The Institutio oratoria of Quintilian

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THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

rOUNOED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.
EDITED BY

E. H. WARMINGTON, m.a., f.r.hist.soc.

FORMER EDITORS

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QUINTILIAN
IV

127

k

THE INSTITUTIO ORATORIA OF

QUINTILIAN

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
H. E. BUTLER, M.A.,

PROFESSOR or LATIS IN LONDON DNITERSITT

IN FOUR VOLUMES
IV

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

MOMLXVm

Coc>. 2-

First printed 1922
Reprinted 1936, 1953, 1958, 1961, 1968

fO-l>9^S

Printed in Great Britain

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAOX
BOOK X 1

Ch. 1 : Value of reading; autboi's to be studied;
poeta ; historians ; orators ; philosophers ; brief
review of Greek and Roman literature considered
from standpoint of rhetoric. — Ch. 2 : Imitation. —
Ch. 3: Writing. — Ch. 4: Correction. — Ch. 5:
Various forma of composition ; translation ; para-
phrase, theses, commonplaces, declamations. — Ch.
6 : Thought and premeditation. — Ch. 7 : Speaking
extempore.

BOOK XI 153

Ch. 1 : The necessity of speaking appropriately to
the circumstances. — Ch. 2: Memory and memory
systems. — Ch. 3 : Delivery gesture and dress.

BOOK XII 351

Preface. — Ch. 1 : A great orator must be a good
man. — Ch. 2 : How to strengthen character ; study
of philosophy. — Ch. 3 : Necessity of study of civil
law. — Ch. 4: The orator must be well equipped
with examples and precedents. — Ch. 5 : Necessity
of firmness and presence of mind ; cultivation of
natural advantages. — Ch. 6 : Age at which the
orator should begin to plead. — Ch. 7 : Causes which
he should undertake ; remuneration for services. —
Ch, 8 : Necessity of careful stutly of each case.
— Ch. 9 : The orator must not make applause
his predominant aim ; sparing use of invective ;
relative importance of preparation in writing and
speaking extempore. — Ch. 10: The dififerent styles
of oratory ; analogy of the arts of sculpture and
painting ; Greek and Roman oratory compared. —
Ch. 11 : At what age to retire from speaking in
public and how to spend one's retirement ; possi-
bilities of the successful training of an orator ;
advantages to be drawn therefrom ; exhortation
to diligence ; conclusion.

IKDEX or NAMKS .. 51?

INDKX Of W0KD8 533

T

SIGLA
A = Codex Ambrosiauus, 11th century.

B = Agreement of Codicea Bernensis, Bambergensis and
Nostradamensis, 10th century.

G = Codex Bambergensis in those passages where gaps
have been supplied by a Liter lltli-century hand.

QUINTILIAN
BOOK X

M. FABII QUINTILIANI
INSTITUTIONIS ORATORIAE

LIBER X

I. Sed haec eloquendi praecepta, sicut cogitationi
sunt necessaria, ita non satis ad vim dicendi valent,
nisi illis firma quaedam facilitas, quae apud Graecos
l^is nominatur, accesserit : ad quam scribendo plus
an legendo an dicendo conferatur, solere quaeri scio.
Quod esset diligentius nobis examinandum, si quali-

2 bet earum rerum possemus una esse contenti. Verum
ita sunt inter se conexa et indiscreta omnia ut, si
quid ex his defuerit, frustra sit in ceteris laboratum.
Nam neque solida atque robusta fuerit unquam
eloquentia nisi niulto stilo vires acceperit, et citra
lectionis exemplum labor ille carens rectore fluita-
bit ; et qui ^ sciet quae quoque sint modo dicenda,
nisi tamen in procinctu paratamque ad omnes
casus habuerit eloquentiam, velut clausis thesauris

3 incubabit. Non autem ut quidquid praecipue neces-

^ fluitabit et qui, Halm i fluvit autem qui, O,
2

THE INSTITUTIO ORATORIA
OF QUINTILIAN

BOOK X

I. But these rules of style, while part of the
student's theoretical knowledge, are not in them-
selves sufficient to give him oratorical power. In
addition he will require that assured facility which
the Greeks call t^is. I know that many have raised
the question as to whether this is best acquired by
writing, reading or speaking, and it would indeed
be a question calling for serious consideration, if we
could rest content with any one of the three. But 2
they are so intimately and inseparably connected,
that if one of them be neglected, we shall but waste
the labour which we have devoted to the others.
For eloquence will never attain to its full develop-
ment or robust health, unless it acquires strength
by frequent practice in writing, while such practice
without the models supplied by reading will be like
a ship drifting aimlessly without a steersman.
Again, he who knows what he ought to say and
how he should say it, will be like a miser brooding
over his hoarded treasure, unless he has the weapons
of his eloquence ready for battle and prepared to
deal with every emergency. But the degree in 3

QUINTILIAN

sarium est, sic ad efficiendum oratorem maximi
protinus erit momenti. Nam certe, cum sit in
eloquendo positum oratoris officium, dicere ante
omnia est, atque hinc initium eius artis fuisse mani-
festum est ; proximam deinde imitationem, novissi-

4 mam scribendi quoque diligentiam. Sed ut perveniri
ad surama nisi ex principiis non potest, ita pro-
cedente iam opere etiam ^ minima incipiunt esse
quae prima sunt. Verum nos non, quomodo insti-
tuendus orator, hoc loco dicimus ; nam id quidem
aut satis aut certe uti potuimus dictum est ; sed
athleta, qui omnes iam perdidicerit a praeceptore
numeros, quo genere exercitationis ad certamina
praeparandus sit. Igilur eum, qui res invenire et
disponere sciet, verba quoque et eligendi et collocandi
rationem perceperit, instruamus, qua ratione quod
didicerit ^ facere quam optime, quam facillime possit.

5 Num ergo dubium est, quin ei velut opes sint
quaedam parandae, quibus uti, ubicunque desidera-
tum erit, possit.'' Eae constant copia rerum ac

6 verborum. Sed res propriae sunt cuiusque causae
aut paucis communes, verba in universas paranda ;
quae si in rebus singulis essent singula, minorem

* etiam, Osann: iam, AfSS,

* qua ratione, ed. Col. 1527 : qua oratione, 3fSS.
ditlicerit, Zumpt : dicere, G.

BOOK X. I. 3-6

which a thing is essential does not necessarily make
it of immediate and supreme importance for the
formation of the ideal orator. For obviously the
power of speech is the first essential, since therein
lies the primary task of the orator, and it is obvious
that it was with this that the art of oratory began,
and that the power of imitation comes next, and
third and last diligent practice in writing. But as 4
perfection cannot be attained without starting at
the very beginning, the points which come first in
time will, as our training proceeds, become of quite
trivial importance. Now we have reached a stage in
our enquiry where we are no longer considering the
jireliminary training of our orator ; for I think the
instructions already given should suffice for that ;
they are in any case as good as I could make them.
Our present task is to consider how our athlete who
has learnt all the technique of his art from his
trainer, is to be prepared by actual practice for the
contests in which he will have to engage. Con-
sequently, we must assume that our student has
learned how to conceive and dispose his subject
matter and understands how to choose and arrange
his words, and must proceed to instruct him how to
make the best and readiest use of the knowledge
which he has acquired.

There can then be no doubt that he must accumu- 5
late a certain store of resources, to be employed
whenever they may be required. The resources of
which I speak consist in a copious supply of words
and matter. But while the matter is necessarily 6
either peculiar to the individual case, or at best
common to only a fcAV, words must be acquired to
suit all and every case. Now, if there were special

QUINTILIAN

curam postularent, nam cuncta sese cum ipsis pro-
tinus rebus offerrent. Sed cum sint aliis alia aut
magis propria aut magis ornata aut plus efficientia
aut melius sonantia, debent esse non solum nota
omnia sed in promptu atque, ut ita dicam, in con-
spectu, ut, cum se iudicio dicentis ostenderint, facilis

7 ex his optimorum sit electio. Et quae idem signifi-
carent solitos scio ediscere, quo facilius et occurreret
unum ex pluribus et, cum essent usi aliquo, si breve
intra spatium rursus desideraretur, efFugiendae re-
petitionis gratia sumerent aliud quod idem intelligi
posset. Quod cum est puerile et cuiusdam infelicis
operae turn etiam utile parum ; turbam tantum
modo 1 congregat, ex qua sine discrimine occupet
proximum quodque.

8 Nobis autem copia cum iudicio paranda est vim
orandi non circulatoriam volubilitatem spectantibus.
Id autem consequemur optima legendo atque
audiendo ; non enim solum nomina ipsa rerum
cognoscemus hac cura, sed quod quoque loco sit

9 aptissimum. Omnibus enim fere verbis ^ praeter
pauca, quae sunt parum verecunda, in oratione locus
est. Nam scriptores quidem iamborum veterisque
conioediae etiam in illis saepe laudantur, sed nobis

* turbam tantum modo, Halm: turbafntum modo, 0 '.
turbam enim tantum, vulgo.

• fere verbis, cod Harl. 4995 : ferebis vel, O.

1 See §§ 59 and 96.

BOOK X. I. 6-9

words adapted to each individual thing, they would
require less care, since they would automatically be
suggested by the matter in hand. But since some
words are more literal, more ornate, more significant
or euphonious than others, our orator must not
merely be acquainted with all of them, but must
have them at his fingers' ends and before his very
eyes, so that when they present themselves for his
critical selection, he will find it easy to make the
appropriate choice. I know that some speakers 7
make a practice of learning lists of synonyms by
heart, in order that one word out of the several
available may at once present itself to them, and
that if, after using one word, they find that it is
wanted again after a brief interval, they may be
able to select another word with the same meaning
and so avoid the necessity of repetition. But this
practice is childish and involves thankless labour,
while it is really of very little use, as it merely
results in the assembly of a disorderly crowd of
words, for the speaker to snatch the first that comes
to hand.

On the contrary, discrimination is necessary in 8
the acquisition of our stock of words ; for we are
aiming at true oratory, not at the fluency of a
cheapjack. And we shall attain our aim by reading
and listening to the best writers and orators, since
we shall thus learn not merely the words by which
things are to be called, but when each particular
word is most appropriate. For there is a place in 9
oratory for almost every word, with the exception
only of a very few, which are not sufficiently seemly.
Such words are indeed often praised when they
occur in writers of iambics ^ or of the old comedy.

QUINTILIAN

nostrum opus intueri sat est. Omnia verba, ex-
ceptis de quibus dixi, sunt alicubi optima ; nam et
humilibus interim et vulgaribus est opus, et quae
nitidiore in parte videntur sordida, ubi res poscit,

10 proprie dicuntur. Haec ut sciamus atque eorum
non significationem modo sed formas etiam men-
surasque norimus, ut, ubicunque erunt posita, con-
veniant, nisi multa lectione atque auditione assequi
nuUo modo possumus, cum omnem sermonem auribus
primum accipiamus. Propter quod infantes a mutis
nutricibus iussu regum in solitudine educati, etiamsi

11 verba quaedam emisisse traduntur, tamen loquendi
facultate caruerunt. Sunt autem alia huius naturae,
ut idem pluribus vocibus declarent, ita ut nihil
significationis, quo potius utaris, intersit, ut ensis et
gladius ; alia vero,^ etiamsi propria rerum aliqua-
rum sint nomina, Tpo-rnKw^ quasi tamen ^ ad eundem

12 intelleetum feruntur, utferrum et macro. Nam per
abusionem sicatios etiam omnes vocamus, qui caedem
telo quocunque commiserint. Alia circuitu verborum
plurium ostendimus, quale est Et pressi copia lactis.

* alia vero, Frotscher : aliave, G.

2 quasi tamen, edd. : quare tam, G : quare tamen, later MSS.

^ See Herodot. ii. 2. The children were alleged to have
cried " bekos," Phrygian for bread.

* or catachresis. See viii. ii. 5 and vL 34.

3 Ed, i. 81.

8

BOOK X. I. 9-12

but we need do no more than consider our own
special task. All words, with these exceptions,
may be admirably employed in some place or
other. For sometimes we shall even require low
and common words, while those which would
seem coarse if introduced in the more elegant
portions of our speech may, under certain circum-
stances, be appropriate enough. Now to acquire a 10
knowledge of these words and to be acquainted not
merely with their meaning, but with their forms and
rhythmical values, so that they may seem appropriate
wherever employed, we shall need to read and listen
diligently, since all language is received first through
the ear. It was owing to this fact that the children
who, by order of a king, were brought up by a dumb
nurse in a desert place, although they are said to
have uttered certain words, lacked the power of
speech.^ There are, however, some words of such 11
a nature that they express the same sense by
different sounds, so that it makes no difference to
the meaning which we use, as, for instance, gladius
and ensis, which may be used indifferently when we
have to speak of a sword. Others, again, although
properly applied to specific objects, are used by
means of a trope to express the same sense, as, for
example, /er7TZ7« (steel) and mucro (point), which are
both used in the sense of sword. Thus, by the 12
figure known as ahuse,^ we call all those who commit
a murder with any weapon whatsoever sicarii (poni-
arders). In other cases we express our meaning
periphrastically, as, for instance, when Virgil "*
describes cheese as

" Abundance of pressed milk."

QUINTILIAN

Plurima vero mutatione figuramus : Scio Non ignore
et Nov me Jiigit et Non me praeterit et Quis nescit ?

13 et Nemini duhium est. Sed etiam ex proximo mutuari
libet. Nam et inteUigo et sentio et xideo saepe idem
valent quod scio. Quorum nobis ubertatem ac divitias
dabit lectio, ut non solum quomodo occurrent sed

14 etiam quomodo oportet utamur. Non semper enim
haec inter se idem faciunt ; nee sicut de intellectu
animi recte dixerim video ita de visu oculorum in-
teUigo, nee ut mucro gladium sic mucronem gladius

15 ostendit. Sed ut copia verborum sic paratur, ita
non verborum tantum gratia legendum vel audiendum
est. Nam omnium, quaecunque docemus, hoc ^ sunt
exempla potentiora etiam ipsis quae traduntur arti-
bus, cum eo qui discit perductus est, ut intelligere
ea sine demonstrante et sequi iam suis viribus possit,
quia, quae doctor praecepit, orator ostendit.

16 Alia vero audientes, alia legentes magis adiuvant.
Excitat qui dicit spiritu ipso, nee imagine et ambitu

* hoc, Begins : haec, MSS.

1 See I. viii. 16; ix. i. 11.
10

BOOK X. I. 12-16

On the other hand, in a number of instances we
employ figures^ and substitute one expression for
another. Instead of " I know," we say " I am not
ignorant," or "the fact does not escape me," or "I
have not forgotten," or " who does not know ? " or
" it can be doubted by none." But we may also 13
borrow from a word of cognate meaning. For " I
understand," or "I feel" or "I see" are often
equivalent to "I know." Reading will provide us
with a rich store of expressions such as these,
and will enable us not merely to use them when
they occur to us, but also in the appropriate manner.
For they are not always interchangeable : for 14
example, though I may be perfectly correct in
saying, " I see " for " I understand," it does not
follow that I can say "I understand " for "my eyes
have seen," and though mucro may be employed to
describe a sword, a sword does not necessarily mean
the same as mucro (point). But, although a store 15
of words may be acquired by these means, we must
not read or listen to orators merely for the sake of
acquiring words. For in everything which we teach
examples are more effective even than the rules
which are taught in the schools, so long as the
student has reached a stage when he can appreciate
such examples without the assistance of a teacher,
and can rely on his own powers to imitate them.
And the reason is this, that the professor of rhetoric
lays down rules, while the orator gives a practical
demonstration.

But the advantages conferred by reading and 16
listening are not identical. The speaker stimulates
us by the animation of his delivery, and kindles the
imagination, not by presenting us with an elaborate

QUINTILIAN

rerum sed rebus incendit. Vivunt omnia enim et
moventur, excipimusque nova ilia velut nascentia
cum favore ac sollicitudine. Nee fortuna modo
iudicii sed etiam ipsorum qui orant periculo adficimur.

17 Praeter haec vox, actio decora, accommodata/ ut
quisque locus postulabit, pronuntiandi vel poten-
tissima in dicendo ratio et, ut semel dicam, pariter
omnia docent. In lectione certius iudicium, quod
audienti frequenter aut suus cuique favor aut ille

18 laudantium clamor extorquet. Pudet enim dissentire,
et velut tacita quadam verecundia inhibemur plus
nobis credere, cum interim et vitiosa pluribus placent,
et a conrogatis laudantur etiam quae non placent.

19 Sed e contrario quoque accidit, ut optime dictis
gratiam prava iudicia non referant. Lectio libera est
nee actionis impetu transcurrit ; sed repetere saepius
licet, sive dubites sive memoriae penitus adfigere
velis. Repetamus autem et retractemus,^ et ut cibos
mansos ac prope liquefactos demittimus, quo facilius
digerantur, ita lectio non cruda, sed multaiteratione^
mollita et velut confecta, memoriae imitationique
tradatur.

* accommodata ut, ed. Col. 1527 : commoda aut, G :
conimodata ut, Halm.

^ retracteinus, Spalding : tractemus, G.

' iteratione, soiac late MSS. : altercatione, G and others.

12

BOOK X. I. 16-19

picture, but by bringing us into actual touch with
the things themselves. Then all is life and move-
ment, and we receive the new-born offspring of his
imagination with enthusiastic approval. We are
moved not merely by the actual issue of the trial,
but by all that the orator himself has at stake. More- 17
over his voice, the grace of his gestures, the adapta-
tion of his delivery (which is of supreme importance
in oratory), and, in a word, all his excellences in
combination, have their educative effect. In reading,
on the other hand, the critical faculty is a surer
guide, inasmuch as the listener's judgment is often
swept away by his preference for a particular speaker,
or by the applause of an enthusiastic audience. For 18
we are ashamed to disagree with them, and an un-
conscious modesty prevents us from ranking our own
opinion above theirs, though all the time the taste
of the majority is vicious, and the claque may
praise even what does not really deserve approval.
On the other hand, it will sometimes also happen 19
that an audience whose taste is bad will fail to award
the praise which is due to the most admirable utter-
ances. Reading, however, is free, and does not hurry
jmst us with the speed of oral delivery ; we can re-
read a passage again and again if we are in doubt
about it or wish to fix it in the memory. We must
return to what we have read and reconsider it with
care, wliile, just as we do not swallow our food till
we have chewed it and reduced it almost to a state
of liquefaction to assist the process of digestion, so
what we read must not be committed to the memory
for subsequent imitation while it is still in a crude
state, but must be softened and, if I may use the
phrase, reduced to a pulp by frequent re-perusal.

13

QUINTILIAN

20 Ac diu non nisi optimus quisque et qui credentem
sibi minime fallat legendus est, sed diligenter ac
paene ad scribendi sollicitudinem ; nee per partes
modo scrutanda omnia, sed perlectus liber utique
ex integro resumendus, praecipueque oratio, cuius
virtutes frequenter ex industria quoque occultantur.

21 Saepe enim praeparat, dissimulat, insidiatur orator,
eaque in prima parte actionis dicit, quae sunt in summa
profutura. Itaque sue loco minus placent, adhuc
nobis quare dicta sint ignorantibus, ideoque erunt

22 cognitis omnibus repetenda. Illud vero utilissimum
nosse eas causas, quarum orationes in man us sump-
serimus et, quotiens continget, utrinque habitas
legere actiones : ut Demosthenis atque Aeschinis
inter se contrarias, et Servii Sulpicii atque Messalae,
quorum alter pro Aufidia, contra dixit alter, et
Pollionis et Cassii reo Asprenate aliasque plurimas.

23 Quinetiam si minus pares videbuntur aliquae, tamen
ad cognoscendam litium quaestionem recte requiren-
tur, ut contra Ciceronis orationes Tuberonis in
Ligarium et Hortensii pro Verre. Quinetiam,
easdem causas ut quisque egerit utile ^ erit scire.

* utile, edd. Aid. wnd Col. : utrisque, O and most MSS.

1 See IV. ii. 106 and vi. i. 20.
« See § 113. » See § 116.

* 0. Nonius Asprenas, a fi-ieud of Augustus, accused by
Cassius and defended by Pollio on a charge of poisoning.

14

BOOK X. I. 20-23

For a long time also we should read none save the 20
best authors and such as are least likely to betray our
trust in them, wliile our reading must be almost as
thorough as if we were actually transcribing what we
read. Nor must we study it merely in parts, but
must read through the whole work from cover to
cover and then read it afresh, a precept which applies
more especially to speeches, whose merits are often
deliberately disguised. For the orator frequently 21
prepares his audience for what is to come, dissembles
and sets a trap for them and makes remarks at the
opening of his speech which will not have their full
force till the conclusion. Consequently what he
says will often seem comparatively ineffective where
it actually occurs, since we do not realise his motive
and it will be necessary to re-read the speech after
we have acquainted ourselves with all that it con-
tains. Above all, it is most desirable that we should 22
familiarise ourselves with the facts of the case with
which the speech deals, and it will be well also,
wherever possible, to read the speeches delivered on
both sides, such as those of Aeschines and Demos-
thenes in the case of Ctesiphon, of Servius Sulpicius
and Messala for and against Aufidia,^ of Pollio ^ and
Cassius ** in the case of Asprenas,* and many others.
And even if such speeches seem unequal in point of 23
merit, we shall still do well to study them carefully
with a view to understanding the problems raised by
the cases with which they deal : for example, we.
should compare the speeches delivered by Tubero
against Ligarius and by Hortensius in defence of
Verres with those of Cicero for the opposite side,
while it will also be useful to know how different
orators pleaded the same case. For example,

15

QUINTILIAN

Nam de domo Ciceronis dixit Calidius, et pro Milone
orationem Brutus exercitationis gratia scripsit,etiamsi
egisse eum Cornelius Celsus falso existimat ; et
Pollio et Messala defenderunt eosdem, et nobis
pueris insignes pro Voluseno Catulo Domitii Afri,
Crispi Passieni, Decimi Laelii orationes ferebantur.

24 Neque id statim legenti persuasum sit omnia
quae optimi auctores dixerint utique esse perfecta.
Nam et labuntur aliquando et oneri cedunt et in-
dulgent ingeniorum suoruni voluptati, nee semper
intendunt animum ; nonnunquam fatigantur, cum
Ciceroni dormitare interim Demosthenes, Horatio

25 vero etiam Homerus ipse videatur. Summi enim
sunt, homines tamen, acciditque his qui, quidquid
apud illos repererunt, dicendi legem putant, ut
deteriora imitentur, (id enim est facilius) ac se
abunde similes putent, si vitia magnorum consequan-

26 tur. Modesto tamen et circumspecto iudicio de
tantis viris pronuntiandum est, ne, quod plerisque
accidit, damnent quae non intelligunt, Ac si necesse
est in alteram errare partem : omnia eorum legenti-
bus placere quam multa displicere maluerim.

27 Plurimum dicit oratori conferre Theophrastus
lectionem poetarum, multique eius iudicium sequun-
tur ; neque immerito. Namque ab his in i*ebus

^ Probably before some other tribunal. Cicero's de Domo
Sua was delivered before the pontifices.

^ cp. III. vi. 93. Cornelius Celsus was an encyclopaedic
writer of the early empire, whose treatise on medicine has
survived.

3 Liburnia. See ix. ii. 34. * See § 118.

5 Stepfather of Nero. See vi. i. 50.

• Probably the Laelius Balbus of Tac. Ann. vi. 47, 48.
' In a lost letter : cp. Plut. Cic. 24. » A. P. 359.

• In one of his lost rhetorical treatises.

i6

BOOK X. I. 23-27

Calidius^ spoke on the subject of Cicero's house,
Brutus wrote a declamation in defence of Milo, which
Cornelius Celsus wrongly believes to have been
actually delivered in court,^ and PoUio and Messalla
defended the same clients,^ while in my boyhood
remarkable speeches delivered by Domitius Afer,*
Crispus Passienus^ and Decimus Laelius^ in de-
fence of Volusenus were in circulation.

The reader must not, however, jump to the conclu- 24
sion that all that was uttered by the best authors is
necessarily perfect. At times they lapse and stagger
beneath the weight of their task, indulge their bent
or relax their efforts. Sometimes, again, they give
the impression of weariness : for example, Cicero '
thinks that Demosthenes sometimes nods, and Horace *
says the same of Homer himself. For despite their 25
greatness they are still but mortal men, and it will
sometimes happen that their reader assumes that
anything which he finds in them may be taken as a
canon of style, with the result that he imitates their
defects (and it is always easier to do this than to
imitate their excellences) and thinks himself a
perfect replica if he succeeds in copying the
blemishes of great men. But modesty and circura- 26
spection are required in pronouncing judgment on
such great men, since there is always the risk of
falling into the common fault of condemning what
one does not understand. And, if it is necessary to
err on one side or the other, I should prefer that
the reader should approve of everything than that
he should disapprove of much.

Theophrastus ^ says that the reading of poets is 27
of great service to the orator, and has rightly been
followed in this view by many. For the poets will

17

QUINTILIAN

spiritus et in verbis sublimitas et in adfectibus
motus omnis et in personis decor petitur, praecipue-
que velut attrita cotidiano actu forensi ingenia
optime rerum talium blanditia reparantur. Ideoque

28 in hac lectione Cicero requiescendum putat. Memi-
nerimus tamen, non per omnia poetas esse oratori
sequendos nee libertate verborum nee licentia
figurarum ; genus ostentationi comparatum et praeter
id, quod solam petit voluptatem eamque etiam
fingendo non falsa modo sed etiam quaedam in-

29 credibilia sectatur, patrocinio quoque aliquo iuvari,
quod alligata ad certam pedum necessitatem non
semper uti propriis possit, sed depulsa recta via
necessario ad eloquendi quaedam deverticula con-
fugiat, nee mutare quaedam modo verba, sed ex-
tendere, corripere, convertere, dividere cogatur ;
nos vero armatos stare in acie et summis de rebus

30 decernere et ad victoriam niti. Neque ergo arma
squalere situ ac rubigine velim, sed fulgorem inesse
qui terreat, qualis est ferri, quo mens simul visusque
praestringitur, non qualis auri argentique, imbellis
et potius habenti periculosus.

31 Historia quoque alere oratorem quodam uberi ^
iucundoque suco potest; verum et ipsa sic est

* uberi, Spalding : moveri, O.

» Pro Arch. 12.
i8

BOOK X. I. 27-31

give us inspiration as regards the matter, sublimity
of language, the power to excite every kind of
emotion, and the appropriate treatment of character,
while minds that have become jaded owing to the
daily wear and tear of the courts will find refresh-
ment in such agreeable study. Consequently Cicero ^
recommends the relaxation provided by the reading
of poetry. We should, however, remember that the 28
orator must not follow the poets in everything, more
especially in their freedom of language and their
license in the use of figures. Poetry has been com-
pared to the oratory of display, and further, aims
solely at giving pleasure, which it seeks to secure by
inventing what is not merely untrue, but sometimes
even incredible. Further, we must bear in mind 29
that it can be defended on the ground that it is tied
by certain metrical necessities and consequently can-
not always use straightforward and literal language,
but is driven from the direct road to take refuge in
certain by-ways of expression ; and compelled not
merely to change certain words, but to lengthen,
contract, transpose or divide them, whereas the
orator stands armed in the forefront of the battle,
fights for a high stake and devotes all his effort to
winning the victory. And yet I would not have his 30
weapons defaced by mould and rust, but would liave
them shine with a splendour that shall strike terror
to the heart of the foe, like the flashing steel that
dazzles heart and eye at once, not like the gleam of
gold or silver, which has no warlike efficacy and is
even a positive peril to its wearer.

History, also, may provide the orator with a nutri- 31
ment which we may compare to some rich and
pleasant juice. But when we read it, we must

19

QUINTILIAN

legenda, ut sciamus, plerasque eius virtiites oratori
esse vitandas. Est enim proxima poetis et quodam-
modo carmen solutum, et scribitur ad narrandum
non ad probandum, totumque opus non ad actum rei
pugnamque praesentem, sed ad memoriam posteri-
tatis et ingenii famam componitur ; ideoque et verbis
remotioribus et liberioribus figuris narrandi taedium

32 evitat. Itaque, utdixi, neque ilia Sallustiana brevitas,
qua nihil apud aures vacuas atque eruditas potest
esse perfectius, apud occupatum variis cogitationibus
iudicem et saepius ineruditum captanda nobis est;
neque ilia Livii lactea ubertas satis docebit eum, qui

33 non speciem expositionis, sed fidem quaerit, Adde
quod* M. Tullius ne Thucydidem quidem aut
Xenophontem utiles oratori putat, quanquam ilium
hellicum canere, huius ore Musas esse locutas existimet.
Licet tamen nobis in digressionibus uti vel historico
nonnunquam nitore, dum in his, de quibus erit
quaestio, meminerimus, non athletarum toris, sed
militum lacertis opus ^ esse ; nee versicolorem illam,
qua Demetrius Phalereus dicebatur uti, vestem bene

34 ad forensem pulverem facere. Est et alius ex

* adfle quod, Regius : audeo quia, G.
' opus, added by ed. Col. 1527.

^ IV. ii. 45. » Or. 30 sq.

"cp. §80. i

20

BOOK X. I. 31-34

remember that many of the excellences of the historian
require to be shunned by the orator. For history
has a certain affinity to poetry and may be regarded
as a kind of prose poem, while it is written for the
purpose of narrative, not of proof, and designed from
beginning to end not for immediate effect or the
instant necessities of forensic strife, but to record
events for the benefit of posterity and to win glory
for its author. Consequently, to avoid monotony of
narrative, it employs unusual words and indulges in
a freer use of figures. Therefore, as 1 have already 32
said,^ the famous brevity of Sallust, than which
nothing can be more pleasing to the leisured ear of
the scholar, is a style to be avoided by the orator in
view of the fact that his words are addressed to a
judge who has his mind occupied by a number of
thoughts and is also frequently uneducated, while,
on the other hand, the milky fullness of Livy is
hardly of a kind to instruct a listener who looks not i
for beauty of exposition, but for truth and ci-edibility.
We must also remember that Cicero ^ thinks that not 33
even Thucydides or Xenophon will be of much ser-
vice to an orator, although he regards the style of
the former as a veritable call to arms and considers
that the latter was the mouthpiece of the Muses.
It is, however, occasionally permissible to borrow the
graces of history to embellish our digressions, pro-
vided always that we remember that in those portions
of our speech which deal with the actual question
at issue we require not the swelling thews of the
athlete, but the wiry sinews of the soldier, and that
the cloak of many colours which Demetrius of
Phalerum ^ was said to wear is but little suited to
the dust and heat of the forum. There is, it is true, 34

QUINTILIAN

historiis usus et is quidem maximus, sed non ad
praesentem pertinens locum, ex cognitione rerutn
exemplorumque, quibus inprimis instructus esse
debet orator, ne omnia testimonia exspectet a
litigatore, sed pleraque ex vetustate diligenter sibi
cognita sumat, hoc potentiora, quod ea sola crimini-
bus odii et gratiae vacant.

35 A philosophorum vero lectione ut essent multa
nobis petenda, vitio factum est oratorum, qui quidem
illis optima sui operis parte cesserunt. Nam et de
iustis, honestis, utilibus, iisque quae sint istis con-
traria, et de rebus divinis maxime dicunt et argu-
mentantur acriter Stoici,^ et altercationibus atque
interrogationibus oratorem futurum optime Socratici

36 praeparant. Sed his quoque adhibendum est simile
iudicium, ut etiam cum in rebus versemur iisdem,
non tamen eandem esse condicionem sciamus litium
ac disputationum, fori et auditorii, praeceptorum et
periculorum.

37 Credo exacturos plerosque, cum tantum esse
utilitatis in legendo iudicemus, ut id quoque adiun-
gamus operi, qui sint legendi,^ quae in auctore

' Stoici added bp Meister.

* legendi inserted by ed. Col. 1527.

* cp. I Pref. 11.

BOOK X. I. 34-37

another advantage which we may derive from the
historians, which, however, despite its great import-
ance, has no bearing on our present topic ; I refer to
the advantage derived from'the knowledge of histori-
cal facts and precedents, with which it is most desir-
able that our orator should be acquainted ; for such
knowledge will save him from having to acquire all
his evidence from his client and Mrill enable him to
draw much that is germane to his case from the
careful study of antiquity. And such arguments will
be all the more effective, since they alone will be
above suspicion of prejudice or partiality.

The fact that there is so much for which we must 35
have recourse to the study of the philosophers is
the fault of orators who have abandoned ^ to them
the fullest portion of their own task. The Stoics
more especially discourse and argue with great
keenness on what is just, honourable, expedient
and the reverse, as well as on the problems of
theologj', while the Socratics give the future orator
a first-rate preparation for forensic debates and
the examination of witnesses. But we must use the 36
same critical caution in studying the philosophers
that we require in reading history or poetry ; that
is to say, we must bear in mind that, even when we
are dealing with the same subjects, there is a wide
difference between forensic disputes and philosophical
discussions, between the law-courts and the lecture-
room, between the precepts of theory and the perils
of the bar.

Most of my readers will, I think, demand that, 37
since I attach so much importance to reading, I
should include in this work some instructions as to
what authors should be read and what their special

23

QUINTILIAN

quoque praecipiia virtus. Sed persequi singulos

38 infiniti fuerit operis. Quippe cum in Bruto M.
Tullius tot milibus versuum de Romanis tantum
oratoribus loquatur et tamen de omnibus aetatis suae,
quibuscum vivebat, exceptis Caesare atque Marcello,
silentium egerit, quis erit modus, si et illos et qui

39 postea fuerunt et Graecos omnes? ^ Fuit igitur
brevitas ilia tutissima, quae est apud Livium in
epistola ad filium scripta, legendos Demosthenem
atque Ciceronem, turn ita, ut quisque esset De-

40 mostheni et Ciceroni simillimus. Non est tamen
dissimulanda nostri quoque iudicii sumnia. Paucos
enim vel potius vix ulluni ex his qui vetiistatem
pertuleriint existimo posse reperiri, quin iudicium
adhibentibus adlaturus sit utilitatis aliquid, cum se
Cicero ab illis quoque vetustissimis auctoribus, in-
geniosis quidem, sed arte carentibus, plurimum

41 f'ateatur adiutum. Nee multo aliud de novis sentio.
Quotus enim quisque inveniri tarn demens potest,
qui ne minima quidem alicuius certe fiducia partis
memoriam posteritatis speraverit? Qui si quis est,
intra primos statim versus deprehendetur et citius
nos dimittet, quam ut eius nobis magno temporis

42 detrimento constet experimentum. Sed non quid-
quid ad aliquam partem scientiae pertinet, protinus
ad phrasin, de qua loquimur, accommodatum.

Verum antequam de singulis, pauca in universum

* Graecos is followed in the MSS. by et philosophos, which
is expurged by Schmidt.

24

BOOK X. I. 37-42

excellences may be. To do this in detail would be
an endless task. Remember that Cicero in his 38
Brutus, after writing pages and pages on the subject
of Roman orators alone, says nothing of his own con-
temporaries with the exception of Caesar and Mar-
cell us. What limit, then, would there be to my
labours if 1 were to attempt to deal with them and
with their successors and all the orators of Greece as
well .'' No, it was a safer course that Livy adopted 39
in his letter to his son, where he writes that he should
read Cicero and Demosthenes and then such orators
as most resembled them. Still, 1 must not conceal 40
my own personal convictions on this subject. I believe
that there are few, indeed scarcely a single one of
those authors who have stood the test of time who will
not be of some use or other to judicious students, since
even Cicero himself admits that he owes a great debt
even to the earliest writers, who for all their talent
were totally devoid of art. And my opinion about 41
the modems is much the same. For how few of them
are so utterly crazy as not to have the least shadow
of hope that some portion or other of their work may
have claims upon the memory of posterity ? If there
is such an one, he will be detected before we have
perused many lines of his writings, and we shall
escape from him before the experiment of reading
him has cost us any serious loss of time. On the 42
other hand, not everything that has some bearing on
some department of knowledge will necessarily be of
service for the formation of style, with which we are
for the moment concerned.

Before, however, I begin to speak of individual
authors, I must make a few general remarks about
the variety of judgments which have been passed

vol. IV. B ^5

QUINTILIAN

43 de varietate opinionum dicenda sunt. Nam quidam
solos veteres legendos putant neque in ullis aliis
esse naturalem eloquentiam et robur viris dignum
arbitrantur ; alios recens haec lascivia deliciaeque et
omnia ad voluptatem multitudinis imperitae com-

-i 4 posita delectant. Ipsorum etiam qui rectum dicendi
genus sequi volunt, alii pressa demum et tenuia et
quae minimum ab usu cotidiano recedant, sana et
vere Attica putant ; quosdam elatior ingenii vis
et magis concitata et plena spiritus capit ; sunt
etiam lenis et nitidi et compositi generis non pauci
amatores. De qua differentia disseram diligentius,
cum de genere dicendi quaerendum erit. Interim
summatim, quid et ^ a qua lectione petere possint,
qui confirmare facultatem dicendi volent, attingam.
Paucos enim qui ^ sunt eminentissimi excerpere in
5 animo est. Facile est autem studiosis, qui sint his
simillimi, iudicare ; ne quisquam queratur omissos
forte quos ipse valde probet. Fateor enim plures ^
legendos esse quam qui a me nominabuntur. Sed
nunc genera ipsa lectionum, quae praecipue con-
venire intendentibus ut oratores fiant, existimem,
persequar.

46 Igitur, ut Aratus ab love incipiendum putat, ita nos

* sumniatim quid et a qua, vulgo : sumat et a qua, G (quia
et a qua 2nd hand).

■■' qui added by ed. Col. 1527.
' plures, vulgo : plurimis, G.

' XII. X. 63 sqq. '

a6

BOOK X. I. 42-46

upon them. For there are some who think that only 43
the ancients should be read and hold that they are
the sole possessors of natural eloquence and manly
vigour ; while others revel in the voluptuous and
affected style of to-day, in which everj^thing is de-
signed to charm the ears of the uneducated majority.
And even if we turn to those who desire to follow 44
the correct methods of style, we shall find that some
think that the only healthy and genuinely Attic style
is to be found in language which is restrained and
simple and as little removed as possible from the
speech of every day, while others are attracted by a
style which is more elevated and full of energy and
animation. There are, too, not a few who are de-
voted to a gentle, elegant and harmonious style. Of
these different ideals I shall speak in greater detail,
when I come to discuss the question of the particular
styles best suited to oratory.^ For the moment I
shall restrict myself to touching briefly on what the
student who desires to consolidate his powers of
speaking should seek in his reading and to what kind
of reading he should devote his attention. My de-
sign is merely to select a few of the most eminent
authors for consideration. It will be easy for the 45
student to decide for himself what authors most
nearly resemble these : consequently, no one will
have any right to complain if I pass over some of his
favourites. For I will readily admit that there are
more authors worth reading than those whom I pro-
pose to mention. But I will now proceed to deal
with the various classes of reading which I consider
most suitable for those who are ambitious of becoming
orators,

I shall, I think, be right in following the principle 46

27

QUINTILIAN

rite coepturi ab Homero videmur. Hie enim, quem-
admodum ex Oceano dicit ipse omnium ^ amnium
fontiumque cursus initium capere, omnibus eloquen-
tiae partibus exemplum et ortum dedit. Hunc nemo
in magnis rebus sublimitate, in parvis proprietate
superaverit. Idem laetus ac pressus, iucundus et
gravis, turn copia tum brevitate mirabilis, nee poetica

47 modo sed oratoria virtute eminentissimus. Nam ut
de laudibus, exhortationibus, consolationibus taceam,
nonne vel nonus liber, quo missa ad Achillem legatio
continetur, vel in primo inter duces ilia contentio vel
dictae in secundo sententiae omnes litium ac consili-

48 orum explicant artes? Adfectus quidem vel illos
mites vel hos concitatos, nemo erit tam indoctus, qui
non in sua potestate hunc auctorem habuisse fateatur.
Age vero, non utriusque operis sui ingressu in paucis-
simis versibus legem prooemiorum non dico servavit
sed constituit? Nam benevolum auditorem invocatione
dearum, quas praesidere vatibus creditum est, et
intentum proposita rerum magnitudine et docilem

49 summa celeriter comprehensa facit. Narrare vero
quis brevius quam qui mortem nuntiat Patrocli, quis
significantius potest quam qui Curetum Aetolorumque
proelium exponit ? lam similitudines, amplificationes,

* omnium added by Osann.

1 Arat. Phaen. 1. * II. xxi. 196.

» Antilochus, II. xviii. 18. * Phoenix, H. ix. 529.

38

BOOK X. I. 46-49

laid down by Aratus ^ in the line, " With Jove let
us begin," and in beginning with Homer. He is like
his own conception of Ocean,^ which he describes as
the source of every stream and river; for he has
given us a model and an inspiration for every
department of eloquence. It will be generally ad-
mitted that no one has ever surpassed him in the
sublimity with which he invests great themes or the
propriety with which he handles small. He is at
once luxuriant and concise, sprightly and serious,
remarkable at once for his fullness and his brevity,
and supreme not merely for poetic, but for oratorical
power as well. For, to say nothing of his eloquence, 47
which he shows in praise, exhortation and consola-
tion, do not the ninth book containing the embassy
to Achilles, the first describing the quarrel between
the chiefs, or the speeches delivered by the coun-
sellors in the second, display all the rules of art
to be followed in forensic or deliberative oratory.-*
As regards the emotions, there can be no one so ill- 48
educated as to deny that the poet was the master of all,
tender and vehement alike. Again, in the few lines
with which he introduces both of his epics, has he
not, I >vill not say observed, but actually established
the law which should govern the composition of the
exordium ? For, by his invocation of the goddesses
believed to preside over poetry he wins the goodwill
of his audience, by his statement of the greatness
of his themes he excites their attention and renders
them receptive by the briefness of his summary.
Who can narrate more briefly than the hero' who 49
brings the news of Patroclus' death, or more vividly
than he * who describes the battle between the
Curetes and the Aetolians ? Then consider his

»9

QUINTILIAN

exempla, digressus, signa rerum et argumenta cetera-
que genera ^ proband! ac refutandi sunt ita multa, ut
etiam qui de artibus scripserunt plurimi harum rerum

50 testimonium ab hoc poeta petant. Nam epilogus
quidem quis unquam poterit illis Priami rogantis
Achillem precibus aequari? Quid? in verbis, sen-
tentiis, figuris, dispositione totius operis nonne
humani ingenii modum excedit ? ut magni sit virtutes
eius non aemulatione, quod fieri non potest, sed

51 intellectu sequi. Verum hie omnes sine dubio et in
omni genere eloquentiae proeul a se reliquit, epicos
tamen praecipue, videlicet quia clarissima ^ in materia

52 simili comparatio est. Rare assurgit Hesiodus,
magnaque pars eius in nominibus est occupata ;
tamen utiles circa praecepta sententiae levitasque
verborum et compositionis probabilis, daturque ei

63 palma in illo medio genere dicendi. Contra in
Antimacho vis et gravitas et minima vulgare elo-
quendi genus habet laudem. Sed quamvis ei se-
cundas fere grammaticorum consensus deferat, et
adfectibus et iucunditate et dispositione et omnino
arte deficitur, ut plane manifesto appai'eat, quanto

54 sit aliud proximum esse aliud secundum.' Panyasin

* genera, Caesar : quae, G.

* clarissima, most MSS. : durissima, 0.

* secundum, various late MSS. omitted by G.

* II. xxiv. 486 sqq. * Especially the Thcogony.

* Antimachu3 of Colophon (JUrr. circ. 405 B.C.), author of
a Thcbaid.

* Uncle of Herodotus, author of a Heracleia.

30

BOOK X. I. 49-54

similes^ his amplifications, his illustrations, digres-
sions, indications of fact, inferences, and all the
other methods of proof and refutation which he
employs. They are so numerous that the majority
of writers on the principles of rhetoric have gone to
his works for examples of all these things. And as 50
for perorations, what can ever be equal to the prayers
which Priam addresses to Achilles ^ when he comes
to beg for the body of his son ? Again, does he not
transcend the limits of human genius in his choice
of words, his reflexions, figures, and the arrangement
of his whole work, with the result that it requires a
powerful mind, I will not say to imitate, for that is
impossible, but even to appreciate his excellences ?
But he has in truth outdistanced all that have come 51
after him in every department of eloquence, above
all, he has outstripped all other writers of epic, the
contrast in their case being especially striking owing
to the similarity of the material with which they
deal. Hesiod rarely rises to any height, while a 5-
great part of his works is filled almost entirely with
names - : none the less, his maxims of moral wisdom
provide a useful model, the smooth flow of his
words and structure merit Sour approval, and he
is assigned the first place" among writers of the
intermediate style. On the other hand, Antimachus' 53
deserves praise for the vigour, dignity and eleva-
tion of his language. But although practically all
teachers of literature rank him second among epic
poets, he is deficient in emotional power, charm, and
arrangement of matter, and totally devoid of real
art. No better example can be found to show what
a vast difference there is to being near another
writer and being second to him. Panyasis* is 54

31

QUINTILIAN

ex utroque mixtum putant in eloquendo neutrius-
que aequare virtutes, alterum tamen ab eo materia
alterum disponendi ratione supei'ari. ApoUonius in
ordinem a grammaticis datum non venit, quia
Aristarchus atque Aristophanes, poetarum iudices,
neminem sui temporis in numerum redegerunt ; non
tamen contemnendum reddidit opus aequali quadam
65 mediocritate. Arati materia motu caret, ut in qua
nulla varietas, nullus adfectus, nulla persona, nulla
cuiusquam sit oratio ; sufficit tamen operi, cui se
parem credidit. Admirabilis in suo genere Theo-
critus, sed musa ilia rustica et pastoralis non forum

56 modo, verum ipsam etiam urbem reformidat. Audire
videor undique congerentes nomina plurimorum
poetarum. Quid ? Herculis acta non bene Pisandros ?
Nicandrum frustra secuti Macer atque Vergilius?
Quid ? Euphorionem transibimus ? quem nisi pro-
basset Vergilius, idem nunquam certe conditorum
Chalcidico versu canninum fecisset in Bucolicis menti-
onem. Quid ? Horatius frusti'a Tyrtaeum Homero

57 subiungit .'* Nee sane quisquam est tarn procul a
cognitione eorum remotus, ut non indicem certe ex

^ Apollonius of Rhodes, author of the Argonautica. The
list to which reference is made consisted of the four poets
just mentioned, with the addition of Pisandros, for whom
see § 56.

* Aristophanes of Bj'zantium.

' A Rhodian poet of the seventh century B.C.

* Nicander of Colophon (second century B.C.), author of
didactic poems, Theriaca and Alexipharmaca and Meta-
morphoses [krepoiovixiva^. Virgil imitated him in the Georgics,
Aemilius Macer, the friend of Ovid, in his Theriaca.

' Euphorion of Chalcis (220 B.C.) wrote elaborate short
epics. See Ed. x. 50. The words are, however, put into
the mouth of Gallus with reference to his own imitations of
Euphorion.

32

BOOK X. I. 54-57

regarded as combining the qualities of the last two
poets, being their inferior in point of style, but
surpassing Hesiod in the choice of his subject and
Antimachus in its arrangement. Apollonius ^ is not
admitted to the lists drawn up by the professors
of literature, because the critics, Aristarchus and
Aristophanes,^ included no contemporary poets.
None the less, his work is by no means to be
despised, being distinguished by the consistency
with which he maintains his level as a repre-
sentative of the intermediate type. The subject 55
chosen by Aratus is lifeless and monotonous, afford-
ing no scope for pathos, description of character,
or eloquent speeches. However, he is adequate for
the task to which he felt himself equal. Theocritus
is admirable in his own way, but the rustic and
pastoral muse shrinks not merely from the forum,
but from town-life of every kind. I think I hear 56
my readers on all sides suggesting the names of
hosts of other poets. What.'' Did not Pisandros^
tell the story of Hercules in admirable style?
Were there not good reasons for Virgil and Macer
taking Nicander* as a model.-* Are we to ignore
Euphorion ? ^ Unless Virgil had admired him, he
would never have mentioned

" verses written in Chalcidic strain "

in the Eclogues. Again, had Horace no justification
for coupling the name of Tyrtaeus * with that of
Homer .f* To which I reply, that there is no one so 57
ignorant of poetic literature that he could not, if he
chose, copy a catalogue of such poets from some

• See Hor. A. P. 401. Tyrtaeus, writer of war songs
(seventh century B.a).

33

QUINTILIAN

bibliotheca sumptum transferre in libros suos possit.
Nee ignore igitur quos transeo nee utique damno, ut

58 qui dixerim esse in omnibus utilitatis aliquid. Sed
ad illos iam perfeetis eonstitutisque viribus reverte-
mur ; quod in eenis grandibus saepe facimus ut, eum
optimis satiati sumus, varietas tamen nobis ex vilio-
ribus grata sit. Tune et elegiam vacabit in manus
sumere, cuius princeps habetur Callimachus, secundas

59 confessione plurimorum Philetas occupavit. Sed
dum adsequamur ^ illam firmam, ut dixi, facilitatem,
optimis adsuescendum est et multa magis quam multo-
rum lectione formanda mens et ducendus color.
Itaque ex tribus receptis Aristarchi iudicio scriptori-
bus iamborum ad eiiv maxime pertinebit unus Arehi-

60 loehus. Summa in hoe vis elocutionis, eum validae
turn breves vibrantesque sententiae, plurimum san-
guinis atque nervorum, adeo ut videatur quibusdam,
quod quoquam minor est, materiae esse non ingenii

61 vitium. Novem vero Lyricorum longe Pindarus
princeps spiritus magnificentia, sententiis, figuris,
beatissima rerum verborumqiie copia et velut quodam
eloquentiae flumine ; propter quae Horatius eum

* adsequamur, Halm : adsequimur, G and most 3ISS. :
adsequatur, a few late MSS.

1 § 45. * Philetas of Cos (290 B.C.). « x. i. 1.

* i.e. invective. The other two writers are Simonides of
Amorgos and Hipponax of Ephesus. Ai'chilochus (Jl.
686 B.C.).

' The five not mentioned here are Alcman, Sappho, Ibyoua,
Anacreon and Bacchylides. • Od. TV. ii. 1.

34

BOOK X. r. 5 7-6 1

library for insertion in his own treatises. I can
therefore assure my readers that 1 am well aware
of the existence of the poets whom 1 pass over in
silence, and am far from condemning them, since I
have already said that some profit may be derived
from every author.^ But we must wait till our 58
powers have been developed and established to the
full before we turn to these poets, just as at banquets
we take our fill of the best fare and then turn
to other food which, in spite of its compnrative
inferiority, is still attractive owing to its variety.
Not until our taste is formed shall we have leisure
to study the elegiac poets as well. Of these, Calli-
machus is regarded as the best, the second place
being, according to the verdict of most critics,
occupied by Philetas.^ But until we have acquired 59
that assured facility of which I spoke,^ we must
familiarise ourselves with the best writers only and
must form our minds and develop an appropriate tone
by reading that is deep ratlier than wide. Conse-
quently, of the three writers of iambics * approved by
the judgment of Aristarchus, Archilochus will be far
the most useful for the formation of the facility in
question. For he has a most forcible style, is full of 60
vigorous, terse and pungent reflexions, and over-
flowing with life and energy : indeed, some critics
think that it is due solely to the nature of his
subjects, and not to his genius, that any poets are to
be ranked above him. Of the nine lyric poets ^ 61
Pindar is by far the greatest, in virtue of his inspired
magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures,
the rich exuberance of his language and matter,
and his rolling flood of eloquence, characteristics
which, as Horace * rightly held, make him in-

35

QUINTILIAN

62 merito credidit nemini imitabilem. Stesichorus quam
sit ingenio validus, materiae quoque ostendunt,
maxima bella et clarissimos caiientem duces et epici
carminis onera lyra sustinentem. Reddit enim
personis in agendo simul loquendoque debitam
dignitatem, ae si tenuisset modum, videtur aemulari
proximus Homerum potuisse ; sed redundat atque
eflunditur, quod ut est reprehendendum, ita copiae

63 vitiura est. Alcaeus in parte operis am-eo pleciro
merito donatur, qua tyrannos insectatus multum
etiam moribus confert in eloquendo quoque brevis
et magnificus et dicendi vi^ plerumque oratori similis ;
sed et lusit^ et in amores descendit, maioribustamen

64 aptior. Simonides, tenuis alioqui, sermone proprio
et iucunditate quadam commendari potest ; praecipua
tamen eius in commovenda miseratione virtus, ut
quidam in hac eum parte omnibus eius operis
auctoribus praeferant.

65 Antiqua comoedia cum sinceram illam sermonis
Attici gratiam prope sola retinet, turn facundissimae
libertatis est et in * insectandis vitiis praecipua, pluri-
mum tamen virium etiam in ceteris partibus habet.
Nam et grandis et elegans et venusta, et nescio an
ulla, post Homerum tamen, quem ut Achillem

^ dicendi vi, Halm : dicendi et, G.

* sed et lusit, several late MSS. : et eius sit, 0.

' est et in, G. A. B. IVolff : etsi est, MSS.

^ Stesichorus of Himera in Sicily {flor. circ. 600 B.C.),
wrote in lyric verse on many legends, more especially on
themes connected with the Trojan war.

* Hor. Od. II. xiii. 26. Alcaeus of Mitylene (circa 600

B.C.).

' Simonides of Ceos, 556—468 B.C., famous for all forms of
lyric poetry, especially funeral odes.

36

BOOK X. I. 61-65

imitable. The greatness of the genius of Stesichorus * 62
is shown by his choice of subject : for he sings of the
greatest wars and the most glorious of chieftains,
and the music of his lyre is equal to the weighty
themes of epic poetry. For both in speech and
action he invests his characters with the dignity
which is their due, and if he had only been capable
of exercising a little more restraint, he might,
perhaps, have proved a serious rival to Homer.
But he is redundant and diffuse, a fault which,
while deserving of censure, is nevertheless a defect
springing from the very fullness of his genius.
Alcaeus has deserved the compliment of being said 63
to make music with qmll of gold ^ in that jx)rtion
of his works in which he attacks the tyrants of his
day and shows himself a real moral force. He is,
moreover, terse and magnificent in style, whde the
vigour of his diction resembles that of oratory. But
he also wrote poetry of a more sportive nature and
stooped to erotic poetry, despite his aptitude for
loftier themes. Simonides' wrote in a simple style, 64
but may be recommended for the propriety and
charm of his language. His chief merit, however,
lies in his power to excite pity, so much so, in fact,
that some rank him in this respect above all writers
of this class of jwetry.

The old comedy is almost the only form of poetry 65
which preserves intact the true grace of Attic
diction, while it is characterised by the most elo-
quent freedom of speech, and shows especial power
in the denunciation of vice ; but it reveals great
force in other departments as well. For its style
is at once lofty, elegant and graceful, and if we
except Homer, who, like Achilles among warriors,

37

QUINTILIAN

semper excipi par est, aut similior sit oratoribus

66 aut ad oratores faeiendos aptior. Plures eius
auctores ; Aristophanes tamen et Eupolis Crati-
nusque praecipui. Tragoedias primus in lucem
Aeschylus protulit, sublimis et gravis et grandiloquus
saepe usque ad vitium, sed rudis in plerisque et
incompositus ; propter quod correctas eius fabulas in
certamen deferre posterioribus poetis Athenienses

67 permiserunt, suntque eo mode multi coronati. Sed
longe clarius illustraverunt hoc opus Sophocles atque
Euripides, quorum in dispari dicendi via uter sit
poeta melior, inter plurimos quaeritur; idque ego
sane, quoniam ad praesentem materiam nihil pertinet,
iniudicatum relinquo. Illud quidem nemo non fate-
atur necesse est, iis qui se ad agendum comparant

68 utiliorem longe fore Euripiden. Namque is et
sermone (quod ipsum reprehendunt, quibus gravitas
et cothurnus et sonus Sophocli videtur esse subli-

I mior) magis accedit oratorio generi et sententiis
densus et in iis quae a sapientibus tradita sunt
paene ipsis par, et dicendo ac respondendo cuilibet
eorum qui fuerunt in foro diserti comparandus ; in
adfectibus vero cum omnibus mirus turn in iis qui

69 miseratione constant facile praecipuus. Hunc ^ admi-
ratus maxime est, ut saepe testatur, et secutus, quan-
quam in opere diverso, Menander, qui vel unus, meo

* hunc, several late MSS. : et, G.

1 Contemporaries : Cratinus (519-422), Aristophanes (448-
380), Eupolis (446-410).

38

BOOK X. I. 65-69

is beyond all comparison, I am not sure that there
is any style which bears a closer resemblance to
oratory or is better adapted for forming the orator.
There are a number of writers of the old comedy, 66
but the best are Aristophanes, Eupolis and Crati-
nus.i Aeschylus was the first to bring tragedy into
prominence: he is lofty, dignified, grandiloquent
often to a fault, but frequently uncouth and in-
harmonious. Consequently, the Athenians allowed
later poets to revise his tragedies and to produce
them in the dramatic contests, and many succeeded
in winning the prize by such means. Sophocles 67
and Euripides, however, brought tragedy to far
greater perfection: they differ in style, but it is
much disputed as to which should be awarded the
supremacy, a question which, as it has no bearing
on my present theme, I shall make no attempt to
decide. But this much is certain and incontrovert-
ible, that Euripides will be found of far greater service
to those who are training themselves for pleading in
court. For his language, although actually censured C8
by those who regard the dignity, the stately
stride and sonorous utterance of Sophocles as being
more sublime, has a closer affinity to that of oratory,
while he is full of striking reflexions, in which,
indeed, in their special sphere, he rivals the
philosophers themselves, and for defence and at-
tack may be compared with any orator that has
won renown in the courts. Finally, although ad-
mirable in every kind of emotional appeal, he is
easily supreme in the power to excite pity.
Menander, as he often testifies in his works, had 69
a profound admiration for Euripides, and imitated
him, although in a different type of work. Now,

39

QUINTILIAN

quidem iudicio, diligenter lectus ad cuncta^ quae
praecipimus, effingenda sufficiat; ita omnem vitae
imagineni expressit, tanta in eo inveniendi copia et
eloquendi facultas, ita est omnibus rebus, personis,

70 adfectibus accommodatus. Nee nihil profecto vide-
runt, qui orationes, quae Charisii nomini addicuntur,^
a Menandro scriptas putant. Sed mihi longe magis
orator probari in opere suo videtur, nisi forte aut illa^
iudicia, quae Epitrepontes, Epicleros, Locroe habent,
aut meditationes in Psophodee, Nomothete, Hypo-
bolimaeo non omnibus oi*atoriis numeris sunt abso-

71 lutae. Ego tamen plus adhuc quiddam collaturum
eum declamatoribus puto, quoniam his necesse est
secundum condicionem controversiarum plures subire
personas, patrum, filiorum, militum, rusticorum,
divitum, pauperum, irascentium, deprecantium, mi-
tium, asperorum. In quibus omnibus mire custoditur

72 ab hoe poeta decor. Atque ille quidem omnibus
eiusdem operis auctoribus abstulit nomen et fulgore
quodam suae claritatis tenebras obduxit. Tamen

. habent alii quoque Comici, si cum venia leguntur,
quaedam quae possis decerpere ; et praecipue Phile-

* Charisii nomini addicuntur, a, Frotscheri charis in
homine adductura, G. : Charisii nomine eduntur, vuJgo.

^ a^ler ilia O and a number of later MSS. read mala,
which is, however, omitted in a few MSS. and is expunged by
Andresen.

* A contemporary of Demosthenes ; his speeches have not
survived, but were considered to resemble those of Lysias.

' The greater portion of the Epitrepontes has been re-
covered from a papyrus. The other plays are lost. The
names may be translated: "The Arbitrators," " The Heiress,"
"The Loeri," " The Timid Man," "The Lawgiver," "The
Changeling."

4^.

BOOK X. I. 69-72

the careful study of Menander alone would, in mj
opinion, be sufficient to develop all those qualities
with the production of which my present work
is concerned ; so perfect is his representation of
actual life, so rich is his power of invention and
his gift of style, so perfectly does he adapt himself
to every kind of circumstance, character and emo-
tion. Indeed, those critics are no fools who think 70
the speeches attributed to Charisius ^ were in reality
written by Menander. But I consider that he shows
his power as an orator far more clearly in his
comedies ; since assuredly we can find no more
perfect models of every oratorical quality than the
judicial pleadings of his Epitrepontes,^ Epicleros
and Locri, or the declamatory speeches in the Pso-
phodes, Nomothetes, and Hypobolimaeus. Still, for 71
my own part, I think that he will be found even more
useful by declaimers, in view of the fact that they
have, according to the nature of the various contro-
versial themes, to undertake a number of different
roles and to impersonate fathers, sons, soldiers,
peasants, rich men and poor, the angry man and
the suppliant, the gentle and the harsh. And all
these characters are treated by this poet with
consummate appropriateness. Indeed, such is his 72
supremacy that he has scarce left a name to other
writers of the new comedy, and has cast them into
darkness by the splendour of his own renown.
Still, you will find something of value in the other
comic poets as well, if you read them in not too
critical a spirit ; above all, profit may be derived
from the study of Philemon,' who, although it was

• Philemon of Soli (360-262) ; Menander of Athens (342-
290).

4«

QUINTILIAN

mon, qui ut prave sui temporis iudiciis Menandro
saepe praelatus est, ita consensu tamen omnium
meruit credi secundus.

73 Historiara multi scripsere praeclare, sed nemo
dubitat longe duos ceteris praeferendos, quorum
diversa virtus laudem paene est parem consecuta.
Densus et brevis et semper instans sibi Thucydides,
dulcis et candidus et fusus Herodotus ; ille concitatis
hie remissis adfectibus melior, ille contionibus hie

74 sermonibus, ille vi hie voluptate. Theopompus his
proximus ut in historia praedictis minor, ita oratori
magis similis, ut qui, antequam est ad hoc opus
sollicitatuSj diu fuerit orator. Philistus quoque me-
retur, qui turbae quamvis bonorum post eos auctorum
eximatur, imitator Thucj'^didis et ut multo infirmior
ita aliquatenus lucidior, Ephorus^ ut Isocrati visum,

76 calcaribus eget. Clitarchi probatur ingenium, fides
infamatur. Longo post intervallo temporis natus
Timagenes vel hoc est ipso probabilis, quod inter-
missam historias scribendi industriam nova laude
reparavit. Xenophon non excidit mihi, sed inter
philosophos reddendus est.

^ Theopompus of Chios, born about 378 B.C., wrote a
history of Greece {HelUnica) from close of Peloponnesian war
to 394 B.C., and a historj' of Greece in relation to Philip of
Macedon {PMlippica). His master, Isocrates, urged him to
write history.

* Philistus of Syracuse, born about 430 B.C., wrote a
history of Sicily.

* Ephorus of Cumae, ^r. circ. 340 B.C., wrote a universal
history. He was a pupil of Isocrates. Cp. ii. viii. 11.

4a

BOOK X. I. 72-75

a depraved taste which caused his contemporaries
often to prefer him to Menander, has none the
less deserved the second place which posterity has
been unanimous in awarding him.

If we turn to history, we shall find a number of 73
distinguished writers ; but there are two who must
undoubtedly be set far above all their rivals : their
excellences are different in kind, but have won
almost equal praise. Thucydides is compact in
texture, terse and ever eager to press forward : Hero-
dotus is pleasant, lucid and diffuse : the former
excels in vigour, speeches and the expression of the
stronger passions ; the latter in charm, conversations
and the delineation of the gentler emotions. Theo- 74
pompus ^ comes next, and though as a historian he
is inferior to the authors just mentioned, his style
has a greater resemblance to oratory, which is not
surprising, as he was an orator before he was urged
to turn to history. Philistus ^ also deserves special
distinction among the crowd of later historians, good
though they may have been : he was an imitator of
Thucydides, and though far his inferior, was some-
what more lucid. Ephorus,' according to Isocrates,
needed the spur. Clitarchus * has won approval by 75
his talent, but his accuracy has been impugned.
Timagenes ^ was bom long after these authors, but
deserves our praise for the very fact that he revived
the credit of history, the writing of which had fallen
into neglect. I have not forgotten Xenophon, but
he will find his place among the philosophers.

* Clitarchus of Megara wrote a history of Persia and of
Alexander, whose contemporary he was.

* Timagenes, a Syrian of the Augustan age, wrote a
history of Alexander and iiis successors.

43

QUINTILIAN

76 Sequitur oratorum ingens manus, ut cum decern
simul Athenis aetas una tulerit. Quorum longe
princeps Demosthenes ac paene lex orandi fuit ;
tanta vis in eo, tarn densa omnia, ita quibusdam
nervis intenta sunt, tam nihil otiosum, is dicendi
modus, ut nee quod desit in eo nee quod redundet

77 invenias. Plenior Aeschines et magis fusus et grandi-
ori similis, quo minus strictus est ; carnis tamen plus
habet, minus lacertorum. Dulcis in primis et acutus
Hyperides, sed minoribus causis, ut non dixerim

78 utilior, magis par. His aetate Lysias maior, subtilis
atque elegans et quo nihil, si oratori satis est docere,
quaeras perfectius. Nihil enim est inane, nihil arces-
situm ; puro tamen fonti quam magno flumini propior.

79 Isocrates in diverso genere dicendi nitidus et comptus
et palaestrae quam pugnae magis accommodatus
omnes dicendi veneres sectatus est, nee immerito ;
auditoriis enim se, non iudiciis compararat ; in in-
ventione facilis, honesti studiosus, in compositione

80 adeo diligens, ut cura eius reprehendatur. Neque
ego in his, de quibus sum locutus, has solas virtutes,
sed has praecipuas puto, nee ceteros parum fuisse

* Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias (flor. 4.03-380), Isocrates
(435-338), Isaeus, Demosthenes, Aeschines, Lycurgus,
Hyperides and Dinarchus,

44

BOOK X. I. 76-80

There follows a vast army of orators, Athens alone 76
having produced ten remarkable orators ^ in the
same generation. Of these Demosthenes is far the
greatest : indeed he came to be regarded almost as
the sole pattern of oratory. Such is the force and
compactness of his language, so muscular his style,
so free from tameness and so self-controlled, that
vou will find nothing in him that is either too much
or too little. The style of Aeschines is fuller and 77
more diffuse, while his lack of restraint gives an
appearance of grandeur. But he has more flesh and
less muscle. Hyperides has extraordinary charm and
point, but is better qualified, not to say more useful,
for cases of minor importance. Lysias belongs to an 78
earlier generation than those whom I have just
mentioned. He has subtlety and elegance and, if
the orator's sole duty were merely to instruct, it
would be impossible to conceive greater perfection.
For there is nothing irrelevant or far-fetched in his
speeches. None the less I would compare him to a
clear spring rather than to a mighty river. Isocrates 79
was an exponent of a different style of oratorv : he is
neat and polished and better suited to the fencing-
school than to the battlefield. He elaborated all the
graces of style, nor was he without justification. For
he had trained himself for the lecture-room and not
the law-courts. He is ready in invention, his moral
ideals are high and the care which he bestows upon
his rhythm is such as to be a positive fault. I do 80
not regai-d these as the sole merits of the orators of
whom I have spoken, but have selected what seemed
to me their chief excellences, while those whom I
have passed over in silence were far from being
indifferent. In fact, I will readily admit that the

45

QUINTILIAN

magnos. Quin etiam Phalerea ilium Demetrium,
quanquam is primus inclinasse eloquentiam dicitur,
multum ingenii habuisse et facundiae fateor, vel ob
hoc memoria dignum, quod ultimus est fere ex
Atticis, qui dici possit orator ; quem tamen in illo
medio genere dicendi praefert omnibus Cicero,

81 Philosophorum, ex quibus plurimum se traxisse elo-
quentiae M. Tullius confitetur, quis dubitet Platonem
esse praecipuum sive acumine dissei*endi sive elo-
quendi facultate divina quadam et Homerica? Mul-
tum enim supra prosam orationem et quam pedestrem
Graeei vocant surgit, ut mihi non hominis ingenio
sed quodam Delphicivideatur oraculo dei instinctus.^

82 Quid ego commemorem Xenophontis illam iucundi-
tatem inadfectatam, sed quam nulla consequi adfec-
tatio possit? ut ipsae sermonera finxisse Gratiae
videantur et, quod de Pericle veteris comoediae
testimonium est, in hunc transferri iustissime possit,
in labris eius sedisse quandam persuadendi deam.

83 Quid reliquorum Socraticorum elegantiam ? Quid
Aristotelem ? quem dubito scientia rerum an scrip-
torum copia an eloquendi ^ suavitate an inventionum
acumine an varietate operum clariorem putem. Nam

* quodam Delphici . . . dei instinctus, Frotscher : quaedam
Delphico . . . de instrictus, G : quodam Delphico . . . in-
etinctus, vulgo.

* eloquendi, cod. JTarl. 4950, cod. Dorv. : eloquendi usus,
0 aiid nearly all M8S. : eloquendi vi ac, Geel.

* Governed Athens as Cassander's vicegerent 317-307 :
then fled to Egypt, where he died in 283.

* de Or. ii. 95. Orat. 92. The "intermediate" style is
that which lies between the "grand" and the "plain"
styles.

' Eupolis, iruOd) Tts firfKidi^ev iiri rots x*^^*<''"'»

BOOK X. 1. 80-83

famous Demetrius of Phalerum,^ who is said to
have been the first to set oratory on the down-
ward path, was a man of great talent and eloquence
and deserves to be remembered, if only for the
fact that he is almost the last of the Attic
school who can be called an orator : indeed Cicero *
prefers him to all other orators of the intermediate
school.

Proceeding to the philosophers, from whom Cicero 81
acknowledges that he derived such a large portion
of his eloquence, we shall all admit that Plato is
supreme whether in acuteness ot perception or in
virtue of his divine gift of style, which is worthy of
Homer. For he soars high above the levels of
ordinary prose or, as the Greeks call it, pedestrian
language, and seems to me to be inspired not by
mere human genius, but, as it were, by the oracles
of the god of Delphi. Why should I speak of the 82
unaffected charm of Xenophon, so far beyond the
power of affectation to attain .'' The Graces them-
selves seem to have moulded his style, and we may
with the utmost justice say of him, what the writer
of the old comedy^ said of Pericles, that the goddess
of persuasion sat enthroned upon his lips. Why 83
should I dwell on the elegance of the rest of the
Socratics ? or on Aristotle,* with regard to whom I
hesitate whether to praise him more for his know-
ledge, for the multitude of his writings, the sweet-
ness of his style, the penetration revealed by his
discoveries or the variety of the tasks which he

* "Sweet" is the last epithet to be applied to the
surviving works of Aristotle. But Dionysius of Halicamassus
and Cicero praise him no less warmly, referring, no doubt,
to works that are lost.

47

QUINTILIAN

in Theophrasto tam est loquendi nitor ille divinus,

84 ut ex eo nomen quoque traxisse dicatur. Minus
indulsere eloquentiae Stoici veteres ; sed cum lionesta
suaserunt turn in colligendo probandoque quae insti-
tuerant plurimum valuerunt, rebus tamen acuti magis
quam, id quod sane non adfectaverunt, oratione
magnifici.

85 Idem nobis per Romanos quoque auctores ordo
ducendus est. Itaque ut apud illos Homerus sic
apud nos Vergilius auspicatissimiim dederit exordium,
omnium eius generis poetarum Graecorum nostro-

86 rumque baud dubie proximus. Utar enim verbis
iisdem, quae ex Afro Domitio iuvenis excepi ; qui
mihi interroganti, quern Homero crederet maxime
accedere, Seamdus, inquit, est Vergilius, propior tamen
primo quam tertio. Et hercule ut^ illi naturae caelesti
atque immortali cesserimus, ita curae et diligentiae
vel ideo in hoc plus est, quod ei fuit magis labor-
andum, et quantum eminentibus vincimur, fortasse

87 aequalitate pensamus. Ceteri omnes longe sequ-
entur. Nam Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem,
sed non ut phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant,
elegantes in sua quisque materia sed alter humilis,
alter difficilis. Atacinus Varro in iis, per quae nomen
est adsecutus, interpres operis alieni,non spernendus

* ut, several late M88. : cum, O and majority oj MSS.

^ Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor as head of his school
(322-287). Diogenes Laertius (v. 38) says that his real name
was Tyrtamus, but that Aristotle called him Theophrastus
because of the " divine qualities of his style " {<pp6.(ri<,).

• Varro of Atax in Gaul (82-37 B.C.) was specially famous
for his translation of the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius.
He also wrote didactic poetry and historical epic.

4«

BOOK X. I. 83-87

essayed ? In Theophrastus ^ we find such a super-
human brilliance of style that his name is said to be
derived therefrom. The ancient Stoics indulged 84
their eloquence comparatively little. Still, they
pleaded the cause of virtue, and the rules which
they laid down for argument and proof have been of
the utmost value. But they showed themselves
shrewd thinkers rather than striking orators, which
indeed they never aimed at being.

I now come to Roman authors, and shall follow 86
the same order in dealing with them. As among
Greek authors Homer provided us with the most
auspicious opening, so will Virgil among our own.
For of all epic poets, Greek or Roman, he, without
doubt, most nearly approaches to Homer. I will 86
repeat the words which I heard Domitius Afer use
in my young days. I asked what poet in his opinion
came nearest to Homer, and he replied, " Virgil
comes second, but is nearer first than third." And
in truth, although we must needs bow before the
immortal and superhuman genius of Homer, there
is greater diligence and exactness in the work
of Virgil just because his task was harder. And
perhaps the superior uniformity of the Roman's ex-
cellence balances Homer's pre-eminence in his out-
standing passages. All our other poets follow a long 87
way in the rear. Macer and Lucretius are, it is true,
worth reading, but not for the purpose of forming
style, that is to say, the body of eloquence : both
deal elegantly with their themes, but the former is
tame and the latter difficult. The poems by which
Varro of Atax ^ gained his reputation were transla-
tions, but he is by no means to be despised, although
his diction is not sufficiently rich to be of much

49

QUINTILIAN

quidem,verum ad augendam facultatem dicendi parum

88 locuples. Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos ador-
emus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non
tantam habent speciem quantam religionem. Pro-
piores alii atque ad hoc, de quo loquimur, magis
utiles. Lascivus quidem in herois quoque Ovidius
et nimium amator ingenii sui, laudandus tamen in

89 partibus. Cornelius autem Severus, etiam si sit ^
versificator quam poeta melior, si tamen, ut est
dictum, ad exemplar primi libri bellum Siculum
perscripsisset, vindicaret sibi iure secundum locum,
Serranum ^ consummari mors immatura non passa
est ; puerilia tamen eius opera et maximam indolem
ostendunt et admirabilem praecipue in aetate ilia

90 recti generis voluntatem. Multum in Valerio Flacco
nuper amisimus. Vehemens et poeticum ingenium
Saleii Bassi fuit, nee ipsum senectute maturuit.
Rabirius ac Pedo non indigni coguitione, si vacet.
Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiisclarissimus
et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis

91 imitandus. Hos nominavimus, quia Germanicum

' si sit, Spalding : M88. vanj between si, sit and sic.
' Serranum, Lange : ferrenum, G.

^ Friend and contemporary of Ovid. A considerable frag-
ment is preserved by Sen. Sims. vi. 26. The Sicilian War
was the war with Sextus Pompeius (38-36) and perhaps
formed a portion of a larger work on the Civil War. The
surviving fragment deals with the death of Cicero. The
primiis liber may therefore perhaps be the first book of this
larger work.

' Nothing is knowTi of this poet except the name.

* Nothing is known of this poet save that he is highly
praised by Tacitus in his Dialogues, and was patronised by
Vespasian. The unfinished Argonautica of Valerius Flaccus
survives.

&0

BOOK X. I. 87-91

service in developing the resources of eloquence.
Ennius deserves our reverence, but only as those 88
groves whose age has made them sacred, but whose
huge and ancient trunks inspire us with religious
awe rather than with admiration for their beauty.
There are other poets who are nearer in point of
time and more useful for our present purpose. Ovid
has a lack of seriousness even when he writes epic
and is unduly enamoured of his own gifts, but
portions of his work merit our praise. On the other 89
hand, although Gjrnelius Severus ^ is a better versifier
than poet, yet if, as has been said, he had written his
poem on the Sicilian war in the same style throughout
as his first book, he would have had a just claim to the
second place. A premature death prevented the
powers of Serranus ^ from ripening to perfection, but
his youthful works reveal the highest talent and a
devotion to the true ideal of poetry, which is remark-
able in one so young. We have suflfered serious loss 90
in the recent death of Valerius Flaccus. Saleius
Bassus^ showed an ardent and genuinely poetic
genius, but, like that of Serranus, it was not
mellowed by years. Rabirius * and Pedo ^ deserve
to be studied by those who have the time. Lucan
is fiery and passionate and remarkable for the
grandeur of his general refle.xions, but, to be frank,
I consider that he is more suitable for imitation by
the orator than by the poet. I have restricted my 91
list of poets to these names, because Germanicus

* A contemporary of Ovid, believed to be the author of a
fragment on the battle of Actium, found at Herculaneum.

* C. Albinovanus Pedo wrote a poem on the voyage of
Germanicus to the north of Germany. A fragment is pre-
served by Sen. Svms. i. 14.

51

QUINTILIAN

Augustum ab institutis studiis deflexit cura terrarum,
parumque dis visum est esse eum maximum poet-
arum. Quid tamen his ipsis eius operibus, in quae
donato imperio iuvenis secesserat, sublimius, doctius,
omnibus denique numeris praestantius ? Quis enim
caneret bella melius, quam qui sic gerit? Quern
pi'aesidentes studiis deae propius audirent? Cui
magis suas artes aperiret familiare numen Minerva ?

92 Dicent haec plenius futura saecula, nunc enim
ceterarum fulgore virtutum laus ista praestringitur.
Nos tamen sacra litterarum colentes feres, Caesar, si
non tacitum hoc praeterimus et Vergiliano certe
versu testamur.

Inter victrices hederam tibi serpere laurus.

93 Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi
tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.
Sunt qui Propertium mahnt. Ovidius utroque lasci-
vior, sicut durior Gallus. Satira quidem tota nostra
est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius
quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet amatores, ut
eum non eiusdem modo operis auctoribus, sed

94 omnibus poetis praeferre non dubitent. Ego quan-
tum ab illis tantum ab Horatio dissentio, qui Luci-

* Domitian.

* He claimed to be the son of Minerva. It is doubtful if
he ever wrote any poetry. Cp. Tac. Hist. iv. 86, Suet. Dom.
2 and 20. » Ed. viii. 13.

* Corneliua Gallus, the friend of Virgil, and the first dis-
tinguished writer of elegy at Rome. ' Sat. I. iv. 11.

5?

BOOK X. 1. 91-94

Augustus ^ has been distracted from the study of
poetry on which he had embarked by his care for
the governance of the world, and the gods have
thought it scarce worthy of his powers that he
should be the greatest of poets. But what can be
more sublime, more learned, more perfect in every
detail than those works to which he devoted himself
in the seclusion to which he retired after conferring
the supreme power upon his father and his brother?
Who could sing of war better than he who wages it
with such skill? To whom would the goddesses
that preside over literature sooner lend an ear ? To
whom would Minerva, his familiar deity,^ more
readily reveal her secrets? Future ages shall tell of 92
these things more fully ; to-day his glory as a poet
is dimmed by the splendour of his other virtues.
But you will forgive us, Caesar, who worship at the
shrine of literature, if we refuse to pass by your
achievements in silence and insist on testifying at
least that, as Virgil sings,

" The ivy creeps amid your victor bays." *

We also challenge the supremacy of the Greeks in 93
elegy. Of our elegiac poets TibuUus seems to me
to be the most terse and elegant. There are, how-
ever, some who prefer Propertius. Ovid is more
sportive than either, while Gallus * is more severe.
Satire, on the other hand, is all our own. The first
of our poets to win renown in this connexion was
Lucilius, some of whose devotees are so enthusiastic
that they do not hesitate to prefer him not merely
to all other satirists, but even to all other poets.
I disagree with them as much as I do with Horace,^ 94
who holds that Lucilius' verse has a " muddy flow,

53

QUINTILIAN

Hum fluere lutulentum et esse aliquid, quod tollere
possis, putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et libertas
atque inde acerbitas et abunde salis. Multum
est tersior ac purus magis Horatius et, nisi labor
eius amore, praecipuus. Multum et verae gloriae
quamvis uno libro Persius meruit. Sunt clari

96 hodieque et qui olim nominabuntur. Alteram illud
etiam prius satirae genus, sed non sola carminum
varietate mixtum condidit Terentius Varro, vir Roma-
norum eruditissimus. Plurimos hie libros et doctis-
simos composuit, peritissimus linguae Latinae et
omnis antiquitatis et rerum Graecarum nostrarum-
que, plus tamen scientiae collaturus quam eloquen-

96 tiae. Iambus non sane a Romanis celebratus est ut
proprium opus, sed aliis ^ quibusdam interpositus ;
cuius acerbitas in Catullo, Bibaculo, Horatio, quan-
quam illi epodos interveniat, reperietur. At Lyri-
corum idem Horatius fere solus legi dignus. Nam
et insurgit aliquando et plenus est iucunditatis
et gratiae et varius figuris et verbis felicissime
audax. Si quem adiicere velis, is erit Caesius

* Bed aliis, inserted by Christ.

* His Menippean Satires, of which only fragments survive.
Although ostensibly an imitation of the work of the Greek
Menippus of Gadara, they can still be said to belong to the
older type of satire, the "medley" or "hotch-potch."

• The meaning is not clear. The words may mean (i) that
these writers did not confine themselves to the iamhus, or
(ii) that the iambus alternates with other metres, cp. epodos
below.

• M. Furius Bibaculus, contemporary of Catullus, and
writer of similar invective against the Caesareans.

* i. e. the short iambic line interposed between the tri-
meters.

54

BOOK X. I. 94-96

and that there is always something in him that
might well be dispensed with." For his learning is
as remarkable as his freedom of speech, and it is
this latter quality that gives so sharp an edge and
such abundance of wit to his satire. Horace is far
terser and purer in style, and must be awarded the
first place, unless my judgment is led astray by my
affection for his work. Persius also, although he
wrote but one book, has acquired a high and
well-deserved reputation, while there are other
distinguished satirists still living whose praises will
be sung by posterity. There is, however, another 95
and even older type of satire which derives its
variety not merely from verse, but from an ad-
mixture of prose as well. Such were the satires
composed by Terentius Varro,^ the most learned
of all Romans. He composed a vast number of
erudite works, and possessed an extraordinary know-
ledge of the Latin language, of all antiquity and
of the history of Greece and Rome. But he is
an author likely to contribute more to the know-
ledge of the student than to his eloquence. The 96
iambic has not been popular with Roman poets as a
separate form of composition, but is found mixed up
with other forms of verse.^ It may be found in all
its bitterness in Catullus, Bibaculus ^ and Horace,
although in the last-named the iambic is interrupted
by the epode.* Of our lyric writers Horace is almost
the sole poet worth reading : for he rises at times to
a lofty grandeur and is full of sprightliness and
charm, while there is great variety in his figures, and
his boldness in the choice of words is only equalled
by his felicity. If any other lyric poet is to be
mentioned, it will be Caesius Bassus, who has but

55

QUINTILIAN

BassuSj quem nuper vidimus ; sed eum longe prae-
cedunt ingenia viventium.

