— Cic. But
such constructions may be elliptical.

Note 7. In Latin, as in English, the person speaking, and the
person addressed, are sometimes put in the plural, but in the for-
mer, perhaps, with some allusion to more than one: as, Nos da-
bimus quod ames — Ovid, Heroid. xvi. 85, i. e. ego dabo. Vos, 0

M 2

164

Calliope, precor, adspirate canenti — VIrg. ^n. ix, 525. There
are instances in which the person speaking of himself uses, one
while the singular and another the plural, in the same sentence.

Rule III. Substantive verbs, verbs of naming and ges-
ture, have a nominative both before and after them, belong-
ing to the same thing : as.

Ego sum discijndus, I am a scholar.

Tii vocaris Joannes, You are named John.

Ilia incedit regma. She walks [as] a queen.

Note 1. Thus also, Ira est furor — Hor. Ego incedo regina —
Virg.

Note 2. This rule seems to arise from the nature of the figure
Apposition, and may be thus expressed generally : Verbs which
serve as copulcB, uniting the predicate with its subject, have a no-
minative before and after them.

Note 3. Substantive verbs are sum,Jio,forem, and existo. —
Verbs of naming comprehend such passives as appellor, dicor,
vocor, nominor, nuiicupor, Jerovy perhibeor, censeor, existimor, vi-
deor, habcor, creor, cognoscor, invenior, &c. Verbs of gesture or
of posture are eo, incedo, venio, cubo, sto, jaceo, sedeo, evado^Ju-
gio, dormiOf manco, &c.

Note 4. The rule is not confined to these verbs only ; for any
verb may have a nominative before and after it, belonging to the
same thing : as, Audivi hoc puer — Cic. Sapiens nil facit invitus —
Cic.

Note 5. When a verb comes between two nominatives of differ-
ent numbers, it usually agrees with the first, which may be sup-
posed to be the subject of discourse: as, Ossa lapis Jiunt — Ovid.
It sometimes, however, takes the number of the last : as, Aman-
tium ircB amoris integratio est — Ter. Pectus quoque robora Jiunt —
Ovid.

Note 6. If a vocative precede, such verbs or their participles are
generally followed by the nominative : as, Esto, tu Ccesar, amicics
— Mart.* V. 20. But the poets often use another vocative : as,
QidbiiSy Hector, ab oris Expectate venis — Virg. for expectatus. lec-
tule divitiis facte beate meis — Propert. Hence also. Made virtute
esto, for mactus.

Rule IV. The infinitive mood has an accusative before
it: as,

Gaudco te valere, 1 am glad that you are well.

Note 1. Thus also, Credunt se negligi — Ter. Miror te noti scri-
here — Cic.

Note 2. The word that, either expressed or understood, coming
between two English verbs, is the usual sign of this construction.

165

Note ?. This accusative may be often turned into a nominative
preceded by quod or ut, the infinitive being changed into the in-
dicative or subjunctive: thus, Eqiddcm scio jam Jilius quod amet
meus — Ter. for Jilium meum amure. Volo vos bene sperare, or ut
bene speretis.

Note 4. Me, te, se, ilium, are often understood : as, Sed rcdderc
posse negabat — Virg. i. e. se posse.

Note 5. Esse or Jliisse is frequently omitted after participles : as,
Sed de ea re legatos missuros dixerunt — Nep. i. e. esse.

Note 6. Sometimes the accusative and infinitive are omitted:
as, Pollicitas sum suscepturum — Ter. for me suscepturum esse.

Note 7. If the verb following that have no future participle, the
expression may be varied thus : In spem veniebat,Jbre, utipcrtina-'
cia desisteret — Caes. Nunquam putavijldurum, ut pater meus libe-
7-os odisset—Senec.

Note 8. Care should be taken in using this construction not to
render the meaning ambiguous, as in the famous answer of the
oracle ; Aio te, jEacida, Romanos vincere posse, in which it could
not be ascertained from the mere words, which party was to prove
victorious. The ambiguity might be prevented by changing the
active into the passive voice. Further observations on quod, ut,
and the infinitive mood, will occur under the Construction of the
Infinitive Mood, and under Conjunctions.

Rule V. Esse has the same case after it that it has before
it: as,

Petrus cupit esse vir doctus^ Peter desires to be a learned

man.

Scio Petrum esse virum doctum, I knovv^ that Peter is a learned

man.

Mihi ncgUgcnti esse non licet, I am not allowed to be neg-
ligent.

Note 1. Thus also, Qui volet esse pius — Lucan. Licet illis esse
timidis — Liv.

Note 2. This rule may be better expressed thus : — Substantive
verbs, and most verbs neuter and passive, have the same case after
them as before them.

Note 3. When the leading verb governs the dative, such as li-
cet, cxpedit, datur, concedo, the case after the infinitive may be ei-
ther the dative, or the accusative : thus, Vobis ncccssc estforiibus
esse viris — Liv. Da mihi Jcdlere, da justo sanctoque vidcri — Hor.
Expedit bonus esse vobis — Ter. Si civi Romano licet esse Gadita-
iium — Cic. It is evident that this construction and its varieties
depend upon apposition ; for if we say Licet illis esse timidis, ii-
midis agrees with illis, the word to which it refers, aod which it

166

qualifies. If we say Licet illis esse timidos, the accusative illos
seems to be understood before esse, to which, in like manner, ti-
midos refers. The former seems to be a Greek construction ; the
latter accords with the nature of the Latin language.

Note 4. After aio, refero, jndo, nescio, sadio, and the like, with
esse, the poets sometimes use the nominative instead of the accu-
sative : as, Phaselus ille, quern vidctis hospites, aitjiusse navium ce-
lerrimus — Catull. Retidit Ajax esse Jovis pro7iepos — Ovid. Uxor
invidi Jovii esse nescis — Hor. Sometimes the infinitive is omit-
ted : as, Smsit medlos ddnpsns in hostes — Virg. for se delapsum
esse. In these examples, it may be observed that the pronoun is
not expressed before the infinitive.

Note 5. This rule extends only to the nominative, dative and
accusative; on which account we caimot say Interest Ciceronis esse
eloquentis, but eloquentem, iti which eloquentem refers to a personal
pronoun understood before esse.

Rule VI. Tlie relative qui^ qucE^ quod., agrees with the
antecedent, in gender, number, and person : as,
Amo virum qui -pmica loquitur, I love the man who speaks

litde.
Ego qui doceo, I who teach.

Rule VII. If no nominative come between the relative and
the verb, the relative shall be the nominative to the verb : as,
Pncceptor qui docct. The master who teacheth.

Rule VIII. But if a nominative come between the rela-
tive and the verb, the relative shall be of that casewhich the
verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, uses
to govern : as,

Deus quern coliinuSy God whom we worship.

Ciijus lymnere vivimjis^ By whose gift we live.

Cui uuUus est siiuilis, To whom there is none like.

A quo facta sunt omniu^ By whom all thuigs were made.

Note 1. Thus also, Lcvejit onus quod {onus) benefciiur — Ovid.
Liter CE, quas [liter as) dedi — Cic.

Note 2. The antecedent is the substantive going before the re-
lative, to which the latter refers, and which is again understood to
the relative. The relative may, therefore, be considered as placed
between two substantives (which are the same), whether expressed
or understood ; with the former of which it agrees in gender,
number, and person; and with the latter, in gender, number, and
case, as an adjective: thus, Diemdicunt, qua [die) odripam Rko-
dani omnes conveniant — Caes. Ernnt onmino itinera duo, quibus
[itineribus) domo rxirc possent — Cnes.

Note 3, In the former note, there are tv.o examples in which

167

the antecedent is repeated by Cassar ; but this is uncommon, as it
is naturally implied in the relative : thus, Animum rcge, qui, (scil.
animus) nisi par et, imperat — Hor,

Note 4. Sometimes the substantive is omitted in the case which
it strictly assumes as an antecedent, and expressed in that case
which, though always understood, is generally suppressed ; as,
Urbem quam staiuo vestra est — Virg. i. e. urbs quam {urbeni) statuo,
Eunuchum qiiem dedisti nobis, quas turbas dedit — Ter. i. e. EicnU'
chus, qnnn (cumichum) dedisti, &c. This seems an imitation of
Greek construction: as, 'Axicras <Js 6 'Hpuj^rj;, slirsv, ov kyuj ditzKe-
<fa>d<Ta. 'Icyavvijv, sroV ^Ti;, i. e. irog iS'iv 'icvdyvrjg, ov 'luidvvt^v syca
&c. — Mark vi. 16. The antecedent is omitted in two ways ; 1st,
by putting the substantive after the relative, and, consequently,
in the same case with it: as, Popnio tit plncereiit, quas Jecisset Ja-
hulas — Ter. 2dly, by putting, through the figure anastrophe,
the substantive before the relative, but in such a manner that, in
reality, it does only supply the place of the following word, as it
is still in the same case as the relative : thus, Naucratem quern
convenire volui, in 7iavi non erat — Plant.

Note 5. Sometimes both the antecedent and the subsequent sub-
stantive implied in the relative are omitted ; as. Sunt quos juvat
collcgisse — Hor. i. e. sunt homines quos {homines) &c. Qualis esset
natura montis, qui cognoscercnt misit — Caes.

Note 6. When the relative is placed between two nouns of dif-
ferent genders, it may agree with either ; but its agreement with
tlie antecedent is according to the analogy of Latin construction:
thus, Hcrcuiisacrijiciumjecit in loco, quern (locum) Pyram appellant
— Liv. Unus erat toto ncdurcc vulius in orbe, Q,uem dixere Chaos —
Ovid. The agreement with the consequent is an imitation of Greek
construction: thus, Animcd 2^1'ovidum et sagax quern vocamus ho-
minem — Cic. Ad eum locum quae appellatur Pharsalia applicuit
—Caes.

Note 7. If part of the sentence be tlie antecedent, the relative is
of the neuter gender: as. Ego quoquc uutiperco, quod mihi est carms
— Ter. i. e. quod negotium. Sometimes the pronoun id is elegantly
placed before quod: thus, Catilina, id quod facilUmum erat, orn-
niumjiagitiorum atquejaciuorum circum sc catervas habehat — Sail.
. Note 8. Sometimes the antecedent is implied in the possessive :
as, Omnes laudarejortrinas meas, qui haberem— -Ter, i. e.Jbrtunas
mei.

Note 9. The relative sometimes refers to the sense of the pre-
ceding words, or to some other substantive than that which goes
before, with which last it sometimes difters in gender and number:
as, Inter alia prodigia eliam, came ■plait, quern imbrem ingens nu-
merus avium intervolitando rapuisse fertur — Liv. i. e. pluit imbrem.
came, quern {imbrem) Sec. Daret ut caienis fafale monstrum, qua:
generosius pcrire qncercns Szc. — Hor. in which qua; is feminine,
not in regard to the antecedent monstrum, but to Cleopatra of
whom the poet is speaking.

168

Note 10. Sometimes it refers to an antecedent of a difFerent
number from that which is expressed : as. Si tempus est iclhimjurc
hominis necandi, quce multa sunt— Cic. i. e. tempora. Intcrea ser-
vitia repudiabat, cujus initio ad eum magncc copies concurrehant —
Sal], i. e. servitii.

Note 11. Sometimes it agrees in gender with a word of similar
import to the antecedent : as, Ego te, Eucfio, de alia re rescivisse
censiii, quod ad me attinet — Plaut. in which quod seems to refer
to negotium understood rather than to its real antecedent re. De-
lectu rebusque aliis divinis humanisque quce (supply ??e^of /a) perip-
sos agenda erant, petf ect is— Liv.

Note 12. The relative is sometimes omitted : as, Est in secessu
longo locus ; insida porfum Effixit ohjectu laterum—V'wg. Est lo-
cus: Hesperiam Graii cognomine dicunt — Virg. in both which quem
may be supplied after locus.

Note 13. Sometimes the word is added to the antecedent, which
belongs to the clause of the relative; as. Cum venissent ad vada Vo-
iaterrana qua; nominantur—Qic. for vada quce nominantur Vola-
ierrana. As the original quotation stands, quce nominantur may be
translated, as they are named.

Note 14. The relative sometimes appears to agree in case with
the antecedent : as. Cum scribas, et aliquid agas eorum quornin
consuesti — Cic, Nonpro sua, cmt quorum simidat^ injuria — Sail.
Frag. This construction may be elliptical ; and perhaps such ex-
amples are to be supplied thus: Alicjuid agas eorum, quorum {ali-
quid agere) consuesti. Pro injuria eortim,pro quorum injuria simu-
lat, scil. se arma cepisse. This is an imitation of Greek construc-
tion, and may arise from what is called attraction : thus, Ka) hitl-
rsvjrav rriypa(p^, xou rcJ Xoyuj, w anrsv 6 'Itjo-s;— John ii. 22. 'Ev
reus iopta7i, aJs rjyoijisv — Aristoph. In these the relative is said
to be attracted, by the antecedent, into its case, .

Note 15. Sometimes the relative, if once expressed, is after-
wards omitted, and in such a manner that, if supplied, its case
would be different : as, Quibiis nee qucestus est, nee didicere artem
ullarn — Plaut. instead o\^ nee qui didicere.

Note 16. Words of relative quantity and quality, as, quotus,
quantus, qualis, are often construed as the relative : thus. Fades,
qualem decet esse sororum — Ovid. TantcB multitudinis, quantam
capit urbs nostra, concursus est ad me /actus — Cic, But when re-
latives of this description and their redditives {i. c. the adjectives
which correspond to them) refer to different substantives, the for-
mer agree with the first, and the latter with the second substantive,
as adjectives : thus, Bixi de te quce potui, tantci contentionc, quan-
tum est Jorum — Cic. Among the poets, qualis is sometimes made
to agree in gender with the former substantive : as, Scd incitat me
pectus et mammcc putres. Equina qncdes itbera — Hor. for qualia
sunt tibcra. The same poet uses the accusative for the ablative : as
Occurrunt animcr, quales neque candidiures Terra tulit ; for qua-
libus. The word negotium is sometimes understood ; as, Talc

169

iuum carmen nobis, quale sopor Jessis in gramine — Virg. Either
the relative or its redditive is sometimes omitted ; as, Quale manus
addunt ehori decus — Virg. for tale decus, quale. Qui tanti talem
genuere parentes — Virg. i. e. tanti, quanta tu Dido; ialcm item,
qualem te conspicimus.

Note 17. The first two rules in regard to the relative qui, de-
pend upon the first and second concords; and the third rule, upon
the rules for the government of nouns, verbs, and prepositions. It
always agrees in gender and number with the antecedent ; and
when the antecedent and consequent happen to be in the same
case, it then agrees in case also. Its case depends always upon
that of the consequent, which it implies; and instead of which it
generally stands alone.

Note 18. The clause of the antecedent is sometimes found after
that of the relative : as, Qui pauperes sunt, iis antiquior officio est
pecunia — Cic.

Rule IX. Two or more substantives singular, coupled
together by a conjunction [c/, ac, atque, &c.], generally have
a verb, adjective, or relative plural : as,

Petrus et Joannes^ qui sunt docti, Peter and John, who are

learned.

Note 1. Thus also, Lupus et agnus compulsi — Phaedr. Furor ira-
que mentem j)r(scipitant — Virg. Herodotus Thucydidesque, quorum
cetas in eorum tempora incidit — Cic.

Note 2. This rule arises from the figure syllepsis.

Note S. It refers not only to affirmative copulatives, but may
be extended to those also which are negative, and to the disjunc-
tive conjunctions ant, vel, ve, sen, sive, in those cases where the
attribute is either affirmed or denied in regard to the several sub-
jects : as, Quod in decemviris neque Ccesar, neque ego habiti essemus
— Cic. Velidi cum prcetor, aut prases, aid proconsul, in balneum^
vel in theatrum cant — Justinian. Inst.

Note 4i. A singular nominative followed by an ablative governed
by cum sometimes takes a plural verb or adjective : as, Juba cum
Labieno capli inpotestatem Cccsaris venissent — Hirt. B. Afr. liemo
cuju fraire Quirinus Jura dabunt — Virg. Pharnabazus cum ApoU
lonide et Athenagora vincti traduntur — Curt,

Note 5. The conjunction is sometimes omitted, by the figure
asyndeton : as, Duin cvtas, metus, magister jn-o/iibebant — Ter.

Note 6. Sometimes two adjectives in the singular belong to a
plural substantive: as, Maria Tyrrhcnum atque Adriaticum — Liv.

Note 7. Frequently an adjective or verb singular is joined by
the figure zeugma to two or more nouns coupled together : as,
Marc rubrum el lotus oricntis oceanus refcrtus est silvis—VWn.

170

Note S. If the singular nominatives be of different persons, the
plural verb will agree with the more worthy person, that is, with
the first ill preference to the second, and with the second rather
than with the third : as, Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et
suavissimus Cicero valemus — Cic. The same rule is observed, if
either substantive, or both, be plural; as, Si nos duces, vosque mi-
lites strenuo suoquisque officio fun gamur. Thus also Errastis, Rulle,
vehementer et tu, et nonnulli collegce tid — Cic. But in many in-
stances the person next to the verb, although it may be the more
unworthy, is preferred.

Note 9. In substantives denoting living beings, the masculine
gender is preferred to the feminine: as. Pater mihi et mater mortui
sunt — Ter, It is not ascertained among grammarians, whether
or not the feminine gender ought to be preferred to the neuter ;
whether we should say Lucretia et ejus mancipiumjuerunt casta;, or
casta. Vossius,in his larger grammar, the authors of the Port Royal
grammar, r<nd Ursinus, seem to think the feminine preferable. But
the same Vossius (in his less grammar'), Linacer, and Alvarez,
prefer the neuter to the feminine. It may sometimes happen that
one of the nouns does not signify persons expressly, but by im-
plication ; as when the name of a place is put for the inhabitants :
thus, Athcnarum et Cratippi ; ad quos — Cic. So likewise when
one of them is a collective, persons being signified : Qiiadraginta
mi/Ha i^editum, duo inillia sepiingenti equites, et tanta prope civium
sociorumque pars cccsi dicuntur — Liv. But we also find 2V/a millia
quadringoiti ccosa — Liv.

Note 10. When the substantives denote things without life, the
adjective is generally neuter : as, DiviticB, decus et gloria in oculis
sita sunt — Sail, in which negotia seems to be understood. It is ge-
nerally understood that if any one of the substantives denote a thing
inanimate, the adjective may be neuter: as, Serpens, sitis, ardor,
arena;, Dulcia virtuti — Lucan. Sometimes in inanimate things, re-
gard is paid to the simple construction, or the more worthy gender:
as, Grammatice quondam ac Musire junctce fuerunt — Quinct. Scri-
ores supra dictis narcissus et lilium — Plin. When the substantives
signify irrational animals or plants, we find the adjective or relative
agreeing with the general word understood : thus, Expertes rationis
suntequi, boves, reliqna: pecudes, apes, quarum (perhaps bestiaruni)
opere efficitur aliquid ad hominum usum et vitam — Cic. Qtiid de
vitibus olivetisque dicam, quarum (perhaps arborvm) Jructus nihil
omnino ad best ias pertinent — Cic. In this last example, it may per-
haps be, that the feminine is preferred to the neuter ; or olivetis

' His words there are, " Utrum et femininum dignius est neutro ? Ita qui-
dem plerisque videtur, idque propter illud Lucani ; Leges et p/cl>iscita coactce..
Sed istoc fi.o<iah,Kot videtur, sive singularc ; lit adversus alioruni scriptorum
consiieludinem exinde non d cheat judicium ferri." But some consider coactat
8S a jnistake for coacta ; others dh ide pkbiscita into pl;bu scita, and construe
coacl<e with plebis.

171

may be used instead of the feminine olivis ; and, indeed, in the
former, quarum may refer to apesy the nearest substantive.

Note 11. The more worthy person is generally placed first : as,
Ego et tu. Livy furnishes an example to the contrary ; Pater et
ego, fratres,que 7nei, pro vobis arma tulinms. The precedence,
here, may be intended as a mark of deference and distinction. •

Note 12. The verb or adjective frequently agrees, by the figure
zeugma, in person, gender, or number, with the nearest substan-
tive: as, Et ego et Cicero mens Jlagitabit — Cic. Salus, liberi,
Juma,Jbrtimce, sunt carissimcc — Cic. Sociis et rege recepto — Virg,
When cum intervenes between two nouns, regard is still paid to
worthiness of gender : as, Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati — Ovid.
The verb takes the person of the nominative: as, Tu quoque cum
Druso prcemia feres — Ovid. When singular substantives are
joined together, especially those signifying things vvithout life, the
best authors often use a verb singular : as. Virtus, et honestas, et
pudor cogehat — Cic. This is the more common, when the differ-
ent words are of similar signification ; and when this is the case,
the adjective or relative generally agrees with the nearest : as,
Mutiijanua et vestibulum, quod maxime celebrntur — Cic. Turner
condemns Lily's Impcrium et dignitas qucB petiisti, which should
be, he says, quam petiisti ; but, as Ruddiman observes, Cicero
himself seems in one instance to write in a similar manner. Col-
lective nouns, as, populus, gens, turba, manus, d'C.', and certain
partitives, as, quisque, uterque, &c., are frequently joined to a verb,
adjective or relative, plural; and the adjective or relative, instead
of taking the gender of the collective expressed, often agrees
with a word which the sense suggests to the mind : as, Mnltitudo
convener ant — C^s. Magna pars xmlnerati ajit occisi sunt — Sail.
Jntimus quisque Ubertoriim vincii abreptique — Tacit. Familia quo-
rum, &c. — Sail. Such constructions arise from the figure syn-
thesis, or, as it may, perhaps, with greater propriety be named,
synesis.

' A collective noun may be joined with a verb either of the singular or of
the plural number : as, Qu(vrit pars semina fammce — Virg. Pars in frusta
secant — Virg. Joined with a singular verb, it generally expresses many con-
sidered as one aggregate ; but, when joined with a plural verb, it signifies many
separately or individuaUi/. Hence, if an adjective or participle be subjoined to
the verb, when the latter is of the singular number, the former will agree both
in gender and number with the collective noun : as, Circiter pars quarta erat
mUitaribus armis instructa — Sail. : since, in this case, they all agree with the
term of universality, and are understood to the special or individual terms:
but, if the verb be plural, the adjective or participle will be plural also, and of
the same gender as the individuals constituting the collective noun ; as, Pars

erant ceBsi. Complcrant litora pars et certare parati — Virg. Sometimes,

however, though rarely, the adjective is thus used in the singular • as. Pars,
arduus allis Puluendentus equis furit — Virg. A^n. vii. 624, for ardui, pulveru-
lenli fur lint. Proper names and appellatives also take the gender of the indi-
.viduals implied: as, J.alii/r>i, Copnaque agro mnlfati—JAv. viii. 11, for Latini
et Cumpani. Capita c.onjurulionh virgis c««— -Liv, X. 1, for duces oi prindjKS,
•M we saj:, in English, the heads.

172

Rule X. One substantive agrees with another signifying
the same thing, in case : as,

Cicero Orator, Cicero the Orator.

Urhs Edinbiirgum, The city Edinburgh.

Filius delicia; matris suce, A son the darhng of his mo-
ther.

Note 1. That is, when two nouns come together denoting the
same person or thing, the one explaining or describing the other,
they are put in the same case : as, Justitia virtus— Cic. Opes irri-
tamenta malorum — Ovid.

Note 2. This is named apposition, and is not considered by some
grammarians as a concord. I consider it, however, as a primary
concord, and founded on the abstract principle, that words agree-
ing in meaning should agree by grammatical concord'.

Note 3. It is not necessary that the nouns agree in gender, num-
ber, or person ; as. Magnum pauperies opprobrium — Hor. Alexin
delicias domini — Virg. Ego homuncio hoc non facerem?—'Tev.
—In all such constructions there seems to be an ellipsis of the an-
tient ens, or of qui est, qui vacatur, or the like.

Note 4. The substantive descriptive of two or more singular
substantives joined together, is made plural : as, Cn. Domitio, C.
Sosio consuUbus — Nep. Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesquc
poetce — Hor. Likewise, when the nouns are connected by cum:
as. Cot tarn cum Titurio Sabino legatos ibi amisimus — Flor. iii. 10. 8.
But in some editions legato is read : the former reading, however,
seems to be preferred.

Note 5. When a plural appellative is used as descriptive of two
or more proper names of different genders, it must be of the more
worthy gender: as. Ad Ptolemccum Cleopatramque reges Icgati
missi — Liv., in which reges is equivalent to j-egem et regina?n. In
the same manner socer,Jilius, and frater are used, implying like-
wise socrus, Jilia, and soror.

Note 6. When one of the substantives is animate, the adjective
and verb agree with it : as. Cum duofulmina nostri imj^erii subitb
in Hispania, Cn. ct P. Scipiones,extincti occidissent— C'lc. In many
instances the sense will determine the regimen. If the nouns are
inanimate, it agrees with the last : as, Fama malum, quo non aliud
velocius u/lum — Virg. Here, likewise, the agreement of 5'?/o with
vialum is determined by the sense. The rule seems to be that, in
this case, the adjective and verb shall agree with the more general
noun: as, Flumen est Arar, quod in Rhodanum injtuit — Caes. Co-

* The antients named this construction Epexegcsis or dcclaratio, because the
preceding substantive is explained by the following. Grammarians state its
object to be tlireefold. 1. To limit a general term ; as, arbor laurits. 2. To
remove ambiguity ; as, Taurus mom, lujnts jHscis. 3. To designate some pro-
perty ; as, Socrates vir S'unentissimu^.

173

rioli oppidum captum — Liv. — Caesar lias made the adjective agree
with the proper name in Flumine Rheno qui agrum Helvetium a
Germanis dividit, and in other parts.

Note 7. Sometimes the latter substantive is put into the geni-
tive : as, Fons Tbnavi — Virg. Arbor Jici — Cic. Et lapathi brevis
herba — Hor.

Note 8. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of
the substantives: as, Cogitet oratorem institui, rem arduam —
Quinct.

Note 9. If the latter substantive be susceptible of a change in
termination, to express a difference of gender, it must agree writh
the former in gender and number : as, Populuni late regem — Virg.
for regnantem. Reg'ina piecunia — Hor. for regnans. But to epi-
ccenes, and neuters, the masculine is generally joined : as, Aqidla
rex avium. Tempris magister midtorum. Virgil speaks of reges
et ducfores apum, not reginas ct ductriccs.

Note 10. To the preceding four concords some add a fifth, that
of the Respjonsive, generally agreeing in case with its Interrogative.
But this depends entirely upon the nature of the figure ellipsis ;
for if we say Quisherus esttibi? Amphitruo — Ter. to this last no-
minative are understood the words est hems mihi. — When words
of different construction are used, the Responsive and Interroga-
tive disagree: as, Cufunipecus? an Melibcei? Non, verwn jEgonis
— Virg, Cujus est liber ? mens, not mei. Cuja interest ? Regis.
But even in some of these, if the elliptical words be supplied, the
constructions do only seem to disagree: thus, if we say Cujus in-
terest? and reply mea, tua, &c. the full sentence may be, Cujus
negotia interest, or Inter cujus negotia est? Mea negotia interest.

II. OF GOVERNMENT.

1. Of Nouns.

2. Of Verbs.

3. Of Words indeclinable.

THE GOVERNMENT OF NOUNS.

OF SUBSTANTIVES.

Rule XL One substantive governs another signifying a
different thing, in the genitive : as,

Amor Dei, The love of God.

Lex naUtrcc, Tlie law of nature.

174.

Note 1 . Tliat is, when two substantives come together, signi-
fying different things; or in which the latter limits or defines the
general signification of the former, and expresses some particular
relation belonging to it, it must be put into the genitive : as, Amor
nummi — Juv. Inithun est salutis notitia peccati — Senec.

Note 2. The substantive in Latin, which is to be put into the
genitive, is that which corresponds with the English word follow-
ing of, or which ends in 's.

Note 3. The governing substantive is sometimes omitted: as,
Ubi ad Diance veneris — Ter. i. e. templum or cedent.

Note 4!. The latter substantive is sometimes understood: as,
Tritici decies centum milliay et hordei quingoita, indicantes se ad
mare devecta habere — Liv. i. e. modium.

Note 5. The pronouns hiijus, ejus, ilUus, cujus. Sec. are used as
substantives, the word with which they agree being generally un-
derstood : as. Liber ejus. Libri eorum. Supply hoyninis and ho'
minum. The personal pronouns, having the nature of nouns,
are governed by a noun : as Languet desiderio tiii.

Note 6. The genitive may have either an active or a passive
signification: thus, in Ncc sese j'Enece jactavit vuhiere quisquam —
Virg. vulnere j^nece denotes thevvound which iEneas had received;
Et vulnere tardus Ulijssi — Virg. refers to the wound which Ulysses
had given.

Note 7. The substantive governed may govern another signify-
ing a different thing : as, Fratris hicjilius erat regis — Liv.

Note 8. Sometimes two genitives depend upon the same go-
verning substantive: as, Hitjus civitatis est longe amplissima aucto-
ritas umnis ores maritimce regionum earum — Caes. Here, indeed,
there are three genitives, but the third is governed bj' the second.

Note 9. Sometimes the word governing and the word governed
exchange cases : as. Sex dies ad earn rem conjlciendam sjjaiii pos-
tulant—Cxs. i. e. spatium sex dierum.

Note 10. The genitive, signifying possession, is often changed
into an adjective: as, Domus jjaterna — Cic for Doinus patris.

Note 11. The genitive is sometimes changed into the dative:
as, Fratri cedes Jient pervice — Ter. hrj'ratris. Or, into an accu-
sative or ablative with a preposition : as, Odium erga Romanos —
Nep. Cura de salute jmtri^e — Cic. If the former substantive be
derived from a neuter verb, the latter often follows the construc-
tion of that verb: as, Colloquia cum amicis — Cic. as well as Col-
loquia amicorum — Cic, Sibi successorem — Suet. Juxtitia est obtem-
peratio scriptis legibus institutisque populoj-iim — Cic, In old Lati-
nity especially, the dative and accusative are sometimes found
after a substantive derived from an active verb : as, Traditio alteri

— Cic. Qjiid istum tibi tactio est — Plant. In such phrases as

Domum reditionis spe sublata- -Cxs. in which the case of domus

175

is erroneously ascribed by some grammarians to the government
oireditio ; the accusative, or tlie ablative, depends entirely upon
the nature oi' domus, which is governed by a preposition generally
understood.

Note 12. Pars is omitted after such adjectives nsprimus, viedius,
ultimas, extremus, iujimus, imus, sumnius, siipremus, reliquus, cce-
terns ; thus Media nox—C?Es. signifies the middle (part of the)
night. In summo rnonte. On the top (or highest part) of the hill.
In such examples the adjective must agree With the substantive.

[Certain observations on the nature and construction of pro-
nouns, usually referred to this rule, will be found in Etymo-
logy.]

Rule XII. If the latter substantive have an adjective of
praise or dispraise joined with it, it may be put in the geni-
tive or ablative : as,

Vir'summce pnidcntice, \ f A man of the greatest

vel summa pncdentld, j ( wisdom.
Puer r)rohdc indolis, vel) . , ^ , ,.

prohd indole, j ^ ^^^ ^^ "" S^^^ disposition.

Note 1. That is, when the second substantive expresses a qua-
lity belonging to the first, having also an adjective joined to it,
expressing some degree, accident, or property belonging to that
quality, it may be put in the genitive or ablative : as, Ingenui vul-
tuspuer — Juv. Es nulla fide— C\c. Magnopondere saxuni — Virg.
Mulier cetate interrra — Ter.

Note 2. The genitive seems to depend upon the former substan-
tive taken possessively ; and the ablative is governed by some pre-
position generally understood, but sometimes also expressed : as,
Amicus cum magna Jide — Plant. Trin. iv. 4. 4.

Note 3. Prose writers use the ablative more frequently than the
genitive, especially after a substantive verb.

Note 4. In such instances as the following, the genitive is the
more common : Magni formica laboris — Hor. Testimo7iium nul-
lius moment i~C'\c. Nulli {nuirms) consiliisum—Hev. Rosaju-
cundi odor is — Plin.

Note 5. In such as the following, the ablative only is used :
Bono animo es — Ter. Qiianto fuerim dolore — Cic. Mira sum ala-
critats ad litigandum — Cic. Crcdens se minore invidiafore — Nep.

Note 6. Sometimes both constructions are found in the same
sentence : as, Lentulum, eximid spe, summce virtutis, adolescenlem
Jac erudias — Cic.

Note 7. Sometimes the adjective agrees with the former sub-
stantive, or the subject of discourse, and the latter substantive is
put in the ablative : as, Vir gravitate et prudentia prcestans — Cic.
I ir prcTituntis ingenii, prcestayxti ingenio, prastans ingenio, and

176

(poetically) prastans ivgenii, are all found. Sometimes the poets
use an accusative : as, Os humerosque similis deo — Virg. Vultum
dejectus — Stat. Such accusatives are governed by the preposition
secundum or quod ad understood, and are referred to the figure
synecdoche. Integer vitce — Hor. Prcestans animi — Virg. and the
like, may perhaps be referred to another rule.

Note 8. In like manner, neuter and passive verbs are construed
with the ablative : as, Et cordc et genibus tremit — Hor. L(jEVO bra-
chio vulneratur — Liv. And by the poets with an accusative : as,
Bxpleri mentem nequit — Virg. Such cases are gorerned by a pre-
position understood.

Note 9. The former substantive is sometimes understood : as,
Vulgus est ingenio mohili — Sail. Populus, or some similar word,
is understood.

Note 10. The latter substantive must denote some part or pro-
perty of the former ; otherwise its government does not depend
upon the present rule: hence such phrases as Pulchra prole paren-
tem — Virg. Rex gelidce orce — Hor. Pater optimorum liberorum,
and the like, are excluded from it. I believe, it may be generally
observed, that when in English the analytical or Norman form of
the genitive (i. e. with of) is convertible into the simple or Saxon
form (with 's), the Latin genitive is to be referred to the pre-
ceding rule: thus, " The father of the fine children," which is
equivalent to " The fine children's father." But when, consist-
ently with sense and with general usage, this cannot be done, the
genitive belongs to the present rule: as, '• A man of great virtue,"
which is not convertible into " great virtue's man."

It has been observed, that when a person is distinguished by
any rank, quality, or character ; the noun expressing it is used
in the genitive, to denote the source of that distinction; but that
the ablative is used, when the quality, rank, or character is re-
presented, not as the source of distinction, but as the instrument
or medium by which the subject is distinguished.

Rule XIII. An adjective in the neuter gender, without
a substantive expressed, is followed by a genitive : as,

Midtum pccuniiv, Much money.
Quid rei ? What is the matter ?

Note 1 . That is, adjectives in the neuter gender, used as sub-
stantives, govern the genitive : as. Paidulum pecuniae — Ter. Hoc
jioctis — Cic. Id negotii — Ter. Id miseriarum — Ter. '

Note 2. The adjectives thus used are generally such as signify
quantity : as, multum, plus, pilurimum, tantum, quantum, minus,

' Or, an adjective in the neuter gender, expressive of quantity, or parti-
tively used, governs, in the genitive case, tlie substantive with which, strictly,
it should agree : thus we say Mulla pecunia : but if we use vinllum, we must
say MuHum pecunia. Thus also we say jingusta liarum for Angustcc vice.

177

minimum ; also id, quid, hoc, aliquid, quidqiiam ; to which may
be enXdieiXsianmum, ultimum, extremum, nimidium, and medium: as,
Summum montis — Ovid. Animce dimidium — Hor. To these may-
be added a great number of plural neuters: as, Angusta viarum,
opaca locorum, &c.— Yirg. Incertafortnr.ee, antiqu a feeder ura,
extrema periculorum — Liv. And sometimes other singular neu-
ters : as, Lubriciim juventce — Tac. Sub obscurum noctis — Virg.
Ex adverso cceli — Virg.

Note 3. It is observed that quod, aliquod, quoddam, always
agree with their substantives ; and that quid slwA plus are always
followed by a genitive.

Note 4. Nihil, hoc, id, ilhid, istud, quid, aliquid, quidquam,
elegantly admit the genitive of neuter adjectives of the second
declension: as, Nihil sinceri — Cic, Quid reliqui est? — Ter. This
seldom happens with adjectives of the third declension; and never
with those that end in ts, e. Aliud is joined with nihilf and never
the genitive, according to this rule.

Note 5. Negotium, tempus, locum, spatium, or the like, are un-
derstood to these adjectives, and are the really governing words,
according to Rule XI.

Rule XIII.' Opus and iisus, deiioting ?ircessifij, conveni-
ence, or expediency, are followed by the dative of the object
to which the tiling is necessary, and die ablative of the diing
wanted: as,

Auctoritatc tnd nobis ) f We have need of your

opus est — Cic. j \ authority,

line viribns vsus {est \ i Now you h
tibi) — Virg. J \ strength.

Note 1. They are said sometimes to govern the genitive; but,
when this is the case, they generally appear to be taken in their
literal sense. The following are adduced as examples of their go-
verning a genitive, according to the sense mentioned in the rule:
Sed etiam si nosse, quid quisque senserit, volet, lectionis opus est~^
Quinct. Inst. xil. 3. Alii qfferunt se, si quo usus opercv sit — Liv.
xxvi. 9,

Note 2. Opus is sometimes used like the adjective necessarius,
but as an aptote i as, Dux nobis et auior opus est — Cic.

Note 3. Opus is elegantly followed by the ablative of perfect
participles, the substantive being cither expressed or omitted: as,
Priusqunm incipins, consulto ; et ubiconsulueris, mature facto opus
est — Sail. Opus flit Hirtio convento — Cic. Thus also, Dictu opus
est—lier. And Facto est usus — Plaut.

' Opuf and «.??<.>.•, denoting necessitj/, are usually noticed under adjectives of
want. Thoy arc here made the subject of a separate rule, which, for ()l)viousi
reasons, is nunihered a^ the preceding.

N

178

Note 4. Ojms is sometimes followed by an accusative: as, Piiero
opus est cihian — Plaut, Diomedes mentions that the nntients said
Opus est m/hihanc rem; but it is probable, that these accusatives
are governed by some infinitive; such as habere, dicere, facere.
The following has been adduced as an instance in which tisus
governs an accusative; Ad earn rem usus est ho)nme7n astiitum, doc-
tum — Plaut.

Note 5. It is followed by the infinitive, or the subjunctive with
vt: as. Quod opus sit sciri — Cic. Ojnis est, agram ut tc adsimides
— Plaut.

Note 6. The word governed by it is often omitted : as, Si opus
sit, accurras—Cio. in which the word accurrere may supply the
place of the ablative of the thing wanted, or may be considered as
the nominative to sit, opus being then reckoned equivalent to we-
cessarium.

Note 7. The ablative after these words seems to be governed by
the preposition in. Utor formerly governed an accusative, as well
as an ablative ; and as there are not wanting instances to prove
that verbal nouns sometimes governed the case of their verbs, this
consideration may, perhaps, be satisfactory to some, in regard to
the origin of the government of usus,

OF ADJECTIVES.

Rule XIV. Verbal adjectives, or sucli as signify an af-
fection of the mind, require the genitive : as,
Avidus glorice^ Desirous of glory.

Jgnarus fraudis, Ignorant of fraud.

Memor heiieficiorum. Mindful of favours.

Note 1, Or, verbal adjectives, by which are meant verbals in .r,
osus, and idus, with participials mns; and adjectives signifying an
affection of the mind, by which are meant those whichdenotede-
sire or disdain, knowledge or ignorance, innocence or guilt, or the
like, require the genitive: as, Timidus deoruin — Ovid. Imperitus
rerum — Ter, Fraterni sanguinis insons — Ovid.

To this rule belong
1st. Verbals in ax, and participials in ns: as capnx, edax, fugax,
pervicax, tenax, &c., amans, appetens, cupiens, iiegligens, metuens,
sciens, &c. : as, Tempus edax reriim ~Oy\6.. Alicni appetejis —
Sail. To these may be added certain participials in us; as consul-
tus, docfus, expertus, inexpertus, insuetus, insolitus : as, Juris con-'
sidi'us — Cic.

2dly. Adjectives denoting affection : as,
^ 1. Desire and disdain; cupidus, avarus, avidus, Jhstidiosus, cu-
riosus, studiosus, incuriosus, &c, with many other words belonging
to verbals in idus and osus : as, Laudis avidi — Sail. Litnaruvi
Jastidiosus-^C'ic,

179

2. Knowledge and ]gnorance:peritus, gnarus, pnulens , callidus,
docilis, certus, memor, &c. ; ignarns, improvidus, imprudcns, insolitns,
<S:c.: as, Conscia mens recti — Hor. Nescia mens fati — Virg. ^

3. Innocence and guilt ; iimocens, innoxius, insuns, Sec, noxius,
reus, suspectus, compcHus, (Sec. as, ('onsilii imioxiiis— Curt. Reus
avaritice — ^Cic.

4. To the foregoing may be added a vast multitude of other
adjectives, of which Johnson and Ruddiman have given lists. But
the greater part of these belong to the above-mentioned classes,
and some may be referred to other rules ; such are the following.

Abjectior animi — Apul.ov Liv. Confirmatus ommi—Apid.
Ab«onumfidei — Liv. (perh.dat.) Confusus animi — Liv.
Abstemius vini — Auson. Conterminus jugi.

Acer militiae — Tac. Credulus adversi— -S//.

Admirandus frugalitatis — Senec. Spesanimi credula mutui-//or.

Adversa domuum.
iEger animi — Liv.
j'Emulus ingenii — Sil.
iEquales aevi — Sd.
iEquus absentiura — Tac.
Alienum dignitatis.
Alternus animae — Sil.
Ambiguus pudoris — Tac.
Aniens animi — Vu'g.
Anhelus laboris — Sil.
Anxius furti — Ov.
Ardens animi.
Argutus facinorum — Plant.
Assuetus tumultus — Liv.
Atrox odii — Tac.
Attonitus serpentis — Sil.
Audax ingenii — Stat.
Angustior animi — ApuL
Aversus animi — Tac.
Benignus vini — Hor.
Bibulus Falerni — Hor.
Blandus precum — Stat.
Bonus fati.

Caecus animi — Quinct.
Callidus temporum — Tac.
Captus animi — Tac.
Catus legum — Anson.
Celer nandi — Sil.
Certus destinationis — Tac.
Clamosus undae.
Clarissimus disciplinae — Patcrc.
Commune omnium.

Compos animi — Ter. voti.— L/v. Expertus belli — l irg.
ConfidenB animi — Siicton. Expletus animi — Apul.

N2

Cumulatissimus scelerum —

Plant.
Damnandus facti — Sil.
Deformis leti — Sil.
Degener artis patriae — Ovid.
Despectus tasdfie.
Devius aequi — Sil.
Discolor lanai,
Discors patris — Veil. Pat.

al. patri,

Disertus leporum — Catul.
Dispar sortis — Sil.
Diversus morum — Tac.
Ditior animi — Stat.
Dissoliienda tristitiae pectora —
Tibul.

Divina futuri — Hor.

Docilis modorum — Hor.

Doctus virgae — Sil.

Dubius animi — Virg.

Dulcissimus fandi — Gell.

Durus oris — Liv.

Durior oris — Ovid.

Eftusissimus munificentias — Pa-
terc.

Egregius animi — Virg.

Enuntiativi corporum — Sencc.

Erectus animi — Sil.

Exactus morum — Ovid.

Exiguus animi — Claudian.

Eximius animi — Stat.

Exosa hujus vitae — Boet.

180

Exsors culpse — Liv.
£xsul patri<-E — Hor.
lixternatus animi — Apul.
Extorris regni — Stat.
Exutus formae — Sil.
Facili 3 frugam — Clmidian,
Fallax amicitiae — Tac.
Falsus animi — Ter.
Fatigatus spci — Ajml.
Felix cerebri — Hor.
Ferox animi — Tac.
Fervidus ingenii — Sil.
Fessus rerum— Virg.
Festinus animi — Apul.
Fidens animi — Virg.
Fidissima tui — Virg.
Firmatus animi — Sail.
Firmus propositi — Paterc.

al. proposito.

Flavus covnarum — Sil.
Floridior aevi — Sil.
Fluxa niorum — ,S//.
Fcetae novales Martis — Claud.
Formidolosior hostium — Tac.
Fortunatus lakorum — Virg-.
iractus anmii, opum.
Frequens silvse mons — Tac.
Frustratus spei — Gel.
Fugilivus regni — Flor.
Furens animi — Virg.
Gaudens alti — Stat.
G i-av is m oi- u m — Cla itdia n .
Gravidam Amathunta metalli—

Ovid,
I Ilex animi — Apnl.
Impavidus somni — Sil.
Impiger militiae — Tac. [perhaps

the dative.)
Impos animi — Plant.
Improba connubii — Stat.
Incautns futuri — Hor.
Indecora formae fcemina — Tac.
Lidocilis pacis — Sil.
Inexplebilis virtutis — Liv.
Infelix animi — Virg,
Infirmus corporis — Apul.
Ingens animi — Tac.
Inglorius militiae — Tac.
Ingratus salutis — Viyg.
lunoxius consilii — Curt.

Insanus animi — Apul.
Insatiabilis rerum — Senec.
Insolens infamis — Cic.
Insolitus servitii— So//. Frag.
Insuetus laboris — Cces.
Integer animi, vitae — Hor.
Interrita leti mens — Ovid.
Jntrepidus ferri — Claud.
Invictus laboris — Tac.
Invidus laudis — Cic.
Irritus incepti — Sil.
Laetus laboris — Virg.
Lapsus animi — Plaut. al.
Lassus animi.
Lassus laboris, maris, militiae —

Hor.
Laudandus laborum — Sil.
Lentus coepti — Sil.
Levis opwm — Sil.
Liber laborum — Hor.
Liberalis pecuniae — Sail.
Lugendus formae — Sil.
Macte animi — Mart.
Madid us roris — Aptd.
Manifestus criniinis — Tac,
Maturus aevi-

Virg,
Maximus aevi — Sil.

Hor.

Medius pacis et belli
Melior fati— 5//.
Miser animi — Plaut.
Modicus pecuni^ — 7«c.
Mollior sui — Apul,
Munificus auri — Claudian.
Mutabile mentis genus— Sil.
Mutatus animi — Apid.
Nimius imperii — Liv.
Nobilis fandi — Auson,
Notus fugarum — Sil.
Novus dolor is — Sit.

al. dolori.

Nudus arboris — Ovid.
Occultus odii — Tac.
Onusta remigum — Hirt.

Optimus militiae — Sil.
Otiosi studiorum — Ptin.
Pares ae.tatis mentisque — Sil.
Pavidus ofFensionum — Tac.
Pauper aquse — Hur.
Perlida pacti gens— -Si/.

B.

181

PeriditabunJus sul — Apul.
Perinfaraes disciplinae — Apid.
Pertinax docendi — Apul.
Pervicax irae — Tac.
Piger pericli — S'll.
Potens lyrae — Hor.
Praeceps animi — Vi>'g-
Pra^cipuus virtutis — Apul.
Praeclarus fidei — Tac.
Praestans animi — Virg.
Pravus fidei — Sil.
Procax otii — Tac.
Profugus regni — Tac.
Promptus belli — Tac.
Properus oblatse occasionis —

Tac.
Propria deorum voluptates.
Prospera f'rugum — Hor.
Pulcherrimus irae — Sil.
Purus sceleris — Hor.
Recreatus animi — Apul.
Rectus judicii — Senec.
Resides bellorum — Stat.
Sanus mentis — Plaid.
Satiatus caedis — Ovid.
Saucius faraae — Apul.
Scitus vadorum — Hor.
Secors rerum — Ter.
Secreta teporis corpora — Lucr.
Segnis occasionum — Tac.
Seri studiorum — Hor.
Similis tui — Plant.
Sinister fidei — Sil.
Solers operum — Sil.

lyrae — Hor.

Solliciti rerum.

Solutus operum — Hor.'
Spernendus morum — Tac.
Spreta vigoris — Sil.
Strenuus militiae — Tac.
Stupentes animi — Liv.
Summus severitatis — Tac.
Superior sui — Tac.
Superstes bellorum.
Surdus veritatis — Col.
Suspensus animi — Apul.
Tantus animi — Aput.
Tardus fugae-— V. Flac.
Tenella animi — Apul.
Tenuis opum — Sil.
Territus animi — Liv.
Timidus deorum — Ovid.
Trepidi rerum — Liv.
Truncus pedum — Virg.
Turbatus animi — Sil.
Turbidus animi — Tac.
Vafe r j uris- - Ovid.
Vagus animi — Catul.
Validus animi — Tac.
Vanus veri — Virg.
Vecors animi — Apid.
Venerandus senccta3-^Si7.
Versus animi — Tac.
Versutus ingenii — Plin.
Vetus regnandi — Tac.
Victus animi — Virrr,

O

Vigil armenti — Sil.
Viridissimus irae — Sil.
Unicus rerum fessarum — Sil.
Utilis medendi radix — Ovid.
Heroid. v. 147. al. medenti.

But of these many are with much more propriety referred to
other rules: such as, ahstemius, compos, impos, liber, mactc, mo-
dicus, potens, impotens, punis ; also cumidatus, cxpldus, cxsors,
exsul, extorris, foetus, frequens, gravidus, munijicus, and the like,
which are usually referred to adjectives of plenty or want.

Note 2. Many of the adjectives enumerated in the previous part
of this rule are construed variously: as, Patiens foigus, One suf-
fering cold at this moment. Patiens frigoris, A person capable of
bearing cold. Doctus gramniatic(c\OnQ aV\\\itA.'m grammar. Doc-
tus gramraaticam. One that has been taught grammar ; which he
may pcrliaps have forgotten. Doclus Laiinis Uteris, Learned in.

' Urccmrum lilcrnnim doctui—dc

182

Avidior ad rem — Ter. Avidiis in pecimiis locupldhim — Cic. Vino
cupidcc—VXdiVit. Callidiisnatum— Ovid. Adfraudem callidus~Cic.
Prudens consilio — Justin. Jurisconsult us and jurcco7isidtus— Cic.
Homines labore assiduo et quotidiano assueti— Cic. Assuetus j>rccdcs
miles — Liv. In omnia familiaria jura assuetus — Liv. Insuetuslaho-
ris — Caes. Insuetus moribus Romanis — Liv. Corpora insueta ad one-
ra portanda — Cat-. Insolitiis rerum—^aW., ad lahorcm — Caes, — — •
Anxius gloria— Liv. Sollicitus de re— Cic. Diligens in, ad, de—Cic.
Cic. Plin. Securus de bello—lAv. Negligens in aliquem — Cic, in

amicis eligeyidis — Cic. Reusmagnis criminibus — Cic. Super see-

lere suspectus — Sail. Regni crimine insons — Liv. Most of those

adjectives contained in the preceding list are construed, especially
by prose writers, in the ablative, or otherwise: as, Prccstans ingenio^
—Cic. Culturnodicus—Tac. JEgerpedibus—SsxW. Credulus aliciii

— Virg. Prqfugi ah Thebis—hiv. JEimdus, certus, incertus,

dubius, ambiguus, conscius, wauifestus, suspectus, noxius, compcrtus,
are frequently construed with the dative, but in a different sense.

Adversu's, ccqualis, affinis, alienus, blandus, communis, conter-

minus, contrarius, credulus, dispar, dissimilis,fdus,Jinitimus, par,
proprius, similis, superstes, and some others, are oftener construed
with the dative than the genitive. Superior takes generally the
ablative. Alienus takes frequently the ablative with a or ab : as,
Humani nihil a me alicnum puto — Ter. But these and innume-
rable other varieties may be safely left to observation.

Note ?. Grammarians differ a little about the nature of this go-
vernment. It may, however, be observed, that, in many instances,
the adjectives are used substantively : thus, that Amans viiiutis is
the same as Aviator virtutis. Other adjectives are supposed to be
followed by a genitive governed by such words as in re, in causa,
in negotio, understood : as, Non anxius causa sui. Reus gratia
furti.

Rule XV. Partitives, and words placed partitively, com-
paratives, superlatives, interrogatives, and some numerals,
govern the genitive plural : as,

Aliquis pJiilosophorum, Some one of the philosojihers.

Senior Jratnim, The elder of the brothers.

Doctissimus Romanorum, The most learned of the Ro-
mans.

Qjiis 7iostrum P Wliich of us ?

Una 7nusamm, One of the muses.

OctavKS sapientum. The eighth of the wise men.

Note \. That is, adjectives denoting s. part of a number govern
the genitive plural, which may be resolved into an ablative with
de, e, ex, or in, or an accusative vvith inter.

To this rule belong :
1. Partitives, whether nouns or pronouns; ulhis, nuUus, solus,
uicr, utcrquc, uicrcunque, utervis, utcrlibct, alter, alteruicr, ncider,

183

alius, align is, quidam, quispiam, quisquis, quisque, unusquisquCf
aliquot, cater, reliqiius ; to whicli are added ovmis, cunctus, and
nemo : as, Quisq/ds deorum — Ovid, Nemo mortalium — Plin. VeS'
trum utervis — Cic.

2. Words used partitively: as, Camim dcgencrcs — Plin. Nigra
lanarum — Plin. Sancte deorum — Virg. ExpcdiLi militum — Liv.
Vulgus Atheniensium — Nep.

3. Comparatives and superlatives : as, 0 major juvenum — Hor.
Villosissimus animalium lepus — Plin.

4. Interrogatives ; quis, quisnam, quisve, uter, quot, quotus, quo-
tusquisque : as, Qiiis mortalium — Sail.

5. Numerals, comprehending both cardinals and ordinals ; unus,
duo, tres, &.C.; primus, secundus, terlius, &c. ; also the partitive or
distributive, singuli ; with midti, pauci, ijlerique, medius: as, Equi-
ttim centum quinquaginta interfecti — Curt. Sapientum octavus —
Hor. Multce arborum — Cic. Qiiarum quce media est — Ovid. Si7i-
gulos vestrum — Curt.

Note 2. If the substantive be a collective noun, the genitive
singular is used: as, Prcestantissimus nostrce civitatis — Cic, i. e.
7iostror?im civium. Totius Grcecice doctisshyium — Cic, i. e. omnium
Grcccorum.

Note 3. The genitive is governed by de, e, or ex, niimero, vi'hich
is often expressed: as, Ex numero adversa^'iorum circiter sexcentis
inter fectis — C aes .

Note 4. Instead of the genitive, the ablative is often found, go-
verned by de, e, ex, or in ; or the accusative with inter or ante : as,
Umis e Stoicis — Cic. But mms put for solus governs the genitive :
as, Lampedo una ^femijiarum — Plin, Lanipedo the only woman.
Acerrimus ex sensihis — Cic. Ipse ante alios jndcherrimus omnes —
Virg. Croesus inter reges ojndentissimus — Senec. Ordinals are
often construed with a or ab : as, Tertiiis ab ^Enea. Secundus,
denoting inferior. to, governs the dative: as. Nee sunt tibi Marte
secundi — Ovid.

Note 5. The partitive is sometimes understood : as, Fies nobi-
Hum tu quoquefontium — Hor. od. 3. 13. 13. Supply imus.

Note 6. The partitive takes the gender of the sub.stantive go-
verned, when there is no other: as. Nulla sororum — Virg,, i. e.
Nulla soror e numero sororum. But if the noun governed be a col-
lective, the partitive takes the gender of the noun understood,
which the sense will determine : as, JEtutis suce doctissimus ; i. e.
doctissimus vir.

Note 7. If there be another substantive expressing the chief sub-
ject of discourse, the adjective generally takes the gender of that
substantive, and not of the following genitive: as, Indus, qui est
omnium Jluminum maximus — Cic. Sometimes the former is not e.x-
pressed : as. Quid [tu) agis dulcissime renim — Hor. Omnium re-
rum mors est cxtrcmum — Cic, i. e. ncgolium.

184.

Note 8. Sometimes the substantive of partition and the parti-
tive are put in the same case : as, Maxima pars morem hunc homi-
lies habent — Plaut. Milites, equites, and peditcs are often thus
used: as, Ex eodem exercitu pedites quindecim milUaf et equites
quinge?iti — ^Liv.

Note 9. The comparative and the superlative with the genitive
of partition are used, when the things compared are of the same
nature, class, or description: as, Dextra estfortior manuum. Pol-
lex estjortissimus digitorum. Hence there is an error in the im-
precation of the Roman — Ulfimus suorum jnoriatur, Let him die
the last of his relatives ; for it is evident, that it is improper to
speak oihim as one of his own friends or relatives. Hence also
the impropriety of Clua socer Omatius, magnormn major avorum —
Sidon. And the impropriety in English of Milton's The fairest of
her daughters Eve. In such instances, the comparative should be
used, ibllowed by a Latin ablative, or, in English, by thari: as,
Omatius major magnis avis. Fairer than her daughters Eve.

Note 10. The comparative with the genitive of partition is used
when two persons or things, or two aggregates, are compared to-
gether; the superlative, when more than two: thus, Majorjratrum
refers to two brothers : Maximusfratrum, to three or more. Ju-
niores patruvi — Liv. is spoken of in contradistinction to the aggre-
gate of the seniores. These two rules are very general, few viola-
tions of them occurring either in Latin or English.

Note 11. Uter, alter, neuter refer in like manner to two ; qtiis,
alius, nidlus, to more than two. But there are exceptions to this
observation. Uterque is also applied to two ; quisque and omnis to
more than two. But there are a few instances in which quisque
and omnis refer to two only.

Note 12. Nostrum oniS. vest rum are used after partitives ; not
nostri and vestri : as, Quam vestrum tttervis — Cic. but, in his Ora-
tions, Cicero pays no regard to this distinction.

Rule X VL Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, like-
ness or unlikeness, require the dative : as,
Ufilis bcllo. Profitable for war.

Pern/cios7is feipuhliccjc, Pernicious to the commonwealth.
Sdmilis patri.. Like his father.

Note 1. That is, adjectives signifying utility or inconvenience,
benefit or damage, pleasure or displeasure, and the like, are fol-
lowed by a dative of the object to which their qualit}"- is directed:
as, Incordmodus filio — Cic. Felix tuis — Virg. Conveniens homini —
Ovid. Color contrarius alio — Ovid. Sijacis, ut patricc sit idoneusy
utilis an-ris — Juv.

To this rule belong adjectives signifying

1. Advantage or disadvantage ; hcnignus, bonus., commodus,Je-
lix,faustus,fructuosus, prosper, salubey, ulilis ; abo calamitosiiSj,

185

damnosus, dints, exitiosus, Jimestus, incomniodus, iiiul'dis, mcdus,
iioxius, perniciosus, pestifer.

2. Pleasure or pain ; acceptus, dulcis, gratus, gratiostis, Jiicimdus,
Icetus, suavis ; also acerbus, amarus, insuavis, hijiicundus, ingratuSf
molestus, tristis.

3. Friendship or hatred ; addidus, ceqnus, amicus, hcnevolus,
hlandiis, cams, deditus, Jldus, Jidelis, lenis, viitis, pi-opitius ; also
adversus, asper, crudelis, contrarius, infensus, iiifestus, iiifidus, and
the like.

4. Perspicuity or obscurity ; apertus, certus, comperlus, conspi-
cuiis, manifcstus, notus, perspicuus ; also ambiguus, dubius, ignotus,
incertus, obscurus.

5. Propinquity ■,Jiiiiti7nus,propior,proximus,propinquus, socius,
vic'mus, qffijiis.

6. Fitness or unfitness ; aptus, appositiis, accommodatus, habilis,
idoueus, opportunus ; also ineptus, inhabiiis, &c.

7. Easiness or difficulty ;facilis, levis, obvius, pervius; also dif-
Jicdis, arduus, gravis, laboriosus, periculosus, invius. To these add
jjt'onus, prodivis, propensus, 2')romptus, paratus.

8. Equality or inequality ; ccqualis, csquccvus, par, compnr, sup-
par ; also inceqiudis, impar, dispar, discors. — Likeness or uulike-
ness ; similis, cemulus, gcminus; also dissimilis, absonus, alieniis, di-
vcrsus, discolor. ^•

9. Many compounded with con ; cognatus, communis, concolory
concors, conjinis, congruus, coiisavguitieus, consciiis, consoilaiiens,
consonus, conveniens, contenninns, contiguus, contincns (as Huic

fundo continentia qucEdam prcedia mercatur — Cic. i. e. adjoining,
or contiguous to), &c.

10. To these may be added a greet number of adjectives that
cannot be easily reduced into distinct classes : as, obnoxius, sub-

jectus, supplex, superstes, credidus, absurdas, decorus, dcfnrmis,
j'/rcesto, secundus, Sac. — To this rule might also be referred, verbals
in bilis and dus.

Note 2. Some substantives^ especially thosesignifying any affec-
tion, or advantage or disadvantage, are followed by the dative :
as, Namque erit ille mihi semper JDcus — Virg. Mat res omncsjlliis
in peccaio adjidrices — Ter. Thus also, Ad siraililudinem deo pro-
piiis accedebat humana virtus— C'lc. Cannt Italia: omni — Li\. But,
perhaps, the dative is governed bythe substantive verb, expressed
or understood, or its obsolete participle ois.

Note 3. Of the adjectives denoting friendship or hatred, or other
affection, to a person, some generally take the dative: as, offitbi-
lis, arrogans, asper, earns, diJfi.cHis, Jidelis, invisus, iralus, o(fen-
sus, suspectus. But we find also In libcros dijjicilis. — Poeta vet. ap.
Cic. Nat. Deor. iii. 29. Fidelis in Jilios — Justin. ApudmUitares
invisum esse nomcn Romanian — Liv. To the above-mentioned ad-
jectives add dexter, exitialis,fahiloqnus,Jcrus, hospilus, inJwspiius,
insociabdis, intolcrans,jucu}idus, Iwvus, morigcrnsymurtijer, odiosusy

186

placidus, propithis, scelestus, sitpplex, tranquillus, trux : as, Dexter
Pcenis deus — Sil. Senijidtjucundissimus — Nep. Soniibns esse tru'

ceni — Ovid. -Some are followed by in and an accusative : as

accrbus, anhnatus, benefioiis, gratiosus, injur iosus, libcralis,mendax,
misericors, qfficiosus, jjiiis, iwpius, proUxus, severus, sordidus, tor-
tus, vchemcns. We also find Animatus erga principem — Suet.
Ii'juriosiis ad'Oersus patrcni — Senec. Misericors adversus bonos —
Senec; with a few more varieties. Acer, cequabilis, intemperans,

iiigratiis, and a few others are found with in. Some are found

with a dative, or an accusative governed by in, erga, or adversus:
as contumax, crirninosus, durus, exitiabilis, gravis, hospitalis, im-
placabilis, inexorabilis, intolerabilis, iniqiius, scevus, Alicui or in
aliquem. Benevolus, benig7ius, molestus, Alicui or erga aliquem.
Mitis, comis, Alicui, or in, or erga aliquem. Pervicax adversus
aliquem. Crudelis in aliquem, seldom alicui. Amicus, cemnlus,
infensus, infestus, Alicui, seldom in aliquem. Gratus Alicui, or
in, erga, adversus aliquem. The noun vidgus with the preposi-
tion in, follows many of these adjectives : as gratus, ingratus, ac-
ceptus, ignotus, Sec, in vulgus. Id z« vidgus gratum esse sentimus,
— Cic.

Note 4. Affinis, shnilis^ communis, par, proprius,Jinitimus,JiduSf
conterminus, superstes, conscius, cequalis, contrarius, adversus, some-
times govern the dative and sometimes the genitive. Of these,
par, Jidus, adversus, conterminus, superstes, contrarius govern the
dative generally : conscius commonly the genitive, that is, of a
tiling, but always the dative of a person. Ajjines f acinar i — Cic.
rerum — Ter. Snmnio similis — Curt, tui — Piaut. Omni (Btati com-
vmnis — Cic. virtntum— Cic. Par delicto sit poena — Ovid, hujus —
Lucan. Propria est nobis mentis agitatio — Quinct. Oratoris jn'o-
prium — Cic. Falsa veris Jinitima — Cic. Fluvii hujus Jinitimi —
Justin. Fida sorori — Ovid. Tuijidissima — Virg, Fonii conter-
mina — Ovid. Jiigi conterminos locos— A^\x\. Mihi superstes — Ter.
dignitatis — Cic. Consciumjhcinori — Cic. Atque ego peccativellem
mihi conscius essem — Ovid. JEqualis sibi — Plin. temporum illorum
— Cic. Honestati contrariam — Cic. virtutum — Cic, Adversus
nemini — Ter. iUustrium damnum — Tac. Similis and dissimilis, it
is observed, are followed by the genitive when tliey refer to man-
ners ; and by the dative, when to shape or Jbrm. JEqualis is fol-
lowed by a genitive, when it refers to time or age : otherwise, by
a dative; but these distinctions are sometimes disregarded.

Nate 5. Alienus is construed with a genitive, or dative, or, more
frequently an ablative governed by a or ah : as, Alienum. dignitatis
— Cic. illi caiiscc — Cic. a me — Ter. The preposition is sometimes
omitted: as, Alienum nostra amicitia — Cic. Diversus is generally
construed in like manner; it does not, however, admit a genitive,
unless in a different sense.

Note 6. To adjectives governing the genitive or dative are added
amicus, Jamiliar is, cognatus, propinquus, vicinus, socius, (pmutusy
gcrmanus, inimicus, invidus, necessarius ; but when they govern the

187

former case, it will be generally found that they are used sub-
stantively.

Note 7. Some adjectives vary their construction : as Similes,
dissimiles, pares, disparcs, cequaks, communes, inter se. Thus also,
JEtate et forma hand dissim'di in dominum — Tac. Alpina corpora
habeid qtuddam simile cum nivibus suis — Flor.

Note S. Pfi?- and communis, either wither without a dative;
conseidancus and discors, only when without a dative, take an ab-
lative with cum : as, Erant ei qucedam ex his pa7-ia cum Crasso —
Cic. Quem tu parem cum liberis, regnique participerajecisti — Sail.
Locupletibns fere cum plebe communia — Cic. Illud cum adolescen-
tia esse commune — Cic, Cluod crat consentaneum cum iis Uteris —
Cic. Civitas secum discors — Liv.

Note 9. Idem among the poets sometimes governs the dative :
as, Invitum qui servat, idemfucit occidenti — Hor. In prose, it is
construed with qui, et, ac, atqne : as, Peripjatetici quondam iidem
erant qui academici — Cic. Dianam et Lunam eandem esse putant
— Cic. Animus crga te idem ac fuit — Ter. Pomarium seminarium
ad eundcm. mudum atqne oleagineum facito — Cato. In like man-
ner alius is construed with ac, atqne, and et ; and with an ablative:
as. Neve putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum — Hor. Cicero some-
times uses idem ut : as, In eadem sunt iujustitia nt si in suam rem
aliena convertant — OfF. i. 14. It is somctnnes construed with cum :
as, In eodem consilio erat cum Besso — Curt. But it is improper
to use cum, when speaking of the same object under different
names : as, Pauhis est idem cam Sanlo, since Paul and Saul are
names of the same person. Sometimes similis and par are con-
strued like idcin, that is, with ac, atque, and et.

Note 10. Certain adjectives signifying use,f.tness, and the con-
trary, are construed either with the dative, or the accusative with
ad: as, Ad nullam rem utilis — Cic. Ad civium usus liaud inutile
— Cic. But when the object is a person, the dative only is used:
thus aptus, opportunus, idilis mihi, not ad me.

Note 1 1 . Adjectives denoting motion or tendency to a thing, are
construed with the accusative and ad, rather than with the dative,
such as celer, tardus, vclox,piger, impiger, lentus,prceccps, rapulus,
segnis, declivis, incUnabilis, proclivis, promts, propcnsus ; alsoyw-
ratus, promptus, profugus : as, Pigcr ad pcenas princeps, ad prec-
mia velox — Ovid. Ad aliquem morhum j^roclirior — Cic. Ad om-
nefacinus paratus — Cic. Ad lubidincm proclive — Ter, In is some-
times used: as, Celer in piugnam — Sil.

Note 12. Propior and proximus, in imitation of their primitive,
prnpe, have either a dative, or an accusative without the preposi-
tion's being expressed : as, Quod propius vero est — Liv. Proximus
huic — Virg. Vitium propius virtuicmerat — Sail. Proximus Pom-
peium sedebam— Cic.
N ote 13. The dative, according to grammarians, is not, strictly

188

speaking, governed either by nouns, verbs, or any part of speech,
but is subjoined to a word, when acquisition, advantage, or the
reverse of these, or when destination in general is denoted.

Rule XVII. Verbals in bills and dus goxern the dative:
as,

Amandiis vel amahilis omnibus. To be beloved by all men.

Note I . That is, verbals in bilis, and future participles passive
are followed by the dative, which may be resolved into an abla-
tive governed by a or ab: as, Miiltis ille bonis flebilis occidit ;
NulliJlebHior, quam tibi, Virgili — Hor, Restat Chremes, qui mihi
exornndus est — Ter.

Note 2. Perfect participles passive are sometimes followed by
the dative: as, Dilecta sorori — Virg, Ego audita tibi put dram —
Cic. It is observed by Alvarez, that this construction is most fre-
quent with participles which assume the nature of adjectives: such
as notus, perspectus, contempbus, p)robatus, dilectus, &c. This da-
tive may likewise be resolved into the ablative with a or ab : as,
Vexati a civibus — Cic. A me amatus — Quinct. Indeed, passive
verbs themselves are often construed, especially by tne poets, with
a dative, instead of the ablative of the agent : as, Vix audior ulli
— Ov. for ab nllo.

Note 3. Johnson refers to this rule not only verbals in bilis, but
other adjectives having a passive signification, such as invius, ob-
vius,pervius, impervius, &:c.: as, Troja obvia Graiis — Virg. Nee
Cereri terra indocilis, nee inhospita Baccho — Sil. To this rule he
likewise refers Jacdis and utdis construed with the dative of a per-
son : as, Facdis rogantibus — Ovid.

Note 4. Verbals in bilis are seldom construed but with the da-
tive. The following constructions are, however, to be referred to
the ablative of instrument or cause ; Nullo jjcnetrabde telo — Ovid.
Nulla Jhrabilis ictu — Ovid. Verbals in bdis have generally a pas-
sive signification, only a few instances being found in which they
signify actively.

Note 5. Participles in dus are often followed by the ablative
with a or ab : as, Admonendnm a me — Cic.

Note 6. Perfect participles are generally followed, especially
among prose writers, by an ablative with a preposition : as. Mors
Crassi est a midtis drflcta — Cic. Proddus a socio est — Ovid. In
such examples as the last, the dative seems altogether inadmis-
sible.

Note 7. The English preposition bij is the usual sign of this
dative.

Rule XVIII. Adjectives signifying dimension govern the
accusative of measure : as,

Columna sexaginlu pedes alia, A pillar sixty feet high.

189

Note 1. Or, adjectives of dimension, such as longns, latus, eras-
sus, profundus, alius, dcnsus, are generally Ibllowed by the accu-
sative, but sometimes by the ablative or genitive, of the words de-
noting measure, such as digitus, pabmis, pes, cubitus, idna, pcissus,
stadium, milliare : as, Muris duceiws pedes altis, quinquagenoslutis
— Plin. Fossam sex cubitis altam — Liv. Latcra pedum lata tri-
cenum — Plin, Ablative and genitive together; Quidam dupoiidio
et quadrante altum sulcum, latum pedum quinquej'aciunt — Colum.
The genitive is used in the plural onl}'.

Note 2. The excess or the deficiency of measure is put in the
ablative only ' : as, Sesqiiipede est quam iu longior — Plin, Novem
pedibus rtiinoj- — Plin. Quanta doctior, tanto submissior — Cic. Su'
pcrant capite — Virg, To this note are referred the ablatives tantOy
quanta, quo, co, /loc, aliqunnto, multo,paulo, nihilo, &c., frequently
joined to comparatives, and sometimes found with superlatives
or verbs.

Note 3. Verbs of dimension, such as pateo,cresco, &c., are con-
strued like the adjectives : as, Paiettres ulnas — Virg. Out these
will be noticed hereafter, under the Distance of Place.

Note 4. The accusative is governed by ad or in understood,
but sometimes expressed ; the ablative, by a, ab, tenus, or in ;
the genitive, by ad viensuram or spatium".

Note 5. In Latin, as in English, the adjective is sometimes
changed into the substantive : as, Transtra digiti pollicis crassitu-
dine — Ca;s. in which the ablative is governed by in understood.

Rule XIX. The comparative degree governs the abla-
tive, which is resolved by qudm .• as,

iJulcior vicdlc^ Sweeter than honey.
Pncstaiitior aiiro. Better than g'old.

Note 1. That is, when qucim after a comparative is omitted, the
substantive following is put in the ablative : as", Jliyrno dulcior —
Virg. Glaciefrigidior — Ovid. i. e, qumii t/ti/tnus, quam glacies. It
is sometimes resolved b}' ac or atque : as, Amicior mihi nullus vi-
vit atque is — Plaut.

Note 2. The positive with magis or minus is sometimes followed
by the ablative : as, 0 luce magis dilecta sorori — Virg. Hoc nemo
Juit minus ineptus — Tor,

Note .S, V/hen the comparative is followed by quam, the ob-
jects compared must be put in the same case : as. Ego hominem
c.cdlidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem — Tcr, i. e. vidi. It

' Il'9 measure of excess is sometimes expressed by tantum, quantum, ali-
yuantum. See Rule XIX, AnHc 9.

'^ Tills seems an imitation of Greek construction ; thus dt'S^iai iuhxx i-n-
Xii->i xi^'^iofj staluu virilis duodccim cub'Uonim muru — Herod, The governing
substantive is sometimes expressed ; as, xura to fiiyifst il duxruKu)!, ad 7nagni-
tudinem sex palmarum-—DwA. Sic.

190

13 to be observed, that only the nominative and accusative can
be repeated after quam with the comparative ; and that if any other
case precede it, the verb sum with a nominative must be used : as,
Loquor de viro sapientiore quam tit es. Homini gratiosiori quam
On. CaUidim est — Cic. It is likev/ise to be observed, that, when
the ablative of comparison is nemo, mdlus, or the relative qui, it
is not with propriety resolved by quam.

Note 4. in such instances, quam should be used after compa-
rative adverbs ; as, Odcram hunc multo pejus quhm Clodium — Cic.

Note 5. Quam is elegantl}' put between two comparatives : as,
Triumphiis clarior quam gratior — Liv, i. e. not so acceptable as
famous ; or, more famous than acceptable.

N'jte. 6. Than before a verb is always expressed by quhm : as,
Nihil turpius est quam mentiri. And quam, between two verbs,
if the comparative be an advei'b, causes them to be put in the
same tenses : as, Nihil facia libentiils quam ad te scribo ; i. e. than
to write to you. But, after potiusquam, and sometimes after j^r/-
usqunm, the verb is put in the subjunctive.

Note 7. Nihil with a neuter comparative is sometimes used for
nemo or nidliis : as, Crasso nihil petjectius — Cic. Nihil illojiiisse
excclleidius — Nep. i. e. Nobody was. The interrogative quid,
and quidquam when it is preceded by a negative, are sometimes
thus used.

Note 8. The comparative is often followed by opinione, spe,
cpquo, solito, jiisto, dicta : as, Dicta citius — Virg. Sclito velocius
— Ovid. These ablatives are often omitted : as, Liberiiis vivebat
— Nep, i. e. cequo. In such cases the Latin comparative often
seems equivalent to an English positive preceded by too or rather,
which is a species of comparison : as, Tristior {solito). Rather
sad, and, perhaps sometimes, somewhat sad. Severior [ccqiio).
Too severe, rather severe, somewhat severe. Thus also : 072us
viribus tuis est vtajus. Too great for, or greater than.

Note 9. Several intensive particles, such as tanto, quanio, eo,
quo, &c. and tantum, quantum and aliquantum are added to com-
paratives : as, Sed quo erant suaviores, eo majorem dolorem ille ca-
sus afferebat — Cic. Ejus fratcr aliquajdum ad rem est avidior —
Ter. Sometimes the ret^ponsive particle eo or hoc is omitted ; as,
Quo plitres crant, major ccedesfuit — Liv.

Note 10. The dative is sometimes used instead of the ablative :
as, Vir nulla arte cuiquara injerior — Sail. Livy uses the ablative,
even in the presence of another ; Allobroges nulla Gnllica gente
opibus autfama injeriores. But, in general, injerior is construed
with quam and a nominative or accusative : as, Timolhe^s belli
laude non inferior fuit quam pater — Cic. Qiiem ego intelligam
prudentia non esse iiferiorem quam me — Cic.

Note 11. Magis 2lv\^ plus are sometimes used redundantly with
the comparative : as, Nihil invenics magis hoc ccrto certius — Plant.

191

Note 12. Quam i\her plus, amplius and minus is elegantly omit-
ted, in all cases but the dative and vocative: as, Capta plus qidn-
que millia hominum — Liv.

Note 13. Quampro is sometimes elegantly used after the com-
parative : as, PreBliam atrocius quam pro numero piigncmtium —
Liv. i. e. The battle was more bloody than could have been ex-
pected from the number engaged in it.

Note 14?. Comparatives, besides the ablative of comparison, take
also after them that case which their positives govern ; as, Thymo
miki dulcior Hyhlcc — Virg.

Note 15. Ths ablative of comparison is governed hy prce un-
derstood. It is sometimes expressed : as, Unus prce cccterisjbrtior
exsurgii — Apul. Other prepositions, as aiite, printer and supra,
are used in comparison : thus, Scelere ante alios immanior omnes
' — Virg.

Rule XX. These adjectives, dignus, indignus^ contentus,
prceditus, captus, and fretus ; also natus, sat us, ortus, edilus,
and the like, require the ablative : as,

Dignns honore. Worthy of honour.

Prceditus virtutc. Endued v/itli virtue.

Contentus parvo, Content with little.

Captus ocidis ', Blind.

Fretus viribiis^, Trusting to his strength.

Ortus rcgibus, Descended of kings.

Note 1. To dignus, indigmis, cofitentus, pra;ditiis, captus and
jfretus, may be added cams, vilis, and venal is ; all which are fol-
lowed by an ablative: as, Dignus laude — Hor. ConscientiaJ'retus
— Curt. Asse carum — Senec. Aura venaliajura — Propert.

Note 2. Participles signifying descent, such as genittis, genera^
tus, creatus, prognatus, cretus, &c. are followed by an ablative, the
prepositions e, ex, or de being understood, or sometimes express-
ed : as, Nate dea — Virg. Edite regihus — Hor. Ortus ex concubinn
• — Sail. — We also find Ccelesti semine oriimdi — Lucret. Oriundi
a Syracusis — Liv. These adjectives may be followed also by a,
or ab : as, Prisco natus ab Inacho — Hor.

Note 3. Dignus, indignus, and contentus are sometimes followed
by the genitive : as, Dignissimum tucc virtutis — Cic. Indignus avo-
riim — Virg. Angusfi clavi contentus — Paterc. Dignus and indig-
mis are often construed with an infinitive : as, Digna vincere —
Ovid. But Dignus est ut, or, qui vincat ; Dignus erat ut, or, qui

' Pi-(Fditiis and cnjjfus might be referred to adjectives of plenty and want.
—After dignus, inditinun, captus, a or ab seems to be understood : after con-
tentus, de or cum ; ai'tcr fretus, in; a^ttiv jira-ditus, cum; after cams, vilis and
vetialis, pro.

* Fretus with a dative is attributed to Livy : ifultitudo nulli rei, prcEUrquam
numero, freta. vi. 13. Some would read nulla re.

• 192

i)incerei\ are preferable. It is probable that the genitive is go-
verned by some substantive understood ; and that Dignus laudis
may be Digmts re landis, the substantive being governed by a
preposition likewise understood.

Rule XXI. An adjective of plenty or want governs the
genitive or ablative : as,

Plenus ircje vel ira^ Full of anger.
Inojjs rationis. Void of reason.

To this rule beloncr adiectives denoting

1. Plenty; abiaidaiis, beatus, copiosus, dives, f er ax, jeHiiis, fee. -
cundus,Jhetus,frequens,frugifer, gravis, gravidus, immodicus, lar~
giis, locuples, viactus, nimius, oneratns, onushis, ojndenius, pleuus,
refertus, satur, tentiis, distenius, tumidns, tiirgidus, uber ; to which
add, benignusjfirmus, instnictus, Icetiis, liberalis, munijlcus, para-
tiis, prod/gKs, prosper, satiaiiis, insatiabilis : as, JRes plena timoris
■ — Ovid. Domus servis estp)le7ia superbis — Juv,

2. Want ; egenus, indigus, inops,jtjuniis, iiianis, modiciis, pau-
per, sterilis, tenuis, vacuus : as, Inops consilii — Tac, verbis — Cic.

i). Privation ; captus (mentioned in the preceding rule), cassus,
expers, exsors, dissors, exsul, ext orris, immunis, irritus, mutilus,
nudus, orbus, truncus, viduus. Participation ; consors, parliceps,
and to these may be added ajjinis and prccd/tus, which have been
already noticed elsewhere. Power and inability ; compos, jiollens,
potens, impos, impotens ; — add liber, solutus, imparatus, ivjirnius,
parens, purus, many of which have been referred to other rules:
as, Immunis delicforum—Patevc. vitiis — Paterc. ConsUiorum imrtl-
ceps — Curt, ratione — Cic. Dum mei potens sum. — Liv. Potens ar-
mis — Virg. Speimetusque liber — Senec. /trrort* — Cic. Some con-
structions are not frequent ; as, Captus animi — Tac. Neque ammo
uut lingua satis compotes — Sail. Famci atquejbrtund txpertes — Sail.

Note 1 . Of these some govern, it appears,

1. The genitive only ; benignus, exsors, impos, impotens, irritus^
liberalis, viunijicus, pj-celargics,

2. The ablative only ; beatus, differtus,frugifer, mutilus, tentus,
distenius, tumidns, turgidus.

3. The genitive more frequently: compos, consors, egenus, ex-
hceres, expers, Jertilis, indigus, parcus, pauper, prodigus, sterilis,
jirosper, insatiatus, insatiabilis.

4. The ablative more frequently ; ahundans, cassus, extorris,
Jirmus, JhetuSjJ'requens, g7-avis, gravidus, jcjunus, injirmus, liber,

locuples, Icctus, nudus, oneratus, onustus, orbuSf pollens, satiatuSf
solutus, tenuis, truncus, viduus.

5. The genitive or ablative indifferently; copiosus, dives, ^ce-
cundus,Jerax, immunis, inanis, inops, largus, mactus, moAicus, tm-
modicus, nimius, opulentus, jjlenus, potens, purus, refertus, satur,
vacuus, uber.

Note 2. Copiosus, Ji)mus,pnratus, iripuralns, inops, instrvctns.

193

exlorris, orhus, ifiauper, tenuis, fcecundur,, mndlcus, parous, immunise
inaidsy liber, nudus, solutus, vacuus, potens, steruis, have often a
preposition after them : as, Locks copiosiis afrumento — Cic. Ah
equitatujirmus — Cic. Ab omni re parafus — Cic. Imparatus a pe-
cunici — Cic. Inops ab amicis — Cic. Instructus a doctrina — Cic.
Meo sum pauper in cere — Hor. Tenuis in verbis serendis — Hor.
Parens in victu, modicus in cultu — Plin. Donius liber a conspectu,
immiinis ab arbitris — Veil. Inanis a marsi/pio — Prudent. Mes-
sana ab his rebus vacua alque nuda est — Cic. Solutus a cujnditati-
bus^libera delictis — Cic. In affi'ctibus potentissimus — Quinct. Po-
tens ad ejficiendum — Quinct. in res bellicas — Liv.* Civifas ab
aquis sterilis — Apul. Extorris ab solo patrio — Liv. Orba ab opti-
matibus — Cic.

Note 3. Benignus, pros2)er, Icetus, gravis, and some others, go-
vern the dative, by Rule XVI, but in a difFei-ent sense. Those ad-
jectives that govern the genitive only have been referred by some
grammarians to Rule XIV.

Note 4?. The authorities for different constructions sliould be
properly estimated, for some are poetical; as, Liber laborum — Hor.
Vini sotnnique benignus — Hor. Abundans lactis — Virg. Tenuis
opum — Sil. Others are uncommon : as, Captus animi — Tac. and
some others already mentioned. Expcrs may be found with the
ablative, but the genitive is much more common. Pauper and
egenus do not appear to be found with the ablative.

Note 5. Neither the genitive nor the ablative is governed, strictly
speaking, by the adjectives : but the genitives are governed by re
or negotio understood, and these, as well as the other ablatives,
by tlie prepositions in, a, ab, de, or ex : thus Vacuus curarum may
be Vacuus re curarum; Vacuus curis is Vacuu sa curis.

OF VERBS.

OF EERSONAL VERBS.

Rule XXII. Suyn, when it signifies possession, property,
or duty, governs the genitive : as,

Esl regis pwiire rebelles, It belongs to the king to punish

rebels.
Insipientis est dicer e, \ / It is the property of a fool to

Non jputaram^ / \ say, I had not thought.
Militum est suo duct \ i It is the duty of soldiers to obey
parere, J \ their general.

' Potens is construed with the genitive or ablative, but in different sense?.
If we say Potens iree, we refer to the object ; if we sny Potens opibus, we refer
to the source or cause of the power.

o

194-

Nute 1. Thus also, Jcnn me Pompc'u totum esse sc'is — Cic. Ado-
lescentis est majores natu revereri — Cic. Boni pastoris est tondere
pecus — Suet.

Note 2. To this rule may be referred the following, and similar
expressions: Suadere j)riiicij)i quod opo9ieat, midti laboris {est) —
Tac. Grates persolvere dignas, Non apis est nostra; — Virg. Est hoc
GaUicce consuetudinis — Cass. Moris antiqui fuit — Plin, In all
such expressions it is evident that the genitive is governed, not by
sum, but by such words as officium, muuus, opus, negotium, resy
causa, proprium, understood. Indeed, such words are sometimes
expressed : as, Principum munus est 7-eststere levitaii multitudinis
— Cic. Sometimes the preceding word is to be repeated: as. Hoc
pecus est (pecus) Mclibcei — Virg. To the same rule may be re-
ferred a common elliptical form of writing, according to which the
participle in dus with its substantive is subjoined to the verb sum:
as, Quce res eveiietidce reipuhliccB solent esse — Cic. llegium- impe-
rium, quod initio conservandce lihertatis, et augendce reipubliccejhe-
rat — Sail. Quce postquam gloriosa modo, neque belli piatrandi cog-
novit— Liv. supply esse. This genitive is found depending upon
other verbs besides sum. Grammarians differ about the man-
ner of supplying the ellipsis in these, some supposing instrumentum
or admirdculum to be understood ; others, causa, ergo, gratia, or
ratione, with some such word as constitutus or comparatus.

Rule XXIII. These nominatives mcumj tuum, suum,
nostnim, vestrum, are excepted : as,

Tuum est id procurarc, It is your duty to manage that.

Note 1. That is, instead of mei, tui, sui, nostri, vesti-i, the ge-
nitives of the primitive pronouns, the nominative neuter of the
possessives is used, agreeing with opus, negotium, ojflcium, or the

like, understood. Certain possessive adjectives ; as, regius, Jiu-

manus, belluinus, servilis, are often used in like manner : as, Non
est mentiri mcum — Ter. Humanum est errare — Ter. Et agere et
patijbrtia Romanum est — Liv.

Note 2. li'sum be in the infinitive mood, the possessives must
be put in a different case ; and if a substantive be expressed, they
must agree with it in gender: as, Puto esse meum — Cic. H(e par-
tes fuerunt tuts — Cic. equivalent to Tuum fuit, or Tuarum partium
fuit.

Note 3. It is evident that this cannot be deemed a distinct rule.
It is the same as Rule III, an infinitive, a part of a sentence, or
some neuter noun understood, being as one of the nominatives,
and requiring the adjective following the verb to be in the neuter
gender, to which some neuter noun may be supposed understood.

Rule XXIV. Miscreor, miseresco and satago, govern the
genitive: as,

Miserere civium fuorum. Take pity on your countrymen.
Satagit rcrum suarum^ He is busy with his own a/Fairs.

195

Note I. Thus also Miserere inci — Ovid. Et generis miseresce
fttj— Stat, Irarum ct molestiarum muUebrium sataoebat — Gell.

Note2. Misereor and miseresco may be found witli a dative,
among writers of inferior authority. Miseror governs the accu-
sative.

Note 3. The genitive does not appear to be governed by the
verb. Some consider such constructions as Grjeclsms ; others
thinlc that the genitive is governed by negotio, re, causa, or the
like, understood, with the prepositions in, de, or a.

Note 4. Many other verbs denoting some affection of the mind

are followed by a genitive : as, ango, decipior, desipio, discrucior,

fallo,fallor,fastidio, invideo, Icotor, miror, pendeo,studeo, vereor :

thus, Absurdejacis qui angas tc animi — Plaut. Discrucior cnimi

— Ter. Fallebar sermonis — Plaut. Lcetor malorum — Virg.

Note 5. Many others are found witli the genitive, in imitation
of Greek construction: as, abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, regno ;
also, adipiscor, condico, credo, frustror, furo, laudo, Ubcro, levo,
participo, prokibeo: thus, Abstinelo irarum — Hor. Desine quere-
larum — Hor. Te7n2ms desisterc pugncc — Virg. Daunus agrestium _
regnavit populorum — Hor. Domination is adipisceretur — Tac. Le-
vas me laborum — Plaut. &c. The ellipsis in these constructions,
and in those contained in the preceding note, is variously supplied :
thus, Discrucior animi, sc. dolore. Regnavit pioimlorum, sc. in cce-
tu. Levas laborum, sc. onere, &c.

Note G. The verbs contained in Note 4 are more commonly
construed thus ; angor, desipio, discrucior, Jailor, animo. Angi de
aliquo, Angere aliquem, and Fallit me animus, are used by Cicero.
Hoc animwn excruciat. Fastidio, miror, vereor, aliquem vel ali'
quid. Lcetor aliqua re. Cicero uses Lcetor in re aliqua, de hac
re, and Lcetor utruntque. Livideo alicui laudes, vel laudibus ali~
cujus. Pcndeo animi vel animo ; but Pendemus animis, not ani-
morum. Studeo alicui, vel aliquid. Likewise, In id solum student
— Quinct.

Note 7. The examples contained in Note 5 are chiefly poetical.
It is macli better to say Abstineo maledictis or a malcdictis. Desino
aliquid or ab aliquo. Desisto incepto, de negotio, ab ilia mente.
Regnarc omnibus oppidis — Cic. in being understood, Adipisci ali-
quid. Levare aliquem sollicitudine, or alicujus sollicitudinem, &c.

_ Rule XXV. Est taken for habco (to have) takes the da-
tive of a person : as,

Est mihi liber, I have a book.

Sunt mihi lihri, I have books.

Note \. Thus also, Est mihi pater — Virg. 8unt nobis milia
poma — Virg. i. e. Ego habco patrem : — Nos habcmus milia poma,
the English accusative becoming in Latin the nominative to the

0 2

196

third person singular or plural o^ sum, or the accusative before its
infinitive ; and the English nominative being turned into a dative.
Note 2. To this rule may be added suppetit, suppcdiUit used in
a neuter sense, and Jljret ; and the verbs of a contrary significa-
tion, deest, deforet, and defit, used for ca7-eo or nan hcibeo : as, Pau-
per enim non est, cui reruni suppetit usus — Hor. Publio neque ani-
mus in per/culis, neque oratiu suppeditavit — Tac. But in this ex-
ample perhaps a reciprocal pronoun is understood ; for suppedito,
as an active verb, goveims the accusative, and as a verb of giving,
the dative likewise'. Si mihi cauda foret — Mart. Defuit ars vobis
— Ovid. Non defore Arsacidis virtutein — Tac. Lac mihi non dejit
— Virg.

Note S. The dative is often understood: as, Sit spes fallendi,
iuiscehis sacra prqfanis — Hor., i. e. tibi.

Rule XXVI. Sum used for ajfero (to bring) takes two

datives, the one of a person, and the other of a thhig-: as,

Est mihi voluptati, It is {or it brings) a pleasure to me.

Note 1. Or, Sum taken for affero, (into which, however, it can-
not always be resolved, when followed by two datives, )ybr(?w, do,
ducoy liabeo, tribuo, rcliuquo, vcrto, to which may be added appono,
assigno, cedo, comparo,2)atco, suppedito, venio, eo, curro, projiciscor,
are found with two datives, the one generally of a person, or of
something personified, and the other of a thing : as, Vitis arbori-
bus decori est — Virg. Sibi enim fore ccetera curce — Ovid. Matri
jmellam dono dedit — Ter. Tu nunc tibi id laudi ducis — Ter. JJtrum
studione id sibi habeat, an laudi piutat fore — Ter. Quod illi tribueba-
tur ignavice — Cic. Ea relicta est huic arrhaboni — Ter. Hoc verto

tibi vitio — Plaut. PostuJare id graticc apponi sibi — Ter. Sub-

sidio mihi diligentium. comparavi — Cic, Pateant Carthaginis arces
Ilospitio Teucris — Virg. Si illi pergo suppeditare smnptibus — Ter.
Maturavit collegce venire auxilio — Liv. Also, Venire, ire, currere^
projicisci subsidio alicui — Cic. To these are added by the au-
thor of the Port Royal Grammar «i//o, and, by other grammarians,
mitto. But Ruddiman observes mat puto is never followed by two
datives, unless when esse ox fore is expressed or understood^ which
of course is considered as the governing word. It further appears
to me, that the two datives which follow several of the above-men-
tioned verbs may perhaps be governed by sum understood, and
that, e. g. Numidas subsidio oppidanis mitlit — Caes. may be, Nu-
midas (ut sint, or qui sint) subsidio oppidanis mittit. But this is a
conjecture. The following example, in which, by a Greek form
of nmch elegance, the participle volenti is used instead of the sub-
stantive voluptati, maj seem to sanction the opinion that puto is
followed by two datives : Neque plebi militia volenti jmtabatur —

' It likewise governs two datives, as will be noticed in the next rule.
^ It has been conjectured, that tliis Dative is an old form of the ablative,
Tovexned by pro uw^ " V or exoressing cause or instrument.

197

Sail. But here the infinitive of sum is understood. To this

rule may perhaps be referred the elegant phrase, Esse audientcm
dido alicui. Si p'/cetori dido nan audiens essd — Liv.

Note 2. The English of those passages, in which this Rule takes
place, would naturally refer thera to Rule III, or X, and, indeed,
they may be so rendered : as, Ipse caterisj'uisset exemplum — Curt.
Amor exitium est pccori — Virg. in which the substantive following
the verb, and expressing the thing, is put in the same case with
the word going before, the dative of the person being under the
government of the noun or verb immediately preceding. But, as
the latter nominative is followed by a noun having in English the
sign of the Latin dative, both the nouns following the verb are ele-
gantly put in the dative : as. Hie multisfuit exemplo — Curt. Thus
also, jEthiopicislaus datur — Plin. and, elegantly, Metello laudi da-
tum est — Cic. Sometimes both the nouns significant of one and
the same subject follow the verb : as. He sends up the cohorts to
assist (as an assistance to) the cavalry, Suhmittit coJwrtes cquitibus
subsidio — Caes. in which cohortes and suhsidio refer to the same
thing. Thus likewise Dare dono and donum ; Relinqucre rcgnum
prcedcB and prcedam. Other forms are sometimes used : as, Ad
laudem vertere. In crimen vertere. In gloria ducere, &c.

Note 3. To this rule are sometimes referred such forms of
naming as the following, in which the nominative, the genitive,
and dative are used ' ; Nominative, Mihi nomen est Sosia — Plaut.
Fons, cui nomen Arethusa est — Cic. Genitive, Nomen Mercurii
est mihi — Plaut. Dative, Nomen Arduro est mihi — Plaut. Asca-
nius, cui nunc cognomen lulo additur — Virg. The following ex-
pressions may likewise be added: Esse cordi, usiii, dcrisui, prcrdcPy
ludihrio, sc. alicui. Habere cur(E, quastui, sc sibi. Cancre rereptiii,
sc. militibus. Indeed, the dative of the person is frequently omitted:
thus also, Exemplo est magni formica laboris — Hor. i. e. nobis or
omnibus. Reliquit jngnori putamina — Plaut. i. e. viihi.

Rule XXVII. A verb signifying advantage or disad-
vantage requires tlie dative : as,

Fortunafavet fortibus, Fortune favours the brave.
Nemini noceas. Do liurt to no one.

Note I. Or, most verbs used acquisitively, of which, in English,
the usual signs, either expressed or understood, are to and for,
are followed by the dative : as, Tibi arns, libi occas, iibi seris, iibi
eidem et metis — Plaut. Mihi quidem Scipio vivit, vivctque semper —
Cic. This is a rule of very great exte«t ; but, in a more par-
ticular manner, are referred to it, verbs signifying,

1. To profit or hurt; as projicio, placeo, commodo, prospicio, ca-
veo, metuo, timeo, consulo, (to provide for or against); also, noceo,

' The genitive is seldom used ; the dative is esteemed the most elegant ;
thus also P. Scipio^ cui jioMcd Afriauin cop^iwnwnfnil — Sail. No example be-
longs to the rule, in Avhich thcic are not two datives.

198

officio, incommodo, displiceo, insidior: thus, Neve mihi noceat, quod
vobis semper, Achivi, Profuit ingeniuvi — Ovid.

2. To favour or help, and the contrary; as faveo, gratulor, gra-
tificor, grator, ignosco, indulgco, parco, studeo, adulor,plaudo, hlan-
dior, lenocinor, palpor, assentor, suppilico, suhparasitor ; also, aux'
ilior, adminiculor, subvenio, succurro, pialrocinor, medeor, medicoVf
opitulor ; also, derogo, detraho, invideo, cemulor ; thus, Favete inno-
centicE — Cic. Succmrerc communi saluti — Cic.

3. To command, obey, serve, and resist ; as impero, preecijno,
mnjido, moderor (to restrain); also, pareo, auscuUo, obcdio, obse-
quor, obtempero, morigeror, obsccundo ; a\so, /(nnulor, servio, inser-
vio, ministro, ancillor; and repugno, obsto, rcluctor, renitor, resisto,
refragor, adversor, and, poetically, pugno, certo, bcllo, contendo,
concuTTO, ludor; thus, Imperare anhno nequivi, quin — Liv. Pug-
nabis amori ? — Virg.

4. To threaten, or be angry with ; as minor, comminor, inter-
minor, irascor, succenseo; thus Mihi minabatur — Cic.

5. To trust ; a&Jido, conjido, credo ; also diffido, despero : thus,
Vlli reifdere — Liv. Desperare saluti — Cic.

6. A great number of other verbs that are not easily reduced
to distinct classes ; such as nubo, excello, hocreo, supplico, cedo\
operor, prasfolor, pnEvaricor, recipio (to promise), ffpigi (1 have
promised ),re«w«C2o (to give over), respondeo (to satisfy ), ^empero
(to abstain), vaco (to study, or attend to), convicior, &c.

7. The compounds of sum, except possum : as, Nee sibi, nee
alteri prosunt — Cic. Vir abest mihi — Ovid.

8. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, male : as, Pulchrum est
benefacerc reipublicce — Sail.

9. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
prcB, sub, super.

Ad ; as accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnata, ad-
equito, adhaereo, adsto, adstipulor, advokor, ajfulgeo, allabor, an-
nuo, appareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior,
assideo, assisto, assuesco, assurgo : thus, Annue cceptis—Vivg.

Ante; as anteccllo, anteeo, antesto, anteverto: thus, Antecellerc
omnibus — Cic.

Con; as colludo, concino, consoyio, convive: thus, Paribus coll u-
dere — Hor.

In ; as incumbo, indormio, inhio, ingemisco, inhcereo, innascor,
innitor, insideo, insto, insisto, insiido, insulto, invigilo, illacrymo,
illudo, imminco, immorior, immoror, impendeo ; thus, Imviinet his
o'er — Ovid.

> Cedo put for locum dare governs the dative. When an accusative is joined
to it, as in Ccdere locum alicui, Perizonius is of opinion, that this accusative is
governed by f/uod ad understood, since cedo is a neuter verb. Its usual con-
struction is with the ablative : as, Pusiquam Tusculand villa crcditoribus cesscrat
—Suet. 111. Gramm. Ccdere se illi regno profitetur— Justin. A'lsi sibi horloruin
jwssessione ccssissel — Cic. The preposition de, which in these instances is un-
derstood, is expressed in others : as, Cedo de rcpublicu, dc forlund, de dii^nitate
—Cic. We also find, Cedere ab oj'pido, ex civitalc, &c.

199

Inter; as inter vetiio, intermico, intercedo, inlercido, interjaceo ;
thus, Not prcclio inlervenit — Liv.

Ob ; as ohrepo, obluctor, obtrecto, obslrepo, olmurmuro, cecum,'
bo, occurro, occurso, obsto, obsisto, obvsnio : thug, Occumbere morti
— Virg.

Prse; as prcecedo, prcecurro, pnveo, prcesideo, prceluceo, prceni-
teo, prcesto, prcevaleo, prcevertor : thus, Majoribus prceluxi — Cic.

Sub ; as succedo, succumlo, siifficio, suff'ragnr, subcresco, suloleo,
subjaceo, subrepo : thus, Miseris succurrere — Virg.

Super; as supervenio, supercurro, super st o : thus, Timidis super-
venit—Yivg. But most verbs compounded with super govern the
accusative, through the preposition: as, Deas supereminet omnes
— Virg. Supervenio also governs the accusative, but in a sense
somewhat different from that in the preceding example : as, Crura
loquentis Terra supervenil — Ovid. In the former example, it seems
to denote she comes to the assistance of: in the latter, the earth
simply came over. Supersedeo is sometimes joined with the dative :
as, Adversarios pugnce supersedere animadver tit — Hirt. B. Afr. but
oftener the ablative : as, Supersedeas hoc labore — Cic. In these
instances its meaning seems to be to omit or leave off; it is found
also with an accusative, in its literal acceptation of silting uportt
but even in this sense, the dative, or perhaps rather the ablative,
is more common.

A few verbs might be added, compounded of a^-, de, ex, circum,
, contra j but these generally take the case of the preposition.

EXCEPTIONS.

JubeOf offendo, Icedo, juvo, delecto, guberno, govern the accusa-
tive : as, Dextraque silentia jussit — Lucan. But the accusative
following j?«Z'eo is generally supposed to depend upon some infini-
tive understood, such as facere, fieri, esse or dari.' --It is gene-
Z'ally found with the accusative and the infinitive ; sometimes with
a dative and the infinitive; and seldom with an accusative and da-
tive together: thus, Fuscum salverejubemus — Hor. Htv mihi litirce
Dolabellce jubtnt ad pristinas cogitationes reverti — Cic. Pacem
jubebo omnibus — Stat. But, as this verb is used in the passive
voice, not merely impersonally, but after the manner of active
verbs, whose accusatives then become nominatives, it may be ob-
served, that its proper and regular government in the active, is the
accusative. Ivipero, a verb of like signification with jufco, is
followed by an accusative of the thing demanded: as, Imperare
tributum, pecuniam, arma, equites, which some grammarians, con-
ceiving zm/>ero to be neuter, consider as dependent upon dart, proc-
beri, or the like, understood. By others, however, it is regarded
as active, governing of itself the accusative, and having a regular
passive voice, the accusative becoming the nominative to the verb:
as, Imperatuni pudicitia — Just. Imperatce pecunia — Caes. Naves
imperatce sunt — Curt, Obsidibus imperalis — Ca!S. Illi se, qua; ini'
perarentur, facere dixerunt—Cscs. Indeed, it appears that it once

200

admitted an accusative, of the person commanded, as we find Ego
imperor — Hor. Epist. 1, 5, 21, instead oi wihi imperatur. In re-
gard to the construction of this verb, I am decidedly of opinion,
that there is no ellipsis, but that it is followed by the dative of the
person commanded, and governs the accusative of whatever is
commanded or demanded, which last case becomes the nominative
to the passive voice: thus, Equites imperare dvilatihus — Caes. Nup-
tias imperare alicui — Quinct. Suis, ut idemjaciant, imperat — Cses.
in which the words ut idem faciant supply the place of the accusa-
tive of the thing commanded. Malo imperari fjuam eripi mortem
mihi — Senec. In such expressions as Equitatum procedere imperat
— Ca:s. equitatum expresses neither the persons commanded, nor
the command itself, but the words equitatum procedere, taken to-
gether, stand for an accusative expressing the thing commanded.
Ego imperor for miki imperatur is entirelj'^ poetical. The govern-
ment of the other five has never been a subject of doubt : thus,
Ciir amicum oJJ'endam- in nugis — Hor. Also, Offendere aliquem, or
aliquia, for to find; in re aliqud, for to transgress. Injuste neni'
7iem liesit — Cic. Juvit facundia causam — Ovid. Litris me delecto
— Cic. Omnia gubernes — Cic.

N'ote 2. The greater part of the verbs hitherto mentioned as
governing the dative are neuter. Many active verbs govern a da-
tive with the accusative, as will be hereafter noticed. It is likewise
to be observed that the greater part of the verbs compounded
witli ad, ante, con. Sec. do not govern the dative: such as accolo,
antegredior, ineo, invado, inlercurso, oppugno, obsideo, poitvenio,
prcevenio, subsilio, supernato, &c. ; and, that, besides those which
have been mentioned, there are many, signifj'ing profit, assist-
ance, favour, and the contrary, which are construed with the ac-
cusative, or otherwise ; such as levo, erigo, alo, nutria, avw, diligo,
vcxo, crucio, aversor, &c.

Note 3. Many of the verbs which have been enumerated as be-
longing to this rule, are found differently construed, while their
signification remains the same; and many vary their meaning; of
both which, lists will be given at the end of tlie Syntax.

Note 4. To this rule are referred many verbs which, among the
poets chiefly, are construed with a dative, after the manner of the
Greeks, but which are commonly found with the ablative and a
preposition, according to Latin construction ; as verbs of

1. Contending; contendo, cerlo, hello, luctor, pugno alicui fov
cum aiujuo. Solus tibi certet Amynlas — Virg. We also find Con.
iendere contra or adversus aliquetn — Cic. Certare inter se — Cic.
Pugnare contra or adversus — Quinct. Plin. inter se — Curt, in ali-
quem— Liv.

2. Differing ; as distare, dissentire, discrepare, dissidere, difftrre
rei alicui, for a re aliqud. Paulum sepultce distal inertice Celata
virtus — Hor. We also find distant, dissentiunt, discrepant, dissi-
dent, differunt inter 5e— -Cic. Distare meta — -Ovid, Dissentire, dis-

201

sidere cum aliquo — Cic. Differt inter opinionem meam et tuatn —
Cic.

3. Coming together, and mixing; as coeo, concurro, conmmlo,
mhceo: thus, Placidis coeant immitia — Hor. Concurrere hosti —
Ovid. Concubuisse decs — Propert. Misia Deo mulier — Virg. in-
stead of cum placidis, cum hoste, Sec. We also find Coire, concur-
rere, inter se — Virg. and Liv. Aliscere vinum aquce, or cum aqua,
or nqud, &c.

4*. Keeping or driving away ; as Arcelis gravida pecori — Virg.
Solstitium pecori defendite — Virg. But these belong to verbs of
taking away, which govern two cases, and will be hereafter no-
ticed.

5. Passive verbs : as Non intelligor ulli — Ovid, for ab ullo. Ne-
que cernitur ulli — Virg.

Natl 5. Verbs of calling, or exhorting ; as voco, hortor, invito,
provoco, lacesso, animo, stimulo, with specto, pertineo, attineo, con-
formo, and some other verbs denoting tendency to motion, are
followed by an accusative with ad : thus, Eurum ad se vocat — Virg.
Ad coenam hominem invitavit — Cic. Ad arma res spectant — Cic.
Provocdsse ud pugnam — Cic. Me conformo ad ejus voluntatem —
Cic. &c.

Note 6. Verbs of local motion ; as eo, vado, curro, propero,fes-
tino, pergo,fugio; a\so port Oyfero, lego, -as, prcecipito, tollo, iraho,
duco, verto, &c. and hicito, suscito, tcndo, vergo, inclino, and the
like, are followed by an accusative with ad or in : as, In jus nun-
quamiit — Nep. Vergimur in senium — Stat. Vergit adseptemtriones

— Cses. But the poets sometimes use a dative : as. It clamor

ceelo — Virg. Inferret deos Latio — Virg. The verb propinquo is
generally construed with the dative : as, Propinquare caslris, fori-
lus, scopulo — Virg. campis, littori, &c. — Tacit. Sallust write^
Propinquare amnem ; in which, ocJ may perhaps be understood.
It is found however with an accusative, but in an active sense: as
Tu rite propinques augurium — Virg. Mortem licet arma propin-
quent — Sil.

Note 7. Verbs compounded with ad are variously construed.
Some generally govern the dative only ; as assideo, assurgo, ad-

versor, alicui. Plautus uses Adversarindversus sententiam Some

generally have an accusative with ad or in; as accio, accurro, ad-

horlor, advoco, allicio, alligo, attraho, &c. Some have either

construction ; as accedo, accido, adhceresco, adrepo, ajjiuo : also ac-
cingo, accommodo, addo, adjero, adhibeo, adjicio, ojfigo, allido, oppono,
adnato, adsto, advigilo, alludo, aspirn, &c. several of which, being
active verbs, have an accusative with a dative, as will be hereafter
noticed — Some, the accusative, without the preposition's being
repeated; as advehor, ajjor, alloquor, alluo, attono — Some, the
accusative with or without a preposition ; as, adeo, adveho, adven-
to, aggredior, ascendo, aspicio — Some, the dative, or the accusa-
tive without a preposition ; as adequito, adjacco, adno, adstrepo,

202

adsullo — Some, the dative, or the accusative with or without a
preposition; as Advolvi genilms, genua, ad genua. Thus also ac-
cedo, advenio, advolo, allabor, appropinquo, for which see the lists.

Note 8. The verb occurro, signifying to come together, or run,
is frequently followed by ad : as, ^d consilium occurrere — Liv.
but it is generally followed by the dative : and it has been ob-
served, that, when it signifies to meet, it is not used in the first
person singular, but chat the English objective case is turned, in
Latin, into the nominative, and the nominative into the dative :
as, Meus pater viihi occurrit, I met niy father.

Note 9. Even verbs governing two cases have a dative, by this
rule : as, Accuso te illi, as well as apud ilium, or coram illo, magni
sceleris, or de magJio scelere.

Note 10. When the passive form of an English verb is to be
expressed by a Latin neuter, or deponent, the phrase must be
varied : thus, I was favoured by fortune, Fortuna inihi favelat.
A master ought to be loved and respected by his scholars, Dis-
cipuH debent amare et revereri prceceptorem. Thus also, the neu-
ter may be used in the passive voice, but impersonally ; as I am
favoured, Mihifavetur.

Rule XXVIIL A verb signifying actively* governs the
accusative: as,

Ama Dciim, Love God.

Reverere j^arcntes, Reverence your parents.

Note 1. That is, verbs transitive, whether they be active, de-
ponent, or common, govern an accusative of the object to which
their energy passes : as, Animum rege — Hor. Agrum depopulatus
est — Liv. Imprimis venerare Decs — Virg.

Note 2. Sometimes thei'e is an ellipsis of the governing verb :
as, Ciuid multa ? — Cic. i. e. dicam or loquar.

Note 3. The accusative is frequently understood : as. Solus
Sannio servat domi — Ter. i. e. res qucB sunt domi, or res domcsticas.

' That all verbs whose signification is active and extends to an object, do not
govern the accusative, may be seen by a slight examination of the preceding
rule. Tliere is the same kind of action and of communication of action in nocco
as in leedo ; and yet we say Koceo tibi, and Lcvdo te. We may also say Tu
laderi'i, in which tlie pronoun following tlie active voice, becomes the nomina-
tive ; but we cannot say Tu noceris, (but nocctur tibi,) because noceo, though a
verb of an active signification, is considered in regard to government as neuter.
I am aware, that, in the dictionaries, nocco is denominated active, in reference
both to its signification and government ; and that there are a few instances in
which it seems to be used passively ; but, its true syntactical character is neuter,
and, as such, it cannot be used passively, but in the third person singular, and
that impersonally, the object of its active signification still remaining in the
dative, instead of becoming a nominative, as happens after the passive tenses
of active transitive verbs. It is needless to observe, that such active intransi-
tive verbs as co, venio, cvrro, &c. signify actively ; but, that, as their action is
limited to the subject or agent, they are necessaiily precluded from governing
an accusative.

203

Cumjaciam vitula — Virg. i. e. sacra. Nox prcecipital — Virg. i, e.
se. Eo lavatum — Hor. i. e. me. The accusative of the pronoun
is frequently understood to many verbs, which, on this account,
have been named absolute, or have been, without sufficient rea-
son, considered as intransitive ; such as abstineo, celero, declino,
and many others, which will be noticed, at the end of Syntax,
after the list of verbs construed actively andncuterly '.

Note 4. The infinitive, or a sentence, sometimes supplies the
place of the accusative : as, Reddes du/cc loqui — Hor. i. e. dulcem
sermonem. Feci e servo libertus ut esses mi/ti — Ter. i. e. te l/'ber-
tu7n. Vereor ne a doctis reprehendar — Cic. i. e. doctorum repre-
hensio7iem.

Note 5. Some active verbs are variously construed : as, Colere,
incolerc, hahitare locum, and in loco ; Confiten crimen , and de cri-
niine — Cic. Intueri aliquem, and in aliqucm — Cic. Rcspicere, spec-
tare, visere, revisere aliquem, and ad aliquem. Declinare locum,
and a loco. In some of these constructions, the active verb either
imitates the nature of the neuter verb, or has se, or some similar
word, understood to it.