97 Tragoediae scriptores veterum Accius atque Pacu-
vius clarissimi^ gravitate sententiarum, verborum
pondere, auctoritate personaruna. Ceterum nitor et
summa in excolendis operibus manus magis videri
potest temporibus quam ipsis defuisse. Virium tamen
Accio plus tribuitur ; Pacuvium videri doctiorem qui

98 esse docti adfectant volunt. lam Varii Thyestes
cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest. Ovidii Medea
videtur mihi ostendere, quantam ille vir praestare
potuerit, si ingenio sue imperare quam indulgere
maluisset. Eorum quos viderim longe princeps Pom-
ponius SecunduSj quem senes quidem parum tragicum
putabant, erudition e ac nitore praestare confite-

99 bantur. In comoedia maxime claudicamus. Licet
Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis sententia, Plautino dicat
sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent,
licet Caecilium veteres laudibus ferant, licet Terentii
scripta ad Scipionem Africanum referantur (quae
tamen sunt in hoc genere elegantissima et plus adhuc
habitura gratiae si intra versus trimetros stetissent),

1 00 vix levem consequimur umbram, adeo ut mihi sermo
ipse Romanus non recipere videatur illam solis con-
cessam Atticis venerem, cum earn ne Graeci quidem

' clarissimi, several late M8S. : gravissima, G: gravissimus,
other late MSS. : grandissimus, cod. Monac. : grandissimi,
Halm.

' Accius (170-90), Pacuvius (220-132).

• L. Varius Rufua, friend of Virgil and Horace, editor of
the Aeneid ; wrote epic and a single tragedy.

• Pomponius Secundus, died 60 a.d. ; wrote a tragedy
entitled Aeneas.

• The first Roman philologist (144-70 B.a).

5^

BOOK X I. 96-100

lately passed from us. But he is far surpassed in
talent by poets still living.

Among writers of tragedy Accius and Pacuvius * 97
are most remarkable for the force of their general
reflexions, the weight of their words and the dignity
of their characters. But they lack polish, and failed
to put the finishing touches on their works, although
the fault was perhaps rather that of the times in
which they lived than of themselves. Accius is
generally regarded as the most vigorous, while those
who lay claim to learning regard Pacuvius as the
more learned of the two. The Thyestes of Varius 2 98
is a match for any Greek tragedy, and the Medea
of Ovid shows, in my opinion, to what heights that
poet might have risen if he had been ready to curb
his talents instead of indulging them. Of the
tragic writers whom I myself have seen, Pomponius
Secundus^ is by far the best : his older critics thought
him insufficiently tragic, but admitted his eminence as
far as learning and polish were concerned. Comedy 99
is our weakest point. Although Varro quotes Aelius
Stilo* as saying that if the Muses wished to speak
Latin, they would use the language of Plautus,
although the ancients extol Caecilius,^ and although
Scipio Africanus is credited with the works of
Terence (which are the most elegant of their kind,
and would be still more graceful if the poet had
confined himself to the iambic trimeter), we still 100
scarcely succeed in reproducing even a faint shadow
of the charm of Greek comedy. Indeed, it seems
to me as though the language of Rome were in-
capable of reproducing that graceful wit which was

• Caecilius (219-166), Terence (194-159), Afranius (flor.
circ. 150). Only fragments of Caecilius and Afraniua remain.

VOL. IV. r 57

QUINTILIAN

in alio genere linguae suae ^ obtiuuerint. Togatis
excellit Afranius ; utinam non inquinasset argumenta
puerorum foedis amoribus mores suos fassus.

101 At non historia cesserit Graecis, nee opponere
Thucydidi Sallustium verear, neque indignetur sibi
Herodotus aequari T. Livium, cum in narrando
mirae iucunditatis clarissimique candoris, turn in
contionibus supra quam enarrari potest eloquentem ;
ita quae dicuntur omnia cum rebus turn personis
accommodata sunt ; adfectus quidem, praecipueque
eos qui sunt dulciores, ut parcissime dicam, nemo

102 historicorum commendavit magis. Ideoque im-
mortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem diversis virtu-
tibus consecutus est. Nam mihi egregie dixisse
videtur Servilius Nonianus, pares eos magis quam
similes ; qui et ipse a nobis auditus est, clarus vi ^
ingenii et sententiis creber, sed minus pressus quam

103 historiae auctoritas postulat. Quam paulum aetate
praecedens eum Bassus Aufidius egregie, utique in
libris belli Germanici, praestitit genere ipso, pro-
babilis in omnibus, sed in quibusdam suis ipse viribus

104 minor. Superest adhuc et exornat aetatis nostrae
glori&m vir saeculorum memoria dignus, qui olim
nominabitur, nunc intelligitur. Habet amatores nee

1 suae, Kohler : quae, G.

* clarus vi, KiderUn : clarius, O : clari vir, vuhjo.

, >. J Caeciliua (219-166), Terence (194-159), Afranius (flor.
circ. 150) Only fragments of Caecilius and Afranius survive.

2 Friend of Persius, and famous as orator, reciter and
historian ; died 60 a.d.

3 He wrote a history of the empire down to the death of
Claudius. The work on the German war was probably a
separate work.

* Probably Fabius Rusticus. Tacitus would have been too
young at this time to be mentioned in such terms.

58

BOOK X. I. 100-104

granted to Athens alone, and was beyond the reach
of other Greek dialects to achieve. Afranius ^ excels
in the purely Roman comedy, but it is to be regretted
that he revealed his own character by defiling his
plots with the introduction of indecent paederastic
intrigues.

In history, however, we hold our own with the 101
Greeks. I should not hesitate to match Sallust
against Thucydides, nor would Herodotus resent
Titus Livius being placed on the same level as him-
self. For the latter has a wonderful charm and
transparency in narrative, while his speeches are
eloquent beyond description ; so admirably adapted
is all that is said both to the circumstances and the
speaker; and as regards the emotions, especially
the more pleasing of them, I may sum him up by
saying that no historian has ever depicted tliem to
greater perfection. Thus it is that, although by 102
different means, he has acquired no less fame than
has been awarded to the immortal rapidity of Sallust.
For I strongly approve of the saying of Servilius
Nonianus,^ that these historians were equal rather
than alike. Servilius, whom I myself have heard,
is himself remarkable for the force of his intellect,
and is full of general reflexions, but he is less re-
strained than the dignity of history demands. But 103
that dignity is admirably maintained, thanks to his
style, by Aufidius Bassus,^ a slightly earlier writer,
especially in his work on the German war : he is
always praiseworthy, though at times he fails to do
his powers full justice. But there still survives to 104
add lustre to this glorious age a man * worthy to be
remembered through all time : he is appreciated to-
day, but after generations shall declare his name

59

QUINTILIAN

immerito Cremuti* libertas, quanquam circumcisis
quae dixisse ei nocuerat. Sed datum abunde spiri-
tum et audaces sententias deprehendas etiam in his
quae manent. Sunt et alii scriptores boni, sed nos
genera degustamus, non bibliothecas excutiraus.
106 Oratores vero vel praecipue Latinam eloquentiam
parem facere Graecae possint. Nam Ciceronem
cuicunque eoruin fortiter opposuerim. Nee ignore
quantam mihi concitem pugnam, cum praesertim
non sit id propositi, ut eum Demostheni comparem
hoc tempore ; neque enim attinet, cum Demos-
thenem in primis legendum vel ediscendum potius

106 putem. Quorum ego virtutes plerasque arbitror
similes, consilium, ordinem, dividendi,^ praeparandi,
probandi rationem, omnia denique quae sunt in-
ventionis. In eloquendo est aliqua diversitas ; den-
sior ille hie copiosior, ille concludit adstrictius hie
latius, pugnat ille acumine semper hie frequenter
et pondere, illi nihil detrahi potest huic nihil adiici,

107 curae plus in illo in hoc naturae. Salibus certe et
commiseratione, qui duo plurimum in adfectibus

* immerito Cremuti, Nipperdey: immerito rem * * »
uti, G : later MSS. vary between immerito reinitti and
imita tores uti.

• dividendi, Aldine ed. : videndi, Q and nearly all MSS.

1 Cremutius Cordus wrote a history of the Civil wars
and reign of Augustus. He was accused for his praise of
Brutus and Cassius, and committed suicide in a.d. 25. It
was he who called Cassius "the last of all the Romans."

• See XII. i. 14 sqq., also xn. x. 12 sqq.

P?

BOOK X. 1. 104-107

aloud. The bold utterances of Cremutius ^ also have
their admirers, and deserve their fame, though the
passages which brought him to his ruin have been
expurgated ; still that which is left reveals a rich
store of lofty animation and fearless reflexions upon
life. There are other good writers as well, but I am
merely selecting from the different departments of
literature, not reviewing complete libraries.

But it is our orators, above all, who enable us to 106
match our Roman eloquence against that of Greece.
For I would set Cicero against any one of their
orators without fear ot refutation. I know well
enough what a storm I shall raise by this assertion,
more especially since I do not propose for the
moment ^ to compare him with Demosthenes ; for
there would be no point in such a comparison, as I
consider that Demosthenes should be the object of
special study, and not merely studied, but even com-
mitted to memory. I regard the excellences of these 106
two orators as being for the most part similar, that
is to say, their judgment, their gift of arrangement,
their methods of division, preparation and proof, as
well as everything conceraed with invention. In
their actual style there is some difference. Demos-
thenes is more concentrated, Cicero more diffuse ;
Demosthenes makes his periods shorter than Cicero,
and his weapon is the rapier, whereas Cicero's periods
are longer, and at times he employs the bludgeon as
well : nothing can be taken from the former, nor
added to the latter ; the Greek reveals a more
studied, the Roman a more natural art. As regards 107
wit and the power of exciting pity, the two most
powerful instruments where the feelings are con-
cerned, we have the advantage. Again, it is possible

61

QUINTILIAN

valent, vincimus. Et fortasse epilogos illi mos civitatis
abstulerit ; sed et nobis ilia, quae Attici mirantur,
diversa Latini sermonis ratio minus permiserit. In
epistolis quidem, quanquam sunt utriusque, dialo-

108 gisve, quibus nihil ille, nulla contentio est. Ceden-
dum vero in hoc, quod et prior fuit et ex magna
parte Ciceronem, quantus est, fecit. Nam mihi
videtur M. TuUius, cum se totum ad imitationem
Graecorum contulisset, effinxisse vim Demosthenis,

109 copiam Platonis, iucunditatem Isocratis. Nee vero
quod in quoque optimum fuit, studio consecutus est
tantum ; sed plurimas vel potius omnes ex se ipso
virtutes extulit immortalis ingenii beatissima ubertas.
Non enim pluvias, ut ait Pindar us, aquas colligit,
sed vivo gurgite exundat, dono quodam providentiae
genitus, in quo totas vires suas eloquentia experi-

110 retur. Nam quis docere diligentius, movere vehe-
mentius potest.'' Cui tanta unquam iucunditas
adfuit? ut ipsa ilia quae extorquet impetrare eum
credas, et cum transversum vi sua iudicem ferat

111 tamen ille non rapi videatur, sed sequi. lam in

^ cp. II. xvi. 4 ; VI. i 7. Quintilian refers to an alleged
law at Athens forbidding appeals to the emotion.
• The quotation is not found in Pindar's extant works.

6s

BOOK X. I. 107-1 1 1

that Demosthenes was deprived by national custom ^
of the opportunity of producing powerful perora-
tions, but against this may be set the fact that the
different character of the Latin language debars us
from the attainment of those qualities which are
so much admired by the adherents of the Attic
school. As regards their letters, which have in
both cases survived, and dialogues, which Demos-
thenes never attempted, there can be no comparison
between the two. But, on the other hand, there is 108
one point in which the Greek has the undoubted
superiority : he comes first in point of time, and it
was largely due to him that Cicero was able to attain
greatness. For it seems to me that Cicero, who
devoted himself heart and soul to the imitation of
the Greeks, succeeded in reproducing the force of
Demosthenes, the copious flow of Plato, and the
charm of Isocrates. But he did something more 109
than reproduce the best elements in each of these
authors by dint of careful study ; it was to himself
that he owed most of, or rather all his excellences,
which spring from the extraordinary fertility of his
immortal genius. For he does not, as Pindar 2 says,
" collect the rain from heaven, but wells forth with
living water," since Providence at his birth conferred
this special privilege upon him, that eloquence should
make trial of all her powers in him. For who can 110
instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply
stir the emotions ? Who has ever possessed such a
gift of charm .'' He seems to obtain as a boon what
in reality he extorts by force, and when he wrests
the judge from the path of his own judgment, the
latter seems not to be swept away, but merely to
follow. Further, there is such weight in all that he 1 1 1

63

QUINTILIAN

omnibus quae dicit tanta auctoritas inest, ut dis-
sentire pudeat, nee advocati studium sed testis aut
iudicis adferat fidem, cum interim haec omnia, quae
vix singula quisquam intentissima cura consequi
posset, fluunt illaborata, et ilia, qua nihil pulehrius
auditum est, oratio prae se fert tamen felicissimam

112 facilitatem. Quare non immerito ab hominibus^
aetatis suae regnare in iudiciis dictus est, apud
posteros vero id consecutus, ut Cicero iam non
hominis nomen, sed eloquentiae habeatur. Hunc
igitur spectemus, hoc propositum nobis sit ex-
emplum, ille se profecisse sciat, cui Cicero valde

113 placebit. Multa in Asinio Pollione inventio, summa
diligentia, adeo ut quibusdam etiam nimia videatur,
et consilii et animi satis ; a nitore et iucunditate
Ciceronis ita longe abest, ut videri possit saeculo
prior. At Messala nitidus et candidus et quadam
modo praeferens in dicendo nobilitatem suam, viri-

1 14 bus minor. C. vero Caesar si foro tantum vacasset,
non alius ex nostris contra Ciceronem nominaretur.
Tanta in eo vis est, id acumen, ea concitatio, ut
ilium eodem animo dixisse, quo bellavit, appareat;

, exornat tamen haec omnia mira sermonis, cuius

^ ab hominibus, Halm : ab omnibus, B : hominibus, a few
late MSS.

^ Asinius PoUio (75 B.C. -ad. 4), the friend of Virgil,
distinguished as poet, historian and orator.
* M. Valerius Corvinus (64 b.c.-a.d. 8), the friend of
1 1 - Tibullus and distinguished as an orator.

64

BOOK X. 1. 1 1 1-1 14

says that his audience feel ashamed to disagree with
him, and the zeal of the advocate is so transfigured
that it has the effect of the sworn evidence of a
witness, or the verdict of a judge. And at the same
time all these excellences, of which scarce one could
be attained by the ordinary man even by the most
concentrated effort, flow from him with every appear-
ance of spontaneity, and his style, although no fairer
has ever fallen on the ears of men, none the less
displays the utmost felicity and ease. It was not, 112
therefore, without good reason that his own contem-
poraries spoke of his " sovereignty " at the bar, and
that for posterity the name of Cicero has come to be
regarded not as the name of a man, but as the name
of eloquence itself. Let us, therefore, fix our eyes on
him, take him as our pattern, and let the student realise
that he has made real progress if he is a passionate
admirer of Cicero. Asinius Pollio^ had great gifts of 113
invention and great precision of language (indeed,
some think him too precise), while his judgment
and spirit were fully adequate. But he is so far from
equalling the polish and charm of Cicero that he
might have been born a generation before him.
Messala,^ on the other hand, is polished and trans-
parent and displays his nobility in his utterance,
but he fails to do his powers full justice. As 114
for Gains Caesar, if he had had leisure to devote
himself to the courts, he would have been the one
orator who could have been considered a serious rival
to Cicero. Such are his force, his penetration and
his energy that we realise that he was as vigorous in
speech as in his conduct of war. And yet all these
qualities are enhanced by a marvellous elegance of
language, of which he was an exceptionally zealous

65

QUINTILIAN

115 proprie studiosus fuit, elegantia. Multum ingenii
in Caelio et praecipue in accusando multa urbanitas,
dignusque vir cui et mens melior et vita longior
contigisset. Inveni qui Calvum praeferrent omnibus,
inveni qui Ciceroni crederent, eum nimia contra se
cilumnia verum sanguinem perdidisse ; sed est et
sancta et gravis oratio et castigata et frequenter
vehemens quoque. Imitator autem est Atticorum,
fecitque illi properata mors iniuriam, si quid adiec-

116 turus fuit.^ Et Servius Sulpicius insignem non
immerito famam tribus orationibus meruit. Multa,
si cum iudicio legatur, dabit imitatione digna Cassius
Severus, qui si ceteris virtutibus colorem et gravitatem
orationis adiecisset, ponendus inter praecipuos foret.

117 Nam et ingenii plurimum est in eo et acerbitas mira,
et urbanitas et fervor ; ^ sed plus stomacho quam con-
silio dedit. Praeterea ut amari sales, ita frequenter

118 amaritudo ipsa ridicula est. Sunt alii multidiserti,quos
persequi longum est. Eorum quos viderim Domitius
Afer et lulius Africanus longe praestantissimi. Arte
ille et to to genere dicendi praeferendus et quem in
numero veterum habere non timeas ; hie concitatior,

^ adiecturus fuit, B: most later MSS. add non si quid
detracturus with slight variations.
' et fervor, Bursian : et sermo, B,

' M. Rufus Caelius, defended by Cicero in the pro Caelio.
Killed in 48 B.C. Cp. iv. ii. 123. ; viii. vi. 53.

* Calvus (Gains Licinius), a distinguished poet and, with
Brutus, the leading orator of the Attic School. He died
at the age of 34 in 48 B.C.

' Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the greatest jurist of the
Ciceronian age.

* Cassius Severus [d. a.d 34) banished by Augustus on
account of his scurrilous lampoons.

66

BOOK X. I. 1 14-118

student. Caelius ^ has much natural talent and much 116
wit, more especially when speaking for the prosecu-
tion, and deserved a wiser mind and a longer life.
I have come across some critics who preferred
Calvus^ to all other orators, and others again who
agreed with Cicero that too severe self-criticism had
robbed him of his natural vigour. But he was the
possessor of a solemn, weighty and chastened style,
which was also capable at times of genuine vehem-
ence. He was an adherent of the Attic school and
an untimely death deprived him of his full meed of
honour, at least if we regard him as likely to have
acquired fresh qualities. Servius Sulpicius^ acquired 116
a great and well -deserved reputation by his three
speeches. Cassius Severus,* if read with discrimina-
tion, will provide much that is worthy of imitation :
if to his other merits he had added appropriateness
of tone and dignity of style, he would deserve a 117
place among the greatest. For his natural talents
are great, his gift of bitterness, wit and passion
remarkable, but he allowed the sharpness of his
temper to prevail over his judgment. Moreover,
though his jests are pungent enough, this very
pungency often turned the laugh against himself.
There are many other clever speakers, but it 118
would be a long task to deal with them all. Domitius
Afer^ and Julius Africanus® are by far the most dis-
tinguished. The former is superior in art and in
every department of oratory, indeed he may be
ranked with the old orators without fear of contra-

• Domitius Afer (d- 59 a d.), the leading orator of the
reigns of Tiberius and his successors.

* lulius Africanus, a Gaul, who flourished in the reign of
Nero.

67

QUINTILIAN

sed in cura verborum nimius et compositione non-
nunquam longior et translationibus parum modicus.

119 Erantclara et nuper ingenia. Nam et Trachalus ple-
rumque sublimis et satis apertus fuit et quem velle
optima crederes, auditus tamen maior ; nam et vocis.
quantam in nullo cognovi, felicitas et pronuntiatio vel
scenis sufFectura et decor, omnia denique ei, quae sunt
extra, superfuerunt ; et Vibius Crispus compositus et
iucundus et delectationi natus, privatis tamen eausis

120 quam publicis melior. lulio Secundo, si longior
contigisset aetas, clarissimum profecto nomen ora-
toris apud posteros foret. Adiecisset enim atque
adiiciebat ceteris virtutibus suis quod desiderari
potest; id est autem, ut esset multo magis pugnax
et saepius ad curam rerum ab elocutione respiceret.

121 Ceterum interceptus quoque magnum sibi vindicat
locum ; ea est facundia, tanta in explicando quod
velit gratia, tam candidum et leve et speciosum di-
cendi genus, tanta verborum etiam quae adsumpta
sunt proprietas, tanta in quibusdam ex periculo

122 petitis significantia. Habebunt, qui post nos de
oratoribus scribent, magnam eos, qui nunc vigent,
materiam vere laudandi. Sunt enim summa hodie,
quibus illustratur forum, ingenia. Namque et con-
summati iam patroni veteribus aemulantur et eos

^ M. Galerius Trachalus (cos. 68 a.d.) Cp xii. v. 5.

' Vibius Crispus, a delator under Nero, died about A.D.
90, after acquiring great wealth. Cp. Juv. iv. 81 -93.

' Julius Secundus, a distinguished orator of the reign of
Vespasian. One of the characters in the Dialogus of Tacitus.

68

BOOK X. I. 1 18-122

diction. The latter shows greater energy, but is too
great a precisian in the choice of words, prone to
tediously long periods and somewhat extravagant in
his metaphors. There have been distinguished
talents even of more recent date. For example, 119
Trachalus^ was, as a rule, elevated and sufficiently
clear in his language : one realised that his aims
were high, but he was better to listen to than to
read. For his voice was, in my experience, unique
in its beauty of tone, while his delivery would have
done credit to an actor, his action was full of grace
and he f>ossessed every external advantage in pro-
fusion. Vibius Crispus,^ *igahi, was well-balanced,
agreeable and born to charm, though he was better
in private than in public cases. Julius Secundus,^ 120
had he lived longer, would undoubtedly have attained
a great and enduring reputation. For he would have
acquired, as he was actually acquiring, all that was
lacking to his qualities, namely, a far greater
pugnacity and a closer attention to substance as well
as form. But, in spite of the untimeliness of his end, 121
he occupies a high place, thanks to his fluency, the
grace with which he set forth whatever he desired,
the lucidity, smoothness and beauty of his speech,
the propriety revealed in the use of words, even
when employed figuratively, and the point which
characterises even his most hazardous expressions.
Subsequent wTiters on the history of oratory will 122
find abundant material for praise among the orators
who flourish to-day : for the law courts can boast
a glorious wealth of talent. Indeed, the con-
summate advocates of the present day are serious
rivals of the ancients, while enthusiastic effort
and lofty ideals lead many a young student

69

QUINTILIAN

iuvenum ad optima tendentium imitatur ac se-
quitur industria.

123 Supersunt qui de philosophia scripserint, quo
in genere paucissimos adhuc eloquentes litterae
Romanae tulerunt. Idem igitur M. TuUius, qui
ubique, etiam in hoc opere Platonis aemulus exstitit.
Egregius vero multoque quam in orationibus prae-
stantior Brutus sufFecit ponderi rerum ; scias eum

124 sentire quae dicit. Scripsit non parum multa
Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non sine cultu ac
nitore. Plautus in Stoicis rerum cognitioni utilis.
In Epicureis levis quidem, sed non iniucundus tamen

125 auctor est Catius. Ex industria Senecam in omni
genere eloquentiae distuli propter vulgatam falso de
me opinionem, qua damnare eum et invisum quoque
habere sum creditus. Quod accidit mihi, dum corrup-
tum et omnibus vitiis fractum dicendi genus revocare

126 ad severiora iudicia contendo. Turn autem solus
hie fere in manibus adolescentium fuit. Quem non
equidem omnino conabar excutere, sed potioribus
praeferri non sinebam, quos ille non destiterat inces-
sere, cum diversi sibi conscius generis placere se in
dicendo posse iis, quibus illi placent, diffideret. Ama-

^ Brutus, omitted from Qaintilian's list of orators, was a
follower of the Stoic and Academic schools. He is kuown
to have written treatises on Virtue, Duty and Patience.

* An encyclopsedic writer under Augustus and Tiberius.
His medical treatises have survived. He wrote on oratory
also, and is not infrequently quoted by Quintilian.

* The Sextii, father and son, were Pythagorean philoso-
phers of the Augustan age, with something of a Stoic
tendency as well.

* Nothing is known of this writer, save what is told us
in III. xiv. 2, and iii. vi, 23.

70

BOOK X. I. 122-126

to tread in their footsteps and imitate their
excellence.

I have still to deal with writers on philosophy, 123
of whom Rome has so far produced but few who are
distinguished for their style. But Cicero, who is
great in every department of literature, stands out
as the rival of Plato in this department as well.
Brutus 1 was an admirable writer on such themes, in
which he distinguished himself far more than in his
speeches : he is equal to the serious nature of his
subject, and the reader realises that he feels what
he says. Cornelius Celsus,^ a follower of the Sextii,^ 124
wrote a number of philosophical works, which have
considerable grace and polish. Among the Stoics
Plautus* is useful as giving a knowledge of the
subject. Among the Epicureans Catius ^ is agree-
able to read, though lacking in weight. I have 125
deliberately postponed the discussion of Seneca in
connexion with the various departments of literature
owing to the fact that there is a general, though
false, impression that I condemn and even detest
him. It is true that I had occasion to pass cen-
sure upon him when I was endeavouring to recall
students from a depraved style, weakened by every
kind of error, to a severer standard of taste. But 126
at that time Seneca's works were in the hands
of every young man, and my aim was not to ban his
reading altogether, but to prevent his being pre-
ferred to authors superior to himself, but whom he
was never tired of disparaging ; for, being conscious
of the fact that his O'vvn style was very different

* A contemporary of Cicero, who speaks of him somewhat
contemptuously. He wrote four books de rerum natura et
de summo bono.

71

QUINTILIAN

bant autem eum magis quam imitabantur tantumque
ab eo defluebant, quantum ille ab antiquis descend-

1 27 erat. Foret enim optandum pares ac saltern proximos
illi viro fieri. Sed placebat propter sola vitia et ad
ea se quisque dirigebat effingenda quae poterat;
deinde cum se iactaret eodem modo dicere, Senecam

128 infamabat. Cuius et multae alioqui et magnae vir-
tutes fuerunt, ingenium facile et copiosum, plurimum
studii, multa rerum cognitio ; in qua tamen ali-
quando ab his, quibus inquirenda quaedam mandabat,

129 deceptus est. Tractavit etiam omnem fere studiorum
materiam. Nam et orationes eius et poemata et
epistolae et dialogi feruntur. In philosophia parum
diligens, egregius tamen vitiorum insectator fuit.
Multae in eo claraeque sententiae, multa etiam
morum gratia legenda ; sed in eloquendo corrupta
pleraque atque eo perniciosissima, quod abundant

130 dulcibus vitiis. Velles eum suo ingenio dixisse,

alieno iudicio. Nam si obliqua ^ contempsisset, si

parum recta ^ non concupisset, si non omnia sua

aniasset, si rerum pondera minutissimis sententiis

non fregisset, consensu potius eruditorum quam

* obliqua, E. Wofflin : simile quam, B : si aliqua, 2nd
hand. * recta, added by Peterson.

BOOK X. I. 126-130

from theirs, he was afraid that he would fail to
please those who admired them. But the young
men loved him rather than imitated him, and fell
as far below him as he fell below the ancients. For 127
I only wish they had equalled or at least approached
his level. But he pleased them for his faults alone,
and each individual sought to imitate such of those
faults as lay within his capacity to reproduce : and
then brought reproach on his master by boasting
that he spoke in the genuine Senecan manner.
Seneca had many excellent qualities, a quick and 128
fertile intelligence with great industry and wide
knowledge, though as regards the last quality he
was often led into error by those whom he had
entrusted with the task of investigating certain
subjects on his behalf. He dealt with almost every 129
department of knowledge ; for speeches, poems,
letters and dialogues all circulate under his name.
In philosophy he showed a lack of critical power,
but was none the less quite admirable in his
denunciations of vice. His works contain a number
of striking general reflexions and much that is
worth reading for edification ; but his style is for
the most part corrupt and exceedingly dangerous,
for the very reason that its vices are so many and
attractive. One could wish that, while he relied on 130
his own intelligence, he had allowed himself to be
guided by the taste of others. For if he had only
despised all unnatural expressions and had not been
so passionately fond of all that was incorrect, if he
had not felt such affection for all that was his own,
and had not impaired the solidity of his matter by
striving after epigrammatic brevity, he would have
won the approval of the learned instead of the

73

QUINTILIAN

131 puerorum amore comprobaretur. Verum sic quoque
iam robustis et severiore genere satis firmatis
legendus vel ideo quod exercere potest utrinque
iudicium, Multa enim, ut dixi, probanda in eo,
multa etiam admiranda sunt, eligere modo curae
sit ; quod utinam ipse fecisset. Digna enim fuit
ilia natura, quae meliora vellet ; quod voluit
efFecit.

II. Ex his ceterisque lectione dignis auctoribus et
verborum sumenda copia est et varietas figurarum et
componendi ratio, turn ad exemplum virtutum omnium
mens dirigenda. Neque enim dubitari potest, quin
artis pars magna contineatur imitatione. Nam ut
invenire primum fuit estque praecipuum, sic ea, quae

2 bene inventa sunt^ utile sequi. Atque omnis vitae
ratio sic constat, ut quae probamus in aliis facere
ipsi velimus. Sic litterarum ductus, ut scribendi fiat
usus, pueri sequuntur, sic musici vocem docentium,
pictores opera priorum, rustici probatam experimento
culturam in exemplum intuentur; omnis denique
disciplinae initia ad propositum sibi praescriptum

3 formari videmus. Et hercule necesse est aut similes
aut dissimiles bonis simus. Similem raro natura
praestat, frequenter imitatio. Sed hoe ipsum, quod

74

BOOK X. I. 1 30-11. 3

enthusiasm of boys. But even as it is, he deserves 131

to be read by those whose powers have been formed

and firmly moulded on the standards of a severer

taste, if only because he will exercise their critical

faculties in distinguishing between his merits and

his defects. For, as I have said, there is much in

him which we may approve, much even that we may

admire. Only we must be careful in our selection :

would he had been as careful himself. For his

genius deserved to be devoted to better aims, since

wlmt it does actually aim at, it succeeds in achieving.

II. It is from these and other authors worthy of

our study that we must draw our stock of words, the

variety of our figures and our methods of composition,

while we must form our minds on the model of every

excellence. For there can be no doubt that in art

no small portion of our task lies in imitation, since,

although invention came first and is all-important, it

is expedient to imitate whatever has been invented

with success. And it is a universal rule of life that 2

we should wish to copy what we approve in others.

It is for this reason that boys copy the shapes of

letters that they may learn to write, and that

musicians take the voices of their teachers, painters

the works of their predecessors, and peasants the

principles of agriculture which have been proved in

practice, as models for their imitation. In fact, we

may note that the elementary study of every branch

of learning is directed by reference to some definite

standard that is placed before the learner. We 3

must, in fact, either be like or unlike those who

have proved their excellence. It is rare for nature

to produce such resemblance, which is more often

the result of imitation. But the very fact that in

75

QUINTILIAN

tanto faciliorem nobis rationem rerum omnium facit
quam fuit iis, qui nihil quod sequerentur habuerunt,
nisi caute et cum iudicio apprehenditur, laocet.

4 Ante omnia igitur imitatio per se ipsa non sufficit,
vel quia pigri est ingenii contentum esse iis, quae
sint ab aliis inventa. Quid enim futurum erat
temporibus illis, quae sine exemplo fuerunt, si
homines nihil, nisi quod iam cognovissent, faciendum
sibi aut cogitandum putassent ? Nempe nihil fuisset

5 inventum. Cur igitur nefas est reperiri aliquid a
nobis, quod ante non fuerit? An illi rudes sola
mentis natura ducti sunt in hoc ut tam multa gene-
rarent, nos ad quaerendum non eo ipso concitemur,

6 quod certe scimus invenisse eos qui quaesierunt? Et
cum illi, qui nullum cuiusquam rei habuerunt magis-
trum, plurima in posteros tradiderunt, nobis usus
aliarum rerum ad eruendas alias non proderit, sed
nihil habebimus nisi beneficii alieni ? Quemadmo-
dum quidam pictores in id solum student, ut de-

1 scribere tabulas mensuris ac lineis sciant. Turpe
etiam illud est, contentum esse id consequi quod
imiteris. Nam rursus quid erat futurum, si nemo
plus effecisset eo quem sequebatur? Nihil in poetis
supra Livium Andronicum, nihil in historiis supra
Pontificum annales haberemus ; ratibus adhuc navi-

* The reference is to copying by dividing the surface of
the picture to be copied, and of the material on which the
copy is to be made, into a number of equal squares.

* Livius Andronicus, a slave from Tarentum, was the
founder of Latin poetry. He translated the Odyssey, and
produced the first Latin comedy and tragedy composed in
Greek metres (240 b.c )

^ The Annales Maximi kept by the Pontifex Maximus,
containing the list of the consuls and giving a curt summary
of the events of each consulate.

|6

BOOK X. II. 3-7

every subject the procedure to be followed is so
much more easy for us than it was for those who
had no model to guide them, is a positive drawback,
unless we use this dubious advantage with caution
and judgment.

The first point, then, that we must realise is that 4
imitation alone is not sufficient, if only for the reason
that a sluggish nature is only too ready to rest
content with the inventions of others. For what
would have happened in the days when models were
not, if men had decided to do and think of nothing
that they did not know already? The answer is
obvious : nothing would ever have been discovered.
Why, then, is it a crime for us to discover something 5
new ? Were primitive men led to make so many
discoveries simply by the natural force of their
imagination, and shall we not then be spurred on to
search for novelty by the very knowledge that those
who sought of old were rewarded by success ? And 6
seeing that they, who had none to teach them any-
thing, have handed down such store of knowledge
to posterity, shall we refuse to employ the experience
which we possess of some things, to discover yet
other things, and possess nought that is not owed to
the beneficent activity of others ? Shall we follow
the example of those painters whose sole aim is to
be able to copy pictures by using the ruler and the
measuring rod ? ^ It is a positive disgrace to be 7
content to owe all our achievement to imitation.
For what, I ask again, would have been the result
if no one had done more than his predecessors ?
Livius Andronicus * would mark our supreme
achievement in poetry and the annals of the Ponti-
Jices^ would be our ue plus ultra in history. We

77

QUINTILIAN

garemus ; non esset pictura, nisi quae lineas modo
extremas umbrae, quam corpora in sole fecissent,

8 circumscriberet. Ac si omnia percenseas, nulla man-
sit ^ ars, qualis inventa est, nee intra initium stetit,
nisi forte nostra potissimum tempora damnamus
huius infelicitatis, ut nunc demum nihil crescat.

9 Nihil autem crescit sola imitatione. Quodsi priori-
bus adiicere fas non est, quomodo sperare possumus
ilium oratorem perfectum : cum in his, quos maximos
adhuc novimus, nemo sit inventus, in quo nihil aut
desideretur aut reprehendatur. Sed etiam qui summa
non appetent, contendere potius quam sequi debent.

10 Nam qui hoc agit^ ut prior sit, forsitan, etiamsi
non transierit, aequabit. Eum vero nemo potest
aequare, cuius vestigiis sibi utique insistendum putat;
necesse est enim semper sit posterior qui sequitur.
Adde quod plerumque facilius est plus facere quam
idem. Tantam enim difficultatem habet similitudo,
ut ne ipsa quidem natura in hoc ita evaluerit, ut non
res quae simillimae, quaeque pares maxime videantur,

11 utique discrimine aliquo discernantur, Adde quod,
quidquid alteri simile est, necesse est minus sit eo,
quod imitatur, ut umbra corpore et imago facie et

1 mansit, Meister : sit, MSS.

* hoc &git. Malm, om. B : agit, later MSS.

rk

BOOK X. II. 7-1 1

should still be sailing on rafts, and the art of painting
would be restricted to tracing a line round a shadow
thrown in the sunlight. Cast your eyes over the 8
whole of history ; you will find that no art has
remained just as it was when it was discovered, nor
come to a standstill at its very birth, unless indeed
we are ready to pass special condemnation on our
own generation on the ground that it is so barren of
invention that no further development is possible ;
and it is undoubtedly true that no development is
possible for those who restrict themselves to imi-
tation. But if we are forbidden to add anything to 9
the existing stock of knowledge, how can we ever
hope for the birth of our ideal orator ? For of all
the greatest orators with whom we are as yet ac-
quainted, there is not one who has not some
deficiency or blemish. And even those who do
not aim at supreme excellence, ought to press
toward the mark rather than be content to follow
in the tracks of others. For the man whose aim 10
is to prove himself better than another, even if he
does not surpass him, may hope to equal him. But
he can never hope to equal him, if he thinks it his
duty merely to tread in his footsteps : for the mere
follower must always Jag behind. Further, it is
generally easier to make some advance than to
repeat what has been done by others, since there
is nothing harder than to produce an exact likeness,
and nature herself has so far failed in this endeavour
that there is always some difference which enables
us to distinguish even the things which seem most
like and most equal to one another. Again, what- 11
ever is like another object, must necessarily be
inferior to the object of its imitation, just as the

79

QUINTILIAN

actus histrionum veris adfectibus. Quod in orationi-
bus quoque evenit. Namque eis, quae in exemplum
adsumimus, subest natura et vera vis ; contra omnis
imitatio ficta est et ad alienum propositum accommo-

12 datur.i Quod facit, ut minus sanguinis ac virium
declamationes habeant quam orationes, quod in illis
vera, in his adsimilata materia est. Adde quod ea,
quae in oratore maxima sunt, imitabilia non sunt,
ingenium, inventio, vis, facilitas et quidquid arte non

13 traditur. Ideoque plerique, cum verba quaedam ex
orationibus excerpserunt aut aliquos compositionis
certos pedes, mire a se, quae legerunt, effingi arbi-
trantur; cum et verba intercidant invalescantque
temporibus, ut quorum certissima sit regula in
consuetudine, eaque non sua natura sint bona aut
mala (nam per se soni tantum sunt), sed prout
opportune proprieque aut secus collocata sunt, et
compositio cum rebus accommodata sit, tum ipsa
varietate gratissima.

14 Quapropter exactissimo iudicio circa banc partem

studiorum examinanda sunt omnia. Primum, quos

imitemur ; nam sunt plurimi, qui similitudinem pes-

simi cuiusque et corruptissimi concupierunt ; tum in

^ accommodatur, StuI hand of B and later MSS. : commo-
datur, B,

8o

BOOK X. II. 11-14

shadow is inferior to the substance, the portrait to
the features which it portrays, and the acting of the
player to the feelings which he endeavours to repro-
duce. The same is true of oratory. For the models
which we select for imitation have a genuine and
natural force, whereas all imitation is artificial and
moulded to a purpose which was not that of the
original orator. This is the reason why declamations 12
have less life and vigour than actual speeches, since
the subject is fictitious in the one and real in the
other. Again, the greatest qualities of the orator
are beyond all imitation, by which I mean, talent,
invention, force, facility and all the qualities which
are independent of art. Consequently, there are 13
many who, after excerpting certain words from
published speeches or borrowing certain particular
rhythms, think that they have produced a perfect
copy of the works which they have read, despite
the fact that words become obsolete or current
with the lapse of years, the one sure standard being
contemporary usage ; and they are not good or
bad in virtue of their inherent nature (for in them-
selves they are no more than mere sounds), but
solely in virtue of the aptitude and propriety (or
the reverse) with which they are arranged, while
rhythmical composition must be adapted to the
theme in hand and will derive its main charm from
its variety.

Consequently the nicest judgment is required in 14
the examination of everything connected with this
department of study. First we must consider whom
to imitate. For there are many who have shown a
passionate desire to imitate the worst and most
decadent authors. Secondly, we must consider what

81

QUINTILIAN

ipsis, quos elegerimus, quid sit, ad quod nos effici-

15 endum comparemus. Nam in magnis quoque auc-
toribus incidunt aliqua vitiosa et a doctis, inter ipsos
etiam mutuo reprehensa; atque utinam tam bona
imitantes dicerent melius quam mala peius dicunt.
Nee vero saltern iis, quibus ad evitanda vitia iudicii
satis fuit, sufficiat imaginem virtutis efGngere et
solam, ut sic dixerim, cutem vel potius illas Epicuri

16 figuras, quas e summis corporibus dicit effluere. Hoc
autem his accidit, qui non introspectis penitus virtu-
tibus ad primum se velut aspeetum orationis aptarunt ;
et cum lis felicissime cessit imitatio, verbis atque
numeris sunt non multum differentes, vim dicendi
atque inventionis non adsequuntur, sed plerumque
declinant in peius et proxima virtutibus vitia compre-
hendunt fiuntque pro grandibus tumidi, pressis exiles,
fortibus temerarii, laetis corrupti, compositis exult-

17 antes, simplicibus negligentes. Ideoque qui horride
atque incomposite quidlibet illud frigidum et inane
extulerunt, antiquis se pares credunt ; qui carent
cultu atque sententiis, Attici scilicet; qui praecisis
conclusionibus obscuri, Sallustium atque Thucydidem

* Epicurus held that all sense-perception was caused by
the impact of such atomic sloughs : cp. Lucret. iv. 42 sqq.

82

BOOK X. II. 14-17

it is that we should set ourselves to imitate in the
authors thus chosen. For even great authors have 15
their blemishes, for which they have been censured
by competent critics and have even reproached each
other. I only wish that imitators were more likely
to improve on the good things than to exaggerate
the blemishes of the authors whom they seek to
copy. And even those who have sufficient critical
acumen to avoid the faults of their models will not
find it sufficient to produce a copy of their merits,
amounting to no more than a superficial resemblance,
or rather recalling those sloughs which, according to
Epicurus, are continually given off by material things.^
But this is just what happens to those who mould 16
themselves on the first impressions derived from the
style of their model, without devoting themselves to
a thorough investigation of its good qualities, and,
despite the brilliance of their imitation and the close
resemblance of their language and rhythm, not only
fail absolutely to attain the force of style and invention
possessed by the original, but as a rule degenerate
into something worse, and achieve merelv those faults
which are hardest to distinguish from virtues : they
are turgid instead of grand, bald instead of concise,
and rash instead of courageous, while extravagance
takes the place of wealth, over-emphasis the place of
harmony and negligence of simplicity. As a result, 17
; those who flaunt tasteless and insipid thoughts,
couched in an uncouth and inharmonious form, think
that they are the equals of the ancients ; those who
lack ornament and epigram, pose as Attic ; those
who darken their meaning by the abruptness with
which they close their periods, count themselves the
superiors of Sallust and Thucydides ; those who are

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superant ; tristes ac ieiimi PoUionem aemulantur :
otiosi et supini, si quid modo longius circumduxerunt,

18 iurant ita Ciceronem locuturum fuisse. Noveram
quosdam, qui se pulchre expressisse genus illud
caelestis huius in dicendo viri sibi viderenturj si in
clausula posuissent Esse videatur. Ergo primum est,
ut quod imitaturus est quisque intelligat et quare
bonum sit sciat.

19 Turn in suscipiendo onere consulat suas vires. Nam
quaedam sunt imitabilia, quibus aut infirmitas naturae
non sufficiat aut diversitas repugnet. Ne, cui tenue
ingenium erit, sola velit fortia et abrupta ; cui forte
quidem, sed indomitum, amore subtilitatis et vim
suam perdat et elegantiam quam cupit non perse-
quatur; nihil est enim tam indecens, quam cum

20 mollia dure fiunt. Atque ego illi praeceptori, quem
institueram in libro secundo, credidi non ea sola
docenda esse, ad quae quemque discipulorum natura
compositum videret ; nam is et adiuvare debet, quae
in quoque eorum invenit bona, et, quantum fieri
potest, adiicere quae desunt et emendare quaedam et
mutare ; rector enim est alienorum ingeniorum atque

21 formator. Difficilius est naturam suam fingere. Sed

1 cp. rx. iv. 73. Tac. Dial 23. » Ch. 8.

BOOK X. II. 17-21

dreary and jejune, think that they are serious rivals
to Pollio, while those who are tame and listless, if
only they can produce long enough periods, swear
that this is just the manner in which Cicero would
have spoken. I have known some who thought that 18
they had produced a brilliant imitation of the style
of that divine orator, by ending their periods with
the phrase esse videalur.^ Consequently it is of the
first importance that every student should realise
what it is that he is to imitate, and should know
why it is good.

The next step is for each student to consult his 19
own powers when he shoulders his burden. For
there are some things which, though capable of
imitation, may be beyond the capacity of any given
individual, either because his natural gifts are in-
sufficient or of a different character. The man whose
talent is for the plain style should not seek only
what is bold and rugged, nor yet should he who has
vigour without control suffer himself through love of
subtlety at once to waste his natural energy and
fail to attain the elegance at which he aims : for
there is nothing so unbecoming as delicacy wedded
to ruggedness. True, I did express the opinion 20
that the instructor whose portrait I painted in my
second book,^ should not confine himself to teaching
those things for which he perceived his individual
pupils to have most aptitude. For it is his further
duty to foster whatever good qualities he may per-
ceive in his pupils, to make good their deficiencies
as far as may be, to correct their faults and turn
them to better things. For he is the guide and
director of the minds of others. It is a harder task
to mould one's own nature. But not even our 21

«5

QUINTILIAN

ne ille quidem doctor, quanquam omnia quae recta
sunt velit esse in suis auditoribus quam plenissima,
in eo tamen, cui naturam obstare viderit, laborabit.

Id quoque vitandum, in quo magna pars errat, ne
in oratione poetas nobis et historicos, in illis operibus

22 oratores aut declamatores imitandos putemus. Sua
cuique proposita* lex, suus cuique decor est. Nam
nee comoedia in cothurnos adsurgit, nee contra trag-
oediasocco ingreditur. Habet tamenomnis eloquentia
aliquid commune ; id imitemur quod commune est.

'/3 Etiam hoc solet incommodi accidcre iis, qui se uni
alicui generi dediderunt, ut, si asperitas iis placuit
alicuius, banc etiam in leni ac remisso causarum
genere non exuant ; si tenuitas ac iucunditas, in
asperis gravibusque causis ponderi rerum parum re-
spondeant : cum sit diversa non causarum modo inter
ipsas condicio, sed in singulis etiam causis partium,
sintque alia leniter alia aspere, alia concitate alia
remisse, alia docendi alia movendi gratia dicenda ;
quorum omnium dissimilis atque diversa inter se

24 ratio est. Itaque ne hoc quidem suaserim, uni se

^ proposita, most later MS8. : propositio, B; proposito,
Oertz.

86

BOOK X. II. 21-24

ideal teacher, however much he may desire that
everything that is correct should prevail in his
school to the fullest extent, will waste his labour in
attempting to develop qualities to the attainment of
which he perceives nature's gilts to be opposed.

It is also necessary to avoid the fault to which the
majority of students are so prone, namely, the idea
that in composing speeches we should imitate the
poets and historians, and in writing history or poetry
should copy orators and declaimers. Each branch 22
of literature has its own laws and its own appropriate
character. Comedy does not seek to increase its
height by the buskin and tragedy does not wear
the slipper of comedy. But all forms of eloquence
have something in common, and it is to the imitation
of this common element that our efforts should be
confined.

There is a further fault to which those persons 2b
are liable who devote themselves entirely to the
imitation of one particular style : if the rude vigour
of some {^articular author takes their fancy, they
cling to it even when the case on which thev are
engaged calls for an easy and flowing style ; if, on
the other hand, it is a simple or agreeable style that
claims their devotion, they fail to meet the heavy
demands of severe and weighty cases. For not only
do cases differ in their general aspect, but one part
of a case may differ from another, and some things
require a gentle and others a violent style, some
require an impetuous and others a calm diction, while
in some cases it is necessary to instruct and in others
to move the audience, in all these instances dis-
similar and different methods being necessary. Con- 24
sequently I should be reluctant even to advise a

87

QUINTILIAN

alicui propria, quem per omnia sequatur, addicere.
Longe perfectissimus Graecorum Demosthenes,
aliquid tamen aliquo in loco melius alii, plurima ille.
Sed non qui maxime imitandus, et solus imitandus

25 est. Quid ergo ? non est satis omnia sic dicere, quo-
modo M. TuUius dixit? Mihi quidem satis esset, si
omnia consequi possem. Quid tamen noceret vim
Giesaris, asperitatem Caelii, diligentiam Pollionis,

26 iudicium Calvi quibusdam in locis adsumere ? Nam
praeter id quod prudentis est, quod in quoque opti-
mum est, si possit, suum facere, tum in tanta rei
difficultate unum intuentes vix aliqua pars sequitur.
Ideoque cum totum exprimere quem elegeris paene
sit homini inconcessum, plurium bona ponamus ante
oculos, ut aliud ex alio haereat, et quod cuique loco
conveniat aptemus.

27 Imitatio autem (nam saepius idem dicam) non sit

tantum in verbis. Illuc intendenda mens, quantum

fuerit illis viris decoris in rebus atque personis, quod

consilium, quae dispositio, quam omnia, etiam quae
88

BOOK X. II. 24-27

student to select one particular author to follow
through thick and thin. Demosthenes is by far the
most perfect of Greek orators, yet there are some
things which others have said better in some contexts
as against the many things which he has said better
than others. But it does not follow that because we
should select one author for special imitation, he
should be our only model. What then ? Is it not 25
sufficient to model our every utterance on Cicero?
For my own part, I should consider it sufficient, if
I could always imitate him successfully. But what
harm is there in occasionally borrowing the vigour of
t^esar, the vehemence of Caelius, the precision of
Pollio or the sound judgment of Calvus .'' For quite 26
apart from the fact that a wise man should always,
if possible, make whatever is best in each individual
author his own, we shall find that, in view of the
extreme difficulty of our subject, those who fix their
eyes on one model only will always find some one
quality which it is almost impossible to acquire there-
from. Consequently, since it is practically impossible
for mortal powers to produce a perfect and complete
copy of any one chosen author, we shall do well to
keep a number of different excellences before our
eyes, so that different qualities from different authors
may impress themselves on our minds, to be adopted
for use in the place that becomes them best.

But imitation (for I must repeat this point again 27
and again) should not be confined merely to words.
We must consider the appropriateness with which
those orators handle the circumstances and persons
involved in the various cases in which they were
engaged, and observe the judgment and powers of
arrangement which they reveal, and the manner

VOL. IV. u ^9

QUINTILIAN

delectationi videantur data^ ad victoriam spectent ;
quid agatur prooemio, quae ratio et quam varia nar-
randi, quae vis probandi ac refellendi, quanta in
adfectibus omnis generis movendis scientia^ quamque
laus ipsa popularis utilitatis gratia adsumpta, quae
turn est pulcherrima, cum sequitur, non cum arcessi-
tur. Haec si perviderimus, turn vere imitabimur.
28 Qui vero etiam propria his bona adiecerit, ut sup-
pleat quae deerant, circumcidat, si quid redundabit,
is erit, quem quaerimus, perfectus orator; quem
nunc consummari potissimum oporteat^ cum tanto
plura exempla bene dicendi supersint quam illis, qui
adhuc summi sunt, contigerunt. Nam erit haec
quoque laus eorum, ut priores superasse, posteros
docuisse dicantur.

III. Et haec quidem auxilia extrinsecus adhiben-
tur ; in iis autem quae nobis ipsis paranda sunt, ut
laboris sic utilitatis etiam longe plurimum adfert stilus.
Nee immerito M. TuUius hunc optimum effectorem ac
magislrum dicendi vocat ; cui sententiae personam L.
Crassi in disputationibus quae sunt de oratore adsig-
nando, iudicium suum cum illius auctoritate coniunxit.
2 Scribendum ergo quam diligentissime et quam pluri-

» I)t Or. i. 160.
90

BOOK X. II. 27-111. 2

in which everything they say, not excepting those
portions of their speeches which seem designed
merely to delight their audience, is concentrated on
securing the victory over their opponents. We must
note their procedure in the exordium, the method
and variety of their statement of facts, the power
displayed in proof and refutation, the skill revealed
in their appeal to every kind of emotion, and the
manner in which they make use of popular applause
to serve their case, applause which is most honour-
able when it is spontaneous and not deliberately
courted. If we have thoroughly appreciated all these
points, we shall be able to imitate our models with
accuracy. But the man who to these good qualities 28
adds his own, that is to say, who makes good defici-
encies and cuts down whatever is redundant, will
be the perfect orator of our search ; and it is now
above all times that such perfection should be
attained when there are before us so many more
models of oratorical excellence than were available
for those who have thus far achieved the highest
success. For this glory also shall be theirs, that
men shall say of them that while they surpassed
their predecessors, they also taught those who came
after.

III. Such are the aids which we may derive from
external sources ; as regards those which we must
supply for ourselves, it is the pen which brings at
once the most labour and the most profit. Cicero is
fully justified in describing it as the best producer
and teacher of eloquence, and it may be noted
that in the de Oraiore^ he supports his own
judgment by the authority of Lucius Crassus, in
whose mouth he places this remark. We must 2

91

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mum. Nam ut terra alte refossa generandis alendisque
seminibus fecundior fit, sic profectus non a summo
petitus studiorum fructus efFundit uberius et fidelius
continet. Nam sine hac quidem conscientia ipsa ilia
ex tempore dicendi facultas inanem modo loquacita-

3 tem dabit et verba in labris nascentia. lUic radices,
illic fundamenta sunt, illic opes velut sanctiore quo-
dam aerario conditae, unde ad subitos quoque casus,
cum res exiget, proferantur. Vires faciamus ante
omnia, quae sufficiant labori certaminum et usu non

4 exhauriantur. Nihil enim rerum ipsa natura voluit
magnum effici cito praeposuitque pulcherrimo cuique
operi difficultatem ; quae nascendi quoque banc fece-
rit legem, ut maiora animalia diutius visceribus
parentis continerentur.

Sed cum sit duplex quaestio, quoraodo et quae
maxime scribi oporteat, iam hinc ordinem sequar.
6 Sit primo vel tardus dum diligens stilus, quaeramus
optima nee protinus ofFerentibus se gaudeamus, adhi-
beatur iudicium inventis, dispositio probatis. De-
lectus enim rerum verborumque agendus est et

92

BOOK X. III. 2-5

therefore write as much as possible and with the
utmost care. For as deep ploughing makes the soil
more fertile for the production and support of crops,
so, if we improve our minds by something more than
mere superHcial study, we shall produce a richer
growth of knowledge and shall retain it with greater
accuracy. For without the consciousness of such
preliminary study our powers of speaking extempore
will give us nothing but an empty flow of words,
springing from the lips and not from the brain. It
is in writing that eloquence has its roots and founda-
tions, it is writing tliat provides that holy of holies
where the wealth of oratory is stored, and whence it
is produced to meet the demands of sudden emerg-
encies. It is of the first importance that we should
develop such strength as will not faint under the
toil of forensic strife nor be exhausted by continual
use. For it is an ordinance of nature that nothing
great can be achieved in a moment, and that all the
fairest tasks are attended with difficulty, while on
births as well she has imposed this law, that the
larger the animal, the longer should be the period of
gestation.

There are, however, two questions which present
themselves in this connexion, namely, what should
be our method and what the subjects on which
we write, and I propose to treat them in this
order. At first, our pen must be slow yet sure : we
must search for what is best and refuse to give a
joyful welcome to every thought the moment that
it presents itself; we must first criticise the fruits of
our imagination, and then, once approved, arrange
them with care. For we must select both thoughts
and words and weigh them one by one. This done,

93

QUINTILIAN

pondera singulorum examinanda. Post subeat ratio
collocandi versenturque omni modo numeri, non ut

6 quodque se proferet verbum occupet locum. Quae
quidetn ut diligentius exsequamur, repetenda saepius
erunt scriptorum proxima. Nam praeter id quod sic
melius iunguntur prioribus sequentia, calor quoque
ille cogitationis, qui scribendi mora refrixit, recipit
ex integro vires et velut repetito spatio sumit impe-
tum ; quod in certamine saliendi fieri videmus, ut
conatum longius petant et ad illud, quo contenditur,
spatium cursu ferantur; utque in iaculando brachia
reducimus et expulsuri tela nervos retro tendimus.

7 Interim tamen, si feret flatus, danda sunt vela, dum
nos indulgentia ilia non fallat. Omnia enim nostra,
dum nascuntur, placent ; alioqui nee scriberentur.
Sed redeamus ad iudicium et retractemus suspectam

8 facilitatem. Sic scripsisse Sallustium accepimus, et
sane manifestus est etiam ex opere ipso labor. Ver-
gilium quoque paucissimos die composuisse versus
auctor est Varius. Oratoris quidem alia condicio

9 est ; itaque banc moram et sollicitudinem initiis
impero. Nam primum hoc constituendum, hoc obti-

94

I

BOOK X. III. 5-9

we must consider the order in which they should be
placed, and must examine all the possible varieties
of rhythm, refusing necessarily to place each word in
the order in which it occurs to us. In order to do 6
this with the utmost care, we must frequently revise
what we have just written. For beside the fact that
thus we secure a better connexion between what
follows and what precedes, the warmth of thought
which has cooled down while we were writing is
revived anew, and gathers fresh impetus from going
over the ground again. We may compare this pro-
cess with what occurs in jumping matches. The
competitors take a longer run and go at full speed
to clear the distance which they aim at covering;
similarly, in throwing the javelin, we draw back our
arms, and in archery pull back the bow-string to
propel the shaft. At times, however, we may 7
spread our sails before the favouring breeze, but we
must beware that this indulgence does not lead us
into error. For we love all the offspring of our
thought at the moment of their birth ; were that
not so, we should never commit them to writing.
But we must give them a critical revision, and go
carefully over any passage where we have reason to
regard our fluency with suspicion. It is thus, we 8
are told, that Sallust wrote, and certainly his M'orks
give clear evidence of the labour which he expended
on them. Again, we learn from Varius that Virgil
composed but a very small number of verses every
day. It is true that with orators the case is some- 9
what different, and it is for this reason that I
enjoin such slowness of speed and such anxious care
at the outset. For the first aim which we must fix
in our minds and insist on carrying into execution

95

QUINTILIAN

nendum est, ut quam optime scribamus ; celeritatem
dabit consuetude. Paulatim res facilius se ostendent,
verba respondebunt, compositio sequetur, cuncta
denique ut in familia bene instituta in officio erunt.

10 Summa haec est rei : cito scribendo non fit, ut bene
scribatur; bene scribendo fit, ut cito. Sed turn
maxime, cum facultas ilia contigerit, resistamus ut
provideamus et efFerentes equos frenis quibusdam
coerceamus ; quod non tarn moram faciet quam novos
impetus dabit. Neque enim rursus eos, qui robur
aliquod in stilo fecerint, ad infelicem calumniandi

1 1 se poenam alligandos puto. Nam quomodo sufficere
officiis civilibus possit, qui singulis actionum partibus
insenescat ? Sunt autem quibus nihil sit satis ; omnia
mutare, omnia aliter dicere quam occurrit velint;
increduli quidam et de ingenio suo pessime meriti,
qui diligentiam putant facere sibi scribendi diffi-

12 cultatem. Nee promptum est dicere, utros peccare
validius putem, quibus omnia sua placent an quibus
nihil. Accidit enim etiam ingeniosis adolescentibus
frequenter, ut labore consumantur et in silentium
usque descendant nimia bene dicendi cupiditate.
Qua de re memini narrasse mihi lulium Secundum
ilium, aequalem meum atque a me, ut notum est,
familiariter araatum, mirae facundiae virum, infinitae

9^

BOOK X. III. 9-12

is to write as well as possible ; speed will come with
practice. Gradually thoughts will suggest them-
selves with increasing readiness, the words will
answer to our call and rhythmical arrangement will
follow, till everything will be found fulfilling its
proper function as in a well-ordered household.
The sum of the whole matter is this : write quickly 10
and you will never write well, write well and you
will soon write quickly. But it is just when we
have acquired this facility that we must pause awhile
to look ahead and, if I may use the metaphor, curb
the horses that would run away with us. This will
not delay our progress so much as lend us fresh
vigour. For I do not think that those who have
acquired a certain power in writing should be con-
demned to the barren pains of false self-criticism.
How can anyone fulfil his duties as an advocate if he 11
wastes his time in putting unnecessary finish on each
portion of his pleadings ? There are some who are
never satisfied. They wish to change everything
they have written and to put it in other words.
They are a diffident folk, and deserve but ill of their
own talents, who think it a mark of precision to cast
obstacles in the way of their own writing. Nor is it 12
easy to say which are the most serious offenders, those
who are satisfied with everything or those who are
satisfied with nothing that they write. For it is
of common occurrence with young men, however
talented they may be, to waste their gifts by super-
fluous elaboration, and to sink into silence through
an excessive desire to speak well. I remember in
this connexion a story that Julius Secundus, my con-
temporary, and, as is well known, my very dear friend,
a man with remarkable powers of eloquence, but

97

QUINTILIAN

13 tamen curae, quid esset sibi a patruo suo dictum. Is
fuit lulius Florus, in eloquentia Galliarum, quoniam
ibi demum exercuit earn, princeps, alioqui inter pau-
cos disertus et dignus ilia propinquitate. Is cum
Secundum, scholae adhuc operatum, tristem forte
vidisset, interrogavit, quae causa frontis tam ad-

14 ductae. Nee dissimulavit adolescens, tertium iam
diem esse, quod omni labore materiae ad scribendum
destinatae non inveniret exordium ; quo sibi non
praesens tantum dolor, sed etiam desperatio in pos-
terum fieret. Tum Florus arridens, Numquid tu, in-

15 quit, melius dicere vis quam poles ? Ita se res habet.
Curandum est ut quam optime dicamus ; dicendum
tamen pro facultate. Ad profectum enim opus est
studio non indignatione. Ut possimus autem scribere
etiam plura et celerius, non exercitatio modo prae-
stabit, in qua sine dubio multum est, sed etiam ratio ;
si non resupini spectantesque tectum et cogitationem
murmure agitantes exspectaverimus quid obveniat;
sed quid res poscat, quid personam deceat, quod sit
tempus, qui iudicis animus intuiti, humano quodam
modo ad scribendum accesserimus. Sic nobis et
initia et quae sequuntur natura ipsa praescribit.

16 Certa sunt enim pleraque et, nisi conniveamus, in
98

BOOK X. III. 12-16

with an infinite passion for precision, told me of the
words once used to him by his uncle, Julius Florus, 13
the leading orator of Gaul, for it was there that he
practised, a man eloquent as but few have ever
been, and worthy of his nephew. He once noticed
that Secundus, who was still a student, was looking
depressed, and asked him the meaning of his frowns.
The youth made no concealment of the reason : he 14
had been working for three days, and had been un-
able, in spite of all his efforts, to devise an exordium
for the theme which he had been given to write,
with the result that he was not only vexed over
his immediate difficulty, but had lost all hope of
future success. Florus smiled and said, "Do you
really want to speak better than you can.''" There 15
lies the truth of the whole matter. We must aim
at speaking as well as we can, but must not try to
speak better than our nature will permit. For to
make any real advance we need study, not self-
accusation. And it is not merely practice that will
enable us to -write at greater length and with
increased fluency, although doubtless practice is
most important. We need judgement as well. So
long as we do not lie back with eyes turned up to the
ceiling, trying to fire our imagination by muttering
to ourselves, in the hope that something will present
itself, but turn our thoughts to consider what the
circumstances of the case demand, what suits the
characters involved, what is the nature of the occa-
sion and the temper of the judge, we shall acquire
the power of writing by rational means. It is thus
that nature herself bids us begin and pursue our
studies once well begun. For most points are of a 16
definite character and, if we keep our eyes open,

99

QUINTILIAN

oculos incurrunt ; ideoque nee indocti nee rustiei diu
quaerunt, unde incipiant ; quo pudendum est magis,
si difficultatem facit doctrina. Non ergo semper
putemus optimum esse quod latet; immutescamus
alioqui, si nihil dicendum videatur, nisi quod non

17 invenimus. Diversum est huic eorum vitium, qui
primo decurrere per materiam stilo quam velocissimo
volunt et sequentes calorem atque impetum ex tem-
pore scribunt ; hanc silvam vocant. Repetunt deinde
et componunt quae efFuderant ; sed verba emendan-
tur et numeri, manet in rebus temere eongestis quae

18 fuit levitas. Protinus ergo adhibere curam rectius
erit atque ab initio sic opus ducere, ut caelandum,
non ex integro fabricandum sit, Aliquando tamen
adfectus sequemur, in quibus fere plus calor quam
diligentia valet.

Satis apparet ex eo, quod hanc scribentium negli-
gentiam damno, quid de illis dictandi deliciis sentiam.

19 Nam in stilo quidem quamlibet properato dat ali-
quam cogitationi moram non consequens celeritatem
eius manus; ille cui dictamus urgetj atque interim

ICO

BOOK X. III. 16-19

will spontaneously present themselves. That is the
reason why peasants and uneducated persons do not
beat about the bush to discover with what they
should begin, and our hesitation is all the more
shameful if it is simply the result of education.
We must not, therefore, persist in thinking that
what is hard to find is necessarily best ; for, if it
seems to us that there is nothing to be said except
that which we are unable to find, we must say
nothing at all. On the other hand, there is a fault 17
which is precisely the opposite of this, into which
those fall who insist on first making a rapid draft
of their subject with the utmost speed of which
their pen is capable, and write in the heat and
impulse of the moment. They call this their rough
copy. They then revise what they have written,
and arrange their hasty outpourings. But wliile
the words and the rhythm may be corrected, the
matter is still marked by the superficiality resulting
from the speed with which it was thrown together.
The more correct method is, therefore, to exercise 18
care from the very beginning, and to form the
work from the outset in such a manner that it
merely requires to be chiselled into shape, not
fashioned anew. Sometimes, however, we must
follow the stream of our emotions, since their
warmth will give us more than any diligence can
secure.

The condemnation which I have passed on such 19
carelessness in writing will make it pretty clear what
my views are on the luxury of dictation which
is now so fashionable. For, when we write, however
great our speed, the fact that the hand cannot follow
the rapidity of our thoughts gives us time to think,

lOI

QUINTILIAN

pudet etiam dubitare aut resistere aut mutare quasi

20 conscium infirmitatis nostrae timentes. Quo fit, ut
non rudia tantum et fortuita, sed impropria interim,
dum sola est connectendi sermonis cupiditas, effluant,
quae nee scribentium curam nee dieentium impetum
consequantur. At idem ille, qui excipit, si tardior in
scribendo aut incertior in intellegendo ^ velut ofFen-
sator fuit, inhibetur cursus, atque omnis quae erat
concepta mentis intentio mora et interdum ira-

21 cundia excutitur. Tum ilia, quae altiorem^ animi
motum sequuntur quaeque ipsa animum quodam-
modo concitant, quorum est iactare manum, torquere
vultum, frontem et latus ^ interim obiurgare, quae-
que Persius notat, cum leviter dicendi genus
significat.

Nee pluteum, inquit, caedit nee demorsos sapit U7igues,

22 etiam ridicula sunt, nisi cum soli sumus. Denique
ut semel quod est potentissimum dicam, secretum
in * dictando perit. Atque liberum arbitris locum et
quam altissimum silentium scribentibus maxime con-
venire nemo dubitaverit. Non tamen protinus audi-
endi, qui credunt aptissima in hoc nemora silvasque,
quod ilia caeli libertas locorumque amoenitas subli-

23 mem animum et beatiorem spiritum parent. Mihi certe

' intellegendo, Milller : legendo, B.

* altiorem, later MSS. : aptiorem, B.

' frontem et latus, Peterson : sintielatus, B (Snd hand) :
simul et, almost all MSS!.

* in, several later MSS. : quod, B.

1 L 106.

I02

BOOK X. in. 19-23

whereas the presence of our amanuensis hurries us
on, and at times we feel ashamed to hesitate or
pause, or make some alteration, as though we were
afraid to display such weakness before a witness.
As a result our language tends not merely to be 20
haphazard and formless, but in our desire to produce
a continuous flow we let slip positive improprieties
of diction, which show neither the precision of the
writer nor the impetuosity of the speaker. Again, if
the amanuensis is a slow writer, or lacking in intelli-
gence, he becomes a stumbling-block, our speed is
checked, and the thread of our ideas is interrupted
by the delay or even perhaps by the loss of
temper to which it gives rise. Moreover, the 21
gestures which accompany strong feeling, and some-
times even serve to stimulate the mind, the waving
of the hand, the contraction of the brow, the
occasional striking of forehead or side, and those
which Persius^ notes when he describes a trivial
style as one that

" Thumps not the desk nor smacks of bitten nails,"

all these become ridiculous, unless we are alone.
Finally, we come to the most important considera- 22
tion of all, that the advantages of privacy are lost
when we dictate. Everyone, however, will agree
that the absence of company and deep silence are
most conducive to writing, though I would not go
so far as to concur in the opinion of those who think
woods and groves the most suitable localities for
the purpose, on the ground that the freedom of
the sky and the charm of the surroundings produce
sublimity of thought and wealth of inspiration.
Personally I regard such an environment as a 23

'03

QUINTILIAN

iucundus hie magis quam studiorum hortator videtur
esse secessus. Nanique ilia, quae ipsa delectant,
necesse est avocent ab intentione operis destinati.
Neque enim se bona fide in multa simul intendere
animus totum potest, et quocunque respexit, desinit

24 intueri quod propositum erat. Quare silvarum amoe-
nitas et praeterlabentia flumina et inspirantes ramis
arborum aurae volucrumque cantus et ipsa late cir-
cunispiciendi libertas ad se trahunt, ut mihi remittere
potius voluptas ista videatur cogitationem quam in-

25 tendere. Demosthenes melius, qui se in locum, ex
quo nulla exaudiri vox et ex quo nihil prospici posset,
recondebat ne aliud agere mentem cogerent oculi.
Ideoque lucubrantes silentium noctis et clausum
cubiculum et lumen unum velut tectos ^ maxime

28 teneat. Sed cum in omni studiorum genere tum in
hoc praecipue bona valetudo, quaeque eam maxime
praestat, frugalitas, necessaria est, cum terapora ab
ipsa rerum natura ad quietem refection emque nobis
data in acerrimum laborem convertimus. Cui tamen
non plus irrogandum est quam quod somno supererit,

27 haud deerit. Obstat enimdiligentiae scribendi etiam
fatigatfo, et abunde, si vacet, lucis spatia sufliciunt ;
occupatos in noctem necessitas agit. Est tamen lu-
cubratio, quotiens ad eam integri ac refecti venimus,
optimum secreti genus.

^ tectos, ed. Leid. : rectos, MSS.

* An underground room. See Plut. Dem. vii.
104

BOOK X. III. 23 -27

pleasant luxury rather than a stimulus to study.
For whatever causes us delight, must necessarily
distract us from the concentration due to our work.
The mind cannot devote its undivided and sincere
attention to a number of things at the same time,
and wherever it turns its gaze it must cease to
contemplate its appointed task. Therefore, the 24
charm of the woods, the gliding of the stream, the
breeze that murmurs in the branches, the song of
birds, and the very freedom with which our eyes
may range, are mere distractions, and in my opinion
the pleasure which they excite is more likely to
relax than to concentrate our attention. Demos- 25
thenes took a wiser view ; for he would retire to
a place ^ where no voice was to be heard, and no
prospect greeted the sight, for fear that his eyes
might force his mind to neglect its duty. There-
fore, let the burner of the midnight oil seclude
himself in the silence of night, within closed doors,
with but a solitary lamp to light his labours. But 2b
for every kind of study, and more especially for
night work, good health and its chief source, simple
living, are essential ; for we have fallen into the
habit of devoting to relentless labour the hour which
nature has appointed for rest and relaxation. From
those hours we must take only such time as is super-
fluous for sleep, and will not be missed. For fatigue 27
will make us careless in writing, and the hours of
daylight are amply sufficient for one who has no
other distractions. It is only the busy man who
is driven to encroach on the hours of darkness.
Nevertheless, night work, so long as we come to it
fresh and untired, provides by far the best form of
privacy.

105

QUINTILIAN

28 Sed silentium et secessus et undique liber
animus ut sunt maxime optanda, ita non semper
possunt contingere, ideoque non statim, si quid
obstrepet, abiiciendi codices erunt et deplorandus
dies ; verum incommodis repugnandum et hie fa-
ciendus usus, ut omnia quae impedient vincat
intentio ; quam si tota mente in opus ipsum di-
rexeris, nihil eorum, quae oculis vel auribus in-

29 cursant, ad animum perveniet. An vero frequenter
etiam fortuita hoc cogitatio praestat, ut obvios non
videamus et itinere deerremus : non consequemur
idem, si et voluerimus? Non est indulgendum
causis desidiae. Nam si non nisi refecti, non nisi
hilares, non nisi omnibus aliis curis vacantes stu-
dendum existimarimus, semper erit propter quod

30 nobis ignoscamus. Quare in turba, itinere, con-
viviis etiam faciat sibi cogitatio ipsa secretum
Quid alioqui fiet, cum in medio foro, tot circum
stantibus iudiciis, iurgiis, fortuitis etiam clamoribus,
erit subito continua oratione dicendum, si particulas
quas ceris mandamus nisi in solitudine reperire non
possumus ? Propter quae idem ille tantus amator
secreti Demosthenes in litore, in quo se maximo
cum sono fluctus illideret, meditans consuescebat
contionum fremitus non expavescere.

31 Ilia quoque minora (sed nihil in studiis parvum
io6

BOOK X. III. 28-31

But although silence and seclusion and absolute 28
freedom of mind are devoutly to be desired, they
are not always within our power to attain. Con-
sequently we must not fling aside our book at once,
if disturbed by some noise, and lament that we
have lost a day: on the contrary, we must make
a firm stand against such inconveniences, and train
ourselves so to concentrate our thoughts as to rise
superior to all impediments to study. If only you
direct all your attention to the work which you
have in hand, no sight or sound will ever penetrate
to your mind. If even casual thoughts often occupy 29
us to such an extent that we do not see passers-by,
or even stray from our path, surely we can obtain
the same result by the exercise of our will. We
must not give way to pretexts for sloth. For unless
we make up our mind that we must be fresh, cheer-
ful and free from all other care when we approach our
studies, we shall always find some excuse for idleness.
Therefore, whether we be in a crowd, on a journey, 30
or even at some festive gathering, our thoughts should
always have some inner sanctuary of their own to
which they may retire. Otherwise what shall we
do when we are suddenly called upon to deliver
a set speech in the midst of the forum, with law-
suits in progress on ever}' side, and with the sound
of quarrels and even casual outcries in our ears, if
we need absolute privacy to discover the thoughts
which we jot down upon our tablets ? It was for
this reason that Demosthenes, the passionate lover
of seclusion, used to study on the seashore amid the
roar of the breakers that they might teach him not
to be unnerved by the uproar of the public assembly.
There are also certain minor details which deserve 31

107

QUINTILIAN

est) non sunt transeunda : scribi optime ceris, in
quibus facillima est ratio delendi, nisi forte visus
infirmior membranarum potius usum exiget, quae
ut iuvant aciem, ita crebra relatione, quoad intin-
guuntur, calami morantur manum et cogitationis

32 impetum frangunt. Relinquendae autem in utro-
libet genere contra erunt vacuae tabellae, in quibus
libera adiiciendo sit excursio. Nam interim pi-
gritiam emendandi augustiae faciunt aut certe
novorum interpositione priora confundant. Ne latas
quidem ultra modum esse ceras velim, expertus
iuvenem studiosum alioqui praelongos habuisse ser-
mones, quia illos numero versuum metiebatur, idque
vitium, quod frequenti admonitione corrigi non

33 potuerat, mutatis codicibus esse sublatum. Debet
vacare etiam locus, in quo notentur quae scri-
bentibus solent extra ordinem, id est ex aliis, quam
qui sunt in manibus loci, occurrere. Irrumpunt
enim optimi nonnunquam sensus, quos neque
inserere oportet neque differre tutum est, quia
interim elabuntur, interim memoriae suae intentos
ab alia inventione declinant ideoque optime sunt in
deposito.

IV. Sequitur emendatio, pars studiorum longe
utilissima. Neque enim sine causa creditum est
stilum non minus agere, cum delet Huius autem
08

BOOK X. III. 31-1V. I

our attention, for there is nothing too minute for the
student. It is best to write on wax owing to the
facility which it offers for erasure, though weak
sight may make it desirable to employ parchment
by preference. The latter, however, although of
assistance to the eye, delays the hand and interrupts
the stream of thought owing to the frequency with
which the pen has to be supplied with ink. But 32
whichever we employ, we must leave blank pages
that we may be free to make additions when we
will. For lack of space at times gives rise to a
reluctance to make corrections, or, at any rate, is
liable to cause confusion when new matter is
inserted. The wax tablets should not be unduly
wide ; for 1 have known a young and over-zealous
student write his comjwsitions at undue length,
because he measured them by the number of lines,
a fault which persisted, in spite of frequent ad-
monition, until his tablets were changed, when it
disappeared. Space must a'lso be left for jotting 33
down the thoughts which occur to the writer out
of due order, that is to say, which refer to subjects
other than those in hand. For sometimes the most
admirable thoughts break in upon us which cannot
be inserted in what we are writing, but which, on
the other hand, it is unsafe to put by, since they are
at times forgotten, and at times cling to the memory
so persistently as to divert us from some other line
of thought. They are, therefore, best kept in
store.

IV. The next point which we have to consider is
the correction of our work, which is by far the most
useful portion of our study : for there is good reason
for the view that erasure is quite as important a

10^

QUINTILIAN

operis est adiicere, detrahere, mutare. Sed facilius
in iis simpliciusque iudicium^ quae replenda vel
deiicienda sunt; premere vero tumentia, humilia
extollere, luxuriantia adstringere, inordinata di-
gerere, soluta componere, exultantia coercere,
duplicis operae. Nam et damnanda sunt quae pla-

2 cuerunt et invenienda quae fugerant. Nee dubium
est optimum esse emendandi genus, si scripta in
aliquod tempus reponantur, ut ad ea post intervallum
velut nova atque aliena redeamus, ne nobis scripta

3 nostra tanquam recentes fetus blandiantur. Sed
neque hoc contingere semper potest praesertim
oratori, cui saepius scribere ad praesentes usus
necesse est ; et ipsa emendatio finem habeat. Sunt
enim qui ad omnia scripta tanquam vitiosa redeant
et, quasi nihil fas sit rectum esse quod primum est,
melius existiment quidquid est aliud, idque faciant,
quotiens librum in manus resumpserunt, similes
medicis etiam Integra secantibus. Accidit itaque

4 ut cicatricosa sint et exsanguis et cura peiora. Sit
ergo aliquando quod placeat aut certe quod sufficiat,
ut opus poliat lima, non exterat. Temporis quoque
no

BOOK X. IV. 1-4

function of the pen as actual writing. Correction
takes the form of addition, excision and alteration.
But it is a comparatively simple and easy task to
decide what is to be added or excised. On the
other hand, to prune what is turgid, to elevate
what is mean, to repress exuberance, arrange what
is disorderly, introduce rhythm where it is lacking,
and modify it where it is too emphatic, involves a
twofold labour. For we have to condemn what had
previously satisfied us and discover what had escaped
our notice. There can be no doubt that the best 2
method of correction is to put aside what we have
written for a certain time, so that when we return
to it after an interval it will have the air of novelty
and of being another's handiwork ; for thus we may
prevent ourselves from regarding our writings with
all the affection that we lavish on a newborn child.
But this is not always possible, especially in the case 3
of an orator who most frequently has to write for
immediate use, while some limit, after all, must be
set to correction. For there are some who return
to everything they write with the presumption that
it is full of faults and, assuming that a first draft
must necessarily be incorrect, think every change
an improvement and make some alteration as often
as they have the manuscript in their hands : they
are, in fact, like doctors who use the knife even
where the flesh is perfectly healthy. The result of
their critical activities is that the finished work is
full of scars, bloodless, and all the worse for their
anxious care. No ! let there be something in all 4
our writing which, if it does not actually please us,
at least passes muster, so that the file may only
polish our work, not wear it away. There must

III

QUINTILIAN }

esse debet modus. Nam quod Cinnae Zmyrnam
novem annis accepimus scriptam, et Panegyricum
Isocratis, qui parcissime, decern annis dicunt elabo-
ratium, ad oratorem nihil pertinet, cuius nullum
erit, si tam tardum fuerit, auxilium.

V. Proximum est, ut dicamus, quae praecipue
scribenda sint e$iv parantibus. Non est huius ^
quidem operis, ut explicemus quae sint materiae,
quae prima aut secunda aut deinceps tractanda sint
(nam id factum est etiam primo libro, quo puerorum,
et secundo, quo iam robustorum studiis ordinem
dedimus) sed de quo nunc agitur, unde copia ac
facilitas maxime veniat.

2 Vertere Graeca in Latinum veteres nostri oratores
optimum iudicabant. Id se L, Crassus in illis
Ciceronis de Oratore libris dicit factitasse. Id
Cicero sua ipse persona frequentissime praecipit,
quin etiam libros Platonis atque Xenophontis edidit
hoc genere translatos. Id Messalae placuit, mul-
taeque sunt ab eo scriptae ad liunc modum orationes,
adeo ut etiam cum ilia Hyperidis pro Phryne

3 difficillima Romanis subtilitate contenderet. Et
manifesta est exercitationis huiusce ratio. Nam et
rerum copia Graeci auctores abundant et plurimum
artis in eloquentiam intulerunt, et hos transfe-
rentibus verbis uti optimis licet, omnibus enim

* non est huius, added by Biirsian.

* C. Helvius Cinna, the friend of Catullus. The Smyrna
was a short but exceptionally obscure and learned epic.

» See X. i. 1. » Ch. ix.

* Ch. iv. » i. 155.

* The (Eccmomicus of Xenophon, the Protagorus and Timaeus
of I'lato.

I

BOOK X. IV. 4-v. 3

also be a limit to the time which we spend on its
revision. For the fact that Cinna i took nine years
to write his Smyrna, and that Isocrates required
ten years, at the lowest estimate, to complete his
Panegyric does not concern the orator, whose
assistance will be of no use, if it is so long
delayed.

V. My next task is to indicate what those should
write whose aim is to acquire facility.' At this part
of my work there is no necessity for me to set forth
the subjects which should be selected for writing,
or the order in which they should be approached,
since I have already done this in the first book,^
where I prescribed the sequence of studies for boys,
and in the second book,* where I did the same for
young men. The point which concerns me now is
to show from what sources copiousness and facility
may most easily be derived.

Our earlier orators thought highly of translation
from Greek into Latin. In the de Oratore ^ of 2
Cicero, Lucius Crassus says that he practised this
continually, while Cicero himself advocates it again
and again, nay, he actually published translations
of Xenophon and Plato,^ which were the result of
this form of exercise. Messala likewise gave it his
approval, and we have a number of translations of
speeches from his hand ; he even succeeded in
coping with the delicacy of Hyperides' speech in
defence of Phryne, a task of exceeding difficulty for
a Roman. The purpose of this form of exercise is 3
obvious. For Greek authors are conspicuous for the
variety of their matter, and there is much art in
all their eloquence, while, when we translate them,
we are at liberty to use the best words available,

i>3

QUINTILIAN

utimur nostris. Figuras vero, quibus maxim e orna-
tur oratio, multas ac varias excogitandi etiam ne-
cessitas quaedam est, quia plerumque a Graecis
Romana dissentiunt.

4 Sed et ilia ex Latinis eonversio multum et ipsa
contulerit. Ac de carminibus quidem neminem
credo dubitare, quo solo genere exercitationis dicitur
usus esse Sulpicius. Nam et sublimis spiritus attol-
lere orationem potest, et verba poetica libertate
audaciora non praesumunt eadem proprie dicendi
facultatem. Sed et ipsis sententiis adiicere licet
oratorium robur et omissa supplere, efFusa sub-

5 stringere. Neque ego paraphrasim esse interpre-
tationem tantum volo, sed circa eosdem sensus
certamen atque aemulationem. Ideoque ab illis
dissentio, qui vertere orationes Latinas vetant, quia
optimis occupatis, quidquid aliter dixerimus, necesse
sit esse deterius. Nam neque semper est desperan-
dum, aliquid illis, quae dicta sunt, melius posse
reperiri ; neque adeo ieiunam ac pauperem natura
eloquentiam fecit, ut una de re bene dici nisi semel

6 non possit. Nisi forte histrionum multa circa voces
easdem variare gestus potest, orandi minor vis, ut

^ 7. e. we shall not borrow from our models, as we do in
paraphrasing Latin.

* Lit. "forestall the power of using the language of
ordinary prose."

114

BOOK X. V. 3-6

since all that we use are our very own.* As regards

figures, too, which are the chief ornament of oratory,
it is necessary to think out a great number and variety
for ourselves, since in this respect the Roman idiom
differs largely from the Greek.

But paraphrase from the Latin will also be of 4
much assistance, while I think we shall all agree that
this is specially valuable with regard to poetry ;
indeed, it is said that the paraphrase of poetry was
the sole form of exercise employed by Sulpicius.
For the lofty inspiration of verse serves to elevate
the orator's style and the bold license of poetic
language does not preclude ^ our attempting to
render the same words in the language natural to
prose. Nay, we may add the \igour of oratory
to the thoughts expressed by the poet, make good
his omissions, and prune his diffuseness. But I 6
would not have paraphrase restrict itself to the
bare interpretation of the original : its duty is
rather to rival and vie with the original in the
expression of the same thoughts. Consequently,
I disagree with those who forbid the student to
paraphrase speeches of our own orators, on the
ground that, since all the best expressions have
already been appropriated, whatever we express
differently must necessarily be a change for the
worse. For it is always possible that we may dis-
cover expressions which are an improvement on
those which have already been used, and nature
did not make eloquence such a j>oor and starveling
thing, that there should be only one adequate
expression for any one theme. It can hardly be 6
argued that, while the gestures of the actor are
capable of imparting a wealth of varied meaning

QUINTILIAN
dicatur aliquid, post quod in eadem materia nihil
dicendum sit. Sed esto neque melius quod inveni-

7 mus esse neque par : est certe proximis locus. An
vero ipsi non bis ac saepius de eadem re dicimus et
quidem continuas nonnunquam sententias ? Nisi
forte contendere nobiscum possumus, cum aliis non
possumus. Nam si uno genere bene diceretur, fas
erat existimari praeclusam nobis a prioribus viam ;
nunc vero innumerabiles sunt modi plurimaeque

8 eodem viae ducunt. Sua brevitati gratia, sua copiae,
alia translatis virtus alia propriis, hoc oratio recta
illud figura declinata commendat. Ipsa denique
utilissima est exercitationi difficultas. Quid, quod
auctores maximi sic diligentius cognoscuntur ? Non
enim scripta lectione secura transcurrimus, sed
tractamus singula et necessario introspicimus et,
quantum virtutis habeant, vel hoc ipso cognoscimus,
quod imitari non possumus.

9 Nee aliena tantum transferre sed etiam nostra
pluribus modis tractare proderit, ut ex industria
ii6

BOOK X. V. 6-9

to the same words, the power of oratory is restricted
to a narrower scope, so that when a thing has once
been said, it is impossible to say anything else on
the same theme. Why, even if it be granted that
no new expression we discover can be better than
or even equal to the old, it may, at any rate, be
a good second. Do we not often speak twice, or 7
even more frequently, on the same subject, some-
times even to the extent of a number of sentences
in succession ? It will scarce be asserted that we
must not match ourselves against others when
we are permitted to match ourselves against our-
selves. For if there were only one way in which
anything could be satisfactorily expressed, we
should be justified in thinking that the path to
success had been sealed to us by our predecessors.
But, as a matter of fact, the methods of expression
still left us are innumerable, and many roads lead
us to the same goal. Brevity and copiousness each 8
have their own peculiar grace, the merits of meta-
phor are one thing and of literalness another, and,
while direct expression is most effective in one case,
in another the best result is gained by a use of
figures. Further, the exercise is valuable in virtue
of its difficulty ; and again, there is no better way of
acquiring a thorough understanding of the greatest
authors. For, instead of hurriedly running a careless
eye over their writings, we handle each separate
phrase and are forced to give it close examination,
and we come to realise the greatness of their excel-
lence from the very fact that we cannot imitate
them.

Nor is it only the paraphrase of the works of 9
others that we shall find of advantage : much may

117

QUINTILIAN

sumamus sententias quasdam easque versemus quam
numerosissime, velut eadem cera aliae aliaeque

10 formaeduci solent. Plurimum autem parari facultatis
existimo ex simplicissima quaque materia. Nam ilia
multiplici personarum, causarum, temporum, loco-
rum, dictorum^ factorum diversitate facile delitescet
infirmitas, tot se undique rebus, ex quibus aliquam

11 apprehendas, offerentibus. Illud virtutis indicium
est fundere quae natura contracta sunt, augere parva,
varietatem similibus, voluptatem expositis dare et
bene dicere multa de paucis.

In hoc optime facient infinitae quaestiones, quas
vocari Ofaeis diximus, quibus Cicero iam princeps in

12 re publica exerceri solebat. His confinis est de-
structio et confirmatio sententiarum. ■ Nam cum
sit sententia decretum quoddam atque praeceptumj
quod de re idem de iudicio rei quaeri potest. Turn
loci communes, quos etiam scriptos ab oratoribus
scimus. Nam qui haec recta tantum et in nullos
flexus recedentia copiose tractaverit, utique in illis

* See III. V. 5 sqq. * Ad AU. ix. iv. 1.

» Sean. i. 9-11 and iv. 22.

1x8

BOOK X. V. 9-ia

be gained from paraphrasing our own words in a
number of different ways : for instance, we may
specially select certain thoughts and recast them
in the greatest variety of forms, just as a sculptor
will fashion a number of different images from the
same piece of wax. But it is the simplest subjects 10
which, in my opinion, will serve us best in our
attempt to acquire facility. For our lack of talent
may easily shelter itself behind the complicated
mass of detail presented by persons, cases, circum-
stances of time and place, words and deeds, since
the subjects which present themselves on all sides
are so many that it will always be possible to lay
hold of some one or other. True merit is revealed 11
by the power to expand what is naturally com-
pressed, to amplify what is small, to lend variety
to sameness, charm to the commonplace, and to
say a quantity of good things about a very limited
number of subjects.

For this purpose indefinite questioris,^ of the kind
we call theses, will be found of the utmost service :
in fact, Cicero ' still exercised himself upon such
themes after he had become the leading man in
the state. Akin to these are the proof or refuta- 12
tion of general statements. For such statements
are a kind of decree or rule, and Avhatever problem
may arise from the thing, may equally arise from the
decision passed upon the thing. Then there are
commonplaces,^ which, as we know, have often been
written by orators as a form of exercise. The man
who has practised himself in giving full treatment
to such simple and uncomplicated themes, will
assuredly find his fluency increased in those subjects
which admit of varied digression, and will be pre-

iig

QUINTILIAN

plures excursus recipientibus magis abundabit eritque
in omnes causas paratus. Omnes enim generalibus

13 quaestionibus constant. Nam quid interest, Cor-
nelius tribunus plebis quod codicem legerit, reus sitj
an quaeramus, violeturne maiestas, si magistratus
rogationem suam populo ipse recitaverit ; Milo Clo-
dium rectene occiderit, veniat in iudicium, an,
oporteatne insidiatorem interfici vel perniciosum rei
publicae civem, etiamsi non insidietur ; Cato Mar-
ciam honestene tradiderit Hortensio, an, conveniatne
res talis bono viro ? De personis iudicatur, sed de

14 rebus contenditur. Declamationes vero, quales in
scholis rhetorum dicuntur, si modo sunt ad veritatem
accommodatae et orationibus similes, non tantum
dum adolescit profectus sunt utilissimae, quia in-
ventionem et dispositionem pariter exercent, sed
etiam cum est consummatus ac iam in foro clarus.
Alitur enim atque enitescit velut pabulo laetiore
facundia et adsidua contentionum asperitate fati-

16 gata renovatur. Quapropter historiae nonnunquam

* See IV. iv. 8 ; v. xiii. 26 ; vi, v. 10 ; vii. ill. 3, 35.

* profectus, lit. "progress," abstract for concrete.

I20

BOOK X. V. 12-15

pared to deal with any case that may confront him,
since all eases ultimately turn upon general ques-
tions. For what difference is there between the 13
special case where Cornelius,^ the tribune of the
people, is charged with reading the text of a pro-
posed law, and the general question whether it is
lese-majeste for a magistrate himself to read the
law which he proposes to the people ; what does it
matter whether we have to decide whether Milo was
justified in killing Clodius, or whether it is justifi-
able to kill a man who has set an ambush for his
slayer, or a citizen whose existence is a danger to
the state, even though he has set no such ambush ?
What difference is there between the question
whether it was an honourable act on the part of
Cato to make over Marcia to Hortensius, or whether
such an action is becoming to a virtuous man ? It is
on the guilt or innocence of specific persons that
judgement is given, but it is on general principles
that the case ultimately rests. As for declamations 14
of the kind delivered in the schools of the rheto-
ricians, so long as they are in keeping with actual
life and resemble speeches, they are most profitable
to the student, not merely while he ^ is still immature,
for the reason that they simultaneously exercise the
powers both of invention and arrangement, but even
when he has finished his education and acquired a
reputation in the courts. For they provide a richer
diet from which eloquence derives nourishment and
brilliance of complexion, and at the same time afford
a refreshing variety after the continuous fatigues
of forensic disputes. For the same reason, the wealth 16
of language that marks the historian should be from
time to time imported into portions of our written

▼OL. IV.

121

QUINTILIAN

ubertas in aliqua exercendi stili parte ponenda et
dialogorum libertate gestiendum. Ne carmine qui-
dem ludere contrarium fuerit, sicut athletae, remissa
quibusdam temporibus ciborum atque exercitationum
certa necessitate, otio et iucundioribus epulis refi-

16 ciuntur. Ideoque mihi videtur M. TuUius tantum
intulisse eloquentiae lumen, quod in hos quoque
studiorum secessus excurrit. Nam si nobis sola
materia fuerit ex litibus, necesse est deteratur
fulgor et durescat articulus et ijjse ille macro ingenii
cotidiana pugna retundatur.

17 Sed quemadmodum forensibus certaminibus exer-
citatos et quasi militantes reficit ac reparat haec
velut sagina dicendi, sic adolescentes non debent
nimium in falsa rerum imagine detineri et inanibus
simulacris usque adeo, ut difficilis ab his digressus
sit, assuescere,^ ne ab ilia, in qua prope con-
senuerunt, umbra vera discrimina velut quendam

18 solem reformident. Quod accidisse etiam M. Porcio
Latroni, qui primus clari nominis professor fuit,
traditur, ut, cum ei summam in 9cholis opinionem
obtinenti causa in foro esset oranda, impense pe-
tierit, uti subsellia in basilicam transferrentur. Ita
illi caelum novum fuit, ut omnis eius eloquentia

* assuescere, Zumpt : assuefacere, MSS.
132

BOOK X. V. 15-18

exercises, and we should indulge in the easy free-
dom of dialogue. Nay, it may even be advantageous
to amuse ourselves with the writing of verse, just as
athletes occasionally drop the severe regime of diet
and exercise to which they are subjected and refresh
themselves by taking a rest and indulging in more
dainty and agreeable viands. Indeed, in my opinion, 16
one of the reasons why Cicero was enabled to shed
such glory upon the art of speaking is to be found
in his excursions to such bypaths of study. For if
all our material was drawn solely from actions at
law, our eloquence must needs lose its gloss, our
limbs grow stiff, and the keen edge of the intellect
be blunted by its daily combats.

But although those who find their practice in the 17
contests of forensic warfare derive fresh strength
and repair their forces by means of this rich fare of
eloquence, the young should not be kept too long at
these false semblances of reality, nor should they be
allowed to become so familiar with these empty
shadows that it is difficult for them to leave them :
otherwise there is always the danger that, owing to
the seclusion in which they have almost grown
old, they will shrink in terror from the real perils
of public life, like men dazzled by the unfamiliar
sunlight. Indeed it is recorded that this fate 18
actually befell Marcus Porcius Latro, the first pro-
fessor of rhetoric to make a name for himself ; for
when, at the height of his fame in the schools, he was
called upon to plead a case in the forum, he put
forward the most earnest request that the court
should be transferred to some public hall. He was
so unaccustomed to speak in the open air that all his
eloquence seemed to reside within the compass of a

123

QUINTILIAN

19 contineri tecto ac parietibus videretur. Quare
iuvenis, qui rationem inveniendi eloquendique a
praeceptoribus diligenter acceperit (quod iion est
infiniti operis, si docere sciant et velint), exerci-
tationem quoque modicam fueritconsecutuSj oratorem
sibi aliquem, quod apud maiores fieri solebat^ deligat,
quern sequatur, quern imitetur; iudiciis intersit
quam plurimis et sit certaminis, cui destinatur,

20 frequens spectator. Turn causas vel easdem, quas
agi audierit, stilo et ipse eomponat, vel etiam alias
veras modo et utrinque tractet, et, quod in gla-
diatoribus fieri videmus, decretoriis exerceatur, ut
fecisse Brutum diximus pro Milone. Melius hoc
quam rescribere veteribus orationibus, ut fecit
Cestius contra Ciceronis actionem habitam pro
eodem, cum alteram partem satis nosse non posset
ex sola defensione.

21 Citius autem idoneus erit iuvenis, quern praeceptor
coegerit in declamando quam simillimum esse veritati
et per totas ire materias, quarum nunc facillima et
maxime favorabilia decerpunt. Obstant huic, quod
secundo loco posui, fere turba discipulorum et con-
suetudo classium certis diebus audiendarum, nonnihil

* See III. vi. 93 ; x. i. 23. * I.e. "per totas ice materias."
"4

BOOK X. V. 18-21

roof and four walls. For this reason a young man 19
who has acquired a thorough knowledge from his
instructors of the methods of invention and style
(which is not by any means an endless task, if those
instructors have the knowledge and the will to
teach), and who has also managed to obtain a
reasonable amount of practice in the art, should
follow the custom in vogue with our ancestors, and
select some one orator to follow and imitate. He
should attend as many trials as possible and be a
frequent spectator of the conflicts in which he is
destined to take part. Next he should write out 20
speeches of his own dealing either with the cases
which he has actually heard pleaded or with others,
provided always they be actual cases, and should
argue them from both sides, training himself with
the real weapons of his warfare, just as, gladiators do
or as Brutus did in that speech in defence of Milo
which I have already mentioned.^ This is better
than writing replies to old speeches, as Cestius did
to Cicero's defence of Milo in spite of the fact that,
his knowledge being confined to what was said for
the defence, he could not have possessed sufficient
acquaintance with the other side of the case.

The young man, however, whom his instructor has 21
compelled to be as realistic as possible in declamation,
and to deal with every class of subject, instead of
merely selecting the easiest and most attractive cases,
as is done at present, will thus qualify himself much
more rapidly for actual forensic practice. Under exist-
ing circumstances the practice of the principle - which
I mentioned second is, as a rule, hampered by the
large size of the classes and the practice of allotting
certain days for recitation, to which must be added

"5

QUINTILIAN

etiam persuasio patrum numerantium [jotius decla-

22 mationes quam aestimantium. Sed, quod dixi primo,
ut arbitror, libro, nee ille se bonus praeceptor maiore
numero quam sustinere possit onerabit et inanem
loquacitatem recidet, ut omnia quae sunt in con-
troversial non, ut quidem volunt, quae in rerum
natura, dicantur; et vel longiore potius dierum
spatio laxabit dicendi necessitatem vel materias

23 dividere permittet. Una enim diligenter effecta
plus proderit quam plures inchoatae et quasi de-
gustatae. Propter quod accidit, ut nee suo loco
quidque ponatur, nee ilia quae prima sunt servent
suam legem, iuvenibus flosculos omnium partium in
ca quae sunt dicturi congerentibus ; quo fit, ut
timentes, ne sequentia perdant, priora confundant.

VI. Proxima stilo cogitatio est, quae et ipsa vires
ab hoc accipit, estque inter scribendi laborem ex-
temporalemque fortunam media quaedam et nescio
an usus frequentissimi. Nam scribere non ubique
nee semper possumus ; cogitationi temporis ac loci
plurimum est. Haec paucis admodum horis magnas

* I. ii. 15.
126

BOOK X. V. ai-Ti. I

the contributory circumstance that the boys' parents
are more interested in the number of their sons'
recitations than their quality. But, as I think I said 22
in the first book,i the really good teacher will not
burden himself with a larger number of pupils than
he can manage, and will prune any tendency to
excessive loquacity, limiting their remarks to the
actual points involved by the subject of the declama-
tion and forbidding them to range, as some would
have them do, over every subject in heaven and
earth : further, he will either extend the period
within which he insists on their speaking, or will
permit them to divide their themes into several
portions. The thorough treatment of one theme 23
will be more profitable than the sketchy and super-
ficial treatment of a number of subjects. For the
latter practice has the result that nothing is put in
its proper place and that the opening of the decla-
mation exceeds all reasonable bounds, since the
young orator crams all the flowers of eloquence
which belong to all the different portions of the
theme into that portion which he has to deliver,
and fearing to lose what should naturally come later,
introduces wild confusion into the earlier portions
of his speech.

VI. Having dealt with writing, the next point
which claims our attention is premeditation, which
itself derives force from the practice of writing and
forms an intermediate stage between the labours of
the pen and the more precarious fortunes of impro-
visation ; indeed I am not sure that it is not more
frequently of use than either. For there are places
and occasions where writing is impossible, while both
are available in abundance for premeditation. For

127

QUINTILIAN

etiam causas complectitur ; haec, quotiens inter-
missus est somnus, ipsis noctis tenebris adiuvatur ;
haec inter medios rerum actus aliquid invenit vacui

2 nee otium patitur. Neque vero rerum ordinem
modo, quod ipsum satis erat, intra se ipsa disponit,
sed verba etiam copulat totamque ita contexit
orationem, ut ei nihil praeter manum desit. Nam
memoriae quoque plerumque inhaerent fidelius,
quae nulla scribendi securitate laxantur.

Sed ne ad hanc quidem vim cogitandi perveniri

3 potest aut subito aut cito. Nam primum facienda
multo stilo forma est, quae nos etiam cogitantes
sequatur ; turn adsumendus usus paulatim, ut pauca
primum complectamur animo, quae reddi fideliter
possint ; mox per incrementa tam modica, ut onerari
se labor ille non sentiat, augenda vis et exercitatione
multa continenda est, quae quidem maxima ex parte
memoria constat. Ideoque aliqua mihi in ilium

4 locum differenda sunt. Eo tandem ^ pervenit, ut is,
cui non refragetur ingenium, acri studio adiutus

* tandem, Madvig : tamen, MSS.

1 XI. ii. 1 sqq.
128

BOOK X. VI. 1-4

but a few hours' thought will suffice to cover all the
points even of cases of importance ; if we wake at
night, the veiy darkness will assist us, while even in
the midst of legal proceedings our mind will find
some vacant space for meditation, and will refuse to
remain inactive. Again, this practice will not merely 2
secure the proper arrangement of our matter without
any recourse to writing, which in itself is no small
achievement, but will also set the words which we
are going to use in their proper order, and bring the
general texture of our speech to such a stage of
completion that nothing further is required beyond
the finishing touches. And as a rule the memory is
more retentive of thoughts when the attention has
not been relaxed by the fancied security which
results from committing them to writing.

But the concentration which this requires cannot
be attained in a moment or even quickly. For, in 3
the first place, we must write much before we can
form that ideal of style which must always be
present to our minds even when engaged in pre-
meditation. Secondly, we must gradually acquire
the habit of thought : to begin with, we shall con-
tent ourselves with covering but a few details, which
our minds are capable of reproducing with accuracy ;
then by advances so gradual that our labour is not
sensibly increased we must develop our powers and
confirm them by frequent practice, a task in which
the most important part is played by the memory.
For this reason I must postpone some of my remarks 4
to the portion of this work reserved for the treat-
ment of that topic. ^ At length, however, our powers
will have developed so far that the man who is not
hampered by lack of natural ability will by dint of

129

QUINTILIAN

tantum consequatur, ut ei tarn quae cogitarit quam
quae scripserit atque edidicerit in dicendo fidem
servent. Cicero certe Graecorum Metrodorum
Scepsium et Einpylum Rhodium nostrorumque
Hortensium tradidit, quae cogitaverant, ad verbum
in agendo retulisse.
6 Sed si forte aliquis inter dicendum efFulserit
extemporalis color, non superstitiose cogitatis de-
mum est inhaerendum. Neque enim tantum habent
curae, ut non sit dandus et fortunae locus, cum saepe
etiam scriptis ea quae subito nata sunt inserantur.
Ideoque totum hoc exercitationis genus ita institu-
endum est, ut et digredi ex eo et redire in id facile

6 possimus. Nam ut primum est domo adferre paratam
dicendi copiam et certam, ita refutare temporis
munera longe stultissimum est. Quare cogitatio in
hoc praeparetur, ut nos fortuna decipere non possit,
adiuvare possit. Id autem fiet memoriae viribus, ut
ilia, quae eomplexi animo sumus, fluant secura, non
sollicitos et respicientes et una spe suspensos recor-
dationis non sinant providere. Alioqui vel extem-
poralem temeritatem malo quam male cohaerentem

7 cogitationem. Peius enim quaeritur retrorsus, quia,
dum ilia desideramus, ab aliis avertimur, et ex

* A philosopher of the Academic school, contemporary
with Cicero, cp. de Or. ii. 360.

* Empylus is not mentioned elsewhere.
» Cp. Brut. 301.

130

BOOK X. VI. 4-7

persistent study be enabled, when it comes to speak-
ing, to rely no less on what he has thought out than
what he has written out and learnt by heart. At
any rate, Cicero records that Metrodorus of Scepsis,^
Empylus of Rhodes,^ and our own Hortensius ^ were
able to reproduce what they had thought out word
for word when it came to actual pleading.

If, however, some brilliant improvisation should 6
occur to us while speaking, we must not cling super-
stitiously to our premeditated scheme. For pre-
meditation is not so accurate as to leave no room
for happy inspiration : even when writing we often
insert thoughts which occur to us on the spur of the
moment. Consequently this form of preparation
must be conceived on such lines that we shall find
no difficulty either in departing from it or returning
to it at will. For, although it is essential to bring 6
with us into court a supply of eloquence which has
been prepared in advance in the study and on which
we can confidently rely, there is no greater folly
than the rejection of the gifts of the moment.
Therefore our premeditation should be such that
fortune may never be able to fool us, but may, on
the contrary, be able to assist us. This end will be
obtained by developing the power of memory so
that our conceptions may flow from us without fear
of disaster, and that we may be enabled to look
ahead without anxious backward glances or the
feeling that we are absolutely dependent on what
we can call to mind. Otherwise I prefer the rash-
ness of improvisation to the coherence given by
premeditation. For such backward glances place us 7
at a disadvantage, because our search for our pre-
meditated ideas makes us miss others, and we draw

»3»

QUINTILIAN

memoria potius res petimus quam ex materia. Plura
sunt autem, si utrimque ^ quaerendum est, quae
inveniri possunt quam quae inventa sunt.

Vll. Maximus vero studiorum fructus est et velut
praemium quoddam^ amplissimum longi laboris ex
tempore dicendi facultas, quam qui non erit con-
secutus, mea quidem sententia civilibus officiis renun-
tiabit et solam scribendi facultatem potius ad alia
opera convertet. Vix enim bonae fidei viro convenit
auxilium in publicum polliceri, quod praesentissimis
quibusque periculis desit, intrare ^ portum ad quem
navis accedere nisi lenibus ventis vecta non possit,

2 siquidem innumerabiles accidunt subitae necessitates
vel apud magistratus vel repraesentatis iudiciis con-
tinue agendi. Quarum si qua, non dico cuicunque
innocentium civium sed amicorum ac propinquorum
alicui evenerit, stabitne mutus et salutarem pe-
tentibus vocem statimque, si non succurratur, peri-
turis, moras et secessum et silentium quaeret, dum
ilia verba fabricentur et memoriae insidant et vox

3 ac latus praeparetur ? Quae vero patitur hoc ratio,*
ut quisquam possit orator omittere aliquando casus ?
Quid, cum adversario respondendum erit, fiet ? Nam
saepe ea, quae opinati sumus et contra quae scrip-

* utrimque, Bonnell : utrumque, MSS.

* praemium quoddam, cod. Earl. 4995 : primus quid, B,
' intrare portum, MSS : instar portus, Meister.

* ratio, cod. Harl. 4995: oratio, B. possit, Frotseher,
Bonnell : sit, MSS. omittere, Bonnell : mittere, B.

132

I

r

BOOK X. VI. 7-vii. 3

our matter from our memory rather than from the
subject on which we are speaking. And even if we
are to rely on our memory and our subject alike,
there are more things that may be discovered than
ever yet have been.

VII, But the crown of all our study and the
highest reward of our long labours is the power of
improvisation. The man who fails to acquire this
had better, in my opinion, abandon the task of
advocacy and devote his powers of writing to other
branches of literature. For it is scarcely decent for
an honourable man to promise assistance to the
public at large which he may be unable to provide in
the most serious emergencies, or to attempt to enter
a harbour which his ship cannot hope to make save
when sailing before a gentle breeze. For there are 2
countless occasions when the sudden necessity may be
imposed upon him of speaking without preparation
before the magistrates or in a trial which comes on
unexpectedly. And if any such sudden emergency
befalls, I will not say any innocent citizen, but some
one of the orator's friends or connexions, is he to
stand tongue-tied and, in answer to those who seek
salvation in his eloquence and are doomed, unless
they secure assistance, to ask for delay of proceed-
iiigs and time for silent and secluded study, till such
moment as he can piece together the words that fail
him, commit them to memory and prepare his voice
and lungs for the effort } What theory of the duties 3
of an orator is there which permits him to ignore
such sudden issues? What will happen when he
has to reply to his opponent? For often the ex-
pected arguments to which we have written a reply
fail us and the whole aspect of the case undergoes

133

QUINTILIAN

simus, fallunt, ac tota subito causa mutatur ; atque
ut gubernatori ad incursus tempestatum, sic agenti

4 ad varietatem causarum ratio mutando est. Quid
porro multus stilus et adsidua lectio et longa studi-
orum aetas facit, si manet eadem quae fuit incipien-
tibus difficultas ? Perisse profecto confitendum est
praeteritum laborem, cui semper idem laborandum
est. Neque ego hoc ago ut ex tempore dicere
malit, sed ut possit. Id autem maxime hoc modo
consequemur,

5 Nota sit primum dicendi via. Neque enim prius
contingere cursus potest quam scierimus, quo sit et
qua perveniendum. Nee satis est non ignorare quae
sunt causarum iudicialium partes, aut quaestionum
ordinem recte disponere, quanquam ista sunt prae-
cipua, sed quid quoque loco primum sit ac secundum
et deinceps ; quae ita sunt natura copulata, ut
mutari aut intervelli sine confusione non possint.

6 Quisquis autem via dicet, ducetur ^ ante omnia rerum
ipsa serie velut duce ; propter quod homines etiam
modice exercitati facillime tenorem in narrationibus
servant. Deinde, quid quoque loco quaerant, scient.
nee circumspectabunt nee ofFerentibus se aliunde
sensibus turbabuutur nee confundent ex diversis

* ducetur dicet, Eussner.

^ See III. ii. 1.
134

BOOK X. VII. 3-6

a sudden change ; consequently the variation to
which cases are liable makes it as necessary for us
to change our methods as it is for a pilot to change
his course before the oncoming storm. Again, what 4
use is much writing, assiduous reading and long
vears of study, if the difficulty is to remain as great
as it was in the beginning ? The man who is always
faced with the same labour can only confess that his
past labour has been spent in vain. I do not ask
him to prefer to speak extempore, but merely that
he should be able to do so. And this capacity is
best acquired by the following method.

In the first place, we must note the direction which 5
tlie argument is likely to take, since we cannot run
our race unless we know the goal and the course.
It is not enough to know what are the parts ^ into
which forensic pleadings are divided or the prin-
ciples determining the order of the various questions,
important though these points are. We must realise
what should come first, second, and so on, in the
several parts ; for these points are so closely linked
together by the very nature of things that they
cannot be separated, nor their order changed, with-
out giving rise to confusion. The orator, who speaks 6
methodically, will above all take the actual sequence
of the various points as his guide, and it is for this
reason that even but moderately trained speakers
find it easiest to keep the natural order in the state-
vient of facts. Secondly, the orator must know
what to look for in each portion of his case : he
must not beat about the bush or allow himself to be
thrown off the track by thoughts which suggest
themselves from irrelevant quarters, or produce a
speech which is a confused mass of incongruities,

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orationem velut salientes hue illuc nee usquam in-

7 sistentes. Postremo habebunt modum et finem,
qui esse eitra divisionem nullus potest. Expletis
pro facultate omnibus quae proposuerint, pervenisse
se ad ultimum sentient.

Et haec quidem ex arte, ilia vero ex studio : ut
copiam sermonis optimi, quemadmodum praeceptum
est, comparemus : multo ac fideli stilo sic formetur
oratio, ut scriptorum colorem etiam quae subito
effusa sint reddant, ut, cum niulta scripserimus,

8 etiam multa dicamus. Nam consuetude et exerci-
tatio facilitatem maxime parit; quae si paulum
intermissa fuerit, non velocitas ilia modo tardatur,
sed ipsum os ^ coit atque concurrit. Quanquam enim
opus est naturali quadam mobilitate animi ut, dura
proxima dicimus, struere ulteriora possimus semper-
que nostram vocem provisa et formata cogitatio

9 excipiat, vix tamen aut natura aut ratio in tarn
multiplex officium diducere animum queat, ut in-
ventioni, dispositioni, elocutioni, ordini rerum ver-
borumque, turn iis, quae dicit, quae subiuneturus est,
quae ultra spectanda sunt, adhibita vocis, pronuntia-

* OS, added by Halm.

BOOK X. VII. 6-9

owing to his habit of leaping this way and that, and
never sticking to any one point. Finally, he must 7
confine himself to certain definite bounds, and for
this division is absolutely necessary. When to the
best of his ability he has dealt fully with all the
points which he has advanced, he will know that he
has reached his goal.

The precepts just given are dependent on theory.
Those to which I now come depend on individual
study. We must acquire a store of the best words
and phrases on lines that I have already laid down,
while our style must be formed by continuous and
conscientious practice in writing, so that even our
improvisations may reproduce the tone of our writing,
and after writing much, we must give ourselves
frequent practice in speaking. For facility is mainly 8
the result of habit and exercise and, if it be
lost only for a brief time, the result will be
not merely that we fall short of the requisite
rapidity, but that our lips will become clogged
and slow to open. For although we need to
possess a certain natural nimbleness of mind to
enable us, while we are saying what the instant
demands, to build up what is to follow and to
secure that there will always be some thouglit formed
and conceived in advance readv to serve our voice,
none the less, it is scarcely possible either for natural 9
gifts or for methodic art to enable the mind to
grapple simultaneously with such manifold duties,
and to be equal at one and the same time to the
tasks of invention, arrangement, and style, together
with what we are uttering at the moment, what we
have got to say next and what we have to look to
still further on, not to mention the fact that it

137

QUINTILIAN

10 tionis, gestus observatione, una sufficiat. Longe
enim praecedat oportet intentio ac prae se res agat,
quantumque dicendo consumitur, tantum ex ultimo
prorogetur; ut, donee perveniamus ad finem, non
minus prospectu procedamus quam gradu, si non
intersistentes ofFensantesque brevia ilia atque con-
cisa singultantium mode eiecturi sumus.

11 Est igitur usus quidam irrationalis, quem Graeci
aXnyov rpi^rji/ vocant, qua manus in scribendo de-
currit, qua oculi totos simul in lectione versus flexus-
que eorum et transitus intuentur, et ante sequentia
vident quam priora dixerunt. Quo constant miracula
ilia in scenis pilariorura ac ventilatorum, ut ea quae
emiserint ultro venire in manus credas et qua iuben-

12 tur decurrere. Sed hie usus ita proderit, si ea de
qua locuti sumus ars antecesserit, ut ipsum illud,
quod in se rationem non habet, in ratione versetur.
Nam mihi ne dicere quidem videtur nisi qui dis-

13 posite, ornate, copiose dicit, sed tumultuari. Nee
fortuiti sermonis contextum mirabor unquam, quem
iui'gantibus etiam mulierculis superfluere video, cum

^ §§ 5-7.
138

BOOK X. VII. 9-13

is necessary all the time to give close attention to
voice, delivery and gesture. For our mental activities 10
must range far ahead and pursue the ideas which
are still in front, and in proportion as the speaker
pays out what he has in hand, he must make advances
to himself from his reserve funds, in order that, until
we reach our conclusion, our mind's eye may urge
its gaze forward, keeping time with our advance :
otherwise we shall halt and stumble, and pour forth
short and broken phrases, like persons who can only
gasp out what they have to say.

There is, therefore, a certain mechanical knack, 11
which the Greeks call oXoyos rpifir], which enables
the hand to go on scribbling, while the eye takes
in whole lines at once as it reads, observes the in-
tonations and the stops, and sees what is coming
before the reader has articulated to himself what
precedes. It is a similar knack which makes possible
those miraculous tricks which we see jugglers and
masters of sleight of hand perform upon the stage,
in such a manner that the spectator can scarcely
help believing that the objects which they throw
into the air come to hand of their own accord, and
run where they are bidden. But this knack will 12
only be of real service if it be preceded by the art
of which we have spoken,^ so that what is irrational
in itself will nevertheless be founded on reason. For
unless a man speaks in an orderly, ornate and fluent
manner, I refuse to dignify his utterance with the
name of speech, but consider it the merest rant.
Nor again shall I ever be induced to admire a con- 13
tinuous flow of random talk, such as I note streams in
torrents even from the lips of women when they
quarrel, although, if a speaker is swept away by

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eo quod, si calor ac spiritus tulit, frequenter accidit
ut successum extemporalem consequi cura non

14 possit. Deum tunc adfuisse, cum id evenisset,
veteres oratores, ut Cicero, dictitabant. Sed ratio
manifesta est. Nam bene concepti adfectus et
recentes rerum imagines continue impetu feruntur,
quae nonnunquam mora stili refrigescunt et dilatae
non revertuntur. Utique vero, cum infelix ilia
verborum cavillatio accessit et cursus ad singula
vestigia restitit, non potest ferri contorta vis, sed,
ut optime vocum singularum cedat electio, non con-
tinua, sed composita est.

15 Quare capiendae sunt illae, de quibus dixi, rerum
imagines, quas vocari <^avTacrias indicavimus, omnia-
que, de quibus dicturi erimus, personae, quaestiones,
spes, metus habenda in oculis, in adfectus recipienda.
Pectus est enim, quod disertos facit, et vis mentis.
Ideoque imperitis quoque, si modo sint aliquo adfectu

16 concitati, verba non desunt. Tum intendendus
animus, non in aliquam rem unam, sed in plures
simul continuas ; ut, si per aliquam rectam viam
mittamus oculos, simul omnia quae sunt in ea
circaque intuemur, non ultimum tantum videmus
sed usque ad ultimum. Addit ad dicendum etiam
pudor stimulos,^ mirumque videri potest, quod, cum

* after habet cod. Monac. gives et dicendorum exspectata
laus.

^ No such saying is found in Cicero's extant works.
« VI. ii. 29.

140

BOOK X. vii. 13-16

warmth of feeling and genuine inspiration, it fre-
quently happens that he attains a success from im-
provisation which would have been beyond the reach of
the most careful preparation. When this occurred, the 14
old orators, such as Cicero,^ used to say that some god
had inspired the speaker. But the reason is obvious.
For profound emotion and vivid imagination sweep
on with unbroken force, whereas, if retarded by the
slowness of the pen, they are liable to grow cold and,
if put off for the moment, may never return. Above
all, if we add to these obstacles an unhealthy tendency
to quibble over the choice of words, and check our
advance at each step, the vehemence of our onset
loses its impetus ; while even though our choice of
individual words may be of the happiest, the style
will be a mere patchwork with no regular pattern.

Consequently those vivid conceptions of which I 15
spoke 2 and which, as I remarked, are called c^avrao-tai,
together with everything that we intend to say,
the persons and questions involved, and the hopes
and fears to which they give rise, must be kept
clearly before our eyes and admitted to our hearts :
for it is feeling and force of imagination that make
us eloquent. It is for this reason that even the un-
educated have no difficulty in finding words to express
their meaning, if only they are stirred by some strong
emotion. Further the attention of the mind must be 16
directed not to some one thing, but simultaneously to
a number of things in continuous sequence. The
result will be the same as when we cast our eyes
along some straight road and see at once all that is on
and near it, obtaining a view not merely of its end,
but of the whole way there. Dread of the shame
of failure is also a powerful stimulant to oratory,

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stilus secreto gaudeat atque omnes arbitros reformi-
det, extemporalis actio auditorum freqiientia, ut miles

17 congestu signorum, excitatur. Namque et difficili-
orem cogitationem exprimit et expellit dicendi
necessitas, et secundos impetus auget placendi
cupido. Adeo pretium omnia spectant^ ut elo-
quentia quoque, quanquam plurimum habeat in se
voluptatis, maxime tamen praesenti fructu laudis

18 opinionisque ducatur. Nee quisquam tantum fidat
ingenio, ut id sibi speret incipienti statim posse
contingere, sed, sicut in cogitatione praecipimus,
ita facilitatem quoque extemporalem a parvis initiis
paulatim perducemus ad summam, quae neque perfici
neque contineri nisi usu potest.

19 Ceterum pervenire eo debet, ut cogitatio non uti-
que melior sit ea sed tutior, cum banc facilitatem non
prosa modo multi sint consecuti, sed etiam carmine,
ut Antipater Sidonius et Licinius Arcbias (credendum
enim Ciceroni est), non quia nostris quoque tempori-
bus non et fecerint quidam hoc et faciant. Quod
tamen non ipsum tam probabile puto, (neque enim
habet aut usum res aut necessitatem) quam exhor-

^ Ch. vi. 3.

» De Or. iii. 194 ; Pro Arch. viii. 18.

142

BOOK X. VII. 16-19

and it may be regarded as a matter for wonder that,
whereas when writing we delight in privacy and
shrink from the presence of witnesses^ in extempore
pleading a large audience has an encouraging effect,
like that which the sight of the massed standards
has on the soldier. For the sheer necessity of speak- 17
ing thrusts forward and forces out our labouring
thought, and the desire to win approbation kindles
and fosters our efforts. So true is it that there is
nothing which does not look for some reward, that
eloquence, despite the fact that its activity is in itself
productive of a strong feeling of pleasure, is influenced
by nothing so much as the immediate acquisition of
praise and renown. Nor should any man put such 18
trust in his native ability as to hope that this power
will present itself to him at the outset of his career
as an orator ; for the precepts which I laid down for
premeditation ^ apply to improvisation also ; we
must develop it by gradual stages from small begin-
nings, until we have reached that perfection which
can only be produced and maintained by practice.

Moreover, the orator should reach such a pitch of 19
excellence that, while premeditation may still be the
safer method, it will not necessarily be the better,
since many have acquired the gift of improvisation not
merely in prose, but in verse as well, as, for example,
Antipater of Sidon and Licinius Archias (for whose
powers we have the unquestionable authority of
Cicero 2), not to mention the fact that there are
many, even in our own day, who have done this and
are still doing it. I do not, however, regard this
accomplishment as being particularly valuable in
itself, for it is both unpractical and unnecessary, but
mention it as a useful example to encourage students

M3

QUINTILIAN

tandis in hanc spem, qui toro praeparantur, utile

20 exemplum. Neque vero tanta esse unquam debet ^
fiducia facilitatis, ut non breve saltern tempus, quod
nusquam fere deerit, ad ea quae dicturi simus
dispicienda sumamuSj quod quidem in iudiciis ac foro
datur semper. Neque enim quisquam est, qui causam

21 quam non didicerit agat. Declamatores quosdam
perversa ducit ambitio, ut exposita controversia
protinus dicere velint ; quin etiam, quod est in
primis frivolum ac scenicum, verbum petant, quo
incipiant. Sed tam contumeliosos in se ridet invi-
cem eloquentia, et qui stultis videri eruditi volunt,

22 stulti eruditis videntur. Si qua tamen fortuna
tam subitam fecerit agendi necessitatem, mobiliore
quodam opus erit ingenio, et vis omnis intendenda
rebus, et in praesentia remittendum aliquid ex cura
verborum, si consequi ^ utrumque non dabitur. Turn
et tardior pronuntiatio moras habet et suspensa ac
velut dubitans oratio, ut tamen deliberare, non

23 haesitare videamur. Hoc, dum egredimur e portu,
si nos nondum aptatis satis armamentis aget ventus ;
deinde paulatim simul euntes ajjtabimus vela et
disponemus rudentes et impleri sinus optabimus.

^ debet, add'-d by fferzog. .

* consequi, added by Spalding: non seqiii, 2nd hand of
cod. Bamb,

144

BOOK X. VII. 19-23

training for the bar, in the hope that they may be
able to acquire this accomplishment. Still our con- 20
fidence in our power of speaking extempore should
never be so great that we should neglect to devote
a few minutes to the consideration of what we are
going to say. There will but rarely be occasions
when this is impossible, while in the lawsuits of
the courts there is always some time allowed for the
purpose. For no one can plead a cause with the
facts of which he is unacquainted. Some declaimers, 21
it is true, are led by a perverse ambition to attempt
to speak the moment their theme has been given
them, and even ask for a word with which to start,
an affectation which is in the worst and most
theatrical taste. But eloquence has, in her turn,
nothing but derision for those that insult her thus,
and speakers who wish to seem learned to fools are
merely regarded as fools by the learned. If, how- 22
ever, chance should impose the necessity upon us of
pleading a case at such short notice, we shall require
to develop special mental agility, to give all our
attention to the subject, and to make a temporary
sacrifice of our care for the niceties of language, if
we find it impossible to secure both. On such
occasions a slower delivery and a style of speak-
ing suggestive of a certain indecision and doubt will
secure us time to think, but we must be careful to
do this in such a way as to give the impression of
thought, not of hesitation. This precaution may be 23
employed while we are clearing harbour, if the wind
drive us forward before all our tackle is ready.
Afterwards, as we proceed upon our course, we shall
trim our sails, arrange our ropes, and pray that
the breeze may fill our sails. Such a procedure is

MS

QUINTILIAN

Id potius quam se inani verborum torrenti dare
quasi tempestatibus quo volent auferendum.

24 Sed non minore studio continetur haec facultas
quam paratur. Ars enim semel percepta non labitur,!
stilus quoque intermissione paulum admodum de
celeritate deperdit; promptum hoc et in expedito
positum exercitatione sola continetur. Hac uti sic
optimum est, ut cotidie dicamus audientibus pluribus,
maxime de quorum simus iudicio atque opinione
solliciti ; rarum est enim ut satis se quisque vereatur.

25 Vel soli tamen dicamus potius quam omnino non
dicamus. Est et ^ ilia exercitatio cogitandi totasque
materias vel silentio (dum tamen quasi dicat intra se
ipsum) persequendi, quae nuUo non et tempore et
loco, quando non aliud agimus, explicari potest, et

26 est in parte utilior ^ quam haec proxima. Diligentius
enim componitur quam ilia, in qua contextum di-
cendi intermittere veremur. Rursus in alia plus
prior confert, vocis firmitatem, oris facilitatem, motum
corporis, qui et ipse, ut dixi, excitat oratorem et
iactatione manus, pedis supplosione, sicut cauda
leones facere dicuntur, hortatur. Studendum vero

27 semper et ubique. Neque enim fere tam est uUus
dies occupatus, ut nihil lucrativae, ut Cicero Brutum

^ labitur, ed. Gryph : capitur, MSS.

* et, added by Spalding.

^ utilior, early edd. : utilitatis, B.

1 Ch. iii. 21.
• Or. 34.

146

BOOK X. vii. 23-27

preferable to yielding ourselves to an empty torrent
of words, that the storm may sweep us Avhere it will.

But it requires no less careful study to maintain 24
than to acquire this facility. Theory once mastered
is not forgotten, and the pen loses but little of its
speed by disuse : but this promptitude and readiness
for action can be maintained by practice only. The
best form of exercise is to speak daily before an
audience of several persons, who should, as far as
possible, be selected from those whose judgement
and good opinion we value, since it is rare for any-
one to be sufficiently critical of himself. It is even
better to speak alone than not at all. There is yet 25
another method of exercising this faculty : it consists
in going over our subjects in their entirety in silent
thought, although we must all the time formulate
the words to ourselves : such practice is possible at
any moment or place that finds us unoccupied, and
is, in some respects, more useful than that which I
have just mentioned ; for we are more careful about 26
our composition than when we are actually speaking
and in momentary fear of interrupting the continuous
flow of our language. On the other hand, the first
method is more valuable for certain purposes, as it
gives strength to our voice, fluency to our tongue
and vigour to our gesture ; and the latter, as I have
already remarked,^ in itself excites the orator and
spurs him on, as he waves his hand or stamps his
foot : he is, in fact, like the lion, that is said to lash
himself to fury Avith his tail. But we must study
always and everywhere. For there is scarce a single 27
day in our lives that is so full of occupations that we
may not, at some moment or other, snatch a few
precious minutes, as Cicero ^ records that Brutus was

147

QUINTILIAN

facere tradit, operae ad scribendum aut legendum ^
aut dicendum rapi aliquo momento temporis possit;
siquidem C. Carbo etiam in tabernaculo solebat hac

28 uti exercitatione dicendi. Ne id quidera tacendum,
quod eidem Ciceroni placet, nullum nostrum usquam
negligentem esse sermonem ; quidquid loquemur
ubicuuque, sit pro sua scilicet portione pertectum.
Scribendum certe nunquam est magis, quam cum
multa dicemus ex tempore. Ita enim servabitur
pondus, et innatans ^ ilia verborum facilitas in altum
reducetur; sicut rustici proximas vitis radices ampu-
tant, quae illam in summum solum ducunt, ut inferi-

29 ores penitus descendendo firmentur. Ac nescio an,
si ' utrumque cum cura et studio fecerimus, invicem
prosit, ut scribendo dicamus diligentius, dicendo
scribamus facilius. Scribendum ergo, quotiens lice-
bit ; si id non dabitur, cogitandum; ab utroque
exclusi debent tamen sic dicere,^ ut neque depre-
hensus orator neque litigator destitutus esse videatur.

30 Plerumque autem multa agentibus accidit, ut
maxime necessaria et utique ipitia scribant, cetera
quae domo adferunt cogitatione complectantur, subi-
tis ex tempore occurrant; quod fecisse M. Tullium
commentariis ipsius apparet. Sed feruntur aliorum
quoque et inventi forte, ut eos dicturus quisque

* aut legendum, 2nd hand of cod. Bamh. : omitted by B.

* innatana, Steer: unatraiis, B.

* si added by ed. Camp.

* sic dicere, Peterson : inicere, B.

^ A supporter of Tib. Gracchus, who went over to the
senatorial party and was consul 120 B.C. Committed suicide
in the following year. Cicero praises his eloquence and
industry ; op. Brut. 103-5, de Or. I. § 154.

* There is no trace of thia.

148

BOOK X. vu. 27-30

wont to do, either for writing or reading or speaking ;
Gaius Carbo,^ for example, was in the habit of indulg-
ing in such exercises even in his tent. I must also 28
mention the precept (which again has the approval
of Cicero 2) that we should never be careless about
our language. Whatever we say, under whatever
circumstances, should be perfect in its way. As re-
gards writing, this is certainly never more necessary
than when we have frequently to speak extempore.
For it maintains the solidity of our speech and gives
depth to superficial facility. We may compare the
practice of husbandmen who cut away the uppermost
roots of their vines, which run close to the surface of
the soil, that the taproots may strike deeper and gain
in strength. Indeed I am not sure that, if we prac- 29
tise both with care and assiduity, mutual profit will
not result, and writing will give us greater precision
of speech, while speaking will make us write with
greater facility. We must write, therefore, when-
ever possible ; if we cannot write, we must meditate :
if both are out of the question, we must still speak in
such a manner that we shall not seem to be taken
unawares nor our client to be left in the lurch.

It is, however, a common practice with those who 30
have many cases to plead to write out the most
necessary portions, more especially the beginnings of
their speeches, to cover the remainder of that which
they are able to prepare by careful premeditation
and to trust to improvisation in emergency, a prac-
tice regularly adopted by Cicero, as is clear from liis
note-books. But the notes of other orators are also
in circulation ; some have been discovered by
chance, just as they were jotted down previous to a
speech, while others have been edited in book form,

149

QUINTILIAN

composuerat, et in libros digesti, ut causarum quae
sunt actae a Ser. Sulpicio, cuius tres orationes extant ;
sed hi de quibus loquor commentarii ita sunt exacti,
ut ab ipso mi hi in memoriam posteritatis videantur

31 esse compositi. Nam Ciceronis ad praesens modo
tempus aptatos libertus Tiro contraxit ; quos non
ideo excuso, quia non probem, sed ut sint magis
admirabiles. In hoc genere prorsus recipio hanc
brevem adnotationem libellosque, qui vel manu tene-

32 antur, et ad quos interim respicere fas sit. Illud quod
Laenas praecipit displicet mihi, vel in his quae
scripserimusvelut^ summas in commentarium etcapita
conferre. Facit enim ediscendi negligentiam haec
ipsa fiducia et lacerat ac deformat orationem. Ego
autem ne scribendum quidem puto, quod non ^ simus
niemoria persecuturi. Nam hie quoque accidit, ut
revocet nos cogitatio ad ilia elaborata nee sinat

33 praesentem fortunam experiri. Sic anceps inter
utrumque animus aestuat, cum et scripta perdidit et
non quaerit nova. Sed de memoria destinatus est
libro proximo locus nee huic parti subiungendus, quia
sunt alia prius nobis dicenda.

' vel in his, Boniiell : ne in his, B. velut, Halm : vel in, B.
• non, added by Eeguis.

* Or perhaps " abbreviated." Tiro was Cicero's friend,
freedmaa and secretary.

ISO

BOOK X. VII. 30-33

as in the case of the speeches delivered in the courts
by Servius Sulpicius, of whose works only three
speeches survive. Tliese memoranda, however, of
which I am speaking are so carefully drawn up that
they seem to me to have been composed by himself
for the benefit of posterity. But Cicero's notes were 31
originally intended merely to meet the requirements
of the moment, and were afterwards collected ^ by
Tiro. In making this apology I do not mean to
imply that I disapprove of them, but merely wish
to make them more worthy of admiration. And in
this connexion I must state that I admit the use of
brief memoranda and note-books, which may even be
held in the hand and referred to from time to time.
But I disapprove of the advice given by Laenas, that 32
we should set down in our note-books, duly t;ibu-
lated under the appropriate headings, summaries of
what we propose to say, even in cases where we
have already written it out in full. For reliance on
such notes as these makes us careless in learning
what we have written and mutilates and deforms our
style. For my own part I think that we sliould
never write out anything which we do not intend to
commit to memory. For if we do, our thoughts will
run back to what we have elaborated in writing and
will not permit us to try the fortune of the moment.
Consequently, the mind will waver in doubt between 33
the two alternatives, having forgotten what was
committed to writing and being unable to think of
anything fresh to say. However, as the topic of
memory will be discussed in the next book, 1 will
not introduce it here, as there are other points
which require to be dealt with first.

«5»

BOOK XI

VOL. IV.

LIBER XI

I. Parata, sicut superiore libro continetur, facultate
scribendi cogitandique et ex tempore etiam, cum res
poscet, orandi, proxima est cura, ut dicamus apte ;
quam virtutem quartam elocutionis Cicero demon-
strat, quaeque est meo quidem iudicio maxime

2 necessaria. Nam cum sit ornatus orationis varius et
multiplex conveniatque alius alii, nisi fuerit accom-
modatus rebus atque persouis, non modo non illu-
strabit cam, sed etiam destruet et vim rerum in
contrarium vertet. Quid enim prodest, esse verba
et Latina et significantia et nitida, figuris etiam
numerisque elaborata, nisi cum iis, in quae iudicem

3 duci formarique volumus, consentiant, si genus
sublime dicendi parvis in causis, parvum limatumque
grandibus, laetum tristibus, lene asperis, minax sup-
plicibus, summissum concitatis, trux atque violentum
iucundis adhibeamus ? ut monilibus et margaritis ac
veste longa, quae sunt ornamenta feminarum, de-
formentur viri, nee habitus triumphalis, quo nihil

» De Or. III. X. 37.

BOOK XI

I. After acquiring the power of writing and think-
ing, as described in the preceding book, and also of
pleading extempore, if occasion demand, our next
task will be to ensure that appropriateness of speech,
which Cicero^ shows to be the fourth department of
style, and which is, in my opinion, highly necessary.
For since the ornaments of style are varied and 2
manifold and suited for different purposes, they will,
unless adapted to the matter and the persons con-
cerned, not merely fail to give our style distinction,
but will even destroy its effect and produce a result
quite the reverse of that which our matter should
produce. For what profit is it that our words should
be Latin, significant and graceful, and be further
embellished with elaborate figures and rhythms,
unless all these qualities are in harmony with the
views to which we seek to lead the judge and mould
his opinions .'' What use is it if we employ a lofty 3
tone in cases of trivial import, a slight and refined
style in cases of great moment, a cheerful tone when
our matter calls for sadness, a gentle tone when it
demands vehemence, threatening language when
supplication, and submissive when energy is re-
quired, or fierceness and violence when our theme is
one that asks for charm ? Such incongruities are as
unbecoming as it is for men to wear necklaces and
pearls and flowing raiment which are the natural
adornments of women, or for women to robe them-

155

QUINTILIAN

4 excogitari potest augustius, feminas deceat. Hunc
locum Cicero breviter in tertio de Oratore libro
perstringit, rieque tamen videri potest quidquam
omisisse dicendo, non omni causae neque audiiori neqne
personae neque tempori congniere orationis umim genus.
Nee fere pluribus in Oratore eadem. Sed illic L.
Crassus, cum apud summos oratores hominesque
eruditissimos dicat, satis liabet partem banc velut

6 notare inter agnoscentes ; et hie Cicero adloquens
Brutum testatur esse haec ei nota ideoque brevius a
se dici, quanquam sit fusus locus tracteturque a
philosophis latius. Nos institutionem professi non
solum scientibus ista, sed etiam discentibus tradimus,
ideoque paulo pluribus verbis debet haberi venia.

6 Quare notum sit nobis ante omnia^ quid concili-
andOj docendo, movendo iudici conveniat, quid quaque
parte orationis petamus. Ita nee Vetera aut translata
aut ficta verba in inci})iendo, narrando, argumentando
tractabimus neque decurrentes contexto nitore circui-
tus, ubi dividenda erit causa et in partes suas dige-
renda, neque humile atque cotidianum sermonis
genus et compositione ipsa dissolutum epilogis dabi-

1 III. Iv. 210.
* Ch. xxi. sqq,

iS6

BOOK XI. I. 3-6

selves in the garb of triumph, than which there can
be conceived no more majestic raiment. This topic 4
is discussed by Cicero in the third book of the de
Oratore,^ and, although he touches on it but lightly,
he really covers the whole subject when he says.
One single style of oratory is not suited to every case, nor
to every audience, nor every speaker, nor every occasion.
And he says the same at scarcely greater length in
the Orator:^ But in the first of these works Lucius
Crassus, since he is speaking in the presence of men
distinguished alike for their learning and their elo-
quence, thinks it sufficient merely to indicate this topic
to his audience for their recognition ; while in the 5
latter work Cicero asserts that, as these facts are
familiar to Brutus, to whom that treatise is addressed,
they will be given briefer ti-eatment, despite the fact
that the subject is a wide one and is discussed at
greater length by the philosophers. I, on the other
hand, have undertaken the education of an orator,
and, consequently, am speaking not merely to those
that know, but also to learners ; I shall, therefore,
have some claim to forgiveness if I discuss the topic
in greater detail.

For this reason, it is of the first importance that 6
we should know what style is most suitable for con-
ciliating, instructing or moving the judge, and what
effects we should aim at in different parts of our
speech. Thus we shall eschew antique, metaphori-
cal and newly-coined words in our exordium, state-
ment of facts and arguments, as we shall avoid flowing
periods woven with elaborate grace, when the case
has to be divided and distinguished under its various
heads, while, on the other hand, we shall not employ
mean or colloquial language, devoid of all artistic

157

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mus, nee iocis lacrimas, ubi opus erit miseratione,

7 siccabimus. Nam ornatus omnis non tarn sua quam
rei, cui adhibetur, condicione constat; nee plus
refert, quid dicas quam quo loco. Sed totum hoc
apte dicere non elocutionis tantum genere constat,
sed est cum inventione commune. Nam si tantum
liabeht etiam verba momentum, quanto res ipsae
magis? Quarum quae esset observatio, suis Iocis
subinde subiecimus.

8 Illud est diligentius docendum, eum demum dicere
apte, qui non solum quid expediat, sed etiam quid
deceat inspexerit. Nee me fugit, plerumque haec
esse coniuncta. Nam quod decet, fere prodest, neque
alio magis animi iudicum conciliari aut, si res in

9 contrarium tulit, alienari solent. Aliquando tamen
et haec dissentiunt. Quotiens autem pugnabunt,
ipsam utilitatem vincet quod decet. Nam quia nescit,
nihil magis profuturum ad absolutionem Socrati fuisse,
quam si esset usus illo iudiciali genere defensionis
et oratione summissa conciliasset iudicum animos sibi

10 crimenque ipsum sollicite redarguisset ? Verum id
eum minime decebat ; ideoque sic egit, ut qui poenam
158

BOOK XI. I. 6-IO

structure, in the peroration, nor, when the theme calls
for compassion, attempt to dry the tears of our audi-
ence with jests. For all ornament derives its effect 7
not from its own qualities so much as from the
circumstances in which it is applied, and the occasion
chosen for saying anything is .it least as important a
consideration as what is actually said. But the whole
of this question of appropriate language turns on
something more than our choice of style, for it has
much in common with invention. For if words can
produce such an impression, how much greater must
that be which is created by the facts themselves.
But I have already laid down rules for the treatment
of the latter in various portions of this work.

Too much insistence cannot be laid upon the point 8
that no one can be said to speak appropriately who
has not considered not merely what it is expedient,
but also what it is becoming to say. I am well
aware that these two considerations generally go
hand in hand. For whatever is becoming is, as a
rule, useful, and there is nothing that does more to
conciliate the good-will of the judge than the
observance or to alienate it than the disregard of
these considerations. Sometimes, however, the two 9
are at variance. Now, whenever this occurs, expe-
diency must jield to the demands of what is
becoming. Who is there who does not realise that
nothing would have contributed more to secure the
acquittal of Socrates than if he had employed the
ordinary forensic methods of defence and had
conciliated the minds of his judges by adopting a
submissive tone and had devoted his attention to
refuting the actual charge against him ? But such 10
a course would have been unworthy of his character,

159

QUINTILIAN

suam honoribus summis esset aestimaturus. Maluit
enim vir sapientissimus, quod superesset ex vita, sibi
perire, quam quod praeterisset. Et quando ab
hominibus sui temporis parum intelligebatur, poste-
riorum se iudiciis reservavit, brevi detrimeiito iam
ultimae senectutis aevum saeculorum omnium con-

11 secutus. Itaque quamvis Lysias, qui turn in dicendo
praestantissimus habebatur, defensionem illi scriptam
obtulisset, uti ea noluit, cum bonam quid em, sed
parum sibi convenientem iudicavisset. Quo vel solo
patet non persuadendi sed bene dicendi finem in
oratore servandum, cum interim persuadere deforme
sit. Non fuit lioc utile absolutioni, sed, quod est

12 mains, homini fuit. Et nos secundum communem
potius loquendi consuetudinem quam ipsam veritatis
regulam divisione hac utimur, ut ab eo, quod deceat,
utilitatem separemus ; nisi forte prior ille Africanus,
qui patria cedere quam cum tribuno plebis humillimo
contendere de innocentia sua maluit, inutiliter sibi
videtur consuluisse ; aut P. Rutilius, vel cum illo
paene Socratico genera defensionis est usus, vel cum
revocante eum P. Sulla manere in exilio maluit, quid

13 sibi maxime conduceret, nesciebat. Hi vero parva
ilia, quae abiectissimus quisque animus utilia credit, si

^ Falsely accused of having taken a bribe from King
Antiochus. See Livy, xxxviii. 11. 56.
* See de Or. I. liii. 227 sqq.

i6o

BOOK XI. I. 10-13

and, thereforCj he pleaded as one who would account
the penalty to which he might be sentenced as the
highest of honours. The wisest of men preferred to
sacrifice the remnant of his days rather than to cancel
all his past life. And since he was but ill under-
stood bv the men of his own day, he reserved his
case for the approval of posterity and at the cost of
a few last declining years achieved through all the
ages life everlasting. And so although Lysias, who 11
was accounted the first orator of that time, offered
him a written defence, he refused to make use of
it, since, though he recognised its excellence, he
regarded it as unbecoming to himself. This in-
stance alone shows that the end which the orator
must keep in view is not persuasion, but speaking
well, since there are occasions when to persuade
would be a blot upon his honour. The line adopted
by Socrates was useless to secure his acquittal, but
was of real service to him as a man ; and that is by
far the greater consideration. In drawing this dis- 12
tinction between what is expedient and what is
becoming, I have followed rather the usage of com-
mon speech than the strict law of truth ; unless,
indeed, the elder Africanus ^ is to be regarded as
having failed to consult his true interests, when he
retired into exile sooner than wrangle over his own
innocence with a contemptible tribune of the people,
or unless it be alleged that Publius Rutilius^ was
ignorant of his true advantage both on the occasion
when he adopted a defence which may almost be
compared with that of Socrates, and when he pre-
ferred to remain in exile rather than return at Sulla's
bidding. No, these great men regarded all those 13
trifles that the most abject natures regard as advan-

161

QUINTILIAN

cum virtute conferantur despicienda iudicaverunt,
ideoque perpetua saeculoruinadmiratione celebrantur.
Neque nos simus tam humiles, ut quae laudamus

14 inutilia credamus. Sed hoc qualecunque discrimen
raro admodum eveniet : idem fere, ut dixi, in omni
genere causarum et proderit et decebit. Est autem,
quod omnes et semper et ubique deceat, facere ac ^
dicere honeste, contraque neminem unquam ullo in
loco turpiter. Minora vero quaeque sunt ex mediis
plerumque sunt talia, ut aliis sint concedenda, aliis
non sint, aut pro persona, tempore, loco, causa magis
ac minus vel excusata debeant videri vel repre-

15 hendenda. Cum dicamus autem de rebus aut alienis
aut nostris, dividenda ratio est eorum, dum sciamus
pleraque neutro loco convenire.

In primis igitur omnis vitiosa iactatio est, elo-
quentiae tamen in oratore praecipue, adfertque
audientibus non fastidium modo, sed plerumque

16 etiam odium. Habet enim mens nostra sublime
quiddam et erectum et impatiens superioris ; ideoque
abiectos aut summittentes se libenter allevamus, quia

* deceat facere ac, 27id hand oj cod. Bamb. : persuadere
ac, B : deceat ao, cod. Hon.

i6a

BOOK XI. I. 13-16

tageous, as being contemptible if weighed in the
balance with virtue, and for this reason they have
their reward in the deathless praise of all genera-
tions. Let not us, then, be so poor spirited as to
regard the acts, which we extol, as being inexpedient.
However, it is but rarely that this distinction, such 14
as it is, is called into play. As I have said, the
expedient and the becoming will, as a rule, be
identical in every kind of case. Still, there are two
things which will be becoming to all men at all times
and in all places, namely, to act and speak as befits a
man of honour, and it will never at any time beseem
any man to speak or act dishonourably. On the
other hand, things of minor importance and occupy-
ing something like a middle position between the
two are generally of such a nature that they may be
conceded to some, but not to others, while it will
depend on the character of the speaker and the
circumstances of time, place and motive whether we
regard them as more or less excusable or repre-
hensible. When, however, we are speaking of our 15
own affairs or those of others, we must distinguish
between the expedient and the becoming, while
recognising that the majority of the points which
we have to consider will fall under neither head.

In the first place, then, all kinds of boasting are a
mistake, above all, it is an error for an orator to praise
his own eloquence, and, further, not merely wearies,
but in the majority of cases disgusts the audience.
For there is ever in the mind of man a certain 18
element of lofty and unbending pride that will not
brook superiority : and for this reason we take de-
light in raising the humble and submissive to their
feet, since such an act gives us a consciousness of our

163

QUINTILIAN

hoc facere tanquam maiores videmur; et quotiens
discessit aemulatio, succedit humanitas. At qui se
supra modum extollit, premere ac despicere creditur,
nee tam se maiorem quam minores ceteros facere.

17 Inde invident humiliores, (hoc vitium est eorum, qui
nee cedere volunt nee possunt contendere) rident
superiores, improbant boni. Plerumque vere depre-
hendas arrogantium falsum de se opinionem ; sed in
veris quoque sufficit conscientia.

Reprehensus est in hac parte non mediocriter
Cicero, quanquam is quidem reruin a se gestarum
iriaior quani eloquentiae fuit in orationibus utique

18 iactator. Et plerumque illud quoque non sine aliqua
ratione fecit. Aut enini tuebatur eos, quibus erat
adiutoribus usus in opprimenda coniuratione, aut
respondebat invidiae (cui tamen non fuit par, servatae
patriae poenam passus exilium), ut illorum, quae
egerat in consulatu, frequens commemoratio possit
videri non gloriae magis quam defensioni data.

19 Eloquentiam quidem, cum plenissimam diversae partis
advocatis concederet, sibi nunquam in agendo im-
modice arrogavit. lUius sunt enim : Si quid est ingenii
in me, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, et. Quo ingenio
164

BOOK XI. I. 16-19

superiority, and as soon as all sense of rivalry dis-
appears, its place is taken by a feeling of humanity.
But the man who exalts himself beyond reason is
looked upon as depreciating and showing a contempt
for others and as making them seem small rather
than himself seem great. As a result, those who are 17
beneath him feel a grudge against him (for those who
are unwilling to yield and yet have not the strength
to hold their own are always liable to this failing),
while his superiors laugh at him and the good
disapprove. Indeed, as a rule, you will find that
arrogance implies a false self-esteem, whereas those
who possess true merit find satisfaction enough in
the consciousness of possession.

Cicero has been severely censured in this con-
nexion, although he was far more given to boasting
of his political achievements than of his eloquence,
at any rate, in his speeches. And as a rule he had 18
some sound reason for his self-praise. For he was
either defending those who had assisted him to crush
the conspiracy of Catiline, or was replying to attacks
made upon him by those who envied his position ;
attacks which he was so far unable to withstand
that he suffered exile as the penalty for having
saved his country. Consequently, we may regard
his frequent reference to the deeds accomplished
in his consulship as being due quite as much to the
necessities of defence as to the promptings of vain-
glory. As regards his own eloquence, he never 19
made immoderate claims for it in his pleading, while
he always paid a handsome tribute to the eloquence
of the advocate, who opposed him. For example,
there are passages such as the following : " If there
be aught of talent in me, and I am only too conscious

165

QUINTILIAN

20 minus possum, subsidium mihi diligentia comparavi. Quin
etiam contra Q. Caecilium de accusatore in Verrem
constituendo^ quamvis multum esset in hoc quoque
momenti, uter ad agendum magis idoneus veniret,
dicendi tamen facultatem magis illi detraxit quam
arrogavit sibi, seque non consecutum, sed omnia

2\ fedsse, ut posset earn consequi, dixit. In epistolis
a]iquando familiariter apud amicos, nonnunquam in
dialogis aliena tamen persona verum de eloquentia
sua dicit. Et aperte tamen gloriari nescio an sit
magis tolerabile vel ipsa vitii huius simplicitate, quam
ilia iaetatio perversa^ si abundans opibus pauperem
se neget, nobilis obscurum et potens infirmum et

22 disertus imperitum plane et infantem vocet, Ambi-
tiosissimum gloriandi genus est etiam deridere. Ab
aliis ergo laudemur ; nam ipsos, ut Demosthenes ait,
erubescere, etiam cum ab aliis laudabimur, decet. Neque
hoc dico, non aliquando de rebus a se gestis oratori
esse dicendum, sicut eidem Demostheni pro Ctesi-
phonte ; quod tamen ita emendavit, ut necessitatem
id faciendi ostenderet invidiamque omnem in eum

23 regereret, qui hoc se coegisset. Et M. Tullius saepe
dicit de oppressa coniuratione Catilinae; sed modo

* Pro Arch. i. 1. ' Pro Quiiit. i. 4.

» Div. in Caec. xii. 4a * De Cor. 128.

1 66

BOOK XI. I. 19-23

how little it is," ^ and, " In default ot talent, I turned
to industry for aid." 2 Again, in his speech against 20
Caecilius on the selection of an accuser for Verres,
despite the fact that the question as to which was
the most capable pleader, was a factor of great
importance, he rather depreciated his opponent's
eloquence than exalted his own, and asserted that
he had done all in his power to make himself an
orator,' though he knew he had not succeeded. In 21
his letters to intimate friends, it is true, and occasion-
ally in his dialogues, he tells the truth of his own
eloquence, though in the latter case he is careful
always to place the remarks in question in the
mouth of some other character. And yet I am not
sure that open boasting is not more tolerable, owing
to its sheer straiglitforwardness, than that perverted
form of self-praise, which makes the millionaire say
that he is not a poor man, the man of mark describe
himself as obscure, the powerful pose as weak,
and the eloquent as unskilled and even inarticulate.
But the most ostentatious kind of boasting takes 22
the form of actual self-derision. Let us therefore
leave it to others to praise us. For it beseems us,
as Demosthenes says, to blush even when we are
praised by others. I do not mean to deny that
there are occasions when an orator may speak of
his own achievements, as Demosthenes himself does
in his defence of Ctesiphon.* But on that occasion
he qualified his statements in such a way as to show
that he was compelled by necessity to do so, and to
throw the odium attaching to such a proceeding on
the man who had forced him to it. Again, Cicero 23
often speaks of his suppression of the Catilinarian
conspiracy, but either attributes his success to the

167

QUINTILIAN

id virtuti senatus, modo providentiae deorum im-
mortalium adsignat. Plerumque contra inimicos
atque obtrectatores plus vindicat sibi. Erant enim

24 ilia tuenda,! cum obiicerentur. In carminibus utinam
pepercisset, quae non desierunt carpere maligni :

Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea lifiguae ; '
et

0 fortunatam natam me consule Romam ;

et lovem ilium, a quo in concilium deorum advocatur ;
et Minervam, quae aites eum edocuit ; quae sibi ille
secutus quaedam Graecorum exempla perraiserat.

25 Verum eloquentiae ut indecora iactatio, ita non-
nunquam concedenda fiducia est. Nam quis repre-
hendat haec : Quid putem ? contemptumne me ? Non
video nee in vita nee in gi-atia nee in rebus gestis nee in
hoc mea mediocritate ingenii, quid despicere possit

26 Antoniiis ? Et paulo post apertius : An decertare
viecum voluit contentione dicendi ? Hoc quidem est
benejiciu7n. Quid enim plenius, quid uberius quam milii
et pro me et contra Antofiium dicer e ?

27 Arrogantes et illi, qui se iudicasse de causa nee

' ilia tuenda, Halm: intuenda, B.
* linguae, B : laudi, vulgo.

* From the poem on his consulship.
« Phil. II. i. 2.

BOOK XI. I. 23-27

courage shown by the senate or to the providence of
the immortal gods. If he puts forward stronger claims
to merit, it is generally when speaking against his
enemies and detractors; for he was bound todefend
his actions when they were denounced as discredit-
able. One could only wish that he had shown 24
greater restraint in his poems, which those who love
him not are never weary of criticising. I refer to
passages such as : ^

*' Let arms before the peaceful toga yield.
Laurels to eloquence resign the field,"
or

" O happy Rome, bom in my consulship ! "

together with that " Jupiter, by whom he is
summoned to the assembly of the gods," and the
" Minerva that taught him her accomplishments " ;
extravagances which he permitted himself in imita-
tion of certain precedents in Greek literature.

But while it is unseemly to make a boast of one's 25
eloquence, it is, however, at times permissible to
express confidence in it. Who, for instance, can
blame the following ? 2 " What, then, am I to think ?
That I am held in contempt .'' I see nothing either
in my past life, or my position, or such poor talents
as I may possess, that Antony can afford to despise."
And a little later he speaks yet more openly : 28
"Or did he wish to challenge me to a contest of
eloquence? I could wish for nothing better. For
what ampler or richer theme could I hope to find
than to speak at once for myself and against
Antony ? "

Another form of arrogance is displayed by those who 27
declare that they have come to a clear conviction of

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QUINTILIAN

aliter adfuturos fuipse proponunt. Nam et inyiti
iudices audiunt praesumentem partes suas, nee hoc
oratori contingere inter adversaries quod Pytha-
gorae inter discipulos potest Ipse dixit. Sed istud
magis minusve vitiosum est pro personis dicentiuni.

28 Defenditur enim aliquatenus aetate, dignitate^
auctoritate ; quae tamen vix in ullo tanta fuerint,
ut non hoc adfirmationis genus temperandum sit
aliqua moderatione sicut omnia, in quibus patronus
argumentum ex se ipso petet. Quid fuisset tumidius,
si accipiendum criminis loco negasset Cicero equitis
Romani esse filium, se defendente ? At ille fecit
hoc etiam favorabile coniungendo cum iudicibus
dignitatem suam : Equitis autem Romani esse Jilium,
criminis loco poni ah accusalorihus, neque vobis iudi-
cantibus oporiuit neque defendentihtis nobis.

29 Impudens, tumultuosa, iracunda actio omnibus
indecora, sed ut quisque aetate, dignitate, usu prae-
cedit, magis in ea reprehendendus. Videas autem
rixatores quosdam neque iudicum reverentia neque
agendi more ac modo contineri, quo ipso mentis

<i ■■■ \ Pro Cael. ii. 4.

q3i

BOOK XI. I. 27-29

the justice of their cause, which they would not
otherwise have undertaken. For the judges give
but a reluctant hearing to such as presume to
anticipate their verdict, and the orator cannot hope
that his opponents will regard his ipse dixit with the
veneration accorded by the Pythagoreans to that of
their master. But this fault will vary in seriousness
according to the character of the orator who uses
such language. For such assertions may to some 28
extent be justified by the age, rank, and authority
of the speaker. But scarcely any orator is possessed
of these advantages to such an extent as to exempt
him from the duty of tempering such assertions by
a certain show of modesty, a remark which also
applies to all passages in which the advocate draws
any of his arguments from his own person. What
could have been more presumptuous than if Cicero
had asserted that the fact that a man was the son
of a Roman knight should never be regarded as a
serious charge, in a case in which he was appearing
for the defence ? But he succeeded in giving this
very argument a favourable turn by associating his
own rank with that of the judges, and saying,^
" The fact of a man being the son of a Roman knight
should never have been put forward as a charge by
the prosecution when these gentlemen were in the
jury-box and I was appearing tor the defendant."

An impudent, disorderly, or angry tone is always 29
unseemly, no matter who it be that assumes it ; and
it becomes all the more reprehensible in proportion
to the age, rank, and experience of the speaker.
But we are familiar with the sight of certain brawl-
ing advocates who are restrained neither by respect
for the court nor by the recognised methods and

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QUINTILIAN

habitu manifestum sit, tam in suscipiendis qiiam in

30 agendis causis nihil pensi habere. Profert enim
mores plerumque oratio et animi secreta detegit.
Nee sine causa Graeci prodiderunt, ut vivat, quemque
etiam dicere. Humiliora ilia vitia : summissa adulatio,
adfectata scurrilitas, in rebus ac verbis parum modestis
ac pudicis vilis pudor, in omni negotio neglecta
auctoritas ; quae fere accidunt iis, qui nimium aut
blandi esse aut ridiculi volunt.

31 Ipsum etiam eloquentiae genus alios aliud decet.
Nam neque tam plenum et erectum et audax et
praecultum senibus convenerit quam pressuni et
mite et limatum et quale intelligi vult Cicero, cum
dicit, orationem suam coepisse caiiescere ; sicut
vestibus quoque non purpura coccoque fulgentibus

32 ilia aetas satis apta sit. In iuvenibus etiam ube-
riora paulo et paene periclitantia feruntur. At in
iisdem siccum et sollicitum et contractum dicendi
propositum plerumque adfectatione ipsa severitatis
invisum est, quando etiam morum senilis auctoritas
immatura in adolescentibus creditur. Simpliciora

33 militares decent. Philosophiam ex professo, ut
quidam faciunt, ostentantibus parum decori sunt
plerique orationis ornatus maximeque ex adfectibus,
quos illi vitia dicunt. Verba quoque exquisitiora et

34 compositio numerosa tali proposito diversa. Non

^i

* Bnit. ii. 8.

BOOK XI. I. 29-34

manners of pleading. The obvious inference from
this attitude of mind is that they are utterly reckless
both in undertaking cases and in pleading them.
For a man's character is generally revealed and the 30
secrets of his heart are laid bare by his manner of speak-
ing, and there is good ground for the Greek aphorism
that, " as a man lives, so will he speak." The follow-
ing vices are of a meaner type : grovelling flattery,
affected buffoonery, immodesty in dealing with things
or words which are unseemly or obscene, and dis-
regard of authority on all and every occasion. They
are faults which, as a rule, are found in those who
are over-anxious either to please or amuse.

Again, different kinds of eloquence suit different 31
speakers. For example, a full, haughty, bold and
florid style would be less becoming to an old man
than that restrained, mild and precise style to which
Cicero refers, when he says that his style is beginning
to grow grey-haired.* It is the same with their style
as their clothes ; purple and scarlet raiment goes ill
with grey hairs. In the young, however, we can 32
endure a rich and even, perhaps, a risky style. On
the other hand, a dry, careful and compressed stvle
is unpleasing in the young as suggesting the affecta-
tion of severity, since even the authority of character
that goes with age is considered as premature in
young men. Soldiers are best suited by a simple
style. Those, again, who make ostentatious pro- 33
fession, as some do, of being philosophers, would do
well to avoid most of the ornaments of oratory, more
especially those which consist in appeals to the
passions, which they regard as moral blemishes. So,
too, the employment of rare words and of rhythmical
structure are incongruous with their profession. For 3-1

173

QUINTILIAN

enim sola ilia laetiora^ qualia a Cicerone dicuntur,
Saxa atque solitudines voci respondent ; sed etiam ilia,
quanquam plena sanguinis, Vos enim iam, Albani
tumuli atque luci, vos, inquam, imploro atque testor,
vosque, Alhanorum obrutae aiae, sacrorum populi
Romani sociae et aequales, non eonveniant barbae illi
36 atque tristitiae. At vir civilis vereque sapiens, qui
se non otiosis disputationibus, sed administrationi
rei publicae dediderit, a qua longissime isti, qui
philosophi vocantur, recesserunt, omnia, quae ad
efficiendum oratione quod proposuerit valent, libenter
adhibebit, cum prius quid honestum sit efficere in

36 animo sue constituerit. Est quod principes deceat^
aliis non concesseris. Imperatorum ac triumphalium
separata est aliqua ex parte ratio eloquentiae, sicut
Pompeius abunde disei'tus rerum suarum narrator,
et hie, qui belle civili se interfecit, Cato eloquens

37 senator fuit. Idem dictum saepe in alio liberum, in
alio furiosum, in alio superbum est. Verba adversus
Agamemnonem a Thersite habita ridentur; da ilia
Diomedi aliive cui pari : magnum animum ferre prae
se videbuntur. Ego ie consulem puiem, inquit L.
Crassus Philippo, cum tu me non putes senatorem ?

1 Pro Arch. viii. 19. * Pro Mil. xxxi. 85.

» n. ii. 225. * De Or. iii. 1.

174

BOOK XI. I. 34-37

their beards and gloomy bi-ows are ill-suited not
merely to luxuriance of style, such as we find in
Cicero's " Rocks and solitudes answer to the voice," *
but even to full-blooded passages as, " For on you I
call, ye hills and groves of Alba ; I call you to bear
me witness, and ye, too, fallen altars of the Albans,
that were once the peers and equals of the holy
places of Rome." ^ But the public man, who is truly 35
wise and devotes himself not to idle disputations,
but to the administration of the state, from which
those who call themselves philosophers have with-
drawn themselves afar, will gladly employ every
method that may contribute to the end M'hich he
seeks to gain by his eloquence, although he will first
form a clear conception in his mind as to what aims
are honourable and what are not. There is a form 36
ot eloquence which is becoming in the greatest
men, but inadmissible in others. For example, the
methods of eloquence employed by commanders and
conquerors in their hour of triumph are to a great
extent to be regarded as in a class apart. The
comparison of the eloquence of Pompey and Cato
the younger, who slew himself in the civil war, will
illustrate my meaning. The former was extra-
ordinarily eloquent in the description of his own
exploits, while the latter's powers were displayed
in debates in the senate. Again, the same remark 37
will seem freedom of speech in one's mouth, madness
in another's, and arrogance in a third. We laugh at
the words used by Thersites ^ to Agamemnon ; but
put them in the mouth of Diomede or some other
of his peers, and they will seem the expression of a
great spirit. " Shall I regard you as consul," said
Lucius Crassiis * to Philippus, " when you refuse to

>75

QUINTILIAN

Vox honestissimae libertatis ; non tamen ferres

38 quemcunque dicentem. Negat se magni facere
aliquis poetarum, utriim Caesar ater an albus homo
sit, insania ; verte, ut idem Caesar de illo dixerit,
arrogantia est. Maior in personis obsei-vatio est
apud tragicos comicosque, multis enim utuntur et
variis. Eadem et eorum, qui oratioiies aliis scribe-
bant; fuit ratio et declaniantium est; non enim
semper ut advocati sed plerumque ut litigatores
dicimus.