OF NEUTER OR ABSOLUTE VERBS.

Note 6. Neuter verbs admit after them an accusative of their
own or a kindred signification : as, Vitam vivere — Plaut. Fu'
rerefurorem — Virg. Noxam nocucrunt — Liv. Servitidem serviat —
Plaut. This phraseology seems of Greek origin, for the last ex-
ample is equivalent to the Greek EsXiusiv SsXbIxv. It is also com-
mon in English : as, to live a life. Thus also, Ire viam. — Virg,
Somnum humanum quievi — Apul. When taken in a metaphorical
or active sense, they have sometimes an accusative : as, Corydon
ardcbat Alexin — Virg. i. e. ardenter vel vehementer amabat. Nee
vox hominem sonat— Virg. i. e. nor does the voice bespeak or show
the person to be the man. Thus also ; Old hircum — Hor. Abo-
lere macidam — Justin. Morientem nomine clamat — 'Virg. Omnes
una maiiet nox — Hor. i. e. awaits.

Note 7. Instead of the foregoing accusatives, an ablative is fre-
quently subjoined : as, Ire noslris ilineribiis — Cic. Morlc ohiit
repcntina. Ludcre aled — Hor. These are governed by a prepo-
sition understood.

Note 8. The poets use the neuter gender of adjectives, either

' The accusative after ccrhiin active verbs, generally when they arc used in
Bome figurative sense, is governed, not by the verb, but by some preposition
understood, the accusative which is the real object of the vcrl), being under-
stood; thus Fcrirc, icere, percutere Jaedus, is put for Ferirc, iccrc, Sec. porciim
ad saitciendum fixdus. Conscrerc prcclhtm, for Conscrcre maniivi ad ]»vrliu»i
faciendum. Flaiigcrefmicra, damna, for I'langerc lucerlos or pectus (td funeral
ad damna. In English, too, we say, To strike a bargain ; but there is liltlo
doubt, that, here, the bargain is not the real object of the action contained in
the verb strike, but that this is, in some w;iy, or from some custom, an indica~
tion of a bargain's being agreed upon.

204.

singular or plural, adverbially or instead of adverbs : as^ Torvum
repcnte damnf—Y'irg. for torve. Et pede terram Crehra ferit—
Virg. for crehro. This use of the neuter gender after neuter
verbs or their participles is almost peculiar to the poets ; but Ta-
citus writes, Tiberius tnrvus aut falsum rcnidens vulfu — Ann. iv.
60. 3. The following from Horace is quoted as an instance of a
neuter gender used adverbially after the participle of a verb hav-
ing an active signification ; Laln^en amaho dulce loquentem ; i. e.
sweetly ; in which, however, dulce, having some substantive un-
derstood to it, may, perhaps, be governed by loquentem ; but
this renders the meaning somewhat different from what it is if
dulce be considered as used for dulciter, and as qualifying the
participle.

Note 9. The accusatives hoc, id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil,
idem, illud, tantuni, quantum, multa, jjauca, alia, ccetera, omnia,
are often subjoined to neuter verbs, circa, oh, propter, ov secundum
(or Kxrd) being understood : as, Num id lacrumat virgo? — Ter.
Scio quid erres — Plaut, Quicquid delirant rcges, plcctuntur Achi-
i;i— Hor. Illud cave dubites — Cic. Other accusatives may be found
after such verbs as abnuo,fastidio, horrco, ardeo, caleo, tepco, la-
tro, sibilo, palleo, paveo, tremo, trepido, pereo, depiereo, doleo,gemo,
Jlco, p)loro, lacrymo, ambulo, currn, eo, proccdo, vado, venio,juro,
vigilo, dormio, nato, navigo, equito, &c. but they are governed by
some preposition understood. Such constructions as the follow-
ing are to be referred to the licentia poetica, or to an imitation of
it : Via ambulatur, riavigatur marc, Bellum hoc tibi milUabilur — ■
Hor. Pugnd pugnatd — Cic. Dormitur hyems — Mart. Vivitur
cetas '—-Ovid, &c.

Note 10. Certain verbs, which in their simple form are intransi-
tive, govern an accusative, through the preposition with which
they are compounded : as, Adeo patrem ; Villam prcetereo — Ter.
Flumcn prcetojluit mu7-os—'L'\v. Evaditque celer rij^am irremeabi-
lis undce — Virg. Excedcre modum. It is true that e and ex go-
vern the ablative ; but it is supposed that they are put for extra :
as prce, which also governs the ablative, is for propter, in Volucrem
Jugd prcevertitur Hebrum — Virg. Vado likewise, when compound-
ed with in, becomes transitive : as, Vitam hominum invasissc —
Cic. Cicero has also repeated the preposition : as, In multas pc-

cunias invasit. Various verbs of motion are influenced in like

manner". In all the preceding remarks concerning the accu-
sative, it is a fundamental rule, that every accusative must be go^
verned by a transitive verb, or a verb used transitively, or by a
])reposition, if not expressed, at least, understood. The same
remark is applicable to adjectives, or participles, in regard to an

' In Sec! maximatn pnrtC7n tacte atque pecore vivunt — Cccs. there is evidently
an ellipsis of quod ad, or xaTa.

- A similar thing occurs in English ; as go, intransitive ; undergo, transitive;
come, intransitive; uvc>-C07ne, transitive, &c.

205

ellipsis of a preposition in such constructions as Crinem soluta-^
Virg. i. e. secundum. Humeros amictus —lior. i. e. circa.

Rule XXIX. Mecordor, memiiii, retniniscor, and ohlivis-
cor, govern the accusative or genitive : as,

Recordor lectionem vel Icctioiiis, I remember the lesson.
Obliviscor iiijiuiam vel iiijurue, I forget an injury.

Note 1. That is, the above-mentioned verbs, denoting remem-
brance diuA for getfulness, are followed by a genitive or an accusa-
tive: as, Meminisse laborum — Virg. Numeros meininl — Virg. iVfe-
mincram, Paullum — Cic. Although it be evident by the last quo-
tation, that memini may govern the accusative of the person,
contrary to the opinion of Vossius, who, in his smaller grammar,
asserts, that we can say only Memini Ciceronis, uot Ciccronem ;
yet it is better to say Memento mei, nostri, than me, nos ; and
also Oblitus ne sis nostri, than nos. ObUvisci injurias — Cic. Est
proprium stullitice aliorum vitia cernere, ohlivisci suoruni — Cic. &c.

Note 2. Memini, when it signifies to make mention, is followed
by a genitive, or de : as, Neque omnino hi/Jus rei usquam meminit
poeta — Quinct, AcJtiUas, euj us supra meminimus — Caes. De qui-

bus multi meminerunt — Quinct.' •Recordor, when it signifies to

make mention, is, perhaps, construed with an accusative only : as,
Externa libentiics in tali re, quam domestica recordor — Cic.

Note 3. Recordor and memini, denoting memoria teneo (I re-
member), are sometimes construed with de : as, Tu si meliore
memorii} es, velim scire ecquid de te recordere — Cic. De Planco
memini — Cic.

Note 4. The phrase Venit mihi in inentem, denoting remember-
ing, is variously construed : as, Venit milii in mcntem hac res,
hujus rei, de hac re. Mild veniehat in mentem ejus incommodum-—
Ter. Mihi solet venire in mentem iilius temjioris — Cic, In mentem
venit de speculo — Plant.

Note 5. All these may be construed with the infinitive or a
part of the sentence, instead of the respective cases : as, Virgi-
nem memini videre — Ter, Memini Antiochum sententid destitisse —
Cic. Nee venit in mentem quorum conscderis arvis — Virg. Or with
an ablative with or without a preposition : as, Si cum animis ves-
tris recordari C. Staleni vitam et naturam volueritis — Cic. Facile
memoria memini — Plaut.

Note 6, The nature of this construction is variously explained
by grammarians. Some contend, that, when recordor, viemini,
and reminiscor are followed by a genitive, this is governed by me-
moriam or recordalionem understood ; and that to Fefiit in men-
tein, memoria or recordatio is understood. Others contend that
quod ad negotium, or in negolio, is understood to all. In regard
to the accusative, they say, that, as these verbs are neuter, ( Pe-
rizonius is inchned to let memini pass as active, in certain expres-

206

sions, ) this case must be governed by ad, quod ad, v.xroL under-
stood. It has been doubted by some, whether the correspond-
ing English verbs, I forget, I rememler, with many others de-
noting mental operations, as / hear, I see, I feel, I understand, be
active transitive verbs or not. This may be more a metaphysi-
cal than a grammatical question. That these verbs admit an ac-
cusative after them in Latin, English, and in other languages, is
well ascertained ; and, therefore, although in all of these ope-
rations the mind may not be active, but passive, and it may be
difficult to point out what passes from the agent to the object j
yet, in a grammatical point of view, there can be little impro-
priety in considering them as active transitive, and in asserting
that the accusative following them is governed by them. In
speaking of such English verbs, it is observed by Dr. Crombie,
(Etymol. and Synt. of the Eng. Lang. 2d Ed. p. 118,) that, if
the point in question be metaphysically considered, it would be
easy to demonstrate, that, though in sensation the mind be pas-
sive, in perception it is active.

ACTIVE VERBS GOVERNING ANOTHER CASE TOGETHER
WITH THE ACCUSATIVE.

Rule XXX. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and ac-
quitting, with the accusative of the person govern also the
genitive of the crime : as,

Arguil mcfiirti^ He accuses me of theft.

Mcipsum inertia condcmno, I condemn myself of lazi-
ness.
Uhim homicidii ahsolvunt, They acquit liim of man-
slaughter.

Note 1 . These verbs govern the accusative, according to Rule
XX VIII, and are followed by a genitive of the crime or punish-
ment. The former has been named their Direct Regimen ; the
latter, their Indirect.

To the rule belong verbs of

Accusing ; accuse, ago, appello, arcesso, anquiro, arguo, coar-
guo, capto, increpo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insiviulo, inlerrogo,
postulo, alligo, astringo, defero, compello : as, Qui allerum incusat
prolri, eum ipsum se iniueri oportet — Plant. Cum capitis anqid-
sissent — Liv. Dolabellam repetundarum postulavil — Suet. &c.

Acquitting ; absolve, lihero, purge, to which perhaps solve may
be added : as, Judex ahsolvit eum injuriarutn — Auct. ad Herenn,
Liberavit ejus cuLpce regem — Liv. Me omnium purgnvi — Apul.
Hanc tetram immanemque belluam.. .. solvit subilo legum consul
— Cic. Cumfamulis operum solutis — Hor.

Condemning ; damne, condemno, infame, note, to which may be
added, convince, prehendo, deprehendo,judico, plector : as, Sceleris
condemnat generum suum — Cic. yUtem sceleris damnare — Ovid.

207

Te convlnco inhumanllatis — Cic, Perduellionis sejudicare C. Ful-
vio dixit — Liv. To these may be added such constructions as
Quern ego capitis perdam — Plaut. Castigat se ipsum dementice—
Lactant. Ale capitis periclilatum memini — Apul.

Note 2. The genitive of the crime may be put in the ablative
with de, chiefly after accuso, arguo, defero, postulo, appello, alsol-
vo, darnno, condemno, purgo : as, Accusare de negligentiu — Cic.
De eo crimine quo de arguatur — Cic. Qui de perducllione anqtiirc
rent — Liv. De proditione appellatus — Liv. In is sometimes
found : as, In quo te accuso — Cic. j and c or ab after Ubero : as,
A scelere liberati sumus — Cic.

N'jte 3. The crime or punishment is sometimes put in the ab-
lative without a preposition's being expressed, after absolvo, li-
lero, darnno, condemno, &c. : as, Consulem regni suspicione ahsol-
verent — Liv. Nemo sapientiam paupertate damnavit — Senec. Dam-

uabis tu votis — Virg. also voti— Nep. Liv. To the preceding

verbs may be added, accuso, alligo, anquiro, appello, arcesso, ar-
guo, arripio, astringo, compello, -as, insimulo, mullo, noto, obligo,
obstringo, postulo, teneor. Crimen quo argui posset — Nep. Hoc
crimine compellabatur — Nep. Teneri poena — Cic. &c.

Note 4. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, sometimes take two accusa-
tives : as, Si id me non acaesas — Plaut. Qucs me incusaveras —
Ter. Sic me insimulare Jalsum /acinus — Plaut. One of these ac-
cusatives, which is generally id, illud, quod, or the like, is go-
verned by circa or quod ad understood.

Note 5. The nouns crimen and caput are either put in the ge-
nitive, or in the ablative generally without a preposition : as. Ho-
minem tantorum criminum postuLdsset — Apul. An commotce cri'
mine mentis absolves hominem — Hor. Capitis damnalus est — Suet,
Nee ob earn rem capite damnarer — Cic. Capite plectere or punire,
not capitis ; also Capite anquiri, damnari, plecti, without a pre-
position. Argui de crimine is attributed to Cicero, but such words
as crimen and scelus, being general, that is, not referring to any
specific crime, are used without a preposition. Mullo is con-
strued with an ablative, the preposition being always omitted :
as, Multare poena, pecunid, &c. ^

Note 0. The genitive, strictly speaking, is not governed by
the verbs mentioned in this rule, but by some ablative understood,
such as poena, crimine, scelere, peccalo, actione, multd, nomine, re,

* Valla and others say that i\\^^ words, altera, neutro, utro, ulroque, mnho-
bus (to which Linacer adds superlatives, and some other words, as nu/lo, alio,
omnibus) ought to be used in the ablative only : thus, TenetUme sacrilcgii, an
furli, an utroque, vcl ambobus, vel neutro F Also Accusesne huncfurti, cm sacri-
tegii, an iiicesli, an omnibus, vel, an nullo, vel, an maximo ex iis ; and not nt7-i-
usque, amborum, omnium, &c. The Eton Crannnar has a similar observation,
borrowed, probably, from Linacer or Lily ; but, since neither is supported by
examples from the writings of the antients, they are entitled to little consider-
ation.

208

causa, ergo : 2lS, Accitso ie (crimine) furli. And these, or other
ablatives, are governed by de or in, expressed or understood.

Note 7. The following verbs of accusing, &c. are not construed
with the genitive, calurnnior, carpo, corripio, criminor, culpo, ex-
cuso, ?nulclo, punio, reprehendo, sugillo, taxo, traduco,vitupero: as,
Potentiam alicujus invidiose criminari — Cic. Also, Excuso tibi
tarditatem meam, Mullo te exsilio, and not Excuso me tibi tardita-
tis, Multo te exsilii. This construction is found even with some
of the verbs which have a genitive or ablative : as. Ejus avaritiam

perfidiamque accusdrat — Nep. Ago tecum furti, injuriarum, and

not Ago te furti, injuriarum, is a peculiar mode of expression.

Note 8. Where there is a variety of constructions, authority
is the only criterion. It may, however, be better to say I ncrepare
alicujus avaritiam, Notare incuriam alicujus, Castigare suam demerit
tiam, than Increpare aliquem avarilice — Suet. Notare aliquem in-
curicB — Gell. Castigare se dementice — Lactant. Liberare aliquem
culpd, Purgare se apud aliquem, vel alicui de re aliqud, may be
better than Liberare aliquem culpce — Liv. Purgare dicti factique

hoslilis civitatem — Liv. It is to be observed also that Urgeri

male administrates provincice, Interrogari facti alicujus, Infamari
temeritalis, Plecti falsce insimulationis, Perdi capitis, Captare im-
pudiciticBj Damnatus longi laboris, although they may be found iix
their respective authors, Tacitus, Seneca, Apuleius, Plautus, &c.,
are by no means to be imitated.

VERBS OF ADMONISHING.

Note 9. Under this rule, (or Rule XXXII,) may be mentioned,
moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, which with the accu-
sative of a person take the genitive of the thing : as, Grammati-
cos officii sui commonernus — Quinct.

Note 10. Instead of the genitive, they sometimes take an ab-
lative with de : as, De quovos admonui — Cic.

Note 11. They have sometimes two accusatives: as, Sed eos
hoc moneo — Cic. Passively, the latter : as, Multa in extis admone-
mur — Cic. One of these is generally a pronoun, as hoc, id, quod,
&c. or some word refen-ing to number or quantity, as unum, duo,
tria, multa, nihil, nonnihil. Ovid, however, writes, At virgo scit se
non falsa moneri — Met. x. 427. The accusative of the thing
is governed by some preposition understood, as, quod ad, or
the like. To verbs having this construction some add hortor and
cohortor : as. Quod tejamdudum hortor — Cic. Pauca pro tempore
milites hortatus — Sail. But these two are much more frequently
construed with ad : as, Hortor te ad virtutem, Cohortor ad pacem.

Note 12. The genitive of the thing after verbs of advising is
supposed to be governed by causd, or in re, or negotio.

Note I'.i. These verbs are construed with the infinitive, or the

209

subjunctive with ul or ne : as, Pielas erga parentes officium con-
servare monet — Cic. Sed te illud moneo, ut te ante compares, quo'
tidieque meditere, resislendum esse iracundice — Cic. Immortalia ne
speres, monet annus — Hor.

Rule XXXI. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring,
and taking away, govern the dative with the accusative : as,
Comparo Virgilium Homero^ I compare Virgil to Homer.
Suum cuiquc trihiito, Give every man his own.

Narras fahulam surdo^ You tell a story to a deaf

man.
Eripuit me morti, He rescued me from death.

Note 1. That is, verbs signifying comparison, acquisition, or
giving, loss, or taking away, refr^al, apph'cation, infoi-mation,
and the hke, in addition to their .-lirect regimen of the accusa-
tive, govern also the dative ; thus verbs of

Comparing ; comparo, compono, confero, cequo, cequiparo ; also
verbs of Preferring or Postponing ; antepono, antejero, prcepono,
prcefero ; postpono, posthaleo, postfero, &c. .• as, Parvis componere
magna — Virg. Posthabui tamen illorum mea seria ludo — Virg,

Giving ; do, tribuo, largior, prceheo, minislro, suggero, suppedi-
io ; also verbs of Restoring ; as, reddo, restituo, retribuo, rependo,
remelior ; of Acquiring ; qucero, acquiro, paro, pario ; of Promis-
ing ; promitto, polliceor, recipio, spondeo ; also debeo, solvo, assero,
vindico, mitto, relinquo, and innumerable others ; thus, Amorique
nostra plusculum etiam, quam concedet Veritas, largiare — Cic. Quce
tibi promitto — Cic. &c.

Declaring; narro, dico, memoro, loquor, nuncio, refeio, declare,
aperio, expono, explico, significo, indico, monstro, ostendo, Szc. ; of
Denying ; nego, injicior ; of Confessing ; fateor, confiteor, &c. :
as, Postquam diem operi dixerat — Cic. Neget quis carmina Gallo
— Virg.

Taking away ; aufero, adimo, eripio, eximo, demo, surripio, de-
traho, excutio, extorqueo, &c. : as, Mea miki ademerunt — Cic.

To these may be added a great number of active verbs com-
pounded with ad, in, oh, prce, sub ; as addo, adfero, adjicio, ad'
jungo, infigo, injungo, inscribo, insero, irrogo, oppono, ojff'ero, of-
fundo, objicio, prcecludo, prceficio, prceparo, prceseribo, subdo, sub-
jugo, submitto, suppono. In short, most active verbs may govern
the dative with the accusative, when together with the thing done,
is also expressed the object to or for which it is done : as, Facio
tibi injuriam. Doce mihi filium. Miscere alicui mulsum — Cic.
&c.

Note 2. The accusative is sometimes suppressed : as, Ignoscere
alteri- \. e. culpam or delictum. Detrahere alicui ; i.e. laudem.
Nubere alicui ; i. e. perhaps, se or vultum.

Note 3. Comparo, compono, and confero, arc often found with
cum and an ablative : as, Ut hominem cum homine comparelis —

P

210

Gic. Dicta cumfactls componere — Sail. Conftrte hanc pacem cum
illo lello — Cic. We also find Comparare res inter se — Cic. Ne
comparandus hie quidem ad ilium est — Ter. This last <;onstruc-
tion is said to be used, when there is no comparison between the
objects, when the difference between them is very great ; in any-
other case, nil or cum illo.

Note 4'. Verbs of Taking away, instead of the dative, have often
the ablative, with a, ah, de, e, ex : as, Auferre ab aliquo triginta
minas — Ter. Eripite nos ex iniseriis — Cic. De magnis divitiis si
quid demas — Plaut. The preposition is sometimes suppressed :
as, Sudque eripere cede Deam — Ovid. Vagindque eripit ensem —
Vii-g. The following verbs have commonly an ablative, and ge-
nerally with the preposition expressed ; abduco, deduce, decutio,
deripio, detraho, eximo, extraho ; also segrego, sejungo, sepono, se-
vioveo, removeo, sulmoveo.

Note 5. Many verbs vary their construction : as, Jfflare alicui
venenum — Auct. ad Herenn. aliquem veneno — Virg. Ovid. Js-
pergere lalem alicui — Cic. aliquem lale — Cic. Donare alicui rem
— Hor. aliquem re — Cic. Induere sili vestem — Cic. se veste — Cic.
Jntercludere alicui co7nffiea/«7«— Plaut. aliquem commeatu — Cses.
Prohibere alicui rem — Plaut. aliquem re— Cic. Committere se
alicui — Cic. in Jidein alicvjus — Ter. aliquern cum aliquo — Tac.
omnes inter se— Suet. Jmponere onus alicui — Cic. in aliquem—
Plaut. Accingere se operi, and ad opus — Virg. Liv. Admovere tur-
res niuro — Liv. aliquid ad corpus — Cic. Adscribere aliquem civi-
tati, in civitatem, et civitate — Cic. Assumere aliquid iii-i— Cic.

aliquem, insocietatem — Liv. Mitlere, scribere, epistolam alicui^

or ad aliquem. Imprimere aliquid animo, in animum, in animo. In-
cidere ccri, in ccs, in cere. Intendere telum alicui, el in aliquem.
Rescribere Uteris and ad literas with innumerable others.

Rule XXXIL Verbs of asking and teaching admit two
accusatives, tlie first of a person, and the second of a thing;
as,

Posce Deum veniam, Beg pardon of God.

Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar.

Note \. To this rule are generally referred,
Celo : as ; Celo te hanc rem — Ter.

Verbs of Asking or Entreating ; as rogo, inierrogo, oro, exoro,
olsecro, precor, perconior, posco, reposco, Jlagito : thus, Rogo te
nummos — Mart. Te hoc obsecrat — Cic. Horace construes lacesso,
in this sense, with two accusatives: as, Nihil sutra deos lacessa-—
Car. n. 18. 11. * .

Verbs of Teaching ; as, doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, erudio : thus,
Te literas doceam — Cic. Te leges prceceptaque erudiit — Stat. Dam-
nosasque (eum) erudit artes — Ovid. This last is a poetical con-
struction.

To these have been commonly added verbs of Arraying j a*

211

vestio, induo, cingo, accingo ; but, although the poets may write
Induitur vestem, Quidlibet indutwi, Cingitur ferrum, and the like,
it is not to be thence inferred that Induit se vestem, Cingit se fer-
rum are correct. Such verbs have generally the ablative of the
thing without a preposition. Exuo and induo have frequently the
accusative of a thing and the dative of a person.

Note 2. The construction of the preceding verbs is often va-
ried : as. Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit — Nep. Bassus noster me
de hoc libro celavit — Cic.

Note 3. Verbs of Asking often change the accusative of the
person into the ablative with a, ab, or abs : as, Non debelam abs
te has lileras poscere — Cic. Veniarn orenius ab ipso — Virg.— —
Peto, ex/go, fjucero, scitor, sciscitor are always followed by a pre-
position : as, A le peto — Cic. Gradere el scitabere ab ipso — Ovid.
Percontor, quccro, scitor, sciscitor are generally construed with ex :
as, Epicuri ex Velleio sciscitabar sententiam — Cic. Also, Quccro de
te, for abs or ex te — Liv. Peto abs te, never ex te.

Note 4. Verbs of Teaching frequently change the accusative
of the thing into the ablative with de : as, De itinere hostium se-
natum edocet — Sail. This is the case, chiefly when they denote
to vmrn, or to give information of. We also find Doctus ad legem
— Cic. Erudire ad modestiam — Cic. Erudire aliquem injure civill
— Cic. Doctus, eruditus, Uteris Greeds — Cic. ; but, scarcely, if
ever, Doceo te de grammaticd.

Note 5. Instruo, forma, instituo, informo aliquevi artibus, are
generally used without a preposition. We also find I?i hoc sit in-
structus — Quinct. and Instruere ignorantiam alicvjus — Plin. Insti'
tutre alicjuem ad lectionem — Quinct. ad turpitudines — Cic. artem,
aliquam — Cic. Also, Formare ad studium — Virg. mentem studiis

— Hor. studia alicvjus — Quinct. Imbuo aliquem artibus vel

prceceptis ; seldom in or ab artibus.

Note 6. Other verbs are sometimes found with two accusatives :
as, Argentum, quod habes, condonarnus te — Ter. Scin quid ego te
volebam — Ter. Many verbs are sometimes used in this way, such
as cogo, circumduco, defraudo, eludo, emungo, interverto,juvo, ad-
juvo, adjuto, objurgo, remilto ; and it is observed, that the accusa-
tive of the thing is generally some pronoun, or word of number
or quantity ; thus, Quid non mortalia pectora cogis ? — Virg. Id,
amaboy adjuta me — Ter. Multa prius de salute sud Pomtinum ob-
testatus — Sail.

Note 7. Many verbs may be found with two accusatives refer-
ring to the same object : as, Prccsta te virum — Cic. Africam
Grccci Libyavi appellavere — Plin, Petit hanc Saturrna munus —
Ovid. Many such constructions may be referred to apposition,
or to an ellipsis oi' esse.

Note 8. The accusative of the thing, in this Rule, is not, strictly
speaking, governed by the verb, but by ad, quod ad, secundum,

P 2

212

drcat oh, understood : thus in Rogare palrem veniam, veniam may
be governed by ad, circa, or propter. Also, Ohjurgabat hcec me
pater ; i. e. oh hccc. In such expressions as Si quid niP voles,
Quce ie aFujuidjuheant, we may suppose either a similar ellipsis,
or that oi'/acere. Thus also, Doceo te {quod ad) lileras, or, per-
haps, scire literas. In such expressions as Trajicitfluvium exer-
citum, it is evident that the one accusative is governed by trans
in composition. The third accusative in Ohjiugare hcec vie noctes
et dies — Plaut. is evidently governed by per understood.

Rule XXXIII. The passives of such active verbs as
govern two cases, do still retain the last of them : as^
Accusorfurti, I am accused of theft.

Virgiliiis comparatur Homcro, Virgil is compared to

Homer.
Doccor grammaticam, I am taught grammar.

Note 1. That is,

The passives of verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquit-
ting, retain the genitive or ablative : as, Damnatus est ambitus —
Cic. Absoluli sunt majestatis — Cic. Arguimur crinine pigritice
— Mart. The passives of verbs of Admonishing likewise retain
the genitive, sometimes the accusative : as, Common ejiat sceleris
— Cic. Multa in extis monemur— Cic.

The passives of verbs of Comparing, Giving, Declaring, and
Taking away, retain the dative: as, Parva magnis conferuntur —
Cic. Res nunciatur hostibus — Caes, Eripitur nobis puella — Pro-
pert.

Celor, and the passives of verbs of Asking and Teaching, re-
tain the accusative of the thing : as, Nosne hoc celatos tarn diu ? —
Ter, Celor, the dative too : as. Id Alcibiadi celari nan potuit — Nep.
Is rogatus est senientiam — Liv. Segetes alimentaque debita dives
poscebatur humus — Ovid, Motus doceri gaudet lonicos matura
virgo — Hor. All these accusatives are governed hy quodad {xard)
understood.

Verbs passive of Clothing, such as induor, amicior, cingor, ac-
cingor ; also exuor, discingor, and their participles, although their
actives do not govern two accusatives, have often, according to
the poets, an accusative of the thing put on, but with others an
ablative: as, Induitur faciem cultumque Diancs— Ovid. Non canas
vestila nives — Claudian, Sometimes also an accusative of the

thing covered : as, Pinuque caput prcecinctus acutd — Ovid.

Veste Arnhicd induitur—Cm't. Cingitur gladio — Liv. Exulus
omnibus fortunis — Tac. Ft lor, tcgnr, calceor, coronor, spolior, are.
generally construed with the ablative. In all these the accusative
is governed by ad, quod ad, or per, understood ; the ablative, by
cum. In the same manner are to be explained, Magnam partem
in his occupati sunt. — Cic. Omnia Mercurio similis voceinque. Sec.
' — Virg. Expleri mentem nequit — Virg. Nodoque sinus collecla

213

Jiuenles — Virg. ; with many other similar instances found among
the poets chiefly '.

Note 2. It deserves observation, that, in conformity with this
rule, whatever is the accusative after the active verb, must be the
nominative to it in the passive voice ; thus, Tibi lilrum do ; Tibi
liber datur. Narras fabulam surdo ; Surdo fabula narraiur. Ca-
pitis ewn condemndrunt j Capitis Hie eit condcmnatus. Pateram
vino implevit ; Vino patera est impleta. And where there are two
accusatives, that of the person becomes the nominative : thus,
Pueros grammaticam docebat ; Pueri docebantur grammaticam.

On the subject of this rule, I am indebted to the critical dis-
cernment of the friend to whom this little work is dedicated, for
the following observations. " The rule of Ruddiman (he ob-
serves) is extremely vague. It contains no precise information ;
nor have I seen any Grammar, in which the principle seems rightly
understood, or clearly elucidated. In respect, indeed, to the
phraseologies, which may be comprehended under this, or a more
correct rule, there are few modern Latin writers who are not
chargeable with repeated violations of that usage, which Cicero,
Caesar, and Livy uniformly adopt. Thus we read Ut ei/uidem pcr-
Siiasus $im — Xenoph. Mem. Leunclav. p, 729. Me persuuso —
Eurip. Phceniss. King, p. 464. Persuasus rates menducia locutiis
sit — Oed. Tyr. Johnson, p. 5f54. Hoc mirum videtur, persuaderi
(juosdam potuisse — Xenoph. Mem. c. 11, 1, Simpson®. These and
similar incorrect expressions might have been avoided, had the
writers attended to this simple rule, That whatever is put in the
accusative case after the verb, must be the nominative to it in
the passive voice, while the other case is retained under the go-
vernment of the verb, and cannot become its nominative. Thus,
* I persuade you to this or of this,' Persuadeo hoc tibi. Here, the
person persuaded is expressed in the dative case, and cannot,
therefore, be the nominative to the passive verb. We must, there-
fore, say Hoc tibi persuadetur, *■ You are persuaded of this ;' not
Tu persuaderis. Thus also Cffisar. His persuaderi^ ut diulius mo-
rarentur, non poterat. ' He trusted me with this affiiir,' or ' He
believed me in this,' Hoc mihi credidit. — Passively, Hoc mihi ere-
ditum est. ' I told you this,' Hoc tibi dixi. ' You were told this,'
Hoc tibi dictum est^, not Tu dictus es. Is then the phraseology

' This rule is applicable also to the passives of verbs of Valuing, which re-
tain the genitives magni, parvi, niliili, &c. To the passives of verbs of Filling,
Loading, Binding, Depriving, &c. wliich retain the ablative. All these arc
to be noticed hereafter.

* To the examples here adduced may be added, Si per.masus auditor fnerit
•^Auct. ad Herenn. 1, 6. Nihil eral diffidli' pcrsiiaderc pcrsuasis mori — Jus- \
tin. II, 11. Jamduduni pi'rsuasus cril — Ovid. Art. III. 6'79.

3 I may be permitted to observe, in addition to the remarks with which I
have been favoured by this ingenious critic, that it is the more necessary to at-
tend to this rule, and to these distinctions, as the idioms of tiie two languages
do not always concur, 'i'hus, Hoc libi dictum est means not only " This was toki
to you," but " You were told this." Liber iruld a patrc promissus est mean^

214.

Tu didus es inadmissible ? Certainly not : but, when this expres-
sion is employed, tu denotes the subject of discourse, or the per-
son ofxvhom, not the person to xvhom, information is given. Thus,
Ille dicitur esse vir sapiens. Here, i/le is the subject spoken of,
not the person to whom any thing is told. Thus also Credo tibi,
* I believe you,' that is, I give credit to what you say, in which
sense we must say in the passive voice, Tibi creditur, and not Tu
crederis ; for the latter of these two expressions would imply not
that credit is given to the words of the person, but that he is the
object or the subject of belief. In short, it is to be I'emembered that
nothing but that, which is in the accusative after the active verb,
whether denoting a person or a thing, can be the nominative to
the verb in the passive voice. Hence it is, that, if a verb does not
govern the accusative in the active voice, it can have no passive,
unless impersonally ; thus we say Resisto tibi, and cannot, there-
fore, say Tu resisteris, but Tibi resistitur. It is to be observed,

however, that the poets have frequently transgressed this rule.
Thus Virgil, speaking of Cassandra, says Credita Teucris, where
Cassandra denoting the person believed, or to whom credit is
given, and which, after the active verb, would be put in the da-
tive case, is made the nominative to the verb in the passive voice.
If we consult, however, the purest models of Latin prose, Cicero
and C.Tesar, or Livy and Sallust, we shall never find this phrase-
ology. Nor is the rule here given, and to vvhich the practice of
the best prose writers is strictly conformable, the mere result of
arbitrary usage. It contributes to perspicuity. If Ego credor
be employed to signify, not only that I, as a person speaking, am
believed, but also, as a person spoken of, obscurity or ambiguity

must frequently follow. 1 have observed also, that no verb can

be regularly used in the passive voice, unless it govern the ac-^
cusative in the active voice. The practice of the purest Classics
justifies this observation. The poets are less scrupulous. Thus,
Horace says Bactra regnata Cyro, where the verb regno, which
does not govern the accusative case in the active voice, admits a.
nominative as a regular passive verb. Thus also Gentes regnan-
iur — Tac. The best prose writers never employ this phraseology."

Rule XXXIV. The price of a thing is put in the ab-
lative, with any verb : as,

Emi lihrwn duobus assibus, I bought a book for two

shillings.
Vendidit hie auro patriam, This man sold his country

for gold.
Demosthenes docuit talento, Demosthenes taught for a

talent.

both, " A book was promised (to) me by my father," and " I was promised n
book." Is jtrimuvi rogatus est soilcniiam, " He was first asked for his opi-
nion," ajid *' An opinion was first asked of him," in which last the accusatirs
cf the person become:., in Latin, the nonunativs in the passive voice.

215

Note 1. That is, not only verbs which plainly denote Buying
or Selling, but those likewise which refer thereto, are followed
by an ablative : as, Viginti talent Is unam orationem Isocrates ven-
didit — Plin. Non emam vitiosa mice — Plaut. Piscina; tedifican-
tiir 77iagno — Varro. Malto sangicine el vidneribus ea Pcenis victO'
ria stetit — Liv.

Note 2. The verb valeo, when it refers to Price, has generally
the ablative ; as Ita ut scrnpulnm valeret sestertiis vicenis — Plin.
It is seldom found with an accusative ; Denarii dicli, quod dcnos
isris valebant ; quinarii quod qidnos — Varro.

Note 3. Magna, permagno, parvo, pnulido, minimo, plurimo,
are often found without tlieir substantive : as, Frumentnm suum
qicam plurimo venditurus — Cic. To these are added jdure, vili,
7iimio : as, Pliire venit — Cic. To all these ^jre//o, are, or the like,
is understood. It is sometimes expressed : as, Venders aliquid
parvo p)retio — Cic. '

Note 4'. The ablative is not, strictly speaking, governed by the
vei'b, but by ^ro understood : as, Dum pro argenteis decern aureus
unus valeret — Liv. Emere ad viginti minus. Ad earn summarn cine-
re, Ad cam summam offerre, are mentioned by Johnson, who at-
tributes the first two to Cicero.

Rule XXXV. These genitives, tajiti, quanti, 2)luriSi
minoris, are excepted : as,

Qiianti constitit P How much cost it ?

Asse ct plimSf A shilling and more.

Note 1, This is merely an exception to the preceding rule.
To the above-mentioned genitives may be added their compounds
quant icunqjie, quantiquanti, tantidem, and also majoris : as, Non
concupisces ad libcrtatem quanticunque 2)crvcnire — Senec. Midto
majoris alapcE mecum veneunt — Phaedr.

Note 2. If the substantive be expressed, these words must be
put in the ablative; as, Authepsa ilia quam ianto prdio mercatus
est — Cic. Prefio minore rcdimendi captivos copia — Liv. This re-
mark does not refer to tantidem, which has no ablative. There

is a distinction between Emi cquum magno or pai'vo j)retio and
Ehni equum tnagni ox parvi pretii, the former denoting the price
of the horse, the latter his mtrinsic or real worth.

* To these ablatives some grammarians add mnlto, pauco, dimidin, dtiph,
pmdo, iiiarimo, and iimnen so ; but they are without authorities. In the fol-
lowing instances, Multo minnris vendidit quavi tu— Cic. and Amhnlaliuncvla
prope dimidio minoris constabit isto loco — Cic, multo and dimidio are the ab-
latives of defect, ratlier than of price. Caro cmpta, attributed to Quiuctilian,
is a doubtful reading, care being most probably the word intended. But
Diomedes does not hesitate to consider caro and vili as adverbs of valuing.
Horace writes Lvscinias soliti impenso prandere co'Cmj'taS'—Sixi, ii. 3. 245. ecrc
being understood.

216

Note 3. To the genitives magni, pluris, tanti, quanti, &c. ceris
pretio or pondere, or, inversely, pretii or ponderis csre, is said to be
understood.

Rule XXXVI. Verbs of Valuing, besides the accusa-
tive which they govern, admit such genitives as these —
magni, parvi., nihili .• as,

^stimo te magni, I value you much.

Note 1. That is, verbs of Valuing admit after them, besides

tanti, quatiti, pliiris, minoris, the following also, magni, parvi, maxi-
mi, minimi, plurimi, with assis, nihili, nauci, Jlocci, pili, terunciif
hujus, pensi.

Note 2. The verbs of Valuing are <Pstimo, existimo, duco,facio,
habeo, pendo, jnito, taxo, to which may be added sum and ^o,
taken for cestimor, which are followed by the genitive of value,
but which do not take the accusative : as, Magni cestimabat pccu-
7iiam' — Cic. Quis Carthaginiensium pluris J'liit Annihale consilio
— Cic. JJt qua?iti quisqucse ipsejaciat, tanti Jiat ah amicis — Cic.
It is to be observed, that pili, teruncii, and hujiis are con-
strued with Jacio only ; nauci, with Jhcio and habeo ; assis, with
Jcicio and cestimo ; nihili, w'xthjacio andpendoj Jlocci, withjacio,
pendo, and existimo. Pensi is generally preceded by non, ncque,
or nihil: as, Neque id quibus modis assequeretur , quidquam pensi
habebat — Sail. Nee pensi duxer at — Val. Max.

Note 3. To this rule may be referred the phrases JEqui bonique
Jacio, or JEqui boni Jiicio, and Botii consulo : as, Isthuc ccqui bo-
nique Jlicio — Ter. Hoc munus, rogo, boni consulas — Senec.

Note 4<. jEstimo sometimes takes these ablatives, magno, per-
niagno, parvo, nihilo, nonnihilo : as, Data magno cBstimas, acccpta
jjarvo — Senec. Qida sit nonnihilo ccstiniandum — Cic.

Note 6. The substantive understood to the adjectives magni,
parvi, &c. is pretii, eeris, ponderis, momenti, or the like ; and the
construction may be thus supplied : JEstimo te magni, i. e. esse
hominem magni pretii, or pro homine magni pretii. JEstimat pe-
cuniam parvi, i. e. esse rem parvi momenti, ot pro reparvi momenti.
In like manner, Isthuc cequi bonique f ado, i. e. Jacio isthuc rem
cequi bonique hominis, or animi, or tiegotii. Consido boni, i. e.
interpretor esse boni animi or viri munus or factum. And nearly
in a similar way, Quce ille universa naturali quodam bono fecit lu"

cri — Nep. i. e. Jecit rem lucri. Pro nihilo habeo, puto, duco,

are common phrases : as, Istam adoptionem pro nihilo esse habe^i-
dam — Cic. Cicero uses Qjucc visa sunt pro nihilo ; but here there
may be some eUipsis, of haberi perhaps.

Rule XXXVII. Verbs of Plenty and Scarceness for the;
most part govern the ablative : as,

Abwidat divitiis. He abounds in riches.
Caret omni culpa, He has no fault.

217

Note 1. To this rule belong verbs of

Plenty : as alundo, exubero, redundo, scateo, qffluo, circurnfluOf
diffiuo, superfluo : as, Amore ahundas Antipho-—Ter.

Want or Scarcity : as, careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco ( to want) , with
deficior and destituor .• thus, Carere debet ornni vitio — Cic. Ratione
deficitur — Cic.

Note 2. Egeo and indigeo frequently take the genitive : as, Ut
medicince egeamus — Cic. Non tarn artis indigent, quam laboris —
Cic. Also, among the more antient writers, scateo, and careo :
as, Terra scatet Jerarum — Lucret. Tui carenduni erot — Ter.
Lucilius has Abimdemus rerum, but the genitive is more frequent
after abundans. Sometimes careo and egeo take the accusative: as,
Id careo — Plant. Malta egeo — Gell.

Note 3. The ablative is not, strictly speaking, governed by the
verb, but by some preposition understood, as a, ab, de, ex, or in.
After some verbs it is frequently expressed : as, Hopc a custodibus
classium loca maxime vacabant — Caes. Dejicior prudens urtis ab
arte mea — Ovid. And when any of these verbs are followed by
the genitive, some ablative, such as re, negotio, causa, prccsentia,
ope, copia, or the like, with a preposition, is understood; thus,
Careo tui, i. e. ope or prcesentia.
To this rule may be referred

Verbs of Filling, Loading, Binding, Depriving, Clothing, and
some others, which, with the accusative, have also an ablative
case : thus verbs of

Filling ; as, impleo, compleo, explco, repleo, saturo, obsaturo, sa-
tio, refercio, ingurgilo, dito, and the like : thus, Implevit mero pate-
ram — Virg.

Loading; as onero, cumulo, premo, opprirno, obruo : Unloading:
as levo, exonero: thus. Naves onerant auro — Virg. Tefasce levabo '
— Virg.

Binding ; as astringo, alligo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqueo,
&c. Loosing; as soLvo, exsolvo, libera, laxo, expedio : thus, Ser-
vitutem astringam testimonio sempiterno — Cic. Solvit se Teucria
luctu — Virg.

Depriving; as privo, nudo, orbo, spolio, frnudo, emungo : thus,
Nudavit ab ea parte aciem equeslri auxilio — Liv. Add also, vacuo,
evacuo, exkaurio, exinanio, depleo.

Clothing ; as i;e5/io, amicio, induo, cingo, tego, vela, corono, calceo;
and their contraries, exuo, discingo: thus, Sepulchrum vepribus

• The inexperienced learner should be careful t» distinguish between such
phrases as t,evabo te fascc, in which Icvo denotes to ease or disburden, and tiio
ablative belongs to this rule ; and such as S^rjie siiis opibus inojiiam eorvni pnb-
ticam lemvil — Nep. yluxilioi/ue levare viros — Virg. Levcwerunl animus reli-
gione — Liv. in which lew) signifies lo help or relieve, and the ablatives do not
belong to this rule, but are to be referred to those of cause, manner, and in-
strument. In numberless instances, however, such is the nature of the verb
or the phrase, that it is not easy to distinguish the a!)lative of the one rule,
from that of the other.

218

vesllre — Cic. Teque his exue monstris — Ovid.— — To these may
be added many others, such as muto, dono, vuniero, remiinero, com-
munico, pasco, heo, irnpertior, dignor, officio, prosequor, assequor,
consequor, insequor, spargo, incesso, inseclor, ohlecto: with verbs of
Mixing, as misceo, permisceo, tempera ; such verbs as orno, hnnoro,
honeslo, decoro, venusto, cob, excoto, dehoneslo, dedecoro, fcedo, in,'
quiiio, polltio: verbs of Teaching ; as formo, informo, doceo, erudio,
inslruo, imkio : verbs denoting Excess, as antecedo, antecello, ex-
cello, supero, &c. : verbs of Bounding, Measuring, and Recom-
pensing; asjinio, dejinio, termino, melinr, dimetior , pejiso , compenso
— with numberless other verbs which, without an accusative, ad-
mit an ablative of the cause, manner, or instrument, as possum,
polleo, valeo, vivo, «&c.

Note\. Impleo, compleo, and expleo sometimes take the genitive:
as, Ne ita omnia Tribuni polcstalis suce implerent — Liv. Erroris
illos et dewenti(E complebo — Plant. Animum explcsse juvabit ul-
tricis Jiammce — Virg. And, among the more antient writers, also
saturo and obsaturo : as, Hoi res vitce me saturant — Plaut. Istius
ohsaturahere — Ter.

Note 2. The verb induo is variously construed: as, Ex ejus spo-
tiis sibi et torquem et cognomen induit — Cic. Pomis se fer tilts ar-
ias induerat — Virg.

Note 'd. Verbs of Liberating are often followed by a or ex : as,
Arcem ah incendio liberavi — Cic. Solvere lelluavi ex caltnis—
Auct. ad Hereon. Verbs of Clothing are sometimes followed by
a or ab, among the poets : as, Gelicis si cingar ah armis — Ovid.

Nate 4. The preposition cum is sometimes expressed after jOro-
sequor : as, Decedentem cum favor e ac laudibus prosccuti sunt —
Liv.

Note 5. The ablative after muto is the thing taken in exchange:
as, Muto librum pecunia ', but, by the figure Hypallage, it may be
Muto pecuniam libra '.

Note 6. Many verbs vary their construction : as, Universos fru-
mento donavit — Nep. and Prcedam rnilitibus donat — Ca3s. Jsper-
gere sale carnes, or Aspergere salem carnibus — Plin. Impertire ali-
tjuem salute — Ter., or olicui solutem — Cic. Cammunicare rem ali-
quavi cum aliquo; seldom, aliquem re aliqud ; and never rem ali-
fjuam alicui. Cum altera rem communicavit — Cic. Communicabo
te semper mcnsa med — Plant. Abdicare magistratum — Sail. Se ma-
gistratu — Cic.

Note 7. The accusative is governed by Rule XXVIII ; the ab-
lative by some preposition, or it may be frequently referred to
that of cause, manner, or instrument, which also is governed by
some preposition.

* The preposition is sometitncs expressed after muto: as, Mutare bellmnpro
jKice— Sail. Cum pcdib usque tiianus, cum tough bracliia mutal o !<;•;&«»— Ovid.

219

Rule XXXVIII. Utor^ ahutory fmor, fimgo)\ 2)oUoi',
vescoj; govern the ablative : as,

Utihir fraude, He uses deceit.
Abutihir libris. He abuses books.

Note 1. That is, the above-mentioned verbs, to which may be
added nilor, innilor, epulor, vascor, creor, glorior, lector, deltclor,
gaudeo, vivo, victito,Jido, confido, exulto, sto^, consto, eonsisto, cedo,
supersedeo, laboro, are followed by an ablative : as, Utere sorte tud
— Virg, Pace frid — Cic. Functus est vniners — Cic. Filio Ji'itU
tur — Cic. Glande vescunlur — Cic. Sunt, qui piscihus, atfjue ovis
avium vivere existimantur — Cses. Gaudet patientia duris — Lucan.
Fortes creantur fortibus — Hor. &c. To these may be added the
compounds, deutor, once used in Cornelius Nepos for ahutor, and
ferfruor, defungor, perfungor. Fido, coTifido, innitor, and cedo, have
been noticed under Rule XXVII.

Note 2, Under this, or the preceding rule, are usually enume-
rated, assuesco, amplector, comprehendo, conflictor, periciitor, paS'
cor^, which are found with an ablative of a thing : as, Assuescere
labore — Cic. Complecti benevolenlid — Cic. Such ablatives may
be referred to those of cause, &c. Pa^cor, deponent, often takes
the accusative: as, Pascuntur silvas — Virg.

Note 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor, sometimes take the accu-
sative : as, Potiri summam imperii — Nep. Hominum officio fungi
— Tac. Qui regnum adepius coepit vesci singulas — Phaedr. /*«/-
los epulari — Plin. Also, among the more antient writers, utor,
abutor, fruor : as, Ccetera qucecpie volumus uti — Plaut. Operam
abutitur — Ter. Ingenium J'rui — Ter.

Note 4?. Potior frequently admits the genitive: as, Potiri regni
— Cic. urbis — Sail, hostium — Sail. Potiri rerum, and not res, nor
rebus, is always used in the sense of to rule or govern : as, Dum
civitas Atheniensiiim rerum potita est — Cic.

Note 5. With some of the verbs a preposition is frequently ex-
pressed; as consto, laboro, nitor, glorior : thus. Cum constemus ex
tinimo et corpore — Cic. Lnborare ex pedibus, ex renibus — Cic,
Cujus in vild nitebatur salus civitatis — Cic. In virtute gloriamur—

cic.

' Some, led .away by the English idiom, according to which we say " Td
stand to an agreement," have supposed that it is the dative which follows slo ;
but this is a mistake, as may be seen in the following examples ; Utcn/uc cen-
sor censoris opinione slandum non pulavii — Cic. Etsi priori fwdere slaretur — >
Liv, Hence, also, SUire decrcio, promixsis, convrntis, conditionibin;, which are
not datives, and, in Ovid, Siemvs, ait, paclo. Maneo seems to be sometimes
construed in a similar way ; as, Tu modo promissis mancas—-'Virg;- At tu die-
lit, Albane, mancrcs — Virg. But Cicero expresses the preposition: as, Ma-
ncre in condilinne cUquc jmcto ; and, in like manner, Foslquani in co quad am-
venerof, non mnnchaiur — Mela.

'^ Dcpaaco and dcpascor have the accusative only : as, Lururicm .irgclum
tenera drpasdt in A^-iia— Virg. Miscro$ morsu dt-jmadtiir arlus — Virg,

220

Note 6. Ovid has once construed the active creo with an ablative;
without expressing the preposition j but, in general, among prose
writers, at least, creo, creor, nascor, and other verbs of descent, as
orior, gigno, genero, procreo, are followed by a preposition ex-
pressed : as, Princ'ipium exstinelum nee ipsum nh alio rennscetur,
nee a se aliud ereahit — Cic. Generari et nasei a principibus fortui-
tum est — Tac.

Note 7. The ablative after the others is likewise governed by a
preposition. After utor, fruor^ veseor, epulor, victito, nascor, creor,
de or ex is understood ; after potior, a or ah ; with sto, periclitor,
in, &c. The genitive is governed by such words as re, negolio,
imperio, or the like, understood.

OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.

Rule XXXIX. An impersonal verb governs the dative:
as,

Expedit reipuhlicce, It is profitable for the state.
Licet nemini peccarCf No man is allowed to sin.

Note 1. Thus also, Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum
— Hor. Lieeat mihi vera rej'erre — Ovid.

Note 2. Along with the dative is generally joined an infinitive
mood, or part of a sentence, which is supposed to supply the
place of a nominative to the verb: as, Peccare licet nemini — Cic.
Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam — Cic, In the
last, the words salvam esse rempublicam, equivalent to salus rei-
publicce, or their representative hoc, are as a subject or nominative
to expedit. Quoniam tecum id essem non contigit — Cic. in which
the dative is understood, and the preceding words supply the place
of the nominative.

Note 3. The dative is often suppressed : as, Facial quod lubet —
Ter. i. e. sibi.

Note 4. Id, hoc, illud, quod, viullum, &c., may be prefixed as a
nominative to some impersonals: as, Aliquid peccatur vitio praci-
pientium — Senec. Sin tibi id, minus libebit — Cic, The plural
number is in this manner admissible in certain words : as, Quo in
genere multa peccantur — Cic, Ccelera item qua cuique Ubuissent
— Suet.

Note 5. In the following instances, the infinitive mood of im-
personal verbs supplies the place of a noun : as Terrd multifariam
pluvisse nunciatum est — Liv. N^on potest accedi — Cic.

Note 6. Conducit and expedit, instead of the dative of a thing,,
have sometimes an accusative with a preposition ' : as, Quod in rem

' We say Conducit tibi ad salutem, but cannot say Conducit ad fe. The reason
is obvious; the purpose is expressed by ad; and, consequently, the accusative
after these verbs, is that of the thing.

221

rede conducat tuam — Plaut. Non quo minus quidquam Cccsari ex^
pediat ad diutiirnilntem dominalionis — Cic. In these, there are two
nominatives, quod and qu'idquam ; but they are of such a kind as,
according to Note 4-, may sometimes precede verbs that are used
impersonally.

Note 7. An impersonal passive may be used for any person ac-
tive of the same mood and tense : thus, Statur a me, a te, ab illo;
a nobis, a vobis, ab illis, are equivalent to sto, stas, stat, &c. Ccc'
pit, incipit, desinit, debet, solet, potest, videtur, and perhaps some
others, {vole, nolo, viaio, audeo, cupio, and the like, never,) joined
to impersonals, become impersonal : as, Pigere eumjcicti cvepit —
Justin. Tot res circumvallant, unde emergi non potest — Ter. i. e. a
nobis, for emergere tion possumus, Tcedere solet avaros impendii
— Quint, for avari solent. In the infinitive also, when another
verb precedes : as. Si Volscis ager redderetur, posse agi de pace —
Liv. — Yet, we find, Ita primi poenitere cceperunt — Justin. Cum
misereri mei debent — Cic.

Note 8. The verbs belonging to this rule, are such as accidit,
contingit, cvenit, conducit, expedit, lubet, libet, licet, placet, displi-
cet, vacat, restat, prcsstat, liquet, nocet, dolet, siifficit, apparet, &c.
the dative with which they are followed being that of acquisition,
according to Rule XXVII. Neuter verbs, and active intransitive
verbs are often used impersonally in the passive voice : as, Non
inmdetur illi cetati, sed etiamjavetur — Cic.

Rule XL. Refert and interest require the genitive : as,
JRefert patris^ It concerns my father.

Interest omnium, It is the interest of all.

Note 1. Thus also, Humayiitatis plurimum refert — Plin. Inter'
est omnium recte facere — Cic.

Note 2. Refert and interest admit likewise these genitives, tanti,
quanti, magni, permagni, parvi, pluris : as, Magni interest mea,
una nos esse — Cic. Instead of majoris, maximi, &c, magis, max-
ime, mnltiim, plurimum, minus, minimum or minime, interest or re-
Jert, is used. Tanti, quanti, parvi ; or tantum, quantum, parum
refert or interest, are used indifferently. Juvenal uses Minimo dis-
crimine refert; and hence the common expression Parvo discrimine
refert.

. Note 3. They are sometimes used personally, and admit not only
the nominatives quid, quod, id, &c., but others also: as, Tuaquud
nihil rejert , percontari desinas — Ter. Illud mca magni interest —
Cic. Plurimum rejert soli eujusque ratio — Plin. Non quo mea in-
teresset loci natura — Cic.

Note 4. The adverbs, or advcrbials tantum, quantum, midtum,
plurimum, injinitum, parum, with nihil, maxime, minime, and tlie
like, are often joined with them : as, Multum refert — Mart. Plu-
rimum intcrerit — J u v.

222

Note 5. When the word following them is a thing, it is often
put in the accusative with ad : as, Ad honorem nostrum interest — ■
Cic. Quam ad rerii isihuc rejert — Plaut. Sometimes when it is a
person : as, Quid id ad me, aid ad mcam I'em refert — Plaut. Plu-
rally ; Percontari volo quce ad rem rejernnt — Plaut. Seldom the
dative : as, Quoi rei id te assimidare retuUt—VXdiUt. Quid referat
vivcnti—Hor. Acino plurimum refert— V\'m. But some of these
constructions are altered in certain editions.

Note 6. They are sometimes used absolutely, that is, without
their regimen's being expressed : as, Neque e?iim nuniero conipreu'
dere refert — Virg. Literest eniiv, non quce celas, neque quid in cor'-
pore intus geratur, scd quce vires— Cels.

Note 7. The construction is elliptical, and may be supplied
thus : Refert pafris, i, e. refert se ad negotia jjatris. Interest om-
nium, i. e. est inter negotia omnium.

Rule XLI. But mea^ tua, sua^ Jiostraj vestra, are put in
the accusative plural : as,

Non mea refert^ I am not concerned.

Note 1. That is, instead of using mei, fui, sui, nostrum, 'oestrum.,
the genitives of the substantive pronouns, the accusative plural,
neuter gender, of the corresponding pronominal adjectives, is
used : as, Et tua et jnea muxime interest — Cic. T^anti illud refert
mea — Plaut.

Note 2. Cuja, and C7ijus interest are used indifferently : as, De-
iur ei cuja interfuit, non ei cuja nihil interfuit — Cic. Quis enini
est hodie, cujus intersit islam legem manere? — Cic.

Note 3. The constructions of this and the preceding rule some-
times occur in the same clause : as, Mea et reipubliccc interest.
Magni interest C'iceronis, vel mea potius, vel utriusque, me interve'
nire disccnti— Cic, In the first part of the last example, occur
the genitive of estimation or value, and the genitive of the person;
afterwards, the accusative plural. Whether we can use Mea unius
interest, Tua solius rejert^ Nostra ip)sorum interest, Mea oratoris
interest, Mea Ciceronis interest, and the like, is not ascertained.
At any rate, it is better to say Mea refert, qui sum natu maximus
— Piin.j than mea natu maximi; and in the case of a person's speak-
ing of himself, as in Mea Ccesaris refert, it is better to omit the
proper name. When the discourse is directed to a second person,
. it is more elegant to use the vocative: thus, Magis mdlius interest
quam tua, Tite Otacili — Liv. Vestra, commititones, interest —
Tacit. Alvarez prefers Nostrum omnium interest, to Nostra om-
nium interest, in which omnium is governed by interest, and nos-
trum by omnium, i. e. all of us equivalent to us all.

Note 4-. Some have supposed mea, tua, &c. to be the ablative
singular feminine, with causa, gratia, or j'c understood. Others

223

contend that they are the accusative plural, neuter gender; which
case we have adopted. It is unnecessary to recapitulate the argu-
ments used on either side. Perizonius is of opinion, that Interest

mea is Interest inter men negotia, or perhaps, Est inter men izes^otia;
and that RefeH tua is Rejert se ad tua negotia. Thus Piautus says
Qiiid id ad me, aut ad meam rem rejert. Cicero, Omnia ad siiam
utiUtatem referre. The author of the Conip. Si/nf. Erasm. seems
inclined to steer a middle course, and to think that mea, tua, &c.
are ablatives after refert^ and accusatives after interest. These are
all the possible varieties ; but it is a matter of very little conse-
quence to ascertain which of them comes the nearest to the truth.

The genitives magni, parvi, tanti, &c. may be accounted for,

in the same manner as was done after verbs referring to price or
value. '

Rule XLII. These five, miseret, pccnitet, piidd., tccdet,
and piget^ govern the accusative of a person, with the geni-
tive of a person or thing : as,

Miseret me tui, I pity you.

Pcenitet me peccati, I repent of my sin.

Tcedet me vita, I am weary of hfe.

Note 1 . Thus also, Miseret te aliorum, tui te nee miseret, nee
pudet — Plant. Eos incptiarum pceniteret — Cic. Me civitutis morum
piget tcedetque — Sail. Miserescit may be joined : as, Inopis nunc
te miserescat mei — Ter.

Note 2. The infinitive or part of a sentence sometimes supplies
the place of the genitive: as, Te id puduit facere — Ter. At nos
puduit, quia cum catenis sumus — Plant. Non pcenitet me quantum
prqfecerim — Cic.

Note 3, The accusative is sometimes omirted ; and sometimes
the verbs are used absolutely : as, Scelcrum si bene pcenitet — Hor.
i. e. nos. Nisij]iget, consisiite — Plaut.

Note 4. These verbs are sometimes used personally, especially
with the pronouns hoc, id, quid, &c. : as. Me quidem fuec conditio
nunc non pcenitet — Plaut. Ipse sui miseret — Lucr. Non te hcec
pudent — Ter. Ira ea tcedet, qua; invasit — Senec. Nimio id quod
pudet Jaciliils Jertur, quam id quod piget — Plaut. Here perhaps
Jecisse or fieri may be understood, and cpiod may be the accusative
case. These few examples, opposed to the general practice, can

be considered but as peculiarities of the writers. It is observed

that the participles of these verbs are in every respect like other
participles: thus, Ncc multo post pcenitensfacti — Suet. Hie agcr
colono est j)cenilendus — Colum, Nidla parte pigendus crit — Ovid.

Note 5. The genitive is supposed to be governed by some sub-
stantive, such as negotium, factum, res, respecius, or the like, un-
derstood : as, Miseret me tui, i. e. negotium tui mali miseret me; or
respcctus tui miseret me, Non te horum pudet, i. e. negotium or co-

224

gitatio. Or a more particular word may be supplied : thus, MisC'
ret me ejus, i, e. miseria or calamitas. Plura me ad te scribere jjU'
(lei is equivalent to Pudor habet me., or, pudor est mihi, me plura
ad te scribere. Viice tadet me, i. e. res vitcB, this being equivalent
to vita, in imitation of the Greeks, who sometimes use ro •x^priii.a.
rujv vpKTuJv, for here nox or hoc noctis. The accusative they go-
vern, as verbs transitive.

Rule XLIII. These four, Decet, deledat, juvat^ opor-
tet, govern the accusative of the person with the infinitive:
as,

No7i decet te rixari. It does not become you to scold.

Delectat me studere, I delight to study.

Note 1. Thus also, Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non
dedecet — Cic. Me pedib us delectat claudere verba — Hor, Meju-
vatcolnisse — Propert. Mendacem memorem esse oportet — Quinct.
The first three govern the accusative, as transitive verbs ; but as
oportet is neuter, being equivalent to opus est, or neccsse est, the
accusative following it is not governed by it, but depends upon
the infinitive mood following.

Note 2, Decet sometimes takes the dative : as, Ita nobis decet
— Ter. But this seems a Gra^cism; tj^Tv itpiitsi. Juval and opor-
tet likewise seem to have been formerly construed with a dative.

Note 3. Oportet is elegantly joined with the subjunctive mood,

ut being understood : as. Ex rerum cognitione effloresced, et redun-

det oportet orafio — Cic. Also with perfect participles, esse, or

J'uisse, being understood : as, Adolescenti morem gestum oportuit —

Ter.

Note 4. Fallit, fugit, prceterit, latet, when used impersonally,
have an accusative, and generally with the infinitive : as, Fugit
me ad te scribere — Cic. Sometimes, instead of the infinitive, is
used a finite verb with some particle: as, Illud alterum quam sit
difficile, non te fugit — Cic. Latet me, and latet mihi, do not rest
on very high authority.

Note 5. Attijiet, pertinet, and spectat, have an accusative with
ad: as, Perdat, percat, nihil ad me attinet — Ter. Adrempublicam
pertinet me conservari — Cic, Special ad omncs bene vivere — Incert.
but this last is uncommon. — Attinet me is sometimes used for at-
tinet ad me.

Note 6. Decet, delectat, juvat, are often used personally, and
oportet sometimes : as, Parvum parva decent — Hor. Thus also ,
dedecet, condecet and indecet : as, Quarum me dedecet usus — Ovid.
Ornatus me condecet — Plaut. Juvenes adJiuc confusa qucedam et
quasi turbata non indecent — Plin. LitercB me delectarunt — Cic.
Otia me somnusque juvant — Mart. Hcec Jacta ab illo oportebant
— Ter. Delecio, and juvo used for auxilior, frequently occur in

225

the first and second persons Specfo, used personally for /jcr/i-

net or tctulit, takes an accusative ^vith ad: as, Res ad arma spectat
— Cic. When it refers to place, the preposition may be either
expressed, or omitted : as, Spectat ad meridiem — Caes. Spectare
Hispaniam — PVm. But pertinet, as in Pdiinet ad Hclrcfios, ad
arcem — Caes. in vvhici) it is equivalent to tendit or vcrgif, is ne\ er
used without a preposition.

Note 7. The nature of this construction is sufficiently evident.
These impersonals, as they are called, govern the accusative,
being transitive verbs, oportet alone excepted. The infinitive mood
which follows them, or other words in the sentence, supplies the
place of a nominative to them.

Of Passive Verbs, and others admitting an Ablative mth

a Preposition.

* Rule XLIII. The principal agent, when following a
verb of passive signification, is governecl by a, ah, or abs :
as, Laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis — Hor. Omnis ora
maritima depopulata ab Achivis erat — Liv. Testis in eiim
rogatus, an ab reo fustibus vapiilcisset — Quinct. Opera fe-
lant a legionibus — Hirt. B. Air. llespondit a cive spoliari
se tnalle, qudm ab hoste venire — Quinct.

Note 1. Neuter verbs, (especially those whose signification re-
sembles that of passives, ^ and deponents also, admit an ablative
with a or ah : as, Ne vir ab hoste cadai — Ovid. Rem atrocem
Macedo a servis sids passus est—FYm.

Note 2. Passive verbs sometimes take the dative, especially
among the poets: as. Quia nnn intelligor idti— Ovid, for at) ullo.

Nullaque laudetur mihi — Ovid, for a me. Videor, used in the

sense of / seem, always governs the dative : as, Mihi videhor esse
restitutus — Cic. In its primary signification of / am seen, it is
sometimes thus construed ; but generally with the ablative and a
preposition : as. Sum visas ab illo — Ovid.

Note 3. The secondary agent, means or instrument, following
an active, passive, or neuter verb, is governed by per, or is ex-
pressed in the ablative : as. Per me defensa est respublica — Cic.
Naturam expellasfurca — Hor.

Note^. The preposition a or ah is sometimes suppressed : as,
Desertaqne conjuge floret — Ovid. Colitur linigerd turba — Ovid.
Scriberis Vario — Hor.

Note 5. Some verbs are found, in the same sense, construed
either with the dative, or the ablative and a preposition : as, A'^?-
que populo neque cuiquam bono probatur — Cic. Meianjactum. r)r0'
ban abs tc, iriumpho gaudio — Caes. ad Cic.

Note 6. A great many other verbs take also the ablative with

Q

226

a or ab referring to the source or origin of their action ; such as
verbs of,

1. Receiving; as accipio, capio, sumo, mutuor ; also adipiscor,
consequor, impeiro, &c. thus, A majoribus morem acccpimus — Cic.

2. Distance, Difference, and Dissention ; as disto, dijf'ero, dis-
sentio, dissideo, discrepo, discordo : thus, Cum a veris J'ulsa nun
distent — Cic.

3. Desiring, Intreating, and Inquiring; as pet o, expeto, posco,
percontor, scitor, sciscitor, rogo, oro, obsecro, precor, postuio,Jlu-
gito, contcndo, exigo, &c.: as, A te opem petimus — Cic.

4. Cessation ; as cesso, desisto, quiesco, requiesco, tempera : thus,
A pneliis cessare — Liv.

5. Expecting; as expecto, spero, &c. : thus, Ab alio exspedes,
alteri quodjeceris — P. Syr. Ab una exspedes quod a vndtis sperare
nequeas — Buchan. Perhaps in such instances there is an ellipsis
of a verb of receivinir.

6. Taking away and Removing ; as, aufero, rnpio, surripio .fu-
ror, tollo, removeo, arceo, prohibeo, pello, repello, propulso, revoco ;
also coniineo, coliibeo, refrceno, defendo, jniinio, tego, tueor, dcjicio,
dcscisco, degeuero, to which may be added verbs compounded with
a or ab ; as abigo, abstineo, a^noveo, abduco, abrado, amitlo for di-
mitto, avello, avoco, &c. : thus Minas triginta ab illo abstuli^—Ter.
Cohibere animurn ab alieno — Cic.

7. Dismissing, Banishing, and Disjoining; as dimitto, relegot
disjungo, divello, segrego, separo : thus, Einnab se dimittit — Ctes.

8. Buying ; as emo, mercor,Jceneror, conduco : thus, A piscato-
ribus jadum emerat — V. Max.

9. Many other verbs ofvarious significations ; as caveo, declino,
defledo ; discedo, recedo ; ajfero, do, reddo,Jero, reporto ; incipio,
ordior ; servo, custodio, vindico ; timeo, inetuo.Jbrmido, &c. : thus,
Tibi ego, Brute, non solvatn, nisiprius a te cavero — Cic.

Note 7. Many of these vary their construction. Aufero, adi-
mo, eripiot, &c. generally govern the dative ; also sometimes verbs
of Defending, Difference, and Distance. We say Interdicere ali-
eui aliquam rem, aliqua re, and, according to Cicero, Prcetor i7i-
terdixit de vi hominibus armatis. Timerc, metuere ab aliquo, and
aliquem. Verbs of Asking have generally two accusatives. Pro-
hibeo, ccsso, desisto, are often followed by the infinitive. By the
subjunctive and ut or ne, verbs of Intreating, Asking, and Fear-
ing; with ne, jrrohibeo, interdico, and caveo (the last generally
without ne) ; and also with quin and quo minus, interdico, and
prohibeo. Verbs of Asking are often followed bya«, num,idnim,

&c. Again ; Verbs are often followed by other prepositions :

as, Differre discrepare, dissentire cum aliquo, for ab aliquo. Etna,
redimo, declino, defledo de. Haurio, sumo, liabeo, peixontor, scitor,
sciscitor, ex. Audio, moveo, dimoveo., pello, aufero, tollo, ccdo, colligOt
qu(sro ( signifying fo inquire) de or ex, Arcco, prohibeo, intcrdn-

227

dO) nioveo, pello, cedo, desisto, scpono, siihmoveo ; also abdico and
supersedeo, an ablative \vithout a preposition. The last two never
have the preposition expressed.

Note 8. In like manner, certain adjectives of Diversity and Or-
der, such as alius, alter, alienus, diversus ; secundus, tertius, &c.
take an ablative wxih. a or ab : as, Quicf/iuvii aliiid a libertate —
Cic. Tu nunc eris alter ab illo — Virg. Jjt sacerdos ejus Decs, ma"

jestate, imperio et potentid secundus a rege habeaiur — Hirt. B.
Alex. Or alius without a preposition : as. Neve putes alium sa-

piente bonoque beaium — Hor. Quod si accusator alius Sejanojb-
ret — Pha^dr.

Note 9. Verbs of Striving ; as, contendo, certo, bello, pugno : of
Joining'or Coming together ; asjungo, conjungo, concumbo, coeo,
misceo, take an ablative with cum: as, Mecum certasse Jeretur—
Ovid. Salutem meam cum communi salute conjungere discrevi —
Cic. Consilia cum illo iion viiscuerant — Tac. To these add conjc-
ro, comparo, compono, and contendo used for comparo, with com-

munico and participo. But of these the construction is often

varied ; for we sa}*^ Contendere, certarc, &c. contra or adversus ali-
quem ; also inter se, and, poetically, alicui. Jungo and conjungo
have also the dative usually ; and poetically, concumbo, coeo, and
misceo. We also find Jungere se ad aliquem — Cic. Jungi, coire,
misceri, inter se, are common.

Note 10. Mereor,Jiicio, fit, erit,futurum est, take an ablative
with de : as, Ita de populo Romano meritus est — Cic, Mereo also ;
as. Si bene quid de te merui — Virg. Indicium dejide ejusjecisti-—
Cic. Quid de me fiet? — Ter. But generally the preposition is
omitted: as. Quid hoc liomine Jaciatis — Cic. Quid ie futurum
censes? — Ter. Sometimes the dative is used: as, Quid huic tu
homini fades — Cic. Quid mihifet — Ovid. '

Note 11. Verbs of Perceiving and Knowing; as inteUigo, soi-
iio, cognosco, conjicio, disco, percipio, colligo, audio, take the abla-
tive with e or ex : as, Ex gestu tuo intelligo quid velis — Cic. Ex
tuis Uteris statum reriwi cognovi — Cic. Hoc ex illo audivi — Cic.

to

Note 12. A variation in the construction, or in the prepositions,
often alters the sense : thus, Audire ex aliquo refers to the source
of information. Audire de aliquo generally refers to the object
concerning which information is given. Yet, Cicero uses Sccpe
hoc audivi de patre et de socero meo ; for ex patre, ex soccro. Cog-
noscere ex aliquo, i. e. to discover from one. De aliquo, i. e. to
judge of him. Mereri aliquid, i. e. to deserve a thing. De ali-
quo, i. e. of one. Sentire cum aliquo, i. e. to be of one's opi-
nion. De aliquo bene vet male, i. e. to think well or ill of him.
Tirncre, mctuere aliquem, or ab aliquo, \. e. to be afraid of one.
Timcrc, mctuere alicui, or pro aliquo, i. e. to be afraid or concern-
ed for him.

• Quid tibi fiet, and Quid de tejlet, have no other ilifFerence tlian " What
will be done to you ?" and " What will become of" vou ?"

Q2

22S

I^ote If?. Passive impersonals are either used absolutely; as,
Quid agitur? Sialur — Ter. Or they take after them the case of
their personals, the accusative of the active voice excepted : as,
Ut majoribus natu assurgatiir, ut supplicum misereatur — Cic Nee
mihi parcatur — Ovid.

Note 14, The accusative of the active voice constituting the
nominative in the passive, it follows, that verbs which govern the
dative only, can be used passively in the same sense as imperso-
nals only ; thus instead of Ilia cetas non invidetur, sed Javdur, we
should say Non invidetur illi cp.tati, sed favetur — Cic. instead of
Noceor, Nocetur mihi. The converse of this is in general true : —
that whatever verb is used in the first and second persons passive,
its active admits an accusative after it. Very few examples oc-
cur to the contrary.

Note l.T. Passive impersonals, coming from neuter verbs, some-
times become personal, taking a nominative of the same or of a
kindred signification : thus, Cursus curritnr. Vita vivitur, &c. be-
cause we can say, in the same manner, actively, Curro cur-
sum, Vivo vitam. Pugna ilia qiice pugnata est — Cic. Omne mili-

tabitur bellion — Hor. Jam iertia vivitur cptas — Ovid. Many

neuter verbs taken in an active sense, or in a sense different from
their primary signification, are found in the passive voice, used as
if they came from active verbs ; these will be found in one of the
annexed lists.

OF THE INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND

SUPINES.

Rule XLIV. One verb governs another in the infini-
tive : as,

Cupio discere, I desire to learn.

Note 1. Or, when two verbs come together, without a conjunc-
tion expressed or understood, one of them is put in the infini-
tive : as, Q,ui mentiri solet, pejerare consuevit — Cic. Incipit appa^
rere — Virg.

Note 2. The infinitive is frequently subjoined to adjectives,
especially among the poets : as, Insueto vera audire ferocior ora-
tio visa est — Liv. Audax omnia perjoeti — Hor. Dignus amari —
Virg.

Note 3. The infinitive, with, or without, an accusative ex.
pressed, frequently depends upon nouns and verbs : as, Et jam

tempus cquum ^fnmajitia solvere colla — Virg. Utrum melius esset
ingredi — Cic. Se semper credunt negligi — Ter. Non satis est pul-
chra esse poemata — Hor.

Note 4. Sometimes the accusative is turned into the dative : as,
Q,uid est aidem tarn secundum naturam, quam senibus emori — Cic.

229

Cato inaj Perhaps the xrhole sentence may be Quid est^ tarn se-
cundum naturam, quam (e^f secundam naluram) senibuSy [sencs,)
emori.

Note 5. The governing word is sometimes understood : as,

Meiie incepto desisicre victam — Virg. i. c. decet or par est. Ego

illtid sedulo negare fact inn — Ter. i. e. ccepi. In such tbrnis as

Viderc est, A)iinuuhcrtere est,facullas, pntcstiis, copia, or the hke,

is understood. Thus also, Neque est tcfallere cuiiiuam — Virg.

Note 6. The infinitive itself is sometimes suppressed : as, Ei
provinciam Numidiam popidus jussil — Sail. i. e. dari. Socratem
Jidibus docuit — Cic, i. e. canerc.

Note 7. It has just been mentioned that tlie infinitive is often
dependent upon ccepi understood: but many instances occur in
which this idiom cannot be rationally explained upon the sup-
position of such an ellipsis: as, Verum ivgeiiium ejus haud absur-
dum : posse versus Jacere, jocum movere — Sail.

Note 8. When the infinitive mood is governed by a preceding
verb, it supplies the place of a substantive, since it is the object
of the action, energy, or affection denoted by the governing verb ;
thus in Cupio discere,disccre is the object of the affection denoted
by cupio, in the same manner as in English, to learn or learning,
is the object of / desire, when we say I desire to learn, or I desire

learning. The infinitive mood may, therefore, be considered

as a substantive. Its gender is neuter ; it is of the singular num-
ber ; and is used in all cases. It is governed by nouns, verbs,
and prepositions; and adjectives and pronouns agree with it, as
will be seen in the following examples :

1. It is used as a nominative to a verb personal : as, Utinam
emorijortunis meis honestus exitus esset — Sail. As a nominative
following a verb substantive; thus, SiveilluderatsincJ^anereferri
— Ovid. As a nominative to a verb sometimes esteemed imper-
sonal : thus, Cadit in eundem et misereri at invidere — Cic. As a
case in apposition to a preceding nominative : thus, Res crat spec-
taculo digna, vidcre Xerxcm in exiguo latcntem navigio — Justin.
It is true that, in this last example, videre, the infinitive, is, as in
a preceding example, the nominative to the substantive verb ;
but the sentence is usually translated, " It was a thing worthy
of being seen — to behold, or observe, Xerxes," &c.

2. It is used after some substantives and adjectives as a geni-
tive, often convertible into the gerund in di : as, Tcmpus est abire
— Cic. for abeundi, or abitionis. Est animus nobis eff'nndere vi-
tam — Ovid. Non dejuit animus adoriri — Suet. Soli cantare
periti Arcades — Virg. for cantandi, or cantus.

3. It is used as a dative : thus, Et vns servirc inagis, quam im-
perare parati estis — Sail. i. e. servituti magis quam imperio.

4. As an accusative : thus, Da milii fdlcre — Hor. i.e.arfem
J'allendi. Terram cum primiim arant, proscindcrc appellant ; cum

ilerian, qffringerc dicuni — Vair. After a preposition; as, Nihil

230

interest inter dare et accipere — Senec. Prceter plorare — Hor.
Prceter loqui — Liv.

5. As a vocative, in O vivere nostrum, for 0 vita nostra.

6. As an Ablative: thus, Et erat turn dignns amari — Virg. for
amore. Ne opcram perdas poscere — Plaut. i. e. in posccndo. As
an ablative case absolute, either with, or without, a preceding
accusative expressed : thus. Hand cuiquam dubiu opprimi posse
— Liv. Audita regem in Siciliam tendere — Sail.

7. It admits an adjective or pronoun to agree with it : as, To-
tum hoc dispUcet philosophari^-Cic. Sed ipsiim Latine loqui est
illud quidem in magna laiide ponendum — Cic. Scire tuum nihil
est — Pers. The poets often join an adjective with the infinitive,
which may be considered either as an adverb, or as an adjective
agreeing with it : thus, Datur ordo senectcB Admeto, sernmque mo-
ri — Stat, lieddes dulce loqui, reddes ridere decorum — Hor.

8. It is found with the genitive of a pronoun after it, like a
noun: as, Quid est hujus vivere? diu mori — Sen. F. Maximus ;
cujus non dimicarej'uit vincere — Val. Max.

Note 9. The infinitive is used as an accusative, after verbs of
an active signification : as, Desidero tc vidcre, for conspectuin tuum :
and this chiefly when there is no suitable noun : as, Nescio men-
tiri. Likewise, when the infinitive may be resolved into quod, ut,
lie, quin, &c. with some finite verb : as, Noii dubilabo te monere —
. Cic. i. e. quin te moneam. It is sometimes used when convertible
into the participle in dus : as, Loricam donat habere viro — Virg.
i. e.habendnm, or ut habeat. It supplies the place of an accusa-
tive with ad, propter, or ob : as, Num te emerc cocgit — Cic. i. e.
ad emere or ad emendum. Plorat aquam projundere — Plaut. i.e.
oh aquam prqfmidendam. The infinitive is generally used in En-
glish and in Greek, when the intention is to denote the final
cause ; this is not common in Latin, but a 'i^.w instances of it oc-
cur : as, "Non te frangere persequor — Hor. i.e. ut J'rangam, Iii-
troiit videre — Ter. Proteus pccus egit altos visere monies — Hor.
This may be considered either as a poetical license or a Graecism,
and is not to be imitated.

l^ote 10. The infinitive mood and its accusative case (which
form is equivalent to quod or ut with a finite verb) often supplies
the place of a case: as, Sc/n'metuum esseherum — Plaut. Te ac-
cepisse meas Uteras gaudeo — Ter. in which the neuter verb may be
supposed to be followed by the preposition Kara or propter.

Note II. The infinitive has been termed Nonien Verbi, or the
noun of the verb : and whenever the verb following that interven-
ing between two verbs, is convertible, according to the sense,
into a cognate noun, the noun and verb following that may gene-
rally be put in Latin, the one in the accusative, and the other
in the infinitive, omitting the Latin o^ihat : thus, Audivi eum ve-
nisse, I heard that he had arrived, is equivalent to ejus adventunt,
of his arrival. Scripsii se cuperc, to suayt cupiditatem. The in-

231

finidve is, however, sometimes turned into a finite verb followed
either by quod or ut, although these two are not, but very seldom,
mutually convertible : thus,

1. The infinitive mood, or sometimes quod followed by the in-
dicntive or subjunctive, is put after verbs of sense ; as sentio, ani-
inadverto, intelligo, audio, ccnseo, xcio, credo, ohliviscor, &c. : verbs
of attection ; as gandeo, Icetor, doleo,crgrcJero, miror, &c, except
verbs of desire and fear, which require ut : verbs of speaking
and showing ; as, dico, nio, perJnbco, refero, nuncio, ncgo, ostendo,
demonsfro, prowitto, polliceor, .tpondco, voveo, Sec. : (but after the
following the infinitive is used, but never quod ; solet, ccepit, inci-
jni, potest, quit, nequit, est for licet, debet, ikc.) : as, Miror te ad
me nihil scribere — Cic. Scio se promittere falso — Ovid. Sciojam

Jilius quod amet meus — Ter. i'orjilium mcum amare. Scribis mihi,
7nirari Ciceronem, quod nihil signijicera de suis actis — Brut, ad Att.
ap. Cic. This subject will be further noticed under Conjunc-
tions, where an alphabetical list will be given of the principal
words usually followed by quod, tU, or the infinitive.

2. The infinitive, or the subjunctive with ut, may be subjoined
to verbs of willing ; as volo, nolo, nia/o, cupio, opto, permitto, sino,
patior, &c. (these rather take the infinitive :) to verbs of com-
manding ; as impero, mando, prcecipio, edico. Sec. ; to verbs of in'
treating; as oro, i-ogo, postulo, peto, Jlagito, prcccor, &c., (but
these oftener take the subjunctive with ut or ne : ) also to verbs de-
noting something future ; as j^ci'o, cogo, impello, urgeo, dcccrno,
s'atuo, constituo, facio, studeo, &c. ; and to certain impersonals,
or words used impersonally ; as libct, licet, deed, oportet, cxpedit,
conducit, prodest, obest, nocet, rrfert, interest, prccstat, sequilur,
&c. to which may be added such expressions as ^^quumest. Far
est, Cetium est, Fas est, Ncfas est, but these seldom take the sub-
junctive with ut. Thus, P'is me uxorem ducerc ? — Ter. or ut uxo'
rem ducam. Non aliter cineres mando jacere meos — Mart, or, vt
cineres mei jaceant. His orat vigiles incumbere curas — Val. Flac.
or, ut his vigiles curce incumbant. Modo liceat vivere, est spes —

Ter. or, id vixmmus. It is observed that the subjunctive with

ut or ne, is more common after verbs of commanding, than the
infinitive ; but that the infinitive generally occurs after a dative
or an accusative, the subjunctive, after a dative only : as, Cadmo
2)erquirere raptam \ Jilinm^ Imperat — Ovid. Fquitatum procedcre

imperat — Ca^s. Suis, ut idem faciant, imperat — Caes. It is

likewise observed, that, after the following words, the conju.nc-
tion is often omitted, volo, nolo, mala, rogn, precor, censeo, caveo,
suadeo, licet, oportet, juheo, and similar words, nionco, and the like ;
after rf?c used for /«/»<?, after sine,fac ov facito, csto, (suppose,
grant ;) and after neccsse est, inscitia est, dare operam : as, Si/ro
ignoscas volo — Ter. Nee mcdeare mihi sanesquc hccc vulnern man-
do — Ovid; Tu fac bono mngnoque nnimo sis — Cic. Tiisciiia est,
advcrsum sliniulum calces — Ter. Licet ndjicins — Var. IlJud monen,
castra habeas — Ncp. Esto, populus mallet— Wow The verb of in'

232

treating is sometimes omitted : as, Ul isthunc di, deceque pndanL
Pncor, or a similar word, is understood.

Note 12. Dubilo and duhium e<tt are sometimes followed by the
infinitive, but oftener by the subjunctive with an, num, ulrum,
and (ifr/ow goes before) quin :' ■&%. Non dubito fore plerost/ue —
Nep. Periisse me una hnud dubium est — Ter. Non dubium est,
ijuiu ixxorem noiitfilius — Ter. Dm dubitavit, imperium deponerel,
an bello ref^isUrel — Justin. It is to be observed, that such phrases
as Dubito an, Ha7id scio an, Nescin an, although from their very
nature they imply some doubt, are, notwithstanding, generally
used in a sense almost affirmative : thus, Si per se virtus sine fortu-
7id ponderanda sit, dubilo an hunc primum omnium ponam — Nep.
i. e. for aught I know he may be placed first, or I am inclined to
place him first. Jtque haud scio an quae dixit vera sint omnia —
Ter. denotes that he is inclined to believe all that had been said,
to be true. Eloi/nenlid qwdem nescio an parent habuisset neminem
— Cic. implies that he supposed lie had no equal. A i'ew in-
stances might be mentioned in which such phrases are to be in-
terpreted negatively.

Note 13. Verbs of fearing; such as timen, metuo, vereor. paveo,
are used affirmatively with jie, but negatively with ut or ne mm :
thus, Timet ne deseras se — Ter. She is afraid that you may forsake
her. Paves ne ducas uxorem — Ter. denotes you are afraid to marry.
Paves ut ducas — Ter. You are afraid lest you should not marry
her. Vereor ne exercituinfirmum habere possit — Cic. I am afraid
lest he should have a good army. Intellexi te vereri ne superior es
literce viihi reddiice non essenl — Cic. I understood you w^re afraid,
that I had not received your last letter. Tivieo ne non impetrem
— Cic. I am afraid I shall not carry the point. In explanation of
this, it may perhaps be observed, that such Latin verbs have in
themselves something of a negative nature, that,' ex. gr. timeo
has in it something of the nature of tiou spero, expectation being,
in a certain sense, the basis of both ; that, therefore, seeing they
are negative themselves, it follows that, when they are followed
by ne, which is another negative, the sense must be, on the
whole, affirmative, since two negatives destroy each other; and
that when they are followed by ut, which is no negative, or by
ne non, which, being two negatives, is equivalent to an affirma-
tive, they are still negative, as they are followed by nothing capa-
ble of destroying their own negative signification. Thus also if
we use two words of a negative nature, as in Non vereor ut id
Jiat-, or, which is the same thing, four negatives, as in Non vc'
reor ne non id Jiat, the meaning is affirmative, and the same in
both, namely, that we are almost certain, that we expect, or sus-
pect, that the thing we wish for will happen ; and, therefore, that
we are not afraid that it will not come to pass. Thus Cicero, Ne
verendum quidem est ut tenere se possit, et 7noderari. We have no
reason to be afraid of his containing and governing himself; or,
although tlie cxpreision is somewhat stronger, wu have reason to

2S3

believe, or to expect, that he vvill, Sec. Non vereor ne hoc itficium
meum ServUio non probem. I am not afraid, or I hope, that I shall
be able to justify my conduct to Servilius.—— There is, it is ob-
served, a distinction between Vereor ne, and Vereor ut, in the for-
mer's being used to denote our fear that something may happen,
which we do not wish; and in the latter's implying our fear that

something may not happen, which we wish to happen. The

infinitive is but seldom used after these: thus, Metuit larigi — Hot.
i. e ne tangatur. Sed vereor tardce causa fuisse mora: — Ovid. i. e.
ne causa ftierim. But in such expressions as Meiuit tentnre, Timet
venire, Vereor dicere, He is afraid of trying, or to try, &c. the in-
finitive only is used, because in these the reference is to a simple,
positive action ; in the others, to one which is contingent.

Note 14. After such verbs as exist imo, puto, sparo, cifflrmo, sus-
jncor, &c. the place of the future of the infinitive may be ele-
gantly supplied hy fore or futurum esse, the verb being put in the
subjunctive with ?//.• as, Existimabant pleriquejidurumjuissc, ut
oppidum amitteretur — Caes. Nunquam putavijhre ut ad te supplcx
venirem — Cic. When the verb has no future participle, this phra-
seology becomes necessary.

Note 15. The English infinitive following any part of the verb
am is expressed in Latin by the future participle : as, Rationem
redditurus est. He is about to give an account. Ratio reddenda
est— Cic, An account is to be given. It may sometimes, as after
video, sentio, audio, be expressed in Latin by the present participle;
as, Vidi cum ingredientem, I saw him enter, or entering, i^ensi
ilium lacrymas eff'undentem, I saw him shed tears.

The Gefieral Rulefoi- the Govei'nment of Partici2)lcs,
Gerunds, and Siiphies.

Rule XLV. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, govern
the case of their own vei'bs : as,

Amans virtutem. Loving value.
Carcns fraude. Wanting guile.

Note \. Thus also, Quidam noniinatus poeta — Cic. Regni re-
rumque obliti — Virg. Indulgens sibi hydrops — Hor. Non hrfcriora
scent us — Virg. Viriim pecmiidindigentem^ — V. Max. Parcc7idum
est teneris — Juv. Consilium Lacedccmonem occupandi — Liv. JJlen-
durn est evfatc — Ovid. Aut Graiis servitvm matribus ibo — Virg.
Legati venerunt qucstum injurias, et exfcederc res repctitum — Liv.
Vaticinatus est madejactum iri GrcEciam sanguine — Cic.

' We find Ellens omnibus — Cic. and Omnium lionestarumrerum cgmix — Sail.
Abundans is likewise tlius construed, but the ablative is the more frequent.
Jndigirns ia also construed with a genitive. Such constructions may be re-
ferred to tins rule, since efiro, abinulo, and indifieo, nrc found with a genitive.
Some, however, refer them to Rule XXI, and othtrs refer the genitive to
Rule XIV.

Note 2. Government belongs to the first supine only.

Note 3. Verbal nouns sometimes govern the case of their verbs:
as, Justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus—C'ic. Irfiidia; conmli
7ion procedebant — Sail. In these, perhaps, some participle may-
be understood, as prcestitus or Juctus. Ignis aqiice pugiiax — Ovid.
Gratidabundus patrioe — Justin. Vitabundus castra liosjiinn — Liv.

Note 4. The gerund in di.., in imitation of a substantive, some-
times governs, instead of the accusative plural, the genitive plu-
ral: as, Nominandi istorum entcopia — Plant. Ncque sid colligendi
hostibus facultatem relinquunt — Cecs. This is most common with
pronouns; but we also find Facultas agrorum condonmuh — Cic.
Exemplormn cligendi potestas — Cic. &c. If the genitive singular
be found, and this is very uncommon, it happens when the pro-
noun is of the feminine gender : as, Quoniaju tin videndi est copia
— Plaut. Ego ejus videndi cupidus recta conseqiior — Tcr. Few
instances can be adduced of its governing any other singular ge-
nitive than that of pronouns feminine.

Note 5. Exosus, perosus, and often also jjertasus, signify active-
ly, and govern the accusative: as, Tcedas exosa Jugales — Ovid.
Plebs considiim iioinen jicrosa erat — Liv. Perto'sus ignaviam sunm
— Suet. Pert(ssusf used impersonally, governs the genitive also:
as, PertcEsum levitatis — Cic. thcdanii tcedccque — Virg. Exosus
and perosus, signifying passively, are said to be found with a dative:
as, sJennani Romanis perosi sunt. Exosus Deo ct Sanctis — Lily.
Exosus universis — Eutrop.

Note 6. Do, reddo, volo, curo,Jacio, habeo, with the accusative
of a perfect participle, are often used by way of circumlocution,
instead of the verb of the participle: as, Fffectmn dabo — Ter. i. e.
effciam. Me missumface — Ter. i. e. mitte. Liventas reddam — Ter.
i. e. inveniam. In certain instances there is an evident difference
between the simple tense of the verb, and the periphrasis corre-
sponding to the manner in which it is usually interpreted in En-
glish: thus, if we say Ghidius quern nbdidcnd, or Gladiiis quern ab-
ditum habcb(d, the translation of either is, The sword lohich she had
concealed. The latter is the phraseology of Livy, describing the
suicide of Lucretia, and implies the actual possession of the dag-
ger, at the time ; the former does not. In the others, the peri-
phrastic form is said usually to denote greater emphasis than what
is contained in the simple tense of the verb.

Note 7. Curo, habeo, mando, loco, conduco, do, iribuo, accipio,
mitto, relinquo, and the like, as edico, deposcn, suscipio, rogo, trado,
jjcrmitto, instead of the infinitive, the subjunctive, or sometimes
the gerund in dum with ad, are elegantly construed with the par-
ticiple in diis, agreeing with a substantive in gender, number, and
case : as, Funus ei satis amplum faciendum curavi — Cic. for Jieri
or idjieret. Demus nos philosophicB cxcolendos — Cic. Edico dird
bellum cum gente gerendum. — Virg. Qui laudcm gloriamqiie P.
ylfricani lucndam conscrvaiidamqnc suscrpii — Cic. AiiribuH nos

235

trucidandos Celhego ; cceteros cives intcrficiendos Gahinio ; urhem
inflammandnin Cassia ; toiam Italiam vastandam dir/picndanique
('atilince — Cic. in which the gerund in dum might be used, as at/
trucidcmdum, ad interjiciendum, &c.

GERUNDS.

Rule XLVI. The gerund in dum of the nominative
case, with the verb csf, governs the dative : as,

Vhetidimi est milii rede^ I must hve well.
Moriendum est omnibus., All must die.

Note 1. That is, the gerund in dam of the nominative case, de-
noting necessity or obligation, with the third person singular of.
any tense of sum, or with /ore/, governs the dative of the object
with which the necessity or obligation lies: as, Dolendnm est tibi
ipsi — Hor. JMuIta novis rebus prcesertini qnum sit agendum — Lucr.
FAiamsi cinn pluribus dimicandum Jhret — Liv. In these last, how-
ever, the dative is understood.

Tslote 2. The dative is often understood : as, Orandum est, ut
sit mens sana in corpore sano — Juv. supply tibi.

Note 3. Neuter verbs, denoting posture or gesture, which have
a nominative before and after them, may have after this gerund
two datives : as, Tibi in tud pace armato vivc7idum est — Senec.
equivalent to Tibiintudj)ace armato £vel armatum'] vivere necesse
est.

Note 4>. After another verb, this gerund is turned into the ac-
cusatwe with esse ox fore, expressed or understood : as, Qiiolidie
meditere resistendum esse iracundice — Cic. Quibus rebus qncim ma-
turrime occurrendum (^esse) putabat—Cocs. Rursus ab Senatu ei
postulandumjbre — Liv.

Note 3. This gerund may be resolved into the infinitive, or the
subjunctive with ut generally understood, such words as necesse
est, oportet, debeo, going before : as, Cuique nianendum est, into
Qiiisque debet manere. Moriendum est, into Homijii necesse est
viori, or iit moriatur. Ei postea non credendum, into Ei credi
postea non oportet — Cic. When the verb is neuter, it is not con-
vertible into the participle in dus ; but when it is active, it may
be thus varied : as, Hal)endum est canes, i. e. Oportet habere canes ;
or Habendi sunt canes, i. e. Opotiet canes haberi. The latter is said
to be the more frequent construction, when there is a passive
voice ; but the former is not, on that account, to be reckoned an
antiquated form of expression. The antients frequently varied
this construction by the substantive verb, and a verbal noun in io:
as, Quid tibi hanc curntio est rem, — Plaut. Cavendum est may be
changed into Caulio mihi est, Cautio niea est\ Debeo cavere, Ne-

' In these two forms, the duly, necessity, or obligation, does not appear so
evident as in tlic others.

236

cesse est mi/ii covere, Necesse est or Opoiid me caverC) \ccesse hd'
bco cavere, Cavectm opoiiet or necesse est.

Note 6. Grammarians have differed in their explanation of the
construction of gerunds, some considering them as the participle
in dus, and others, as verbal nouns governing a case. That they
are not participles, is inferred chiefly from the two considerations,
that they have no substantive expressed, with which they agree,
and that neuter verbs in o, which have no participle in dus, liave,
notwithstanding, the verbal noun or gerund. Taking them as
nouns, this construction may be thus explained ; Eundiim est 7nihi,
1 must go, i, e. Eundum est [opus) viUii, Going is needful or ne-
cessary for me. Oi-andum est, ut sit &c. i. e. Orandum, id sit &c.
est (opus nobis ;) equivalent to opus est, ut oreruus. Kdum be con-
sidered as coming from the participle in dus, such examples as the
Jast may be thus explained passively; Hoc est oraudum, ut sit &:c.
It is to be observed that the gerund in dum, while it is followed by
a dative, governs at the same time the case of its verb: thus, in
the last example, li orandum be taken in an active sense, the words
ut sit mens sana &c. supply the place of an accusative to it : thus
also Utendum est [nobis) cetate — Ovid. In regard to their signi-
fication, there has been a considerable difference among gramma
rians, some asserting that it is active, and some, passive. 1 believe
it will be generally found, that they have the same signification
as their verbs, that is, when these are active, they are active ; and
when these are neuter, they are so likewise. It may be inferred
from their government of other cases, besides the dative which all
gerunds in dum with the verb est govern, that they have an active
signification, those which come from neuter verbs being excepted.
That they may be turned into the passive participle in dus is no
decisive argument in favour of their being passive, since, although
the general meaning in both forms may be similar or nearly so, yet
there is a difference in the precise mode of the respective expres-
sions. Thus, if we say In 'percipiendo fructus , the meaning is ac-
tive, and is equivalent to Cum per cipias fructus. If we say In per-
cipiendisfructibus, the turn of expression seems passive, Cum fruc-
tus percipiantur. As active verbs are sometimes used absolutely,
or as neuters, so their gerunds are sometimes found having an ab-
solute or apparently neuter signification : thus, Pucros ante urbcrii

lusiis causd excrcendique producere — Liv. Qjium JugurtJia Tisi'

diumad imperandum vocaretur — Sail. In the former a personal pro-
noun may be understood ; and in regard to the latter, which some
explain by consideringarf imperandum as equivalent to ad impcrari,
or ut ei imperaretur, it may be observed that it seemed to the Ro-
mans themselves so contrary to analogy, that Cicero writes " Quare
ades ad imperandum, sen parendum potius: sic cnini antiqni lo'
quebantur. Ep. 9. 25. Thus also, if we say Memoria excolendo,
sicut alia omnia, augetur — Quinct, the meaning may be not si co-
latur, but si colas. Yet, if there are some who consider such ex-
amples as passive, it is a matter of little con5C(]uence. The ibU

2-i7

lowing are the principal instances which I have seen adduced to
prove their passive signification ; Athenas qiioque criidicndi causd
viissus — Justin, i. e. for the sake of being instructed, or for
the sake of instruction ; but tliis may be interpreted actively,
ut cum aliquis eriidiat. Carpit enim vires patdatitn, nritque vidcn-
do Jemina [bos) — Virg. generally rendered by being seen, or as
equivalent to dum videtur ; but may not the real meaning be by
seeing him? Thus also Charta empo7-etica inuiUis scribendo—
Plin, Aqua idilis bibendo — Plin. Res ad judicandum dijjicilis —
Cic. These, however, although the meaning does appear passive,
may be interpreted actively. Indeed, no ambiguity arises, in En-
glish, from giving them what is, at least injbrm, an active interpre-
tation ; thus, we may sny , paper Jit for tvriting, ovjit to "write upon,
while we mean, fitjor being xvritten upon ; luater fit for drinking,
or to drink, or fit to be drunk; a matter difficult to decide, &c. That
the English gerund, participle, or verbal noun, in ing, has both
an active and a passive signification, there can be little doubt.
Whether the Latin gerund has precisely a similar import, or
whether it is only active, it may be difficult, and, indeed, after
all, it is not of much i^ioment, to ascertain.

Rule XL VI I. The Gerund in di is governed by substan-
tives, or adjectives : as,

Tempus legendi. Time of reading.

Cupidus discc7idi. Desirous to learn.

Note 1. The substantives are such as amor, causa, gratia, stu-
dium, tempus, occasio, ars, focultas, otium, cupido, voluntas, con-
suetudo, locus, licentia, venia, vis, &c. ; thus, A7nor habendi — Cic.
It is observed, that gratid and causd are generally placed after
the gerund: as, Pabulandi causd — Caes. Purgandi gratid — Caes.
Mala et impia consuetudo, est contra deum dispjitandi — Cic. but
that, when used in any other case than the ablative, they may
be placed before : as, Equitatum per causam pabulandi emissum—
Caes.

Note 2. The adjectives are chiefly such as denote desire, know-
ledge, remembrance, and their contraries ; as peritus, imperitus, cu-
pidus, insuetus, certus, rudis, &c. belonging to Rule XIV : thus,
Docendi peritus — Quinct. Certus eundi — Virg. Insuetus yiavigan-
di~Ci£s.

Note 3. The infinitive is sometimes used for this gerund, espe-
cially by the poets ; as Tempus abire, Occasio scribcre, &c. for ab-
eundi, scribendi. Studium quibus arva tueri — Virg. Tempus sol-
vere colla — Virg. Sometimes the gerund in dum with ad : as, Fa-
cultas ad dicendum — Cic. equivalent to Facultas dicendi.

Note 4. The governing substantive is sometimes understood :
as, Cum haberem in animo navigandi — Cic. i. e. propositum . This
sometimes happens to participles or gerundives: as, Regium impc-

238

rium quod initio conservandce libertaiis atque ai(gend(S reipiiUicce
J^uerat — Sail. i. e. causa.

Note 5. This gerund is soraetimes followed by the genitive plu-
ral, instead of the accusative. See Rule XLV, Note 4.

Rule XLVIII. The gerund in do of the dative case is
governed by adjectives signifying usefuhiess or fitness : as,

CJiarta utilis sa-ihendo, Paper useful for vi^riting.

Note 1. Thus also, Chnrta emporetica est inutilis scribendo —
Plin. Ferrum liahile tundendo — Plin,

Note 2. The adjective is sometimes suppressed: as, Tu non sol-
vendo eras — Cic. Radix ejus vescendo est — Plin. Supply ^:)ar, ha-
bilis, apttis, or some similar word.

Note 3. This gerund sometimes depends upon a verb : as, Epi-
dicum qucerendo operant dabo — Plaut. Ut nee triumviri accipiundo,
nee scribce rejerundo siifficerent — Liv. Is censendo finis Jactus est
' — Liv.

Note 4. Sometimes the gerund in dum with ad is used instead of
this construction : as. Qua pecude, quod erat ad vescendum homi-
nibus apta, nihil genuit naturajcecundius — Cic.

Note 5. This gerund is governed not only by adjectives signify-
ing usefulness, fitness, or the contrary, but by other adjectives
also: thus, Illud cdiscendo, scribendoque commune est — Quinct.
Dat operam nc sit reliquum poscendo atque aujerendo — Plaut. Te^
lum, utfodiendo acuminatum pariter, et sorbendo fistulosum esset —
Plin.

Rule XLIX. The Gerund in dum of the accusative case
is governed by the preposition ad or inter : as,

Promptus ad audiendum^ Ready to hear.

Attentus inter docendum^ Attentive in time of teacliing.

Nott 1. It is likewise sometimes governed by ante, circa, or ob:
thus, ^d pcenitendum properat qui cito judical — Publ. Syr, Jge,
Tityre, et inter agendum. . . . caveto — Virg. .Ante domandum In-
genles tollent animos — Virg. Plus eloquentia circa movendum valet
— Quinct. A quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis — Cic.

Note 2. As the gerund in dum is the nominative before est, so,
consequently, it is the accusative before esse expressed or under-
stood : as. Qui dicerenl dignitati esse serviendum, reipulUcce {^esse)
consulendum — Cic. See Rule XLVI, Note 4.

Note S. This gerund is sometimes construed with haleo : as,
. Quum enitendum haberemus, ut quod parentilus datur, et orbis pro-

laretur — Plin, When the accusative is added, the gerundive or
-participle in dus is used : as^ Ut nihil discendum hateres tempore

docendi — Plin.

4

239

Rule L. Tlic gerund in do of the ablative case is go-
verneil by the prepositions a, ab, cle, e, ex, or in : as,

Pcena a peccando, ahsterret, Punishing frightens fi-om

sinnnig.

Note 1. Thus also, Aristotelem non deterruit a scrilendo — Cic.
He transeundo in Epirum — Cic. jib revocando ad incitandos hor-
tandosque versus milites — Liv. Et assentando — Ter. ILle quidem
in reciisandn perstabat — Liv. It is, though seldom, governed by-
pro or cum: as, Pro vapulando abs te mercedem petam — Plaut.
Ratio rede scribendijuncta cum toijucndo est — Quinct.

Note 2. The gerund in do, says Mr. Seyer, is found governing
a genitive: as, Cujus autem in dicendo aliquid reprehensum est — Cic.
Here I am inclined to concur in opinion with Dr. Cronibie, whose
words I take the liberty to use. " That possessive adjectives, and,
" consequently, the genitive singular of nouns substantive, are
" joined with verbals in to, there can be no question. Thus we
" say, dictio mea, ejus diclio, &c. That, for the sake of euphony,
" the gerund is sometimes found governing the genitive of the pa-
" tient, or subject of the action, is likewise unquestionable: thus,
*' Studio videndi patrum vestrorum. But I recollect no example,
" where the gerund is joined with a possessive adjective, or geni-
" live of a noun substantive, where the person is not the patient,
** but the agent ; as dicendum meum, ejus dicendum, cujus dicendum.
" In truth, these phraseologies appear to me, not only repugnant
" to the idiom of the language, but also unfavourable to precision
" and perspicuity. The example, which Mr. Seyer has adduced,
" of the gerund governing the genitive of the agent, does by no
" means authorize his conclusion ; for cujus may evidently be go-
*' verned by aliquid. Nihil ejus, nihil cujus, alitjuid ejus, aliquid
" cujus, ' nothing of his,' ' nothing of whose,' ' any thing of his,'
" &c. are expressions which I need not justify by any quotations;
** because to every classical scholar they must be perfectly fami-
" liar.

" Mr. Seyer has likewise said that the gerund is in signification
*' the same with the infinitive, or the verbal in io. No two words
" can be considered as synonymous, or precisely the same in sig-
" nification, unless they be in all cases interconvertible terms,
*' Now we may say legere est facile, lectio est facilis, but not legen-
" dum est facile. To explain the distinction between the gerund
*' and the infinitive or the verbal in io, is beside the present pur-
" pose. It is sufficient to observe that they are not used indis-
" criminately."

Note 3. This gerund may be found, contrary to the opinion of
L. Valla, after verbs of motion : as. Ipse a dicendo refugisti — Cic.
The gerundive also : as, Non videor omnino a defendendis homini-
lus sublevandisfjue discedere — Cic.

240

Rule LI. Or, the Gerund in do may be nsed without a
prejiosition, as the ablative of manner or cause : as,

Memoria excolendo augetur — Quinct. The memory is im-
proved by exercising it.

Defessus sum amhdando — Ter. I am wearied with walk-
ing-

Of the ChanoinfT of Gerunds into Gerundives
or Participles in dus.

Rule LII. Gerunds governing the accusative may be
elegantly turned into the participles in dus, which agree
with their substantives, in gender, number, and case : as,

Petendum est pacem, into Petenda est pax.
Tcmpus petendi pacem^ Tempus petendae pacis.

Ad petendum pacem^ Ad petendam pacem.

A petendo pacem, A petenda pace.

Note 1. Thus also Ejicienda est hcec moUilies — Ter. for Ejici'
endum est hanc mollltiem. Inita sunt consilia urhis dtdendce — Cic.
for urbem delendi. Reparandarum classium causa — Suet, for re-

parandi classes. Rerum suarum referendarum secum duminis

jusfiebat — Liv. From the two last examples, (and many more

might be cited,) it is evident that Valla and Farnabius committed
a mistake, when they asserted that, on account of the noisy sound,
the gerund in di is seldom changed into the genitive plural of the
gerundive ', but that either the accusative is retained, as in Studio
patres vestros videndi, or that the substantive, and not the gerund,
is put in the genitive plural, as in Patrum vestrorum videndi studio
— Dummodo perpetiendo tabori sit idoneus — Co\\im.,?o\' perpeliendo
laborem. Quce valeanl ad gloriam adipiscendam — Cic. for adipiscen-
dum. His et quae taceo duravi scepeferendis — Ovid, for hcec ferendo.

Note 2. This rule takes place, only when the verb may govern
an accusative : if it governs any other case, the gerund must be
used : as, Veritus ne reli'juos populares nietus invaderet parendi sibi
— Sail. Plus peril parcendo victis qudm vincendo, imperium auxisse
' — Liv. There is, however, an exception in regard to the verbs
ulor, (perhaps also, abutor,) fruor, fungor, and potior, which,
although they do not govern the accusative, (they did so for-
merly,) are construed according to this rule : thus, A^tas ad htve
ulenda idonea — Ter. Justitice fruendce causd — Cic. InomnimU'
nere fungendo — Cic. Urbis potiundce cupido — Justin.

Note 3. The gerundives must be in the same case as the gerunds
would have been, preserving, however, the gender and number of
the substantives.

' When a relative follows, the gerund is used ; as Hie dies attulil initium di-
cendi qucB vdlem— Cic, not dicendorum eorum q^i<r vdlem.

241

Note 4. Although the form of expression In which the gerun-
dive is used be the more common, yet examples of the other form
frequently occur in Cicero, and in other writers of the best age
and authority : thus, Visendi domos potestas — Liv, Petendi con-
sulatum gratia — Sail. Venit ad recipiendum pecunias — Var. Nunc
purgando crimina, nunc quccdam fhtendo - - - nunc monendo etiam
Patres Conscriptos — Liv. Nulla loco deero, neque ad consolajidum
neque ad leva?idum forlunam tuam — Cic. Romam videndi causa—
Virg. with many similar instances. Ecb nos lavando operayn dedc-
runt — Plaut. is a very uncommon construction.

Note 5. Of the signification of gerunds sufficient notice has
been taken in Rule XLVI. And, although a few more instances
might be added, tending to confirm the opinion of their passive
acceptation, yet there is no doubt that they in general have an
active signification, although it is certain there are not wanting
examples in which they have, or seem to have, a passive one.

The gerund in dum of the nominative case, is construed by
Rule II; the dative following it, by Rule XXV; that in di by
Rules XI and XIV: in do of the dative case, by Rule XVI ; in
dum of the accusative case, by Rule LXVIII ; and that of the
ablative, by Rule LXIX, LXXI, or LV.

OF SUPINES.

Rule LI 1 1. The Supine in um, is put after a verb of mo-
tion : as,

Abiit deambulatujn, He is gone to walk.

Note I. The supine in urn, like the gerund, is a verbal noun ;
and being, generally, placed after a verb of motion, it denotes the
nature of that action to which the motion tends. It commonly
retains the signification of the verb in o, whether active or neuter,
whence it comes, and governs the same cases: thus, Omnes ionos
perditum eunt — Sail. Ut cubitum discessimus — Cic.

Note 2. There are a few expressions in which the supine in um
follows a verb not strictly denoting motion, though motion may
be considered as implied ; such are Dofilia;m nuptum — Ter. Pani"
philam cantatum provocemus — Ter. Cohortes ad me missum facias
— Cic. Fos ultum injurias hortor — Sail. Coctum ego, non vapu-
latum, dudum conductus fui — Plaut. It is likewise put after par-
ticiples: as, Patriam defensum revocatus — Nep. Spectaium ad-
missi — Hor.

Note 3. There have been various disputes concerning the nature
of supines, and the part of speech to which they ought to be refer-
red. The general opinion seems to be, that they are mere verbal
nouns ; and some think that, although only two cases are com-
monly mentioned, urn of the accusative and u of the ablative, the
former used after a verb of motion, and the latter after an adjec-
tive noun, they are found in other cases likewise, and even, it is

R

242

said, in the plural number. Thus in such phrases as Caulum est ',
Ventum est, Pugnatum est, Comurrectum est, in which the verb is
said to be used impersonally, it is asserted that the nominative is
used. Horrendum auditu, Mirahile visu, CoUocare nuptui, are said
to contain the dative of the supine. In Eo spectalum, Veinmus
qucesitiim, and the like, the accusative is used, governed by ad,
which is found sometimes expressed. Diclu opus est — Ter. ; Mi-
gratu difficilia — Liv. ; Parvum dictu, sed immensum cestimatione —
Plin. ; are considered to contain the ablative governed by in un-
derstood.— In regard to their signification, likewise, there have
been differences of opinion.

The general opinion seems to be, that the supine in um signifies
actively, when it comes from an active verb, governing the same
case as the verb ; but that there are a few instances in which it ap-
pears to have a passive signification, such as Coctum ego, non vapii-
latum dudum conductus fui — Plant, i. e. ut vapularem, sive verbe-
rarer. But this cannot, I think, be reckoned a decisive instance,
since the supine has here only the passive signification which in
the active voice the verb itself possesses. Mulier quce usurpatum
isset — Gell. i. e. quce usurpataj'uisset. The supine in w is said to
have an active signification, chiefly when it comes from neuter
and deponent verbs : thus, Foeduvi inceptu,foedum exitu — Liv. i. e.
Cum ificipit, cum exit. Quia Censar rarus egressu — Tacit, i. e. raro
egrediebatur. It has been, however, usually considered as passive,
and is convertible into the infinitive passive : as, Fessis leviora tolli
Pergama Graiis — Hor. 2, 4, for siillatu. Adspici cognoscique dig-
nissimum — Mela, Notwithstanding this, and although it never
governs a case, and both supines are considered as coming from
the perfect participle in us, which has a passive signification,
(originally it had an active one likewise,) it appears to me, that
the supine in u may, without materially altering the sense, be in-
terpreted actively. It is generally convertible into a verbal noun,
and these are for the most part understood in the sense of the ac-
tive voice ; thus, Auctor dignus lectu, or dignus leclione ; as well as
dignus legi, dignus cjuem legas, or dignus qui legatur. Hand magna
memoratu res est — Liv. may be either important to he mentioned,
or, for me to mention. Acerbafatu — Virg. may be translated bit-

' While I mention this as the decision of several celehrated grammarians,
I do not pledge myself for the accuracy of their opinion, either in regard to
this case, or to the dative. That such words as catilum, ventum, piignatiim,
&c. are participles, I entertain little doubt. Those who wish to see tlie sub-
ject discussed are referred to Vossius, Anal. III. 11. and 42, and to Perizonius,
p. 441 and 461. The principal objection to the opinion that ventum, and the
like, are participles in ventum est, &c. is, that being neuter verbs, they are not
supposed to have a passive participle. But if, as such, they admit venitur, they
may likewise admit the neuter gender of a passive participle. The truth, I. be-
lieve, is, that neuter verbs, used impersonally, have perfect participles, which
are considered as triptotes, having only tlie nominative, accusative, and abla-
tive neuter : thus, Statiim est, statum esse dicit, ojms est Statu ; thus also, Persxta-
sum est, persuasxan esse volo, Hits persuaso.

24-3

ter to he related, or for me to relate. But, as an ingenious writer
observes, " It must be confessed, that every question relating to
gerunds and supines is extremely doubtful : whichever side the
reader takes, he will find difficulties in accommodating any theory
to the practice of writers. They were originally, perhaps, both
active and passive, both substantives and participles ; some con-
structions and significations might grow obsolete, other similar
ones might be arbitrarily retained ; from whence arose that irre-
gular diction which was in use at the time of the best authors,
and which can be acquired only by attentive observation."

Note 4. The supine in urn with the verb iri constitutes the fu-
ture of the infinitive passive : as, Brutum, ul scribis, visum iri a me
pitta — Cic. It never varies its termination; for we do not say Illos
occi'ios iri, but illos occisum iri. Thus used its signification is said
by some to be passive; see, however, page 87. It is to be ob-
served,that the future signification arises neither from eo, nor from
the supines, but from the connection of both ; and that, as the
one action depends upon the other, it must necessarily be con-
sidered as contingent or future : thus, in ylmalum ire and Aviatiim
iri, the former of which some grammarians have considered as
present, and the latter, as future, the time of going, as denoted
by ire or iri, is present, and as it precedes the action denoted by
amaiuvi, it follows that the loving is subsequent or future. In the
same way it is, that, by inference, the form " I will love," which
is composed of the present tense / will, and the infinitive to love,
is considered to express future action in regard to the loving, the
performance of thd action willed being necessarily subsequent or
future to the present action of willing it. For this reason, Cur te
is perdilum? — Ter, is not to be esteemed equivalent to Cur le per-
dis? the former implying future destruction, thus, '' Why are you
about to destroy yourself?" " Why are you going to destroy your-
self?" "Why are you acting in such a manner that the consequence
will be your destruction?" the latter denoting present destruction,
' Why are you destroying?" or "Why do you destroy yourself?"

Note 5. The supine in um may be resolved into a finite verb
with ut ; thus, Spectalum veniunt, i. e. ut spectent. Postquam au-
dierat non datum iri Jilio suo uxorem — Ter. i. e. fore ul uxor non
dareiur; or, perhaps, rather, /ore ut uxorem non darent.

Note 6. This supine may be varied by different constructions:
thus, Fenit oratum opevu Fenit opem orandi causa or gratia'. Fe-
nit apis orandce causa or gratia. Fenit ad orandurn opem, Fenit
ad orandam opem. Fenit opi orandce (uncommon). Fenit opern
oraturus. Fenit qui or ut opem oret. Fenit opem orare (poetical).
To these forms have been added Fenit opein ornns, and Fernt de
oranda ope, both supported by classical authorities. But the for-

Wherc the substantive may be used in the plural, the genitive may be
substituted for the accusative ; thus, Venit spectandi ludorum causa. See Rule
XLV, A-ba- 1.

R2

244

mer does not appear to me to be precisely equivalent in sense to
J^cnit oratum opem or to the others, as it simply denotes " He
comes begging assistance/' which does not imply that the intention
or purpose of the coming is to beg assistance, but merely that the
coming and the begging are concomitant or co-existent acts.

Rule LIV. The Supine in u is put after an adjective
noiui : as,

Facile dictii, Easy to tell, or, to be told.

Note 1. Thus also, Nee visufacilis, nee diclu ajfalnlis ulli — Virg.
Quod optimum factu videlitur, fades — Cic.

Note 2. It is sometimes, but rarely, found after /os, nefas, and
opus : as, Hoc fas est dictu — Cic. Nefas visu — Ovid. Ita dictu
opus est — Ter. Scitu opus est — Cic. Prudentius has used scelus
in like manner : as, Quod dictu scelus est. It may be observed that
these have the force of adjectives, and are equivalent to licitum,
illicilum, necessarium , scelesluvi.

Note 3. It is sometimes put after verbs signifying motion from
a place : as, Primus cuhitu surgat, primus cubitum eat — Cato, It
is likewise found after other verbs. Those, however, who make
a distinction between supines and verbal nouns of the fourth de-
clension, will be inclined to refer such forms to the latter deno-
mination.

Note 4?. It seems to be sometimes used for a dative case : as,
ylut mala tactu Vipera delituit — Virg. Omnia postremo bona sen-
sibus et mala tactu — Lucr. Hccc res neutiquam negtectu est milii
— Ter, These may be considered either as the supines, or abla-
tive case governed by a preposition understood, or they may be
datives, as it is well known that the dative of the fourth declension
antiently ended in u.

Note 5. The supine in u, as has been already mentioned, is in
reality the ablative of a verbal noun governed by a preposition un-
derstood; and it generally follows adjectives governing either the
dative or ablative, such as ajjabilis, bonus, dignus, mdignus,faciHs,
dijficilis, jucundus, injucundus, pulcker, utilis , foedus, turpis, rarus,
horrendur, gravis, a.sper, &c. Thus, Res horrenda relatu — Ovid,
may be horrenda in relatu. Cubitu surgat may be a cubitu. Quin-
tilian uses in the same sense Ncc in receptu dijficilis. Virgil has
Vesper e pastu vitulos ad tecta reducit, in both which the preposi-
tion is expressed.

Note 6- This supine is convertible into the infinitive : thus, Ar-
dua imitatu, cceterum cognosci utilia — Val. Max. for utilia cognitu.
Indeed, as the second supine is used absolutely, that is, does not
govern a case, the infinitive is commonly used when the energy of

the verb is intended to pass to an object.- Into the gerund in

dum with ad: as, lllud autem facile ad credendum est — Cic, It is

245

observed that tliis form is chiefly preferred either wlien there is no
supine, or when, if there be one, it cannot be used on account of

the words dependent upon the action of the verb. Into a verbal

noun: thus, Opus proscriptione dignum — Plin. After verbs of mo-
tion it is observed that the verbal noun is much more frequently
used than this supine: as, A decimce legionis cokortalione profeclus —
Caes. Jam jEIoU a populalione Acarnmme Stratum redieranl — Liv.
Indeed, in these the supine could not be used, on account of the
genitives depending upon the verbals, since the supine, as such,
governs neither a genitive like a substantive, nor any case as part
of a verb. The verbals are also used in the dative : as, Jf/ua polui
jucunda — Plin. Or in the accusative with ad: as, Tanquam we-
diocritas prceceptoris ad intellectum atfjue imitationem sit facilior —
Quinct.

Note 7. The supine in urn commonly follows verbs of motion ;
the infinitive, other verbs ; the gerund in dum with ad, follows ad-
jective nouns. This last form is, however, frequently met with after
verbs of motion ; and the poets use also the infinitive after adjec-
tives. The supine in u and the present infinitive passive are

thus distinguished : the former has generally an adjective before
it; the latter has not, unless sometimes among the poets. Indeed,
gerunds, supines, and the infinitive, being considered as verbal
nouns substantive, it is not wonderful, that, in many instances,
the one noun may be used for the other, as they are all derived
from the same original.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES.

Circumstances are five; Cause, Manner, Instrument,
Place, and Time; and they are common both to verbs and
nouns.

The Cause, Maimer, and In^frumenf.

Rule LV. Tlie Cause, Manner, and Instrument, are put
in the ablative : as,

Palleo metUy I am pale witli fear.

Fecit suo more. He did it after his own way.

Scribo calamo, I write with a pen.

Note 1. Thus also, Cause; as, Pallcl amove — Ilor. To this
refer such expressions as Insignis pietate, Major et inaximus nalu,
Nalione Syrus, Sec. Oppidum nomine Bihrax — Caes. Naturd in
illi paler, consiUis ego — Ter. Some of tiicse may be referred to

the Manner. Manner: as. More majorum—S-dW. Lento gradu

ad vindictam sui divina procedit ira — Val. Max. Instrument :

as, Naluram expellasfurca — Ilor. Ctcsus est virgis—Cic. Some
refer to the Instrument, the means, as in Aiuilos viservantid, rem

246

parsimomd retinuit — Cic. but such ablatives are better referred to
the Cause or Manner.

Note 2. The Cause is known by putting the question "Why? or
Wherefore? The Manner, by How? And the Instrument, by
Wherewith ?

Note 3. The Cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, prop-
ter, ob ; de, e, ex, prcc: as, Depuhus per invidiam — Cic. Ea sus-
picio propter hanc cuusam fuil — Cic. Ob adullerium ccesi — Virg.
Indeed, in some cases the preposition seems ahiiost indispensable:
thus we should say Colo le ob vel propter virlutem, rather than vir-
tute. When the cause is a person, this preposition must be general-
ly used: as, Nan est acjuinn me propter vos decipi — Ter. Fessus

de vid — Cic. VacillnTe ex vino — Quinct. Nee loqui prcB mcerore
potuit — Cic. Sometimes a or ab is used : as, Animus tuinida Jer-
vebat ab zVrt'— Ovid, but these refer to the word considered rather
as the agent, than as the cause.

Note 4. The Manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de,
ex, per : as, Quern celer adsuetd versat ab arte puer — Tibul. Cum
videret oratores cum scveritate aiidiri, poetas aulem cum voluptute
— Cic. Diadenia gestavit dc more rituque prisccc religionis — Suet.
Id non Jicri ex vera vita, neque adeo ex cequo et bono — Ter. Quod
iter per provinciam per vim tenlassent — CcES.'

Note 5. The Instrument, properly so called, scarcely ever ad-
mits the preposition : thus we do not say Interjecit eum cum gladio,
but gladio only. But, when the Instrument is spoken of not
strictly as material but as equivalent to the cooperating vieuns,
cum may be used : as. Cum meis copiis omnibus vexavi Amanienses
— Cic- Among the poets, however, a or ab is sometimes used :
as, Pectora trajectus ab ense — Ovid. Other prepositions, as sub,
de, or in, are sometimes prefixed to the instrument : as, Exercere
solum sub vomere — Virg. De manu cibos et aquam prcebere — Co-
lum. But in this lat,t, manu does not so much denote the instru-
ment by which the thing is done, as the place whence it is given.
The Vulgate has Visitabo in virgd peccata eoriim, and the like,

which are Hebraisms. Sanctius observes, that cjim is not placed

before the Instrument, lest it might occasion ambiguity. Thus,
if we were to write Tetigi eum cum hasla, it might be doubtful
whether the meaning were, "I touched him with (and) the spear,"
or, "I touched him with (i. e. he was touched by me with) a
spear." For this reason cuin is omitted, unless when the meaning
is along with, and the examples cited to prove the contrary either
are suspicious, or imply a different sense.

Note 6. The ablative of the Instrument is to be distinguished
from the ablative of concomitancy , which is generally expressed

* Sallust has; Mulla mm sito aiunio vohcbal and Cum (onmo rcjmlans.

- It was noticed, under the construction of passive verbs, tliat^irr generally
refers (o the minus or secondary cause, a or ab to the suvrce or uriginal ccmse ;
as ill J'cr TkrasybiUum Lyci_filium, ub exercUu recijntiir'^Ne]^.

217

with cum : as, Des'manl obsidere cum gladiis curiam — Cic' To
this may be referred certain expressions in which the Instrument,
used in a general sense, the Manner, the Atljunct, or the like, is
denoted: as, Quidincipit facer e cum tantis minis— VXsLMi. Cognovi
te Romam venisse cum felri — Cic. Ira procul alsit, cum qua ni-
hil rede fieri potest — Cic. Cum curd legere — Plant. Cum fide
persolvere — Suet. But in such instances the preposition is some-
times omitted : as, Muliitudine Numidarum castra circumverdt—'
Sail. Sese omnibus armis Infiuvium dedit — Virg.

Note 7. To this rule are referred the ablatives of the adjunct, the
matter of which any thing is made, and of the part affected : as,
Lepore, et humanitate, omnibus prcestitit Soarates — Cic. ^re
cava clypeus — Virg. JEger pedibus — Quinct. And also many
other constructions, which have been mentioned under other rules:
such as Jjfficere aliquem honore, Persequi odio, Gnudere equis,

Delibulus gaudio, &c. It is to be observed, however, that the

adjunct sometimes takes a preposition ; and that the matter is gene-
rally put in the ablative with de, e, or ex : as, Interea cum Musis
nos delectabimus — Cic. Templwn dx marmore — Virg. Candela-
brum factum e gemmis — Cic. Naves totce facias ex robore — Caes.
Sometimes the matter is put in the genitive : as, Nummus argentic
crateres argenli — Pers. in which the genitive may be governed by
ex re, or ex materia, understood. This seems an imitation of the
Greek construction, according to which they write Tov h'up^ov
Bifoiija-Ev la-^ypuiv ^6\uiv — Xen. i. e. He built a chariot of strong
wood ; in which the genitive is, in reality, governed by £?t or dtto,
understood, but sometimes expressed.

Note 8. The ablatives of this rule, though used vvithout a pre-
position, are governed by one understood, as is sufficiently mani-
fest from observing the construction of the vulgar languages, in
which it is always expressed.

0/ Place.

Rule LVI. The name of a town is put in the genitive,
when the question is- made by Ubi, [Where]: as,

Virif Romcc^ He lived at Rome.

Mortuus est Londini, He died at London.

Note 1 . That is, the continuance or abode in or at a town is put
in the genitive, if the name be of the first or second declension :
US, Quid Rojntv faciam — Juv. Is habitat Mileti — Ter. It is ob-
served, however, that when the name is of the firtt declension,
and ends in e, it is better to change the termination into a, and to
say Negotiatur Mittjlena, than Milylenes, or, supplying the ellipsis,
in urbe Milylenes.

' Caesivr writes, Ca6ar iubseqiicbalitr omnibus copiis.

248

Note 2, Hurni^fViilit'ice and belli [domi will be hereafter noticed)
are also construed in the genitive, when the question is made by
uli, the words in solo, in loco, or tempore, being understood : as,
Et huini nascenlia fraga — Virg. i. e. in solo. Prosierniie humi
juvenem — Ovid. i. e. ad solum vel terram, in which it is to be ob-
served, that humi answers to the question Q«o, denoting motion
to a place. Una semper viilitice et domifuimus — Ter, It is like-
wise to be observed, that domi viiliticBque is the usual form and
order of the expression. Belli domique agitalatur — Sail, in which
in loco seems understood. To these may be added duelli, terrce
and foci, which are said to be found, very rarely however, used
in this way : thus, Quce domi duellicjue male fecisli — Plant. Cum
vellet terrce procumbere — Ovid. Here, however, terrce may be
the dative. Domi focique — Ter. But these are not to be imi-
tated.

Note 3. The names of towns belonging to this rule are ."some-
times, though very rarely, expressed in the ablative : as, Hujus
exemplar Roma nullum habemus — Vitruv. for Romce. Rex Tyro
decedit — Justin, for Tyri. Pons, quern ille Abydofecerat — Justin.

Note 4. It is observed, that, when at denotes near or about a
place, the preposition ad is used : as, Bellum quod ad Trojam ges-
serat — Virg.

Note 5. This rule is elliptical, in urle, in opptdo, or the like,
being understood. On which account, we cannot say Natus at
Romcc urbis Celebris, but Roma: in celehri urbe, or in Romce cele-
Iri urbe, or in Romd celebri urbe; or, (but liot so often,) Romce
celebri urbe, which several forms are sanctioned by classical autho-
rity.

Rule LVII. But if the name of the town be of the third
declension, or of the phu-al number, it is put in the ablative :
as,

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage.
Studuit Parisiisy He studied at Paris.

Note 1 . Thus also, Alexander Babylone mortuus est — Cic. Car-
ihaginefuit — Cic. Quoniam Delphis oracula cessant — Juv. It has
appeared to some grammarians, that nouns of the third declen-
sion are sometimes put in the dative, by the figure Antiptosis, be-

' Mr. Jones (Lat. Gram. p. 96) observes, that " the nouns kvmi, dovii, belli,
mUit'uc, were originally written humoi, domoi, bdloi, mlUliai ; but, by dropping
the preceding instead of the last vowel, they became by accident tlie genitive
instead of the ablative, hitmo, domo, hello, viUitia, which the sense requires."
To form the ablative of the last, the final i must be removed, or supposed sub-
scribed. Domo is certainly found where the usual rule re<|uires domi; and
names of towns, belonging to this ride, may be found in the ablative. May
not, then, originally, these names of towns have been generally expressed in the
ablative, wliich seems their natural or appropriate case, as well as those be-
longing to the third declension, or of tlie plural number?

219

cause we find Convenlo Jntonio Tihuri — Cic. Nulla Laceikcmoni
tarn est nohilis vidua — Nep. Ego aio hoc fieri in Grcecid et Cartha-
gini — Plaut. But these are old ablatives similar to ruri for rure.

Note 2. The ablative is governed by the preposition in, which
is sometimes expressed: as, In Philippis Thessalus (juidani ei de
futurd victoria nunciavit — Suet. Complures [_naves] in Hispa/ijh'
ciendas curavit — Cass.

Rule LVIII. When the question is made by Q«o,
[Whither,] the name ot a town is put in the accusative : as,

Veiiit Romarn^ He came to Rome.

Profectus est Athe?ias, He went to Athens.

Note 1. That is, Motion to a town is put in the accusative : as,
Carthaginevi rediit — Cic. Et hide primum Elidem, deindc Tkebas
venit— Nep. Capuam iterjieclit — Liv.

Note 2. The dative is seldom found: as, Carthagini nuncios mit-
tam — Hor.

Note 3. Names of towns are sometimes put after verbs of tell-
ing and giving, words which imply a sort of motion : as, Rornam
erat nunciatum — Cic. Messanam Uteres dedit — Cic.

Note 4. It has been obsei'ved by Sanctius and Scioppius, that
Quo is an antient accusative similar to ambo and duo, and still con-
tinued in (juocirca, quoad, &c., so that when we say quo vadis, in
or ad is understood. Hence, the government of the accusative
of this rule is obvious. The preposition is often expressed : as,
Consilium in Lutetiam Parisiorum transfer t — Cses. Ad doctas pro-
ficisci Athenas — Propert. It is almost needless to reply to the ob-
jection, that ad signifies merely at, and that in means only in,
since it is so well known, thai, although this be the case, when
something is denoted as situated near or in a place, they are like-
wise used to denote motion to a place.

Rule LIX. If the question be made by [7/if/e, [Whence,]
or Qjicl [By or through what place,] the name of a town is
put in the ablative : as,

Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corintii.

Laodiccd itcrfaciebat, He w^ent through Laodicea.

Note I. Thus also, Acccpi Roma literas — Cic. Mullis virisfor-
tihus Tolosd, Carcasone, et Narbone nominalim evocaiis — Cjes. Iter
Laodicea faciebam — Cic. Quccsilis Samo, Ilio, Erjjthris, per AJri-
cam eliam nc Siciliam et Italicas colonias, carminibus Sibyllcc —
Tac.

Note 2. When the question is made by qua., per is frequently
used, in order to avoid ambiguity : as. Cum iter per ThebasJ'ace-
rct — Nep. But when the verb is coiupouiuled with Irans, it may

250

be omitted: as, Cum Gracchus Pomoeiium tramirel — Cic. in
which the accusative is governed by the preposition in composi-
tion.

Note 3. The ablative is governed by a or al, or by in denoting
a sort of continued or protracted motion equivalent to that which
is expressed by through,.

Note 4. The foregoing rules concerning names of towns may
be thus recapitulated : the name of a town after in or at is put in
tlie genitive, unless it be of the third declension or plural number,
for then it is put in the ablative ; after to or unto, (the latter pre-
position is obsolescent, ) it is put in the accusative ; and aherjrom
or through, in the ablative.

Of Donms and Rus.

Rule LX. Doimts and Rus are construed the same way
as names of towns : as,

Ubi ? Manet domi. Where ? He stays at home.

(Rule LVI.)
Vivit rure or ruri, He lives in the

countrj', (Rule
LVII.)
Qiio ? Domum revertitw\ Wliither ? He returns home.

(Rule LVIII.)
Abiit rus. He has gone to

the country.
UndeP Domo arcessitus swn, Whence? I am called from

home. ( Rule
LIX.)
Rediit rurc, He has returned

from the coun-
try.

Note}. Thus also: Ubi? Domi industriaiforisjustiimimperi-
um — Sail. Bare ego viventem, tu dicis in urbe beatitin — Hor.
Ruri agere vitam — Ter. Ruri is more frequently used than
rmc ; but both are used, in prose as well as in poetry, by the

best classical writers, QuoV lie domum — Virg. Also, after

verbs in which motion is not so evidently expressed : as, Cum
dabis postliac nJiquid domum literarum mei vicmliieris — Cic. Rus
ibo — Ter. Cum rus ex urbe evolavissent — Cic.' 'Unde? Nnn-
cius ei domo ueH2i— Nep. Q_ui se domo non commoverunl-—C\c,
Consilium domo pctere — Cic. Metuo pater ne rure redierit — Ter.

N)te 1. Do mi does not admit any adjectives to be joined to it,
but mere, tuce, sua.', nostra; vcstra;, a/ieiia-: as, Apud eum sic ^fui,
tanqnam domi mecc— Cic. Mulios annos domi noslrcc vixit — Cic.

251

Nonne mavis sine periculo domi iuce essCy quam cum periculo alienee
— Cic.

Note 3. With other adjectives domo is used, generally with the
preposition /k .• as, Sustinet in vidua tristia signa domo — Ovid.
But Clamor intereajit tola domo'—Cic. without the preposition.

Note 4. When domus is followed by a genitive denoting the
possessor, either domi, or the ablative with a preposition, may be
used : as, Deprehensus est domi, or, i7i domo, Ccesaris — Cic. ad

Att. Domo is sometimes used absolutely for domi: as, Abde

domo — Virg. Domo me tenui — Cic. We also find. Nee densa nasci •
tur humo — Col.

Note 5. When the question is made by quo, the preposition
may be either expressed or understood, when domus has the pos-
sessives mens, luus, suns, &c. joined to it, or is followed by the
genitive of the possessor : as, Recta a porta domiim meam venisse ;
ncque hoc admiror, quod non ad tuam potius, sed illud, quod non
ad suam — Cic. Cum prima luce Pomponii domum venisse dicilur

— Cic, Jubeo ad prcctoris domum ferri — Cic. With other

adjectives the preposition is generally expressed : as, Omnes ad
cam domum prqfecti sunt — Cic. Si in domum mcretriciam dcducar
— Ter. Yet, Sallust has Aurum atque argentum, et alia quce pri-
ma ducuntur, domum regiam. comportant — Jug. 76, 6, without the

preposition. When motion from a place is signified, a similar

construction seems to be followed : thus we say Profectus est do-
mo mea, tua, &c. or, e ox a domo mea, tua, &c. : but not Profec-
tus est domo opulenta, magnifica, &c., but e or a domo opulenta,
&c. Thus also : Me domo med expulistis. Cn. Pompeium do-
mum suam compulist is— Cic. Remigrare in domum veterem e no-
vd—C\c. Ad quern c domo Cccsaris tarn multa delafasvnt — Cic.
In some of these, it appears to me that the variation of the con-
struction may perhaps arise from some little difference in the
significations o^ domus as denoting both lio7ne, figuratively, and
a house, primarily.

Note 6. Domos, when with the above-mentioned possessives,
is generally construed without a preposition : as, Alius alium do-
mos suas inviUtntSaW. But when with other adjectives, the
preposition is generally expressed : as, Quibus aqua in privatas
domos inducitur — Hirt. B. Alex. Inque domos superas scandere
curafuil — Ovid, Yet, Propertius has Ulteriusque domos vadere
Memnonias. i. 6, 4. Iret ut jEsonias aurea lana domos. iii. 9, 12.

Note 7. Rura is always preceded by a preposition : as, Jam
nbi vos dilapsi domos, et in. rura vesira erilis — Liv. But rus and
rure, even with an adjective, are found without a preposition : as,
Eqnitm consceadil, ct rus urbaiium. coulcndil — Justin. Quarfum-
quc apud lap/dem. suburbano rure subslilerat — Tac. Rure is found
with a preposition : as. Ex rure in urbem revertebatur — Cic.

Note 8. Domi is said to be governed by in ccdibus : the other

252

cases of" donius, and those of rus, are governed by prepositions
understood, and which, as has been shown, are frequently ex-
pressed.

Rule LXI. To names of countries, provinces, and other
places, (towns generally excepted,) the preposition is com-
monly added : as,

rn -p ( Natus in Italia, in \ ^r, ^ f Born in Italy, in La-
\ Latio, in urbe, &c. J * \ tium, in a city, &;c.

Ahiit in Italiam, "J ( He is gone to Italy,

atium, to a ci-

■:

Qiio?^ in Latium, in or > Whither

ad urbem, &c. )

C Red Hi ex Italia, "J

' < e Latio, ex urbe, >

(&c. j

Trajisiit per"

C He is g

•?^ to Lath
(ty, &c.

Qiia ? *

Italiam, per
Latium, per
jirbem, &c.

C He is returned from
Whence ?< Italy, from Latium,
(^from a city, &:c.
""He passed through
Through what! Italy, through La-
place? ^ tium, through a
city, &c.

Note \. That is, The preposition is commonly expressed be-
fore the names of the larger places, such as countries, provinces,
islands, and the like : before the proper names of villages, moun-
tains, rivers, seas, woods, &c. ; and before. appellatives : as, Uhi ?
In Italia — Cic. In Lemno — Ter. In Formiano—C'ic. Lucus
in urbejuit — Virg. Quo? Nobis iter est in Asiam — Cic. Tein
Epirum venisse gaudeo — Cic. Annibal ad portas venisset — Cic.
Unde P Ab Europd petis Asiam ; ex Asia transis in Europam-^
Curt. Ex urbe tu rus habilaturn viigres — Ter. Qua? Iter in Ci-
liciam facia per Cappadociam — Cic, Per totum terrarum orbem
manauil — V. Max. But these are sometimes expressed with-
out a preposition : as, Ubi ? Septimumjam diem Corcyrce tenebamur
— Cic. Quce mihijam Sami, sed mirabilem in modum Ephesi, prtesto
fuit —Cic. Numidice Jacinora ejus memorat — Sail. Quo? hide
Sardiniam cum classe venit — Cic. Navigare uT^gyptum pergit —
Liv. At nos hinc alii sitientes ibimus Afros ; Pan Scythiam, et ra-
pidum Cretcc veidemus Oaxen, El penilus toto divisos orbe Brilannos
— Virg. Lavinaque venit Liltora — Virg. Verba refers aures non
pervenienlia nostras — Ovid. Unde? l.iterce deinde Macedonia al-
lat(S — Liv. Ut Juded profecti rerumpotirentur — Suet. Tumpo-
terat manibus summa tellure revelli— Ovid. Atque imo N^ereus del
€Kfjunra [undo — Virg. Qua ? Jotd Asia vagalur — Cic. Manat
totd urbe rumor — Liv. Ibam forte vid sacrd — Hor. Sometimes
the accusative is found, per, or some other preposition, being un-
derstood : as, Ino etiam primd terras cetate vagata est — Propert.
Tyrrhenum navigat cequor — Virg. But, notwithstanding the really
intransitive nature of the verbs, such accusatives are sometimes
said to be governed by them.

253

Note 2. It has been seen in the preceding rules, that the names
of towns are generally found without a preposition : but it is very
often expressed : as, Ubi ? In Stymphalo mortuus est Terentius-—
Suet. Dum apiid Zamam certatur'— Sail. Quo ? Postquam hinc
in Ephe.iu7n ahii — Piaut. Projectus sum ad Capuam — Cic. Gram-
marians mention a difference between f^enit Romam and Venit ad
Romam. The former, they say, denotes that he entered Rome;
the latter, merely that he came to it. But there are not wanting
instances to show that ad is sometimes used also when entrance is
intended : as, Afagni interest, quamprimum ad urbem me venire—'
Cic. hi which it is most probable that entrance is referred to. He
also says, Brundusium veni, vel potius ad mcenia accessi, in which
it is evident, from the words following, that access only is intend-
ed ; Urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi ; and that, otherwise,
if ad always denoted vicinity, it would have been sufficient to say
yid Brundusium veni. But, however, the distinction is generally
observed : as, " Quum ad me venissent in castra ad Iconium—

Cic."- Unde? Ex Epheso hue ad meum sodalem. literas misi —

Plaut. ji Brundusio nulla Jama veneral — Cic. When the ques-
tion is made by unde, the preposition is very often expressed.
Grammarians mention a difference between Fenit Romd, and Fe-
nit a Romd, asserting that the former denotes coming from the
inside, the latter from the outside or vicinity ; but this distinction
is often neglected. It has been already mentioned, that, when
the question is made by Qua, the preposition per is generally
used. -With respect to the names of towns, it is to be observ-
ed, that, if an adjective or an appellative be added, the preposi-
tion is generally expressed : as. Magnum iter ad doctas projicisci
cogor Athenas — Propert. Ad Cirtam oppidum iter constituunt-—
Sail. In Hispali oppido — Plin. But even in such cases, the poets
sometimes omit it : as, Tyrid Carthaginequi nunc Exspeclat — Virg.
It is also with propriety omitted by prose writers, when other words
are depending upon the adjective, or when a possessive pronoun
is used : as, Capuam flectit iter, luxuriantem longa felicitate Sec. —
Liv. Malo vel cum timore domi esse, quam sine timore Athenis tuis
— Cic, It is sometimes omitted, and sometimes expressed, before
compound names of towns ; as, Inde Carthnginem Novam iu hi-
herna Annibalem concessisse — Liv. In Alba Helvia inventa est vitis
— Plin. It has been already mentioned, that prepositions are
frequently added to domus and rus ; and that ad is generally used
when vicinity is denoted. It may be added, that a similar remark
is applicable to apud; but that, although these two are often
used indifferently, the former denotes more particularly'^ juxia,
or in proximo loco, close by ; the latter circa or prope, about or

near. From this, and the preceding Note, it appears, that the

practice of the best writers, in regard to the use of prepositions
before the proper names of places, is very capricious; that, be--
fore the names of provinces, countries, &c. with which they are

254

generally expressed, they arc sometimes understood, and before
those of towns or cities, with which they are generally omitted,
they are sometimes expressed '.

Note 3. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that, although pelo
is used before the names of towns, in the signification o^ going,
yet, as it is an active verb, denoting to seek, it governs the accu-
sative without a preposition : as, ^72/0 petiere Mycenas — Virg.
JEgyplum pelere decrevit — Curt. He resolved to go to ^gypt,
or, literally. He resolved to seek ^Egypt. Thus also, with an
appellative, Scevcnque petunt Tritonidis arcem — Virg.

Note 4. The adverb versus, when used , is always put after the
names of places, sometimes with, but oftener without, the prepo-
sition ad or in : as, Ad Oceanum versus projlciscijubet — Caes. In
Ilaliam versus navigalurus erat — Cic. Amanum versus profecti
sumus — Cic.

Note 5. The abverb usgue is frequently joined to the names of
places, when the question is made by Quo, or Unde, the prepo-
sitions ad, a, ah, e, ex, de being sometimes expressed and some-
times understood ; as, Us(/7ie ad Numantiam — Cic. Usque Ennam
profecti — Cic. Usque e Persia — Plant. Usque Tmolo pelivit —
Cic. Thus also, with in and trans : as, Usque in Pamphiliam—
Cic. Trans Alpes usque transferri — Cic. Instead of usque ad,
and usque ah, the poets sometimes say adusque, abusque : as,
Adusque columnas, Abusque Pachyno — Virg. and Tacitus has Ani-
vialia maris Oceano abusque petiverat— Ann. xv, 37, 2, in which
the compound word is put after the ablative which it governs.

Of Space, or the Distance of Place.

Rule LXII. The distance of one place from another
is put in the accusative ; and sometimes in the ablative : as.

Jam mille passus processei'am, I had now advanced a

mile.

Abcsf ab urhe quingentis millibus passuum, He is five
hundred miles distant from the city.

Note 1. Thus also. Cum abessem ab ylmano iter unius diei—Cic.
Ventidius bidui spatio abest ab eo — Cic. To this rule may be re-
ferred such expressions as /re viam longam, Septingenta millia
passuum ambulare, Tres pateat coeli spatium non ampLius ulnas —
Virg. &c.

■ Servius, taking notice that the rules of grammar require prepositions to
be joined to the names of provinces, but not to the names of towns, adds Sci-
e?idum tamen usitrpatum ab aiitoribus ut vd addant, vel iL'trahant prtvposiliones.
It may, however, be observed, that the rules of grammar can require nothing
beyond the usage of authors, (by which he, doubtless, means prose writers as
well as poets,) since grammar was rather formed /rowi them, than /or them.
Si volet tisus, Quern penes arbUrium. est, etjus, et norma toquendi—iloi:

25r>

Note 2. One of the substantives, expressing tlie distance, is
sometimes omitted : as, Castra, quae alerant bidui — Cic. i. e. spa-
tium, iter, viam ; or spatio, ilinere, vid.

Note S. When the place where a thing is done, is denoted
only by its distance, the distance is either expressed in the ab-
lative generally without a preposition, or in the accusative with
ad ; as, MiUibus passuum duolus ultra euvi castra fecit — Cies. Non
jam a tertio lapide, sed ipsas Carthaginis portas obsldione quatiebat
— Flor. Cum ad tertium milliarium consedisset — Cic. But these
last seem to denote rather the place itself, than the distance of
one place from another.

Note 4, The excess of measure or distance is put in the abla-
tive only : as, Superat capite et cervicibus altis — Virg, See Rule
XVIK. Note 2.

Note 5. The word of distance is governed in the accusative by
ad or per understood, and in the ablative, by a or ab. All these
are sometimes expressed, except perhaps the first : as. Per tola
novem cuijugera corpus porrigitur — Virg. /I millibus passuum mi'
nus duobus castra posuerant — Caes. But it may be observed, that,
in the last, the question is made as well by ubi, (where,) as by
quanta intervallo, at what distance.

Of Time.

Rule LXIII. Time is put in the ablative, when the
question is made by Qiiando [When ?] : as,

Venit hora tet'tid. He came at three o'clock.

Note 1. That is, the noun denoting a precise term of time, and
answering to the question, When ? is put in the ablative : as Noc-
te latent mendce — Ovid. Initio per internuncios colloquitur — Nep.
To which may be referred mane, diluculo, noctu: sera, raro, primoy
postremo, {tempore being understood,) quotannis, &c. words gene-
rally deemed adverbs, and also the old ablatives luci or lucu, tem-
pori, vesperi. In the antiquated phrases, die quinti, septimi, pris-
tini, crastini, there is probably an ellipsis of io/«'.

Note 2. When the question is made by Quanta tempore, or In-
tra quantum tempus, (in what time?) time is put in the ablative:
as, Triduo audietis — Cic. Quatuor tragcedias sexdecim diebus ab-
solvisse cujn scribas — Cic. Quod oppidum paucis diebus, quibus eo
ventum erat, expugtiatum cognoverant — Caes. This is little different
from the question by quando.

Note 3. The part of time is frequently expressed by the prepo-
sitions in, de, ad, per, intra : as. In tempore ad earn veni — Ter.
Ut jugulent homines, surgunt de node latrones — Hor. Prcesth Juit
ad horam destinatam — Cic. Duo fuerunt per idem tempus — Cic.

' A word, when it implies time, falls within this rule ; as Beth AUobrogum
proximo — Cres.

256

Covsul intra paiicos dies moritiir — Liv. It is likewise expressed
with other prepositions, such as circa, circiter, prope, cis, in with
the accusative, ante, post, sub, cum, due attention being paid to
their several meanings.

Note 4-. Abhinc is found with an accusative, or ablative, with-
out a preposition, ante being understood to the former, and in,
to the latter : a%. Hoc factum est abhinc biennium — Plaut. Q^uo
tempore? Abhinc annis quatuor — Cic.

Note 5. The English in is sometimes expressed by post : as.
He will return in six years, Post sexennium redibil — Cic. But,
when the in can be omitted, without altering the sense, the noun
of time is put in the ablative : as In the following month, or The
following month, Mense proximo. In such expressions as one,
two, three o'clock, &c., the ordinal numbers are used instead of
the cardinal : as. At one o'clock precisely, Hord ipsa prima, and
the same change may be made in such expressions as, He had
been consul three years before : thus, Tertio is ante anno consul
Juerat.

NoteQ. In such phrases as Profectus est id temporis — Cic. Isl'
hue cetatis — Ter. lilud horce — Suet, used for eo tempore, isthac
(elate, ilia hord, there seems to be an ellipsis of ad or circa, and
of some general substantive, such as negotium or tempus.

Note 7. It is evident that the ablative is governed by some pre-
position understood, and which, as has been already shown, is
often expressed.

Rule LXIV. When the question is made by Qiiamdiu,
[How long?] time is put in the accusative, or ablative; but
oftener in the accusative : as,

Mansit paucos dies. He staid a few days.

Sex mensibus abfuit. He vfViS absent six montlis.

Note 1. That is. Words denoting the duration of time, and
answering to the question. How long? are put in the accusative,
or ablative, but generally in the accusative : as. Duces diliguntur,
(jui una cum Sertorio omnes annos fuerant — Cfes. Quatuor horis
neutru inclinala est pugna — lAv. To this rule is referred the ques-
tion by Quamdudum, [How long ago?] in such examples as Ab-
hinc triennium commigravit hue vicinice — Ter.'

Note 2. The prepositions per, ad, in, intra, inter, are frequently
expressed : as. Quern per annos decern aluimus — Cic. Si ad cen-
tesimum annum vixisset — Cic. In diem vivere — Cic. In dies, in
singnlas horas, in posterum, in cetermim, &c. It is observed, that,
in such instances with ad and in, the prepositions cannot be
omitted ; and that they particularly mark the boundary or extent
of time, answering rather to the question Quousque, Till what
time, than to the question Quamdiu. — Qui intra annos quatuor-

' It is observed, that, in examples answering to die question by Quamdu-
dum, Quampridcm, or A quo tempore, the particle abhinc is usually expressed.

257

decim tectum non suUerint — Caes. Quce inter decern annos nefarie
jiagitio&eque facta sunt — Cic. The difference between Intra decern
annos, i. e. Within ten years, and Inter decern annos, i. e. During
ten years, seems to be, that the former does not imply the ivhote
ten years, but xuithin or less than that space, while the latter de-
notes the entire period.

Note 3. The manner of supplying the ellipsis in the following,
and in similar expressions, should be attended to : Annos natus
unum et viginti — Cic. i. e. ante. Tyrus seplimo mense, guam op-
pugnari ccepta erat, capta est — Curt. i. e.post. Minus diebiis tri-
ginta in Asiam reversus est—'Nep. i. e. quam in. Siculi qnot annis
tributa conferant — Cic, i. e. tot annis quot or quotquot sunt. It is
observable, that the words answering to more, before, or after, am-
plius,ante, or post, do not influence the case of time: as, Tertium
ampliiis annum docet. Fit paucis post amiis — Cic. i. e. quam per
annum ; and in annis.

Note 4. It has been observed, that the continuance of time may
be found in the genitive, as in Trium mensium moUta cibaria
sibi quemque domo afferre jubent — Caes. But it appears to me,
that, although duration may be here inferred, the genitive ex-
presses only its usual relation ; thus " food belonging to three
months," " food for three months," or " the food of three
months." If this be not allowed, there is an ellipsis ofpo tern-
pore or pro spatio.

Note 4. This construction is elliptical, the accusative depend-
ing upon per, in, inter, intra, or ad understood, but sometimes
expressed, and the ablative, upon in understood, but which is
scarcely found expressed.

Of the Ablative Absolute.

Rule LXV. A substantive and a participle whose case
depends upon no other word, are put in the ablative abso-
lute: as,

Sole oricnte, fu- \ ( The sun rising, (or, while the sun
giunt icnebrcc, § \ riseth,) darkness flies away.

Opere pcracto, lu- 1 f Our work being finished, (or when
demus^ J \ our work is finished,) we will play.

Note 1. That is, When two parts of a sentence respect diffe-
rent persons or things, or, when one event referring to another
is not connected with it by proper particles, but is expressed by a
noun and a participle constituting the subject of no verb, these
are put in the ablative absolute : as, Hac oratione habita, consi-
lium dimisit — Ca;s. Suffragante Theramcne, plebiscilo rcstiluitur
— Nep. Cccsare venturo, Phosphore, rcddediem — Mart. When
the participle in dus, or rather the gerundive, is found in the ab-
lative with a noun, it arises from the construction o^ wanner., ra-
ther than from tlie nature of tliis rule.

S

258

This ablative is named absolute^ because, gfammatlcally, it
depends upon no word expressed in the sentence; for, if the
substantive with which the participle is joinedbe the nominative to
some following verb, or be governed by any word going before,
then this rule does not take place. The usual signs, in English,
of this ablative, are ivhilst, ivheji, qfier, having, being, or some
other word in ing; sometimes, however, the participle in ed, be-
ing being understood : as, ** The enemy conquered, we shall live."

Note 2. The antient ente or existente is frequently understood,
another noun or pronoun being joined in concordance : as, Quid
sine imperatore, adolescentulo diice, efficere possent — Caes. i. e. ex-
istente, a stripling (being) their leader. Nihil te ad me scripsisse
postea admiror, prcesertim tarn novis rebus— -Cic. Me suasore at-
que impulsore, hoc Jactum — Plaut. Thus also, Deo duce, Invita
Minervd, &c.

Note 3. Sometimes the participle only is expressed, in which
case the sentence supplies the place of the substantive, or nego-
tio, or some other word, is understood: as, Excepto, quod non si-
mul esses, ccEtera Icetus — Hor. Uxorum flagitatione revocantur,
per legatos denantiantibus, ni redeant, suboleyn se exjinitimis qiice-
situras — Justin, for denuntiantiiim. But this construction, in
which uxoribus or ipsis is understood, seldom occurs, and is not
to be imitated. There is one instance in Sallust, in which a no-
minative seems to be placed absolutely ; Exercitus, amisso duce,
ac passim multis sibi quisque imperium pete'ntibus, brevi dilahitnr —
Jug. 18, 3, But it is conjectured that quisque may be used for
quisque or quibusque. A few similar anomalies might be mentioned.

Note 4. In such antiquated phrases as Nobis prasente — Plant.
Absente nobis — Ter. in which some grammarians consider the par-
ticiple as an indeclinable word, or a preposition, it may be ob-
served, that, if the sense is not correctly expressed, the rules of
Syntax seem to be still less regarded.

Note 5. When the verb is passive, having is necessarily changed
into being : as, Cicero having said these things, sat down, Cicero,
his dictis, consedit, literally, Cicero, these things being said, sat
down ; in which, as the pronoun is neither governed by any word,
nor the nominative to any verb, and as the proper English of die-
tus is being said, both the pronoun and participle are put in the
ablative absolute. But, when the English is having and the
verb deponent, no such change is necessary, since the two parti-
ciples precisely correspond to each other ; thus, Cicero hcEc locu-
tus consedit, Cicero having said these things sat down, the proper
signification of tocutus being having said. It is observed, that the
participles of Common verbs may either agree in case with the
substantive before them, like the participles of deponent verbs,
or may be put in the ablative absolute, like the participles of pas-
sive verbs : as, Romani adepti libertatem Jiorucrunt : or Romani,
libertate adepta, floruerunt. But, as the participles of Common

259

verbs are seldom used in a passive signification, tliey are very
rarely found in the ablative absolute.

Note 6. It often happens, that, when in English two distinct
events are expressed by two finite verbs connected by and, the
conjunction is omitted in Latin, and the noun and verb preceding
it are put in the ablative absolute : as, '* He made the signal, and.
attacked the enemy/' Signo dnto, hostes invasit. Sometimes the
prior or contemporary event, which is usually expressed in the
ablative absolute, is made the object of the action of the follow-
ing verb, when the cases following both verbs denote an identity
in regard to the object : as, " He conquered the enemy and,"
or, " Having conquered the enemy, he compelled them to surren-
der," may be expressed by, Hostes victos in deditionem redegit, or,
passively, Hostes victi in deditionem redacli sunt. Thus also Ovid,
£t (doves) occultat ahactas.

Note 7. This ablative may be resolved into a nominative with
cum, dum, quaiido, postquam, si, quoniam, &c. and a verb of the
indicative or subjunctive mood : as, Augusto impcrantc, or dum
Augustus ijyrperabat. Lectis Uteris, or postquain titerce sunt Icctce.
Me duce, or si ego dux ero.

Note 8. This ablative, although named absolute, is not only de-
pendent, in sense, upon a verb, but is, in reality, governed by
some preposition understood, such as sub, cujn, a, ab, in, which
are sometimes expressed : as. Sub tc (existente) magistro — Virg.
Cum diis benejuvantibus arma capitc — Liv. who elsewhere says,
Ut diis benejuvantibus bellum iyicipiamus, omitting the preposition.
Moremque sinistrum sacrorum Druidce positis repetistis ab amis —
Lucan. In quo facto domum revocatus, capitis accusatus, absolvi-
tur — Nep. Sole sub ardenti — Virg. In the last example, it seems
doubtful to me, whether ardenti is to be considered as an adjec-
tive, or a participle, since it is to b© observed, that the termina-
tion in e is almost universally used, when the ablative is abso-
lute.

Note 9. It was observed, in Note 1, that this ablative is used,
when two parts of a sentence respect different persons or things :
this is generally true, but there are not wanting instances, in which
the same person, being spoken of in a diversity of time or condi-
tion, is the ablative to the participle, and the nominative to the
verb : as, Me duce ad hunc voti Jinem^ me milite, veni — Ovid.
Nobis vigilantibus, et multum in posterum providcnlibus, poprdo
Romano consentiente, erimus prqfecio liberi brevi tempore — Cic.
But, generally, in such instances, the nominative is used : as,
lens in Pompejanum bene inane hcvc scripsi-~-Cic. Interrogati
incolce non paliuntur errare — Senec. rather than me eunte^ inter-
rogafis incoiie.

S 2

260

OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS
INDECLINABLE,

OF ADVERBS.

Rule LXVI. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles,
nouns, and other adverbs : as,

Bene scrihit. He writes well.

Fortitcr pngnans. Fighting bravely.

Servus cgregieJideliSi A servant remarkably faithful.

Satis bene^ Well enough.

Note 1. Thus also; Bonis quod bene Jit, hand jjerit — Plaut.
Male parta, 7nale dilabitntur — Cic. Vir apprime nohilis — Ter.
Homerns plane orator — Cic. Admodmn puella — Liv. Adverbs
are seldom joined to substantives ; and in the last example, the
substantive seems to be used as an adjective. Tu verb Platonem
nee nimis valde unquamy nee jiimis scepe laudaveris — Cic. They
are also found with pronouns, and prepositions : as. Plane noster,
Longe ultra terminum, &c.

Note 2. It is observed, that the intensive words apprime, ad-
modum, veliementer, pa-quam, valde, &c. are generally joined to
positives ; likewise per, in composition ; such phrases also as in
primis, cunt priniis, ante alios, &c. ; and qucim subjoined to other
intensives : as, Gratum admodiim Jeceris — Cio. Prceterquam
paicci — Cic. But some of these are sometimes found with the
superlative.

Note 3. Ta77i and qva7n generally connect positives, seldom
superlatives, and seldomer comparatives : as, Nemo orator tiim
multa scripsit, quam multa sunt nostra — Cic. Qiimn quisque pes-
simejecit, torn maxime tidus est — Sail. Non ta^n in bcllis et i)i
prceliis, quam in promissis firmiorem — Cic. When it denotes
wonder, pity, or interrogation mixed with wonder, quam is ge-
nerally joined with positives ; when used {ox quantum, how much,
it is joined to positives : as, Quam sini morosi qui amant, vcl ex
hoc intelligi potest — Cic. ; but when used for quantum, the verb
jjossum following, it is generally joined to superlatives : as, Quijju
maximis itineribus potest, in Galliam cojdendit — Ca;s. ; used for
valde, it is elegantly joined to superlatives : as, Utatur verbis
quiim usitatissimis — Cic. Perhaps, here, possum may be implied.

Note 4. Parum, multum, nimium, tantum, quantum, aliquantum,
are generally joined to positives, sometimes also to comparatives :
as, Socer hujus vir multilm bonus est — Cic. Forma viri aliquan-
tilm amplior humana — Liv.

Note 5. Paulo, nimio, aliquanto, co, quo, hoc, impcndio, nihilo,
are generally joined to comparatives : as, Eo graviur est dalur,

261

rjuo culpa major — Cic. Tanto, quanta, muUoy to comparatives or
superlatives : as, Omne aninii vitiiim tanto conspectius in se Crimen
habet, quanta major qui peccat hahetur — Juven. Tanto pessimus
omnium poeta, quanta tu optimus omnium patranus — Catull. Mul-
io potentius — Senec. Multo jucundissimus — Cic.

Nate 6. Longe is generally joined to superlatives, sometimes
to comparatives, but seldom to positives : as, Suevorum gens est
longe maxima et beUicosissima Germanorum — Cyes. ; with adjectives

of diversity also : as, Longe mihi alia mens est — Sail.- Pedihus

longe melior Lycus — Virg. Longe opulenlus — Apul.

Natel. Facile, used 'lot haud dubic, is joined to superlatives,
or to words of similar import : as. Fir unus tolius Grcccice facile
doclissimus — Cic. Homo regionis illius virtute facile princeps — Cic.

The nature of two negatives in the same clause, or in different
clauses, has been noticed in Etymology ; and the government of
adverbs, in regard to moods, will be noticed under that of Con-
junctions,

Rule LXVI*. Some Adverbs of Time, Place, and Quan-
tity, govern the genitive : as,

Pridie illius diei, Tlie day before that day.

Uhiqiic gentium, Every where.

Satis est verhorum, There is enough of words.

Note 1 . The Adverbs of Time are Interea, poslea, inde, tunc :
as, Te interea loci cognovi — Ter. Postca loci — Sail. Lide loci —
Lucr. Tu7ic temjwris — Justin.

Note 2. The Adverbs of Place are Uui and quo, with their com-
pounds, ubiqne, ubicunque, ubiubi, ubinam, ubivis, aliubi, alicubi,
quocunquc, quovis, aliquo, quoquo ; also eo, alibi, hue, huccine, uncle,
usquam, niisqnam, longe, ibidem, &c. : as, LJbi terrarnm sjmius —
Cic. Quo kin c nunc gentium aiifugiam — Plant. Eb audacicc pro-
vectus est — Tac. Tu aulem abcs lotige gentium — Cic. &c.

Note 3. The Adverbs of Quantity are Abunde, affhlim, largiicr,
nimis, quoad, sat, satis, jMriim, minimi' : as, Sc jampridcm potcn-
ticc gloriccque abunde adeptum — Suet. Diviliarum aff'atim — Plaut.
Auri et argenti largiicr — Plaut. Nimis insidiarum — Cic. Quoad
ejusjacere potueris — Cic' Sat ralionis — Virg. Satis cloquenticc,

' Dr. Crombie, however, has clearly shown, that quoad is uniformly an ad-
verb, incapable of government, and that when it appears with an aceusative

it is a corruption of i^wkZ ad, when with a genitive, a corruption for ijikuI In

the following example from liivy, Qtiod sliprndium xeriiis quoad diem, prrr.i/a-
rrt, CcHa'riiis reads qyatii ad diem, and Cfsnor observes, " Kt moiniit olim
Vorstium Gronovius, melius lep;i quuvi ad diem; licet vulgatani libroruni lec-
tionem et ipse, et nunc Drakenborchius, servavcrint." Noltenius also calls
quoad whh an acciifydUvcfnapTim paiiiru/rc nsum. Tursellinus says " (Iwiad
hoc, quoad illud, Latine dici iion videtiir ; ;.ed quod ad hoc sjiectat, quod, ad il~
lud pertinct." i'crizonjus obstrvcs, that in the paji.agcs in wliich quoad ijus ot-

262

sapient io! par urn — Sail. Miniine gentmm — Ter. Several of these
seem to have the force of substantives.

Note 4-. JEr^o^ denoting _ybr the sake, instar, and part 17)1, usu-
ally enumerated among adverbs, are I'eal substantives, and, as
such, govern the genitive.

Note 5. Prid'ic and postridie take the genitive or accusative ;
as, Pridle ejics diei — Cic. Postridie ejus diei — Caes. Pridie Quin-
quatrus — Cic. Postridie ludos — Cic. Thus also, Pridie aviApost-
ridie, kalendas, nonas, idus ; rather than kalendnrmn, &c.

Note 6. In regard to such constructions, it may be observed that
Interea loci may be Inter ea negotia loci ; Eb, quo, and the like,
are supposed to be the old datives eoi, quoi, with loco or negotio
understood ; or they may be acc\^ative3 plural ; others, as abun-
de, ubi, huge, have the force of nouns. Pridie ejus diei may be
die priore ante tempus ejus diei ; and when pridie and postridie
are followed by an accusative, ante or post is understood,

Nule 7. Eji and cccc take the nominative or accusative : as,
En causa, cur dominum serous accusal — Cic. En Paridis hostem
— Senec. Ecoe nova turba — Cic. Ecce rem — Plaut. Hem, used
for ecce, is construed with an accusative : as. Hem astidias — Ter.
It is observed, that when these words are used, merely for the
purpose of shoxcing, they are commonly followed by a nomina-
tive ; but that when they express scorn, contempt, reproof, or blame,
they are commonly construed with the accusative.

The nominative is supposed to be dependent on such words
as adest, or existit, understood ; and the accusative is thought
to be governed by some part of video, or the like, understood.

Rule LXVII. Some derivative Adverbs govern the case
of their primitives : as,

Omnium elegantissime \ ( He speaks the most elegantly

loquitur^ J \ of all.

Vivere convenienter \ f To live agreeably to na-

naturce, j \ ture.

Note 1. Thus also. Omnium optim^ — Cic, by Rule XV. Thus
too, Sccpissime omnium, diutissime omnium, although the superla-
tives, whence the adverbs come, are not used. •Congrucnter

natures convenientcrque vivere — Cic. Huic ohviam civitas proces-
serat — Cic. Rule XVI.— —-'Alt epedcm — Colum. Alti tribus jie-
dibus — Pallad. Rule XVlll.—— Quam proxime potest hostium cas-
tris castra communit — Caes. Qui proxime Rhenum incolunt — Caes.

curs, the latter word is under the government of aliqidd understood ; a con-
jecture supported neither by example nor analogy. On the contrary, Dr.
Crombie contends for the substitution of qund ejus, as being a reading which
is consistent with the sense and the rules of analogy, and in several instances
approved by editors of the greatest emdition.

265

The accusative is the more common case, and it is governed by
ad understood, in which wayy;ro/5iorand »ro.rm»MS areBometimes
construed : the dative belongs to Rule XVl. AmpUils opinione
morabatur — Sail. Prim tun opinione hie ndero — Plaut. Rule XIX.
Thus also, Diutiiis expedatione, although diutior does not exist.
Vossius adds Clanculum patres — Ter. considering clnnculum as a
derivative from clam, which, being itself rather an adverb than a
preposition, admits an accusative or an ablative after it, through
certain prepositions understood. Such elliptical expressions as
Plus duo millia, Minus quadringenti, Plus quirinentos colaphos,
Amplius sexcenti, Amplius octiitgentos equos, sometunes referred to
this Rule, have been noticed under Rule XIX ; and Vossius ob-
serves, in regard to them, that it is doubtful whether the compa-
ratives be adverbs or nouns.

Note 2. To complete some of the preceding constructions, the
adverbs require the same ellipses to be supplied after them, as
their adjectives.

or PREPOSITIONS.

Rule LXVIII. The prepositions ad, apud, anh\ ike. go-
vern the accusative : as,

Ad patrem, To the father.

Rule LXIX. The prepositions a, ah, abs, &c. govern
the ablative : as,

A pafre, From the fatlier.

Rule LXX. The prepositions m, sub, supa\ ixnd suh-
ter, govern the accusative, when motion to a place is signi-
fied ' : as,

JEo in scholam, I go into the school.

Sub mcenia tcndit — Virg. He goes under the walls.

Incidit super agmina — Virg. It fell upon the troops.

Bmit subterfastigia tcdi ) / He brinf^s him under tlie
— Virg. j \ roof of the house.

' It is observed, that in denoting motion to q place is expressed, in English,
by to or into ; and in denoting motion or rest in a place, by the English in ;
and this is generally true. But, in tlie phrase In bonavi partem accipere —
Cic. in which there certainly is molion to, the English idiom requires in — " To
take in good part." We also say " They hid themselves in the woods," mean-
ing tliey retired into the woods for concealment, Scse in si/lvns ahdiderimt —
Css. Sese in si/lvis ahdiderunt would imply that they were in Uic woods pre-
viously to their concealment. Thus also " To give in marriage," Dare in via-
trimonium — Cic. ; " To speak in {to the) praise," J)iccr» in laudcm — AuL Gell. ;
" In future," In fulurum ,■ " In n wonderful manner," Mirum in nwdum, con-
versee suiU omniwn mcnlcs~-Ca:s, ; In Junonis honorctn—llor. In honour, or lo
the honour."

264

RiJLE LXXI. But if motion or rest m a place be signi-
fied, in and sub govern the ablative, super and subter either
the accusative or ablative : as,

Sedeo, vel discurro, in ) f I sit, or run up and down, in

sc/iold, j \ school.

Eecubo, vel ambulo, sub\ f I lie, or walk, under the sha-

umbrd, j \ dow.

Sedens super arma — Virg. Sitting above the arms.
Fronde super viridi — Vi]-g. Upon the green grass.
Ven(B subter cutem di-\ J The veins dispersed under the

spei^scc — Plin. j \ skin.

Subter littore — Catull. Beneath the shore.

Note 1. Such instances as Esse in potestatem — Cic. for inpo-
testate, are rare*. — For such, and other remarks on prepositions,
tiie learner is referred to Prepositions, in Etymology, to which
it seems unnecessary to make any additional remarks.

Rule LXXII. A preposition often governs the same
case in composition, that it does out of it : as,
Adeamus sc/iolam, Let us go to school.
Excamus schold. Let us go out of schooL

Note 1. Thus also, Ccesar omnem equHatum ponf.cm ira?isducit
— -Caes. Hie ut navi egressus est — Nep. Supersedeas hoc labore
itineris^Cic.

Note 2. The preposition is often repeated : as. Quod talem vi-
rum t ciisitate expulissent—}^e^. Nunquam accedo ad te, quin abs
te abeam doctior — Ter.

Note 3. Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after
them : as, Affaris, alloquor, ullatro, alluo, accolo, circmnvenio, cir-
cumeo, circumsto, circiimsedeo, circumvolo, obeo^ prcetereo, abdico,
effero, everto, &c. The compounds of trans sometimes repeat
the preposition. Some of the compounds with inter, as Interci-
no, intcrerro, interfluo, interfuro, interluo, intermeo, interstrepo, and

« In castra veiiissct — Ca?s. J?, G. lib. ii. 17, is in certain MSS. in castris ;
and In C07is]}ectum agminis nostri venissent — Caas. B. G. lib. iv. 9, is in certain
MSS. in conspecHi. Those who wish to see the latter phraseology explained
and defended, are referred to Clarke's Cassar, Bell. Gall. lib. iv, 9 ; or page 16. I
have perused the note attentively, but do not feel myself perfectly convinced by
the arguments there adduced. Venire itt castris — Ca-s. 7tt03/ mean, as Clarke says, •
Venire et consldere (tivo verbs very different in their sense) in castris / and Ve-
nit in senatu Cic. may denote Venit et consedit in senatu ; yet, although the
action of coming may be followed by sitting douni, it seems a strange supposi-
tion, that tlie latter is implied in, or expressed by, the former. Esse in potes-
tatem^ attributed to Cicero, may, perhaps, upon the same principle, be explain-
ed to mean " To be [come] in [to] the power." Sucli readings are, perhaps,
spurio us. If not, the constructions may be regarded as anomalies ; or, venio
may, probably, denote, in such examples, the result of the action of coming,
as expressed by the English verb arrive. See Note, p. 12S.

265

almost all verbs compountled with pra:ter, commonly omit the
preposition. Literjaceo, interjicio^ interccdo, inlerpono, repeat it,
or omit it : or, otherwise, like intermico, intervenio, take the da-
tive. The compounds of ^/^, ob, and sub generally take the da-
tive ; those o^ super, generally the accusative.

Note 4. There arc other verbs which appear to be always con-
strued with a preposition ; as Accurro, acUiortor , iiicido, avoco,
averto, &c. Allineo is generally thus construed.

Note 5' Some either admit or reject it, as Abstinco, decedo, cx-
pello, aggrcdior, perrumpo, ingrcdior, induco, abcrro, cvndo, cjicio,
exeOi extermino, extrudo, cxturbo ; also adco, accedo, incumbo, in-
sulto, increpo, inairso, pcrvado, illndo, peragro, abalienor, abhor-
reo, avello, &c : thus, Ingrcdi orationem, or in oratioiiem — Cic.
Exire cere alieno — Cic. ijinibus suis — Cces. Pervadcre urbem —
Liv. per agros — Cic. Avellere tcmplo palladium — Virg. aliquem
a se — Ter. &c. Many of these admit after them other preposi-
tions of similar import to those in composition: as Dchortor, de^
Jicio, descisco, &c. ab aliquo ; Abire, demigrare loco, or a, de, ex,
loco ; Exire a patria — Cic. Excidcre manibus, de manibtis, &c.

Note 6. Many are construed with the dative, or otherwise : as,

Assurgere alicui ; Accedere urbem, ad urbem, urbi ; Inesse rei ali-
cui, and in re aliqud ; Abalienare aliquid alicujus for ab aliquo —
Cic. &c.

Note 7. Some verbs compounded with e or ex, are followed by
an accusative, or ablative : as, Exire limen — Ter. septis — Virg.
Egredi veritatem — Plin. portubus — Ovid. Some words compound-
ed with pr<2?, take an accusative: as, Tibur aqucc prccjluunt — Hor.
Asiamque poteyitem jjrcrvchitur — Lucan. Thus also Prccsidere Ita-
liam, prcsminere cceteros, prcestare omnes, &c. In some of these
examples the accusative may be supposed governed by prccler or
extra understood, and sometimes expressed, as Extra Jines et ter-
minos egredi — Cic.

Note 8. This rule takes place chiefly when the preposition may
be separated from the verb : as, Alloquor te — Virg. i. e. loquor ad
te. Classis circumvehitur arcem — Liv. i. e. vehitur circum arccvi.
Exercitum Ligerim transducit — Cses. i. e. ducit excrcitum trans
Ligerim. But, in regard to active verbs compounded with pre-
positions governing the accusative, it generally happens, tliat tiie
preposition isrepeated, as in Crosar se ad neminem adjunxit — Cic. ;
or a dative is used, as in Hie dies me valde Crasso adjunxit — Cic.

Note 9. It may be here added, that an ellipsis of prepositions
is frequent : as, Devenere locos — Virg. i. e. ad. Nunc id prodeo —
Ter, i. e. ob or propter. Maria asperajuro — Virg. i. e. ;;<?/•. Vt
se loco movere non possent — Cic. i. e. c or de. Quid illo Jacias'i
— Ter. i. c. de. Vt palrid pelleretur — Nop. i. e. ex. Sometimes
the word to which the preposition refers, is omitted: as, Circum
concordicc — Sail. i. e. (vdctn. And this occurs most frc<|utally

266

after prepositions in composition : as, Emiltere servum — Plaut, i. e.
manu. Evomere virus — Cic. i. e. ore. Educere copias—Qses,. i. e.
castris. When prepositions are joined with cases which they do
not govern, there is always an ellipsis supposed : as, Catnpum
Siellatem d'wisit extra sortem ad v'lginli millibus civiuvi — Suet, i. e.
civium millibus ad viginti viillia. To which may be added such
expressions as Anno ante, Longo post tempore, in which the abla-
tives are those of time, some word being understood as the regi-
men of the prepositions. See R. LXIV, Note 3.

OF INTERJECTIONS.

Rule LXXIII. The interjections O, hm, and proh, go-
vern the vocative, and sometimes the accusative : as,

Oformose puer .' O fair boy !

Heu me miserum J Ah wretch that I am !

Note 1. These interjections are found with the nominative or
vocative, and sometimes with the accusative : as, O virfortis, al-
que amicus — Ter. Heu vanitas humana ! — Plin. Proh dolor ! —
Liv. 0 Dave, itane contemnor abs te — Ter. Heu miserande puer !
— Virg, Proh sancte Jupiter ! — Cic. O prceclarum custodem I —
Cic. Heu me infelicem ! — Ter. Proh deum hominumque Jidem I
— Cic. It is observed that when O is used as a particle of ex-
clamation, it takes either the nominative, accusative, or vocative ;
that when any vehement affection is denoted, it is generally fol-
lowed by an accusative ; and that when the affection is gentle, it
is generally omitted. When used in addressing a person, it is al-
ways followed by the vocative: in this sense it is generally under-
stood.'

Note 2. Eheu is construed in a similar way to the others : as,
Eheu Palccstra atque Ampelisca ! ubi estis nunc — Plaut. Eheu me
miserum ! —Ter. Eheu conditionein hvjus temporis — Cic.

Note 3. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the case usually fol-
lowing these particles : thus, O miserce sortis — Lucan. i. c. homines.
Proh deum immortalium — Ter. i. e. Jidem.

• Sometimes, by a Hellenism, the nominative is used instead of the voca-
tive ; as Projice tela mamt, mcus sanguis — Virg. It may here be observed, that,
in the decline of the Latin language, meus was sometimes joined to the voca-
tive of a noun ; as dominc mcus, a phraseology adopted by Sidonius, Salvianus,
and others. Mi (the usual vocative, formed by apocope from the antient mie
of niiii!^) was also used in the other t^vo genders ; as mi jmi-cns, mi conjiix —
Apul. for mca mater, men uxor ; mi sirfas— Apul. for mcum. Testor, mi Paulla
— Hieron. Scaliger would read Vive diu, mi dulcis anus — Tibull. 1 , 7,69; but
it has been shown by others, that such expressions did not prevail in the Au-
gustan age, and milii has been restored from more con-ect MSS. and editions.
]\Ii, however, is sometimes used for milii. Mi was said to be employed, even
as tlie vocative plural ; as Mi homines, mi spcctalores— 1*13.111. 0 vi hosjnles—
Petron. But here mi seems to be a contraction of mci, or of the antient mii,
like sis used for suis, sos for suos, by the more antient writers.

267

Note i. Such constructions are deemed elliptical, as interjec-
tions do not seem to govern any case. The vocative may be said
to be placed absolutely, or to be governed by no word. O vir
fortis may be O quam es vir fortis. Heu me infelicem may be Heu
quam me infelicem sentio. In Proh deilm homimimque fidem, there
may be an ellipsis of imploro or obteslor : and so, of the rest.

Rule LXXIV. Hei and Vce govern the dative : as,
Hei mihi ! Ah me !

V(S vobis ! Woe to you !

Note 1. Thus also, Hei mihi '. qualis erat — Virg. Vce till, cau-
sidice — Mart. Thus used, they seem to have the import of nouns,
the expressions being equivalent to Malum est mihi, Omnia J'u-
nesic sint tili.

Note 2. Heus and Ohe, to vi'hich may be added, Au, Eho, Eho-
dum, Ehem, Heia and lo, are followed b}' the vocative only : as,
Heus Syre — Ter. Ohe lihelle — Mart. Au mi homo ! — Ter. Eho-
dum, bone vir, quid ais ? — Ter. But in these examples, either O
is understood, or, rather, tlie vocative is put absolutely.

Note 3. Ah and Vah arc followed by the accusative, or voca-
tive : as, Ah me miserum ! — Ter. in which sentio or experior seems
to be understood. Ah virgo infelix ! — Virg. Vah iriconstantiam I
— Incert. Vah salus mea ! — Plaut.

Note 4. Hem is followed by the dative, accusative, or vocative:
as, Hem tili — Ter. Hem astutias— Ter. in which vide, or videte,
seems understood. Hem mea lux! — Cic.

Note 5. Hui is found with an accusative: as, Hui tarn graves
rastros, quceso — Ter. supply tractas.

Note 6. Apage and cedo are sometimes added : as, Apage te,
cedo puerum—— Ter. but these arc verbs.

Note 7. It may be generally observed, that the nominative is
the subject of some verb understood ; that the dative is the dative
of acquisition; the accusative is governed by some verb under-
stood; and the vocative is used absolutely.

Note 8. Most of the other interjections, and frequently also
those mentioned, are thrown into discourse without any case sub-
joined to them: as, Eheu ! fugacei lalunlur anni — Ilor. Ah! tan-
tarn rem tarn negligenter agere — Ter.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.

Rule LXXV. The conjunctions c/, «c, aiqur, ant, vely
and some others, couple Hke cases and moods : as,

Honora ■palrem et matrcm, Honour your i'alher and

mother.
Nee scribil, ncc Icgit^ He neilJier writes nor reads.

268

Note ] . It is the opinion of many writers on Latin and on
English grammar, that conjunctions unite only sentences or affir-
mations, and not single words or cases. Of this opinion are
Scaliger, Sanctius, Vossius, Ursinus, and the author of the New
Method. On the other hand, Perizonius and Ruddiman contend
that they sometimes unite single words. Among the moderns
too, Mr. Harris, the learned author of Hermes, asserts that the
chief difference between prepositions and conjunctions is, that
the former couple words, and the latter, sentences. The respect-
able author of a useful Latin grammar observes, that " it would
perhaps be more rational to say that conjunctions join sentences.
They always suppose an ellipsis. Thus in the example, Pubis et
uvibra sumus — Hor. the full sentence will be Sumus pubis et su-
7nus umbra ; and in Jut prodesse volunt, aul deleclare poetce — Hor.
it will be, Aut prodesse volunt poetce, aut delectare volunt poetce.
This solution will appear more natural, if we examine the sen-
tences in which the construction is varied, and for which gramma-
rians have been obliged to clog their general rule with exceptions.
Thus, Mea et reipublicce interest — Cic. Meo prcesidio atijue hos-
pitis — Ter. Aut oh avariliam, aut miserd amhitior.e, laborat — Hor.
Decius, cum se devoveret, et equo admisso, in medium aciem irruebat
— Cic." In these remarks I coincide generally, but differ from
him in a part of his inference. These instances certainly may
prove that conjunctions join sentences, which was not denied ;
but they do not disprove the opinion, that they sometimes join
cases likewise. In regard to those complex sentences, which, ac-
cording to the sense, it is possible to resolve into simple asser-
tions, the opinion may be just ; but, if we say "two and two make
four," and analyse the proposition into " two make four," and
" two make four," we shall find the resolution incorrect, and that,
here, not two affirmations are implied, but that two words or cases
are coupled together in one affirmation ; for the predicate is ap-
plicable, only when the two subjects are taken in conjunction.
In like manner, were we to say Pater et Filius sunt duo, we can-
not resolve the proposition into Pater est duo, et Filius est duo, for
this is palpably untrue ; nor into Pater est mius, et Filius est unus,
for this is only saying, that, " one is one," and '* one is one,"
which are different propositions from " one and one constitute
two," Again ; if we say, Emi equuni centum aureis et pluris [ceris
pretio), we cannot resolve the sentence into Emi cquum centum
aureis, et emi equum pluris, since the clause centum aureis et plu-
ris constitutes the owe price of but owe horse bought at once^.
Still, it may be true, that, in Amo patrem ct matrcm, et couples
amo and amo, rather than patrem and matrem. From what has

• Again, when we read Septingcntesimo ac nono anno bella ciiilia reparata
sunt; we do not understand, that the wars were renewed (twice) ; i. c. once in
tlie 700th year ; and, again, that they were renewed in the 9th year ; but that
they were renewed in the 709th year, scpiiiigcnlcsimo and noiio Ijeing the words
coupled, and not reparata sunt (understood), and rcpamta sunt (expressed), or
two sentences. Nor do I conceive that two anno s are coupled, one being to

269

been said, we may infer, that not sentences, but single words, are
coupled, when, according to the obvious meaning, the predicate
is not applicable to each subject individually, but to both con-
junctly.

Note 2. Not only the copulative conjunctions, ct, ac, atque, vec,
neque, &c. and the disjunctive, auty ve, vel, sen, sive, belong to this
rule, but also, gtiam, ?tisi, prcvterquam, an, nanpe, lied, qucmivis,
nedum, sed, verum, &c., and the adverbs of likeness, ceii, tanqnam,
quasi, id, &c., are referred to it: as, Nee eotsus, nee clarum nomcn
avorum, Sed pr obit as magnos ingeniumque facit — Ovid. Philoso-
])hi negflnt quenquam virum bonnm esse, nisi snpicntem — Cic. Aman-
diis pater, licet difficilis — Cic. Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sc-
quitur — Cic.

Note 3. If the words require a different construction, this rule
does not take place, in regard to the cases : as, Mea et reipublicce
interest — Cic. Sive Romce es, sive in Epiro — Cic. But generally,
this seeming variation from the rule, arises from an ellipsis : thus,
Interest inter mea negotia, et negotia reipublicce; — Sive in urbe
Romce es, sive in Epiro.

Note 4. If the sentence admits a change in the construction,
the cases or moods may be different : thus, Lentulum cximia spe,
summed virtutis adolescentem Jac erudias — Cic. Neque per vim,
neque insidiis — Sail. Decius, cum se devoveret, et eqno aamisso, in
medium aciem irruebat — Cic. for irnieret. Sentences of different
constructions may be joined together : as. Omnibus honoribus et
prcesens est cult us, et pirqficiscentem prosecuti sunt, sc. Romani —
Liv.

Note 5. When et, aut, vel, sive, or nee, are joined to different
members of the same sentence, without expressly connecting it
in a particular manner with any former sentence, the first et is
expressed in English by both or likewise ; aut or vel, by cither ;
the first s/w, hy "whether ; and the first nee, hy neither : as, Et
legit, et seribit. He both reads and writes : thus also, Turn legit,
turn seribit, or Cum legit, turn seribit. Aid legit, aut seribit. He
either reads, or writes : and thus, respectively, of the others.

Note 6. A conjunction is sometimes joined to the word which
stands first in the connexion, for the sake of emphasis : as, Mon-
tesquefcri, sylvccque loquuntur — Virg.

Note 7. The reason of this construction is, that the words
coupled often depend upon the same word, which is generally ex-
pressed to one of them; and is, in most instances, to be under-
stood to the other.

be considered as understood to scptingentesimo, for this supposition might aher
the meaning; but that the two numeral ndjeetlves ((nyuncth/ agree with one
and the same anno. Were it necessary, it would be an easy matter to accu-
mulate similar instances.

270

Rule LXXVI. Ut, quo, licet, ne, utinam and dummodo,
are for the most part joined witli the subjunctive mood: as,

Accidit ut terga vertere?it, It happened that they turned

their backs.

Note 1. An, ne, 7ium, uirum, anne, annon, and all other inter-
rogative particles ; the pronouns giiis and aijas; the adverbs qtw-
modo, ut, qunm, ubi, quo, imdc, qua, quorsum, and the like ; and
the adjectives quantus, qualis, quotas, quotuplex, titer, are gene-
rally followed by the suhjunclive,if the sense be dubitative or con-
tingent (that is, they have in reality no government of moods;
since, if the sejise be indicative, the indicative njood is requisite):
as, Quce virtus, et qjianta, honi, sit vivere parvo, Discitc — Hor.
Nescit vitane Jruatur, An sit apud manes — Ovid. Ut sciam qidd
agas, ubi quoque, et maxirne quando Roma futurus s?'s— Cic. But
many of these are found joined with the indicative, even when
they are used indefinitely. After the subjunctive in the principal
member of a sentence, the verb following these is subjunctive: as.
Tarn verb cerneres quanta audacia, quantaque animi vis Jidsset in
exercit u Cat ilin ce — Sal 1 .

ISlote 2. The following words may have in general an indicative
or a subjunctive mood after them.

( 1 ) Antequam : as, Antequam proxijue discessi — Cic. Ante"
quam de republica dicam — Cic.

(2) Postquam: as, Nunc postquam vidcs — Ter. Sed sive ante-
quam ver prcevenerit, sive jwstquam hi/emarit — Plin. But both
jiostquam and posteaquam are oftener found with the indicative.

(3) Priusquam^ : as, Priusquam de republica dicere incipio —
Cic, Priusquam incipias, Consulto opus est — Sail.

(4) Pridiequam and Postridiequam : as, Mummius, qui, pridie-
quam ego AtJienas venirem, Mitylenas prqfcctus erat — Cic. Postri-
dic, ant post diem tertium, qumn lecta erit — Cato. It is to be ob-
served, that, when the leading verb is of a contingent signification,
the verb following these is generally SHbjunctive: as, Ut ne quis
corona donaretur, j^riusquam rationes retulisset — Cic,

Note 3, The following words may have an indicative or a sub-
junctive mood indifferently, when the signification is indicative.

(I) Cum or quum, qua7ido, quandoqtiidem, when they denote
since : as, Nunc cum non queo, cEquo animo fcro — Ter. Cum tot

' Ante, post, and prius are often found, as will hereafter be noticed under
the Position or Arrangement of Words, separated from qumn, the former three
being placed in one member of a sentence, and the latter, in another. Some-
times also antequam and jmstquam are separated in Huch a way that ante and
post govern their own case : thus, Jlnle paucits quam occiderctur menses— 'Suet.
Quartuni post annum quim cx Peloponncso in Siciliam redicrat — Nep. Qvum
alone is sometimes used for postquam : as, Altera die qiiiim a Brundisio solvit —
Liv. Wlien pridii: precedes, qndvi is used for ante or priusquam : as, Piidle
quam excessit e vita — Cic. Pridii guain ficcc srrijisi— 'Cic.

271

sustineas negotia — Hor. Quando aliter diis visum est — Liv. Nee
fluminibiis aggesta [terra'\ laudabilis ; quando senescant sata gucc-
datn aqua — Plin. Quaiidoqtiideni apud te nee auctoritas valet —
Liv. Quandoquidem agros jam ajitc ist'ms injuriis exagitati reli-
(juisserd — Cic. In this last, however, the sense seems contingent.
(2) Cmn or quuni^ ; quando; quandocnnque or quandoque ;
ubi ; ubicunque ; quoties ; quotiesque ; simul ; simid ac, ut, atquCy
adverbs of time : as, Qnce cum accidunt, 7iemo est, &c. — Cic. Cum
faciem videas, videtur esse quantivis prctii — Tor. Quando erit, ut
condas instar Carthaginis urbem — Ovid, Indeed, quando and
quandoqiddem generally take the indicative, as well as quando-
cunque ; Quayidocunque ista gens suas literas dabit, omnia corrum-
pet — Plin. Hue ubi (when) jyervenium est — Nep. Ubi semcl quis

' Rhenius, and, after him, Schmidius and Ursinus, thus speak of the ad-
verbial particle cum: (1) When it denotes in German, weim (Angl. when),
and refers to time absolutely, it is followed either by the present or the future
of the indicative, or by the future subjunctive [perfect] : as, Cum audio ad te
ire aliqucm, literas ad te dare snleo—Cic. Cum initnici nostn venire dicentury
turn in Epirum ibo— -Cic. Vereor ne cxeundi potestas non sit, cu7n Caesar venerit
— Cic. (2) When it answers to the German als or da (Angl. as, u'hilst, when,)
it is followed by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive : as, Cum scriberem;
Cum scripsisaem, (3) But when any time has been previously expressed, it
takes any tense of the indicative : as, Multl auJii sunt, cum ille in cere meo est
—Cic. Nunquam obliviscar noctis illius, cum tibi I'igilanti pollicebar — Cic. Bi-
ennium est, cum virtuti nuncium remisisti — Cic. But these remarks, as Ursinus
himself allows, do not always hold good.

Dr. Crombie observes that the two last rules are correct, but that the first
is not sufficiently comprehensive ; for cum, taken absolutely, admits also the
imperfect indicative, as Cum aliquid videbatur caveri posse, tum id negligenliani
do/ebam-—Cic. And likewise the preterite ; as Cwm patriam amisi, tuin me
periisse putato — Ovid. He oliserves also, that these rules, taken as a whole,
are defective, cum being often joined to the indicative mood, when the sense
is not absolute, and when no time is mentioned, either specially or generally.
Noltenius more comprehensively gives tlie following rules : Cum, for quando,
quo tempore, quoties, takes the present, the preterite, and the future indicative ;
for postquam, and ex quo, the present and preterite of the same mood, or tlie
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, rarely the same tenses indicative ; and
when any time is noted, either specially or generally, it takes the indicative.
The same learned critic observes, ( Gymnasium, 2d Ed. vol. i. p. 6G) that it
would seem, that the rule by which the practice of chissic writers was generally
regulated, in regard to tlio adverb cinn, was to join it to the indicative mood,
when they intended emphatically to mark the time of one action, present, past,
or future, as coincident with that of another action, or with any time, spcci;illy
or generally. If no particular stress was laid on the times as coincident, and
if the actions themselves, not their co-existence, or their continuity, formed the
primary consideration, cum was joined to the subjunctive. He gives it as a
general rule, for the direction of the junior reader, to join cum with the sub--
junctive, when it can be turned into after or whUe, without any material injm-y
to the force or meaning of the expression ; or when the clause with wliicli cum,
is connected, can be rendered participially, either in Latin or in English ; thus,
" When he had drawn up his army, lie waited for battle," Cum exercilum in-
strims.u't, praltum eipectabat, or exercitu instrurto, having drawn up his army.
" When he had arrived sooner than was expected," or having aiTived, Cum de
improviso venissct—Cces. B. G. ii. 3. Here the clause connected with mm
cannot be participially rendered in Latin, the verb vcnio being intransitive, and
tlio Latins having no pprfect participle active.

272

pejerwoerit, ei credi postea non oporlet — Cic. But here, perhaps,
the sense may be considered contingent. lUe ubi nnscentem ma-
cults variaverit oi'hem — Virg. Evenit ut, quoticscunque dictator re-
cepit, hostes moverentur — Liv. Plebs scivit, sacerdotcs, quotiescun-
q lie pro Pop. Athen. precarentur, toties execrari Philijipum — Liv.
Quoties and quotiesciinque are most commonly found with tlie in-
dicative. Simul ijiflavit tibicen, a perito carmen cognoscitur—Cic.
Simul portarum claves tradiderimus, Cartkaginieiisium extemplb
Enna erit — Liv. Quam simid ac tali persensit pjeste teneri — Virg.
Ut, simul ac posita sit causa, habeant quo se referant — Cic. Omne
animali simul ut ortum est, et se ipsum diligit, &c. — Cic. Facile tit
apparent, iiostros omiiia potuisse consequi simul ut velle ccepissent —
Cic. Simul atque introductus est, rem confecit — Cic. Sccsvola
quotidie, simul atque luccret, Jciciebat omnibus sui conveniendi po-
testatem — Cic. When the signification is contingent, the subjunc-
tive ought to be used : as, Quandoqiie ossa Capyis detecla essent,
fore ut, &c. — Suet, It should be observed oi cum, that when used
as a conjunction, for quoniam, or quandoqiiidem since, or etsi, al-
though, it generally takes the subjunctive, and for quod because,
the indicative ; as. Cum Athenas tanquam ad mercaturam bonarum
artium sis profrctus, inanem redire turpissimum est — Cic. Cum
etiam plus contenderimus , quam possumus, minus tamen fociemus
quam debemus — Cic. Cu7n tu liber es, Messenio, gaudeo — Plaut.

(3) These adverbs of time, dum^, donee, quamdiu, quoad: as,
Hcec dum aguntur — Cic. Dum id riobiscum una videatis, ac venit
jEditimus — Varr. Donee ad hcec tempora jyerx^entum est — Liv.
Certum obsidere est usque donee redierit — Ter. It is observed, that
dum and donee, when used for quamdiu, are generally followed
by the indicative, and for usquedum, by the indicative or subjunc-
tive J and dum for dummodo, by the subjunctive. Ego tamdiu re-
quiesco, quamdiu ad te scribo — Cic. Remi7iiscere ilUan, quayndiu
ei opusfuerit, vixissc — Cic. Nequc.Jineyn insequendifecerant, quoad
subsidio conjisi equites prcccipitcs hostes egcrunt — CiES. Equites,
quoad loca patiantur, ducerejubct — Liv. It is observed, that the
indicative mood is the more frequent after all these words ; but,
if the sense be contingent, then the subjunctive must be used: as,
Ne expectctis, dum exeant hue — Ter. or, when used for dummodo :
as, Oderint, duin mctuant — Cic. Ut nemo .... donee quidquam
virium superesset, corpori aut sanguini suo parceret — Liv. Qiiamdiu
se bent gesserint. Mihi hoc dcderunt, ut esses in Sicilid, quoad
velles — Cic.

(4) Etsi, etiamsi, quanquam, quamvis, tametsi: as, Etsi wreor,
Judices &c. — Cic. Etsi enim nihil in se habeat gloria cur expetatur,

tamen virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur — Cic. Quam tibi, etiamsi
non desideras, tamen mittam — Cic. Omnia brcvia tolerabilia esse de-

• It is observed, in regard to dum, that when it refers to a present or pro-
gressive action, the subjunctive is seldom used. Yet Cicero wriies, Me scito,
dum III ahsis, scriherc andadu!^ — Fain. xii. 17. Thus also, Dum here itn Herent
— Ilirt. 13. Afr. c. 2.0.

J

273

bent, etiamsi maxima sint — Cic. Atque ego, quanqiiam nullum scelus
ratlonem habet, tamen .... scire lidim — Liv. Qiianqunm Volcatio
asseyitirentiir — Cic. Quamvis tardus eras, et te tua jjlaustra tcnchant
— Ovid. Qiiaviivis Elysios mirctur Grcecia campos — Virg. Quamvis
prudens ad cogitandum sis, sicut es — Cic. Although, in this last,
the sense appear contingent, and consequently es for sis might be
deemed incorrect, yet, in a similar instance, the indicative is used:
thus, Ea si maxima est, ut est certe — Cic. 1 Off. i5'i. Tametsi
jactat ille quidem illud suum arbitrium — Cic. Memini tametsi nul-
lus vioneas — Ter. ' It is observed, that etsi, tametsi, and quanquam,
when they stand in the beginning of a sentence, usually have the
indicative after them; and that etiamsi and quamvis are oftener
joined with the subjunctive. Tamenetsi is construed as tametsi.

But, when the verb is contingent in sense, or when the verb

in the principal member of the sentence is contingent, the verb
which follows the preceding particles must be in the su!)junctive
mood : as, Etsi ne discessissem e tuo conspectu, nisi me plane nihil
ulla res adjuvaret — Cic. Nee ille, etiamsi prima prospere evenis-
sent, imbell-em Asiam qucssisset—'Llv. Putaram te aliquid novi,
.... quamvis non curarem quid in Hispaniafieret, tamen te scrip-
turum — Cic. Qaudeo tibi meas litcras prius a tabcllario quam ab
ipso redditas ; quanquam te nihil fefellisset — Cic. Non crederem,
tametsi vulgo audirent — Cic.

(5) Si, sin, ni, nisi, siquidem : as, Si vales, bene est — Cic. Vt
si scepiics decertandum sit, ut erit, semper novus veniam — Cic. Si
ilium relinquo, ejus vit(e timeo ; sin opitulor, hujus minas — Ter.
Sin autem ad adolcscentiam perduxisscnt amicitiam, dirimi tamen
interdum contcntione dicebat — Cic. Mirum nidomiest — Ter. Pom-
peius Domitium, nisi me omnia Jkllunt, deseret — Cic. Nee Justitice
nee Amicitice omnino esse jwterunt, nisi ipsce per se expetantur —
Cic. Ni seems to be a contraction of nisi ; mdeed, sin and 7iisi
seem to be only si with a negative ; it is no wonder, therefore,
that their construction is similar. Siquidem is but si quidem. Robur
et soboles militnm interiit, siquidem, qua; nuntiantur , vera sunt —
Cic. These being kindred or similar words, it is unnecessary to
multiply examples. It is observed, that si used for quamvis, re-
quires the subjunctive: as, Redeam? non, si me obsecret — Ter. in
which, however, the sense is evidently contingent. Si is some-
times omitted, and, then, the verb is generally in the subjunctive:
as, Tu qUoque magnam partem opere in tanto,sineret dolor, Icarc,
haberes — Virg. Thus also in the phrase Absque eo esset for Si

' I suspect that a few of tlie examples which are adduced, of the subjunc-
tive mood, do, in reality, involve tlie potential ; thus, Tametsi mdltn; moncax
does not mean "though you do not," but "should not admonisli;" Non si
vie obsecret, not " if she beseeches," but "if she beseech" or "should beseech
me." Indeed, from the sameness of the forms, it is not always easy to distin-
guish these two moods, more especially, as the indicative and potential phra-
seologies are, in English, sometimes employed in the same, or nearly the same
sense, and the second fomi of the Latin verb sometimes admits, consistently
witb the sense, an interpretation, by the one, or llie other.

T

274

absque eo esset, (Had it not been for him,) the Enghsh idiom ad-
mitting also the ellipsis of i/l When the sense is contingent, it
is needless to repeat, that, after all such words the subjunctive
is used : as, O vioretn prcBclarum, quern a majoribus accepimus, &i-
quidem teneremus — Cic. It is obvious that the member of a sen-
tence, which is preceded by si and the like, is dependent upon
another, which may be considered as the principal member. If
the verb in the principal member be contingent, then the verb
following si, and the like, must be in the subjunctive, and the
tenses of the one member must, according to the sense, be ac-
commodated to those of the other : thus, for Present Time, St
foret in terris, ridcret Detnocritus—Hor. Nee si rationem siderim
ignoret, poetas infelligat—Quinct. Siexhabitu novae fortunes spec-
tetur, venisset in Italiam—lAw For Past Time; Et habuisset res
fortunam, nisi unus homo Syracusisfuissct — Liv. Si meum consi-
limn valuisset, tu hodie egeres — Cic. Dixit hostes fore tardiores,
si animadve)ierent — Nep. Docet eum magnofore periculo. si quid
adversi accidisset—'^ep. Placebat illud, ut si rex amicisUds Jidem

suampra'stitisset, auxiliis eum tuis adjuvares — Cic. For Future

Time ; Redeam '^ non, si me obsecrei—Tcr. Ita geruntur apte, vt
si usus foret, pugnare possint — Cic. Aufugerim potius quam re-
deam, si eo mihi redenndum sciam — Ter. Etfacerent, si non cvra
repulsa sonent — TibuU. In this last, congruity, perhaps, required
facerent .... sonarent, or faci ant .... sonent. The verb in the
principal member is sometimes in the indicative, instead of the
subjunctive mood, but still the verb following si must be in the
subjunctive: as. Si per Metcllum licitum esset, matres illorum ve-
niebant— Cic. Si mens non Iceva fuisset, impiderat ferro Argolicas
fcedare latebras — Virg. Nee veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedis-
sent—\irg. In poetry, both verbs may be found in the indica-
tive: as, Atfuerat melius, si te puer iste tenebat — Ovid.

(6) Quod, quia, quoniam, quippe (because), seem generally to
be joined to the indicative or subjunctive mood indifferently: as,
Senatusconsulta duo facta sunt odiosa, quod in Consulem facta pu-
iantur — Cic. Mihi quod defendissem, leviter succensuit— Cic. It
is observed that quod, used for cur or quamobrem, with the verb estf
is construed with the subjunctive: as. Est quod te visum — Plant.
Aliis, quia deft quod amant, cegre est— lev. Vides igitur, quia
verba non sint, nihil videri turpe — Cic. Quoniam non potest id fieri
quod vis, Id velis quod possit — Ter. Latiumque vocari raaluit, his
quoniam latuisset tutus in oris — Virg. Quippe id est ho)7iini natu-
rale — Quinct. Non ignorat voluptatem Epicurus, quippe qui testi-
ficetur— Q'lc.^ Quippe, when used for nam, it is observed, takes
'the indicative: as, Quippe vetor fatis—Yhg. When quatenus is

» It is observed that quippe used for vtpote, and, as in this example, followed
by qvi, genenilly takes the subjunctive : and when followed by cum, always :
as, Quippe, ctim ea sine i>rudentin satis habeat auctoritatis, jirudeiitia sincjustiti^
nihil valeat — Cic. Followed by quod, it takes the subjunctive ; by qiiia or quo-
niam, the indicative.; aS; Multa dc mea saUentla qucestui est Cassar, qvijij^c ^uijd

(^

used for quoniam, it is construed as qiioniam. If the principal
member of a sentence be contingent, the v/ord following these
particles must be in the subjunctive : as, Se videre ait, quodpaucis
annis ynagna accessio facta esset, Philosophiam plane ah&olutamfore
— Cic. Neque quisquam est qui dolorem ipsum, quia dolor sit, amct
— Cic. Quoniam Jr act CB vires hostium forent, Domitianum inter-
venturum — Tac. When quod is used in the same connective or
relative signification as ut, it may have an indicative or subjunc-
tive mood after it: as, Apparet, quM aliud a terra sumpsimusy
aliud ab honore — Cic. Cato mirari se dicehat, quod nan rideret
aruspex, aruspicem cum vidisset — Cic.

(7) Quasi, ecu, tanquam, perinde, when they denote likeness,
are joined with the indicative, but when they denote pretence or
irony, with the subjunctive: as, Fuit olim, quasi ego sum, senex —
Plaut. Quasi de verba, non de re, laboretur — Cic. Adversi rupto
ceu quondam turbine venti Corifligunt — Virg. Ceu vera nesciam ad-
versus Theophrastum scripsisse eiiam fceminam — Plin. Taiiquam
philosophorum habent disciplince ex ipsis vocabula — Ter. Tanquam
ficeris ipse aliquid — Juven. Hcec omyiia perinde stmt, ut aguntur

— Cic. Perinde ac satis Jacere etfraudata restituere vellait — Caes.

(8) With respect to the construction of qui with the subjunc-
tive mood, it should be observed, that when the English is ex-
pressed contingently or potentially, or when contingency is con-
veyed, as it frequently is, by the English indicative, the second
form of the Latin verb, or potential mood, is required by the
sense. And it is only when the English indicative, used in a sense
unconditional, requires a Latin subjunctive, that, strictly speak-
ing, this mood can be said to be governed by qui, or indeed by
any other word. — 1st. When the subject is introduced indirectly
with periphrasis, whether affirmatively, negatively, or interroga-
tively, the verb in the relative clause is usually subjunctive, pro-
vided this clause constitutes the predicate. Thus, instead of say-
ing, Nonmdli dicunt, we say, Sunt, qui dicant, there are persons,
who say. Fuerunt, qui censerent — Cic. who thought. Inventi
autem multi sunt, qui vitam prqfundere parati essent — Cic. Nemo
est, qui hand intelligat — Cic. who does not understand. Nulla
pars est corporis, quce non sit minor — Cic. Quis est enim, cui non
perspicua sint ilia ? — Cic. to whom those things are not clear ?
An est quisquam, qui dubitet — Liv. These, and similar phraseo-
logies, admit the three following forms ; thus we say, They ran
through every flame, or There is no flame, through which they
did not run, or What flame is there, through which they did not
run? Per omnem flammam cucurrerunt. Nulla est Jinmma, per
quam non cucurrerint. Qucenam est Jlamma, per quani non cu-

etiam Crassuvi ante vidisset — Cic. Quij>pe quia magnarum stepe id rcmedinm
fTgritudimim est — Ter. Insannhilis non est cvdendus (morbus) quippe quoniam
et in mi/Uis sponte desiif— Win. Qnad, quia, and quoninm, seem to be redundant
in these exainples.

T 2

276

currerint ; which last is the expression of Cicero, Under this rule
may be comprehended those cases in which qui is joined with the
subjunctive mood after such words as iinus and solus, when ihcy
are employed to restrict what is affirmed in the relative clause, ex-
clusively to that particular subject mentioned in the antecedent
clause. The relative clause, therefore, is the predicate; thus, Vah!
solus hie homo est, qui soiat diviniias — Plaut. This is the only man
that knows, equivalent to Hie solus scit. Sapientia est una, quiz
mcestitiampellatexanimis — Cic. The restrictive term may be merely
implied; as, Mem est, qui diros sentiat ictus — Ovid. It is the mind
(alone) that feels. The observance of this rule is, in some cases,
essential to perspicuity ; for, otherwise, the subject may be mis-
taken for the predicate. If we say Sunt boni, qui dicunt, to ex-
press They are good men, who say, and also. There are good men,
who say, the expression is evidently ambiguous. This ambiguity-
is prevented by expressing the former sentiment by Sunt boniy
qui dicunt, in which case the relative clause is the subject, and
the antecedent clause the predicate; and by expressing the latter
sentiment by Sunt boni, qui dicant, where the antecedent ^clause
is the subject, and the relative clause the predicate. — 2ndly, The
relative is joined to the subjunctive, when the relative clause ex-
presses the reason or cause of the action, state, or event. Thus,
Malejecit Hcumibal, qui Capuce hiemarit, or quod Capuce hie7navit,
Hannibal did wrong, in wintering, or, as we sometimes express it,
to winter, at Capua, that is, because lie wintered. C<ssarcm mag-
nam injur iam facer e, qui suo adventu vectigalia sibi deteriora Ja^
ceret. Caes. In such phraseologies, the relative seems equivalent
to quoniam ego, quoniam tu, quoniain ille. This construction of
the relative, as in the preceding rule, recommends itself, by its
subserviency to perspicuity. If we say Male fecit, qui hiemavit,
we impute error to the person who wintered ; but do not express
the error as consisting in his wintering. When we say qui hie-
marit, we signify, that he erred because he wintered. — When
the relative possesses a power equivalent to et cum is, et quod is,
et quoniam is, et quia is, these adverbs in the antecedent clause
being joined with the subjunctive, the relative also, in conformity
with this rule, is joined with the subjunctive ; thus. Cum autem
pulchritudinis duo genera sint, quorum in altera venustas sit, in al-
tera dignitas — Cie. Here the relative clause is equivalent to et
cum eoruni in altera venustas sit. Under this rule may be com-
prehended those cases, in which qui is joined with the subjunc-
tive mood, namely, when the relative clause states some circum-
stance belonging to the antecedent, as accounting for the princi-
pal fact, or as contributing to its production ; thus, Illi aidem, qui
omnia de rejmblicd 2)rcecla7-a, alque cgregia sentirent, sine ulla
morel, ncgotium susceperu7ii — Cic, They, as being persons who en-
tertained the inost noble sentiments. — When ut, idpote, quippe,
are expressed with the relative, they sufficiently mark the influ-
ence of the relative clause; and as all ambiguity is thus prevented,

277

the relative is sometimes joined with tlie indicative, but much
more frequently, agreeably to the general rule, with the subjunc-
tive ; thus, Prima luce ex casfris prqficiscuntur, ut quibus asset per-
suasum — Cajs. Egressi Trnjani, ut quibus ni/iil supcresset — Liv.
as being persons to whom nothing remained. Quippe qui videam
Liv. Prater ejus, utpote qui percgre depugnavit — Cic. This is the
reading of Ernest! ; but most of the early editions give dejmgnd-
rit. — 3dly. The pronoun qui is joined to the subjunctive mood,
when the discourse is oblique or indirect, that is, when the rela-
tive clause does oot express any sentiment of the author's, but
refers it to the person or persons of whom he is speaking. Thus,
Dixerunt unum petere, ac deprecari, si forte pro sua dementia uc
mans?ietudine, quam ipsi ab aliis audirent, statuisset Atuaticns esse
conservandos, ne se armis despoliaret — Cajs. Here it is obvious,
the relative clause expresses a sentiment delivered by the speak-
ers, and is not to be considered as an observation of the author's,
the expression qiiam audirent being equivalent to quam ipsi audi-
visse dixerunt ; whereas ipsi audicbant would imply an observa-
tion of Caesar's, equivalent to qunm ego (scil. Ccesar) eos audiisse
dice. The same principle is applicable to ubi used relatively for
in quo loco, to quod used as a conjunction, and likewise to cum,
quia, quam, quando ; thus, Quare ne committcret, id is locus, ubi
constilissent, ex ccdamitate populi Romani nomen caperct — Ca;s.
Quo also for ad quem locum, and unde for e quo loco, are construed
in a similar way. Non minus libenfcr sese rectisaturum populi Ro-
mani amicitiam, quam appetierit — Cajs. It may be observed, that,
whenever the future perfect would be employed in direct state-
ment, the pluperfect is necessary in the oblique form. We find
the direct expression, used by Ovid, Dabilur quodcumque optaris,
expressed under an oblique form by Cicero, Sol Phaethonti fdio
foicturum se esse dixit, quidquid optdsset. — 4'thly , When qui is taken
for ut ego, ut tu, ut ille, ut nos, Szc, it is joined with the subjunc-
tive ; thus, Atque illce dissensiones erant hujusmodi, Quirites, qucs
non ad delendam, scd ad commuiandam. rempublicam perlincrent — ■
Cic. The dissensions were such, that, or of that kind, that, &c.
Nee ulla vis imperii tanta est, quce possit — Cic. It is frequently
thus used after dignus, indignus, idoneus, and qnmn following a
comparative. — 5thly. Q_ui, taken for oww, is generally joined with
the subjunctive; thus, Sentiet qui vir siem — Ter. Care should
be taken not to mistake the interrogative pron-ouns used indefi-
nitely, for the relative pronoun. If we say, I know not what arts
he was taught, the latter clause expresses the subject, and re-
ceives the action of the verb. Nescio quibus artibus sit rrudifus.
Here we evidently oxpress our ignorance, to which of the arts
his studies were directed. The pronoun, therefore, is the inter-
rogative, and being indefinitely taken, is joined with the subjunc-
tive. But if we say, I know not the arts in v.hieh he was in-
structed, it is not the latter clause which receives the action of
the verb, but the word arts. Aries hand novi, qiiibus ille est eru-

278

ditus. Here we express our ignorance of those arts in which he
was instructed ; and the pronoun is the relative, and joined with
the indicative mood.'

(9) Ubi, uhiciinque, uhi ubi, quo, quocunque, qtia, quacunqiie,
adverbs of place, may be followed either by the indicative or the
subjunctive when the signification of the verb is indicative : as,
Porticus hcec ipsa, uhi ambulamus — Cic. Petentibus, ut ab Norba,
ubi jxirhn commode essent, alio traducerentiir — Liv. Omnes cives
Romani, qui ubicunque sunt, vestram severitatem desiderant — Cic.
Nunc ubi ubi sit animus, ccrtein te est — Cic. It is needless to mul-
tiply examples in regard to the compounds of ubi, as they natu-
rally follow the construction of their primitive. Ubi neque noti
esse iis, quo venerunt, nequc semper cum cognitoribus esse possunt —
Cic. Sed quocunque venerint, hanc sibi rem prcesidio sperant Ju-
iuram — Cic. Nan est, qiw properes, terra j)aterna tibi — Ovid. O
qua sol habitabiles illustrat oras — Hor. Quiicunque iterjecit, ejus-
modifuit — Cic. Ttim visum bdluam vastam, quacunque incederet^
omnia pervertere — Cic. The sense is sometimes such as requires
the subjunctive only: as, Hiclocus est unus, quo perfugiant — Cic.
Habebam, quh conjugerem, ubi conquiescerem — Cic.^ Here the
sense seems contingent, or potential.

Note 4. Ut, and utcunque, signifying tvhen, if the signification
be indicative, are followed only by the indicative mood : as, Ut
ab urbe discessi — Cic. Utcunque dejecere mores — Hor. But if the
sense be contingent, the subjunctive must be used: as, Tu ut sub-
servias orationi, utcuyique opus sit vey-bis, vide — Ter. Ut, when a
particle of similarity, and subjoined to ita or sic (both which are
sometimes understood) has an indicative : as, Tu tamen has nuj)-
tias per ge facer e, ita ut facis-- — Ter. Ita uti supr^ demonstravi-
mus — Ca;s. Ut is sometimes subjoined to ita in a peculiar man-
ner : as, Ita vivam, ut inaximos sumptus Jacio — Cic. Att. 5. 15.
i. e. May I die, if I do not. Ut is sometimes used for talis, or
tali modo : as, Tu [ut tempus est diei) videsis, ne quo hinc longius
abeas — Ter. Horum auctoritate Jinitimi adducti [ut sunt Gallo-
rum suhita ct repentina consilia) &c. — Caes. Credo, ut est dementia
— Ter.

Note 5. The following words are joined with the subjunctive.

(1) Licet (which, in reality, is a verb, wi? being understood
after it, although used as a conjunction in the sense of cfsi : as,
Dicam equidem, licet arma miki mortemqne minetur — Virg.

(2) Quo, put for ?/^, quoniam, or quasi: as, Adjuta me, quo id
Jiatjacilius — Ter. but this is, strictly speaking, an example rather

' For these valuable rules for the construction of qui, we are indebted to
Dr Crombie's Gymnasium, a work deservedly held in the highest estimation.

2 It may be worth while to remark, that, when the learner, in transLnting
English into Latin, is doubtful wliether the sense be contingent, or not, it is
safer for him to join the words mentioned in Nolc 3, with the subjunctive
than with the indicative, since, if the sense be indicative, the subjunctive mat/
generally be used, and if contingent it musl be used.

279

of the potential Non (]iih ilia Lcelii alt quicquam duicius, sed
mutto tamcn venustior — Cic,

(3) W si, ac si, cvque ac si, perinde ut si, aliler ac si, &c., velut
si, vetuti: as, Tnremem in portu agitari jubet , ut si exercere rerniges
vellet — Nep. Prceterea traiuversis ilirieribw; quotidie castra movere,
juxta ac si hosles adesseni — Sail. Perinde quasi exiliis rerum non
hominum consilia legibus vindlcenlur — l.iv. ilaque vdul si cum alio
exercitu exiret, nihil usquam pristince disclplincc tenuil — Liv. Ac
veluli slet volucris dies, parcis diripere - - . - amphoram—Hor,
Caepti inde ludi, velut ea res nihil ad religionem pertinuisset — Liv,
&c.

(4) Quin, for qui non, quid non, ut mm, or quo minus: as,
Quam nunc nemo est in Sicilid, quin habeat. quin legal — Cic. Fieri
nullo modo patera t, quin Cleomeni parcerelur — Cic. Nulla tamfa-
cilis res, quin difficilis siet, quam invitus facias — Ter. N'on quin
rectum esset, sed quia &c. — Cic. Pror^us nihil abest, quin sim mi-
serrimus — Cic. Otherwise, this word is followed by the mood
which the sense requires : thus, used for cur non, Quin continetis
vocem indiceni slultitice vesircc ? — Cic ; for imo, the indicative or
imperative': as, Quin est par alum argenlumP — Ter. Quin lu hoc
audi — Ter.

(5) Ut, quo, ne, quominus, referring to the final cause, require
the potential, which retains its proper contingent signification,
the final cause being a contingency ; and, in such instances, the
mood cannot, strictly speaking, be considered as under the go-
vernment of the particle. In regard to the succession of tenses,
the" general rule is, that if the verb preceding such words be of
past time, the verb which follows them must be in the preterim-
perfect or preterperfect subjunctive : and if the preceding verb
be future, or present, the present tense must be used. Ijut to
this there are many exceptions, which must be regulated by due
attention to the nature of the tenses, and the sense of the sub-
ject. Avaro quid rnali oples, nisi ut rival diu ? — P. Syr. Philippi-
dem miserunl, ut jiuntiaret — Nep. Dixit Romam statim ve'Uuros,
ut rationes cum publicanis pularent — -Cic* When the following verb

' Vossius says, that when qxdn is used in exhorting or commanding, it fakes
the indicative or imperative ; and that, when used for imo, it is .sometimes
followed by the sulyunctive : as. Hie non est locus, Quin tu alium quaras, cvi
cenloyies fardas — Plaut. He raiglit have added Quid nunc agifur ? — Gn. Quin
redeamus — Ter. But, as Ursinus observes, in these (piin implies exhortation,
which is still clearer in the following, Hortor nc cu/iisquam miscrca/, Quin
spolics, viutiles, laccres, quemque iiacta sis — Ter. It may I)e adderl, that in those
examples in which Vossius assigns to it the sense of exhorting, it is commonly
interpreted by imo. — Quin is a contraction o( quinc, and its real signification
seems to be qui non, or cur non ; thus Quin die is equivalent to Die, qui non,
or cur non ? Non dubium est quin uxorcm nolit Jilius to Non dubium est, qui
ne sit, or cur non sit, ut uxorcm nolit filius.

* It is to be observed, that although a preterite may precede, yet if the ac-
tion is understood to continue, the present is to be used : as Orare jvssit hcra,
ut ad se venias — Ter. Ea ne me celet, constiefeci JUivm — Ter. In the follow-
ing, Siiblimrtn medium nrriprrem, cf, cupitc primiii7iin terram slnlucrcm, Ut cere-
bro dispergat itam — Ter. AdeL III. 2. 18, certain critics subatitute rfi>^)cr^-

2S0

has no present, we find the perfect used instead of it: as, Rogat,
uti meminerint — Sail. If the final cause is to be passing at a fu-
ture time, the present of the subjunctive should be used : as, iVe
dolere quidem possum, ut non ingratus videar — Cic, Irritant ad pug-
nandum, quo [fiant acriores — Varr. And here observe, that quo
is used, instt ad of ul, before a comparative ; and sometimes,
though rarely, when a comparative does not follow: as, Qucp, non
quo te celem, non perscriho — Cic. But if the final cause is to be
perfect in any time either past, present, or future, then the pre-
terperfect subjunctive is to be used: as, Ne frustra hi tales viri
venerint, te aliquundo, Orasse, audiamus — Cic. Timeo ne Verres
impunt fecerit —Cic. Indeed, all such instances are sufficiently
regulated by the sense. Ut, ne, quo, quominns, when used in what
is called a relative or connective sense, require the potential
mood, and follow the same rules that have been just given : as,
Futurum sensit, ut cceteri sequerentur — Mep. Ne quis impedireiur,
(juominus frueretur — Nep. If the dependent action is passing now
or at some future time, the present potential is used : as, Oran-
dum est, ut sit mens sana in torpore sano — Juv. Orare jussit, ad
se ut venias — Ter. Sperofore, ut conlingat id nobis — Cic. ( See
the preceding Note, imd pag.) If, in this case, an imperfect pre-
cede, the same tense should follow : as. Idem cnim impediret, quo-
minus mecum esses, quod nunc etiam inipedit — Cic. But, if the de-
pendent action is to be considered as completed either in past,
present, or future time, the preterj>erfect subjunctive must be
used: as, Siverum est, ut populus R. ovmes gentis super cirit — Nop.
Faciam ut noveris — Ter. Si est, culpam ut Anlipho in se admiserii
— Ter. But ut after verbs of wishing seems to be excepted from
these rules, and to follow the construction oiulinam : as, Cupe-
rem ipse parens spectator adesset — Virg. Qudvi vellem ut te a Sloicis
inclinasses — Cic. Vellem aJJ'uisses— Cic. Ut, when correspond-
ing to the intensives ita, adeo, sic, tain, talis, lodes, tantus, is, &c.
requires the subjunctive, in the same tenses that have been just
specified. When the dependent action is represented as passing
at a past time, the imperfect is used : as, Cum jam in eo essct, ut
oppido poiirelur — Nep. When the dependent action is passing at
some time present or future, the present is used : us, Jdeone ig-

ret, while others consider that the former tense is used for the latter, by tJio
figure Enallage. In Dtim id qua'ro,tlbiqviJi/iumrcstitw'rcm — Ter. Heaut. III.
1. 83, some would substitute restUumn, while others read ra^fifun-'im, ukcA for
restiluam, as dixeris sometimes is for dicas. The past follows die present, when
the sense requires it : as, Velim itafortuna tidhsel — Cic. Scrvis mis ■utjamiarn
clauderent, ct ipsi ad fores assislcrent, iniperat. Dcvm prccor ut hie dies tibifcK-
citer iUuxerii — Cic. Persvxidet Castico vJ, idem fucerel — Ca^s. In such in-
stances, the present seems to be used historically (see p. 72), imperat and ;)cr-
suadet having tlic eifect of perfects. Ut is found ^^ ith the infinitive : as, Ut
vicliiiS quicqvid erit pati — Hor. Cai". I. 11. ;3. for paiiaris. This is a Grecism,
which we liave foiTnerly noticed, under the explanation of the moods and tenses.
Some resolve this example thus : Ut (vel cum) melius sit pati quicquid erii, qucim
tentare &c. Others thus- Ut (vel quanta) melius est ccquo aninio pali quicquid
SiC. And others, in d,ifibrent other ways.