39 Verum etiam in iis causis, quibus advocamur,
eadem differentia diligenter est custodienda. Utimur
enim fictione personarum et velut ore alieno loqui-
mur, dandique sunt iis, quibus vocem accommodamus,
sui mores. Aliter enim P. Clodius, aliter Appius
Caecus, aliter Caecilianus ille, aliter Terentianus
pater fingitur. Quid asperius lietore Verris : Ut

40 adeas, tantum dahis ? Quid fortius illo, cuius inter
ipsa verberum supplicia una vox audiebatur : Civis
Romanus sum ? Quam dignae Milonis in peroratione
ipsa voces eo viro, qui pro re publica seditiosum
civem totiens compescuisset quique insidias virtute

41 superasset? Denique non modo quot in causa

» Cat. 93. * Cp. ir. xv. 30 ; in. viii. 51.

• Clodiua, the unscrupulous enemy of Cicero. Appius
Caecus, his ancestor, the great senator, who secured the
rejection of the terms of Pyrrhus.

• See Pro Cael. xvi.

• I.e. to visit a relative in prison, Verr. v. xlv. 118 ; cp.
QuitU. IX. iv. 71.

• Verr. V. Ixii. 162. » Cjp. iv. ii. 25 ; vr. v. 10. (

176

BOOK XI. I. 37-41

regard me as a senator ? " That was honourable
freedom of speech, and yet we should not tolerate
such words from everybody's lips. One of the poets ^ 38
says that he does not care whether Caesar be white
or black. That is madness. But reverse the case.
Suppose that Caesar said it of the poet ? That
would be arrogance. The tragic and comic poets
pay special attention to character, since they intro-
duce a great number and variety of persons. Those
who wrote speeches ^ for others paid a like attention
to these points, and so do the declaimers ; for we do
not always speak as advocates, but frequently as
actual parties to the suit.

But even in these cases in which we appear as 39
advocates, differences of character require careful
observation. For we introduce fictitious personages
and speak through other's lips, and we must therefore
allot the appropriate character to those to whom
we lend a voice. For example, Publius Clodius will
be represented in one way, Appius Caecus' in
another, while Caecilius* makes the father in his
comedy speak in quite a different manner from the
father in the comedy of Terence. What can be 40
more brutal than the words of Verres' lictor, "To
see him you will pay so much " ? ^ or braver than
those of the man from whom the scourge could
wring but one cry, " I am a Roman citizen ! " •
Again, read the words which Cicero places in the
mouth of Milo in his peroration : are they not
worthy of the man who to save the state had so
oft repressed a seditious citizen, and had triumi)hed
by his valour over the ambush that was laid for
him ? ^ Further, it is not merely true that the 41
variety required in impersonation will be in

177

QUINTILIAN

tfttidem in prosopopoeia sunt varietates, sed hoc
etiam plures, quod in his puerorura, feminarum,
populorum, mutarum etiam rerum assimulamus

42 adfectus, quibus omnibus debetur suus decor. Eadem
in iis, pro quibus agemus, observanda sunt ; aliter
enim pro alio saepe dicendum est, ut quisque
honestus, humilis, invidiosus, favorabilis erit, adiecta
propositorum quoque et anteactae vitae differentia,
lucundissima vero in oratore humanitas, facilitas,
moderatio, benivolentia. Sed ilia quoque diversa
bonum virum decent : malos odisse, publica vice
commoveri, ultum ire scelera et iniurias, et omnia,
ut initio dixi, honesta.

43 Nee tantum, quis et pro quo sed etiam apud quem
dicas, interest. Facit enim et fortuna discrimen et
potestas, nee eadem apud principem, magistratum,
senatorem, privatum, tantum liberum ratio est, nee
eodem sono publica indicia et arbitrorum discepta-

44 tiones aguntur. Nam ut orantem pro capite sollici-
tudo deceat et cura et omnes ad amplificandam
orationem quasi machinae, ita in parvis rebus

» See § 14.

178

BOOK XI. I. 41-44

prof)ortion to the variety presented by the case, for
impersonation demands even greater variety, since
it involves the portrayal of the emotions of children,
women, nations, and even of voiceless things, all
of which require to be represented in character.
The same points have to be observed with respect 42
to those for whom we plead : for our tone will vary
with the character of our client, according as he is
distinguished, or of humble position, popular or the
reverse, while we must also take into account the
differences in their principles and their past life.
As regards the orator himself, the qualities which
will most commend him are courtesy, kindliness,
moderation and benevolence. But, on the other
hand, the opposite of these qualities will sometimes
be becoming to a good man. He may hate the bad,
be moved to passion in the public interest, seek to
avenge crime and wrong, and, in fine, as I said at
the beginning,^ may follow the promptings of every
honourable emotion.

The character of the speaker and of the person on 43
whose behalf he speaks are, however, not the only
points which it is important to take into account :
the character of those before whom we have to
speak calls for serious consideration. Their power
and rank will make no small difference ; we shall
employ different methods according as we are speak-
ing before the emperor, a magistrate, a senator, a
private citizen, or merely a free man, while a
different tone is demanded by trials in the public
courts, and in cases submitted to arbitration. For 44
while a display of care and anxiety, and the em-
ployment of every device available for the ampli-
fication of our style are becoming when we are

179

QUINTILIAN

iudiciisque vana sint eadem, rideaturque merito,
qui apud disceptatorem de re levissima sedens
dicturus utatur ilia Ciceronis confessione, non modo
se animo commoveri, sed eliam corpore ipso perhorrescere.

45 Quis vero nesciat, quanto aliud dicendi genus poscat
gravitas senatoria, aliud aura popularis? cum etiaiii
singulis iudicantibus non idem apud graves viros
quod leviores, non idem apud eruditum quod
militarem ac rusticum deceat, sitque nonnunquam
summittenda et contrail enda oratio, ne iudex earn
vel intelligere vel capere non possit.

46 Tempus quoque ac locus egent observatione
propria. Nam et tempus turn triste, turn laetum,
tum liberum, turn angustum est, atque ad haec

47 omnia componendus orator ; et loco publico privatone,
celebri an secreto, aliena civitate an tua, in castris
denique an foro dicas, interest plurimum, ac suam
quidque formam et proprium quendam modum elo-
quentiae poscit : cum etiam in ceteris actibus vitae
non idem in foro, curia, campo, theatro, domi facere

* Div. in Cote. xiii. 41
i8o

BOOK XI. I. 44-47

pleading for a client accused on a capital charge,
it would be useless to employ the same methods in
cases and trials of minor importance, and the speaker
who, when speaking from his chair before an arbitrator
on some trivial question, should make an admission
like that made by Cicero, to the effect that it was
not merely his soul that was in a state of com-
motion, but that his whole body was convulsed with
shuddering,^ would meet with well-deserved ridicule.
Again, who does not know what different styles of 45
eloquence are required when speaking before the
grave assembly of the senate and before the fickle
populace, since even when we are pleading before
single judges the same style will not be suitable
for use before one of weighty character and another
of a more frivolous disposition, while a learned judge
must not be addressed in the same tone that we
should employ before a soldier or a rustic, and our
style must at tinaes be lowered and simplified, for
fear that he may be unable to take it in or to
understand it.

Again, circumstances of time and place demand 46
special consideration. The occasion may be one
for sorrow or for rejoicing, the time at our disposal
may be ample or restricted, and the orator must
adapt himself to all these circumstances. It, like- 47
Mrise, makes no small difference whether we are
speaking in public or in private, before a crowded
audience or in comparative seclusion, in another
city or our own, in the camp or in the forum : each
of these places will require its own style and peculiar
form of oratory, since even in other spheres of life
the same actions are not equally suited to the forum,
the senate-house, the Campus Martins, the theatre

QUINTILIAN

conveniat; et pleraque, quae natura non sunt repre-
hendenda atque adeo ^ interim sunt necessaria, alibi

48 quam mos permiserit turpia habeantur. Illud iam
diximuSj quanto plus nitoris et cultus demonstrativae
materiae, ut ad delectation em audientium compositae,
quam, quae sunt in actu et contentione, suasoriae
iudieialesque permittant.

Hoc adhuc adiiciendum aliquas etiam, quae sunt
egregiae dicendi virtutes, quo minus deceant, effici

49 condicione causarum. An quisquam tulerit reum in
discrimine capitis, praecipueque si apud victorem et
principem pro se ipse dicat, frequenti translatione,
fictis aut repetitis ex vetustate verbis, compositione
quae sit maxime a vulgari usu remota, decurrentibus
periodis, quam laetissimis locis sententiisque di-
centem ? Non perdant haec omnia necessarium
periclitanti sollicitudinis colorem, petendumque etiam

60 innocentibus misericordiae auxilium ? Moveaturne
quisquam eius fortuna, quem tumidum ac sui iactan-
tem et ambitiosum institorem eloquentiae in ancipiti
sorte videat? Non immo oderit reum verba au-
cupantem et anxium de fama ingenii, et cui esse

61 diserto vacet? Quod mire M. Caelius in defen-

* adeo, Gesner : ideo, B,
* VIII. iii. 1 1 sqq.

BOOK XI. I. 47-51

or one's own house, and there is much that is not
in itself reprehensible, and may at times be abso-
lutely necessary, which will be regarded as unseemly
if done in some place where it is not sanctioned by
custom. I have already p>ointed out^ how much 48
more elegance and ornament is allowed by the
topics of demonstrative oratory, whose main object
is the delectation of the audience, than is permitted
by deliberative or forensic themes which are con-
cerned with action and argument.

To this must be added the fact that certain
qualities, which are in themselves merits of a high
order, may be rendered unbecoming by the special
circumstances of the case. For example, when a 49
man is accused on a capital charge, and, above all,
if he is defending himself before his conqueror or
his sovereign, it would be quite intolerable for him
to indulge in frequent metaphors, antique or newly-
coined words, rhythms as far removed as possible
from the practice of every-day speech, rounded
periods, florid commonplaces and ornate reflexions.
Would not all these devices destroy the impression
of anxiety which should be created by a man in
such peril, and rob him of the succour of pity, on
which even the innocent are forced to rely ? Would 60
any man be moved by the sad plight of one who
revealed himself as a vainglorious boaster, and
ostentatiously flaunted the airs and graces of his
eloquence at a moment when his fate hung in
suspense ? Would he not rather hate the man who,
despite his position as accused, hunted for fine
words, showed himself concerned for his reputation
as a clever speaker, and found time at such a
moment to display his eloquence? 1 consider that 51

183

QUINTILIAN

sione causae, qua reus de vi fuit, comprehendisse
videtur mihi : Ne cut vestntm atque etiam omnium, qui
ad rem agendam adsunf, metis ant vultus molestior attt vox
ifnmoderatior aUqua aut denique, quod minimum est,

62 iactantior gestus fuisse videatur. Atqui sunt quaedam
actiones in satisfactione, deprecatione, confessione
positae : sententiolisne flendum erit? epiphonemata
aut enthymemata exorabunt ? Non, quidquid meris
adiicietur adfectibus, omnes eorum diluet vires et

63 miserationem securitate laxabit ? Age, si de morte
filii sui vel iniuria, quae morte sit gravior, dicendum
patri fuerit, aut in narrando gratiam illam exposi-
tionis, quae continget ex sermone puro atque dilucido,
quaeret, breviter ac significanter ordinem rei protu-
lisse contentus, aut argumenta diducet in digitos et
propositionum ac partitionum captabit leporem et,
ut plerumque in hoc genere moris est, intentione

64 omni remissa loquetur? Quo fugerit interim dolor
ille ? ubi lacrimae substiterint ? unde se in medium
tam secura observatio artium miserit? Non ab
exordio usque ad ultimam vocem continuus quidam
gemitus et idem tristitiae vultus servabitur, si quidem
volet dolorem suum etiam in audientes transfundere ?
quem si usquam remiserit, in animum iudicantium

iii' A form of Byllogism. See v. xiv. 1.

• See VIII. V. 11. "An exclamation attached to the close
of a statement or a proof by way of climax."

BOOK XI. I. 51-54

Marcus Caelius, in the speech in which he defended
himself against a charge of breach of the peace, showed
a wonderful grasp ol these facts, when he said : " I
trust that none of you gentlemen, or of all those
who have come to plead against me, will find offence
in my mien or insolence in my voice, or, though that
is a comparative trifle, any trace of arrogance in
my gesture." But there are some cases where the 62
success of the pleader depends on apology, entreaties
for mercy, or confession of error. Can sorrow be
expressed in epigram .'' Or will enthymemes ^ or
epiphonemata ^ avail to win the judge's mercy ? Will
not all embellishment of pure emotion merely im-
pair its force and dispel compassion by such a display
of apparent unconcern ? Or, suppose that a father 63
has to speak of his son's death, or of some wrong
that is worse than death, will he, in making his state-
ment of facts, seek to achieve that grace in exposi-
tion which is secured by purity and lucidity of
language, and content himself with setting forth
his case in due order with brevity and meaning.''
Or will he count over the heads of his argument
upon his fingers, aim at niceties of division and
proposition, and speak without the least energy of
feeling as is usual in such portions of a speech?
Whither will his grief have fled while he is thus 54
engaged } Where has the fountain of his tears been
stayed .'' How came this callous attention to the
rules of text-books to obtrude itself? Will he not
rather, from his opening words to the very last he
utters, maintain a continuous voice of lamentation
and a mien of unvaried woe, if he desires to trans-
plant his grief to the hearts of his audience ? For
if he once remits aught of his passion of grief, he

VOL. IV. G '^5

QUINTILIAN

55 non reducet. Quod praecipue declamantibus (neque
enim me paenitet ad hoc quoque opus meum et
curam susceptorum semel adolescentium respicere)
custodienduni est, quo plures in schola finguntur
adfectus, quos non ut advocati, sed ut passi subimus.

56 Cum etiam hoc genus simulari Htium soleat, cum ius
mortis a senatu quidam ob aliquam magnam infelici-
tatem vel etiam paenitentiam petunt, in quibus non
solum cantare, quod vitium pervasit, aut lascivire,
sed ne argumentari quidem nisi mixtis, et quidem
ita ut ipsa probatione magis emineant, adfectibus
decet. Nam qui intermittere in agendo dolorem
potest, videtur posse etiam deponere.

57 Nescio tamen an huius, de quo loquimur, decoris
custodia maxime circa eos, contra quos dicimus,
examinanda sit. Nam sine dubio in omnibus statim
accusationibus hoc agendum est, ne ad eas libenter
deseendisse videamur. Ideoque mihi illud Cassii
$everi, uon mediocriter displicet: Di honi, vivo; el,

* VII. iv. 39. It is said that poison was provided by the
state of Massilia to serve the turn of such unhappy persons,
8o soon as they could convince the local senate that their
proposed suicide was justifiable.

^ Cp. I. viii. 2.

• Cp. X. i. 22. In 9 B.C. he accused Nonius Asprenas, a
friend of Augustus, of the crime of poisoning. Asprenas
was defended by PoUio, and supported by Augustus during
his trial.

i86

BOOK XI. 1. 54-57

will never be able to recall it to the hearts of them
that hear him. This is a point which declaimers, 56
above all, must be careful to bear in mind : I
mention this because I have no compunction in
referring to a branch of the art which was once also
wy own, or in reverting to the consideration of the
youthful students such as once were in my charge :
the declaim er, I repeat, must bear this in mind,
since in the schools we often feign emotions that
affect us not as advocates, but as the actual sufferers.
For example, we even imagine cases where persons, 66
either because of some overwhelming misfortune or
repentance for some sin, demand from the senate the
right to make an end of their lives ; ^ and in these
cases it is obviously unbecoming not merely to adopt
a chanting intonation,^ a fault which has also become
almost universal, or to use extravagant language,
but even to argue without an admixture of emotional
appeal, so managed as to be even more prominent
than the proof which is advanced. For the man
who can lay aside his grief for a moment while he
is pleading, seems capable even of laj-ing it aside
altogether

I am not sure, however, that it is not in our 67
attitude towards our opponents that this care for
decorum, which we are now discussing, should be ■
most rigorously maintained. For there can be na
doubt, that in all accusations our first aim should
be to give the impression that it is only with the
greatest reluctance that we have consented to under-
take the role of accuser. Consequently, I strongly
disapprove of such remarks as the following which
was made by Cassius Severus:^ "Thank Heaven, I
am still alive ; and that I may find some savour in

i8y

QUINTILIAN

quo me vivere iuvei, Asprenatem reum video. Non enim
iusta ex causa vel necessaria videri potest postulasse

58 eum, sed quadam accusaiidi voluptate. Praeter hoc
tamen, quod est commune, propriam moderationem
quaedam causae desiderant. Quapropter et, qui
curationem bonorum patris postulabit, doleat eius
valetudinem ; et quamlibet gravia filio pater obiec-
tvrrus miserrimam sibi ostendat esse banc ipsam
necessitatem, nee hoc paucis modo verbis, sed toto
colore actionis, ut id eum non dicere modo, sed

59 etiam yere dicere appareat. Nee causanti pupil lo
^e tutor irascatur unquam, ut non remaneant amoris
vestigia et sacra quaedam patris eius memoria. lam
quomodo contra abdicantem patrem, querentem
uxorem, agi causam oporteret, in libro, ut arbitror,
septimo dixi. Quando etiam ipsos loqui, quandb
advocati voce uti deceat, quartus liber, in quo
prooemii praecepta sunt, continet.

60 Esse et in verbis quod deceat aut turpe sit,
liehiini dubium est. Unum iam igitur huic loco,
quod est sane summae difficultatis, adiiciendum

* The imagined case would be as follows. The father dis-
inherits the son for an alleged offence. The sou accuses the
father of madness and demands a curator, etc.
I* yjl.^ iv. 24. • IV. i. 46.

BOOK XL I. 57-60

life, I see Asprenas arraigned for his crimes." For,
after this, it is impossible to suppose that he had
just or necessary reasons for accusing Asprenas, and
we cannot help suspecting that his motive was sheer
delight in accusation. But, beside this considera- 68
tion, which applies to all cases, there is the further
point that certain cases demand special moderation.
Therefore, a man who demands the appointment of
a curator for his father's property, should express his
grief at his father's affliction ; and, however grave be
the charges that a father may be going to bring
against his son, he should emphasize the painful
nature of the necessity that is imposed upon him.^
And this he should do not merely in a few brief .
words, but his emotion should colour his whole
speech, so that it may be felt not merely that he
is speaking, but that he is speaking the truth.
Again, if a ward make allegations against his 59
guardian, the latter must never give way to such
anger that no trace is left of his former love or
of a certain reverent regard for the memory of his
opponent's father. I have already spoken, in the
seventh book, I think,* of the way in which a case
should be pleaded against a father who disinherits
his son, or a wife who brings a charge of ill-treatr
ment against her husband, while the fourth book,'
in which 1 prescribed certain rules for the exordium^
contains my instructions as to when it is becoming
that the parties should speak themselves, and when
they should employ an advocate to speak for them.

It will be readily admitted by everyone that 60
words may be becoming or offensive in themselves.
There is therefore a further point, which presents
the most serious difficulty^ that requires notice in

189

QUINTILIAN

videtur, quibus modis ea, quae sunt natura parum
speciosa qiiaeque non dicere, si utrumlibet esset
liberum, maluissemus, non tamen sint indecora dicen-

61 tibus. Quid asperiorem habere frontem potest aut
quid aures hominum magis respuunt, quam cum est
filio filiive advocatis in matrem perorandum? Ali-
quando tamen necesse est, ut in causa Cluentii
Habiti. Sed non semper ilia via, qua contra Sasiam
Cicero usus est ; non quia non ille optime, sed quia
plurimum refert, qua in re et quo modo laedat.

62 Itaque ilia, cum filii caput palam impugnaret,
fortiter fuit repellenda. Duo tamen, quae sola
supererant, divine Cicero seryavit, primum, ne obli-
visceretur reverentiae, quae parentibus debetur;
deinde ut, repetitis altius causis, diligentissime osten-
deret, quam id, quod erat in matrem dicturus, non
oporteret modo fieri, sed etiam necesse esset.

63 Primaque haec expositio fuit, quanquam ad prae-
sentem quaestionem nihil pertinebat. Adeo in causa
difficili atque perplexa nihil prius intuendum credidit
quam quid deceret. Fecit itaque nomen parentis
non filio invidiosum, sed ipsi in quam dicebatur.

64 Potest tamen aliquando mater et in re leviore aut

^ See pro Clu. Ixi. 169 sqq. Sasia was Chientius' mother.
* pro Clu. vi. 17.

BOOK XI. I. 60-64

this connexion : we must consider by what means
things which are naturally unseemly and which, had
we been given the choice, we should have preferred
not to say, may be uttered without indecorum.
What at first sight can be more unpleasing and what 61
more revolting to the ears of men than a case in
which a son or his advocate has to speak against his
mother ? And yet sometimes it is absolutely neces-
sary, as, for example, in the case of Cluentius Habitus.*
But it is not always desirable to employ the method
adopted by Cicero against Sasia,not because he did not
make most admirable use of it, but because in such
cases it makes the greatest difference what the point
may be and what the manner in which the mother
seeks to injure her son. In the case of Sasia she had 62
openly sought to procure the destruction of her son,
and consequently vigorous methods were justified
against her. But there were two points, the only
points which remained to be dealt with, that were
handled by Cicero with consummate skill : in the
first place, he does not forget the reverence that is
due to parents, and in the second, after a thorough
investigation of the history of the crime, he makes
it clear that it was not merely right, but a positive
necessity that he should say what he proposed to
say against the mother. And he placed this ex- 63
planation in the forefront of his case,^ although it
had really nothing to do with the actual question at
issue ; a fact which shows that his first consideration
in that difficult and complicated case was the con-
sideration of what was becoming for him to say. He
therefore made the name of mother cast odium not
on the son, but on her who was the object of his
denunciations. It is, however, always possible that a 64

191

QUINTILIAN

minus infeste contra filium stare ; turn lenior atque
summissior decebit oratio. Nam et satisfaciendo aut
nostram minuemus invidiam aut etiam in diversum
cam transferemus ; et si graviter dolere filium palam
fuerit, credetur abesse ab eo culpam fietque ultro

65 miserabilis. Avertere quoque in alios crimen decet,
ut fraude aliquorum concita credatur, et omnia nos
passuroSj nihil aspere dicturos testandum, ut, etiamsi
non possumus non conviciari, nolle videamur. Etiam,
si quid obiiciendum erit, officium est patroni, ut id
filio invito, sed fide cogente facere credatur. Ita

66 poterit uterque laudari. Quod de matre dixi, de
utroque parente accipiendum est ; nam inter patres
etiam filiosque, cum intervenisset emancipatio, liti-
gatum scio. In aliis quoque propinquitatibus custo-
diendum est, ut inviti et necessario et parce iudicemur
dixisse, magis autem aut minus, ut cuique personae
debetur reverentia. Eadem pro libertis adversus
patronos observantia. Et ut semel plura complectar,

* I.e. from the patria potestas by a fictitious form of sale.
103

BOOK XI. I. 64-66

mother may be her son's opponent in a case of less
serious import, or at any rate in a way which involves
less deadly hostility. Under such circumstances the
orator must adopt a gentler and more restrained
tone. For example, we may offer apology for the
line which we take, and thus lessen the odium
which we incur or even transfer it to a different
quarter, while if it be obvious that the son is deeply
grieved by the situation, it will be believed that he
is blameless in the matter and he will even become
an object of pity. It will also be desirable to throw 65
the blame on others, so that it may be believed that
the mother's action was instigated by their malice,
and to assert that we will put up with every form of
provocation, and will say nothing harsh in reply, so
that, even although strong language may be abso-
lutely necessary on our part, we may seem to be
driven to use it against our will. Nay, if some
charge has to be made against the mother, it will be
the advocate's task to make it seem that he does so
against the desire of the son and from a sense of
duty to his client. Thus both son and advocate will
win legitimate praise. What I have said about 66
mothers will apply to either parent; for I have
known of litigation taking place between fathers
and sons as well, after the emancipation ^ of the son.
And when other relationships are concerned, we
must take care to create the impression that we
have spjoken with reluctance and under stress of
necessity and that we have been forbearing in our
language ; but the importance of so doing will vary
according to the respect due to the persons con-
cerned. The same courtesy should be observed in
speaking on behalf of freedmen against their patrons.

193

QUINTILIAN

nunquam decebit sic adversus tales agere personas,
quomodo contra nos agi ab hominibus condicionis

67 eiusdem iniquo animo tulissemus. Praestatur hoc
aliquando etiam dignationibus, ut libertatis nostrae
ratio reddatur, ne quis nos aut petulantes in lae-
dendis eis aut etiam ambitiosos putet. Itaque
Ciceroj quanquam erat in Cottam gravissime dicturus,
neque aliter agi P. Oppii causa poteratj longa tamen

68 praefatione excusavit officii sui necessitatem. Ali-
quando etiam inferioribus praecipueque adolescentulis
parcere aut videri decet. Utitur hac moderatione
Cicero pro Caelio contra Atratinum^ ut eum non
inimice corripere, sed paene patrie monere videatur.
Nam et nobilis et iuvenis et non iniusto dolore
venerat ad accusandum.

Sed in his quidem, in quibus vel iudici vel etiam
adsistentibus ratio nostrae moderationis probari
debet, minor est labor ; illic plus difficultatis, ubi

69 ipsos, contra quos dicimus, veremur ofFendere, Duae
simul huiusmodi personae Ciceroni pro Murena di-
centi obstiterunt, M. Catonis Serviique Sulpicii.
Quam decenter tamen Sulpicio, cum omnes con-
cessisset virtutes, scientiam petendi consulatus

* Cp. V. xiii. 20. P. Oppius, quaestor to M. Aureliua
Cotta in Bithynia, was charged by Cotta in a letter to the
Senate with misappropriation of supplies for his troops and
with an attempt on his life. The speech in which Cicera
defended Oppius (69 B.C.) is lost.

^ See opening sections of ^ro Caelio,

m

BOOK XI. I. 66-69

In fact, to sum up, it will never become us to plead
against such persons in a tone which we ourselves
should have resented in the mouth of men of like
condition. The same respect is on occasion due to 67
persons of high rank, and it may be necessary to
offer justification for our freedom of speech to avoid
giving the impression that we have shown ourselves
insolent or ostentatious in our attack ujK)n such
persons. Consequently Cicero, although he intended
to speak against Cotta ^ with the utmost vehemence,
and indeed the case of Publius Oppius was such that
he could not do otherwise, prefaced his attack by
pleading at some length the necessity imposed upon
him by his duty to his client. Sometimes, again, it 68
will beseem us to spare or seem to spare our inferiors,
more especially if they be young. Cicero ^ gives an
example of such moderation in the way in which he
deals with Atratinus in his defence of Caelius : he
does not lash him like an enemy, but admonishes
him almost like a father. For Atratinus was of
noble birth and young, and the grievance which led
him to bring the accusation was not unreasonable.

But the task is comparatively easy in those cases
in which it is to the judge, or even, it may be, to our
audience that we have to indicate the reason for our
moderation. The real difficulty arises when we are
afraid of offending those against whom we are
speaking. The difficulties of Cicero when defending 69
Murena were increased by the fact that he was
opposed by two persons of this character, namely
Marcus Cato and Servius Sulpicius. And yet in
what courteous language, after allowing Sulpicius all
the virtues, he refuses to admit that he has any idea
of the way to conduct a candidature for the consul-

195

QUINTILIAN

ademit ? Quid enim aliud esset, quo se victum
homo nobilis et iurls antistes magis ferret ? Ut
vero rationem defensionis suae reddidit, cum se
studuisse petitioni Sulpicii contra honorem Murenae,

70 non idem debere accusationi contra caput diceret !
Quam moUi autem articulo tractavit Catonem I
Cuius naturam summe admiratus non ipsius vitio,
sed Stoicae sectae quibusdam in rebus factam du-
riorem videri volebat ; ut inter eos non forensem
contentionem, sed studiosam disputationem crederes

71 incidisse. Haec est profecto ratio et certissimum
praeceptorum genus lllius viri observatio, ut, cum
allquid detrahere salva gratia velis, concedas alia
omnia : in hoc solo vel minus peritum quam in
ceteris, adiecta, si poterit fieri, etiam causa, cur id
ita sit, vel paulo pertinaciorem vel credulum vel

72 iratum^ vel impulsum ab aliis. Hoc enim commune
remedium est, si in tota actione aequaliter appareat

■v; non honof modo eius, sed etiam caritas. Praeterea
causa sit nobis iusta sic dicendi, neque id moderate

73 tantum feciamus, sed etiam necessario. Diversum ab

* Pro Murtn. vii. 15, .. • Fro Muren. xxix. 60. . .
196

BOOK XI. I. 69-73

ship.^ What else was there in which a man of high
birth and a distinguislied lawyer would sooner
admit his inferiority ? With what skill he sets forth
his reasons for undertaking the defence of Murena,
when he says that he supported Sulpicius' candi-
dature as opposed to that of Murena, but did not
regard that preference as reason why he should
support him in bringing a capital charge against his
rival ! And with what a light touch he deals with 70
Cato ! 2 He has the highest admiration for his
character and desires to show that the fact that in
certain respects it has become severe and callous is due
not to any personal fault, but to the influence of the
Stoic school of philosophy ; in fact you would imagine
that they were engaged not in a forensic dispute,
but merely in some philosophical discussion. This 71
is undoubtedly the right method, and the safest rule
in such cases will be to follow the practice of Cicero,
namely, that, when we desire to disparage a man
without giving offence, we should allow him to be
the possessor of all other virtues and point out that
it is only in this one respect that he falls short of
his high standard, while we should, if possible, add
some reason why this should be so, such, for example^
as his being too obstinate or credulous or quick to
anger, or acting under the influence of others.
(For we may generally find a way out of such em- 72
barrassments by making it clear throughout our
whole speech that we not merely honour the object
of our criticism, but even regard him with affection.)
Further, we should have good cause for speaking thus
and must do so not merely with moderation, but also
give the impression that our action is due to the
necessities of the case. A different situation arises, 73

197

QUINTILIAN

hoc sed facilius, cum hominum aut alioqui turpium
aut nobis invisorum quaedam facta laudanda sunt.
Decet enim rem ipsam probare in qualicunque
persona. Dixit Cicero pro Gabinio at P. Vatiiiio,
inimicissimis antea sibi hominibus et in quos ora-
tiones etiam scripserat, verum ait, ut sit iusta causa
sic faciendi,^ non se de ingenii lama, sed de fide

74 esse sollicitum. Difficilior ei ratio in iudicio Cluenti-
ano fuit, cum Scamandrum necesse haberet dicere
nocentem, cuius egerat causam. Verum id ele-
gantissime cum eorum, a quibus ad se perductus
esset, precibus, tum etiam adolescentia sua excusat,
detracturus alioqui plurimum auctoritatis sibi,^ in
causa praesertim suspecta, si eum se esse, qui temere
nocentes reos susciperet, fateretur.

75 Apud iudicem vero, qui aut erit inimicus aut
propter aliquod commodum a causa, quam nos
siisceperimus, aversus, ut persuadendi ardua ratio,
ita dicendi expeditissima. Fiducia enim iustitiae
eius et nostrae causae nihil nos timere simulabimus.

- Ipse erit gloria inflandus, ut tanto clarior eius futura
sit fides ac religio in pronuntiando, quanto minus

* ait ut sit . . . sic faciendi, Halm : et iusta sit
faciendi (and the like), MSS.
• sibi, Halm : sicut, 6 : si, vulgo.

» Ch. 17 sqq.
198

BOOK XI. I. 73-75

but an easier one, when we have to praise the actions
of men who are otherwise disreputable or hateful to
ourselves : for it is only right that we should award
praise where it is deserved, whatever the character
of the person praised may be. Cicero spoke in
defence of Gabinius and Publius Vatinius, both of
them his deadly enemies and men against whom
he had previously spoken and even published his
speeches : but he justifies himself by declaring that
he does so not because he is anxious for his repu-
tation as an accomplished speaker, but because he is
concerned for his honour. He had a more difficult 74
task in his defence of Cluentius,^ as it was necessary
for him to denounce Scamander's guilt, although he
had previously appeared for him. But he excuses
his action with the utmost grace, alleging the,
importunity of those persons who had brought
Scamander to him, and his own yoiith at the time,
whereas it would have been a serious, blot on his
reputation, especially in connexion with a case of the
most dubious character, if he had admitted that he
was one who was ready to undertake the defence of
guilty persons without asking awkward questions.

On the other hand, when we are pleading before 75
a judge, who has special reasons for being hostile to
us or is for some personal motive ill-disposed to the
cause which we have undertaken, although it may
be difficult to persuade him, the method which we
should adopt in speaking is simple enough : we shall
pretend that our confidence in his integrity and in
the justice of our cause is such that we have no
fears. We must play upon his vanity by pointing out
that the less he indulges his own personal enmity
or interest, the greater will be the reputation for

199

QUINTILIAN

76 vel ofFensae vel utilitati suae indulserit. Hoc et
apud eos, a quibus appellatum erit, si forte ad
eosdem remittemur ; adiicienda ratio vel necessitatis
alicuius^ si id causa concedit, vel erroris vel sus-
picionis. Tutissimum ergo paenitentiae confessio
et satisfactio culpae, perducend usque omni mode

77 iudex ad irae pudorem. Accidit etiam nonnunquam
ut eadem de ^ causa, de qua pronuntiarit, cognoscat
iterum. Turn illud quidem commune : apud alium
nos iudicem disputaturos de illius sententia non
fuisse, neque enim emendari ab alio quam ipso fas
esse ; ceterum ex causa, ut quaeque permittet, aut
ignorata quaedam aut defuisse testes aut (quod
timidissime et, si nihil aliud plane fuerit, dicendum

78 est) patronos non sufFecisse succurret. Etiam, si
apud alios iudices agetur, ut in secunda adsertione
aut in centumviralibus iudiciis duplicibus, parte
victa decentius erit, quotiens contigerit, servare
iudicum pudorem ; de qua re latius probationum
loco dictum est.

Potest evenire, ut in aliis reprehendenda sint,

* ut, added by Regius, de by Halm.

* /. e. apologise for refusing to accept his original judge-
ment.

* v. ii. 1, where, as here, it is indicated that different
portions of a case might be tried by two panels of centumviri
sitting separately. The centumviral court dealt mainly with
cases of inheritance.

200

BOOK XI. 1. 75-78

conscientious rectitude that will accrue to iiini trom
his verdict. The same method may be adopted if 76
our case should chance to be sent back to the same
judges from whom we have appealed : but we may
further, if the case should permit, plead that we
were forced to take the action which we did or were
led to it by error or suspicion.^ The safest course
will therefore be to express our regret, apologise for
our fault and employ every means to induce the
judge to feel compunction for his anger. It will 77
also sometimes happen that a judge may have to try
the same case on which he has previously given
judgment. In such circumstances the method
commonly adopted is to say that we should not
have ventured to dispute his sentence before any
other judge, since he alone would be justified in
revising it : but (and in this we must be guided by
the circumstances of the case) we may allege that
certain facts were not known on the previous
occasion or certain witnesses were unavailable, or,
though this must be advanced with the utmost
caution and only in the last resort, that our clients'
advocates were unequal to their task. And even if 78
we have to plead a case afresh before different
judges, as may occur in a second trial of a claim to
freedom or in cases in the centumviral courts, which
are divided between two different panels, it will be
most seemly, if we have lost our case before the first
panel, to say nothing against the judges who tried
the case on that occasion. But this is a subject
with which I dealt at some length in the passage
where I discussed proqfs.-

It may happen that we have to censure actions in
others, of which we have been guilty ourselves.

QUINTILIAN

quae ipsi fecerimus, ut obiicit Tubero Ligario, quod

79 in Africa fuerit. Et ambitus quidam damnati re-
cuperandae dignitatis gratia reos eiusdem criminis
detulerunt, ut in scholis luxuriantem patrem luxu-
riosus ipse iuvenis accusat. Id quomodo decenter
fieri possit, equidem non invenio, nisi aliquid repe-
ritur, quod intersit, persona, aetas, tempus, causa,

80 locus, animus. Tubero, iuvenem se patri haesisse,
ilium a senatu missum non ad bellum, sed ad fru-
mentum coemendum ait, ut primum licuerit, a
partibus recessisse ; Ligarium et perseverasse et non
pro Cn. Pompeio, inter quem et Caesarem dignitatis
fuerit contentio, cum salvam uterque rem publicam
vellet, sed pro luba atque Afris inimicissimis populo

81 Romano stetisse. Ceterum vel facillimum est, ibi
alienam culpam incusare, ubi fateris tuam. Verum
id iam indicis est, non actoris. Quodsi nulla con-
tingit excusatio, sola colorem habet paenitentia.
Potest enim videri satis emendatus, qui in odium

82 eorum, in quibus erraverat, ipse con versus est. Sunt
enim casus quidam, qui hoc natui'a ipsa rei non
indecens faciant : ut cum pater ex meretrice natum,
quod duxerit ^ meretricem in matrimonium, abdicat ;

* meretrice . . . duxerit, added by ed. Camp.

* See V. X. 108 note and with reference to ^ro Clu. xxxvi.
98.

2oa

BOOK XL I. 78-82

as, for example, when Tubero charges Ligarius
with having been in Africa. Again, there have 79
been cases where persons condemned for bribery
have indicted others for the same offence with a
view to recovering their lost position : ^ for this
the schools provide a parallel in the theme where
a luxurious youth accuses his father of the same
offence. I do not see how this can be done with
decorum unless we succeed in discovering some
difference between the two cases, such as character,
age, motives, circumstances of time and place or
intention. Tubero, for example, alleges that he 80
was a young man at the time and went thither
in the company of his father, who had been sent by
the senate not to take part in the war, but to pur-
chase com, and further that he left the f)arty as
soon as he could, whereas Ligarius clung to the
party and gave his support, not to Gnaeus Pom-
peius, who was engaged with Caesar in a struggle
for the supreme power, though both wished to
preserve the state, but to Juba and the Africans
who were the sworn enemies of Rome. The easiest 81
course, however, is to denounce another's guilt, while
admitting our own in the same connexion. How-
ever, that is the part of an informer, not of a
pleader. But if there is no excuse available, peni-
tence is our only hope. For the man who is
converted to the hatred of his own errors, may
perhaps be regarded as sufficiently reformed. For 82
there are occasionally circumstances which from
the very nature of tfie case may make such an
attitude not unbecoming, as, for example, in the
case where the father disinherits a son bom of a
harlot because that son has married a harlot, a case

203

QUINTILIAN

scholastica materia sed non quae in foro non possit
accidere. Hie igitur miilta non deformiter dicet :
vel quod omnium sit votum parentum, ut honestiores
quam sint ipsi liberos habeant, (nam et si filia nata,
meretrix earn mater pudicam esse voluisset) vel
quod humilior ipse fuerit, (licet enim huic ducere) ^

83 vel quod non habuerit patrem qui moneret ; quin eo
minus id faciendum filio fuisse, ne renovaret domus
pudorem et exprobraret patri nuptias, matri prioris
vitae necessitatem, ne denique legem quandam suis
quoque rursum ^ liberis daret. Credibilis erit etiam
propi'ia quaedam in ilia meretrice turpitudo, quam
nunc hie pater ferre non possit. Alia praetereo ;
neque enim nunc declamamus, sed ostendimus
nonnunquam posse dicentem ipsis incommodis
bene uti.

84 Illic maior aestus, ubi quis pudenda queritur, ut
stuprum, praecipue in maribus, aut os profanatum.
Non dico^ si loquatur ipse ; nam quid aliud ei quam
gemitus ac fletus et exsecratio vitae conveniat, ut
index intelligat potius dolorem ilium quam audiat ?
Sed patrono quoque per similes adfectus eundum

''^''^ huic ducere, Spalding : hoc ducere or dicere, M88.
■ rursum, J?a^m : sum, O: auhinde, vulgo.

* The lex lulex de maritandis ordinihus (18 B.C.) forbade
the marriage of a senator with a prostitute.

?e4

BOOK XI. I. 82-84

which, although it forms a scholastic theme, might
actually arise in a court of law. There are a number '
of pleas which the father may put forward with
becoming effect. He will say that it is the prayer 83
of all parents that their sons should be better men
than themselves (for example, if a daughter also
had been born to him, the harlot, her mother,
would have wished her to be chaste), or that he
himself was in a humbler position (for a man in
such a position is permitted to marry a harlot),^ or
that he had no father to warn him ; and further
that there was an additional reason against his son's
conduct, namely, that he should not revive the old
family scandal nor reproach his father with his
marriage and his mother with the hard necessity
of her former life, nor give a bad example to his
own children in their turn. We may also plausibly
suggest that there is some particularly shameful
feature in the character of the harlot married by
the son, which the father cannot under existing
circumstances tolerate. There are other possible
arguments which I pass by : for I am not now
engaged in declamation, but am merely pointing
out that there are occasions when the speaker may
turn his own drawbacks to good account.

More arduous difficulties confront us when we have 84
to deal with a complaint of some shameful act such
as rape, more especially when this is of an un-
natural kind. I do not refer to cases when the
victim himself is speaking. For what should he do
but groan and weep and curse his existence, so that
the judge will understand his grief rather than hear
it articulately expressed .'' But the victim's advocate
will have to exhibit similar emotions, since the

265

QUINTILIAN

erit, quia hoc iniuriae genus verecundius est fateri ^

85 passis quam ausis. Mollienda est in plerisque alio
colore asperitas orationis, ut Cicero de proscriptorum
liberis fecit. Quid enim crudelius quam homines
honestis parentibus ac maioribus natos a re publica
summoveri? Itaque durum id esse summus ille
tractandorum aniraorum artifex confitetur, sed ita
legibus SuUae cohaerere statum civitatis adfirmat, ut
iis solutis stare ipsa non possit. Adsecutus itaque
est, ut aliquid eorum quoque causa videretur facere

86 contra quos diceret. Illud etiam in iocis monui,
quam turpis esset fortunae insectatio, et ne in totos
ordiues aut gentes aut populos petulantia incurreret.
Sed interim fides patrocinii cogit quaedam de uni-
verso genere aliquorum hominum dicere, liber-
tinorum vel militum vel publicanorum vel similiter

87 aliorum. In quibus omnibus commune remedium
est, ut ea, quae laedunt, non libenter tractare vi-
dearis nee in omnia impetum facias, sed in id quod
expugnandum est, et reprehendens alia laude com-

88 penses : si cupidos milites dicas, - sed non mirum,

^ fateri, added hy Hcdm.

• cupidos milites dicas, sed, Spalding : cupidum dedi-
casset, G.

^ Now lost.

' Cicero argued that it was better that a few should suffer
unjustly than that the state should be upset by admitting
them to oflBce. But he admitted that their case was hard
and suggested that it was better for them to live in an
orderly state than run the risks in which revolution would
involve them as well as others. ' vi. iii. 28.

8o6

BOOK XI. I. 84-88

admission of such wrongs cause more shame to tlie
sufferer than the criminal. In many cases it is 85
desirable to soften the harshness of our language
by the infusion of a more conciliatory tone, as, for
example, Cicero did in his speech ^ dealing with
the children of the proscribed. What fate could
be more cruel than that the children of men of
good birth and the descendants of distinguished
ancestors should be excluded from participation
in public life .'* For this reason that supreme artist
in playing on the minds of men admits that it is
hard, but asserts that the constitution is so essenti-
ally dependent on the laws of Sulla, that their
repeal would inevitably involve its destruction.
Thus he succeeded in creating the impression that
he was doing something on behalf of those very
persons against whom he spoke.^ I have already ^ 86
pointed out, in dealing with the subject of jests,
how unseemly it is to take the position in life of
individuals as the target for our gibes, and also
have urged that we should refrain from insulting
whole classes, races or communities. But at times
our duty toward our client will force us to say
something on the general character of a whole
class of people, such as freedmen, soldiers, tax-
farmers or the like. In all these cases the usual 87
remedy is to create the impression that it is with
reluctance that we introduce topics which must
give pain, while further we shall avoid attacking
everything, and even while using the language
of reproof with regard to the essential point of
attack, shall make up for our censure by praising
our victims in some other connexion. For example, 88
if we charge soldiers with rapacity, we shall

207

QUINTILIAN

quod periculorum ac sanguinis maiora sibi deberi
praemia putent ; eosdem petulantes, sed hoc fieri,
quod bellis magis quam paci consuerint. Libertinis
detrahenda est auctoritas ; licet iis testimonium red-

89 dere industriae, per quam exierint de servitute. Quod
ad nationes exteras pertinet, Cicero varie : de-
tracturus Graecis testibus fidem, doctrinam iis
concedit ac litteras, seque eius gentis amatorem
esse profitetur, Sardos contemnit, Allobrogas ut
hostes insectatur ; quorum nihil tunc, cum di-
ceretur, parum aptum aut remotum cura decoris

90 fuit, Verborum etiam moderatione detrahi solet,
si qua est rei invidia : si asperum dicas nimium
severum, iniustum persuasione labi, pertinacem ultra
modum tenacem esse propositi ; plerumque velut
ipsos coneris ratione vincere, quod est mollissimum.

91 Indecorum est super haec omne nimium, ideoque
etiam quod natura rei satis aptum est, nisi modo
quoque temperatur, gratiam perdit. Cuius rei

* E.g. pro Flacco xxvi.

2 In a fragment of pro Scauro.

* pro Font. viii.

208

BOOK XI. I. 88-91

qualify our statement by saying that the fact is not
surprising, as they think that they are entitled to
some special reward for the perils they have faced
and the wounds they have sustained. Or, if we
censure them for insolence, we shall add that this
quality is due to the fact that they are more
accustomed to war than to peace. In the case of
freedmen we should disparage their influence : but
we may also give them credit for the industry
which secured their emancipation. With regard 89
to foreign nations, Cicero's practice varies. When
he intends to disparage the credibility of Greek
witnesses he admits their distinction in learning
and literature and professes his admiration for their
nation.^ On the other hand, he has nothing but
contempt for the Sardinians ^ and attacks the Allo-
broges as the enemies of Rome.^ In all these cases
none of his remarks, at the time they were made,
were inconsistent with or adverse to the claims of
decorum. If there be anything offensive in the 90
subject on which we have to speak, it may be
toned down by a studied moderation in our lan-
guage ; for example, we may describe a brutal char-
acter as being unduly severe, an unjust man as led
astray by prejudice, an obstinate man as unreason-
ably tenacious of his opinion. And there are a
large number of cases where we should attempt to
defeat our opponents by reasoning, which forms the
gentlest of all methods of attack.

To these remarks I would add that all extra va- 91
^ance of any kind is indecorous, and consequently
statements which are in sufficient harmony with the
facts will none the less lose all their grace unless
they are modified by a certain restraint. It is hard

209

QUINTILIAN

observatio iudicio magis quodam sentiri quam prae-
ceptis tradi potest, quantum satis sit et quantum
recipiant aures. Non habet res mensuram et quasi
pondus, quia ut in cibis alia aliis magis complent.

92 Adiiciendum etiam breviter videtur, quod fit ut ^
dicendi virtutes diversissimae non solum suos
amatores habeant, sed ab eisdem saepe laudentur.
Nam Cicero quodam loco scribit, id esse optimum,
quod, cum te facile credideris consequi imitatione,
non possis. Alio vero, non id egisse, ut ita diceret,
quomodo se quilibet posse confideret, sed quomodo

93 nemo. Quod potest pugnare inter se videri. Verum
utrumque ac merito laudatur ; causarum enim ^ modo
distat, quia simplicitas ilia et velut securitas in-
adfectatae orationis mire tenues causas decet, maiori-
bus illud admirabile dicendi genus magis convenit.
In utroque eminet Cicero ; ex quibus alterum
imperiti se posse consequi credent, neutrum, qui
intelligunt.

II. Memoriam quidam naturae modo esse munus
existimaverunt, estque in ea non dubie plurimum,

» fit ut, Halm : fiat, M8S.

• causarum enim, Spalding : causa enim enim, Q,

^ See Or. xxiii. 76. In this and the next passage Quin-
tilian does not quote, but paraphrases.
' See Or. xxviii. 97.

2IO

BOOK XL I 91-11. I

to give rules as to the exact method in which this
precept should be observed, but the problem will
easily be solved by following the dictates of our own
judgement, which will tell us what it is sufficient to
say and how much the ears of our audience will
tolerate. We cannot weigh or measure our words
by fixed standards : they are like foods, some of
which are more satisfying than others.

I think I should also add a few brief words to the 92
effect that not only very different rhetorical virtues
have their special admirers, but that they are often
praised by the same persons. For instance, there is
one passage ^ in Cicero where he writes that the
best style is that which we think we can easily
acquire by imitation, but which we find is really
beyond our powers. But in another passage - he
says that his aim was not to speak in such a manner
that everyone should be confident that he could do
the same, but rather in a style that should be the
despair of all. These two statements may seem to 93
be inconsistent, but as a matter of fact both alike
deserve the praise which they receive. The differ-
ence is due to the fact that cases differ in character.
Those of minor importance are admirably suited by
the simplicity and negligence of unaffected lan-
guage, whereas cases of greater moment are best
suited by the grand style. Cicero is pre-eminent in
both. Now while eminence in one of these stvles
may seem to the inexperienced to be within their
grasp, those who understand know that they are
capable of eminence in neither.

II. Some regard memory as being no more than
one of nature's gifts ; and this view is no doubt true
to a great extent ; but, like everything else, memory

311

QUINTILIAN

sed ipsa excolendo sicut alia omnia augetur; et
totus, de quo diximus adhuc, inanis est labor, nisi
ceterae partes hoc velut spiritu continentur. Nam
et omnis disciplina memoria constat, frustraque
docemur, si quidquid audimus praeterfluat ; et exem-
plorum, legum, responsorum, dictorum denique
factorumque velut quasdam copias, quibus abundare
quasque in promptu semper habere debet orator,
eadem ilia vis praesentat. Neque immerito thesaurus

2 hie eloquentiae dicitur. Sed non firme tantum
continere, verum etiam cite percipere multa acturos
oportet, nee quae scripseris mode iterata lectione
complecti, sed in cogitatis quoque rerum ac verborum
contextum sequi, et quae sint ab adversa parte dicta
meminisse, nee utique ea, quo dicta sunt ordine,

3 refutare, sed opportunis locis ponere. Quid ? extem-
poralis oratio non alio mihi videtur mentis vigore
constare. Nam dum alia dicimus, quae dicturi
sumus intuenda sunt. Ita, cum semper cogitatio
ultra eat,* id quod est longius quaerit, quidquid
autem repperit quodam modo apud memoriam
deponit ; quod ilia quasi media quaedam manus

^ ultra eat id. Halm : ultre ad id, G : ultra id, codd. Mon.

Argentorat.

312

BOOK XI. 11. 1-3

may \ye improved by cultivation. And all the labour
of which I have so far spoken will be in vain unless
all the other departments be co-ordinated by the
animating principle of memory. For our whole
education depends upon memory, and we shall
receive instruction all in vain if all we hear slips
from us, while it is the power of memory alone
that brings before us all the store of precedents,
laws, rulings, sayings and facts which the orator
must possess in abundance and which he must
always hold ready for immediate use. Indeed
it is not without good reason that memory has
been called the treasure-house of eloquence. But 2
pleaders need not only to be able to retain a number
of facts in their minds, but also to be quick to take
them in ; it is not enough to learn what you have
written by dint of repeated reading; it is just as
necessary to follow the order both of matter and
words when you have merely thought out what you
are going to say, while you must also remember
what has been said by your opponents, and must
not be content merely with refuting their arguments
in the order in which they were advanced, but must
be in a position to deal with each in its appropriate
place. Nay, even extempore eloquence, in my 3
opinion, depends on no mental activity so much
as memory. For while we are saying one thing, we
must be considering something else that we are
going to say : consequently, since the mind is always
looking ahead, it is continually in search of some-
thing which is more remote : on the other hand,
whatever it discovers, it deposits by some mysterious
process in the safe-keeping of memory, which acts
as a transmitting agent and hands on to the delivery

ai3

QUINTILIAN

4 acceptum ab inventione tradit elocutioni. Non
arbitror aiitem mihi in hoc immorandum, quid sit
quod memoriam faciat, quanquam plerique imprimi
quaedam vestigia animo, velut in ceris anulorum
signa serventur, existimant. Neque ero tam credu-
lus, ut, qui ' habitu tardiorem firmioremque memoriam
fieri videam, ei artem quoque audeam impertire.^

5 Magis admirari naturam subit, tot res vetustas tanto ex
intervallo repetitas reddere se et offerre, nee tantum
requirentibus sed etiam sponte interim, nee vigil-

6 antibus sed etiam quiete compositis : eo magis, quod
ilia quoque animal ia, quae carere intellectu videntur,
meminerunt et agnoscunt et quamlibet longo itinere
deducta ad adsuetas sibi sedes revertuntur. Quid ?
non haec varietas mira est, excidere proxima, Vetera
inhaerere ? hesternorum immemores acta pueritiae

7 recordari ? Quid quod quaedam requisita se oc-
cultant et cadem forte succurrunt? nee manet
semper metiioria, sed aliquando etiam redit ? Nesci-
retur tamen, quanta vis esset eius, quanta divinitas
ilia, nisi in hoc lumen vim ^ orandi extulisset. Non

8 enim rerum modo sed etiam verborum ordinem

* qui . . . fieri videam, Spalding : quam . . . fieri, MSS.

■ ei artem quoque audeam impertire, Spalding t et actem
{or autem) quoque ad animum pertire (pertinere or partire)
MSS.

■•' vim, added by Regius. a

ai4

BOOK XI. II. 3-8

what it has received from the imagination. I do 4
not conceive, however, that I need dwell upon the
question of the precise function of memory, although
many hold the view that certain impressions are
made upon the mind, analogous to those which a
signet-ring makes on wax. Nor, again, shall I be so
credulous, in view of the fact that the retentiveness
or slowness of the memory depends upon our
physical condition, as to venture to allot a special
art to memory. My inclination is rather to marvel 5
at its powers of reproducing and presenting a
number of remote facts after so long an interval,
and, what is more, of so doing not merely when we
seek for such facts, but even at times of its own
accord, and not only in our waking moments, but
even when we are sunk in sleep. And my wonder is 6
increased by the fact that even beasts, which seem to
be devoid of reason, yet remember and recognise
things, and will return to their old home, however far
they have been taken from it. Again, is it not an .
extraordinary inconsistency that we forget recent and *
remember distant events, that we cannot recall what
happened yesterday and yet retain a vivid impression
of the acts of our childhood .'' And what, again, shall 7
we say of the fact that the things we search for
frequently refuse to present themselves and then
occur to us by chance, or that memory does not
always remain with us, but wUl even sometimes
return to us after it has been lost ? But we should
never have realised the fullness of its power nor its
supernatural capacities, but for the fact that it is
memory which has brought oratory to its present
position of glory. For it provides the orator not 8
merely with the order of his thoughts, but even of

215

QUINTILIAN

praestat, nee ea pauea eontexit, sed durat prope in
infinitum, et in longissimis actionibus prius audiendi
9 patientia quam memoriae fides deficit. Quod et
ipsum argumentum est subesse artem aliquam iu-
varique ratione naturam, cum idem docti facere
illud, indocti inexercitatique non possimus. Quan-
quam invenio apud Platonem obstare memoriae usum
litterarum, videlicet quoniam ilia, quae scriptis

10 reposuimus, velut custodire desinimus et ipsa securi-
tate dimittimus. Nee dubium est quin plurimum
in hac pai-te valeat mentis intentio et velut acies
luminum a prospectu rerum, quas intuetur, non
aversa. Unde accidit, ut quae per plures dies
scribimus ediscendi causa, cogitatione ^ ipsa con-
tineamus.2

11 Artem autem memoriae primus ostendisse dicitur
Simonides. Cuius vulgata fabula est : cum pugili
coronate carmen, quale componi victoribus solet,
mercede pacta scripsisset, abnegatam ei pecuniae
partem, quod more poetis frequentissimo digressus
in laudes Castoris ac Pollucis exierat. Quapropter
partem ab iis petere, quorum facta celebrasset, iube-

* causa, cogitatione, early edd. : sint cogitationes, M88.
' coutineamus, Slothouwer : contineat, MS8.

» Phacdr. 275 A. • See x. i. 64.

2l6

BOOK XI. II. 8-1 1

his words, nor is its power limited to stringing
merely a few words together ; its capacity for endur-
ance is inexhaustible, and even in the longest
pleadings the patience of the audience flags long
before the memory of the speaker. This fact may 9
even be advanced as an argument that there must
be some art of memory and that the natural gift can
be helped by reason, since training enables us to
do things which we cannot do before we have had
any training or practice. On the other hand, I find
that Plato ^ asserts that the use of written characters
is a hindrance to memory, on the ground, that is, that
once we have committed a thing to writing, we
cease to guard it in our memory and lose it out of
sheer carelessness. And there can be no doubt that 10
concentration of mind is of the utmost imj>ortance in
this connexion ; it is, in fact, like the eyesight, which
turns to, and not away from, the objects which it
contemplates. Thus it results that after writing
for several days with a view to acquiring by heart
what we have written, we find that our mental effort
has of itself imprinted it on our memory.

The first person to discover an art of memory is 11
said to have been Simonides,^ of whom the following
well-known story is told. He had written an ode
of the kind usually composed in honour of victorious
athletes, to celebrate the achievement of one who
had gained the crown for boxing. Part of the sum
for which he had contracted was refused him on
the ground that, following the common practice of
poets, he had introduced a digression in praise of
Castor and Pollux, and he was told that, in view
of what he had done, he had best ask for the rest
of the sum due from those whose deeds he had

▼oL. IV. ij 217

QUINTILIAN

12 batur. Et persolverunt, ut traditum est. Nam cum
esset grande convivium in honorem eiusdem victoriae
atque adhibitus ei cenae Simonides, nuntio est ex-
citus, quod eum duo iuvenes equis advecti desiderare
maiorem in modum dicebantur. Et illos quideni
non invenit, fuisse tamen gratos erga se deos exitu

13 comperit. Nam vix eo ultra limen egresso, triclinium
illud supra convivas corruit atque ita confudit,^ ut
non era mode oppressorum, sed membra etiam omnia
requirentes ad sepulturam propinqui nulla nota
possent discernere. Tum Simonides dicitur memor
ordinis,^ quo quisque discubuerat, corpora suis reddi-

14 disse. Est autem magna inter auctores dissensio,
Glaucone Carystio an Leocrati an Agatharcho an
Scopae scriptum sit id carmen ; et Pharsali fuerit
haec domus, ut ipse quodam loco significare Simonides
videtur utque Apollodorus et Eratosthenes et Eupho-
rion et Larissaeus Eurypylus tradiderunt, an Cran-
none, ut Apollas Callimachus^' quem secutus Cicero

15 banc famam latius fudit. Scopam nobilem Thessalum
periisse in eo convivio constat ; adiicitur sororis eius
filius ; putant et ortos plerosque ab alio Scopa, qui

16 maior aetate fuerit. Quanquam milii totum de
Tyndaridis fabulosum videtur, neque omnino huius

^ confudit lit, Badiiis : confunditur, M8S.

• ordinis, Regius : ordine, 3JSS.

* Apollas Callimachus being unknown, Bentley conjectured
Apollas et Callimachus {Schneidewin Calliniachusque).
Apollas would then refer to a philosopher and geographer
of Cyrene.

1 Cio. de Or. n. Ixxxvi. 352.
2l8

BOOK XI. I!. 1 1-16

extolled. And according to the story they paid
their debt. For when a great banquet was given 12
in honour of the boxer's success, Simonides was
summoned forth from the feast, to which he had
been invited, by a message to the effect that two
youths who had ridden to the door urgently desired
his presence. He found no trace of them, but what
followed proved to him that the gods had shown
their gratitude. For he had scarcely crossed the 13
threshold on his way out, Avhen the banqueting hall
fell in upon the heads of the guests and wrought
such havoc among them that the relatives of the
dead who came to seek the bodies for burial were
unable to distinguish not merely the faces but even
the limbs of the dead. Then it is said, Simonides,
who remembered the order in which the guests had
been sitting, succeeded in restoring to each man his
own dead. There is, however, great disagreement 14
among our authorities as to whether this ode was
written in honour of Glaucus of Carystus, Leocrates,
Agatharcus or Scopas, and whether the house was
at Pharsalus, as Simonides himself seems to indicate
in a certain passage, and as is recorded by Apollo-
dorus, Eratosthenes, Euphorion and Eurypylus of
Larissa, or at Crannon, as is stated by Apollas
Callimachus, who is followed by Cicero,^ to whom
the wide circulation of this story is due. It is 15
agreed that Scopas, a Thessalian noble, perished at
this banquet, and it is also said that his sister's son
perished with him, while it is thought that a number
of descendants of an elder Scopas met their death
at the same time. For my own part, however, I 16
regard the portion of the story which concerns
Castor and Pollux as being purely fictitious, since

219

QUINTILIAN

rei meminit usquam poeta ipse, profecto non taciturus
de tanta sua gloria.

17 Ex hoc Simonidis facto notatum videtur, iuvari
memoriam signatis animo sedibus, idque credere
suo quisque experimento potest.^ Nam cum in loca
aliqua post tempus reversi sumus, non ipsa agnos-
cimus tantum, sed etiam, quae in his fecerimus,
reminiscimur personaeque subeunt, nonnunquam
tacitae quoque cogitationes in mentem revertuntur.
Nata est igitur, ut in plerisque^ ars ab experimento.

18 Loca deligunt ^ quam maxime spatiosa, multa varietate
signata, domum forte magnam et in multos diductam
recessus. In ea quidquid notabile est, animo dili-
genter adfigunt, ut sine cunctatione ac mora partes
eius omnes cogitatio possit percurrere. Et primus
hie labor est non haerere in occursu ; plus enim
quam firma debet esse memoria, quae aliam memoriam

19 adiuvet. Turn, quae scripserunt vel cogitatione
complexi sunt,' aliquo signo, quo moneantur, notant ;
quod esse vel ex re tota potest, ut de navigatione,
militia, vel ex verbo aliquo ; nam etiam excidentes
unius admonitione verbi in memoriam reponuntur.

* potest, added by RoUin.

* deligunt, Spalding: discunt, MSS.

^ complexi sunt, Spalding : coniplectitur, O.

320

I

BOOK XL II. 16-19

the ix)et himself has nowhere mentioned the occur-
rence ; and he would scarcely have kept silence on
an affair which was so much to his credit.

This achievement of Simonides ajipears to have 17
given rise to the observation that it is an assistance
to the memory if localities are sharply impressed
upon the mind, a view the truth of which everj'one
may realise by practical experiment. For when we
return to a place after considerable absence, we not
merely recognise the place itself, but remember
things that we did there, and recall the persons
whom we met and even the unuttered thoughts
which passed through our minds when we were
there before. Thus, as in most cases, art origin-
ates in experiment. Some place is chosen of the 18
largest possible extent and characterised by the
utmost possible variety, such as a spacious house
divided into a number of rooms. Everything of
note therein is carefully committed to the memory,
in order that the thought may be enabled to run
through all the details without let or hindrance.
And undoubtedly the first task is to secure that
there shall be no delay in finding any single detail,
since an idea which is to lead by association to
some other idea requires to be fixed in the mind
with more than ordinary certitude. The next step 19
is to distinguish something which has been written
down or merely thought of by some particular
symbol which will serve to jog the memory ; this
symbol may have reference to the subject as a
whole, it may, for example, be drawn from naviga-
tion, warfare, etc., or it may, on the other hand,
be found in some particular word. (For even in
cases of forgetfulness one single word will serve to

QUINTILIAN

Sit autem signum navigationis ut ancora, militiae

20 ut aliquid ex armis. Haec ita digerunt. Primum
sensum vestibule quasi adsignant, secundum, puta,
atrio, turn impluvia eircumeunt, nee cubiculis modo
aut exedris, sed statuis etiam similibusque per
ordinem committunt. Hoc facto, cum est repetenda
memoria, incipiunt ab initio loca haec recensere, et
quod cuique crediderunt reposcunt, ut eorum imagine
admonentur. Ita, quamlibet multa sint, quorum
meminisse oporteat, fiunt singula conexa quodam
choro,^ nee errant ^ coniungentes prioribus conse-

21 quentia solo ediscendi labore. Quod de domo dixi,
et in operibus publicis et in itinere longo et urbium
ambitu et picturis fieri potest. Etiam fingere sibi
has imagines licet. Opus est ergo locis, quae vel
finguntur vel sumuntur, et imaginibus vel simulacris,
quae utique fingenda sunt. Imagines voces sunt,
quibus ea quae ediscenda sunt notamus, ut, quomodo
Cicero dicit, locis pro cera, simulacris pro litteris

22 utamur. lUud quoque ad verbum ponere optimum
fuerit : Locis est utendum multis, illustrihus, exjjUcatis,
modicis intervalUs, imaginibus autem agentibiis, acribus,

* choro, early editors : coria, corio, MSS.
^ nee errant, Bonnell : onerant, O.

* The impluvium was the light-well in the centre of the
atrium with a cistern beneath it to catch the rainwater from
the roof, which sloped inwards.

* De Or. II. Ixxxvi. 354. » Be Or. ii. Ixxxvii. 358.

322

BOOK XI. II. 19-22

restore the memory.) However, let us suppose that
the symbol is drawn from navigation, as, for instance,
an anchor ; or from warfare, as, for example, some
weapon. These symbols are then arranged as follows. 20
The first thought is placed, as it were, in the forecourt ;
the second, let us say, in the living-room ; the re-
mainder are placed in due order all round the implu-
vium 1 and entrusted not merely to bedrooms and
parlours, but even to the care of statues and the
like. This done, as soon as the memory of the facts
requires to be revived, all these places are visited in
turn and the various deposits are demanded from
their custodians, as the sight of each recalls the
respective details. Consequently, however large the
number of these which it is required to remember,
all are linked one to the other like dancers
hand in hand, and there can be no mistake since
they join what precedes to what follows, no trouble
being required except the preliminary labour of
committing the various points to memory. What 21
I have spoken of as being done in a house, can
equally well be done in connexion with public
buildings, a long journey, the ramparts of a city,
or even pictures. Or we may even imagine such
places to ourselves. We require, therefore,
places, real or imaginary, and images or symbols,
which we must, of course, invent for ourselves. By
images I mean the words by which we distinguish
the things which we have to learn by heart : in
fact, as Cicero says, we use " places like wax tablets
and symbols in lieu of letters."* It will be best to 22
give his words verbatim : ' " We must for this pur-
pose employ a number of remarkable places, clearly
envisaged and separated by short intervals : the

223

QUINTILIAN

insignitis, quae occurrere celeriterque percutere animum
possint. Quo magis miror, quomodo Metrodorus in
XII signis, per quae sol meat, trecenos et sexagenos
invenerit locos. Vanitas nimirum fuit atque iactatio
circa memoriam sua potius arte quam natura
gloriantis.

23 Equidem haec ad quaedam prodesse non negaverim,
ut si rerum nomina multa per ordinem audita red-
denda sint. Namque in iis quae didicerunt locis
ponunt res illas : mensam, ut hoc utar, in vestibule
et pulpitum ^ in atrio et sic cetera, deinde relegentes

24 inveniunt, ubi posuerunt. Et forsitan hoc sunt
adiuti qui, auctione dimissa, quid cuique vendidissent
testibus argentariorum tabulis reddiderunt ; quod
praestitisse Hortensium dicunt. Minus idem proderit
in ediscendis, quae orationis perpetuae erunt. Nam
et sensus non eandem imaginem quam res habent,
cum alterum fingendum sit, et horum tamen utcun-
que commonet locus, sicut sermonis alicuius habiti.
At ^ verborum coutextus eadem arte quomodo com-

25 prehendetur ? Mitto quod quaedam nullis simulacris

* pulpitum, Bonnell : populnm, G : pulvinnm, early editors.
' At, added by Halm.

* Of Scepsis, the favourite of Mithradates Eupator. See
de Or. II. Ixxxviii. 360. He used the signs of the Zodiac as
aids to the memorj', subdividing each into thirty compart-
ments. Quintilian wonders on what principle he can have
made such a division, necessarily purely artificial in nature.

224

I

BOOK XI. II. 22-25

images which we use must be active, sharply-cut and
distinctive, such as may occur to the mind and strike
it with rapidity." This makes me wonder all the
more, how Metrodorus ^ should have found three
hundred and sixty different localities in the twelve
signs of the Zodiac through which the sun passes.
It was doubtless due to the vanity and boastfulness
of a man who was inclined to vaunt his memory as
being the result of art rather than of natural gifts.

I am far from denying that those devices may be 23
useful for certain purposes, as, for example, if we
have to reproduce a number of names in the order
in which we heard them. For those who use such
aids place the things which have to be remembered
in localities which they have previously fixed in the
memory ; they put a table, for instance, in the fore-
court, a platform in the hall and so on with the
rest, and then, when they retrace their steps, they
find the objects where they had placed them. Such 24
a practice may perhaps have been of use to those
who, after an auction, have succeeded in stating
what object they had sold to each buyer, their state-
ments being checked by the books of the money-
takers ; a feat which it is alleged was performed by
Hortensius. It will, however, be of less service in
leai-ning the various parts of a set speech. For
thoughts do not call up the same images as material
things, and a symbol requires to be specially invented
for them, although even here a particular place may
serve to remind us, as, for example, of some conver-
sation that may have been held there. But how
can such a method grasp a whole series of con-
nected words ? I pass by the fact that there are 25
certain things which it is impossible to represent by

225

QUINTILIAN

significari possunt^ ut certe coniunctiones. Habea-
mus enim sane, ut qui notis scribunt, certas imagines
omnium et loca scilicet infinita, per quae verba,
quot sunt in quinque contra Verrem secundae actionis
libris, explicentur, meminerimus etiam omnium quasi
depositorum : nonne impediri quoque dicendi cur-

26 sum ^ necesse est duplici memoriae cura ? Nam
quomodo poterunt copulata fluere, si propter singula
verba ad singulas formas respiciendum erit ? Quare
et Charmadas et Scepsius, de quo modo dixi, Metro-
dorus, quos Cicero dicit usos hac exercitatione, sibi
habeant sua ; nos simpliciora tradamus.

27 Si longior complectenda memoria fuerit oratio,
proderit per partes ediscere ; laborat enim maxime
onere ; et hae partes non sint perexiguae, alioqui
rursus multae erunt et eam distinguent atque con-
cident. Nee utique certum imperaverim modum,
sed maxime ut quisque finietur locus, ni forte tam

28 numerosus, ut ipse quoque dividi debeat. Dandi
sunt certi quidam termini, ut contextum verborum,
qui est difficillimus, continua et crebra meditatio,
partes deinceps ipsas repetitus ordo coniungat. Non
est inutile, iis quae difficilius haereant aliquas

* quoque dicendi cursum, Spalding: quodque dicit di-
cursum, G.

^ de Or. II. Ixxxvii. 360. Charmadas or Charmides, an
elder contemporary of Cicero.

226

BOOK XI. 11. 25-28

symbols, as, for example, conjunctions. We may, it
is true, like shorthand writers, have definite symbols
for everything, and may select an infinite number
of places to recall all the words contained in the
five books of the second pleading against Verres,
and we may even remember them all as if they
were deposits placed in safe-keeping. But will not
the flow of our speech inevitably be impeded by the
double task imposed upon our memory ^ For how 26
can our words be expected to flow in connected
speech, if we have to look back at separate symbols
for each individual word ? Therefore the experts
mentioned by Cicero ^ as having trained their
memory by methods of this kind, namely Char-
madas, and Metrodorus of Scepsis, to whom I have
just referred, may keep their systems for their own
use. My precepts on the subject shall be of a
simpler kind.

If a speech of some length has to be committed 27
to memory, it will be well to learn it piecemeal,
since there is nothing so bad for the memory as being
overburdened. But the sections into which we divide
it for this purpose should not be very short : otherwise
they will be too many in number, and will break up
and distract the memory. I am not, however, pre-
pared to recommend any definite length ; it will de-
pend on the natural limits of the passage concerned,
unless, indeed, it be so long as itself to require sub-
division. But some limits must be fixed to enable us, 28
by dint of frequent and continuous practice, to connect
the words in their proper order, which is a task of no
small difficulty, and subsequently to unite the various
sections into a whole when we go over them in
order. If certain poi-tions prove especially difficult to

227

QUINTILIAN

apponere notas, qiiarum recordatio comruoneat et

29 quasi excitet memoriam ; nemo etiam fere tarn
infelix, ut, quod cuique loco signum destinaverit,
nesciat. At, si tardus^ ad hoc, eo quoque adhuc
remedio utetur^ ut ipsae notae (hoc enim est ex ilia
arte non inutile) aptentur ^ ad eos qui excidunt
sensus : ancora * ut supra pro posui, si de nave dicen-

30 dum est,^ spiculum, si de proelio. Multum enim
signa faciunt, et ex alia memoria venit alia : ut cum
translatus anulus vel alligatus commoneat nos, cur
id fecerimus. Haec magis adhuc adstringunt, qui
memoriam ab aliquo simili transferunt ad id quod
continendum est : ut in nominibus, si Fabius forte
sit tenendus, referamus ad ilium Cunctatorem, qui
excidere non potest, aut ad aliquem amicum, qui

31 idem vocetur. Quod est facilius in Apris et in Ursis
et Nasone aut Crispo, ut id memoriae adfigatur unde
sunt nomina. Origo quoque aliquando declinatorum
tenendi magis causa est, ut in Cicerone, Verrio,
Aurelio. Sed hoc miserim.^

32 Illud neminem non iuvabit, iisdem quibus scripserit'
ceris ediscere. Sequitur enim vestigiis quibusdam

^ at, Halm : ut, 0. : tardus, an early emendation : trandus,
G : tradendus, late MS^.

* utetur, Halm : utitur, MSS.

* aptentur, Hiecke : adtentus, MSS.

* ancora, Hiecke : ancoram, MSS.

* est, HaZm : esset, MSS.

* miserim, Halm, : misceri, G.

' scripserit, early edd. i ceteris, MSS.

1 Sects. 18-23.

* Boar, Bear, Long-nose, and Curly respectively.

' Cicero, a sower of chickpea (cicer), according to Pliny
(xviii. 10). Aurelius = Auselius, child of the sun (a sole)
according to Festus. Verrius unknown,

228

BOOK XI. II. 28-32

remember, it Mrill be found advantageous to indicate
them by certain marks, tlie remembrance of which
will refresh and stimulate the memory. For there can 29
be but few whose memory is so barren that they will
fail to recognise the symbols with which they have
marked different passages. But if anyone is slow to
recognise his own signs, he should employ the follow-
ing additional remedy, which, though drawn from the
mnemonic system discussed above,^ is not without its
uses : he will adapt his symbols to the nature of the
thoughts which tend to slip from his memory, using
an anchor, as I suggested above, if he has to speak
of a ship, or a spear, if he has to speak of a battle.
For symbols are highly efficacious, and one idea 30
suggests another : for example, if we change a ring
from one finger to another or tie a thread round it,
it will serve to remind us of our reason for so doing.
Specially effective are those devices which lead the
memory from one thing to another similar thing which
we have got to remember ; for example, in the case of
names, if we desire to remember the name Fabius,
we should think of the famous Cunctator, whom we
are certain not to forget, or of some friend bearing
the same name. This is specially easy with names 31
such as Aper, Ursus, Naso, or Crispus,^ since in
these cases we can fix their origin in our memory.
Origin again may assist us to a better remem-
brance of derivative names, such as Cicero, Verrius,
or Aurelius.' However, I will say no more on this
point.

There is one thing which will be of assistance to 32
everyone, namely, to learn a passage by heart from
the same tablets on which he has committed it to
writing. For he will have certain tracks to guide

229

QUINTILIAN

memoriam^ et velut oculis intuetur non paginas modo,
sed versus prope ipsos, estque cum^ dicit similis
legenti. lam vero si litura aut adiectio aliqua atque
mutatio interveniat, signa sunt quaedam, quae in-

33 tuentes deerrare non possumus. Haec ratio, ut est
illi, de qua primum locutus sum, arti non dissimilis,
ita, si quid me experimenta docuerunt, et expeditioi
et potentior. Ediscere tacite (nam id quoque est
quaesitum) erat optimum, si non subirent velut
otiosum animum plerumque aliae cogitationes ; pro-
pter quas exeitandus est voce, ut duplici motu iuvetur
memoria dicendi et audiendi. Sed haec vox sit

34 modica et magis murmur. Qui autem legente alio
ediscit, in parte tardatur, quod acrior est oculorum
quam aurium sensus ; in parte iuvari potest, quod,
cum semel aut bis audierit, continue illi memoriam
suam experiri licet et cum legente contendere. Nam
et alioqui id maxime faciendum est, ut nos subinde
temptemus, quia continua lectio et quae magis et

35 quae minus haerent aequaliter transit. In experiendo

* estque cum, Meister : quae cum, O,
230

BOOK XI. II. 32-35

him in his pursuit of memory, and the mind's eye
will be fixed not merely on the pages on which the
words were written, but on individual lines, and at
times he will speak as though he were reading aloud.
Further, if the writing should be interrupted by
some erasure, addition or alteration, there are certain
symbols available, the sight of which will prevent us
from wandering from the track. This device bears 33
some resemblance to the mnemonic system which
I mentioned above, but if my experience is worth
anything, is at once more expeditious and more
effective. The question has been raised as to
whether we should learn by heart in silence ; it
would be best to do so, save for the fact that under
such circumstances the mind is apt to become in-
dolent, with the result that other thoughts break in.
For this reason the mind should be kept alert by the
sound of the voice, so that the memory may derive
assistance from the double effort of speaking and
listening. But our voice should be subdued, rising
scarcely above a murmur. On the other hand, if we 34
attempt to learn by heart from another reading
aloud, we shall find that there is both loss and gain ;
on the one hand, the process of learning will be
slower, because the perception of the eye is quicker
than that of the ear, while, on the other hand, when
we have heard a passage once or twice, we shall be
in a position to test our memory and match it against
the voice of the reader. It is, indeed, important for
other reasons to test ourselves thus from time to time,
since continuous reading has this drawback, that it
passes over the passages which we find hard to re-
member at the same speed as those which we find less
difficulty in retaining. By testing ourselves to see 35

231

QUINTILIAN

teneasne, et maior intentio est et nihil supervacui
temporis perit, quo etiam quae tenemus repeti solent ;
ita sola, quae exciderunt, retractantur, ut crebra
iteratione firmentur, quanquam solent hoc ipso
maxima haerere, quod exciderunt. lUud ediscendo
scribendoque commune est, utrique plurimum con-
ferre bonam valetudinem, digestum cibum, animum

36 cogitationibus aliis liberum. Verum et in lis quae
scripsimus complectendis multum valent, et in iis
quae cogitamus continendis prope solae (excepta,
quae potentissima est, exercitatione) divisio et com-
positio. Nam qui recte diviserit, nunquam poteritin

37 rerum ordine errare. Certa sunt enim non solum in
digerendis quaestionibus, sed etiam in exsequendis,
si modo recte dicimus, prima ac secunda et deinceps ;
cohaeretque omnis rerum copulatio, ut ei nihil neque
subtrahi sine manifesto intellectu neque inseri possit.

38 An vero Scaevola in lusu duodecim scriptorum, cum
prior calculum promovisset essetque victus, dum rus
tendit, repetito totius certaminis ordine, quo dato
errasset recordatus, rediit ad eum, quocum luserat,
isque ita factum esse confessus est? Minus idem
232

BOOK XI. II. 35-38

whether we remember a passage^ we develop greater
concentration without waste of time over the repe-
tition of passages which we already know by heart.
Thus, only those passages which tend to slip from
the memory are repeated with a view to fixing them
in the mind by frequent rehearsal, although as a rule
the mere fact that they once slipped our memory
makes us ultimately remember them with special
accuracy. Both learning by heart and writing have
this feature in common : namely, that good health,
sound digestion, and freedom from other preoccupa-
tions of mind contribute largely to the success of
both. But for the purpose of getting a real grasp 36
of what we have written under the various heads,
division and artistic structure will be found of great
value, while, with the exception of practice, which
is the most powerful aid of all, they are practically
the only means of ensuring an accurate remembrance
of what we have merely thought out. For correct
division will be an absolute safeguard against error in
the order of our speech, since there are certain points 37
not merely in the distribution of the various questions
in our speech, but also in their development (pro-
vided we speak as we ought), which naturally come
first, second, and third, and so on, while the connexion
will be so perfect that nothing can be omitted or
inserted without the fact of the omission or in-
sertion being obvious. We are told that Scaevola, 38
after a game of draughts in which he made the first
move and was defeated, went over the whole game
again in his mind on his way into the country, and
on recalling the move which had cost him the game,
returned to tell the man with whom he had been
playing, and the latter acknowledged that he was

233

QUINTILIAN

ordo valebit in oratione, praesertim totus nostro
arbitrio constitutus, cum tantum ille valeat alternus ?

39 Etiam quae bene composita erunt, memoriam serie
sua ducent. Nam sicut facilius versus ediscimus
quam prosam orationem, ita prosae vincta quam
dissoluta. Sic contingit, ut etiam quae ex tempore
videbantur effusa, ad verbum repetita reddantur.
Quod meae quoque memoriae mediocritatem seque-
batur^ si quando interventus aliquorum, qui hunc
honorem mererentur^ iterare declamationis partem
coegisset. Nee est mendacio locus, sal vis qui inter-
fu erunt.

40 Si quis tamen unam maximamque a me artem
memoriae quaerat, exercitatio est et labor ; multa
ediscere, multa cogitare, et si fieri potest cotidie,
potentissimum est. Nihil aeque vel augetur cura vel

41 negligentia intercidit. Quare et pueri statim, ut
praecepi, quam plurima ediscant, et, quaecunque
aetas operam iuvandae studio memoriae dabit, de-
voret initio taedium illud et scripta et lecta saepius
revolvendi et quasi eundem cibum remandendi.
Quod ipsum hoc fieri potest levius, si pauca primum
et quae odium non adferant coeperimus ediscere,

^ See I. i. 36 ; n. vii. 1 sqq.
234

BOOK XL 11. 38-41

right. Is order, then, I ask you, to be accounted of
less importance in a speech, in which it depends
entirely on ourselves, whereas in a game our opponent
has an equal share in its development ? Again, if 39
our structure be what it should, the artistic se-
quence will serve to guide the memory. For just
as it is easier to learn verse than prose, so it is
easier to learn prose when it is artistically con-
structed than when it has no such organisation. If
these points receive attention, it will be possible to
repeat verbatim even such psssages as gave the im-
pression of being delivered extempore. My own
memory is of a very ordinary kind, but I found that
1 could do this with success on occasions when the
interruption of a declamation by persons who had a
claim to such a courtesy forced me to repeat part of
what 1 had said. There are persons still living, who
were then present to witness if I lie.