281

narus es, ut hcec nescias — Cic. Nunquam erit tain oppressus sena-
tus, ut ci ne supplicandi (juideni ac lugendi sit potestas — Cic. If in
this case an iiiiperfect precede, the same tense must also follow.
But when the dependent action is represented as complete either
in time past, present, or future, the perfect subjunctive is used:
as, Videre licet alios tanta levitate, its ut fuerit non didicisse melius
— Cic. Rex tanlum molus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicaverit
— Nep. Sic erudivit, ut in summd laude juerint — Nep. In such
sentences ut, and, sometimes, (juominus, are used alone, the in-
tensive word being understood. Ut is used for supposing that,

allowing that, before the potential only ; and, in like manner, its
negative ne : as, Ut enim rationevi Plato nullnm afferret — Cic. Ut
ita dicam — passim. Ne singuhs novnnem — Liv. W is sometimes
omitted : as, Unds ilia scivit, nigtr an albus nascerer ? ^ge porro,
scisset — Pha^dr.

(6) Ut qui, utpote qui, ulpole quum, generally ; and the parti-
cles of v/ishing or praying, utinam, o si\ and ut, for utinam, al-
ways have the subjunctive mood: as, Ita turn discedo ab illo, ut
qui sefiUam daturum neget — Ter. Antouius procul alerat, utpote
qui magna exercitu sequeretur — Sail. Me incommoda vaktudo, ut-^
pote cum sine febri labordsscm, tcnebat Brundusii — Cic. O mihi
prccteritos referat si Jupiter annos — Virg. Utinam liberorum mo-
res non perderemus — Cic. Utinam ea res ei volupiati sit — Cic. Ut
ilium dii deceque perdant— Ter. Indeed, utinam is only a variety
of ut or uti, which is used in the last example for utinam, a word
of wishing being understood in all such instances. Utinam ex-
presses a wish either for the present, past, or future, and always
requires the subjunctive. For the present, the preterimperfect
subjunctive is used : as, Ucinam pro decor e nobis hoc tantnm, et
non pro salute, esset certamen — Liv. For the past imperfect, the
preterimperfect is used : as, Utinam istucverbum ex ammo dicercs
— Ter. For the past perfect, the preterpluperfect : as, Fecissent-
que utinam — Virg, For/tt/;/re time, the present subjunctive : as,
Utinamillum diem videam — Cic. In the former case, utinam is
sometimes omitted by the poets ; and in the latter, oftener than
it is expressed : as. Me quoque quafratrem mactdsses, improle, dex-
ira — Ovid. Dii te eradicent— Ter. Quod bene yer/ai— passim.

« Si is sometimes used for o si, or vt.iiwm : as, 5*1 nunc S(? 7iohis Ulc aureus
arbore rafuitx Oslcmlrit iiemore in taiito — Virg. Quum vcilcm. is likewise used
in the sense of wisliing : as, Qwhii. vrllem Romce mansisscs — Cic. in wliicli,
however, vt is understood. Sometimes even the particle and verh arc both
understood • as, Tecum ludcre, siciil ijim, possent — Catiil!. i. e. o]>h> ut, or vli-
nam, possem. To these may be added such expressions as Xc sim salvus, N^c
vivajn, (may I die,) wliicli may be thus completed— /in precor, ita vnvco, ut ne
sim salims, ut nc vivam. Thus also ulinam ne ; .is, Utinam nc innemore De-
lia securibus Ctcxa cccidi.'isct abiegna ad tcrram trabcs — Enn. ap. Cic. Instead
of which sonic employ «ii«a;;( non. Cicero u,cs botli : as, Il/ud utiyiam nc
vere scribcran—Viim. v. 17. Ila-c ad te die nuicdi inco scripsi ; quo ulinant
susceptus non essan, ant nc gtdd ex cadem viatre i>oilea naluni cssct — Attic, xi.
9. extr.

282

The ellipsis of utinam is the foundation of what is called the op-
tative mood. But its omission not being allowable in all tenses,
nor common in any but the present, it seems scarcely admissible
to consider this as a distinct mood. For the future perfect, when
it is intended to wish that a future action may be completed, the
preterperfect or the preterpluperfect is used : as, Utinavi hie sur-
dus, avt hcec muta facta sit — Ter. Ulinam {inquit C Pontius) ad
ilia iempora mejorluna reservavisset, et tunc essem natus si quando
Bomani dona actipere ccepissent : non essem passus diutius eos ivi-
ptiare — Cic. in which reservavisset implies a wish for past time,
and essem natus for future. But ut used for postquam, quam, quo-
modo, and as an adverb of likeness (see also Note 4), is followed
by the indicative ; and ne, as an adverb of hindering, by the im-
perative or subjunctive: as, Ut sumus in Ponto, terfrigore consti-
tit hler — Ovid. Utfalsus aninn est I — Ter. Ut iute es, item om-
?ies censes esse — Plant, Sometimes, also, the future subjunctive :
as, Ut sementem feceris, ita metes — Cic. Abi, nejura, satis credo —
Plant. iVtf fugite hospitium — Virg. Ne post conferas culpam in
me — Ter. Non, in a forbidding sense, is always joined with the
future indicative, and not with the imperative or subjunctive. In-
deed, it is most likely, that ne is, like non, always a mere nega-
tive adverb, and that the subjunctive following it is governed by
ut understood, which is also frequently expressed : thus, Eisque
prcedixit, ut ne prius Lacedd-moniorum legalos dimitterent, quam
ipse esset remissus—'He^. Sed iamen ita velim, ut ne quid properes
— Cic. Ut non is likewise used for vl ne : as, Ut plura non dicam,
neque aliorum exemplis confirmem — Cic. Or, for quin : as, Potest
igitur,judices, L. Cornelius damnari, ut non C. Marii factum con-
demnelur — Cic. We also find quo ne with a comparative : as,
Cautum erat quo ne plus auri, et argenlifacti domi haberemus — Liv.

(7) Dummodo is joined with the subjunctive: as, Omnia ho-
nesta negligunt, dummodo polentiam consequantur — Cic. Also dum^
when used for it : as, Oderint, dum metuant — Cic.

Note 6. When the English that is not commonly considered as
a pronoun, or definitive, and when at the same time it comes be-
tween two verbs, it is, in Latin, expressed by ut or quod with a
finite verb following, or the noun after it is put in the accusative,

and the verb, in the infinitive mood'. Ut is commonly used

after, 1st, Verbs signifying to intreat or request. 2dly, After verbs
signifying to decree, happen, order or command, but seldom after
jaheo, unless signifying to decree. 3dly, After verbs signifying
'to advise or persuade, generally. 4thly, After verbs signifying
to cause, effect, or bring to pass. 5thly, The articles of every
a'Teement are expressed by ut. 6thly, All intensive words, as
adeo, ita, talis, tantus, the pronouns is and hcec, &c. are followed

' It was originally intended (see page 88) to introduce here tlie whole of
the discussion relative to that. That part of it, however, wliich refers to the
infinitive or vt or quod, will be found explained under Rule XLIV.

283

by ut. This word ' is generally used to express the final cause,
or end proposed ; r^uod, the moving or impelling cause : thus,
" Scholam petere solebat,non lyaof^literarum studiosus erat, sed ut
patri morem gereret," He went to school, not that he was desirous
of learning, but that he might comply with the humour of his father.
Thus also, Gaudeo quod te inlerpellavi — Cic. Cursorem miserunt,
ut nuntiaret — Nep. But in such phrases as Fulurum sensit, ut cce-
teri sequerentur — Nep. and Inde Jit, ut raro reperire queamus —
Hor., ut does not denote the final cause, but serves rather to
point out the connexion or relation subsisting between the pre-
ceding verb and the following member of the sentence, and an-
swers to the question by ivhat P Neither does vt, when used
after intensives, indicate the final cause, but the manner, as in
Nullum tarn impudens mendacium est, ut teste careat — Plin, In
regard to such sentences, it is to be observed, that the intensive
is sometimes implied, as in Fait disertus (he was so eloquent) ut
in primis dicendo valeret — Nep. and that, instead of ut after in-
tensives, and after dignus, indignus, idoneus, major, ejusviodi, &c.,
qui is often used : as, Quis est tarn Lyuccus, qui lantis ienebris ni-
hil offendat, nusquam incurrat — Cic. Qui ilium decreverunl dig-
num, sues cui liber os commilterent — Ter. llane tandem idoneus
Till videor esse, quern tarn aperte fallere incipias dolis ! — Ter, Ma-
jor sum, quam cui possit For tuna nocere — Ovid. Genus belli est
ejusmodi, quod maxime vestros animos excitare debet — Cic. Missi
sunt, qui (or ut) consulerent — Nep. Indeed, it may be added,
that in some instances, quod does not denote a moving or im-
pelling cause, but is used merely connectively, when a simple
event is expressed, as depending upon a preceding verb ; thus
Sciojamjilius quod amet meus — Plant, i'orjilium meum amare. Ne
is the same as ut ne or ut non ; quominus is similar to tie, for quo
is used with comparatives instead of ut, and minus is merely a
negative ; and quin, which is qui ne, is used for quominus, quod
7/072, or ut non; so that ut, or the sense of it implied, seems the

basis of most of these particles. As it is impossible to class

all words with the respective methods of expressing that atter them,
and as many verbs are followed by different forms, sometimes
without any visible ditFerence in the meaning, I shall subjoin to
this Rule, from Seyer, an alphabetical list (though not a complete
one, one half of the examples of which is, he says, taken frotti
Gesner's Thesaurus) of words followed by the accusative and in-
finitive, or by certain particles and finite verbs; premising, how-
ever, that, upon an examination of his instances, c/z/or/ is evidently
often used for quia or quoniam, and that several words apj)ear to
be followed by ut, not through their own particular nature, but
by means of the verb with which they are connected, or some in-
tensive word expressed or implied in the preceding member of the

' C^, denoting the final cause, seems equivalent to the Greek 'tvK,enJbH\iii.
huncjinnm, en consUin ; ;iud, when used connectively, to J'.-i; whence, ;i^ \<ill
horealter be noticed, it is probnljly derived. QimU may, perhap?;, claim the
same origin.

284

sentence; and that all the different forms are not always to be
used indifferently, but with a general reference to the several ex-
planations which have been given of the nature and use of the in-
finitive mood, and of the precise meaning and use of quod and ut.
For instance, we may say, Gaudeo te valere, 1 am glad that you
are well, v/hich is cquivaleat to, Gaudeo tua salute, or valetudine
land ; or Gaudeo quod tu vales, or valeas, both being expressions
of similar meaning; but we cannot, in this sense, say Gaudeo ut
in valeas, because this would be supposed to mean I am glad (in
order) that you may be well. And although we may say Vis me
7ixorem ducere, Do you wish me to marry, or my marriage, or Fis
ut uxorem ducarn. Do you wish that I should marry, we cannot
use quod in this sense. We may say Suadeo t'lhi fugere, or ut fu-
gias otium, if the intention, aim, and final cause of advising be to
induce you to shun idleness ; but we cannot say Suadeo tibi ut
(nor quod) rex venerit, if we mean to convey information, the verb
not admitting this sense. When persuadeo denotes to persuade,
that is, advise thoroughly, or with effect, it is commonly followed
by ut ; thus, He persuaded me to be, Mikl persuasit, ut essem. But
when it signifies to persuade, or to convince, it is followed by the
infinitive ; thus, He persuaded me, that I was, Alihi persuasit, me
esse. In like manner moneo, when it signifies to apprize, by way
of counsel, of any truth or fact, requires the infinitive; monenti-
hus amicis, cavendum esse Mutium — Suet. His friends telling him
by way of caution. But when advice to action is implied, ut is
used. The same author says, Monitus est, ut vim mullitudinis ca-
veret. But although we have endeavoured to point out the prin-
cipal and prominent difference between quod and ut, it must be
observed, that, in some instances, the shades of difference become
so faint, that their I'espective significations very much approxi-
mate each other. We find even quod used for ut : as, Prccmoneo
nunquam scripta quod ista legat — Ovid. Mos veterum fuit, quod
prcetor soleret pronunciare — Ascon. in Verrin. This is not so re-
markable in the last example, since, had ut been used, it would
have been but as a definitive or connective. Ut for quod: as, Juro
ut ego rempubUcam non deseram — Liv. Si verum est ut populus R,
omnes gentes virtute superdrit — Nep. But notwithstanding these
and similar instances, there is a distinction generally observed
between quod and ut ; for, as Ursinus observes, were v/e to say Die
qtibd veniat, we simply relate that the thing is doing ; if [)ic ut
veniat, we mean, that it may be done : if we say Judivi quodfuerit
prcT'lium, we simply declare or specify the thing heard ; if Audivi
utfucrlt pi'ci'lium, we refer to the manner of the action. We like-
wise sometimes find qui used as if equivalent to quia or q?wd, and
as well as quo, used also for ut ' ; and, indeed, it is possible that.

' Thus, j\^n»i in prologis scribendis operam abulitur, Kon qui argtinientiim nar-
rctt scd qui ?)iatevoli Veteris poct^ makdiclis rcspundcat — Ter. prol. And., in which
1/2/8 is supposed to be equivalent to ut. SliilUts cs, qui hide crcdas, in whicli it is
reckoned equivalent to quia or quod. You are a fool for believing him, or

285

ut, quod, id, all denoting thai, may bear some affinity to one an-
other, since ut, originally written utl, may be ori, and quod, xxi
OTti, qu' otti, quoddi, quodde, (hence quod,) for we know that, in
etymology, k and q, and t and d are respectively esteemed con-
vertible letters. Indeed, ori, in whatever way it may be used, is,
in reality, the neuter gender of ori?, as will be evident by ob-
serving the way in which it is sometimes used at the end of a
st:ntenre : thus, 'AXX' om ccTToScvtrsis, oW oti — Aristoph. " But
you will not restore it, 1 know that;" or, as we often express the
same assertion, '* But I know that you will not restore it."
When it does not receive the action of the verb, and signifies
that or to the end that, like the Latin ut or uti, it h still consi-
dered as the pronoun, but governed by Si" or Sid, thus Stx on,
for that, or for that purpose. And in this way, it likewise denotes
the moving or impelling cause, like the Latin cjuod. Even when
the Latin ut or uti is used as an adverb of likeness, denoting as,
it may still be considered as having the import of a definitive,
since this last is supposed to be the German es, signifying that,
it, or which: thus, Illi, ut eral imperatum, circumsistunt, i. e. They
surround him, as (or that) had been ordered. And, in English,
the that which was formerly denominated a conjunction, is now
almost universally considered as an adjective, a definitive, or de-
monstrative, and is, like quod, easily resolvable into a relative
pronoun, being, as such, a word connecting two parts of a sen-
tence. Thus, if we say Benefaeis, quod me adjuvas, You do well
that you assist me, we may resolve it into Adjuvas me, que id bene
facis. You assist me, and that, or rather ybr that {que ad id or ob
id, quod being equivalent to que id,) you do well'. But whether
quod be generally the relative ; or whether it originally come from
the same source as ut, — since the respective imports of these two
are so generally considered as greatly dissimilar, are matters con-
cerning which perhaps too much has already been said, as they
are subjects rather of curious than of beneficial investigation.

A List of JVurds having quod, ut, &€., or Ihe Infnilive ■

3Ioocl, after them'.

Abnuo ace. and inf. Absum ut, quin.

Abstineo quominus. Accedo ut, quod.

to believe bhn. Qui hide a-eilis would denote simply, You, who believe liim,
are a fool. JVeqiie enim hoc feci, quo lihi moleslus essem — Flin. in \vhich quo
is equivalent to ut. See also Note 5, (5).

• There are a few instances in which quod seems redundant : thus, Quod si-
mrilatqiie Gracchus pcrspcril Jluclum-e popidnm — A net. ad. Ilerenu. iv. 55.
Quod ntinam ilium eadem h(cc simulanteni indeam — Sail. Jug. 14. 2],

** The classical instances, and their autliorities, are liere omitted, that the
list might not extend beyond the limits necessarily prescribed to a work of this
description ; but this circumstance is, comparatively, of no great iniportancc.

286

Accido Lit, ace. and inf.
Accipio, ace. and inf.
Aeerbum est, ace. and inf.
Addo quod, ut.
Admoneo, see Moneo.
iEquitas quae ut.
iEstimo ut.
Affirmo, ace, and inf.
Ago ut, ne, ace. and inf.
Alieno quin.
Alius quaiTi ut, nisi ut.
Ambigitur quin.
Ango, ace. and inf.
Animadverto quod, accand inf.
Annuo, ace. and inf.
Apparet quod, ace. and inf.
Appello quod.
Arguo, ace. and inf.
Argumentum quod, ut, ne, ace,

and inf.
Assequor ut.

Assentior, ace. and inf., ne.
Assevero, ace. and inf.
Audio, ace. and inf.
Auctor est ut, ne, aec, and inf.
Autumo, ace. and inf.
Bonum, melius, optimum est, ut.
Cadit ut.

Cano, Canto, ace. and inf. ut.
Caput est ut.
Caveo, Cautio, ut, ne.
Caviller, ace. and inf.
Causa est, quod, ut, quin.
Censeo ne, ace. and inf.
Cerno ut (how), ace. and inf.
Clamo and eorap. ut,acc. and inf.
Cogitatio ea ut.
Cogo ut.

Cognosce quod, aec. and inf.
Committo ut.
Comperio, ace. and inf.
Competit ut.

Coraplector ut.

Coneedo ut, aec. and inf.

Conditio istaest ut.

Conficio ut.

Confido ut, ace. and inf.

Confirmo ut, ace. and inf.

Confiteor, aec. and inf.

Congruo ut.

Conor quominus.

Consilium esse ut.

Consentio, aec, and inf.

Consentaneura est, ace. and inf.

Consequor ut ne.

Constantia,Inconstantiaquaeut.

Constituo ut, aec. and inf.

Contendo ut, ne, aec. and inf.

Contineo quin,

Continsjit ut.

Convinco, ace. and mf.

Convenit ut, ne.

Credo, aec. and inf.

Custodio ne.

Cura, Curo ut, quod, ne.

Decerno ut.

Decet, Dedeeet, aec. and inf.

Declare, aec. and inf.

Deduce quominus.

Definio, Definitio ha?c ut, quo-
minus.

Defugio, see Fugio.

Demonstro, ace. and inf.

Denuntio ut, ace. inf.

Deplore, see Ploro,

Deprecor ne, ut.

Despero aec. and inf.

Deterreo ne.

Devito ne.

Dico-is, ace. and inf., ut and
quod seldom,

Di^nus est ut.

Do ut, ace. and mf.

Doceo, aec. and inf.

since the nature of the infinitive mood, and that of quod, vt, &c. have been so
fully explained. And, for the same reason, the list itself might have been
altogether omitted, without much loss or inconvenience. Indeed, upon a
minute inspection, it appears to me both redundant and defective ; and, in
some respects, so likely to perplex a learner, that I would advise him to rely
chiefly on the general rule, and on his own observation. Some of the other
lists occupy a eonsidei-able space, but their insertion could not, with propri-
ety, be avoided.

287

Doleo quod, ace. and inf.

Dubium est quin.

Dubito, an, num, utrum, ace.

and inf.
Duco (to lead), Adduce ut.
Edico ut, ne, ace. and inf.
Edictum ne.

Efficio ut, ne, ace. and inf.
Enuntio, ace. and inf.
Eripio quin.
Erro quod.
Error hie ut.
Evenio ut, quod.
Evinco ut.
Excipio utj ne.
Exeogito ut.
Excuso quod {/or quia).
Exigo ut.

Existimo, ace. and inf.
Exoro ut, ne.
Expecto ut.
Experior ut.
Explore, aec, and inf.
Extremum est ut.
Facio ut, quod.
Fallo, ace. and inf.
Falsum esse ut.
Fama pervenit, aec. and inf.
Fateor, aec. and inf.
Fero ut, ace, and inf.
Fides est, aec. and inf.
Fingo, ace. and inf.
Fit ut; Fiebat, factum est, &c,

ut.
Fleo, aec. and inf.
Fremo, ace. and inf.
Fugio, Defugio ne, quin.
Fugit quin,

Gaudeo quod, aec. and inf.
Glorior, aec, and inf.
Gratia quod vivo.
Gratulor quod, ace. and inf.
Habeo hoe ut.
Ilortor, Cohortor ne, ut.
Impedio ne, quominQs.
Impello ut.
Impetro ut, no.
Inelamo ut.
Inelino ut.

Induco ut, ne, quomini^s,

Injicio menteni ut.

Instituo ut.

Insto ut, ne.

Insuesco ut.

Integrum erat ut.

Intercede ut ne, quominiis.

Intelligo, aec, and inf.

Interdieo ne.

Interest ut, ace. and inf.

Invito ut.

Iraseor, Succenseo quod.

Jubeo ut, ace. and inf.

Jure, Adjure, aec. and inf.

Jus hoe ut.

Juvo, ace. and inf.

Lahore, Elaboro ut, ne.

Lactor, aec. and inf.

Laus est, aec. and inf.

Largior ut.

Lege ea ut.

Licet ut, aec. and inf.

Liquet, ace. and inf.

Mande ut ne.

Memini, aec. and inf.

Mente ea ne.

Mentior, aec. and inf.

Metuo, see Timeo.

Minor, aec. and inf.

Miror, mirus &c. quod, ut,

quin, ace. and inf.
MoHor ut.
Moneo, Admoneo ut, ne, aec.

and inf.
Mos est ut.
Mora est quin.

Merer quominus, aec. and inf.
Munus est quod, ut.
Narro ut {for quemadmedum ) .
Nascor ut,

Neeesse est ut, ace. and inf.
Nego, Denego, ace. and inf.
Negotium dat ut.
Niter, Connitor ut, ne.
Nesce, aec. and inf, ut {how),
Nuntio, Nuntius, aec. and inf.
Objieio quod.
Obliviscor, ace. and inf., ut for

quemadmodum.

288

Obsecro ut, ne.

Observe ne.

Obsisto, Obsto ne.

Obtestor ut, ne.

Obtineo ut.

Obtrecto ne.

Ofticium primum est ut.

Omitto quod.

Opinio, (witb ea, ut) ace. and

inf.
Operam dare ut. '
Opto ut.

Oportet ut, ace. and inf.
Oro ut, ne.

Ostendo quod, ace. and inf.
Paciscor Sec. ut, ne.
Parum est quod, ut.
Par est, ace. and inf.
Pare ut.

Pateo, ace. and inf.
Patior ut, quin, ace. and inf.
Paveo, see Tinieo.
Peccatum quod.
Percipio ut, ace. and inf.
Perduco ut.
Perficio ut.
Perniitto ut.
Perpello ut.
Persevere ut.

Perspicuum est, ace. and inf.
Peto, Postulo, Precor, &c. ut.
Ploro, Deploro quod, ace. and

inf.
Polliceor, ace. and inf.
Pra}cipio ut, ne.
Prsedico, -as, ace, and inf.
Pra^dico, -is ut, ne, ace. and inf.
PrBescribo ut, ne.
Praesto ut, ace. and inf.
Prostereo ut, ne, quin, ace. and

inf.
Prsstermitto as Praetereo.
Praevertor quod.
Probo ut, quod, ace. and inf.
Profiteor, ace, and inf.
Prohibeo nc, quin, quominus,

ace. and inf.
Promitto, ace, and inf.
Prope erat ut.

Propositum tertium est ut.
Propono ut, ace. and inf.
Proprium est civitatis ut.
Prospicio, ace. and inf.
Prodest quod, quin, ace. and

inf.
Piovideo ne.
Pugno ut.
Puto, ace. and inf.
Quam v/ith comp. degree ut.
Queror quod [because), ace.

and inf.
Rarum est ut.

Recuso ne, quin, quominus.
Itefero quod.
Relinquitur ut.
Reliquuni ut, quominiis.
Renuntio, ace. and inf.
Reor, ace. and inf.
Repcto ut.
Restat ut.
Resisto ne,
Respondeo ut.
Rogo ut, ne.
Sancio ne, ace. and inf.
Sapientia quod.
Scelus est quod.
Scio(qudd rarely), ace. and inf.
Scribo ut, ne, ace. and inf.
Senatus consultum ne, ut.
Sententia una ut.
Sequitur ut, ace. and inf.
Signum ne, ace. and inf.
Simulo, ace. and inf,
Sino ut,

Spero, Spes ut, ace. and inf,
Statuo ne, ace. and inf.
Sto ne, quominus.
Struo ut.
Studeo ut.
Stupeo, ace, and inf,
Suadeo ut, dat. and inf.
Subeo, Suecurro, ace. and inf.
Sum, Est ut, (inde est quod,)

ace. and inf.
Supplex ut.
Suseipio ut.

Suspicor ut ne, ace, and inf.
Tango ut.

i

289

Tempus est ut.

Teneo ut, ne, quin.

Tento ut.

Testis quod.

Testor, ace. and Inf.

Timeo &c. ne, ut, quin, ace.

and inf.
Trado, aee. and inf.
Tribuo ut.
Vereor ne, ut.

Verisimile est ut, ace. and inf.
Vcrum est ut, ace. and inf.

Veto ne, quorainus, ace. and inf.
Video, ace. and inf.
Visum est mihi ut.
Video for Caveo, ne, ut.
Vinco. Vicit sententia ut, ace.

and inf.
Vis parva naturae est quod.
Vim banc habuit ut.
Vitium est quod.
Volo ut, ace. and inf.
Utilis ut ne.

LISTS.

Neuter Verhs variously construed under the same
Signification.

Accedere murls, Lit;. ad urbem,
Sail, in oppidum, Cic. acce-
dere domes infcrnas, Virg.
accedere alicui, i. e. assentiri,
Quinct. '

Accidit auribus, Plin. ad aures,
Liv. genibus, Id. ad genua,
Suet, in te istlmc verbum,
Ter.

Accubarc horrcis, Hor. seor-
tunj. Plant, alicui in convi-
vio, Cic. apud aliqueni, Id.
Sic.

Aceumbere epulis, Flrg. in epu-
lo, Cic.

Acquiescerc rei alicui, Sen. ali-
qua re, Cic, atsccpiils, in ali-
qua re, Id.

Adanibularc lateri alicujus,
Apul. ad ostium, Plaut.

Adequitare portse, Plin. ade-
quitarc Syracusas, Liu.

Adesse pugnac, i. e. prcesentem
esse, Cic. in pugna, Sail, ad
exercitum, Plaut. adesse ami-
cis, i. e. auxiliari, Cic.

Adhasrerc lateri, Liv. ad turrim,
Cces. in me, Cic. fronte, pro
in fronte, Ouid. Sic.

Adhcerescere justitia?, Cic ad
saxuni, Id. in banc materiam,
Id.

Adhinnire equce, Ouid. equam,
Plaut. ad orationem, Cic.

Adjacerc niari, Liv. mare,
Nep.

Adnare navibus, Liv. naves,
Cces.

Adnatare insulae, Plin. ad ma-
num, Id,

' Also, in the same sense, Accedere ad senlentiam alicvjus—VlaxYi, But
when the noun denotes a person, the dative is used ; for with an accusative
of a person and ad, accedo signifies to go.. When it signifies to be added to,
either construction may be used : as, Hoc accedll duiimis-—Ov'u\. Ad luec
mala hoc mihi accedit. In this sense, also, the dative of a person is usually
preferred. When it denotes to /lappen to, the dative pnly is used : as, Htiic
nihil possit og-ensionis accedere — Cic. To arrive at, the accusative with ad : as,
Quis ita ad venuslulcm ^sopi accedcit.

u

290

Adrepere virorum animis, Tac.

ad amiciiiain alicujus, Cic.
Adstare mensis doniini, Mart.

trabes, F. Flac. ad Achiliis

tumulum, Cic. in conspectu,
Id.
Adstrepere alicui, Tac. aures

alicujus, Pirn.
Adsultare vallo, Sil. moras por-

tarum, Slat.
Adveniie aiicui, Tac. urbem,

Virg. ad urbem, Quid. Sic.
Adventare aiicui, Tac. portis,

Stat. locum, Tac. ad Italiam,

Cic.
Adversari aiicui, Cic. aliquem,

Tac.
Advigilare aiicui, Tib. ad cus-

todiam ignis, Cic.
Adulari aiicui, Curt, aliquem,

Cic. Col. Tac.
Advolare rei, vel homini, Plin.

Virg. ad equites, Liv. advo-

lat rostra Cato, Cic.
Afflare aiicui rei vel personae,

Hor. aliquem yc/.aliquid, Virg.

aliquid aiicui, Virg.
Affluere aiicui, Ofirf. ad aliquid,

Cic.
Allabi oris, Virg. ad exta, Liv.

aures alicujus, Virg.
Allatrare aiicui, yhir. Vict.

aliquem scEpiiis, Liu. Plin.

Col.
AUudere aiicui, Plin. ad mulie-

rem, Ter.
Anniti haslae, Virg. ad aliquid,

Cic. aliquid, i. e. conari perfi-

cere, Pli7i.
Antecedere aiicui rei, Cic a\i-

quem,/i:f. antecedere aliquem

aitate, nobilitate, magniticen-

tia, Justin. Suet, raro aiicui.
Antecellerealicui, Cic. rarissime

aliquem
Anteire aiicui, Cic. aliquem,

Tac. aiicui aetata, Cic. om-
nes gloria. Sail. CJEteros vir-
tute, Cic.

Antestare caeteris virtute, Gelt.
caeteros robore, ApuL

Antevenire rei aiicui. Plant, ali-
quem. Sail, tempus, Claud.

Anteverterealicui, i. e.anteeum
venire, Ter. Sic. antevertere
damnationeraveneno,7'.e.pr3e-
venire, Tac. At, antevertere
rem rei, est praeponere, Plant.

Apparere aiicui, i. e. officii aut
obsequiicausapraestoesse: wf,
Lictores apparentConsulibus,
Liv. Apparent ad solium Jo-
vis, Virg.'^

Appropinquare Britanniae, Cccs.
portam, Hirt. ad portam. Id.
appi'opinquat aiicui poena, C?c.

Arridere aiicui, i. e. placere, Hor.
Arridere ridentibus, Id. ali-
quid, Gell.

Aspirare coeptis, Ovid, ad ali-
quem, I. e. pervenire, Cic. ad
laudem, i. e. contendere. Id.
in curiam. Id.

Assidere gegro, Senec. Assidet
insano, i. e. proximus est,
Hor. Assidere aliquem, Sail.

Assistere aiicui, Plin. ad fores,
Cic. super aliquem, Virg.
contra aliquem, Cic. Assistere
equos, i. e. sistere, Stat.

Assuesco, assuefacio,assuefio, re
aliqua: Genus pugnae quo as-
sueverant, Liv. Puro sermo-
neassuefactadomus, Cic. As-
suescererei aiicui, Liv. Operi
assuefecit, Id. Assuescere ad
homines, Cois. In hoc assues-
cat, Quinct. animis bel la, Fi?'^.

Attendere Caesari, Plin. juri.
Suet, aliquem, Cic. res hos-
tium, Sail. animum, Ter.
animum ad rem aliquam, Cic.

' When it denotes to be conspicuous, or to be clear, it is generally followed
by the dative only : as, Apparct mild res — Hor. Cui non ajiparerc, njfectare
eum imperinm in Latinos — Liv.

291

Auscultare alicui, Ter. aliquem,
Plant.

Blandiri sensibus, Cic. igneara
saevitiam, Colum.

Colludere alicui, Hor. cum ali-
quo, Cic.

Contido, Fid. Fido.

Congruere alicui, Ter. cum re
aliqua, Cic. inter se. Id.

Constare sibi, Cic. secum, Id.
Constat inter omnes, Nep.
Res mihi cum aiiis constat,
Auct. ad Her.

Consuescere alicui, Ter. cum ali-
quo, Plant, libero victu, Co-
lum. juvencum aratro, pro
consuefacere. Id.

Consulere alicui, Ter. famae ali-
cujus, Cic. de salute sua, Id.
durius in aliquem, Tac. in
longitudinenij Ter. in com-
mune, in medium, in publi-
cum, Ter. Lucan. Piin.

Convenire alicui, Cic. -cum re
aliqua, Id. Convenit in eum
liaec suspicio. Id. Cothurnus
convenit ad pedem, Id. Con-
veniunt mores, Ter. Majestas
etamornonconveniunt, Quid.
iEtatem aliam aliud factum
convenit, Plant. Aliquid mi-
hi convenit cum adversariis,
Aucl. ad Her. Convenimus
inter nos, Plant. Inter omnes
convenit, Cic. Saevis inter se
convenit ursis, Juv.

Deficiunt mihi vires, Cce$. me
vires, Cic. Deficior viribus,
Senec. omnibus rebus, CoL
ab arte, i. e. destituor, Ovid.

Degenerare patri, Claud, ali-
quem, Ovid, a \^rtute, Cic.

Derogare alicui, Cic. \eg\, Auct.
ud Her. de lege, Cic. ex aequi-
tate, Id. fidem alicui, Id. de
fide aliciijus. Id.

Desperare saluti alicujus, Cic.
de republica. Id. pacem, Id.
rempublicara. Id.

Desuescerehonori,!??/. Desucta
hello agmina, Virg. At hoc
dativo an ablativo dictum, in-
cerium.

Desunt verba dolori, Ovid: In
Antonio defuit hie ornatus,
Cic. Paucse ei centuriae ad,
Consulatum defuerunt, Id.

Dominari cunctis oris, Virg.^ m
cetera animalia, Ovid, in civi-
tate, Cic.

Excellere alicui dignitate, Cic.
in aliqua re. Id. super alios,
Liv. aliter, inter, propter coe-
teros, Cic. inter aliquos, Id.

Facere ad aliquid, pro prodesse
vol convenire, Ovid, et alii
frequenter. Raro lute notione,
facere alicui, Prop. Hot.

Fidere, confidere rei alicui, Virg.
Cic. re aliqua, Id. in re ali-
qua, Hirt.'^

Gratulor tibi banc rem, Cic. hac

' Some have supposed this case to be the dative; and some the ablative.
Alvarez conceives it to be tlie dative, and in the following it certainly is this
case ; Toll domlnabere mundo — Claiidian. Diomedcs and Vossiiis have ima-
gined it to be the ablative. Alvarez considers such cNpressions as Doniinatus
csL Alcxandruc, Victis dominahitur Argis, as similar to Ncitus est Romce, Athenis.
Dominor is often followed by infer.

' When the following noun is a person, the dative only is used ; as, Conjldo
tibi, not te, unless te depend upon some infinitive. J^'ido is often followed by
thfe dative, and often by the ablative, but perhaps by the latter oftener. Con-
Jido is construed in like manner : as, Sibi confidere — Cic. caus/r — Cic. Jirmi-
tate corporis — Cic. in which last there is an ellipsis of in. It is often construed
with the infinitive: as, Corifido fore ; and thus also dijjldo. When this last de-
notes to distrust, it governs the dative only : as, FrudenticB alicujus diffiderc—
Cic. But we say Confidere or DiJJidere de salute aticvjus, and the like, in which
the former seems to denote to have hopes of, and the latter to despair of.

U2

292

re, C<bI. ap. eimd. tie hac re,
Cic. in hac re, Id.

Haeret lateri, Firg. curru. Id.
alicui in viscevibus, Cic.^

Ignoscere alicui, Ter. vitio,
Ovid, peccatum suum alicui,
Plant.

Illudere alicui, Firg. aliquem,
Ter. aliquid, Firg. in ali-
quem, Ter. in aliquo, Id.

Illabi rei alicui, Firg. in rem
aliquam, Cic. Pernicicsillapsa
civiuni aniraos. Id. ad eos il-
labi, Id.

Illuxit dies alicuij Liv. aliquem,
Plant.

Imminere rei alicui, Ovid, in
fbrtunas alicujus, Cie.'*

Immorari rei alicui, F. Max. in
re aliqua. Quint.

Imniori studiis, Hor. in vino,
Plin.

Impendere alicui, Cic. aliquem,
Ter. in aliquem, Cic.

Incessit cura, cupido, timor ali-
cui,Z/W. V.Max. Sail, aliquem,
Liv. Tac. in aliquem, Ter.

Incubare ovis. Col. ova, Plin.
pecunicE, thesauris, Cic. Liv.

Incumbere toro, Firg. gladium,
Plant, in gladium, Cic. labo-
ri, Sil. ad laudem, Cic. ad
studia. Id. in studium, cu-
ram, cogitationem, /li.'

Incurro et incurso rei alicui.
Suet, rem aliquem, Liv. in
rem aliquam, Cic.

Indulgeo illi, Ter. me, Id. ali-
quid alicui. Suet.

Ingemere,ingemiscere rei alicui,

Liv. re aliqua, Cnrt. m re ali-

qui\,C/<:.Ingeviiuere jacentera

InacludcE^ Stat, interitum,

V'^rg.

Inhacrco et inhseresco rei alicui,
Ovid, in re aliqua, Cic.

Inhiare auro, Flor. bona alicu-
jus. Plant. Firg.

Innare aquae, Liv. fluvium,
^^rg.

Innasci rei alicui, Ter. in re ali-
qua, Cic. Innati eodcm solo,
Just.

Innatare fluminl, Plin. undam,
Firg. in concliam, Cic.

Inniti rei alicui, Stat, re aliqua,
Liv. in re aliqua, Cic. in ali-
quem, Plin.

Insidere rei alicui vel personse,
Firp. collem, Plin. locum,
Liv. \n memoria, m ammo,
in meduUis, i. e. firmiter in-
haerere, Cic.

Insidunt apes floribus, Firg.
pardiinsidunt condensa arbo-
re, Plin.

Insilire rei alicui, Lucan. in e-
quum, Liv. tauros. Suet, su-
pra lignum, Phcedr.

Insistere curee rerum, Plin. ves-
tigiis alicujus, Cic. viam, Ter.
via, Id. in re aliqua, Cic in
doles. Plant, negotium. Id.

Instare operi, Firg. victis, Liv.
rectam viam. Plant, currum
Marti, i. e. instanter fabrica-
re, Firg. unum, i. e. instanter
urgere, Ter.

* H(crcre in amnrem — Plant. Ad radices lingueE hccrens stomachus — Cic. In
Haret pcdc jvs — Viig. either pede is an old dative, or it may be an ablative
governed by cum or some other preposition.

^ Also, Imminere fortunh — Cic. ad ccBdem.—\A.

^ When this word is not used figuratively, the dative according to Valla is
used: as, Incumbere remis, not in rcmos wot ad remos. Incumbere alicui, in
ilium and in illo, referring to a person, are all mentioned as having been used.
But when, figuratively, the mind is referred to, it is followed by an accusative
■with ud o'. K'yi .• as, Omni studio ad be Hum incumbere — Cic. Incumbe in hanc
curam — Cic. In this signification it hardly admits a dative : but Incumbere
2>Iiilosophice, yeljiiris studio, and a few similar expressions are noticed.

293

Inspiiere rei alicui, Plin. ali-
quid. Id. in aliquid, Id.

Insuere rei alicui, Ovid, pelle
juvenci. Id. culco, F. Max.
in culeum, Cic

Insuescere rei alicui, Tac. re
aliqua, Coluvi.

Insultare alicui rei vel personae.
Suet. Cic. fores, Ter. puticn-
tiamalicujuSjTac. in miseriam
alicujus, Auct. ad Her. bonos,
Sail.

Insum rei alicui, Sen. in re ali-
qua, Cic.

Insurgere regnis alicujus, Ovid.
in miscros, Stat.

Insusurrarc alicui, Cic. in aurem
alicujus, Id.

Intercedit niihi tecum amicitia,
Cic. inter nos, Id. '

Interdiccre alicui provincia,
Suet, aqua ct igni, Cic. fcE-
minis usum purpurte, Liv.^
de vi hominibus armatis, Cic.

Intercsse rei alicui^ Cic. in re
aliqua, Id.^

Interjaccresulcis, Col. duasSyr-

tes, Plin. Haec inter earn et

llhodum interjacet, Id.
Intervenire alicui rei, Tac. cog-

nitioncm. Id.
Invasit timer improbis, Cic. Vis

avaritis in animos invaserat,

Sa/l. Invadcrc urbem, F'irg.

in fortunas alicujus, Cic. in

arcem causae. Id.
Invidere honori alicujus, Cic.

honorem alicui, f/or. aliquem,

Ovid, in re aliqua, CiC^
Latet res mihi, Lucan. Latet

mc, Firg."
Mederi alicui, Cic. cupiditates,

Ter. contra serpentum ictus,

Plin.
Medicari alicui, Firg. ictum

cuspid is, Id.
Moderari animo, Cic. gentibus,

Sail, navim, Cic. omnia. Id.
Nocere alicui, Cic. rarissiinc a\l-

quem, Plaut.
Nuberc alicui, Cic. in clarissi-

mam tamiliam, Id. Nupta

' It IS sometimes used absolutely : as, Unux ct alter dies interccsscrat — Cic.
i. e. inter hoc ct Mud factum; or, as we say in English , /;fr(Z inlcrvencd, Sena-
t&s auctoritas iiilercessit — Cic. i. c. medium se interpos^uil, vel, irnjn'divit : \n
which last sense it seems that Seneca says Quotiea poterll, su pirns for tuna- in-
tcrcedet. Whether ^^•c can use inlercrdere pro aliqxM, for to supplicate in behalf
of, or to intercede for, seems (juestionable.

* Interdico le hac re is very uncommon ; but this case seems to be sanctioned
by such phrases as Philosophi urbe et Itcdid interdicli sunt — Cell. Its usual con-
struction seems to be with the dative, and an ablative : as, Vos interdicilis pa-
tribus commercio plebis — Liv. Interdixit histrionibus scejinm is written by Sue-
tonius j and Omni Gallia Romcinos inlerdixisset is attributed toCaJsar; but
some read Romajiis. Intcrdicor aqua et igni does not seem to be sanctioned
by authority. And in Cicero's Ut M. Tullio aqua et ignis inlerdieatur ; and

Ut mihi aqua et ignis interdicerctur, it is thought by the best critics tliat aqua
and ignis are mistaken for aqun et igni.

^ Here intcrsum signifies to be present ; but when it signifies to come betweffn
or to differ, a, ditlerent construction is used : as, Inter primum el serium- con-
sulalum 4() nnni interfucrunt — Cic. Hoc paler ct domiuus interest — Ter. Stulto
intelligens quid interest r— Ter.

* Tliis verb is commonly construed with the dative of tlie person, and the
accusative of the thing. That it may have been construed, especially by the
anticnts, with the accusative of the person, appears from Horace's Ego cur ac-
quirerc pauca Si possum, invideor.

^ Latet has conmionly the dative in Cicero ; as Nihil moliris quod viihi la-
tere vnleut ; and this case seems more consonant with the analogy of the Latin
language than the accusative, which seems an imitatioii of Greek cou-jlruclion.

294.

cum aliquo, Id. Una nupta
apud duos, Ge//.'

Obambulare muris, Liv. ante
portas, Id. -3itnam, Ovid.

Obequitare castris, Liv. agmen,
Curt.

Obrepere alicui, Cic. in animos
dormientium,/([/. ad lionores.
Id. Taciturn te obrepet fames,
Plant.

Obtrectare alicui, Cic. laudibus
alicujus, Cic. vires, V. Max.

Obversari oculis, Liv. ante ocu-
los, Id. ad aures, Lucr. som-
no, Liv. in somnis, Id.

Obumbrat sibi vinea, PUn. Ob-
umbrant Solem nubes, Id.

Occumbere morti, Virg. mor-
tem, Cic. morte, Liv.

Palpari alicui, Plant. Palpare
aliquem, Juv.

Parcere alicui, Cic. labori, Ter.

pecuniam. Plant. Ut parce-

rent sibi vitam, Gell. Talenta

natis parcetuis, Virg. Uta cse-

dibus parceretur,Lw. Parcite

eves nimium procedere, Virg.

Pepigit mihi aliquid, Ovid. Pe-

pigit cum aliquo. Suet. Pepi-

gerunt inter se, Auct. ad He-

renn. Sic. Paciscor alicui,

Cic. cum aliquo, Id. Pacisci

vitam ab aliquo. Sail, vitam

pro laude, Firg.

Praecedunt vestraBfortuna^meis,

P/a«/.Pr£Ecedere aliquem vir-

tute, Cces. omnes in re aliqua,

PUn. Pra;cedere agmen, ^iro',

Praecurrere alicui, Cic. aliquem,

Id. ante omnes, Cr^s.
Prseire alicui, Slat. i. e. pr3ecede-

re aliquem. Pra^irealicui verba,
sacramentum, Liv. Tac. i. e.
dictare. Praeire verbis, Plant.
vocealicuijCe'c. descripto,P/iw.

Prsejacens Asiae vastum mare,
Plin. Praejacere castra, Tac.

Prseminere omnibus, iSen.* ma-
los, Tac.

Praesidere urbi, imperio, Cic.
exercitum, Italiam, littora
Oceani, Tac

Praestare alicui, Cic. omnibus
humanitate, Id. omnes elo-
quentia^ Nep.^

Praestolari alicui, Cic. aliquem,
Ter."

Praevertere aliquid rei alicui, Lfy.
uxorem prae republica. Plant.
Cursu pedum praevertere ven-
tos, Virg. Et passive, Prae-
vertihoc certumestrebusaliis
omnibus, Plant. Ut bellum
praeverti sinerent, Liv. Vo-
lucremque fuga praevertitur
Hebrum, Virg.

Procumbere terrae, Ovid," geni-
bus alicujus, Id. ad genua,
Liv. ante pedes, Ovid, in ar-
mos. Mart.
Providere rei frumentariae, Cces.
rem frumentariam, Cces. de
re frumentaria, Cces.
Quadi'are alicui, Cic. in ali-
quem, Id. admulta,/(i. acer-
vum, i, e. in quadrum redi-
gere, Hor.
Respondere alicui, Cic. his, Cces.
ad haec, ad postulata. Id. ad
nomen,Lii'. votis alicujus, i.e.
satisfacere, Virg. ad spem, Liy.
Servire, inservire alicui, Hor.

' Thus also Denuhere alicui — Tac. And Denubcre in domum aUcujus — Tac.
It is very probable, that as nubo seema to signify properly vdare, to covey; or
to veil, an accusative is always understood to it.

* Some read praniiere. ^ Also, Pr<estitit inter mos eequales — Cic.

* Cicero often construes this verb with a dative ; but almost every other
writer uses the accusative.

* Ternc may here be perhaps the genitive, as in Frocumbit htimi bos, in solo
being understood to both.

29;

Cic. rarissime aliqueni, Plant.
Turpil.

Studere alicui rei, i, e. operam
dare, Cic. literas, Id. aliquid,
i. e. cupere, Cic. in earn rem,
Quinct. in ea re, GelL Stude-
re alicui, i. e. favere, Cic.

Subesse rei alicui, Cic. in re ali-
qua, Id.

Subire muro, Firg. feretro, Id.
Subeunt mihi cunctarum fas-
tidia, Ovid. Subire tecta,/^irg.
limina. Id. ad mcenia, Liv.
ad portas, Id. in locum alicu-
jus, Ovid, in ccelum, Plin.
sub acumen styli, Cic. Subi-
bat me, viros finxisse caecani
esse fortunam, j^pul. At sub-
ire onus, labores, poenam,
periculum, &c. item, subiit a-

nimum, mentem, fere semper
dicuntur.^

Subjacere monti, Plin. ad ali-
quid, Quinct.

Succedcre \)cnatihus, Firg. nni-
ro, Liv. murum. Sail, ad ur-
bem, Liv. sub primam aciem,
Ca,'s. in pugnam, Liv. Suc-
cedere alicui et in locum ali-
cujus, Cic.

Suoerstare alicui rei, Liv. ali-
quern, Virg.

Supervenire alicui, Liv. Unda
supervenit undam, Hor.

Venire alicui, Ovid, multo fre-
quenlius ad aliquem, Cic. sub-
sidio alicui, Cic. suppetias,
Hirt. B. /Ifr. adversum alicui,
/'/aM^subictumtelorum,Liy.

To these may be added the folloxioing List of Verbs sometimes
employed as Active or Neuter-, in the same Sense, or in
One a little different from the primary Signif cation.

Abhorreo, N. {tisnalli/.)A. Om-

nes iilum abhorrent et asper-

nantur, Cic.
Abnuo, Annuo. N, Annuit his

Juno, ^n. V2, 84-1. A. Jam

abnuentes omnia, Sail. Jug.

Omen abnuit iEneas, JEn.

5, 531. Cceli quibus annuis

arcem, u^n. 1, 250.

hist. 2, 3, 6. N. Adolescunt
ignibus arse, Gevrg. 4, 379.
And in a dij/'erent sense, Si-
111 ul atque adoleverit aetas,
Hor. sat. 1 , 9, 34.
Adulor.N. Potenti adulari,iV(?p.
25, 8, 6. A. Adulari fortu-
nam alterius. Cic. de divin. 2.
plebem, Liv. 23, 4.

Aboleo. A. Corpusnonigni abo- ]E(\uo.A..{us. ;N.Libros,quijam
lituni, Tac. N. Memoria cla- illis fere aequarunt, studio^e

dis nondum aboleverat, Liv.
perhaps se understood.
Adolesco or Adoleo. A. Igne
puro altaria adolentur, Tac.

Icgas, Cic. oj}'. 1, 1, al. 3. Ita
signis carpentisque et spoliis
ferme sequabat. Liv. 33, 24.
perhaps se ii understood.

' Subeo is often used absolutely : as, Srihiit cogitatio, vjcmoria, cura, Szc. in
v.hich animmn or mentem is understood ; indeed, it is generally expressed.
In the same sense, Subiit regem sera piunitcjitia — Cin"t. and, vvitli tlic accusa-
tive suppressed, Subiit cari gcniloris imago — Virg. In this sense ihc dative is
found: as, Subeant aninio Lalinia saxa tuo — Ovid. —

* In the same manner we sometimes find, in English, such expressions as
" To cease a noise," for " To make a noise ceaye." Tiius also " I'o run a
fiorse," "dance a child," " sleep away sorrow, a surfeit, &c.," with many si-
milar examples.

296

JEmulor. A. Pindarum quisquis
studet asmulari, Hor. od. 4,

2, 1. N. Tanquani niihi ab
infimo quoque periculum sit,
ne niecum aimuletur, Liv.
28, 4S.

ilistuo, Exaestuo. N. (j/s.) A.
Pisffiumque cJomus non ae-
stuat annum, Stat. {i. e. acstu-
ando exhibit annum.) Omnes
exacstuat rcstus, Lucr.6,Sl6.
But this is a cognate Ace.

Ambulo. N. {us.) A. Ambulare
maria, Cic. de Jin. 2, ad Jin.
Si ambulantur stadia bina,
Plin.^3, 1.

Anhelo. N, (us.) A. De pectore
frigus anhelans, Cic. nat.
d. 2. Anlielare crudelitatem,
Auct. ad Herenn. ^,55. An-
helatiigneSj Ouid. Her. 12, 15.

Appello, -is. A. (?/.?. )N. Eo anno
Alexandrum in Itah'am classe
appulisse constat, Liv. 8, 3.
perhaps se understood.

Appeto. A. [us.) N. Jam appe-
tebat tempus, Liv. 25, 2.

Applaudo. N. (7/5.) A. Applau-
dit manu caput, Nemes. eel.

3, 33. Cavis applauso corpore
palmis, Ooid. met. 4, 352.

Ardco. N. {us.) A. Corydonar-
debat Alexin, yirg.

Arrideo. N. (us.) A. Quum aut
nonadhibeantui*adcausa3,aut
adhibiti derideantur : nam si
arrideantur, esset id Attico-
rum, Cic. de. opt. gen. oral.

Asccndo. A. Ascendere jugum,
Ca^s. h. G. 1, 21. N. Ascen-
disset ad honores, Cic. de cl.
oral. 211, c. 58.

Assuesco, Consucsco, Insuesco.
N. Ut aliis parere consuesce-
rent, Cic. de inv. 1, 2, A.
Consuescere rusticos circa la-
rcm domini epulari, Colum.
11, 1. Sic insuesci debent,
Colum. 1. {See the. preceding
List.)

Audco, N. Aude, hospes, con-
temnere opes, yEn. 6, 364,
But here boc seems understood,
or contemnere opes supplies
the place of an accusative. A.
Periculum audebant, Tac.
ann. 3, 76. In regnis hoc
ausa tuis, Mn. 5, 792.

Cachinno or Cachinnor. N. {us.)
A. Exitium meum cachinnat,
y^pul met. 3.

Careo. N. {us.) A, {antiquated)
Collum collaria caret, Plant.
Carendus is used by the best
writers: as, Virque mihi
dempto fine carendus abest,
Of. pen. ul. — But this is no
proof of its being active.

Cavillor. A. Tribunes cavillans,
Liv. 2, 58. N. Saepe cum
populo cavillatus est. Suet,
Tit. 8.

Cedo, Concedo. A. Earn pro-
vinciam collegae cessit, Val.
Max. 4. Perizonius imagines
quod ad understood. Con-
cedere dolorem, Cic. N. Tu
ne cede malis, F/r^. Conce-
dam bine intro atque expec-
tabo, Ter.

Celero. N. or, rather, absolutely.
CeJerare statuit, Tac. Si acce-
lerare volent, Cic. Cat. 2, 4.
A. (mi;.) Celerarefugam,f7rg.
Iter accelerare, Cas. b. G. 3,
39. magistratum, Tac. Itine-
ribus celeratis, Ammian. ^l^
11.

Ccrto. N. {us.) A. Si res ccrta-
bitur unquam, Hor. Certare
rem, Sedig. ap. Gell. 15, 24.
Certatam litedeorum Ambra-
ciam, Ov. met. 13, 713.
Thus also, Concertare quid,
Ter. Ad. 2, 2, 2. Quae non
sunt concertata, Cic. part.
c. 28.

Cesso. N. {us.) It is used pas-
sively only as an impersonal,
or in the perfect participle :

2f)7

thus, Largaque provenit ces-
jsatis messis in arvis, Ov. fast.
4<j 617. But this is no proof
of cesso being active.

Clamo, Clamito, and comp. N.
(us. ) A. Clamare morientem
nomine, ^n. 4, 674. Con-
claniat socios, Of. me/. 13,
73. Inclamavit comitem su-
um, Cic. inv. % 4. Exclamat
uxorem, Plant. Amph. In-
clamitor quasi scrvus, Plant.
Epid. 5. 2, 46. Clamitare
calliditatem vidcntur, Cic. pro
Rose. coin. 20, 7. Clamata
pa'.ma, Ov.fast.5, 189. Cor-
pora conclamata, Lucan. 2,
22.

Coeo. N. {us.) A. Coire socicta-
tcm, Cic. Phil. 2, 10. Socie-
tas coitur, Cic. pro Sext. Rose.
c. 7. Societas aiid societatem
are the only words thus used.

CcEno. N, (us.) A. Ut aprum
coenem ego, Hor. sat. 2, 3,
235. Eum odorem ccenat Ju-
piter, Plant, pseud.

Cogito. A. [us.) N. Mihi de
amicitia cogitanti, Cic. Aniic.
1. De me cogites, Ter. Eun.
1, 2, 114. lit these it is only
absolute.

Conflagro. N. (us.) A. Confla-
gravit Semelcn Jupiter, Hy-
gin. fab. 129. Urbs incendio
conflagrata. And. ad Herenn.
4, 8. Ihit neither these nor
the deflagrata domus in Cccsar
Strabo ap. Prise. 6, will prove
the M5eq/ contiagror aw^defla-
gror, nor an active signijlca-
tion in flagro.

Contingo. A. (us.) N. (and per-
haps iiiipers.) Id iji inagnis
animis contingit, Cic. oj}'. i,
71<, c. 22.

Consisto. N. (^us.) A. (for con-
stituo) Et per qua: vitam pos-
suntconsisterc tutani, Lucr. 6,

Contendo. A. (us.) N. I'latu in

iEgyptum contendit, Cic
Contendere armis, Cic. Att
7, 9. nobilitate, Lucr. It ap-
pears to me always active,
cursum, iter, or nervos, being,
according to the sense, tender-
stood.

Convenio, N. (us.) In urbem
crebro convenio. Plant. True.
3, 2, 14. i.e. / 50. A. Puc-
rum conveni, Ter. And. 2, 2,
31, i. c. / met. Non est is a
me conventus, Cic. Alt. 15,
1, i. e. met. Pax conventa,
Sail. I. Jug. 112, i. e. agreed
upon. (See the preceding and
the following List. )

Corusco, N.Flamma inter nubes
coruscat, Cic. deorat. 3, 155,
c. 39. It is said to be usually
Neuter; hut may 7iot the re-
Jlective pronoun be understood?
A. (In the sense of to bran-
dish or shake.) Strictumque
coruscat mucronem, yEn. JO.
Coruscare hastam, j^n. 12,
431, Also neuter or absolute
in the same sense : as, Longa
coruscat sarraco venienteabi-
es, Juv. 3, 254. Coruscandis
nubibus, Apul. de deo Socr.
p. 675.

Crepo, Concrepo. N. Quando
csurio, [intestina] crepant.
Plant. Men. 5, 5, 26. Sed
ostium concrcpuit, Ter. Hec.
4, 1, 6. A. Sulcos etvineta
crepat mera, Hor. ep. 1, 7,
81', i. e. chatters of. Con-
crepat aera, Mart, i e. makes
them ring, or jingle. Digi-
tos concrepare, Petron. i. e.
to snap the lingers ; al. digi-
tis.

Credo. A. Num puero summam
belh', num credere muros.
/En. 10, 70. N. Credo mihi,
bene (jui Uituit bene vixit, Ov.
Credo is jolluwed also by a ge-
nitive : as, Duarum rcruui cry-

298

dere. Plant. True. % 2, 52,
i. e. quod attinet. — Nimium
ne crede colori, Virg. ed. 2,
17.

Cunctor, N. (us.) A. Ut du-
bium et pugnas cuiictantem
Eteoclca vidit, Siat. 11, 268.

Curro and cornp. N. {us.) A.
[but generally cognate accusa-
tive.') Currit iter tutum, JEn.
5, 862. stadium, C'lc. off. 3.
Cuncta decurrere possum,
Virg. vitam, Frop. inceptum
laborem, Virg.^ Geo. 2, 39.
Kecurrere cursum, Plant.
Cist. 2, 3, 50. Coelum trans-
currere, Ai^n. 9, 110. cursum,
Cic. de cl. orat. 281. divisio-
nes, Quinct. 4, 2, 2. Decursa
setas, Cic. pro Quinct. c. 31.

Declino. A. Urbem unam decli-
navi, Cic. pro Plane. 97. v.
41. me, Plant. AiiL 4, 8. De-
clinantur contraria, Cic. nat.
d. 3, 13. N. Declinare a
proposito, Cic, orat. 40. Se
seems understood.

Desino. N. [us.) A. Muliei' te-
la m desinit, Ter. Ileaut. 2, 3,
ei. Artem desinere, Cic.
fam.1,\. Orationes legi de-
sitse, Cic. Brut. c. 32.

Despero. N. (us.) A. Pacem
desperavi, Cic, Alt. 1, 20.
Desperabantur praelia, Mart.
Sped. 22.

Despicio. A. [us.) N. Nequein
vias sub cantu querula^ de-
spice tibiae, Hor. od. 3, 7, 29.

Diff'ero. A. Item difFerre et pro-
crastinare cceperunt, Cic. pro
Sex. Rose. 9. N. [in a diffe-
rent sense.) Cogitatione diffe-
runt, re copulata sunt, Cic.
Tuse. 4.

Doleo. N. [us) A. Meum ca-
sum doluerunt, Cic. pro Sext.
c. 69. Poena dolenda, Ovid,
her, 5, 8.

Dubito. N. [us.) A. Turpc est

dubitare philosophos, quae ne
rustici quidem dubitant, Cic.
Dubitare aliquid, Ovid. met.
6, 194. Ne auctor dubitare-
tur, Tac. arm. 14, 7, 1.

Dure, A. Frictio durat corpus,
Cels. 2, 15. N, Asinius pene
ad extremum duravit, Cic.
dial, de orat. 17, i. e. lasted.

Ebullio. N. Ubi ebullit vinum,
Cato. A. Virtutes ebullire et
sapientias, Cic. Tusc, 3, 18,
i. e. to vaunt of, Animam
ebullit, Sen. in Apocol.

Edormio. N. [us.) A. Edormi
crapulam, et exhala, Cic.
Phil. i. e. sleep ofFor away.

Emergo. N. [us.) A. Quibusex
malis ut se emerserat, Nep.
Attic. 11, 1. Ex flumine
emersus, Cic. div. % 68.

Emineo. N. [us.) A. Moles a-
quam eminebat, Curt. 4,

Equito. N. Equitare in arun-
dine, Hor. A. Atque etiam
[cameli] equitantur, Plin, 8.

Erumpo. N. Erumpunt portis,
Virg. A. Erumpere stoma-
chum in aliquem, Cic. Att.
16, 3. Portis se erumpunt,
Cees. I. c. 2. Maii not se be
understood in the first exam-
ple? Prorumpit ad rethera
nubem, jEn. 3, 572. Erupti
ignes, Lncr. I, 724.

Erro, N. [us.) Errata retrorsum
littora, ^n. 3, 690. But
neither does this, nor the im-
personal erratur, prove erro
to be active, or errare terras
to be alloivable.

Erubesco. N. [us.) A. Affines
te erubescunt, Cic. Erubes-
cendi ignes, Hor. araores.
Sen. controv. 2.

Evado. N. In loca tuta evasit.
Liv. 28. A. Me evasit. Suet.
Tib. Evasum se esse, Liv.

Evigilo. N. Evigilavit in undis,
Stat. sylv. 5, 3, 128. A. Quos

299

studium cunctos evigilavit
idem, Ov. trist. 1, 1, 108.
Evigilata consilia, Cic. Attic.
9, 12.

Exeo. N. Postquam eportupi-
ratae exierant, Cic. Verr. 5,
71. A. Jam ut limen exirem,
Ter. Bee. 3, 3, 17, but this
is unusual. It is used in the
sense of to avoid, with an ac-
cusative : as, Corpore tela
modo atque oculis vigilanti-
bus exit, JSn. 5, 438.

Exerceo. A. (us) Exercentes
and Exercendo are used ab-
solutely : as, Exercentes e-
phebi, Suet. Aug. 98.

Exhalo, N. Exhalant vapore al-
taria, Lucr. A. Exhalant flu-
mina nebulas, Ov. met. 13,
602. Exhalata anima, Ov.
met. 11,43.

Exubero. N. Pomis exuberet
annus, Virg. Georg. 2, 51 6.
A . Quae herbae favorum ceras
exuberant, Colum. 9, 4.

Facesso. A. [us.) Matris prae-
cepta facessit, Georg. 4, 548.
And it is found especially in
old writers in the signification
of to take away. Dictum fa-
cessas tuum, Plaut. Men. 2,

1 , 24. Facesse hinc Tarqui-
nios, Liv. I, 47. And hence
the foUoicing. N. Ni faces-
sereut propere urbe finibus-
que, Liv. 4. Hkc hinc faces-
sat, Ter. Phorm. 4, 3, 30, i. e.
go away. Perhaps se is un-
derstood.

Fastidio. A. Si tc hie flistidit,
rirg. Dum nullum fastiditur
genus, Liv. N. Fastidit mei,
Plaut. Aul. 2, 2, 67. Factis
saepe f'astidiunt, Cic. pro Mi-
Ion A3.

Festino.N. Festinatc.viri, ^n.

2, 373. A. Festinare vestes,
Ovid. Met. II, 515. Festi-
nare in sc uiorLcm, Tac. ann.

4, 28, 3. Animo cupienti ni-
hil satis festinatur. Sail. Jug.
64,6.
Fleo. N. [us) A. Flere funera,
Ovid, aliqueni, yEn. 7, 760.
Longo quod flebitur aevo,
Sil. 5, IS7.
Flo a?id comp: N. Belle nobis
flavit Auster, Cic. Att. 7, 2.
Etsi Etesia; valde reflarint,
Cic. Att. 6, 6. A. Flaret e
corpore flammam, Lucr. 5,
984. al. efflaret. Laetos effla-
rat honor es, Fir g. Tibia fla-
tur, Ov.fost. 4, 841. Aer
ducitur atque reflatur, Lucr.
4, 936. Sufflare ignem, Plin.
34, 8. Sufflata cutis, Plin. 8,
38.

Fugio and comp. N. Fuge, nate,
propinquant, A^n. 2. EfFugit
rex e manibus, Cic. pro L.
M. c. 9, 22. A. Fugere ali-
quem, Ovid. met. 3, 384.
Paupertas fugitur, Lucan. 1,
165. EfFugere periculum,
Cces. b. G. 4, 35. Defugere
administrationem reipublic.
Cces. b.c. 1,32.

Gomo, Ingemo. N. (us.) A.
Gemere casum alicujus, ASn.
1, 221. Hie status gemitur,
Cic. Alt. 2, 18. Ingemuisse
leonesinteritum,^?-^, Clades
ingemiscenda Aminian. 30, 7.

Gratiiicor. A. Decus atque li-
bertatem potentite gratificari,
Scill. Jug. 3. tibi hoc, Cic.fom.
\, 10. N. Aliis gratificari vo-
lunt, Cic. fin. 5, 15. But,
probably, an accusative is un-
derstood.

Habito. A. Centum urbeshabi-
tabant, jEn. 3, 106. N. or
Absol. Habitabant vallibus
imis, yEn. 3, 110, i. e. ihfy
lived in. Duabus urbibus ha-
bitabat populus idem, Liv.S,
22. Bui, perhaps, in llusc
also, the sense is inhabit, do-

300

mos, or some such word, being
understood.
Hiemo. N, Atrum defcndens
pisces hicmat mare, Hor. A.
Decoquunt aquas ; mox et
illas hiemant, Plin. 19, 4.
Hiemato lacu, Plin. 9.
Horreo. N. (us.) A. Horrere
pauperiem, Hor. sat. 2, 5, 9.
conspectum, Cic. Horrenda
diluvies, Hor. car. 4, 14, 27-
Nomen horrescunt, Jpul. 6.

Increpo. N, (us.) A. Sonitum
increpuit tuba, j^n. 9, 503.
socios, jEn. 10, 830. Quae
in victoriam Sullanam incre-
pabantur, Sail. ep. de rep.
ord. 1, 5.

Inco, Ingrcdior. N. Intra muni-
tionesingredi, Cces. h. G. 5, 9.
Ineunte aetate, adolescentia,
&c. passim. A. Colles ingredi-
tur, Ov. met. 14, 846. Taurus
init coelum, Ov.fast.5, 617.

Inolesco. N. [jis.) A. Inolevit
nobis natura amorem nostri,
Gell. 12, 5. In moribus in-
olescendis, Gell. 12, 1.

Insanio. N. (us) A. Insanit a-
mores, Prop. 2. Quani me
stultitiam - - - insanire putas,
Hor. So Bent ley reads ; others
have qua stultitiii.

Irascor. N. [us.) A. [with an
accusative of the thing) Istud
dictum tibi irascor. Plant.
Merc. 4, 5. Nostrara ne vi-
ccni irascaris, Liv. 34, 32.

Irrumpo. N. In castra irrupe-
runt, Cccs. b. G. 4, 14. A.
Milites oppidum irrumpe-
rcnt, C(cs. b. G.l. 27.

Juro, Adjure. N. or Absol. (us.)
A. {with an accw^atlvc of the
thing sworn by) Stygiasjara-
vimus undas, Ov. met. 2.
Jurare Jovem, Cic. fam. 7,
12. Arac jurandac, Hor. ep.
2, 1, 16. An accusative of
the thing sworn to ; Qui de-

ncgatotjuravitmorbum, Cic.
Att. Jnd tvith hoc id &c. : as,
Hoc idem jurant rcliqui, C(vs.
b. c. 3. Ilaic adjurarent, Liv.
43, 16.

Laboro. N. (us.) A. Ad quid
laboramus res llomanas, Cic.
Jitt. arma tibi, Stat. Theb. 3,
279. Propter quae haec labo-
rantur, Cic. fam. 3, 13. Ves-
tes arte laboratae, Virg.

Lacrymo, Lacrymor. N. {us.)
A. Lacrymare casum alicu-
jus, Nep. 7, 6, 4. Casum col-
lacrymavit, Cic. pro Scxt.
Lacrymatac cortice myrrha;,
Ov.fast. 1,339.

Lapido. A. {us.) N. Reate im-
bri lapidavit, Liv. 43, 13. It
is here used impersonally.

Latro. N, {us.) A. Latrent il-
ium canes, Hor. epod. 5, 57.
Huncliabentes negant latrari
a canibus, Plin. 25, 10.

Luceo. N. {us) A. Lucebis
novae nuptaefacem,P/^tM/.Cay.

Ludo. N. {us.) A. Luderealeam,
Suet. Aug. 70, 5. bella latro-
num, Mart, civem bonum,
Ccel. ad Oic. 8, 9. Luditur
alea pernox, Juv. 8, 10.

Maneo. N. or Absol. {us.) A.
Manere aliquem, Liv. 10, 35.
Mancbat actas negligentiam,
Ter. Phorm. 4, 1. iEtas raa-
nenda, Lucr. 3, 1088.

Mano, Emano, Stillo. N. or Ab-
sol. {us.) A. Manat picem,
Plin, lacrymas, Ov. met. 6,
3 1 2. Calpr pcrmanat argen-
tum, Lucr. 1, 495. Emanare
sanicm, Plin. 23, 3. Stillabit
ex oculis rorem, Hor. ar.
poet. 429. Electra de ramis
stillata, Ovid. met. 2, 364.

Maturo. N.or Absol. Maturant-
que celcriter, sicut morus,
Plin, 16, 25. A. Maturate
fugaiw, ^'«. 1, 137. Matu-
ratur opus, Justin. 2, 15, 7.

301

Mentior. N, or Absol. In virum
bonum mentiri non cadit e-
molumenti sui causa, Cic.
off. 3, 20. A. Mentiri auspi-
cium, Lfy. 10, 4>0. colorcs,
f^irg. Mentitae sortes, FaL
FL 3, 618.

Metuo, Timeo, A. Calamitatem
metuo, Cic. Verr. 3. Et quae
sibi quisque timebat, JEn. 2.
N. Syre tibi male timui, Ter.
Hei ! metui a Chrysidc, Ter.
And. 1, 1, 79. But here
some accusative is certainly
understood.

Modoror. N. Qui non niodera-
bitur irae, Hor. ep. 1, 2, 59.
A.Moderari cantus numeros-
que, Cic. Tusc. 5, 104, c. 36.

Mcereo. N. Dolove altcrius mce-
rere, Cic. fam. 4, 5. A. Filii
mortem moereret, Cic.Tusc.l.

Muto. A. {?is.) N. or Absol.
Mortis metu mutabant, Sail.
Jug. 28. Mores populi R.
quantum mutaverint, Liv.

Nato. N. (us.) A.Natareaquas,
Mart. 14, 196. Aquae na-
tantur, Ov. art. 1, 48.

Navigo. N. {us.) A. Navlgare
zequor, yE«. 1, 67. Enavigare
Indum, Plin. 6, 17- Oceanus
navigatus est, Plin. 2, 67.
Enavigatus sinus, Plin. 9, 3.
Unda omnibus enaviganda,
Hor. od. 2, 14, II.

Nitor. N. {us.) A. Alternos Ion-
ga nitentem cuspide gressus,
Mn. 12, 386.

Obeo, A. Is obiit mortem, Ter.
And. 1, 3, 18. diem supre-
mum, Nep. Dion. Morte obi-
ta, JEn. 10, 641, N. Obiit
morte, Suet. Aug. 4. morbo,
Plin. 11, 37.

Obstrepo. N. Obstrcpere laudi
alicujus, Senec. Here. fur.
1031. A. Avium vox obstre-
pit aures, Firg. Cul. 104.

Oleo, Kedoleo. N. {us.) A. Ce-

ram et crocum olere, Cic.
Olent ilia supercilia malitiam,
Cic. Redolet antiquitatem,
Cic. cle cl. or at. 21.

Pallco, N. {us.) A, Pallero co-
lores, Prop. 1. Et scatentem
belluis pontum mediasque
fraudes palluit audax, Hor.
od. 3. Fontis qui non expal-
luit haustus, Hor.

Palpo, Palpor. N. Observatote
quam blande mulieri palpabi-
tur, Plant. A. Quem munere
palpat Carus, Juv. 1, 35.
Virginea palpanda manu pec-
tora, Ovid. met. '2, 867, olL
plaudenda,

Pascor. N. Pascitur in vivis li-
vor, Ovid. A. Pascuntur syL
vas, Georg. 3, 314. Artus de-
pascitur, Mn. 2.

Paveo. N. Et pavet pectus, Ov.
met. 9,581, A.Paverepug-
nam, Lucan. 7. lupos, Hor.
Pavescere prodigia, Sil.

Penetro. Absol. Tumultus e
castris et in urbem penetrat,
Liv. ^e seems understood. A.
Nihil tamen Tiberium magis
penetravit, Tac. 5. Penetrant
se in fugam. Plant. Ut peni-
tus nequeat penetrari, sc. In-
dia, Lucr. 2, 539.

Pereo, Depereo. N. {us.) A.
Tres unam pereunt adolcs-
centes mulierem, Plaut.Truc.
Ilium deperit impotente a-
more, Calull. Puppis pcreun-
da est probe, Plaut. Epid. 1,
I, 70.

Pergo. N. {us.) A. Pergo pra;-
terita, Cic. Att.

Perrepo, Perrepto. N. {us.) A.
Tellurem genibus perrepere,
Tilull, 1, 2, 87. Perreptavi
usque omnc oppidum, Ter.
Ad. 4, 6, 3.

Persono. N. Cum domus cantu
personaret, Cic. in Pis. 10.
A. Personare aures vocibus.

302

Cic.fam. ep. 6, 19, G. regna,
jE7i. 6, 417.

Persevere. N. (us.) A. Quatri-
duo perseverata est inedia,
Justin. 12, 6, 15. Persevera
diligentiam is quoted by Ges-
nerfrom Symmachus, but such
an accusative ha,s no classical
authority. Perseverare ali-
qiiid, Cic. pro Quinct. c. 24'.

Pervolo, Pervolito. A. Pervoli-
tat loca, JEn. 8, 24. Pervo-
let urbem, Juv. 6, 397. N,
Per dissepta domorum saxea
voces pervolitant, Lucr. 6,
952. Animus velocius in
banc sedem pervolabit, Cic.
Somn. Scip. 21, 9.

Plaudo. N. (us.) A. plaudere
fratrem, Slat. Silv.5, S, 140.
choreas, ^n. 6. Explosit
hoc genus divinationis vita
cominunis, Cic. divin. c. 41.
Histrio exploditur, Cic. Fa-
rad. .'5, 2. Supplodo and Cir-
cumplaudo are active; but
whether they are ever neuter,
does not appear. Nemo pe-
dem supplosit, Cic de orat.
Quaque ibis, manibus cir-
cumplaudere tuorum, Ovid.

Ploro. N. or Absol. Date puero
panem, ne ploret, Quinct.
Deplorare apud aliquem de
miseriis, Cic. Verr. 3, 45. A.
Juvenem raptum plorat, Hor.
od. 4, 2, 22. Deplorare cala-
mitates, Cic. Phil. 11 , 6, c. 2.
Quae de altero deplorantur,
Cic. deorat. 2, 211.

Pluo. N. (us.) A. Haec ilia est
tempestas mea - - - quam mi-
hi amor et cupido in pectus
perpluit meum, Plant. Most,
1, 2, 30. Lacryrans depluit,
Prop. 2. Et carnem pluit,
Liv. 3, 10, Other MSS.
have carne. That loth con-
structions were in use, see
Drakenborch ad Liv. 3, 10.

Prsvenio. N. in the sense oj to
come before. A. in the sense
of to prevent. Prsevenire
desiderium plebis, Liv. 8, 16.
Miles praeveiitam gloriam in-
telligit, Tac. hist. I, 5, 2.

Prandeo. N. (us ) A. Si pran-
deret olus, Hor. Luscinias
soliti impenso prandere co-
emptas, Hor.

Propero, Appropero. N. (ns.)
A. Properare arraa alicui,
JEn. 12, 425. Hjsc prope-
rantur, Juv. 3, 264. Inter-
cisis venis, mortem apprope-
ravit, Tac. ann. 16, 14, 5.

Propinquo. '^.(us.) A. Propin-
quare augurium, JEn, 10,
254. mortem, 5?/. 2, 281.

Prorumpo, Perrumpo. A. A-
tram prorumpit ad sethera
nubem, JEn. 3, 572. Pro-
ruptum mare, .Mn. \, 246.
Ut rates perrumperet, Cces.
I. c. 1, 26. N. Fluvio Tibe-
rinus amceno - •• - in mare
prorumpit, ^En. 1, 32. Per-
rumpere per aciem, Liv. 3,
70. in vestibulum, Liu. 3, 18.

Provoco. A, Crispinus me pro-
vocat, Hor. N, Provoco ad
populum, Liv. 1. i. e. I ap-
peal.

Pulvero. A. (us.) N. Nolo hoc
pulveret, Plaid, ap. Gell. 18,
12, i. e. be dusty.

Quadro N. Conjunctionem ver-
borum numerose cadere, et
quadrare, et perfici volumus.
Cic. orat. 3, 44. A. Quadra-
re acervum, Hor. ep. 1, 6,
35. Quadrandae orationis in-
dustria, Cic. orat. c. 56. This
word signifies both to make
square, and to become square,
or perfect.

Quiesco, llequiesco. N. (us.)
A. Quiescent laudes tuas
populij Senec. Here. Gel. 15.
Quieta urbs, yEn. 12, 558.

303

Et mutata snos requierunt
flumina cursus, I'irg. eel. 8, 4.
Requietus ager, Ovid. art. 2.
351. Requietis militibus,
Sail.

Queror, Conqueror. N. Ssepe
de luxuria questus sum, Sail.
Cat. 52. A. Aadivi Milonem
queri injuriam meam, Clc.
Att. 3, 8. Conquer! fortunani
adversam decet, Cic.

Radio. N. (us.) A. Scuta sed et
galeae geramis radientur et
auro, Ov. Pont. 3, 4, 103.

Redundo. N. {us.) A. Redun-
dat talia raucis faucibus Vul-
turnus, Stat. silv. 4, 3, 71.
i. e, profert, loquitur. Redun-
datas flumine cogit aquas,
Ovid, trist. 3, 10, 52. But
these are not sufficient autko'
rityfor redundo. oct/ue.

Regno. N. [lis.) A. Trans Lygl-
os Gothones regnantur, Tac.
Germ. 25, 4, Terra regnata
Philippo, Ovid. Font. 4, 15,
15. Albam regnandam, ^n.
6, 770. But these are not sitf.
Jicient authority for regno ac-
tive.

Resideo. N. {us.) A. Venter
gutturque resident esuriales
ferias, Plant. Capt. 3, 1, 8.
i. e. sedendo agunt. Denica-
les feriae a nece appellata;
sunt, quia residentur mortui,
Cic. de leg. 2, 22.

Respicio. A. {ns.) N. Et quum
Latinis studebimus Iiteris,non
respiciamus adGr8ecas,Qz«'«c^.
2, 12.

Resulto. N. {ns.) A. Saxa cau-
tesqueparileni sonum resulta-
rent, Apul. met. 5.

Rideo. N. {us.) A. Ridei'e ali-
quem, Cic, fain. 2, 9. por-
tenta Thessala, Hor. Ridear,
Ovid. Pont. 4, 12, IG.

Roro. N, (/<.9.) A. Lacrymis

oculi rorantur obortis, Ovid.
Her. 15, 97. Rorata mane
pruina, Ovid.Jast. 3.

Ruo, Proruo, Corruo. Trruo. N.
Quid si ccelum ruat, Ter. Ipsa
vi molis et irae proruit, Vol.
Flac. 7, 600. Corruit in vul-
nus, Virg. A. Caeterosrue-
rern, Ter. Ad. Ruere cumu-
los arenas, Virg. georg. 1.
105. Rata caesa — ap. J. Ctos
et Cic. orat. 2, 55. Multa
proruet integrum cum laude
victorem, Hor. od. 4, 4, 66.
Corruere divitias. Plant. Rud.
2,6,58,i,e.congregare Spicas
corruuntur in coibem, Vari-o.
Vide ne ille hue intro se irru-
at, Ter. Ad. 4, 2, 11.

Rumpo. A. {us.) N. Cesso hue
intro rumpere, Ter. Bun. 5,
6, 26.

Rutilo. N. {us.) A. Rutilare ca-
pillos cinere, Val. Max. 2, 1,
5. comam, Suet. Cal. 47.
Promissae et rutilatce comas,
Liv. 38, 17.

Salto. N. («5.) A. Cheironomon
Ledam mollisaltante Bathyl-
lo, Juv. 6, 6f>. Carmina nostra
saitari scribis, Ovid, trist. 5.
7, 25. Poemata saltata, Ovid,
trist. 2.

Satisfacio. N. {us.) A. {obsol.)
Donicum pecuniam satisi'e-
cerit, Cato r. r. c. 149. Sa-
tisfacto jurejurando, Gell. 7,
18. It is conjectured from
this last, that the antients said
satisfacerejusjurandum. Pe-
rizonius is of opinion, that,
in such constructioyis there are
tivo accusatives, of "which one,
satis, is governed hy the verb,
the other by Kccrd, or quod ad,
understood.

Sibilo, Exsibilo. N. [Serpens^
sibilat ore, yEn. 11, 754. A.
Populus me sibilat, Hor.Vev-

304.

ba anguina exsibilat, Prudent.
Perislcph. 5, 17.5. Histrio
exsibilatur, Cic. Parad. 3, 2.

Sileo. N. {us.) A. Silere rem
aliquam, Senec. Hipp. 876,
Ea res siletur, Cic. pro Flac.
c. 3.

Sitio. N. (us.) A. Sitire sangui-
nem, Cic. Phil. 5, 7. honores,
Cic. Aquae sitiuntur^ Ovid,
fast. I, '215.

Somnio. N. Nee mihi magis us-
quam videor somniare, Cic.
dc divin. % 142, c. 68. A. Me
somnies, Ter. Eun. 1,2, 111?.
Somniare ineptias, Coin. 1,
8.

Sono, Insono, Circumsono, Re-
boo. N. {m.) A. Sonatvitium
fidelia, Pers. 3, 21. Alcyo-
num questus ad surdas tenui
voce sonantur aquas, ^//;«»ow.
cleg. 1, lOS. Verberaque inso-
nuit, 7En. 7, 4<51, "where Ser-
vius notes pro verberibus in-
sonuitae/^ per verbera. — Fini-
tlmis quamvis circumsoner
armis, Ovid. Scopuliqueom-
nes ac lustra ferarum Pirenen
reboant, Sil. 3, 439.

Specto. A.Spectat acervos, /7or.
od. % % 24. N. Spectarc in
septentriones, Cccs. 6. G'. 1, 1.
ad concordiam, Cic.

Spiro, Expiro,Suspiro,Rcspiro,
N. or Absol. Ara; spirant flo-
ribus, Stat. silv. % 2, 27.
Inter primam curationcm ex-
pi ravit, Liv. 2, 20. Ingemit,
et tacito suspirat pectore,
Ovid. ep. 21, 201. Respi-
raro, si te videro, Cic. Att. 2,
24. To some, at least, of
these, an accusative is under-
stood. A. Tetrum odorem
spirare, Colu. 1, 6. deam,
Ov. met. 3. Honaineni tri-
bunatuni spirantem, Liv. 3,
46. Confixi animas expirant,

Ml. 11, 883. Suspirat a-
mores, Tihull. 4. Eandem-
que [animani] a pulmnnibus
respiret et reddat, Cic. de nat.
de. 2, 135.

Stupeo. N, {us.) A. Parsstupet
donum, JEn. 2. Stupenda
penetralia, Nazar. pa)ieg.
Constant, c. 6.

Subsisto. N. {?is.) A. Et post-
quam — • Romanum nee acies
subsistere ullse nee castra nee
urbes poterant, Liv. 9, 31.

Sudo. N. (mv,) A. Sudent elec-
tra niyricK. Virg. eel. 8, 54.
Thura balsamaque sudantur,
Tac. Germ. 45, 9. In sudata
vcste durandum, Quinct.

Sufficio. A. Ipse pater Danais
animos viresquc secundas sut-
ficit, 7En. 2, 617. In ejus
locum sufFectus, Liv. 5, 31.
N. Sufficere laboribus, Plin.
jun. Nee sufficit umbo ictibus,
JEn. 9, 810.

Suppedito. N. Ea quae suppedi-
tant advictum, Cic. off. 1, 4.
Cui si vita suppeditavisset.
Consul factus est, Cic. Per-
hajjs an accusative is under-
stood. A. Sicilia fVumcntum
suppeditat, Cic. Ver. 2, 2.
Fistulis aqua suppeditabatur
templis, Cic. p)ro Rahir. per-
duell. c. idt.

Supero. A. [us.) Pboebum supe-
rare canendo, Virg. eel. 5, 9.
N. Et captae superavimus ur-
bi, yEn. 2, 643, i. e. out-
lived. Supero signifies not
ouli/ to come over and to over,
come, and is used for vincere,
hut to be over or remain, as
equivalent to superesse or su-
perstitem esse. Li the former
sense it governs the accusative,
in the latter it takes the da-
tive.

Surgo. N. [us.) A. (obfol.)

305

Lumhos surgite, Plaut.Epidic.
ult. Surrecto mucrone, Liv.
7, 10.

Suspicio. A. Et castra suspexi-
mus, Cic. Tiisc. 1, 6j, c, 2,5.
N. Suspicere in coelum, Cic.
Somn. Scip. 1.

Taceo, Obticeo. N. [us.) A.Ta-
ceo te, Plant. Mil. multa,
Cic. Amor tacetur, Ovid,
amor. 2, IS, 36. Et queii-
tiir nuiijas obticuisse meas,
MnH. 10, 17.

Tardo. A. [us.) N. An tardare
et commorari te melius esset
tibi, Cic. ad Bnd. 18. Mark-
land says that this is the only
example of tardo being used
intransitixvly in Cicero or in
any other classical ivriter, ex-
cept once retardando tlie ge-
rnnd in a neuter sense in Cic.
nat. d. % 20. It was com^
mon, he observes, in the de-
cline of the language. This
is one of his armimejits aminst
the authenticity of the Ep. to
Brutus. It is, at best, but a
suspicious example.

Tempero. A. Temperat iras,
JEn. 1, 61. N. Usque mihi
temperavi. Cic. f am. ep. 10,
7. Quis temperet a lacryrais,
jEn. 2, 8.

Tendo.A.Iter ad naves tendebat
Achates, Virg. N. Tendimus
in Latium, jEu. 1, 205. But
here iter, or a similar ivord,
may be understood, lllic Ma-
cides, illic tendebat Ulysses,
Ov. Pen. Uly.i. e. encamped;
and here perhaps tentorium is
understood.

Tono, Intono. N. [us.) A. Ter-
centum tonat ore deos, Virg.
I^audes tonas, Plin. prccf.
Cum haec intonuisset, hiv. de
Virginia. INlinas intonare,
Ov. amor. 1, 7? 4'6,

X

Tremo. N. (;^v ) A. Trcmcre
varies casus, Sencc. Troad.
262. Tremendi oculi, Ovid,
met. 3, 577. Unde pericu-
lum fulirens contremuit do-
nms Saturni veteris, Hor.
Non contremiscamusinjurias,
Sen. ep. 66.

Transgredior. A. Ut Alpes
transgrederer, Cic. Jam. 11,
20. Transgressus Danubium,
Tac. ann. 2, 63, init. N. Inde
in Latinam viam transgres-
sus, Liv. 2, 39. Transgredior
ad vos, Tac. hist. 4-, 66, 4.

Transvolo, Transvolito. A.
Transvolat in medio posita,
Hor. N. Transvolat inde in
partem alteram, Liv. 3, 63.
Et clausa domorum transvo-
litant, Lucr. 1, 355.

Trepido. N. [us.) A. Ac trepi-
dant divina praesagia, Ajjul.
met. 6.

Triumpho. N. (us.) A. Terram
triumphavit, Lactant. 6, 23.
Triumphatae gentes, Virg.
georg. 3, 33. Triumphatis dare
jura Medis, Hor. od. 3, 3, 43.
But notivithstanding these twj
examples, an accmiative of the
thing conquered is not found
in any author truly classical.

Turbo, Conturbo. A. [us.) N.
or Absol, Turbant trepida
ostia Nili, JEn. 6, 800, idicre
Servius notes turbant ^jro tur-
bantur. Indeed, ivhcre tur-
bans sccins to be liscd for tur-
batus, and turboybr turbor,
there seems to be an ellipsis
of some accusative. Contur-
bo, used absolutely, signijics
to be distressed in circum-
stances, or to have one's af-
fairs in confusion : tlms, Pedo
conturbat, Matho dcficic,
Jux>. 1, 129, in Vdhich probably
there is an ellipsis o/rationcs.

30G

Vagor. N. (us.) A. Terras va-
gari, Prop. 2, 28, 19.

Vaporo. A. Et templum thure
vaporant,^«. 1 1,4-81. Vapo-
ratas aras, Virg. Oculos va-
porari praecipiunt, Plin. 28,
11. N. Aquae vaporant et in
ipso marl, Pl/n. 32, 2.

Veho, Inveho, Gesto, A. (us.)
N. The participles veliens, in-
vehens, gestans, are often
used absolutely in the same
sense as vectus and invectus :
thus, Ei consuli pater pro-
consul obviamin equo vehens

venit, Cell. '2, 2. Triton

natantibus invehens belluis,
Cic.Tiat. d. 1 , 28. Idem classi
praefectus circumvehens Pe-
loponnesum - - - classem eo-
rum fugavit, Nep. Timoth.
Lectica per urbem vehendi
jus, Suet. Claud. 28. Simul
gestanti. Suet. Dam it. 12. It
probable/ arises, from this
manner of using veho, that its
derivative vector signifies not
only a carrier but a passen-

ger.

Vergo. N. {us. ) A. ( in the sense of
pouring) Vergerevenena, Lu-

cret. 5, IOCS. Frontique in-
vergit vina sacerdos, ^^In. 6,
244. Spumantes niero paterae
verguntur, Stat. Th.6,'211.

Vescor. N. (us.) A. Ut infir-
missimos suorum vesceren-
tur, Tac. Agr. Qui absin-
thium vescuntur, Plin. 11.

Vigilo, Evigilo, Pervigilo. N.
{us.) A.Vigilarenoctes, Hor.
sat. 1, 3, 17. Vigilatae noc-
tes, Ov. art. 1, 735. Noctes
vigi]antur,Ou. Med. Jas.{See
Evigilo in List.) Pervigilare
noctem, Cic. pro S. Rocc.
c. 85. In multo nox est pervi-
gilata mero, Ovid. fast. 6,
326.

Ululo. N. {us.} A. Ulularunt
tristia Galli, Lucan. 1. He-
cate triviis ululata, ^n. 4,
609.

Undo, Inundo. N. or Absol.
Ad ccelum undabat vortex,
JEu. 12,673. Inundant san-
guine fossae, JEn. 10, 24. A.
Quuni tuusiEacides sanguine
undabit campos, Stat. Achil.
1, 86. Sanguine Enna inun-
dabitur, Liv. 24, SO.

Among the foregoing tvill be found several Neuter Verbs, 'which
are rendered, tronsitixie, through the Preposition irith
which they are compounded : — of the same Description
are the following.

AfHo. Afflat vittas anhelitus
oris, Ovid. met. 5, 617. Af-
flata est tellus, Ovid. met. 6,
707.

Adeo. Adire aliquem, Virg.
u^n. 3, 456. Adiri praetores
rion potuerunt, Cic. ad Q. Fr.
1,2.

Anteeo. Anteirenives candore,
j^n. 12, 84. Ne ab aliis an-
teirentur, Tac. hist. 2, 101,^2.

Circumeo. Circumire hostem.
Curt. 3, S, 27. Se belli flue-

tibus circumiri nialuit, Cic.
Phil. 13, 9.

Circumsono. Circumsonat or-
beni Nereus, Ovid. met. 1,
187. Geticis circumsonor
armis, Ovid, trist. 5, 3, 11.

Circumsisto. Circumsistunt
hostes impeditum, Cces. b.
G. 5, 43. Ne ab omnibus
circumsisteretur, Cces. b. G.

Circumsideo. Circumsidere ur-
bem, Tac. ann. 3. 3H. Cum

307

a se CcEcilius circumsedere-
tur, {scdso) Cic. Alt. 14, 9.

Circumstrepo. Circumstrepen-
tibus vitam humanam tot
minis, Senec. dc vii. beat. c.
11. Vedius clamore seditio-
sorum circumstrepitur, Tac.
hist. 2, 44, 3.

Circumvenio. Circumvenire ali-
quem, Sail. Cat. 58. Circum-
venior judices, nisi subveni-
tis, Cic. Brut. c. 75.

Incubo. Incubare ova, Plin. 9,
10. Ova incubantiir, Plin.
10, 54.

Perambulo. Perambulat artus
frigus, Ovid. Her. 9, 185.
Perambulatus Niphates, Si-
dun, car. '23, 93.

Perciirro. Percurrere polum,
Hor. car. 1, 28, 6. Ques-
tiones percursa?, Cic. dc orat.

Pererro. Pererrare locum, ^n.
5,441. Orbepererrato, Ovid.
met. 3, G.

Permeo. Permeare orbem, Lti-
can. 2, 4 IS. Permeate am-
ne, Ammian. 24^ 2, extr.

Pervado. Pervasit urbem fama,
Liv. 2, 23. Pervasa urbe,
Ammian. 24, 2.

Prajtereo. Praeteiit iramodum,
Ovid. fast. 5, 304. Cum bo-
nus vir sufFragiis praeteritur,
Cic. Tusc. 5, 19.

Subeo. Subire pericula, Ovid.
Her. 20, 175, Inimicitiae
subeantur, Cic. Verr. 5,71.

Supersedeo. Supersedere ope-
ram, Gell.^2,29. Istis super-
sessis, Apid. Florid. 18.

Transeo, Transire flumen, Cic.
Aft. 8, 12. Rhodanus vado
transitur, Cccs. b. G. 1,6, &c.

Some grammarians have denied the existence of neuter
verbs ; others have termed every verb neuter, which is used,
as active verbs often are, without its regimen's being ex-
pressed : and hence, in a great measure, it arises, that we
have been furnished with such ample hsts of verbs used as
active and neuter. It was this consideration which pre-
vented me from transcribing, according to my original in-
tention, Sanctius's list De Verbis Jalso neutris, along with
Vossius's two lists. From the definitions which have been
given of active and neuter verbs, and from some remarks
which have been made in reojard to their construction,
under Rules XXVIII. and XXXIII., the learner will
have little difficulty to ascertain, when he considers the na-
ture and essential siiinification of a verb, whether it be
really active, or apimrentlij neuter ; and, although he may
find, moveo, servo, ago, and many similar verbs, charac-
terized, not only as active, which they unquestionably are,
but as neuter also, because there are such constructions
as Postquam ille Canusio moverat — Cic. Solus Sajinio scr-
vat domi — Ter. Agere inter homines desiit — Tac, yet, let
him attend to the nature of the subject, and his own mind
will suggest the elliptical words to which tiie energy of these
words passes, and he will easily perceive to what descrip-

X 2

308

tion of verbs they really belong. Nor, on the other hand,
are those verbs to be considered as real active verbs, which
admit after them an accusative of the same, or of a cognate
signification ; nor such as are followed only by the accu-
satives /wc, id., quod, nihil, aliqv.id, &c. These have been
generally omitted in the preceding list. The learner should
likewise distinguish between real neuter verbs, and such
active verbs as are often used in an absolute manner, which
happens, especially, when the sense requires only the mere
energy of the verb to be, generally, expressed, w ithout any
a]:)plication of it to a specified object, as, when speaking of
reading and writing, generally', we say Ncc legit, vec scri-
hit. Sometimes part of the sentence supplies the place of
an accusative ; sometimes, also, the reciprocal se, the pro-
noun me, or some similar word, is omitted after an active
verb -, when, from the sense or the nature of the action, its
insertion is altogether unnecessary : as, Timi jprora avertit
— Virg. Tresque vibrant lingua; — Ovid. The active verb
incipio has been denominated neuter, because we may say
Ver incipit, in the same way as Virgil says Vix prima in-
ccperat cestas, and, in the same manner, in English " The
spring begins," or " The summer had begun." But, I
have little doubt, that, in such instances, sc is understood.
In speaking of this phraseology, an intelligent writer on the
Syntax of the Latin verb, remarks, that in the sentence
" The moon turns, round its axis," the verb turn is neuter,
and adds, " that he shoidd make it a question, which was
the more antient kind, the verb active, or the verb neuter."
Such verbs I consider as active, or, as some have named
them, reflective. Moon and spring, though inanimate sub-
jects, undergo a sort of personification, and are so generally
considered to be vested with a sell-influencing power, that
it is unnecessary to particularize themselves as the objects
upon which that power is exerted. And, although the

' Thus Csesar says, in his laconic opistle, Veni, v'ldi, via, in which two ac-
tive verbs follow a neuter verb, with no object or regimen expressed to them.
The reason is obvious. — Cassar did not wish to say whom he conquered, I)ut to
intimate that wherever he came, conquest, generally, was the immediate con-
sequence. But such verbs are not, for this use of them, to be characterized
as neuter, since it is in the very nature of things, ihat if there be a person who
sees or comjuers, there must be objcels which he sees or conquers. A verb is
not neuter, because it may not be followed by an object, but because it gene-
rally admits none.

* Indeed, I will not assert that some of the verbs in the preceding list,
which have been exemplified as neuter, may not, even when they appear to
he thus used, be still in reality active, some pronoun, or other word, being un-
derstood as their rcirimcn.

309

agent and object be one and the same, and altlioiigb, con-
sequently, the action does not, in a strict sense, ^;ais I'rom
the agent, yet it is evident that the subject is spoken of in
/tt'o distinct characters, as agent, and recipient of action ;
and, therefore, the verb has precisely the same import and
nature which it would universally be allowed to possess,
were they individually different and distinct'. The same
kind of phraseology obtains in languages derived from the
Latin, with this difference, however, that the reciprocal is
not so frequently omitted in them. Thus, in French, they
say " Les jours commencent a s' alonger," the days begin
to lengthen {themselves). In Spanish, " Se acaba la rina,"
the quarrel ends {itself). And in both, " Le soleil se
couche," " Se pone' el sol," the sun sets {itself ov himself).
All such verbs, in English, as well as in Latin, have been
denominated, by some, neuter verbs, as may be seen, by
referring to Dr. Johnson's English Dictionary, -passim, and
to the numerous lists made by Latin grammarians. Lidced,
were I inclined to hazard a conjecture, it would be the re-
verse of the opinion which seems to be sanctioned by the
ingenious writer alluded to above, and I should say, that,
the substantive verb, perhaps, excepted, active verbs were
the first invented, and that most verbs, if not all, were, very
}irobably, originally active, that is, admitted after them an
objective or accusative case of some kind or other. The
Spaniards, whose language, as has been just mentioned, is
derived from the Latin, construe, as active, verbs which wc
consider as neuter or intransitive : thus they say " Tii te
duermes," thou fallest {thee) asleep. " Tu te paseas," thou
walkest {thee). " Tu te ibas," thou wast going {t/ice) away.
The French, too, say " II s' endort," he sleeps. " II se
promene," he walks. I am aware, however, that, although
some of these verbs are interpreted neuterly, their original,
etymological signification, may, perhaps, have been active.
Why the accusative is usually omitted, after such verbs, in

' To express such actions seems to have been the original character of the
Greek micklle voice. When an action had a double relation to the same siil)-
ject or object, that is, when the same person was both active and passive, tliis
voice was generally used. But in other languages, tiie verb retains its active
fornri, sc, himself, or a similar word, expressed or understood, denoting the
subject of the verb, in its passive character, as acted upon.

* Tlie pronoun is often omitted after the Latin pono : as, Quuni venli po-
sncrc — Virg. Mn. 7, 27. Jam vcnli poncnL — Ov. Did. Tlius us.ed, this seems
a sea term. Indeed technical phrases are generally elliptical ; tlnis snlvo is
used absolutely, for to sel sail, or rreigk anclwr, as in Nos co die ceciutli solvi-
""« — Cic. fani. cp. 16, 9. X(urs ex mjiemrc poiia saUxrunt—Cx^. B. G.2'J,
the accusalivu ahcfioras being, probably, understood.

310

Latin, and in some other langiuiges, it woukl not be diffi-
cult to determine ; perspicuity does not require its continu-
ance; and philologists are well acquainted with the ten-
dency to abbreviation, so easily discoverable in most lan-
guages.

In the foregoing list, the use of a passive voice is ad-
mitted as a proof of the active signification of verbs in o,
except with respect to passive impersonals, such as curritur,
favetm\ &c. But a perfect participle must not be deemed
unquestionable evidence of the existence of a passive voice,
for we find Voitum est, standum, pugiiatum est, &c. although
there are no such words as vetiior, stor, ^;2/g-»or. The pas-
sive voice of verbs usually neuter is very imcertain ; and
even, althougii there be authority for the third person, the
other persons are not, on that account, allowable.

Verbs xtchich nary their Construction according to
their Sense.

Accedo tibi, / assent. against you, avoid you, as my

Accedo ad te, / come or go to Joe.

you. Cavere de re aliqua, to give cau-

Hue accedebat, to this tuas ad- tion or security concerning^ .

ded. Cedere alicui, to give place to,

JEmu] or tihi, I enxiy you. to comply xvith one.

yEmuIor te, / imitate you. Cedere suo jure, toyield or give

Animadverto aliquid, / observe up his right.

a thing. Consulo tibi, / consult your in-

Animadverto in aliquem, / pu- terest 2.

nish one. Consulo in te, / am contriving

Ausculto tibi, / obey you. for or against you.

A\xsc\\\totQ, I hear you. Consulo te, / consult you, ask

Caveo tibi, I take care of you, advice.

or for you, as my friend. Consulo boni, / take in good

Caveo te, / am on my guard part.

' Cavere aliquid alicui — Plaut. To watch over the preservation of any one,
lliat no liarm may happen to him. Obsidibiis dc pecunia cavere — Ca3s. To
give security for the money, by hostages. Pecuniam alicui cavere ; i. e. To. give
security for its payment. Obsidibus inter se cavere— Cses. To consult their
security by mutual hostages. Mi/ii tecum cavendum est — Plaut. i. c. There
must be a proper surety in this suit which I have with you. N'isi prius a te
cavero — Cic. Unless I shall first get security from you.

" Consulo tibi never denotes, (unless among writers of inferior authority,) I
give you advice. In this sense, suadco tibi, or auctor sum tibi are usually em-
ployed.

311

Convenit hoc mihi, this suits

me.
Convenit mihi cum illo, I agree

tvith him.
Conveniam hominem, / will

meet, or accost, the man.
Cupio tibi, I favour you.
Cupio aliquid, / desire somc-

thinrr.
Deficit mihi, it is wanting to me.
Deficit me, it forsakes or leaves

me.
Deficere ab aliquo, to revolt.
Detrahere alicui,to detractjrom,

backbite, depreciate.
Detrahere ahquem, to Icwer, to

take one down (in reference to

place).
Do tibi literas, I give you a let-
ter {not Jbr yourself).
Do ad te Hteras ', I give a letter

Jbr you, or I write to you.
Fcenero or fceneror tibi, / lend

out to you at usury,
Fceneror abs te, / borrow from

you at usury or interest,
Horrere alicui, (Plin.) to shud-
der for one.
Horrere ahquem, to be much

afraid of one as an enemy.
Imponere ahcui, to deceive one,

put a trick iipo7i one.
Imponere ahquid ahcui, to pnd

one thing upon another ; or,

to lay any thing as a burden

upon any one.
Manere, to tarry, stay, or abide.

( Absolute. )
Manere ahquem, to wait for

one, or expect one,
Metuo tibi, Iain afraidfor you,

anxious about you, as my
friend.

Metuo te, or a te, I dread you,

or fear you, as my foe.
Peto ahquid ahcui, / ask some-
thing for (to be given to) some

one.
Peto abs te, I ask of or from

you.
Peto pcenas de ah'quo, linfict

punishment upon one.
Peto ahquem gladio, I strike or

attack one with a sword.
Peto locum, / go to, or direct

my steps to, a place.
Praeire ahcui, (literally) to go

before one ; (figuratively) to

excel, (seldom.)
Praeire verba, to speak first what

may afterwards be rehearsed

by another.
Praestare ahcui silentium,bene-

volentiam, to afford silence,

show kindness.
Praestare ahis or ah'os virtute,

to excel others in virtue or

courage.

Praestare se virum, to show or

prove himself a man,
Praestare culpam or damnum,

to take on himself the blame

or loss.
Praestabo eum facturum, I will

engage that he shall perform,
Prospicio, provideo, tuae saluti,

/ provide for, take care of,

your safety.
Prospicio, provideo periculura,

I foresee danger.
Recipio tibi, / promise you.

Thus also, Recipio in me, /

undertake,
Recipio me in locum, / betake

myself to a place.
Refero tibi, / relate to you.

' Thus, Do servn lUcrns ad tc, I give your servant a letter for you. Dare
fulem denotes to give a pledge, assurance, or solemn promise. In one or two
instances, unworthy of imitation, the phrase is used for fideyn ajfcrrc, to add
credibility to a thing ; but it is never employed, by any classical writer, for Jidem
habere, or credere, to give credit, or believe. Dure pamas denotes to suffer,
not to inflict, puniilimcnl. Dnrr verba alicui, to impose on, or deceive.

312

Refero ad sonatum, Hay before to restrain, or heep ruithin

the senate [for discussion). bounds, tlic tongue or hands.

Referre aliqueni, to resemble Temperare cjsedibus, or a caedi-

one. bus, to abstain or refrain Jrom

Renuncio muneri, liospitio, to nmrders.

renounce or refuse a jJ^'Csent, Temperare orbetn, vires, ra-

or act of kindness. tern, to govern the xwrld ; to

Renuncio consulem, /^fc/fl?T, moderate strength, might or

proclaint, or announce as con- potver ; to regidate ox direct

sul. a ship.

Solvo tibi aliquid, I pay you T'lmeo Ub'i, I am ofoaid for you

something. as my friend.

Solvo aliquem ', to discharge or Timeo te, I fear you as an ene-

liberate one. my. [Same as M.e\.\iO-).

Sufficere alicui, to be sufficient Vacare rei alicui, in, or ad ali-

fow one, to satisfy. quam rem, to study or apply

Sufficere alicui arma, to fur- to a thing.

7iish or supply one with ai-ms. Vacare ab officio, to he exempt

Sufficere aliquem, to choose or from, or to leave off', business.

put 07ie into the place of an- Vacare culpa, to be without

other. fault.

Temperare linguae, manibus ; Vacat mihi, / am, at leisure.

Verbs Deponent., xn'hich use the voice in o, in the same sense.

[The following Lists arc tiikcn from Vossius de AnalogiA, lib. 3,
to which work the learner is referred for the exami)les.]

Adulo for Adulor, Attius, Non.,o?i^Diomed, Amplec-

Lucr,, &c. Altcrcoyor Al- tofor Amplector, and Am-

tercor, Pacuv., Ter. Assen- plexo for Amplexor, Q.

tio a7id Assentior are both Claud., Cic, Attius. Aucupo

zcsed, according to Gell., for Aucupor, Titin., Plaut.,

' Solvere obsidionem urbis, ct urbem obsidione — Liv. To raise a siege. Sol-
vere foedera — Virg. To break a league. Solvere fidem — Ter. is net, as inter-
preted by Ainsworth, Stephanus, and Turner in liis Exercises, to break a pro-
mise ; but, according to Riiddiman, to discharge, fulfil, or perform a pro-
mise, in which sense, lie says, Pliny uses Fideni exsolvcrc, and Suetonius Fi-
dem libcrarc. This last is also used by Cicero in the same sense. But sol-
vere fidem — Cic. is rendered, in Pasini's Ilal. Diet, by moncar diparola, to
fail in his word, or break his promise. — Abstractly considered, the plnase ap-
pears to me to denote merely to get rid of a promise or obligation, without
any express reference to the mode, either as honourable or dishonourable.

^ Formido mihi — Plaut. I am afraid for myself, that is, lest some harm be-
fall me. Formidal auro — Plaut. He is afraid for the gold, that is, lest it
sboulf! be stolen. Formidare uUciijus iracuiidiain, alirjunn, and ab uliquo, that
is, To dread Jiis passion, or him, are attributed to Cicero.

313

Pacuv,, ttc. Auguroyor Au-
guror, Att,, Enn., Virg., &:c.
Auspico for Auspicor, ac-
cording to Priscian, Cato,
Naevius, Auxilio fo)r Auxi-
lior, Gracchus.
Cachinno, Lucr. Cacliinnor,
Cic. Cohorto /or Cohortor,
Quadrigarius. Comito for
Comitor, Ovid, Commento
foor Commentor, according to
Priscian. Commisereo, Cora-
miseresco. See Miseret. Com-
\Aectofor Complector, Pom-
pon. Congredio for Con-
gred'or, Plaut. And Progre-
dio /or Progredior, Novius.
Consolo/or Consoler, Varr.
Contemplo for Contemplor,
Att., Naev., Eiin., &c. Con-
vivo for Convivor, Enn.,
Pompon. Criminoy^vr Cri-
minor, Enn. Cuncto for
Cunctor, Att., Enn.
Demolioyor Demoiior,Alfenus.
Delucto. See Lucto. Digno
for Dignor, Pacuv., Attius.
Ejulo for Ejulor, according to
Priscian. Expergisco, Pom-
pon, Exsecroybr Exsecror,
Afranius.
Frustro for Frustror, Pom-
pon., Plaut., Caes. Frutico,
Colum , Plaut. Fruticor, Cic.
Horto yor Hortor, according to

Priscian.
Imito for Imitor, Liv. trag.,
Varr. Impcrtio and Iniper-
tior, Cic. lnsidioy?;r Insidior,
Callistratiis.
Jurgoyor Jurgnr, Lex 12 tab.
Lachrymo, Tcr., Ov. Lachry-
mor, Cic. La^to for Lretor,
according to Prise. Largio
ybr Largior, Sail., Lucil., Ca-
to. Lucto /or Luctor, and
Luctito /r>r Luctitor, accord-
ing to Pri.'^cian, Ennius. liU-
didco, Plaut. Ludificor,

Plant., Tcr., Cic , Liv. Lux-
urio, Tubero, Virg. Luxu-
rior, Colum., Plin.
Medico, Virg. Medicor is used
both aciiveli/ and jxissiveh/.
Blereo for Mereor, Plaut.,
Turpil., &c. T/tiis aho Pro-
niereo, Plaut. Minito for
iVIinitor, Noev,, Plaut. Mi-
ro /or Miror, Varr. Pompon.
Misero /or Miseror, Attius.
So Misereo and Misereor,
•whence Miseret and Misere-
tur. So also Miseresco, Virg.,
and Comraiseresco, Enn.
Modero /or Moderor, Att.,
Pacuv., Plaut , Ulpian., and
according to some MSS., Sal-
lust. Molio ybr Molior, ac-
,. corr^/tto-^o Priscian. And De-
molio, Varr., Nsv. Moroywr
Moror, Naevius. Muneroyor
Muneror, Turpil. INIutuo
for Mutuor (toborroxv), Cai-
cilius.
Obsono and Obsonor, active,
according to Priscian. Opino
fo)r Opinor, Plaut., Pacuv.,
Enn., Caecil. Opitulo, Liv.
trag. Osculo, Titin.
Pacisco, Naev. Palpo, Juv. Pal-
por, Lucil., &c. So Expal-
por, Plaut. Partio _/or Par-
tior, Lucil., Plaut., Att., Enn.
So Impertio for Impertior.
Patio /or Patior, Necv. Per.
Contoy?)r Percontor, Novius,
Nncv. Poliiceoyor PoUiccor,
Varr. Populoy6>r Populor,
Plaut., Ceccil., Enn., Sec.
Prselio fojr Pra;lior, Enn.
Prsestoloyor Praestolor, Tur-
pil., Liv. trag. Proficisco,
Turpil. Progredio. See Con-
gredio. Prouicrco. See Me-

reo.

Recordo, Quadrig. llcfrago

for Ivcfragor, according to
Nonius. yuliVago yor SufiVa-

314

por, Siscrina. Rcminisco.
Rufus, Sanct. August. Re-
verto for Reverter, Pompo-
nius. This is common in clas-
sical writers. Rhetorico for
Rhetoricor, Novius. Rixo
^for Rixor, Varr. Rumino,
Virg.
Scruto yor Scrutor; Perscruto
^for Perscrutor, according to
Nonius, Plaut. Sortio for
Sortior, Enn, Stipulo, Gloss.
Cyrill. Suavio yor Suavior,

uffrago.

Pompon., Nov,
See Refrago.

Teste /or Testor, according to
Priscian. Tuto for Tutor,
Plaut., Na3v., &c.

Vagoyor Vagor, Plaut., Seren.,
Prudent., &c. Velifico, Plin.,
Propcrt. Juvenal has velifi-
catus Athos jiassiveli/. But
Cicero uses Velificor as a de-
ponent. Yenero foor Veneror,
Plaut. Vociferoyor Vocife-
ror, San. Bonifac.

F^erbs Passive used as Deponents.

There are some verbs passive (having a regular active
voice) which are used, or were antiently used, as deponents,
i. e. in an active signification.

AfFector ybr AfFecto. Affecta- Murmuror /or Murmuro,ApuI.

tus est regmon, Varro. Nutrioryr/r Nutrio. Hoc pin-

Belloryor Bello. Pictis hellan ■ gucm et placitam pad nutri-

tiir Amazones armis, Virg. tor olivam, Virg.

Censeor/brCenseo. Estinterco- Nqtricor /or Nutrico. Miindus

viites Martia censa suos, Ovid. omnia nutricnfur, Cic.
Communicor fo)r Communico. Objurgoryor Objurgo. Curio-

nem ohjiirgatus., CceI. ad Cic.
Peragror. Peragratus est regi-

onem. Vellei.
Perlinor for Perlino. Ah imis
imgnibus scse totam ad usque
summos capillos perlita, Apul.
But neither this instance, nor
that of copulor above, is es-
teemed sufficient proofo
Pignerorybr Pignero, Gell. and

Non.
Praevertoryor Praeverto, Plaut ,
Liv., Curt., Tac, Apul ,
Virg. But only the prceter-
perfect «c;ii!<?,praeverti, is used,
there being no praeversus sum.
Punioryoj- Punio, Cic. in three

places.
Quiritor, Varr. Quirito, Plin.,

Quinct.
Ruminor, Varr., Liv. Andron.

Rumino, Virg.
Sacrificor yor Sacrifico, Varr.

Cum quibus spem communi-
cati sint, Liv.

Copulor /or Copulo, according
to Prise, and Non. Adeunt,
consistnnt, copulant7ir dex-
teras, Plaut.

Erumpor for Erumpo. Vis ex-
agitata foraserumpitnr, Tuucr.

Fabricor/or Fabrico. Capitolii
foastigium - - - necessitas ipsa
fabricata est, Cic.

Feneror /or Fenero, Gell.

Fluctuor /or Fluctuo, Fluctu-
atus animofoierat, Liv.

Juratus sura for Juravi. Judici
demonstrandum est, quid JU'
rat us sit, Cic.

Multor /or Multo. Rebellantcs
- - - graviore multatus est poe-
na, Suet.

Muneror te /or Muncro, accord-
ing to Gell. and Dionied. So
Remuneror /or Reraunero.

315

Spector /?;>• Specto. Spectatus
est siie7n, Varr.

Significor ybr Significo, accot'd-
ing to Gelllus. To these may
be added, Adjutor, Conver-
tor, Emungor, Excalceor,
Fatiscor, Focillor, Fruticor,

Gliscor, Ignescor, Labascoiv
Ludificor, Manducor, Coni-
manducor, Commurmuror,
Palpor and Expalpor, Pra^sa-
gior, Spolior, Urinor, all
ijohich Nonius coiifirms by an-
tient authorities.

Verbs Common, and such as were formerlij Common.

It may be questioned whether any of these were used pas-
sively in the ordinary language of the classical age.

Abominor, Verrius Flaccus.

Abominatus (passive.) Liv.,

Hor.
Adipiscor (passive.) Boeth.,

Justinian., Fab. Max., &c.
Adminiculor. Adminiculati

(passive.) Varr.
Admiror {to be admired.) Ca-

nutius.
Adorior, Adortos [attacked.)

Aurel.
Adulor. Adidati crant {they

were flattered.) Cassius.
Aggredior (passive.) Cicero.

Aggressus [undertaken.) Ter.

Maur.
Amplector {to be embraced. Pe-

tron., Lucil.
Antestor (passive.) Liv.
Arbitror (passive.) Coel,, Gell.
Arc\\\tQciov. Architectata[built.)

Nep.
Argumentor. Arminientata ffi-

S-uo^evra. Aufusius ap. Pnsc.

But, perhaps, he wrote A. Fu-

rius.
Aspernor (/o be despised. ) Cic.
Assector [tobejbllowed.) Enn.,

Alplieus philol.
Auguror (to be Jhrctold.) Luc.

Caes. Virgil uses the active

auguro, to Joretell ; and Ci-
cero, auguror, in the same

sense as a deponent.
Auxilior. Auxiliatus [assisted.)

Lucil.

Blandior. Blanditus xoXaxsv-
Ssls. Verrius.

Calumnior [to be blamed.) Sta-
verius de proportione.

Carnificor (to be tortured.) Si-
senna.

Cavillor, Cavillatus, [teased.)
Appul,

Cohortor. See Hortor.

Coniitor(passive.) Justin,, Ovid.,
Virg.

Commentor. Commentus irs-
TtKaa-^avo^. Appius Caucus.

Complector (passive.) Virg.,
Cic, Scaevola.

Confiteor (passive), according
to Priscian. Conjessus (pas-
sive.) Optatus Afer.

Consequor, Consector, [to be
folloxved.) Orbilius, Varr.,
and Laverius.

Consoler (passive.) Quint, Me-
tell. Numid., and Asinius
Pollio.

Conspicor (^0 ^^ 5e(?«.) Plaut.,
Varr., Sail.

Contestor (passive.) Contestatur
(Tvy.lJi'Ccprups'irai. P. Aufidius.

Criminor (passive.) Cic, Ap-
pul., and Boeth.

Demolior, Immolior (passive.)
Curio pater, Liv.

Dclargior, (passive.) C. Grac-
chus.

Depcculor [to be plundered.)
Lucius Ca'lius.

316

Desnicor {to be despised.) Qu.
Pompeius.

Detestor {to he hated.) Apul.
Apol. Detcstata (hated.)
Hor.

Dignor {to be thoi(s;ht tuorthy.)
Cic. and Gell. Dignate (pas-
sive.) Virg.

Dilargior. See Largior.

Dominor [to be ruled.) Nigidius
Fjgulus, poet, vet. ap. Cic.

Ementior (passive.) Enicutila
£v|/£U(rjW,£va. C. Memmius.
Emcniitis {fahlfied.) Cic.

Enitor. Enixum j}uerum {horn.)
Sulpic. Severus.

Exsecror. Execrati yiafapa-
OsVref. Cato.

Exhortor. See Hortor.

Exorior. Res a rnro ini-
tio exorsre, i. e. initce. Visel-
lius. Here it may be called
a verb neuter deponent.

Expcrior (passive.) Experienda

{to be tried.) P. Nigid. Ex-

2'>erta {tried.) Cic, Attius,

and Asin. Expertas {tried.)

Statins.

Exsequor(passive.)Ulpian. and
Emporius rhetor.

Pari {to he pronounced.) Sue-
ton.

Fateor {to he conjesscd.) Cic.

Frustror(/o be disnppoirded.)Ve-
nestelia. Frustratus [j^arociu!-
h);, Laverius.

Furor. Fnratis {being stolen.)
Appuleius.

Ilartor (passive.) Gell., and
Tac. Adhortati {exhorted )
Cassius. Cohortnlum {cn-
conragcfl.) Marc. Cato. Ex-
hortat us. C'iC. Seucc. al.cxo-
rains. Exiiorlato. Ausonius.
Jaculor. Jiiciiiatiis {struck n^iih
an arroiv.) Victor Utiten-
sis.
Inunolior. See IMolior.
Intciprctor (passive.) Paull. ju-
riscon. IVwvony. Augustin.

Inferpretaia [interpreted.) Ci-
cero.
Largior (passive.) Dilargitis

(being given away.) Sail.
Loqui (passive.) Coelius.
Machinor. Machinaia {contri-
ved.) Sail.
Meditor (passive.) Minutius
Felix. Meditata ij:.£[j.s?^Btrj.
f,iJva. Ter., Cic, Ovid., Gell.
Emeditatos. Appul.
Metior (to be measured.) Ar-

nob.
Meter (passive.) Metata Sf

metato. Hor.
Moderor. Modcrata (passive.)

Epigr. vet.
Modulor (passive.) Modulata

{modulated.) Gell.
Molior {to be contrived.) Appul.
So Immolior. Immolitum.
Liv.
Nanciscor, Nacta (gotten.)

Hyginus, Appul.
Obliviscor (passive.) Scholiast.
Juvenalis. Oblita {Jorgot-
tcn.) Virg. and Boeth,
Ordior. Orsa (hcgnn.) Colum.

Ordita. Diomedes.
Osculor, usually set down,

wants authority.
Paciscor. Pacta erat (tvas pro-
mised.) Tac
Percoiitor (to he asked. ) Percon-

tatum prctium. Appul.
PoUiceor (passive.) Metellus

Numidicus.
Populor (to he plundered,) Po-
puJati, popidatam. Cic. But
j}opulo is used, whence popu-
latus is regularly passive.
Potior, with a gen. case (to he
possessedby. ) Plaut.,Ter.,&c.
Precor. Precandus (to he jn-ayrd
to.) Auson. Ara precanda,
Prudent.
Queror (passive,) according to

Priscian.
Remoror(passivc,) according to
Hcgesii)pus.

-317

Reor (passive,) according to Vclificor (papslve.) Vclificalus

Priscian. Alhos, Juvcn.

Sector [to be Jbllowed.) Varro. Veneror (passiv'e.) Caesar Ger-

So Consector. manicus, Virg. Hor.

Solor (passive,) according to Vonor (active and passive,) ac-

Priscian. See Consolor. cording to Priscian.

Stipulor(passive.)Sueton.,Liv., Vereor (passive.) AfVaniiis,

and Plaut. Stipulor (active.) Ulciscor (passive.) Sail, and

Juvenal. Instipulor(passive.) Pore. Latro. JJltus. Valer.

Plaut. Active. Plaut. Flaccus.

Tester. Testala ju-apru^ijSivra. Vociteror (active and passive,)

Cic. according to Priscian.

Tueor and Tutor (passive.) Utor (passive.) Novius. So also

Varro. Abutor. Varro and Q. Hor-

Vador (passive,) according to tensius.

Priscian.

These last three lists might have been, perhaps, without
impropriety, omitted, since it is evident that they are com-
piled, chiefly from authors who wrote either before or after
the times of classical Latinity. I shall conclude with an
enumeration of certain participles which have something
peculiar in their natui'e.

PARTICIPLES.

The following perfect participles come from neuter ver'os^ and
are used in a passive sense.

Erratus, festinnfus, jnratHS, lahoratux, vigilatiis, certafus, ces-
satus, clamatus, conclamatus, ovatus, sudatus, triumphatns, idn-
latus : as, Errata liltora — Virg. Fedinati honores — Lucan. Arte
lahoratce vestes — Virg. Vigilntce nodes — Ovid. &c. Some })er-
fect participles, coming from neuter verbs, are used in a sense
which is either neuter, or apparentlj^ active: as, Adidtus, coaiilKs,
concretus, conjlagratus, dejiagratusy conspiratus, dolitus, defecti4S,
cmersus, exitus, cxokLiis, hiterltus, juratus (mentioned also be-
fore), ohsoletus, obit us i occasus, jieiietratns^ placitus, complacitus,
pr(steritus, rehcllatus, redundatus, rcquicius, senectus, suctiis, as-
suetus, consnetus, tiliibatiis : as, Adidta virgo — Liv. i. e. (jtuc ndo'
levit. Emcrsus e cceno — Cic, i. e. qui emersit. Cicero and others
use juratus for qui juravit : thus also, actively, Juratus est mihi
— Plaut. for juravit mihi, and, passively, Quod juratum est — Cic.
&c. To the above-mentioned may be added the following, having
an active signification ; Cautus, circumspcctus, consideratus, dcspe-
ratus, effusus, prqfusus, tacitus, consultus, j^rojnptus, argutus, di-
scrtus, notus [qui novii), ignolus, (qui igiiorat) ; also Jluxus,fal-
sus, scitus, whence inscitus, which have assumed the nature of ad-
jectives.

Lastly, there are some participles in ns which signify passively;

318

such as vekens for (jiii vehitur ; vertens for qui vertitur ; volvens
for qui vulvilur : as, Quadrigia veliens — Cic. for vectiis. Ora vi^
des Hecates in ires verte?itia partes — Ovid. i. e. versa, al. vergentia.
Annus veiiens^Cic. Volventibus annis — Virg. i. e. d2im volvun-
tur. But to these, and to others, formed from verbs thus used,
it is probable, as has been ah-eady stated, that the objective case
of a pronoun is understood'.

There are certain words compounded with in, v/hich have
either an affirmative or a negative signification, in which latter
sense they must be considered as participials ; as indidus, invo-
catus, immutatus, &c. Many, by being divested of their time, or
by a change in their construction, become nouns ; as sapienSy
doctus, adolescenSf animans^ abditus, j^^tiens, amans, &c.

OF THE ARRANGEMENT OR POSITION OF
WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

The Enolisli is an analou'ous lanijuaii-e, in wliicli tlie M'ords
ot a sentence are generally arranged according to the order
of time. The nominative, or the subject of the action, ap-
pears first ; then the action with its several modifications or
accessary circumstances ; and, lastly, the object to which it
has a reference. This is the common order of construction.
The Latin, on the contrary, is a transpositive language, in
which tl^e order of the words is very arbitrary, depending,
in a great degree, upon the taste or fancy of the composer,
or some particular purpose which he may have in view, some-
times the object, sometimes the action, and sometimes the
modification of the action, being made to precede or follow
the other parts. Thus, by its having greater variety of in-
flexions to express different relations, we can, without pro-
ducing ambiguity, say Alexander vicit Darium, Daritim xricit
Alexander, Alexander Darium vicit, or Darium AlexandtT
vicit, for " Alexander conquered Darius." This variety of
arrangement in Latin s'ives it an advantage over the English,
not only in energy and vivacity of expression, but often also
in harmony and perspicuity. It is true, that, in English, a
similar inversion of words is sometimes admitted : as, " Him
the Eternal hurl'd" — Miltoji; " Silver and gold have I none"

' Volcns seems sometimes to have a passive signification, denoting wliat is
willed, welcome, or acceptable: as, Volenda fucre jilebi licec et taila — Tac. Fo-
lentia de ambobtis accepcrant — Sail.

319

— Ads iil. G ; but this occurs chiefly in poetry, or in impas-

sionetl language. While, however, no certain rules can

be given tor the order of Latin words, which are apj^licable
to every instance, it may be observed, that, in general,

1st. The word governed is placed before the word which

governs it:
2dly. The word agreeing is placed after the word with whicli
it agrees'.

To these two leading principles shall be subjoined a few
particular rides and notes.

Rule I. The adjective or participle is, perhaps, most com-
monly placed after the substantive with which it agrees : as,
Pulverem majorem videri — Caes. Sabin flumen ab casiris
suis abesse — Cies. Ad exercititm transportandum — Cces.

Note 1. When the adjective is a short word, and the substan-
tive a long one ; or to avoid the hiatus occasioned by the concur-
rence of vowels, the adjective is frequently placed fust ; as Hce
disciplince, has causas, ea tempestas, innuba puella.

Note 2. The following adjectives, primus, medius, idtiimis, ex-
tretmis, infimus, imus, summus, suprcmus, reliquus, cceierus, when
joined to a noun, to denote pars prima, media, &c., are generally
placed before their substantives : as Prima fahula — Ter. Media
nox — Caes. Reliqua JEgyptus — Cic.

Note 9. When the substantive, with which the adjective agrees,
has a genitive depending on it, the adjective is generally placed
first : as, UUa officii pnecepta — Cic. in which the substantive on
which the genitive depends is placed last.

Note 4. When the substantive, with which the adjective agrees,
is a genitive governed by another substantive, then also the adjec-
tive may be placed first : as, Tantularum rerum occupationes —
Caes.

Note 5. The adjective is frequently placed first, merely to gra-
tify the ear; as Bonus puer, jnagna parte, celer ecpcus.

Note 6. A preposition or other word, is frequently put between
the substantive and adjective; as, Tota in iirbe, Quern in locum.
Rem vera publicam aniisinius, in which last a compounded word is
divided by the intervention of very.

Rule II. The finite verb is usually placed after its nomi-
native, several words often intervening: as, Neque ullanostris
faadtas aut administrandi, aut auxiliandi dabatur — Cais.

' A little attention to these two leading principles, with the following rules,
and to the usual order of the Englisli language, will readily suggest what
have been named the rules of construing or analysis, that is, the rules for re-
ducing, previously to Uauslalion, the Latiu into the I'nglish order.

320

Note 1. In short sentences, or to contribute to harmony and
emphasis, the nominative is often put after the verb: as, At sec-
tabantur mnlti — Cic. Quem ad finem sese e^vsewvito. jactabit au-
dacia ? — Cic. Stat sua cuique dies — Virg. Manet alta mente re-
\>ost\\m judicium Paridis — Virg. It may be observed that, in the
two preceding examples, the action of the verb is a principal ob-
ject of attention, which seems, on that account, placed first ; and
that the fatal day, and the flital decision, are likewise so placed as
to make a strong and a lasting impression.

Note 2. The nominative is put after the verb, when it is the an-
tecedent to a relative that cannot properly come before that verb,
nor yet be separated from its antecedent by the intervention of
other words : as, Mittitur ad eos, colloquendi caus&, C. Arpinius
eques Romanus, et Q. Junius ex Hispania quidavi, qui jam ante,
missu CiEsaris, ad Ambiorigcm ventitare consueverat — Cjes. Erat
in Carnutibus summo loco natus Tasgetius, cujus raajores in sua
civitate regnum obtinuerant — Css,

Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and as
near as possible to, its antecedent: as, Neque conditiones ac-
cipiendas arbitrabatur ab iis, qui, per dolum petita pace, ul-
ti"o bellum intulissent — Cais.

Note 1. It sometimes happens that the real antecedent is omit-
ted, in which case the substantive is subjoined to the relative, which
then agrees with it in case : as, Populo ut placerent quas fecisset
fahdas — Ter. i. c. Populo vxtfahidce placerent, quas [fabulas] fe-
cisset.

Note 2. To prevent ambiguity, the relative and its clause are
sometimes placed first: as, l\xc qui faciat, non ego eum cum sum-
mis viris coraparo, s(;d simillimum deo judico — Cic. Had the re-
lative clause been placed after cum, to which it refers, it would
have occasioned too great a separation between the antecedent
and the terms of honour intended to be associated with it. Had it
been placed after comparo, it would have divided the terms of ho-
nour. And had it been placed after judico, ambiguity would have
been produced, since either eum or deo might have been taken for
the antecedent.

Rule IV. A noun in an oblique case is commonly placed
before the word which governs it: as, Lmidis (tvidi, 'pecunicc
liberales erant — Sail. Cunctis esto beiiignus, nidli hlandus,
jpaucis familiaris, omnibus cequus — Senec. Adolescentis est
majores natu revcrcri — Cic.

Note 1. The substantive governed by an adjective in the neuter
gender is generally placed after the adjective: as, Nee tibi plus
cordis, sed minus oris inest — Ovid.

Note 2. This rule, like the others, is frequently' neglected, to
facilitate utterance and produce harmou)'.

I

i

321

Note S. It often happens that one or more words intervene be-
tween the word governed and the word governing ; but when the
words one and another are rendered in Latin by a repetition of the
substantives to which they refer, they closely follow each other :
as, Cuneus cuneum trudit. Thus, also, Alius aliud dicit, for One
man says one thing, and another a different thing.

Rule V. The finite verb is commonly placed last in its
own clause, and the principal verb is generally placed last
in the sentence : as, Quorum per fines ierant, Iiis, uti coti-
quirerent et reduccrent^ si sibi purgati esse vellent, imperavit
— Cses.

Note 1. This rule is often violated for the sake of harmony, and
especially when the verb is a monosyllable. Yet, we find many
sentences concluding with a word of one sylla!)le, and apparently
under the influence of the figures synalepha and ecthlipsis ; as,
Qua2 csedes per hosce annos sine iWo facta est — Cic. Altera occi-

sa, altera capta est — Caes. Diu atque acriter pugnatum est —

Caes. Intus inclusum periculum est — Cic. This frequently oc-
curs also, when tlie preceding word ending vvith a consonant,
and the final word beginning with a vowel, or vice versa, the tvt'o
syllables are as closely connected in pronunciation as if they be-
longed to the same word: thus, Atque unus e filiis captus est —
Cass. Quoties consulem interficere eonatuses — Cic. Impedimentis
CB.stns<\\xc potiti sunt — Caes. Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacua/ac-
ta sunt— Cic. When the last syllable but one is short, this is
named the Iambic cadence. Both poets and prose writers ter-
minate a sentence with a monosyllable, when they intend to ex-
press indignation, abruptness, astonishment, or contempt.

Rule VI. A verb in the infinitive is usually placed be-
fore the verb which governs it, or on which it depends : as,
Jugurtha, ubi eos Africa decessisse ratus est, neque propter
loci naturam Cirtiun armis expugnare possit, moenia circuni-
dat— tSall.

Note 1. When the governing verb is understood, infinitives
occupy the same place as finite verbs: thus, Cseterum, qua per-
gebat, urbes, agros vastare, praedas agere, suis animum, hostibus
terrorem, augere — Sail.

Ndte 2. To prevent a hiatus, for the sake of harmony, or to
end a sentence with an emphatic word, the infinitive is frequently
placed after the verb on which it depends ; as. Nam servitutem
quidem quis vestri'im audebat recusare? Ex quibus neminem
mihi necesse est 7io'ininare ; vosmet vobiscum recordamini ; nolo
enim cujusquam fortis atque illustris viri ne minimum quidem
erratum cum maxima laude conjunvere — Cic. Nam irapune
quaelibet facere, id est rcgem esse — Sail.

Y

S22

Rule VII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words,
are placed before the principal finite verb upon which such
clauses do chiefly depend : as, Qtiibus rchis Micipsa tamdsi
initio Icctus fuci-at, existimans virtutem Jugnrtlice regno s^iio
glorice fore, tamen -postquam hominem adolescentem, exactd
(State sua, et j^drvis liberis, magis magisque crescere iv.telli-
gif, vekemetiter eo negotio permotus, w.ulta cum animo suo
volvehat — Sail.

Note 1. This rule may, in a great degree, be inferred from
Rule V. In the preceding quotation it may be observed, that
volvehat, being the principal verb, is placed last ; and that all the
clauses which induce Micipsa's j;o??r/?n7?o-, expressive of joy, hope,
and alarm, are consistently placed before that verb, whose ac-
tion they produced, upon which they depend, and with which
they are so intimately connected.

Note 2. The chief exception to this rule occurs, when the sen-
tence is long and complicated, so that, were all the dependent
clauses introduced between the nominative and principal verb,
the connexion subsisting between these two would either be lost
or rendered obscure. When this is the case, the principal verb
and its nominative, with the words immediately depending, are
placed either first or last in the sentence : thus, Belltnn scripturiis
sum, quod populus R. cum Jugurtha rege Numidarum gessit ;
priraum, quia magnum et atrox, variaque victoria fuit ; dein, quia
turn primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est — Sail. Here it
may be observed that the ivrithig is the principal action in the
sentence. The nature of the war is assigned as the inducement to
write ; which two circumstances are, consequently, closely con-
nected. Yet, had the words scripturus sum, as being expressive
of the chief action, been placed after the dependent clauses, it is
obvious that the arrangement would have been not only unhar-
monious, but perplexed; since the object, bellnm, which, as an
antecedent, must precede quod, would have been too far removed
from its governing word, scripturus. The following passage is
quoted from Seneca, De Benef. I. 6, c. 31, as containing striking
instances of the propriety, beauty, and energy, produced by
placing the principal verb and its nominative at the end of a
clause, or the conclusion of the sentence; Divinaatque humana
impellentem, et mutantem quicquid obstiterat trecenti stare jus-
serunt. Stratusque per totam passim Grasciam Xerxes intellexity
quantum ab exercitu turba distaret.

Rule VIII. Adverbs are generally placed immediatel;
before the words to which they belong : as, Nihil tarn as
j)enan, neque ta?n difficile esse, quod iion cupidissime fou
turi essent — Sail.

323

Note 1, When the adverb is an emphatic word, it is often placed
after : as, Ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu P. R. vomcre pos'
tridie — Cic.

Note 2. Words intimately connected with the word to wliich
the adverb refers, are generally placed between them : as, Sem-
jerque his ahena virtus formidolosa est — Sail. Sed maxime ado-
lescentium familiariiates appetehat — Sail. Non tarn in bellis et in
praeliis, quam in promissis et Ude.^finniorem — Cic.

Note 3. Antequnm, postqumn, und p7-iusquam are elegantly di-
vided, one part being often put in one member of the sentence,
and the other in another: thus, Ita bello intra dies xxx perfecto,
ante cognitum est Gentium victum, qiiam cceptum bellum nun-
ciaretur — Eutrop. Filius anno por4 Quaestor fuit, quam Consul
Mummius — Cic. Atque ita perterritos egerunt, ut non prius
fuga desisterent, quam in conspectum agminis nostri venissent
— Cses.

Rule IX. Prepositions usually precede the cases govern-
ed by them : as, Ad luccm doimire — Cic. Nihil est ah
omni parte beatum — Hor.

Note 1. This rule is contrary to the first general maxim.

Note 2. Prepositions are often placed after the relative pro-
noun; as, Quam circa, quern peues, quos inter, «&c. : thus, also, Si
quos inter societas aut est, aut fuit — Cic. Haec aiunt probari a
Stoicis quos contra disputant — Cic.

Note 3. We generally find mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, vo-
biscum ; and quicum, quocum, quacum, quibuscum, are much more
frequent than cum quo, &c.

Note 4. Tenus and versus are set after their cases ; usque is
sometimes placed before and sometimes after : as, Daciam tenus
venit — Flor. Aurium tenus — Quinct. Cum Arrefium versus cas-
tra movisset--Cic. Usque Ephesum — Plin, Tharsum usque —
Cic. Many other prepositions are placed, both by poets and
prose writers, after as well as before their cases : as, Saxa per
et scopulos — Virg. Te propter — Virg. Hunc adversus—^Q\).
Urbemjuxta — Tac. &c. .

Note 5. The preposition is elegantly placed between the ad-
jective and substantive : as, Quam ad suavitatem — Cic. Suos in-
ter cequales — Cic. Paucos post dies — Liv. Hoc ex loco — Cic.
Nulla in re — Cic ; thus also the compounds quemadmodumf
quamobrem.

Note 6. The poets, probably for the sake of the metre, some-
times place one or more words between the preposition and its
case : as, Vulneraque ilia gerens quae circum plurima ynuros Ac-
ccp'it patrios — Virg. Qui faciunt solem cerfa de surgcre;7fif;7c —
Lucret,

Y2

324>

Rule X. Certain conjunctions are placed first in a clause
or sentence; some, after the first word ; and others, in the
first or second place, indifierently. See p. 156.

Note 1. Autem and enim are sometimes found in the third
place ; as, Quid tu autem, asine, hie auscultas ? — Ter. Odiosa
illu e}ihn fuerant, legiones venire — Cic. Etiam is found in the
fourth place: as, At juvenis nihil etiam sequius suspicatus —
Apul. Tamen is sometimes found after the second or third word
of its clause : as, Tu moriere tamen — Propert. Tu, si tuis blan-
ditiis tamen — Cic.

Note 2. The poets sometimes join que to a different word from
what the natural order of the sentence requires : as, Ore pedes
tctigitque crura — Hor. for tetigit pedes cr^^rfl^'jie.

Note 3. The poets also sometimes change the position of the
prepositives, et, atqiie, nee, neque, sed, siquidem, vel, &c. : as, Sus-
piciens altam lunam, et sic voce precatur — Virg. Nee deus hunc
mensfi, dea riec dignata cubili est — Virg. Ipsa, sed in somnis iu-
humati venit imago Conjugis — Virg. &c.

Rule XI. Words connected in sense should not be se-
parated by words that are extraneous.

Note 1 . The violation of this rule is named Synchysis ; of which
the following are examples : Vidiego qui juvenem seros desisset
amores — Tibull. for Vidi ego juvenem, qui. Quisquis erit vitae,
scribam, color — Hor. Here saibam constitutes no parentheti-
cal clause ; neither is it connected by sense, government, or con-
cord, with either of the words between which it stands. Its place
seems to be before quisquis, or, rather, after color. Sed bona si
quis Judice condiderit>laudatur Caesare — Hor. The place ofj/M-
dice seems to be in the clause with laudatur. Pene arsit macros
dum turdos versat in igne—iiov. instead of Dum versat macros
turdos, pe^ie arsit in igne. To these may perhaps be added such
inversions as. Per ego te deos oro — Ter. Per ego te, inquit, fili,

fmecunque jura liberos jungunt parentibus, precor quassoque —
av. 23, 9.

Rule XII. In general, there should be neither a redun-
dance of long measures or long words, nor of short mea-
sin-es or short words ; and, as far as perspicuity and the
general system of arrangement will permit, when the fore-
going word ends with a vowel, let the next begin with a
consonant, and vice versa ; taking care, at the same time,
that the last syllables of the foregomg word be not the siame
as the first syllables of the word following, and that many
words which bear the same quantity, which begin alike or
end alike, or which have the same characteristic letter in
declension or conjugation, do not come together.

.•52.5

Perhaps the following sentence irom Ca?sar may be con-
sidered, according to the way in which it is commonly
read, as deficient in some of these particulars ; (^uce pars
ut ante dictum est, ct regionum latitudinc, et midtitiidinc ho-
minum, ex tertia parte Gallice est (cstimanda ; in which
there are, witliin a small compass, three words terminating
in run, the last two in num ; two words endinjj in tiiudinc ,-
one word ending in e, and another beginning with it ; one
ending in (e, and another beginning with it : six monosyl-
lables almost close together, and two of them, est and et^
of nearly the same sound; a hiatus in lalitudine et, and an-
other in Gallice est ,- and an alliteration, or a repetition of
the concluding syllable of the former word, in the com-
mencement of die following, in est ccstimaiida.

These few Rules, aided by practice, and attention to the
arrangement ado})ted by the best classical writers, may, per-
haps, be found of some utility. It is almost needless to ob-
serve, that, in Latin, as well as in English, a principal ob-
ject is to avoid such a collocation of words as may lead to
ambiijuitv, or a confusion of ideas : this beino- done, tlie
ear will be a tolerable guide with respect to the beauty of
cadences, and the harmony of periods, as the judgment
will be, in regard to a strong, and an emphatic arrange-
ment '. As Quintilian observes, " Felicissimus sermo est,
cui et rectus or do, et npla junctura, et cum his numcrus op-
portune cadcns contingit." And again ; " Optime autem
de ilia [compositione] judicant aures ; quae et plena sen-
tiunt, et parum expleta desiderant, et fragosis offenduntur,
et lenibus mulcentur, et contortis excitantur, et stabilia pro-
bant, clauda deprehendunt, redundantia et nimia fastidiunt."
— Inst. 9, 4.

OP^ FIGURATIVE SYNTAX.

The Figures of Syntax are reduced to four kinds, Ellipsis,
Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperhaton.

OF ELLIPSIS.

Ellipsis is the omission, in a sentence, of some word, or
words, necessary to su[)piy the regular syntax.

' Such as wish to see this subject thoroughly discussed, are referred to the
writings of Cicero and Quintilian. I^oaniers may likewise, with consider-
able advantage, consult Mr, Valjjy's " Eleganti.-e T^.-itina-," and IMr. I^yne's
" Latin Primer :" two school-books containing much useful information.

326

It is terined strict, when the word to be supphed is not
to be tbiuid in any part of the sentence. It affects all the
parts of speech ; thus,

1. The Noun ; as Aiuiit, supiAy homines. Non est oneri fe-
rendu, supply aptiis. '2. The Pronoun ; as Arma virumque cano,
supply ego. 3. The Verb; as Qiiid wwfta? supply dicam. 4. The
Participle ; as Satimio rege, supply enfe or existente. 5. The
Adverb; as Vidnerantur amplius sexcenti — Caes. supply qiiam.
6. The Preposition ; as Eo Romam, supply ad. 7. The Inter-
jection : as, Me misennn, supply 0 or fieu. 8, The Conjunc-
tion, as will be seen under Asyndetvn.

The ellipsis is named lax or loose, when the word omitted may
be supplied from some part of the sentence ; as, Virtus {cogebat ,
et honestas {cogehnt), et pudor cum considibus esse cogebat — Cic.
The former kind of ellipsis contains the figures, Apposition, Hynec-
doche, and Asyndeton. The latter contains, Zeugma, Syllepsis,
and Prolepsis.

Apposition is, when, in putting two substantives together in the
same case, existens, or the obsolete ens, or some other part of
sum, with a relative, is understood: as, Urbs Roma, i. e. urbs
existens, ens, or, quce est, Roma.

Synecdoche is, when, instead of an ablative of the part, or of
the adjunct, an accusative is used, the Greek xara, secundum, or
qvod ad, being understood : as, E'xpleri {quod ad) mcntem nequit
— Virg.

Asyndeton is the omission of a conjunction : as, Abiit, excessit,
evasit, erupit — Cic, supply et. Sex septem dies, supply vel.

Zeugma is, when an adjective or verb referring to different
substantives, is expressed to the last only, with which it agrees,
being understood to the rest : as, Et genus, et virtus, nisi cum re,
vilior nlgd est- -Hor. Hicillius arma., hie currusjiiit — Virg. Qunvi-
vis iile niger, quamvis tn candidus esses — Virg. Zeugma is found
in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. And sometimes
the adjective or verbs agiee with the more remote substantive ;
sometimes with the principal substantive; and sometimes with
another.

Syllepsis is, when tlie adjective or verb, joined to different sub-
stantives, agrees with the more worthy.

A syllepsis oi' gender is, when an adjective, joined to two sub-
stantives of different genders, agrees with the more worthy gen-
der. It is termed explicit, when substantives of different genders
are expressed : as, Attoniti novitate pavent, manibusque supinis
Concipiunt Baucisque joreces timidusque Philemon — Ovid. It is
called implicit, when they are suppressed^ as, Ut templi tetigere
gradus, procumbit uterque Pronus h^imi — Ovid. /. e. Deucalion et
jPyrrha.

It is also named direct or indirect. The direct is produced by
a copulative conjunction : as, Pater mihi et mater n/oriiii — Tcr.
The indirect, by a preposition : as, Dux hnslium cum urhe Valcu-

327

tia et exercitu dehti — Sail. Note 1 • Wlien tlie substantives ex -
press things inanimate, the adjective is generally put in the neu-
ter gender: as, — arcum - - - ct calamos ; qucc — Virg, Note 2.
When with two substantives of different genders, a plural sub-
stantive is placed in apposition, the more worthy gender is pre-
ferred : as, Piolemceus et Cleopatra reges JEgypti — Liv. i. e. rex
et regina.

A syllepsis oHhe persons is, when a plural verb, joined io two
substantives of different persons, agrees with the more worthy.
It is named explicit, when the persons are expressed: as, Sustu-
limus majius et ego et Dalbus — ('ic. Implicit, or implied, when
they are not expressed: as, Qnem per urbem uterqiie defessi su-
mus quccrere — Plant. It is also direct ; as, Ego et Cicero valemus
— Cic. Indirect: as, Ipse cum fratre Capuam ad consides adesse
jussi sumiis — Cic. A syllepsis of the numbers is, when the sub-
stanti/es being of different numbers, the adjective or verb is put in
the plural : as, Phrygii comites,etlcetus liUus, Incedunt — Yirg. Pro-
jectisgue amiado et Uteris — Curt. It is sometimes indirect: as, Equi-
tes cum JEmilio subvenientes periculo cateros exemere — Tacit.

Prolepsis is, when the parts, differing in nimiber or in person
from the whole, are placed after it, the verb or the adjective not
being repeated : as, Boni quoniam convenimus ambo, tu calamos
hiflare leves, ego dicere versus — Virg. i. e tu convetiisti bonus cala-
mos inflare, ego conveni, &c. It is named explicit, when the whole
and the parts are mentioned : as, Constdes, Sulpicius in dexlro,
Pctilius in lavo cornii, consislunt — Liv. Implicit, when the
whole, or the parts are omitted : as, Curemus oequayn idcrqne par-
tem; tu alteram, ego item alterum — Ter, i.e. nos nlerquc,ego
m.eam, tu tuam partem curemus. Vestras quisque redite domos —
Ovid. i. e. vos redite domos, tu tuam, alius suam.

OF PLEONASM.

Pleonasm adds unnecessary words; thus, 1. The Noun: as,
Sic ore loctita est— Yirg. 2. The Pronoun : as. Pater tuns, is
erat f rater patruelis meus — Flaut. 3. The Participle: as. Post-
quam primus amor deceptam morlhfefellit — Virg. 4. The Adverb :
as, PrcjEsensit prim-~V\di\x\,. 5. The Conjunction : as, liaqticergo
amantur— -Ter. Eisi qnamvis— Cic. Under Pleonasm are cotn-
prehended, Parelcon. Polysyndelon, Hcndiadys, ^w^ Periphrasis.

Parelcon is the addition oi'an unnecessary syllable or particle
to pronouns, verbs, or adverbs ; chiefly, |)er!iai)s, for the sake of
emphasis : as, egomet, agedum, agesis.jbrtassean.

Polysyndeton is a redundancy of conjunctions: as, Una Eu.
rusque Notusque ruunt, creberque proccUis Africus-\irg. This
use of the conjunctions by Virgil, is noticed under the examina-
tion of the Hexameter.

Hendiadys (i. e.-'Ev Sid Suoiv] expresses one thing, asif it were
two things: as, Paieris libamus et «m;o— Virg. instead ofpatcris
aureis.

:V2H

Periphrasis is a circuitous manner of expression : as, 'J'eiicri
^fcetus ovitim — Virg. /, e. lambs.

OK ENALLAGE.

Enallage, in a general sense, is the change of words, or of their
accidents, one for another. There are various kinds of it : viz.
Antimeria, Enallage, strictly so called, Heterosis, and Antiptosis.
To Enallage may likewise be referred Synesis, Anacohdhon, Hel-
lenismus, and Archaismus.

Antimeria puts one part of speech for another: thus, 1. The
Noun for the Pronoun : as. Si quid in Flacco viri est — Hor. in-
stead of zw ?He, for Horace himself is speaking. For the Verb:
as, Tua indicatio est — Plaut. for tuum est indicare, For the Par-
ticiple : as, Popiduni late regem — Virg. for regnantem. For the
Adverb: as, Hole recens orto — Virg. lor recenter. For the Inter-
jection : as, Navibns, infandum ! amissis — Virg. 2. The Pronoun
for the Noun : as, siius for unicuiqne propriiis, in Mittunt sua thui-a
Sabcei — Virg, For the Conjunction : as, Huic conjuncta benefi-
centia est, quam eundem vel henignitafeni vel Ubcralitatem appel-
lare licet— Cic. for quam etiam. ":>. The Verb for the Noun : as.
Nostrum istudvivere triste — Pers. for nostra vita. For the Inter-
jection : as, age used in exhortation ; aj)age as a token of aversion,
*For the Conjunction : as, licet for quamvis. 4. The Participle for
the Noun : as, umans for amator; medentes for medici. For the
Verb : as, Torpedo octogenosJa4us habens invenitur — Plin. for ha-
bere. For the Adverb : as, Lubensfecero et solens — Plaut. forZi-
benter et consuete. 5. The Adverb for the Norm : as, Aliud eras —
Pers. for alius dies crastinus. Thus also, bene est, recte est, for bo-
num ed, rectum est. For the Pronoun Qui, with some preposition
expressed or understood: as, Capiunt prcedones navem iUam,2tbi
vectus fui—^\2iut. for qua, or in qua. For the Preposition : as,
Intus templo divum, (for in ) — Virg. For the Conjunction: as, Duni,
jam, nunc, adverbs of time, used, the first as a conditional con-
junction, the second as a continuative, and the third as an adversa-
tive. Thus also, quando for quoniam. 6. The Preposition for the
Noun: as, super for superstes, in O mihi sola mci super Astyanactis
imago — Virg. For the Adverb ; as, ante, post, infra, instead of
anteh, posteci, inferiiis. 7. The Interjection for the Nonn or Ad-
verb : as, Hei mihi, for malum vel malr mihi est. 8. The Con-
junction for the Adverb: i\s,scd for imo in Plaut. Habet gladium,
sed duos. Si for an in Ter. Visum, si domi est.

Enallage, strictly so named, is when one word is substituted
for another, the part of speech not being changed ; as Noun for
Noun, Verb for Verb, &c. : thus,

1. The Substantive for the Adjective ; as, Exercilus victor, for
victoriosus. Thus also the Abstract for the Concrete : as, corju-
gium for conjux, in Virgil ^^n. ii. .579.

2. The A^djective for the Substantive : as, Possum falli, ut hu-
maiius — Cic. for ut homo. Thus also the Concrete for the .-ii^.s-

329

trad ; as, venim, honum, wquum — for vtrilax, bonilas, aquiins.
The Noun pro/jer, instead of the Appellative: as, Omtie tnnpus
Clodios, non omne Catoncs fert — Senec. in which Clodios is put
for homines improbos, and Catones for viros probos. The Noun
apnellative for the Proper : as, Urbs for Roma. The Primitive
for the Derivative : as, Dardana anna for Dardania ; Laticem
Lijceum, for Lycceiam, in Virgil. The Derivative for the Priini-
tive: as, Ter dejiis navibus ibant, for ter decern. The Simple for
the Compound : as, avus; for abavits ; nepos for pronepos. The
Compound for the Simple : as, consceleratus for scelerattis.

3. One Pronoun used for another : as the Relative for the Re-
ciprocal, Sec. (See Pronouns.) The Primitive for the Derivative :
as, Voluntas vestrum, i'or i^estra. Labormei, (or mens. The De-
rivative for the Primitive: as, Desiderium luum, Odium iuum, for
tui. (See Pronouns.) The Simple for the Compound : as, Qm?'*
for aliquis. The Compound for the Simple : as, tibimet for ///;/,
memet for we, in Seneca, Agam. v, 798, and CEdip v. 847, where
THf?^ is evidently redundant,

4. In the Verb, the Active voice used for the Passive : as, Jain,
•certerat fortuna — Liv. for versa est ; unless, in such sentences as
this, there is an ellipsis of Af. The Passive for the Active: as,
Placitam Paci nutritor olivam — Virg. for nutrito. The Primitive
for the Derivative : as, Qui Syracusis habct — Plaut. for habitat.
Cernerejerro — Virg. for certare. The Derivative for the Primi-
tive: as, Ductare exerciium, Agitare Icetiiiam, Objectare pcriculis,
in Sallust, for ducere, agere, objicere. The Simple for the Com-
pound : as, JMcestumque timorem mittite — Virg, for otnittite. The

Compound for the Simple : as, Dep'recor (or precor. Justin, xi. 9.
Refine me — Ter. Heaut. iii.l. '23. for tene.

5. In the Participle, the Active for the Passive : as, Tondenti
barba cadebat — Virg. for tonso. The Passive for the Active : as,
Dido, vultum demissa, pro/hlur — Virg. for dcmittens. In the for-
mer there is an ellipsis of me ; in the latter, of ad, or quod ad.

6- In the Adverb, with regard to its signiiication : as, ubi for
quando ; ibi for tum, &c. Thus also, the adverbs of quality bene
and male are used for the purpose of intension, instead of valdc :
as, Sermo bene longus — Cic And a determinate number is used
for one uncertain : as, Millies audivi, for sapissime. O terqur,
quaterque beati, for 7naxime beati. Likewise in respect to their
form, the Simple are used for the Co7npou7id: as, (juo, qu,), for
quocunque, quacunque.

7. In the Preposition and Conjunction, Enallage occurs, when
one is used for another: as. Ad Judicem agere -~C\c. for a pud.
Thus also, et is used tor etiam ; si for quumvis ; dum for dummo-
do, occ.

1. Heterosis uses one Accident, especially of a noun, pronoun,
or verb, for another : as. Ego quoq/ie una pereo, quod mihi est
rarius — Ter. for qui mihi sum rarior, in which the neuter gender
is used for the masculine, Romanus. Sco/is, Callus, for Romani,

.330

Scoti, Gain, in which the singular is used for the plural. Colla,
cnrda, ora, &c. are used among the poets for Collum, cor, os, &c.
Thus also }ios and nosier for ego and mens,

2. In the Verb, the Indicative is used for the Snbjtinctive ; as,
Me truncus illap.ms cerebro snstiderat — Hor. for sustulisset. For
the Imperative : as, Tu hoc silebis—Cic. i'or sile. For the Infini-
tive: as, Verum ego ilium, spero mutari jwtest—VXaut. for posse.
The Subjunctive for the Indicntive : as, Ubi socordicB te atqiceig-
navice tradideris, nequidquam deos implores — Sail, (or implorabis.
For the Imperative : as, quiescas for qiiiesce — Ter. and jyassim.
The Imperative for the Indicative: as, Si fcetura gregem supple-
verit, aureus esto — Virg. (ox eris. The Infinitive for the Imperfect
of the Indicative: as. Facile omnes perferre ac paii — Ter. for/je;--
Jerebat ac patiebatiir. For the Subjunctive : as, Bona censuerunt
rcddi - Iav. for ut reddereniiir.

In regard to the Time, the Present for the Imperfect: as, Tu
si hie sis, aliter sentias — Ter for esses, sent ires. For the Preter-
ite: as, Clnamdudum in portum venis? — Plaut for venisti. For
the Future of the same mood, or of a different : as, Quam mox
navigo Epkesum — Plaut. for navigabo. Quern neque gloria, neque
pericula excitant, nequidquam hortere — Sail, for hcrtaberis. The
imperfect for the Present : as, Persuadet Castico, id regmim occu-
paret — C;es. for occupet. For the Pluperfect : as, Neque diutius
Numidce rrsistere quivissent, nipedites cmn equitibus permixti mag-
nam cladem in congressu facerent — Sail, for fecissent. The Per-
fect for the Present : as. Magnum, si pectore posset Excussisse deum
— Virg. for excutere. For the Pluperfect : as, Jam fammce. tule-
rint, inimicus et kauserit eusis — Virg. for tulissent and hausisset.
For the Future: as, Si hoc bene fxum omnibus destinatumqne in
animo est, vicistis — Liv. for vincetis. The Perfect Subjunctive
for the Future Indicative : as, Sipaululum modo quid iefugerit, ego
pcrierim — Ter. for peri bo. The Pluperfect for the Imperfect : as,
Si saniora consilia jmti potuisset, contentus patrio cederet alieni im-
perii finibus — Curt, for^o^,*;^'^ The Future for the Present: as,
Verbum hercle hoc verum erit — Ter. for est. Respiraro, si te vi-
dero — C\c. for respirabo. For the Imperative : as, Luant peccata ;
neque illos Juveris auxilio — Wrg. for juvato or juves.

The Singular number for the Plural: as. Qua; I oca Numidia
appellatur—SaW. for appcllcudur. The Plural for the Singular :
as, Moloni Riiodio dedimus operam — Cic. for dedi. The First
person used indefiniteh' for the Third: as, Aheratea regio L. stadia
ab adilu quo Ciliciam intramus ~ Curt for homines intrant. The
Second for the First, when any one accosts himself as if another :
as, Impia quid duhitas Deianira mori? — Ovid, for ego dubito.
Used also indefinitely for the Third: as, Fidelem hand ferme mu-
lieri invenias viriim — Ter. for quis inveniat. The Third for the
First: as, Si quis me qucrrct rufus. Da. Prccsto ed — Ter. for
pfcesio sum, for the person himself speaketh.

Antiptosis uses one case for another : thus, 1, The Nominative

331

for the Accusative: as. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis — Hor. for
te esse iixorem For the Vocative : as. Adsis Icctitiie Bacchus dalor
— Virg. for Bacche. 2, The Genitive for the Nominative : as,
Expediti milituyn — Liv. for mililes. For the Dative : as, Ut civi-
tates Asice, qiuc Attali stipendiarice fuissent, Eitmeni vectigal pen-
dcrent — Liv. for AtiaJo. 3. The Dative for the Nominative : as,
Cid 7iunc cognomen I'ulo — Virg. for lulus. For the Genitive : as,
Cni dextra trisidcis Ignihus anvata est — Ovid, for cujus. For the
Accusative : as, Nobis nun licet esse tarn disertis — r*.Iarl. for disertns.
For the Ablative with a or ab : as, Neque cernitur idli — Virg. for
ab ullo. 4'. Tlie Accusative for the Nominative : as, Meam uxorem,
Libanc, nescis gualis sict — Plant, for nescis qualis sit men uxor.
For the Dative':' as, JJt arma sua quisque stantes incumber ent —
Sail, for armis suis. For the Ablative : as, Omnia Mercurio si-
milis — Virg. for in omnibus. 5. The Vocative for the Nomina-
tive: as, Quibus Hector ab oris Expecfate venis? — Virg. for r.r-
pcctatus. 6. The Ablative for the Dative: as, Aliquo negotio in-
tentus — Sail, for alicui negotio. For the Accusative : as, Scepe suo
victor lenis in hoslcj'uit — Ovid, for in hostem.

Sj/nesis is, when the construction refers to the sense, rather
than to the precise nature of a word : thus, 1. As to Gender: as,
Scelus postquam hidijicatus est virginem — "^I'cr. for scelestus. 2
Number: as. Clamor indc concursusque populi, miratdium quid
rei est — Liv. for mirantis. 3. As to both : as. Pars in crucem acti

pars besliis objecti — Sail, for acta, nbjecta Note Sometimes,

two verbs referring to the same collective noun, one is put in the
singular and the other in the plural : as, Pars stupet innuptce do-
7ium exitiale Minerva-', Et molem mirantur equi — Virg.

Synesis is divided into the explicit and the implicit. The expli-
cit is, when the noun is expressed to which the verb or adjective
refers, although it does not agree with it, but with some other of
the same sense, as in the preceding examples. The implicit is,
when the substantive is not expressed but is Implied in the adjec-
tive going before : as, Id mea minimc rejert, qui sum natu niaxi-
mus — Ter. in which qui refers to ego included in 7nea.

Anacoluthon is when the- Consequents do not agree with the An-
tecedents : as. Nam nos vmnes, quibus est alicundc aliquis ohjcclus
labos, omne quod est interea tempns, priiisquam id rrsciium ed,
lucro est — Ter. in which the autiior began, as if he intended to
say lucro habemus. and e.nded as if he had said nobis omnibus. As
the sentence is, there is no verb to which nos omnes is a nomi-
native.

Ilellenismus, or Grcecismus, is an in)itation of Greek construc-
tion ; thus, L When with Substantives of a different Gender an
Adjective is used in the Neuter gender, as, Tristclupussiabulis —
Virg. 2. When alter certain Adjectives and Verbs, a Genitive is
used: as, Prce.stnns a.iimi. Abstine irarum —Hor. 3. When after
verbs of contending of distance, of coming together, and of ward-
ing olf, a Dative is used : as, Holus tibi cerlct Amuntas — Wx'i.
i. Vv'hen the Accusative, instead of the Nominative', is joined to

332

the verb referring to the whole of the subsequeiitpartof the sentence:
as, Ego tejaciam ut miser sis — Plant, ^orfociam ut tii. 5. When
the Nominative, instead of the Accusative, is used after esse, and
similar infinitives: as, Acceptum refero versibus esse nocens — Ovid,
for me esse nocentem. 6. When the Dative, answering to the an-
tecedent, is used Avith the verb esse, and the like, instead of the
Accusative : as, Penelope licet esse tibi sub Rrincipe Nerva — Mart.
for Penelopen. 7. When to Nouns is added an Infinitive, the Latin
language requiring a different form of expression : as, Fntges con-
siunere nati — Hor. for ad J'rnges consumendas. 8. When the
accusative of part, or of the adjunct, is used after Adjectives
or Verbs: as, Fractus membra — Hor. Expleri menfem — Virg.
9. W'hen the neuter gender of Adjectives is used adverbially: as,
Acerbatiiens — Virg. Tor acn-^e. 10. To Greek construction may
be referred such ellipses as Urbem. qiiam statiio vestra est — Virg.
for urbs quam [iirbem). 11. The following expressions of Horace
may be considered as Gra;cisms : Mavimce putres, Equina quales
libera, for qualia. Also, Animce quales neque candidiores Terra
tidit, for qiialibus. To Hellenism may likewise be referred many
of those changes noticed under Heterosis and Antiptosis.

Archaism is when an obsolete construction is used : as, Quid
tibi hanc cin-atio est rem — Plaut. When Utor, ahnior,fruor, go-
vern an accusative. When the Future Participle active, and per-
fect passive, are used as irdeclinables, with P5se .• as, Hanc sibi
rem prcesidio sperayit J'uturum — Cic. Likewise when such ex-
pressions are used as Absente nobis, Prcesenie iestibus.

OF HYPEJIBATON.

Ilyperbaton is, in a general sense, a transgression of the com-
mon order and position of words or sentences. There are seven
kinds of it ; viz., Anasirophe, Hysteron fjroteron, Hi/pallage, Syn-
chysis. Tmesis, Parenthesis, and Hyperbaton, strictly so called.

Anastrophc is the placing of those words last (chiefly preposi-
tions), which ought to precede : as, mecum for cum me, Collo dare
brachia circum — V^irg. for circumdare.

Hysteron proteron changes the natural order of the sense : as,
Valet atque vivit — Ter.

Hypallage is an interchange of cases : as, Dare classibus Ausiros

— Virg. for Dare classes Austris.

Hynchysis is a confused arrangcnscnt of words : as, Saxn vorant
Itnli mediis Qiice injluctibus Aras — Virg. for quce saxa in mediis
Jlnctibus Itali oocant Aras.

Tmesis divides a compound word : as, Per miki graiumjeceris

— Cic. i'oT pergratum.

Parenthesis is an interruption of the sense, by the insertion of
some word, or words : as, Tilyre, dum redeo, (brevis est via,)pasce
capcllas — Virg,

Hypcrbaton, strictly so named, is, when the principal verb in
a sentence is put at rather a great distance from its nominative : as.

533

Interea re^es : inzenti mole Laiinus

Quadrijugo vehitur curru, ciii tempora circuni
Aurati his sex radii fulgentia ciiigiint,
Solis avi specimen : bigis it Turnus in albis,
Bina manii lato crispans hastilia Jerro :
Hinc pater JEneas Romance stirpis origo,
Sidereo flagrans clypeo et coelestibus armis ;
Etjuxta Ascanius magnce spes altera Roma? :
Procedunt castris ------- Virg.

in which, between the nominative reges and the verb procedunt,
there are seven whole verses and a hemistich : in some editions,
however, the period is concluded 2X ferro., vehunticr being sup-
posed understood after reges ; so that /Eneas and Ascanius are
then considered as the only nominatives to procedunt.

I shall conclude this explanation of the figures of syntax with
a brief account of the principal \

TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC K

A Trope is the elegant turning of a word, for the sake of illus-
tration, from its natural and genuine sense, to one that is relative
or secondary.

A Figure conveys some beauty, or expresses some passion, by
a mode of speaking different from, and more beautiful and em-
phatical than, the usual way of expressing the same sense.

PRIMARY TROPES.

1. A Metaphor is a simile without formal comparison, and puts
a word of likeness for the proper word : as, Cceptis aspirate — Ovid,
i. e.Javete.

2. A Metonymy changes names, or puts a noun o^ relation in-
stead of the proper word ; as the cause for the effect, the subject
for the adjunct, the antecedent for the consequent, &c. : as, Mars
for helium; Lyceas for vinum. Implentur vetcris BaccJii — Virg.,
old wine-

3. Synecdoche puts the whole for the part, or vice versa: it like-
wise confounds the singular and plural : as, Animnque liiandmn
Argolicci — Virg. for homine Argolico. Armato milite complent —
Virg. for militibus armatis.

4. Irony or Dissinmlation thinks one thing and expresses another,
yet so that the real meaning may be discovered ; thus it blames
when it seems to commend, commends when it seems to blame,
&c. : as, 0 salve, bone custos, curasii probe ! — Ter, You have
taken extraordinary care, my trusty keeper ! Egregiam vero lau-
dem et spolia ampla refertis, Tuque puerque tuus — Virg.

' The tropes and figures properly belong to the art of Rhetoric ; yet, as
they may be classed under that branch of syntax which is called figurative, it
is not inconsistent witli the nature of granunar to give some account of tlicni.

534

SECONDARY TItOPES.

These are so named because they may, generally, be compre-
hended under the primary tropes.

1. Catachresis is a bolder or harsher metaphor, as when we say
a Wooden, tombstone, a Glass inklw7-u, &c. : Vir gregis ipse caper
deerraverat — Virg. The husband of the flock, i. e. dux gregis.

2. Hyperbole magnifies or lessens beyond the strict bounds of
credibility : as, Rivers of blood. Candidior cycnis — Vii-g. Ocyor
Euro — Virg.

3. Metalepsis is the advance, or continuation of a trope, through
successive significations: as, Post aliquot aristas — Virg. in which
arista (a beard of corn) is put for seges, seges for tnessis, and mes-
sis for annus, i. e. after some years. Hinc movet Euphrates, illinc
Germania helium— Wv^. in which Euphrates is put for Mesopo-
tamia, which is washed by it, and Mesopotamia for the inhabitants.

4. Allegory is a chain of tropes : as, Claudite Jam rivos, jmeri,
sat prata biherunt — Virg. Swains, stop now your streams, the
meadows have drunk their fill, i. e. Leave off your songs, there
has been sufficient entertainment.

5. Antonomasia puts a proper name for a common one, and
vice versa ; as when we call a debauched person, a Sardanapalus ;
a grave man, a Cato ; a poor man, an Irus, a beggarly attendant
on Penelope's suitors. Inis et est subito, qui modo Crcesus erat —
Ovid.

6. Litotes affirms more strongly, by denying the contrary: as,
Non laudo — Ter. I blame you much. Est qui nee veferis pocula
Massici spernit — Hor. There are persons fond of a glass of old
Massic wine.

7. Onomatopoeia coins words from sound : as nish, squeak, hiss,
crash. Thus also in Latin, anna stridentia ; tinnitus aeris ; rusitus
leonum ; grunnitus porcorum, &c.

8. Antiplirasis is a species of irony depending upon one word,
names being given contrary to the nature of the things, as calling
a divarfa giant ; a grove lucus, because, perhaps, non lucet.

9. CharientisTdus gives soft words fur harsh : as, Bona verba
quaso — Ter.

10. Asteismus is a witty jest, or facetious jeer : as. Qui Baviunt
non odit, amet tua carmina, Mcevi ; Atquc idem jungat vulpes et
mnlgeat hircos— Virg. Who hates not Bavius, may it be his curse
to love thy verses, Maevius ; and may the same person yoke foxes,
and milk he-goats.

1 1. Dlasyrmus reflects upon a living enemy : as, Si cantas, male
cantos ; si legis, cantas — Quintil.

12. Sarcas7nu.s insults any one in a malicious manner : as, Ive?--
bis virtutem illude superbis — Virg.

13. Parcemia is a proverbial form of expression : as, Many
hands make light work. Lupum auribus teneo— Ter. I know not
how to act.

14. y^nigma is a sort of obscure allegory, or an ingenious riddle

335

as, Die guibus in ieiris, et eris vtihi magnus Apollo, Tres pateat
cceli spatium non amplius ulnas — Virg.

EIGURES LYING IN THE LANGUAGE.

1. Antanadasis Is the use of the same word in different senses:
as, Qiiis nes^et ^juece natum de stirpe Ncronem ? Sustulit hie ma-
trem, sustulit ille patrem — Epigr. The hitter took off (that is
killed) liis mother; the former t^ok off (affectionately removed
from danger) his father. Let the dead hiirsj iheir dead — Matt. viii.
22. i. e. them that are dead in sin, bury those that are vatundly
dead, or lifeless.

2. Ploce is the repetition of a proper name, or of another noun,
in a way in which the quality of the subject is denoted: as, His
•wife is a 'wife indeed. Ex illo Corijdon, Corydon est tempore no-
bis— Virg,

3. Anaphora begins different sentences, or clauses of the same
sentence, with the same word : as, He pines, he sickens, he de-
spairs, he dies— Add. Cato, Te, dtdris confix, Te, solo in littore
secum ; Te, vcniente die, Te, decedente, canebat — Virg.

4. Epistrophe is a repetition of the same word, at the end of
different sentences or clauses : as, Are they Hebrews? so am I.
Are they Israelites? so am /— 2 Cor. xi, 22. Namque ego, crede
mihi, si te quoque pontus haberet ; Te seqnerer, conjux, et me quo-
que pontiis haberet — Ovid. It is sometimes called Epiphora.

5. Symploce is a complication of the two last, beginning the
several clauses with one word, and ending them with another : as,
Quis legem tulit ? Rullus : Quis major-em popidi partern sirffrogiis

privavit'? Rullus: Quis cornitiis pnvfttit? Idem Rullus — Cic.

6. Epanalepsis begins and ends a sentence with the same word:
as, Rejoice in the Lord alway, and again I say, rejoice — Phil. iv. 4.
Multa super Priamo 7'ogitans, super Hectore multa — Virg.

7. Anadiplosis ends one clause, and begins another, with the
same words : as, For whether xvie live, tve live unto the Lord ; and
whether we die, we die unto the Lord— Rom. xiv. 8. Quamdiit
quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vives : et vives, ita ut nunc
vivis — Cic, Hie tamen vivit : Vivit? imo vero etiam in senaium
venit — Cic.

8. Epanados repeats in an inverted order the same words, in a
second clause: as, Crudelis mater rnagis, an puer improbus die'?
Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque, mater— Virg.

9. Epizeuxis repeats the same word, for the sake of emphasis:
as. Ah Corydon, Corydon, quce ie dementia cepit — Virg. Exciiate,
excitate eum, si potestis, ab infris — Cic.

10. Climax is an amplification by steps, in wliich each part of a
sentence, arising above the former, begins with the conclusion of
the former, and in this respect it is a continued Anadiplosis : as,
QucB reliqua spes manet libertatis, si illis et quod libet, licet ; et
quod licet, possunt ; et quod possunt, undent ; et quod audent, vo-

336

iis mole.duni non est — Cic. When the sense advances without k
strict cHraax, it is called Increnientmn ; when the sense is gradu-
ally heightened, it is called Anabasis; and when it falls or de-
creases, Catabasls.

1 1 . Poli/ptoton uses the same word in different cases : as, Jam
dypeus clypeis, umbone repeUitur umbo ; ease minax ensis, pcdepes,
et cuspide cuspis — Stat. The same kind of figure may be applied
to genders and tenses.

12. Paregmenon uses several words of the same origin, in one
sentence : as, Abesse no7i potest, quln ejusdem hominis sit, qui im-
probos probet, probos improbare — Cic.

13. Paronomasia plays upon the sound of words: as, Who
dares greatly, dies greatly. Amor et melle etjelle estfcecundissi-
mus — Plaut. Tibi parata erimt verba, hide verbera — Ter.

14. Homoiote/euton ends several clauses, with the same sound:
as, CcBsar, dando, sublevando, ignoscendo, gloriam adeptus est—

15 Parachesis, or Alliteration, uses letters or syllables of the
same sound : as, Neu patrice validas in viscera vertite vires — Virg.
The various kinds of alliteration will be noticed under the remarks
on the Hexameter verse.

FIGURES LYING IN THE SENTIMENT.

1. For Proof.

1. JEliologia assigns a reason for a proposition previously ex-
pressed : as, Sperne voluptates : nocet empta dolore voluptas — Hor.

2. Inversion, or the turning of an argument, is when an orator
makes that for his own advantage which was alleged against him:
as, Atfratres meos, inquit, quod erant conscii, in vincula cnnjecit :
cum, igitur, eos vinciret, quos secum habebat ; te solutmn Romam
mittebat, qui eadem scires quoe illos scire dicis — Cic.

3. Prolepsis anticipates objections : as : Verilm anceps pugnce
fuerat fortuna : fuissct : Quern, metui moritura? — Virg. The ob-
jection is called HypopJiora. The answer is called Anthypophora:
and if the objection is turned against the adversary, it is named,
as in the last, Inversion or Aniistrophe.

4. Epitrope, or Concession, concedes a point to an adversary,
in order to confute him more effectually : as, Sint sane, quoniam
ita se snores habent, liberales ex sociorum fortunis ; sint miscricordes
infuribus cerarii : — ne illi sanguinem nostrurn largiantur — Sail.

5. Mimesis refutes an adversary by repeating his own arguments,
with a sneer, as unworthy of a serious answer : as, Nunc augur
Apollo, nunc Lycice sories, nunc et Jove missus ab ipso Interjnes
Diviwijert horridajussa per auras — Virg.

2. For Expla7iatio7i.
] . Paradiastole, or Contra-distinclion, explains more forcibly

337

by comparing opposites : as, Non sapiens, sed aatutus. Non for-
mosus ernl, sed erat facundus Ulysses — Ovid.

2. Antimelabole or Anlimetathesis is a kind oi Epanados, repeat-
ing opposites in an inverted order : as, Pol-ma est pictura loquejis,
mutum pictura poema. — Vide Hor. Art. Poet. 361.

3. Anlithesii places contraries in opposition to each other : as,
Flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta viovebo — Virg. Hujus oratio-
fiis dijficilius est exilum quam principium invenire — Cic.

4. Oxymoron is a seeming contradiction, uniting contraries toge-
ther: as, Concordia discors — Hor. Cum tacent, clamant — Cic.
She is dead, while she liveth — 1 Tim. v. 6.

3. Hypotyposis gives a lively image or description : as, Ohstu-
pui, steteruntque comce, el vox faucibus hcesit — Virg.

6. Diah/ton, or Asyndeton, omits conjunctions: as, Ferle citi
Jlammas.) date vela, impellite remos — Virg. The want of the con-
junction denotes celerity of action. See Ellipsis.

7. Polysyndeton is the reverse of the last, being the use of many
conjunctions: as, Somnus, enim, et vinum, et epul(B, et scorta, bah
neaque, corpora atque animos enervarunt—lAw. See Pleonasm.

8. Gnome is a general sentiment properly introduced : as, Im-
lellium est, verbis nun armis, bellum gerere.

9. Noema is an elegant application of such a sentiment to a par-
ticular purpose : as, Athenienses quidem Uteris verbisque bellum ad-
versus Philippum gerebant — Liv.

10. Epithelon, or Epithet, is an adjective joined elegantly to a
substantive, for the purpose of expressing some peculiar circum-
stance : as, Arma diu senior desueta Iremenlibus cevo Circumdat ne-
quicquam humeris et inutile Jerrurn Cingitur — Virg.

3. For AmpIificatio7i.

1. Incremenlum is an amplification without a strict climax, rising
or decreasing in terms of increasing energy : as, Facinus est vincire
civem Romanum ; scelus verberare ; prope parricidium necare -, quid
dicam in crucem tollere? — Cic.

2. Synonymia uses different words, or forms of expression,
having the same import : as. Quern si fata virum servant, si vesci-
tur aura JElherea, neqiie adhuc crudclibus occubat umbris-'—'Virg.
for if he liveth.

3. Paralipsis pretends to omit a charge, in order, thereby, to
render it more observed ; as, Nonne etiam alio incredilnli scelere
hoc scelus cumuldsti P quod ego prcetermitto et facile potior sileri j
ne in hac civitate tanti facinoris immanitas aut exlitisse aut non viri'
dicata esse videatur — Cic.

4. Periphrasis uses many words in description, where fewer
would be sufficient, often expressing an object by circumstances;
as, Fabricator mundi, for Deus. I must put off this tabernacle-^
2 Pet. i. 14. that is, / must die. Et jam summa procul villarum
culminafumant, Majoresque cadunt altis de moniibut umbrce~-YiTg.
for it is near sumet.

z

338

5. Paradigma draws a comparison from some historical exam-
ple : as, Saxa et solitudines voci respondent ; bestice scepe immanes
cantujiectuntur atque consisiunl : nos inslituti rebus optimis non poe-
tarum voce moveamur ? — Cic.

6. Parabola, or Simile, enforces an argument by a judicious
comparison : as, Repente enim te, tanquam serpens e latibulis, oculis
eminentibus, inflato collo, tumidis cervicibus, intulisti — Cic.

7. Merismus, or Epimerismus, instead of mentioning the whole,
enumerates the parts ; as, Senatus odii te; videre te equites Roma-
ni non possunt j plebs Romana perditum cupit : Italia cuncta exse-
cratur — Cic.

8. Diaphora illustrates by comparing or contrasting things un-
like : as, Dissimilis est pecuniae debitio et gratia: : nam qui pecu-
niavi dissolvit, statim non habet id, quod reddidit ; qui autem debet,
is retinet alienum : gratiam autem et qui refert, habet; et qui habet,
in eo ipso quod habet, refert — Cic.

4. Pathetic Figures.

1. Erotesis, or Interrogation, asks a question in an earnest or
urgent manner : as, Creditis avectos hosles 9 aut ulla putatis Dona
carer e dolis Dannum ? sic not us Ulysses ? — Virg.

2. Ecphonesis, or Exclamation, shows some violent transport of
the mind : as. My God ! My God ! why hast thou forsaken me ? —
Matth. xxvii. 46. O tempora I O mores !

3. Epanorthosis, or Correction, recalls a word, in order to place
a stronger or more significant one in its stead : as, Filium unicum
adolescentulum habeo : ah! quid dixi? vie habere? Into habui —
Ter.

4. Aposiopesis, or Suppression, leaves the sentence unfinished,
through some violent agitation of mind : as, Quos ego — sed prce-
stat motos componere fiuctus — Virg.

5. Epiphonema, or Acclamation, is a grave reflection on some-
thing said before : as, Tantcene animis coelestibu sirce ? — Virg. Tan-
turn Relligio potuit suadcre malorum ! — Lucret.

6. Anacocnosis, or Communication, is, when, relying on the ex-
pediency or merits of the cause, a forcible appeal is made to the
adversary's own conscience : as, Si vos in eo loco essetis, quid aliud
fecissetis — Cic.

7. Aporia doubts what is to be said or done : as, Quos accedam,
aut quos appellem ? Nationesne an reges — Sail. Revocat; redeam ?
non, si me obsecret— Ter. When a Figure thus objects and an-
swers, it is said to be in Dialogismo j otherwise in Logismo. Apo-
ria is sometimes named Diaporem.

8. Apostrophe, or Aversio, is, when, to excite strong attention,
the narrative is interrupted by an appeal suddenly made to some
person or thing : as, Fi potitur : Quid non mortalia cogis, Auri sa-
cra fames — Virg.

9. Prosopopoeia, or Personification, represents inanimate objects
as living and speaking. Thus Ovid introduces the Earth saying to

I

339

Jupiter, Hosae viihi fructus, hunc fertilUatis honorem, Officiujue
refers, &:c. According to this figure, an absent person may be
introduced speaking, or one who is dead, as if he were alive and
present. This and the preceding figure are sometimes conjoined :
as^ Trojaque nunc stares ; Priamique arx alta maneres — Virg.

Other Jigiires, less common, and of inferior note., might he enu-
merated : instead of tvhich a few general remarks shall be
added, on the beauties and blemishes of style.

1. Purity of style is violated chiefly by a Barbarism or a Sole-
cism. Barbarism is the use of a word not Latin ; as stavi instead
o^ steti, the preterite o^ sto. Solecism is a construction contrary
to the rules of syntax ; as, Acuta gladius : Faveo te : Scriho cum
calamo. It is further violated by Archaism, Neoterism, and Idi-
otism. Archaism is the use of obsolete words or constructions; and
has been already noticed. Neoterism is the use of words or phrases
not used by authors living in the best ages of Latinity ; as brevia-
rium instead of summarium ; usualis for solilus or vulgaris : Ple-
num vino: Adulari alicui; — instead of which the best writers used
Plenum vini : Adulari aliquem. Idiotism is the use of words or
phrases not purely Latin, but conformable to the usage or idioms
of other languages.

2. Perspicuity of language requires that it should be clear and
intelligible, and free from ambiguity and amphibology in words
and construction ; such as HeriJiUus ad me venit. — Aio le, JEaci'
da, Romanos vincere posse.

3. Equality of language consists in using neither viore nov fewer
words than the subject requires. When the same thing is repeat-
ed in different words, this error is called Tautology : as, Ipse egomet
venio. Where a superfluous addition is made, it is called Perisso-
logy : as, Ibant qua poterant ; qua non poterant non ibant. Tapi-
nosis is saying less than the subject requires : as, Saxea verrucca in
summo montis vertice.

4. Propriety uses suitable words. This is violated by Acyrolo-
gia or Catachresis i as sperare for timere, in Juvenal, Jam quar-
tanam speranlibus cegris. Fir gregis ipse caper — Virg. vir being
applicable only to the human species.

5. Harmony consists in the use of such letters and syllables as
are grateful to the ear. This is destroyed by Cacophaton or the dis-
agreeable position or repetition of letters ; as conlaudo for collaudo.
Sola mihi tales casus Cassandra canebat — Virg. in which ca is thrice
repeated; and hy Cacosynlheton, or a bad arrangement of the words:
as, Versdque juvencum Terga fatigamus hastd — Virg.

6. Simplicity consists in the avoiding of affectation. It is op-
posed by Cacozelia^ or an excessive desire of elegance ; as in Au-
reus axis crat, temo aureus, aurea sunimce Curvatura rotce, radio-
rum argent eus or do— Ovid.

Z2

34-0

OF PROSODY.

Prosody is defined to be that part of Grammar, which
treats of the quantity of Syllables ' ; of their tone or accent ;
and of Versification.

THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES.

By the quantity of a syllable is meant, the duration or
continuance of the voice, in pronouncing it.

A syllable is either short, long, or common.

A short syllable is sounded rapidly, like the a in the En-
glish word orator, or the e in the Latin word legere ; and
is thus marked, orator, legcrc.

A long syllable is pronounced slowly, and occupies twice
the time used in pronouncing a short one, as in the a of the
English word mediator, or of the Latin word orator ,• and
is thus marked, mediator, orator.

A common or doubtful syllable may be made long or
short, at the option of the poet, as in the first syllable of
j)atrcs, or the middle syllable of tencbrce and volucris, which
are pronounced either patres or ]mtres; tenchrcE or tenchra;
volucris or volucris : and M^hen they are marked as common

' The quantity of syllables merits the chief attention. The ac-
cents are little attended to, being now used chiefly in a way, in
which they denote the distinction of words, or the difference of
quantities, rather than variation of tone ; but the common rules
for placing them will hereafter be given. The question has been
much agitated lately, whether Latin poetry should be read chiefly
according to quantity, or accent j and it is as yet very far from
being determined. Some, however, seem in favour of reading
by quantity ; while others, perhaps not without reason, incline
to the opinion, that quantity may be observed, without the utter
neglect of accents, the observance of which, they contend, pro-
duced, both in the Greek and Roman languages, the same me-
trical effect as those prominent syllables (which are commonly
called accented) do in the English language, and in other mo-
dern languages. But, as Quintillian observes of accents, Exem-
pla eorurn tradi scripto non possunt.

341

or doubtful, it is done by a conjunction of the two preceding
marks, thus — patres, tembrce, volucris. In prose, however,
these are short.

The quantity of a syllable is either natural, that is, depen-
dent on the intrinsic nature of the vowel itself, as the re of
resisto, in -which the e is short by nature ; or accidental, as
the r-e in restiti, which becomes long, because it happens to
be followed by two consonants.

The quantity of syllables is determined by certain esta-
blished rules, or, when they fail, by the authority of the poets.

Rules are either General, that is, applicable to all syllables,
whether first, middle, or last; or Special, that is, applicable
to particular syllables.

GENERAL RULES.

RULE I.

A VOWEL BEFORE A VOWEL.

A vowel before another (or, which is the same thing,
before an h followed by a vowel, or before a diphthong) in
words of Latin origin, is short : as, puer, nihil^ egregice.
O Meliboee, deus nobis hasc ofia fecit — Virg.
De 7uhilo nViil, in mhilum nil posse reverti — Pers,
Ipse etiam cxinuce laudis succensus amore — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. The i o^Jio is long, when it is not followed by e and
r;iisfiunt^J"iebaiit^.

Omn\'A]ixn\f lent, fieri quae posse negabam — Ovid.

2. The e of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension,
when it comes between double /, is long ; as faciei. .

Ventum erat ad Vestaj quarta jam jiarte diei — Hor.
It is sometimes found long, when not preceded by i; as
Ipsius rei rationem reddere possis — Lucret.
Ille vir hand magna cum re, sed \Ae\m\fidei — Ennius.
These cases were probably written either e~i or ei - i -,
lience the different quantities.

1 In some lines it is long, when, by tlic general rule, it should
be short ; Injnrium est, nam si essct, uncle xAfic.ret,

Factremus. Ter.

342

3. The i is common in genitives in ius ; but the i of ul~
terius is always short, of alius always long *.

Umus ob noxam, et furias Ajacis, Oilei — Virg.
Navibus (infandum !) amissis, unius ob iram — Virg.
4-. The penultimate (or last sj^lable but one) is long in,
mirai^ aula'i^ terrain and other old genitives of the first de-
clension ; and the a ox e before i is long in proper names in
aiu$ or e'ius^ as Cams^ Pornpchis (probably written originally
with a double ?'), as also in Grains^ Veins, &c.

^thereum sensum, atque aurdi simplicis ignem — Virg.
Accipe, Pompei, deductum carmen ab illo — Ovid.
Per vigil in pluma Cains, ecce, jacet — Mart.
5. Ah', Dius, eheu, and, in general, lo, a proper name,
have the first syllable long. Ohc and the mterjection io
have their first common.

Proximus est acr illi levitate, locoque — Ovid.

si Candida jusserit io — Juv.

Ohc ! jam satis est, ohe, libelle — Mart.

Quae tibi causa fugae? quid, Io, freta longa pererras? —
Ovid.

For Greek words it is impossible to give a certain rule. In
many the first vowel is short; as in Danae, idea, sopMa,
Simois, Hjjades, prosodm, symplionia. In many it is long ;
as in Lycdon, Spcrchius, Achelous, Enijo.

1. V/ords ending in ais, cis, and ois, generally lengthen
the first vowel, as Ndis, Briseis, Minois ; in aius, cius, and
oius, as Grdius, Cdius, 'Nere.ius, Pompeius, Minoiiis, Troius ;
in aon and ion, as Machdon, Ixion ; the compounds of Aaoc,

as Ldodice, Ldertes, Arclieldus. But Thebdis, Phaon, Aon,
'Deucalion, Pygmalion, and many others, shorten the former
vowel. In Ner-eis, Ono7i and Geryon it is said to be com-
mon; but 0ri07i is long, although, in Greek, sometimes short.
Gerijoyi is short.

Troius ^Eneas Libycis ereptus ab midis — Virg.

2. Greek genitives in cos, and accusatives in ca, from
nominatives in eus, generally shorten the e ; as, Orj)//eos,
Orphea, but these may be lengthened by the Ionic dialect,
thus Orphcos, Orphea, Ilionea.

' Solius, alterutrius, and neutrius are said to be generally long
in approved authors. For alJits, see R. IV. There is a sufficient
reason for the long quantity of alius, but 1 know of none for the
constant short quantity of alteriiis. It occurs long in Tcrent,
Maurus, and Ennius, and is probably common, like the others.
But alicrlHS would be inadmissible in a dactylic verse.

3*3

Hiojiea petit dextra Virg.

Idomeiica ducem Virg,

3. Those words which, in the Greek language, are writ-
ten with y] or w, are long ; as Deiphobus, Deianira, Troes,
heru'icus, &c. Eos and eous have their first common, be-
cause written either with jj or e ; and are generally long at
the beginning of a line, and short at the end.

Deiphobum vidit iacerum crudeliter ora — Virg.

Portus ab coo fluctu Virg. - gentes aperi-

mus eoas — Lucan.

4. Those words which, in Greek, are written with ei be-
fore a vowel, and in Latin with e or z, have the e or i long;
as, ^neas, Cassiopca, Cytliarea^ Centaurea, Penelopeuy Ga-
latea, Laodicea., Medm, Mausoleum. Also, Basillus, Darius,
Clio, Eleg'ia, litanla, politia, &c. Choy^a, platea, Malea,
canopeum, Duma, and perhaps acadenua, are common.

At pater jEtieas casu concussus acerbo — Virg.

Non mihi smit visae Clio, Cllusve sorores — Ovid.
= duxere choreas — Ovid.

Pars pedibus plaudunt choreas Virg.

There are no rules for the quantities of foreign or barba-
rous words introduced into the Latin language. Prudentius
lengthens the first a in Baal, Sedulius shortens it. Sido-
nius lengthens the penultimate of Abraham, Arator short-
ens it. The a in ael of Israel, Michael, Raphael, is some-
times long and sometimes short.

RULE II.

A VOWEL BEFORE TWO CONSONANTS.

A vowel before two consonants, one or both of which are
in the same word with it, or before any of the double con-
sonants j^, X, z, being likewise in the same word with the
vowel, is long by position ; as drma, Errahdt silva in mdg-
na ; axis, patrlzo ; cUjus.

' In reality, in such cases, ; is a vowel, and, with the preceding
vowel, constitutes a diphthong ; thus vmt-orilms. In the same
manner, arises the quantity of such words as ejus andptjus, which,
according to Priseian, the antients wrote eiiiis and pciiiis ; thus
ei-iis, pei-us, one of the is being elided, or supposed to be elided,
in the pronunciation. In rcjicio, too, the c is coiisidered long, the jf
vuiiting with it, so as to form a diphthong, rei - icio. When /
stands at the beginning of a word, it has no power of lengthening
a short final vowel. Even in jurrJHranilo, the e is short, this bchig
in fact two distinct words. (See the following note.)

344

Pdsccrc ojmrtct oves, dcductum dicere carmen — Virg.
Nee inijytfis vincet corylos, ncc, laurea Phocbi — Virg.
Indomitique Dahas, et pontem indignatus Araxes — Virg.
Nobilibus gazis^ opibusque cubilia surgant — CI.
Nate dea, nam te mdjorikis ire per altum — Virg.
Utjiigulent homines, surgunt de nocte latrones — Hor.

Exceptions.

1. The compounds of J/^^^m have the / short before j ,-
as bljiigus, quaclnjugus \
. Martis equi bynges, et magni currus Achillis — Virg.
Quadfijugo vehitur curru, cui tempora circum— -Virg.

Annotations.

\. If die former word ends in a short vowe], the next
word bcgimiing with two consonants, or a double conso-
nant {x or z), the vowel often remains short.

Tu poteras virides pennis hehetart smaragdos — Ovid.

Jam medio apparet fluctu nemorosa^ Zaci/nthus — Virg.

' These words were formerly written biiugus and quadriiugns,
tlie j being the same as /, whence also ajo, and, as Cicero is re-
ported to liave written it, ai/o, instead of oio ; and one of die is
being elided, or supposed to be elided, for the sake of the sound,
there remains btiigiis ; or the ; being sounded, as it is by the Ger-
mans and other adjacent nations, like our y before a vowel in the
same syllable, the word becomes bi-yiigus, in the same way as,
in English, opi-ni-on becomes opin-yon. The Spaniards write,
7)iayor, for major, greater; and in English we have also mayor
from major ; they likewise write yugo for ji/giaji, a yoke ; but the
y they pronounce in a way peculiar to themselves.

- The rule has been controverted, in cases where any of the
following consonantal combinations in the beginning of a word
follows a short vowel, namely, sc, sp, sq, or st. Numerous exam-
ples, however, occur, in whicli the final short vowel before these
combinations continues short: thus, in Yiovace, prcemiii scrihce ;
mala stidtiticB ; mihz Stertinius ; velatumque stola ; sfepe sty/urn
vcrtas ; in Ovid, curvamim spincc ; considere scnmnis ; olcntia
stagna ; tiia stat ; inamabile stridet, &c. But it is observed that
niany of these examples are removed by better readings given
in MSS. and editions; and that the doctrine of syllables remain-
ing short before s, and another consonant, is not confirmed by
unquestionable authority. The line

Poiutc: spes sibi quisque; sed haec, quam angusta, videtis—
.^n. xi. ^-^09.
is rejected by the ablest writers, as an interpolation. Virgil,
however, who has adopted such licenses as Jidtus Hyacintlto ;
an qui aniant, que enclitic, has lengthened the short syllable but
in one line.

345

Of A VOM'EL BEFOKE A MUTE AND A LIQUID.

2. A vowel naturally short, followed by a mute and a 11-

Ferte citi ferrum, date tela, scandite muros.
Many of tliose short vowels which are found long before two
consonants beginning the following word, are lengthened by Cae-
sura ; as in

Occul-ta spolia, et plures de pace triumphos — Juv.
It is, however, the opinion of several respectable critics, that,
if the two consonants be at the beginning of the following word,
the preceding vowel is long : although the poets have freciuently
neglected the rule. In the writings of the antients, instances of
violation are comparatively rare, although it must be allowed
that the balance of actual practice seems against the rule ; while
in modern poetry, the syllable is generally found short. Mr,
Burgess, in his edition of Dawes's^ Miscellanea Crit/cn, has laid
down the rule, " Quotiescumque ultima, quaj brevis sit, vocabuli
prajcedentis, partem ejusdem cum .sf, sp,sc, &c. pedis constituat,
toties earn esselongara, nisi in scriptis comicis iisiuie qua?sermoni
propiora sunt." Hence, we may infer that, if the preceding
short syllable terminate a foot, it may remain short; and if it
do not terminate a foot, it becomes long, except in scriptis cO'
viicis &c. This is, perhaps, generally correct ; it must, however,
be observed, that Horace, Ennius, and Propertius, furnish ex-
amples in which the vowel remains short, although it does not
terminate a foot ; a circumstance which tends to sanction the
opinion of those who are inclined to think, that the initial s and
a consonant have the same povver over a preceding short vowel,
as a mute and a liquid have over a preceding short vowel in the
body of a word, that is, that they render it common. It is very
evident, from a collection of the examples involving the colloca-
tion in question, (see Nos. 1 and '2 of the Classical Journal,)
that even among the antient poets, as Lucretius, Propertius,
Plorace, Ovid, Seneca, kc, the vowel is oftener found short
than long. That, however, in many of those instances, the
sound of the s was suppressed, is very probable ; indeed, in a
line from Lucretius, terminating with miscere smaragclos, some
MSS. have tnaragdos. Reasoning from analogy , and the authorit}'
of those poets, who, unless in their sermoni propiora, have but sel-
dom or never introd uced the final short syllable before s and another
consonant, it is thought that there are good grounds for consi-
dering a vowel to be long before the two consonants, whether in
the same word, or in the next; although, in the composition of
verses, it may, perhaps, be expedient, considering the diversity
of opinion on this disputable point, to avoid the latter colloca-
tion altogether. Lucretius, who shortens the vowel, it is said, was
perhaps compelled, by the nature of his subject, to take the utmost
liberty he could at all dcifend, and was afterwards followed by
Horace in the sermoni propiora. Hut, in the Odes, we see no-
thing of the kind, nor is the practice in the least degree sane-

346

quid, both in the following syllable, is common ; as
a-gris, phare-tra.

Et prime similis volucrt, mox vera volucris — Ovid.

tioned by Catullus or Virgil. These are the three greatest au-
thorities in Roman verse. Propertius is, perhaps, of inferior au-
thority. Tibullus shortens the vowel, only before sm, in smarag'
dos, in which probably the s was dropt in writing or in pronun-
ciation. Virgil has not admitted the short vowel in his Georgics.
In the ^neid, it occurs but once (Poriite: spes sibi quisque), in
a line which has been deemed corrupt. Horrida squamosi in his
Culex, (if indeed he was its author,) and nisi Scylla in his Cirisy
two early attempts, have not much weight. Catullus, in but one
solitary instance, unda Scamandri, has violated the law, by fol-
lowing Homer. The name, however, is written Kafj^av^pos in
ancient Greek MSS. Several instances occur in Ovid, of the
short vowel ; but it may be observed, that some of them admit,
and have received, different readings. It is worthy of remark,
too, that in compound words, sc, sp, st, have the power of length-
ening a preceding short vowel ; as rescindof respiio, restinguo.
We shall only add, that neither the letter s, nor the liquid m,
seems to have been considered, by the Roman poets, so firm and
indissoluble a consonant as the rest. The former was frequently
elided by the earher poets, not only, before a vowel, but even be-
fore a consonant. The syllable that terminates with the latter,
almost always falls before a vowel. Although, in Greek, exam-
ples of final short vowels lengthened before ^ and ^ are numerous,
it is difficult to find an unquestionable example, in Latin, of such
a circumstance ; but x and z may have possessed such a power.
Where a short vowel occurs before these letters, the sound may
have been softened, or they may have been pronounced like
d: thus, Danthus for Xanthiis ; DacyntJins i'ov Xaci/nthus. The
rule for lengthening the final short vowel before s and another
consonant, is rigidly enforced in some of our public schools,
and in others totally disregarded. Little or no attention, I be-
lieve, is paid to it at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge ;
nor has it been observed by the modern poets of England, Hol-
land, Germany, or Italy. And if we consider the i'ew examples
in which we find the syllable short in antient poetry, compared
with those of modern occurrence, and the still smaller number in
which it is lengthened, there seems reiison to conclude, that the
antients, in general, studiously avoided the collocation, Virgil,
it is observed, does not, like Horace, employ the word sce/cstus,
but scelcratus ; which, it has been thought, he would have done,
if he would not have been compelled to place a short syllable be-
fore it: but a different reason might be assigned. In conclusion,
we would observe, that, influenced solely by the unquestionable
preponderance of instances in which the vowel occurs short, even
afcer all the disputed lines are excluded, and taking into considera-
tion, that the practice is sanctioned by almost all the best mo-

34-7

Natum ante ora patris, jmtrem qui obtriincat ad aras —

Virg.
Et vos agrestum prtesentia numina Fauni — Virg.*

inter ugrcstia regem — Virg.

dern poets, we might be justified in considering the vowel before
st &c. as generally short. Reasoning, however, chielly from the
delay naturally produced by two such unyielding consonants,
if bpth are distinctly sounded, and relying on the confirma-
tory authority of the few undisputed examples in which the
vowel occurs long, we might be inclined to deem a vowel, so si-
tuated, long, and combining the two preceding conclusions,
the general inference would be, that, as the vowel is found some-
times short, and sometimes long, it should be regarded as com-
mon. But judging from the comparatively rare and limited oc-
currence of the collocation in question, in the writings of the
antient poets, I have little hesitation to say, that it sliould be
avoided, if not altogether, yet as much as possible. Many in-
teresting observations on the subject of this Note, and, it needs
scarcely be added, on every subject connected with classical lite-
rature, may be found in the Classical Journal. See also some
ingenious remarks on this question, in Dr. Carey's valuable trea-
tise on Latin Prosody.

' It is, however, short in prose. To produce this kind of po-
sition, which is reckoned weak [dcbilis), and is not to be used
without some limitation, three things arc necessary. 1. That
the mute precede the liquid. 2. That the mute and the liquid
be both in the following syllable ; or otherwise, this rule cannot
take place ; as in ah-luo, ob-ruo, in which the a and o, short by
nature, are made long by the usual rule of position, and cannot
be made short. 3. That the vowel preceding the mute and liquid
be short by nature ; for, if it is long, it cannot be made short.
Hence the a in acris, and matris, is ahvays long, because the a in
acer, and nnder, is long. In like manner, the penultimate of sa-
iTibris, and ambulacrum, is always long, because they are derived
from salus, salufis ; and ambulatum, both long.

L and r are the only liquids found in Latin words preceded by
a vowel and a mute. L, r, and also m, n, have the same force in
Greek words, when the preceding vowel is naturally short; as
Cyclopes, pharetr a, Te-cmessa, Da-phne.

Pars laeves humero pharetras, it pcctore summo — Virg.

Virginibus Tyriis mos est gestare pharctram — Virg.

Et baccis redimita daphne, tremulajque cupressus — Pet,

Primus amor Phoebi Daphne Peneia, quem non — Ovid.
Martial has imitated the Greeks in shortening a syllable before ^'"/^,
Sardonychas, smaragdos, adamantas, iaspidas uno.

This rule, as has been already mentioned, is to be followed
with some degree of limitation. Vossius has observed, that he
would not be inclinixl to lengthen the penultimate of gciiilrijc.

548
RULE III.

OF DIPHTHONGS.

A diphthong is long in Latin and Greek words : as,
mirum, fcemis^ Apneas, Euboca, Harpyia '.

And it may be seen, from some of the examples which have been
given, that words of three syllables, as volucris, pharetra, tenebrce,
having the first short, and the middle deemed common, never
have their penultimate long but at the end of a line.— — It may
likewise.be observed, that words of three syllables, as ngrestes,
Cyclopes, Sec, having the first common, and the second long, sel-
dom have the first short but at the end of a line ; thus, misera-

tus acrrestes — Virg. Such words as tonitnia, tonitribus, and

ludibria, have the antepenultimate long in the latter part of a
line ; as tonitnin mentes — Ovid, lad'ibria ventis — Virg, Indeed,
the two first could not be admitted into any part of a heroic line
without a long antepenult, and in them the emphasis also tends
to strengthen the doubtful syllable. Ovid and Virgil generally
make the first syllable of lacri/mn short ; Horace, common. Lit-
giibris is generally long, but is made short by Horace at the end
of a lyric verse. Ludicra has generally the penult short. Patris
and some others may perhaps be varied in any part of a line.
Catullus sometimes lengthens u finalshort syllable followed by a
mute and a liquid ; but this is a liberty very rarely used, without
the influence of the Caesura.

These is nothing arbitrary in the principle which regulates the
quantity of a short vowel before a mute and a liquid. When the
liquid precedes the mute, it requires a distinct, full sound, and
thus, the syllable is rendered long; asjeri. When, too, the
mute precedes the liquid, and they are in different syllables, the
liquid acquires, from this circumstance, a more marked, distinct
pronunciation, so as to render the preceding vowel long ; as sub-
ruo. But when, as in the terms of the rule, the mute precedes
the liquid in the same syllable, the latter glides or trills so rapidly
in the pronunciation, that a preceding vowel, short by nature,
although it may be rendered somewhat longer than a short one,
still remains rather shorter than a long one. As, therefore, its
length, comparatively considered, seems to be equally remote
from a short and a long quantity, it may in poetry be referred to
either ; in other words, be deemed common. When the vowel
was lengthened, probably the two consonants were sounded in
different syllables; as pat ris, instead of;w-/m.— It should be re-
marked, that the letter/, though commonly accounted a semi-
vowel, has, when followed by a liquid, the same influence as a
mute, upon a preceding short syllable ; that is, the syllable most
commonly remains short, Vossius and Alvarus seem inclined
to consider it as a mute.
. > But u and a vowel following q, are not to be considered as a

349

T/iesauros, ignotum argenti pondus et anri — VIrg.
Infernique lacus, JEceaque insula Circes — Virg.
Miratur molem JEneas, niagalia quondam — Virg.
Euridicenque suam jam tuto respicit Orpheus — Ovid.
Et patrio insontes Harpyias pellere regno — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. Pra in composition is short before a vowel; us p)rdc-
usfus, ptreeunte, prccacutus '.

Stipitibus duris agitur, sudibusve prmistis — Virg.
Nee tota tamen ille prior prcceunte carina — Virg.

2. A diphthong is once short in a line of Virgil, out of
composition : thus,

Insult lonio in magno, quas dira Cela?no.

diphthong falling within the rule ; for in such combinations, the
latter vowel, if short, remains so ; as qtiater, qitcror, qulbus, qtio-
tiis, equus, dissyllables. Some have supposed that the 7c follow-
ing y is a liquid consonant; others, with more truth, that it be-
comes a mute vowel, or is a liquid vowel, which glides so rapidly
into the sound of the following vowel, as scarcely to be percepti-
ble in the pronunciation ; and that it does not form a diphthong
with the following vowel, because it has little or no force as a
letter in verse. Amittit vim Uteres in metro, says Priscian ; which
made Donatus believe, that, strictly speaking, it is neither vowel
nor consonant. After »• and s, it seems also to be generally liquid
or evanescent, as in unguis, sanguis, lingua, suetus, suaclei, dissyl-
lables. Sometimes it retains its full force, as in exigiius, situs. It
has even been omitted in some words, as in stingo for stinguo ;
ungo for unguo ; cum for quum, qu having, probably, been for-
merly sounded, in some instances at least, like the letter k, as in
the French language.

' This is inaccurately expressed in the short sketch of Prosody
in the Eton Grammar ; and from it, the inaccui*acy has been co-
pied into many other grammars. " Omnis diphthongus longa est,
nisi sequente vocali," should be nisi prze, sequente vocali. For as
the rule now stands, a solitary exception is made the basis of a
general exception to one of the most general rules of prosody.—
The diphthong m prcB is, however, long in

Praemia cum vacuus diommo praiiret Arion — Stat. Theb, 6.
The ce in prce is supposed to have become short, from an elision
of one of the component vowels ; or it may have arisen from the
same cause through which the diphthong in Mceotis, and in one
or two other words, is deemed common, viz, from the corruption,
in sound, of ce {ae or at) and ce {oe or oi) originally proper di-
phthongs, into^; owing to which circumstance tiiey are now
termed improper.

350

This seems to be in imitation of the Greeks, who, gene-
rally, shorten a diphthong, or a long vowel at the end of a
word, the following beginning with a vowel.

RULE IV.

OF CRASIS, OK CONTRACTION.

Every syllable formed by the contraction of two syllables
into one, is long ; as cds.o for coano. the genitive alius for
aliius .

Tityre edge pecus, tu post carecta latebas — Virg.

Obscurse sortis patres ainhdgibus errant — Ovid.

SPECIAL RULES.

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE, AND OF MIDDLE

SYLLABLES.

RULE L

OF DERIVATIVES.

Derivatives, and words formed from other words, have
the same quantity as the words whence they come : thus
atnicus, pdvidus, avittis, from dmo, ^^awo, avtis ; mdtetmuSi

' This is a rule of very extensive application, as well in prose
as in poetry. We are told that the antients expressed a long
syllable, by two vowels; thn&vtenity for venit, the preterite; and
it will be found, that, in many words, the long syllable arises
from the contraction of two vowels. Thus, we write tihicen in-
stead of tihiicen ; ambages for amheages ; nonus for novenus ; hi'
gee, trigce, &c., for Injiigce, trijugce ; junior for juvcnior ; bobiis
for bovibus ; it for ut ; and sometimes veniens for vchcmens ; ml
for mihi^, &c. ; and in joining words, as malo for magis nolo. But
some final syllables, probably contracted at an early pei'iod, re-
main short ; such as sit from siet, amat from amatt. Perhaps,
however, in such instances, instead of contraction, one vowel
may have been removed, and the other made to conform to the
usual analogy.

Syncope, Crasis, and Synaeresis may be thus distinguished.
Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word,
without affecting the remaining letters. Crasis contracts two
vowels, in the same word, or from different words, into one
vowel ; Synaeresis (which will be hereafter explained), two vowels
in the same word, into one syllable. The former of these two is
applicable to prose and poetry ; the latter, chiefly to poetry.

351

ndtzvus, flnitimjis, from mate)\ tiufm, fhiis ; legeham^ Ic-
gere7}i, legam^ &c. formed from lego ,• Icgeram^ legcrimy
legero, &c. from Icgi ; yidUis^ notitia, notio, fi'om notum ,-
vi7'gineus, sangimicus, from virgmis, sajigtitnis, Jbstiebns, from
JbenPi'is .- 2}7upi?iquuSf from jprope.

Exccptio7is.

1 . Desiderative verbs, in m^io, have tlie u short, altliough
formed from the participle in i(7-us, which has u long ; as
miptiirio, from impti'irus *.

Partur-iimt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus — Hor.

2. Frequentative verbs, formed from the second supine
of the first conjugation, by changing dtu into ito, have the
i short; as clamito, voUto.

Infelix sua tecta super voUtaverit alis — Virg.

3. There are other derivatives, long, formed from short
primitives; and there are short derivatives, formed from
long primitives ; thus jugeru7n from jiigum, sagax from
sdgio ^

Et labefacta movens robustusj'?Zi>"<?ra fossor — Virg.
Arva alienaj'w^o premere, atque avertere prsedas — Virg.

* Other verbs in urio, as ligurio and scaturio, lengthen the u.
They were antiently written with a double r.

' Some of those anomalies have perhaps arisen from the influence
of syncope and crasis. Thus, mobilis from moveo may have been
movibilis ; ^nomentum, movimentum ; viotum, movitum. ; J'dtum,J'o-
vitum, from J~dveo ; jutum,juvatiim ; and Jumentimifjiivamentum,
fvomjiivo. It would appear, however, that verbals in bilis, as
well as those in tilis, and nouns in ator, atrimi, atiis, etus, men,
mentum, &c., are generally formed from the supine or perfect
participle, and that by this their quantity is regulated ; thus from
amatiim, aniubilis ; volatmn, volatilis ; Jictum, Ji^bilis ; territunfy
terribilis ; statu77t, of sisto, stabilis ; in the same way we have a>77-
tor, aratrum, apparatus, certamen, jmientum, volu7ne7i, le7ihnen,
irrita77ie7itum , 77ionunie7iUi7n or moTiwientimi, alivaejitum, blaiidimeri'
turn ; aisoj^omes, froraj'ottan, &c. Derivatives often come from
the genitive ; as from hi/men, cnis, h^ineti cstis ; from saliitis, salube7- ;
from JuTier is, Juncbr is ; from 77iulie7-is, mulicbris, &c., the deri-
vatives from increasing nouns of the third declension usually
agreeing in quantity with the increment of the primitives. Verbs
also ; as ordmo, saliito, exhceredo, &c. Sometimes the word de-
rived, or formed, becomes short, by dropping one of the conso-
nants which rendered the word whence it is supposed to come,
long by position ; as disertus from dusero ; tibella from rib7-a ;
mamilla from ynarnma ; volutum from volvo ; solidum from solvo ;
tigiUum from iJgni/.m ; potni from possum. When the primitive

352
RULE II.

COMPOUND WORDS.

Compound words have the same quantity as the simple
words of whicli they are compounded : as perlcgo and re-
IPgo, because lego ,- jjerlegi and relegi, because legi ,• imprb-
bus, because probus ; pojurus, because jus, juris.

If a vowel is changed, in forming the compound, it re-
tains the quantity of the vowel, or diphthong, from which
it is changed ; as concido, from cudo ; concido from cccdo .•
inlquus from icquus.

Multa renascentur, quas jam cecideve ; cadentque — Hor.

Taurus, et averso cedens canis occidit astro — Virg.

o

HiXceptions.

1. The following are short compounds from long primi-
tives ; NiJnlum from hllum ,- dejero and pcjho from juro ,-
veridmis, fatidicuSf causidlais, and the like, from d'lco ,- se-
viisbpitus from sopiius ; cognitiim and agnitum from notuin ;
inniiba, suhniiba, and proniiba, from nubo.

Quae causa officii ? quid quaeris ? 7iubit amicus — Juv.

Et Bellona manet te pronuba : nee face tantum — Virg.
/ 2. Imbecillus, said to come .from bacillus, has the second
syllable long. Amb'itum the supine, and ambitus the parti-
ciple, have the i long, although coming from itum, which has

is necessarily short, by one vowel's preceding another, as in hyemsy
the derivative sometimes becomes long, after the removal of a
vowel ; as in lubenin, Jfiberno, Inbemacula. Liquidus is supposed
to have its first common, (as it may be derived from the depo-
nent verb liquor, or from the neuter, Itqueo, ) on the following
authority :

Crassaque conveniunt liqnidis, et liquida crassis— Lucret.

For the difference in quantity between many derivatives and
their primitives no plausible conjecture can be given ; such ano-
malies must be left to observation. Of this description are some
of the following ; Ambitus (subst.), ambitio, ambttiosus from am-
bitum ; arena from area ; aruspex from ara ; dicax from dlco ;
lucerna from luceo ; iwto, ncitas, from ncitu ; sojjor from sopio ;
vadum from vado, &c. Chius from chios ; como, -is, from coma,
hair; humanus from homo ; rtgina, rex, regis, regula, from rcgo ;
secius from secus ; sedes, sedile, from sedeo ; ttgula from tcgo ; vox,
vocis, from voco, &c. Words may be sometimes distinguished by
a difference in quantity ; thus como, -is, como, -as ; duco, ducis,
dux, duels ; rego, regis, rex, regis.

353

the i short ; but the substantives amhitns and amlSilio have
the i short, like 'itnm '.

Porto meis, nullo dextram subeunte hucillo — Juv.

Imhecillus, iners, si quid vis ? adde propino — Hor.

Jussit et ambitce circumdare Ktora terrae — Ov.

Et properantis aquas per amoenos amhliiis agros — Hor,
3. ConmMum, from iiubo, has the u common'-.

Conniibio jungam stabih, propriamque dicabo — Virg.

Hectoris Andromache ! Pyrrhin' connTibia servas — Viro-.

RULE III.

OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.

Prepositions have generally the same quantity in compo-
sition as out of it : thus ixmitto and decluco have the first
syllable long, because a and de are long. Aboleo and ph-
'imo have the first short, because ab and per are short.

Expediam, prima repetens db origine, famam — Virg.

Nee poterit ferrum, nee edax dbolerc vetustas — Ovid.

Exceptiojis and Armotatums.

1. A preposition ending in a vowel, although out of com-
position it may be long, becomes short by the first general
rule, if followed by another vowel ; as dPosculor, prohibeo.
And if a short preposition end in a consonant, and be fol-
lowed by another consonant, it becomes long, by the second
general rule : as ddmitto, pircello.

De coelo tactas raemini praedicere quercus — Virg.

A media coelum regione dvhiscerc ccepit — Ovid.

af/ auras — Virg. rldtm'scere saporem — Virg.

Note. Sometimes the preposition, instead of becoming
long by position, loses its final consonant, and remains
short ; as omitto, operio.

Quod petiit spernit, repetit quod nuper omisit — Plor.

2. Pro, when used as a Greek preposition, for ante, is
short; ns propheta, prologus, propontis : but pro, a Latin
preposition, is generally long ; as prodo, pivveho, promitto.

' Ambition perliaps by crasis of ambe itum. Or it may come
from the regular /7wZ>/o, amblium, formed from amhi the old form
of the inseparable am, still visible in ambidexter ; and there may
have been also ambeo, ambitum a compound of ro.

2 It is contended by some that the u is always long, and that
cnnnubio and cnnnubiis, although supposed to have u short in
Virgil, are to be considered as trisyllables, by the figure Synizcsis
or Synecphonesi^< ; thus con-nub-ijd ; in which case the first foot
becomes a spondee instead of a dactyl,

2 A

ss^

furtumque Promethei — Virg.

Qiiye tarn festa dies, iit cesset prodeye furem — Juv.
But in many Latin words jno is short ; as priifandus^ pro-
Jngio, projugus, j^Tunepos, j^^'onepiis, profestus, jnqfari, p70-
fdeor^ profanus^ profecth^ jyrocus, procella, protervtis^ propero,
and 2Jroj)ago, signifying lineage ; but pvopago signifying a
vincstock^ is long '.

Contreniuit nemus, et sylvae intonuere profund(E — Virg.
In some it is common; 2i% jnopino^ propago (the verb),7wo-
fando, propello, prvpulso, procuro^ Proserpina (in reahty a
corruption of Pcrsepho7ic).

Nee ratione fluunt aha, stragemque j'wo/7«^'-«w; — Lucret.
Hi propagandi ruerant pro limite regni — Claudian.
exin corpus propcllit^ et icit — Lucret.

quffi provehat atque propellat — Lucret.

3. The inseparable preposition re is short ; as retnitto,
repello, refero'^. But re (which here is supposed to be an
ablative) is long in the impersonal verb refcrt, "it concerns."

Quid tamen hoc rejerf, si se pro classe Pelasga

Arma tulisse refcrt — Ovid.

Posterius ferri vis est aerisque rej)erta — Lucret.

4. The inseparable prepositions, se and di, are long ; as,
separo, dJduco, dlvcrsns. But di is short in dirimo and di-
sc it us.

Separot Aonios Actaeis Phocis ab arvis — Ovid.
Dwersos ubi sensit equos, currumque referri — Virg.
Hanc Deus et melior litem natura diremit — Ov.
In causa fiicili cuivis licet esse diserto — Ov.

' Notwithstanding such distinctions propago, whose significa-
tion is always essentially the same, may be considered among the
doubtfuls; to which class procumbo is likewise added by some,
probably, on the authority of Lucretius, who uses it short,
IV, 950. But the passage stands differently in Wakefield's edi-
tion. As, however, some of the compounds with pro are reckoned
long, because it happens that they are found long among the
poets ; and, for a similar reason, some are reckoned short, and
others doubtful, it is not improbable, that, in all compound Latin
words, the poets may have used^)?-o,long or short, as it suited their
verse.

' Re is sometimes found lengthened, by doubling the following
consonant; as in ^rUi^io, repptdit : but this duplication is gene-
rally omitted, except m the verb reddo, so that rel/gio, reliquice,
reliquusy reperit, retidit, repidit, rcdiicere, are found long, and with
only one consonant.

Neu populum antiqua sub rclliglnnc tucri — Virg.

El'ligione patrum multos servata per annos — Virg.

Et prius est repe.rtnm in equi conscendere costas— Lucret^

355

OF THE FINAL VOWELS OF FIRST WORDS IN COMPOSITION.

The wjoels E, I, O, U, mid Y, ending the Jirst "joord of a
compo2(nd, are geiicrallij short. A is lonv.

RULE IV. A.

Words ending in a in the former part of a compound are
long; as qua re, qudpropter, quHtenus ; also trd (trans), as
in trddo, traduco, trdno.

QiiCire agitc 6 proprios generatim discite cultus — Virg.

1 . Except eudem, unless it be the ablative, hexameter, and
catnpidta.

RULE V. E.

Words ending in e in the first part of a compound are
short ; as, m the first syllable, nefas, nefastus, nXJandus, ne-
J(irius, nX'que ; also tredecim, trecenti, eqnidem : in the se-
cond, valedico, madefacio, stupefaeio, trcmefacio, and the
like : in the third, hujiiscemodi, tjuscemodi.

Credebant hoc grande nefas, et morte piandum — Juv.

Insolito belli tremPfecit murmure Thulen — Claud.

Exceptions.

\. The first is long in words compounded of se for sex
or for semi, as sedecim, semestris, shnodius, (but in selibra it
is found short) ; in nequis, nequicquam, n'equam, nequitia, nr-
quando, nemo, credo, memet, mecum, tecum, secum ; in words
compounded of the inseparable preposition se, as secedo ;
and in the second of veneficus and videlicet.

Nequicquam seros exercet noctua cantus — Virg.

Note, That liquefacio, tepefacio, tahefacio, and patcfacio
have their second syllable sometimes long, llarefacio and
rarefio also have the e generally long. Vossius observes
that Virgil shortens the e in such words, and that Lucretius
and Catullus lengthen it, the former without ca?sura. In-
deed, it is probable that in these words it was generally
considered common.

Sic mea perpetuis liqiu^punt pectora curis — Ovid.

Tabe liquejactis, tendens ad sidera palmas — Ov.

Et rarefecit calido miscente vapore — Lucret.

Intremuit, motuque sinus patcj'ecit aquarum — Ovid.

Atque paiefecit, quas ante obsederat ater — Lucret.
The e of videlicet may be found short, probably, by poetic
license.

2 A2

356

RULE VI. -/.

Botli Latin and Greek words sliorten the final i of the
first word of a compound ; as 07)mqwte}is, bwium, tnvium,
t7-Tcem\ slquidem,/at).dicus, liuigenitus, agficola^ xmficinium,
sigjufico ; arcJiitcctus^ dimeter^ trimeter, IpJiigenia.

Oimupotens genitor, tantou' me crimine dignum — Virg.

Archllochiy non res, et agentia verba Lycambem — Hor.

Excc2itions.

1. Those compounds in which the i is changed in dechn-
ing, are long; as qu'idam, qu'ivis, quJlibet, &c., quantlvis^
quantlcunque, tantldem, imlcuique, eldem, relpnhUcce, quali-
cunque.

Jure mihi invideat qulvis, ita te quoque amicum — Hor.

2. The final i is long in those compounds which may be
separated without destroying the sense, that being their re-
gular quantity ; as ludlmagister, or ludi viagister ; parvi-
pendo, or parvl pendo ,- lucrl/acio, or lucrlfacio ,- sTquis, or
St quis : thus also agricidtnra.

Ludl-viagister, parce simplici turba? — Martial.

3. Those words which, in joining, undergo a crasis or
syncope, are long ; as tibJcen, for tibiiccii ,- blgdc, i>'^g^i &c.
for bljilgo', trijugcv, &c. ; Uicet for Ire licet ,- scilicet for scire
licet : to which add bhmis, trlmus, quadrlnms ; but tulncen^
which has suffered neither, is short by the general rule.

Uicet ignis edax summa ad fastigia vento — Virg.

4. Idem masculine is long; but neuter, short. Identi-
dem has the penultimate short. The first i oi' ?iT?ninmi, the
i ofublque, titroblque, and the second in ibidem, are long.
Ubi'vis and ubicunque (and probably most of the compoimds
of ulJi and ib'i) may be found common.

amor omnibus idem — Virg.

Invitum qui servat, idem facit Occident i — I lor.
nee quicquid ublque est (Gentis Dardaniae) —

Clamat : io matres audite ubicunque- Latinae — Virg.
Servor, ubicunque est ; uni mea gaudia servo ? — Ov.

_' Words derived from tiig-inta must not be confounded with
the compounds of /^m or tres, short by this rule ; for tncesimus,
trigesimus, trlceiii, are long, because triginta is long, ginta being-
no distinct word, but a termination.

Bis jam pene tibi consul trlgesimns instat — Mart.
^ Al. ubi qufeqric, Tliis is the usual reading.