However, if anyone asks me what is the one 40
supreme method of memory, I shall reply, practice
and industry. The most important thing is to learn
much by heart and to think much, and, if possible,
to do this daily, since there is nothing that is more
increased by practice or impaired by neglect than
memor)'. Therefore boys should, as I have already 41
urged,^ learn as much as possible by heart at the
earliest stage, while all who, whatever their age,
desire to cultivate the power of memory, should
endeavour to swallow the initial tedium of reading
and re-reading what they have written or read, a
process which we may compare to chewing the cud.
This task will be rendered less tiresome if we begin
by confining ourselves to learning only a little at a
time, in amounts not sufficient to create disgust : we

«35

QUINTILIAN

turn cotidie adiicere singulos versus, quorum accessio
labori sensum increment! non adferat, in summam
ad infinitum usque perveniat, et poetica prius, turn
oratorum, novissime etiam solutiora numeris et magis
ab usu dicendi remota, qualia sunt iurisconsultorum.

42 Difficiliora enim debent esse, quae exercent, quo sit
levius ipsum illud, in quod exercent, ut athletae
ponderibus plumbeis adsuefaciunt manus, quibus
vacuis et nudis in certamine utendum est. Non
oniittam etiam, quod cotidianis experimentis depre-
henditur, minime fidelem esse paulo tardioribus in-

43 geniis recentem memoriam. Mirum dictu est nee
in promptu ratio, quantum nox interposita adferat
firmitatis, sive requiescit labor ille, cuius sibi ipsa
fatigatio obstabat, sive matiiratur atque concoquitur,
quae firmissima eius pars est, recordatio ; quae statim
referri non poterant, contexuntur postera die, con-
firmatque memoriam illud tempus, quod esse in causa

44 solet oblivionis. Etiam ilia praevelox fere cito effluit,
et, velut praesenti officio functa nihil in posterum

BOOK XI. u. 41-44

may then proceed to increase the amount by a hne a
day, an addition which will not sensibly increase the
labour of learning, until at last the amount we can
attack will know no limits. We should begin with
poetry and then go on to oratory, while finally we
may attempt passages still freer in rhythm and less
akin to ordinary speech, such, for example, as
passages from legal writers. For passages intended 42
as an exercise should be somewhat difficult in char-
acter if they are to make it easy to achieve the end
for which the exercise is designed; just as athletes
train the muscles of their hands by carrying weights of
lead, although in the actual contests their hands will
be empty and free. Further, I must not omit the
fact, the truth of which our daily practice will teach
us, that in the case of the slower type of mind the
memory of recent events is far from being exact. It is 43
a curious fact, of which the reason is not obvious, that
the interval of a single night will greatly increase
the strength of the memory, whether this be due to
the fact that it has rested from the labour, the
fatigue of which constituted the obstacle to success,
or whether it be that the power of recollection,
which is the most im|)ortant element of memory,
undergoes a process of ripening and maturing
during the time which intervenes. Whatever the
cause, things which could not be recalled on the
spot are easily co-ordinated the next day, and time
itself, which is generally accounted one of the causes
of forgetfulness, actually serves to strengthen the
memory. On the other hand, the abnormally rapid 44
memory fails as a rule to last and takes its leave as
though, its immediate task accomplished, it had no
further duties to perform. And indeed there is

237

QUINTILIAN

debeat, tanquam dimissa discedit. Nee est mirum,
magis haerere animo quae diutius adfixa sint.

Ex hae ingeniorum diversitate nata dubitatio est,
ad verbum sit ediscendum dicturis, an vim modo re-
rum atque ordinem complecti satis sit ; de quo sine
46 dubio non potest in universum pronuntiari. Nam si
memoria sufFragatur, tempus non defuit, nulla me
velim syllaba efFugiat ; alioqui etiam scribere sit
supervacuum. Idque praecipue a pueris obtinendum,
atque in banc consuetudinem memoria exercitatione
redigenda, ne nobis discamus ignoscere. Ideoque
et admoneri et ad libellum respicere vitiosum, quod
libertatem negligentiae facit, nee quisquam se parum
tenere iudieat, quod, ne sibi excidat, non timet.

46 Inde interruptus aetionis impetus et resistens ac
salebi'osa oratio ; et qui dieit ediscenti similis, etiam
omnem bene seriptorum gratiam perdit vel hoc ipso,
quod scripsisse se confitetur, Memoria autem faeit
etiam prompti ingenii famam, ut ilia, quae dicimus,
non domo attulisse sed ibi protinus sumpsisse videa-
niur ; quod et oratori et ipsi eausae plurimum eon-

47 fert. Nam et magis miratur et minus timet iudex,
238

BOOK XI. II. 44-47

nothing surprising in the fact that things which
have been implanted in the memory for some time
should have a greater tendency to stay there.

The diiFerence between the powers of one mind
and another, to which I have just referred, gives rise
to the question whether those who are intending to
speak should learn their speeches verbatim or whether
it is sufficient to get a good grasp of the essence and
the order of what they have got to say. To this
problem no answer is possible that will be of uni-
versal application. Give me a reliable memory and 45
plenty of time, and I should prefer not to peiTnit
a single syllable to escape me : otherwise writing
would be superfluous. It is specially important to
train the young to such precision, and the memory
should be continually practised to this end, that we
may never learn to become indulgent to its failure.
For this reason I regard it as a mistake to permit the
student to be prompted or to consult his manuscript,
since such practices merely encourage carelessness,
and no one will ever realise that he has not got his
theme by heart, if he has no fear of forgetting it.
It is this which causes interruptions in the flow of 46
speech and makes the orator's language halting and
jerky, while he seems as though he were learning
what he says by heart and loses all the grace that a
well-written speech can give, simply by the fact that
he makes it obvious that he has written it. On the
other hand, a good memory will give us credit for
quickness of wit as well, by creating the impression
that our words have not been prepared in the seclu-
sion of the study, but are due to the inspiration
of the moment, an impression which is of the utmost
assistance both to the orator and to his cause. For 47

239

QUINTILIAN

quae non putat adversus se praeparata. Idque in
actionibus inter praecipua servandum est, ut quaedam
etiam, quae optime vinximus, velut soluta enuntiemus
et cogitantibus nonnunquam et dubitantibus similes
quaerere videamur quae attulimus.

48 Ergo quid sit optimum, neminem fugit. Si vero aut
memoria natura durior erit aut non sufFragabitur tem-
pus, etiam inutile erit ad omnia se verba adligare, cum
oblivio unius eorum cuiuslibet aut defomiem haesit-
ationemaut etiam silentium inducat, tutiusque multo
comprehensis animo rebus ipsis libertatem sibi elo-

49 quendi relinquere. Nam et invitus perdit quisque id
quod elegerat verbum,nec facile reponit aliud, dum id,
quod scripserat, quaerit. Sed ne hoc quidem infirmae
memoriae remedium est nisi in iis, qui sibi facultatem
aliquam dicendi ex tempore paraverunt. Quodsi cui
utrumque defuerit, huic omittere omnino totum
actioimm laborem ac, si quid in litteris valet, ad
scribendum potius suadebo convertere. Sed haec
rara infelicitas erit.

50 Ceterum quantum natura studioque valeat memoria,
vel Themistocles testis, quem unum intra annum
optime locutum esse Persice constat ; vel Mithri-
240

BOOK XL II. 47-50

the judge admires those words more and fears them
less which he does not suspect of having been
specially prepared beforehand to outwit him.
Further, we must make it one of our chief aims
in pleading to deliver passages which have been
constructed with the utmost care, in sucli manner
as to make it appear that they are but casually strung
together, and to suggest that we are thinking out
and hesitating over words which we have, as a
matter of fact, carefully prepared in advance.

It should now be clear to all what is the best 48
course to adopt for the cultivation of memory. If,
however, our memory be naturally somewhat dull
or time presses, it will be useless to tie ourselves
down rigidly to ever}' word, since if we forget any
one of them, the result may be awkward hesita-
tion or even a tongue-tied silence. It is, therefore,
far safer to secure a good grasp of the facts them-
selves and to leave ourselves free to speak as we
wUl. For the loss of even a single word that we 49
liave chosen is always a matter for regret, and it is
hard to supply a substitute when we are searching
for the word that we had written. But even this
is no remedy for a weak memory, except for those
who have acquired the art of speaking extempore.
But if both memory and this gift be lacking, I
should advise the would-be orator to abandon the
toil of pleading altogether and, if he has any literary
capacity, to betake himself by preference to writing.
But such a misfortune will be of but rare occurrence.

For the rest there are many historical examples 50
of the power to which memory may be developed by
natural aptitude and application. Themistocles is
said to have spoken excellently in Persian after a

241

QUINTILIAN

dates^ cui duas et viginti linguas, quot nationibus
imperabat, traditur notas fuisse ; vel Crassus ille
Dives, qui, cum Asiae praeesset, quinque Graeci
sermonis difFerentias sic tenuit ut, qua quisque apud
eum lingua postulasset, eadem ius sibi redditum
ferret ; vel Cyrus, quem omnium militum tenuisse
51 creditum est nomina. Quin semel auditos quamlibet
multos versus protinus dicitur reddidisse Theodectes.
Dicebantur etiam nunc esse, qui facerent, sed mihi
nunquam, ut ipse interessem, contigit; habenda
tamen fides est vel in hoc ut, qui crediderit, et
speret.

III. Pronuntiatio a plerisque actio dicitur, sed
prius nomen a voce, sequens a gestu videtur ac-
cipere. Namque actionem Cicero alias quasi sermoneni
alias eloquentiam qua)idam corporis dicit. Idem tamen
duas eius partes facit, quae sunt eaedem pronuntla-
2 tionis, vocem atque motum. Qua propter utraque
appellatione indifFerenter uti licet. Habet autem
res ipsa miram quandam in orationibus vim ac potes-
tatem ; neque enim tarn refert, qualia sint, quae intra
nosmet ipsos composuimus, quam quo modo effe-
rantur ; nam ita quisque, ut audit, movetur. Quare
neque probatio ulla, quae modo venit ab oratore,
tam firma est, ut non perdat vires suas, nisi adiuvatur

^ King of Pontus.

* Consul, 131 B.C. Commanded in the war against Aris-
tonicus of Pergamum, was defeated and killed.

* Rhetorician of first half of fourth century B.C.

* de Or. in. lix. 222. • Or. xvii. 55.

242

BOOK XI. II. 50-111. 2

year's study ; Mithridates is recorded to have known
twenty-two languages, that being the number of
the different nations included in his empire ; ^ Crassus,
sumamed the Rich,^ when commanding in Asia had
such a complete mastery of five different Greek
dialects, that he would give judgement in the dialect
employed by the plaintiff in putting forward his
suit ; Cyrus is believed to have known the name
of every soldier in his army, while Theodectes ^ is 5 1
actually said to have been able to repeat any number
of verses after only a single hearing. I remember
that it used to be alleged that there were persons
still living who could do the same, though I never
had the good fortune to be present at such a per-
formance. Still, we shall do well to have faith in
such miracles, if only that he who believes may also
hope to achieve the like.

III. Delivery is often styled action. But the first
name is derived from the voice, the second from the
gesture. For Cicero in one passage * speaks of action
as being a, form oj^ speech, and in another^ as being
a kind of physical eloquence. None the less, he
divides action into two elements, which are the
same as the elements of delivery, namely, voice and
movement. Therefore, it matters not which term
we employ. But the thing itself has an extra- 2
ordinarily powerful effect in oratory. For the
nature of the speech that we have composed within
our minds is not so important as the manner in
which we produce it, since the emotion of each
member of our audience will depend on the im-
pression made upon his hearing. Consequently, no
proof, at least if it be one devised by the orator
himself, will ever be so secure as not to lose its force

243

QUINTILIAN

adseveratione dicentis. Adfectus omnes languescant
hecesse est, nisi voce, vultu, totius prope habitu

3 corporis inardescunt. Nam cum haec omnia feceri-
mus, felices tamen, si nostrum ilium ignem iudex
eonceperit ; nedum eum supini securique moveamus,

4 ac non et ipse nostra oscitatione solvatur. Docu-
mento sunt vel scenici actores, qui et optimis poeta-
rum tantum adiiciunt gratiae, ut nos infinito magis
eadem ilia audita quam lecta delectent ; et vilissimis
etiam quibusdam impetrant aures, ut, quibus nuUus
est in bibliothecis locus, sit etiam frequensin theatris.

6 Quodsi in rebus, quas fictas esse scimus et inanes,
tantum pronuntiatio potest, ut iram, lacrimas, soUici-
tudinem adferat, quanto plus valeat necesse est, ubi
et credimus ? Equidem vel mediocrem orationem
commendatam viribus actionis adfirmarim plus habitu-
ram esse momenti quam optimam eadem illadestitu-

6 tam. Siquidem et Demosthenes, quid esset in toto
dicendi opere primum, interrogatus pronuntiationi
palmam dedit eidemque secundum ac tertium locum,
donee ab eo quaeri desineret, ut earn videri posset

7 non praecipuam, sed solam iudicasse; ideoque ipse

?44

BOOK XI. HI. 2-7

if the sj>eaker fails to produce it in tones that drive
it home. All emotional appeals will inevitably fall
flat, unless they are given the fire that voice, look,
and the whole carriage of the body can give them.
For when we have done all this, we may still 3
account ourselves only too fortunate if we have
succeeded in communicating the fire of our passion
to the judge : consequently, we can have no hope
of moving him if we speak with languor and indiffer-
ence, nor of preventing him from yielding to the
narcotic influence of our own yawns. A proof of this 4
is given by actors in the theatre. For they add so
much to the charm even of the greatest poets, that
the verse moves us far more when heard than when
read, while they succeed in securing a hearing even
for the most worthless authors, with the result
that they repeatedly win a welcome on the
stage that is denied them in the library. Now 5
if delivery can count for so much in themes
which we know to be fictitious and devoid of reality,
as to arouse our anger, our tears or our anxiety, how
much greater must its effect be when we actually
believe what we hear ? For my own part I would
not hesitate to assert that a mediocre speech sup-
ported by all the power of delivery will be more
impressive than the best speech unaccompanied by
such power. It was for this reason that Demos- 6
thenes, when asked what was the most important
thing in oratorj^, gave the palm to delivery and
assigned it second and third place as well, until
his questioner ceased to trouble him. We are
therefore almost justified in concluding that he
regarded it not merely as the first, but as the only
virtue of oratory. This explains why he studied 7

245

QUINTILIAN

tarn diligenter apud Andronicum hypocriten studuit,
ut admirantibus eius orationem Rhodiis non immerito
Aeschines dixisse videatur : Quid si ipsum audissetis ?
Et M. Cicero unam in dicendo actionem dominari

8 putat. Hac Cn. Lentulum plus opinionis consecutum
quam eloquentia tradit, eadem C. Gracchum in de-
flenda fratris nece totius populi Romani lacrimas
eoncitasse, Antonium et Crassum multum valuisse,
plurimum vero Q. Hortensium. Cuius rei fides est,
quod eius scripta tantum intra famam sunt, qua diu
princeps oratorum, aliquando aemulus Ciceronis existi-
matus est, novissime, quoad vixit, secundus, ut ap-
pareat placuisse aliquid eo dicente, quod legentes

9 non invenimus. Et hercule cum valeant multum
verba per se, et vox propriam vim adiiciat rebus, et
gestus motusque significet aliquid, profecto perfectum
quiddam fieri, cum omnia coierunt, necesse est.

10 Sunt tamen qui rudem illam, et qualem impetus
cuiusque animi tulit, actionem iudicent fortiorem et
sol am viris dignam, sed non alii fere quam qui etiam

* de Or. in. Ivi. 213. Aeschines in exile at Rhodes first
recited his own speech against Ctesiphon, and then by special
request read Demosthenes' reply, the famous De Corona.

* Brut. Ixvi., Ixxxix., xxxviii., xliii., Ixxxviii.

946

BOOK XI. III. 7-IO

under the instruction of the actor Andronicus with
such diligence and success as thoroughly to justify
the remark made by Aeschines to the Rhodians when
they expressed their admiration of the speech of
Demosthenes on behalf of Ctesiphon, " What would
you have said if you had heard him yourselves ? " ^
Cicero likewise regards action as the supreme element
of oratory. He records that Gnaeus Lentulus ac- 8
quired a greater reputation by his delivery than
by his actual eloquence, and that Gaius Gracchus
by the same means stirred the whole Roman people
to tears when he bewailed his brother's death,
while Antonius and Crassus produced a great im-
pression by their command of this quality, though
the greatest of all was that produced by Quintus
Hortensius.- This statement is strongly supported
by the fact that the latter's writings fall so far
short of the reputation which for so long secured
him the first place among orators, then for a
while caused him to be regarded as Cicero's rival,
and finally;, for the remainder of his life assigned
him a position second only to that of Cicero, that
his speaking must clearly have p)Ossessed some
charm which we fail to find when we read him.
And, indeed, since words in themselves count for 9
much and the voice adds a force of its own to the
matter of which it speaks, while gesture and motion
are full of significance, we may be sure of finding
something like perfection when all these qualities
are combined.

There are some, however, who consider that de- 10
livery which owes nothing to art and everything to
natural impulse is more forcible, and in fact the only
form of delivery which is worthy of a manly speaker.

247

QUINTILIAN

in dicendo curam et artem et nitorenij et quidquid
studio paratur, ut adfectata et parum naturalia solent
improbare, vel qui verborum atque ipsius etiam soni
rusticitate, ut L. Cottam dicit Cicero fecisse, imita-

1 1 tionem antiquitatis adfectant. Verum illi persua-
sione sua fruantur, qui hominibus, ut sint oratores,
satis putant nasci ; nostro labori dent veniam, qui
nihil credimus esse perfectum, nisi ubi natura cura
iuvetur. In hoc igitur non contumaciter consentio

12 primas partes esse naturae. Nam certe bene pro-
nuntiare non poterit, cui aut in scriptis memoria aut
in iis, quae subito dicenda erunt, facilitas prompta
defuerit, nee si inemendabilia oris incommoda ob-
stabunt. Corporis etiam potest esse aliqua tanta

J 3 deformitas, ut nulla arte vincatur. Sed ne vox
quidem exilis actionem habere optimam potest.
Bona enim firmaque, ut volumus, uti licet ; mala
vel imbecilla et inhibet multa, ut insurgere et excla-
mare, et aliqua cogit, ut intermittere et deflectere et
rasas fauces ac latus fatigatum deformi cantico re-
ficere. Sed nos de eo nunc loquamur^ cui non frustra
praecipitur.

14 Cum sit autem omnis actio, ut dixi, in duas divisa
partes, vocem gestumque, quorum alter oculos, altera

' de Or. III. xi. 42. Brut. Ixxiv. 259.
248

BOOK XI. ni. 10-14

But these persons are as a rule identical, either with
those who are in the habit of disapproving of care,
art, polish and every form of premeditation in actual
speaking, as being affected and unnatural, or else
with those who (like Lucius Cotta, according to
Cicero) ^ affect the imitation of ancient writers both
in their choice of words and even in the rudeness of
their intonation and rhythm. Those, however, who 11
think it sufficient for men to be born to enable them
to become orators, are welcome to their opinion, and
I must ask them to be indulgent to the efforts to
which I am committed by my belief that we cannot
hope to attain perfection unless nature is assisted by
study. But I will not be so obstinate as to deny
that to nature must be assigned the first place. For 12
a good delivery is undoubtedly impossible for one
who cannot remember what he has written, or lacks
the quick facility of speech required by sudden
emergencies, or is hampered by incurable impedi-
ments of speech. Again, physical uncouthness may
be such that no art can remedy it, while a weak 13
voice is incompatible with first-rate excellence in
delivery. For we may employ a good, strong voice
as we will ; whereas one that is ugly or feeble not
only prevents us from producing a number of effects,
such as a crescendo or a sudden fortissimo, but at
times forces faults upon us, making us drop the
voice, alter its pitch and refresh the hoarseness of
the throat and fatigue of the lungs by a hideous
chanting intonation. However, let me now turn to
consider the speaker on v.-hom my precepts will not
be wasted.

. All delivery, as I have already said, is concerned 14
with two different things, namely, voice and gesture,

VOL. IV. J 249

QUINTILIAN

aures movet, per quos duos sensus omnis ad animum
penetrat adfectus, prius est de voce dicere, cui etiani
gestus accommodatur.

In ea prima observatio est, qualem habeas ; secunda,
quomodo utaris. Natura vocis spectator quantitate

15 et qualitate. Quantitas simplicior ; in summa enim
grandis aut exigua est, sed inter has extremitates
mediae sunt species, et ab ima ad summam ac retro
sunt multi gradus. Qualitas magis varia. Nam est
et Candida et fusca, et plena et exilis, et lenis et
aspera, et contracta et fusa, et dura et flexibilis,
et clara et obtusa. Spiritus etiam longior breviorque.

16 Nee causas, cur quidque eorum accidat, persequi
proposito operi necessarium est : eorumne sit differ-
entia, in quibus aura ilia concipitur, an eorum, per
quae velut organa meat; ipsi propria natura, an
prout movetur ; lateris pectorisve firmitas an capitis
etiam plus adiuvet. Nam opus est omnibus sicut
non oris modo suavitate, sed narium quoque, per]
quas quod superest vocis egeritur. Dulcis esse

17 tamen debet non exprobrans sonus. Utendi voce
250

BOOK XI, III. 14-17

of which the one appeals to the eye and the other
to the ear, the two senses by which all emotion
reaches the soul. But the voice has the first claim
on our attention, since even our gesture is adapted
to suit it.

The first point which calls for consideration is the
nature of the voice, the second the manner in which
it is used. The nature of the voice depends on its
quantity and quality. The question of quantity is 15
the simpler of the two, since as a rule it is either
strong or weak, although there are certain kinds of
voice which fall between these extremes, and there
are a number of gradations from the highest notes to
the lowest and from the lowest to the highest.
Quality, on the other hand, presents more variations ;
for the voice may be clear or husky, full or thin,
smooth or harsh, of wide or narrow compass, rigid or
flexible, and sharp or flat, while lung-power may be
great or small. It is not necessary for my purpose 16
to enquire into the causes which give rise to these
peculiarities. I need not raise the question whether
the difference lies in those organs by which the
breath is produced, or in those which form the
channels for the voice itself ; whether the voice has
a character of its own or depends on the motions
which produce it ; whether it be the strength of the
lungs, chest or the vocal organs themselves that
affords it most assistance, since the co-operation of
all these organs is required. For example, it is not
the mouth only that produces sweetness of tone ; it
requires the assistance of the nostrils as well, which
tarry off what I may describe as the overflow of the
voice. The important fact is that the tone must be
agreeable and not harsh. The methods of using the 17

QUINTILIAN

multiplex ratio. Nam praeter illam differentiam,
quae est tripertita, acutae, gravis, flexae, turn in-
tentis, turn remissis, tuna elatis, turn inferioribus mo-
dis opus est, spatiis quoque lentioribus aut citatioribus.

18 Sed his ipsis media interiacent multa, et ut facies,
quanquam ex paucissimis constat, infinitam habet
differentiam, ita vox, etsi paucas, quae nominari pos-
sint, eontinet species, propria cuique est, et non
haec minus auribus quam oculis ilia dinoscitur.

19 Augentur autem sicut omnium, ita vocis quoque
bona cura, negligentia minuuntur. Sed cura non
eadem oratoribus quae phonascis convenit ; tamen
multa sunt utrisque communia, firmitas corporis, ne
ad spadonum et mulierum et aegrorum exilitatem
vox nostra tenuetur ; quod ambulatio, unctio, veneris
abstinentia, facilis ciborum digestio, id est frugal itas,

20 praestat. Praeterea ut sint fauces integrae, id est
moUes ac leves, quarum vitio et frangitur et obscura-
tur et exasperatur et scinditur vox. Nam ut tibiae
eddem spiritu accept© alium clausis, alium apertis
foraminibus, alium non satis purgatae, alium quassae
sonum reddunt, ita fauces tumentes strangulant
25a

BOOK XI. m. 17-20

voice present great variety. For in addition to the
triple division of accents into sharp, grave and cir-
cumflex, there are many other forms of intonation
which are required : it may be intense or relaxed,
high or low, and may move in slow or quick time.
But here again there are many intermediate 18
gradations between the two extremes, and just as
the face, although it consists of a limited number
of features, yet possesses infinite variety of expression,
so it is with the voice : for though it possesses but
few varieties to which we can give a name, yet every
human being possesses a distinctive voice of his
own, which is as easily distinguished by the ear as
are facial characteristics by the eye.

The good qualities of the voice, like everything 19
else, are improved by training and impaired by
neglect. But the training required by the orator is
not the same as that which is practised by the sing-
ing-master, although the two methods have many
points in common. In both cases physical robustness
is essential to save the voice from dwindling to the
feeble shrillness that characterises the voices of
eunuchs, women and invalids, and the means for
creating such robustness are to be found in walking,
rubbing-down with oil, abstinence from sexual inter-
course, an easy digestion, and, in a word, in the
simple life. Further, the throat must be sound, 20
that is to say, soft and smooth ; for if the throat be
unsound, the voice is broken or dulled or becomes
harsh or squeaky. For just as the sound produced
in the pipe by the same volume of breath varies
according as the stops are closed or open, or the
instrument is clogged or cracked, so the voice is
strangled if the throat be swollen, and muffled if it

»53

QUINTILIAN

vocem, obtusae obscurant, rasae exasperant, convulsae

21 fractis sunt organis similes. Finditur etiam spiritus
obiectu aliquo sicut lapillo tenues aquae, quai-um
cursus ^ etiamsi ultra paulum coit, aliquid tamen cavi
relinquit post id ipsum quod offenderat. Humor
quoque vocem ut nimius impedit, ita consumptus
destituit. Nam fatigatio, ut corpora, non ad praesens

22 modo tempus, sed etiam in futurum adficit. Sed ut
communiter et phonascis et oratoribus necessaria est
exercitatio, qua omnia convalescunt, ita curae non
idem genus est. Nam neque certa tempora ad
spatiandum dari possunt tot civilibus officiis occu-
pato, nee praeparare ab imis sonis vocem ad summos
nee semper a contentione condere licet, cum pluribus

23 iudiciis saepe dicendum sit. Ne ciborum quidem est
eadem observatio. Non enim tarn molli teneraque
voce quam forti ac durabili opus est, cum illi omnes
etiam altissimos sonos leniant cantu oris, nobis plera-
que aspere sint concitateque dicenda et vigilandae
noctes et fuligo lucubrationum bibenda et in sudata

24 veste durandum. Quare vocem deliciis non mollia-
mus, nee imbuatur ea consuetudine, quam desidera-
tura sit ; sed exercitatio eius talis sit qualis usus, ne

^ cursus, Spalding : spiritus, MSS.

254

BOOK XI. III. 20-24

is obstructed, while it becomes rasping if the throat
is inflamed, and may be compared to an organ with
broken pipes in cases where the throat is subject to
spasms. Again, the presence of some obstacle may 21
divide the breath just as a pebble will divide shallow
waters, which, although their currents unite again
soon after the obstruction is past, still leave a hollow
space in rear of the object struck. An excess of
moisture also impedes the voice, while a deficiency
weakens it. x\s regards fatigue, its effect is the same
as upon the body : it affects the voice not merely at
the moment of speaking, but for some time after-
wards. But while exercise, which gives strength in 22
all cases, is equally necessary both for orators and
singing-masters, it is a different kind of exercise
which they require. For the orator is too much
occupied by civil affairs to be able to allot fixed
times for taking a walk, and he cannot tune his
voice through all the notes of the scale nor spare
it exertion, since it is frequently necessary for him
to speak in several cases in succession. Nor is the 23
same regime suitable as regards food : for the orator
needs a strong and enduring voice rather than one
which is soft and sweet, while the singer mellows all
sounds, even the highest, by the modulation of his
voice, whereas we have often to speak in harsh and
agitated tones, must pass wakeful nights, swallow
the soot that is produced by the midnight oil and
stick to our work though our clothes be dripping
with sweat. Consequently, we must not attempt to 24
mellow our voice by coddling it nor accustom it to
the conditions which it would like to enjoy, but
rather give it exercise suited to the tasks on which
it will be employed, never allowing it to be impaired

255

QUINTILIAN

silentio subsidatj sed firmetur consuetudine, qua diffi-
26 cultas omnis levatur. Ediscere autem, quo exer-
cearis, erit optimum (nam ex tempore dicentes
avocat a cura vocis ille, qui ex rebus ipsis con-
cipitur, adfectus) et ediscere quam maxime varia^
quae et clamorem et disputationem et senmonem et
flexus habeant, ut simul in omnia paremur. Hoc

26 satis est ; alioqui nitida ilia et curata vox insolitum
laborem recusabit, ut assueta gymnasiis et oleo cor-
pora, quamlibet sint in suis certaminibus speciosa
atque robusta, si militare iter fascemque et vigilias
imperes, deficiant et quaerant unctores suos nudum-

27 que sudorem. Ilia quidem in hoc opere praecipi
quis ferat vitandos soles atque ventos et nubila etiam
ae siccitates ? Ita, si dicendum in sole aut ventoso,
humidOj calido die fuerit, reos deseremus? Nam
crudum quidem aut saturum aut ebrium aut eiecto
modo vomitu, quae cavenda quidam monent, decla-

28 mare neminem, qui sit mentis compos, puto. Illud
non sine causa est ab omnibus praeceptum, ut parca-
tur maxime voci in illo a pueritia in adolescentiam
transitu, quia naturaliter impeditur, non, ut arbitror,
propter calorem, quod quidam putaverunt (nam est
256

BOOK XI. III. 24-28

by silence, but strengthening it by practice, which
removes all difficulties. The best method for secur- 25
ing such exercise is to learn passages by heart (for if
we have to speak extempore, the passion inspired by
our theme will distract us from all care for our voice),
while the passages selected for the purpose should
be as varied as possible, involving a combination
of loud, argumentative, colloquial and modulated
utterance, so that we may prepare ourselves for all
exigencies simultaneously. This will be sufficient. 26
Otherwise your delicate, overtrained voice will
succumb before any unusual exertion, like bodies
accustomed to the oil of the training school, which
for all the imposing robustness which they display
in their own contests, yet, if ordered to make a day's
march with the troops, to carry burdens and mount
guard at night, would faint beneath the task and
long for their trainers to rub them down with oil and
for the free perspiration of the naked limbs. Who 27
would tolerate me if in a work such as this I were
to prescribe avoidance of exposure to sun, wind, rain
or parching heat .'' If we are called upon to speak
in the sun or on a windy, wet or warm day, is that a
reason for deserting the client whom we have under-
taken to defend ? While as for the warning given
by some that the orator should not speak when
\ dyspeptic, replete or drunk, or immediately after
vomiting, I think that no sane person would dream
of declaiming under such circumstances. There is, 28
however, good reason for the rule prescribed by all
authorities, that the voice should not be overstrained
in the years of transition between boyhood and man-
hood, since at that pei-iod it is naturally weak, not, 1
think, on account of heat, as some allege (for there

'57

QUINTILIAN

maior alias), sed propter humorem potius ; nam hoc

29 aetas ilia turgescit. Itaque nares etiam ac pectus eo
tempore tument, atque omnia velut germinant eoque
sunt tenera et iniuriae obnoxia. Sed, ut ad proposi-
tum redeam, iam confirmatae constitutaeque voci
genus exercitationis optimum duco, quod est operi
simillimum, dicere cotidie sicut agimus. Namque
hoc modo non vox tantum confirmatur et latus, sed
etiam corporis decens et accommodatus orationi
motus componitur.

30 Non alia est autem ratio pronuntiationis quam
ipsius orationis. Nam ut ilia emcndata, dilucida,
ornata, apta esse debet, ita haec quoque emendata
erit, id est, vitio carebit, si fuerit os facile, explana-
tum, iucundum, urbanum, id est, in quo nulla neque

31 rusticitas neque peregrinitas resonet. Non enim
sine causa dicitur barharum Graecumve. Nam sonis
homines ut aera tinnitu dinoscimus. Ita fiet illud,
quod Ennius probat, cum dicit suaviloquenti ore Cethe-
gum fuisse, non quod Cicero in his reprehendit, quos
ait lalrare non agere. Sunt enim multa vitia, de
quibus dixi, cum in quadam primi libri parte puero-
rum ora formarem, opportunius ratus, in ea aetate]
facere illorum mentionem, in qua emendari possunt.

32 Itemque si ipsa vox primum fuerit, ut sic dicam, sana,i

1 Ann. ix. 305 (Vahlen). * Brut. xv. 58.

' I. i. 37 ; V. 32 ; viii. 1 and xi. 1 sqq.

258

BOOK XI. III. 28-32

is more heat in the body at other periods), but rather
on account of moisture, of which at that age there is
a superabundance. For this reason the nostrils and 29
the breast swell at this stage, and all the organs
develop new growth, with the result that they are
tender and liable to injury. However, to return to
the point, the best and most realistic foi*m of exercise
for the voice, once it has become firm and set, is, in
my opinion, the practice of speaking daily just as we
plead in the courts. For thus, not merely do the
voice and lungs gain in strength, but we acquire a
becoming deportment of the body and develop grace
of movement suited to our style of speaking.

The rules for delivery are identical with those for the 3fi
language of oratory itself. For, as our language must
be correct, clear, ornate and appropriate, so with our
delivery ; it will be correct, that is, free from fault, if
our utterance be fluent, clear, pleasant and " urbane,"
that is to say, free from all traces of a rustic or a foreign
accent. For there is good reason for the saying we so 3 i
often hear, " He must be a barbarian or a Greek " :
since we may discern a man's nationality from the
sound of his voice as easily as we test a coin by its ring.
If these qualities be present, we shall have those har-
monious accents of which Ennius ^ expresses his
approval when he describes Cethegus as one whose
"words rang sweetly," and avoid the opposite effect,
of which Cicero ^ expresses his disapproval by saying,
"They bark, not plead." For there are many faults
of which I spoke in the first book^ when I discussed
the method in which the speech of children should
be formed, since I thought it more appropriate to
mention them in connexion with a period of life
when it is still possible to correct them. Again, the 32

»59

QUINTILIAN

id est, nullum eorum, de quibus modo rettuli, patietur
incommodum ; deinde non subsurda, rudis, immanis,
dura, rigida, rava/ praepinguis, aut tenuis, inanis,
acerba, pusilla^ mollis, effeminata, spiritus nee brevis
nee parum durabilis nee in receptu difficilis.

33 Dilucida vero erit pronuntiatio primum, si verba tota
exierint, quorum pars devorari, pars destitui solet,
plerisque extremas syllabas non perferentibus, dum
priorum sono indulgent. Ut est autem necessaria
verborum explanatio, ita omnes imputare et velut

34 adnumerare litteras molestum et odiosum. Nam et
vocales frequentissime coeunt, et consonantium quae-
dam insequente vocali dissimulantur. Utriusque
exemplum posuimus :

Multum tile et terris — .

35 Vitatur etiam duriorum inter se congressus, unde
pellcxit et collegii, et quae alio loco dicta sunt ; ideoque
laudatur in Catulo suavis appellatio litterarum. Se-
cundum est, ut sit oratio distincta, id est, qui dicit,
et incipiat ubi oportet et desinat. Observandum
etiam, quo loco sustinendus et quasi suspendendus
sermo sit, quod Graeci viroSiacrToXrjv vel viroa-Tiyfi^v

36 vocant, quo deponendus. Suspenditur Arma virum-
que cano, quia illud vinim ad sequentia pertinet, ut

^ rava, Burman : vana, MSS.

1 IX. iv, 40. * Aen. i. 3. * ix. iv. 37.

* Brut. Ixxiv. 259. "sua vitas vocis et lenis appellatio
literarum" ("the sweetness of his voice and the delicacy
with which he pronounced the various letters.")

• " A slight stop," corresponding to our "comma."

' Aen. i. 1. "■

260

BOOK XI. m. 32-36

delivery may be described as correct if the voice be
sound, that is to say, exempt from any of the defects
of which I have just spoken, and if it is not dull,
coarse, exaggerated, hard, stiff, hoarse or thick, or
again, thin, hollow, sharp, feeble, soft or effeminate,
and if the breath is neither too short nor difficult to
sustain or recover.

The delivery will be clear if, in the first place, the 33
words are uttered in their entirety, instead of being
swallowed or clipped, as is so often the case, since
too many people fail to complete the final syllables
through over-emphasising the first. But although
words must be given their full phonetic value, it is a
tiresome and offensive trick to pronounce every letter
as if we were entering them in an inventory. For 34
vowels frequently coalesce and some consonants dis-
appear when followed by a vowel. I have already *
given an example of both these occurrences : —
muUiim ille et terris.^ Further, we avoid placing two 35
consonants near each other when their juxtaposition
would cause a harsh sound ; thus, we saj pellexit and
collegit and employ other like forms of which I have
spoken elsewhere.^ It is with this in mind that
Cicero * praises Catulus for the sweetness with which
he pronounced the various letters. The second
essential for clearness of delivery is that our
language should be properly punctuated, that is
to say, the speaker must begin and end at the
proper place. It is also necessary to note at what
point our speech should pause and be momentarily
suspended (which the Greeks term vTroSiao-roX^ and
wrojTiy/i^)^ and when it should come to a full stop.
After the words arma virumque cano ® there is a mo- 36
mentary suspension, because virum is connected with

261

QUINTILIAN

sit virum Troiae qui primus ah oris, et hie iterum.
Nam etiamsi aliud est, unde venit quam quo venit,
non distingueiidum tamen, quia utrumque eodem

37 verbo continetur ve7iil. Tertio Italiam, quia interiectio
est fato pro fugus et continuum sermonem, quifaciebat
Italiam Lavinaque, dividit. Ob eandemque causam
quarto profugus, deinde Lavinaque venit litora, ubi
iam erit distinctio, quia inde alius incipit sensus.
Sad in ipsis etiam distinctionibus tempus alias
brevius, alias longius dabimus ; interest enim, ser-

38 monem finiant an sensum. Itaque illam distinctionem
Litora protinus altero spiritus initio insequar ; cum
illuc venero Atque altae moeuia Romae, deponam et

39 morabor et novum rursus exordium faciam. Sunt
aliquando et sine respiratione quaedam morae etiam
in periodis. Ut enim "^ ilia In coetu vero populi Romani,
negotium publicum gerens, magister equitum, etc., multa
membra habent (sensus enim sunt alii atque alii), sed
unam circumductionem, ita paulum morandum in his
intervallis, non interrumpendus est contextus. Et e
contrario spiritum interim recipere sine intellectu
morae necesse est, quo loco quasi surripiendus est ;
alioqui si inscite recipiatur, non minus adferat ob-
scuritatis quam vitiosa distinctio. Virtus autem
distinguendi fortasse sit parva ; sine qua tamen esse
nulla alia in agendo potest.

* enim, Obrecht : in, MSS.

^ Phil. II. XXV. 63. See Quint, viii. iv. 8.

• See IX. iv. 22, 67, 123. The name colon is applied to the
longer clauses contained in a period, as opposed to the shorter,
which are styled commata,

262

BOOK XI. III. 36-39

what follows, the full sense being given by virum
Troiae qui primus ah oris, after which there is a simi-
lar suspension. For although the mention of the
hero's destination introduces an idea different from
that of the place whence he came, the difference does
not call for the insertion of a stop, since both ideas
are expressed by the same verb venit. After Italiam 37
comes a third pause, since fato profugus is paren-
thetic and breaks up the continuity of the phrase
Italiam Lavinaque. For the same reason there is a
fourth f>ause after profugus. Then follows Lavinaque
venit litora, where a stop must be placed, as at this
point a new sentence begins. But stops themselves
vary in length, according as they mark the conclusion
of a phrase or a sentence. Thus after litora I shall 38
pause and continue after taking breath. But when
I come to atque allae inoenia Romae I shall make a full
stop, halt and start again witli the opening of a fresli
sentence. There are also occasionally, even in 39
periods, pauses which do not require a fresh breath.
For although the sentence in coetu vero populi Romani,
negotium publicum gerens, magister equitum} etc., con-
tains a number of different cola,"^ expressing a number
of different thoughts, all these cola are embraced by
a single period : consequently, although short pauses
are required at the appropriate intervals, the flow of
the period as a whole must not be broken. On the
other hand, it is at times necessary to take breath with-
out any perceptible pause : in such cases we must do
so surreptitiously, since if we take breath unskilfully,
it will cause as much obscurity as would have resulted
from faulty punctuation. Correctness of punctuation
may seem to be but a trivial merit, but without it
all the other merits of oratory are nothing worth.

263

QUINTILIAN

40 Ornata est pronuntiatio, cui suffragatur vox facilis,
magna, beata, flexibilis, firma, dulcis, durabilis, clara,
pura, secans aera et auribus sedens (est enim quae-
dam ad auditum accommodata non magnitudine, sed
proprietate), ad hoc velut tractabilis, utique habens
omnes in se qui desiderantur sinus intentionesque et
toto, ut aiunt, organo instructa ; cui aderit lateris
firmitas, spiritus cum spatio pertinax, tum labori non

41 facile cessurus. Neque gravissimus autem in musica
sonus nee acutissimus orationibus convenit. Nam et
hie parum clarus nimiumque plenus nullum adferre
animis motum potest, et ille praetenuis et immodicae
claritatis, cum est ultra verum, tum neque pronunti-
atione flecti neque diutius ferre intentionem potest.

42 Nam vox ut nervi, quo remissior, hoc gravior et
plenior, quo tensior, hoc tenuis et acuta magis est.
Sic ima vim non liabet, summa rumpi periclitatur.
Mediis ergo utendum sonis, hique tum augenda
intentione excitandi, tum summittenda sunt
temperandi.

43 Nam prima est observatio recte pronuntiandi
aequalitas, ne sermo subsultet imparibus spatiis ac
sonis, miscens longa brevibus, gravia acutis, elata
summissis, et inaequalitate horum omnium sicut
264

BOOK XI. III. 40-43

Delivery will be ornate when it is supported by 40
a voice that is easy, strong, rich, flexible, firm, sweet,
enduring, resonant, pure, carrying far and penetrat-
ing the ear (for there is a type of voice which
impresses the hearing not by its volume, but by its
peculiar quality) : in addition, the voice must be
easily managed and must possess all the necessary
inflexions and modulations, in fact it must, as the
saying is, be a perfect instrument, equipped with
every stop : further, it must have strong lungs to
sustain it, and ample breathing power tliat will be
equal to all demands upon it, however fatiguing. The 41
deepest bass and the highest treble notes are un-
suited to oratory : for the former lack clearness and,
owing to their excessive fullness, have no emotional
power, while the latter are too thin and, owing to
excess of clearness, give an impression of extrava-
gance and are incompatible with the inflexions
demanded by delivery and place too great a strain
upon the voice. For the voice is like the strings of 42
a musical instrument ; the slacker it is the deeper
and fuller the note produced, whereas if it be
tightened, the sound becomes thinner and shriller.
Consequently, the deepest notes lack force, and the
higher run the risk of cracking the voice. The orator
will, therefore, employ the intermediate notes, which
must be raised when we speak with energy and
lowered when we adopt a more subdued tone.

For the first essential of a good delivery is even- 43
ness. The voice must not run joltingly, with
irregularity of rhythm and sound, mLxing long and
short syllables, grave accents and acute, tones loud
and low, without discrimination, the result being that
this universal unevenness produces the impression of

265

QUINTILIAN

pedum claudicet ; secunda varietas, quod solum est
44 pronuntiatio. Ac ne quis pugnare inter se putet
aequalitatem et varietatem, cum illi virtuti contra-
rium vitium sit inaequalitas, huic, quod dicitur
fiovotiBtia, quasi quidam unus aspectus, Ars porro
variandi cum gratiam praebet ac renovat aures, turn
dicentem ipsa laboris mutatione reficit, ut standi,
46 ambulandi, sedendi, iacendi vices sunt, nihilque
eorum pati unum diu possumus. lUud vero maxi-
mum (sed id paulo post tractabimus), quod secundum
rationem rerum, de quibus dicimus, animorumque
habitus conformanda vox est, ne ab oratione dis-
cordet. Vitemus igitur illam, quae Graece /xovorovia
vocatur, una quaedam spiritus ac soni intentio; non
solum ne dicamus omnia clamose, quod insanum est,
aut intra loquendi modum, quod motu caret, aut
summisso murmure, quo etiam debilitatur omnis
46 intentio ; sed ut in iisdem partibus iisdemque adfecti-
bus sint tamen quaedam non ita magnae vocis
declinationes, prout aut verborum dignitas aut
sententiarum natura aut depositio aut inceptio aut
transitus postulabit : ut, qui singulis pinxerunt
coloribus, alia tamen eminentiora alia reductiora
266

BOOK XI. III. 43-46

a limping gait. The second essential is variety of
tone, and it is in this alone that delivery really con-
sists. I must warn my readers not to fall into the 44
error of supposing that evenness and variety are in-
compatible with one another, since the fault opposed
to evenness is unevenness, while the opposite of
variety is that which the Greeks term fxovoeiSeia, or
uniformity of aspect. The art of producing variety
not merely charms and refreshes the ear, but, by the
very fact that it involves a change of effort, revives
the speaker's flagging energies. It is like the relief
caused by changes in position, such as are involved
by standing, walking, sitting and lying, none of
which can be endured for a long time together.
But the most important point (which I shall proceed 45
to discuss a little later) is the necessity of adapting
the voice to suit the nature of the various subjects
on which we are speaking and the moods that they
demand : otherwise our voice will be at variance with
our language. We must, therefore, avoid that which
the Greeks call monotojiy, that is to say, the unvary-
ing exertion both of lungs and voice. By this I do
not simply mean that we must avoid saying every-
thing in a loud tone, a fault which amounts to
madness, or in a colloquial tone, which creates an
impression of lifelessness, or in a subdued murmur,
which is utterly destructive of all vigour. What I 46
mean is this : within the limits of one passage and the
compass of one emotion we may vary our tone to a
certain, though not a very great extent, according
as the dignity of the language, the nature of the
thought, the conclusion and opening of our sen-
tences or transitions from one point to another, may
demand. Thus, those who paint in monochrome

267

QUINTILIAN

fecerunt, sine quo ne membris quidem suas lineas

47 dedissent. Proponamus enim nobis illud Ciceronis
in oratione nobilissima pro Milone principium ; nonne
ad singulas paene distinctiones quamvis in eadem
facie tamen quasi vultus mutandus est ? Etsi vereor,
indices, ne tnrpe sit, pro fortissimo viro dicere incipientem

48 timere. Etiamsi est toto proposito contractum atque
summissum, quia et exordium est et solliciti exordium,
tamen fuerit necesse est aliquid plenius et erectius,
dum dicit Pro foiiissimo t;jVo, quam cum Etsi vereor et

49 I'urpe sit et Timere. lam secunda respiratio increscat
oportet et naturali quodam conatu, quo minus pavide
dicinms quae sequuntur, et quod magnitude animi
Milonis ostenditur : Minivieque decent, cum T. Annius
ipse mngis de rei puhlicae salute quam de sua perturbetur.
Deinde quasi obiurgatio sui est : Me ad eius causam

60 parem animi magnitudinem adferre non posse. Turn
invidiosiora : Tamen haec novi iudicii nova forma terret
Qculos. Ilia vero iam paene apertis, ut aiunt, tibiis :
Qiii, quocunque inciderunt, consuetudinem fori et pristinum
morem iudiciortim requirunt. Nam sequens latum etiam
atque fusum est: Non enim corona consessus vester

61 cinctiis est, ut solebat. Quod notavi, ut appareret, non
solum in membris causae, sed etiam in articulis esse

^ pro Mil. i. 1 sqq. " Although I fear, gentlemen, that it
may be discreditable that I should feel afraid on rising to
defend the bravest of men, and though it is far from becoming
that, whereas Titus Annius is more concerned for the safety
of the State than for his own, I should be unable to bring a
like degree of courage to aid me in pleading his cause ; still,
the strange appearance of this novel tribunal dismays my
eyes, which, whithersoever they turn, look in vain for the

268

BOOK XI. III. 46-51

still represent their objects in different planes, since
otherwise it would have been impossible to depict
even the limbs of tlieir figures. Let us take as an 47
example the opening of Cicero's magnificent speech
in defence of Milo. Is it not clear that the orator
has to change his tone almost at every stop ? it is the
same face, but the expression is changed. Etsi vereor,
indices, ne iurpe sit, pro fortissimo viro dicere incipientem 48
timere.^ Although the general tone of the passage is
restrained and subdued, since it is not merely an
exordium, but the exordium of a man suffering from.
serious anxiety, still something fuller and bolder i^
required in the tone, when he says pro fortissimo virOf
than w^hen he says etsi cereor and turpe sit and timere.
But his second breath must be more vigorous, partly 49
owing to the natural increase of effort, since we
always speak our second sentence with less timidity,
and partly because he indicates the high courage of
Milo: minimeque deceat, cum T. Atmitis ipse magis de.
ret publicae salute quam de sua perturbetur. Then ho
proceeds to something like a reproof of himself: me
ad eivs causam parem anitni magnitudinem adferre non
posse. The next clause suggests a reflexion on the 50
conduct of others : tamen haec nod iudicii nova forma
terret oculos. And then in what follows he opens
every stop, as the saying is : qm, quocuTujue indderunt, -
consuetudinem fori et pristinum morem iudiciorum requi-
runt : while the next clause is even fuller and freer :
non enim corona consesstcs tester cinctus est, ut solebat,'
I have called attention to these points to make it 51
clear that there is a certain variety, not merely in

customary aspect of the forum and the time-honoured usage
of the courts. For your bench is not sturounded, as it used
to be, by a ring of spectators," etc

269

QUINTILIAN

aliquam pronuntiandi varietatem, sine qua nihil
neque maius neque minus est.

Vox autem ultra vires urgenda non est. Nam et
sufFocatur saepe et maiore nisu minus clara est et
interim elisa in ilium sonum erumpit, cui Graeci

62 nomen a gallorum immaturo cantu dederunt. Nee
volubilitate nimia confundenda quae dicimus, qua
et distinctio perit et adfectus, et nonnunquam etiam
verba aliqua sui parte fraudantur. Cui contrarium
est vitium nimiae tarditatis ; nam et difficultatem
inveniendi fatetur et segnitia solvit animos et, in
quo est aliquid, temporibus praefinitis aquam perdit.
Promptum sit os, non praeceps, moderatum, non

63 lentum ; spiritus quoque nee crebro receptus con-
cidat sententiam, nee eo usque traliatur, donee
deficiat. Nam et deformis est consumpti illius sonus
et respiratio sub aqua diu pressi similis et receptus
longior et non opportunus, ut qui fiat non ubi
volumus, sed ubi necesse est. Quare longiorem
dicturis period um colligendus est spiritus, ita tamen,
ut id neque diu neque cum sono faciamus, neque
omnino ut manifestum sit ; reliquis partibus optime

64 inter iuncturas sermonis revocabitur. Exercendus
autem est, ut sit quam longissimus ; quod Demosthe-
nes ut efficeret, scandens in adversum continuabat

* What this word was is not known. Perhaps merely

K0KKVfffJl6s.

* aqvMjn perdit. Lit. wastes water. The reference is to
the clepsydra or water-clock employed for the measurement
of time.

370

BOOK XI. III. 51-54

the delivery of cola, but even in that of phrases con-
sisting of one word, a variety the lack of which
would make every word seem of equal importance.

The voice, however, must not be pressed beyond
its powers, for it is liable to be choked and to be-
come less and less clear in proportion to the increase
of effort, while at times it will break altogether and
produce the sound to which the Greeks have given
a name derived from the crowing of cocks before the
voice is developed.^ We must also beware of con- 52
fusing our utterance by excessive volubility, which
results in disregard of punctuation, loss of emotional
power, and sometimes in the clipping of words. The
opposite fault is excessive slowness of speech, which
is a sign of lack of readiness in invention, tends by
its sluggishness to render our hearers inattentive,
and, further, wastes the time allotted to us for speak-
ing,2 a consideration which is of some importance*
Our speech must be ready, but not precipitate, under
control, but not slow, while we must not take breath 53
so often as to break up our sentence, nor, on the
other hand, sustain it until it fails us from exhaustion.
For the sound produced by loss of breath is disagree-
able ; we gasp like a drowning man and fill our lungs
with long-drawn inhalations at inappropriatemoments,
giving the impression that our action is due not to
choice, but to compulsion. Therefore, in attacking
a period of abnormal length, we should collect our
breath, but quickly, noiselessly and imperceptibly.
On other occasions we shall be able to take breath
at the natural breaks in the substance of our speech.
But we must exercise our breathing capacity to make 64
it as great as possible. To produce this result De-
mosthenes used to recite as many successive lines as

271

QUINTILIAN

quam posset plurimos versus. Idem^ quo facilius
verba ore libero exprimeret, calculos lingua volvens

65 dicere domi solebat. Est interim et longus et plenus
et clams satis spiritus, non tamen firmae intentionis
ideoque tremulus, ut corpora, quae aspectu integra
nervis parum sustinentur ; id fipaa-fj-ov ^ Graeci vocant.
Sunt qui spiritum cum stridore per raritatem dentium
non recipiunt, sed resorbent. Sunt qui crebro
anhelitu et introrsum etiam clare sonante imitentur

66 iumenta onere et iugo laborantia. Quod adfectant
quoque, tanquam inventionis copia urgeantur maior-
que vis eloquentiae ingruat, quam quae emitti
faucibus possit. Est aliis concursus oris et cum verbis
suis colluctatio. lam tussire et exspuere crebro
et ab imo pulmone pituitam trochleis adducere et
oris humore proximos spargere et maiorem partem
spiritus in loquendo per nares effundere, etiamsi non
utique vocis sunt vitia, quia tamen propter vocem

67 accidunt, potissimum huic loco subiiciantur. Sed
quodcunque ex his vitium magis tulerim quam, quo
nunc maxima laboratur in causis omnibus scholisque,

* fipafffxbv, Butler : BFAMON, cod. Bern, : BPAMON, cod,
Bamb. : fipayxo", Gesner and ed, Tarvis.

* Ppdyxos is generally read, bnt the word is used in the
sense of " hoarseness," which is not what Quintilian describes.
I would read Bpacrnds, a word meaning " effervescence,"
"shaking," "shivering." ^ere = tremolo.

* trochlea is a windlass used for raising water from a
well.

372

BOOK XI. III. 54-57

possible, while he was climbing a hill. He also, with
a view to securing fluency free from impediment,
used to roll pebbles under his tongue when speaking
in the privacy of his study. Sometimes the breath, 55
although capable of sustained effort and sufficiently
full and clear, lacks firmness when exerted, and for
that reason is liable to become tremulous, like bodies
which, although to all appearances sound, receive
insufficient support from the sinews. This the Greeks
call ^pacr/xos.^ There are some too who, owing to
the loss of teeth, do not draw in the breath naturally,
but suck it in with a hissing sound. There are
others who pant incessantly and so loudly that it
is perfectly audible within them : they remind one
of heavily-laden beasts of burden straining against
the yoke. Some indeed actually affect this man- 56
nerism, as though to suggest that they are struggling
with the host of ideas that crowd themselves upon
them and oppressed by a greater flood of eloquence
than their throats are capable of uttering. Others,
again, find a difficulty in opening their mouths, and
seem to struggle with their words ; and, further,
although they are not actually faults of the voice,
yet since they arise out of the use of the voice,
I think this is the most appropriate place for
referring to the habit of coughing and spitting with
frequency while speaking, of hawking up phlegm
from the depths of the lungs, like water from a
well,^ sprinkling the nearest of the bystanders with
saliva, and expelling the greater portion of the
breath through the nostrils. But any of these faults 57
are tolerable compared with the practice of chanting
instead of speaking, which is the worst feature of
our modem oratory, whether in the courts or in the

273

QUINTILIAN

cantandi^ quod inutilius sit an foedius, nescio. Quid
enim minus oratori convenit quam modulatio scenica
et nonnunquam ebriorum aut comissantium licentiae
68 similis? Quid vero movendis adfectibus contrarium
magis quam, cum dolendum,^ irascendum, indig-
nandum, commiserandum sit, non solum ab his
adfectibus, in quos inducendus est iudex, recedere,
sed ipsam fori sanctitatem Lyciorum et Carum^
licentia solvere ? Nam Cicero illos ex Lycia et Carta ^
rhetoras paene canlare in epilogis dixit. Nos etiam

59 cantandi severiorem paulo niodum excessimus. Quis-
quamne, non dico de homicidio, sacrilegio, parricidio,
sed de calculis certe atque rationibus, quisquam
denique, ut semel finiam, in lite cantat? Quod si
omnino recipiendum est, nihil causae est, cur non
illam vocis modulationem fidibus ac tibiis, immo me
hercule, quod est huic deformitati propius, cymbalis

60 adiuvemus. Facimus tamen hoc libenter ; nam nee
cuiquam sunt iniucunda quae cantant ipsi, et laboris
in hoc quam in agendo minus est. Et sunt quidam,
qui secundum alia vitae vitia etiam hac ubique
audiendi, quod aures mulceat, voluptate ducantur.

^ dolendum, Regius : docendum, B. avd lul. Victor.

* Lyciorum et Carum, Daniel : ludorum talarium, MSS,

' Phrygia, MSS. of Cicero.

* Or. xviii. 67.
274

BOOK XI, III. 57-60

schools^ and of which I can only say that I do not
know whether it is more useless or more repugnant
to good taste. For what can be less becoming to
an orator than modulations that recall the stage and
a sing-song utterance which at times resembles the
maudUn utterance of drunken revellers .■' What can 58
be more fatal to any emotional appeal than that the
speaker should, when the situation calls for grief,
anger, indignation or pity, not merely avoid the
expression of those emotions which require to be
kindled in the judge, but outrage the dignity of
the courts with noises such as are dear to the
Lycians and Carians ? For Cicero ^ has told us that
the rhetoricians of Lycia and Caria come near to
singing in their perorations. But, as a matter of fact,
we have somewhat overstepped the limits imposed by
the more restrained style of singing. I ask you, 59
does anyone sing, 1 will not say when his theme is
murder, sacrilege or parricide, but at any rate when
he deals with figures or accounts, or, to cut a long
story short, when he is pleading in any kind of
lawsuit whatever f And if such a form of intonation
is to be permitted at all, there is really no reason
why the modulations of the voice should not be
accompanied by harps and flutes, or even by cymbals,
which would be more appropriate to the revolting
exhibitions of which I am speaking. And yet we 60
show no reluctance in indulging this vicious practice.
For no one thinks his own singing hideous, and it
involves less trouble than genuine pleading. There
are, moreover, some persons who, in thorough con-
formity with their other vices, are possessed with a
perpetual passion for hearing something that will
soothe their ears. But, it may be urged, does not

275

QUINTILIAN

Quid ergo? non et Cicero elicit esse aliquem in
oratione canlum ohscuriorem ? et hoc quodam naturali
initio venit? Ostendam non multo post, ubi et
quatenus recipiendus sit hie flexus et cantus quidem
sed, quod plerique intelligere nolunt, obscurior.

61 lam enira tempus est dicendi, quae sit apta pro-
nuntiatio. Quae certe ea est, quae iis, de quibus
dicimus, accommodatur. Quod quidem maxima ex
parte praestant ipsi motus animorum, sonatque vox,
ut feritur; sed cum sint alii veri adfectus, alii ficti
et imitati, veri naturaliter erumpunt, ut dolentium,
irascentium, indignantium, sed carent arte, ideoque

62 sunt disciplina et ratione formandi. Contra qui
effinguntur imitatione, artem habent ; sed hi carent
natura, ideoque in iis primum est bene adfici et
concipere imagines rerum et tanquam veris moveri.
Sic velut media vox, quern habitum a nobis acceperit,
huDC. iudicum animis dabit. Est enim mentis index

63 ac totidem, quot ilia, mutationes habet. Itaque
laetis in rebus plena et simplex et ipsa quodammodo
hilaris fluit; at in certamine erecta totis viribus et velut
omnibus nervis intenditur. Atrox in ira et aspera

* Or. xviii. 57.
^76

BOOK XL III. 60-63

Cicero ^ himself say that there is a suggestion of
singing in the utterance of an orator ? And is not
this the outcome of a natural impulse? I shall
shortly proceed to show to what extent such musical
modulations are permissible : but if we are to call
it singing, it must be no more than a suggestion
of singing, a fact which too many refuse to
realise.

But it is now high time for me to explain what I 61
mean by appropriate delivery. Such appropriateness
obviously lies in the adaptation of the delivery to
the subjects on which we are speaking. This quality
is, in the main, supplied by the emotions themselves,
and the voice will ring as passion strikes its chords.
But there is a difference between true emotion on
the one hand, and false and fictitious emotion on
the other. The former breaks out naturally, as in
the case of grief, anger or indignation, but lacks
art, and therefore requires to be formed by methodical
training. The latter, on the other hand, does imply 62
art, but lacks the sincerity of nature : consequently
in such cases the main thing is to excite the appro-
priate feeling in oneself, to form a mental picture
of the facts, and to exhibit an emotion that cannot
be distinguished from the truth. The voice, which
is the intermediary between ourselves and our
hearers, will then produce precisely the same
emotion in the judge that we have put into it. For
it is the index of the mind, and is capable of express-
ing all its varieties of feeling. Therefore when we 63
deal with a lively theme, the flow of the voice is
characterised by fullness, simplicity and cheerful-
ness ; but when it is roused to battle, it puts forth
all its strength and strains every nerve. In anger

QUINTILIAN

ac densa et respiratione crebra ; neque enim potest
esse longus spiritus, cum immoderate effunditur.
Paulum in invidia facienda lentior, quia non fere ad
banc nisi inferiores confugiunt ; at in blandiendo,
fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando, lenis et summissa.

64 Suadentium et monentium et pollicentium et conso-
lantium gravis, in metu et verecundia contracta,
adbortationibus fortis, disputationibus teres, misera-
tione flexa et flebilis et consulto quasi obscurior ; at
in egressionibus fusa et securae claritatis, in ex-
positione ac sermonibus recta et inter acutum sonum

66 et gravem media. AttoUitur autem concitatis
adfectibus, compositis descendit pro utriusque rei
modo altius vel inferius.

Quid autem quisque in dicendo postulet locus,
paulum difFeram, ut de gestu prius dicam, qui et
ipse voci consentit et animo cum ea simul paret. Is
quantum habeat in oratore momenti, satis vel ex eo
patet quod pleraque etiam citra verba significat.

66 Quippe non manus solum, sed nutus etiam declarant
nostram voluntatem et in mutis pro sermone sunt,
et saltatio frequenter sine voce intelligitur atque
adficit, et ex vultu ingressuque perspicitur habitus
278

BOOK XI. III. 63-66

it is fierce, harsh and intense, and calls for frequent
filling of the lungs, since the breath cannot be sus-
tained for long when it is poured forth without
restraint. When it is desired to throw odium upon
our opponents, it will be somewhat slower, since,
as a rule, it is none save the weaker party takes
refuge in such tactics. On the other hand, in flatter^',
admission, apology or question it will be gentle and
subdued. If we advise, warn, promise or console, 64
it will be grave and dignified, modest if we express
fear or shame, bold in exhortation, precise in argu-
ment, full of modulations, suggestive of tears and
designedly muffled in appeals for pity, whereas in
digression it will be full and flowing, and will have
all tlie resonance that is characteristic of confidence ;
in exposition of facts or conversations it will be
even and pitched half-way betwixt high and low.
But it will be raised to express violent emotion, and 65
sink when our words are of a calmer nature, rising
and falling according to the demands of its theme.

However, for the moment I will defer speaking
of the variations in tone required by different topics,
and will proceed first to the discussion of gesture
which conforms to the voice, and like it, obeys the
impulse of the mind. Its importance in oratory is
sufficiently clear from the fact that there are many
things which it can express without the assistance
of words. For we can indicate our will not merely 66
by a gesture of the hands, but also with a nod from
the head : signs take the place of language in the
dumb, and the movements of the dance are fre-
quently full of meaning, and appeal to the emotions
without any aid from words. The temper of the
mind can be inferred from the glance and gait,

279

QUINTILIAN

animorum ; et animalium quoque sermone carentium
ira, laetitia, adulatio et oculis et quibusdam aliis

67 corporis signis deprehenditur. Nee mirum, si ista,
quae tamen in aliquo posita sunt motu, tantum in
animis valent, cum pictura, tacens opus et habitus
semper eiusdem, sic in intimos penetret adfectus,
ut ipsam vim dicendi nonnunquam superare videatur.
Contra si gestus ac vultus ab oratione dissentiat,
tristia dicamus hilares, adfirmemus aliqua renuentes
non auctoritas modo verbis, sed etiam fides desit.

68 Decor quoque a gestu atque motu venit ; ideoque
Demosthenes grande quoddam intuens speculum
componere actionem solebat ; adeo, quamvis fulgor
ille sinistras imagines reddat, suis demum oculis
credidit, quod efficeret.

Praecipuum vero in actione sicut in corpore ipso
caput est cum ad ilium, de quo dixi, decorem, tum

69 etiam ad significationem. Decoris ilia sunt, ut sit
primo rectum et secundum naturam. Nam et de-
iecto humilitas et supino arrogantia et in latus
inclinato languor et praeduro ac rigente barbaria
quaedam mentis ostenditur. Tum accipiat aptos ex
ipsa actione motus, ut cum gestu concordet et

70 manibus ac lateribus obsequatur. Aspectus enim
semper eodem vertitur quo gestus, exceptis quae aut
280

BOOK XL in. 66-70

and even speechless animals show anger, joy, or the
desire to please by means of the eye and other
physical indications. Nor is it wonderful that ges- 67
ture which depends on various forms of movement
should have such power, when pictures, which are
silent and motionless, penetrate into our innermost
feelings with such power that at times they seem
more eloquent than language itself. On the other
hand, if gesture and the expression of the face are
out of harmony with the speech, if we look cheerful
when our words are sad, or shake our heads when
making a positive assertion, our words will not only
lack weight, but will fail to carry conviction. Ges- 68
ture and movement are also productive of grace.
It was for this reason that Demosthenes used to
practise his delivery in front of a large mirror, since,
in spite of the fact that its reflexions are reversed,
he trusted his eyes to enable him to judge accurately
the effect produced.

The head, being the chief member of the body,
has a corresponding importance in delivery, serving
not merely to produce graceful effect, but to illus-
trate our meaning as well. To secure grace it is 69
essential that the head should be carried naturally
and erect. For a droop suggests humility, while if
it be thrown back it seems to express arrogance, if
inclined to one side it gives an impression of languor,
while if it is held too stiffly and rigidly it appears
to indicate a rude and savage temper. Further, it
should derive appropriate motion from the subject
of our pleading, maintaining hannony with the ges-
ture and following the movement of the hands and
side. For the eyes are always turned in the same 70
direction as the gesture, except when we are called

VOL. IV. K 281

QUINTILIAN

damnare aut concedere aut a nobis removere opor-

tebit, ut idem illud vultu videamur aversari, manu

repellere :

— Di talent avertite pesteni.

— Haud equidem tali me dignor honore,

71 Significat vero plurimis modis. Nam praeter adnu-
endi, renuendi confirmandique motus sunt et vere-
cundiae et dubitationis et admirationis et indigna-
tionis noti et communes omnibus. Solo tamen eo
facere gestum scenici quoque doctores vitiosum
putaverunt. Etiam frequens eius nutus noii caret
vitio ; adeo iactare id et comas excutientem rotare
fanaticum est.

72 Dominatur autem maxime vultus. Hoc supplices,
hoc minaces, hoc blandi^ hoc tristes, hoc hilares, hoc
erecti, hoc summissi sumus ; hoc pendent homines,
hunc intuentur, hie spectator, etiam antequam
dicimus ; hoc quosdam amamus, hoc odimus, hoc
plurima intelligimus, hie est saepe pro omnibus

73 verbis. Itaque in iis, quae ad scenam componuntur,
fabulis artifices pronuntiandi a personis quoque ad-
fectus mutuantur, ut sit Aerope in tragoedia tristis,

» Aen. in. 620. * Aen. i. 335,

282

BOOK XI. Ill 70-73

upon to condemn or concede something or to express
abhorrence, when we shall show our aversion by
turning away the face and by thrusting out our
iiands as though to repel the thought, as in the
lines:

•* Ye gods, such dread calamity avert I " ^
or

" Not for me
To claim such honour ! " ^

The methods by which the head may express our 71
meaning are manifold. For in addition to those
movements which indicate consent, refusal and
affirmation, there are those expressive of modesty,
hesitation, wonder or indignation, which are well
known and common to all. But to confine the
gesture to the movement of the head alone is re-
garded as a fault by those who teach acting as well
as by professors of rhetoric. Even the frequent
nodding of the head is not free from fault, while
to toss or roll it till our hair flies free is suggestive
of a fanatic.

By far the greatest influence is exercised by the 72
glance. For it is by this that we express suppli-
cation, threats, flattery, sorrow, joy, pride or sub-
mission. It is on this that our audience hang, on
this that they rivet their attention and their gaze,
even before we begin to speak. It is this that
inspires the hearer with affection or dislike, this
that conveys a world of meaning and is often more
eloquent than all our words. Consequently in plays 73
destined for the stage, the masters of the art of
delivery design even their masks to enhance the
emotional effect. Thus, in tragedy, Aerope will be

283

QUINTILIAN

atrox Medea, attonitus Aiax, truculentus Hercules.

74 In comoediis vero praeter aliam observationem, qua
servi, lenones, parasiti, rustici, milites, meretriculae,
ancillae, senes austeri ac mites, iuvenes severi ac
luxuriosi, matronae, puellae inter se discernuntur,
pater ille, cuius praecipuae partes sunt, quia interim
concitatus, interim lenis est, altero erecto, altero
composite est supercilio ; atque id ostendere maxime
latus actoribus moris est, quod cum iis, quas agunt,

75 partibus congruat. Sed in ipso vultu plurimum
valent oculi, per quos maxime animus eminet,^ ut
citra motum quoque et hilaritate enitescant et
tristitiae quoddam nubilum ducant. Quin etiam
lacrimas iis natura mentis indices dedit, quae aut
erumpunt dolore aut laetitia manant. Motu vero
intenti, remissi, superbi, torvi, mites, asperi fiunt,

76 quae, ut actus poposcerit, fingentur. Rigidi vero et
extenti, aut languidi et torpentes, aut stupentes, aut
lascivi et mobiles, et natantes et quadam voluptate
suffusi, aut limi et, ut sic dicam, venerei, aut pos-
centes aliquid pollicentesve nunquam esse debebunt.
Nam opertos compressosve eos in dicendo quis nisi

77 plane rudis aut stultus habeat? Et ad haec omnia
exprimenda in palpebris etiam et in genis est quoddam

78 deserviens iis ministerium. Multum et superciliis
agitur. Nam et oculos formant aliquatenus et fronti

* animus eminet, Spalding : aniina se manat, B,
384

BOOK XI. HI. 73-78

sad, Medea fierce, Ajax bewildered, Hercules trucu-
lent. In comedy, on the other hand, over and 74
above the methods adopted to distinguish between
slaves, pimps, parasites, rustics, soldiers, harlots,
maidservants, old men stem and mild, youths moral
or luxurious, married women and girls, we have
the important role of the father who, because at
times he is excited and at others calm, has one
eyebrow raised and the other normal, the custom
among actors being to turn that side of the face to
the audience which best suits the role. But of the 76
various elements that go to form the expression,
the eyes are the most important, since they, more
than anything else, reveal the temper of the mind,
and without actual movement will twinkle with
merriment or be clouded with grief. And further,
nature has given them tears to serve as interpreters
of our feelings, tears that will break forth for sorrow
or stream for very joy. But, when the eyes move,
they become intent, indifferent, proud, fierce, mild,
or angry ; and they will assume all these characters
according as the pleading may demand. But they 76
must never be fixed or protruding, languid or slug-
gish, lifeless, lascivious, restless, nor swim with a
moist voluptuous glance, nor look aslant nor leer
in amorous fashion, nor yet must they seem to
promise or ask a boon. As for keeping them fully
or partially closed while speaking, surely none save
an uneducated man or a fool would dream of doing
such a thing. And in addition to all these forms of 77
expression, the upper and lower eyelids can render
service in support of the eyes. The eyebrows also 78
may be used with great effect. For to some extent
Uiey mould the expression of the eyes and deter-

28s

QUINTILIAN

imperant. His contrahitur, attollitur, remittitur, ut
una res in ea plus valeat, sanguis ille, qui mentis
habitu movetur et, cum infirmam verecundia cutem
accipit, efFunditur in ruborem, cum metu refugit,
abit omnis et pallore frigescit; temperatus medium

79 quoddam serenum efficit. Vitium in superciliis, si
aut immota sunt omnino aut nimium mobilia aut
inaequalitate, ut modo de persona comica dixeram,
dissident aut contra id quod dicimus finguntur.
Ira enim contractis, tristitia deductis, hilaritas re-
missis ostenditur. Adnuendi quoque et renuendi

80 ratione demittunturautallevantur. Naribus labrisque
non fere quidquam decenter ostendimus, tametsi
derisus iis,^ contemptus, fastidium significari solet.
Nam et corrugare nares, ut Horatius ait, et inflare et
movere et digito inquietare et impulse subito spiritu
excutere et diducere saepius et plana manu resu-
pinare indecorum est, cum emunctio etiam fre-

81 quentior non sine causa reprehendatur. Labra et
porriguntur male et scinduntur et adstringuntur et
diducuntur et dentes nudant et in latus ac paene ad
aurem trahuntur et velut quodam fastidio replican-
tur et pendent et vocem tantum altera parte dimit-

* derisus iis, Obrecht : derisui, B.

1 Ep. I. V. 23.

^ It is hard to distinguisli between scindere and diductre.
I have adopted a suggestion of Spalding's.

a86

BOOK XI. Ill 78-81

mine that of the forehead. It is by means of the
eyebrows that we contract, raise or smooth the
latter : in fact, the only thing whicli has greater
influence over it is the blood, which moves in con-
formity with the emotions that control the mind,
causing a blush on a skin that is sensitive to shame,
and giving place to an icy pallor under the influence
of fear, whereas, when it is under control, it pro-
duces a peaceful complexion, intermediate between
the two. Complete immobility in the eyebrows is 79
a fault, as also is excess of mobility or the tendency
to raise one and lower the other, as in the comic
mask which I mentioned just now : while it is a
further blemish if they express a feeling out of
keeping with the words we utter. For they show
anger by contraction, grief by depression and cheer-
fulness by their expansion. They are also dropped
or raised to express consent or refusal respectively.
It is not often that the lips or nostrils can be 80
becomingly employed to express our feelings, al-
though they are often used to indicate derision,
contempt or loathing. For to " wrinkle the nostrils "
(as Horace says),^ or blow them out, or twitch them,
or fret them with our finger, or snort through them
with a sudden expulsion of the breath, or stretch
them wide or push them up with the flat of the
hand are all indecorous, since it is not without reason
that censure is passed even on blowing the nose too
frequently. It is also an ugly habit to protrude the 81
lips, open them with a sudden smack,' compress
them, draw them apart and bare the teeth, or twist
them awry to one side till they almost reach the
ear, or to curl them in scorn, or let them droop, or
allow the voice to escape only on one side. It is

287

QUINTILIAN

tunt. Lambere quoque ea et mordere deforme est,
cum etiam in efficiendis verbis modicus eorum esse
debeat motus ; ore enim magis quam labris loquen-
dum est.

82 Cervicem rectam opoi'tet esse, non rigidam aut
supinam. Collum diversa quidem, sed pari deformi-
tate et contrahitur et tenditur, sed tenso subest et
labor, tenuaturque vox ac fatigatur ; adfixum pectori
mentum minus claram et quasi latiorem presso gut-

83 ture facit. Humerorum raro decens adlevatio atque
contractio est ; breviatur enim cervix et gestum
quendam humilem atque servilem et quasi fraudu-
lentum facit, cum se in habitum adulationis, admira-

84 tionis, metus fingunt. Brachii moderata proiectio,
remissis humeris atque explicantibus se in proferenda
manu digitis, continuos et decurrentes locos maxime
decet. At cum speciosius quid uberiusque dicendum
est, ut illud Saxa atque solitudines voci respondent,
cxspatiatur in latus et ipsa quodamraodo se cum

86 gestu fundit oratio. Manus vero, sine quibus trunca
asset actio ac debilis, vix dici potest, quot motus
habeant, cum paene ipsam verborum copiam conse-
quantur. Nam ceterae partes loquentem adiuvant,

86 hae, prope est ut dicam, ipsae loquuntur. Annon
his poscimus, pollicemur, vocamus, dimittimus, mina-
mur, supplicamus, abominamur, timemus, interro-
gamus, negamus ; gaudium, tristitiam, dubitationem.

* pro Arch. viii. 19. See viii. iii. 75 and ix. iv. 44.
" Rocks and solitude make answer to the voice."

288

BOOK XI. III. 8i-86

also unbecoming to lick or bite them, since their
motion should be but slight even when they are
employed in forming words. For we must speak
with the mouth rather than the lips.

The neck must be straight, not stiff or bent 82
backward. As regards the throat, contraction and
stretching are equally unbecoming, though in dif-
ferent ways. If it be stretched, it causes strain
as well, and v.eakens and fatigues the voice,
while if the chin be pressed down into the chest
it makes the voice less distinct and coarsens it,
owing to the pressure on the windpipe. It is, as a 83
rule, unbecoming to raise or contract the shoulders.
For it shortens the neck and produces a mean and
servile gesture, which is even suggestive of dis-
honesty when men assume an attitude of flattery,
admiration or fear. In continuous and flowing pas- 84
sages a most becoming gesture is slightly to extend
the arm with shoulders well thrown back and the
fingers opening as the hand moves forward. But
when we have to speak in specially rich or impres-
sive style, as, for example, in the passage saxa atque
soUtudines voci respondent,^ the arm will be thrown out
in a stately sidelong sweep and the words will, as
it were, expand in unison with the gesture. As 85
for the hands, without which all action would be
crippled and enfeebled, it is scarcely possible to
describe the variety of their motions, since they are
almost as expressive as words. For other portions
of the body merely help the speaker, whereas the
hands may almost be said to speak. Do we not 86
use them to demand, promise, summon, dismiss,
threaten, supplicate, express aversion or fear, question
or deny ? Do we not employ them to indicate joy,

289

QUINTILIAN

confessionem^ paenitentiam, modum, copiam, nu-

87 merum, tempus ostendimus ? Non eaedem conci-
tant, inhibent,^ probant, admirantur, verecundantur ?
Non in demonstrandis locis ac personis adverbiorum
atque pronominum obtinent vicem ? Ut in tanta
per omnes gentes nationesque linguae diversitate hie
mihi omnium hominum communis sermo videatur.

88 Et hi quidem, de quibus sum locutus, cum ipsis
vocibus naturaliter exeunt gestus ; alii sunt, qui res
imitatione significant, ut si aegrum temptantis venas
medici similitudine aut citharoedum formatis ad
modum percutientis nervos manibus ostendas ; quod
est genus quam longissime in actione fugiendum.

89 Abesse enim plurimum a saltatore debet orator, ut
sit gestus ad sensus magis quam ad verba accom-
modatus ; quod etiam histrionibus paulo gravioribus
facere moris fuit. Ergo ut ad se manum referre,
cum de se ipso loquatur, et in eum quem demonstret
iutendere et aliqua his similia permiserim, ita non
effingere status quosdam et quidquid dicet osten-

90 dere. Neque id in manibus solum, sed in omni
gestu ac voce servandum est. Non enim aut in ilia
periodo, Stelit soleatus praetor populi Romani, incli-
iaatio incumbentis in mulierculam Verris effingenda
fest 1 aut in ilia, Caedehatur in medio foro Messanae,

* After inhibent the MSS. add supplicaat, rightly deMed hy

Slothouivcr.

* There in his slippers stood the praetor of the Roman
people." Verr. v. xxxiii. 86 : see viii. iii. 64.

290

BOOK XI. III. 86-90

sorrow, hesitation, confession, penitence, measure,
quantity, number and time ? Have they not power 87
to excite and prohibit, to express approval, wonder
or shame ? Do they not take the place of adverbs
and pronouns when we point at places and things }
In fact, though the peoples and nations of the earth
speak a multitude of tongues, they share in common
the universal language of the hands.

The gestures of which I have thus far spoken are 88
such as naturally proceed from us simultaneously
with our words. But there are others which in-
dicate things by means of mimicr}^ For example,
vou may suggest a sick man by mimicking the
gesture of a doctor feeling the pulse, or a harpist by
a movement of the hands as though they were
plucking the strings. But this is a t^-pe of gesture
which should be rigorously avoided in pleading. For 89
the orator should be as unlike a dancer as possible,
and his gesture should be adapted rather to his
thought than to his actual words, a practice which
was indeed once upon a time even adopted by the
more dignified performers on the stage. I should,
therefore, permit him to direct his hand towards his
body to indicate that he is speaking of himself, or to
point it at some one else to whom he is alluding,
together Avith other similar gestures which I need
not mention. But, on the other hand, I would not
allow him to use his hands to imitate attitudes or to
illustrate anything he may chance to say. And this 90
rule applies not merely to the hands, but to all
gesture and to the voice as well. For in delivering
the period stelit soleaius praetor papuli Romani,^ it
would be wrong to imitate Verres leaning on his
mistress, or in uttering the phrase caedebatur in medio

291

QUINTILIAN

motus laterum, qualis esse ad verbera solet, tor-
quendus, aut vox, qualis dolore exprimitur, eruenda ;

91 cum mihi comoedi quoque pessime facere videantuFj
quod, etiamsi iuvenem agant, cum tamen in expo-
sitione aut senis sermo, ut in Hydriae prologo, aut
mulieris, ut in Georgo, ineidit, tremula vel effeminata
voce pronuntiant. Adeo in illis quoque est aliqua
vitiosa imitatio, quorum ars omnis constat imitatione.

92 Est autem gestus ille maxime communis, quo
medius digitus in pollicem contrahitur explicitis
tribus, et principiis utilis cum leni in utramque
partem motu modice prolatus, simul capite atque
humeris sensim ad id, quo manus feratur, obsecun-
dantibus, et in narrando certus, sed turn paulo pro-
ductior, et in exprobrando et coarguendo acer atque
instans, longius enim partibus his et liberius exeritur.

93 Vitiose vero idem sinistrum quasi humerum patens
in latus agi solet, quanquam adhuc peius aliqui
transversum brachium proferunt et cubito pronunti-
ant. Duo quoque medii sub pollicem veniunt, et
est hie adhuc priore gestus instantior, principio et

* Kerr. v. Ixii. 162. "He waa scourged in the midst of the
markec-place of Messina."

* Plays of Menander.

293

BOOK XL HI. 90-93

foro Messanae ^ to make the side writhe, as it does
when quivering beneath the lash, or to utter shrieks,
such as are extorted by pain. For even comic actors 91
seem to me to commit a gross offence against the
canons of their art when, if they have in the course
of some narrative to quote either the words of an old
man (as, for example, in the prologue to the Hydria)^
or of a woman (as in the Georgus ^), they utter them
in a tremulous or a treble voice, notwithstanding the
fact that they are playing the part of a young man.
So true is it that certain forms of imitation may be
a blemish even in those whose whole art consists in
imitation.

One of the commonest of all the gestures consists 92
in placing the middle finger against the thumb and
extending the remaining three : it is suitable to the
exordium, the hand being moved forward with an
easy motion a little distance both to right and left,
while the head and shoulders gradually follow the
direction of the gesture. It is also useful in the
statement of facts, but in that case the hand must be
moved with firmness and a little further forward,
while, if we are reproaching or refuting our adver-
sar}', the same movement may be employed with
some vehemence and energy, since such passages
permit of greater freedom of extension. On the 93
other hand, this same gesture is often directed side-
ways towards the left shoulder : this is a mistake,
although it is a still worse fault to thrust the arm
across the chest and gesticulate with the elbow.
The middle and third fingers are also sometimes
turned under the thumb, producing a still more
forcible effect than the gesture previously described,
but not well adapted for use in the exordium or state-

293

QUINTILIAN

9t narrationi non commodatus. At cum tres contracti
pollice premuntur, turn digitus ille, quo usum optime
Crassum Cicero dicit, explicaii solet. Is in expro-
brando et indicando, unde ei nomen est, valet,
et adlevata ac spectante humerum manu paulum
inclinatus adfirmat, versus in terram et quasi pronus

95 urget ; et aliquando pro numero est. Idem summo
articulo utrinque leviter apprehenso, duobus modice
curvatis, minus tamen minimo, aptus ad disputandum
est. Acrius tamen argumentari videntur, qui me-
dium articulum potius tenent, tanto contractioribus

96 ultimis digitis, quanto priores descenderunt. Est
et ille verecundae orationi aptissimus, quo, quattuor
primis leviter in summum coeuntibus digitis, non
procul ab ore aut pectore fertur ad nos manus et

97 deinde prona ac paulum prolata laxatur. Hoc modo
coepisse Demosthenen credo in illo pro Ctesiphonte
timido summissoque principio, sic formatam Ciceronis
manum, cum diceret : i>i quid est ingenii in me, quod
sentio quam sit exiguum. Eadem aliquatenus liberius
deorsum spectantibus digitis colligitur in nos et
fusius paulo in diversum resolvitur, ut quodammodo

98 sermonen ipsum proferre videatur. Binos interim

» de Or. II. xlv. 188. " pro Arch. i. 1.

294

BOOK XI. III. 93-98

meni of facts. But when three fingers are doubled 94
under the thumb, the finger, which Cicero ^ says
that Crassus used to such effect, is extended. It is
used in denunciation and in indication (whence its
name of index finger), while if it be slightly drojiped
after the hand has been raised toward the shoulder,
it signifies affirmation, and if pointed as it were
face downwards toward the ground, it expresses
insistence. It is sometimes also used to indicate
number. Again, if its top joint is lightly gripped on 95
either side, with the two outer fingers slightly
curved, the little finger rather less than the third,
we shall have a gesture well suited for argument.
But for this purpose the same gesture is rendered
more emphatic by holding the middle joint of the
finger and contracting the last two fingers still
further to match the lower position of the middle
finger and thumb. The following gesture is admir- 96
ably adapted to accompany modest language : the
thumb and the next three fingers are gently con-
verged to a point and the hand is carried to the
neighbourhood of the mouth or chest, then relaxed
palm downwards and slightly advanced. It was 97
with this gesture that I believe Demosthenes to
have commenced the timid and subdued exordium
of his speech in defence of Ctesiphon, and it was,
I think, in such a position that Cicero ^ held his
hand, when he said, " If I have any talent, though
I am conscious how little it is." Slightly greater
freedom may be given to the gesture by pointing
the fingers down and drawing the hand in towards
the body and then opening it somewhat more rapidly
in the opposite direction, so that it seems as though
it were delivering our words to the audience. Some- 98

295

QUINTILIAN

digitos distinguimus, sed non inserto pollice, paulum
tamen inferioribus intra spectantibuSj sed ne illis
99 quidem tensis, qui supra sunt. Interim extremi
palmam circa ima pollicis premunt, ipse prioribus
ad medios articulos iungitur ; interim quartus oblique
reponitur ; interim quattuor remissis magis quam
tensis, poUice intus inclinato, habilem demonstrando
in latus aut distinguendis, quae dicimus, manum
facimus,cum supinain sinistrum latus, prona inalterum

100 fertur. Sunt et illi breves gestus, cum manus leviter
pandata, qualis voventium est, parvis intervallis et
subadsentientibus humeris movetur, maxime apta
parce et quasi timide loquentibus. Est admirationi
conveniens ille gestus, quo manus mod ice supinata |j
ac per singulos a minimo collecta digitos redeunte

101 flexu simul explicatur atque convertitur. Nee uno
modo interrogantes gestum componimus, plerumque
tamen vertentes manum, utcunque composita est.
Pollici proximus digitus mediumque, qua dexter est,
unguem pollicis summo suo iungens, remissis ceteris,
est et approbantibus et narrantibus et distinguentibus

102 decorus. Cui non dissimilis, sed complicitis tribus
296

BOOK XI. III. 98-102

times we may hold the first two fingers apart without,
however, inserting the thumb between them, the
remaining two pointing inwards, while even the two
former must not be fully extended. Sometimes, 99
again, the third and little finger may be pressed in to
the palm near the base of the thumb, which in its
turn is pressed against the middle joints of the first
and middle fingers ; at others the little finger is
sometimes drooped obliquely, or the four fingers may
be relaxed rather than extended and the thumb
slanted inwards : this last gesture is well adapted to
pointing to one side or marking the different points
which we are making, the hand being carried palm-
upwards to the left and swept back to the right
face-downwards. The following short gestures are 100
also employed : the hand may be slightly hollowed
as it is when persons are making a vow, and then
moved slightly to and fro, the shoulders swaying
gently in unison : this is adapted to passages where
we speak with restraint and almost with timidity.
Wonder is best expressed as follows : the hand turns
slightly upwards and the fingers are brought in to
the palm, one after the other, beginning with the
little finger ; the hand is then opened and turned
roimd by a reversal of this motion. There are various 101
methods of expressing interrogation ; but, as a rule,
we do so by a turn of the hand, the arrangement of
the fingers being indifferent. If the first finger
touch the middle of the right-hand edge of the
thumb-nail with its extremity, the other fingers
being relaxed, we shall have a graceful gesture well
suited to express approval or to accompany statemenlg
of facts, and to mark the distinction between our
different points. There is another gesture not unlike 102

297

QUINTILIAN

digitis, quo nunc Graeci plurimum utuntur, etiam
utraque manu, quotiens enthymemata sua gestu
corrotundant velut caesim. Manus lenior promittit
et adsentatur, citatior liortatur, interim laudat. Est
et ille urgentis orationem gestus vulgaris magis
quam ex arte, qui contrahit alterno celerique motu

103 et explicat manum. Est et ilia cava et rara et supra
humeri altitudinem elata cum quodam motu velut
hortatrix manus ; a peregrinis scholis tamen prope
recepta tremula scenica est. Digitos, cum summi
coierunt, ad os referre, cur quibusdam displicuerit,
nescio. Nam id et leviter admirantes et interim
subita indignatione velut pavescentes et deprecantes

104 facimus. Quin compressam etiam manum in paeni-
tentia vel ira pectori admovemus, ubi vox vel inter
dentes expressa non dedecet : Quid nunc agam ?
Quid facias ? Averso poUice demonstrare aliquid,

105 receptum magis puto quam oratori decorum. Sed
cum omnis motus sex partes habeat, Septimus sit ille,
qui in se redit, orbis. Vitiosa est una circumversio :
reliqui ante nos et dextra laevaque et sursum et
deorsum aliquid ostendunt ; in posteriora gestus non

* Rhetorical or incomplete syllogisms. But see v. x. 2.
xiv. 1,

298

BOOK XI. III. I02-I0S

the preceding, in which the remaining three fingers
are folded : it is much employed by the Greeks both
for the left hand and the right, in rounding off their
enthymemes^ detail by detail. A gentle movement of
the hand expresses promise or assent, a more \aolent
movement suggests exhortation or sometimes praise.
There is also that familiar gesture by which we drive
home our words, consisting in the rapid opening
and shutting of the hand : but this is a common
rather than an artistic gesture. Again, there is the 103
somewhat unusual gesture in which the hand is
hollowed and raised well above the shoulder with a
motion suggestive of exhortation. The tremulous
motion now generally adopted by foreign schools is,
however, fit only for the stage. I do not know why
some persons disapprove of the movement of the
fingers, with their tops converging, towards the
mouth. For we do this when we are slightly sur-
prised, and at times also employ it to express fear or
entreaty when we are seized with sudden indignation.
Further, Ave sometimes clench the hand and press 104
it to our breast when we are expressing regret or
anger, an occasion when it is not unbecoming even
to force the voice through the teeth in phrases such
as " What shall I do now ? " " What would you do ? "
To f>oint at something with the thumb turned back
is a gesture which is in general use, but is not, in my
opinion, becoming to an orator. Motion is generally 106
divided into six kinds, but circular motion must be
regarded as a seventh. The latter alone is faulty
when applied to gesture. The remaining motions —
that is, forward, to right or left and up or down — all
have their significance, but the gesture is never
directed to what lies behind us, though we do at

199

QUINTILIAN

106 dirigitur. Interim tamen velut reiici solet. Optime
autem irianus a sinistra parte incipit, in dextra
deponitur, sed ut ponere non ut ferire videatur ;
quanquam et in fine interim cadit, ut cito tamen
redeat, et nonnunquam resilit vel negantibus nobis
vel admirantibus.

Hie veteres artifices illud recte adiecerunt, ut
manus cum sensu et inciperet et deponeretur.
Alioqui enim aut ante vocem erit gestus aut post

107 vocem, quod est utrumque deforme. In illo lapsi
nimia subtilitate sunt, quod intervallum motus tria
verba esse voluerunt ; quod neque observatur neque
fieri potest, sed illi quasi mensuram tarditatis celeri-
tatisque aliquam esse voluerunt, neque immerito,
ne aut diu otiosa esset manus aut, quod multi

108 faciunt, actionem continuo motu concideret. Aliud
est, quod et fit frequentius et magis fallit. Sunt
quaedam latentes sermonis percussiones et quasi
aliqui pedes, ad quos plurimorum gestus cadit, ut
sit unus motus Novtim crimen, alter C. Caesar, tertius
et ante hanc diem, quartus non auditum, deinde pro-
pinqiius mens, et ad ie, et Quintus Tubero, et detulit.

109 Unde id quoque fluit vitium, ut iuvenes, cum scri-

* jwo Lig. 1. 1. "It is a new charge, Gal us Caesar, a
charge hitherto unheard of, that my kinsman, Quintus Tubero,
has brought to your notice,"

300

BOOK XI. III. 105-109

times throw the hand back. The best effect is pro- 106
duced by letting the motion of the hand start from
the left and end on the right, but this must be done
gently, the hand sinking to rest and avoiding all
appearance of giving a blow, although at the end of
a sentence it may sometimes be allowed to drop, but
must quickly be raised again : or it may occasionally,
when we desire to express wonder or dissent, spring
back with a rapid motion.

In this connexion the earlier instructors in the art
of gesture rightly added that the movement of the
hand should begin and end with the thought that is
expressed. Otherwise the gesture will anticipate or
lag behind the voice, both of which produce an
unpleasing effect. Some, through excess of subtlety, 107
have erroneously prescribed that there should be an
interval of three words between each movement;
but this rule is never observed, nor can it be. These
persons, however, were desirous that there should be
some standard of speed or slowness (a most rational
desire), with a view to avoid prolonged inactivity on
the part of the hands as well as the opposite fault,
into which so many fall, of breaking up the natural
flow of their delivery by continual motion. There is 108
another still more common error, which is less easy
of detection. Language possesses certain imper-
ceptible stresses, indeed we might almost call them
feet, to which the gesture of most speakers conforms.
Thus there will be one movement at nowm crimen,
another at Gai Caesar, a third at et ante hanc diem,
a fourth at noii audiium, a fifth at propitiquus mens, a
sixth at ad te and others at Quintus Tubero and
detuUO- From this springs a further error, namely, 109
that young men, when writing out their speeches,

301

QUINTILIAN

bunt^ gestum praemodulati cogitatione sic componant,
quomodo casura manus est. Inde et illud vitium, ut
gestus, qui in fine dexter esse debet, in sinistrum

110 frequenter desinat. Melius illud, cum sint in ser-
nione omni brevia quaedam membra, ad quae, si necesse
sit, recipere spiritum liceat, ad haec gestum dispo-
nere : ut puta Novum crimen, C. Caesar, habet per se
finem quendam suum, quia sequitur coniunctio ;
deinde et ante hanc diem non audilum satis circum-
scriptum est. Ad haec commodanda manus est,

HI idque dam erit prima et composita actio. At ubi
earn calor concitaverit ; etiam gestus cum ipsa
orationis celeritate crebrescet. Aliis locis citata,
aliis pres.sa conveniet pi-onuntiatio. Ilia transcur-
rimus, congerimus,^ festinamus ; hac instamus, in-
culcamus, infigimus. Plus autem adfectus habent
lentiora ; ideoque Roscius citatior, Aesopus gravior

112 fuit, quod ille comoedias, hie tragoedias egit. Eadem
niotus quoque observatio est. Itaque in fabulis
iuvenum, senum, militum, matronarum gravior
ingressus est; servi, ancillulae, parasiti, piscatores
citatius moventur. Tolli autem manum artifices
supra oculos, demitti infra pectus vetant; adeo a

' After congeiimua B. gives abundamus, which is omitted by
one late MS. and expunged by Halm.

302

BOOK XI. III. 109-112

devise all their gestures in advance and consider as
they compose how the hand is to fall at each
particular point. A further unfortunate result is
that the movement of the hand, which should end
on the right, frequently finishes on the left. It is 110
therefore better, in view of the fact that all speech
falls into a number of brief clauses, at the end of
which we can take breath, if necessary, to arrange
our gesture to suit these sections. For example, the
words novum crimen, Gai Caesar, in a sense form a
phrase complete in itself, since they are followed by
a conjunction, while the next words, ei ante hanc diem
non auditum, are also sufficiently self-contained. To
these phrases the motions of the hand must be con-
formed, before the speech has passed beyond the
calmness of tone on which it opens. But when in- 111
creasing warmth of feeling has fired the orator, the
gesture will become more frequent, in keeping with
the impetus of the speech. Some places are best
suited by a rapid, and others by a restrained delivery.
In the one case we pass rapidly on, fire a volley of
arguments and hurry upon our way ; in the other, we
drive home our points, force them on the hearer and
implant them in his mind. But the slower the
delivery, the greater its emotional power : thus,
Roscius was rapid and Aesopus weighty in his delivery,
because the former was a comic and the latter a
tragic actor. The same rule applies to the move- 112
ments. Gsnsequently on the stage young men and
old, soldiers and married women all walk sedately,
while slaves, maidservants, parasites and fishermen
are more lively in their movements. But instructors
in the art of gesture will not permit the hand to be
raised above the level of the eyes or lowered beneath

303

QUINTILIAN

capite eum petere ^ aut ad imum ventrem deducere,

113 vitiosum habetur. In sinistrum intra humerum pro-
movetur ; ultra non decet. Sed cum aversantes in
laevam partem velut propellemus manum, sinister
humerus proferendus, ut cum capite ad dextram

114 ferente consentiat. Manus sinistra nuuquam sola
gestum recta facit ; dextrae se frequenter accom-
modat, sive in digitos argumenta digerimus sive
aversis in sinistrum palmis abominamur sive obiicimus

115 adversas sive in latus utramque distendimus, sive
satisfacientes aut supplicantes (diversi autem sunt
hi gestus) summittimus sive adorantes atollimus sive
aliqua demonstratione aut invocatione protendimus :
Fos Albani tumuli atque luci, aut Gracchanum illud :
Quo me miser conferam ? in Capiiolium ? at fratris

116 sanguine madet : an domum ? Plus enim adfectus in his
iunctae exhibent manus ; in rebus parvis, mitibus,
tristibus breves ; magnis, laetis, atrocibus exertiores.^

117 Vitia quoque earum subiicienda sunt, quae quidem
accidere etiam exercitatis actoribus solent. Nam
gestum poculum poscentis aut verbera minantis aut
numerum quingentorum flexo pollice efficientis, quae
sunt a quibusdam scriptoribus notata, ne in rusticis

^ a capite eum petere is almost certainly corrupt : gestum
for eum is the least improbable correction that has been suggested.

* exertiores, Spalding : exteriorea, B.

^ The general sense is clear, though the text is unsatis-
factory and scarcely translateable.

* jn-o Mil. xxxi. 85. ' See Cic. de Or. in. Ivi. 214.

* I.e. crooking the thumb against the forefinger to
represent the symbol D,

304

BOOK XI. III. 1 1 2-1 17

that of the breast; since it is thought a grave blemish
to lift it to the top of the head^ or lower it to the lower
portions of the belly. It may be moved to the left 113
within the limits of the shoulder^ but no further
without loss of decorum. On the other hand, when,
to express our aversion, we thrust our hand out to
the left, the left shoulder must be brought forward
in unison with the head, which will incline to the
right. It is never correct to employ the left hand 114
alone in gesture, though it will often conform its
motion to that of the right, as, for example, when
we are counting our arguments on the fingers, or
turn the palms of the hands to the left to express
our horror of something, or thrust them out in front 116
or spread them out to right and left, or lower them in
apology or supplication (though the gesture is not
the same in these two cases), or raise them in adora-
tion, or stretch them out in demonstration or invoca-
tion, as in the passage, " Ye hills and groves of Alba,* "
or in the passage from Gracchus ' : " Whither, alas !
shall I turn me? To the Capitol? Nay, it is wet
with my brother's blood. To my home? " etc. For 116
in such passages greater emotional effect is pro-
duced if both hands co-operate, short gestures being
best adapted to matters of small importance and
themes of a gentle or melancholy character, and
longer gestures to subjects of importance or themes
calling for joy or horror.

It is desirable also that I should mention the faults 117
in the use of the hands, into which even experienced
pleaders are liable to fall. As for the gesture of
demanding a cup, threatening a flogging, or indicating
the number 500 by crooking the thumb,* all of which
are recorded by writers on the subject, I have never

305

QUINTILIAN

IlSquidem vidi. At ut brachio exerto introspiciatur
latus, ut manum alius ultra sinuni proferre non
audeat, alius, in quantum patet longitude, protendat
aut ad tectum erigat aut repetito ultra laevum
humerum gestu ita in tergum flagellet, ut consistere
post eum parum tutum sit, aut sinistrum ducat
orbem aut temere sparsa manu in proximos ofFendat
aut cubitum utrumque in diversum latus ventilet,

119 saepe scio e venire. Solet esse et pigra et trepida et
secanti similis ; interim etiam uncis digitis, ut ^ aut a
capite deiiciatur aut eadem manu supinata in superiora
iactetur. Fit et ille gestus,^ qui, inclinato in hu-
merum dextrum capite, brachio ab aure protenso,
manum infesto pollice extendit ; qui quidem maxima
placet iis, qui se dicere sublata manu iactant.

120 Adiicias licet eos, qui sententias vibrantes digitis
iaculantur aut manu sublata denuntiant aut, quod
per se interim recipiendum est, quotiens aliquid
ipsis placuit, in ungues eriguntur; sed vitiosum id
faciunt, aut digito, quantum plurimum possunt,
erecto aut etiam duobus, aut utraque manu ad

121 modum aliquid portantium composita. His accedunt
vitia non naturae sed trepidationis, cum ore con-

* ut added by Spalding.

* gestus suggested by Halm. The second hand of cod. Bamb.
reads habitus, qui esse in statuis pacificator solet : pre-
sumably an interpolation.

* I.e. with exaggerated violence. See ii. xii. 9.

BOOK XI. in. 1 17-121

seen them employed even by uneducated rustics.
But I know that it is of frequent occurrence for a 118
speaker to expose his side by stretching his arm too
far, to be afraid in one case of extending his hand
beyond the folds of his cloak, and in another to
stretch it as far as it will go, to raise it to the roof,
or by swinging it repeatedly over his left shoulder to
deliver such a rain of blows to the rear that it is
scarcely safe to stand behind him, or to make a circular
sweep to the left, or by casting out his hand at
random to strike the standers-by or to flap both
elbows against his sides. There are others, again, 119
whose hands are sluggish or tremulous or inclined to
saw the air ; sometimes, too, the fingers are crooked
and brought down with a run from the top of the
head, or tossed up into the air with the hand turned
palm upwards. There is also a gesture, which con-
sists in inclining the head to the right shoulder,
stretching out the arm from the ear and extending
the hand with the thumb turned down. This is a
special favourite with those who boast that they
speak " with uplifted hand." ^ To these latter we may 120
add those speakers who hurl quivering epigrams
with their fingers or denounce with the hand up-
raised, or rise on tiptoe, whenever they say something
of which they are specially proud. This last pro-
ceeding may at times be adopted by itself, but they
convert it into a blemish by simultaneously raising
one or even two fingers as high as they can reach, or
heaving up both hands as if they were carrying some-
thing. In addition to these faults, there are those 121
which spring not from nature, but from nervousness,
such as struggling desperately with our lips when
they refuse to open, making inarticulate sounds, as

307

QUINTILIAN

currente rixari, si memoria fefellerit aut cogitatio
non suffragetur, quasi faucibus aliquid obstiterit,
insonare, in adversum tergere nares, obambulare
sermone imperfecto, resistere subito et laudem
silentio poscere ; quae omnia persequi prope in-

122 finitum est; sua enim cuique sunt vitia. Pectus
ac venter ne proiiciantur, observandum ; pandant
enim posteriora, et est odiosa omnis supinitas.
Latera cum gestu consentiant. Facit enim aliquid
et totius corporis motus, adeo ut Cicero plus illo agi
quam manibus ipsis putet. Ita enim dicit in
Oratore : NuUae argutiae digitorum, non ad numenim
articulus cadens, trunco magis toto se ipse moderans et

123 virili lalerum jiexione. Femur ferire, quod Athenis
primus fecisse creditur Cleon, et usitatum est et
indignantes decet et excitat auditorem. Idque in
Calidio Cicero desiderat ; Non frons, inquit, percussa,
non femur. Quanquam, si licet, de fronte dissentio.
Nam etiam complodere manus scenicum est et pectus

124 caedere. lUud quoque raro decebit cava manu
summis digitis pectus appetere, si quando nosmet
ipsos alloquimur, cohortantes, obiurgantes, mise-
rantes ; quod si quando fiet, togam quoque inde
removeri non dedecebit. In pedibus observantur

» iviii. 69. ■ Brut. Ixxi. 278.

308

BOOK XI. iM. 1 21-124

though sometliing were sticking in our throat, when
our memory fails us, or our thoughts will not come
at our call ; rubbing the end of our nose, walking up
and down in the midst of an unfinished sentence,
stopping suddenly and courting applause by silence,
with many other tricks which it would take too long
to detail, since everybody has his own particular
faults. We must take care not to protrude the chest 122
or stomach, since such an attitude arches the back,
and all bending backwards is unsightly. The flanks
must conform to the gesture ; for the motion of the
entire body contributes to the effect : indeed, Cicero
holds that the body is more expressive than even the
hands. For in the de Oralor 1 he says, " There must
be no quick movements of the fingers, no marking
time with the finger-tips, but the orator should
control himself by the poise of the whole trunk and
by a manly inclination of the side." Slapping the 123
thigh, which Cleon is said to have been the first to
introduce at Athens, is in general use and is becoming
as a mark of indignation, while it also excites the
audience. Cicero ^ regrets its absence in Calidius,
"There was no striking of the forehead," he com-
plains, "nor of the thigh." With regard to the
forehead I must beg leave to differ from him : for it
is a purely theatrical trick even to clap the hands or
beat the breast. It is only on rare occasions, too, 124
that it is becoming to touch the breast with the
finger-tips of the hollowed hand, when, for example,
we address ourselves or speak words of exhortation,
reproach or commiseration. But if ever we do employ
this gesture, it will not be unbecoming to pull back
the toga at the same time. As regards the feet, we
need to be careful about our gait and the attitudes

309

QUINTILIAN

status et incessus. Prolate dextro stare et eandem

125 manum ac pedem proferre, deforme est. In dextrum
incumbere interim datur sed aequo pectore, qui
tamen comicus magis quam oratorius gestus est.
Male etiam in sinistrum pedem insistentium dexter
aut tollitur aut summis digitis suspenditur. Varicare
supra modum et in stando deforme est et, accedente
motu, prope obscenum. Procursio opportuna brevis,

126 moderata, rara. Conveniet etiam ambulatio quaedam
propter immodicas laudationum moras, quanquam
Cicero rarum incessum neque ita longum probat.
Discursare vero et, quod Domitius Afer de Sura
Manlio dixit, satagere, ineptissimum, urbaneque
Flavus Verginius interrogavit de quodam suo anti-

127 sophiste, quot milia passuum declamasset. Praecipi
et illud scio, ne ambulantes avertamur a iudicibus,
sed sint obliqui pedes ad consilium nobis respici-
entibus. Id fieri iudiciis privatis non potest. Verum
et breviora sunt spatia, nee aversi diu sumus. In-
terim tamen recedere sensim datur. Quidam et

128 resiliunt, quod est plane ridiculum. Pedis supplosio
ut loco est opportuna, ut ait Cicero, in contentionibus
aut incipiendis aut finiendis, ita crebra et inepti est

* Orat. xviii. 59. * See vi, iii. 54.

* The normal arrangement was for the president of the
court and judges to sit on a tribunal or dais. The advocates
and patties to the suit were on the ground in front. When
pleading before a large jury the orator could walk diagonally,
half-facing the jury, without at any rate turning his back on
too many at a time. When, however, there was but a single
judge, as in a private trial, the feat would be more difficult,
But apparently the court took up less room in such cases,
and the orator's peregrinations would be but sraalL See
§ 134 note.

* dc Or. iii. lix. 220.

310

BOOK XI. III. 124-128

in which: we stand. To stand with the right foot
advanced or to thrust forward the same foot and
hand are alike unsightly. At times we may rest our 125
weight on the right foot^ but without any corre-
sponding inclination of the chest, while, in any case,
the gesture is better suited to the comic actor than to
the orator. It is also a mistake, when resting on the
left foot, to lift the right or poise it on tiptoe. To
straddle the feet is ugly if we are standing still, and
almost indecent if we are actually moving. To start
forward may be effective, provided that we move but
a short distance and do so but rarely and without
violence. It will also at times be found convenient 126
to walk to and fro, owing to the extravagant pauses
imposed by the plaudits of the audience ; Cicero,^
however, says that this should be done only on rare
occasions, and that we should take not more than a
few steps. On the other hand, to run up and down,
which, in the case of Manlius Sura,^ Domitius Afer
called overdoing it, is sheer folly, and there was no
little wit in the question put by Verginius Flavus to
a rival professor, when he asked how many miles he
had declaimed. I know, too, that some authorities 127
warn us not to walk with our backs turned to the
judges, but to move diagonally and keep our eyes
fixed on the panel. This cannot be done in private
trials, but in such cases the space available is sniall
and the time during which our backs are turned is of
the briefest.^ On the other hand, we are permitted
at times to walk backwards gradually. Some even
jump backwards, which is merely ludicrous. Stamp- 128
ing the foot is, as Cicero * says, effective when done
on suitable occasions, that is to say, at the commence
ment or close of a lively argument, but if it be

311

QUINTILIAN

hominis et desinit iudicem in se convertere. Est et
ilia indecora in dextrum ac laevum latus vacillatio
alternis pedibus insistentium. Longissime fugienda
mollis actio, qualem in Titio Cicero dicit fuisse, unde
etiam saltationis quoddam genus Titius sit appel-

129 latum. Reprehendenda et ilia frequens et concitata
in utramque partem nutatio, quam in Curione patre
irrisit et lulius, quaerens, quis in lintre loqueretur, et
Sicinius ; nam cum, adsidente collega, qui erat
propter valetudinem et deligatus et plurimis medica-
mentis delibutus, multum se Curio ex more iactasset,
l\ iinquam, inquit, Oclavi, collegae tuo gratiam re feres,

130 qui nisi fuisset, hodie te istic muscae comedissent. lac-
tantui et humeri ; quod vitium Demosthenes ita
dicitur emendasse ut, cum in angusto quodam pulpito
stans diceret, hasta humero dependens immineret,
ut, si calore dicendi vitare id excidissiet, ofFen-
satione ilia commoneretur. Ambulantem loqui ita
demum oportet, si in causis publicis, in quibus j
multi sunt iudices^ quod dicimus quasi singulis 1

131 inculcare peculiariter velimus. Illud non ferendum, \
quod quidam, reiecta in humerum toga, cum dextra ]
sinum usque ad lumbos reduxerunt, sinistra gestum

* Brut. IxiL • cp. Cio. Brut, Ix.

3?*

BOOK XI. III. 128-131

frequently indulged in, it brands the speaker as a
fool and ceases to attract the attention of the judge.
There is also the unsightly habit of swaying to right
and left, and shifting the weight from one foot to
the other. Above all, we must avoid effeminate
movements, such as Cicero ^ ascribes to Titius, a cir-
cumstance which led to a certain kind of dance being
nicknamed Titius. Another reprehensible practice 129
is that of nodding frequently and rapidly to either
side, a mannerism for which the elder Curio ^ was de-
rided by Julius, who asked who it was who was speak-
ing in a boat, while on another occasion, when Curio
had been tossing himself about in his usual manner,
while Octavius, his colleague, was sitting beside him
bandaged and reeking with medicaments on account
of ill-health, Sicinius remarked, " Octavius, you can
never be sufficiently grateful to your colleague : for
if he wasn't there, the flies would have devoured you
this very day where you sit." The shoulders also 130
are apt to be jerked to and fro, a fault of which
Demosthenes is said to have cured himself by
speaking on a narrow platform with a spear hanging
immediately above his shoulder, in order that, if in
the heat of his eloquence he failed to avoid this
fault, he might have his attention called to the
fact by a prick from the spear. The only condition
that justifies our walking about while speaking is
if we are pleading in a public trial before a large
number of judges and desire specially to impress our
arguments upon them individually. The practice 131
adopted by some of throwing the toga back over the
shoulder, while they draw up the fold to their waist
with the right hand, and use the left for gesticulation
as they walk up and down and discourse, is not to

VOL. IV. L 3^3

QUINTILIAN

facientes spatiantur et fabulantur, cum etiam laevam
restringere prolata longius dextra sit odiosum. Unde
moneor, (ut ne id quidem transeam) ineptissime fieri,
cum inter moras laudationum aut in aurem alicuius
loquuntur aut cum sodalibus iocantur aut nonnun-
quam ad librarios suos ita respiciunt, ut sportulam

132 dictare videantur. Inclinari ad iudicem, cum doceas,
utique si id de quo loquaris sit obscurius, decet.
Incumbere advocate adversis subselliis sedenti con-
tumeliosum. Reclinari etiam ad suos et manibus
sustineri, nisi plane iusta fatigatio est, delicatum,

133 sicut palam moneri excidentis aut legere. Namque
in his omnibus et vis ilia dicendi solvitur et frigescit
adfectus et iudex parum sibi praestari reverentiae
credit. Transire in diversa subsellia parum vere-
cundum est. Nam et Cassius Severus urbane
adversus hoc facientem lineas poposcit. Et si
aliquando concitate itur, nunquam non frigide

134 reditur. Multum ex iis, quae praecepimus, mutari
necesse est ab iis, qui dicunt apud tribunalia. Nam

* Asconius (in a note on the Divinatio of Cicero) explains
that in minor cases tried by tribuni, triumviri, quaestores
and other minor officials, the judges sat on ordinary benches,
not on a raised tribunal.

314

BOOK XI. HI. 131-134

be tolerated ; for even to draw back the left hand

while extending the right is an objectionable habit.
This reminds me of an extremely foolish trick, which
I think I ought to mention, that some speakers have
of employing the intervals when the audience are
applauding by whispering in someone's ear or jesting
with their friends or looking back at their clerks, as
if telling them to make a note of some gratuity to
be dispensed to their supporters. On the other 132
hand, when we are making some explanation to the
judge, more especially if the point be somewhat
obscure, a slight inclination in his direction will be
not unbecoming. But to lean forward towards the
advocate seated on the benches of our opponent is
oifensive, while, unless we are genuinely fatigued, it
is a piece of affectation to lean back among our own
friends and to be supported in their arms ; the same
remark also applies to the practice of being prompted
aloud or reading from manuscript as though un-
certain of our memory. For all these manner- 133
isms impair the force of our speaking, chill the
effect of emotional appeals and make the judge
think that he is not being treated with sufficient
respect. To cross over to the seats of our opponents
borders on impudence, and Cassius Severus showed
a neat turn of wit when he demanded that a barrier
might be erected between himself and an opponent
who behaved in this fashion. Moreover, though to
advance towards our opponent may at times produce
an impression of passionate energy, the return to
our former position will always prove correspondingly
tame. Many of the rules which I have given will 134
require modification by those who have to plead
before judges seated on a dais.^ For in such

315

QUINTILIAN

et vultus erectior, ut eum, apud quern dieitur,
spectet ; et gestus ut ad eundem tendens elatior
sitj necesse est ; et alia, quae occurrere etiam me
tacente omnibus possunt. Itemque ab iis, qui
sedentes agent. Nam et fere fit hoc in rebus mino-
ribus, et iidem impetus actionis esse non possunt,

135 et quaedam vitia fiunt necessaria. Nam et dexter
pes a laeva iudicis sedenti proferendus est, et ex
altera parte multi gestus necesse est in sinistrum
eant, ut ad iudicem spectent. Equidem plerosque
et ad singulas clausulas sententiarum video ad-
surgentes et nonnullos subinde aliquid etiam spati-
antes, quod an deceat, ipsi viderint ; cum id faciunt,

136 non sedentes agunt. Bibere aut etiam esse inter
agendum, quod multis moris fuit et est quibusdam,
ab oratore meo procul absit. Nam si quis aliter
dicendi onera perferre non possit, non ita miserum
est non agere potiusque multo quam et operis et
bominum contemptum fateri.

137 Cultus non est proprius oratoris aliquis sed magis
in oratore conspicitur. Quare sit, ut in omnibus
honestis debet esse, splendidus et vlrilis. Nam et

* Cp. XI. i. 44, which shows that the cases in question are
those submitted to arbitration.

316

BOOK XL in. 134-137

cases the face must be raised somewhat higher, so
that the speaker's eyes may be fixed on the president
of the court : for the same reason his gestures must
also be carried a little higher, while there are other
details which will readily occur to my reader without
any mention from me. Similar modifications will
be likewise necessarj' for those who plead sitting.^
For this is done, as a rule, only in cases of minor
importance, where delivery will necessarily be more
restrained, and certain defects are ineWtable. For 135
example, when the speaker sits on the left side of the
judge, he will have to advance his right foot, while
if he be seated on the right, many of his gestures
must be made from right to left, in order that thev
may be addressed to the judge. Personally, I note
that many speakers start up at the conclusion of
individual periods, while some proceed to walk to
and fro for a little : it is for them to decide whether
this is becoming or not : I will merely remark that,
when they do this, they are not pleading seated.
It was a common custom, which has not entirely 136
disappeared, to drink or even to eat while pleading ;
but I shall not permit my ideal orator to do anything
of the kind. For if a man cannot endure the
burdens imp)osed by oratory without having recourse
to such remedies, he should not find it a serious
hardship to give up pleading altogether, a course
which is far preferable to acknowledging his contempt
both for his profession and his audience.

With regard to dress, there is no special garb 137
peculiar to the orator, but his dress comes more
under the public eye than that of other men. It
should, therefore, be distinguished and manly, as,
indeed, it ought to be with all men of position. For

317

QUINTILIAN

toga et calceus et capillus tam nimia cura quam
negligentia sunt reprehendenda. Est aliquid in
amictUj quod ipsum aliquatenus temporum con-
dicione mutatum est. Nam veteribus nulli sinus^

138 perquam breves post illos fuerunt. Itaque etiam
gestu necesse est usos esse in principiis eos alio,
quorum brachium, sicut Graecorum, veste con-
tinebatur. Sed nos de praesentibus loquimur. Cui
lati clavi ius non erit, ita cingatur, ut tunicae
prioribus oris infra genua paulum, posterioribus ad
medios poplites usque perveniant. Nam infra

139 mulierum est, supra centurionum. Ut purpura recte
descendat, levis cura est ; notatur interim negligentia.
Latum habentium clavum modus est, ut sit paulum
cinctis summissior. Ipsam togam rotundam esse et apte
caesam velim, aliter enim multis modis fiet enormis.
Pars eius prior mediis cruribus optime terminatur.

* In putting on the toga, it was thrown first over the left
shoulder, so that about 6 feet hung in front and about 12
behind. This longer portion was then carried round under
the right arm and then diagonallj' across the chest (like a
balteus, or belt) and over the left shoulder again. A fold of
this portion hanging in front formed the sinus. The original
6 feet hanging in front from the left shoulder now hung
below the rest. A portion was pulled up from above and
allowed to hang over the edge of that portion of the toga
which Quintilian compares to a balteus. This was known
as the umbo, and is described by Quintilian as pars quae
ultima imponitur. He recommends that a considerable
portion should be thus pulled up and allowed to hang fairly
low in front over the edge of the balteus, that the weight
of the hanging portion might balance the remainder of the
original 6 feet of toga hanging from the left shoulder, keep

BOOK XI. HI. 137-139

excessive care with regard to the cut of the toga,^
the style of the shoes, or the arrangement of the
liair, is just as reprehensible as excessive careless-
ness. There are also details of dress which are
altered to some extent by successive changes in
fashion. The ancients, for example, wore no folds,
and their successors wore them very short. Conse- 138
quently it follows that in view of the fact that their
arms were, like those of the Greeks, covered by the
garment, they must have employed a different form of
gesture in the exordium from that which is now in
use. However, I am speaking of our own day. The
speaker who has not the right to wear the broad
stripe,^ will wear his girdle in such a way that the
front edges of the tunic fall a little below his knees,
while the edges in rear reach to the middle of his
liams. For only women draw them lower and only
centurions higher. If we wear the purple stripe, it 139
requires but little care to see that it falls becomingly ;
negligence in this respect sometimes excites criti-
cism. Among those who wear the broad strij)e, it is
the fashion to let it hang somewhat lower than in
garments that are retained by the girdle. The toga
itself should, in my opinion, be round, and cut to
fit, otherwise there are a number of ways in which it
may be unshapely. Its front edge should by prefer-
ence reach to the middle of the shin, while the back
should be higher in proportion as the girdle is higher

it in place and prevent it from slipping back into its original
position. The toga was very nearly semicircular in shape,
which explains Quintilian's statement that it should be
round. For further details see Companion to Latin Studies,
Camb. Univ. Press, p. 191.
' Worn by senators.

QUINTILIAN

140 posterior eadem portione altius qua cinctura. Sinus
decentissimus, si aliquant© supra imam tunicam ^
fuerit ; nunquam certe sit inferior. Ille, qui sub
humero dextro ad sinistrum oblique ducitur velut
balteus, nee strangulet nee fluat. Pars togae, quae
postea imponitur, sit inferior; nam ita et sedet
melius et continetur. Subducenda etiam pars aliqua
tunicae, ne ad lacertum in aetu redeat ; tum sinus
iniiciendus humero, cuius extremam oram reiecisse

141 non dedecet. Operiri autem humerum cum toto
iugulo non oportet, alioqui amictus fiet angustus et
dignitatem, quae est in latitudine pectoris, perdet.
Sinistrum brachium eo usque adlevandum est, ut
quasi normalem ilium angulum faciat, super quod

142 ora ex toga duplex aequaliter sedeat. Manus non
impleatur anulis, praecipue medios articulos non
transeuntibus ; cuius erit habitus optimus adlevato
pollice et digitis leviter inflexis, nisi si libellum
tenebit. Quod non utique captandum est; videtur
enim fateri memoriae diffidentiam et ad multos

143 gestus est impediment©, Togam veteres ad calceos
usque demittebant ut Graeci pallium ; idque ut fiat,
qui de gestu scripserunt circa tempora ilia, Plotius
Nigidiusque praecipiunt. Quo magis miror Plinii

* tunicam, Spalding : togam, MS8.

^ Plotius Gallus, a rhetorician, and Nigidius Figulus, an |
encyclopaedic writer, both contemporaries of Cicero.

320

BOOK XI. ill. 139-143

behind than in front. The fold is most becoming, 140
if it fall to a point a little above the lower edge of
the tunic, and should certainly never fall below it.
The other fold which passes obliquely like a belt
under the right shoulder and over the left, should
neither be too tight nor too loose. The portion of
the toga which is last to be arranged should fall
rather low, since it will sit better thus and be
kept in its place. A portion of the tunic also should
be drawn back in order that it may not fall over the
arm when we are pleading, and the fold should be
thrown over the shoulder, while it will not be
unbecoming if the edge be turned back. On the 141
other hand, we should not cover the shoulder and
the whole of the throat, otherwise our dress will be
unduly narrowed and will lose the impressive effect
produced by breadth at the chest. The left arm
should only be raised so far as to form a right angle
at the elbow, while the edge of the toga should fall
in equal lengths on either side. The hand should 142
not be ovei'loaded with rings, which should under no
circumstances encroach upon the middle joint of
the finger. The most becoming attitude for the
hand is produced by raising the thumb and slightly
curving the fingers, unless it is occupied with hold-
ing manuscript. But we should not go out of our
way to carry the latter, for it suggests an acknow-
ledgement that we do not trust our memory, and is
a hindrance to a number of gestures. The ancients 143
used to let the toga fall to the heels, as the Greeks
are in the habit of doing with the cloak : Plotius
and Nigidius ^ both recommend this in the books
which they wrote about gesture as practised in
their own day. I am consequently all the more

321

QUINTILIAN

Secundi docti hominis et in hoc utique libro paene
etiam nimium curiosi persuasionem, qui solitum id
facere Ciceronem velandorum varicum gratia tradit ;
cum hoc amictus genus in statuis eorum quoque, qui

144 post Ciceronem fuerunt, appareat. Palliolum sicut
fasciaS; quibus crura vestiuntur, et focalia et aurium
ligamenta sola excusare potest valetudo.

Sed haec amictus observatio, dum incipimus ;
procedente vero actu, iam paene ab initio narrationis,
sinus ab humero recte velut sponte delabitur, et,
cum ad argumenta ac locos ventum est, reiicere a
sinistro togam, deiicere etiam, si haereat, sinum

146 conveniet. Laeva a faucibus ac summo pectore
abducere licet : ardent enim iam omnia. Et ut vox
vehementior ac magis varia est, sic amictus quoque

146 habet actum quendam velut proeliantem. Itaque
ut laevam involvere toga et incingi paene furiosum
est, sinum vero in dextrum humerum ab imo reiicere
solutum ac delicatum, fiuntque adhuc peius aliqua,
ita cur laxiorem sinum sinistro brachio non subiici-

^ This work of the elder Pliny was called Studiosus.
322

BOOK XI. in. 143-146

surprised at the view expressed by so learned a
man as Plinius Secundus, especially since it occurs
in a book which carries minute research almost to
excess : ^ for he asserts that Cicero was in the
habit of wearing his toga in such a fashion to con-
ceal his varicose veins, despite the fact that this
fashion is to be seen in the statues of persons who
lived after Cicero's day. As regards the short cloak, 144
bandages used to protect the legs, mufflers and
coverings for the ears, nothing short of ill-health
can excuse their use.

But such attention to our dress is only possible at
the beginning of a speech, since, as the pleading
develops, in fact, almost from the beginning of the
statement of facts, the fold will slip down from the
shoulder quite naturally and as it were of its own
accord, while when we come to arguments and
commonplaces, it will be found convenient to throw
back the toga from the left shoulder, and even to
throw down the fold if it should stick. The left 145
hand may be employed to pluck the toga from the
throat and the upper portion of the chest, for by
now the whole body will be hot. And just as at
this point the voice becomes more vehement and
more varied in its utterance, so the clothing begins
to assume something of a combative pose. Conse- 146
quently, although to wrap the toga round the left
hand or to pull it about us as a girdle would be
almost a symptom of madness, while to throw back
the fold from its bottom over the right shoulder
would be a foppish and effeminate gesture, and
there are yet worse effects than these, there is, at
any rate, no reason why we should not place the
looser portions of the fold under the left arm, since

323

QUINTILIAN

amus ? Habet enim acre quiddam atque expeditum

147 et calori concitationique non inhabile. Cum vero
magna pars est exhausta orationis, utique adflante
fortuna, paene omnia decent, sudor ipse et fatigatio
et negligentior amictus et soluta ac velut labens

148 undique toga. Quo magis miror hanc quoque suc-
currisse Plinio curam, ut ita sudario frontem siccari
iuberet, ne comae turbarentur, quas componi post
paulum, sicuti dignum erat, graviter et severe
vetuit. Mihi vero illae quoque turbatae prae se
ferre aliquid adfectus et ipsa oblivione curae huius

149 commendari videntur. At si incipientibus aut
paulum progressis decidat toga, non reponere earn
prorsus negligentis aut pigri aut quomodo debeat
amiciri nescientis est.

Haec sunt vel illustramenta pronuntiationis vel
vitia, quibus propositis multa cogitare debet orator.

150 Primum, quis, apud quos, quibus praesentibus sit
acturus. Nam ut dicere alia aliis et apud alios magis
concessum est, sic etiam facere. Neque eadem in
voce, gestu, incessu, apud principem, senatum
populum, magistratus, private, publico iudicio,

3H

BOOK XI. III. 146-150

it gives an air of vigour and freedom not ill-suited
to the warmth and energy of our action. When, 147
however, our speech draws near its close, more
especially if fortune shows herself kind, practically
everything is becoming ; we may stream with sweat,
show signs of fatigue, and let our dress fall in care-
less disorder and the toga slip loose from us on
every side. This fact makes me all the more sur- 148
prised that Pliny should think it worth while to
enjoin the orator to dry his brow with a hand-
kerchief in such a way as not to disorder the hair,
although a little later he most properly, and with a
certain gravity and sternness of language, forbids
us to rearrange it. For my own part, 1 feel that
dishevelled locks make an additional appeal to the
emotions, and that neglect of such precautions
creates a pleasing impression. On the other hand, 149
if the toga falls down at the beginning of our
speech, or when we have only proceeded but a little
way, the failure to replace it is a sign of indifference,
or sloth, or sheer ignorance of the way in which
clothes should be worn.

The above are the chief adornments and faults
of delivery. But there are a number of further
considerations which the orator must bear in mind.
In the first place there is the question as to the 160
character of speaker, judges and audience. For
just as the methods of speaking may justifiably be
varied to suit the characteristics of different orators
and different judges, so it is with delivery. The
same characteristics of voice, gesture and gait are
not equally becoming in the presence of the
emperor, the senate, the people, and magistrates,
or in private and public trials, or in making a

325

QUINTILIAN
postulatione, actione similiter decent. Quam
difFerentiam subiicere sibi quisque, qui animum
intenderit, potest ; tuna qua de re dicat, et efficere
161 quid velit. Rei quadruplex observatio est. Una in
tota causa. Sunt enim tristes, hilares, sollicitae,
securae, grandes, pusillae, ut vix unquam ita sol-
licitari partibus earum debeamus, ut non summae

152 meminerimus. Altera, quae est in differentia partium,
ut in prooemio, narratione, argumentatione, epilogo.
Tertia in sententiis ipsis, in quibus secundum res et
adfectus variantur omnia. Quarta in verbis, quorum
ut est vitiosa, si efficere omnia velimus, imitatio, ita
quibusdam nisi sua natura redditur, vis omnis

153 aufertur. Igitur in laudationibus, nisi si funebres
crunt, gratiarum actione, exhortatione, similibus
laeta et magnifica et sublimis est actio. Funebres
contiones, consolationes, plerumque causae reorum
tristes atque summissae. In senatu conservanda
auctoritas, apud populum dignitas, in privatis modus.
326

BOOK XL III, 150-153

request to the praetor for the appointment of a judge
to hear our case, and in actual pleading. Anyone
who will reflect upon the matter wUl realise the
nature of the differences involved, as he will also be
able to realise the nature of the subject on which
he is speaking and the effect which he desires to
produce. The considerations w^ith regard to the 151
subject are four in number, of which the 6rst has
reference to the case as a whole. For the case may
be of a gloomy or a cheerful nature, an anxious
business, or one that calls for no alarm, and may
involve issues of great or trivial importance. We
ought, therefore, never to be so preoccupied over
particular jx>rtions of a case as to forget to consider
the case as a whole. The second point is concerned 152
with the different aspects of the various portions of
the speech, that is, the exordium, statement of facts,
arguments and peroration. The third concerns the
thoughts, which will vary according to the subject
matter and the emotions which we require to
awaken. The fourth has reference to the words,
which must be given appropriate expression, unless
their force is to be entirely wasted, although it is an
error to attempt to make our delivery reproduce the
sense of every single word. Consequently, in pane- 153
gyric, funeral orations excepted, in returning thanks,
exhortations and the like, the delivery must be
luxuriant, magnificent, and grand. On the other
hand, in funeral or consolatory speeches, together
with most of those in defence of accused persons,
the delivery will be melancholy and subdued.
When we speak in the senate, it will be authori-
tative, when we address the people, dignified, and
when we are pleading in private cases, restrained.

327

QUINTILIAN

De partibus causae et sententiis verbisque, quae
sunt multiplicia, pluribus dicendum.

154 Tria autem praestare debet pronuntiatio : conciliet,
persuadeat, moveat, quibus natura cohaeret, ut etiam
delectet. Conciliatio fere aut commendatione morum,
qui nescio quomodo ex voce etiam atque actione
pellucent, aut orationis suavitate constat ; per-
suadendi vis adfirmatione, quae interim plus ipsis

166 probationibus valet. An ista, inquit Calidio Cicero,
si vera essent, sic a te dicerenltir ? et, Tanlum abfuit,
ut injiammares nostras animos ; somnum isto loco vix
tenehavius. Fiducia igitur appareat et constantia,

156 utique si auctoritas subest. Movendi autem ratio
aut in repraesentandis est aut imitandis adfectibus.
Ergo cum iudex in privatis aut praeco in publicis
dicere de causa iusserit, leniter consurgendum ; turn
in componenda toga vel, si necesse erit, etiam ex
integro iniicienda, dumtaxat in iudiciis (apud prin-
cipem enim et magistratus ac tribunalia non licebit),
paulum est commorandum, ut et amictus sit decentior

157 et protinus aliquid spatii ad cogitandum. Etiam

» Brut. Ixxx. 278.
328

BOOK XI. Ill, 153-157

As regards the respective portions of speeches,
thoughts and words, I must speak at somewhat
greater length, as the problems involved are manifold.

There are three qualities which delivery should 154
possess. It should be conciliatory, persuasive and
moving, and the possession of these three qualities
involves charm as a further requisite. A conciliatory
effect may be secured either by charm of style or
by producing an impression of excellence of character,
which is in some mysterious way clearly revealed
both by voice and gesture. A persuasive effect, on
the other hand, is produced by the power of assertion,
which is sometimes more convincing even than actual
proof. " Would those statements," says Cicero^ to 155
Calidius, "have been delivered by you in such a
manner if they had been true ? " And again, " You
were far from kindling our emotions. Indeed, at
that point of your speech we could scarcely keep
ourselves awake." We must therefore reveal both
confidence and firmness, above all, if we have the
requisite authority to back them. The method of 156
arousing the emotions depends on our jMJwer to
represent or imitate the passions. Therefore when
the judge in private, or the usher in pubhc cases,
calls upon us to speak, we must rise with deliberation.
We shall then, to make our garb the more becoming,
and to secure a moment for reflexion, devote a brief
space to the arrangement of our toga or even, if
necessary, to throwing it on afresh ; but it must
be borne in mind that this injunction applies only
to cases in the courts ; for we must not do this if
we are speaking before the emperor or a magistrate,
or in cases where the judge sits in a p>osition of
superior authority. Even when we turn to the judge, 157

329

QUINTILIAN

cum ad iudicem nos converterimus, et consultus
praetor permiserit dicere, non protinus est erum-
pendum, sed danda brevis cogitationi mora. Mire
enim auditurum dicturi cura delectat, et iudex se

158 ipse componit. Hoc praecipit Homerus Ulixis
exemplo, quern stetisse oculis in terram defixis
immotoque sceptro, priusquam illam eloquentiae
procellam effunderet, dicit. In hac cunctatione
sunt quaedam non indecentes, ut appellant scenici,
morae, caput mulcere, manum intueri, infringere
articulos, simulare conatum, suspiratione sollici-
tudinem fateri, aut quod quemque magis decet,
eaque diutius, si iudex nondum intendet animum.

159 Status sit rectus, aequi et diducti paulum pedes
vel procedens minimo momento sinister ; genua
recta, sic tamen, ut non extendantur ; humeri
remissi, vultus severus, non maestus nee stupens
nee languidus ; brachia a latere modice remota ;
manus sinistra, qualem supra demonstravi ; dextra,
cum lam incipiendum erit, paulum prolata ultra
sinum gestu quam modestissimo, velut spectans

160 quando incipiendum sit. Vitiosa enim sunt ilia,
intueri lacunaria, perfricare faciem et quasi improbam
facere, tendere confidentia vultum aut, quo sit magis

» II. iii. 217. • Sect. 142.

330

BOOK XL III. 157-160

and have requested and received the praetor's per-
mission to address the court, we must not break forth
at once into speech, but should allow ourselves a few
moments for reflexion. For the display of such care
on the part of one who is about to speak attracts the
audience and gives the judge time to settle down.
Homer 1 inculcates this practice by placing before 158
us the example of Ulysses, whom he describes as
having stood for a while with eyes fixed on the
ground and staff held motionless, before he poured
forth his whirlwind of eloquence. In this preliminary
delay there are certain pauses, as the actors call
them, which are not unbecoming. We may stroke
our head, look at our hand, wring the fingers, pre-
tend to summon all our energies for the effort,
confess to nervousness by a deep sigh, or may adopt
any other method suited to our individual character,
while these proceedings may be extended over some
time, if we find that the judge is not yet giving us
his attention. Our attitude should be upright, our 159
feet level and a slight distance apart, or the left may
be very slightly advanced. The knees should be
upright, but not stiff, the shoulders relaxed, the face
stem, but not sad, expressionless or languid : the
arms should be held slightly away from the side,
the left hand being in the position described above,'^
while the right, at the moment when our speech
begins, should be slightly extended beyond the fold
of the toga with the most modest of gestures, as
though waiting for the commencement. For it is 160
a mistake to look at the ceiling, to rub the face and
give it a flush of impudence, to crane it boldly for-
ward, to frown in order to secure a fierce expression,
or brush back the hair from the forehead against its

331

QUINTILIAN

torvus, superciliis adstringerCj capillos a fronte
contra naturam retroagere, ut sit horror ille ter-
ribilis ; turn, id quod Graeci frequentissime faciunt,
crebro digitorum labiorumque motu commentari,
clare excreare, pedem alterum longe proferre,
partem togae sinistra tenere, stare diductum vel
rigidum vel supinum vel incurvum vel humeris, ut
luetaturi solent^ ad occipitium ductis.

161 Prooemio frequentissime lenis convenit pronunti-
atio. Nihil enim est ad conciliandum gratius vere-
cundia, non tamen semper ; neque enim uno mode
dicuntur exordia, ut docui. Plerumque tamen et
vox temperata et gestus modestus et sedens humero
toga et laterum lenis in utramque partem motus,

162 eodem spectantibus oculis, decebit. Narratio magis
prolatam manum, amictum recidentem, gestum dis-
,tinctum4 vocem sermoni proximam et tantum acri-
orem, sonum simplicem frequentissime postulabit in
his dumtaxat : Q. enim Ligarius, cum esset in Afnca
nulla belli suspicio, et A. Cluejitius Habitus pater huiusce.
Aliud in eadem poscent adfectus, vel concitati Nubit

33?

* IV. i. 40. * pro Lig. i. 2.

* pro Cluent. v. 11. * pro Cluent. v. 14.

BOOK XI. III. 160-162

natural direction in order to produce a terrifying
effect by making it stand on end. Again, there are
other unseemly tricks, such as that so dear to the
Greeks of twitching our fingers and lips as though
studying what to say, clearing the throat with a
loud noise, thrusting out one foot to a considerable
distance, grasping a portion of the toga in the left
hand, standing with feet wide apart, holding ourselves
stiffly, leaning backwards, stooping, or hunching our
shoulders toward the back of the head^ as wrestlers
do when about to engage.

A gentle deUvery is most often best suited to the 161
exordium. For there is nothing better calculated
than modesty to win the good-will of the judge,
although there are exceptions to the rule, since, as I
have already pointed out,' all exordia are not delivered
in the same manner. But, generally speaking, a
quiet voice, a modest gesture, a toga sitting well
upon the shoulder, and a gentle motion of the sides
to right and left, accompanied by a corresponding
movement of the eyes, will all be found to produce
a becoming effect. In the statement of facts the hand 162
should on most occasions be further extended, the
toga allowed to slip back, the gestures sharply dis-
tinguished and the voice colloquial, but slightly more
emphatic, while there should also be uniformity of
tone. Such, at any rate, should be the delivery of
a passage such as the following t^ "For Quintus
Ligarius, since there was no hint of the likelihood of
the war in Africa," or^ "Aulus Cluentius Habitus,
this man's father." But different methods may be
called for in this same portion of the speech, in
passionate utterances such as, "The mother-in-law
weds her son-in-law," * or in pathetic passages such

335

QUINTILIAN

genero socrus, vel flebiles Consliiuitur in foro Laodiceae
spectaculum acerhum et miserum toti Asiae provinciae.

163 Maxime varia et multiplex actio est probationum.
Nam et proponere, partiri, interrogare sermoni sunt
proxima, et contradictionem sumere : nam ea quoque
diversa propositio est. Sed haec tamen aliquando

164 irridentes, aliquando imitantes pronuntiamus. Argu-
mentatio plerumque agilior et acrior et instantior
consentientem orationi postulat etiam gestum, id est
fortem celeritatem. Instandum quibusdam in partibus
et densanda oratio. Egressiones fere lenes et dulces
et remissae, raptus Proserpinae, Siciliae description
Cn. Pompeii laus. Neque enim mirum minus habere

165 contentionis ea quae sunt extra quaestionem. Mollior
nonnunquam cum reprehensione diversae partis imi-
tatio : Videhar videre alios intrantes, alios autem exeunies,
quosdam ex vino vacillantes. Ubi non dissidens a voce
permittitur gestus quoque, in utramque partem tenera
quaedam, sed intra manus tamen et sine motu laterum

166 translatio. Accendendi iudicis plures sunt gradus.

' Verr. i. xxx. 76 * cp. iv. iii. 13.

* In the lost pro Corndio: cp. IV. iii. 13.

* From the lost pro Gallio.

334

BOOK XI. III. 162-166

as, " There in the market-place of Laodicea was dis-
played a grievous and afflicting spectacle for all the
province of Asia to behold."^ The ^roq/j?, hoveever, 163
require the utmost variety of delivery. For to state
them and distinguish between their various points,
and to examine witnesses, we employ something not
far removed from a colloquial tone, as is also the case
in anticipating objections, which is really another
form of statement. But in all these cases we some-
times deride, and sometimes mimic our opponents.
Argument, being as a rule of a livelier, more energetic 164
and aggressive character, demands a type of gesture
adapted to its style, that is to say, it should be bold
and rapid. There are certain portions of our argu-
ments that require to be pressed home with energy,
and in these our style must be compact and concen-
trated. Digressions, as a rule, are characterised by
gentleness, calm and placidity, as, for example, in
Cicero's description of the Rape of Proserpine,'^ his
picture of Sicily ,2 or his panegyric of Pompey.^ For
naturally passages which deal with subjects lying
outside the main question in dispute demand a less
combative tone. There are occasions on which we 165
may adopt a gentle manner in depreciating our
opponents by giving a picture of their character, as
in the following passage : * " I seemed to see some
persons entering the room and others leaving it,
while others were staggering to and fro under the
influence of wine." Under such circumstances we
may even allow the gesture to match the voice, and
may employ a gentle movement from side to side :
but this motion should be confined to the hands, and
there should be no movement of the flanks. There 166
are a number of gradations of tone which may be

335

QUINTILIAN

Summus ille et quo nullus est in oratore acutior :
Suscepto hello, Caesar, gesto iam etiam ex parte magna.
Praedixit enim : Quantum potero voce contendam, ut
populus hoc Romanus exaudiat. Paulum inferior et
habens aliquid iam iucunditatis : Quid enim tuns ille,

167 Tubero, in acie Pharsalica gladius agebat ? Plenius
adhue et lentius ideoque dulcius : In coetu vero populi
Romani negotium pubUcum gerens. Producenda omnia
trahendaeque turn vocales aperiendaeque sunt fauces.
Pleniore tamen haec canali fluunt : Vos, Albani tumuli
atque luci. Iam cantici quiddam habent sensimque
resupina sunt : Saxa atque solitudines voci respondent.

168 Tales sunt illae inclinationes vocis, quas invicem
Demosthenes atque Aeschines exprobrant, non ideo
improbandae ; cum enim uterque alteri obiiciat, palam
est utrumque fecisse. Nam neque ille per Marathonis
et Plataearum et Salaminis propugnatores recto sono

169 iuravit, nee ille Thebas sermone deflevit. Est his
diversa vox et paene extra organum, cui Graeci

' pro Lig. iii. 7 and 6. * pro Lig. iii. 9.

» rhil. 11. XXV. 63. * pro Mil. xxxi. 83.

» pro Arch. viii. 19. « de Cor. 90. ' In Cles. 72.
• Dc Cor. 60. • In Ctes. 49.

336

BOOK XI. III. 166-169

employed to kindle the feeling of the judges. The
most vehement tones that an orator is ever called
upon to use will be employed in p>assages such as
the following:^ " When the war was begun, Caesar,
and was, in fact, well on its way to a conclusion."
For he has just said : " I will use my voice to its
fullest power, that all the Roman people may hear
me." On the other hand, a lower tone, not devoid
of a certain charm, should be employed in passages
such as : 2 " What was that sword of yours doing,
Tubero, that sword that was drawn on the field of
Pharsalus?" But the utterance must be fuller, 167
slower, and consequently sweeter, when the orator
says,2 " But in an assembly of the Roman people,
and when he was performing his official functions."
In this passage every sound should be drawn out,
we should dwell upon the vowel-sounds and speak
full-throated. Still fuller should be the stream of our
voice in the invocation,* " You, hills and groves of
Alba " ; while a tone not far removed from chanting,
and dying away to a cadence, should be employed in
delivering the phrase,^ " Rocks and solitudes answer
to the voice." These are the modulations denounced 168
by Demosthenes * and Aeschines,' but they do not
necessarily for that reason merit our disapprobation.
For as each of these orators taunts the other with
making use of them, it is clear that they were employed
by both. We may be sure that Demosthenes did not
restrict himself to his ordinary simplicity of tone when
he swore by those that fought for their country at
Marathon, Plataea and Salamis,* nor did Aeschines
employ a colloquial utterance when he lamented for
the fate of Thebes.' There is also an entirely different 169
tone, which might be described as lying almost

337

QUINTILIAN

nomen amaritudinis dederunt, super modum ac paene
naturam vocis humanae acerba : Quin compescitis vocem
islam, indicem stultitiae, testem paucitalis ? Sed id, quod
excedere modum dixi, in ilia parte prima est : Qum
compescitis.

170 EpiloguSj si enumerationem rerum habet, desiderat
quandam concisorum continuationem ; si ad conci-
tandos iudices est accommodatus, aliquid ex iis, quae
supra dixi ; si placandos, inclinatam quandam leni-
tatem ; si misericordia commovendos, flexum vocis
et flebilem suavitatem, qua praecipue franguntur
animi, quaeque est maxime naturalis. Nam etiam
orbos viduasque videas in ipsis funeribus canoro quo-

171 dam mode proclamantes. Hie etiam fusca ilia vox,
qualem Cicero fuisse in Antonio dicit, mire faciet;
habet enim in se, quod imitamur. Duplex est tamen
miseratio, altera cum invidia, qualis modo dicta de
damnatione Philodami, altera cum deprecatione

172 demissior. Quare, etiamsi est in illis quoque cantus
obscurior. In coetu vero populi Romayii (non enim haec

* pro Rab, perd. vi. 18. ' Brut, xzxviii. 141.

» § 162.

BOOK XI. III. 169-172

outside the range of the instrument. The Greeks
call it bitterness, and it consists in an extravagant
acerbity almost beyond the compass of the human
voice. It is employed in passages such as,^ " Why
do you not restrain those cries, the proof of your
folly and the evidence of your small numbers ^ "
But the extravagance of which I spoke will come
in at the opening, where the orator cries, " Why do
you not restrain ? "

The peroration, if it involves a recapitulation, 170
requires an even utterance of short, clear-cut
clauses. If, on the other hand, it is designed to
stir the emotions of the judges, it will demand
some of the qualities already mentioned. If it aims
at soothing them, it should flow softly ; if it is to
rouse them to pity, the voice must be delicately
modulated to a melancholy sweetness, which is at
once most natural and specially adapted to touch
the heart. For it may be noted that even orphans
and widows have a certain musical quality in the
lamentations which they utter at funerals. A 171
muffled voice, such as Cicero 2 says was possessed
by Antonius, will also be exceedingly effective under
such circumstances, since it has just the natural
tone which we seek to imitate. Appeals to pity
are, however, of two kinds : they may be marked
by an admixture of indignation, as in the passage
just quoted^ describing the condemnation of Philo-
damus, or they may be coupled with appeals for
mercy, in which case their tone will be more sub-
dued. Therefore although there is a suggestion of 172
the chanting tone in the delivery of such passages
as " In an assembly of the Roman people " (for he did
not utter these words in a contentious tone), or in

339

QUINTILIAN

rixantis modo dixit) ; et f^os, Albani tumuli (non enim,
quasi inclamaret aut testaretur, locutus est), tamen
infinite magis ilia flexa et circumducta sunt : Me
miserum, me infelicem, et Quid respoTidebo liberis meis ?
et Revocare tu me in patriam potuisti, Milo, per hos ;
ego te in eadem patria per eosdem retinere non potero ?
et cum bona C. Rabirii nummo ^ sestertio addicit :

173 0 meum miserum acerbu7nque praeconium. Ilia quoque
mire facit in peroratione velut deficientis dolore et
fatigatione confessio, ut pro eodem Milone, Sedjinis
sit ; neque enim prae lacrimis iam loqui possum. Quae
similem verbis habere debent etiam pronuntiationem.

174 Possunt videri alia quoque huius partis atque officii,
reos excitare, pueros attoUere, propinquos producere,
vestes laniare ; sed suo loco dicta sunt.

Et quia in partibus causae talis ^ est varietas, satis
apparet, accommodandam sententiis ipsis pronunti-
ationem, sicut ostendimus, sed verbis quoque, quod

175 novissime dixeram, non semper, sed aliquando. An
non hoc misellus et pauperculus summissa atque con-
trsLcta, for lis et vehemens et latro erecta et concitata

^ nummo, Bentley : uno, MSS.

' causa talis, ed. Camp : causa et aliis, B,

^ pro Mil. xxxvii. 102.

" pro Rai. Post, xvii. 46. addicit, lit. " knocks down " :
praeconium, lit. "the task of the public crier."
» pro Mil. xxxviii. 105. « vi. i. 30. » § 173.

340

BOOK XI. III. 172-175

" Ye hills and groves of Alba " (for he did not say this
as though he were appealing to them or calling them
to witness), the ensuing phrases^ require infinitely
greater modulation and longer-drawn harmonies :
" Ah, woe is me, unhappy that I am ! " and " What
shall I reply to my children ? " and " You, Milo, had
the power to recall me to my country with the aid of
these men, and shall I be powerless by their aid to
keep you in that same country, your native land
and mine ? " or when he offers to sell the property of
Gaius Rabirius at one sesterce, " Ah, what a sad and
bitter task my voice is called on to perform ! "2 Again, 173
it is a most effective device to confess in the peroration
that the strain of grief and fatigue is overpowering,
and that our strength is sinking beneath them, as
Cicero does in his defence of Milo : ' " But here I must
make an end : I can no longer speak for tears." And
in such passages our delivery must conform to our
words. It may be thought that there are other points 174
which should be mentioned in connexion with the
duties of the orator in this portion of his speech, such
as calling forward the accused, lifting up his children
for the court to see, producing his kinsfolk, and
rending his garments ; but they have been dealt
with in their proper place.*

Such being the variety entailed by the different
fjortions of our pleading, it is sufficiently clear that
our delivery must be adapted to our matter, as I
have already shown, and sometimes also, though
not always conform to our actual words, as I have
just remarked.* For instance, must not the words, 175
"This poor wretched, poverty-stricken man," be
uttered in a low, subdued tone, whereas, " A bold
and violent fellow and a robber," is a phrase

341

QUINTILIAN
voce dicendum est ? Accedit enim vis et proprietas
rebus tali adstipulatione, quae nisi adsit, aliud vox,

176 aliud animus ostendat. Quid ? quod eadem verba
mutata pronuntiatione indicant, adfirmant, expro-
brant, negant, mirantur, indignantur, interrogant,
irrident, elevant ? Aliter enim dicitur : Tu mihi
quodcunque hoc regni et Cantando tu ilium ? et Tune
ille Aeneas ? et Meque timoris Argue tu, Draiice. Et
ne morei', intra se quisque vel hoc vel aliud, quod
volet, per omnes adfectus verset, verum esse quod
dicimus sciet.

177 Unum iam his adiiciendum est, cum praecipue in
actione spectetur decorum, saepe aliud alios decere.
Est enim latens quaedam in hoc ratio et inenarra-
bilis; et ut vere hoc dictum est, caput esse artis
decere quod facias, ita id neque sine arte esse neque

» Aen. i. 78. * Eel. iii. 25. » Aen. i. 617.

* Aen. xi. 383. • de Or. i. xxix. 132

34?

BOOK XI. III. 175-177

requiring a strong and energetic utterance? For
such conformity gives a force and appropriateness
to our matter, and without it the expression of
tlie voice will be out of harmony with our thought.
Again, what of the fact that a change of delivery 176
may make precisely the same words either demon-
strate or affirm, express reproach, denial, wonder or
indignation, interrogation, mockery or depreciation ?
For the word " thou " is given a different expression
in each of the following passages :

''Thou this poor kingdom dost on me bestow,"*

and

"Thou vanquish him in song.^"*

and
and

" Art thou, then, that Aeneas ? " *

" And of fear.
Do thou accuse me, Drances ! " *

To cut a long matter short, if my reader will take
this or any other word he chooses and run it through
the whole gamut of emotional expression, he will
realise the truth of what I say.

There is one further remark which I must add, 177
namely, that while what is becoming is the main
consideration in delivery, different methods will often
suit different speakers. For this is determined by
a principle which, though it is obscure and can
hardly be expressed in words, none the less
exists: and, though it is a true saying^ that
"the main secret of artistic success is that what-
ever we do should become us well," none the
less, despite the fact that such success cannot be

343

QUINTILIAN

178 totum arte tradi potest. In quibusdam virtutes non
habent gratiam^ in quibusdam vitia ipsa delectant.
Maximos actores comoediarum, Demetrium et Strato-
clea, placere diversis virtutibus vidimus. Sed illud
minus mirum, quod alter deos et iuvenes et bonos
patres servosque et matronas et graves anus optima,
alter acres senes, callidos servos, parasites, lenones
et omnia agitatiora melius : fuit enim natura diversa.
Nam vox quoque Demetrii iucundior, illius acrior

179 erat. Adnotandae magis proprietates, quae trans-
ferri non poterant, manus iactare et dulees excla-
mationes theatri causa producere et ingrediendo
ventum eoneipere veste et nonnunquam dextro latere
faeere gestus, quod neminem alium nisi Demetrium
decuit ; namque in haec omnia statura et mira specie

180 adiuvabatur; ilium cursus et agilitas et vel parum
conveniens personae risus, quern non ignarus rationis
populo dabatj et contracta etiam cervicula. Quid-
quid horum alter fecisset, foedissimum videretur.
344

BOOK XI. ni. 177-180

attained without art, it is impossible entirely to com-
municate the secret by the rules of art. There are 178
some persons in whom positive excellences have no
charm, while there are others whose very faults give
pleasure. We have seen the greatest of comic actors,
Demetrius and Stratocles, win their success by
entirely different merits. But that is the less
surprising owing to the fact that the one was at his
best in the roles of gods, young men, good fathers
and slaves, matrons and respectable old women,
wliile the other excelled in the portrayal of sharp>-
tempered old men, cunning slaves, parasites, pimps
and all the more lively characters of comedy. For
their natural gifts differed- For Demetrius' voice,
like his other qualities, had greater charm, while
that of Stratooles was the more powerful. But 179
yet more noticeable were the incommunicable
peculiarities of their action. Demetrius showed
unique gifts in the movements of his hands, in
his power to charm his audience by the long-
dra^vn sweetness of his exclamations, the skill with
which he would make his dress seem to puff out
with wind as he walked, and the expressive move-
ments of the right side which he sometimes intro-
duced vrith effect, in all of which things he was
helped by his stature and personal beauty. On the 180
other hand, Stratocles* forte lay in his nimbleness
and rapidity of movement, in his laugh (which,
though not always in keeping with the character
he represented, he deliberately employed to awaken
answering laughter in his audience), and finally, even
in the way in which he sank his neck into his
shoulders. If either of these actors had attempted
any of his rival's tricks, he would have produced a

vou IV. M 345

QUiNTILIAN

Quare norit se quisque, nee tantum ex communibus
praeceptis, sed etiam ex natura sua capiat consilium

181 formandae actionis. Neque illud tamen est nefas,
ut aliquem vel omnia vel plura deceant. Huius
quoque loci clausula sit eadem necesse est, quae
ceterorum est, regnare maxime modum. Non eoim
comoedum esse, sed oratorem volo. Quare neque
in gestu persequemur omnes argutias nee in loquendo
distinctionibus, temporibus, adfectionibus moleste

182 utemur. Ut si sit in scena dicendum:

Quid igttur faciam ? non earn, ne nunc qtiidem,
q: Cum arcessor ultro ? an politic ita me comparem.,

Non perpeti meretricum contumelias ?

Hie enim dubitationis moras, vocis flexus, varias
manus, diversos nutus actor adhibebit. Aliud oratio
sapit nee vult nimium esse condita ; actione enim

183 constat, non imitatione. Quare non immerito repre-
henditur pronuntiatio vultuosa et gesticulationibus
molesta et vocis mutationibus resultans. Nee inutiliter
ex Graecis veteres transtulerunt, quod ab iis sumptum
Laenas Popilius posuit, esse banc negotiosam ^ actio-

184 nem. Optime igitur idem, qui omnia, Cicero prae-

* negotiosam, Halm: mocosam, B.

1 Ter. Eun. I. i. 1.

346

BOOK XL III. 180-184

most unbecoming effect. Consequently, every man
must get to know his own peculiarities and must
consult not merely the general rules of technique,
but his own nature as well with a view to forming
his delivery. But there is no law of heaven which 181
prohibits the possession of all or at any rate the
majority of styles by one and the same person. I
must conclude this topic with a remark which applies
to all my other topics as well, that the prime essential
is a sense of proportion. For I am not trying to
form a comic actor, but an orator. Consequently,
we need not study all the details of gesture nor, as
regards our speaking, be pedantic in the use we
make of the rules governing punctuation, rhythm
and appeals to the emotions. For example, if an 182
actor has to speak the following lines on the stage : ^

** What shall I do then ? Not go, even now.
Now when she calls me ? Or shall I steel my soul
No longer to endure a harlot's insults?"

he will hesitate as in doubt, will vary the modulations
of his voice, together with the movements of hand
and head. But oratory has a different flavour and
objects to elaborate condiments, since it consists in
serious pleading, not in mimicry. There is, there- 183
fore, good reason for the condemnation passed on a
delivery which entails the continual alteration of
facial expression, annoying restlessness of gesture
and gusty changes of tone. And it was a wise saying
that the ancient orators borrowed from the Greeks,
as is recorded by Popilius Laenas, to the effect that
there is too much " business " in such delivery. The 184
instructions given by Cicero on this subject, as on all
others, are quite admirable ; I allude to the passages

347

QUINTILIAN

ceperat, quae supra ex Oratore posui ; quibus similia
in Bruto de M. Antonio dicit. Sed iam recepta est
actio paulo agitatior et exigitur et quibusdam partibus
convenit, ita tamen temperanda, ne, dum actoris
captamus elegantiam, perdamus viri boni et gravis
auctoritatem.

-.*

348

BOOK XI. III. 184

which I have already quoted from his Orator,^ while
there are similar observations in the Brutus^ with
reference to Marcus Antonius. But to-day a rather
more violent form of delivery has come into fashion
and is demanded of our orators : it is well adapted to
certain portions of a speech, but requires to be kept
under control. Otherwise, in our attempt to ape
the elegances of the stage, we shall lose the authority
which should characterise the man of dignity and
virtue.

1 § 122. « Brut, iiiviii, 141.

349

BOOK XII

LIBER XII

Prooemium
Ventum est ad partem operis destinati longe gra-
vissimam. Cuius equidem onus si tantum opinione
prima concipere potuissem, quanto me premi ferens
sentio, maturius consuluissem vires meas. Sed initio
pudor omittendi, quae promiseram, tenuit; mox,
quanquam per singulas prope partes labor cresceretj
ne perderem, quae iam efFecta erant, per omnes

2 difficultates animo me sustentavi. Quare nunc quo-
que, licet maior quam unquam moles premat, tamen
prospicienti finem mihi constitutum est vel deficere
potius quam desperare. Fefellit autem quod initium
a parvis ceperamus. Mox velut aura sollicitante
provecti longius, dum tamen nota ilia et plerisque
artium scriptoribus tractata praecipimus, nee adhuc
a litore procul videbamur et multos circa velut iisdem

3 se ventis credere ausos habebamus. Iam cum elo-
quendi rationem novissime repertam paucissimisque

352

BOOK XII

Introduction

I NOW come to what is by far the most arduous
portion of the task which I have set myself to per-
form. Indeed had I fully realised the difficulties
when I first designed this work, I should have con-
sidered betimes whether my strength was sufficient to
support the load that now weighs upon me so heavily.
But to begin with, I felt how shameful it would be
to faU to perform what I had promised, and later,
despite the fact that my labour became more and
more arduous at almost every stage, the fear of
stultifying what I had already written sustained my
courage through every difficulty. Consequently 2
even now, though the burden that oppresses me is
greater than ever, the end is in sight and I am
resolved to faint by the wayside rather than despair.
But the fact that I began with comparatively trivial
details deceived me. Subsequently I was lured still
further on my voyage by the temptations of the
favouring breeze that filled my sails ; but the rules
which I was then concerned to give were still of a
familiar kind and had been already treated by most
writers of rhetorical textbooks : thus far I seemed to
myself to be still in sight of shore and I had the
company of many who had ventured to entrust them-
selves to the self-same winds. But presently when 3
I entered on the task of setting forth a theory of

353

QUINTILIAN

temptatam ingressi sumus, rarus, qui tam procul a
portu recessisset, repericbatur. Postquam vero nobis
ille, quem instituebamus, orator a dicendi magistris
dimissus aut suo iam impetu fertur aut maiora sibi
auxilia ex ipsis sapientiae penetralibus petit, quam
4 in altum simus ablati sentire coepimus. Nunc caelum
undique el undique ponlus. Unum modo in ilia im-
mensa vastitate cernere videmur M. Tullium, qui
tamen ipse, quamvis tanta atque it;i instructa nave
hoc mare ingressus, contrahit vela inhibetque remos
et de ipso demum genere dicendi, quo sit usurus
perfectus orator, satis habet dicere. At nostra
temeritas etiam mores ei conabitur dare et adsignabit
officia. Ita nee antecedentem consequi possumus,
et longius eundum est, ut res feret. Probabilis tamen
cupiditas honestorum et velut tutioris^ audentiae
est temptare, quibus paratior venia est.

I. Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is,
qui a M. Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus ;
verum, id quod et ille posuit prius et ipsa natura
potius ac maius est, utique vir bonus. Id non eo
tantum, quod, si vis ilia dicendi malitiam instruxerit,
nihil sit publicis privatisque rebus perniciosius elo-

^ velut tutioris, Obrecht: velutioris, B.

1 Am. ill. 193. • ep. I. Pr. 9.

354

BOOK XII. Intr. 3-1. I

eloquence which had been but newly discovered and
rarely essayed, I found but few that had ventured so
far from harbour. And finally now that the ideal
orator, whom it was my design to mould, has been
dismissed by his masters and is either proceeding
on his way borne onward by his own impetus, or
seeking still mightier assistance from the innermost
shrine of wisdom, I begin to feel how far I have
been swept into the great deep. Xow there is 4

" Nothing before and nothing behind but the sky
and the Ocean." i

One only can I discern in all the boundless waste of
waters, Marcus Tullius Cicero, and even he, though
the ship in which he entered these seas is of such
size and so well found, begins to lessen sail and to
row a slower stroke, and is content to speak merely
of the kind of speech to be employed by the perfect
orator. But my temerity is such that I shall essay to
form my orator's character and to teach him his duties.
Thus I have no predecessor to guide my steps and
must press far, far on, as my theme may demand.
Still an honourable ambition is always deserving of
approval, and it is all the less hazardous to dare
greatly, when forgiveness is assured us if we fail.