J

357

5. The conipoiuids of dies liave the final i oi' ihe first
word long ; as blduiwi, triduumy meridics, pridie, j^oslrldie.
These two last are long by Exception 3dj being j^t'iori die
SLud posierioji die.

Si totus tibi tnduo legatur — Mart.
Nam vita morti propior est quotldie — Pliaedr.
Qjiotldie, and quotldianus, are said to luive the / some-
times short ; but this is not satisfactorily ascertained, since
the lines adduced in proof may, by the figure synizesis, be
differently measured : thus,

Conjugis in culpa flagravit quoitldmnd — Catull.

or quottld-ya-HH.
It must however be confessed, that, thus read, the line is
harsh, and is unnecessarily rendered spondaic.

RULE VII. 0.

O is short in the first word of a Greek or Latin com-
pound ; as Argoiiaufa, Arctophylox^ areopagus^ bihliotheca^
philosopkus^ Timotheus ; bardocucullus, sacrusa/uius, duo-
decimo diiodeiii, hodie, words comjiounded of two nouns.

Non nautas puto vos, sed Argonautas — Martial.

A tergo nitet Arctdp/njlax, idenujue B{>otes — Manil.

Non dices hbdie, quorsum haec tam putida tendant — Hor.

Exceptions.

1, Words compounded with intvo, retro, contro, and
quando; as intrdduco, intromitto, rctrocedo, retrogradus, con-
troversial controversus, quanddquc., quandocunque. To which

■ may be added alibqidn, utroque., cccteroquin, utrohique ,- the
compounds of quo, as qiioniodo, qmcunque, quominus, qiio-
circa, qu^vis, quoque, and similar ablatives.

Quandoquidem, and quoque, the })article, have the o short.
Ipse retroversus squalentia protulit ora — Ov.
Quod moechus foret, aut sicarius, aut alioquin — lior.
Dicite; quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba — ^ irg.
damnabis tii quoque votis — Virg.

2. Those words, which in Greek are written with an ome-
ga, have the o long; as Gcometra, Minvfaunis, lagojms.

Minotaurus inest, Veneris monimenta vefandie — ^ irg.

RULE Vlll. L/'and Y.

U, and Yin Greek words, are short; as, in the first syl-
];ihlc, ducenfi, dupondiwn; In llie second, quadriipes, ecu-

358

tiiplex\ Trnjugrna^ coinupeta; also Pof^dorus, Polydamas,
Polxjphcmus^ dori/pJwnis. '

' It may be useful to beginners, and to the mere English scho-
lar, if we subjoin a few of those words, which are often incor-
rectly pronounced, some of them even by our best English poets.
Andromcus, Ckonlcus, Strafonlcus, PoJi/n'ices, Thessalonica, &c.
have the penultimate long, because the first syllable of yixij, vic-
toria, whence, probably, they are derived, is long ; jGouAero vwij!'
— II. vii. 21. The first syllable oi itdyog (a hill) is short: there-
fore we say, Areopagus. Belltrophon was so named, in conse-
quence of having slain one Bellcrus, the second syllable of which,
like the second of the former, is short, Milton has improperly
accented it. Many of our English poets improperly lay the em-
phasis on the second of Gert/on, contrary to ancient usage.
Qcryone extincto, &c. Virg. vii, 662 : viii, 202. Hor. ii, I't, 8.
Some writers produce the authority of Claudian, for lengthening
the second syllable. See Grad. ad Parnas. Smetii Prosod. Hoc
neque Gcryon triplex, nee turbidus orci — Claud. But the proper
reading is Geryones, by which the true quantity is preserved.
The second syllable in Granwus, in Homer, Hesiod, Ovid, &c.
is always long : II. xii, 21. Granlco nata bicorni — Ovid, xi, 763.
In the Greek and Latin poets the penultimate of Helena, Gr.
'fiAeyij, is invariably short. But it is vulgarly pronounced long
in the name of the island St. Helena, said to be discovered on the
day dedicated by the Romish church to St. Helena, the mother
of Constantine the Great. The English accent or syllabic em-
phasis is improperly laid on the a of Heraclitus. Heraclitus init
&c. — Lucr. i, 639. Shakespeare and others pronounce Hype-
rion with i short, contrary to the custom of the Greek and Latin
poets. Hypcrlunc menso — Metamorph viii; ,^64-. In the Greek
and Latin poets, the penultimate of Iphigenia is always long.
Dryden and others pronounce it as a word of four syllables.
Iphigenia mora — Prop. Homer and Virgil make the [)cnultimate
of Laodamja long; many of our poets accent the antepenulti-
mate. Laodamja sinus — Ovid. Several of our English poets
throw the emphasis on the penultimate of Phurnaccs ; yet Lucan
and others make it short. Fharnacis et gelido, &c. — Phars. The
best Greek and Roman jioets lengthen the penultimate oi' Serapis,
Vincebant, ncc qujc turba Scrapin amat — Mart, ix, .^-1. Mar-
lianus Capella, and some others, unwarrantably shorten the se-
cond. It may be observed that the first syllable in Apis, which
is supposed by some [see Gesn. Thes.] to be the same ^^gyp-
tian deity, is uniformly long. Mactabitur 7lpis. Luc. ix, 169.
We sometimes find in English an improper quantity given to
iriumvui, decemviri, centumvhi, and the like, words having their
third syllable short. Read Alolus, Antipodes, Herodotus, Thu-
cyd^idcs, Archimedes, AmpJilon, Tisiphune, Terpsichore, Miliiades.,
Alcibiddes, An/phltrite, Ariticlea, Ar'ion, Arsaccs, Cccsarea, Clco-

359

Nam fuit hoc vitiosus ; in hora s«pe duccntos — Hor.
Nam qiialis quantusque cavo PolJ/phcmiis in antro — Virg.
Except j??7^//co, long in its first syllable.

Et sapit, et mecum facit, et Jove judicat aequo— Hor.

menes, Darius, Deiphobus, Demosthenes, Diomedes, Eptrus, Erato,
Euphrates, Hecate, Hermlone, Agesilaiis, Itdus, Ix'ion, Leucate,
Longimanus, Mausolus (hence mausoleum,) Medea, Nerltos,
Nico77iedcs, Omphale, Osiris, Pachynus, Pactulus, Persephone,
Phdomela, Pisistratus, ProserpTma, SardanapFdus, Acrisione,
Thalia, ThrasybTdus, J'omyris, asylum. Pantheon, Orion, panacea,
Oreades, Antiochia, Pand'wn, PhUostratus, Galatea, Bellovaci,
Andreas, Philadelphia, (the name of a town, Gr. ^iXaSiXtpstx)
philadelp)}iia[hroihev\y love, Gr. (piKaS£X(pTa) presbyter, (although
itpsa-^uryjs,) sabacthani, — and to these words, were there room,
many more might be added, in which English pronunciation fre-
quently errs. It may be observed, that, according to the ana-
logy of the English language, the English ictus is generally much
more safely laid upon a syllable, in the original language, long,
than upon a short one. It has, doubtless, arisen, from paying
more attention to the position of the Greek accent than to the
original long quantity of the following syllable, or to the gene-
rally corresponding influence of our own English ictus or sylla-
bic emphasis, that we ever hear eremus, poesis, idolum, instead
of cremus, poesis, idolum. From the same cause^ it has probably
arisen, that the penultimate of the word Paraclctus or Para-
clitus {'Ka.pa.tt'Kriroi), which is unquestionably long, has been short-
ened by Prudentius, and other poets, and hymn, composers. The
Greek accentual marks, the precise object of which, whether
to indicate tone or erapiiasis, is not ascertained, should not be
allowed in preference to a due regard to quantity, and the ge-
neral analogy of Latin pronunciation, to regulate our syllabic
emphasis. Accent and emphasis are not identical properties ;
nor should ancient long quantity, and our English syllabic em-
phasis be confounded, although the latter be found to fall most
frequently upon a long syllable. And, although, in the preceding
examples, the first syllable of idolum be long, as well as the se-
cond ; yet, whatever may be the position or the object of the
Greek accent, considering it as a Latin word, it appears to me,
that, in our pronunciation, the quantity of both syllables will be
the best regarded, by laying the emj)hasis on the middle syllable.
V>y " the accent," whatever may have been its original import,
the modern Greeks evidently mean nothing but ictus or syl-
labic emphasis. I asked an intelligent Greek to pronounce, in
their usual way, the word sidvjKov; which he did thus ; ithulon,
giving thediphthong the dij)hthongal sound oi'our English i («/),
throwing the cmjihasis on the first .syllable, and thus naturally,
I do not say necessarily, giving an improper short quantity to the
second.

360

U in such words as usucapiu, usuvenzo, is long, being the
termination of an ablative naturally long. Jupiter, being a
contraction, has u long.

RULE IX.

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF DISSYLLABIC PRETERITES.

_ Preterites of two syllables have the first long ; as vmi,
vldiji xuci, ivi.

Fortunatus et ille deos qui novit agrestes — Virg.
Venit summa dies, et ineluctabile tempus — Virg.

Exceptions.

1 . These seven, bibi, sculi from scindo, (for ahsddi is long
from abscido, absddi, short from absmido,) fidi from ^fndo,
{ihrfldi, and con/'idi, from Ji'do are long,)/w//, dcdi, stet'i, stlti,
have the first syllable short.

Claudite jam rivos, pueri ; sat prata biberwit — Virg.

Cui mater media sese ti'dit obvia sylva — Virg.

RULE X.

OF THE TWO FIRST SYLLABLES OF REDUPLICATED PRE-
TERITES.

Preterites doubling their first syllable have that syllable
and the following, both short ; as tettgi, peptdi, peperi, di-
d1ci, tutiidi, cecuii from cado.

Tityre, te patulas ctchii sub tegmine fagi — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. Cec'/di from ccedo, and pPpedi, have the second sylla-
ble long ; and likewise diose preterites, in which it is' fol-
lowed by two consonants,; a.sfefelli, momordi.

Ebrius et petulans, qui nullum forte cecidit — Juv.

Extulit, et c(]elo palmas cum voce tctendit — Virg.

RULE XL

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF DISSYLLABIC SUPINES.

Supines of two syllables, and the participles formed fi'om
them, have the first syllable long; as al&um, visum, mblwn,
vlsus, mdtus, vls7inis, mdtwus.

Terribiles vis2i. formae, letumque, laborque — Virg.

Quos ego — sed mdios praestat componere fluctus — Virg.

Exceptions.
\. Saturn coming from sero ,- dtum from cico^; lit urn from

' Cy/7/OT from «o is long ; \\q,wcc ntns^ accitus,exc'dus, concxlus.
Exdtinn ruit ad {)ortut, ct littura caniplciit — Virg.

361

lino^ ; situm from sino ; ihun from eo ; datum from do ; rii-
tum (as well as ruitum, and hence diriifum, cruftmt, &c.) from
rico ; qiatiim from qiieo ; rutum from rear ; i\nd. fit turn iVom
the obsolete y?/o, (but vchence futtirus) have the first syllable
short.

Corripuit sese, et tectis citus extulit altis — Virg.

Cui datus hserebam custos, cursusqne regebam — Virg.

Effigiemque toro locat, hand ignanij'utnri — Virg.

Dirilta smit aliis, uni mihi Pergama restant — Ovid.

2. Statnm is common: hence w^e find staturus, consi rilunis,
obstdtu'/us, stamen, StUtius, a man's name ; and ptvcst'itum,
status -us, status -a -um, stcitio, stdtuo, stabilis, stdbulum, sta-
tor, stdtim, &c., the former of which are said to come from
sto, the latter from sisto.

Non prostata sibi praestat natura sed unus — Prosp.

OonstCitura fuit Megalensis purpura centum — Mart.

Urbem quam stdtuo vestra est. Virg.

Plic status in coelo multos permansit in annos — Ovid.

Tunc res immenso placuit stdtura labore — Lucan.

RULE XII.

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF POLYSYLLABIC PRETERITES

AND SUPINES.

Preterites and supines of more than two syllables have the
same quantity in their first syllable as the present; thus vo-
cavi and vocatum have the first short, because the first of
voco is short ; cldmavi and cldmatum have the first long, be-
cause the first of cldmo is long.

Si vocat officium turba cedente vehetur — Juv.

Induit, implevitque mero, divosque vdcavit — ^ irg-

Protinus ad sedes Priami clamore vocati — Virg.

Exccptio7is.

1. The following are short in the first syllable, although
coming from long presents, /»«i7</, posit urn, ['yoiw pono ; ge-
nui, genitum, from g'lgno .• j)otui li'om possum ; soluium, v6-
lutu?)}, from solvo and volvo.

Sj3ecula? qui tanti talem gcnucrc parentes — Virg.

Et cii'cum Iliades, crinem de more salutcv — Virg.

C'ltus in the sense of divwi.s is long, coming from cin ; but ntus,
quick, is short, iVoni cico, and hence coiicitu.s, hastened. The veih
and adverb c?/o, formed from it, are short, and also the compounds,
as exdto, concito, reoto.

' Oljlitnx, snieaicd. Ironi lino.. !s lo b;.' dibtiiigui.fhed fiom obrdiis,
having forgot ten, from obliviscor.

362
RULE XIII.

OF THE PENULTIMATE OF POLYSYLLABIC SUPINES.

Supines of more than two syllables, in atuniy etum and
utum, lengthen the last syllable but one ; as a?ndtum, dclc-
turn, minutum.

Supines in Hum from preterites in ivi^ also have the pe-
nultimate long; as cupivi, cupitum, petivz, petitum, polivi,
polltum. But the compounds of co, amhio, if it be a com-
pound, excepted, have the penultimate short.

Supines in itum, coming from any other preterites, shorten
the penultimate ; as cuhui, cubitum, monui, monitum, aholevi,
aboUtum, agnovi, agmtum, cognovi, cog7iitum, credidi^ crcdi-
tiim. JRccensitimi of recenseo is long, because it originally
comes from the obsolete censio, censivi.

Namque ferunt luctu Cycnum Phaethontis amdti — Virg.

Deletas Volscorum acies, cecidisse Camillam — Virg.

Hectore, qui redit exuvias indMus Achillei — Virg.

Adjicit extremo lapides oriente pefitos — Ov.

Cedamus Phoebo, et moiiiti meliora sequamur — Virg.

Prisca recensltis evolvite saecula fastis — Claud.'

RULE XIV.

OF THE PENULTIMATE OF PARTICIPLES IN RUS.

Participles in rus always lengthen the last syllable but
one ; as amati'irus, habituriis, misurus.

Si periturus abis, et nos rape m omnia tecum — Virg.

OF THE INCREMENTS OF NOUNS.

By the increments of nouns, is meant the syllable, or syl-
lables, by which an oblique case exceeds the nominative.

If a noun has one syllable, in an obli(|ue case, more than
the nominative, it is said to have one increment, or increase;

as rex, re-gts ; scrmo, ser-mo-nis.

The quantity of the increment of all the other oblique
cases is regulated by that of the genitive ; as sermdni, scr-

' DivMo, whether it be formed immediately from video, or de-
rived from the Etruscan iduo, follows, in quantity, the analogy of
video ; thus divido, divui, divJsttm, the second syllable of I'erf.
and Sup, being long. Gaudeo, too, probably also a kindred verb,
has gavhus, second long.

Et i)enitus toto divJsos orbc Britannos — Virg.

Armaipic gavlso rcfcrat capliva parenti — Claud.

363

monem, scrmonibus^ &c. in all wliich the o is long, because
the o of ser mollis is long. There is but one exception to
this rule, viz. bobus., but this is, in reality, a contraction of
bovibus, from bos^ bovis. When a word of one syllable in-
creases, the penultimate is considered as the increment ; as
the re in re-gis from rex, and never, in any word, the last
syllable ; and it is to be observed, that, when there are more
increments than one, which seldom happens but in the plural,
they are to be reckoned in retrograde order, beginning with
the penultimate.

Nouns, in general, have but one increase in the singular;
but iter, jccur when its genitive is jccinoris, siipellex, and
the compounds oi caput, ending iwps, have two increments:

1 2

Thus, iter, i — ti — iic — ris.

jecur, je — ci — no — 7-is.
supellex, supel — lee — // — lis.
anceps, an — ci — pi — tis.
The dative and ablative of the third declension, in ibus,

1 2

have generally two increments ; as ser — mo — ni — bus. The
forementioned words have three increments; thus,

1 2 3_

i — ti — ne — ri — bus.

je — ci — no — 7i — bus.

SJipel — lee — // — li — bus.

an — ci — p)^ — ^^ — ^"^*
The uncommon increase of these words arises from their
originally coming from nominatives, now obsolete, which
consisted of a greater number of syllables than the nomi-
natives to which they are now assigned.

OF THE INCREMENTS OF THE SINGULAR NUMBER.

Of the 1st, Mh, and 5th, Declcnsio7is.

In the first, fourth, and fifth declensions, there is no incre-
ment in the singular, but that in which a vowel precedes an-
other ; as in the first, in such words as aulai, aurai; in the
fourth, in anuis, anui, instead of anus, anui, &c. ; — and in
rei and spei, and the like, of the fifth : — the quantity of all
which words is ascertained by the first general rule,

INCREMENTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.

RULE XV.

The increments of the second declension are short; as
tener, tencri ,- satur, satilri ,- vir, viri ; |;z^t7-, j^'^^fi '•

' These nouns in r arc formed, by Apocope, from nouns in us;

364

Praeseiitemque viris intentant omnia mortem — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. Iber, Ibcri, and its compound Celtiber, Celtiberi,
lengthen the penultimate.

Aut impacatos a tergo horrebis Iberos — Virg.

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

RULE XVI. A.

Nouns in a shorten the penultimate ; as dogma -aits.
Non quivis videt immodulata poi'mcita judex — Hor.

RULE XVIL /.

Nouns in i, compounds of meli, shorten the penultimate ;
as hydromeli, hydromelitis.

RULE XVIIL 0.

1. Inis, from o, is short; as cardo^ cardXnis.

2. E?iis, and d7iis, from o, are long ; as Anio, Anienis ,•
Cicero, Cicermis.

3. Gentiles in a generally shorten the increment ; as Ma-
cedo, Macedonis ; Saxo, Saxonis. ' To which add Lingoncs^
Senmes, Teutmies, Vangiones, Fascmics, with the penultimate
short. Some lengthen their penultimate ; as Suessiones, Vet-
tones, Burgundid?ies, Eburones. Juvenal s\\ovie\\^ Britoncs ;
Martial lengthens it.

Note. Nouns in on, taken from the Greek wv, which some-
times drop the n, preserve in Latin the same quantity in their
hicrements, which they have in Greek; 2i^ Agamemnon or
Agamemno, Agajnemnmis, with the jienultimate short; De-
miplion or DemipJio, Demiphonis, widi the penultimate long.

Sanguine placastis ventos, et virglne caesa — Virg.

Haec tum multiplici populos sermone replebat — Virg.

Non longinqua docent domito quod Sauvne Tethys —
Claud.

Qua nee terribiles Cimbri, nee Britones unquam — Juv.

Quam veteres braccai i?/7Vo??/i- pau})eris, et fjuam — Mart.

Quo ferus injusto petiit Agamcmnona ferro — Ovid.

RULE XLX. C.

Nouns in ec lengthen the penultimate ; as halec -ens ;
Melchisedcc -decis.

as Icncrus, pKcrus, mluriis ; and, therefore, strictly speaking, they
licni- no increment in their singular.

3G5
HalPcem sec! qiiam protinu.s ipsa voret— Mart.

RULE XX. D.

Nouns ill d shorten the penultimate ; as David -idis ;
JBogud -Mis.

Erecto indulget Daxndis orifvine himen — Juvenc.

In sacred poetry, the penuhimate of David is often
lengthened.

RULE XXr. L.

1. Masculines in al shorten the penultimate; as sal, salis,
(masc. o;- neut.) Hannibal -dlis.

2. Neuters in al lengthen dlis ,- as animal -dlis.

3. Sol lengthens solis ; and also Hebrew nouns in el
lengthen the penultimate ; as Michael -elis ; Daniel -elis.

4. All other nouns in I shorten their increment ; as vigil
-ilis : consul -iilis ,• exul -ulis.

Vela dabant laeti, et spumas sdlis aere ruebant — Virg.
Pronaque cum spectent animCdia caetera terrain — Ovid.
Re«ia solis erat sublimibus alta columnis — Ovid.
Aut ursum aut j^ugUes, his nam plebecula gaudet — Hor.

RULE XXIL N.

1. No certain rule can be given for the quantity of the
increment from 07i.

Many nouns lengthen the penultimate: as Helicon, Chiron,
Demipho7i, Simon, Agon, Solon, Lacon, Sicyon, -onis.

Many shorten it; as Menmon, Act(Von, Idson, Agamemnon,
Amazon, sindon, Philcemoyi -mis. Sidon, Orion, and JEgaon
have the penultimate common. (See Rule XVIIL)

2. Nouns in en shorten inis ; as crimen -inis; jlumen -hiis.

3. All other nouns in n lengthen the penultimate ; thus
a?i, dnis, as Titan -dnis ,- en, enis, as Siren -e?iis ,- in, mis,
as dclphin -Inis ; yn, ynis, as Phorcyn -i/nis, but Hymen -^nis.

Credit, et excludit sanos Helicone poetas — Hor.
Et velut absentem certatim Actaona clamant — Ov.
JEgcebna suis immania terga lacertis — Ov.
Audierat duros laxantem JEgceona nexus — Stat.
Quodque magis mirum est, auctorem criminis hujus —

Mart.
Concitat iratus validos Titdnas in arma — Ov.
ToUere consuetas audent delph'incs in auras — Ovid.

RULE XXIIL n.

\. Ar neuter lengthens dris ; as ralcar -dris.

266

Except. These neuters shorten aris ; hacchar, juhar, nec-
tar^ -urjs, to which add liepar -atis ; also the adjective par,
paris, with its compounds ; as impar, imjmris -, dispai\ dis-
paris, &c.

2. These nouns endino; in r leno-then the increment ; as
Nar, Naris ,- Car, Cdris ,- fur, furis ; ver, veris ; Recimer,
Rccimeris ,• Bijzer, Bijzerh ; Ser, Seris ; Ibcr, Iberis, as well
as Iber, Ibcri, of the second declension. >

3. Greek nouns in ter lengthen teris ,- as crater -eris ,-
character -eris ; spinthcr -tris. Except cether -eris, the pe-
nultimate short.

4. Or lengthens oris ; as amor, timor, -oris : also verbal
nouns, and comparatives ; as victor, jnclior, -oris.

Excepts 1. Neuters; as marmor, crquor, -oris. 2. Greek
nouns in or ; as Hector, rhetor, -oris. 3. Arbor, -oris, femi-
nine, and the adjective memor (formerly memoris), memoris.

Ador forms adoris, or adoris, the penultimate being com-
mon, whence adoreus, in Virgil, Horace, and Claudian.
Decoris, long, is said to come from decor; decoris short, from
decus.

5. Other nouns in 7; not mentioned, shorten the penulti-
mate : thus ar, aris, masculine ; as Cccsar -aris .- lar, Idris :
er, eris, of any gender, as a'er, acris ,- midier ^eris ; cadaver,
-eris ; also iter (formerly itiner), itineris, and verberis from
the obsolete verbcr : iir, iiris, and oris, as vidtur, murmur,

furfur, -iiris ; femur, robur, jecur ', ebur, -oris : yr, yris, as
martyr, martyris.

Seu spumantis equi foderet calcdribus armos — Virg.
It T^ovixs jubdre exorto delecta juventus — Virg.
Ardentes auro, et jmribus lita corpora guttis — Virg.
Velleraque ut foliis depectant tcnuia Seres — Virg.
Indulgent vino, et vertunt crateras ahenos — Virg.
Inque dies quanto circum magis cethcris aestus — Lucr.
Quo magis eeternum da dictis, diva, leporem'^ — Lucr.
Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectare multa —

Virg.
Si nigrum obscuro comprenderit iicra cornu — Virg.
Aspice, ventosi ceciderunt murmUris auras — Virg.

RULE XXIV AS.

1 . Latin nouns in as lengthen the increment ; as Maece-
nas, cetas, pietas, -dtis ; vas, vdsis, a vessel.

' And jecmuris.

* Distinguish lepor 'oris, (elegance), from lepus-oris, (a hare).

Except anas^ anaiis ; 7nas, maris ,- and vas, vadiSf (a se-
curity), tlieir penultimate being sliort.

2. Greek nouns in as shorten ad is, a lis and cmis; as Pallas^
lampas, -ddis ,- artocreas, artocreatis ,- Mclas, Mclanis.
Insignem pietdte virum tot adire labores — Virg.
Tyrta^usque mares aniinos in martia bella — Hor.
Instar montis equum divina Palladis arte — Virg.

RULE XXV. ES.

J^s shortens the increment; as miles, militis; seges, segetis ;
prases, prdBsidis ; obses, obsidis ; Ceres, Cereris ; pes, pedis.

Except locuples, quics, maiisues, -etis; licEres, merces, -edis :
also Greek nouns which have etis ; as lebes, Thales^ tapes,
magncs, -etis, all with the penultimate long.

Metiri se quemque suo modulo ac pcdc, verum est — Hor,

Ascanium surgentem, et spes hccrcdis liili — Virg.

Viginti fulvos operoso ex sere lebetas — Ovid.

RULE XXVL IS.

Noims in is shorten the increment; as lapis, Phyllis, -idis;
cinis, cineris ; sanguis, sanguinis.

Except. I. Glis, gliris, and vires, tlie plural o^vis, which
have the penultimate long. 2. Latin nouns which have zV/^,-
as dis, ditis ,- lis, litis ; Qiiiris, Samtiis, -Itis. But Charis, a
Greek noun, has Charltis short. 3. Crenis, Crenidis; Nesis,
Nesidis ; Psophis, Psophidis, lengthen the penultimate, but
the last has it once short in Statins. 4. Greek nouns in is,
which have also the termmation in ,• as Salamis, or Salami?iy
-mis.

Immolat et poenam scelerato ex sanguine sumit — Virg.

Sic fatus validis ingentem viribus hastam — Virg.

Insequeris tamen hunc, et lite moraris iniqua — Hor.

Tres fuerant Charites, sed dum mea Lesbia vixit — Auson.

Sylvaque, quae fixam pelago Nes'ida coronat — Stat.

Tyburis umbra tui, Teucer Salamina patremque — Hor.

RULE XXVIL OS.

Os has its increment long; as nepos, nepotis ; Jlos, fluris ;
OS, oris ; custos, ddis ; also Greek nouns in os ; as rhinoceros
-Otis ; Tros, heros, -dis.

Except. Three have their increment short, bos, bovis; com-
pos, impos, -Otis.

Qui legitis flores, et humi nascentia fraga— Virg.
Egressi optata potiuntur Trbcs arena — Virg.
Perpctui tergo bovis, et lustralibus extis — Virg.

363
RULE XXVIII. US.

Nouns in tis shorten the increment; as lejms, corpus, -oris;
veil lis -en's ,■ tripus -odis.

Except. 1. Those nouns which liave udis, uris, or utis,
lengthen the penultimate ; as incus, incudis ; tellus, tellTiris ;
salus, salufis. But these three are short ; Ligiiris from Ligur
or Ligus ; j^ccudis from the obsolete pecus ; and intercHtis
from iiitercus.

2. Comparatives in us lengthen the penultimate, preserv-
ing the same quantity as in the masculine and feminine gen-
ders ; as melius, melioris.

Ut canis in vacuo lepm-em cum Gallicus arvo — Ovid.

In medio : sacri tripodcs viridesque coronas — Virg.

Fas et jura sinunt : rivos deducere nulla — Virff.

Non ego te, Ligurum ductor fortissime bello — Virg.

Perge, decet, forsan miseros meliura sequentuv — Virg.

RULE XXIX. YS.

1. Ys shortens the increment j/dis, or ijdos ; as cJdamijs
-i/dis or -i/dos.

2. Ys lengthens 2/?i2s ,- as Trackys -ynis.

In medio, chlamyde, et pictis conspectus in armis —

Virff.
Herculea Trachync jube, sub imagine regis — Ovid.

RULE XXX. BS, PS, MS.

Nouns in 5 preceded by a consonant, shorten their incre-
ment ' ; as ccelebs -ibis ; slips, sfipis ; Lcelaps -apis ; Cecrops,
Dolops, -opis ; auccps -ciipis ; hiems -hnis : also, anceps -col-
pitis ; biceps, bicipitis, and similar compounds of caput, in
which both increments are short.

Except. The following lengthen their increment: Cy-
clops -opis ; jeps, sepis ,- gryps -yphis ,• Cercops -opis ,- plcbs,
plebis ; Jiydrops -opis.

Hie Dolopum manus, hie ssevus tendebat Achilles — Virg.

Ad matres primo aucipitcs, oculisque malignis — Virg.

Antiphatije memores immansueticjue Cyclopis — Ovid.

Fortunam, et mores tnitiquse plebis, et idem — Ilor.

• That is, when a single consonant comes between the incre-
ment and the termination. If two consonants intervene, the pe-
nultimate is necessarily long by position ; as cxcors, excordis ; pnrs,
partis.

369

RULE XXXI. T.

Nouns ending in / shorten the penultimate of itis ; as
:aptiti capitis ; siiicijmt, sincijJitis.

Magna fuit quondam capitis reverentia cani — Ov.

RULE XXXIL .X

L A noun in x shortens the vowel before g/s in the ge-
nitive; as harpax-agis; grex^ gregis; aquilex -legis ; Biturix
~1gis ; Styx -ygis ; Allohrox -ogis; conjux -ugis; Phryx -ygis.

Except. Lex, Ugis ; illex, exlex, -legis ; rex, regis ,- coc-
cyx -ygis, ?nastix -igis ; and frugis from the obsolete frux,
are long.

Quinque gregcs illi balantimi, quina redibant — Virg.

Ad Styga Ta^naria est ausus descendere porta — Ovid.

Prima dedit leges Ovid.

2. A noun in ex shortens icis ,- as vertex -wis ; pontifex
-icis. Except vibex (rather vibix) -Icis, long.

Qualem virgineo demessum poirtce florem — Virg.

3. Other nouns in x generally lengthen the increment :

thus nouns in ax ,- as 2>ax, pads ,• fornax -dcis. Except.

Abax, smilax, Atrax, dropax, cmthrax, fox, Atax, climax,
panax, opopanax, styrax, colax, the compounds (A phylax
and corax, as Arctopkylax, Nomopkylax, nycticorax, pliala-
crocorax, all have acis short.

In ex ; as vervex -ecis. Except. Nex, necis ; vicis and

precis, wanting nominatives ; also foniscx, resex, -ecis ; and
supellex -ectilis, have the penultimate short.

In ix ; as radix, cicatrix, folix, nutrix, victrix, altrix, and,
probably, (notwithstanding a line in Lucilius) following the

usual analogy of verbal nouns, natrix -Icis. Except. Aj)-

pe?idix, fornix, coxendix, chcenix, Cilix, calix, ])ix, illix (a
decoy), kystrix, varix,Jilix, salix, larix, -^cis ; and nix, nivis,
and mastix \cliis (a gum), which have the penultimate short.
Mastix -Igis (a Greek noun), a whip, is long.

In ox ; as vox, vocis ,• velox -dcis. Except. Cappadox,

p)rcccox, -ocis, short.

In ux ; as lux, lucis ; Pollux -lucis. Except. Dux,

crux, nux, irux have ucis short.

In yx ; as bombyx -yds. Except onyx -ycJiis ,- Eryx

-yds ; calyx -ycis; Naryx- yds, which have the penultimate
short.

Note. Syphax'^, sandy x and Bebryx have the penultimate
of the genitive common.

' The short quantity of Syphax may be doubted. The line
from Claudian, quoted by Smetius, as an instance, lias been
deemed incorrect.

2 B

370

Frateriiseque fidem pads petiitque, deditque—Ovid.
jyicite feliccs animae, tuque, optime vates — Virg.
l^tjiticem curvis Lnvisani pascit aratris — Virg.
Contritumque simul cummastiche convex anethum — Seren.

Voce vocat Virg.

Mancipiis locuples, eget aeris Cappadocum rex — Ilor.

Lucis egeus aer Ovid.

Annibalis spolia, et victi monumenta Si/phdcts — Prop.
Bebrycis et Scytliici procul inclementia sacri — Val. Flac.
. Possessus Baccho saeva Bebrycis in aula — Sil. Ital.

PLURAL INCREMENTS. A, E, I, O, U.

RULE XXXIII.

1. A, e, o, in plural increments, are long; as miisdrumy
rerum, domimruni, ambdbus, rebus.

Moenala transieram latebris horrenday£';T7;7/7« — Ov.
Sunt lacrymse renim, et mentem mortalia tangunt — Virg.
Sic ubi dispositam, quisquis fliit ille deorum — Ovid.
Exin se cuncti divinis rebus ad urbem — Virg.

2. / and u are short ; as sermoiiibus, fnbus, qmbus, arttbus
from ars ; zm-ubus, lacubus, artiibus from artits.

Moniibus in liquidas pinus descenderat undas — Ov.

Pars in frusta secant, verubus(\\\e. trementia figimt — Virg.
Bobus, or bubus, has been already noticed as a contraction,
from bovibus ; and, consequently, is long.

Nescia, nee quicquam junctis debentia bobus — Ovid.

INCREMENT OF VERBS.

When any part of a verb exceeds in number of syllables
the second person singular of the present indicative, active,
the excess is considered as the increment or increase. As
in nouns, the last syllable is never reckoned the increment ;
so that when there is only one increment, it must be the pen-
ultimate.

Da — mus, Jle — lis, sci — res have one increment, because

1 2

das, jies, and scis are monosyllables. A — ma — ba — mus^

1 2

a — ma — bi — tis have two increments, because they exceed

1 2 3

amas by two syllables. A — ma — ve — ri — tis has three

12 3 4

increments. Au — di — e — ba — mi — ni has four increments,
because it has four syllables more than audis. In deter-
mining the increments of deponent verbs, an active voice

1

may be supposed; thus co — na — tur has one increment.

371

12 12 3

CO — na — ha — tw\ two, co — na — re — mi — w/, three, because
conas of the fictitious active voice has but two syllables.
The increments of" these may also be regulated by other
verbs of the same conjugation, which have an active voice.

RULE XXXIV, A.

A is long in the increments of verbs ; as stCiham^ arnd-
rem, legebdmus, audicbumini^ hibdmus, vcneravms.

Stdbat in egregiis Arcentis filius armis — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. Do and its compounds of the first conjugation have a
short in their first increment; as diimus, dabinif, dare ; also
circiindamus, venunddbo, &c., the jienultimate being short.
But in any other increment, do, like its compounds of the
third conjugation, is long ; as dabd?7ms, dederdtis, circundd-
bdimis, creddmus.

Hasc ego vasta ddbo, et lato te limite ducam — Virg.
Luce palam certum est igni circundnrc muros — ^ irg.

RULE XXXV. E.

E is long in the increments of verbs ; as amewus, ama^
rhnus^ amavissefis, docebam, doccrcm^ legebat, Icgcnmi^ le-
geris, legere, both of the future passive, aiidiemus, &c.

Flebaiit, et cineri ingrato sxx^vemixferebant — Virg.

Sed quipacis opus citharam cum voce moveres — Ovid.

Exceptio7is.

\. E before r is short in the first increment of any pre-
sent and imperfect of the third conjugation ; as legeris or
Icgtre of the present indicative, passive ; legtre, the present
mfinitive active, and imperative, passive; legerein and Ic-
gerer, the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive. But
reris and rere, in the third, and in other conjugations, are
long; as legereris, Icgerere ; amareris, amarere; docereris^
docerere, &c.

An quia, cum legeret vernos Proserpina flores — Ovid.

Nostra, neque ad sedes victor vcherere paternas — ^^irg.

2. B^ris and bere are every where short ; as amctbcris^
amabere ; doceberis, docebere ,- and among the antients, lur-
gibh'is, expcriberc, of the fourth — Excepting where the h
belongs also to the termination of the present, scribcris,
and sciibere, of the futiu'e, passive, being long by the gene-
ral rule.

Hoc tamen infelix miseram sola bar mortem — Virg.

2 B 2

372

3. E, before ram^ rim, ro, and the persons formed from
tliem, is short' ; as amaveram^amaiKras, amaverim, a?navtro,
docueram, eram, fueram, potero, potuXro, &c.

Vincere, nee duro poteris convellere ferro — Virg.
By Systole, the poets sometimes shorten e before runt. ; as

Obstupui, stcth'untqiie comae, et vox faucibus haesit —

J^r^' ...

Di tibi divitias dederunt, artemque fruendi — Hor.

RULE XXXVI. 1.

I is short in any increment of verbs ; as amahinms, doce-
Intur, Icgimus, aqntis, aggredwmr, audiremmi, audimmi, au-
dichmnini.

Linquimiis Ortygias portus, pelagoque volamus — Virg.

Ve?iimus^^ ; et latos indagine cinximus agros — Ovid.

Exceptions.

1 . These have i long ; slmus, velmtis, nolimus, with the
other persons coming from them and their compounds ; as
sitis, velltis, nolitis ; 7wUte, 7wlitote ; malhmis, malitis ; pos-
sl/'iuis, possitis, &c.

Et gratam sortem, tutffi modo shnus, habemus — Ovid.

2. /before vi, in preterites, is always long; as petlvif
quccswi, audlvi ; and also in the other persons ; as petivisti,
qticssivit, audivimus, &c.

Cessi, et sublato montem genitore j^^/Tu/ — Virg.

3. The first increment of the fourth conjugation is long^ ;
as audunus, audJfis, audltur, andlto, aud'zrcm, scwms, scire ;
also in the antient audlbo, and in aiuhham sometimes found

contracted, and the usual Ibcim and Ibo of eo. When a

vowel follows, the i is short by position, as audiu7it, audie-
ham.

Omnibus audltur. Sonus est, qui vivit in ilia — Ovid.
Tu ne cede malis ; sed contra audentior ito — Virg.

Ibiimis in poenas Ovid.

Observe, That iinus in every preterite, and in that of the

' This is applicable only to verbs in tlieir natural state, and not
to such as have suffered contraction.

" In such verbs of the fourth conjugation as have, in the first
persons plural of their present and perfect indicative, the samp
words in regard to spelling, there is a distinction by the quan-
titv ; the penultimate of the former being long, as venimus, re-
pcnmiis; that of the latter short, as vniinuis, rcperiimis.

* In or)/»rque miserrima Citdes — Virg. the verb is of the 3d
conjugation.

373

fourth conjugation also, is short; as juinmus, vidimus, fc-

cinms, veniinus, the first increment being short; amavimns,

adolcvimus, jjepcrci/mis, munivimus ,- the second being short.

Bis sex NeHda2y?/y/«?«conspecta juventus — Ovid.

(See the preceding note.)

Rimus and Ritis.

Rimns and ntis in the preterite subjunctive are short.
Egcnmus, nosti ; et nimium meminisse necesse est — Virg.
Ri'mus and r7tis in the perfect future (future subjunctive)
are common '.

Videntis Stellas illic, ubi circulus axem — Ovid.

Dein cum millia mvXta, fcccrlmus — Catull.

Cum maris lonii transientis aquas — Ovid.

RULE XXXVIL O.

O in the increments of verbs is always long; as amatote,
Jcicitote, itote.

Hoc tamen amborum verbis estate rogati — Ovid.

' In regard to the quantity of the terminations rimus and ritis
of the subjunctive, the antient grammarians were divided ; and it
is not an easy matter to ascertain it. Diomedes, Probus and Ser-
vius thought the future long : Vossius seemed to incline to the
same opinion, though he owned that there were authorities for its
being considered sliort. Diomedes and Agroetius thought tlie
preterite short ; Probus, long. It is not always easy to distin-
guish these two tenses, since, without materially altering the sense,
they may be, in many instances, interconvertiI<le. The perfect of
the potential seems to be both past perfect contingent and future-
perfect contingent. The perfect future has also so great an affi-
nity to the preterperfect potential that often a word may, consis-
tently with the sense, be supppo&ed to belong to either. As these
tenses are usually interpreted in English, there is a great resem-
blance in their structure, as well as in the ideas win'ch they ex-
press. Both are composed of verbs in present time, the one a verb
of present liberty or the like, the other of present intention or ob-
ligation ; of an infinitive denoting subsequent or depending pos-
session ; and a participle significant of the perfection of the ac-
tion denoted by the verb: thus, " I may have written," " I shall
have written." We find by A. Gellius, 18. 2. that it was a sub-
ject of dispute at Rome whether the tense in rim ought to be set
down as past or future, or botli. Such disputes may, perhaps,
have arisen from the accessary circumstances which are implied,
besides the immediate action of the verb ; in the same manner
as, in English, two forms precisely the same in their structure and
reference are characterized by certain grammarians under dilFe-
rent times, namely, " 1 may write," and " I shall write," the for-

37i

RULE XXXVIII. U.

U in tlie increments of verbs is short ; as possmnus, vo-
liinras, sumiis, qiuvshnus.

Qui dare certa ferte, dare \\x\nera, possiimus hosti — Ov.
For the penultimate of urus, see Rule XIV.

AN APPENDIX.

Concerning the Qjiantity of the First and Middle
Syllables of certain other Words.

I. Patronymics masculine, in ides, or ades, generally
have the penultimate short ; as Pria^mdes, Atlantiades. —
Except those formed from nouns in ens ; as Pel'ides ; also
Belldes, Ljjcurgldcs, Amphiaraldcs, Japetionldes, which
Icno'then it.

Atque hic P)iaimdem laniatum corpore toto — Virg.
Par sibi Pelldcs : nee inania Tartara sentit — Ovid.

II. Patronymics, and those a-kia to them, in ais, eis,
iTis, CIS, OTIS, INE and ONE, generally lengthen the pen-
ultimate; as AchcTis, Ptole?nais^ Chrijseis, A^neis, Memphl-
tis, Oceanitis., Minois, Latois, Icariotis, Nilotis, Ncr'me,
Acrisione. But Thehdis and Phocdis shorten the penulti-
mate. Net-eis is common,

mer being named, from the accessary idea, a present, and the lat-
ter, from the depending action, a future ; while, in reality, if we
apply the same criterion to them, they are either both present or
both future*. Indeed, it has been contended that the future had
the termination rim as well as ro ; so that it is reckoned not im-
probable that both may originally have been but one tense, which
had both a past and a future reference. In addition to the au-
thorities for reckoning r/??»/s and W^/s common, there is likewise
reason to consider ris of the future at least, as common ; and this
is an argument, founded on the analogy observed in other tenses
between the quantity of the final syllable of the second person
singular, and the penultimate of the first and second persons plu-
ral increasing a syllable, for considering the following rimus and

ritis also common. R/s, rimus and ritis of the preterite are

commonly accounted short; but it is exceedingly probable, that,
whether referred to the preterite, or perfect future, they still
miszht be used as common.

° The principle of arrangement, licre briefly intimated several yoai's ago, the
present writer afterwards adopted, and partially explained, in his arrangement
of what arc termed the English tenses. See an English Granmuir (published
in 181:5), l'reface;pp. 82, n, ^, &c. ; 210, II, cS:c. ; 219, kc. In a small tract,

375

Protiniis ^-Egides, rapta Minolde. Dian — Ovid.
Thebdides jussis sua tempora frondibus ornant — Ovid.
III. Adjectives in acus, icus, idus, and imus, generally
have the penultimate short ; as ^^gi/ptiaciis, dcemoniacus ;
acadcniiais, aromaficus ; calltdns, pnj'idus, lepidus ; finirimiis^
IcgiUm.us ; also superlatives, pidchcrnmus, Jbrtissmus, opti-
vuis, maximus, &c. Except merCiciis, opaats ; amicus^ apricus^
pudicus, mendlcus, posticus ; J'idus, irifidus ,- bmus, irlmuSy
gnadnmus, patnmus, 7naln/nus, ojnnms ; and the two super-
latives, Imus, and primus.

appended to Riiddiman's Rudiments, (first published, I believe, in 1820,)
Dr. John Hunter, tlie learned and justly respected Professor of Humanity in
the University of St. Andrew's, has made the same principle the basis of a new
arrangement and explication of the Latin and Greek moods and tenses. The
leading principles upon which he proceeds are, 1st, " By separating the lime
" from the other circumstances involved in those forms of the Ijatiii verb,
"called the tenses of the bulicativc xnA the subjunctive mood" [potential ?^
and, 2nd, By assuming that, as the auxiliary verbs in English employed to ren-
der the tenses of the subjunctive mood, are all indicative, " it follows, that the
" tenses of the Latin subjunctive, or potential, or optative, as in certain instances
" it has been called, as well as the subjunctive and optative of the Greek verb,
" which involve these auxiliaries, and are rendered into English by means of
them, are also Ixdicative." Conformably to these principles, Dr. H. thus
classes the Latin tenses :

Pasts corresponding.

Indie. Prcs. Scribo, Indie. Imperf. iScribebatn,

Plup. Scri])sera7n.

Subj. Imperf. Scriberem.

Pluperf. Scripsissem.

In the preceding arrangement, it appears that Dr. H., guided solely by
the auriliari^s implied, and not regarding the simple encrgi/ of the tense, has
omitted to dispose of the tense scripsi, " I wrote." As scribcbam, " I was
writing," corresponds as a past to saibo, " I am writing," as a present ; so,
it appears to me, does scripsi, " I wrote," correspond to scribo, '' I write."—
Had we not seen this little tract most ostentatiously lauded, in a number of
the JVew Edinburgh Review, (No. V.) which ^as just come under our notice,
in an article evidently written by a zealous disciple and advocate, but, at the
same time, an acute critic, — as exhibiting something new and highly important,
we should not have deemed it worth while to prefer any claim to a novelty, if
it be such, which, as far as regards the learned languages, wc never did think,
and do not even now think, of much practical utility ; nor to assert, that, nei-
ther to Dr. Hunter, whom we never had the pleasure of seeing or hearing,
nor to any other person, have wc been, in any way whatever, indebted for a
single hint or suggestion on this important subject, had not the critic stated
his having " seen so many of Dr. Hunter's peculiar doctrines plagiarised, and
palmed upon the world as original discoveries, by those vvlio had enjoyed the
benefit of his prelections at St. Andrew's." As, however, neither Dr. H., nor
the Reviewer, seems to have attempted an explanation of the principle, and
although this may not be the proper place for it, wc shall endeavour, by
a few imperfect liints very hastily thrown together, in some degree to sup-
])ly tlie omission. That all propositions, whether certain or contingent, or
wluitever their forms may be, or whatever may be the grammatical designytion
of the words in wliicU they arc cuuiitiatcd, arc cither fccntciitiajly indicalivc,

Subj.

Presents.

Prcs.

Scribo,

Perf.

Scrijisi,

Fut.

Scribam \
Scribam \

Pres.

Perf.

Scripscrim

Fut.

Scripsero

376

Utque suiim laqueis, quos callidus abdidit auceps — Ov.

Fidum ^neas affatur Achaten — Virg.

IV. Adjectives in alis, and almost all in anus, enus,
ARUS, ivus, ORUS, and osus, have their penultimate long; as

co?ijugdlis, dotdlis ; montdnus, urbihius ; tcrrhins ; amftrus,
avdrm ; ccstmis, fugitltms ; cajiorus, decorus ; arc?idsus, per-

niciosus. But the penultimate of barbarus^ opiparus and

oviiydnis is short.

or logically resolvable into simple assertion, has long been considered an esta-
blished truth. Hence, in confonnity with the nature of our ideas, only one
mood, the Indicative, is absolutely necessaiy for the communication of thought.
There is, in English, only this mood ; and yet, altliough it contains but two
tenses, we possess suitable means of denoting, explicitly and distinctly, pos-
session, power, obligation, volition, liberty, contingency, and every mode and
circumstance of thought that are associated with action, in the various moods
and tenses of die learned languages. Wi'h respect to tenses or times, it seems
equally true, that, whatever may be their number or variety in these languages,
there are, in the nature of things, as in English, but two, a past, and a present.
In speaking of present time, we here wave altogetlier the metapliysical con-
sideration of the nature of duration. Brief and fleeting as the present moment
is, consisting of a portion of time just passed, and a portion just come or
coming, there is an assumed period of time, deemed present, M-hether it be
termed the present moment, hour, or day ; and all past time ivas once what
we term present. Verbs, we conceive, liave their essence in motion or rest ;
and tliese two must exist in time. Now, only three sorts of time can be con-
ceived, past, present, and future. Of these, the first lias had an existence; the
second is said to have an existence ; but tlie third is a sort of non-entity ; it is
purely ideal, an object of mental contemplation. No action, therefore, can
have existed, or can exist, in it. A past action has been before us ; it has been
present ; we know, therefore, that it has liad an existence ; and we have a right
to record it, as having existed, as being past. But an action, contemplated as
future, has had no existence, and may never exist ; it is a mere contingency.
Every action, therefore, or energy ef the m.ind, must come into existence, in
the time deemed relatively present. As far, then, as the accessary part of a
verb is concerned, and it is with tliis part alone of a complex tense, that the
subject of the verb comes into direct and immediate contact, no future tense
ever existed, or, in the nature of things, could exist, in any language, antient
or modern. The execution, or action implied in the radical part of the verb,
if future, is so merely by inference ; because the action is, necessarily, poste-
rior to the volition or obligation from whence it emanates ; but the volition or
obligation must first exist in present time. The accessary idea is, as it were,
die medium, or connecting word between the subject or nominative, and the
radical part of the verb, whether this be regarded equivalent to a noim, a par-
ticiple, or an infinitive. From these few liasty remarks, I think, we may fairly
infer, 1st, That all moods are, in sense, essentially Indicative ; and, ;3ndly.
That, as far as regards the time of a simple tense, and, in complex tenses, as
far as the accessai-y or leading idea is concerned, all tenses, in all languages,
whedier they be simple or complex, are, in sense and signification, Present or
I'ast, Futurity, when implied or involved, being inferred, not specially ex-
pressed. We shall only add, that tenses may also be arranged, as definite or
indefinite, in respect of action or dme. When a tense denotes tlie mei'e name
or simple energy of the verb, as write, plough, it is indefinite in action. Wlien
it denotes progression or perfection as indicated, respectively, by writing,
ploii<ihing, or by written, ploughed, it is definite. All tenses, we apprehend, are
indefinite in point of time, specific portions of it requiring to be ascertained by
the addition of appropriate terms. This subject is noticed, at considerable
Icngthj in the writer's Eng. Gram. pp. 65, 6Q, 83, 84, &c.

377

Adjecisset opes, anuni irritamen avnri — Ovid.

Pictus acu tunicas, et barhdra teginiiia crurum — Virg.

V. Verbal adjectives in iLis shorten the penultimate ; as
agilis,_fcialis,fus1lis, utilis, &c. But those adjectives which
are derived from nouns are generally long; as anllis, civilis,
Jierllis., &c. to which may be added e.rJlh, and subtllis ; also
the names of months, Aprllis, Qidtict'ilis, ScxtiHs. Except
kiamlis, j^anlis^ and sirmlis, a word of uncertain origin, whose
penultimates are short. But all adjectives in atilis, whether
derived from verbs or nouns, have the penultimate short; as
jilicatilis, versat'ilis, volafilis, Jbiviadlis, &c.

Nee tibi i\e\\c\vejriciles, vulgataque tantum — Ovid.
At qui umbrata gerunt civlli tempora.quercu — Virg.
Et cognoscenti siniilis fuit Ovid.

VI. Adjectives in in us, derived from living things, and de-
noting possession ; also numeral distributives, proper names,
and gentile nouns, lengthen the penultimate; as Agfwms, ca-
mniis^ leporlmis; Binus, trlmis, qulnus; Albmns, Craimns, Jus-
trnus ; Alcxandrlnus, Latinus, Veyiusinus, &c. To these may
be added certain adjectives having a reference to animal ac-
tions ; as adultennns, fesfmus, gelaslnus, penumns, libcrtlnus^
?)iediastlfms, ojnmis, and inopinns,2>o'ii'P<^i'twiis,2)ercgrm'ns, su-
pinus. Also, adjectives of place ; as collinus, marhms, vici-
nus ; and those derived from nouns denoting time ; as matu-
turns, vespcrtinus ; and lastly these few, not reducible to a
class, Austrinus, Cawlnus, cistemmus, clandesimus, repcntl-
nus.

Sicaniam peregrina colo Ovid.

Et inatutmi volucrum sub cuhnine cantus — Virg.

VII. Adjectives in inus, derived from inanimate things,
such as plants, trees, stones, and from other nouns generally
denoting matter; also from adverbs of time, or from substan-
tives denoting the four seasons of the year, have their pen-
ultimate short ; as Amaracmus, crocinus, JnjacintJmms ; ce-
dn/u/s, Jagmus, oleagmus ; adamantrnus, amclhystmm, smn-
ragdhms ; corallhius, cnjstaltinus, murrJnnns ; Crastmiis, diu-
finus, pere?idinus, jn-tstinns, serofmus ; Earinns, oporhms,
c//imci-hn/s, tJiermus ; also annoihius, hornofams. To which
add bomhija nus, idcphcmimus, which seem to refer rather to
the silk, and ivory, than to the animals themselves.

Et lux cum j)rimjim terris se crastma reddet — Virg.
Mens tantum j^^'isima mansit — Ovid.

VIII. Diminutive's in oi.us, oi,A, OLUM, and ulus, ula,
ULU3I, shorten the penultimate ; as urccvlus, Jiliola, musav-

378

lum ; Lectidus, ratiuncula, cotctdum, &c. Nouns in etas
and ITAS ; as pietas, civitas.

Ante fugam soboles, si quis milii parvulus aula — Virg.

IX. Adverbs in ti3I lengthen the penultimate ; as oppi-

ddtim, dietim^ vir'dim, tributim. Except affathn and per-

petim ; also stdtim, which has however been lengthened by
poets living in an age of degenerate Latinity.

Et velut absentem certdtiin Actaeona clamant— Ovid.
Stulta est fides celare quod prodas stutim — (Iamb.)

X. Latin denominatives in aceus, aneus, arius, aticus,
ORius; also verbals in abilis; and words in atilis, what-
ever their derivation may be, lengthen their antepenultimate ;
as cretdceus, testdcens; momentd7ieus,subitd?ieus; cibdrius, hcr-
bdrius ; aqudticus, Jandtiais ; censorins, mcssorius ; amdbUis,
7'evocdbUis ; (except stdbilis, from statum, of sisto ;) pluvid-
tdls, plicdtilis, &c.

Aiunt, cum sibi sint congesta cibdria, sicut — Hor.
Calcavere pedis, nee solvit aqudticus Auster — Ovid.
Sic erat instubdis tellus, inndbdis unda — Ovid.

XI. Adjectives in icius, derived from nouns, shorten the
i of the antepenultimate ; as gadiUcms, pati^iciiis, tribuiiicius.
Except novlcius or nov'/tius. But those which come from su-
pines, or participles, lengthen the i of the antepenultimate ;
as advectlcms, commendaticius, supposdicius, &c.

Patncios omnes opibus cum provocet unus — Juv.

Jam sedet in ripa, tetrumque iiov'icius horret — .Tuv.

Hermes supposdicius sibi ipsi (Phal.) — Mart.
The quantity of the first and middle syllables of foreign or
barbarous words introduced into the Latin language, cannot
be determined, unless when they fall within the general rules.
— Those first and middle syllables which cannot be ascer-
tained by the preceding rules, must be determined by the
practice or authority of the poets.

SPECIAL RULES

FOR LAST OR FINAL SYLLABLES; AND FOR
MONOSYLLABLES.

OF THE VOWELS.

One general quantity of a is not ascertained. E is, ge-
nerally, ?/, always, short, /is, generally, u, always, long.
O is generally common.

379

RULES I. and II. A final.

I. A final, in words declined by cases, is short; as musa,
templet, Tydeu, lavipada.

Musa refert : Dedimus summam certaminis uni — Ovid.

Tefupld petebamus Parnassid. Ovid.

Hectoris hie niagni fuerat comes : Hectord circum — Virg.
Quo teneam vultus mutantem Proted ' nodo — Hor.

Exceptions.

1. The ablative singular of the first declension is long; as
hdc musa, hoc Ained.

2. The vocative singular from Greek nouns in as, is long;
as O ^ned, O Palld, from JEncas, Pallas. But Greek vo-
catives in a from nominatives in tes (changed to ta, in some
parts of the Doric dialect) are short ; as Orestd, ^etd, from
Orestes, jEetes.

Prospiciens, summd placidum caput extulit imdd — Virg.

Quid miserum, jEned, laceras? Jam parce sepulto — Virg.

Fecerunt furia?, tristis Orestd, tuae — Ovid.

II. A final, in words not declined by cases, that is, in verbs
and particles, is long; as amd,frustrd, pj-atered, posted, post-
illd, ergd, intra, a.

Et pete quod fas est; et amd, quod foemina debes — Ovid.

Intered magno misceri murmin-e pontum — Virg.

Exti'd fortunam est, quidquid donatur amicis — Mart.

Exceptions.

1 . The particles itd, quid, cjd, and piitd put adverbially,
shorten a ; and after the same manner Sidonius shortens
haUclujd.

2. The prepositions contra and ultra, and numerals in
gi7ita are sometimes found short; but approved authors
lengthen the a^.

' In the following line the accusative Orphea may be consi-
dered either a dactyl or spondee ; Orphraque in medio posuit, syl-
vasque sequentes — Virg. But in the following, it is evidently a
spondee; Non tantum Rhodope miratur, etismarus Orphea — Virg.

- Anted is found long in Horace and Catullus. Contra is long
in Virgil ; short in Ausonius and Manilius. Posiilla is long in
Ennius and Catullus. Posten is long in Plautus ; short in the be-
ginning of a line in Ovid; but in this last, Vossius says it should
be read post ca ; or, perhaps it may be used there as a dissyllable
formed by Synaeresis, ihuspostm. Posleaquam is alsoused by Vic-
torinus in the beginning of a line. An able critic in the Class.
Journ. Vol. XV, p. y IT, (Mr. Carson, we believe, the learned

380

Turn sic affiitur renjem, atque ita turbicUis infit — Virg.
TrigiiitCi capitum foetus enixa jacehit — Virg.

RULE III. E final.

Words ending in c are generally short ; as nate, cuhiK,
2)afre, curre, nempl\ ante.

Incipt^ i^arve puer, risu cognoscere matrem — Vii'g.

Ante mare et tellus, et, quod tegit omnia, coelum — Ovid.

Exceptiojis.

1. x\ll words in c, of the first and fifth declension, are
long; as Calliope, Anchise\ _fide ; aho fame, originally of

Rector of the High School, Edinb.) seems to contend, and it
would appear successfully, that the pronouns used long in com-
position, in such words as antea, postea, posteaqiiam, postilla, in-
tcrea, &c. are not, as is generally supposed, accusatives, which
would require a short quantity, but, like hac in antehac and post-
hac, ablatives singular feminine, the prepositions being employed
absolutely, and the pronouns referring elliptically to some cir-
cumstance implied, mite and post, for instance, in antra and postea,
having the same kind of relation to the unspecified time probably
represented by ea, as, when associated with /loris, mensibus, annis,
multo, paulo, Sec, they bear to the time thus specified; and that,
therefore, the a of ea and ilia, in such compounds, is long, like
that of ablatives of the first declension. In the line from Ovid,
post ea is evidently the proper reading, as marking, without any
immediate reference to time, merely the succession of events.
Postcaqnam, in the line quoted by Smetius from Victorinus,
Posteaquani rursus speculatrix arva patere, was probably intended
for a trisyllable, the ca being sounded as one syllable, by Synte-
resis, like aured in Virgil, iEn. i. 698. FntaSov videlicet, is found
short in Persius in the line, Hoc puta non justum est, Sec.; but
some read pnto Ultra is long in Horace, Juvenal, Persius and
others, and there is hardly a respectable authority for considering
it short, Jitxta, which is long in Virgil and others, is once short
in Catullus. But a better reading has jiincta. The termination
pinta is found short in some of the old poets, and in those of a
later date, as Ausonius, Manilius and others; but those who flou-
rished during the purity of the language always made it long. In
Greek, however, the termination whence it is derived is short.
(luid is long in a line of Pha;drus: Ego primam toUo, nominor
nuiil. leo. But some would read quia nominor leo.

I ylc/j«7/c is found short in Propertius, by Apocope, for Achillen:
Quique tuas proavus fregit Achille domes. But in tl-is line
amended, Achille becomes an Ablative. The Doric vocatives,
as Ulijssc and Achille, are long.

381

tlie fifth. Thus also, re^ die, and their compounds quarej
hodie, ]}}-idie, postridie, quotidic.

Hanc tua Penelope lento tibi mittit, Ulysse — Ovid.

Objicit : '^o-fame rabida tria guttura pandens — Virg.

Et (juamquam sa;ivit pariter rabieiiuejdmeque — Ovid.

Nunc eadem, labente die, convivia quajrit — Virg.

2. All nouns Avanting the singular ; as cele, mele, Tempe,
pelage, being Greek contractions.

Silva : vocant Tempe. Ovid.

At pelage, niulta, et late substrata videnius — Lucret.

3. The second person singular of imperatives of the se-
cond conj ligation ; as doce, mane. But cave, vale, vide, re-
sponde and salve^, have e common.

Vade, vale, cave ne titubes, mandataque frangas — Hor.
Idque, quod ignoti faciunt, xjale dicere saltern — Ovid.
Responile, quibus amissas reparare queam i"es — Hor.
Quid sis nata vide, nisi te quoque decipis ipsam — Ovid.
Si quando veniet ? dicet ; responde, poiita — Mart.
Auriculas? Vide, sis, ne majorum tibi forte — Pers.
Lector salve. Taces, dissinudasque ? Vale — Martial.

4. Monosyllables are long ; as e, me, ie, se, 7ie, {lesi or
7iot). — Except the enclitics que, 7U', w, and the syllabic ad-
jections pte, ce, te ; as S2iaple, hujuscc, lute.

Vera, inquit ; 7ieque me Argolica de gente negabo — Virg.
Me miserum ! tie prona cadas, itidig7iave laedi — Ovid.

Nostrapte culpa facimus Ter.

Hinc omnis pendet Lucilius. Hosce secutus — Hor.

5. Adverbs in e, coming from nouns of the second de-
clension, are long ; as placide, pidcht-c, valde. (or valide),
&c. : also all adverbs of the superlative degree; as doctissi-
7ne, 7naximi, 7ni7iime. But bc7ie, male, superne, i7iJlr7U', mage,
the same as 7nagis, and impime (two words whose immediate
derivation is not clearly ascertained), have their last syllable
short; also the adverbs /^ ere', and Herctde.

Prcecipiic, cum jam hie trabibus contextus acernis — Virg.

Si heue (juid de te merui Virg.

Terra siipeime^ tremit, magnis concussa ruinis — Lucret.

' Perhaps some of these may have originally belonged to the
third conjugation also. The line from Martial is read otherwise ;
thuSj

Quando venit? dicct: tu rcspondcto ; poeta.
Are not final vowels, independently of association or rhythmical
connexion, naturally of nearly the same quantity ?

* On the quantity of superne in this line, Lambinus saj'S ;
" Millies jam dixi ultimam t-yllabam aUverbii SStipeme, brevcni

382-

Asplce, niim mage sit nostrum penetrabile telum — Virg.
Quam super haud ullae poterant tjupune volantes — Virg.
Et positum est nobis nil /lere praeter aprum — Martial.
Verterat in fumuni et cinerem, non Hercule miror — Hor.
Adjectives neuter, of the third declension, used adverbially,
retain the original short quantity of the e ; as sublime, Jh"
cile, dulce,

Cantantes sublime ferent ad sidera cycni — Virff.
6. Ferme, fere, and ohe, have e long.

Mobilis et varia est Jenne natura maloruni — Juv.
Jamquey^/-c sicco subductfB littore puppes — Vij-g.
0/ie ! jam satis est, ohe ! libelle — Mart.
Ausonius has shortenedyt'/T.

RULE IV. / final.

Words ending in i are generally long; as domiii?, Mer-
air'i, patrl,fructul, me'i, amarx, docerl, audi, 7, Ovidl,Jili.
Quid domini facient, audent cmn talia fures — Virg.
Sic fatur lacrymans classl({\\e immittit habenas — Virg.
Hinc cxaudiri gemitus, irseque leonum — Virg.
/, sequere Italiam ventis, pete regna per undas — Virg.

Exceptio7is.

1 . Greek vocatives are short ; as Alcxi, AmarxjlU, Thet),
Pan, Daphii ; but Simol, or such as belong to nouns hav-
ing entos, gen. are long.

O crudelis Alexi, nihil mea carmina curag — Virg.
Frasnato delphine sedens, Thefi, nuda solebas — Ovid.

2. Greek datives singular of the third declension, from
nouns increasing, are said to be varied ; but they are short.
MinoidX and Tethiji in Catullus, and Palladi in Statins,
are short. Thetidl in Catullus, and Paridi and Tyndaridi
in Propertius, are said to be long'.

Palladi litoreae celebrabat Scyros honorem — Stat.
Morte, ferox Theseus qualem Minoidi luctum — Catul.

((

esse : itaque eos errare qui hoc loco, et similibiis, legi volunt
" Superna" This remark is intended to be applied also to tlie
critics who wish to substitute superna for superne, in Horace,
od, ii. 20, 11 : — Superne, nascuntur Iseves. Superne is used in the
same sense. Art. Poet, line 4. — Temere occurs short in Seneca.

' These are long by Caesura ; for the i of Greek cases is natu-
rally short. Orplwi may be considered as a dactyl, in Virgil,
Ec. 4, 57, and, by Synaeresis, it is a spondee, in G, 4, 545, 553.
It here appears to be a contracted Greek dative. Neuters in i

383

3. Datives and ablatives plural of Greek nouns in si {siti
before a vowel) are short ; as heroist^ Troasi, Charisl.

Edidit haec mores illis herohm a^quos — Ovid.
Troasin invideo, quse si lacrymosa suorum — Ovid.

4. Mi/ii', tibi, si/ji, are common. Also tbt', iiis?', ubT\ and
quasi'; but these last are oftener short. Nisi and quasi are,
perhaps, scarcely ever long, without Caesura.

Non vmquam gravis sere domimi ?ni/u dextra redibat —

Virg.
Extremum hunc, Arethusa, 7niht concede laborem — Virg.
Puella senibus dulcior mi/fi cygnis — Mart.
!Sic quasi Pythagorae loqueris successor et haeres — Mart.
Et devicta quasi, cogatur ferre patique — Lucret.
Experiar sensus. Nihil hie nis7 carmina desunt — Virg.

RULE V. 0 final.

O at the end of words is common ; as leo, a7no, disco\
quando, doccio.

Nempe tenens quod amo, gremioque in lasonis heerens —

Ovid.
Non amo te, Sabidi ; nee possum dicere quare — Mart.
Oro, qui reges consuesti tollere, cur non — Hor.
Quo ftigis ? 0)0, mane, nee me, crudelis, amantem —

Ovid.

may be added to the number of exceptions ; such as gummi, melt,
sincqn. — But Greek datives, formed by contraction, are always
long; as Demosthenl, metamorphosi ; also those which come from
the first declension in Greek ; as Orestt, Euripidi, which are long
too according to the rules of quantity for Latin Declensions.

' Siciibi is short on the authority of Virgil, G. 3, 332; JE.5,
677. Necuhi is also short. Alibi, ubique and ibidem are com-
monly long. Uti and veluti have the i generally long, which may
happen to them as well as to some of the others reckoned com-
mon, often by Caesura, independently on their own natural quan-
tity. But uti or sicuti is short in a line of Lucretius, and once
also in Ennius.

Sic uti quadrupedem cum primis esse videmus — Lucret.
The i of utinam and iitlque is also short, Cul when used as a
dissyllable, whether simply or in composition, generally has the
z short, as in a Sapphic from Seneca, Troades, 852; but when
reckoned one syllable, which it seems to be by Vii-gil, Horace,
and Ovid, it is always considered to be long.

^ Seldom in verbs, except piito, scio and nescio, and chiefly
when used parenthetically, or when the vowel concludes a foot,
is 0 made short, by any author hving in the Augustan age. Scio
and nescio are said to be shortened to distinguish them from the
datives or ablatives scio and nescio.

384-

Qiiando pauperiem, missis ambagibus, liorres — Hor.
At patrias siquando domos, optataque, Pa;an — Stat.

Exceptions,

1. Monosyllables are long: as d, pro, pto/i, do, sfo ; but
tlie compounds of the last two follow the Rule.

Do quodvis et me victusque, volensque remitto — Virg.
O lux Dardania?, spes O fidissima Teucrum ! — Virg.

2. Greek feminines ending in o, and Greek cases origi-
nally written with an omega, are long ; as Sappho, Clio, Di-
do (in whatever case), Atho, from Aflws, Androgeo.

Clioque, et Beroij soror, Oceanitides ambse — Virg.

In foribus letum Androgeo ; tum pendere poenas — Virg.

3. Also, datives and ablatives of the second declension ;
as domino, den, poyidd, to which add another ablative, ergo,

for the sake of, ergo, signifyhig therefore, belonging to the
Rule.

Tum caput ipsi aufert domino, truncumque relinquit —

Virg.
Invadunt urbem sonmo vinoque sepultam — Virg.

4. Also, Greek genitives from nouns of the Attic dialect,
in U3S', as Androgeo, Atho. — See Excep. 2.

5. Adverbs formed from nouns are long; as cert o, falsi),
merito, tanto, quanto, paido, continuo, vnilfb', also illo, quo,
eb, and the compounds, qudvis, qudcunquc. — To which add,

citro, intro, and idtro. But the following, though oftener

long, are sometimes short; denuo, sero, viutuo, p)ostremo, vera.
Porro, retro, idcirco, adeo, ideo, may likewise be deemed com-
mon ;^to which have been added crebro and sednlo. Profecto
and suhito, both naturally long, have been shortened, the

one by Ter. Maurus, the other liy Seneca. Modo and its

compounds are short ; as qicomodo, dummodx), postmodo '.

' The words first noticed, in No. S, among the Exceptions,
are, obviously, ablatives, and long by Except. 3. Several of the
words also in the third division of No. 5 are likewise ablatives,
denuo being de novo, aixvik profecto, pro facto ; h\xt porro is an ab-
lative of no Latin noun, and, in Greek, in which it is an adverb,
its final o is long.

Modo, when separated from the words with which it is usually
compounded, might be expected to assume its natural quantity,
according to Except. 3.

Nunc, quo quamque modo possis cognoscere, dicam — Virg.
But here it is long by Caesura. In the following line, xviih an en-
clitic, wliich, by attracting the ictus mctriciis, strengthens the pre-
ceding syllable, it is long :

SS:1

Hie aliuJ iuajus niiseris muUdquc trementhun — Virg.
Heu scro revocatur amor, .vtvoque juventus — Tlbull.
Vester porrb labor foecundior, histoviarum — Juv.
Serb memor thalami, nioestfe solatia niatri — Stat.
Hie inter densas corylos modu namque gemellos — Virg.

6. Ambo, duo, scio, nescio, puto, imo, illico, ccdo the im-
perative, ego, homo, cito, (which is the adjective used ad-
verbially,) are generally considered short.

Sic ubi nescio quis Lycia de gente viroruni — 0^•id.
At pi/fu nou nltro, nee (|uic(|uam tale rogantem — Ovid.
Tarn ciio commisi properatis verba tabellis — Ovid.
Ast ego quae divum incedo regina, Jovisque — Virg.
Praeterea duo nee tiita niihi valle rej)erti — Vii-g.
Europanique Asianique, duo vel maxima terra? — Auson.

7. Gerunds in do are always made long by Virgil ; but
otliers sometimes shorten them'.

Csetera nequaquam siniili ratione moduqite — Ilor,
Horace concludes two other lines with ratione inodoqne. Here,
however, some persons might suspect (he effect of Ccssura, but,
it would appear, without sufficient reason ; for modoque may be
regarded as one trisyllabic word, of which que is a constituent
part, in the same way as liminaque is a quadrisyllabic, at the be-
ginning of a line in Virgil, in which que, otherwise sliort, becomes
long, merely by bjing considered as the Jiiial syllalAc of a word
under Caesura. In composition 1 have always found the o final
short. Used adverbially, it seems to be generally short ; thus

Cum trihus annellis nwdo Iseva Priscus inani — Ilor.

Tu mndo nascenti puero quo ferrea primum — Virg.
In the following line it is long ;

Hoc quid putemus esse? qui modo scurra — Catull.
But, here it may be observed, that, one particular instance ex-
cepted, Catullus lengthens a short final vowel before s and an-
other consonant. In the following Anapaestic, however, from
Seneca, it is long : Quae fa|m!i modo \ venit ad aures. But, per-
haps, this example may not be (juite satisfactory to those who
consider the Octavia the worst of all the plays that bear the
name of Seneca. In the following Anapaestic, it is short, being
in a different part of the foot : Utinam | modo n6|stra redirent
— Boeth. Upon tlie whole, excluding the influence of ictus and
caesura, it would appear, that the short quantity oi modo is more
common, and better established, than the long. In the following
Iambic, however, it is long; Excede, pietas ; si modo nostra in
domo — Senec.

Prosper shortens omnino ; but it is better to lengthen it with
Virgil.

' Gerunds are verbal nouns, the quantity of which might be
ascertained by Except. S ; and it seems strange that it i< ever va-

2 C

386

Per nemora, alqiie altos qncvrcndo bucula lucos — Virg.
Plurimus hie aeo'cr moritur vi<rilandu, sed ilium — Jiiv.
Aui'er et ipse nieam pariter mcdicando doloi'eivi — Tibid.

RULE VI. [/final.

Words ending in u are long; as xndtu, cornu, PcaUhuy
diclii, dill.

Prajterea lumen per cornu transit : at imber — Liicret.

rulfu quo cceium tempestates([ue serenat — Virg.

Sed, tu quod noUe.s, voluit miserabile latum — Ovid.

Quo res summa loco, Panthu ? quam prendimus arcem
— Virg.

The diphthong of vocatives in en does not appear to be
ever dissolved :

Scis, Proteu, scis ipse ; neque est te fallere cuiqaam — Virg.

Note. — iTidil for in, and 7icnH for no?i, both used by Lu-
cretius, the former likewise by others, in composition, as in-
diiperator, indu- or cndo-gredior, have the u short.

Itidu manu validas potis est moderanter habenas — Luc.

Nenii queunt rapidi coritra constare leones — Lucr.

ried. — Were I to hazard a conjecture concerning the probable
cause of this variation, it would be founded upon an analysis of
the gerund, tlie constituent parts of which seem to mc to be the
radical letters of the verb and the antient preposition endo, or in-
dii, (see Rule VI.) which is equivalent to in. Thus we find in
the Twelve Tables the following law :

Hom'mem mortuum endo urhe nei sepelcilo, neive urito. Let not
a dead person be buried nor burnt in the city.
The e is used in the Greek en and eiidon, and in the French cny
in preference to i. The / is used in Latin and English, in pre-
ference to e.

The same endo we find in the following lines of Lucretius,
Quod genus endo mari, Sec. Endogredi sceleris, &c., and in other
parts. This endo or indu, having its final syllabic short, appears
to me to be the final part of Latin gerunds, and of those of the '
languages of Europe, antient and modern ; and hence perhaps
arises the short quantity sometimes assigned to Latin gerunds.
Docendo, in Latin, means, in teaching. Yendendo, in Portuguese,
means selling, or in sale. Uurm'iejido, in Spanish, sleeping, or in
sleep. Werkende, in Dutcli, working, or in work. Aghsand {t),
in French, acting, or in act. The same observation 1 have rea-
son to think applicable to the Saxon, Gothic, Islandic, and Ger-
man languages; and were I disposed to advance further into the
Held of conjecture, I might endeavour to show that some affinity
exists between endo, and the ing of our English participle or ge-
rund. A few additional remarks may be found in the writer's Eng.
Gram. p. 140.

387

Also, words ending in us short, when, to prevent the vowel
from becoming long by position, the s is elided ; as nunciii
for 7iuncius^ ple7iu' iov jdcmus.

Vicimus O socii, et magnam pugnavmu' })ugnam — En-
nius.

RULE VII— Y final.

Words ending in 1/ are short ; as MoLjj^ Tiphrj^ chdy, Te-
tliji.

Mol!j vocant sujieri Ovid.

Note. — When y is a contraction, as in TctJiij instead of
Tclhyl the dative, it is long by the fourth general Rule.
Quam Tcthy longinqua dies, Glaucoque repostam — Val.
Flac.

OF CONSONANTS.

Every consonant at tlie end of a word, preceded by a sin-
gle vowel, generally makes that vowel short, unless followed
by a word beginning with a consonant ; except c and tz,
which have the preceding vowel generally long. As, es, os,
are generally long ; is, us and 3/5, generally short.

RULE VIII.- B final.

Latin words ending in b are short ; foreign words com-
monly long ; as cib, ob, Job, Jacob.

Magnus cib integro sec'lorum nascitur ordo — Virg.

RULE IX. C final.

Words ending in c are long ; as uc, sic, Ji'ic (adverb), due,
iJliic.

Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat — Virg.

Uoc^ erat, alma parens Virg.

Hoc age, ne mutata retrorsum te ferat aura — Hor.
Atque hlc ingentem comitum affluxisse novorum — Virg.

Excejyfions.

1. Nee and dojiec are short.

2. Hic^, the pronoun, is common; alsoy^c', to which
some add koc^ of the nominative and accusative.

' It is contended by the antient granmnarians tliat the pronoun
hie is always short by nature ; and that vvlien it. is found long, be-
fore a word beginning with a vowel, it is owing to the syllabic ad-
jection ce being supposed to belong to it, the e of which (and, as
it generally happens, the c likewise) is cut off by synulcepha ; and

2C2

Parve, nee invideo, slue me, liber, ibis in iirbem — Orid.
Cogere donee oves stabulis, numerumque referre — Virg.
Hie vii", /lie est, tibi quern promitti Scepius audis — Vii-g.
Hie gladio fidens, /ilc acer et arduus hasta — Virg.

RULE X. J) final.

Words ending in d are short, in Latin ; but foreign words
are generally long ; as qiild, dd, apnd, illnd^ sT-d ; Benadud,
David, BuiTud. I'hese, however, are varied.

Qideqiiid ul est, tinieo Danaos et dona ferentes — Virg.

RULE XL L final.

Words ending in / are short; as tribunal, Asdruhalf/tl,
'pol, consul, procul.

Non semX4 et Satyros ehiserat ilia sequentes — Ovid.

Exeeptioris.

\. Hebrew words are generally long ; as Daniel, Michael,
Nabdl, Saill.

2. Sal\ sol, and ?nl\ are long.

Omnia sub pedlbus, qua sol utrumque recurrens — Virg.

that, therefore, the remaining c must be supposed to possess the
force of a double letter. Be this as it may, it certainly is found
more frequentl)' long than short. The same kind of assertion has
been applied to hoc of the nominative and accusative, wliich als^o
the antient grammarians considered as naturally short; so that, with
regard to both, it is contended, that when we find these cases long
(which they generally are) before a word beginning with a. vowel,
we are to consider that the long quantity arises from the ce which
is suppressed. But there is no question about hoc of the ablative,
which is always long.

Quondam hoc indigena? vivebant more, priusquani — Juv.
The following are the usual authorities cited ibr determining
the quantity of /ac.

Non possunt;y^??c enim minimis e partibiis esse — Lucret.
Hosyac Armenios, hsec est Danaeia Persis — Ovid.
Signa rarius, aut semeiy^"ic illud — (Phal.) Mart,
But they^c of the middle example has been changed, in cor-
rected editions, mio Jhcito ; so that it seems safer^ according to
the opinion of Alvarez, to consider^c as short,
' Nil is long, as being a contraction o^ nihil.

Nil aliud video, quo te creclamus amicum — Mart.
As to sal, I find only one authority quoted by Smetius, from
Ausonius, and another by Alvarez, from Statins, to prove it to be
long ; but these authorities are not perhaps satisfactory, when it is
considered that sal is formed, by apocope, from the obsolete sale
with a short.

Sal, oleum, panis, mel, piper, herba, novem — Auson.
Non .5^7/, oxyporumve, caseusve — Stat.

<J89

RULE Xil. M final,

M at the end of words was, antiently, siiorl, and was not,
as now ', elided, when followed by a vowel.

Insignita fere tuni niillia viilitmn octo — Ennius.
It is still short in clrcuin and com [con) in composition
Avith words beginning with a vowel ; as circumeo, circumago.
Cujus non hederae circiimiere caput — Propert.

Quo te circumagas Juv.

Vivite, lurcones, coniedoJics, vivite ventres ! — Lucil.
If it be ever found long, before a vowel, it must be by
ca>sura.

RULE XIII. iV final.

A^ at the end of words is long ; as en, splcn, qu'm, sin, non.
Also in Greek nouns masculine and feminine; as Titan^
Hijmen, Siren, Salamln, Phorcyn ,- and Acticd7i, Lacedttmon,
Platon, and the like written with «; (omega) ; also in Greek
accusatives of the first declension, coming from nominatives
in AS, Es, and e, long ; as jTjnedn, Anchisen, Ccdliopen ; and
in genitives plural ; as Mynnidonun, Cimmeriun, epigram-
viaion.

Tostos en, aspice crines — Ovid.

(^if/n, agite, et mecum infaustas exurite puppes — Virg.

I'inierat Titan ; onmemque refugerat Orpheus — Ovid.

Actccon cso sum ! dominum cojinoscite vestrum — Ovid.

Amitto Anchisen, hie me, pater optime, tessum — > irg.

Cimmcrioii etiam obscuras accessit ad oras — Tibul.

Exceptions.

1. Nouns ending in en, having mis in the genitive, with
the penultimate short, are short ; as carmen, crimen, numeny
•inis.

Addunt et titulum; titulus breve carmen habtbat — Ovid.

*2. Also nouns in on, of the singular innnber, which hi
Greek are written with o (omicron), and which are in Latin,

of the second declension ; as Jlion, Eroiion, PyUm. But

not (ireek accusatives in on of the Attic dialect, having w
(omega) in the original ; as Alhun, Androgcon.

nee habebat Pelimi umbras — Ovid.

Laudabunt alii claram Uhodon, aut Mitylenen — Hor.

' In one instance Horace retains the m.

Quani laudas, pluma ? Cocto niim adcst honor idem ?
Thus the line is road l)y Dacier, Bentlcy, and Wakefield ; but in
tlie Dauphin edition it is thus given ;
Quaiu Uiudas, pluma ? Coctovc n«m adcst honor idem. -^ — Sat.ii.

390

3. A'' is short in Greek accusatives, whatever the declen-
sion may be, of nouns the final syllable of whose nomina-
tive is short; as Mcyan, JEgirmn^ Orphcun, Alexin, lUin^
chelijn, It^n.

Namqac ferunt raptam patriis ^gh'-hi ab imdis — Stat.

Scorpio)i, atqne aliter curvantem brachia Cancrum — Ovid.

Tantaque nox animi est, Ityn hue arcessite, dixit — Ovid.

1. An, hi, foj'san, forsitan, tamtn, attamtn, vcruntamcn,
viden\ satin\ have w short \

Mittite ; J'orrMn et ha?c olim meminisse juvabit — Virg.
Educet. T'iden ut gemiufie stent vertice cristas — "^ i^'g-
Satin' id est? Nescio, hercle; tantum jussu' sum — Ter.

RULE XIV. R final.

Words ending in r are short ; as calcar, Hamikar, imher,
jyafer, mniXr, vtr. Hector, cm; turtur, martyr, prcco); mittitr,
semper, prcvter, aviaimir, andiuntur.

Turn pater omnipotens misso perfregit Olympum — Ovid.

Inque cor'^ hamata percnssit arundine Ditem — Ovid.

Semper honos, nomenque tuum, laudesque manebunt —
Virg.

Inseruisse manus, impure ac snniinr, audes ? — Lucan.

banc j^rrf or, optime, pro me — Virg.

Ille operum custos, ilium adviirantur, et omnes — Virg.

quibus Hector ab oris — -Virg.

' To tlicse are commonly added some words suffering an apo-
cope of de, asexin, deiri , j)'''^^^^ , but without decisive authorities.
And along widi vidcn and satin are likewise joined scin, midin\
7insf7)i\ (till, ncmon, men', and the like. Nosf/n', indeed, if late
editions are correct, is short in Ovid, Epist. Medcce ; but nemon
is twice long in Horace. The others cannot be safely used, un-
less followed by a consonant ; when, in course, they are long.

Greek dntivos in 5/« have been noticed under Rule IV. /final.

^ Cor long is attributed to Ovid : bat the line, in which it is
gaid to be thus found, is read differently in corrected editions.
Molle meum levibus cor est violabile telis.
Molle meum levibusy?^^ cor est violabile telis — Ep. xv. 79.
Vir long has been likewise said to be found in Ovid ; but that too
arose from an, erroneous reading.

Degregc nunc tibi v'tr, et dc grcge natus habcnuus.
Better thus ;

Be grege nunc tibi vir, nunc dc grcge natus habcndus — Met. 1.
G60.
In the last xnr is long, merely by its position.

Exxcptions.

1. Greek nouns, and such as have <?;75 in llie genitive,
with the penuhiniate Jong, are^long; as crater\ stater, ver,
Ser, Rechncr, -tr/.s" ; also Iljcr, which lias Iben's as well as
Iberi ; apd acr and cc///Pr, which have the penultimate ol' their
genitive short. Cdtider, a compound of Iber, is common.

Fer erat leternum, placidi(jue tepentibus auris — Ovid.
Si tibi durus Ibcr, aut si tibi terga dedisset — Lucan.
Aer a tergo (juasi provehat atcjue pro})ellat — Lucret.
Diicit ad aurit'eras quod mc Salo CelfibiV oras — Mart.
Nunc CcUiber es : Celtiberia in terra — Catull.
Legit Eois Sir arboribus — Seneca.

2. These monosyllables are long, fdr, /ar', Ndr, cur , fur,
and 2^<^n'^ with its compounds, comjnlr, disjpdj; iiiipdr.

. Par aitas, })ar forma fuit; primasque magistris — Ovid.
Ludere jKtr inipnr, equitare in arundine longa — Hor.
Exagitant et lAlr, et turba Diania lures — Ovid.
07r, in(|uit, diversus abis ? hue dirige gressum — Virg.

RULE XV. AS final.

Words ending in as are long ; as mds, vas, jnctas, Pallas
{Pallantis), Thomas, mcnsas, Icgds, amds, fords.

Quid mens j^ncds in tc committere tantum ? — Virg.
Has autem terras, Italique hanc littoris oram — 'Virg.
Et pete quody'cTi- est, et ama, quod Icrmina debes — Ovid.
Concilias : tu das epulis accumbere divum — Virg.
Hinc Pallas instat et m-get — Virg.

Exceptions.

1. Greek nouns whose genitive ends in ddis or ados are
short; as Pallas, Areas, lampds, Ilias, -adis. To which add
the Latin noun, anus, and Latin nouns in as, formed after
the manner of Gi'eek {patronymics ; as Appias.

Pallas Erichthonium, prolem sine matre creatam — Ovitl.

' It lias been disputed wlietlier ;wr and Lar ought to be con-
sidered long, since their increase is short, and since ar of the no-
minative is short in other nouns which increase short, and even in
those which increase long. Pur and its compounds arc certainly
generally found long, and although tliis may arise from diastole,
it does not appear safe to change the (]uantity usuall}' assigned
them. Par, impar, and dispar are found long in Horace. The
latter two arc, however, sliort in Prudentius. Yet notwithstand-
ing this authority, and that also of Martianus Capclla and Avie-
nus, added to the argument founded on analogy, it is safer, as
ah'cady observed, to consider the last syllable oi" these words Uj
lon-r.

392

Et pictis anas enotala, peniiis — Petron.

^ipjji'ds expressis aerii pulsat aquis — Ovid.

2. Also tlie accusative plural of the third declension of
Cireek nouns ; as cratcnis, Cj/cloj)as, hcroas, Troas^ hcroidas^
Hccturas.

Jupiter ad veteres supplex hero'idds ibat — Ovid.

Existunt montes, et sparsas Cycladas augent — Ovid.

RULE XVI. £S final.

Words ending in es are long ; as Jlcidcs, Circes, Pene-
lupes, quit's, hccrcs, lucuples, sermoncs, res, ames, doces, leges,
esses, decics, jjosses, amavisses; the nominatives and vocatives
T)lural of Greek nouns originally written with sij contracted
fi-omsij; as hereses, crises, phrases ; the antient genitive of
the fifth declension, as rabies.
An, quie per totani res est notissima Lesbon — Ovid.
fSi inodo des illis cultus, siniilesque paratus — Ovid.
Quodcujncpie est, rabies unde illa^c germina turgent —
Lucret,

Excej>tio7is,

1. I'he nominatives and vocatives plural of Greek nouns
increasing (not in soj) short in the singular, are short ; as
Jmazonh; Arcades, Delphi nes. Naiades, gryphes, Phryges\
To which may be added Greek vocatives singular in cs
coming from nominatives in es not formed from eus of the
Doric dialect, and having their genitive in eos ; as Demo-
si he-iies, Socrates.

Pampliagus, et Dorceus, et Oribasus ; Arcades omnes —

Ovid,
Troades ; et patriae fumantia tecta reliquunt — Ovid.

2. Es Irom sum is short "^j and in the compounds; as ades,
abes, prodes, poles, &c. ; and in the pre])osition perws.

Quiscjuis t's, hoc poteras mecmn considere saxo — Ovid.
Cui deus, At conjux quoniam men non potes esse — Ovid.

' These nouns, when they assume, in the accusative plural, the
Latin termination es, instead oi as, have it long, according to the
quantity of Latin syllahles.

* Vossius, following Servlus, asserts diat es of «/o, being a con-
traction oi'cdis, is long ; but he cites no authorities. The es of
sum, and the es of edo, notwithstanding the hitter's government
of a case, in such examples, as Est Jianwia mcdnllas — Virg. bona
— Plant, olivas — Hor. animum — Hor. are, without doubt, one
and the same word, and consequently both short. Amhens, too,
is used by Lucretius, V. 397, in the sense oUmbcdens.

393

Qiiempents arbitrium est, et jus, etnornia loquendi — Ilor.

3. Gi'eek neuters in es ; as cacoethes^ hijjpomanes.
Scribendi cacoethes^ et asgro in corde senescit — Juven.

4. Latin nouns of the third declension in es, whose ge-
nitives have a short increment; as hebPs, ales, pedts, limes,

obses. But es is long in these following; Ceres, jmries^,

aries^, abies\ p>'s^, and compounds; as bipes, alipes, tripes,
sonipes, to which some add prcepes, a derivative of prccpeto.

Myrmidonum, Dolopumve, aut duri milts Ulyssei — Virg.
iEtherea quos lapsa plaga Jovis aUs aperto — Virg.
Hie farta premitur angulo Ceres omni — Mart.
Pes etiam et camuris hirtas sub cornibus aures — Virg.
Stat sonipes et fraena ferox spumantia mandit — Virg.

RULE XVII. /S final.

Words ending in is are short; as turns, Jovis, mi litis ,- as-
piels, credifls ,- magis, ch, bh ; u and qiiis, nominatives.
Sangiiis hebet, frigentque effoetai in corpore vires — Virg.
Turn bh ad occasum, bis se convertit ad ortum — Ovid.
Sed qiiis Olympo — Virg.

^xcejJtions.

1. All plural cases in is are long: aspenms, nobis, vobJs;
omuls and urbls, for omnes and icrbes ; qiiis, and qiieis, for
quibus.

Sed pater omnipotens speluncls abdidit atris — Virg.

Atque utinam ex vobls unus, vestrique fuissem — Virg.

Qicis ante ora patrum Trojai sub moenibus altis — Virg.

' Wherever paries, aries and abies are found long, there hap-
pens to be a caesura; and perhaps Ceres XinA j^es are long by dia-
Ktole ; so that it is not very improbable, on the principle of analogy,
that all of them may belong to the general Exceptions. Ausonius
shortens bipes and iripes ; and Probus observes that alipes and so-
nipes are likewise short. The contrary, however, appears in Vir-
gil, Lucan, and Horace ; but it is to be observed, that some of the
above-mentioned words could not be introduced into heroic verse,
without the influence of a figure to lengthen their final syllable.

Prcepes is short in Virgil; it comes not (vom pes, but from

irp'jirsTYjg, prccvolans.

Acer, anhelanti similis; qucm p7-(rpcs ab Ida.
Tigres, ascribed to Ovid, is rejected by the best critics. Ac-
cording to (ireek analogy, some would read tigrls ; Quis scit, an
hiEC sfevas insula tigris habet ? — Ep. 10, 86, the Greek is in such
cases being short. This line has been written thus; Quis scitj an
ha.'c Sicvas tigridas insula habct--Ed. Burnian.

3di

a. Tlie nominative in is is lonp;, when the genitive ends
in Itis, Inis, or entis, with the penultimate long; as /w, ^a/«-
iils, Salauus, Siriwrs.

Grammatici certant, et adhuc sub judice I'ls est — Hor.

Samiils in ludo ac rudibus cuivis satis asper — Lucil.

3. Is is long in the adverbs gratis audjuris^ ; in the noun
glls ; and in u/s, as a noun and verb.

Ignca convexi tv5, et sine ponderc cocli — Ovid.

8i -Sis esse alicjuis. Probitas laudatur et alget — Juv.

4. All second persons singular in is are long ; when tlie
second persons plural have 'ttis widi the penultimate long ;
as cL?, aiidh^ abis,fis,2)ussis, sis, Is, veils, nolis, &c.

Ncscis, heu ! nescis dominas fastidia Rom&> — Mart.

Quc'e tibi causa vite : cur sis, Arethusa, sacer fons — Ovid.
Bis of the perfect is commonly considered short ; ris of the
future is by some considered short also, and by others, with
more reason, common ; but the same observations as were
made on the quantity of rimus and ritis are applicable to ris,
and probably to the last syllable o'i ausis ami /axis likewise.
From the us^ial import of the two tenses, and from analogy,
it may be inferred that they were ail connnon. .

Dixcns cgregie notum si callida verbum — Hor. J

Quas gentes Italum, aut cjuas non oraverh urbes — Virg. ^

Qucmc'umque miserum videris hominem scias — Seneca.

8i thure i^lacarls et horna — Hor.

Da mihi te placidum ; dcdcr'is in carmine vires — Ovid.

Miscuerls elixa, simul conchylia turdis — Hor.

But the objection Ol" cajsura may be brought against the
last two examples, and against most of the others which I
have seen. Still, however, when it is considered tliat the ri

' It is not improbable that gratis and /oris may be ablatives:
and, consequently, they are long by Exception 1. The former is
long in Martial, the latter in Horace, with caesura ; but if that be
considered as an objection, it is one which, rigidly insisted on,
would destroy the authority of niany of the examples to be found
in works on Prosody, for establishing the quantity of final syl-
lables. Pha;drus, however, furnishes an example ; Gratis anhe-
lans, multa agendo nil ngens. In making the preceding remark,
however, we do not mean to intimate, that, if the short quantity
of a syllable is properly cstahlished, and it is found long only in
ca-'sura or position, its (juantity is common ; it is, in this case, de-
cidedly short. But such is sometimes the structure of a word,
that it may be impossible, — at least in Hexameter verse, whence,
lor obvious reasons, authorities are usually adduced, — to cxem-
plii'y the acknowledged long quantity of the bylluble, wilhuut the
coincidence of ca;sura.

395

in rimus and ritis is found long, we arc authorized to con-
clude, from the analogy between the two numbers in regard
to quantity, that ris is long or common in its own nature,
and not by ca?sura*.

RULE XVIII. OS final.

Words ending in os are long ; cis Jlds, ncpos, horns, herds,
Minm, virus, horns, nos, v~>s, as [ni-is), Tr5s.

Mos apprima tenax Virg.

Vos agitate fugam ^ i^'S-

Os homini sublime dedit, coclumque tueri — Ovid.

Tros, ait, iEnea, cessas ? Virg.

Priami ?wj)os Hectoreus, et letum oppetat — Seneca.

ExceptioJis,

1. Greek genitives in os, from whatever nominatives they
come, are short; as Arcados, Tethyos, Tcreos, Orphcos.

Pall ad OS admonitu Ovid.

Tethyos unda vagas lunaribus festuet horis — Lucan.
But genitives in cos, from nouns in is or eus, would be
long, by imitation of the Attic dialect.

2. Compos, impos, and os [ossis), with its compound cxos,
have the final syllable short.

Insequere et voti postmodo compos eris — Ovid.
Exos et exsanguis tumidos perfluctuat artus — Lucret.

' The endeavour to prove the quantity of rimus and ritis by
that of m, and the quantity of rw by that o^ rimus and ritis, may
perhaps be thouglit to border a little upon reasoning in a circle.
But when we consider that, in tlie other tenses, wherever we lind
one syllable more in the first or second person plural than in the
second person singular, we observe an agreement, in regard to
quantity, between the penultimate of such first or second person
plural and the final syllable of the second person singular, exccj)t
where a difference is caused by position, there certainly does not
seem to be an impropriety in using them respectively to confirm
or to ascertain the quantity of one another. That such analogy
does subsist, maj'^ be seen in the following examples ; amas, amii-
mns, nmdiis; daces, doccmiis, docclis; Icg'/s, Icg7imis, h'g'.iis ; his, !n-
r,ti(s, b)iis of the first and second conjugation. It should be ob-
served however that ris, rimus, and ritis, of ero and potero, are
commonly short.

Fortunate pucr, tu nunc rris alter ab illo — Virg,
But as from their teruiination, these two tenses appear to have
been originally subjunctive or future pei'fect, it is probable tiiat
they had r/x, rimus, r/l/s, couimon, Juvcncus, TertuIIian, and
Paulinus lenglhcn'the ri oi' rriiiuis UDd j/olcriiniis. Sec p. 128.

396

3. Greek nominatives and vocatives oftlie second declen-
sion have OS short ; as Claras, Tcnedos, Lesbos, Airojm.-

But nouns of the Attic dialect, havinir tlieir "-enitive in o, are
long ; as Androgeos, Alhos : also nouns of the same dialect,
which have changed liios {Koio;) into leds (Aiojc); as Peneleos,
Meneleos.

Et Clttnis, et Tenedos, Patarasaque rcgia servit — Ovid.

Et Tyros instabiiis, pretiosaque nmrice Sidon — Luc.

Quantus At has, aut quantus Eryx — Virg.

4. Greek neuters in us are short ; as Argus, epos, chaos,
vielos.

Facta canit pede ter pevcusso : forte epos acer — Hor.

Et Chaos et Phlegethon, loca nocte silentia late — Virg.

RULE XLX. L'6' final.

^^''o^'ds ending in 7is are short; as anniis, bonus, fempiiSf
i/itcrciis, illiiis, Jbiitibus, diclmiis, intus, pen/ f us, leniis ; like-
wise Us of the nominative and vocative singular of the fourth
declension.

Ipse, nbi tempns erit, omnes in fonte lavabo — ^^irg.

Ilic dumus, luec patria est — ■ ^ i-^'J?*

O patria ! o divum domus Ilium !" et incl via hello — Virg.

Venimiis ; et latos indagine cinximus agros — Ovid.

Exceptions.

1 . Monosyllables are long ; as grus, jus, rus, plus.
Romse rus optas, absentem rusticus urbem — Hor,
Plus etiam quam quod Superis contingere fas sit — Ovid.

2. Also genitives of feminine nouns in a ,- as Clius, Sap)-
phus, Mantlis.

Didus atque suum misceri sanguine sangucn — Varro.

3. Genitives singular, and nominatives, accusatives and
vocatives plural, of the fourth declension, all being contrac-
tions, have us long ; as fructus, vumus.

Quale manus addunt ebori decus, aut ubi flavo — Virg.
Pars secreta domus ebore et testudine cultos — 0^ id.
Hosne VL\\[\\frHctus ; hunc fertilitatis honorem — Ovid.
Poriils ie([uorei:s sueta insignire tropans — 8il.

4. Also nouns having the genitive in iiris, ulis, udis\ the

' Palu$ is once short in Horace, perhaps by systole.

Regis opus, sterilisquc diu;?r///75, aptaque rcniis — Art. Poet, 6.5.
Some critics, liovvever, pronounce the text to be incorrect, and
^^■o\i\<^. read thus; Regis opus ; sterilisve;;o/«,v diu, a})taqiie remis,
h)ng vowels, when not cut off, being regarded as coujnion ; or diu
may be considered a diphthongal sound.

.^97

penultimate long; and in untis, and pod is, or potlos,- as tellui,
virtus, palus, inciis ; Opus, AmathiiS ; tripus, Oedipus^.

Ridet ager ; neque adhuc virtus in frondibus ulla est —
Ovid.

Dicitur, et tenebrosa palus Acheronte refaso — Virg.

Est Amathus, est celsa niihi Paplios, atque Cvthera —
Virg.

Hie Oedipus JFjgeo. tranabit freta — Seneca.

5. Also those nouns, written in Greek with the diphthong
ous, which have u in their vocative; as Pantlnis^ o Pcnithu;
and our Saviour's sacred name, lesus.

Et civXo et terris venerandum nomen Icsus.
The diphthong eus is long; as Orpheus ,• but eus as a dissyl-
lable is short ; as Orpheus, of the second declension.

Panthus Othryades, arcis Phcebique sacerdos — Virg.

Addunt se socios Ripheus, et maximus annis — Virg.

RULE XX VS final.

Words ending in i/s are short ; as Capi/s, chelj/s, chlamys.
At Capi/s, et quorum melior sententia menti — Virg.
Tethi/s et extremo ssepe recepta loco est — Ovid.
Certain nouns, said to form the nominative in i/n also, are
mentioned as exceptions; such as Gortys, PhorcjjS, Trachys.
To these may be added contracted plurals ; as Erinnys tor
Erinnyes, or Erinnyas. Tethys is said to be sometimes long;
but then it is, as for as I have discovered, accompanied by
CEesura.

Teque sibi generum Tethys emat omnibus undis — Virg.

RULE XXI r final.

Words ending in t preceded by a single vowel, are short;
as caput, amid, ut, et.

Verum haec tantum alias inter capiit extulit urbcs — Virg.

F^xccpiions.

1 . T is sometimes long by crasis, or syncope ; as redit for
redxit or red'wit, amat for amfivit.

Magnus civis ohlt, et formidatus Othoni — Juven.

Dum trepiilant, It hasta Tago per tempus utrumque —

Virg.
DisturbCit urbes, et terrae motus obortus — Lucret.

' To which add polypus, and melampus when of the third de-
clension ; hut when of tlie second, ns of the three last may be short.
Utque sub ocquoribus deprensum poly pits hostcm — Ovid.

398

In these examples, oi//, it, and dkturbdt, are put for ohiit,
at, and disturhavit. Tlie first and the last example are long,
too, by cassura.

RULE XXII.

FINAL SYLLABLE OF A VERSE.

The last syllable of every verse (except the Anap^stic,
and the Ionic a minore) is considered common ; that is, if
the syllable be naturally long, it may be reckoned short, if
it suits the verse, and vice ve?-sd.

Gens inimica mihi Tyrrhenum navigat aquor — Vir^.
In this, or, naturally short, forms the second syllable ot a
spondee.

Crescit occulto velut arbor avo — Hor.
In this Sapphic, the word ccvu, which is naturally a spon-
dee, forms a trochee, a foot consisting of a long and a short
syllable.

OF ACCENT.

As Quantity means the length of time employed by the
voice, so Accent denotes the elevation or depression of the
voice in pronouncing a syllable : and is sometimes called the
To7ie.

The accents are three, the Acute, the Grave, and the Ch-
ciiniiiex.

The acute is said to sharpen, or elevate a syllable ; and is
thus marked, domimis.

The grave is said to sink or depress it ; and is thus marked,
docte.

The circumjiex is defined to be a compound accent, first
elevating and then depressing, or, perhaps, vice versa ; and
as it requires greater time than either of the former, it is never
put over any but a long syllable ; and is thus marked, amurc,
i. e. amcidre.

RULES FOR THE ACCENTS.

I. Monosyllables, long by nature, receive the circumflex ;
as/o5, sph, a, L But if they are short, or long by posi-
tion only, they take the acute; as vir,fdx, mens.

II. Dissyllables always have the grave accent on their
last syllable. If the first syllable be long by nature, and

H(

99

tlie second nliort, it. receives tlie circumflex ; as Ilthnn,JI6-
risj Ulna ,- oUicrwise, the acute ; as humo, jjurens, iiisuns '.

' In speaking of improper pronunciation as arising from the
want of due nttention to quantity and accent, Mr. Pickbourn, the
ingenious autiior of a dissertation on the English verb, observes
(Alonthly Magazine, No. 135,) — ■" That scholars err in their pro-
nunciation of, Ist, words of two syllables having the first short,
US equcs ; 'indly, words of three syllables having the first long
and the second short, as sidcra ; 'jtlly, polysyllables accented
on the antepenultiuuite, as jiivcnilibus, inierea, &cc. ; and, lastly,
words ending in a long vowel, as domvii, or in a long vowel and
a single consonant, as domin/s. These errors arise in part from
the want of distinguishing between the long and short powers of
the vowels. For, as they are all of them by nature capable of be-
ing either long or short, every long vowel being ec^ual to two short
ones, this is a distinction of the greatest importance. The prin-
cipal source of our mistakes on this subject is the indistinct and
confused notion which we have of accent. For, when it falls on a
t^nort syllable, vve often make that syllable h^ng ; and when it falls
on a long one, vve sometimes make it short. Accent does certainly
affect quantity ; that is, it makes the accented syllable a little
longer than it would be without it. But its operation is never so
great as to make a short syllable become long, nor does the pri-
vation of accent make a long syllable become short; for there
are degrees of time both in long and short syllables. All short
syllables are not equally short ; nor are aillong ones equally long.
This remark is fully confirmed by a passage quoted by Dr. War-
ner (in his Mclron ariston) from Quinctilian: — Et lougis longio-
res, et hrevibus sunt breviorcs syllabce. The second syllable of «;»a-
vlt, being accented, is a little longer than the second syllable of
amavenint, though they are both long syllables ; and the first syl-
lable in Icgi, being accented, is a little longer than the second, or
than the first syllable ol'/egisti, which is deprived of accent, though
they are all long syllables. In pronouncing such words as ani-
mus, dominus, ocnhts, &c., though the vowels retain their short
sound, yet the stroke of the voice laid on the first syllable in-
creases the impression which that syllable makes on the ear, and,
consequently, diminishes the impression made by that which fol-
lows it.

" Quinctilian and all succeeding rrrammarians inform us that tlic
Latm acute accent is never laid on the last syllable of a word ;
that in dissyllables and trisyllables having the second syllable
short, it invariably falls on the first syllable ; and that in polysylla-
bles having the penultimate short, it lies on the antepenultimate.
In the English language dissyllables accented on the first syllable
generally have that syllable long. Wehave, therefore, very impro-
perly applied this rule to all Latin dissyllables, because they are
accented oa the first syllable. Hence we nixycqncs, comes, vnscr.

100

III. Polysyllables, if the penultimate be long, and tlie
last syllable short, have the circumflex on the penultimate ;
as Romdnus, Imperdtor, Jmtinidmis. . If both the penulti-

nemus, vigor, rigor, liquor, thnor, &c. making the first syllables
long, or, at least, nearly so. Why do we not pronounce the first
syllables of eques, comes, miser, nhnus, as we do the first syllables
of their genitives, equitis, cumitis, miser i, ntmoris? And why do
we not pronounce such words as vigor, rigor, Uquor, as we do the
English words vigour, rigour, liquor? And the first syllable in •
thnor, as we do the first syllable in timoris, and of the English
word timorous? If we pronounced the first sylUible of the ad-
jective malus, as we do the first syllable of the English word wn-
lice, we should properly distinguish it from malus, an apple-tree.
By an attention to this rule we should easily distinguish between
the present and preterperfect tenses of many verbs, as vcnit and
veriit, fugit and fugit, legit and legit, &c Again, many En-
glish words of three syllables, accented on the first, have that s}!-
lable short ; we have, therefore, hastily concluded that all Latin
trisyllables, accented on the first, must have that syllable short,
unless it be long by position, and, therefore, we very improperly
saysidera, limiiia, Ihnite, semine, virihus, dicere, scribere, &c. Why
do we not pronounce the first syllables of thtFe words with a
long vowel sound, in the same manner in which we pronounce
the first syllables of sidus, llmen, Umes, semen, vires, dico, saibo,
&c. ? for all vowels long in themselves, and not by position, should
certainly be uttered with a long vowel sound. An attention to
this remark would sliow the difference between populus, a people,
unApopulus, a poplar-tree. In polysyllables accented on the an-
tepenultimate we sometimes err in a similar manner to the last
case, by giving a short sound to a vowel long by nature, as inju-
venilibusy and, at other times, by giving a long sound to a vowel
naturally short, as in interea. But, in words of this kind, we do not
universally err ; for I do not remember that I ever heard a scholar
pronounce such words as depusitiim, consilium, exllium, excMitm,
&c. improperly. Lastly, words ending in a long vowel, as dommi,
or in a long vowel followed by a single consonant, such as dativ(;s and
ablatives of the first and second declension, and genitives singular,
nominatives, accusatives, and vocatives plural of the fourth de-
clension, as domims, gradus, should always be uttered with a long
vowel sound, though the accent or stress can never fall on such syl-
lables, except by a very singular poetic license." The same judi-
cious critic, in an ingenious little treatise on Metrical Pauses, adds,
that, in accented antepenults, a short is commonly pronounced
right, as in awm«/,butsometimes wrong, that is, with along vowel
sound, as in galea, fateor, taceo, caesaries, Mcetialios ; a long is
generally pronounced wrong in trisyllables, ospabulum, gramina,
machina ; but ri|,du in some polysyllables, as mortalia, navnlia;
and wrong in others^ as spectacula, levamine, imagine. E short is

401

mate and the bst sj^lablc be long, the former receives the
acute; as ■parmtes^ amavcruni, rhinuccrotis. If the penul-
timate be short, the antepenultimate has the acute ; as do-

sometlmes improperly made long, as in senior, senibits, mrliory
obseqidum, veniet, inveniei ; but it is generally pronounced right,
as in trcpidus.,geinitiis, epulie, valnerihas ; e long is generally pro-,
nounced right in polj'syllables, as carchesia ; but wrong in tri-
syllables, as semiiuu legibns. I short is always right, as f/midus,
consUium ; i long, alvvays wrong ; asfrigidus, mUite, J'rigore, sp'i-
ritus,Jbnnid'mc, sidere (noun and verb), convivium, senilia, divi-
nitiis, oblivia. O short is generally pronounced right, as in do-
minus, incolumis ; but sometimes wrong, as in odium, moriens,
moveo, iiifbdiunt ; o long, in some words, is pronounced right, as
otiiim, but in many others wrong, as pocidinn, honoribus. L'^ short,
generally wrong, as incubuit, but not always, for subigit is com-
monly pronounced right ; it long always right, as lumine, cacii'
mine, kc. He concludes by observing that, upon the whole^
neither accent nor quantity is to be neglected ; and that, so long
as we attend to the just rules of accent, and carefull}' retain the
true natural sound of the vowels, never making a short one long
nor a long one short, we cannot much err in our pronunciation.
Upon this subject. Dr. Valpy differs a little from Mr. Pick-
bourn in regard to the influence of the accent on the quantity,
and observes, in his excellent Greek Grammar, " that the ele-
vation of the voice does not lengthen the time of that syllable, so
that accent and quantity are considered by the best critics as
perfectly distinct, and by no means inconsistent with each other.
In our language, the accent falls on the antepenultimate equally
in the words liberty and Vibrary ; yet, in the former, tlic tone
only is elevated, in the latter, the syllable is also lengtliencd.
The same difference exists in baron and bacon, in Uvel and
lever. In words of two, and of three, short syllables, the diffe-
rence between the French and English pronunciation is striking.
The former make iambics and anapests, the latter trochees and
dactyls. The French sayjugis,j'ugimus: the ^ns,\'\i>h,J'ugis,J'u-
gimus. In many instances both are equally faulty ; thus we short-
en the long is in f avis, the plural oi' Jliviis ; they lengthen the
short is in oris, the genitive of os. Indeed, both may be said to
observe strictly neither accent nor quantity.'' To observe ei-
ther strictly is, perhaps, not easy ; to observe both is still more
difficult. The precise nature of accent does not seem to be fully
agreed upon ; and, therefore, if, in reading, either viust be sacri-
ficed to the other, (for which, however, there is no absolute
necessity,) it is certainly better, that what is in some degree un-
certain, should yield to that whicli is certain, — that accent should
give way to quantity, which is ascertained. By reading accord-
ing to quantity, is not, however, meant, the breaking down, split-
ting, or destroying tlie words, by attending to the feet only ; hit

2 b

402

minus, Virgiliiis, Cunstantinopolis. All otlier syllables of poly-
syllables receive the grave accent. Except from tlie pre-
ceding rules the enclitics, que, ve, ne, which throw the accent
upon the last syllable', of the word to which they are joined ;
as amat, amatque ,- thus lacrijmansve, gemensve- — Virg. liyr-
ca7usvc, ArahUve — Virg. Culi^ctne, prohetne — Ovid.-

the pronouncing the words] of a verse, so as to give, as much as
possible, its due quantity, in real time, to every syllable. In as
much as to this mode of reading we can add an attention to ac-
cent, emphasis, cadences and pauses, whether metrical or senten-
tial, in so much, doubtless, will the pronunciation be the more
correct, graceful, and harmonious. Plow the antients pronounced
the vowels, whether as we do, or, which is more probable, as
they are pronounced on the Continent, it is now difficult to de-
termine. One thing, however, is certain, that they did not give
a long sound to a short vowel, nor a short sound to a long vowel.
In whatever way we sound the vowels, we ought to attend to their
quantity. I shall only add, that a syllable long by nature was
sounded more fully, being a reduplication of the same vowel, as
diicere, maaliis, an apple-tree, jxjopidus, a poplar-tree. Whereas
the syllable long by position, had no other length than its being-
sustained by the two following consonants, as dixi. It is proba-
ble also that a syllable short by nature preserved more of its na-
tural quantity than a syllable short by position only. Such

words as volucris have the accent, in prose, on the antepenulti-
mate, but, in verse, we should place it on the antepenultimate
when the penultimate is considered as short, and upon the pen-
ultimate when it is regarded as long ; thus,

Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris — Ovid.