I. The orator then, whom I am concerned to form,
shall be the orator as defined by Marcus Cato, " a good
man, skilled in speaking." 2 But above all he must
jwssess the quality which Cato places first and which
is in the very nature of things the greatest and most
important, that is, he must be a good man. This is
essential not merely on account of the fact that, if
the powers of eloquence serve only to lend arms to
crime, there can be nothing more pernicious than

355

QUINTILIAN

quentia, nosque ipsi, qui pro virili parte conferre
aliquid ad facultatem dicendi conati sumus, pessime
mereamur de rebus humanis, si latroni comparamus

2 haec arma^ non militi. Quid de nobis loquor?
Rerum ipsa natura in eo^ quod praecipue indulsisse
liomini videtur quoque nos a ceteris animalibus se-
parasse, non parens, sed noverca fuerit, si facultatem
dicendi, sociam scelerum, adversain innocentiae,
hostem veritatis invenit. Mutos enim nasci et egere
omni ratione satius fuisset quam providentiae mu-

3 nera in mutuam perniciem convertere. Longius
tendit hoc iudicium meum. Neque enim tantum
id dico, eum, qui sit orator, virum bonum esse
oportere, sed ne futurum quidem oratorem nisi virum
bonum. Nam certe neque intelligentiam concesseris
iis qui, proposita honestorum ac turpium via, peiorem
sequi malent, neque prudentiam, cum in gravissimas
frequenter legum, semper vero malae conscientiae
poenas a semet ipsis improviso rerum exitu induantur.

4 Quodsi neminem malum esse nisi stultum eundem
non modo a sapientibus dicitur, sed vulgo quoque
semper est creditum, certe non fiet unquam stultus
orator. Adde quod ne studio quidem operis pulcher-
rimi vacare mens nisi omnibus vitiis libera potest :
primum quod in eodem pectore nullum est honesto-
rum turpiumque consortium, et cogitare optima
simul ac deterrima non magis est unius animi quam

356

BOOK Xll. I. 1-4

eloquence to public and private welfare alike, while
1 myself, who have laboured to the best of my ability
to contribute something of value to oratory, shall have
rendered the worst of services to mankind, if I forge
these weapons not for a soldier, but for a robber.
But why speak of myself? Nature herself will have
proved not a mother, but a stepmother with regard
-to what we deem her greatest gift to man, the gift
that distinguishes us from other living things, if she
devised the power of speech to be the accomplice of
crime, the foe to innocency and the enemy of truth.
For it had been better for men to be born dumb and
devoid of reason than to turn the gifts of providence
to their mutual destruction. But this conviction of
mine goes further. For I do not merely assert that
the ideal orator should be a good man, but I affirm
that no man can be an orator unless he is a good man.
For it is impossible to regard those men as gifted
with intelligence who on being offered the clioice
between the two paths of virtue and of vice choose
the latter, nor can we allow them prudence, when
bv the unforeseen issue of their own actions they
render themselves liable not merely to the heaviest
penalties of the laws, but to the inevitable torment
of an evil conscience. But if the view that a bad
man is necessarily a fool is not merely held by philo-
sophers, but is the universal belief of ordinary men,
the fool will most assuredly never become an orator.
To this must be added the fact that the mind will
not find leisure even for the study of the noblest of
tasks, unless it first be free from vice. Tlie reasons for
this are, first, that vileness and virtue cannot jointly
inhabit in the selfsame heart and that it is as im-
possible for one and the same mind to harbour good

357

QUINTILIAN

6 eiusdera hominis bonum esse ac malum ; tum ilia
quoque ex causa, quod mentem tantae rei intentam
vacare omnibus aliis etiara culpa carentibus curis
oportet. Ita demum enim libera ac tota, nulla
distringente atque alio ducente causa, spectabit id

6 solum ad quod accingitur, Quodsi agrorum nimia
cura et sollicitior rei familiaris diligentia et venandi
voluptas et dati spectaculis dies multum studiis au-
ferunt (huic enim rei perit tempus, quodcunque alteri
datur), quid putamus facturas cupiditatem, avaritiam,
invidiam, quarum impotentissimae cogitationes som-
nos etiam ipsos et ilia per quietem visa perturbent ?

7 Nihil est enim tam occupatum, tam multiforme, tot
ac tam vai-iis adfectibus concisum atque laceratum
quam mala mens. Nam et cum insidiatur, spe,
curis, labore distringitur ; et etiam cum sceleris
compos fuit, sollicitudine, paenitentia, poenarum
omnium exspectatione torquetur. Quis inter liaec
litteris aut ulli bonae arti locus ? Non hercule magis
quam frugibus in terra sentibus ac rubis occupata.

8 Age, non ad perferendos studiorum labores necessaria
frugalitas ? Quid ergo ex libidine ac luxuria spei ?
Non praecipue acuit ad cupiditatem litterarum amor
358

BOOK XII. I. 4-8

and evil thoughts as it is for one man to be at once
both good and evil : and secondly, that if the intelli- 5
gence is to be concentrated on such a vast subject as
eloquence it must be free from all other distractions,
among which must be included even those preoccu-
pations which are free from blame. For it is only
when it is free and self-possessed, with nothing to
divert it or lure it elsewhere, t!:at it will fix its
attention solely on that goal, the attainment of which
is the object of its preparations. If on the other 6
hand inordinate care for the development of our
estates, excess of anxiety over household affairs,
passionate devotion to hunting or the sacrifice of
whole days to the shows of the theatre, rob our
studies of much of the time tliat is their due (for
every moment that is given to other things involves
a loss of time for study), what, think you, will be the
results of desire, avarice, and envy, which waken such
violent thoughts within our souls that they disturb
our very slumbers and our dreams ? There is nothing 7
so preoccupied, so distracted, so rent and torn by so
many and such varied passions as an evil mind. For
when it cherishes some dark design, it is tormented
with hope, care and anguish of spirit, and even when
it has accomplished its criminal purpose, it is racked
by anxiety, remorse and the fear of all manner of
punishments. Amid such passions as these what
room is there for literature or any virtuous pursuit }
You might as well look for fruit in land that is choked
with thorns and brambles. Well then, I ask you, is 8
not simplicity of life essential if we are to be able to
endure the toil entailed by study .'' What can we
hope to get from lust or luxury ? Is not the desire
to win praise one of the strongest stimulants to a

359

QUINTILIAN

laudis? Num igitur malis esse laudem curae putamus?
lam hoc quis non videt, maximam partem orationis
in tractatu aequi bonique consistere? Dicetne de
his secundum debitam rerum dignitatem malus atque
9 iniquus ? Denique, ut maximam partem quaestionis
eximam, demus, id quod nullo modo fieri potest,
idem ingenii, studii, doctrinae, pessimo atque optimo
viro : utermelior dicetur orator? Nimirum qui homo
quoque melior. Non igitur unquam malus idem

10 homo et perfectus orator. Non enim perfectum est
quidquam, quo melius est aliud. Sed, ne more
Socraticorum nobismet ipsi responsum finxisse vide-
amur, sit aliquis adeo contra veritatem obstinatus,
ut audeat dicere, eodem ingenio, studio, doctrina
praeditum nihilo deteriorem futurum oratorem malum
virum quam bonum : convincamus huius quoque

11 amentiam. Nam hoc certe nemo dubitabit, omnem
orationem id agere, ut iudici, quae proposita fuerint,
vera et honesta videantur. Utrum igitur hoc facilius
bonus vir persuadebit an malus? Bonus quidem et

12 dicet saepius vera atque honesta. Sed etiam si
quando aliquo ductus officio (quod accidere, ut mox
docebimus, potest) falso haec adfirmare conabitur,
360

BOOK XII. I. 8-ia

passion for literature ? But does that mean that we
are to suppose that praise is an object of concern to
bad men? Surely every one of my readers must by
now have realised that oratory is in the main con-
cerned with the treatment of what is just and
honourable? Can a bad and unjust man speak on
such themes as the dignity of the subject demands ?
Nay, even if we exclude the most important aspects 9
of the question now before us, and make the im-
{X)ssible concession that the best and worst of men
may have the same talent, industry and learning, we
are still confronted by the question as to which of
the two is entitled to be called the better orator. The
answer is surely clear enough : it will be he who is
the better man. Consequently, the bad man and the
perfect orator can never be identical. For nothing 10
is perfect, if there exists something else that is
better. However, as I do not wish to appear to
adopt the practice dear to the Socratics of framing
answers to my own questions, let me assume the
existence of a man so obstinately blind to the truth
as to venture to maintain that a bad man equipped
with the same talents, industry and learning will
be not a whit inferior to the good man as an
orator ; and let me show that he too is mad.
There is one point at any rate which no one will 11
question, namely, that the aim of every speech is to
convince the judge that the case which it puts for-
ward is true and honourable. Well then, which will
do this best, the good man or the bad ? The good
man will without doubt more often say what is true
and honourable. But even supposing that his duty 12
should, as I shall show may sometimes happen, lead
him to make statements which are false, his words

361

QUINTILIAN

maiore cum fide necesse est audiatur. At malis
hominibus ex eontemptu opinionis et ignorantia recti
nonnunquam excidit ipsa simulatio. Inde immodeste

13 proponunt, sine pudore adfirmant. Sequitur in iis,
quae certum est effici non posse, deformis pertinacia
et irritus labor. Nam sicut in vita, ita in causis
quoque spes improbas habent. Frequenter autem
accidit, ut iis etiam vera dicentibus fides desit,
videaturque talis advocatus malae causae argumentum.

14 Nunc de iis dicendum est, quae mihi quasi con-
spiratione quadam vulgi reclamari videntur. Orator
ergo Demosthenes non fuit ? atqui malum virum
accepimus. Non Cicero ? atqui huius quoque mores
multi reprehenderunt. Quid agam ? magna responsi
invidia subeunda est, mitigandae sunt prius r ures.

15 Mihi enim nee Demosthenes tam gravi morum dig-
nus videtur invidia, ut omnia, quae in eum ab
inimicis congesta sunt, credam, cum et pulcherrima
eius in re publica consilia et finem vitae clarum

16 legam, nee Marco Tullio defuisse video in uUa parte
civis optimi voluntatem. Testimonio est actus nobi-
lissime consulatus, integerrime provincia administrata
et repudiatus vigintiviratus, et civilibus bellis, quae
362

BOOK XII. I. 12-16

are still certain to carry greater weight with his
audience. On the other hand bad men, in their
contempt for public opinion and their ignorance of
what is right, sometimes drop their mask unawares,
and are impudent in the statement of their case and
shameless in their assertions. Further, in their I?
attempt to achieve the impossible they display an
unseemly persistency and unavailing energy. For
in lawsuits no less than in the ordinary paths of
life, they cherish depraved expectations. But it
often happens that even when they tell the truth
they fail to win belief, and the mere fact that such
a man is its advocate is regarded as an indication of
the badness of the case.

I must now proceed to deal with the objections 14
which common opinion is practically unanimous in
bringing against this view. Was not Demosthenes
an orator ? And yet we are told that he was a bad
man. Was not Cicero an orator .'' And yet there
are many who have found fault with his character as
well. What am I to answer? My reply will be
highly unpopular and I must first attempt to con-
ciliate my audience. I do not consider that 16
Demosthenes deserves the serious reflexions that
have been made upon his character to such an
extent that I am bound to believe all the charges
amassed against him by his enemies ; for my reading
tells me that his public policy was of the noblest and
his end most glorious. Again, I cannot see that the 16
aims of Cicero were in any portion of his career other
than such as may become an excellent citizen. As
evidence I would cite the fact that his behaviour as
consul was magnificent and his administration of his
province a model of integrity, while he refused to

363

QUINTILIAN

in aetatem eius gravissima inciderunt, neque spe
neque metii declinatus animus, quo minus optimis

17 se partibus, id est rei publicae, iungeret. Parum
fortis videtur quibusdam, quibus optime respondit
ipse, non se timidum in suscipiendis, sed in providendis
penculis ; quod probavit morte quoque ipsa, quam

18 praestantissimo suscepit animo. Quodsi defuit his
viris summa virtus, sic quaerentibus, an oratores
fuerint, respondebo, quomodo Stoici, si interrogentur
an sapiens Zeno, an Cleanthes, an Chrysippus ipse,
respondeant, magnos quidem illos ac venerabiles,
non tamen id, quod natura hominis summum habet,

19 consecutos. Nam et Pythagoras non sapientem se,
ut qui ante eum fuerunt, sed studiosum sapientiae
vocari voluit. Ego tamen secundum communem
loquendi consuetudinem saepe dixi dicamque, per-
fectum oratorem esse Ciceronem ; ut amicos et bonos
viros et prudentissimos dicimus vulgo, quorum nihil
nisi perfecte sapienti datur. Sed cum proprie et ad
legem ipsam veritatis loquendum erit, eum quaeram

20 oratorem, quem et ille quaerebat. Quanquam enim
stetisse ijisum in fastigio eloquentiae fateor, ac vix,
quid adiici potuerit, invenio, fortasse inventurus,

* For tlie distribution of the Campanian lands.
' %. e. (pi\6(TO(pos, a term of which he was reputed the
inventor.

364

BOOK XII. I. 16-20

become one of the twenty commissioners,^ and in the
grievous civil wars which afflicted his generation
bevond all others, neither hope nor fear ever deterred
him from giving his support to the better party, that
is to say, to the interests of the common weal.
Some, it is true, regard him as lacking in courage. 17
The best answer to these critics is to be found in his
own words, to the effect that he was timid not in
confronting peril, but in anticipating it. And this
he proved also by the manner of his death, in meeting
which he displayed a singular fortitude. But even 18
if these two men lacked the perfection of virtue, I
will reply to those who ask if they were orators, in
the manner in which the Stoics would reply, if asked
whether Zeno, Cleanthes or Chrysippus himself were
wise men. I shall say that they were great men
deserving our veneration, but that they did not
attain to that which is the highest perfection
of man's nature. For did not Pythagoras desire 19
that he should not be called a wise man, like the
sages who preceded him, but rather a student of
wisdom ? 2 But for my own part, conforming to the
language of every day, I have said time and again,
and shall continue to say, that Cicero was a perfect
orator, just as in ordinary speech we call our iViends
good and sensible men, although neither of these
titles can really be given to any save to him that
has attained to perfect wisdom. But if I am called
upon to speak strictly and in accordance with the
most rigid laws of truth, I shall proclaim that I seek
to find that same perfect orator whom Cicero also
sought to discover. For while I admit that he stood 20
on the loftiest pinnacle of eloquence, and can dis-
cover scarcely a single deficiency in him, although I

365

QUINTILIAN

quod adliuc abscisurum putem fuisse (nam fere
sic docti iudicaverunt, plurimum in eo virtutum,
nonnihil fuisse vitiorum, et se ipse multa ex ilia iuve-
nili abundantia coercuisse testatur), tamen, quando
nee sapientis sibi nomen, minime sui contemptor,
asseruit et melius dicere, certe data longiore vita et
tempore^ ad componendum securiore, potuisset, non
maligne crediderim defuisse ei summam illam, ad

21 quam nemo propius aceessit. Et licebat, si aliter
sentirem, fortius id liberiusque defendere. An vero
M. Antonius neminem a se visum eloquentem, quod
tanto minus erat, professus est ; ipse etiam M. Tullius
quaerit adhuc eum et tantum imaginatur ac fingit,
ego non audeam dicere, aliquid in hac, quae super-
est, aeternitate inveniri posse eo, quod fuerit, per-

22 fectius ? Transeo illos, qui Ciceroni ac Demostheni
ne in eloquentia quidem satis tribuunt ; quanquam
neque ipsi Ciceroni Demosthenes videatur satis esse
perfectus, quern dormitare interim dicit, nee Cicero
Bruto Calvoque, qui certe compositionem illius etiam
apud ipsum reprehendunt, nee Asinio utrique, qui
vitia orationis eius etiam inimice pluribus locis
insequuntur.

* tempore, Burman: te, B.

» Brut. xci. 316. Oral. xxx. 107.

* Quintilian's reverence for Cicero is such that he feels
hampered in maintaining his thesis.
» See X. 1. 24.

366

BOOK XII. I. 20-2 2

might perhaps discover certain superfluities which I
think he would have pruned away (for the general
view of the learned is that he possessed many virtues
and a few faults, and he himself^ states that he has
succeeded in suppressing much of his youthful
exuberance), none the less, in view of the fact that,
although he had by no means a low opinion of him-
self, he never claimed to be the perfect sage, and,
had he been granted longer life and less troubled con-
ditions for the composition of his works, would doubt-
less have spoken better still, I shall not lay myself
open to the charge of ungenerous criticism, if I say
that I believe that he failed actually to achieve that
perfection to the attainment of which none have
approached more nearly, and indeed had I felt other- 21
wise in this connexion, I might have defended my
point with greater boldness and freedom.* Marcus
Antonius declared that he had seen no man who was
genuinely eloquent (and to be eloquent is a far less
achievement than to be an orator), while Cicero him-
self has failed to find his orator in actual life and
merely imagines and strives to depict the ideal. Shall
I then be afraid to say that in the eternity of time
that is yet to be, something more perfect may be found
than has yet existed ? I say nothing of those critics 22
who will not allow sufficient credit even for eloquence
to Cicero and Demosthenes, although Cicero himself
does not regard Demosthenes as flawless, but asserts
that he sometimes nods,* while even Cicero fails to
satisfy Brutus and Calvus (at any rate they criticised
his style to his face), or to win the complete approval
of either of the Asinii, who in various passages attack
the faults of his oratory in language which is positively
liostile.

367

QUINTILIAN

23 Concedamus sane, quod minime natura patitur,
repeitum esse aliquem malum virum summe diser-
tum : nihilo tamen minus oratorem eum negabo.
Nam nee omnibus, qui fuerint manu prompti, viri
fortis nomen concesserim, quia sine virtute intelligi

24 non potest fortitude. An ei, qui ad defendendas
causas advocatur, non est opus fide, quam nee cupi-
ditas corrumpat nee gratia avertat nee metus frangat ;
sed proditorem, transfugam, praevaricatorem dona-
bimus oratoris illo sacro nomine ? Quodsi medio-
cribus etiam patronis convenit haec, quae vulgo
dicitur, bonitas, cur non orator ille, qui nondum fuit,
sed potest esse, tam sit moribus quam dicendi virtute

25 perfectus ? Non enim forensem quandam instituimus
operam nee mercennariam vocem nee, ut asperi-
oribus verbis parcamus, non inutilem sane litium
advocatum, quem denique causidicum vulgo vocant,
sed virum cum ingenii natura praestantem tum vero
tot pulcherrimas artes penitus mente complexum,
datum tandem rebus humanis, qualem nulla antea
vetustas cognoverit, singularem perfectumque undi-

26 que, optima sentientem optimeque dicentem. In
hoc quota pars erit, quod aut innocentes tuebitur
aut improborum scelera compescet, aut in pecuni-
ariis quaestionibus veritati contra calumniam aderit?
Summus ille quidem in his quoque operibus fuerit,
sed maioribus clarius elucebit, cum regenda senatus
368

BOOK XII. I. 23-26

However, let us fly in the face of nature and 23
assume that a bad man has been discovered who is
endowed with the highest eloquence. I shall none
the less deny that he is an orator. For I should not
allow that every man who has shown himself ready
with his hands was necessarily a brave man, because
true courage cannot be conceived of without the
accompaniment of virtue. Surely the advocate who 24
is called to defend the accused requires to be a man
of honour, honour which greed cannot corrupt, in-
fluence seduce, or fear dismay. Shall we then dig-
nify the traitor, the deserter, the turncoat with the
sacred name of orator ? But if the quality which is
usually termed goodness is to be found even in quite
ordinary advocates, why should not the orator, who
has not yet existed, but may still be bom, be no less
perfect in character than in excellence of speech }
It is no hack-advocate, no hireling pleader, nor yet, 25
to use no harsher term, a serviceable attorney of the
class generally known as causidici, that I am seeking to
form, but rather a man who to extraordinary natural
gifts has added a thorough mastery of all the fairest
branches of knowledge, a man sent by heaven to be
tlie blessing of mankind, one to whom all history
can find no pwirallel, uniquely perfect in every detail
and utterly noble alike in thought and speech. How 26
small a portion of all these abilities will be required
'for the defence of the innocent, the repression of
crime or the support of truth against falsehood in
suits involving questions of money ? It is true that
our supreme orator will bear his part in such tasks,
but his powers will be displayed with brighter splen-
dour in greater matters than these, when he is
called upon to direct the counsels of the senate and

5^

QUINTILIAN

27 consilia et popularis error ad meliora ducendus. An
non talem quendam videtur finxisse Vergilius, quem
in seditione vulgi iam faces et saxa iaculantis mode-
ratorem dedit:

Turn pielate gravem ac mentis si forte virum quem
Conspexere, silent arrectisque auribus adstant ?

Habemus igitur ante omnia virum bonum^ post haec
adiiciet dicendi peritum :

Ille regit dictis animos et pectora mulcet.

28 Quid? non in bellis quoque idem ille vir, quem
instituimus, si sit ad proelium miles cohortandus^
ex mediis sapientiae praeceptis orationem trahet ?
Nam quomodo pugnam ineuntibus tot simul metus
laboris, dolorum, postremo mortis ipsius exciderint,
nisi in eorum locum pietas et fortitudo et honesti

29 praesens imago successerit? Quae certe melius per-
suadebit aliis qui prius persuaserit sibi. Prodit enim
se, quamlibet custodiatur, simulatio, nee unquam
tanta fuerit loquendi facultas, ut non titubet atque
haereat/ quotiens ab animo verba dissentiunt. Vir
autem malus aliud dicat necesse est quam sentit.

30 Bonos nunquam honestus sermo deficiet, nunquam
rerum optimarum (nam iidem etiam prudentes erunt)

^ atque haereat, Buttmann : adhaereat, B.

* Aen. i. 151 sqq,
37°

BOOK XII. I. 26-30

guide the people from the paths of error to better
things. Was not this the man conceived by Virgil 27
and described as quelling a riot when torches and
stones have begun to fly : ^

"Then, if before their eyes some statesman grave
Stand forth, with virtue and high service crowned.
Straight are they dumb and stand intent to hear."

Here then we have one who is before all else a
good man, and it is only after this that the poet adds
that he is skilled in speaking :

"His words their minds control, their passions soothe."

Again, will not this same man, whom we are striving 28
to form, if in time of war he be called upon to inspire
his soldiers with courage for the fray, draw for his
eloquence on the innermost precepts of philosophy ?
For how can men who stand upon the verge of battle
banish all the crowding fears of hardship, pain and
death from their minds, unless those fears be re-
placed by the sense of the duty that they owe
their country, by courage and the lively image of a
soldier's honour ? And assuredly the man who will 29
best inspire such feelings in others is he who has
first inspired tliem in himself. For however we strive
to conceal it, insincerity will always betray itself, and
there was never in any man so great eloquence as
would not begin to stumble and hesitate so soou as
his words ran counter to his inmost thoughts. NTow 30
a bad man cannot help speaking things other than
he feels. On the other hand, the good will never be
at a loss for honourable words or fail to find matter
full of virtue for utterance, since among his virtues
practical wisdom will be one. And even though his

37«

QUINTILIAN

inventio ; quae etiamsi lenociniis destituta sit, satis
tamen natura sua ornatur nee quidquam non diserte,

3 1 quod honeste, dicitur. Quare, iuventus, immo omnes
aetates, (neque enim rectae voluntati serum est
tempus ullum) totis mentibus hue tendamus, in hoc
elaboremus ; forsan et consummare contingat. Nam
si natura non prohibet et esse virum bonum et esse
dicendi peritum, cur non aliquis etiam unus utrumque
consequi possit ? cur autem non se quisque speret

32 fore ilium aliquem ? Ad quod si vires ingenii non
suffecerint, tamen ad quern usque modura processe-
rimus, meliores erimus ex utroque. Hoc certe procul
eximatur animo, rerum ^ pulcherrimam eloquentiam
cum vitiis mentis posse misceri. Facultas dicendi,
si in malos incidit, et ipsa iudicanda est malum ;
peiores enim illos facit, quibus contigit.

33 Videor mihi audire quosdam (neque enim deerunt
unquam, qui diserti esse quam boni malint) ilia
dicentes : Quid ergo tantum est artis in eloquentia ?
cur tu de coloribus et difficilium causarum defensi-
one, nonnihil etiam de confessione locutus es, nisi
aliquando vis ac facultas dicendi expugnat ipsam
veritatem ? Bonus enim vir non agit nisi bonas
causas, eas porro etiam sine doctrina satis per se

34 tiietur Veritas ipsa. Quibus ego, cum de meo pri-

^ rerum, Regius: rem, B.

* color is a technical term for " the particular aspect given
to a case by skilful manipulation of the facts — the 'gloss'
or ' varnish ' put on them by the accused or accuser." — Peter-
son on Quint, x. i. 116.

372

BOOK XII. I. 30-34

imagination lacks artifice to lend it charm, its own
nature will be ornament enough, for if honour dictate
the words, we shall find eloquence there as well.
Therefore, let those that are young, or rather let all 3 1
of us, whatever our age, since it is never too late to
resolve to follow what is right, strive with all our
hearts and devote all our efforts to the pursuit of virtue
and eloquence ; and perchance it may be granted to us
to attain to the perfection that we seek. For since
nature does not forbid the attainment of either, why
should not someone succeed in attaining both to-
gether ? And why should not each of us hope to be
that happy man ? But if our powers are inadequate 32
to such achievement, we shall still be the better for
the double effort in proportion to the distance which
we have advanced toward either goal. At any rate
let us banish from our hearts the delusion that
eloquence, the fairest of all things, can be combined
with vice. The power of speaking is even to be
accounted an evil when it is found in evil men ; for it
makes its possessors yet worse than they were before.

I think I hear certain persons (for there will 33
always be some who had rather be eloquent than
good) asking, " Why then is there so much art in con-
nexion with eloquence ? Why have you talked so
much of ' glosses,' ^ the methods of defence to be
employed in difficult cases, and sometimes even of
actual confession of guilt, unless it is the case that
the power and force of speech at times triumphs over
truth itself? For a good man will only plead good
cases, and those might safely be left to truth to
support without the aid of learning." Now, though 34
my reply to these critics will in the first place be
a defence of my own work, it will also explain what

373

QUINTILIAN

mum opere respondero, etiam pro boni viri officio,
si quando eum ad defensionem nocentium ratio
duxerit, satisfaciam. Pertractare enim, quomodo
aut pro falsis aut etiam pro iniustis aliquando dicatur,
non est inutile, vel propter hoc solum, ut ea facilius
et deprehendamus et refellamus ; quemadmodum
remedia melius adhibebit, cui nota quae nocent

35 fuerint. Neque enim Academici, cum in utramque
disserunt partem, non secundum alteram vivunt, nee
Carneades ille, qui Romae audiente Censorio Catone
non minoribus viribus contra iustitiam dicitur disse-
ruisse quam pridie pro iustitia dixerat, iniustus ipse
vir fuit. Verura et virtus quid sit, adversa ei malitia
detegit, et aequitas fit ex iniqui contemplatione
manifestior, et plurima contrariis probantur. Debent
ergo oratori sic esse adversariorum nota consilia ut

36 hostium imperatori. Verum et illud, quod prima
propositione durum videtur, potest adferre ratio, ut
vir bonus in defensione causae velit auferre ali-
quando iudici veritatem. Quod si quis a me pro-
poni mirabitur, (quanquam non est haec mea proprie
sententia, sed eorum, quos gravissimos sapientiae
magistros aetas vetus credidit) sic iudicet, pleraque
374

BOOK XII. I. 34-36

I consider to be the duty of a good man on occasions
when circumstances have caused him to under-
take the defence of the guilty. For it is by no
means useless to consider how at times we should
speak in defence of falsehood or even of injustice, if
only for this reason, that such an investigation will
enable us to detect and defeat them with the greater
ease, just as the physician who has a thorough
knowledge of all that can injure the health will be
all the more skilful in the prescription of remedies.
For the Academicians, although they will argue on 35
either side of a question, do not thereby commit
themselves to taking one of these two views as their
guide in life to the exclusion of the other, while the
famous Carneades, who is said to have spoken at
Rome in the presence of Cato the Censor, and to
have argued against justice with no less vigour than
he had argued for justice on the preceding day, was
not himself an unjust man. But the nature of virtue
is revealed by vice, its opposite, justice becomes yet
more manifest from the contemplation of injustice,
and there are many other things that are proved by
their contraries. Consequently the schemes of his
adversaries should be no less well known to the
orator than those of the enemy to a commander in
the field. But it is even true, although at first sight 36
it seems hard to believe, that tliere may be sound
reason why at times a good man who is appearing
for the defence should attempt to conceal the truth
from the judge. If any of my readers is surprised
at my making such a statement (although this
opinion is not of my own invention, but is derived
from those whom antiquity regarded as the greatest
teachers of wisdom), I would have him reflect that

375

QUINTILIAN

esse, quae non tam factis quam causis eorum vel

37 honesta fiant vel turpia. Nam si hominem occidere
saepe virtus, liberos necare nonnunquam pulcherri-
mum est, asperiora quaedam adhuc dictu, si com-
munis utilitas exegerit, facere conceditur, ne hoc
quidem nudum est intuendum, qualem causam vir

38 bonus, sed etiam quare et qua mente defendat. Ac
primum concedant mihi omnes oportet, quod Stoi-
corum quoque asperrimi confitentur, facturum ali-
quando virum bonum ut mendacium dicat, et quidem
nonnunquam levioribus causis, ut in pueris aegro-
tantibus utilitatis eorum gratia multa fingimus,

39 multa non facturi promittimus ; nedum si ab homine
occidendo grassator avertendus sit aut hostis pro
salute patriae fallendus ; ut hoc, quod alias in servis
quoque reprehendendum est, sit alias in ipso sapiente
laudandum. Id si constiterit, multa iam video posse
evenire, propter quae orator bene suscipiat tale
causae genus, quale remota ratione honesta non

40 recepisset. Nee hoc dico (quia severiores sequi
placet leges) pro patre, fratre, amico periclitantibus,
tametsi non mediocris haesitatio est, hinc iustitiae

BOOK XII. I. 36-40

there are many things which are made honourable
or the reverse not by the nature of the facts, but by
the causes from which they spring. For if to slay 37
a man is often a virtue and to put one's own children
to death is at times the noblest of deeds, and if it
is permissible in the public interest to do deeds
yet more hon-ible to relate than these, we should
assuredly take into consideration not solely and
simply what is the nature of the case which the
good man undertakes to defend, but what is his
reason and what his purpose in so doing. And first 38
of all everyone must allow, what even the sternest
of the Stoics admit, that the good man will some-
times tell a lie, and further that he will sometimes do
so for comparatively trivial reasons ; for example we
tell countless lies to sick children for their good and
make many promises to them which we do not intend
to perform. And there is clearly far more justifica- 39
tion for lying when it is a question of diverting
an assassin from his victim or deceiving an enemy
to save our country. Consequently a practice which
is at times reprehensible even in slaves, may on
other occasions be praiseworthy even in a wise man.
If this be granted, I can see that there will be many
possible emergencies such as to justify an orator in
undertaking cases of a kind which, in the absence of
any honourable reason, he would have refused to
touch. In saying this I do not mean that we should 40
be ready under any circumstances to defend our
father, brother or friend when in peril (since I
hold that we should be guided by stricter rules in
such matters), although such contingencies may
well cause us no little perplexity, when we have to
decide between the rival claims of justice and natural

VOL. IV. N 377

QUINTILIAN

proposita imagine, inde pietatis. Nihil dubii relin-
quamus. Sit aliquis insidiatus tyranno atque ob id
reus : utrumne salvum eum nolet is, qui a nobis
iinitur, orator ? an, si tuendum susceperit, non tam
falsis defendet, quam qui apud iudices malam causam

41 tuetur? Quid si quaedam bene facta damnaturus
est iudex, nisi ea non esse facta convicerimus, non
vel hoc modo servabit orator non innocentem modo,
sed etiam laudabilem civem ? Quid si quaedam
iusta natura, sed condicione temporum inutilia civi-
tati sciemus, nonne utemur arte dicendi bona qui-

42 dem, sed malis artibus simili ? Ad hoc nemo
dubitabit, quin, si nocentes mutari in bonam mentem
aliquo modo possint, sicut posse conceditur, salvos
esse eos magis e re publica sit quam puniri. Si
liqueat igitur oratori futurum bonum virum, cui vera

43 obiicientur, non id aget, ut salvus sit? Da nunc,
ut crimine manifesto prematur dux bonus et sine
quo vincere hostera ^ civitas non possit : nonne ei
communis utilitas oratorem advocabit? Certe Fa-
bricius Cornelium Rufinum, et alioqui malum civem

' hcstem, Obreeht : honestem, B.

BOOK XII. I. 40-43

affection. But let us put the problem beyond all
question of doubt. Suppose a man to have plotted
against a tyrant and to be accused of having done so.
Which of the two will the orator, as defined by us,
desire to save ? And if he undertakes the defence
of the accused, will he not employ falsehood with
no less readiness than the advocate who is defending
a bad case before a jury? Again, suppose that the 41
judge is likely to condemn acts which were rightly
done, unless we can convince him that they were
never done. Is not this another case where the
orator will not shrink even from lies, if so he may
save one who is not merely innocent, but a praise-
worthy citizen ? Again, suppose that we realise that
certain acts are just in themselves, though prejudicial
to the state under existing circumstances. Shall we
not then employ methods of speaking which, despite
the excellence of their intention, bear a close re-
semblance to fraud. Further, no one will hesitate 42
for a moment to hold the view that it is in the
interests of the commonwealth that guilty persons
should be acquitted rather than punished, if it be
possible thereby to convert them to a better state ot
mind, a possibility which is generally conceded. If
then it is clear to an orator that a man who is guilty
of the offences laid to his charge will become a good
man, will he not strive to secure his acquittal ?
Imagine for example that a skilful commander, with- 43
out whose aid the state cannot hope to crush its
enemies, is labouring under a charge which is obvi-
ously true : will not the common interest irresistibly
summon our orator to defend him? We know at
any rate that Fabricius publicly voted for and secured
the election to the consulate of Cornelhis Rufinus,

379

QUINTILIAN

et sibi inimicum, tamen, quia utilem sciebat ducem,
imminente bello, palam consul em suffragio suo fecit
atque id mirantibus quibusdam respondit, a cive se
spoliari malle quam ab hoste venire. Ita, si fuisset
orator, non defendisset eundem Rufinum vel mani-

44 festi peculatus reum? Multa dici possunt similia,
sed vel unum ex iis quodlibet sufficit. Non enim
hoc agimus, ut istud illij quem formamus, viro saepe
sit faciendum ; sed ut, si talis coegerit ratio, sit
tamen vera finitio, oratorem esse vintm bonum dicendi

45 peritum. Praecipere vero ac discere, quomodo etiam
probatione difficilia tractentur, necessarium est.
Nam frequenter etiam optimae causae similes sunt
malis, et innocens reus multis verisimilibus pre-
mitur ; quo fit, ut eadem actionis ratione defendendus
sit, qua si nocens asset. lam innumerabilia sunt
bonis causis malisque communia, testes, litterae, sus-
piciones, opiniones. Non alitor autem verisimilia
quam vera et confirmantur et refelluntur. Qua-
propter, ut res feret, flectetur oratio manente honesta
voluntate.

II. Quando igitur orator est vir bonus, is autem
citra virtutem intelligi non potest, virtus, etiamsi

* The date is uncertain, but the reference must be either to
the Samnite war of 290 or the war with Pyrrhus,

BOOK XII. I. 43-11. I

despite the fact that he was a bad citizen and his
personal enemy, merely because he knew that he
was a capable general and the state was threatened
with war.^ And when certain persons expressed
their surprise at his conduct, he replied that he had
rather be robbed by a fellow-citizen than be sold as
a slave by the enemy. Well then, had Fabricius
been an orator, would he not have defended Rufinus
against a charge of peculation, even though his
guilt were as clear as day ? I might produce many 44
other similar examples, but one of them taken at
random is enough. For my purpose is not to
assert that such tasks will often be incumbent
on the orator whom I desire to form, but merely to
show that, in the event of his being compelled to
take such action, it will not invalidate our definition
of an orator as a "good man, skilled in speaking."
And it is necessary also both to teach and learn how 45
to establish difficult cases by proof. For often even
the best cases have a resemblance to bad and, the
charges which tell heavily against an innocent per-
son frequently have a strong resemblance to the
truth. Consequently, the same methods of defence
have to be employed that would be used if he were
guilty. Further, there are countless elements which
are common to both good cases and bad, such as oral
and documentary evidence, suspicions and opinions,
all of which have to be established or disposed of in
the same way, whether they be true or merely re-
semble the truth. Therefore, while maintaining his
integrity of purpose, the orator will modify his plead-
ing to suit the circumstances.

II. Since then the orator is a good man, and such
goodness cannot be conceived as existing apart from

QUINTILIAN

quosdam impetus ex natura sumit^ tamen perficienda
doctrina est : mores ante omnia oratori studiis erunt
excolendi atque omnis honesti iustique disciplina
pertractanda, sine qua nemo nee vir bonus esse nee

2 dicendi peritus potest. Nisi forte accedemus iis, qui
natura constare mores et nihil adiuvari disciplina
putant ; scilicet ut ea quidem, quae manu fiunt,
atque eorum etiam contemptissima confiteantur egere
doctoribuSj virtutem vero, qua nihil homini, quo ad
deos immortales propius accederet, datura est, obviam
et illaboratam, tantum quia nati simus, habeamus.
Abstinens erit qui id ipsum, quid sit abstinentia,

3 ignoret ? Et fortis qui metus doloris, mortis, super-
stitionis nulla ratione purgaverit ? Et iustus qui
aequi bonique tractatum, qui leges, quaeque natura
sunt omnibus datae quaeque propriae populis et
gentibus constitutae, nunquam eruditiore aliquo
sermone tractarit ? O quam istud parvum ^ putant,

4 quibus tam facile videtur I Sed hoc transeo, de quo
neminem, qui litteras vel primis, ut aiunt, labris
degustarit, dubitaturum puto. Ad illud sequens
praevertar, ne dicendi quidem satis peritum fore,
qui non et naturae vim omnem penitus perspexerit

6 et mores praeceptis ac ratione formarit. Neque

* parvum, Spalding: parum, B.
38a

BOOK XII. II. 1-5

virtue, virtue, despite the fact that it is in part
derived from certain natural impulses, will require to
be perfected by instruction. The orator must above
all things devote his attention to the formation of
moral character and must acquire a complete know-
ledge of all that is just and honourable. For without
this knowledge no one can be either a good man or
skilled in speaking, unless indeed we agree with 2
those who regard morality as intuitive and as owing
nothing to instruction : indeed they go so far as to
acknowledge that handicrafts, not excluding even
those which are most despised among them, can
only be acquired by the result of teaching, whereas
virtue, which of all gifts to man is that which makes
him most near akin to the immortal gods, comes to
him without search or effort, as a natural concomitant
of birth. But can the man who does not know what
abstinence is, claim to be truly abstinent ? or brave, if 3
he has never purged his soul of the fears of pain, death
and superstition ? or just, if he has never, in language
approaching that of philosophy, discussed the nature
of virtue and justice, or of the laws that have been
given to mankind by nature or established among
individual peoples and nations ? What a contempt
it argues for such themes to regard them as being
so easy of comprehension ! However, I pass this by ; 4
for I am sure that no one with the least smattering
of literary culture will have the slightest hesitation
in agreeing with me. I will proceed to my next
point, that no one will achieve sufficient skill even in
speaking, unless he makes a thorough study of all
the workings of nature and forms his character on
the precepts of philosophy and the dictates of reason.
For it is with good cause that Lucius Crassus, in the 5

383

QUINTILIAN

enim frustra in tertio de Oratore libro L. Crassus
cuncta, quae de aequo, iusto, vero, bono deque iis,
quae sunt contra posita, dicantur, propria esse ora-
toris adfirmat, ac philosophos, cum ea dicendi viribus
tuentur, uti rhetorum armis, non suis. Idem tamen
confitetur, ea iam esse a philosophia petenda, vide-
licet quia magis haec illi videtur in possessione earum

6 rerum fuisse. Hinc etiam illud est, quod Cicero
pluribus libris et epistolis testatur dicendi facultatem
ex intimis sapientiae fontibus fluere, ideoque ali-
quamdiu praeceptores eosdem fuisse morum atque
dicendi. Quapropter haec exhortatio mea non eo
pertinet ut esseoratoremphilosophum velim, quando
non alia vitae secta longius a civilibus officiis atque

7 ab omni munere oratoris recessit. Nam quis philoso-
phorum aut in iudiciis frequens aut clarus in con-
tionibus fuit ? Quis denique in ipsa, quam maxime
plerique praecipiunt, rei publicae administratione
versatus est? Atqui ego ilium, quern instituo, Roma-
num quendam velim esse sapientem, qui non secretis
disputationibus, sed rerum experimentis atque operi-

8 bus vere civilem virum exhibeat. Sed quia deserta
ab his, qui se ad eloquentiam contulerunt, studia
sapientiae non iam in actu suo atque in hac fori luce
versantur, sed in porticus et in gj'mnasia primum,

* Chs. XX. xxvii. and xxxi.

BOOK XII. II. 5-8

third book of the de Oratore,^ affirms that all that is
said concerning equity, justice, truth and the good,
and their opposites, forms part of the studies of an
orator, and that the philosophers, when they exert
their powers of speaking to defend these virtues, are
using the weapons of rhetoric, not their own. But
he also confesses that the knowledge of these sub-
jects must be sought from the philosophers for the
reason that, in his opinion, philosophy has more
effective possession of them. And it is for the same 6
reason that Cicero in several of his books and letters
proclaims that eloquence has its fountain-head in the
most secret springs of wisdom, and that consequently
for a considerable time the instructors of morals and
of eloquence were identical. Accordingly this ex-
hortation of mine must not be taken to mean that I
wish the orator to be a philosopher, since there is no
other way of life that is further removed from the
duties of a statesman and the tasks of an orator.
For what philosopher has ever been a frequent 7
speaker in the courts or won renown in public
assemblies ? Nay, what philosopher has ever taken a
prominent part in the government of the state, which
forms the most frequent theme of their instructions ?
None the less I desire that he, whose character I am
seeking to mould, should be a " wise man " in the
Roman sense, that is, one who reveals himself as a true
statesman, not in the discussions of the study, but
in the actual practice and experience of life. But 8
inasmuch as the study of philosophy has been
deserted by those who have turned to the pursuit of
eloquence, and since philosophy no longer moves in
its true sphere of action and in the broad daylight of
the forum, but has retired first to porches and gyra-

385

QUINTILIAN

mox in conventus scholarum recesserunt: id, quod
est oratori necessarium nee a dicendi praeceptoribus
traditur, ab iis petere nimirum neeesse est, apud
quos remansit, evolvendi penitus auctores, qui de
virtute praecipiunt, ut oratoris vita cum scientia
9 divinarum rerum sit humanarumque coniuncta. Quae
ipsae quanto maiores ac pulchriores viderentur, si
illas ii docerent, qui etiam eloqui praestantissime
possent ? Utinamque sit tempus unquam, quo per-
fectus aliquis, qualem optamus, orator hanc artem
superbo nomine et vitiis quorundam bona eius cor-
rumpentium invisam vindicet sibi ae, velut rebus

10 repetitis, in corpus eloquentiae adducat. Quae
quidem cum sit in tris divisa partes, naturalem,
moralem, rationalem, qua tandem non est cum
oratoris opere coniuncta ?

Nam ut ordinem retro agamus, de ultima ilia,
quae tota versatur in verbis, nemo dubitaverit, si
et proprietates vocis cuiusque nosse et ambigua
aperire et perplexa discernere et de falsis iudicare
et colligere ac resolvere quae velis oratorum est.

11 Quanquam ea non tam est minute atque concise
in actionibus utendum quam in disputationibus, quia
386

BOOK XII. n. 8-1 1

nasia and finally to the gatherings of the schools^ all
that is essential for an orator, and yet is not taught
by the professors of eloquence, must undoubtedly be
sought from those persons in whose possession it
has remained. The authors who have discoursed on
the nature of virtue must be read through and
through, that the life of the orator may be wedded
to the knowledge of things human and divine. But 9
how much greater and fairer would such subjects
appear if those who taught them were also those
who could give them most eloquent expression ! O
that the day may dawn when the perfect orator of
our heart's desire shall claim for his own possession
that science that has lost the affection of mankind
through the arrogance of its claims and the vices of
some that have brought disgrace upon its virtues,
and shall restore it to its place in the domain of
eloquence, as though he had been victorious in a
trial for the restoration of stolen goods ! And since 10
philosophy falls into three divisions, physics, ethics
and dialectic, which, I ask you, of these depart-
ments is not closely connected with the task of the
orator ?

Let us reverse the order just given and deal first
with the third department which is entirely con-
cerned with words. If it be true that to know the
properties of each word, to clear away ambiguities,
to unravel perplexities, to distinguish between truth
and falsehood, to prove or to refute as may be
desired, all form part of the functions of an orator,
who is there that can doubt the truth of my conten-
tion? I grant that we shall not have to employ 11
dialectic with such minute attention to detail when
we are pleading in the courts as when we are

^87

QUINTILIAN

non docere modo, sed movere etiam ac delectare
audientes debet orator, ad quod impetu quoque ac
viribus et decore est opus ; ut vis amnium maior est
altis ripis multoque gurgitis tractu fluentium quam

12 tenuis aquae et obiectu lapillorum resultantis. Et
ut palaestrici doctores illos, quos numeros vocant,
non idcirco discentibus tradunt, ut lis omnibus ii, qui
didicerint, in ipso luctandi certamine utantur (plus
enim pondere et firmitate et spiritu agitur), sed ut
subsit copia ilia, ex qua unum aut alterum, cuius se

13 occasio dederit, efficiant, ita haec pars dialectica, sive
illam dicere malumus disputatricem, ut est utilis
saepe et finitionibus et comprehensionibus et se-
parandis quae sunt differentia, et resolvenda ambigui-
tate, distinguendo, dividendo, illiciendo, implicando,
ita, si totum sibi vindicaverit in foro certamen, obstabit
melioribus et sectas ad tenuitatem suam vires ipsa

14 subtilitate consumet. Itaque reperias quosdam in
disputando mire callidos, cum ab ilia cavillatione
discesserint, non magis sufficere in aliquo graviore
actu quam parva quaedam animalia, quae in angustiis
mobilia campo deprehenduntur.

15 lam quidem pars ilia moralis, quae dicitur Ethice,
certe tota oratori est accommodata. Nam in tanta
388

BOOK XII. II. 11-15

engaged in philosophical debate, since the orator's
duty is not merely to instruct, but also to move and
delight his audience ; and to succeed in doing this
he needs a strength, impetuosity and grace as well.
For oratory is like a river : the current is stronger
when it flows within deep banks and with a mighty
flood, than when the waters are shallow and broken
by the pebbles that bar their way. And just as 12
the trainers of the wrestling school do not impart
the various throws to their pupils that those who
have learnt them may make use of all of them in
actual wrestling matches (for weight and strength
and wind count for more than these), but that they
may have a store from which to draw one or two
of such tricks, as occasion may offer; even so the 13
science of dialectic, or if you prefer it of disputa-
tion, while it is often useful in definition, inference,
differentiation, resolution of ambiguity, distinction
and classification, as also in luring on or entangling
our opponents, yet if it claim to assume the entire
direction of the struggles of the forum, will merely
stand in the way of arts superior to itself and by its
very subtlety will exhaust the strength that has
been pared down to suit its limitations. As a 14
result you will find that certain persons who show
astonishing skill in philosophical debate, as soon as
they quit the sphere of their quibbles, are as help-
less in any case that demands more serious pleading
as those small animals which, though nimble enough
in a confined space, are easily captured in an open
field.

Proceeding to moral philosophy or ethics, we may 16
note that it at any rate is entirely suited to the
orator. For vast as is the variety of cases (since in

389

QUINTILIAN

causarum^ sicut superioribus libris diximus, varietate,
cum alia coniectura quaerantur, alia finitionibus con-
cludantur, alia iure summoveantur vel transferantur,
alia colligantur vel ipsa inter se concurrant vel in
diversum ambiguitate dueantur, nulla fere did potest,
cuius non parte in aliqua tractatus aequi ac boni
reperiatur, plerasque vero esse quis nescit, quae

16 totae in sola qualitate consistant? In consiliis vero
quae ratio suadendi est ab honesti quaestione se-
posita? Quin ilia etiam pars tertia, quae laudandi
ac vituperandi officiis continetur, nempe in tractatu

17 recti pravique versatur. An de iustitia, fortitudine,
abstinentia, temperantia, pietate non pluritna dicet
orator? Sed ille vir bonus, qui haec non vocibus
tantum sibi nota atque nominibus aurium tenus in
usum linguae perceperit, sed qui virtutes ipsas mente
complexus ita sentiat, nee in cogitando ita laborabit

18 sed, quod sciet, vere dicet. Cum sit autem omnis gene-
ralis quaestio speciali potentior, quia universo pars
continetur, non utique accedit parti quod universum
est, profecto nemo dubitabit, generales quaestiones

19 in illo maxime studiorum more versa tas. lam vero
cum sint multa propriis brevibusque comprehen-

* See III. vi. 45. ' See iii. vi. 23. * See iii. vi. 15.

* Probably an allusion to contradictory laws. See vii, vii.

* See VII. ix.

39°

BOOK XII. II. 15 19

them, as I have pointed out in previous books, we seek
to discover certain points by conjecture,^ reach our
conclusions in others by means of definition,^ dispose
of others on legal grounds ^ or by raising the ques-
tion of competence,"^ while other points are estab-
lished by syllogism 2 and others involve contradic-
tions* or are diversely interpreted owing to some
ambiguity of language 5), there is scarcely a single
one which does not at some point or another involve
the discussion of equity and virtue, while there are
also, as everyone knows, not a few which turn
entirely on questions of quality. Again in delib- 16
erative assemblies how can we advise a policy without
raising the question of what is honourable ? Nay,
even the third department of oratory, which is
concerned with the tasks of praise and denunciation,
must without a doubt deal with questions of right
and wrong. For the orator will assuredly have 17
much to say on such topics as justice, fortitude,
abstinence, self-control and piety. But the good
man, who has come to the knowledge of these things
not by mere hearsay, as though they were just words
and names for his tongue to employ, but has grasped
the meaning of virtue and acquired a true feeling for
it, will never be perplexed when he has to think out
a problem, but will speak out truly what he
knows. Since, however, o^enerfl/ questions are always 18
more important than special (for the particular is
contained in the universal, while the universal is
never to be regarded as something superimposed on
the particular), everyone will readily admit that the
studies of which we are speaking are pre-eminently
concerned with general questions. Further, since 19
there are numerous points which require to be

391

QUINTILIAN

sionibus finienda (unde etiam status causarum dicitur
finitivus), nonne ad id quoque instrui ab iis^ qui plus
in hoc studii dederunt, oportet ? Quid ? non quae-
stio iuris omnis aut verborum proprietate aut aequi
disputatione aut voluntatis coniectura continetur?
quorum pars ad rationalem, pars ad moralem tracta-

20 turn redundat. Ergo natura permixta est omnibus
istis oratio, quae quidem oratio est vera. Nam
ignara quidem huiusce doctrinae loquacitas erret
necesse est, ut quae vel nullos vel falsos duces
habeat.

Pars vero naturalis, cum est ad exercitationem
dicendi tanto ceteris uberior, quanto maiore spiritu
de divinis rebus quam humanis eloquendum est,
turn illam etiam moralem, sine qua nulla esse, ut

21 docuimus, oratio potest, totam complectitur. Nam
si regitur providentia mundus, administranda certe
bonis viris erit res publica ; si divina nostris animis
origo, tendendum ad virtutem nee voluptatibus ter-
reni corporis serviendum. An haec non frequenter
tractabit orator ? lam de auguriis, responsis, religione
denique omni, de quibus maxima saepe in senatu
consilia versata sunt, non erit ei disserendum, si

* See III. vi. 31.

* i e. natural philosophy in the widest sense,
» §15.

392

BOOK XII. II. 19-21

determined by appropriate and concise definitions
(hence the definitive basts^ of cases), it is surely
desirable that the orator should be instructed in
such things by those who have devoted special
attention to the subject. Again, does not every
question of law turn either on the precise meaning
of words, the discussion of equity, or conjecture as
to the intention — subjects which in part encroach on
the domain of dialectic and in part on that of ethics ?
Consequently all oratory involves a natural admixture 20
of all these philosophic elements — at least, that is to
say, all oratory that is worthy of the name. For
mere garrulity that is ignorant of all such learning
must needs go astray, since its guides are either
non-existent or false.

Physics 2 on the other hand is far richer than the
other branches of philosophy, if viewed from the
standpoint of providing exercise in speaking, in
proportion as a loftier inspiration is required to
speak of things divine than of things human; and
further it includes within its scope the whole of
ethics, which as we have shown' are essential to the
very existence of oratory. For, if the world is 21
governed by providence, it will certainly be the
duty of all good men to bear their part in the
administration of the state. If the origin of our
souls be divine, we must win our way towards virtue
and abjure the service of the lusts of our earthly
body. Are not these themes which the orator will
frequently be called upon to handle ? Again there
are questions concerned with auguries and oracles
or any other religious topic (all of them subjects
that have often given rise to the most important de-
bates in the senate) on which the orator 'will have to

393

QUINTILIAN

quidem^ ut nobis placet, futurus est vir civilis idem ?
Quae denique intelligi saltern potest eloquentia

22 hominis optima nescientis ? Haec si ratione mani-
festa non essent^ exemplis tamen crederemus. Si-
quidem et Periclem, cuius eloquentiae, etiamsi nulla
ad nos monumenta venerunt, vim tamen quandam
incredibilem cum historici, tum etiam, liberrimum
hominum genus, comici veteres tradunt, Anaxagorae
physici constat auditorem fuisse, et Demosthenemj
principem omnium Graeciae oratorum, dedisse ope-

23 ram Platoni. Nam M. Tullius, non tantum se debere
scholis rhetorum, quantum Academiae spatiis, fre-
quenter ipse testatus est ; neque se tanta in eo
unquam fudisset ^ ubertas, si ingenium suum consepto
fori, non ipsius rerum naturae finibus terminasset.

Verum ex hoc alia mihi quaestio exoritur, quae
secta conferre plurimum eloquentiae possit, quan-
quam ea non inter multas potest esse contentio.

24 Nam in primis nos Epicurus a se ipse dimittit, qui
fugere omnem disciplinam navigatione quam velo-
cissima iubet. Neque vero Aristippus, summum in
voluptate corporis bonum ponens, ad hunc nos laborem
hortetur. Pyrrhon quidem quas in hoc opere habere
partes potest? cui iudices esse, apud quos verba
faciat, et reum, pro quo loquatur, et senatum, in

* fudisset, Badius : fuisset, MSS.

1 Or. iii- 12.

2 iraiSflav iraffav aKdrtov apdfitvos <l>evyt.

394

BOOK XII. II. 21-24

discourse, if be is also to be the statesman we
would have him be. And finally, how can we con-
ceive of any real eloquence at all proceeding from
a man who is ignorant of all that is best in the
world .'* If our reason did not make these facts 22
obvious, we should still be led by historical examples
to believe their truth. For Pericles, whose elo-
quence, despite the fact that it has left no visible
record for posterity, was none the less, if we may
believe the historians and that free-speaking tribe,
the old comic poets, endowed with almost incredible
force, is known to have been a pupil of the physicist
Anaxagoras, while Demosthenes, greatest of all the
orators of Greece, sat at the feet of Plato. As for 23
Cicero, he has often proclaimed ^ the fact that he
owed less to the schools of rhetoric than to the
walks of Academe : nor would he ever have developed
such amazing fertility of talent, had he bounded his
genius by the limits of the forum and not by the
frontiers of nature herself.

But this leads me to another question as to which
school of philosophy is like to prove of most service
to oratory, although there are only a few that can be
said to contend for this honour. For in the first 24
place Epicurus banishes us from his presence without
more ado, since he bids all his followers to fly from
learning in the swiftest ship that they can find.^
Nor would Aristippus, who regards the highest good
as consisting in physical pleasure, be likely to exhort
us to the toils entailed by our study. And what
part can Pyrrho have in the work that is before us?
For he will have doubts as to whether there exist
judges to address, accused to defend, or a senate
where he can be called upon to speak his opinion.

395

QUINTILIAN

26 quo sit dicenda sententia, non liquebit. Academiam
quidam utilissimam credunt, quod mos in utramque
partem disserendi ad exercitationem forensium cau-

.L sarum proxime accedat. Adiiciunt loco probationis,
quod ea praestantissimos in eloquentia viros ediderit.
Peripatetici studio quoque se quodam oratorio iactant ;
nam theses dicere exercitationis gratia fere est ab
lis institutum. Stoici, sicut copiam nitoremque elo-
quentiae fere praeceptoribus suis defuisse concedant
necesse est, ita nullos aut probare acrius aut con-

26 cludere subtilius contendunt. Sed haee inter ipsos,
qui velut Sacramento rogati vel etiam superstitione
constricti nefas ducunt a suscepta semel persuasione
discedere, Oratori vero nihil est necesse in cuius-

27 quam iurare leges. Maius enim est opus atque
praestantius, ad quod ipse tendit, et cuius est velut
candidatus, si quidem est futurus cum vitae, turn
etiam eloquentiae laude perfectus. Quare in ex-
emplum bene dicendi facundissimum quemque pro-
ponet sibi ad imitandum, moribus vero formandis
quam honestissima praecepta rectissimamque ad
virtutem viam deliget. Exercitatione quidem utetur
omni, sed tamen erit plurimus in maximis quibusque

28 ac natura pulcherrimis. Nam quae potest materia

^ See II. i. 9. in. v. 5. and 10.

BOOK XII. II. 24-28

Some authorities hold that the Academy will be the 25
most useful school, on the ground that its habit of
disputing on both sides of a question approaches
most nearly to the actual practice of the courts.
And by way of proof they add the fact that this
school has produced speakers highly renowned for
their eloquence. The Peripatetics also make it their
boast that they have a form of study which is near
akin to oratory. For it was with them in the main
that originated the practice of declaiming on general
questions ^ by way of exercise. The Stoics, though
driven to admit that, generally speaking,their teachers
have been deficient both in fullness and charm of
eloquence, still contend that no men can prove more
acutely or draw conclusions with greater subtlety
than themselves. But all these arguments take 26
place within their own circle, for, as though they
were tied by some solemn oath or held fast in the
bonds of some superstitious belief, they consider that
it is a crime to abandon a conviction once formed.
On the other hand, there is no need for an orator to
swear allegiance to any one philosophic code. For 27
he has a greater and nobler aim, to which he directs
all his efforts with as much zeal as if he were a
candidate for office, since he is to be made perfect
not only in the glory of a virtuous life, but in that of
eloquence as well. He will consequently select as
his models of eloquence all the greatest masters of
oratory, and will choose the noblest precepts and
the most direct road to virtue as the means for
the formation of an upright character. He will
neglect no form of exercise, but will devote special
attention to those which are of the highest and
fairest nature. For what subject can be found more 28

397

QUINTILIAN

reperiri ad graviter copioseque dicendum magis
abundans quam de virtute, de re publica, de provi-
dential de origine animorum, de amicitia ? Haec
sunt, quibus mens pariter atque oratio insurgat, quae
vere bona, quid mitiget metus, coerceat cupiditates,
eximat nos opinionibus vulgi animumque caelestem
erigat.^

29 Neque ea solum, quae talibus disciplinis conti-
nentur, sed magis etiam, quae sunt tradita antiquitus
dicta ac facta praeclare, et nosse et animo semper
agitare conveniet. Quae profecto nusquam plura
maioraque quam in nostrae civitatis monumentis

30 reperientur. An fortitudinem, iustitiam, fidem, con-
tinentiam, frugalitatem, contemptum doloris ac
mortis melius alii docebunt quam Fabricii, Curii,
Reguli, Decii, Mucii aliique iunumerabiles ? Quan-
tum enim Graeei praeceptis valent, tantum Romani,

31 quod est maius, exemplis. Tantum quod non cognitis
ille rebus adquieverit,^ qui non modo proximum
tempus lucemque praesentem intueri satis credat,
sed omnem posteritatis memoriam spatium vitae
honestae et curriculum laudis existimet. Hinc mihi
ille iustitiae haustus bibat, hinc sumptam libertatem
in causis atque consiliis praestet. Neque erit per-

^ erigat added by Meister.

^ cognitis ille rebus adcjuieverit, HcUm, Bonnell i cognatia

ide rebus admoveri, B,.

^-^-jsi .:•?', jsi* fete »'"

398

BOOK XII. II. 28-31

fully adapted to a rich and weighty eloquence than
the topics of virtue, politics, providence, the origin
of the soul and friendship .'' The themes which tend
to elevate mind and language alike are questions
such as what things are truly good, what means there
are of assuaging fear, restraining the passions and
lifting us and the soul that came from heaven clear
of the delusions of the common herd.

But it is desirable that we should not restrict our 29
study to the precepts of philosophy alone. It is still
more important that we should know and ponder
continually all the noblest sayings and deeds that have
been handed down to us from ancient times. And
assuredly we shall nowhere find a larger or more
remarkable store of these than in the records of our
own country. Who will teach courage, justice, 30
loyalty, self-control, simplicity, and contempt of
grief and pain better than men like Fabricius, Curius,
Regulus, Decius, Mucins and countless others ? For
if the Greeks bear away the palm for moral precepts,
Rome can produce more striking examples of moral
performance, which is a far greater thing. But the 31
man who does not believe that it is enough to fix
his eyes merely on his own age and his own transitory
life, but regards the space allotted for an honourable
life and the course in which glory's race is run as
conditioned solely by the memory of posterity, will
not rest content with a mere knowledge of the
events of history. No, it is from the thought of
posterity that he must inspire his soul with justice
and derive that freedom of spirit which it is his duty
to display when he pleads in the courts or gives
counsel in the senate. No man will ever be the
consummate orator of whom we are in quest unless

399

QUINTILIAN

fectus orator, nisi qui honeste dicere et sciet et
audebit.

III. luris quoque civilis necessaria huic viro
scientia est et morum ac religionum eius rei publicae,
quam capesset. Nam quails esse suasor in consiliis
publicis privatisve poterit tot rerum, quibus praecipue
civitas continetur, ignarus ? Quo autem modo patro-
num se causarum non falso dixerit, qui, quod est in
causis potentissimum, sit ab altero petiturus, paene
non dissimilis iis, qui poetarum scripta pronuntiant?

2 Nam quodammodo mandata perferet, et ea, quae sibi
a iudice credi postulaturus est, aliena fide dicet, et
ipse litigantium auxiliator egebit auxilio. Quod ut
fieri nonnunquam minore incommodo possit, cum
domi praecepta et composita et sicut cetera, quae
in causa sunt, inde^ discendo cognita ad iudicem
perfert, quid fiet in iis quaestionibus, quae subito
inter ipsas actiones nasci solent ? non deformiter
respectet et inter subsellia minores advocatos in-

3 terroget ? Potest autem satis diligenter accipere,
quae turn audiet, cum ei dicenda sunt, aut fortiter
adfirmare aut ingenue pro suis dicere ? Possit in
actionibus : quid fiet in altercatione, ubi occurren-
dum continuo, nee libera ad discendum mora est?

',' iagrjf) * inde, Halm: in, MSS.
400

BOOK XII. 11. 31-111. 3

he has both the knowledge and the courage to speak
in accordance with the promptings of honour.

III. Our orator will also require a knowledge of
civil law and of the custom and religion of the state
in whose life he is to bear his part. For how will he
be able to advise either in public or in private, if he
is ignorant of all the main elements that go to make
the state? How can he truthfully call himself an
advocate if he has to go to others to acquire that
knowledge which is all-important in the courts ?
He will be little better than if he were a reciter of
the poets. For he will be a mere transmitter of the :
instructions that others have given him, it will be on
the authority of others that he propounds what he
asks the judge to believe, and he whose duty it is to
succour the litigant will himself be in need of succour.
It is true that at times this may be effected with but
little inconvenience, if what he advances for the
edification of the judge has been taught him and
composed in the seclusion of his study and learnt by
heart there like other elements of the case. But
what will he do, when he is confronted by unexpected
problems such as frequently arise in the actual
course of pleading? Will he not disgrace him-
self by looking round and asking the junior counsel
who sit on the benches behind him for advice ? Can J
he hope to get a thorough grasp of such information
at the very moment when he is required to produce
it in his speech ? Can he make his assertions with
confidence or speak with native simplicity as though
his arguments were his own ? Grant that he may do
so in his actual speech. But what will he do in a
debate, when he has continually to meet fresh points
raised by his opponent and is given no time to learn

401

QUINTILIAN

Quid, si forte peritus iuris ille non aderit? Quid,
si quis non satis in ea re doctus falsum aliquid sub-
iecerit ? Hoc enim est maximum ignorantiae malum,

4 quod credit eum scire qui moneat. Neque ego sum
nostri moris ignarus oblitusve eorum, qui velut ad
arculas sedent et tela agentibus subministrant, neque
idem Graecos quoque nescio factitasse, unde nomen
his pragmaticorura datum est. Sed loquor de ora-
tore, qui non clamorem modo suum causis, sed omnia,

5 quae profutura sunt, debet. Itaque eum nee inu-
tilem, si ad horam forte constiterit, neque in testa-
tionibus faciendis esse imperitum velim. Quis enim
potius praeparabit ea quae, cum aget, esse in causa
velit? Nisi forte imperatorem quis idoneum credit
in proeliis quidem strenuum ct fortem et omnium,
quae pugna poscit, artificem, sed neque delectus
agere nee copias contrahere atque instruere nee
prospicere commeatus nee locum capere castris scien-
tem ; prius est enim certe parare bella quam gerere.

6 Atqui simillimus huic sit advocatus, si plura, quae
ad vincendum valent, aliis reliquerit, cum praesertim

* Ad horam constare appears to be a technical term for
"appearance at the preliminary hour," the purpose of which
is indicated in the paraphrase given above.

402

BOOK XII. in. 3-6

up his case ? What will he do, if he has no legal
expert to advise him or if his prompter through
insufficient knowledge of the subject provides him
with information that is false } It is the most serious
drawback of such ignorance, that he will always
believe that his adviser knows what he is talking
about. I am not ignorant of the generally prevail- 4
ing custom, nor have I forgotten those who sit by
our store-chests and provide weapons for the pleader :
I know too that the Greeks did likewise: hence
the name of pragmaticus which was bestowed on
such persons. But I am speaking of an orator, who
owes it as a duty to his case to serve it not merely
bj the loudness of his voice, but by all other means
that may be of assistance to it. Consequently I do 5
not wish my orator to be helpless, if it so chance
that he puts in an appearance for the preliminary
proceedings to which the hour before the commence-
ment of the trial ^ is allotted, or to be unskilful in
the preparation and production of evidence. For
who, sooner than himself, should prepare the points
which he wishes to be brought out when he is
pleading ? You might as well suppose that the
qualifications of a successful general consist merely
in courage and energy in the field of battle and skill
in meeting all the demands of actual conflict, while
suffering him to be ignorant of the methods of levy-
ing troops, mustering and equipping his forces,
arranging for supplies or selecting a suitable position
for his camp, despite the fact that preparation for
war is an essential preliminary for its successful
conduct. And yet such a general would bear a 6
very close resemblance to the advocate who leaves
much of the detail that is necessary for success to

403

QUINTILIAN

hoc, quod est maxime necessarium, nee tam sit
aiduum, quam procul intuentibus fortasse videatur.
Namque omne ius, quod est certum, aut scripto aut
moribus constat ; dubium aequitatis regula exami-

7 nandum est. Quae scripta sunt aut posita in more
civitatis, nuUam habent difficultatem, cognitionis
sunt enim, non inventionis ; at quae consultorum
responsis explicantur, aut in verborum interpretatione
sunt posita aut in recti pravique discrimine. Vim
cuiusque vocis intelligere aut commune prudentium
est aut proprium oratoris ; aequitas optimo cuique

8 notissima. Nos porro et bonum virum et prudentem
in primis oratorem putamus, qui cum se ad id, quod
est optimum natura, direxerit, non magnopere com-
movebitur, si quis ab eo consultus dissentiet ; cum
ipsis illis diversas inter se opiniones tueri concessum
sit. Sed etiam, si nosse, quid quisque senserit, volet,
lectionis opus est, qua nihil est in studiis minus

y laboriosum. Quodsi plerique, desperata facultate
agendi, ad discendum ius declinaverunt, quam id
scire facile est oratori, quod discunt qui sua quoque
confessione oratores esse non possunt? Verum et
M. Cato cum in dicendo praestantissimus, tum iuris
idem fuit peritissimus, et Scaevolae Servioque Sul-
404

BOOK XII. m. 6-9

the care of others, more especially in view of the
fact that thiSj the most necessary element in the
management of a case, is not as difficult as it may
perhaps seem to outside observers. For every point
of law, which is certain, is based either on written
law or accepted custom : if, on the other hand, the
point is doubtful, it must be examined in the light
of equity. Laws which are either written or founded 7
on accepted custom present no difficulty, since they
call merely for knowledge and make no demand on
the imagination. On the other hand, the points ex-
plained in the rulings of the legal experts turn either
on the interpretation of words or on the distinction
between right and wrong. To understand the mean-
ing of each word is either common to all sensible
men or the special possession of the orator, while
the demands of equity are known to every good
man. Now I regard the orator above all as being 8
a man of virtue and good sense, who will not be
seriously troubled, after having devoted himself to
the study of that which is excellent by nature, if
some legal expert disagrees with him ; for even they
are allowed to disagree among themselves. But if
he further wishes to know the views of everyone,
he will require to read, and reading is the least
laborious of all the tasks that fall to the student's
lot. Moreover, if the class of legal experts is as a rule 9
drawn from those who, in despair of making suc-
cessful pleaders, have taken refuge with the law,
how easy it must be for an orator to know what
those succeed in learning, who by their own con-
fession are incapable of becoming orators ! But
Marcus Cato was at once a great orator and an
expert lawyer, while Scaevola and Servius Sulpicius

405

QUINTILIAN

10 picio concessa est etiam facundiae virtus. Et M.
Tullius non modo inter agendum nunquam est desti-
tutus scientia iaris, sed etiam componere aliqua de
eo coeperat, ut appareat posse oratorem non dis-
cendo tantum iuri vacare, sed etiam docendo.

11 Verum ea, quae de moribus excolendis studioque
iuris praecipimus, ne quis eo credat reprehendenda,
quod multoscognovimus, quitaedio laboris,quemferre
tendentibus ad eloquentiam necesse est, confugerint
ad haec deverticula desidiae. Quorum alii se ad
album ac rubricas transtulerunt et formularii vel, ut
Cicero ait, leguleii quidam esse maluerunt, tanquam
utiliora eligentes ea, quorum solam facilitatem seque-

12 bantur; alii pigritiae arrogantioris, qui subito fronte
conficta immissaque barba, veluti despexissent ora-
toria praecepta, paulum aliquid sederunt in scholis
philoso})horum, ut deinde in publico tristes, domi
dissoluti captarent auctoritatem contemptu cetero-
rum. Philosophia enim simulari potest, eloquentia
non potest.

IV. In primis vero abundare debet orator exemplo-
rum copia cum veterum, turn etiam novorum, adeo
ut non ea modo, quae conscripta sunt historiis aut
sermonibus velut per manus tradita, quaeque cotidie
aguntur, debeat nosse, verum ne ea quidem, quae

> i. e. as well as experts on the law.

* The praetor's edicts were displayed on a whitened board
{in albo), while the headings of the civil law were written in
red. • dt Or. i. Iv. 236.

406

BOOK XII. III. 9-iv. I

were universally allowed to be eloquent as well.*
And Cicero not merely possessed a sufficient supply of 10
legal knowledge to serve his needs when pleading,
but actually began to write on the subject, so that
it is clear that an orator has not merely time to
leam, but even to teach the law.

Let no one, however, regard the advice I have 11
given as to the attention due to the development
of character and the study of the law as being
impugned by the fact that we are familiar with
many who, because they were weary of the toil
entailed on those who seek to scale the heights
of eloquence, have betaken themselves to the study
of law as a refuge for their indolence. Some of
these transfer their attention to the praetor's edicts
or the civil law,^ and have preferred to become
specialists in formulae, or legalists, as Cicero * calls
them, on the pretext of choosing a more useful
branch of study, whereas their real motive was its
comparative easiness. Others are the victims of a 12
more arrogant form of sloth ; they assume a stern
air and let their beards grow, and, as though de-
spising the precepts of oratory, sit for a while in
the schools of the philosophers, that, by an assum{>-
tion of a severe mien before the public gaze and by
an affected contempt of others tliey may assert their
moral superiority, while leading a life of debauchery
at home. For philosophy may be counterfeited, but
eloquence never.

IV. Above all, our orator should be equipped
with a rich store of examples both old and new :
and he ought not merely to know those which are
recorded in history or transmitted by oral tradition
or occur from day to day, but should not neglect

407

QUINTILIAN

2 sunt a clarioribus poetis ficta, negligere. Nam ilia
quidem priora aut testimonioruin aut etiam iudica-
torum obtinent locum, sed haec quoque aut vetustatis
fide tuta sunt aut ab hominibus magnis praeceptorum
loco ficta creduntur. Sciat ergo quam plurima ;
unde etiam senibus auctoritas maior est, quod plura
nosse et vidisse creduntur, quod Homerus frequentis-
sime testatur. Sed non est exspectanda ultima aetas,
cum studia praestent ut, quantum ad cognitionem
pertinet rerum, etiam praeteritis saeculis vixisse
videamur.

V. Haec sunt, quae me redditurum promiseram,
instrumenta non artis, ut quidam putaverunt, sed
ipsius oratoris. Haec arma habere ad manum,
horum scientia debet esse succinctus, accedente
verborum figurarumque facili copia et inventionis
ratione et disponendi usu et memoriae firmitate et
actionis gratia. Sed plurimum ex his valet animi
praestantia, quam nee metus frangat nee adclamatio
terreat nee audientium auctoritas ultra debitam

2 reverentiam tardet. Nam ut abominanda sunt con-
traria his vitia confidentiae, temeritatis, improbitatis,
arrogantiae, ita citra constantiam, fiduciam, forti-
tudinem nihil ars, nihil studium, nihil profectus ipse
profuerit, ut si des arma timidis et imbellibus. Invi-
tus mehercule dico, quoniam et aliter accipi potest,

» I Pr. 22 and xii. Pr. 4.

4o9

BOOK XII. IV. i-v. 2

even those fictitious examples invented by the great
poets. For while the former have the authority of 2
evidence or even of legal decisions, the latter also
either have the warrant of antiquity or are regarded
as having been invented by great men to serve as
lessons to the world. He should therefore be ac-
quainted with as many examples as possible. It is
this which gives old age so much authority, since
the old are believed to have a larger store of know-
ledge and experience, as Homer so frequently bears
witness. But we must not wait till the evening of
our days, since study has this advantage that, as far
as knowledge of facts is concerned, it is capable of
giving the impression that we have lived in ages
long gone by.

V. Such are the instruments of which I promised *
to give account, the instruments, that is, not merely
of the art, as some have held, but of the orator him-
self These are the weapons that he should have
ready to his hand, this the knowledge with which he
must be equipped, while it must be supplemented by
a ready store of words and figures, power of imagi-
nation, skill in arrangement, retentiveness of memory
and grace of delivery. But of all these qualities the
highest is that loftiness of soul which fear cannot
dismay nor uproar terrify nor the authority of the
audience fetter further than the respect which is
their due. For although the vices which are its 2
opposites, such as arrogance, temerity, impudence
and presumption, are all positively obnoxious, still
without constancy, confidence and courage, art, study
and proficiency will be of no avail. You might as
well put weapons into the hands of the unwarlike
and the coward. It is indeed with some reluctance,

VOL. IV. o 409

QUINTILIAN

ipsam verecundiam, vitium quidem, sed amabile et
quae virtutes facillime generet, esse interim adver-
sam, multisque in causa fuisse, ut bona ingenii
studiique in lucem non prolata situ quodam secreti

3 consumerentur. Sciat autem, si quis haec forte
minus adhuc peritus distinguendi vim cuiusque verbi
leget, non probitatem a me reprehendi, sed vere-
cundiam, quae est timor quidam reducens animum
ab iis quae facienda sunt ; inde confusio et coepti
paenitentia et subitum silentium. Quis porro dubitet
vitiis adscribere adfectum, propter quem facere

4 honeste pudet ? Neque ego rursus nolo cum, qui sit
dicturus, et soUicitum surgere et colore mutari et
periculum intelligere ; quae si non accident, etiam
simulanda erunt. Sed intellectus hie sit operis, non
metus, moveamurque, non concidamus. Optima est
autem emendatio verecundiae fiducia, et quamlibet
imbecilla frons magna conscientia sustinetur.

6 Sunt et naturalia, ut supra dixi, quae tamen et
cura iuvantur, instrumenta, vox, latus, decor; quae

» I Fr. 27.
410

BOOK XII. V. 2-5

as it may give rise to misunderstanding, that I say
that even modesty (vvrhich, though a fault in itself, is
an amiable failing which may easily be the mother of
virtues) is on occasion an impediment and has
frequently caused the fruits of genius and study to
consume away in the mildew of obscurity merely
because they have never been displayed to the public
day. But in case any of my readers should still lack J
skill to distinguish the precise meaning of each
word, I would have him know that it is not honest
shame that is the object of my criticism, but that
excess of modesty which is really a form of fear
deterring the soul from doing what is its duty to do,
and resulting in confusion of mind, regret that our
task was ever begun, and sudden silence. For who
can hesitate to give the name of fault to a feeling
that makes a man ashamed to do what is right ? On •
the other hand, I am not unwilling that the man who
has got to make a speech should show signs of
nervousness when he rises to his feet, should change
colour and make it clear that he feels the risks of his
position : indeed, if these symptoms do not occur
naturally, it will be necessary to simulate them.
But the feeling that stirs us should be due to the
realisation of the magnitude of our task and not to
fear : we should be moved, but not to the extent of
collapsing. But the best remedy for such excess
of modesty is confidence : however great our natural
timidity of mien, we shall find strength and support
in the consciousness of the nobility of our task.

There are also those natural instruments which, as
I mentioned above,^ may be further improved by
care, such as voice, lungs and grace of carriage
and movement, all of which are of such importance

411

QUINTILIAN

quidem tantum valent, ut frequenter famam ingenii
faciant. Habuit oratores aetas nostra copiosiores,
sed, cum diceret, eminere inter aequales Trachalus
videbatur. Ea corporis sublimitas erat, is ardor
oculorum, frontis auctoritas^ gestus praestantia, vox
quidem non, ut Cicero desiderat, paene tragoedorum,
sed super omnes, quos ego quidem audierim, tragoe-

6 dos. Certe cum in basilica lulia diceret primo
tribunali, quattuor autem iudicia, ut moris est,
cogerentur, atque omnia clamoribus fremerent, et
auditum eum et intellectum et, quod agentibus
ceteris contumeliosissimum fuit, laudatum quoque
ex quattuor tribunalibus memini, Sed hoc votum
est et rara felicitas; quae si non adsit, sane sufficiat
ab iis, quibus quis dicit, audiri. Talis esse debet
orator, haec scire.

VI. Agendi autem initium sine dubio secundum
vires cuiusque sumendum est. Neque ego annos
definiam, cum Demosthenen puerum admodum
actiones pupillares habuisse manifestum sit, Calvus,
Caesar, Pollio multum ante quaestoriam omnes aeta-
tem gravissima iudicia susceperint, praetextatos
egisse quosdam sit traditum, Caesar Augustus duo-
decim natus annos aviam pro rostris laudaverit.

2 Modus mihi videtur quidam tenendus, ut neque prae-

» de Or. I. xxviii. 128.

• Of the Centumviral Court. Four dififerent cases were
being tried simultaneously.

* Demosthenes was 18, Crassus 19, Caesar 21, Asinius Pollio
22 and Calvus not much older. See Tac. Dial. 34.

41?

BOOK XII. V. 5-vi. 2

as frequently to give a speaker the reputation for
talent. Our own age has had orators of greater
resource and power, but Trachalus appeared to stand
out above all his contemporaries, when he was speak-
ing. Such was the effect produced by his lofty
stature, the fire of his eye, the dignity of his brow,
the excellence of his gesture, coupled with a voice
which was not almost a tragedian's, as Cicero^
demands that it should be, but surpassed the voice
of all tragedians that I have ever heard. At any 6
rate I remember that, when he was speaking in the
Basilica Julia before the first tribunal, and the four
jMinels of judges^ were assembled as usual and the
whole building was full of noise, he could still be
heard and understood and applauded from all four
tribunals at once, a fact which was not complimentary
to the other pleaders. But gifts like these are such
as all may pray for and few are happy enough to
attain. And if we cannot achieve such fortune, we
must even be content to be heard by the court which
we are addressing. Such then should the orator be,
and such are the things which he should know.

VI. The age at which the orator should begin to
plead will of course depend on the development of
his strengtli. I shall not specify it further, since it
is clear that Demosthenes pleaded against his
guardians while he was still a mere boy, Calvus,
Caesar and Pollio^ all undertook cases of the first
importance before they were old enough to be
qualified for the quaestorship, others are said to have
pleaded while still wearing the garb of boyhood,
and Augustus Caesar delivered a funeral oration over
his grandmother from the public rostra when he was
only twelve years old. In my opinion we should aim 2

413

QUINTILIAN

propere destringatur immatura frons nee/ quidquid
est illud adhuc acerbum, proferatur; nam inde et
contemptus operis innascitur et fundamenta iaciuntur
impudentiae et, quod est ubicunque pernieiosissimum,

3 praevenit vires fiducia. Nee rursus differendum est
tirocinium in senectutem ; nam cotidie metus crescit,
maiusque fit semper quod ausuri sumus et, dum
deliberamus quando incipiendum sit, incipere iam
serum est. Quare fructum studiorum viridem et
adhuc dulcem promi decet, dum et veniae * spes est
et paratus favor et audere non dedecet et, si quid
desit operi, supplet aetas, et, si qua sunt dicta

4 iuveniliter, pro indole accipiuntur : ut totus ille
Ciceronis pro Sexto Roscio locus : Quid enim tarn
commune quam spiritus vivis, tetra mortuis, mare Jluctu-
aniibus, litus eiectis ? Quae cum sex et viginti natus
annos summis audientium clamoribus dixerit, defer-
visse tempore et annis liquata iam senior idem
fatetur. Et hercule quantumlibet secreta studia
contulerint, est tamen proprius quidam fori profectus,

* nee, Buttmann: et, ifSS.

^ veniae, Davisius : venia et, MSS.

* pro Rose. Amer. ixvi. 72. Oral. xxx. 107.