' This is, unquestionably, true when the penultimate is long,
as siderisqiie. But it admits some doubt, when the penultimate
ends with a short vowel, as in sideraque. Should we not, there-
fore read

Pronaque cum spectent animalia cjEtera terram — Ovid.

With respect to the accentuation of words introduced from
other languages, there seems to be scarcely any general rule, or
uniform practice.

- It does not happen, however, that que and /??, at the end of
words, are always to be considered as enclitics ; and when they
are not, the words are accented according to the general rules ;
as utique, dtnique, undique, &c. ; likewise such words, used inter-
rogatively, as Inccine, siccine, &c. Priscian says that in calefacio,
calefacis, and calefacit, the accent is on the same syllable on which
it falls in the simple verb, namely the second c, although in the
two last it be the penultimate, and also short. And in the same
manner, c-a/(?/'/o, calefh, calefif, as in the simple verb. Accord-
ing to Donatus, siquando had the accent .«;ometimes on the ante-
penultimate ; according to Servius, exinde likewise ; and, to Gel-

4oy

Tlie accentual marks are seldom used but for distiiictiou's
sake. Thus the adverbs aliquo, conihmb^ imldm^ docfe, wid,
and the like, are marked with a grave accent. Ablatives
of the first declension ; genitives of the fourth ; 7iostmm and
vestrum from nos and vos ; ergo used for causa, are written
with a circumflex on the last syllable; and sometimes those
w^ords which have suffered syncope or synajresis are cir-
cumflected ; as poeld,fnictits, amdsse^Jlhli, dh. The cir-
cumflex is put over the nominative nostras, instead of which,
nostratis was formerly used ; likewise over genitives in ii,
when one i is cut off" by apocojie ; as Pompilt regimm, Ta.r-
qiiim Jdsces — Hor. instead ol' J-'omjnlii, Tarquhiii.

The tliree preceding rules are, I believe, those usually f^iveii
for the position of the Latin accents. Whether the word accent,
as employed in them, was originally intended to be received in
the sense of /owe, or o^ emphasis or ictus, it ma}', perhaps, be con-
sidered difficult to determine ; but, notwithstanding the previous
definitions of the accents, as consisting in elevation and depres-
sion of voice, I have little doubt, that these rules refer, solely or
chiefly, to the situation of the iclns or syllabic emphasis. One
thing clearly appears, from an inspection of the 2nd and iid rule,
the only rules, indeed, by which the pronunciation seems to be
particularly affected, that our usual fc/?(s or syllabic force, if not
identical with the accent there intended, at least uniformly coin-
cides with it on the same syllable ; as in Roma, homo, insons, em-
phatic on the first syllable ; Romanus, impcrator, parentes, a7na-
veriint, emphatic on the penultimate ; dominus, Virgilius, on the
antepenultimate. It is almost needless to add, what is so well
known, that the enclitics naturally incline our syllabic emphasis
to the syllable immediately preceding them ; as dmat, amatque.
With respect to the nature of Accent, and indeed, generally, in
all discussions regarding the nature and mutual relatiorrs of the
accidents or properties essential to a note of speech, much diver-

lius, exadversum and ajfalim. To these are added etiimvero, dun-
taxat, and some others which may be seen in Pi-iscian, Lipsius,
or Vossius. Vossius observes, that although the accent may bo
on the antepenultimate m perinde and deinde, we are not to con-
clude that it may be so in deinceps, and the like, where the last
is long ; for that no word can be accented on the antepenulti-
mate, when the two last syllables are long. The penultimate of
vocatives in ius is accented, altiiough it be short ; as Ovidi, Vir-
gili, Mercuri ; the reason of which is, that these words formerly
had e after the i, which although they have dropped, they retain
the accent on tlie same syllable as before. To these nn'ght be
added a ^Gvf others, as mulieris, which, according to Priscian, has
the accent on the penultimate though short.

'2 D 2

404

gtry of opinion is known to prevail. The subject, it must be con-
fessed, is intricate, and involved in considerable difficulty. If,
therefore, in the following humble attempt to elucidate some dis-
puted points, and correct some prevailing misconceptions, it
should be found, which he fears is not unlikely, that the writer
himself has inadvertently lapsed into obscurity or error, he will
have some claim on the reader's indulgence.

Most of the errors, and contradictions, that so frequently oc-
cur in discussions relative both to ancient and modern prosody,
I have reason to believe, may be traced chiefly to the following
sonrces: —

1st. An imperfect knowledge, and a consequent confusion, of
the three distinct properties essential to a note of speech, namely :
— 1. Quantity, time, or dimension, comprehending the relative
proportions denominated long and short, open and close. 2. Qua-
lity, force, or emphasis, comprehending the prnperties denoted
by the terms loud and soft,Jo)ie and piano, strong amljeeble, em-
phatic and remiss, or unemphalic, thetic, and in arsis ; the essence,
we know, of rhythm, in all modern tongues. And, indeed, as
the organs of speech cannot be supposed to vary, and, conse-
quently, the process of verbal utterance, in all ages, must have
been uniformly the same in kind or manner, we entertain not the
smallest doubt, that the same prominent, unavoidable, and alter-
nately or periodically obtrusive properties, constituted also the
essence of rhythm in all the antient languages. 3. Tone, tune,
or accent, comprehending the pitch, and the rising or ihejcdling
inflections, of words and syllables, termed the high and the loxu
notes, the acute and the g7-ave accents ; an accident in which
chiefly consists the melody of speech. A note of speech, then,
must be of some time; and, whether it be long or short, it must
be either emphatic or remiss; and, whether long or short, em-
phatic or remiss, it nuist have some musical pitch, and be either
an acute accent or a grave accent, that is, a rising inflexion or a
falling inflexion, or a combination of the two; variations, however,
which, in speech, do not commonly succeed each other, as is ge-
nerally the case in music, per solium, or at intervals, but in con-
stant and almost imperceptible slides or undulations. Every vocal
and articulate sound, therefore, possesses these three accidents.
According, however, to the difterent genius of different languages,
any one of the three may so far predominate, in the usual mode of
speech, over the others, as to seera, from its prominence, the
principal, if not the only, accident ; and, in a faulty or unna-
tural pronunciation of a language, any one of the accidents may
occasionally acquire undue preponderance. But we are not
hence to infer that any one of them is utterly extinguished. Quan-
tity, it is f robable, may have obtained, at some period, most at-
tention in the pronunciation of the antient languages, as quality
now has in that of the modern tongues. Hence it may be, that
the poetry of the former is regulated chiefly by a certain regard to

405

long eyhables and short; and that of the latter by a similar re.
gard to emphatic syllables and unemphatic.

2d, The want of a distinct and specific notation for each of
the three accidents.

3d. The circumstance, that length of quantify, emphasis, and
the rising inflexion, are found to coincide most iVequently on
the same note ; a coincidence for which it would not be difficult
to assign a satisfactory reason.

4th. The utter impossibility of recovering an accurate know-
ledge of the accentual, or even of the emphatical, pronunciation
of a dead language ; or, indeed, of fixing, by rule, the tones or
accentuation of am/ language.

_ 5th. The notion that quantity, emphasis, and tone, necessa-
rily interfere with and influence each other ; but yet that it is
possible to read tvell by quantity, without any observance of em-
phasis or of tone; or to read tvell according to en)phasis, with-
out any regard to tone or to quantity ; in other words, that it is
possible to read the ancient languages well, neglecting, or sirik-
ing altogether, one or two of the accidents.

6th. The want of a special, appropriate, and unlvocal prose-
dical nomenclature. Hence, 1. The misapplication, at least
among the moderns, of the term accent, to designate si/llabic em-
phasis ; a circumstance which has contributed to the almost uni-
versal confusion of the two distinct qualities properly denomi-
nated by these two different terms. 2. The conmion'use of tiie
term hig/i, to designate the property of loud, and vice versa.
S. The general acceptation of the word loiv, as a correlative term
both to loud and /ligh. 4. The prevailing error in the grammars
of modern tongues, and in the writings of modern authors, of
terming an emphatical syllable, a long quantity, and an unempha-
tical syllable a short quantity. 5. The twofold application to
such words as voice, vox ; st/llablc, syllabn ; of such verbs as
lower, depono, demitto, deprimo ; raise, elcvo, acuo, attollo ; in re-
ference either to the vocal slides or inflexions, or to the distinc-
tions merely of softness or loudness — sometimes in reference to
quantity; see also Lily's 2d and [5d special rule. G. The va-
rious interpretations and acceptations of the ancient terms arsis
and thesis, some authors referring them respectively to acuteness
and to gravity of note ; some, in like manner, to loudness and
softness ; and others, in both respects, just reversing the refe-
rences; some uniformly assigning the first part of a foot, with-
out considering whether it be the beginning or the middle of a
bar, to the arsis, and the last to the thesis ; and others, with si-
milar incaution, uniformly placing the thesis first, and the arsis
last; opposites, if considered as general rules, without doubf,
equally incorrect. 7. The undefined nature of the terms ictua
and percussio, some referring both to the accident of tona or ac-
cent, others to that of quality or emphasis ; some con!«idering
them as denoting identical, and otheis dissimilar eflccto ; au(i

406

some contending that the former denotes only a part of wliat is
denominated by the latter, but without furnisliing a clear ex-
planation of the precise nature either of the part or the whole,
llcasoning from the principles and practice of our own tongue, we
should not deem it unlikely, that the ictus may have been gene-
rally intended to designate the usual emphatic or thetic influ-
ence, falling alternately or periodically on one or more of the
syllables of every hypermonosyllable ; and that i\\e pcrcussio may
have distinguished the preeminently emphatic or thetic syllable
of the longer polysyllables, or perhaps of compound or polysyl-
labic feet. 8. The various uses of the word cce&ura, which is
sometimes used to denote the cutting or separation of a word,
the syllable separated, and the pause of separation ; and is ap-
plied, too, to whole verses and to single feet. Its synonym tome.,
also, is used for the separation of a verse, and seems to be some-
times applied to the first part of the verse separated, or to any
equivalent combination of syllables. 9. The different accepta-
tions of the word cadence, which is used to denote the fall of the
voice, with regard either to tone or to force, and the rhythm,
flow, or general harmony of an expression. 10. The unquali-
fied application of the names belonging to the ancient feet, re-
gulated by quantit)', to the modern feet, regulated by quality ; a
circumstance which has led some to suppose that both ancient and
modern poetry are directed precisely by the same principles. 11. The
various imports ascribed to such terms as sv[jJ\£ia,. supv^iua,, melo-
dy, harinoni/, modidation , Sec. 12. The various senses in which the
term tone is employed. It denotes sometimes the mere sound or
voice itself, a note of speech or song, the musical gradations of a
series of sounds, and sometimes the peculiar intonation of a pro-
vince or country. 13. The lax sense of the ancient term rhi/thmns.
( !.) It was sometimes spoken of as synonymous with foot ; thus
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, says, ro 8' dvTo kxXm ttoScc kuI f^uSiwy
[De Slrucl. Oral. sect. 17.) And Aristides, pvSjj.og rolvvv ar) o-J-
rrilJ^scsKKpovaiv KaTariyatoi^iv a-vyKEiy.iyojv. {De iV/«.5/c«,l.i.p. 31.)
Rhythm is a system of times put together in a certain order.
(2.) Again : not the same order ^ but the same qiiautity, of times,
was denoted ; for example, the dactyl and the anapaest are in the
same rhythm, because they each consist of the same times. So,
Quinlilian, Rhijihnii, id est, niimeri, spatio ienijwnivi consiard.
{De Inst. Orat. I. Ix, c. 4. p. 479.) The truth probably is, that,
as insulated feet or separate metres, a trochee and an ian)bus,
and a dactyl and an anapaest, must be considered respectively as
the reverse of each other ; but that in succession, the trochaic
and the iambic rhythm, and the dactylic and the anapaestic, are
respectively considered the same. (3.) The word rhijihmus
ijometimes denotes the measicrc, or a number of movements,
agreeably united, of which the ear is to be the judge. So, Cice-
ro, Quic(/t(id est cnim quod sidi aiiri?(m wensuraw aliquam cadet,
etiamsi ahest a versu, numerus x^ocatur, qui (hccce pv^fj.os dicilur.

407

(Dc Ontt.) Here I lie word sccmti to relbr to the conciniiilas,
or general liarmony of period, which results, not so much from
any minute attention to a certain succession of feet or syllables,
as from the choice, order, proportions, and arrangement of its
constituent words, clauses, and members.— Nothing is more per-
plexing, or a greater source of error and of captious dispute,
than the vague, indefinite, or equivocal use of technical terms.
Were writers more careful in defining, and in using such words,
there would be fewer disputed points, and these would much
sooner, if not more satisfactorily, arrive at their natural conclu-
sion. We feel no hesitation to declare our belief, that the com-
plete practice of ancient prosody is irrecoverably lost; nor, we
do assert, will its mere theory ever be intelligibly discussed by
modern critics, till the real meaning and import of its technical
terms shall have been precisely ascertained.

I shall now proceed, without restricting myself to any parti-
cular order, to exhibit, with occasional remarks and illustrations,
some of the misconceptions on the subject both of ancient and
modern Prosody.

That learned critic, Isaac Vossius, affirms (in his work Dc Poc-
malum cnnfii ct viribus Rhytkmi), that we have no rhythm at all
in our poetry ; that we mind nothing but to have a certain num-
ber of syllables in a verse, of whatever nature, and in whatever
order ; that there is nothing but confusion of quantities in the mo-
dern odes ; that the moderns have no regard to the natural quan-
tity of syllables ; and have introduced an unnatural and barbarous
variety of long and of short notes, without any regard to the sub-
ject and sense of the verse, or the natural pronunciation. Nothing
can be more untrue than the substance of these remarks. That
the accident of quantity is not much regarded in English poetry,
nor in that of other living languages, is a fact which no one con-
versant with the subject will be inclined to question. For a mo-
dern verse is regulated neither by the mere measure, nor by any
particular order, of times. But doubtless the same care that the
ancients devoted to the regular arrangement of their longs and
shorts, the moderns devote to that of their cmphntics and Jincni-
phatics ; in the due and natural observance of which consists the
essence or rhythm of their poetical compositions. Rhythm, then,
the English language docs possess, similar in its nature, we will
venture to assert, to that of the ancients, the essence of both con-
sisting, not in the mere drawl of quantity, nor in the fluctuating
and fugitive tones of syllables, but in the prominent, natural, and
regularly varied distinction of syllabic emphasis and remission,
Trissino, a famous Italian poet, justly observes "that, as the an-
cient feet were determined by the quantity of the syllables, so in
his language they are determined by the accent," (i. e. syllabic
emphasis.) "This (adds Pcmberton, in Ohscrv. on Pod.) is
equally true in our tongue ; and for this reason, that, whereas the
ancient accent is represented to be only a variation in the tone,

4U8

and luul no relation to the quantity of tlic syllable, onrs is con?
stantly attended with an emphasis which implies greater length in
the syllable." Here there appear to be at least two blunders, the
confusion of accent and emphasis, and the assertion that syllabic
emphasis implies greater length of syllable, which is not always
the fact. But in some points regarding this subject, Dr. Arthur
Browne seems to have erred even more than his fallible predeces-
sors. He observes (7th vol. of Irish Transact.) that "the mo-
dern Greeks make accents the cause of quantity; they make the
syllable long on which the acute falls; and they allow the acute
accent to change the real quantity. They always read poetry, as
well as prose, by accent." That either the acute accent, or the
syllabic emphasis, (two things, however, v/idely different,) may
fall most frequently on a long syllable, is not at all unlikely ; but
that, in any language, either accent or emphasis can be " the
cause of quantity," is a most unnatural supposition, one which
will obtain credit from no person that has any clear conception
of the distinct natural properties belonging to a note of speech.
No such relation subsists between them. The truth however is,
that Mr. Marsh, the learned translator of Michaelis, asserts the
contrary ; he states that he heard a Greek priest distinctly mark,
in his pronunciation, both accent and quantity. But he appears
to say nothing respecting the syllabic emphasis, which is much to
be regretted ; for, since so prominent an affection could not be
overlooked, a suspicion may remain, that, while he imagined he
was remarking the accent, his attention was arrested merel}' by
the more conmianding quality of syllabic emphasis. It is indeed
too true, that, from the circumstance of our syllabic emphasis
being commonly termed accent, even our most intelligent writers
on the subject seem to forget, or not to know, that there really
does exist such a quality as accent or tone, altogether different
from that of emphasis falsely termed accent. Still, however, his
assertion would prove the correct observance of syllabic emphasis
and quantity. Indeed I am inclined to think that Dr. Browne
liimself, when he wrote, did not understand the difference between
accent and emphasis. When he employs " accent" or the " acute
accent," he appears to mean syllabic emphasis. " They always (he
says) read poetry, as well as prose, by accent," And were they
ever read correctly, ptherwise ? He probably then meant to say,
that, in their poetry, syllabic emphasis has the same predominance
that it possesses in our own, and in that of other modern tongues.
" In the English language (adds Dr. Browne) accent and quantity
always agree." Nothing can be more untrue, whether, by the
term agree, he refers to their identity, or to their coincidence on the
same note or syllable; or whether by accent he means tone or merely •
si/llabic emphasis. An acute syllable, an emphatic syllable, and
a long syllable, are widely different one from another ; nor do the
qualities always coincide on the same syllable. The first syllables
^^ tyrant, private, and oi tyranny, privy, arc both emphatic; aii(.\

409

yet the first syllable of each of the former two is long or open,
while that of the latter two is short or close. Their tones too are
probably dissimilar. There is little doubt that both Primatt and
Browne, in their conceptions, that the rhythm of verse consists in
a due regard to accent, have mistaken one property of speech for
another, or, at least, have improperly employed one term for an-
other. With respect, however, to the nature of modern verse, and
the accidents of a note of speech, the French grammarians seem
to have carried their absurdities to the greatest extent. The
French language is said to have no accent, meaning, I suppose,
syllabic emphasis. Their philologists prescribe as a universal rule,
that, "pou7- bien parler Francois, il lie Jaut point avoir f/'accent;"
and they contradistinguish our language from theirs by calling
the English "unelansue cadencee." Moreover, it would seem
that their poetry is independent on accent, emphasis, or quan-
tity ; for os to a verse, " il 7ie consiste qiien certain nombre de
syllabes." Such remarks, and such definitions, are altogether
incorrect. The French certainly ought to be the best judges
of their own language; but, if I can trust to my ear, 1 think that
they do, and, if to my judgment, that they must, have some
degrees of syllabic en)phasis and remission. That in their lan-
guage there is more of levity (if I may so use the word), or of
relative weakness, than in others ; and that in their polysyllables
they have not, as in English, one emphatic syllable rcgidarhj ren-
dered pre-eminent, are circumstances which I do not mean to
question. But, were any Frencimian to attempt to point out in-
telligibly the difference between the English word impossible, and
the French impossible, the result, I imagine, would be, that almost
tlie same eminence which the English assign to their syllable pass,
the Frenchman will give to the second i of the French word. That
the French language then possesses syllabic emphasis, and that
the regularity and harmony of their verses consist in the alterna-
tion of emphasis and remission, are facts that appear to me abun-
dantly evident. The following lines, for example, from Racine, are
in the even cadence, being iambic hexameters, with the even syl-
lables generally thetic or emphatic;

Celui qui met un frcin u la fureur des flots,
Sait aussi des mechans arrcter les complots.
In the following lines the cadence is evidently anapaestic:
II faut nous s'entre-aider, c'est la loi de nature.
Ce monarque, protecteur d'un monarque, comme lui.

On precisely the same principle are the verses of other modern
languages constructed: thus, in the Spanish, the following is an
iambic pentameter, hypercatalectic, the emphasis being on the
even syllables :

Pastores que dormis en la n)njada.
Thus also the Italian ; as in the following couplet, which likewise
has in each line a hypcrrhythmical syllable:

110

Che viver piu felicc o piu bcatu,
Ciic ritrovarsi in scrvitu d'iimore !

And here it is worthy of observation, that on the first syllable of
7-ilrnva)'si and ol" scrvilh is placed, as happens in English words,
the inferior emphasis, the primary being on the third syllable. It
is needless to exemplify the principle by reference to the English
language. It is surprising then that Mr. Mitford, the learned and
elegant historian, should observe (Harmony of Language) that
"he often gave his attention, at the Paris theatre, to the decla-
mation of the best actors, with the particular purpose of gai/tcring
the nature of French verse ; but that he ever remained ignorant
v/hat it is that, under French rules, can make a French verse, with
the requisite number of syllables, a more or less harmonious verse."
The general inferiority of their emphasis is probabl}'^ one reason
why, to mark clearly the boundary of the line, their verses are
generally concluded with very full rhymes. If in the preceding
French rule real accent or tone were meant, then we must ob-
serve that the French have accent and variety of accent, that
every vocal or articulate sound proceeding from a Frenchman's
mouth has some musical pitch, and is a note either of speech or
song. The French language therefore is not, as writers have stated
it to be, an exception to the principle that to every language be-
long accent, quality, and quantity.

The late Bishop Horslcy, in his elaborate and valuable treatise
" On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages," seems
to have confounded real accent or tone with syllabic emphasis,
or our modern accent. " It appears (he says) that the acute,
which is a sharp stroke of the voice upon some one syllabic of the
word, is in truth the only positire tone. The grave consists
merely in a negation of that acuteness." " The natural tendency
of the acute (he adds), contrary to the prejudice of the English
ear, is to shorten the syllable upon which it falls," while, on the
other hand, Primatt asserts that it makes a short syllable be-
come a long one. And, although he observes, with approbation,
that " the Halicarnassian says that the circumflex was a mixture
of the acute and the grave," yet he doubts whether " circuni-
flexion be a different thing from acuteness," and considers the
circumflex accent " as a compound mark of accent and quan-
tity." What he means by " a sharp stroke," he does not seem to
iiave clearly explained. It is pretty evident, however, that he
means nothing essentially different from what is termed ictus, or
syllabic enqihasis.

Now, it is almost needless to observe, that an acute accent is
in reality a rising inflexion, and has no necessary connexion with
any stroke of the voice, since it may affect either an emphatic or
an unemphatic syllable. Besides, the definition of circumflexion,
which he appears to approve, is not very consistent vvith his ex-
planation of the two simple accents, which, as far as tone is con-
cerned, would form a combination of something and nothing, of

Ill

a poskive qualify and its mere negation. While professing to re-
gulate accent or tone, which we suspect never was, and never
could be, completely subjected to rules, the learned author, doubt-
less, was unconsciously laying down rules merely for syllabic em-
phasis.

There are few subjects connected with language, on which wri-
ters have been more divided in opinion, than on the nature of an-
cient rliythm, and the manner in wliich antient poetry ought to
be pronounced. In contrasting the Latin position of his sharp
stroke, as in irpotre^rj, with the Greek, as in ■n'poa-a(prj, in the follow-
ing line,

Dr. Horsley allows that the two first syllables will be short either
way; but he thinks that, in following the former mode, it will be
difficult, if not impracticable, not to shorten the final long syl-
lable ipYj ; but that, by following the latter, the reader will be com-
pelled to give (Srj with its true length of sound. " True, (observes
a Monthly Reviewer, vol.xxv. 256,) but he will also feel himself
compelled to lengthen the sound of irpo; ; and, indeed, we believe
it impossible to pronounce two consecutive short syllables with
the same brevity." Either way, I see little danger to quantity.
By the former mode, the word, in regard to emphasis and quan-
tity, will pretty much resemble the English word prostitute or sub-
stitute, the noun attributes, enterprise, runaivaij ; by the latter,
such English words, as the verb attributes. For my own part, in
reading this line, I should feel no hesitation to lay the ictus or em-
phasis on the last syllable of the word, as I would on our English
word entertain 1 consider a dactyl or a spondee as a metrical
cadence or complete rhythmical pulsation, including thesis and
arsis, equivalent to a musical bar, and constituting an alicjuot part
of the verse, the first syllable of each being thetic or emphatic,
and the remainiler of the foot being in arsis or remiss. Feet may
be regarded, so far perhaps as raelepy is concerned, as a poet's
words; and, therefore, in reciting a hexameter verse, I would uni-
formly lay the emphasis on the first syllable of a dactyl and spon-
dee. The last syllable however of the dactyl, though in arsis,
will, of necessity, not be equally weak with the middle syllable.
And in such a mode of recitation, unless too great a pause be
made bctv/een the feet, there will be no danger whatevc-r, either
by metrical connexions or separations, of destroying the intelli-
gibility oftiie words. In reciting the following English line.

Ah ! I come not, ( write not, | think not I once of j me,
the two monosyllables have the precise effect of a dissyllable ;
and yet no hearer, possessing a competent knowledge of tin? lan-
guage, WDuld misundC!rstand either the words or their meaning.
Our longer words too arc perfectly intelligible, even although, by
receiving two distir.ct etnpha'-es, they may seem, in a delil)erate
recitation, to be broken into two distinct words. It is chiefly by
a sort ol' staccato utterance, b)' making an unnecessary long j>ause

412

after each foot, and by erroneously laying our eyllabic emphasis
on its last syllable, that in reading ancient hexameter, as it is
termed, by quantity, we seem to scan, rather than to read, de-
stroying the integrity of the words, and, as far at least as empha-
sis is concerned, to convert dactyls into anapaests, and spondees
into iambuses.

Let the dactyl be pronounced, in regard to time and force,
somewhat like our English word curious or ■warih/, and the spoil-
dee like timepiece ovtoatiike ; and, I apprehend, neither will quan-
tity be much falsified, nor will emphasis be essentially injured, in
this way, two out of the three accidents of speech will be tolerably
preserved. But then it may be asked, what becomes of real ac-
cent or tone? The complete practice, I answer, if not, also, even
the theory, of the Greek and Roman accentuation, is irretriev-
ably lost. But, if a line be read in the way which we have ven-
tured to recommend, not with the monotonous drawl of a child
learning to read, but with our natural and unatFectcd pronuncia-
tion, and a due regard to sense and pause, it will be found to pos-
sess, at least, all the melody or accentual music of English si)tecli,
(which cannot be dift'erent in kind from that of Greece or Rome,)
arising from variety of pitch and inflexion, every syllable, whether
long or short, emphatic or unemj>hatic, having been uttered in
some accent, or combination of accent, commensurate vvith the
time of the syllable, the acute or rising inflexion coinciding most
frequently with the long and emphatic quantity. By a regular
adjustxnent of the syllabic emphasis, the aupoSjux will be regarded ;
in the natural accompaniment of tones, the avijJXBia. will not be
altogether lost ; and, by a due observance of tlie relative time of
each note or syllable, the perfection of both will be most essen-
tially promoted.

But Dr. Horsley's object was certainly a rational one, viz. not
to supersede quantity, nor to annihilate accent or emphasis, but
to preserve both ; to prescribe rules for accent (syllabic empha-
sis), so as to render it " not destructive of quantity, but subser-
vient to it." And yet, doubtless, even ten general rules could not
be necessary to ascertain the proper position of the syllabic em-
phasis in hexameter verse, or in any other species of verse, an-
tient or modern ; and ten times the number would be insufficient
to fix the accentuation of any language. Although, however,
his rules in regard to the changes which he " conceives the tones
of connected words to have undergone," may not be deemed un-
objectionable, no one will deny that many of this eminently learn-
ed prelate's remarks are well entitled to the notice of every clas-
sical scholar. While grammarians, whether antient or modern,
are laying down rvi\(js i'or fixing the accent!(aiioi>., it is probable,
that they mean by accent, nothing but syllabic civphnsis. Accen-
tuation, in any language, never was, nor could be, fixed ; for the
accents must always have been liable to variation, according to
the position of the words, whether iu question or in answer, in a

413

suspended, or in a final sense ; since tone consists in the natural
modulation of the voice, which accompanies the verbal expression
of our sentiments and emotions.

Dr. Ilorsley's treatise was attacked with some ability, and not
a little flippancy, in the postscript to a work entitled Metron
ariston, ascribed to Dr. Warner, and most extravagantly and
unwarrantably panegyrized by the Monthly Reviewers and other
critics. The object of this publication is to support the princi-
ples of Adolplius Mekerchus, who, in his commentary De vcteri
et redd pronunliatione linguce Grcecce, was a strenuous advocate
for reading every syllable, according merely to its quantity. A
strange project truly ! There can, in truth, be no rational ob-
jection to reading by quantity ; but we deny the possibility of
reading by quantity alone. As emphasis cannot be neglected,
why should // not be put under some sort of regulation ? But we
further remark, that, while Dr. Warner conceives that he is read-
ing by quantity alone, it is quite evident that he is really reading
chiefly with attention to a particular position of the syllabic em-
phasis, since he assimilates his favourite mode of pronouncing
Greek and Latin verses, with " the modulation observed in the
English, with which his examples are associated in similar mea-
sure ;" ex.gr.

With glit

supreme,
ry beamy !

genus,
what fuss !

Ades, Pater

Thy head with glo

Fortu na no mutat

ter and with names

Lenes I que sub | noctem susurri.
When lads | to meet J their lass es hurry.
Now, what is this but reading chiefly according to syllabic em-
phasis, the predominating accident in the composition of our
own poetry ? But we are far from objecting to this mode; our
objection lies chiefly against the inapposite terms in which the
doctrine is couched, one accident of speech being evidently mis-
taken for another, and against the pompous manner in which it is
introduced as communicating " a new pleasure." Dr. Warner,
however, does not stand alone in this misconception. Almost
every modern advocate for ancient quantity, of whom we have
any knowledge, seems to regard a long quantity as precisely
identical with an emphatical syllable ; and to imagine that, while
he is recommending, in reality, nothing else but a particular ad-
justment of the emphasis, he is strenuously supporting the cause
of much-injured quantity. It is certainly true, however, that, in
all languages, strength and extension of sound, and perhaj>s, we
may add, acuteness too, more naturally, and, therefore, more fre-
quently, coincide on the same note or syllable : hence, probably,
the almost universal confusion of the really distinct properties of
emphasis (quality), quantity, and tone. It would seem, that the
particular state of organic tension, necessary for the production
of the emphatic impulse, is peculiarly adapted, not only for pro-

414-

traction of sound, but peiliaps also for elevation of note. Even
Mckerclius himself, in allusion to what he terms reading by quan-
tity, observes, .Si hoc modo pronimtiaris, servatd syllaharum quun-
tilaie, etiam ut versus non digcras in pedes, quis tamen apcriv et ^sa-iv
-non audint, ct suavissimd horum vcrsuum gravitate )ion capiatur?
Now, although a proper attention to quantity may be the more
likely mode of ensuring the proper rhythm, as indicated by arsis
and thesis, and vice versd; we do maintain, that reading by mere
quantity, were it practicable, would not of itself produce those
varieties indicated by arsis and thesis, in as much as the essence
of rhythm does not, and cannot, consist in an observance of mere
quantity.

We do not, however, mean to deny that time is necessary to
rhytlm), but to assert that the essence of rhythm does not con-
sist in time. That arsis and thesis may be observed in the pro-
posed mode of reading, is likely enough; but then it will be
found, that, in the recitation of Mekerchus, Dr. Warner, and
" the learned ecclesiastic," with whose pronunciation the latter ,
was so fascinated, their long syllables are fully as much charac-
terized by emphasis, as by extension of sound.

Emphasis, not quantity, we conceive to be the true pulse of
speech. Time itself, in a mere continuation of longs and shorts,
cannot, we apprehend, be the time-measurer or time-beater.
Syllables of equal length can, of themselves, impress no charac-
ter of cadence. Without the variety produced by some other
accident than quantity, whence could arise the rhythm of a drawl-
ing succession of monochronous syllables, whether termed spon-
dees or pyrrhics ? The most exact pronunciation, indeed, of
longs, and shorts, in any possible order, v/ould, otherwise, be
nothing but mere nerveless and exanimate syllabification.

Cicero observes, " Numerus in continuatioue nullus est; distinc-
tio, et JEqualium etsa^pe variorum miew'dWoYum percvssio, nume-
rum conticit." It is by the alternation of emphasis and remission,
that intervals and proportions of time are duly discriminated and
audibly indicated. The prominent variation of syllabic force and
feebleness must have been generally known before tones could be
analysed, or quantities were clearly ascertained, and must have
been instinctively find irresistibly yt//, as the vital principle both
of speech and song. It is not conceivable that an accident of
speech, which constitutes almost the sole regulating principle of
modern versification, could have been overlooked, or should not
have been deemed a consideration of the highest importance, in
the composition and recitation of ancient poetry. Its existence
needs not to be proved by authorities, since it is founded in the
very nature of things, in the action and powers of the organs of
speech. Without an intervening pause, it is physically impossi-
ble to pronounce two consecutive syllables, whether long or
short, with the same strong syllabic emphasis ; there must be a
re-action of the primary organ of syllabic impulse, either during

415

a pause, or on a remiss note or two, for speech is effected, not b}?
continuous, but reiterated action : and, in tlie utterance of even
tVFO consecutive weak syllables, it will be found, that there is not
the same degree of weakness; hence the alternate or periodical
nature of emphasis and remission, which we conceive to be the
essence and governing principle of rhythm, and believe -to have
been visihlij indicated by the action of thesis and arsis. It is upon
this principle, that every English word of two syllables, has 7iC'
cessarilij an eni[>hatic impulsj upon one of them. The longer
words may have two or three impulses, their syllabic position be-
ing generally determined by the seat of the primary or pre-eminent
emphasis. In this manner are English and other modern lan-
guages enunciated. Thus also are Greek and Latin now pro-
nounced. And in a similar manner must they always liaveLeen
pronounced, unless, indeed, the (ireeks and Ilomans had theiror-
gans of speecli differently constructed, or differently gifted, from
those of modern times. We entertain not even the smallest doubt,
for example, that the pronunciation, so far at least as concerns
emphasis, of the ditrochee, comprobavit, a cadence or close, with
which, we are told, by Cicero and Quintilian, that the Asiatics
were wonderfully delighted, was precisely similar to that of our
word approbation, a cadence, perhaps, equally agreeable to mo-
dern ears: that, in point of emj)hasis, (the present part of the
question does not regard quantity,) it consisted, like the latter,
of a weak and a strong modern trochee; or, to speak more cor-
rectly, that, as, in the English word, the inferior emphasis vvas
laid on the first syllable com, and the stronger on a, the penulti-
mate. In regard both to emphasis and quantity, it is certain,
that each word furnishes a fine flowing cadence. True then it
doubtless is, in one respect at least, although often questioned,
that rhythmas est metro potentior. There is nothing in the na-
ture of things, to determine whether the two syllables of a dissyl-
lable shall be both long, both short, or one of each kind. Far
otherwise with respect to emphasis. And hence it probably is,
that in the composition of verse, to the almost utter neglect of
passive quantity, rhythm, or the unavoidable pulsation of alter-
nate emphasis and remission, still survives, and may be said to
reign supreme lord of the ascendant. We again repeat it. Is it
rational to suppose that such a connate principle in human ut-
terance could have been overlooked by the antients? Presuming
that it could not be overlooked, we would ask. In what terms
have they characterized its effects on speech, if these are not to be
regarded as the essence of the antient rhythm ?

We are well aware of the discrepancies observable among the
ancient writers, and among the modern too, on the nature of the
ancient rhythm. We presume, however, to think, that the au-
thority of Aristides, who v/as not only a grammarian, but a mu-
sician, is entitled to the highest credit. He writes, (Meibomius,
vol. 2; p. 4-9,) rov [x-sv liSy.<,v iv acast xcci b£(r?i tyj)^ 8tr:a> s-^siv, to

4.1G

J« fjierp'jv ev ir^'AXa^aff x2( rij rsrwv avciixatorY,ti, that rliytbm has
its essence in arsis and thesis, but metre in syllables and their dif-
ference ; and he afterwards plainly refers to its name and office,
when he speaks of the dycoyrj prSawiJ^ su!.<^a.(rswg, as Steele justly
translates it, drift of rhythmical emphasis. He observes also, that
aoffi^ fj^ev Bfi (popa, a-ojtxatos kif) fuj avw, decrij Ji eit) rcS kocTuj ravTs
(jJooui, (De Musica, p. 31,) that arsis is the raising up of some
part of the body, and thesis is the moving down the same. And
adds, that " the dactylic and trochaic feet begin with thesis, and
end with arsis ; but the anapaestic and iambic begin with arsis and
end with thesis." (Id. pp. 36. 37.) Hence it would appear that
the Greek and the Latin rhythmus was analogous to a bar of mu-
sic 5 the former comprising syllables, the latter consisting of notes;
the measure and quality of both being indicated by time-beating,
or the pulsation of thesis and arsis. If the foot began with an em-
phatic syllable, it was measured^je/' thesin, by the hand iirstdown,
or the supplosio pedis; if, with an unemphatic syllable, it was
measured per arsin, that is, by the hand or foot first up ; so that,
according as the first part of the foot was emphatic or unempha-
tic, the measuring of it began eitlier with thesis or arsis. A hne,
beginning with arsis would be considered, we presume, as if com-
mencing in the middle of a bar. The preceding account of the
matter, we think much more accordant with the truth, than that
which is furnished by Hermann, (de JSIetris, p. 18,) who seems to
refer arsis either to loudness or to acuteness of voice (we do not
pretend to determine which) ; and thesis, in like manner, to either
softness or gravity. These are his word-s, " Ea vis et veluti nisus
quidam, (.\\xo princeps cujusque ordinis sonus ab insequentibus dis-
tinguitur, ictus appellatur ; Grseci ap<nv vocant, ab elevatioue t'o-
cis," (whether does he mean loudness or acuteness?) " insequen-
tesque sonos a demittenda voce," (softness or gravity? "in ^ecni
esse dicunt." Had he put thesis and ajsis, with their respective
explanations, in the place of each other, and at the same time
substituted pes or marius for vox, I am inclined to think the words
of his definitions, and their application, would have come much
nearer to the truth. For we conceive ictus and thesis to be syno-
nymous, the foot or hand being here put down, and lifted up at
arsis.

That rhythm and metre are different things, and that the an-
cient rhythm was identical in kind with the modern, we may, I
think, fairly presume from the words both of Quintilian and Lon-
ginus. The former concludes the well-known passage, in which
he is elaborately discriminating metre and rhythm, with these
words, '< Metrum in verbis modo, rhythmus etiam in corporis motu
est," that metre exists in words only, but that rhythm may be ex«
hibited equally in the motion of the body (as in dance). To the
same effect are the words of Longinus ; ^ixipspsi Sa Marpcv "PyO^xoy-
yAry yap ro7; tjiEtpois ij o-yAAaS'ij, xa.] xcop); avWcc^yj; oJx dv ysvotto
MsTpov, 'O h'Pv^y,os ylvstot-i ko.] h cvKKa^s.'ii, ylvstcci S^ xat^cvp];

417

ruXXx^-^i' Koc) ydp iv nporu}. Long-in. Fragm. Metre difiersfrom
rhythm ; for syllables are the material ot metre, and u ithout syl-
lable there can be no metre: but rhythm may exist either in syl-
lables, or without them, for strokes (as in beating a drum) are
sufficient to produce rhythmus.

I am not ignorant either of the artificial polysyllabic feet men-
tioned as existing in ancient prosody, or of the alleged intricacy
of the ancient rhythmus. It is, however, stated as the opinion
of Austin, that a foot ought not to exceed four syllables. Dio-
nysius (de Struct. Orat. sect. xvii. ad fin.) says, that it should not
be less than two, nor more than three. Cicero (Orat. 218,) says,
" Paeon, quod plures habeat syllabas quam tres, numcrus a qui-
busdam, non pes habetur." And Quintilian seems to be of the
same opinion : " Quicquid enim supra tres syllabas, id ex pluribus
est pedibus." (Inst. 1. 9.) But, be this as it may, the natural foot
or step must have consisted of, and been measured by, one arsis
and one thesis. There could not have been, we apprehend, more
than two, or, at most, three syllables in arsis. And when, ac-
cording to the particular quantities which it measured, the hand
or the foot had performed the appropriate motions, the natural
foot must have been complete; with a renewal of these motions,
another ibot or rhythmus must have commenced. With respect
to rhythm, I must confess, that I know of but two kinds, existing
in nature, usually, I believe, termed common time, and triple
time; and these, I apprehend, must always have been the same,
whether in speech or in song.

Much, however, as we would contend for the importance and
influence of emphasis in the recitation of ancient verse, we can-
not coincide in the literal interpretation of those words in the
Scholiast, which have been so often commented on, namely, 'O
fioSjxos, ws /SouAerai, aXxs) rou; y^povov;. noX/axij yav xa) rov
(3pa%Dv yjioviv troisl ij:,axp6v. The meaning has been supposed to
be this, that, when a short syllable occurred, where a long one
was required, the rhythmus would require a following iiume or
rest ; so that, although the syllable would not in reality be length-
ened, the proper time of the line would thus be completed. To
the preceding strange dogma, Marius Victorinus has added, that
" rhythm will often make a long time short." We know that, in
reading English verse, we are sometimes compelled, if we yield
to the drift of the rhythm, to give an emphatic utterance to a syl-
lable not naturally emphatic, and to pass remissly over syllables
naturally entitled to syllabic force. All, then, we suspect, in-
tended to be intimated in the preceding words is, that the posi-
tion of the syllabic emphasis commonly observed in prose, was
not always regarded in poetry, or that the rhythm gives an em-
phatic utterance to a short, a doubtful, or an unemphatic syllable,
or to a natural short quantity in position, if in the verse it should
happen to occupy an emphatic situation. Emphasis, though often
mistaken for length of quantity, with which it most frequently

2E

41S

coiucidcji, is not quantity ; nor can it, strictly speaking, impart
that which it-neither is, nor essentially possesses. But we do not
mean absoli)tely to deny, that, in compositions in which there ex-
isted variety of Feet, occasional modifications of quantity, without,
however, altering its specific character, and occasional pauses,
might have been necessary to make the metre keep a due pace
with the rhythm.

An instance of the application of the preceding principle, il is
j-'iobable, we have in Virgil's

pecudes, pictccque volucres.

Georg. iii, 24y. iEn. iv, 525.
in which the middle syllable of volucres, commonly unemphatic,
and naturally short, though it may be deemed long by position,
becomes emphatic, by being put into the place of thesis. On this
line, Quintiliun observes, "Evenit ut metri quoque conditio mutet
accentum, nam volucres, media acuta legam ; quia, etsi brevis na-
tura, taraen positione longa est, ne faciat lambum, quern non re-
cipit versus heroicus." Whether, by accentus, Quintilian really
refers to accent, properly so termed, or tone, or to our accent or
syllabic emphasis, I shall not, notwithstanding the ••media acuta"
iu the context, attempt to determine. It is indeed not unlikely,
that the accentuation of the middle syllable may vary, with the
change of the syllabic emphasis, and the decision of the quantity.
I agree, however, with Mr. Steele, in thinking, that the liberty
v.hich was taken by Virgil in this place, was not, strictly, what
the words of Quintilian might imply ; but was, precisely, the put-
ting the syllable lu in thesis, whereas it, naturally, should have
been in arsis ; or, in other words, Virgil put it into a place where
it must be pronounced emphatically, though by its nature it was
unemphatic. Such liberties, as the preceding one, we may add,
occur most frequently towards the end of a line ; and this cir-
cumstance may perhaps have arisen from the idea, that, in such
a position, the syllable is the less likely to evade the dywyr, pu9/x.jxijf
ilj.(px.<rau/s, or drift of the rhythmical emphasis. Similar pecu-
liarities, observable in other antient poets, may, probably, be ac-
counted for on the like principle. In the versification of Ho-
mer, a vowel, naturally short, sometimes occurs as the first syl-
lable of a foot, whether at the beginning of a verse, or in the
middle of a wordj the syllable, which is thetic, being rendered
sufficiently prominent, under the drift of the rhythm, for the gene-
ral harmony of the verse, by the ictiis metricus or syllabic em-
phasis.'

' This long Note, which may perhaps be deemed a very unimportant one,
hastily transcribed and chiefly from memoranda, which had been lying by me
for several years, was sent, at once, to the Month. Mag. for insertion, and be-
gan to appear in the year 1814. There is an evident coincidence between the
concluding sentence of it, and an opinion, previously published, of Professor
Dunbar's, in elucidation of the versification of Homer ; with diis difference,
however, th&t those syiiablcs whici; the learned Professor considers to be in
arsis, I have considered as in I'ltsis, the cnijfk'jtic syllable being, in my opinion,

419

OF THE FIGURES OF PROSODY.

The syllables of words in verse are affected in eight dif-
ferent ways : — By Cj3esura ; by Syuala?pha, and Ecthlipsi,- ;
8ynyeresis, and I3iaeresis ; by Systole, and Diastole '; and
by Synapheia; which aie coinnionly called the Figure- &i
Prosody.

OF CTESURA.

When, after finishing a foot, there remains one syllable
of the word, this circumstance is called ccvsura ; a term
which is also sometimes applied to the syllable itself thus
cut off] and which forms the first part of the following foot.

There are commonly reckoned four species of caesura ;
the tiiemimeris, penthemimeris, hephthemimcris, and en7Uiiil^
Hieris ; or, according to the Latin, the scmker?iaria, semi-
(juinaria, semiseptenaria, and seininovenaria ; so nam*^d

' By some, caesura is not enumerated among the figures ; ^y-
?tole and diastole are referred to poetic license ; and ectlilipKie
and synaloepha are included under the general term o^ elision.— -
The term ccesura is sometimes applied to that separation, or short
pause, which, under the influence of the rhythmical movement,
naturally occurs, in reading a verse ; dividing the line, as it were,
into two members. As in English, and other modern poetry,
its place in the line seems to be determined, rather by the di*.
position of the syllabic emphasis of the words, in connexion some-
times with the sense, than by the mere feet or quantity. In
Heroic poetry, it occurs chiefly after the penthemimeris ; as

Tityre, tu patula; [ recubans sub tegmine fagi — Virg.
Sometimes after the two first syllables of the third foot,

Effigiem statuere | nefas quae triste piaret — Virg.
and in other positions. The rhythmical CfESura, at the end of
the second foot, does not seem to contribute to the harmony oi^
the line, especially when followed by a spondee.

Conjugium vocat | hoc prgetexit nomine culpam — Vifi?.
'This intermediate or rhythmical pause will be further noticed
in the Observations on Hexameter Verse. It occurs in the mid-
dle of Pentameter.

thetic ; and that, while he conceives the syllable to ba lengthened by tiia vlv,"!,
1 ascribe to tlie ictus no such power, merely conceiving tliiit, by being phiced
in thesis, a short or doubtful syllable may, thus, bo rendered sufficienily $trovg
and praminenl for the intenced rhythm. Prsviously, however, to the publi-
CiktJon of Mr. Dunbar's valuable " Inquiry into tlie \'cisification of Homer,"
Trhioh, I believe, first appeared, anonymously, iu the Class. Jouni. for Jai\e,
1814, the present writer's opinions respecting these subjects had been intimated.
<vith sufficient clearness, particularly under tlie Articles on Si/llahic and IWbn:!
Jyrnjf/iafis, C'udcnct-:, 8cc. in an English Grammar, printed in the vear IHl'J.

2 E 2

4.20

from the places in which they are found in scanning a verse,
which the aiitients frequently did by half-feet.

1. The Triemimeris is, when, after the first foot, or two
half-feet, there remains a syllable terminating a word, or a
/////y/ half-foot.

2. The Penthemimeris is, when, after two feet, or four
half-leet, there remains a terminating syllable, ox JiJ'ih half-
foot.

3. The llephthemimeris is, when, after three feet, or six
halt-feet, a syllable remains, which is the seventh lialt-foot.

4. Tlie Ennenumeris' is, when, after four feet, or eight
half-feet, a syllable remains, which is the iiinih lialf-foot.

The first three cajsura^ are in the following line,

Sitves-trein | tenu-i | Mii-saiu | medi/aris nvena — Virg.
All are in the followhig,

IlLe la-tus { nive-um j ?nol-li \fiil~tus j Iniacintho — Virg,

The precechng may be named sijllahic caesuras, or pauses,
To these may be added tlie Irorluiic ca'sura, as it has been
named by some granmiarian«, and V)y Mr. Pickbourn ; and
the monosyllabic pause, which is also noticed by Mr. Pick-
bourn, and of which some mention is made in Versification,
ynder tlic Great Alcaic,

The trochaic caesura is formed either by a trochee remain-
ing at the end of a word, after the completion of a foot, or
by a word consisting of a trochee : thus,

Cuncta prius ten-ldld y ( sed imnjedicabile vulnus — Ovid.

Infandum, re-gJna, \ jubes renovare dolorem — Virg.

Per connubia nosfra, | per incoeptos Hymenaeos — Virg.

A similar pause to that which is caused by the usual caesura
of a syllable sometimes arises from a monosyllable; thus,

De grege 7iunc j tibi vir, j nunc de j grege natus haben-
dus — Ovid.
The general effects of casurce are twofold :

1. They give smootlmess, grace, and sweetness to a verse,
since they connect the different words harmoniously together.

2. They often cause a syllable, naturally short, to be rec-
koned long, especially after the first, second, or third foot';
and this circujnstance, perhaps, arises from the pause, or sus-
pension of the voice, which then, usually, ensues.

' To these some have added the Hendec/umiweris, which, is,
when, after five feet, or ten half-feet, there remains a syllable,
which is the eleventh half-foot ; as,

Vertitur inierea ccelum, et ruit ocea-no \ nox — Virg.
Parturiunl mantes, iiascdur ridicu-lus \ mus- — Hor.
But such inbtance,i are very rare, and to be imitaced with great dis-
cretioi;.

421

After the first foot: as^
Pectnri-bTxs \ in/u'ans, spirantia consuUt exta — Virg,

After the second : as,
Omnia vine it am-dr\^ et nos ccdamus amori — Virg.

After the thircjl : as,
Dona dchinc auyo gravi-a !, scctoque elcphanto — ^'^Yg^. '

After the fourth : as,
Grains homuinfcctos linqucns prqfji-gas | hymcncens — Virc^.
Of all the metrical pauses^, the final one has been regarded
ns the most important ; since it is said to possess the power
of lengthening a final short syllable^, in every species of
poetic composition.

' The learner should rcmeraber that the first pause arising from
caesura is in the second foot ; the second, or common pause, in the
third ; tlie third priuse, in the fourdi ; and tlie fifth pause, in the
last foot. He should also observe that, in using the caesural mark,
I have sometimes placed it at the cutting off, that is, before the syl-
lable cut off", but oftcner, especially in speaking of the consequent
pause, after the syllable cut off. Either way, the syllable cannot
be mistaken, being the last of a word.

' These are all merely pauses of suspension ; and, in reciting
verses, do not require either elevation or depression, or any altera-
tion in the tone of voice, unless they coincidewith sentential pauses,
(pauses in sense,) which are of a very different nature. Metrical
pauses are carefully to be distinguished from sentential ones ; for
not only the caesural, but even final pauses, frequently occur,
where there is no stop in the sense ; even between the noun and its
adjective, and the nominative case and its verb: as,
Ignea convexi j vis et | sine 2>oii(lere cceli
Emicuit.

Here the noun vis is separated from its adjective ignea by a cae-
sural pause, and from its verb emicuit by both a caesural (monosyl-
labic) and a final pause. — Pickbourns Dissert, on Metr. Pauses.

^ We do not iqiagine, however, that any pause really changes
the quantity ; but suppose that it only prolongs the time of reci-
tation strictly belonging to the line, on the score of mere syllabic
quantity. The pause, although it may extend the time of recita-
tion, can have no effect on the syllable itself, for the general time is
not liable to modification from any |)ovvcr, except, perhaps, that of
rhythm. Now, the pause itself must obey the same power ; and,
therefore, will probal^ly be shorter at tli(^ end of a verse which ter-
minates in a long syllable, than vvherethe final syll.b e is a short one.
We arc aware, that eminent critics, and among them, the learned
Dr. Clarke, entertain an opinion somewhat different, with respect
to the effect of the pause. He asserts (If i, 51 ) that "the last
syllable of every verse is universally, not conmion, as gramma-
rians pretend, but always, of necessity, Umg, projjler pausam istam,

Ot SYNALCEPHA.

SyrKilcEfiha cuts olFtlie final vowel or diphthong of a word,
\rhen the following word begins with a vowel or diphthong,
as in the following lines,

'Terra antiqua, puiens armis atqiie uhere glehcE.
Qjiiidve moror, si omnes uno ordine hahetis Achivos.
- Dardanidcc infeiisi j^cenas aim sanguine posamt — Virg.
in which terra, atquc, si, imo, ordine lose their last vowel, in
sjcanning, and Dardanidcc its diphthong, because the follow-
ing words begin with vowels, (//. being considered a mere
aspiration,) and are thus scanned ;

7(?r' antiqua jwtens armis atqiH uhere glebes.
Qjddve moror, s' omnes mH ordiiC hahetis Achivos.
Dardaiiid^ infensi pcenas cum sanguine poscunt.
Note!. Synaloepha is sometimes omitted. (1) Regularly,
as in the interjections o, hen, ah, proh, v(E, vah, hei ,- as,
O pater, o hominum, Divumque aeterna potestas ! — Virg.
Heti uhl pacta fides, ubi qu.se jurare solebas — Ovid.
Ah ! ego non possum tanta videre mala — TibuJl.
Also in Id, l)y Ovid : as,

Et bis I'd Arethusa, Id Arethusa, vocavit.
But o is sometimes made short: as,

TeCorydon, 6 Alexi; trahit sua quemque voluptas — Virg.
(2) By poetic license, as in the following lines;
Et succus pecori, et lac tubducitur agnis.

qua, in fine versus, syllaba idtinta pronuntiatio necessarib prodii-^
citur." But pause an A protracted utterance, it may be observed,
difi'or from each other, as much as silence and sound. Mr. Steele
goes so far as to assert, that pauses ought to be accounted as
jiiuts of the metre ; but no pauses can, we apprehend, be reck-
oned parts of the metre, except those which accompany short
syllables, when they occupy the places of long ones, and which
may, therefore, be considered as metrical. — The caesural pause
also, while it conduces to the better discrimination of the feet
from the words, aflbrds rest to the organs of speech, and pro-
duces delay in the recitation. And even if the syllable itself be
not lengthened, yet, standing at the beginning of the next foot,
it will be rendered sufficiently prominent, by receiving, from the
ictus or syllabic emphasis, such an energy of sound, as will fully
enable it to sustain the following syllables of its own foot. It may
be remarked, particularly iu a deliberate uttei'ance, that, inde-
pendently of any caesural pause, a very short intermission of voice
necessarily precedes every strongly emphatic syllable ; and this
pause, too, will count in the aggregate time of the line.

4f>3

PostliaLita colulsse Samo : hie illius arnia.

IStant ex, juniper i, ct castanecs hirsutxe — Virg.
This, which is called in Latin a hiatus^ Is not to be admitted
without some reason into a verse. Jt sometimes, however,
liappens, if the preceding vowel is short, especially at the
end of a sentence, where, in course, a pause takes place ; as
in the following line,

Et vera incessu patuit ded. Ille ubi matrem — Yirg.

Note 2. Long vowels and diphthongs, when they are not

cut ofti become common.

Thev are short in the followinc; lines,
^ . . .

Insulce lonio in magno, quas dii'a Celseno.

Credimus? an qia amant, ipsi sibi somnia fingunr.

Victor apud rapidinn Simoenta sub Ilio alto — Virg,
They are long in the following,

Ante tibi Eoce Atlantides abscondantur.

Amphion Dircaeus in Act(Zo Aracyntho.

Lamentis gemituque eifcemineu ululaiu — Virg.

Jactari quos cernis in luyiio immenso — Ovid.
Sometimes an instance of then- being long and short oc-
curs in the same verse ; as,

Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam.

Glaiico et Panopea;^ et Inoo Melicertai — Virg.

OF ECTHLIPSIS.

Ecthlipsis cuts off the final m and the preceding vowel,
the following word beginning with a vowel : as,

Leniter ex merito quicquid patiare J'ej-e7idum est — Ovid.

O curas homijium, 6 quantum est in rebus inane — Pers.
which are to be thus read, in scanning,

Leniter ex merito quicquid ]patiare fe7-end' est
O curas komin' 6 quanP est in rebus inane.

Note I. The antients sometunes retained the m and the
vowel, which they made short : as,

Corporiim officium est quoniam premere omnia deorsum
-— Lucr.
But the um oi q^cium is elided.

Note 2. S was formerly elided, not only before a vowel,
with the loss of a syllable; but before a consonant also, with-
out the loss of a syllable, as in

Turn lateraW dolor, certissimu* nunciiC mortis — Lucil.

Nam, si de nihilo fierent, ex omnibu^ rebus — Lucret.

At fixus nostris, tu dabi' supplicium — CatuU.

Note 3. Under the influence of Synapheia, both synaloeplui

424.

and ecthlipsis are found in the last syllable of a verse, where
the elision takes place through the vowel at the beginning
of the following verse, provided no long pause intervenes at
the end of the line, by which the voice is suspended: as,
Sternitur infelix alieno vulncre, cu^lumque
Adspicit, et dulccs inoriens reniiniscitur Argos — Virg.
Janujue iter eniensi, tiu'res ac tecta Latinorum
Ardua cernebant juvenes, murosque subibant — Virg.

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNALCEPHA AND
ECTHLIPSIS.

1 . These figures fall more pleasantly before a long sylla-
ble : as,

Tuin quoquc nil fecit, nisi quod /ac^rc ipse coegi — Ovid.

Postquam introgressi^ et coram data copia fandi — Virg.
But the elision of a long syllable is harsh, when it is followed
by a short one : as,

Troja, nefas ! commune sepidchrum MuroptT, Asi(Vque
— Catull.

2. The Synalcepha has a particular sweetness, if it falls
on the same vowel as begins the following word : as,

Ille ego qui quondam gracili modulatus avena — Virg.
Ergo omnis longo solvit se Teucria luctu — Virg.

3. Care must be taken that the sound arising fi-om the use
of these figures be not harsh and disagreeable ; as in

Quis 7ne uno vivit felicior, aut mage nostra hdc — Catull.
Quod cum ita sit, nolim statuas me mente maligna — Ca-
tull.

4. Elisions should not be frequent, nor, without some par-
ticular reason, should there be more than two in one verse,
especially in an elegiac, which requires great smoothness.
On the contrary, in a heroic verse, several synalcepha? some-
times occasion dignity and majesty ; and, as in the following
line, a particular sweetness,

Phyllida amo ante alias : nam me discedere flevit — Virg.
But in the following lines, horror is produced by elision,
Mo7istrum horrcfidum, injorme, ingens, cui lumen ademp-

tum — Virg.
Tela inter media, atque horrentcs Marte Latinos — Virg.
5. Nor should elision commonly happen at the beginning
of a verse, as in

Nam ut ferula caedas meritum majora subire — Hor.
But Virgil has made an elision at the beginning, not, how-
ever, without a reason, or without beauty : as

tSi ad vituiam spectes, nihil est quod pocula laudes.

425

6. Elision is liarsh at the be<Tiniiing of the sixth foot of a
heroic ; as in

Loripidem rectus dcrideat, JEthiopem albus — Juv,
Nunquid de Dacis audisti ? nil eqiiidem, ut tu — Hor.

7. Also after the first hemisticii of u pentameter ; as in
Herculis, Anttvique^ Hesperiduvique comes — Propert.

8. Elision is harsh in the last syllable of the fifth foot of
a heroic verse ; as in

Difficile est longum subito deponere amorem — Catull.

9. Also in the last dactyl of a pentameter ; unless it is
used with great discretion ; as in

Quadrijugos cernes saepe resist ere cqiios — Ovid.
It is not, perhaps, easy to determine how the antients
treated their elided syllables, whether, as in English, a slight,
imperfect sound of them might have been distinguishable,
or whether, as in the usual mode of scanning, they were
wholly omitted. It has been already noticed that all long
syllables are not equally long, nor all short syllables equally
short. Mr. Pickbourn is inclined to think that the elided
syllables were, in some degree, heard ' ; and observes that
if we suppose the quantity of a dactyl or spondee to be
equal to sixteen, I think we may be allowed to conjecture
that the length of each individual syllable might probably
be not very diflerent from that which is marked in the fol-
lowing lines :

853 8 8 9 3 5 7 «9349_T

Notitiam primosque gradus vicinia fecit.

934 81 ';('7y'7_8 9349~

Littora : multum ille et terris jactatus et alto."

OF SYNiERESIS.

Synaeresis is the contraction of two syllables in the same
word, into one syllable.

Tliere are two kinds of contraction, Si/nceresis, strictly so
called, and Syyiecphoncsis.

Synaeresis, properly so called, is when the two vowels re-
maining become a diphthong ; as ac changed into </', in
Phcjcton instead of Fhaeton ; e'i hito ei, as in the genitives

• In regard to m elided, Qiiinctilian's words are clear ; " Eadem
litera, quotics ultima est, ct vocaJem verbi sequentis ita contin-
git, ut in eani transire possit, ctiam si scribitiu-. tamen panan ex-
j^rimitur." See Quinct. lib. ix. cap. 4'. He says, " non eximi-
tur, sed obscuratur." Indeed, according to the etymology of
the word, Synalceplia conveys the idea of two syllables or vowels
blended into one, rather than of the diiion of one of tiji^ni.

4^6

Tkc.scij Orphel, Fcrsci used as dissyllables, AchiUci, Ulf/ssei,
Oilei, as trisyllables. Thus also oi in prninde^ as a dissyl-
lable ; ei in reice formed by syncope from rejicc ; ui in hiacy
rui, See. used as moiiosyllable's.

Cum te llagranti dejectum fuimine Phccimi — Varro.

Kotus amor Phaedrae, ni)ta e.^t injuria Thesei — Ovid.

Proinde ton a eloquio, solitum tibi Viro-.

Tityre, pascentes a flumine reice capellas — Virg.

Filius hide contra, torquet qui sidera mundi — Virg.

In some names of Greek origin, as Th^odotiis, ThBdo-
sius, &c. synairesis is sometimes accompanied with a change
of one of the vowels, agreeably to the Doric dialect, as Theu-
dotiis, Thcudosius.

Quani tulit a ^-Jivo TJieudotus hoste necem — Ovid.

Theudosii, pacem laturi gentibus, ibant — Claudian.
^ Synecphonesis (named also Epkynalcepha and Synize-
sis) is when one of two vowels in the same word is cut offl
or absorbed m the pronunciation : as in mired, Junio, used
as dissyllables ; and quoad as a monosyllable.

Aured percussum virga, versumque vcnenis — Virg.

Nos miranda quidem, sed nuper consule Junio — Juv.

Ilaeredes voiuit ; quoad vixit, credidit ingens — Hor,
E and /" are the chief letters elided by Synecphonesis.

I. The letter E. (1.) Before a; as mea, ca^ considered as
monosyllables by die comic writers ; antehac, eddem, as dis-
sylhbles; antcambido, alvearia, as words of four syllables.

Quod si forte faisse anlekac cadem omnia credis— Lucr.

I na eadcmqiie via sanguisque animusque feruntur—Virg.

Sum comes ipse tuns, tunn'dique anteamhulo regis— Mart.

Sen lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta — Virg.

(2) Before another e ; as in deest^ a monosyllable, deero^
deer it, j^rchcndo, wJiemens, dissyllables, mehercide, a trisyl-
lable.

Vilis amiconnn est annona, bonis ubi quid deest — Hor.
Dlvitis uber agri, Troiasve opulentia deerit — Virg,
Prendcre quae possis oculoi-um lumine aperto — Lucr.
Vehcmens et liquidus puroque sim_il]im_us amni— Hor.
Noli vereri ; at ille, facerem meJierade — Phfedr.

(3) Before /,- as in dei7i, dehinc, monosyllables ; deinde^
deinceps, aurcis, fcrrci^ anteit, dissyllables ; and in anteire,
unteirenl, an.d anteactus, trisyllables.

Ddn clamore pari concurritur, et vice teli — Juv.
Dcinde torus junxit, nunc ipsa pericula jungunt — Ovid.
Ferreiquc Eumenidum thalami, et discordia demens —
Virg.

427

Te semper anleit dira necessltas — (Alcaic) Hon

Ki'go anttlre metus, juvenemque exstinguere pergir

Flacc.

Qui candore nives anteirent^ cursibus auras — Virg.

Nam si grata fait tibi vita anteacta priorque — Lucr.

Noie^ however, tiiat the e ot" de is not in all such cases
subject to synaeresis, or synecphonesis, for we find dikinc,
delude, &c. and it is found with its original quantity in de-
hortaliir, and in deest, in two passages, one quoted from
Ennius by A. Gellius, and in one from Statius.
Annibal audaci cum pectore dehortatur '.
Deest servitio plebes, hos ignis egentes.

(i) Before o ,- as in meo, eo, used as monosyllables by the
comic writers ; eudem, eosdern^ alveo, seorsum, deorswn, as
dissyllables ; Euristheo, graveolens, as trisyllables.

Uno eodemque igni, sic nostro Daphnis amore — Virg.

Eosdem habuit secum, quibus est elata, capillos— Prop.

Cum refluit campis, et jam se condidit alveo — Virg.

Nam per aquas qutecunque cadunt aique aera deorsum —
Lucr.

Et seorsum varios rerum sentire colores — Lucr.

Rege sub Euristheo, tatis Junonis iniquse — Virg.

Inde ubi venere ad lauces graveohntis Averni — Virg.

(5) Before u ; as in mens, meum, eum, which are likewise
considered by the comic writers, as monosyllables.

IL The letter /, (1) Before a,- as in 07;«?/«, a dissyllable;
vindeiniator and semia7iimis, as words of four syllables.

Bis patriae cecidere manus : quin protinus omnia — ^'irg.

Vmdemiato7', et invictus, cui sa^pe viator — Hor.

Csedit semianimis Rutulorum calcibus arva — Virg.

(2) Before e ; as in vietus, a dissyllable; and semiermis,
a trisyllable.

Quis sudor vietis, et quam malus undique membris — Hor.
Semiermemque manum sternendam objecerat hosti — Sil.

(3) Before another z ; as in di:, diis, ii, iis, monosyila-
bles; iidem, iisdem, dissyllables; denariis, a trisyllable.

Di meliora velint, quanquam non ista precanda — Ovii).

Praecipitatur aquis, et aquis nox sui'git ab isdem — Ovid.

Denariis tamen hoc non emo, Basse, tribus — Mart.

Such genitives as consili and imperi occur in Horace.
The forms cotisilil, servilii, auxilii, &c. are not foumt in
Virgil, but frecjuently occur in Ovid.

(4) Before o ; as ui scmihomo, Jiiwiorum, considered as

' I5ut ill a ilift'crcnt reading, the c is elided.

4-28

words of three syllables, and tenuiorc, considered as a word
of four.

Semihominis Caci facies quam dira teuebat — Virg.

Fluviorwn Rex Eridaruis, cainj^osque per omnes — Virg.

Ortns, et instantein cornu tcnuiore videbat — Stat.

In such words it is not improbable tliat i may have the
same sound as j/, in the Enghsii word yore ; thus thiu-
yore.

(5) Before u -, as in totirts, regarded as a dissyllable; in
promoiiforium, as a word of four syllables ; and, perhaps, in
certain genitives plui'al ending in ium.

Magnanimosque duces, totiusque ex ordine gentis — Virg.

Inde legit Capreas, ])romontormmqiie Minervae — Ovid.

Flos Veronensium depereunt juvenum — Catul.
^5 o, w, are less frequently elided, or, in the language of
grammarians, absorbed in the pronunciation.

III. A is elided, in contraire ; as,

Tigribus ? aut saevos Libyie contraire leones ? — Stat.

IV. O is sometimes found absorbed before another o .- as
in cohoncsto, used as a trisylkible ; and in cooperiunt, and
cooluerhit, used as words of four syllables, by Lucretius, ii.
1060, and vi. 490; but in Mr. Wakefield's edition of this
poet, coaluerint is read instead of the latter word.

Tandem coaluerint ea, quae, conjecta repente.

V. U is sometimes elided before other vowels ; as in tua,
stia, tuo, SHO, duce, considered as monosyllables by the comic
writers ; in suapte, jiatrui^ as dissyllables ; and ducllica, as
a trisyllable. In these the 7i seems to have a similar pro-
nunciation to that of the u in suadeo^ suetus, or of the xv in
the English dwell, or of the 7i in persuade.

Et simili ratione animalia suaptc vagari — Lucr.
Nocturnique canum gemitus et Wrrvna. patrui — Stat.
Lanigerae jiecudes, et equorum dnellica proles.

To Synec})honesis may likewise be referred the changing
of the vowels i and u into the consonants^' and f, (which
were then probably sounded somewhat like the English y
in you, and w,) by wliich two syllables are contracted into
one ; as in genva, tenvis, dissyllables ; arjetat, tenvia, abjetcy
pitvita, trisyllables ; and parjetibm, Nasidjcniis, words of
four syllables; instead of ^'•6'»iV«, tenuis, arietat, tenuia, &c. .

Propterea quia corpus aqua? naturaque tenvis — Lucr.

Genva labaut, gelido concrevit frigore sanguis — ^^irg.

Arjetat in portas et duros objice postes — Virg.

Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenvia Seres — Virg.

^dificaut, sectavjuc intexunt abjete costas — Virg.

429

Pr^ecipuc sanus, nisi cum pitvila molesta est — Hor.

Parjetihusquc jiremunt arctis, et quatuor addunt — Virg.

Ut Nasi djt'u I jiiwit te coena beati — Hor.

Note 1. JSometimes Synaloepha and Synecphonesis meet
together: as in

Uno eodcmque tulit partu, paribusque revinxit
Serpentum spiris Virg.

Scan thus, JJn^ odcmque tuht, &c.

Note 2. In the following words, Hide, cut, Dii, Dits,
iidein, iisdem, dein, dei)idc, j^roinde, deest, dee7'am, deessem^
deero, deesse, atiteambulo, aiiteit, antehac, sernihomo, semi-
anirnis, and a few others, a contraction of the two sylla-
bles is more connnon among the best poets, than a separa-
tion.

Sy7i(eresis and Si/necpJionesis differ from Crasis, in this,
that they take place properly in poetry, the last, also in prose.

OF DIURESIS.

Diaresis (which is also called Dialysis) is the splitting
of one syllable into two syllables.

This is done in three different ways ;

I. By the division of a diphthong into two syllables; as
aula'i, atirai,insteiidof aulfv, aurcSi (Jrjj/ieus,Persei(s\ Trotce,
trisyllables ; Natadmn, Harpyias, words of four syllables.

Aida'i in medio libabant pocula Bacchi — Virg.

Et finitur in Andromeda, quam Perscils armis — Manil.

Misit infestos Trdicc minis — (Sapph.) Senec.

7Egle Naiadum pulcherrima, jamque videnti — Virg.

Circumsistentes reppulit Harpyias — (Pentam.) Rutil.

The Ionic dialect in Greek frequently resolving the di-
phthong ej and ») into >]V, the Roman poets have sometimes
availed themselves of that license in Greek words origin-
ally written with a diphthong; thus

Annuit, atque dolis risit Cytherea repertis — Virg.
Exigit indicii memorem Cythereid poenam — Ovid.

II. By resolving the consonants j and v into the vowels i
and u ; as in silica', soliiit, for silva;, solvit ; subiecta, a word
of four syllables, histead oi suhjeeta.

Aurarum et sililcc metu — (Glycon.) Hor.

Quod zonam soliiit din ligatam — (Phaleuc.) Catull.

Si qua ferventi subiecta Cancro est — (Sapph.) Senec.

* In this case, Perseus and Orpheus are considered as of the
second declension ; but it is better to refer them, in poetry, to
the third, according to which, Greek proper names in cus (gen.
eos) have the eu a diphthong.

i30

The first vowel oi silva, whether it be supposed to be de-
rived from the Greek, or from the Latin 57/t'o, may be con-
sidered as naturally short, but for the position; and like-
wise the first 0 of solvo and volvo and their compounds, as
is visible in their participles solutiis and volutus, in which
the position is removed.

This figure is very common in the compovmds of solvo
and volvo : as,

Stamina non ulli dissolimida Deo — (Pentam.) Tib.
Debuerant fusos evoliiisse suos — (Pentam.) Ovid.

Indeed it is not improbable, that in many lines, in which
5j7t'-, solv-^ and ro/r-, are usually supposed to constitute the
latter part of a spondee, the resolution of them into .^f/tf,
tolii^ and volu^ as the two last syllables of a daciyl, may pro-
duce an assonantia vethorum more adapted to tlie nature of
the subjects to be represented, as in the following lines ex-
pressive of the waving of trees, the rolling of a stone, and
tlie shivering of the limbs of iEneas.

Et claro slluas cernes Aquilone moveri — Virg.
Saxum ingens voliiunt alii, radiisque rotarum — ^'irg-
Extemplo ^Eneae solmmtur frigore membra — Virg.

%Vlien the nature of the verse does not prevent it, a di-
arasis of the syllable containing^ may likewise be sonie-
tiviies suspected in other words ; as in Inlius, for Julius ;
liino for Juno ; Jupiter for Jupiter ,- lildice for Judice^ since
it is well known that ja;?? is used b}' the comic writers as a
dissyllable, and that ctiam^ which is only et jam^ is always
acknowledged as a trisyllable ; thus,

8ed Proculus longa yQX\\\chnt i\Tdiu& Alba — Ovid.

Grammatici certant; et ad|/?wc sub i\udice lis est — Hor.

III. By giving an explicit and distinct sound to u sepa-
rated from the following vowel, (which, without this figure,
becomes mute, or, rather, lias the sound of the English tc,
after ^, q., and 5,-) as in aqilcs, sticfus, suosil, SiievoSy consi-
dered words of three syllables; in relangiiit, reiiqiics, words
of four.

Quae calidum faciunt aqi(<^ tacttim atqne vaporem — Lutr.

Cum. mihi non tantum furesqne ferteque sflcfce — Hor.

Atque alios alii inrident, Veneremque sundcnt — Lucr.

Fmidat ab extrem.o flavos Aquilone Suevos — l/Ucan.

Imposito fratri moribunda relanguit ore — Ovid.

IleliqiLas tamen esse vias in mente patenteis — Lucr.

OF SYSTOLE.

Sjjiicle is the shortening of a syllable otherwise long by

401

nature, or by po-;iiion. Thus tha poets sometimes f horfen
Orion, on the fhst syllable; as in

Cum subito assurgens fluctu nimbosus orion — Virg.
although in the Greek it is written with a long o, and is,
therefore, naturally long; as in

Sifivus ubi orion hybernis conditur undis — Virg.

In the same manner Horace seems to have shortened the
last o^ pains ,• as in

Regis opus; sterilisve diu jaa/t^^, aptaque remis. (See,
however, US final.)

But by others it is universally made long; as in
Limosoque /'a//?^ obducat pascua junco — Vii'g-

And here it is long too by caesura.

Pains iiiertis foeda Cocyti jacet — Seneca.

Ju the same way, tlie e in vidt-n', naturally long, is made
short; for it is a contraction o^ videsne ; also the i o\sat1n\
a contraction of satlsne, in which it is long by position ;
hodie for hoc die ; multimodis for vrnltls modis, &c.

Ducere mull i mod is voces, et ilectere cantus — Lucr.

For viden' and satin\ see iV" final; and for hodie, see O in
compound words.

To this figure may be referred the shortening of a vov/el

long by position, after the elision of one of the consonant-,

or a double consonant ; as obicis for objicis ; adicit for Cui-

jicit ; reicit for rejicit ; and such words as aperio, operio

(probably, ad, and oh, par io), ami l to, instead cXobmifto, Sec.

Cur obicis Magno tumukmi, manesque vagantes— Lucan.

Si quid nostra tuis ddicit vexatio rebus — Mart.

Tela manu, reicitque canes in vulnus hiantes— Stat.

Pleraque difierat, et pr^sens in tempus omittat — Hor.

To Systole have been referred certain pretoriies found
with tlie penultimate short; as

Obstupui, steteruntqiie comae, et vox faucibus liaesit—
Virg,

MiscuXimnique * herbas, et non innoxia verba — Virg.

Matri longa decern taUrnnt fastidia menses — Vira;,

To these may be added profiiirunt in Tibuilus; ahicrunt
in Phaedrus ; defuerunt in Martial, and some otliers.

By some these anomalies have been attribtited to the mis-
takes of transcribers, who, it is supposed, may have written
erunt instead of i'vatit, or in some cases 'Xrint, both which
terminatKjns are foun<i in certain editions, or manuscripts ;
and, in many instances, the sense not only admits the alte-

' In this and similar examples, may not the a be sounded like
V or w, by synecphoncsis, thus nusc-vlnml 'i

4-32

ration, but seems improved by it. Others have contended,
that the authors were inadvertently guiUy of a breach of
prosody. And the last supposition is, that the e was ori-
ginally common, especially in verbs of the third conjuga-
tion, and the w^ords of Diomedes are quoted in confirma-
tion ; " Fere in tertio ordine plerumqae veteres tertia per-
" sona finitiva temporis perfecti, numeri plui'alis, £med!am
" vocaleni corrijiiunt, quasi legenmt, emeninf^ &c." But
notwithstandint^ this assertion, and the several instances
which can be produced, in which e is found short, it is by
no means safe to consider it cominon, its proper quantity
being long, unless by poetic license.

Such words as umiis, in which the i was said to be short
by Systole, are usually considered as common. They are,
however, all long ui prose, with the exception, perhaps, of
altenus, a peculiarity ibr which there does not appear to be
any good reason.

OF DIASTOLE.

Diastole, or Ectasis, is the lengthening of a syllable other-
wise naturally short; as the first in Priamides and Arabia ;
and the second in Maccdojiia.

Atque hie Priamides^ Nihil 6 tibi, amice, relictum — Virg.

El domus intactffi te tremit Arabia — Propert.

Qui clypeo, galeaque, Macedoniaque * sarissa — Ovid.

That the first syllable of the first two is naturally short,
is evident from its being always short in their primitives
Priamiis and Arabs. The second in Macedo is also short.

To this figure are referred those words in which 7T, na-
turally short, is made long, by doubling the following con-
sonant ; as relligio, rclliquia', reppulit, rcttidif, redducere,
&c., and some other words, compounded with re ; instead
oi religio, reliquia;, &c.

Tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum — Lucr.

Troas relliquias Danaum, atque immitis Achillei — Virg.

Et res haeredem rrqyperit ilia suimi — Ovid.
'' Di tibi dent capta classem redducere^ Troja — Her.

In such cases it is asserted that formerly it was usual to
double the consonant ; but this practice has been condemned
by the most eminent modern editors of the classics, as con-
trary to original usage, and they have rejected one conso-

* The poet seems to have imitated the Greeks, who, to avo d
a concourse of short vowels, sometimes changed a short vowel
into a long one, and wrote Muky^Sovix instead of MaxeSovia.

'* Al. dcducere — Bentl.

433

nalit in all such compounds, the verb rcddo alone excepted,
in which a d is never omitted. But, though written with
only one consonant, the vowel must be sounded long, as
if supposed to be followed by two consonants.

The same remarks are perhaps applicable to the first syl-
lable oi quotidie, qiiotidianus, and qiiatuor, [quottidie^ quot-
tidianus, said to have been formerly written also cottidie, cot-
tidianus, quattuor,) whicli arc sometimes found long, the last,
especially in Virgil and Horace ; although the first two are,
doubtless, short by nature, and, from observing that the a
in qudter, quixterni, &c., is short, it may be reasonably pre-
sumed that it is so in quatuor likewise.

Conjugis in cul})a flagravit quotidiana — Catul.

Sis bonus, O felixque tuis ! en quCUuor aras — Virg.

In the same manner the e in Porscna is made long, by
doubling the n ; as

Nee non Tarquinium ejectum Porshma jubebat — Virg.
Otherwise the permltimate is short ; as

Cernitur effugiens ardentem Porscna dextram — Sil.

Perhaps, the name might be written either way, indifle-
rently.

OBSERVATIONS ON SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE.

The use of these two figures, or the changing of the due
quantity of syllables, arises from two causes ; Necessity,
owing to the nature of the verse, and Poetical license.

1. The first takes place when the nature of the verse does
not admit some particular word with its real quantity ; and
when no other word can be expediently introduced fully
adequate to convey its meaning. The })rincipal causes of
this, are, Jirsf, the meeting of more than two short sylla-
bles, especially in hexameter, or pentanijeter ; for, in this
case, one of them must be made long ; as the first in Ara-
bius, Asiacics. Italia, PhilosopJms, Polydamas, Priamidcs,
jmgilihiis, Sicclidcs, &c. ; the second in Canicida, ainicidus,
cuticula,j'ehncula, Lcmuria, Thco})hiluSi &c. ; and the third
in BonifaciuSj Milarion, Macedonia, Sec. : and, secondly^
the circumstance of a short syllable being between two long
syllables, in which case, the word cannot be admitted into
certain kinds of verse unless it is made long ; as the second
in delibutus, imbecillus, matricida, parricida, Vaticamis, &c.

2. Poetic license is, when, without such evident neces-
sity, the quantity of a syllable is changed; and to this,
some have attributed the shortening oi' the penultimate of
unius, illius, Sec, and the lengthening of the same in tene-

2 F

434.

AfYf, volncris, locuples, &c. While other?;, — considering,
that, even with regard to proper names, in which a greater
latitude as to quantity seemed to be tolerated, Ovid apolo-
gizes to Tuficafius, tor not saying any thing of him in his
verse, which did not admit his name, as it has the second
syllable short between two long syllables, and that Martial
excuses himself for not inserting, in his verse, the word Ea-
rinus, consisting of four short, — have contended, that it is
by no means improbable, that many of those woids, whose
quantity we find occasionally long or short, a circumstance
often referred to the power of these two figures, were ori-
ginally considered as common, and are, therefore, not at all
under the influence of any licentla -poetica.

This license was much mOiC freoaen;; amonoj the Greek
poets than the Latin ; for we fmd, among the former, the
same syllable of the same word sometimes long and some-
times short even in the same V' le. Such liberties, however,
are not now to be taken, without great caution and discre-
tion ; for, as Servius says, " In licentia magis inventis
quam inveniendis utimur."

OF SYNAPHEIA.

Sjjnapheia is that figure, by which the concluding sylla-
ble of a verse is metrically connected with the initial syl-
lable of the succeeding one, so that the two Imes run on
continuously, like a single verse ; thus

Fugiat vultus fortuna prior ,-
Felix quisquis nov'itjhmulum
Regemque pati, vultusque suos
Variare potest. Vires pepulit
Pondusque mali, casus animo
Qui tulit a?quo — (Anapaest.) Senec.
Here the short syllables, or, tmi (for final in, when not cut
off, is short) and it, are lengthened by the concourse of con-
sonants. By this figure, verses are sometimes connected, un-
der the influence of Synalcepha and Ecthlipsis ; thus

Jactemur, doceas; ignari hominumq; \oQ,ox\xmque
Erramus, vento hue et vastis fluctibus acti — Virg.
/. e. locorum-l-g-w' Erramjis.

Jamque iter emensi, turres et tecta Latino-rwm
Ardua cernebant juvenes, muroque subibant — Virg.
In such instances, it may be observed that there is gene-
rally but a very short pause at the end of the verse.

In the Sapphic verse, we sometimes find simple words di-

435

vided, a circumstance which has been referred to Syna-
pheia ; thus,

Labitur ripa, Jove non probante, u-
-xorius amnis — Hor. od. 1, 2, \9 {ex edit. Bentleii).
But the division more frequently takes place between the
members of a compound word ; thus,

Naturae Deus humanse, mortalis in unum-

Qjiodque caput, vultu mutabilis, albus et ater — Hor. Ep. 2,
2, 188.

It was laid down as a rule, by the ancient grammarians,
that the last syllable of every verse might be considered as
common. But the Anapaestic verse, and the Ionic a mi-
nore, end in a long syllable, or a syllable rendered long by
being taken in metrical connexion with the following line ;
so that, under the influence of this figure, the rules of po-
sition are just as applicable at the end of these two kinds of
verse, as if the whole series of verses were written in con-
tmuation. Hermann observes, idtimce versumn syllahce tion
sunt communes, sed. eadem subtilitatc, quce in mediis versibuSf
exjpendu7itur. It was in these two kinds of verses, that the
law of Synapheia was most strictly regarded. In other
species of verse, it may have occasionally taken place, to a
limited extent.

OF POETRY.

A Poem (Carmen) is composed of verses, or lines; and
a Verse, oijeet.

A verse is a single line of poetry, and is formed by re-
peating the same foot a certain number of times, changing
it, sometimes, to equivalent or other feet.

A couplet, or two verses, is called a Distich ; a half-
verse, a Hemistich.

A verse containing its exact measure is called Acatalec-
tic : as in the following dimeter Iambic,
Musce Jovis suntjilia:.
A verse wanting a syllable at the end, is called Catalectic ;
as, Musce Jovem canehant.

A verse wanting a whole foot at the end, is called Bra'
chycatalectic ; as,

Muscc Jovis gnatce.
A verse having a redundant syllable, or two, is called
Hypercatalectic^ or Hijpcrmetcr ,- as,
Musce sororcs sunt Minervcc.
Mus<^ sorores Palladis lugcnt.

2 F2

4SG

A verse wanting a syllable at the beginning, is called
Acephalous.

To scon a Latin verse, is to divide it into its several con-
stituent feet.

OF FEET.

A Foot consists of two or more syllables of a certain
quantity.

There are commonly reckoned twent3'-eight kinds of feet.

Those consisting of two or three syllables, are called sim-
ple ; others, as those of four, are called compound.

There are four feet of two syllables :

1. A Pyrrhic, [Pijrrhichius) two short; as Dt^iis.

2. A Spondee, {Spondcus) two long ; as fwuhlnt.
a. An Iambus, (/<7;»i?«) ashort anda long; as legiait.
4. A Trochee, or Choree, ( Trocha:uSy or Olo-

re7ts) a long and a short ; as . . . urma.

Eight feet of three syllables.

1. A Dactyl, {Dactylus) one long and two

short; as . . . . . . . cdrimnix.

2. An Anapest, [Ajiapccstiis) two short and

one long ; as . . . . . . uiiivius.

3. A Tribrac, ( Tribrachys) three short ; as fnctre.

4. A Molossus, [Molossus) three long; as dlxerunt.

5. An Amphibrac, {Amjfhibj-achys) a short, a

long, and a short ; as . . . . u?ndrc.

_ . AT- ( {Amvhimaccr^ or Cre-

6. An Amphnnacer, 1 V -'x i i .

r^ \- < ticus) a lono;, a snort,

or a Cretic, i , '^ , ^ - j-^-

' ^ and a long ; as . custitas.

1. A Bacchic, (Bacchius) a short, and two
long; as ..... . legebant.

8. An Antibacchic, {Antibacchius) two long,
and one short ; as . . . . . audlre.

There are sixteen compound feet, of four syllables. Of
these, four are the same foot doubled ; four are a com-
bination of contrary feet ; and there are four in \vhich
long syllables predominate ; and four in which short syl-
lables predominate.

The same foot doubled.

1. "] A Proceleusmatic, {Proceleusmaticus)

I 2 Pyrrhics; as . . . hujnhnbils.

2. [A Dispondec, (Disj^oiidcus) 2 Spon-

J dees ; as . . . . coiifllxminf.

437

3. "iA Diiimibiis, {Di iambus) 2 Iam-
buses; as .... anmvX'fdnt.
A Dichorec, [Dichorcus) 2 Chorees ; as comprohuvit.

3.V

Contrary feet.
S.") A great Ionic, [loniciis major) a Spon-

>

dee and a Pyrrliic ; as . . cels'issimus.

6. I A small Ionic, {lonicus minor) a Pyr-

J rhic and a Spondee ; as . ivv2)erdbdnt,

7.^ A Choriambus, [Choriambiis) a Cho-

v_ ree and an Iambus ; as . . terry IcCiJit.

8. (An Antispast, {Antispastiis) an lam- _

J bus and a Choree ; as . . udha'sisse.

Feet in ivhich long syllables ■predominate.

Q."! First Epitrit, {Epitritus priimis) an

\ Iambus and Spondee ; as . . amdvermt,
10. (Second Epitrit, {Ejntritus secundtis) a

J Choree and Spondee ; as . cdneltdr'i.

ll."^ Third Epitrit, {Epitritus tertius) a

\ Spondee and Iambus ; as . . discdrdms.

12. I Fourth Epitrit, {Epitritus qnartus) a

J Spondee and Choree ; as . . cxpectdre.

Feet in which short syllables predomiyiate.

1 3.~\ First Pa2on, {Pceon primus) a Choree

l and a Pyrrliic ; as . , . timp)oribus.
14. I Second Pa^on, {Pcvon secundus) an

J Iambus and a Pyrrhic ; as . 2;y^^;j/irt.

15."^ Third Pa^on, {Pccon tertius) a Pyrrhic

I and a Choree ; as . . . unimdtiis.
1 6. r Fourth Picon, {Pccon quartus) a Pyr-

J rhic and an Iambus ; as . . ttmcritds.
To these may be added another compound
foot, of five syllables, mentioned by Cicei'o
and Quinctilian, (an Iambus and a Cretic,)
iiamed Dochmius or Dochimus ; as . abcrrdvirdnt.

Those feet are termed isochronoxis or ccjuivalent, which
consist of equal times, as the spondee, the anapest, the dac-
tyl, and the proceleusmatic, one long time being regarded
ecjual to two short '.

' Dr, Carey observes that " some critics will not allow any
feet to l)c isochronoas, unless they be so in their separate mem-
bers, as the four above compared, whose first members ail con-
sitit of equal tinjes, and in like manner their second. Hence they

438

OF VERSES.

The most usual kinds of verses are, the Hexmnetcry Pen-
tametery Asclcpiadicy Glyconicy Sapp/iic, Adonic, Phaleiician,
Pherecratic, Iambic, Scazon, (or CJwliamhus,) Anacreoyitic,
Trochaic, Anapastic ; to which may be added the Carme?i
Moratianum, comprehending the two Alcaics and the Ar-
chilochian Iambic dimeter, hypercatalectic.

Verses are of different lengths, some consisting of two
feet, others of three, four, five, &c., as will be seen in the
following explanation of them.

OF HEXAMETER.

Hexameter, or Heroic verse, consists of six feet, of which
the fifth foot is usually a dactyl, the sixth, a spondee; and the
other four, either dactyls, or spondees, indiscruninately : as,
12 3 4 5 6

Aut pro
Tu nihil

desse vo

invi

Intotisi cri

hint aut\ dele
td di\casfaci
nes lo?i\gd cer

ctare po\etce — Hor.
asve Mimervd — Hor.
vice Jlmebant — TibulL

do not consider the trochee as isochronous to the ian:ibus, or the
amphibrachys to any of the above four." He adds, " however
that may be, it often has forcibly struck me, even in reading
prose, that the amphibrachys, though apparently isochronous to
the dactyl, is in reality somewhat longer in the duration of its
sound. Beclude, (ex.gr.) rtsume, repellr., actually require more
time for their distinct enunciation, than those same syllables,
when transposed into dactyls, cludere, sumax,pellcre ; the voice
dwehing longer on each of the short syllables, when separate,
than when connected together." I believe the remark to be cor-
rect, and the following to be the chief causes of the difference.
The middle syllable of the amphibrachys is emphatic ; and it
will be found, that, in speaking, a short pause precedes it, to en-
able the speaker to prepare for giving it sufficient strength. This
short pause, thougli it does not lengthen the preceding syllable,
will yet be counted with it, and thus somewhat increase the time
of recitation. With respect to the time, too, of the last syllable,
it is probable, that there is a small increase, all final vowels, I am
inclined to think, being of nearly equal length, as the sound is
not immediately terminated by articulation. It may be added,
that all long syllables are not equally long, nor all short sylla-
bles equally short, and that the final syllable of the dactyl is
stronger, and probably longer, than its middle syllable, and stronger
than the extremes of the amphibrachys, which, from their posi-
tion, in regard to the emphatic syllable, are of equal remissness.
No two feet, I apprehend, can be pcr/ectlj/ isochronous, unless
there is, not only a certain conformity in their syllables, but an
agreement in the situation of their ictus. Besides, certain com-
binations of the same letters often coalesce more readily, than
others do.

439

Sometimes the fifth foot is a spondee, wlience tlie verse
is named Spondaic ; and this generally happens when the
description is intended to be grave, majestic, slow, mourn-
ful, or the like, as

Cara Demi soboles, 7nagmcm Jovis vicrhnentum — Virg.

Proxlmus huic, lun<xo scdproximus intervallo — ^'^irg.

Constitit^ atquc ocidis Plirygia agmina circumspexit — Virg.

This species of the verse has generally a dactyl as the
fourth foot ; and is commonly ended by a word of four syl-
lables, as in the above-cited examples.

But it is sometimes found otherwise ; as in

Aut leves ocreas lento ducunt argento — Virg.

Saxa per, et scopulos, et depresses cbnvalles — Virg.

Cum sociis, natoque, penatibus, et magnis I}is — Virg.

'Note 1. Some prosod'ans assert that the proceleusmatic is
found in Hexameter ; as in

Hserent paneiibiis scalae, postesque sub ipsos — Virg.
And the anaj^est; as in

Fluvwrum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnes — Virg.

But in these, parietibtis (pdrjetibus) has been shown, under
Synecphonesis, to consist but of four syllables, and Jiuvyo"
rum, but of three.

Note 2. Some assert that the tribrac, iambus, and tro-
chee, are sometimes found in it ; as in

Olli serva datiir, operum hand ignara Minervae — Virg.

Desine plura, puer ct quod nunc instat agamus — Virg.

Ferte citi flammas, date tcld^ scandite muros — Virg.
But in the first two lines, the last syllable in datur anaptter,
otherwise short, is made long by caesura, so that in the first
line the foot is, in reality, a dactyl, and in the second, a spon-
dee ; and in the third line, the a of tela, is considered long,
on account of the two following consonants, although they
be in a different word, so that the foot is a spondee. Those
critics who deny that the initial s and another consonant pos-
sess the power of lengthening a final short syllable, would
read et scandite, thus destroying the rapiditi) of thought, as
indicated by the omission of the conjunction. Some would
read ascendite, perhaps a less objectionable lection. It does
not appear, that either alteration adds to the beauty or the
harmony of the line.

Note 3. Lastly, some have asserted that a dactyl may be
found as the last foot ; thus in

Inseritur vero ex fcetu nucis arbutus horridd

Et sterilcs platani rJ"""

Nec tantum llhodope niirautur et Isniarus Orphcd — Virg.

440

But in the first example, tlie concluding foot is horri^ a spon-
dee, the d being joined by the figure Synapheia to the be-
ginning of the following verse, after an elision of the a :
thus, horri \ Uet steri \ &c. In the last example Orphea
seems to be contracted into two syllables, forming a spondee.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HEXAMETER.

1. 1. Every line of an hexameter, whatever may be the
number of its syllables, occupies the same space of time hi
recitation ; since equal time belongs to the spondee, though
consisting but of two syllables, as to the dactyl, which con-
sists of tln-ce. In consequence of this, lines containing many
of the former may appear to drag heavily and slowly ; and
those in which the latter abomid seem sometimes to have a
hopping or a fluttering effect. It has, therefore, been thought,
that the greatest harmony and beauty are likely to be pro-
duced by an alternation of the two : as,

Ludere qtue vellem calamo 2^^>'mlsit ugresti — Virg.
Phigius et Ingrata premh-etnr cdseiis vrhi — Virg.

2. If tliis alternation is not observed, those lines which
most abound in dactyls, have the greater harmony ; as

T^itijn', til patiihc nrabdiis sub icgmuu'J'Cigi — Virg.

Adspicis lit veiiidnt dd cdyuUdd ttctd columba: — Ovid.

3. Those lines are the most pleasing in which are seve-
ral ccesiii'ic^ or feet not consisting of whole but of broken
vi'ords : as

Iluman\ds re\rum domm^'os genfemgue togdtam — Virg.

I _ _l . J

InJ'dnd\Tm, llegina, ju\bes 7'enovdre dotbrem — Virg.

Inf(i\Iix Pn(i\mus fuT\fim mdndarat dlendum — Virg.

4. But to prevent the palling monotony which would arise
from any uniform alternation or practice, the position of the
caesurae, and the arrangement of the feet, are to be varied ;
circumstances attended with little difficulty, when the end-
less variety in the length and (quantity of Latin words is
considered ; as, _ __

Veriitur Intered ca4um, ci rittt Oceano nox^
Involvens umbra judgnd terrdmque polTnnquc,
Mfjymldonnmque dblos .-jfusi per victnm Teiicri
ConiKuere : sojxJr J\~ssds cdmplcctltnr drtus — Virg.
In the followhig Hnej said to be intended, by broken and

44.1

unconnected feet, to express great passion, there is no syl-
labic caesura till after the fourth foot :

Per connuhia nostra, per incep\tos Hijmenccos — Virg.
And Horace, to express the pain and trouble which he ex-
perienced in writing amidst the bustle and noise of the town,
has a line without caesura, and which is little different from
prose ;

Procter ca:tcra, Romce mene pocmata censes

Scribere posse, inter tot cnras, tofqne laborcs ?
Tlie caesura is beautiful when it takes place on the last
syllable of a word which refers to the one terminating the
verse ; as

Tit3're, tu patulce ] recnbans sub tegmine fo[!;i,

Silvestrem tcnui \ nnisam meditaris avena — Virg.

Nee tani pnesentcs \ alibi cognoscere divos — Virg.

Julius a magna | demissum nomen lulo — Virg.
Likewise, when it occurs on the fifth half-foot, the sense
being finished ; as

Anna virumqtie cano, \ Sec. Virg.

And also, if the sense includes some emphatic assertion ;

as,

Omnia vincit amor • | Virg.

Stat sna cuique dies \ ■ Virg.

Or, at least, when, the line containing two distinct clauses,
the caesura includes one of them ; as

Nos patriccjines ', | et dulcia linquimus arva — Virg.
Fluminibus salices, \ crassisque paludibus alni — Virg.
After the first loot the neglect of the caesura is no blemish,
provided that foot be a dactyl ; as

Ainuat, atque dolis risit Cytherea repertis — Virg.
Horrldu tempestas coelum contraxit ; et imbres — Hor.
Nor after a spondee is it much felt, more especially if it
be an emphatic word ; as

Tfmdem progreditui", magna stipante caterva — Virg.
Acres esse viros, cum dura praclia gente — Virg.
The first and second feet are often connected by the tro-
chaic caesura ; thus

Orba Y)ii\rentc suo quicumque volumina tractas — Ovid.
Nor is the want of a syllabic caesura felt, after the second
foot, if it be a spondee concluding with a monosyllable : as
Ah quoti\es per \ saxa canum latratibus acta est — Ovid.
The caesura in the second foot, (observes Mr. Pickbourn,)

' In such instances, the beauty seems to mc to consist chiefly
in the coincidence of the scateutiul with the rliylhaiical paubc

442

although much more frequently neglected than that in the
third, is scarcely ever omitted without the intervention of
l)roper names, compound words, &c., or, in a few cases, by
such long words as the following; cncdeles, ccqualcs, ambages,
sole/mi, vmgitus, &c. In almost all cases the woi'd which in-
terrupts the first caesura is of sufficient length to comprehend
likewise the second ; as

Dixerat, Herculea bicolor cum populus umbra — Virg.

Nos, tua, progenies, coeli qu'bus annuis arcem — Virg.
And, when the last syllable of sudi a word is elided, the se-
cond caesu^-a is often formed by csf, ei, 8:c. joined to it : as,

Quod facit, auratum est, et cuspide fulget acuta — Ovid.

Regna Libcrnorum, et fontem superare Timavi — Virg.
This rule (he adds) admits very few exceptions ; nor do I re-
collect a single instance, in Ovid or Virgil, where the second
foot is a word constituting a spondee, unless it is formed by
the preposition intra, or inter, followed by a pronoun : as

Maximus intra medexx^ est. Nonmagnarelinquam — Ovid.

Talibus inter se dictis ad tecta subibant — Virg.

Vis ergo inter nos, quod possit uterque, vicissim — -Virg.

But these can scarcely be considered as exceptions ; for
Quinctilian remarks, that the preposition and the case it go-
verns M^ere frequently pronounced with one accent, that is,
as one word. They may, therefore, be considered as com-
pound words, of sufficient length to comprehend the two
first caesuras.

The first pause is likewise frequently interrupted by the
compound verb nescio, followed by quis, qua, qicos, &c.: as
Sic ubi 7iescio qitis Lydea de gente virorum — Ovid.

And, in one instance, Virgil has suffered even the second
pause to be interrupted by it ; as

Summa leves. H'nc nescio qua dulcedine laeta?,
in which, perhaps, the Romans pronounced nescio qua with
one accent, as if one word.

Except where inter, intra, or nescio, occiu" in this man-
ner, 1 do not recollect an instance in which Ovid suffers
the first pause to be interrupted, without the occurrence of
a word long enough to comprehend the first two caesuras.
Virgil is not quite so scrupulous in the observance of this
rule. There are a few instances, where the second foot is
a dactyl, in which it is neglected; as

Nee Satnrnius haec oculis pater aspicit aequis.

In like manner, whatever word interrupts the second cae-
sura is generally of sufficient length to include the third ; as
Jussa mori; quae soriitus non pertulit ulios — Virg.

443

The third caesura is not so often omitted as the fust, by
Virgil, but more frequently by Ovid ; and it sometimes luip-
pens without the intervention of compound words ; thus
Vina dabunt animos : et lyrima pocula pugna.
Non datur : occulta nee ojrhium perde sagitta — Ovid.

The place of this caesura is often occupied, bywords length-
ened by declension or conjugation; thus

At pater omnipotens ingcntia moenia coeli — Ovid.

Lumina nam teneras arcehcnit vincula palmas — Virg.

Syllabic caesuras are seldom introduced after the lourth
foot; they are generally unnecessary, and, when they occur,
the verses are not harmonious ; as

Onmes innocuae ; sed noa puppis | tua, Tarchon — Virg.

Vertitur interea coelum, et ruit oceano ( nox — Virg,

In some cases, when formed by a monosyllable, they are
not ungraceful ; as

Explorare labor: mihi jussa capessere/rts est — Virg.

Circumagi : quendam volo visere, non tibi notum — Hor.
If the verse be spondaic, they are not objectionable; as

Persolvit, pendens e verticibus | praeruptis — Catul.
It should be observed that when the verse is spondaic, the
fourth foot ought generally to be a dactyl, otherwise the he-
mistich is rendered dull by the succession of three spondees.

The first pause seems to be interrupted nearly as often as
the third. When there is but one caesura in a line, it is ge-
nerally the second ; as

Ad mea perpetuum | deduclte tempora carmen — Ovid.
Sometimes, however, it is the third ; as

Cum sic unanimem alloquitur | malesana sororem — Virg.

The trochaic caesura has nearly the same metrical effect
as the syllabic, and although another cassura is introduced,
the former seems to be sometimes the principal one ; as

Ulla moram | fecere, \\ neque Aonia Aganippe — Virg.

Et nova factaque niiper ]| habebuut verba fidem si — Hor.

When it is in the third foot, it is generally attended by
two otliers, and the principal pause is in the fourth foot;
as

Ponderibus | librata | suis : || nee brachia longo — Ovid.
It may agreeably take place in the fourth and fifth feet ; as

Ergo desidiam (juicumque | vocavTt | amorem — Ovid.
And it may be advantageously employed twice in other parts
of the verse, pi'ovided that one or more feet of different
structure intervene ; as

Nee victoris | heri tetigit captiva | cubile — Virg.

444

It frequently occurs in tlie fifth ibot, and makes the verse
end in a smooth and agreeable manner ; as

Qui modo sa;vus eram, supplex ul/ruquc rogavi — Ovid.
Exigat, et pulchra faciat te prole parentem — Virg.
But here, pei'haps, it should not be considered as retaining
its general nature of a pause. The same remark is apjilicable
to the monosyllabic ctiesura ; for, when it is inti'oduced in the
fifth or sixth foot, it does not seem to retain any thing of the
nature of a pause.

In lines, where different caesuras are introduced, some-
times the principal one is formed by a monosyllable ; thus,
Et conferre | manum, et |i procurrere longius audent —

Virg.
Si pietas | ulla est H ad me | Philomela redito— Ovid. *
The intermediate or rhythmical pause seems to be some-
times removed from the middle to the end of the fourth foot,
that foot being made to consist of a dactyl or spondee formed

by the last syllables of a word. The introduction of these

spondaic and dactylic divisions of a line, at the end of the
fourth foot, makes a pleasing variety, and occasions a great
diversity not only in the modulation, but also in the length
of the latter hemistich of a heroic verse. It may consist of
the following varieties : —

Two feet and a short syllable.
Et mea sunt populo saltata | poemata saepe — Ovid.

Two feet and a lo7ig syllable.

Frigida pugnabant calidis | humentia siccis — Ovid.

Two feet and two short syllables.

Cara deum soboles, magnum | Jovis incrementum — Ovid.

Three feet and a short syllable.

Confusas sonus urbis, | et illastjtbile murmur — Virg.

Three feet and a long syllable. jl

Conticuere omnes, | intentique ora tenebant — Virg. J

Three feet and two short syllables.
Ducitc ab urbe domum ] mea carmina, ducite Daphnim.

— Virg.
5. A great beauty consists in suiting the feet to the ex-
pression of the objects to be described. Thus the great la-
bour and slowness of the Cyclops in lifting up their heavy

' For sonic of the preceding remarks on pauses, I am indebted
to Mr. Pickbourn's ingenious Dissertation on this subject.

445

hammers are beautifully expressed iu the following line by
slow spondees ;

Tin inter scse mCigiici v'l hrachia tollnnt — Virg.
The gravity of an old man in the following ;

Olll seddfo resj)dn(Ut corde Latinus — Virg.
The delay of Fabiiis, by which he saved the connnonwealth,
hi the following;

Unus qui nobis ctmctfmdo restituis rem — Virg.
On the other hand, the swiftness or rapid flight of a pigeon
is expressed by dactyls, as in the following ;

RndU 1/rr Iiqwdian, celeres nequc cdmimwct alas — Virg.
Or the flight of Turnus, as in the following;

Nl yiign subsnlM subefit : fugit ocifor Euro — Virg.
And to express the fury of the winds and tempest, Virgil
puts two dactyls at the beginning; as in

Qjiu data porta ruunt •

Inciibucre indri

Intoniicre poll

6. The sound, too, of the words is often accommodated
to the nature of the objects to be represented : thus in the
two following lines, in the first of which the whistling of tlie
winds is expressed by words in which the hissing s frequently
occurs, as in the second the cries of the sailors and the crash-
ing of the rigging are, by words in all of which will be found
the jarring r.

Luctanfes ventos, tcmpcstatesque so7ioras.

Inscquitiir clamorquc virilm, stridorque rudcnium — Virg.

7. It is also a beauty, as will again be noticed, when the
sense does not finish with each line, but when one expres-
sion or more are thrown back to the following line, provided
the stop be introduced at the close of the fourth or fifth, or,
at the furthest, of the sixth line ; as

Quid faciat lastas segetes ; quo sidere terram
Verier e^ Maecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites
Conveniat ,- ({uae cura boum, qui cultus habcndo
Sit pecori, atque apibus quanta experientia parcis — Virg.
A word of three long syllables, when it forms an image, or
paints an object, is often thrown back ; as

Carmine cjuo capta>, dum fusis mollia pensa

Devulvunt. Virg.

Diripiimtquc dapes, contactuque omnia foedant

Immiindu. Virg.

But a monosyllable alone is not commonly thrown back,

44G

nor a word of two syllables, unless it be to express some-
thing sad, difficult, grand, or Iriglitful ; as

Extinctum Nymphae crudeli funere Daphnin

Flebdnt. Virg.

Fundimur, et telo lumen terebramus acuto

Ingens. Virg.

II. On the contrary, in this kind of verse, those lines are
reckoned rather harsh ;

1 . Which end in a monosj'llable ; as

Proelia rubrica picta aut carbone ; velut si — Hor.
Cui pulchrum fuit in medios dormire dies, et — Hor.
Except,j'fr,9^, when another monosyllable goes before it; as,
Principibus placuisse viris, non ultima laus est — Hor.
Ne qua meis esto dictis mora. Juppiter Jiac stat — Virg.
Except, secondly^ when a particular beauty accrues to the
verse, from the use of a monosyllable ' ; as

procumbit humi bos — Virg.

et mole sua stat — Virg.

Isne tibi melius suadet, qui ut rem facias, rem

Si possis recte : si non, quocumque modo rem ? — Hor.

2. Those lines which end with several dissyllables ; as
Insano posuere ; velut silvis^ uhi ■passim — Hor.
Semper, ut inducar, blandos offers mihi indtiis — Tibull.

3. Those which end in a word of more than three sylla-
bles ; as

Augescunt aliae gentes ; aliae minuuntur — Lucr.
Quisqi'is luxuria, tristive siiperstitione — Hor.
Except,^r5/, the verse be spondaic, as already noticed.
Except, secondly^ when the last word is a proper name ; as
Amphion Dircseus in Actseo Aracyntho — Virg.
Hirtacidse ante omnes exit locus Hippocoontis — Virg.
Quarum quae forma pulcherrima Delopeiam — Virg.
Except, thirdly^ when this position contributes to the ex-
pression of some particular passion, or there is any peciJiar
beauty in introducing such a word, at the end the line ; as in
Per connubia nostra, per incoeptos hymenceos — Virg.
Seu mollis violae, sen languentis hyacintJii — Virg.
The verse is usually concluded with a dissyllable, or a
trisyllable, both, of course, emphatic on the penultimate.

' Or when an anticlimax is intended^ as in the well-known line
of Horace,

Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus,
in which, one of the longest words is placed first, and a monosyl-
lable, at the conclusion.

4. Those lines in which there is no cajsura, or but few; as in
Romae moenia terruit inipiger Hannibal arriiis — Enn.
Has res ad te scriptas, Luci, niisimus, ^li — Lucil.
Sive quod Appula gens, seu quod Lticania be]lum — Hor.
Poste recumbite, vestraque pectora pellite tonsis — Eun.
Sparsis hastis longe caupius splendet et horret — Enn.

5. Those in wh'ch the elisions are too frequent, or grat-
ing to the ear; as

Primum nam inquiram, quid sit furere hoc ; si erit in te

—Hor.
lUam ancillam ego amo ante alias, atque ipsi ero amandus.

6. Lastly, certam criiics object to lines, (named Leonine^
as some suppose from Leo, the name of a monk who
brought them into vogue, or, according to others, from some
inipginary analogy to the Lion's tail,) in which there is a
rhyme, especially when 't includes the voM^el which pre-
cedes the caesural syllable ; as

Trajicit. I verbis virlutem illude siiperbis — Virg.

Si Tiojasjatis ahquid restare putatis — Ovid.

Ipse ego librorum video delicta meorum — Ovid.
And they reckon them less objectionable when there is an
elision ; as in

JEneamfundajifem arces et tecta novantem — Virg.
Sucii rhymes, however, are not without their admirers,
and considering ii^hat poets have used them, and //ow oftcn^
as will hereafter be noticed, that criticism is perhaps too
hasty, which condemns them to unqualified reprobation.
Some of the divisions of certain lines, however, in which
rhyme is supposed to exist, may, perhaps, be regarded as
merely homotelcutic, the rhyme being rendered imperfect,
or counteracted, in a correct pronunciation o'i feet, by a
diversity in the position of the syllabic emphasis. And
where rhyme does really exist, the circumstance may, pro-
bably, be sometimes accidental, and not intended.

But, in regard to a thorough knowledge of the beauties
and defects of hexameter verse ; and of what position in a
Hne any particular word of a certain quantity, and certain
number of syllables, may properly and advantageously oc-
cupy, these are objects that can be attained only by prac-
tice, by a due regard to the rhythm, as connected with, or
dependent upon, emphasis, and a minute attention to the
works of such authors as have written in this kind of verse.
1 shall, therefore, conclude this sketch with a 'Lew re-
marks on the poetry of Virgil, as comprised under the fol-
lowing piirticulars.

4.43

1. Tile Varying of the Pause. — It has been already ob-
served, that the common pause takes place in hexameter
after the first five halt-feet, that is, after the first syllable of
the third foot ; as in

Ante mare et tcllus \ et quod tegit omnia^ ccelum,

Unus crat toto \ Natures vultus iji orhe,

Quern dixere Chaos \ rudis i?idigestaque moles ;

Ncc quicquam, nisi j^ondits iners ; \ congestaque eodem

Non bene jmictar urn \ discordia semina rcrum — Ovid.

These lines have the pause iu the same place, the fourth
excepted ; and in tliis kind of measure is the Metamorphosis
generally written. But it will be found, that Virgil endea-
vours as much as possible to avoid the connuon pause, as
hi the following lines : —

Qiiidfacerem ? \ neque servitio | me exire licehat — Eel.

Fcrtesimul j Faunique pedem \ Dryadesqne puella: — Georg.

Inde toro \ pater 2Eneas \ sic orsus ah alto.

H(Vc sccum : I me7ie incepto | desistcre victam P — JEn.

In a few instances he likewise omits the first caesura ; as

Nee minus interea extremam \ Saturnia bello — ^n.

There is, perhaps, not an instance in which Ovid omits
both the first and second pause. In this consists the prin-
cipal difference between the versification of Ovid and that
of Virgil. The former scarcely ever omits the second
pause ; and hence the uniformity or general sameness so
easily observable in his versification. The latter, on the
contrary, by his frequent neglect of it, imparts greater va-
riety to his numbers, and, sometimes also, greater strength
to his expression.

2. The Inversion of the Phrase. — In this consists a ma-
terial difference between the general style of prose and that
of poetry; and it is one of those means which are artfully
employed to create delay, suspense and interest. The fol-
lowing is an instance ;

Anna virumque cano, Trojdc qui primus ah oris
Italiam {fato profagus) Lavinaque venit

Littora.^

Here, by the inversion of the phrase, the whole matter,
with the parenthesis fato j^rqfi/gus, precedes the principal
verb, venit, the word littora excepted. Thus also ;
Vix e conspectu SiculcE telluris in altum
Vela dahant

3. The adapting of the Sound to the Sense. — Few are ig-
norant of the beauty of Qiiadrupedayite, &c., and Illi intei^
sese, &c., but in Virgil such instances are innumerable.

U9

How does the verse labour, when strong, heavy land is
to be ploughed !

Ergo, age, terrce

Pingue solum, primis extemplo a vtensihus anni

Fortes invei-tant tauri s.

How nimbly does it move, when the turning over of very

light ground is represented !

Sub ipsum

Arcturiim, te.nui sat erit sxispendere sulco.
[ow

Words !

How does the boat bound over the Po in the following

Levis i?inatat alnus

Missa Pado

Nothino- can be rouffher than the following; line :
Inseritur vera exfoetu nitcis arbutus korrida,
in which the prevalence of the rough r is visible -^ nor can
water itself be more liquid than the following, in almost every
word of which, are both the trilling / and the hissing .s ; 4
Speluncisque lacus clausos, lucosque sona?ites.
How soft and harmonious, and well adapted to the sense,
does the prevalence of the letter a render the following lines !
Mollia luteold pingit vaccinia caltha.
Omnia sub magna labentia jlumina terra.
Lanea dum nivea circumdatur infula viitd.
4. The mixing of the Singular and Plural Number. — This
is a great beauty, which is particularly attended to by Vir-
gil ; and but seldom observed by Ovid, or any other Ro-
man writer in the time of Augustus.
The following are instances,

— Camposque et flumina late

Curva tenent : ut molle siler, lentaeque genistce,
Populus, et glauca canentia fronde salicta.
Pars autem posito surgunt de semine : ut altse
Castanecc ; nemorumque Jovi quas niaxima frondet
Esadus, atque habitat Graiis oracula quercus.
There is a beautiful passage of this kind in the Georgics;
in which the thing to be done and tlie instrument with which
it is to be done are varied alternately ;

Quod nisi et assiduis terram insectabere rastris,
Et sonitu terrebis aves, et ruris opaci
Falce premes umbras, votisque vocaveris imbrem.
Terravi rastris ,• sonitu aves ; falce umbras ; and x)otis im-
brem.

In Ovid nothing of this kind is to be found : thus,
Ante 7nare et tellus et (quod tcgit omnia) caiicm^

2G

450

Unus erat toto naturae imltus in orbe,
Quern dixere chaos ,- rudis indigestaque moleSy
Nee quicquam nisi pojidus iners.
In which are seven nouns in the singular, and not one in
the pkiral, amongst them.

5. The uncommon Use of the Particles et and que.
Of this the following are instances :

— Multum ille et terris jactatus et alto ;

Multa quoque et bello passus

jB/ premere et laxas sciret dare jussus habenas.
And more frequently in his most finished piece ;
Quid tibi odorato referam sudantia ligno,

Balsamag-z^^, et baccas

Si vero \iciamque seres, \i\emque faselum.
This manner of using the connecting particles gives
strength to the verse, and, by retarding the sense, raises sus-
pense and produces attention. For, in the last example,
the sense is not concluded, till the rest of the line is read,
vilemque faselum ; while, had the poet written, si vero vici-
am seresy and the verse would have permitted it, the reader
would have understood him without going any further, and
the line would have been very flat, compared with what it
now is '.

This use of corresponding particles is particularly observ-
able in Homer ; as

AXxidesque rex virorum, et nobilis Achilles.
Redempturus(72<e filiam, ferensgzi^ infinitum pretium libe-
rationis. — Clarke's Transl.

6. The CoUocatio Verhorum.

Of this the following is an example ;

Vox quoque per lucos vulgo exaudita silentes

Ingens ——

In which the isolated position of the heavy spondee has a
striking effect, making the melancholy voice groan, as it
were, through the grove.

7. The changing of the common Prommciation ,- as
Stridere apes utero, et ruptis effervhe costis.

' It is observed, that enclitics are usually joined to the first
word of a clause, unless sometimes when the first word is a mo-
nosyllabic preposition ; as

Sub pedibus<7i<e videt nubes et sidera Daphnis — Virg.
Instances, however, are not uncommon, in which this rule is not
observed. Horace furnishes one ;

Flebili sponsse juvenemw raptum — Lib. iv. od. 2.

151

Tlie open genitive>-, as coiisil//, .servit//, auxil//, &c. do not
appear in the hexameters of Virgil, though evidently con -
modious to the verse, and though Ovid not long_ afterwards
used these forms Mdthout reserve. In Horace, too, the forms
consil? and imperi occur, iii. 4, 65. iv. 15, I*.

8. Alliteration. — This is of several kinds ; the initial,
single, and double ; sometimes treble, or more frequent ;
sometimes mixt, that is, both in the first letters of the words,
and in the following syllables.

The following are examples of the single alliteration.
Quid faciat la^tas segetes, quo sidere terram
Verier e, Meecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites,
Conveniat ; quae cura bourn ; qui cidtus habendo.
Again ;

Asia lonse

Pidsa jpalus.-

o

Of the double initial alliteration, this is an example ;

Totaque thurijeris Panchaia pinguis arenis.
Of the treble, and more frequent, initial alliteration, the
following is an instance ;

JEit sola in sicca sccwn spatiatur arena.
The mixt alliteratio7i will be foimd in the following ;
nias ducit amor trans Gargara, transque sonantem
Ascanium : superant montes, eijlumina tranant.
In which two lines, the vowel a occurs fovu'teen times.

6. The Allnsio Verborum, of which the following are in-
stances ;

Nee nocturna quidem carpentes pensa puellce.
Hoc metuens, molemque et montes insuper altos.
Stat sonipes, ^cfrccnaferox spumantia mandit.
10. The Assonantia Syllabariim, or Rhyme. Of this there
are in Virgil three different kinds.

First, the plain direct rhyme, which is of two kinds, single
and double.

Secondly, the intermediate or casual plain rhyme.
Thirdly, the scanning conclusive rhyme ; so called because
it can hardly be perceived by the generality of readers, till
the verse is scanned.

The following are examples of the single direct rhyme, in
which the lines are divided into two parts, to render it the
more easily perceived ;

Totaque tliuriferis
Panchaia pinguis arenis.
Atque rotis summas
Levibus perlabitur undas.
2G2

452

O nimlum ccelo
Ef pclago covjise sereno.
or the plain direct double rhyme, which was so much in
voaue amono- the monks, the foilowinc; are instances ;
Hie labor cxtrcmus., lo7igarum
H(vc meta viarum.
Cormia rselatarum
Ohvertimus Anfennariim.
Of the intermediate plain rhyme, the followuig are ex-^
aniples ;

Imposnit, regemque dedif, qui foedeje certo.
Descendo, ac ducente dec flarnmam inter et hostes.
In this last, deo seems used for dca in speaking of a god-
dess, v(!ry pjobably for the sake of a rhyme.

Of the scanning conclusive rhyme, the following are in-
stances ;

Sylvestrem tenui musam medi-ZcTm a-vend.
Nudus in ignota VdXx—nurejd-ceb'is a— rend.
AVhence it appears that Virgil's poetry abounds in rhyme
of one kind or other ; and it will be seen that he generally
concludes his strong, sounding, majestic sentences with a
full rhyme, as in that beautiful luie, which sums up the
praises of Italy ;

Totaque thuriferis PanchaYa pinguis arenis.
Thus also at the conclusion of his best work;

Confluere, et leniis uvam demittere rcmis.
To which may be added the last line of the episode to the
same ;

Tiiyre, te patula; cccini sub tegmine fagi.
In which the two hemistichs rhyme to each other.

NEGLECTED HEXAMETERS.

In the Epistles and Satires of Horace, are hexameters,
which, from their studied negligence, and not having aU the
majesty belonging to heroics, have received this appellation.
There are, however, great beauty and great simplicity in
them ; and they are admirable for the picture they contain
of the foibles and passions of mankind ; in which Fiorace
does not always spare himself. Thus, writing to his steward,
he saj's,

Rure ego viventem, tu dicis in urhe heatum :

Cui placet alterius, sua nirairzim est odio sors.

Stultus uterque locum immeritmn causatur inique.

In culpa est animus, qui se non cffugit trnqunm.
There are several smaller verses, besides the pentametc*^,

453

which are formed from the heroic verse ; such as most of
the following, some of which consist of tiie beginuing, and
some of the latter part of a hexameter.

1. The Archilochian Penthemimer, or Dimeter. Named
from Archilochus its inventor ; consisting of two dactyls,
and one syllable, and, therefore, named Hijpercatalcdic ;

Pulvis et I umhrd sii\}nus — Hor.

2. The Alcmanian Dactylic Trimeter,

First used by Alcman; consistingof three successive dac-
tyls, and a syllable over; therefore, Ilypercatalectic.

Virg.
a — Prudent.

Mrmera hclifi amqui de .

Nustrd de us canct hfirmoiii
3. This verse likewise admits a spondee in the first, second,
and third place; as

Unus enhn jrb-um pattr'esi.

Hie clan sit mem\brls ummos.
Omne honii\num genns\ In ter.ris — Boet.
.4. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic.
Admitting in the first, second, and thii-d places, either a
dactyl or spondee ; in the fourth a dactyl only ; as

Limum^husqiie pri
Nlmbo sisqiie po

Dcsuper
Sohntur

in
a ens

ter
A'/

or red)
' las stetU
ram iidx
cms
5. The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Acatalectic, or, as it has
been named, the Spondaic Tetrameter.

Containing the last four feet of a Plexameter, in which,
of course, the third is a dactyl, and the last foot a spondee ;

it v/gur.
hnhrlhtts.
filndltur — Boet,
grd\id vice — Hor.

Ibmus
Sic trJs

o soci
tes df

com/
fCttus (i

tesquc.

micos — Hor.

It sometimes admits a spondee instead of a dactyl, before
the last foot ; in which case, to prevent the line from being
too prosaic, the second foot ought to be a dactyl ;
Mens~)\rem cohl\hlnt, Ar\chytd — Plor.

6, 7. The Pherecratian Trimeter, consisting of the last
three feet of a hexameter, the first foot being a sjiondee; and
the Adonic dipndia, (consisting of the last two,) will be here-
after described,

8. The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Catalectic, Consistingof
one long syllable, or two short syllables ; and then a dactyl,
or spondee ; afterwards a dactyl ; and lastly a spondee : thus.

(iii'i

Am
Nec_

Fa

se volet

mos domc't
victd Pf

dis sub

esse

Vie
bidine
m'lttlit hd

po

tentem,

7'ocrs ;
coila

benis-

■Boet.

454

9. The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Hypercatalectic. Consist-
ing of a heroic penthemimer, i. c. having, in the first and
second place, either a dactyl, or spondee, with a long sylla-
ble ; and then an Adonic, that is, a dactyl and spondee ; as
1 2 3 4

Hen quam
Mens hebet,
Tendit m

fundo,

IJcta,

nebras — Boet.

prcccipiti juersn pro ^
et propn a luce re,

exter nCis \ Ire te
This verse seems to consist of two segments of the heroic
hexameter, the latter half of the third foot, and the whole
of the fourth, being excluded ; thus

Tityre tit patuldc tegmine fagi.

It is little different from the Asclepiadic, and has been termed
the Alcmanian Choriambic. It may be scanned also as a
pentameter deficient by a semifoot.

1 0. The Ithyphallic, or Priapeian, Tetrameter, Acatalectic ;
consisting of three dactyls and a Pyrrhic, or iambus ; as

Qui sere re liigenu um volet agrum,
Liberot arvaprius fruti cibus^
Falce rubos fiUcemque re secat — Boet.
This consists of tlie last four feet of the hexameter miurus ;
and has been termed the tetrameter miurus. The dactyl
seems to have been preferred in the first three places, though
the Spondee was admissible in the first and second.

1 1 . The Bucolic Hexameter, having, in the fourth place,
a dactyl ; as

Ab Jove priticipium, Muscc ; Jovis omnia plena — Virg.
Fortunatianus mentions, that Theocritus observed this rule
in his Pastorals, and that Virgil often neglected it'.

' Some antient grammarians call all divisions of a verse at the
end of die fourth foot Bucolic caesuras. Bede says, BucoUce tome
7ihi post quatuor pedes non aliqidd remanet. These, observes Mr.
Pickbourn, are formed, not only by spondaic and dactylic divi-
sions, but in various other ways. Sometimes by a long or a short
monosyllable, added to the third caesura ; as

Sive dolo, seu jam Trojae sic fata ferebant— Virg.
Parce precor nostrum laniatur in arbore corpus — Ovid.
In other cases, they are made by a Pyrrhic, and in a few instances
by two short monosyllables following the third caesura ; as
Inferretque Deos Latio : genus unde Latinum — Virg.
Vix oculos attollit humo : ncc tit ante solebat — Ovid.
Priscian, when he enumerates the caesuras in the first lines of
the twelve books of the ^neid, takes no notice of these divisions
of a verse at the end of the fourth foot : but Diomede mentions
them, and seems to rank these with common caesuras; for he says
the following line of Virgil contains three caesuras:
Talibus Iliancus I cuncti I simul I ore frcmebiint.

xMr. Pick.

^■}5

12. The Hexameter which is named Miurus or Teliambus,
having as its last foot an iambus instead of a spondee ; as

Dirige odoriseqiios ad ccvca cuJnlia canes — Liv. Andron.

13, 14'. The two Alcaics will be noticed hereafter.

OF PENTAMETER.
Pentameter verse consists of five feet, of whicli the first
two are indifferently dactyls or spondees ; the third foot is
always a spondee, (the first semifoot being almost invaria-
bly a final syllable, long, independently of caesura), and the
fourth and fifth ana
No ill i-(c seam
Cdrmun
Qui dedi-

nc seqii
bus VI
rU

2)ri

lests ; thus
tiir se
ves tern
mus us I

que suce — Propert.
m?ie meis — Ovid.
tor crit — Ovid.

mina qms >

pus in V .

culil inc
In the last line, there is a short syllable in the caesura ; a
very rare occurrence.

That this was the manner of scannino; it among the an-
tients, appears from the words of Quinctilian, " m jienta-
metri medio spondeo^'' — (Inst. ix. 4.) and ^'^ Anapccstus . . .
qui .... penfamefrijinis'' — (Ibid.)

But, among the moderns, it is generally scanned diffe-
rently. The verse is divided into two hemistichs, or penthe-
mimers. In the first hemistich, are contained two dactyls
or two spondees, or one of each indiscriminately, and a long
syllable as a caesura ; in the latter hemistich, two dactyls,
with another caBsura, or common syllable; thus

Ndtit
Cdrmhii
Qid dede

ra; sT'qu)

tur-

bus v'l

ves

nt pr'i

miis

semma

tempiis in

dscidd

quisque su
omne me
victor €

ce.
is.
rit.

Mr. Pickbourn gives the following as the result of a patient ex-
amination of 3000 verses in Virgil and Ovid. In 1500 lines, taken
from different parts of Virgil's works, he counted 811 Bucolic cae-
suras, viz. 161 formed by spondees, consisting of the two last syl-
lables of a word; 99 formed by dactyls, consisting of the last three
syllables of a word ; 179 formed by Pyrrhics ; and 372 by mono-
syllables. In 1500 lines, taken from different parts of Ovid's Me-
tamorpJi. he counted 802 Bucolic caesuras, viz. 226 formed by
spondees, 173 by dactyls, 192 by Pyrrhics, and 211 by monosyl-
lables. He adds that 500 of these lines were taken from Virgil's
Eclogues, where Bucolic caesuras occur more frequently than they
do in the iEncid. Had they been all taken, he says, from tlie lat-
ter poem, the numbers would not have exceeded, perhaps scarcely
equalled, those in Ovid. Upon the whole, the principal difference
is, that Ovid abounds more in Bucolic ca?suras formed by spondees
and dactyls, and Virgil, in such as are formed by Pyrrhics and mo-
nosyllables.

45S

A pentameter line subjoined to a hexameter constitutes
an elegiac distich ; so named from eAjyoj, lanientatio, be-
cause it was first used in sad and plaintive compositions ;
and hence the two following lines of Ovid, which may like-
wise serve as a specimen ol it ;

Flebilis iyidigncs, Elege'ia, solve capillos.
Ah 7iimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit !
The j¥!iolic Pentameter consists of four dactyls preceded
by a spondee, a trochee, or an iambus ; as

CorcU I qucmdofiihse sibi camt d.ttJiida — Terent.

Edi-\-dit tuba terrlbilem iomtum jprocid — Terent.
'dj av-|-8pwv ;^psvac sujaaprcoj V7ro^a[ji.vctTai — Theocrit.
The twenty-ninth Idyl of Theocritus is in this metre ;— :•

Sometimes the first foot was a dactyl.

OBSERVATIONS ON PENTAMETER AND ELEGIAC VERSE.

1. In Pentameter, the first hemistich ought to end with
the entire word, that the caesura belonging to the penthe-
mimer may take place; for there is a blemish in a line want-
ing this caesura; as in

Mcec quoque nostr(^ sententia mentis erat — Diomed.

2. An elision immediately after the penthemimer is harsh ;

Ml misero eripuisti omnia nostra bona.
Blum ajfiigit odore, iste perit podagra.
Trqja viiUvi ct virtutem omnium acerba cinis — Catull.
Which verses are likewise rendered more harsh by the
synaloepha- or ecddipses in the other feet ; and this harsh-
ness is still more obvious in the following line ;

Qiiam modb qui me unuvi atquc unicum arnicum Jiabuit —
Catull.

3. Neither hemistich should end in a monosyllable; as in
O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.

Autfacere, hacc a te diet aque fact aque stmt — CatulL
But, yet, if another monosyllable goes before, or there
is an elision in the preceding word, there is no blemish ; as
Mag?ia tamcn spes est in bonitate dei.
Prccmia si studio consequar, ista sat est.
Invitis Odd is lit era lecta tua est — Ovid.

4. Pentameter is best concluded by a dissyllable ; as are
in general the verses of Ovid ; but sometimes by a word of
foiu* or five syllables ; as

Maxima de nihilo nascitur historia — Propert.
Pomaque non notis legit ab arboribus — Tibull,

457

Lis est cum forma magna pudirifia — Ovid.
Contactum twllis ante aqndinibus — Propert.
Seldom in a trisyllable ; as

Et caput impositis press/' f amor pedibns — Propert.
Qiiolihet lit saltern rurejrui Uccat — Propert.

5. The same objection that is made to Leonine verses, in
hexameter, is made to them in pentameter : such are the
following ;

Qji(vreba7it favos per nemns omne favos.

Hoc, mih'i quid prodest, si tibi, lector, ohest — Ovid.
If, however, only the last syllables of the two hemistichs
rhyme to each other, this may be conducive to the ele^faiice
and harmony of the verse ; as

Hue ades, et nitidas casside solve comas — Ovid.

Fluminco celeres dissipat ore canes — Ovid.

Fluminis ad liquidas forte sedemus aquas — Buchan.
In the observations on Hexameter, it has been shown that
Virgil abounds in this kind of rhyme, and in other kinds.
The following are additional instances ; and in these, like-
wise, there are only two syllables which rhyme to each other.

Qjiamvis multa meis exiret victima septis — Virg.

Privms Idumccas referam tibi, Mantua, palmas — Virg.

Dum petit injirmis jiimium suhlimia pennis.

Icarus Icariis nomina fecit aquis — Ovid.

6. In elegiac poetry, the hexameters ought to flow more
slowly, than when they are used alone.

7. In this verse, also, every distich generally terminates
a sentence, or at least ends with a colon. And it seldom
happens, (nor should it be imitated,) that it is concluded in
such a way that one word of the same member of a sen-
tence belongs to the preceding distich, and the other to
the following.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVIDIAN DISTICH >.

(l.) SCANSION AND STRUCTURE.

1. Four verses out of five, or nearly so, commence with
a dactyl.

2. Wlien the sense of the jf? •5;' line overflows by a single
word into the second, that word almost ahvays forms a dactyl,
or a trochee.

Obsequio tranantur aquae ; nee vincere possis
Flumina, si contra quam rapit unda, nates.

' Class. Journ. vol. xxii. p. 221.

458

Nunc quoque detect! referunt monumenta vetusti
Moris, et antiquas testificantur opes.
The exception to this rule is very rare, and takes place
perhaps only with a verb.

Inde duoe pariter, visu mirabile, palmae
Surgunt : ex illis altera major erat.

3. A molossus initial is preferred to a spondee, cccteris
])aribus.

4. The Pentameter is never formed thus: (Monkish epi-
taph.)

Vile cadaver | sum |1 tuque cadaver eris.

(II.)

5. The long verse, in structure, seldom deviates from
these models.

Tityre, tu patulse || recubans sub tegmine | fagi.
S3'lvestrem tenui || musam meditaris | avena.
Formosam resonare | doces || Amaryllida | sylvas.

6. The trisyllabic ending is avoided in the short line, as
the quadrisyllable is in the long. The short line on some
very rare occasions ends with a quadrisyllable word.

Quern legis, ut noris, accipe, Posteritas.
Me sciat in media vivere barbaric.
Quicquid et in tota nascitur Anticyra.

7. The sense does not overflow from one into another
distich, unless under circumstances like the following.

Languor, et immodici nuUo sub vindice somni,
Aleaque, et multo tempora quassa mero,

Eripiunt omnes animo sine vulnere nervos :
Adfluit incautis insidiosus amor.

(in.) PROSODY.

8. A short vowel in one word preceding sc, sp, sq, st, in
another, very rarely forms a short syllable '.

In words like Scamander, Sciurus, Smaragdus, authority
and necessity are said to consecrate the usage.

9. The CcESural lengthening of a short syllable in any
place of the verse is very uncommon.

Ut rediit animus, tenues a pectore vestes, &c.

10. M final and final short vowels are rarely cut off, even
in dissyllabic words : much less in monosyllables, and with
lonff vowels.

Q

See, however, page 345.

159

11. The most usual forms occur in^ne pcntameiri, such
as the following :

.... via est. .... solo est ubi es? ... .meum est.

12. Of the a]iostrophe so placed, the following line (other-
wise, objectionable) gives an extraordinary instance. Heroid.
X. 86. Ed. Burman.

Quis scit, an haec ssevas tigridas insula habet?

13. Consilii, imperii, &c. stand as quadrisyllables in Ovid.
To this head, perhaps, of convenience in versifying, may

be referred the position of qtie in the short line ; the pecu-
liarity of evolvisse and -persolvenda^ as forming words of five
syllables; and the frequent use oiimpUcuisse, &c., where im-
j)licare, &c. else would naturally occur.

14. The shortening of the O final is very rare, and in a
very few words only admitted ; p7ito when parenthetic, and
nescio quern, &c., are not uncommon instances.

(iV.) RELATIVE POSITION OF WORDS.

15. The words by which the pentameter is usually con-
cluded, are nouns, and verbs, the verb substantive very
much, and pronouns possessive.

16. Of adjectives and adverbs in^finc pentametri the in-
stances being rare and particular are easily remarked: these
it is not safe to imitate, unless in cases justified by identity
or very close similitude.

17. Instances like these with sum^facio, and other verbs,
are readily distinguished.

Quae tantum lanas non sinat esse rudes.
Hoc faa'et positas te mihi, terra, leve?n.

18. The participle injine jmitametrii as in the fictitious
verse below, is not legitimate.

Et la;tus vivit, rura paterna colons.

19. Wliile the following instances, with a few others,
form no real exception to the rule.

Nunc tibi sum pauper, nunc tibi visa nocens.
Dicere non norunt, quid ferat hora scqiicns.

On the Position of the Adjective.

20. Generally, perhaps, the adjective precedes the noun,
Except, — a. Where it is the longer word of the two.

b. Where it has a very emphatic or decisive

meaning in the sentence.

c. Wliere some word belongs to it in go-

vernment.

d. Where one adjective is coupled to another.

i60

The following collocations are legitimate, and may be imi-
tated with safety.

A. Si mea materia \ respondet Musa \jocosce.

B. Ruperat et duram | vomer aduncus, \ humum,

C. Inque sinu natos | pignora chara \ ferunt.

D. Prima vocas tardos | ad juga panda \ boves.

E. (any where perhaps but infinepentamctri.)
Qui mihi | Livor edax \ ignavos objicis annos.

Quae que nee | ho&iefero \ nee nive, terra, cares.

21. Other collocations equally legitimate occur, which it
may not be quite so easy to class and define. These the
Scholar will note as he meets with them, remembering carer
fiiUy to distmguish where the noun and the adjective go
disjunctively as in A^ and where conjunctively as in _B, C,
Z), and E.

22. The noun in the long line is seldom followed by its
adjective in the short, unless in a few cases very peculiar^
like these.

Protinus adspicies venienti nocte Coronam
Gnossida : Theseo crimine facta Dea est.

Dii'a viro facies ; vires pro corpore ; corpus
Grande : pater monstri Mulciber hujus erat.

Nos quoque templa juvant, quamvis antiqua probe-
mus,
Aurea : majestas convenit ista Deo.

OF THE ASCLEPIADIC (a CHORIAMBlc).

This verse, invented by the poet Asclepiades, consists of
four feet, a spondee, two choriambi, and a Pyrrhic (or, con-
sidering the last syllable of the verse as long, an iambus) ;
thus

Mci'ce^nas atavis \ ed^te rc\gibus.
But it is likewise scanned differently. Thus, in the first
place some put a spondee, in the second a dactyl, with a
caesura or long syllable, and in the thirtl and fourth, a dac-
tyl; as

Mcece]nas aialvls \ edfte \ rcgibiis.
It may be turned into a pentameter, by adding a syllable
to the second hemistich; thus

O et j^rtcsidium, \ dulce decusque meiim.
The caesura tiikes place at the end of the first choriambus,
Nof-e 1. Very rarely the first foot was a dactyl ; as

EJ'ugi\um, ct inise.ros \ Ubtra | mors vehii—Smecc\.

461

Note 2. Single feet are elegantly composed of complete
■words; as

Quassas, 'indociUs pauj^ef^em | pafi — Her.

Magnum pa.upenes opprobrium, \jubet — Hor.
Note 3. The first chorianibus, or the caesura, tails inele-
gantly on the middle of a word ; as

Non ~m\ce?idid Cdrthdgims im\picE — Hor.
Unless there be an ecthlipsis or synaloepha; as

gi monumen\tum cere peren
turn modh-e\re drbmnbus

mus — Hor.

-Hor.

Exe
Audi
Or, the word be a compound ; as

Dumjlal grant id de.torqiut dd ds\culd — Hor.
But such lines are somewhat liarsh, and not rashly to be
imitated.

There are lilce'iscise the Jollo-joing varieties in choriamhic

verse.

1. The Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalectic,
consisting of a choriambus, and a Bacchic or an amphibrac ;
as

Lyd^u die \ ph- omnes — Hor.

2. The Alcaic Pentameter, Acatalectic, consisting of a
spondee, three choriambi, and a Pyrrhic ; as

Seu plu I les Memes \ sen tribal t j Jupiter ul\tmom — Hor.

3. The Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic,
consisting of the second epitrit, (a choree and a spondee)
two choriambi, and a Bacchic ; as

Te Dsos o\rd Si/bdrm \ cur proper es j dmdndo — Hor.

OF THE GLYCONIC,

4. The Glyconic (so named from its inventor Glyco or
Giycon) consists of three feet, a spondee, a choriambus, alid
a Pyrrliic ; as

Mens re\gnum bo7id pds\sulet — Senec.
Others scan it by a spondee, and two dactyls; thus

Mens re\gn2'wi bona \ poss^idet.
Note. The first foot is sometimes an iambus or a trochee; as

tesi'i — Catul.

tjovis — Catul.

Puell(E et pueiH In

Magna \ progemes
Horace has but once admitted the trochee ;

Ig'tiis I Iliacas domos — Od. i. 15, 36.
To which may, perhaps, be added the twenty-fourth line oi
the same ode, which, according to old editions, runs thus :

Teiicer \ et Sthenelus sciens,
instead of Teucerque, et &;c. or, probably,

Teucer, te Sthenelus Sec.

4.62

5. See the Phcrccratic, which may be classed either with
Choiiambics or Dactylics.

OF THE SAPPHIC AND ADONIC.

The Sapphic, so named from the poetess Sappho, con-
sists of five feet ; the first a trochee, the second a spondee,
the third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees. Sap-
pho accompanied every three of these verses with an Adonic
(a measure used in lamenting the fate of Adonis) which con-
sists of a dactyl and a spondee; and in this she has been imi-
tated by Horace, Catullus and others, but not by Seneca,
who, in the choruses to his tragedies, often gives a conside-
rable number of successive Sapphics without any Adonic.
The Sapphic is a Trochaic pentameter, Acatalectic; the
Adonic, a Dactyhc dimeter.

Inte

Non e

Necve

ger m\ta scele

get Maiilri jacii
ntnd Ws gruvi

purus,
arcu,
gittis.

' nsque
' lis nee
da sa[_
Fusee, j)hd\retrd. — Hor.

Boethius has many of these last successively ; as
Gaiulia pelle ; Nuhila mens est,

Pelle timm-em : Vinctaque frcenis,

Spemqiie fugato ; Hcec ubi regnant.

Nee dolor adsit. L. l.de Con. Phil.

Note 1 . The caesura penthemimeris gives beauty to Sap-
phic verse; for those lines which are without it do not flow
very harmoniously ; as

Concines major e poeta pleetro.
Phcebe silvarumque potens Diana — Hor.
Note 2. A trochee, or, it is said, a dactyl, is sometimes
found in the second place ; as

Pauca I nunci \ ate mea: puellcc — Catull.
Qiiccque ad | Hesperl.\as jacet ora metas — Senec.
Sumere \ mnume\ras solitum Jiguras — Senec.
unless the two last words are read as trisyllables. But these
liberties should be sparingly used.

Note 3. These verses are sometimes found redundant,
[Hypermetri); but, in this case, the last vowel is elided, be-
cause the following verse begins with a vowel ; as
Plorat, et vires, anim^miqiie, moresque
Aureos cdiicit in astra, ?iigroque

Lividet Oreo — Hor.
Note 4. Those lines have been sometimes considered as
rather harsh, in which the first syllable of a word belongs to
the preceding verse, and the remainder to the following; as

463

Grosp?ic, non gemmis, neque pur_purd ve-
-Tiale, nee auro.
Also ; Labitur ripa, Jove non j)rohante^ u-
-xorius amnis — Hor.
In the composition, however, of the Sapphic stanza, it
has been observed, that a word may be divided so that the
former part of it shall close the third line, and the remain-
der shall form the beginning of the fourth, or Adonic. The
ancient poets afford no instance of such a division at the ter-
mination of the first, second, or fourth verse \ Thus
Galliciim Rhenum, horrihilesque ulti-
-mosque Britannos — Catull.
Labitur ripd, &c. — Hor. ex edit. Bentl.
Grosphe, non gemmis, &c. — Hor. ex ed. Bentl.
There are two other instances, which are of a difTerent
class :

TJiracio bacchante magis sub inter-
-lunia vento — Hor. i. 25, 11.
Pendulum zona, bene te secutd e-
-lidere collum — Hor. iii. 27, 59.
In these, the prepositions are allowably detached from the
words, as they often are in other metres; a circumstance
which has been noticed by Bentley, and subsequently by
Dawes, in his Misc, Critic. In the last example, the com-
mon reading is

te secuta

Lcedere collum.
This divisio vocis injine versus does not occur in the Sap-
phics of Seneca, Statins, Ausonius, Prudentius, Sidonius
Apollinaris, or Boethius ; and it is admitted, as already no-
ticed, only at the close of the third and beginning of the
fourth, by Catullus and Horace. The elision of the final
vowel is observable in the former, at the end of the third
verse ; and, in the latter, at the end of the first^, second,
and third. See Note 3, and Synapheia.

' Month. Rev. Jan. 1798.

"^ But this elision appears to me to receive little confirmation
from the example,

Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari,

lule, • Hor. iv. 2, 1,

since, if the word lule be pronounced as a dissyllable, which it
may be, the two Hnes will remain unconnected in their metre.
The observation with respect to tlie elisions, appears to be not
very important. Final elisions have been generally avoided; for
the ancients paid particular attention to the metre and rhythm

464

A continuation of sense from stanza to stanza^ if not oc-
curring frequently, is permitted ; but it is deemed iiarsh and
awkward to open a new sentence with the Adonic verse, df
which the first and natural use is to close the metre with an
agreeable rest. (See Class. Journ. xviii. 378.) In all the
odes of Horace, in this metre, one only, a light composi-
tion, even see7ns to yield any pretence for such a disjunction*

Est mihi nonum superantis annum

Plenus Albani cadus ; est m horto

Phylli, nectendis apium coronis ;

Est hederai vis [in horto]

Multa, qua crines religata fulges.

Ridet argento domus: &c. Lib. iv. 11.
Catullus never ofiPends against this rule. It is possible,
indeed, that the third Sapphic line, and the Adonic, might
have been considered as forming one verse ; Mctrum asy"
narteton^ ex Epichoriambico trimdro catalectico, ct Churiam-
hico 'penthemivieri.

OP THE PHALEUCIAN.

The Phaleucian, or, rather, Phalsecian verse, so named
from the inventor, Phalsecus, (<f»aAaixo?) consists of five feet;
the first, a spondee, the second, a dactyl, and the other three,
trochees : thus

Qiiod SIS
Summdm

esse ve
?iCc metii

lis m

Us Ji

hilque
em, nee

malls.

opiis — Mart.

Note 1 . This kind of verse neither rejects nor requires a
caesura.

Note 2. Instead of a spondee as tlie first foot, Catullus
sometimes uses a trochee, or an iambus ; a liberty seldom
taken by posterior poets.

towards the close of a line. "Whether they occur in the first, or tl>8
second, or the third line, ti)e circumstance may have been purely
accidental, and not determined by any predilection for the parti-
cular line. Such elisions occur in other metres in Greek and Latin
poetry ; and for their occurrence, I am not aware that any prin-
ciple has been, or can be assigned, as founded on the particular
nature of the line, or of tiie versification. The only lines, in this
stanza, in which there appears to be a well marked peculiarit}',
are the third and fourth ; and even in these, the peculiarity is re-
moved, by considering them as constituting one continuous verse.
An elision at the end of the Adonic would be obviously impro-
per.— It may not be improper to add here, as a general rule ap-
plicable to Lyrical poetry, that, if a verse ends in a short vowel,
{lie following verse should not begin with a vowel, unless where
tlie sensse ends with the end of the line.

46r>

Graft' as tibi maximas Catullus

Aglt, I pcssimus omnium pol'ia.
Note 3. The same poet has also admitted a spondee, in-
stead of a dactyl, as the second foot ; thus
Ota mus si \ forte non molestum est.
Femel Ids dm\nes^ amice, prendi.
But this is not to be imitated.

The Phaleucian is sometimes named Hcndccasyllahic, or
verse consisting of eleven syllables ; but that name does not
exclusively belong to it, since the greater dactylic Alcaic,
(to be hereafter noticed,) and the Sapphic, contam the same
number. The following is an instance of the latter con-
verted uito the Phaleucian ;

Sapphic. Non c\get Mau\rijacu\lTs nee \ urcti.
Phaleuc. Nmi Ma7i\ri jdcu\lis e\gtt nee \ drcu.
Alcaic. Summum | 7iec dp\tes \\ nee metuus \ diem.
Sapph. Nee di\em sum\mum 7nttii\ds, nee \ optes.

OF THE PHERECRATIC.

Tlie Pherecratic verse, invented by Pherecrates of Athens,
consists of what may be the three last feet of an hexameter;
viz. in the first place, of a spondee, in the second, a dactyl,
and in the third, a spondee ; thus

Nlgr'is I (cqiiord \ ventis — Hor.
Note 1. Catullus sometimes admits a trochee, or an iam-
bus, into the first place ; as
Prode\as nova nupta.
Puel\lceque canamus.
Boethius sometimes an anapest; as

SimU'i I surgit ab ortu.
The Pherecratic verse is geiierally classed as a Dactylic
trimeter. It may also be considered as a Choriambic tri-
meter, catalectic (or a Glyconic deprived of its last syllable),
consistmg generally of a spondee in the first foot, a chori-
ambus, and a catalectic syllable.

OF THE IAMBIC.

The two most common kinds of Iambic verse, (so named
from the foot Iambus,) are the Dimeter and Trimeter. The
Dimeter Iambic consists of four feet, the Trimeter, of six.
They were so named, because, in scanning them, the Greeks
joined two feet together, making what they called measures ;
of which the former contained two, and the latter, three.
But the Latins, from the number of the feet, called the one
Qtiaternarius, and the other, Senarius.

2 li

4.6G

The pure iambic admits no other foot than the iambus ;
thus.

Measures.
Places.

I.

A

1 2

II.

-A,

4

III.

6

Dimet. Inar
Trimet. Suis

sit ce
et I

sius.

met vi\nbus

nut

Hor.

t, and, by

3

stud
psa Rd
But in order to render composition less difficu
producing delay, to give the verses more gravity and digni-
ty, spondees were admitted into the odd places, that is, into
the first, third, and fifth ; thus
1
Dimet. Forti
Trimet. Pars su

The former of these makes two third epitrits ; and the
latter, three.

And last]}', instead of an iambus and spondee, certain feet
equal to them in quantity were admitted ; that is, in the odd
places, an anapest, a dactyl, and sometmies a tribrac ; and
also in the even places, (except the last, which always re-
(juires an iambus,) a tribrac ; thus

12 3.4 5 G

2

3

4 5

6

stque

7nur pe

ctorc

Hor.

mtCt

t'ls vel Le su nan

J'uit — Seneca.

S

Cd^iicU \a tracltdvit
Vide re prope r antes

Quo quo
Pniis

sceU
que cce

AUtl bus at
Pavldrwiqite lepo

sti
lum

rut

SI

que ca7n
r' aut ad

ddpcs.
domilm.
tis ant
det In
bus iiomi
vmdm

cur dea:
en us
cW He

laquto

tens,
mm'l.
ctorem.
irriian Hor.

Note 1. From these is excepted the iScazon, of which by
and by.

Note 2. The Latin comic poets admit also into the even
places those feet which others employ only in the odd places ;
except the last, which is always an iambus. The fables of
Phaedrus are constructed with the same liberty, and are
generally written in the following manner ;

Am'it\t~it mer1\td propn\imi, qui dlllmum cip\petit.

Faclt I parhi.tes boiii tds nun \ ?ieces\s1t(ls.

Horace has ten Epodes consisting of the trimeter and di-
meter iambic alternately ; thus

Beatus ille qui proctd 7iegotiis,
Ut prisca gens mortaliuvi^ &c.
But in hymns, we find the strophe consisting of dimeters only.

llie caesura was generally after the two first fe^t of tri-

46';

meters ; and there was probably a sliort pause at the end of
each measure.

The foil oxving arc varieties of the Iambic.

1. The Iambic Monometer, or Binariiis, consisting of
two Iambuses ; as

1 2

Cave malum.
Tene honum.

2. The Archilochian Trimeter, Catalectic, which in the
first place has an iambus or spondee, in the second an iam-
bus, in the third a spondee, in the fourth and fifth an iam-
bus, with a common syllable ; thus

1

Trahunt
Nee prd

2 3

4 5

que sic'cds ma
ta ca\nis al

bicant prui

nas
nis.

Hor.

1

2

3

4

5

Super dl
Phrygiwn
Adiii

ta ve

nemus

que opa

ctus A

cita

ca sit

tys cele
to cupi
vis redi

n rate
de pede
mita lo

3. The Archilochian Trimeter, Catalectic, differing from
the last in this, that it admits a spondee or iambus in the third
place; as

12 3 4 5

Mea reni det hi domo lacu nar.
Premunt colu mnus id timd red sas — Hor.

4. The Galliambic Trimeter, (so named from the Galli or
priests of Cybele,) Acatalectic, consisting of six feet, of which
the first is an anapest, the second and third an iambus, the
fourth and fifth a dactyl, and the sixth an anapest ; as

6

mai-ia.
tetigif,
'caDece — Catull.
Note. This verse has always an iambus in the third place,
in the fifth always a dactyl, and in the sixth always an ana-
pest. But in the second it admits an anapest, and with
greater propriety, a tribrac, and in the fourth the dactyl
may be changed to a spondee. It sometimes admits, though
rarely, other feet ; as in the first place, a spondee, a cretic,
and a proceleusmatic ; in the second, a spondee, and its equi-
valent, a dactyl ; in the fourth, an iambus. The more usual
feet of this uncommon metre are here stated. For others,
see the Atys of Catullus. The line seems to consist of two
Anacreontics, the final syllable of the last being cut off, and
the cffisura uniformly taking place at the end of the first di-
meter. It may, thus, be divided, as follows, the third foot
of both members being an iambus, and the penultimate foot
generally a tribrac ;

2 112

46S

Super al
Javijam

t& vtc

dolef

las a\t§s
quod e^gi

ria.

nitet — Catuli.

celh'i rait ma
jCwijamqn'i pee

5. The Saturnian Trmieter, Hypercatalectic, which has
a sjiondee in the fourth place, and in the other five, iambuses,
with a syllable remaining at the end ; as

1 2 3 4^56

Dabunt \ malum \ MeiellU \ Nie\vid \ P6c\Ue—Tei\Maur.

6. The Hipponactic Tetrameter, Catalectic, consisting of
seven iambuses, and a long syllable, and admitting some-
times a spondee into the odd places ; as

1 2 3 4. 5 G 7

El In
Deprm

solhi.tt'r (E
sana\visi)i

slues
mari

vX'lul
vesci

minu

7liC7l

tu md
le vcn

gtio.

to — Catuli.

7. The Tetrameter or Octonarius, Acataiectic, whicli is
also named Quadratus, consisting of eight feet, of which the
last is always an iambus ; in the other even places are iam-
buses or tribracs ; in the odd places iambuses or spondees, or
their respective equivalents, tribracs, anapests, or dactyls; as
123 4 5 678

lis, //f?5|p7/e5-Ter.Maur.
lcmera\ rid — Ter.

Adcst celtr phase lus 7/ Ic, quem vide
Sane pol il Id te miilen la esl muli erel

Comic writers, who generallj'^use this kind of verse, some-
times admit into the even places such feet as are generally
used in the odd places, and vice versa ; the last place ex-
cepted, in which there is always an iambus ; thus
12 3 4 5 6 7 8

Propt

am

Timmn m

dovuim
per crc

terdnm est\lucrum-lLev ,
cum obsovnio — Ter.
dunt ne\slisi — Ter.

-Ter.

Pecu^niamin loco ncpligr'Are ma
- - ^ -* -
transa eta re convor tarn me

er suam im paten tiam se sein

Similar changes take place in the trimeters ; as

1 2 3 4 5 G

Si id est I pecca\lum, peclcation im\p?'udai[tia est

Also in the catalectic tetrameters ; as

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hemistoc \ verboani\musmi\rediit,\et cu\ra ex cor.de exces\sit-Ter.
The Telrameler, Catalectic, ap})ears to be the Oclunarius
deprived of its final syllable. I'he pure Iambic was seldom
used ; and, in both, the same variations were admissible as
in the Trimeter, the comic writers here also taking similar

liberties ; thus
_ 1 _ 2

Atque istlhcec eli
Qiimn de via
Nostra ptc cul

Non possum sati

3

dhn qua;
muUer
pa J^acl,
narra

4
mihi dix

uves
miis at
re quos

11 tu
osten
mlilos

ludos

6 7

d'Acas miili

OS

to
dltt
expcd,
prcebmlrts

clfafi
at

8

cn-

-Ter,

tZ'S. .

.Catuli

se, .

. Ter.

tfiS .

. .Ter.

*69

8. See the Archilochiaii Iambic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic,
in the Carmen Horatiamim,

OF THE SCAZON OR CHOLIAMBUS.

9. The Scazon or Choliambus (claudicant, or lame iam-
bic, so named, because in it the cadence is mverted, or maim-
ed, as it were, by the change of feet in the last two places,)
consists of six feet ; of which the fifth foot is always an iam-
bus, and the sixth a spondee, the others being tlie same as
in the iambic trimeter ; thus

12 S 4 5 6

Muer

Fhlsi

Cur in

An ide

Ciitiil

re qiion
theu

o tan

de sinus
can didl
Cdtb seve

o

me
tibl

re ve

lit ex

ptlre.

soles — Cat.
nlsti ?

Ires P Mart.

'le
dam
trfim,

turn ve ner^as

This verse is an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with a
spondee instead of an iambus for the sixth foot.

OF THE ANACREONTIC.

1 0. The Anacreontic verse, so named from Anacreon the
famous lyric poet, is nothing else but the iambic dimeter,
catalectic. The first foot is an iambus, often also a spon-
dee, or anapest, and sometimes a tribrac, or a cretic ; the
second and third are iambuses, with an additional syllable
at the end ; thus

12 3

supre
dit nn
volu
furen

me.

quam — Prudent.

ptas,

tes — Bo(2t.

Ades\ pater
Qiiem lie mo vi
MabX't d\mms hoc
StmuUs agit

MsKiTo^av, po^ov ^sgsiov — Anacreon.
A spondee was scarcely admissible in the third place, at
least in Latin.

OF THE TROCHAIC.

The Trochaic verse, so named from the foot, admits in
the odd places a trochee, or a tribrac ; but in the last place
a trochee only : in the even places, besides the trochee and
tribrac, it admits also a spondee, a dactyl, an anapest, and,
but seldom, a i)roceleusmatic. It rejects the iambus, as the
iambic does the trochee. The tribrac very rarely occurs in
the sixth place, and never in the seventh, except in a few
instances in comedy. The dactyl rarely appears in the fourth.
The pure Trochaic seldom occurs.

The most common Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter or

470

Octonarius, Catalectic ; consisting of seven feet, with a half
foot, or syllable remaining ; thus
12 3 4 5 6 7

jFtssiis j est m\ermis
le sorer sab \ ire

Consu
Soliis

lis fvunt qiiot
aut rex\ aut po

ire
celsa

djinis

eta

puriis
posc^it
et no

Note I. Although Iambics anc

ire
astra
vi pro
dnnis

jussits
Jup^i

consu
ncisci

8

est — Catull.
^e/-Mart. Capell.

les :

/?<r-Flor.vet. Poet.

non quot

Trochaics seem opposite
in their nature, yet there is a great affinity between them.
For, if a syllable be prefixed to the beginning of a pure tro-
chaic verse, it becomes a pure iambic ; and, on the contrary,
if the syllable be taken away from the beginning of the
iambic, it makes the verse trochaic. Indeed, some have
referred such verses to iambics, calling them acephalous iam-
bics.

Note 2. In the Trochaic Tetrameter, the caesura ought to
be altogether avoided after the fourth foot, which divides the
verse into two hemistichs ; as in the ecclesiastical hymn, on
the passion of our Lord ;

Pdnge, I lmg2ca, \ gldri\dsi || laure\am cer\tdv}i nis^
Et super crucis tropliceo || die triumphum nohilem :
Qimliter, Redemptor orbis \\ immolatus vicerit.

It is thus written in the Breviary, in six lines. Tlie first
hemistich is a trochaic dimeter ; and the second a trochaic
dimeter, catalectic.

Note 3. It is evident that the dactyl in iambics, and the
anapest in trochaics, must have a considerable influence in
checking the poetic rhythm of the line, and in imparting to
it a prose cadence, not unbecoming in comedy and other
loose compositions, the sermoni propiora. The Trochaic
Tetrameter Catalectic appears to be the same as the Iambic
Octonarius Acatalectic without the first syllable, the same
variations being admitted in the even places of the trochaic,
as in the odd of the iambic.

Note 4. The comic writers use, in trochaic verse, the
same liberties in regard to the choice of feet, as in iambics ;
putting promiscuously hi the odd places such feet as others
admit only in the even places, the seventh foot alone excepted.

The following are the varieties in the construction of Tro-
chaics :

1. The Pancratic Trochaic Monometer, Hypercatalectic,
consisting of two trochees, and one syllable ; as,
1 2

Nulla \jamji\des — Scalig.

471

2. The Ithyphallic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic, consisting
of three trochees ; us
1 2 3

Hue a\des Ly'\cee — ScaUg.
S. The Euripidean Dimeter, Catalectic, consisting of
three trochees, (in the second place sometimes a sjiondee or
dactyl, and, I believe, an anapest,) with an additional syl-
lable ; as,

2 3

' um — Hor.
ram — Buchan.
tem — Senec.
4. The Alcmanic Dimeter, Acatalectic, consisting of four
trochees ; and admitting in the second place a spondee, or,
its equivalents in quantity, a dactyl and anapest ; as
12 3 4

1

2

3

No7i e\hur nc

que aure

Vota

supplex

oj'^'

Thicat

intrepi

dam ra

Inco
Solis

Eja
Consci

Ice ter

idti

Dom1.)io

OS sctic-

varum, ah
mum ad cu
juhi
ris ne

ortu

bile — Buchan. Ps. 66.
late — Buch.
fandi — Buch.

5. The Anacreontic Dimetei*, Acatalectic, having in tlic
first place a Pyrrhic, in the other three, trochees ; as,

12 3 4

Age cuncta nupti ali
Iledi mita vere tellus
Celc bra to ros he riles — Claudian.
Here it may be remarked, that the initial pyrrhic well
accords with what may be supposed to be the rhythm of the
line, the emphasis appearing to lie on the odd syllables. A
similar remark may, perhaps, be applicable in many other
cases.

6. The Hipponactic Tetrameter, Acatalectic, called also
Quadratus, consisting of eight trochees, and admitting in the
even places also a spondee, and its equivalents, an anapest,
a dactyl, and sometimes a proceleusmatic ; and, in the odd

places
1

Appe
Vini

a

tribra

lIC I Q<S

2 3

tente | ver^e
torque fake

primo
tonsos

5

cum tc

viti

6

ner vi
bus via

7
rescit
ritat

8

annus.,
ulmos-

■Scal.

The comic writers, using the same license as in the cata-
lectic tetrameters, introduce almost all the above-mentioned
feet in all the places

Jlarie
Alios

te hinc ab^sse : ct
tuam rem] crcdi

Nnm ft< ut c rant nl[,a illl

as
4

vitam
dlsii
rSrtl

5

6

7

tuam tu-

tdmlam aFT

lit d?

mugV <]uam

tt'lc, (im

madvor

quce nunc

tm do

mi est, eon

Note, In the first and second verse tuam is a

8

(llS'iC ?

suros ?
suUres-Tet'

472

7. 8. See the Sapphic, which is a Trochaic pentameter,
acatalectic ; and the Phaleucian, also a Trochaic pentame-
ter, acatalectic.

OF THE ANAPESTIC.

Anapestic verse is so named, because, in any place of it,
an anapest may be used. Instead of an anapest, however,
it admits a spondee, or dactyl, feet of cfjuivalent quantity.
And this so often occurs, that there is i'requently not one
anapest in a line termed Anapestic.

There are various kinds of it. The jaure Anapestic con-
sists of four feet, all anapests ; thus

Pharetr(je\q2ie graves j date scc\vaferd — Seneca.

But this kind is seldom found ; the sweetest and most
common being that denominated the tetrameter acatalectic,
which is named Aristophanian, or Pindaric, consisting of
four feet, generally dactyls, or spondees, with a mixture of
anapests, in such a manner, however, that a dactyl is very
seldom used in the second, or fourth place, at least by the
Latin poets ; thus

2 3 4

Qiiantl

Mi7ms in

Lexms

casus

jMlnns

queferit

hunta

fortu

levio

na rot ant
nafurit.)
rd Deus —

Seneca.

It would appear, that the anapestic consisted primarily
of tiioo anapests, which constituted what may be termed the
anapestic base; from which may be formed lines of any
length, due attention being paid to the synapheia. No La-
tin poet, however, ever wrote anapestics necessarily con-
sisting of four anapests, (with the exception of a few in
Seneca and Ausonius) ; but for the convenience of printing,
they are thus exhibited in editions, although they may be
read as dimeters, tetrameters, or as continued paragraphs,
the dactyl seldom appearing in any even place, counting
from the commencement of a series or paragraph.

Note 1. Those anapestics which are without c^sura, arc
the most harmonious ; thus

Plures

Cupit hie

Clarus

Urit

fidgor

regi
claras
miserum

aidac.
ipsi
urhes.
pectus-

-Seneca.

coneitat
proximus
ire per
gloria
Note 2. And next to these in harmony, are the lines in
which each dipodia terminates a word ; as

hebetata malis
ponite curas — Seneca.
Note 3. Tragic writers were wont to subjoin an Adonic
after several anapestics.

Pectora longis
Jam sollicitas

473

There are Uke'iuise the following varieties in Anapestics.

1. The Simonidian Dimeter, Acatalectic, consisting of
an anapest, a dactyl, or a spondee, in the first place ; and in
the last, an anapest, or spondee ; as

1 2

Deflett virum,
Qjio non alius
Potuit c^tius
Ulsccrc causds,
Una tdntum
Parte an dltd.
Scope et neutra — Seneca.

2. The Partheniac Tetrameter, Catalectic, seems a verse
ot definite length, admitting, in the first and second place,
either an anapest, or a spondee ; in the third, only an ana-
pest ; and lastly a long syllable ; as

12 3 4

Utinam I modo no stra redl rent
In md\res tempora prt scos — Boet.

Note. This verse, by changing the manner of scanning
it, is the same as the Alcmanian, Dactylic Tetrameter, Ca-
talectic; (see those verses subjoined to the Hexameter,) thus
12 3 4

m

In

mini modo

mores

3. The Archebu

?idstra re
tempora

du-ent
prlscos.

ian Pentameter, Acatalectic, consisting
of four anapests, and a Bacchic ; thus

12 3 4 5_

Tihi na\scitur o\mne j^ecus | tihicre\scit hcedus — Ter. Mau.

It is observed, that what are here termed dmieter and te-
trameter anapestics (denominated also monometers and di-
meters, two feet being then reckoned equivalent to a mea-
sure) are generally so constructed, that they may be read in
lines of two, four, or more feet, without the division of a
word through the difference of arrangement. The tragic
anapestics do not seem to have been confined to a definite
length, but to have been extended, by Synapheia, to what-
ever length suited the poet's convenience ; suddenly breaking
off at the close of a period, or pause in the sense, and leav-
ing at the end a single foot or half-foot ; afterwards begin-
ning a new series or paragraph, running on mid terminat-
ing, as before ; but in such a manner that, in the course of
each series or paragraph, the final syllable of every ana-
pest, if not naturally long, is, under the influence of syn-

474

apheia, rendered long by the concourse of consonants.
For, (as Dr. Clarke observes, II. A. 51,) the anapest, con-
sisting of two short syllables followed by a long one, receives
a fuller pronunciation upon the final syllable than any other
foot ; and the pause at the termination of the verse is not
sufficient for that purpose, unless the syllable be long, or
stand at the conclusion of a sentence. In regard to the sub-
ject of this note, Hermann writes ; Dimetris tragici Latini
Grccconan more nsi sunt, ut systanatihus comprehcjisos jiaro-
emiaco clauderent, de qua re dixit Befitleius 271 epistola ad
Jo. Milliiim, p. 474. Isque etiam hos poetas idtimam com-
munem adspeniatos contendit. Qjiod etsi perditis illis tra-
gcediis certo ajfirmari non potest, veri tamen est simillimum,
quandoquidem in satis juagno J'ragmentarum numero, num~
quam ista anapcestorum lex violata est.

Of the Carmen Horatiamim.

What is called the Carmen Horatianum, is a compound,
in which Horace very much delighted ; consisting of four
verses, of which the first two are Dactylic Alcaics, the third
an Archilochian Iambic, and the fourth a Dactylic Alcaic
different from the precedmg ; as.

Virtus repulscB ncscia sordid^
Intajninatis fulget honoribus .
Nee sumit, aut ponit secures
Arbitrio populaj-is aurce.
Of each of which in their order.

1. The first and second verse of the Carmen Horatiamim
is the Greater Dactylic Alcaic Tetrameter, Hypercatalec-
tic ; consisting of an Iambic Penthemimer, /. e. a spondee, or
iambus, (but oftener a sppndee,) an iambus, and a caesura
or long syllable ; and after that, two dactyls ; thus
12 3 4

Virtus
Into.

repul see I nescid
mind ; fis I fulget Jio

soididce,
noribus.

It deserves remai'k, that, in some of Horace's Greater
Alcaics, the caesura is sometimes found in the beginning of
a word, sometimes in the middle, and sometunes it is a mo-
nosyllable ' ; thus

' Perhaps, strictly speaking, the propriety of this remark may
be questioned. A monosyllable, it has already been mentioned,
may produce the same effect as a cassural syllable ; and, there-
fore, though there is no cutting off, we speak, with little impro-
priety, of the monosyllabic caesura or pause. In regard, how-
ever, to the second example, it may be observed, that cip., which
is called the middle syllable, is, in a metrical point of view, the

4-7.5
12 3 4

SpectclfMus m

cer Itanune

Hlnc dm ne pr'm cljrium hue rX-fcr
Hoc cd vei'ot \mens pt'ovida

Martw—O. 4. 14-
cxitum — O. 3. 6.

_ . . , ^ .. Reguli — O. 3. 5.

2. The third verse is the Archilochian Iambic Dimeter,
Hypercatalectic ; which has in the first place a spondee,
and sometimes an iambus: in the third place, a spondee; and
in the second and fourth, an iambus only, with a remaining
syllable; thus 12 3 4

Jaiec Sfi
Rede

niit aut
git Cid

pm'it
veros

seen
ttmo

res.

res.

In one line, an iambus appears in the third place ; Disjecta

last, since it precedes an elision ; or rather, the i which precedes
the final iim, must be pronounced likej, and considered a con-
sonant, in the measure of the verse. And thus also in Vos lene
consilium et datis et dato — iii. 4, 41. The cer of the first exam-
ple is a long syllable, but I do not see how it can be properly
termed a caesura. Nor does it appear that the place of the cae-
sura is accurately observed in another line, Menteraque lympha-
tam Mareotico — i. 37, 14. In three verses, the CTesuramay seem
to be preserved by the separation of a preposition in a compound
word ;

Hostile aratrum exercitus insolens — i, 16, 21.
Antehac nefas depromere Caecubum — i. 37, 5.
Utrumque nostrum incredibili modo — ii. 17, 21.
There are frequent instances of ehsion after the caesura ; such as
Mentem sacerdotM??^ incola Pythius, i. 16, 6. Of the enclitic
que elided, there is one instance, i. 35, 10. There are three or
four elisions, where the word ends with a short vowel ; as Audi-
Te et videor pios, iii. 4, 6. Of elisions in words like invisi, sub
dio, incesto, redonabo, just as many. Instances of the following
kind are not very frequent.

Nil interest, an || pauper, et infima— ii, 3, 22.
In rebus ; iWum ex ^ mcenibus hosticis — iii. 2, 6.
One instance occurs of a vowel not elided ;

Jam Daedaleo 1| ocior Icaro — ii. 20, 13.
in which Bentley conjectures tutior.

Of an elision before et at the end of thejirst verse, which ei, of
course, in sense belongs to the second, the following are instances ;
quaerere, et ; violaria, <?^ ; Cy^i-um,ct ; co^\am,et ; negotio, e^,-
util/, et. In two instances, (iii. 1, 38 ; 29, 46,) neque, at the con-
clusion of the second verse, commences a new sentence with the
third. — With respect to the beginning of these two lines, it is re-
marked, that the iambus is not common ; that it occurs seldom
in the first and second book, and very rarely in the third and
fourth. There is, perhaps, but one instance of a short syllable in
the caesura: Si non periret immiserabihs — iii. 5, 17. Some
critics would, however, lengthen the syllable by reading perircnt.

476

non levi ruina — Od. 2, 1 9, 1 5. But this reading has been
corrected by Bentley from MSS. Disjecta non leni ruina.
Horace, therefore, uniformly rejects an iambus in the third
place ; but Alcaeus, in the Greek stanza, regularly uses it.
The third line of the Alcaic strophe seems to differ from
tlie two first, in pomt of quantity, chiefly in having two tro-
chees at the end, instead of two dactyls ; thus

Sllvce
Nee su

Icibo
nut aut

run

po

tes ge
nit se

luque.
aires.

3. The fourth verse is the Less Dactylic Alcaic Tetra-
meter, Acatalectic ; having, in the first and second place, a
dactyl, and in the third and fourth, a trochee ; thus
1 2 3 4

Arbitn
Purpure

0 pojm
o vari

Idns
us CO

aura:,
lore.

OF THE VERBAL STRUCTURE.

I. In the composition of this stanza, in Latin', the third
verse does not hcgin with a word of four syllables, nor with
words naturally going together to that amount'^.

Horace, i. 26, 11, has Hunc Lesbio |1 sacrare plectro,
and, with an elision, ii. 3, 27, Sors exitura || et nos in geter-
num &c., which forms never occur again. Of the iambus
at the beginning, only ten instances occur in all the books,
and only two in the third and fourth ; of which none occur,
where the verse begins with a dissyllable.

Referre sermones deorum, et — iii, 3, 71.
In the line, Piier quis | ex aula | capillis — i, 29, 7, the
first division may be considered, under the influence of the
rhythm, a (7z<a5/-trisyllable. The first division, in other re-
spects, and the second, are formed by Horace in different
ways, without any particular attention to the number of syl-
lables in the words which he uses.

II. The verse should not end with ( 1 ) a trisyllable followed

' For the first canon we are indebted to Mr. Tate, of Rich-
mond, Yorkshire ; and for the second, to the late Dr. C. Burney.
See Class. Journ. vol. xi, 351, and Month. Rev. Jan. 1798.

- I have observed only three words of four syllables, but each
under elision \funalia, et, iii, 26, 7 ; ruhiginem, ant, iii, 23, 7, and
decurrere, et, iii, 29, 59. And three of "five syllables, each be-
ginning with a preposition : a sort of words, indeed, from their
size, likely to be of rare occurrence; deprcEliantes, i, 9, 11 ; ena-
vignndd, ii, 14, U ; and denominatosy iii, 17, 3, the three first syl-
lables of which are, however, as conformable to the rhythm ap-
parently intended, as trisyllables emphatic on their middle syl-
lable.

477

by an enclitic or other monosyllable ; nor (2) with a word
of four syllables ; and (3) as seldom as possible with two
dissyllables '.

There are in Horace 317 verses written in the metre, to
which these two canons refer.

' I do not find that any of our metrical Critics, who enjoin that words of
certain sizes should occupy particular parts of a verse, assign any satisfactory
reason for their canons on this subject. As far as mere quantity is concerned,
the length of the word seems immaterial. Some of them, however, go so far
as to say, that it is for the sake of the rhythm, that certain sorts of words are
requisite in certain parts of the verse ; but they do not declare explicitly, in
which of the essentials of a note of speech, solely or chiefly, they believe the
rhythm to consist. We have little doubt, as already observed under Accent,
that the essence of antient rhj-thm resides chiefly in that property of speech,
which almost entirely regulates modern versification, Syllabic force or em-
phasis ; that the alternate or periodical returrr of the emphatic and the remiss
or weak syllables, in which the rhythm chiefly consisted, was sometimes visi-
bly indicated, by the antients, by the actioir oi thesis and arsis, and that it was
chiefly to contribute to the more easy and harmonious flow or pulsation of
such syllables, that, in certain parts of a verse, words of a certain size were
deemed preferable to others of a different size. In the fii'st two lines of the
Latin Alcaic stanza, if read in metrical cadences, the 2nd, 4th, 6th and 9th
syllables seem to be emphatic. In the fourth line, the 1st, 4th, 7th, and 9th
seem to be the emphatic syllables. In the third line, to which alone the ca-
nons apply, the emphatic syllables, if we read it according to the feet, appear
to be the 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th, the verse beginning, to use the terms of mo-
dern music, in the middle of a bar, with either a long weak, or a short weak
syllable, but generally with the former, thus, in feet, Lenes\que sub J noctem |
S!(5i(rln. At the same time, it can scarcely escape notice, that, in the ciioice
of words, [we are now referring to ivords and si/llabic emphasis, not to feet and
quantity] Horace, for the most part, prefers trisyllables, in our usual prosaic
pronunciation, emphatic on their middle syllable, or a part of a word, or a
combination of words or syllables, naturally receiving, or readily admitting
such an emphasis ; as Audita \ iimsarum j saccrdos. | Lenesquc \ sub noctem \
sustirri ; or arranged in what has been termed triple time; thua Lenes' que
sub noc\te7)i susiir\ri. Audilta mu^sarum saceiAdos, there being, as is frequently
the case in this measure in English, a deficient syllable at the beginning, and
a supernumerary one at the end. And this preference seenrs to have been
observed particularly at the close of the line. The chief difl^erence between
the poetic and the prose rhythm of the line, lies in the third foot, where the
spondee, in the former, emphatic on its last syllable, sometimes consists of a
word, or a part of a word, in our common prosaic cadence, emphatic on the
penultimate, as noctem, 7)iu-\sdru7n. In fact, it appears to me, that the two
canons might be correctly enough generalised thus : The three first syllables
of the verse, and the three last, should be such as naturally receive, or readily
admit, the syllabic emjjhasis on the middle syllable. And I see no good reason,
why the sanre principle should not be applied, though certainly much less ri-
gidly, to the three middle syllables of the verse, even notwithstanding the Little
diversity that seems sometimes to exist between the prosaic, and what is sup-
posed to be the poetic, rhythm, in the third foot. The flrsl division consists
most frequently, and, we think, most harmoniously, of a irisylJable ; or of a
dissyllable preceded by a monosyllable ; or of a dissyllable followed by a syl-
lable or monosyllable ; and less frequently of two first syllables preceded by a
monosyllable, or of three first syljables. The «(;fo«(Z division, in like maiuier,
consists most commonly of a trisyllable. It is formed also by the three first
or three last syllables of a word ; or oftener, by a dissyllable, or two first syl-
lables, preceded by a monosyllabic ; or by a di-ssyllablc, or two last syllal)les,
followed by a monosyllable, seldomcr a syllable ; and, like the first division,
in a few other ways, perhaps, less frequent, as well as, in our mode of pro-

478

( 1 ) No instance occurs of a final monosyllable following
a hyperdissyllable, except in cases of elision. In the soli-
tary instance in which a word of one syllable closes the line,

nouncing, less agreeable to the ear of a modern. An initial penthemimer is
succeeded by a monosyllable; thus Te belluosus qui remotis — iv. 14, 47. The
only exceptions are the dissyllables and quadrisyllables. A final penthemimer
is preceded by a monosyllable ; thus Consulque non unius anni — iv. 9, 39.
There is but one exception, Hunc Lcsbio &c. Instead of a monosyllable, a
dissyllable under elision may precede, as in In majus ; "idem, odere vires — iii.
4, 67, but is inadmissible after, the penthemimer. A final penthemimer, in a
single word, would be repugnant to the second canon. Among tlie most un-
harmonious lines, appear to be those, altogether, terminating with two dissyl-
lables. But, as occasional variations from what may seem to be the more
usual, strict rhythm, such deviations ought not to be regarded as blemishes.
Whatever the moderns may think of tliese and a few other lines, (and it must
be confessed that they have a very imperfect knowledge of the subject,) Horace
was not likely, without a sufficient reason, to deviate from what appears to have
been his more usual practice. A strict and unfailing regularity in tone, pause,
or emphasis, has never been regarded as a poetical beauty.

But be these things as they may, whether the line is read with metrical, or
■witli prosaic cadence, it is evident, from a very cursory inspection of the third
division, that, either way, the verse closes with two very weak or unemphatic
syllables having an emphatic one between them. ]. To produce such a close, .
no word can be better adapted, than a trisyllable emphatic on its middle syl-
lable, a word which invariably has its extremes very weak, and equally so ;
such as amorc!,, Sabiiui, parentes, procellcc, nocentevi, cujrressos, &c. with which
kind of words most of the lines conclude. 2. The next conclusion, in point
of harmony, is, probably, that of a dissyllable 'followed by an enclitic, which,
in effect, thus becomes a trisyllable emphatic on the middle syllable, and
e(jually unemphatic on the extremes, as geluve, gerctque, gravesque. The prin-
cipal objection to any other monosyllable, after a dissyllable, than an enclitic,
as in the solitary instance, Depone sub lauru mea, nee, seems to be, that such
words have not the same influence, as enclitics, in inclining the syllabic em-
phasis to the syllable immediately preceding them, and do not so intimately
cohere with it. 3. Similar to this conclusion, but, perhaps, somewhat infe-
rior in coherence, is that ending, which consists of a dissyllable preceded by
an enclitic not folhnnng a monosyllabh', or by a monosyllable, or the final weak
syllable detached from a hyperdissyllabic word, as, yarecuwAnvaque-bacchum,
iortanaque diilci ; iii-agros, sub-arcto, per-artes ; aacrsire-plectro, derivaia eludes.
Such weak syllables, before the dissyllable, are sufficiently attracted by the
contiguous emphasis of the dissyllable, so as to form with it one word ; but no
syllable, except an enclitic, Cdnfolloio, because no other syllable has the power
of inclining tbe emphasis from the first syllable of the dissyllable to the se-
cond. 4. Next may be placed, the three quadrisyliabic endings, occurring in
Horace ; and we are inclined to think, that, if the distinguished scholar, who
first propoiuided the valuable canon against quadrisyllables, had minutely ad-
verted to the particular conformation and rhythm of these three words, which
militate against it, he would have allowed such quadrisyllables to form a sort
of exception to his well-grounded canon. They are all of the same quan-
tit}' and syllabic emphasis ; and the second syllable of each consists of a vowel
followed by the letter r, a syllable, which when followed, as in these words, by
one that is long and emphatic, is among the weakest of unemphatic syllables.
Iliis circumstance, common to the three exceptions, ought not, perhaps, to be
considered as merely accidental. The last tliree syllables of these words have
precisely the same effect, as trisyllables long and emphatic on their middle
syllable ; and we are confident, that the modern poet, who should conclude
his verse with a quadrisyllable of precisely the same description, would not
mar its rhythm, or incur the censure of any liberal critic. It may be said.

479

a dissyllable precedes : Depone sub laiiru med ,- nee — ii. 7,
19. As to elisions, in i. 35, 11, there is harbarorum et ,- and
in the same ode, retusum in — 39. In ii. 13, 23, piornm et.
In iii. 3, 71, and iii. 6, 3, deorum et, and iii. 29, 3, rosarum

that such a close occurs but thrice in Horace, To this, it may be replied,
that such words are not very numerous, and, even were they more so, that the
subject or sense might not require tlie introduction of a greater number of
them. Still it must not be denied, that Horace seems imiformly to avoid
quadrisyllabic endings, or \\ hat may amount to them, such as a trisyllable fol-
lowed by a monosyllable; or two dissyllables: decidedly preferrhig a trisyl-
lable, or that combination which most readily becomes trisyllabic. 5. We
have no hesitation to say, that the most inharmonious of all the conclusions is,
that of two dissyllables, as dve Jtamma. Here we have, alternately, a strong,
a weak ; a strong, and a weak syllable. The second or weak syllable of the
first dissyllable is so firmly attracted by the preceding empiiatic syllable of its
own word, that, witliout unnatural violence to speech, it can never be sepa-
rated froiTi it, and be made to coalesce with the second dissyllable, so as to
form any thing like a trisyllabic verbal conclusion. Even with two such dis-
syllables as centum, viri, l)0th emphatic on their first syllable, there seems no
mode of perfect union, without a change of the emphasis. These observa-
tions aj"e offered, merely in tlie way of conjecture. Should they be found to
be generally correct, the application of the principle upon wiiich they are
founded, may be extended to other kinds, and to all the parts, of verses; for
we have little doubt, that the antients, in providing for the rhythm of their
poetical, and, it may be added, of their prose compositions, had a regard as
well to the quality or strength, as to the quantity or length, of the syllables
which they employed. Till the nature and influence of syllabic emphasis
shall have received due attention, neither, we apprehend, will ancient rhythm
be even tolerably understood, nor some apparent anomalies in ancient pro-
sody be satisfactorily elucidated.

Mr. Tate, the eminent scholar to whom, I believe, we are indebted for the
valuable Observations on the Stanza of Ovid, observes, that " if the ridiculous-
ness only of the following scheme of scansion for the Alcaic stanza can be for-
given ; its avowed purpose must be the better answered from the impossibility
of forgetting it, when it has once caught the ear."
Quis barbarorum, Tityre, Tityre,
Quis barbarorum, Tityre, TitjTc,
Quis barbarorum, barbarorum,
Tityre, Tityre, barbaroriun.
We, of course, do not oljject to the quadrisyllable in the third line, tliough
one of that sort of words proscribed by the second canon. It is one of the
three quadrisyllables employed by Horace himself; and few words seem bet-
ter adapted for the supposed rhythm. They have a slight, or what may be
termed, the secondary, emphasis on their first syllable ; the second syllable is
altogether weak ; the third has the predominating emphasis or percussio itocis ;
and the fourth is equally weak with the second. The primary emphasis be-
ing on the third, it readily attracts the preceding syllable, so as to render the
three last syllables perfectly equivalent to a trisyllable. The following imi-
tation, though, perhaps, not quite unobjectionable, particularly in the third
line, may be quoted as no bad exemplification, in English, of what might
&ecm to be the Horatian rhythm of the Alcaic stanza.'

Jitstum et tenaccni propositi viru7n,&.c.

No civic ardor, madly tiunultuous.

No frowning tyrant, fierce and implacable.

Can shake the just man's righteous purpose,

P'irmly to hold an approving conscience.

Nor all the whirlwind's rage on the Adrin,
Nor Jove's dread thunder, rending tlic firmament.
Though Heaven itself seems falling roimd him,
Fearless, he waits the impending ruin.— Odeil.

480

el. In iii. 1, 39, triremi et. There is also in iii. 4, 59j Ju-
no et ; and in iii. 29, 7, arvimi et.

(2) With respect to quadrisyllables, there are only three
instances, all in the first and second book.

llegunique matres barharorum, et — i. 35, 11.
Ab insolenti temperatam — ii, 3, 3.
Nodo coerces viperino — ii, 19, 19.

(3) There are only eight instances of the admission of
two dissyllables at the end of the verse ; and these occur,
too, in the first and second book ; thus Sivc Jiammd —
i. 16, 4. Nectc Jlores — 26, 7. Posse vivos — 29, 11. Grati-
de munus — ii. 1, 11. Dura navis — 13, 27. Sive reges —
14, 11. Parce, Libei- — 19,7. Aique truncis — 19, 11. — It
may be added, that only one line occurs. Depone sub lauru
&c., which closes with a dissyllable followed by a monosyl-
lable 7iot an enclitic.

No exception to these rules occurs in the third or fourth
book.

Those verses will be the best, and will approach neai'est
to the rhythm that Horace appears to have intended, which
are considered by the writer in composing them, as con-
sisting of three feet or divisions, an Antibacchius^ (sometimes
an Ampliibrachys) a Molossus, and a Bacchius ', each com-
prehended in a distinct word, thus :
12 3

Audita I miasarum | sacerdos.
In the third division, he admits the following varieties.
First, It is composed of a trisyllable ; as Deprome quadri-
mum Sabina — i. 9, 7. Secondly. Of a dissyllable followed
by an enclitic ; as Silvae laborantes gcluve — i. 9, 3. Thirdly.
It is composed of a dissyllable preceded ( 1 ) by a monosyl-
lable, or (2) by an enclitic, or (3) by a final short syllable
at the end of a hyperdissy liable word ; thus ( 1 ) Portare
ventis ; quis sid) arcto — i. 26, 3. (2) Morem, verecundum-
qne Bacchum — 27, 3. (3) Hunc Lesbio sacrare _/jZ£'c/ro —
26, 11. In the first and third division of this class, also,
must be numbered the following examples of an elision at
the end of this verse ;

(1) Sors exitura, et nos in sdiemiim

Exilium ii. 3, 27.

(3) Cum pace delabentis Etrusczw?

In mare iii. 29, 35.

Of the forms not directly or indirectly forbidden in the fore-
going canons, the following scheme will show, in what fa-

' Dr. Burney, following Terentian, had reversed the names,
terming the Bacchius an Antibacchius , and vice versd ; they are
here employed in their more usual acceptation.

4S1

vour each stood with Horace, and how certain forms pre-
vailed with his more cultivated ear, to the exclusion ofothers.

1. II. III. IV.

A. oil" II o fi8 80 148

B. II u 11 u 28 27 55

C. -oil o li 4 41 4.5

D. II -^^ o II 3 4 7

G. u 11 — 11^ 26 15 41

H. — II _ u II ^ 2 4 6

L— II— ^ u|| 1_ 0 1

The form C seems to have been studiously sought or
preferred in the third and fourth books.

The form D occurs so rarely perhaps, only because the
words or sets of words ffoino- toofether are rare, which should

constitute the syllables o o

The same may be said of forms H and I.
Of the form G, it is obvious to remark, that occin-ruig
much oftener in the 1st and 2nd books, than in the 3d and
4th, it must have been less sought by Horace, m the latter,
or rather less readily admitted.

With respect to tlie structure of the fourth line, no
form seems quite objectionable, but that in which every word
constitutes a distinct foot.

Oraque || jungere || queerit || ori,
has no parallel in Horace.

The following scheme will show the forms principally
adopted by Horace, and in what proportion.

I. II. III. IV.

A. — uu — ||u^— -^11 58 67 125

B. — ^ ^ _ II ^ (^ _ II ^ 25 29 54

D. — u u II — ^' o — - II o 15 19 ti4>

Aa. — wv^ — 11^ w [| — v^ll 3 27 SO

C. ~>^ w II —^ ^ — v^ II 20 7 27

Ac— (^^^ — II ^ ^ II — ^ 5 6 11

E. — o II w — ^ v^ -— II v^ 6 4 10

More than two-thirds commence with — o w — jj &c. Next in
number are those which commence with — ^^^ \\ — u* j — jl&c.

There remain yet to be noticed, two kinds of verses, which
were not mentioned in the preceding enumeration, because
not considered as very common, viz. the Pyrrhic verse, and
the Ionic ; and lasdy, Mixt verses.

OF THE PYRRHIC.

There is but one kind of Pyrrhic verse, consisting of two
or more Pyrrhics, such as that of Ausonius, Parental. 27 ;

2 I

4S2

1

Et a
Cui

Cmis
Celc-

2

niitii
brevi-

uti
ripes

3 4
V e7iL' via

5

a me-

placi-

ade-

la mo

dula

at lo

propc
difi-
mipc

ca ta

G

nth'
ca ve-

ra
ciC

E

1
obit :
cino^
geat,
rebi.

Of these strange verses, one at least, the last, does not
seem quite correct. I am inclined to think, that, with any
view to harmony or effect, such lines must have been con-
structed with a regard to the distinction arising from sylla-
bic emphasis, rather than to that arising from mere quan-
tity. By pronouncing all the syllables in precisely the
same way, it is evident, that neither words, feet, nor ca-
dences, could jiossibly be produced. Without some know-
ledge of the I'hythm intended, their metrical arrangement
must be in a great measure arbitrar}'. They may be con-
sidered as either pyrrhics, tribrachs, or proceleusmatics.

OF THE IONIC.

1. The pure Great Ionic Tetrameter, Acatalectic; con-
sisting of four great Ionics; thus

1 _ 2 _3 4

Fecit satis I (Xgrum rab1.\em qui .d6miC\it femnce — Scalig.

2. The impure Great Ionic, or iSotadean ; consisting of
three great Ionics, and a spondee ; thus

1 2 3 4

Tido maris \ iras vidct | e littorc | naidu.
Note 1. This kind of verse oftener admits in the third
place a dichoree instead of a great Ionic ; thus

1 2 3 4

Has cum gemi
Safnrne, ti

na compede dedicdt ca fetias,
bi Zoilns Ctnnidds jm ores — Mart.

Note 2. It is said to admit also, in all the places, except
the last, not only a dichoree, but the second paeon, and the
second ejiitrit.

Note 3. In almost all the places, a long quantity may be
resolved into two short quantities, both the long syllables,
however, not being resolved at the same time ; thus

2

gisiri

Elhnhitd ru des qua pue ros doccni ma-

Vocalisut illam late- re ex titroqiie co t

Qm(mdico\a vor, dico ni- ves, pluvia, no '

Diversa va lent, alia do\cent, ordine

This verse, without the dichoree, and the resolution of

quantities, seems to be a species of choriambic. — It may be

formed from the Ionic a minoi^e tetrameter, by removing the

Ter.M.delit.v.l.
arctet — Ibid. v. 83.
vales — Ibid, v, 95.
nidlo — Ibid. v. 179.

two first syllables, when there will remain three great Ionics
and a spondee, constitutin<T the Sotadean verse ; thus

I xilno lnve\re, ant cxd}ii\mdri 7ni4u\entes.

It seems almost unnecessaiy to add, that dactylics, tro-
chaics, and great ionics, although, as commencing with a long
syllable, they may seem their o}iposites, are, respectively, in
the same cadence, with anapestics, iambics, and minor ionics,
which begin with short quantities. The ionics appear to have
the ictus on the alternate long and short syllables ; that is, on
the first of both the spondee and the pyrrhic ; and the others
will be found, I believe, to have their long syllables gene-
rally thetic or emphatic. Hence we may infer, that tlac-
tylics and anapestics are in Vy-hat is termed the triple ca-
dence ; and the others, in the even. In speaking of the
measure of Horace's ode, iii. 12, the Delphin editor ob-
serves, " Metrum singulare. Sotadicum vocant aliqui. Alii
Rhythmicum, quod fere mdlus pedum numerusinsit." A very
odd reason, surely, for terming it rhythmicum. There can be
no doubt about its quantity ; with respect to its rhythm, we
have offered a probable conjecture, and, in the present day,
little more can reasonably be expected.

3. The Small Ionic ; so named, because, in every place, it
uses this foot. It is either trimeter, or tetrameter. Thus Ho-
race, Carm. iii. 12, after two trimeters places a tetrameter :
1 2 3 4-

J^Iish'drum est,
Neqne dulci
animari

ncquc amori

mala vino

vietiientes

dart ludum,
lavcre ; aut ex-
pat rucc ver

hera llnnucc.

Note. The learned Bentley has, however, shown that this
composition of Horace's rvms on in ten small Ionics, with-
out any pause; and that, therefore, the whole of the ode is
finished in four decapodicc of this kind.

It would appear that the Ionic a 7ni?iore is not confined
to a definite number of measures, but may, like the dime-
ter and tetrameter anapestics, be extended to any length,
provided that the final syllable of the measure or foot be
naturally long, or, influenced by the law of Synapheia, be
made long by the concoiu'se of consonants ; and that each
sentence or period terminate with a complete measure having
the spondee for its close ; rules observed by Horace in this
ode. It consists of forty measures, and has been divided
by Mr. Cuningham and others, into ten verses, each a te-
trameter, the line Simid unctos Tiberinis humeros lavit in
undis being placed after Studium avfert, Neobule, Liparm
nitor Hehri, contrary to the opinion of the DeJphin editor,

o T Q

«ri X M

484.

but witli manlleib-t aJvaiitage to the sense, and without de-
ranging the order of things or altering the grammatical con-
struction'. For ot{)er modes of arrangement, see Ca7"nien
Dicolon Tristrophoii. Although the Ionic a minor e^ lilce
the Anapestic, may be regarded as a continued series, and
be scanned as one line, by Synapheia ; yet, if divided into
several verses, the arrangement into tetrameters seems pre-
ferable to any other.

OF MIXT VERSES.

Verses are said to be Mixf^ (the Greeks named them
'/JcruvagTi^Touf,) when two of different kinds are united. There
are various kinds of them ; but those only will now be men-
tioned, of which examples can be produced from Latin poets.

1. The Archilochian Dactylic Trochaic; of which the
first part is a Heroic Tetrameter, or the first four feet of
a Hexameter ; the second part is an Ithyphallic Trochaic
Dimeter, Brachycatalectic, or three trochees; thus

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Solvitur I acns Jn\cms g7'a\fa ince\\vens \ et Fd\vdni — Hor.
which some divide into two verses ; thus
Solvitur acris hicms grata vice
Veris et Favoni.

2. The Archilochian Elegiambic; of which the first mem-
ber is the latter part of an Elegiac Pentameter, or the Ar-
chilochian Dactylic Penthemimer (consisting of two dactyls,
and a syllable); the second member, the Iambic Dimeter,
Acatalectic; as

12 3 4 5 6

Scrlhtre | versicu\los^\\amo\re 2)er\cussam'^ \ gravi — Hor.
which is commonly divided into two verses ; thus
Scribere versiculos,
Amore percussum gravi.

' It has been objected to this arrangement, that it occasions a
false quantity in the line Equts Ipso \ 7nehdr Btl\lcrophdnt'B, \ Jit-
gue piigTio, in which the e tinal of BcHero2:ihonte, from the lati-
nized Bellerophon, must be long, to constitute an Ionic a viinore.
To this it has been replied, that aWatives in e from such Greek
words as Bcllerophontes are sometimes long. Others have ob-
served, that every foot may be considered as a separate verse,
and that, therefore, the last syllable is common : but it may be
remarked that, throughout the whole ode, there is not another
instance of such a liberty. I have no doubt that Horace uses
the ablative long of BelkropJwntes,

* A\. pcrculsnni.

4S5

S. The Priapelan Dactylic Hexameter, Acatalcctic; con-
sisting of two divisions of a Hexameter, each of three teet :
but in such a manner, that, in the first place of both, there
is a spondee, or, instead of it, a trochee, or iambus ; in the
second and the third place of the first division, a dactyl : in
the second place of the second division, a dactyl, and the
third or last, a spondee. In this kind of verse, the last syl-
lable of the first division is accounted common ; as
12 3 4! 5 6

Hunc III cum tib1
Qiiadonms tud
Nam te Ij^'ceajJii
Helle^sponim

dcdico I consckroqiie, Pnfvpc.

Ldmpsdci est, \quaqjic\ sllva, Prtlapc :

e m siiis urbWms colli ora

aeteris ostri] os7or \d)-2s —

Catull.

4. The Anapestic-Ithyphallic ; of which the first division
is an Anapestic Tetrameter, Catalectic, that is, three ana-
pests, (or in the first and second place, a spondee,) with a
remaining syllable: the second division, the ltli}iihallic Tro-
chaic, or three trochees ; as

1 2 3 4-5 6

Ithijphdl\Ucd pd}-\ro d^ca nuit\\Musi\c'i Po\etcx: — Ter. Maur.

5. The lambelegiac (the converse of No. 2) ; in which
the first division is Iambic ; and the second Elegiac ; thus

12 3 4 5 6 '

Nives\que de\ducunt \ Jovem : \\ nunc murelmmc siln\ce — Ilor.
which is commonly divided into two verses ; thus
Nivcsqiie dcducunt Jovcm :
Nunc 7nare nunc siluce.

6. The Choriambic-Dactylic ; in which the first division
is the Glyconic, having generally in the first place, a tro-
chee ; the second division is the Pherecratic, which, in like
manner, has genei'ally a trochee at the beginnu!g;^thus

1 2 _ 3 4 5 6

O C6\lonm quce \ cupis\\pdntc \ ludcre \ longo — Catull.
This verse may be divided as in No. 3 ; in which the third
foot seems to be commonly a cretic.

7. The Choriambic-Trochaic ; of which the first division
is the Choriambic Dimeter, or two choriambuses : the se-
cond, the Trochaic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic, whose first
foot may be a dactyl ; the other two, trochees ; thus

\ 2 3 4 5

Vestmt Allplnus apex \\ et rube\dnt pruyna; — Claudian.

8. Tlie Trochaic-Dactylic; of which the first division is
a Trochaic Penthcmimer, that is, in the first place there is

48G

a trocliee, in the second a spondee, or dactyl, with an ad-
ditional syllable ; and the second part is an Adonic, that is,
a dactyl and a spondee ; as

■ 1 2 34.

siaeni
expUcH

ic ; of which the first part is an
Iambic Penthemimer, consisting of two iambuses, with along
syllable, but oftener in the first place, a spondee, and some-
times in the second, a tribrac : and the last part, as in the
preceding, an Adonic ; thus

12 34.

Si quis
(Hon 711

Arctu
mis celi'

ri
res

9. The lambic-Dacty

nescit.
drills — Boet.

PropUi

Mergai
Stupet

qua sum
que

sc

mo Wcarduit-

lahi.

Jiammas.
vuliius — Boet.

' ras\\tcquore
que suiji tis 11 n/obile

To the above-mentioned verses, which have received their
names from the feet which are used with the greater pro-
priety in them, others have been added ; such as the Sj'on-
(laic, Molossic, Pcconic, Antispastic, &c. But as scarcely any
poem is now found written in tliese verses, they are omitted.

Among the Mixt might have been enumerated some of
those which have been explained" under different divisions
or heads. Thus the Saturniaii (see Iambics, No. 5,) might
have been denominated an lamhic-Trochaic ; of which the
first part may be an Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic ; and the
second part, a Trochaic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic ; in this
manner

1 2 3 ^^ S Q,

Ddhunt I malum \ Metel\li\\ Nccvi\d Po\it(E.

In the same manner, the learned Bentley divides the
Alcaic Epichoriambic (see Choriambics, No. 3,) into two
parts, of which tlie first may be an Archilochian Trochaic
Dimeter, Acatalectic, with the second foot a spondee, and
fourth an iambus ; and the second part, an Archilochiiui
Trochaic (or Iambic) Dimeter, Catalectic, consisting of a
trochee, and two iambuses, with an additional syllable; thus,
12 3 4 5 6 7

Tc (iy'\os o'ro, Stif\bdr7n\\cU)' jiropcres | amfni\do.

The foregoing enumeration contains a full, and, it is
hoped, an accurate accomit of tlie principal kinds of verses,
that have been employed, more or less frequently, in what
is termed the Carmen Simplex^ sen Moiiocolon ; that is, in
poems consisting of lines of similar metre or quantity, and

' One compound has been introduced, tlic Carmen Horatianum.

487

commonly diviclcil, according to the. subject, into epic, satire,
epistle, tragedy, comedy, ode, epigram, &c. The usual
names and arrangement have been adopted. They are,
however, sometimes divided into Hexameters^ and such as
are composed of similar feet ; into Iambics pure and mixt ;
and into Lyrics, including all not contained in the two pre-
ceding classes. But the most natural and rational division
of them is that, founded on the prevalence, or greater pro-
priety in the use, of particular feet in their construction, into
Pijrrhics, Dactylics, Anapestics, Iambics, Trocha'ics, Chori-
ambics, Ionics, and to these may be added the Mixt ; a
classification which we have rendered perfectly obvious, by
the insertion of occasional references.
Thus, for example.

Hexameters, Pentameters, and those of similar construc-
tion, are Dactylics.

The Asclepiadic is a Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic.

The Glyconic is a Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic.

The Sapphic is a Trochaic Pentameter, Acatalectic.

The Adonic is a Dactylic Dimeter, a part of a Hexameter.

The Phaleucian is a Trochaic Pentameter, Acatalectic.

The Pherecratic is a Dactylic Trimeter, a part of a Hex-
ameter.

The Scazon or Choliambus is an Iambic Trimeter, Aca-
talectic.

The Anacreontic is an Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic.

The Horatian is composed of (1) and ('2) the Alcaic Dac-
tylic Tetrameter, Hypercatalectic ; (3) The Archilochian
Iambic Dimeter, Plypercatalectic ; (4) The Alcaic Dactylic
Tetrameter, Acatalectic.

Compositions, in one sort of verse, consist more frequently
of Hexameters, in which are written heroic poems ; of Iam-
bic trimeters, adapted to tragedy ; Scazons ; Trochaics, es-
pecially tetrameters, much used by Plautus and Terence
in comedy; Asclepiadics ; Phaleucians ; and Anapestics;
less frequently, of Iambic dimeters, and tetrameters cata-
lectic; Gly conies ; Sapphics ; and Archilochians; and very
rarely, of Pentameters or Adonics, a few successive lines of
the former occiu'ring in Martianus Capella and Ausonius,
and of the latter, in Ter. Maur. and Boethius.

OF COMPOSITIONS IN WHICH THE VERSE IS VARIED.

It has been already observed, that, when only one sort
of verse is used in any ode or poem, such ode or jioem is
called Carmen Monocolon. ^Vhen more than one kind are

488

used, the composition is named Polycolon, and this is ge-
nerally distinguished in two ways :

1 . By the variety of verses which are used in it.

2. By the numher of verses of which it consists previous
to the completion of one strophe or stanza, that is, befol'e
the poem returns to the same kind of verse with which it
commenced.

First, According to the variety of verses, a composition
is named Polycolon ; or, more precisely, if there are two
different kinds of verses, Dicolon, or bimemhre ,- if three,
Tricolon, or trimemhre. There is likewise the term Tetra-
colon ; but the ancients did not advance further than to Tri-
colon.

Secondly, According to the number of verses in one stro-
phe, the poem is named Carmen Distrophon, Tristroj^ihon,
Tetrastrophon, or Pcntastroplwn.

Distrophoji is when the poem returns, after the second
verse, to the same verse with which it began. And the other
three respectively denote the return of the poem to the pri-
mary verse, after the third, fotaih, imd^^Jih line.

Indeed, beyond the Tetrastro]>hon the Latin stanza sel-
dom reached. Catullus, however, has written one of five
lines, consisting of four Glyconics, and a Pherecratic.

By a combination of the preceding terms, a poem in
which the stanza consists of tiw verses of different kinds, is
named Dicolon Dislropho7i ; when the stanza contains three
verses, but only of two sorts, one sort being repeated, it is
named Dicolon Tristrophon ; when the stanza has jour
verses, but only of two sorts, one being thrice repeated, it
is named Dicolon Tctrastrophon ; when the stanza contains
^five lines, of two sorts, one being four times repeated, it is
named Dicolon Pentastrophon. When the poem contains
three verses each of a different kind, in one stanza, it is
termed Tricolon Tristrophon ; and when in a stanza there
are four verses, but of only three different kinds, one verse
being repeated, Tricolon Tctrastrophon.

Hence it appears that there are six different kinds of com-
position consisting of a combination of various kinds of verses;
and in each kind there are generally several varieties.

I. Of the Carmen Dicolon Distrophon.

1. The Elegiac, or Dactylic Heroic Hexameter, with a
Dactylic Pentameter; already explained. (See Pentameter.)
Sponte sua mimeros carmen vcniebat ad aptos .■
Ef, quod tcntabam dicere, versus crat — Ovid,

489

2. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Archilochian Dac-
tylic Dimeter, Hypei'catalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 1,
under it.)

Diffugere Jiives, redeimt jam gramina campis,
Arboribusqiie coma; — Hor.

3. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Alcmanian Dac-
tylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 4.)

Tunc me discussd liquerunt node tenebrce,
Limiinibusque prior rediit vigor — Boet.
4-. The Dactylic Flexameter, with the Alcmanian Dac-
tylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 5.)
Laudabunt alii claram Rhoden, aut Mitylenen,
Aut Ephesnm, bimarisve Corinthi — Hor.

5. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Alcmanian Dactylic
Tetrameter, Catalectic ; or, as others name it, a Partheniac
Anapestic Tetrameter, Catalectic. (See Hexameter, No. 8,
and Anapestics, No. 2.)

O qui pcrpctuis orbem moderaris habeyiis,
Placidos bonus exsere vultus — Buchan. Ps. 68.

6. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Dimeter,
Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and Iambic Dimeter.)

Nox erat, et ccelo fulgebat luna sereno
Inter mijiora sidera — Plor.

7. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Trimeter.
(See Hexameter, and the Iambic Trimeter, in Iambics.)

Altera Jam teritur bellis civilibiis cetas ;
Suis et ipsa lloma viribus ruit — Plor.

8. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Archilochian Ele-
giambic. (See Plexameter, and Mixt verses, No. 2.)

Te regcm Dominumqiie canam^ dum lucida volvet
Lucidus astra polus, et tmicu?n colam Deum — Buchan.
Ps. 145.
In this manner ought the lines to be written, according to
the opinion of the famous Bentley, but Buchanan himself
has divided them into three verses.

9. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an lambo-Elegiac.
(See Hexameter, and Mixt verses. No. 5.)

Horrida tempestas ccelum contraxit, et imbres

Nivesque dcducunt Jovem .■ 7m?ic juare, nunc sililce — Hor.

10. The Alcmanian Dactylic Trimeter, Hj^percatalcctic,
with a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See
Hexameter, No. 2, or fJ, and the Pherecratic verse.)

Omne hominum genus in terris
Simili surgit ab ortu — Boet.

11. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic,

490

with an Archilochian Dactylic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic.
{See Hexameter, No. 4, and No. 1.)

Quam thalamo^ ta^disque jiigalibus

Invida mors rapuit — Auson. Parent. 2.

12. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic,
with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter,
No. 4, and the Iambic Dimeter, in Iambics.)

Sunt etenim pennce vohicres mihi,
Qjice celsa conscendant j^oli — Boet.

13. The Anacreontic Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic, with
the Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See the
Anacreontic and Pherecratic verses.)

Qiiisqiiis volet percjinem
Cantus ponere sedem — Boet.
14-. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Elegiac
Pentameter. (See Iambics, and Pentameter.)
Qjianwis Jiuetite dives aiiri gurgite
Non expleturas cogat avarus opes — Boet.

15. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Iambic
Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Iambics.)

Ibis Liburnis inter alta navinin,
Amice, jn-opugnacula — Hor.

16. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Archilo-
chian Elegiambic. (See Iambics, and Mixt verses, No. 2.)

Petti, nihil me, sicut antea,juvat

Scribere versiculos, amore percussum gravi — Hor.

17. The Scazon Iambic, with an Iambic Dimeter, Aca-
talectic. (See the Scazon, and Iambics.)

Verofia docti syllabas aniat vatis ,-
Maronefelix Mantua est — Martial.

18. The Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic, with
an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Trochaics, No. 3,
and Iambics.)

Or bis omncs incohe,

A sole Eoo ad Flespcrum — Bucb.an.

19. Tlie Euripidean Trochaic Diiiicter, Catalectic, with
an Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Tro-
chaics, No. 3, and Iambics, No. 3.)

Non ehur, neque aurcum

Mea renidct iji domo lacunar — Hor.

20. The Alcmanian Trochaic Dimeter, Acatalectic, with
a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See Tro-
chaics, No. 4, and the Pherecratic verse.)

Qiios vidcs sedcre ccJsos
Sola culmine rcgcs — Boet.

491

21. The Trochaic Tetrameter, or Octonarius, Catalectic,
with an Iambic Trmieter, Acatalectic. (See Trochaic, and
Iambic verses.)

Ore jmlckro, et we muto ,- scire vis quce sim P Volo.
Imago Riifi rhctoris Pictavici — Auson. Epig. 5 1 .

22. The Sapphic Pentameter, Acatalectic, with an Iam-
bic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Sapphics, and Iambics.)

Gentis humance pater atque custos,
Qiiam sancta majestas tui — Buchan.

23. The Sap})hic Pentameter, Acatalectic, with the Gly-
conic Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See the Sapphic,
and Gly conic verses.)

Cum polo Phoebus roseis quadrigis
Lucem spargcre coeperit — Boet.

24. The PhaJeucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, with an
Elegiac Pentameter. (See Phaleucian, and Pentameter.)

Qidd tantosjuvat excitare mofus^

Et propria fatum soUicitare manu — Boet.

25. The Phaleucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, widi an
Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Phaleucian
verse, and Carmen Horatianum.)

Qjiamvis se Tijrio superhis ostro
Comeret, et niveis lapillis — Boet.

26. The Phaleucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, with a
Sapphic Pentameter, Acatalectic. (See Phaleucian, and
Sapphic.)

Flic partus jdacidd manens quiete^

PIoc patens unum miseris asylum — Boet.

27. The Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalec-
tic, with an Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic.
(See Choriambics, No. 1, and 3.)

Lydia, die j^er oranes

Te deos oro, Sijbarin cur propcrcs amando — Hor.

28. The Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic,
with the Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic.
(See the Glyconic, and Asclepiadic verses.)

Sic te diva j^otcns C/jpri^

Sic fr at res Helena; lucida sidcra — Hor.

29. The Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalec-
tic, with die Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic.
(Seethe Asclepiadic, and Pherecratic.)

Si quantas rapidis jlatihus incitus
Pontus vcrsut arenas — Boet.

30. The Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalec-
tic, with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Asclepia-
dic and Iambic verses.)

492

'Eheu, qucB miseros tramite devios
Abducit ignoraritia ! — Boet.

31. The Dactylic-Trochaic Septenarius, with an Archi-
lochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Mixt verses,
No. 1, and Iambics, No. 2.)

Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni^
Trahunfque siccas machince carinas — Hor.

32. The Trochaic-Dactyhc, with an Iambic-Dactylic,
(See Mixt verses, No. 8, and 9.)

Si qnis Arctiiri sidcra nescit
Proipinqiia sunwio cardijie labi — Boet.

II. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tristrophon.

1. Two Aristophanian Anapestic Tetrameters, Acatalec-
tic, and an Adonic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Anapestic
verse, and Adonic.)

Tu quoque in cevum, Crispe,futurum
Mcesti venies commemo7-atus
Munere threni — Auson.

2. Two Alcmanian Trochaic Dimeter?, Acatalectic, and
a Euripidean Trochaic Duneter, Catalectic. (See Ti'ochaics,
No. 4, and No. 3.)

Incola t err arum ah ortic

Solis ultimum ad. ciibile,

Eia Domino psallite — Buchan. ^

3. Two Small Ionic Trimeters, Acatalectic, and then a
Small Ionic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Ionics, No. 3.)

Miserarum est, rieque amori dare ludum,

Neqne dulci mala vino lavere ; aut ex-

animari metuentes patruce verhera lingucc — Hor.
The celebrated and learned Bentley, following Mar. Vic-
torinus, has arranged the foregoing lines, in his edition, in
such a manner that the first two lines become tetrameters,
and the third a dimeter, although he considered the ode as
monocolon^ and to be measured by decapodicc. (See Ionics.)

Miserarum est, neque amori dare ludum, neque dtdci

Mala vino lavere ; aut exanimari vietuentes

Patruce verhera Ungues.
They have likewise been arranged (as if a Carmen Trico^
Ion TetrastropJio7i) in four verses ; viz. tvvO Small Ionic Tri-
meters, Acatalectic ; a Small Ionic Trimeter, Catalectic ;
and an Adonic ; thus

Miserarum est ncqrie amori dare ludum,

Neque dulci mala vino lavere, aut ex-

rimmarl metuentes j^niriicc —

Verhera linjiucc.

493-

Note, The third Ihie consists of two small Ionics and an
Anapest. — Indeed, scarcely does any composition, entitled
exclusively to the denomination dicolon trhtrojilion^ seem
to exist in any classical author.

III. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetra&iroplion.

1. Three Anacreontic Trochaic Dimeters, Acatalectic^
and a Chor iambic-Trochaic Quinarius. (See Trochaics,
No. 5, and Mixt verses, No. 7.)

Age cuncta miptiali

Redimita vcre tellus,

Celebra toros heriles :

Omne nemus cnmjluviis, omne canat jprojundum — Claud.

2. Three Sapphic Pentameters, and an Adonic Dimeter.
(See Sapphic verse, and Adonic.)

Qiiid hrevi fortes jacidamur (ex)0
Malta ? quid terras alio calentes
Sole mutamus P 'patria; quis exsul
Se quoquc fugit ? — Hor.

3. Three Glj'^conic Choriambic Trimeters, Acatalectic,
and a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (Seethe
Gly conic verse, and Pherecratic.)

Diance swnns injide
Puella;, et pueri integri :
Dianam pueri integri,
Puellceque canamus — Catull.

4. Three Asclepiadic Choriamblcs, and a Glyconic Cho-
riambic. (See Asclepiadic, and Glyconic verse.)

Inclusam Dajiacn turris ahenea,
Bobtistccque fo7'es, et vigilum canuin
Tristes excuhicc munierant satis
Nocturvis ah adidteris — Plor.

IV. Of the Carmen Dicolon Pentastroplion.

This is very uncommon. There is only one kind, com-
posed of four Glyconic Choriambic Trimeters, Acatalectic,
to which is subjoined a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Aca-
talectic. (See Glyconic, and Pherecratic.)

Collis O Helico7iii

Cidtor, Urania genus,

Qiii rapis tcneram ad virum

Viigijiem, O I-IymencEe Hymen,

Hymen, O Hyinencee — Catull.

V. Of the Carmen Tricolon Trist7'ophoti.
1. A Heroic Dactylic; an Archilochian Dactylic Dime-

491<

ter, Hj-percatalectic ; and an Iambic Dimeter, Acatakctic.
(See Hexameter, and No. 1 ; and Iambic verse.)

Te Regem Donmmmqtie canarn^ dum lucida volvet

Lucidus astra polus,

Et unicum colam Deiim — Buclian. Ps. 145.

2. A Hexameter ; an Iambic Dimeter ; and an Archilo
chian Dactylic. (Same as the last, but in a different order.)

Pectore te grato Dominwnqne Dcumque fatebor ,)

Coram superbis rcgibus.^

Et tua facta canam — Buchan. Ps. 138.
By others this is considered as a Carmen Dicoloii Disiro-
plion, such as the thirteenth Epode of Horace, in imitation
of which, Buchanan wrote this psalm. This epode may be
likewise di\dded in the same manner ;

Horrida tcmpestas coclum contraxit ; ct imhrcs

Nivesque deducunt Jovem :

Nnjic mare, mine silna; — Ep. 13.
As a Carmeji Dicoloii Distrojihoji, it is thus divided ;

Horrida tempesias ccelum contraxit ,- ct imby^es

Nivesque deducunt Jovem. Nu?ic mare, nunc siluce.
The first is a Heroic Hexameter ; the second an Archilo-
chian Iambic Ele^nac; as in the edition of D. Hemsius,
printed 1718. (See Mixt verses, No, 5, and Carmen Dico-
lon Distrophon, No. 9.)

3. An Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic; an Archilocliian
Dactylic Dimeter, Plypercatalectic, (or Dactylic Penthe-
mimer;) with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Iam-
bics, and Hexameter, No. 1.)

Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, juvati

Scribere versicrdos,

Amore perci/ssum gravi — Hor.
According to others, this epode belongs to the Carmen
Dicolon Distrophon. (See Mixt verses, No. 2, and Carmen
Dicolon Distrophon, No. 16.)

In the same manner, O. 4. lib. 1, (see also Mixt verses,
No. 1,) is arranged as a Carmen Tricolon Tristrophon, the
first verse being an Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter ; the
second, a Trochaic Ithyphallic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic ;
and the third, an Archilocliian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic.
(See Iambics, No. 2; and Carmen Dicolon Distrophon, 31.)

Solvitur acris hyems grata vice

Veris et Favoni :

Trahunfque siccas machincc carinas.

4. A Gly conic Choriambic Trimeter; an Asclepiadic Cho-
riambic Tetrameter; and an Alcaic Choriambic Pentameter.
(See Glyconic, Asclepiadic, and Choriambics, No. 2.)

495

Pel' quinquennia jam decern,

Ni Jailor, Jiiiinus ; Septimus insuper

Anno cardo rotat, dumfruimur Sole voluhili — Prudent.

VI. Of the Carvien Tricolon Tetrastrophon.

1. Two Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameters, Hypercatalectic,
(that is Great Alcaics ;) an Archilochian Iambic Dimeter,
Hypercatalectic ; and an Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameter, Aca-
talectic, (or Small Alcaic.) (See Carmen Horatiamim, and
Iambics.)

j^quam memento rebus in arduis
Servare mentem, non secus ac hoiiis
Ab in Solent i temper at am
Lcetitia : moriture Delli — Hor.

2. Two Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameters ; a Phere-
cratic Dactylic Trimeter ; and a Glyconic Choriambic Tri-
meter. (See Asclepiadic, Pherecratic, and Glycohic.)

Prima nocte domum claude, neque in vias

Sid) cantu querula; despice tibice :

Et te sccpe vacant i

Duram, dijjicilis mane — Hor.
There is likewise a third sort, formed by a certain ar-
rangement of Ode 12. lib. 3. of Horace ; for which see the
Carmen Dicolon Tristrophon, No. 3.

I SHALL conclude this system of Prosody with the me-
thod of scanning the different Metra Herat iana,?^]! of which,
along with some slight variations observable in them, have
already been fully particularized. — Should any one wish for
a comprehensive view of the different kinds of verse used in
their compositions by most of the Latin poets of any cele-
brity, either ancient or modern, he will find it in the works
of the learned and accurate Ruddiman, to whose industry
and talents I have been particularly indebted, in regard to
the present subject.

Horace uses twenty kinds of verse, and chiefly in con>
binations, as will appear in the following

SYNOPSIS.

(1) Lib. I. 1. III. 30. IV. 8, are Asclepiadic Tetrame-
ters, Acatalectic. (See the Asclepiadic verse.)

(2) Lib. I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 3S. Lib. 11. 2, 4,
6, 8, 10, 16. Lib. III. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27. Lib. IV. 2,
C, 11, and Carmen Seculare, iweDicolaTctrastropha, No. 2;

49G

consisting of three Sapphic Hendecasyllabics, and an Ado-
nic Dimeter.

(3) Lib. I. 3, 13, 19, 36. III. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28. IV.

1, 3, belong to the Dicola Distropha, No. 28; and consist
of a Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter, and an Asclepiadic
Choriambic Tetrameter, both Acatalectic.

(4) Lib. I. 4, belongs to the Dicola Distropha^ No. 31 ;
and consists of the Dactylic-Trochaic Septenarius, witli an
Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic.

(5) Lib. L 5, 14, 21, 23. III. 7, 13.. IV. 13, belong
to the Tricola Tetrastropha^ No. 2 ; consisting of two As-
clepiadic Choriambic Tetrameters, a Pherecratic Dactylic
Tripodia, and a Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter.

(6) Lib. L 6, 15, 24, 33. II. 12. IIL 10, 16. IV. 5,
12, belong to the Dicola Tetrastropha, No. 4 ; and consist
of three Asclepiadic Choriambics, and a Glyconic Cho-
riambic.

(7) Lib. I. 7, 28, and Epode 12, belong to the Dicola
Distropha, No. 4 ; and consist of a Dactylic Hexameter,
with an Alcmanian Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexame-
ter, and No. 5.)

(8) Lib. I. 8, is a Dicolon Distrophon., No. 27 ; consist-
ing of an Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalectic,
with an Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic.

(9) Lib. I. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37. Lib.
IL 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20. Lib. III. 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29. IV. 4, 9, 14, 15, belong
to the Tricola TefrastropJia, No. 1 ; consistingof two Great
Alcaics; an Archilochian Iambic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic ;
and a small Alcaic. This, from the number of odes written
in it, appears to have been Horace's favourite strain, and is,
therefore, named the Carmen Horatianum.

(10) Lib. L 11, IS. IV. 10, are Monocola, (See Cho-
riambics, No. 2,) and consist of Alcaic Choriambic Penta-
meters, Acatalectic.

(11) Lib. II. 18, is a Dicolon Distrophon^ No. 19; con-
sisting of the Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic, and
the Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Tro-
chai'cs. No. 3 ; and Iambics, No. 3.)

(12) Lib. III. 12, is either Dicolon Tristrophoji, or Trz-
colon Tetrastrophon. (See No. 3, of the former; see also
Ionics, No. 3.)

497

(13) Lib. IV. 7, is a Dicolon Distrophon^ No. 2; con-
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, with an Arcliiiochian Dac-
tylic Penthemimef.

(14) Epod. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, are Dlcola Di-
stropha^ No. 1 5 ; consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, and Di-
meter, both Acatalectic.

(15) Epod. 11, is either Dicolon DistropJion., No. 16;
consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, and an Ar-
chilochian Elegiambic; or it is a Tricolon Trlstrophon, No. 3;
consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic ; and Archi-
lochian Dactylic Penthemimer; and an Iambic Dimeter,
Acatalectic.

(IG) Epod. 13, is either D/colofi Distropho?!^ No. 9; con-
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, and an lambo- Elegiac; or
Tricolon Trisfrophofi, No. 2 ; consisting of a Hexameter ;
an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic ; and an Archilochia?i Dac-
tylic Penthemimer.

(17) Epod. 14, 15, are Dlcola Dlstropha^ No. 6; con-
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, and an Iambic Dimeter,
Acatalectic.

(18) Epod. 16, is a Dicolon Dlstrophon, No. 7; consist-
ing of a Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Trimeter,
Acatalectic.

(19) Epod. 17, 18, are Monocola ,- consisting wholly of
Iambic Trhneters, Acatalectic. (See Iambics.)

(20) Satires, Epistles, and De Arte Poeticd, are all Mo-
nocola, consisting of the Dactylic Hexameter. (See Hexa-
meter.)

FINIS.

'2 K

*^* Page4-13, line 25, rea(/non.

477, line 36, read musalrum.

RICHA.RD TAYLOR, PRINTER,
SHOE-LANE.

tsOI^J^

.if'.

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