BOOK XII. VI. 2-4

at a happy mean. The unripe brow of boyhood
should not be prematurely robbed of its ingenuous
air nor should the young speaker's powers be brought
before the public while yet unformed, since such a
practice leads to a contempt for study, lays the
foundations of impudence and induces a fault which
is pernicious in all departments of life, namely, a self-
confidence that is not justified by the speaker's
resources. On the other hand, it is undesirable to 3
postpone the apprenticeship of the bar till old age:
for the fear of appearing in public grows daily and
the magnitude of the task on which we must venture
continually increases and we waste time deliberating
when we should begin, till we find it is too late to
begin at all. Consequently it is desirable that the
fruit of our studies should be brought before the
public eye while it is still fresh and sweet, while it
may hope for indulgence and be secure of a kindly
disposition in the audience, while boldness is not
unbecoming and youth compensates for all defects
and boyish extravagance is regarded as a sign of
natural vigour. Take for example the whole of the 4
well-known passage from Cicero's defence of Sextus
Roscius : ^ " For what is more common than the air
to the living, than the earth to the dead, than the
sea to mariners or the shore to shipwrecked men ? "
etc. This passage was delivered at the age of
twenty-six amid loud applause from the audience,
but in later years ^ he acknowledges that the ferment
of youth has died down and his style been clarified
with age. And, indeed, however much private study
may contribute to success, there is still a peculiar
proficiency that the courts alone can give : for there
the atmosphere is changed and the reality of the

415

QUINTILIAN

alia lux, alia veri discriminis facies, plusque, si
separes, usus sine doctrina quam citra usum doctrina

5 valet. Ideoque nonnulli senes in schola facti stupent
novitate, cum in iudicia venerunt, et omnia suis
exercitationibus similia desiderant. At illic et iudex
tacet et adversarius obstrepit et nihil temere dictum
perit et, si quid tibi ipse sumas, probandum est, et
laboratam congestamque dierum ac noctium studio
actionem aqua deficit, et omisso magna semper
flandi tumore in quibusdam causis loquendum est;

6 quod illi diserti minima sciunt. Itaque nonnullos
reperias, qui sibi eloquentiores videantur, quam ut
causas agant. Ceterum ilium, quem iuvenem tene-
risque adhuc viribus nitentem in forum deduximus,
et incipere quam maxime facili ac favorabili causa
velim, ferarum ut catuli moUiore praeda saginantur,
et non utique ab hoc initio continuare operam et
ingenio adhuc alendo callum inducere, sed iam
scientem, quid sit pugna, et in quam rem studendum

7 sit, refici atque renovari. Sic et tirocinii metum,
dum facilius est audere, transient, nee audendi
4i6

BOOK XII. VI. 4-7

peril puts a different complexion on things, while, if
it is impossible to combine the two, practice vrithout
theory is more useful than theory without practice.
Consequently, some who have grown old in the 5
schools lose their heads when confronted by the
novelty of the law courts and wish that it were
possible to reproduce all the conditions under which
they delivered their exercises. But there sits the
judge in silence, their opponent bellows at them, no
rash utterance passes unnoticed and all assumptions
must be proved, the clock cuts short the speech that
has been laboriously pieced together at the cost of
hours of study both by day and night, and there are
certain cases which require simplicity of language and
the abandonment of the perpetual bombast of the
schools, a fact which these fluent fellows completely
fail to realise. And so you will find some persons 6
who regard themselves as too eloquent to speak in
the courts. On the other hand, the man, whom we
conducted to the forum while still young and in the
chann of immaturity, should begin with as easy and
favourable a case as may be (just as the cubs of wild
beasts are brought up to start with on softer
forms of prey), and should not proceed straight
from this commencement to plead case after case
without a break, or cause his talents to set and
harden while they still require nourishment ; on the
contrary, as soon as he has come to realise the nature
of the conflicts in which he will have to engage and
the object to which his studies should be directed, he
should take an interval of rest and refreshment.
Thus, at an age to which boldness is still natural, he 7
will find it easy to get over the timidity which invari-
ably accompanies the period of apprenticeship, and

QUINTILIAN

facilitatem usque ad contemptum operis adduxerit.
Usus est hac ratione M. Tullius, et cum iam clarum
meruisset inter patronos, qui turn erant, nomen, in
Asiam navigavit seque et aliis sine dubio eloquentiae
ae sapientiae magistris, sed praecipue tamen ApoUo-
nio Molonij quem Romae quoque audierat, Rhodi
rursus formandum ac velut recoquendum dedit. Turn
dignum operae pretium venit, cum inter se congruunt
praecepta et experimenta.

VII. Cum satis in omni certamine virium fecerit,
prima ei cura in suscipiendis causis erit ; in quibus
defendere quidem reos profecto quam facere vir
bonus malet, non tamen ita nomen ipsum accusatoris
horrebit, ut nullo neque publico neque privato duci
possit officio, ut aliquem ad reddendam rationera
vitae vocet. Nam et leges ipsae nihil valeant, nisi
actoris idonea voce munitae ; et si poenas scelerum
expetere fas non est, prope est ut scelera ipsa per-
missa sint, et licentiam malis dari certe contra
2 bonos est. Quare neque sociorum querelas nee
amici vel propinqui necem nee erupturas in rem
publicam conspirationes inultas patietur orator, non
poenae nocentium cupidus, sed emendandi vitia
418

BOOK XII. VI. 7-vii. 2

will not, on the other hand, carry his boldness so far
as to lead him to despise the difficulties of his task.
This was the method employed by Cicero : for when
he had already won a distinguished position at the
bar of his day, he took ship to Asia and there studied
under a number of professors of philosophy and
rhetoric, but above all under Apollonius Molon,
whose lectures he had attended at Rome and to
whom he now at Rhodes entrusted the refashioning
and recasting of his style. It is only when theory
and practice are brought into a perfect harmony
that the orator reaps the reward of all his study.

VII. When our orator has developed his strength
to such a pitch that it is equal to every kind of con-
flict in which he may be called upon to bear his part,
his first consideration should be to exercise care in
the choice of the cases which he proposes to under-
take. A good man will undoubtedly prefer defence
to prosecution, but he will not have such a rooted
objection to the task of accuser as to disregard his
duty towards the state or towards individuals and
refuse to call any man to render an account of his
way of life. For the laws themselves would be
powerless without the assistance of advocates equal
to the task of supporting them ; and to regard it as a
sin to demand the punishment of crime is almost equi-
valent to the sanctioning of crime, while it is certainly
contrary to the interest of the good to give the
wicked free leave to work their will. Therefore, our
orator will not suffer the complaints of our allies, the
death of friends or kinsmen, or conspiracies that
threaten the common weal to go unavenged, while
his conduct will be governed not by a passion to
secure the punishment of the guilty, but by the

419

QUINTILIAN

corrigendique mores. Nam qui ratione traduci ad

3 meliora non possunt, solo metu continentur. Itaque
ut accusatoriam vitam vivere et ad deferendos reos
praemio duci proximum latrocinio est, ita pestem
intestinam propulsare cum propugnatoribus patriae
comparandum. Ideoque principes in re publica viri
non detrectaverunt hanc officii partem, creditique
sunt etiam clari iuvenes obsidem rei publicae dare
malorum civium accusationem, quia nee odisse im-
probos nee simultates provocare nisi ex fiducia bonae

4 mentis videbantur ; idque cum ab Hortensio, Lucullis,
Sulpicio, Cicerone, Caesare, plurimis aliis, turn ab
utroque Catone factum est, quorum alter appellatus
est sapiens, alter nisi creditur fuisse, vix scio, cui
reliquerit huius nominis locum. Neque^ defendet
omnes orator idem, portumque ilium eloquentiae
suae salutarem non etiam piratis patefaciet ducetur-

6 que in advocationem maxime causa. Quoniam tamen
omnes, qui non improbe litigabunt, quorum certe
bona pars est, sustinere non potest unus, aliquid
et commendantium personis dabit et ipsorum qui

^ neque, early edd. : namque, MSS.

» i. e. Cato the Elder.

4?^

BOOK XII. VII. 2-5

desire to correct vice and reform morals. For fear
is the only means of restraining those who cannot
be led to better ways by the voice of reason. Conse- !
quently, while to devote one's life to the task of
accusation, and to be tempted by the hope of reward
to bring the guilty to trial is little better than making
one's living by highway robbery, none the less to rid
one's country of the pests that gnaw its vitals is
conduct worthy of comparison with that of heroes,
who champion their country's cause in the field of
battle. For this reason men who were leaders of the
state have not refused to undertake this portion of
an orator's duty, and even young men of high rank
have been regarded as giving their country a pledge
of their devotion by accusing bad citizens, since it
was thought that their hatred of evil and their
readiness to incur enmity were proofs of their confi-
dence in their own rectitude. Such action was
taken by Hortensius, the LucuUi, Sulpicius, Cicero,
Caesar and many others, among them both the Catos,
of whom one was actually called the Wise,^ while if
the other is not regarded as wise, I do not know of
any that can claim the title after him. On the other
hand, this same orator of ours will not defend all and
sundry : that haven of safety which his eloquence
provides will never be opened to pirates as it is to
others, and he will be led to undertake cases mainly
by consideration of their nature. However, since
one man cannot undertake the cases of all litigants
who are not, as many undoubtedly are, dishonest, he
will be influenced to some extent by the character
of the persons who recommend clients to his pro-
tection and also by the character of the litigants
themselves, and will allow himself to be moved by

421

QUINTILIAN

iudicio decernent, ut optimi cuiusque voluntate
moveatur; namque hos et amicissimos habebit vir

6 bonus. Summovendum vero est utrumque ambitus
genus vel potentibus contra humiles venditandi
operam suam vel illud etiam iactantius minores
utique contra dignitatem attollendi. Non enim for-
tuna causas vel iustas vel improbas facit. Neque
vero pudor obstet, quo minus susceptam, cum melior
videretur, litem cognita inter discendum iniquitate

7 dimittat, cum prius litigatori dixerit verum. Nam et
in hoc maximum, si aequi iudices sumus, beneficium
est, ut non fallamus vana spe litigantem. Neque
est dignus opera patroni, qui non utitur consilio,
et certe non convenit ei, quem oratorem esse
volumus, iniusta tueri scientem. Nam si ex illis,
quas supra diximus, causis falsum tuebitur, erit
tamen honestum quod ipse faciet.

8 Gratlsne el semper agendum sit, tractari potest.
Quod ex prima statim fronte diiudicare impru-
dentium est. Nam quia ignorat, quin id longe sit
honestissimum ac liberalibus disciplinis et illo, quem
exigimus, animo dignissimum, non vendere operam
nee elevare tanti beneficii auctoritatem, cum plera-

* XII. i. 36.
422

BOOK XII. VII. 5-8

the wishes of all virtuous men ; for a good man will
naturally have such for his most intimate friends.
But he must put away from him two kinds of 6
pretentious display, the one consisting in the
officious proffering of his services to the powerful
against those of meaner position, and the other,
which is even more obtrusive, in deliberately support-
ing inferiors against those of high degree. For a
case is not rendered either just or the reverse by the
social position of the parties engaged. Nor, again,
will a sense of shame deter him from throwing over
a case which he has undertaken in the belief that it
had justice on its side, but which his study of the
facts has shown to be unjust, although before doing
so he should give his client his true opinion on the
case. For, if we judge aright, there is no greater 7
benefit that we can confer on our clients than this,
that we should not cheat them by giving them empty
hopes of success. On the other hand, no client that
does not take his advocate into his counsel deserves
that advocate's assistance, and it is certainly unworthy
of our ideal orator that he should wittingly defend
injustice. For if he is led to defend what is false
bv any of the motives which I mentioned above,^ his
own action will still be honourable.

It is an open question whether he should never 8
demand a fee for his services. To decide the
question at first sight would be the act of a fool.
For we all know that by far the most honourable
course, and the one which is most in keeping with a
liberal education and that temper of mind which we
desiderate, is not to sell our services nor to debase
the value of such a boon as eloquence, since there
are not a few things which come to be regarded as

423

QUINTILIAN

que hoc ipso possint videri vilia, quod pretium
9 habent ? Caecis hoc, ut aiunt, satis clarum est, nee
quisquam, qui sufficientia sibi (modica autem haec
sunt) possidebit, hunc quaestum sine crimine sordium
fecerit. At si res familiaris amplius aliquid ad usus
necessaries exiget, secundum omnium sapientium
leges patietur sibi gratiam referri, cum et Socrati
collatum sit ad victum, et Zeno, Cleanthes, Chry-

10 sippus mercedes a discipulis acceptaverint. Neque
enim video, quae iustior acquirendi ratio quam ex
honestissimo labore et ab iis, de quibus optime
meruerint, quique, si nihil invicem praestent, indigni
fuerint defensione. Quod quidem non iustum modo,
sed neeessarium etiam est, cum haec ipsa opera
tempusque omne alienis negotiis datum facultatem

11 aliter acquirendi recidant. Sed tum quoque ten-
endus est modus, ac plurimum refert et a quo
accipiat et quantum et quousque. Paciscendi quidem
ille piraticus mos et imponentium periculis pretia
procul abominanda negotiatio etiam a mediocriter
improbis aberit, cum praesertim bonos homines
bonasque causas tuenti non sit metuendus ingratus;
424

BOOK XII. VII. 8-1 1

cheap, merely because they have a price set upon
them. This much even the blind can see, as the 9
saying is, and no one who is the possessor of sufficient
wealth to satisfy his needs (and that does not imply
any great opulence) will seek to secure an income
by such methods without laying himself open to the
charge of meanness. On the other hand, if his
domestic circumstances are such as to require some
addition to his income to enable him to meet the
necessary demands upon his purse, there is not a
philosopher who would forbid him to accept this form
of recompense for his services, since collections were
made even on behalf of Socrates, and Zeno, Cleanthes
and Chrysippus took fees from their pupils. Nor 10
can I see how we can turn a more honest penny than
by performance of the most honourable of tasks and
by accepting money from those to whom we have
rendered the most signal services and who, if they
made no return for what we have done for them,
would show themselves undeserving to have been
defended by us. Nay, it is not only just, but
necessary that this should be so, since the duties of
advocacy and the bestowal of every minute of our
time on the affairs of others deprive us of all other
means of making money. But we must none the 11
less observe the happy mean, and it makes no small
difference from whom we take payment, what pay-
ment we demand, and how long we continue to do
so. As for the piratical practice of bargaining and
the scandalous traffic of those who proportion their
fees to the peril in which their would-be client
stands, such a procedure will be eschewed even by
those who are more than half scoundrels, more
especially since the advocate who devotes himself

425

QUINTILIAN

12 quodsi sit futurus, malo tamen ille peccet. Nihil
ergo acquirere volet orator ultra quam satis crit ; ac
ne pauper quidem tanquam mercedem accipiet, sed
mutua benivolentia utetur, cum sciat se tanto plus
praestitisse. Non enim, quia venire hoc beneficium
non oportet, oportet ^ perire. Denique ut gratus sit
ad eum magis pertinet qui debet.

VIII. Proxima discendae causae ratio, quod est
orationis fundamentum. Neque enim quisquam
ingenio tarn tenui reperietur, qui, cum omnia quae
sunt in causa diligenter cognoverit, ad docendum

2 certe iudicem non sufficiat. Sed eius rei paucissimis
cura est. Nam ut taceam de negligentibus, quorum
nihil refert, ubi litium cardo vertatur, dum sint quae
vel extra causam ex personis aut communi tractatu
locorum occasionem clamandi largiantur, aliquos et
ambitio pervertit, qui partim tanquam occupati
semperque aliud habentes, quod ante agendum sit,
pridie ad se venire litigatorem aut eodem matutino
iubent, nonnunquam etiam inter ipsa subsellia

3 didicisse se gloriantur; partim iactantia ingenii, ut

* Second oportet added by Buttmann.
436

BOOK XII. VII. I i-viii. 3

to the defence of good men and worthy causes will
have nothing to fear from ingratitude. And even if
a client should prove ungrateful, it is better that he
should be the sinner and not our orator. To con- 12
elude, then, the orator will not seek to make more
money than is sufficient for his needs, and even if he
is poor, he will not regard his payment as a fee, but
rather as the expression of the principle that one
good turn deserves another, since he will be well
aware that he has conferred far more than he receives.
For it does not follow that because his services
ought not to be sold, they should therefore be
unremunerated. Finally, gratitude is primarily the
business of the debtor.

VIII. We have next to consider how a case should
be studied, since such study is the foundation of
oratory. There is no one so destitute of all talent
as, after making himself thoroughly familiar with all
the facts of his case, to be unable at least to commu-
nicate those facts to the judge. But those who 2
devote any serious attention to such study are very
few indeed. For, to say nothing of those careless
advocates who are quite indifferent as to what the
pivot of the whole case may be, provided only there
are points which, though irrelevant to the case, will
give them the opportunity of declaiming in thunder-
ous tones on the character of persons involved or
developing some commonplace, there are some who
are so perverted by vanity that, on the oft-repeated
pretext that they are occupied by other business,
they bid their client come to them on the day pre-
ceding the trial or early on the morning of the day
itself, and sometimes even boast that they learnt up
their case while sitting in court ; while others by 3

427

QUINTILIAN

res cito accepisse videantur, tenere se et Intel ligere
prius paene quam audiant mentiti, cum multa et
diserte summisque clamoribus, quae neque ad
iudicem neque ad litigatorem pertineant, decanta-
verunt, bene sudantes beneque comitati per forum

4 reducuntur. Ne illas quidem tulerim delicias eorum,
qui doceri amicos suos iubent, quanquam minus mali
est, si illi saltem recte discant recteque doceant.
Sed quis discet tam bene quam patronus? Quomodo
autem sequester ille et media litium manus et
quidam interpres impendet aequo animo laborem
in alienas actiones, cum dicturis tanti suae non sint ?

5 Pessimae vero consuetudinis libellis esse contentum,
quos componit aut litigator qui confugit ad patro-
num, quia liti ipse non sufficit, aut aliquis ex eo
genere advocatorum, qui se non posse agere con-
fitentur, deinde faciunt id quod est in agendo diffi-
cillimum. Nam qui iudicare, quid dicendum, quid
dissiraulandum, quid declinandum, mutandum, fing-
endum etiam sit^ potest, cur non sit orator, quando,

* Advocatus is here used in its original sense. By Quin-
tilian's time it had come also to mean "advocate," and is
often so used by him elsewhere.

428

BOOK XII. viii. 3-5

way of creating an impression of extraordinary talent,
and to make it seem that they are quick in the up-
take, pretend that they have grasped the facts of
the case and understand the situation almost before
they have heard what it is, and then after chanting
out some long and fluent discourse which has nought
to do either with the judge or their client, but
awakens the clamorous applause of the audience,
they are escorted home through the forum, perspiring
at every pore and attended by flocks of enthusiastic
friends. Further, I would not even tolerate the
affectation of those who insist that their friends, and
not themselves, should be instructed in the facts
of the case, though this is a less serious evil, if the
friends can be relied upon to learn and supply the
facts correctly. But who can give such effective
study to the case as the advocate himself? How
can the intermediary, the go-between or interpreter,
devote himself whole-heartedly to the study of other
men's cases, when those who have got to do the
actual pleading do not think it worth while to get
up their own .'' On the other hand, it is a most
pernicious practice to rest content with a written
statement of the case composed either by the litigant
who betakes himself to an advocate because he finds
that his own powers are not equal to the conduct of
his case, or by some member of that class of legal
advisers ^ who admit that they are incapable of plead-
ing, and then proceed to take upon themselves the
most difficult of all the tasks that confront the pleader.
For if a man is capable of judging what should be
said, what concealed, what avoided, altered or even
invented, why should he not appear as orator himself,
since he performs the far more difficult feat of making

429

QUINTILIAN

6 quod difficilius est, oratorem facit ? Hi porro non
tantum nocerent, si omnia scriberent uti gesta sunt.
Nunc consilium et colores adiiciunt et aliqua peiora
veris, quae plerique cum acceperunt, mutare nefas
habent et velut tliemata in scholis posita custodiunt.
Deinde deprehenduntur et causam, quam discere ex
suis litigatoribus noluerunt, ex adversariis discunt.

7 Liberum igitur demus ante omnia iis, quorum
negotium erit, tempus ac locum, exhortemurque
ultro, ut omnia quamlibet verbose et unde volant
repetita ex tempore exponant. Non enim tam
obest audire supervacua quam ignorare necessaria.

8 Frequenter autem et vulnus et remedium in iis
orator inveniet, quae litigatori in neutram partem
habere momentum videbantur. Nee tanta sit acturo
memoriae fiducia, ut subscribere audita pigeat.

Nee semel audisse sit satis ; cogendus eadem
iterum ac saepius dicere litigator, non solum quia
effugere aliqua prima expositione potuerunt, praes-
ertim hominem (quod saepe evenit) imperitum, sed
430

BOOK XII. vm. 5-8

an orator ? Such persons would not, liowever, do so 6
much harm if they would only put down all the
facts as they occurred. But as it is, they add sug-
gestions of their own, put their own construction on
the facts and insert inventions which are far more
damaging than the unvarnished truth. And then
the advocate as a rule, on receiving the document,
regards it as a crime to make any alteration, and
keeps to it as faithfully as if it were a theme set for
declamation in the schools. The sequel is that they
are tripped up and have to learn from their oppo-
nents the case which they refused to learn from their
own clients. We should therefore above all allow 7
the parties concerned ample time for an interview in
a place free from interruption, and should even
exhort them to set forth on the spot all the facts in
as many words as they may choose to use and allow-
ing them to go as far back as they please. For it is
less of a drawback to listen to a number of irrelevant
facts than to be left in ignorance of essentials.
Moreover, the orator will often detect both the evil 8
and its remedy in facts which the litigant regarded
as devoid of all importance, one way or the other.
Further, the advocate who has got to plead the case
should not put such excessive confidence in his
powers of memory as to disdain to jot down what he
has heard.

Nor should one hearing be regarded as sufficient.
The litigant should be made to repeat his statements
at least once, not merely because certain points may
have escaped him on the occasion of his first state-
ment, as is extremely likely to happen if, as is often
the case, he is a man of no education, but also that
we may note whether he sticks to what he originally

431

QUINTILIAN

9 etiam ut sciamus an eadem dicat. Plurimi enim
mentiuntur et, tanquam non doceant causam, sed
agant, non ut cum patrono sed ut cum iudice
loquuntur. Quapropter nunquam satis credendum
est, sed agitandus omnibus modis et turbandus at

10 evocandus. Nam ut medicis non apparentia modo
vitia curanda sunt sed etiam invenienda quae latent,
saepe ipsis ea, qui sanandi sunt, occulentibus, ita
advocatus plura quam ostenduntur aspiciat. Nam
cum satis in audiendo patientiae impendent, in
aliam rursus ei personam transeundum est, agendus-
que adversarius, proponendum quidquid omnino
excogitari contra potest, quidquid recipit in eiusmodi
disceptatione natura. Interrogandus quam infes-

11 tissime ac premendus. Nam dum omnia quaerimus,
aliquando ad verum, ubi minime exspectavimus,
pervenimus.

In sunima optimus est in discendo patronus
incredulus. Promittit enim litigator omnia, testem
populum, paratissimas consignationes, ipsum denique

12 adversarium quaedam non negaturum. Ideoque
opus est intueri omne litis instrumentum ; quod
videre non est satis, perlegendum erit. Nam frequen-
tissime aut non sunt omnino, quae promittebantur,
aut minus continent aut cum alio aliquo nocituro
permixta sunt aut nimia sunt et fidem hoc ipso

43'

i

BOOK XII. Yin. 8-12

said. For a large number of clients lie, and hold 9

forth, not as if they were instructing their advocate
in the facts of the case, but as if they were pleading
with a judge. Consequently we must never be too
ready to believe them, but must test them in every
way, try to confuse them and draw them out. For 10
just as doctors have to do more than treat the
ailments which meet the eye, and need also to
discover those which lie hid, since their patients
often conceal the truth, so the advocate must look
out for more points than his client discloses to him.
After he considers that he has given a sufficiently
patient hearing to the latter's statements, he must
assume another character and adopt the rCle of his
opponent, urging every conceivable objection that a
discussion of the kind which we are considering may
permit. The client must be subjected to a hostile 11
cross-examination and given no peace : for by en-
quiring into everything, we shall sometimes come
upon the truth where we least expect it.

In fact, the advocate who is most successful in
getting up his case is he who is incredulous. For
the client promises everything : the people, he says,
will bear witness to the truth of what he says, he can
produce documentary evidence at a moment's notice
and there are some points which he says his opponent
will not deny. It is therefore necessary to look into 12
every document connected with the case, and where
the mere sight of them is not sufficient, they must
be read through. For very frequently they are
either not at all what the client alleged them to be,
or contain less, or are mixed up with elements that
may damage our case, or prove more than is required
and are likely to detract from their credibility just

433

QUINTILIAN

13 detractura quod non habent modum. Denique
linum ruptum aut turbatam ceram ^ aiit sine agnitore
signa frequenter invenies ; quae, nisi domi excusseris,
in foro inopinata decipient, plusque nocebunt desti-
tuta quam non promissa nocuissent. Multa etiam,
quae litigator nihil ad causam pertinere crediderit,
patronus eruet, modo per omnes, quos tradidimus,

14 argumentorum locos eat. Quos ut circumspectare
in agendo et attentare singulos minime convenit,
propter quas diximus causas, ita in discendo rimari
necessarium est, quae personae, quae tempora et
loca, instituta, instrumenta, cetera, ex quibus
non tantum illud, quod est artificiale probationis
genus, colligi possit, sed qui metuendi testes,
quomodo sint refellendi. Nam plurimum refert.
invidia reus an odio an contemptu laboret, quoi-um
fere pars prima superiores, proxima pares, tertia
humiliores premit.

15 Sic causam perscrutatus, propositis ante oculos
omnibus quae prosint noceantve, tertiam deinceps
personam induat iudicis, fingatque apud se agi

* turbatam ceram, Salmasius : turbata cetera, B

* V. X. 20 sq'i- i. e. sources from which arguments may be
drawn.

4,^4

BOOK XII. viii. 12-15

because they are so extravagant. Further, it will 13
often be found that the thread is broken or the seal
tampered with or the signatures unsupported by
witnesses. And unless you discover such facts at
home, they will take you by surprise in court and
trip you up, doing you more harm by forcing you to
abandon them than they would have done had they
never been promised you. There are also a number
of points which the client regards as irrelevant to
his case, which the advocate will be able to elicit,
provided he go carefully through all the " dwelling-
places " of argument which I have already described.^
Now though, for reasons already mentioned, it is 14
most undesirable that he should hunt for and try
every single one of those, while actually engaged in
pleading his case, it is most necessary in the prelimi-
nary study of the case to leave no stone unturned to
discover the character of the persons involved, the
circumstances of time and place, the customs and
documents concerned, and the rest, from which we
may not merely deduce the proofs known as artificial,
but may also discover which witnesses are most to be
feared and the best method of refuting them. For
it makes a great difference whether it be envy,
hatred or contempt that forms the chief obstacle to
the success of the defence, since of these obstacles
the first tells most against superiors, the second
against equals, and the third against those of low
degree.

Having thus given a thorough examination 15
to the case and clearly envisaged all those points
which will tell for or against his client, the orator
must then place himself in the position of a third
person, namely, the judge, and imagine that the

435

QUINTILIAN

causam, et, quod ipsum movisset de eadem re
pronuntiaturum^ id potentissimum, apud quemcunque
agetur, existimet. Sic eum raro fallet eventus, aut
culpa iudicis erit.

IX. Quae sint in agendo servanda, toto fere opere
exsecuti sumus ; pauca tamen propria huius loci,
quae non tam dicendi arte quam officiis agentis ^
continentur, attingam. Ante omnia ne, quod pleris-
que accidit, ab utilitate eum causae praesentis

2 cupido laudis abducat. Nam ut gerentibus bella
non semper exercitus per plana et amoena ducendus
est, sed adeundi plerumque asperi colles, expug-
nandae civitates quamlibet praecisis impositae rupi-
bus aut operum mole difHciles, ita oratio gaudebit
quidem occasione laetius decurrendi et aequo
congressa campo totas vires populariter explicabit;

3 at si iuris anfractus aut eruendae veritatis latebras
adire cogetur, non obequitabit nee illis vibrantibus
concitatisque sententiis velut missilibus utetur, sed
operibus et cuniculis et insidiis et occultis artibus

4 rem geret. Quae omnia non dum fiunt laudantur,
sed cum facta sunt; unde etiam cupidissimis

> agentis, Obrecht : agendis, B.
436

BOOK XII. vin. 15-1X. 4

case is being pleaded before himself, and assume
that the point which would have carried most weight
with himself, had he been trying the case, is likely
to have the greatest influence with the actual judge.
Thus he will rarely be deceived as to the result of
the trial, or, if he is, it will be the fault of the judge.
IX. As regards the points to be observed in the
actual pleading, I have dealt with these in every
portion of this work, but there still remain a few on
which I must touch as being specially appropriate to
the present place, since they are concerned not so
much with the art of speaking as with the duties
of the advocate. Above all it is important that he
should never, like so many, be led by a desire to win
applause to neglect the interest of the actual case.
It is not always the duty of generals in the field to
lead their armies through flat and smiling country :
it will often be necessary to cross rugged mountain
ranges, to storm cities placed on inaccessible cliffs or
rendered diflBcult of access by elaborate fortifications.
Similarly oratory will always be glad of the oppor-
tunity of manoeuvring in all its freedom and delight-
ing the spectator by the deployment of its full
strength for conflict in the open field ; but if it is
forced to enter the tortuous defiles of the law, or
dark places whence the truth has to be dragged
forth, it will not go prancing in front of the enemy's
lines nor launch its shafts of quivering and passionate
epigram of the fashion that is now so popular, but
will wage war by means of sap and mine and ambush
and all the tactics of secrec}*. None of these •
methods win applause during their actual execution :
the reward comes after they have been carried to a
successful termination, when even the most ambitious

437

QUINTILIAN
opinionis plus fructus venit. Nam cum ilia dicendi
vitiosa iactatio inter plausores suos detonuit, resurgit
verae virtutis fortior fama, nee iudices a quo sint
moti^ dissimulantj et doctis creditur, nee est orationis

6 vera laus nisi cum finita est. Veteribus quidem
etiam dissimulare eloquentiam fuit moriSj idque
M. Antonius praecipit, quo plus dicentibus fidei
minusque suspectae advocatorum insidiae forent.
Sed ilia dissimulari, quae turn erat, potuit ; nondum
enim tantum dicendi lumen accesserat, ut etiam
per obstantia erumperet. Quare artes quidem et
consilia lateant et quidquid, si deprehenditur, perit.

6 Hactenus eloquentia secretum habet. Verborum
quidem delectus, gra vitas sententiarum, figurarum
elegantia aut non sunt aut apparent. Sed vel
propter hoc ipsum ostendenda non sunt quod
apparent; aut si unum sit ex duobus eligendum,
causa potius laudetur quam patronus. Finem tamen
hunc praestabit orator, ut videatur optimam causam
optime egisse. Illud certum erit neminem peius

438

BOOK XII. IX. 4-6

will reap a richer recompense than they could ever
have secured by other means. For so soon as the
thunders of applause awakened among their admirers
by these affected declamatory displays have died
away, the glory of true virtue rises again with
renewed splendour, the judges do not conceal who
it is has moved them, the well-trained orator wins
their belief and oratory receives its only genuine
tribute, the praise accorded it when its task is done.
The old orators indeed used to conceal their elo- 6
quence, a method which is recommended by Marcus
Antonius, as a means of securing that the speaker's
words should carry conviction and of masking the
advocate's real designs. But tlie truth is that the
eloquence of those days was capable of concealment,
for it had not yet attained that splendour of diction
which makes it impossible to hide its light under a
bushel. Therefore artifice and stratagem should be
masked, since detection in such cases spells failure.
Thus far, and thus only, may eloquence hope to enjoy
the advantages of secrecy. But when we come to 6
consider the choice of words, the weight essential
to general reflexions and the elegance demanded by
figures, we are confronted by elements which must
either strike the attention or be condemned to non-
existence. But the very fact that tliey strike the
attention is a reason why they should not flaunt
themselves obtrusively. And, if we have to make
the choice, I should prefer that it should be the
cause, and not the orator, to which we award our
praise. Nevertheless, the true orator will achieve
the distinction of seeming to speak with all the
excellence that an excellent case deserves. One
thing may be regarded as certain, that no one can

439

QUINTILIAN

agere quam qui displicente causa placet ; necessc

7 est enim extra causam sit quod placet. Nee illo
fastidio laborabit orator non agendi causas minores,
tanquam infra eum sint aut detractura sit opinioni
minus liberalis materia. Nam et suscipiendi ratio
iustissima est officium, et optandum etiam ut amici
quam minimas lites habeant ; et abunde dixit bene,
quisquis rei satisfecit.

8 At quidam, etiamsi forte susceperunt negotia
paulo ad dicendum tenuiora, extrinsecus adductis
ea rebus circumlinunt ac, si defecerint alia, conviciis
implent vacua causarum, si contingit, veris, si minus,
fictis, mode sit materia ingenii mereaturque clamo-
rem dum dicitur. Quod ego adeo longe puto ab
oratore perfecto, ut eum ne vera quidem obiecturum,

9 nisi id causa exigit, credam. Ea est enim prorsus
canina, ut ait Appius, eloquentia, cognituram male
dicendi subire; quod facientibus etiam male audiendi
praesumenda patientia est. Nam et in ipsos fit
impetus frequenter, qui egerunt, et certe petulan-

* A cognitor is one who represents another. The litigant
may abuse his opponent, but that does not justify his
advocate in doing so.

BOOK XII. IX, 6-9

plead worse than he who wins applause despite the
disapproval meted out to his case. For the inevitable
conclusion is that the applause must have been
evoked by something having no connexion with the
case. Further, the true orator will not turn up his 7
nose at cases of minor importance on the ground of
their being beneath his dignity or as being likely
to detract from his reputation because the subject
matter does not allow his genius full scope. For the
strongest reason for undertaking a case is to be found
in our duty towards our clients : nay, we should even
desire the suits in which our friends are involved to
be as unimportant as possible, and remember that the
advocate who gives an adequate presentment to his
case, has spoken exceeding well.

But there are so ne who, even although the cases 8
which they have undertaken give but small scope for
eloquence, none the less trick it out with matter
drawn from without and, if all else fails, fill up the
gaps in their case with abuse of their opponents,
true if possible, but false if necessary, the sole con-
sideration that weighs with them being that it affords
exercise for their talents and is likely to win applause
during its delivery. Such conduct seems to me so
unworthy of our perfect orator that, in my opinion,
he will not even bring true charges against his
opponents unless the case demand. For it is a 9
dog's eloquence, as Appius says, to undertake the
task of abusing one's opponent,^ and they who do so
should steel themselves in advance to the prospect
of being targets for like abuse themselves, since
those who adopt this style of pleading are frequently
attacked themselves, and there can at any rate be
no doubt that the litigant pays dearly for the violence

VOL. IV.

441

QUINTILIAN

. tiam patroni litigator luit. Sed haec minora sunt
ipso illo vitio animi, quod maledicus a malefico non

10 distat nisi occasione. Turpis voluptas et inhumana
et nulli audientium bona gratia a litigatoribus
quidem frequenter exigitur, qui ultionem malunt
quam defensionem, Sed neque alia multa ad arbi-
trium eorum facienda sunt. Hoc quidem quis
hominum liberi modo sanguinis sustineat petulans

11 esse ad alterius arbitrium? Atqui etiam in ad-
vocatos partis adversae libenter nonnulli invehuntur;
quod, nisi si forte meruerunt, et inhumanum est
respectu communium officiorum, et cum ipsi qui
dicit inutile (nam idem iuris responsuris datur), tum
causae contrarium, cui ^ plane adversarii fiunt et
inimici, et quantulumcunque eis virium est, con-

12 tumelia augetur. Super omnia perit ilia, quae
plurimum oratori et auctoritatis et fidei adfert,
modestia, si a viro bono in rabulam latratoremque
convertitur, compositus non ad animum iudicis sed

13 ad stomachum litigatoris. Frequenter etiam species
libertatis deducere ad temeritatem solet non causis
modo, sed ipsis quoque, qui dixerunt, periculosam.

* cui, Halm : qui, B.
442

BOOK XII. IX. 9-13

of his advocate. But such faults are less serious than
that which lies deep in the soul itself, making the
evil speaker to differ from the evil doer only in
respect of opportunity. It is not uncommon for 10
the litigant to demand a base and inhuman gratifi-
cation of his rancour, such as not a single man among
the audience will approve, for it is on revenge rather
than on protection that his heart is set. But in this,
as in a number of other p>oints, it is the duty of the
orator to refuse to comply with his clients' desires.
For how can a man with the least degree of gentle-
manly feeling consent to make a brutal attack merely
because another desires it? And yet there are some 11
who take pleasure in directing their onslaughts
against their opponents' counsel as well, a practice
which, unless they have deserved such attacks, shows
an inhuman disregard of the duties incumbent on the
profession, and is not merely useless to the speaker
(since he thereby gives his opponent the right to
reply in the same strain), but contrary to the
interests of his case, since it creates a hostile and
antagonistic disposition in the advocates attacked,
whose eloquence, however feeble it may be, will be
redoubled by resentment at the insults to which
they have been subjected. Above all, it involves a 12
complete waste of one of the most valuable of an
orator's assets, namely that self-restraint which gives
weight and credit to his words, if he debases him-
self from an honest man into a snarling wrangler,
directing all his efforts not to win the goodwill of the
judge, but to gratify his client's spite. Often too 13
the attractions of freedom of speech will lure him
into a rashness of language perilous not merely to
the interests of the case, but to those of the speaker

443

QUINTILIAN

Nee immerito Pericles solebat optare, ne quod sibi
verbum in mentem veniret, quo populus offenderetur.
Sed quod ille de populo, id ego de omnibus sentio,
qui tantundem possunt nocere. Nam quae fortia
dum dicuntur videbantur, stulta cum laeserunt
vocantur.

14 Nunc, quia varium fere propositum agentium fuit,
et quorundam cura tarditatis, quorundam facilitas te-
meritatis crimine laboravit, quem credam fore in hoc

15 oratoris modum, tradere non alienum videtur. Adferet
ad dicendum curae semper quantum plurimum po-
terit. Neque enim hoc solum negligentis, sed mali
et in suscepta causa perfidi ac proditoris est, peius
agere quam possit. Ideoque ne suscipiendae quidem
sunt causae plures quam quibus sufTecturum se sciat.

16 Dicet scripta quam res patietur plurima et, ut De-
mosthenes ait, si continget, et sculpta. Sed hoc aut
primae actiones aut quae in publicis iudiciis post
interiectos dies dantur permiserint ; at cum protinus
respondendum est, omnia parari non possunt, adeo
ut paulo minus promptis etiam noceat scripsisse, si
alia ex diverso, quam opinati fuerint, occurrerint.

^ This passage is our sole authority for the saying.
444

BOOK XII. IX. 13-16

himself. It was not without good reason that Peri-
cles used to pray that no word might occur to his
mind that could give offence to the people. But
what he felt with regard to the people, I feel with
regard to every audience, since they can cause just
as much harm to the orator as the people could
ever do to Pericles. For utterances which seemed
courageous at the moment of speaking, are called
foolish when it is found that they have given offence.

In view of the fact that there is commonly a great 14
variety in the aims which pleaders set before them-
selves and that the diligence shown by some is
branded as tedious caution, while the readiness of
others is criticised as rashness, I think that this will
be an appropriate place to set forth my views as to
how the orator may strike the happy mean. He will 15
show all the diligence of which he is capable in his
pleading. For to plead worse than he might have
done, is not merely an indication of negligence, but
stamps him as a bad man and a traitor, disloyal to the
cause which he has undertaken. Consequently he
must refuse to undertake more cases than he feels
he can manage. As far as possible he will deliver 16
only what he has written, and, if circumstances
permit, only what he has, as Demosthenes says,^
carved into shape. Such a practice is possible in
first hearings and also in subsequent hearings such as
are granted in the public courts after an interval of
several days. On the other hand, when we have to
reply on the spot, it is impossible to prepare every-
thing : in fact for the less ready type of speaker, it
may, in the event of his opponents putting forward
arguments quite other than those which they were
expected to advance, be a positive drawback to have

445

QUINTILIAN

17 Inviti enim recedunt a praeparatis et tola actione re-
spiciunt requiruntque, num aliquid ex illis intervelli
atque ex tempore dicendis inseri possit ; quod si fiat,
non cohaeret nee commissuris modo, ut in opere
male iuncto, hiantibus sed ipsa coloris inaequalitate

18 detegitur. Ita nee liber est impetus nee cura con-
texta, et utrumque alteri obstat ; ilia enim quae
scripta sunt retinent animum, non sequuntur. Itaque
in his actionibus omni, ut agricolae dicunt, pede stan-

19 dum est. Nam cum in propositione ac refutatione
causa consistat, quae nostrae partis sunt scripta esse
possunt, quae etiam responsurum adversarium certum
est (est enim aliquando certum) pari cura refelluntur.
Ad alia unum paratum adferre possumus, ut causam
bene noverimus, alterum ibi sumere, ut dicentem

20 adversarium diligenter audiamus. Licet tamen
praecogitare plura et animum ad omnes casus compo-
nere, idque est tutius stilo, quo facilius et omittitur
446

BOOK XII. IX. 16-20

written anything. For it is only with reluctance 17
that such speakers will under such circumstances
consent to abandon what they have written, and
throughout their pleading keep looking back and
trying to discover whether any portion of their
manuscript can be saved from the wreck and inter-
polated into what they have to improvise. And if
they do make such interpolations, the result is a lack
of cohesion which is betrayed not merely by the
gaping of the seams where the patch has been un-
skilfully inserted, but by the differences of style.
Consequently, the vigour of their eloquence will be 18
hampered and their thought will lack connexion, each
of which circumstances reacts unfavourably upon the
other, since what is written trammels the mind
instead of following its lead. Therefore, in such
pleadings we must, as the rustic adage says, " stand
on all our feet." For since the case turns on the 19
propounding and refutation of arguments, it is
always possible to write out what we propose to
advance on our own behalf, and similar preparation
is also possible with regard to the refutation of such
replies as are absolutely certain to be made by our
adversary : for there are times when we have this
certainty. But with regard to all other portions of
our speech, the only preparation that is possible in
advance consists in a thorough knowledge of our
case, while there is a second precaution which may
be taken in court, consisting in giving our best
attention to our opponent's speech. On the other 20
hand, there is much that may be thought out in
advance and we may forearm our mind against all
possible emergencies, a course which is far safer
than writing, since a train of thought can easily be

447

QUINTILIAN

cogitatio et transfertur. Sed sive in respondendo
fuerit subito dicendum, sive quae alia ita exegerit
ratio, non oppressum se ac deprehensum credet
orator, cui disciplina et studium et exercitatio dederit
21 vires etiam facilitatis ; quem armatum semper ac velut
in procinctu stantem non magis unquam in causis
oratio quam in rebus cotidianis ac domesticis serrao
deficiet, nee se unquam propter hoc oneri subtrahet,
modo sit causae discendae tempus; nam cetera
semper sciet.

X. Superest ut dicam de genere orationis. Hie
erat propositus a nobis in divisione prima locus ter-
tius ; nam ita promiseram me de arte, de artifice, de
opere dicturum. Cum sit autem rhetorices atque
oratoris opus oratio pluresque eius formae, sicut
ostendam, in omnibus his et ars est et artifex. Pluri-
mum tamen invicem differunt ; nee solum specie, ut
signum signo et tabula tabulae et actio actioni, sed
genere ipso, ut Graecis Tuscanicae statuae, ut Asianus
2 eloquens Attico. Suos autem haec operum genera,
quae dico, ut auctores, sic etiam amatores habent ;
atque ideo nondum est perfectus orator ac nescio an
ars ulla, non solum quia aliud in alio magis eminet,
sed quod non una omnibus forma placuit, partim

* n. xiv. 5,
448

BOOK XII. IX. 2o-.\. 2

abandoned or diverted in a new direction. But
whether we have to improvise a reply, or are obliged
to speak extempore by some other reason, the orator
on whom training, study and practice have conferred
the gift of facility, will never regard himself as lost
or taken at hopeless disadvantage. He stands 21
armed for battle, ever ready for the fray, and his
eloquence will no more fail him in the courts than
speech will fail him in domestic affairs and the daily
concerns of life : and he will never shirk his burden
for fear of failing to find words, provided he has time
to study his case : for all other knowledge will always
be his at command.

X. The question of the "kind of style" to be
adopted remains to be discussed. This was described
in my original division ^ of my subject as forming its
third portion : for I promised that I would speak of
the art, the artist and the work. But since oratory
is the work both of rhetoric and of the orator, and
since it has many forms, as I shall show, the art and
the artist are involved in the consideration of all
these forms. But they differ greatly from one
another, and not merely in species, as statue differs
from statue, picture from picture and speech from
speech, but in genus as well, as, for example,
Etruscan statues differ from Greek and Asiatic
orators from Attic. But these different kinds of 2
work, of which I speak, are not merely the product
of different authors, but have each their own follow-
ing of admirers, with the result that the perfect
orator has not yet been found, a statement which
perhaps may be extended to all arts, not merely
because some qualities are more evident in some
artists than in others, but because one single form

449

QUINTILIAN

condicione vel temporum vel locorum, partim iudicio
cuiusque atque proposito.

3 Primi, quorum quidem opera non vetustatis modo
gratia visenda sunt, clari pictores fuisse diountur
Polygnotus atque Aglaopbon, quorum simplex color
tam sui studiosos adhuc habet, ut ilia prope rudia
ac velut futurae mox artis primordia maximis, qui
post eos exstiterunt, auctoribus praeferant, proprio
quodam intelligendi, ut mea opinio est, ambitu.

4 Post Zeuxis atque Parrhasius non multum aetate
distantes, circa Peloponnesia ambo tempora (nam
cum Parrhasio sermo Socratis apud Xenophontem
invenitur) plurimum arti addiderunt. Quorum prior
luminum umbrarumque invenisse rationem, secundus

5 examinasse subtilius lineas traditur. Nam Zeuxis
plus membris corporis dedit, id amplius atque
augustius ratus atque, ut existimant, Homerum
secutus, cui validissima quaeque forma etiam in
feminis placet. I lie vero ita circumscripsit omnia,
ut eum legum latorem vocent, quia deorum atque
heroum effigies, quales ab eo sunt traditae, ceteri,

6 tanquam ita necesse sit, sequuntur. Floruit autem
circa Philippum et usque ad successores Alexandri

^ Of the painters mentioned in this and the following
sections Polygnotus of Thasos, son of Aglaophon, painted ab
Athens in the middle of the 5th century B.C. Zeuxis of
Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus flourished 420-390, while
the remainder are painters of the 4th century. Of these
Pamphilus of Sicyon was the teacher of Melanthius and
Apelles, the latter being the most famous painter of antiquity.

'^ Meinor. m. x. 1.

' I.e. by giving them roundness and solidity by his treat-
ment of light and shade,

45°

BOOK XII. X. 2-6

will not satisfy all critics, a fact which is due in
part to conditions of time or place, in part to the
taste and ideals of individuals.

The first great painters, whose works deserve 3
inspection for something more than their mere
antiquity, are said to have been Polygnotus and
Aglaophon,^ whose simple colouring has still such
enthusiastic admirers that they prefer these almost
primitive works, which may be regarded as the first
foundations of the art that was to be, over the works
of the greatest of their successors, their motive
being, in my opinion, an ostentatious desire to seem
persons of superior taste. Later Zeuxis and Par- 4
rhasius contributed much to the progress of painting.
These artists were sepai-ated by no great distance of
time, since both flourished about the period of the
Peloponnesian war : for example, Xenophon ^ has
preserved a conversation between Socrates and
Parrhasius. The first-mentioned seems to have
discovered the method of representing light and
shade, while the latter is said to have devoted
special attention to the treatment of line. For 6
Zeuxis emphasised the limbs of the human body,^
thinking thereby to add dignity and grandeur to
his style : it is generally supposed that in this he
followed the example of Homer, who likes to
represent even his female characters as being of
heroic mould. Parrhasius, on the other hand, was
so fine a draughtsman that he has been styled the
law-giver of his art, on the ground that all other
artists take his representations of gods and heroes as
models, as though no other course were possible.
It was, however, from about the period of the reign 8
of Philip down to that of the successors of Alexander

451

QUINTILIAN

pictura praecipue, sed diversis virtutibus. Nam
cura Protogenes, ratione Pamphilus ac Melanthius,
facilitate Antiphilus, concipiendis visionibus, quas
<f>avTaaias vocant, Theon Samius, ingenio et gratia,
quam in se ipse maxirne iactat, Apelles est prae-
stantissimus. Euphranorem admirandum facit, quod
et ceteris optimis studiis inter praecipuos et pingendi
fingendique idem mirus artifex fuit.

7 Similis in statuariis differentia.^ Nam duriora et
Tuscanicis proxima Gallon atque Hegesias, iam minus
rigida Calamis, molliora adhuc supra dictis Myron
fecit. Diligentia ac decor in Polyclito supra ceteros,
cui quanquam a plerisque tribuitur palma, tamen, ne

8 nihil detrahatur, deesse pondus putant. Nam ut
humanae formae decorem addiderit supra verum, ita
non explevisse deorum auctoritatem videtur. Quin
aetatem quoque graviorem dicitur refugisse nihil
ausus ultra leves genas. At quae Polyclito defue-

9 runt, Phidiae atque Alcameni dantur. Phidias ta-
men diis quam hominibus effingendis ^ melior artifex
creditur in ebore vero longe citra aemulum, vel si

^ statuariis, Christ : statuis, MSS.

* effingendis, Dukerus : efficiendis, MSS.

* Gallon of Aegina and Hegesias flourished in the latter
years of the 6th century. Calamis of Athens and Myron of
Eleutherae, first half of 5th centurj'. Phidias of Athens and
Polyclitus of Argos, the two most famous sculptors of the
second half of 5th century. Praxiteles, middle of 4th
century. Lysippus and Demetrius, last half of 4th century.

45 «

BOOK XII. X. 6-9

that painting flourished more especially, although
the different artists are distinguished for different
excellences. Protogenes, for example, was renowned
for accuracy, Pamphilus and Melanthius for sound-
ness of taste, Antiphilus for facility, Theon of Samos
for his depiction of imaginary scenes, known as
<fiavT(L(Tiai, and Apelles for genius and grace, in the
latter of which qualities he took especial pride.
Euphranor, on the other hand, was admired on the
ground that, while he ranked with the most eminent
masters of other arts, he at the same time achieved
marvellous skill in the arts of sculpture and painting.

The same differences exist between sculptors. The 7
art of Gillon and Hegesias ^ is somewhat rude and
recalls the Etruscans, but the work of Calamis has
already begun to be less stiff, while Myron's statues
show a greater softness of form than had been
achieved by the artists just mentioned. Polyclitus
surpassed all others for care and grace, but although
the majority of critics account him as the greatest
of sculptors, to avoid making him faultless they
express the opinion that his work is lacking in
grandeur. For while he gave the human form an 8
ideal grace, he is thought to have been less success-
ful in representing the dignity of the gods. He is
further alleged to have shrunk from representing
persons of maturer years, and to have ventured on
nothing more difficult than a smooth and beardless
face. But the qualities lacking in Polyclitus are
allowed to have been possessed by Phidias and
Alcamenes. On the other hand, Phidias is regarded 9
as more gifted in his representation of gods than of
men, and indeed for chryselephantine statues he is
without a peer, as he would in truth be, even if he

453

QUINTILIAN

nihil nisi Minervam Athenis aut Olympium in Elide
lovem fecisset, cuius pulchritude adiecisse aliquid
etiam receptae religioni videtur ; adeo maiestas
operis deum aequavit. Ad veritatem Lysippum ac
Praxitelen accessisse optime adfirmant. Nam Deme-
trius tanquam nimius in ea reprehenditur et fuit
similitudinis quam pulchritudinis amantior.

10 In oratione vero si species intueri velis^ totidem
paene reperias ingeniorum quot corporum formas.
Sed fuere quaedam genera dicendi condicione tem-
porum horridiora, alioqui magnam iam ingenii vim
prae se ferentia. Hinc sint Laelii, Africani, Catones
etiam Gracchique, quos tu licet Polygnotos vel
Callonas appelles. Mediam illam formam teneant L.

1 1 Crassus, Q. Hortensius. Tum deinde efflorescat non
multum inter se distantium tempore oratorum ingens
proventus. Hie vim Caesaris, indolem Caelii, sub-
tilitatem Calidii, diligentiam Pollionis, dignitatem
Messalae, sanctitatem Calvi, gravitatem Bruti, acu-
men Sulpicii, acerbitatem Cassii reperiemus ; in iis
etiam, quos ipsi vidimus, copiam Senecae, vires
Africani, maturitatem Afri, iucunditatem Crispi,

12 sonum Trachali, elegantiam Secundi. At M.
454

BOOK XII. X. 9-i»

had produced nothing in this material beyond his
Minerva at Athens and his Jupiter at Olympia in
Elis, whose beauty is such that it is said to have
added something even to the awe with which the
god was already regarded : so perfectly did the
majesty of the work give the impression of godhead.
Lysippus and Praxiteles are asserted to be supreme
as regards faithfulness to nature. For Demetrius is
blamed for carrying realism too far, and is less
concerned about the beauty than the truth of his
work.

Now, if we turn our attention to the various styles 10
of oratory, we shall find almost as great variety of
talents as there are of personal appearance. There
were certain kinds of oratory which, owing to the
circumstances of the age, suffered from lack of polish,
although in other respects they displayed remarkable
genius. In this class we may place orators such as
Laelius, Africanus, Cato, and even the Gracchi,
whom we may call the " Polygnoti " and " Callones "
of oratory. Among orators of the intermediate 11
type we may rank Lucius Crassus and Quintus
Hortensius. Then let us turn to a vast harvest of
orators who flourished much about the same period.
It is here that we find the vigour of Caesar, the
natural talent of Caelius, the subtlety of Calidius,
the accuracy of PoUio, the dignity of Messala, the
austerity of Calvus, the gravity of Brutus, the acumen
of Sulpicius and the bitterness of Cassius, while
among those whom we have seen ourselves we
admire the fluency of Seneca, the strength of Afri-
canus, the mellowness of Afer, the charm of Crispus,
the sonority of Trachalus and the elegance of Se-
cundus. But in Cicero we have one who is not, 12

455

QUINTILIAN

Tullium non ilium habemus Euphranorem circa plures
artium species praestantem^ sed in omnibus, quae in
quoque laudantur, eminentissimum. Quem tamen et
suorum homines temporum incessere audebant ut
tumidiorem et Asianum et redundantem et in re-
petitionibus nimium et in salibus aliquando frigidum
et in compositione fractum, exultantem ac paene,

13 quod procul absit, viro molliorem ; postea vero quam
triumvirali proscriptione consumptus est, passim qui
oderant, qui invidebant qui aemulabantur, adulatores
etiam praesentis potentiae non responsurum in-
vaserunt. Ille tamen, qui ieiunus a quibusdam et
aridus habetur, non aliter ab ipsis inimicis male audire
quam nimiis floribus et ingenii affluentia potuit.
Falsum utrumque, sed tamen ilia mentiendi propior

14 oceasio. Praecipue vero presserunt eum, qui videri
Atticorum imitatores concupierant. Haec manus
quasi quibusdam sacris initiata ut alienigenam et
parum superstitiosum devinctumque illis legibus
insequebatur ; unde nunc quoque aridi et exsuci et

15 exangues. Hi sunt enim, qui suae imbecillitati sa-
nitatis appellationem, quae est maxime contraria,
obtendant; qui, quia clariorem vim eloquentiae
velut solem ferre non possunt, umbra magni nominis
delitescunt. Quibus quia multa et pluribus locis

» Cp. X. i. 105 jg-. • /. «. Attic

BOOK XII. X. 12-15

like Euphranorj merely distinguished in a number
of different forms of art, but is supreme in all the
different qualities which are praised in each individual
orator.i And yet even his own contemporaries
ventured to attack him on the ground that he was
bombastic, Asiatic, redundant, given to excessive
repetition, liable at times to be pointless in his
witticisms, sensuous, extravagant and (an outrageous
accusation !) almost effeminate in his rhythm. And 13
later, after he had fallen a victim to the proscrip-
tion of the second triumvirate, those who hated
and envied him and regarded him as their rival, nay,
even those who had flattered him in the days of his
power, attacked him now that he could no longer
reply. But that very man, who is now regarded
by some as being too jejune and dry, was attacked
by his personal enemies on no other ground than
that his style was too florid and his talents too little
under control. Both charges are false, but there is
more colour for the lie in the latter case than in
the former. Those, however, who criticised him 14
most severely were the speakers who desired to be
regarded as the imitators of Attic oratory. This
coterie, regarding themselves as the sole initiates in
the mysteries of their art, assailed him as an alien,
indifferent to their superstitions and refusing to be
bound by their laws. Their descendants are among
us to-day, a withered, sapless and anaemic band.
For it is they that flaunt their weakness under the 15
name of health, in defiance of the actual truth, and
because they cannot endure the dazzling rays of the
sun of eloquence, hide themselves beneath the
shadow of a mighty name.^ However, as Cicero him-
self answered them at length and in a number of

457

QUINTILIAN

Cicero ipse respondit, tutior mihi de hoc disserendi
brevitas erit.

16 Et antiqua quidem ilia divisio inter Atticos atque
Asianos fuit, cum hi pressi et integri, contra inflati
illi et inanes haberentur, in his nihil superflueret,
illis iudicium maxime ac modus deesset. Quod
quidam, quorum et Santra est, hoc putant accidisse,
quod, paulatim sermone Graeco in proximas Asiae
civitates influente, nondum satis periti loquendi
facundiam concupierint, ideoque ea, quae proprie
signari poterant, circuitu coeperint enuntiare ac

17 deinde in eo perse verarint. Mihi autem orationis
differentiam fecisse et dicentium et audientium
naturae videntur, quod Attici limati quidam et
emuncti nihil inane aut redundans ferebant, Asiana
gens tumidior alioqui atque iactantior vaniore etiam

18 dicendi gloria inflata est. Tertium mox, qui haec
dividebant, adiecerunt genus Rhodium, quod velut
medium esse atque ex utroque mixtum volunt ;
neque enim Attice pressi neque Asiane sunt abund-
antes, ut aliquid habere videantur gentis, aliquid

19 auctoris. Aeschines enim, qui hunc exilio delegerat

458

BOOK XII. X. 15-19

passages, it will be safer for me to be brief in my

treatment of this topic.

The distinction between the Attic and the Asiatic 16
schools takes us back to antiquity. The former were
regarded as concise and healthy, the latter as empty
and inflated : the former were remarkable for the
absence of all superfluity, while the latter were
deficient alike in taste and restraint. The reason
for this division, according to some authorities,
among them Santra, is to be found in the fact that,
as Greek gradually extended its range into the
neighbouring cities of Asia, there arose a class of
men who desired to distinguish themselves as orators
before they had acquired sufficient command of the
language, and who consequently began to express
by periphrases what could have been expressed
directly, until finally this practice became an in-
grained habit. My o\vn view, however, is that the 17
difference between the two styles is attributable to
the character both of the orators and the audiences
whom they addressed : the Athenians, with their
polish and refinement, refused to tolerate emptiness
and redundance, while the Asiatics, being naturally
given to bombast and ostentation, were puffed up
with a passion for a more vainglorious style of
eloquence. At a later period, the critics, to whom 18
we owe this classification, added a third style, the
Rhodian, which they asserted to lie midway between
the two and to be a blend of both, since the orators
of this school are neither so concise as the Attic nor
redundant like the Asiatic school, but appear to
derive their style in part from their national char-
acteristics, in part from those of their founder. For 19
it was Aeschines who introduced the culture of

459

QUINTILIAN

locum, intulit eo studia Athenarum, quae, velut sata
quaedam caelo terraque degenerant, saporem ilium
Atticum peregrino miscuerunt. Lenti ergo quidam
ac remissi, non sine pondere tamen neque fontibus
puris neque torrentibus turbidis, sed lenibus stagnis
similes habentur.

20 Nemo igitur dubitaverit, longe esse optimum genus
Atticorum. In quo ut est aliquid inter ipsos com-
mune, id est iudicium acre tersumque, ita ingeni-

21 orum plurimae formae. Quapropter mihi falli multum
videntur, qui solos esse Atticos credunt tenues et
lucidos et significantes sed quadam eloquentiae fru-
galitate contentos ac semper manum intra pallium
continentes. Nam quis erit hie Atticus ? Sit
Lysias ; hunc enim amplectuntur amatores istius
nominis modum. Non igitur iam usque ad Coccum
et Andocidem remittemur. Interrogare tamen velim,

22 an Isocrates Attice dixerit. Nihil enim tam est
Lysiae diversum. Negabunt. At eius schola prin-
cipes oratorum dedit. Quaeratur similius aliquid.
Hyperides Atticus? Certe, at plus indulsit volup-
tati. Transeo plurimos, Lycurgum, Aristogitona et

* The only Coccus known to us is stated by Suidas to
have been a pupil of Isocrates, whereas we should here
have expected Quintilian to refer to some orator of the
5th century contemporary with Andocides (closing decades
of 4th century).

460

BOOK XII. X. 19-22

Athens at Rhodes, which he had chosen as his place
of exile : and just as certain plants degenerate as a
result of change of soil and climate, so the fine Attic
flavour was marred by the admixture of foreign
ingredients. Consequently certain of the orators of
this school are regarded as somewhat slow and
lacking in energy, though not devoid of a certain
weight, and as resembling placid pools rather than
the limpid springs of Athens or the turbid torrents
of Asia.

No one therefore should have any hesitation in 20
pronouncing Attic oratory to be by far the best. But
although all Attic writers have something tn com-
mon, namely a keen and exact judgement, their
talents manifest themselves in a number of different
forms. Consequently I regard those critics as com- 21
mitting a serious error who regard only those
authors as Attic who, while they are simple, lucid
and expressive, are none the less content with a
certain frugality of eloquence, and keep their hands
modestly within the folds of their cloaks. For what
author is there who answers to this conception ? I
am prepared to grant that there is Lysias, since he
is the favourite model of the admirers of this school,
and such an admission will save us from being
referred to Coccus^ and Andocides. But I should like 22
to ask whether Isocrates spoke in the Attic style.
For there is no author less like Lysias. They will
answer in the negative. And yet it is to the school
of Isocrates that we owe the greatest orators. Let
us look for something closer. Is Hyperides
Attic .'' Yes, they reply, but of an over-sensuous
character. I pass by a number of orators, such as
Lycurgus and Aristogeiton and their predecessors

461

QUINTILIAN

his priores Isaeum, Antiphonta ; quos ut homines
inter se genera similes, differentes dixeris specie.

23 Quid ille, cuius modo fecimus mentionem, Aeschines ?
nonne his latior et audentior et excelsior ? Quid
denique Demosthenes ? non cunctos illos tenues et
circumspectos vi, sublimitate, irapetu, cultu, coni-
positione superavit ? non insurgit locis ? non figuris
gaudet? non translationibus nitet? non oratione

24 ficta dat tacentibus vocem ? non illud iusiurandum
per caesos in Marathone ac Salamine propugnatores
rei publicae satis manifesto docet praeceptorem eius
Platonem fuisse ? quem ipsum num Asianum appel-
labimus plerumque instinctis divino spiritu vatibus
comparandum ? Quid Periclea ? similemne credimus
Lysiacae gracilitati, quem fulminibus et caelesti
fragori comparant comici, dum illi conviciantur ?

25 Quid est igitur, cur in iis demum, qui tenui venula
per calculos fluunt, Atticum saporem putent, ibi
demum thymum redolere dicant ? Quos ego ex-
istimo, si quod in iis finibus uberius invenerint solum
fertilioremve segetem, negaturos Atticam esse, quod
plus, quam acceperit, seminis reddat, quia banc eius

26 terrae fidem Menander eludit. Ita nunc, si quis ad
eas Demosthenis virtutes, quas ille summus orator

* Georg. 35 sqq. (Koerte) ; 4ire'5wK«i' hp&Sis koI SiKaiws, ou
vKfov, I dAA' wrh rh fifrpoy.

462

BOOK XII. X. 22-26

Isaeus and Antiphon ; for though they have a certjiin
generic resemblance, they may be said to differ in
species. But what of Aeschines, whom I mentioned 23
just now ? Is not his style ampler and bolder and
more lofty than theirs ? And what of Demosthenes
himself? Did not he surpass all those simple and
circumspect orators in force, loftiness, energy, polish
and rhythm ? Does he not rise to great heights in
his commonplaces ? Does he not rejoice in the employ-
ment of figures ? Does he not make brilliant use of
metaphor? Does he not lend a voice, a fictitious
utterance to speechless things ? Does not his famous 24
oath by the warriors who fell fighting for their country
at Salamis and Marathon show that Plato was his
master? And shall we call Plato an Asiatic, Plato
who as a rule deserves comparison with poets instinct
with the divine fire of inspiration ? What of Pericles ?
Can we believe that his style was like the slender
stream of Lysias' eloquence, when the comedians,
even while they revile him, compare his oratory to
the bolts and thunder of the skies ? What is the 25
reason, then, why these critics regard that style
which flows in a slender trickle and babbles among
the pebbles as having the true Attic flavour and
the true scent of Attic thyme ? I really think that,
if they were to discover a soil of exceptional richness
and a crop of unusual abundance within the boundaries
of Attica, they would deny it to be Attic, on the
ground that it has produced more seed than it
received : for you will remember the mocking com-
ments passed by Menander^ on the exact fidelity
with which the soil of Attica repays its deposits.
Well, then, if any man should, in addition to the 26
actual virtues which the great orator Demosthenes

463

QUINTILIAN

habuit, tamen quae defuisse ei sive ipsius natura seu
lege civitatis videntufj adiecei'it, ut adfectus con-
eitatius moveat, audiam dicentem, Non fecit hoc
Demosthenes ? et si quid numeris exierit aptius (for-
tasse non possit, sed tamen si quid exierit) non erit
Atticum ? Melius de hoc nomine sentiant credantque
Attice dicere esse optime dicere.

27 Atque in hae tamen opinione perseverantes
Graecos magis tulerim. Latina mihi facundia, ut
inventionej dispositione, consilio, ceteris huius gene-
ris artibus similis Graecae ac prorsus discipula eius
videtur, ita circa rationem eloquendi vix habere
imitationis locum. Namque est ipsis statim sonis
durior, quando et iucundissimas ex Graecis litteras
non habemus, vocalem alteram, alteram consonantem,
quibus nullae apud eos dulcius spirant ; quas mutuari

28 solemus, quotiens illorum nominibus utimur. Quod
cum contingit, nescio quomodo hilarior protinus
renidet oratio, ut in Zephyris et Zophoris. Quae si
nostris litteris scribantur, surdum quiddam et bar-
barum efficient, et velut in locum earum succedunt

29 tristes et horridae, quibus Graecia caret. Nam et
ilia, quae est sexta nostrarum, paene non humana

1 See n. xvi. 4. Qiiintilian alludes to an alleged law for-
bidding Athenian orators to appeal to the emotions in the
law courts. ^ * and T.

' Friezes. * F and U ; ze/uri and zo/ori,

464

BOOK XII. X. 26-29

possessed, show himself to be the possessor of others,
that either owing to his own temperament or the
laws of Athens ^ Demosthenes is thought to have
lacked, and should reveal in himself the power of
strongly stirring the emotions, shall I hear one of
these critics protesting that Demosthenes never did
this? And if he produces something rhythmically
superior (an impossible feat, perhaps, but let us
assume it to be so), are we to be told that it is not
Attic? These critics would show finer feeling and
better judgement, if they took the view that Attic
eloquence meant perfect eloquence.

Still I should find this attitude less intolerable if 27
it were only the Greeks that insisted on it. For Latin
eloquence, although in my opinion it closely resembles
the Greek as far as invention, arrangement, judge-
ment and the like are concerned, and may indeed be
regarded as its disciple, cannot aspire to imitate it
in point of elocution. For, in the first place, it is
harsher in sound, since our alphabet does not contain
the most euphonious of the Greek letters, one a
vowel and the other a consonant,^ than which there
are none that fall more sweetly on the ear, and
which we are forced to borrow whenever we use
Greek words. The result of such borrowing is, for 28
some reason or other, the immediate accession to
our language of a certain liveliness and charm.
Take, for example, words such as zephyri and zophori : *
if they were spelt according to the Latin alphabet,
they would produce a heavy and barbarous sound.
For we replace these letters by others of a harsh
and unpleasant character,* from which Greece is
happily immune. For the sixth letter in our alphabet 29
is represented by a sound which can scarcely be

465

QUINTILIAN

voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina
dentium efflanda est ; quae, etiam cum vocalem
proxima accipit, quassa quodammodo, utique quotiens
aliquam consonantium frangit, ut in hoc ipso J rangit,
multo fit liorridior. Aeolicae quoque litterae, qua
Servian cei-viitnque dicimus, etiamsi forma a nobis
repudiata est, vis tamen nos ipsa persequitur,

30 Duras et ilia syllabas facit, quae ad coniungendas
demum subiectas sibi vocales est utilis, alias super-
vacua, ut equos liao et aequum scribimus ; cum etiam
ipsae hae vocales duae efficiant sonum, qualis apud
Graecos nullus est, ideoque scribi illorum litteris

31 non potest. Quid ? quod pleraque nos ilia quasi
mugiente M ^ litteracludimus in quam^ nullum Graece
verbum cadit: at illi ny iucundam et in fine praecipue
quasi tinnientem illius loco ponunt, quae est apud

32 nos rarissima in clausulis. Quid? quod syllabae
nostrae in B litteram et D innituntur adeo aspere,
ut plerique non antiquissimorum quidem, sed tamen
veterum mollire temptaverint non solum aversa pro
abversis dicendo, sed et in praepositione B litterae

33 absonam et ipsam S subiiciendo. Sed accentus
quoque, cum rigore quodam, turn similitudine ipsa.

^ M added by Halm.

' quam, Halm : qua, MSS.

^ cp. I. iv. 11.

* A sound approximating to our W.

8 The sound of Q in itself does not differ from C. It
would therefore be useless, save as an indication that U and
another vowel are to follow. The U in this combination
following Q was, as Donatus later pointed out, "neither a
vowel nor a consonant," i.e. it was something between U
andV.

466

BOOK XII. X. 29-33

called human or even articulate, being produced by
forcing the air through the interstices of the teeth.
Such a sound, even when followed by a vowel, is
harsh enough and, as often as it clashes (^frangit)
with a consonant,^ as it does in this very word
frangit, becomes harsher still. Then there is the
Aeolic digamma whose sound occurs in words such
as our serviis and cerviis ; for even though we have
rejected the actual form of the letter, we cannot
get rid of that which it represents. ^ Similarly the 30
letter Q, which is superfluous and useless save for
the purpose of attaching to itself the vowels by
which it is followed, results in the formation of
harsh syllables, as, for example, when we write eqtios
and aequum, more especially since these two vowels
together produce a sound for which Greek has no
equivalent and which cannot therefore be expressed
in Greek letters.^ Again, we have a number of 31
words which end with M, a letter which suggests
the mooing of a cow, and is never the final letter
in any Greek word : for in its place they use the
letters ny, the sound of which is naturally pleasant
and produces a ringing tone when it occurs at the
end of a word, whereas in Latin this termination is
scarcely ever found. Again, we have syllables which 32
produce such a harsh effect by ending in B and
D, that many, not, it is true, of our most ancient
writers, but still writers of considerable antiquity,
have attempted to mitigate the harshness not merely
by saying aversa for abversa, but by adding an S
to the preposition ab, although S is an ugly letter
in itself. Our accents also are less agreeable than 33
those of the Greeks. This is due to a certain rigidity
and monotony of pronunciation, since the final

467

QUINTILIAN

minus suaves habemus, quia ultima syllaba nee aeuta
unquam excitatur nee flexa circumdueitur, sed in
gravem vel duas graves cadit semper. Itaque tanto
est sermo Graecus Latino iueundior, ut nostri poetae,
quotiens dulce carmen esse voluerint, illorum id

34 nominibus exornent. His ilia potentiora, quod res
plurimae carent appellationibus, ut eas necesse sit
transferre aut cii'cumire ; etiam in iis, quae de-
nominata sunt^ summa paupertas in eadem nos
frequentissime revolvit ; at illis non verborum modo,
sed linguarum etiam inter se differentium copia
est.

35 Quare qui a Latinis exiget illam gratiam sermonis
Attici, det mihi in eloquendo eandem iucunditatem
et parem copiam. Quod si negatum est, sententias
aptabimus iis vocibus quas habemus, nee rerum
nimiam tenuitatem, ut non dicam pinguioribus,
fortioribus certe verbis miscebimus, ne virtus utraque

36 pereat ipsa confusione. Nam quo minus adiuvat
sermo, rerum inventione pugnandum est. Sensus
sublimes variique eruantur. Permovendi omnes
adfectus erunt, oratio translationum nitore illumi-
nanda. Non possumus esse tam graciles : simus
fortiores. Subtilitate vincimur : valeamus pondere.
Proprietas penes illos est certior : eopia vincamus.

* /. e. the last syllable and often the last two syllables
have the grave accent. See I. v. 22 sqq.

* I.e. because the names are not wholly adequate and
there are no satisfactory synonyms.

468

BOOK XII. X. 33-36

syllable is never marked by the rise of the acute
accent nor by the rise and fall of the circumflex, but
one or even two grave accents ^ are regularly to be
found at the end. Consequently the Greek language
is so much more agreeable in sound than the Latin,
that our poets, whenever they wish their verse to
be especially harmonious, adorn it with Greek words.
A still stronger indication of the inferiority of Latin 34
is to be found in the fact that there are many things
which have no Latin names, so that it is necessary
to express them by metaphor or periphrasis, while
even in the case of things which have names, the
extreme poverty of the language leads us to resort
to the same practice.^ On the other hand, the
Greeks have not merely abundance of words, but
they have also a number of different dialects.

Consequently he who demands from Latin the 35
grace of Attic Greek, must first provide a like
charm of tone and equal richness of vocabulary. If
this advantage is denied us, we must adapt our
thoughts to suit the words we have and, where our
matter is unusually slight and delicate, must avoid
expressing it in words which are, I will not say too
gross, but at any rate too strong for it, for fear that
the combination should result in the destruction
both of delicacy and force. For the less help we 36
get from the language, the more must we rely on
inventiveness of thought to bring us through the
conflict. We must discover sentiments full of lofti-
ness and variety, must stir all the emotions and
illumine our style by brilliance of metaphor. Since
we cannot be so delicate, let us be stronger. If
they beat us for subtlety, let us prevail by weight,
and if they have greater precision, let us outdo

469

QUINTILIAN

37 Ingenia Graecorum etiam minora suos portus ha-
bent : nos plerumque maioribus velis movemur,
validior spiritus nostros sinus tendat ; non tamen
alto semper feremur^ nam et litora interim sequenda
sunt, nils facilis per quaelibet vada accessus ; ego
aliquid, non multo tamen, altius, in quo mea cumba

38 non sidat, inveniam. Neque enim, si tenuiora haec
ac pressiora Graeci melius, in eoque vincimur solo et
ideo in comoediis non contendimus, prorsus tamen
omittenda pars haec orationis, sed exigenda ut
optime possumus ; possumus autem rerum et modo
et iudicio esse similes, verborum gratia, quam in

39 ipsis non habemus, extrinsecus condienda est. An
non in privatis et acutus et indistinctus et non super
modum elatus M. Tullius? non in M. Calidio
insignis haec virtus ? non Scipio, Laelius, Cato in
eloquendo velut Attici Romanorum fuerunt? Cui
porro non satis est, quo nihil esse melius potest ?

40 Adhuc quidam nullam esse naturalem putant
eloquentiam, nisi quae sit cotidiano sermoni simil-
lima, quo cum amicis, coniugibus, liberis, servis
loquamur, contento promere animi voluntatem
nihilque arcessiti et elaborati requirente; quid-

* Owing to the subtlety and delicacy of the Greek
language even second-rate talent will be able to win dis-
tinction in dealing with minor things. But the coarser and
more full-blooded nature of Latin makes this difficult.

470

BOOK XII. X. 36-40

them in fullness of expression. Even the lesser 37
orators of Greece have their own havens where they
may ride in safety,^ while we as a rule carry more
sail. Let stronger gales fill our canvas, and yet let
us not always keep the high seas ; for at times we
must cling to shore. The Greeks can easily traverse
any shallows ; I must find a deeper, though not
much deeper, channel, that my bark may not run
aground. For even though the Greeks surpass us 38
where circumstances call for delicacy and restraint,
though we acknowledge their superiority in this
respect alone, and therefore do not claim to rival
them in comedy, that is no justification for our
abandonment of this department of oratory, but
rather a reason why we should handle it as best we
can. Now we can at any rate resemble the Greeks
in the method and judgement with which we treat
our matter, although that grace of language, which
our words cannot provide, must be secured by the
admixture of foreign condiments. For example, is 39
not Cicero shrewd, simple and not unduly exalted
in tone, when he deals with private cases .'' Is not
Calidius also distinguished for the same virtue ?
Were not Scipio, Laelius and Cato the Attic orators
of Rome ? Surely we ought to be satisfied with
them, since nothing can be better.

There are still some critics who deny that any 40
form of eloquence is purely natural, except that
which closely resembles the ordinary speech of every-
day life, which we use to our friends, our wives, our
children and our slaves, a language, that is to say,
which contents itself with expressing the purpose
of the mind without seeking to discover anything
in the way of elaborate and far-fetched phraseology.

471

QUINTILIAN

quid hue sit adiectum, id esse adfectationis et
ambitiosae in loquendo iactantiae, remotum a veri-
tate fictumque ipsorum gratia verborum, quibus
solum natura sit officium attributum, servire

41 sensibus : sicut athletarum corpora, etiamsi validiora
fiant exercitatione et lege quadam ciboruni, non
tamen esse naturalia atque ab ilia specie, quae sit
concessa homiuibus, abhorrere. Quid enim, inquiunt,
attinet circuitu res ostendere et translationibus, id
est aut pluribus aut alienis verbis, cum sua cuique

42 sint adsignata nomina ? Denique antiquissimum
quemque maxime secundum naturam dixisse con-
tendunt : mox poetis similiores exstitisse, etiamsi
parcius, simili tamen ratione, falsa et impropria
virtutes ducentes. Qua in disputatione nonnihil
veri est, ideoque non tam procul, quam fit a quibus-

43 dam, recedendum a propriis atque communibus. Si
quis tamen, ut in loco dixi compositionis, ad neces- I
saria, quibus nihil minus est, aliquid melius adiecerit,
non erit hac calumnia reprehendendus. Nam mihi
aliam quandam videtur habere naturam sermo
vulgaris, aliam viri eloquentis oratio ; cui si res
modo indicare satis esset, nihil ultra verborum

^ XI. ch. 4.
472

BOOK XIL X. 40-43

And they hold that whatever is added to this
simplicity lays the speaker open to the charge of
affectation and pretentious ostentation of speech,
void of all sincerity and elaborated merely for the
sake of the words, although the sole duty assigned
to words by nature is to be the servants of thought.
Such language may be compared to the bodies of 41
athletes, which although they develop their strength
by exercise and diet, are of unnatural growth and
abnormal in appearance. For what, say these critics,
is the good of expressing a thing by periphrasis or
metaphor (that is, either by a number of words or
by words which have no connexion with the thing),
when everything has been allotted a name of its
own .'' Finally, they urge that all the earliest orators 42
spoke according to the dictates of nature, but that
subsequently there arose a class of speakers re-
sembling poets rather than orators, who regarded
false and artificial methods of expression as positive
merits ; they were, it is true, more sparing than
the poets in their use of such expressions, but none
the less worked on similar lines. There is some
truth in this contention, and we should therefore
be careful not to depart from the more exact usage
of ordinary speech to the extent that is done by
certain orators. On the other hand, that is no 43
reason for thus calumniating the man who, as I said
in dealing with the subject of artistic structure,^
succeeds in improving upon the bare necessaries ot
style. For the common language of every day seems
to me to be of a different character from the style
of an eloquent speaker. If all that was required of
the latter was merely to indicate the facts, he might
rest content with literalness of language, without

VOL. IV. Q 473

QUINTILIAN

proprietatem elaborarct ; sed cum debeat delectare,
movere, in plurimas animum audieutis species
impellere, utetur his quoque adiutoriis, quae sunt

44 ab eadem nobis concessa natura. Nam et lacertos
, . exercitatione constringere et augere vires et colorem

trahere naturale est. Ideoque in omnibus gentibus
alius alio facundior habetur et eloquendo dulcis
magis (quod si non eveniret^ omnes pares essent) ;
at idem homines aliter de re alia^ loquuntur et
servant personarum discrimina. Ita, quo quisque
plus efficit dicendo, hoc magis secundum naturam
eloquentiae dicit.

45 Quapropter ne illis quidem nimium repugno, qui
dandum putant nonnihil etiam temporibus atque
auribus nitidius aliquid atque adfectius postulantibus.
Itaque non solum ad priores Catone Gracchisque, sed
ne ad hos quidem ipsos oratorem adligandum puto.
Atque id fecisse M. Tullium video, ut cum plurimum 2
utilitati, tum partem quandam delectationi daret ;
cum et suam se rem agere diceret, ageret autem

46 maxime litigatoris. Nam hoc ipso proderat, quod
placet. Ad cuius voluptates nihil equidem quod

^ at idem homines aliter de re alia loquuntur, Balm : ct
idem homines alf de re allocuntur, 0.
* plurimum, Christ : omnium, G.

BOOK XII. X. 43-46

further elaboration. But since it is his duty to
delight and move his audience and to play upon
the various feelings, it becomes necessary for him
to employ those additional aids which are granted
to us by that same nature which gave us speech.
It is, in fact, as natural to do this as to harden the 44
muscles, increase our strength and improve our com-
plexion by means of exercise. It is for this reason
that among all nations one man is regarded as more
eloquent and more attractive in his style than
another (since if this were not the case, all speakers
would be equal) ; but the same men speak differ-
ently on different subjects and observe distinctions
of character. Consequently the more effective a
man's speaking, the more in accordance with the
nature of eloquence will it be.

I have, therefore, no strong objection even to the 45
views expressed by those who think that some conces-
sion should be made to the circumstances under which
we speak and to the ears of the audience which
require something more polished and emotional than
ordinary speech. For this reason I consider that it
would be absurd to restrict an orator to the style of
the predecessors of Cato and the Gracchi, or even
of those orators themselves. And I note that it was
the practice of Cicero, while devoting himself in the
main to the interests of his case, to take into account
the delectation of his audience as well, since, as he
pointed out, his own interests were concerned as
well as those of his client, although of course the
latter were of paramount importance. For his very
charm was a valuable asset. I do not know what 46
can be added by way of improvement to the charms
of his style, except perhaps the introduction ot

475

QUINTILIAN

addi possit invenio, nisi ut sensus nos quidem dicamus
plures. Neque enim non ^ fieri potest salva tracta-
tione causae et dicendi auctoritate, si non crebra
haec lumina etcontinua fuerint et invicem ofFeceriiit.

47 Sed me hactenus cedentem nemo insequatur ultra.
Do tempori, ne hirta toga sit, non ut serica ; ne
intonsum caput, non ut in gradus atque anulos comp-
tum, cum eo quod, si non ad luxuriam ac libidinem
referas, eadem speciosiora quoque sint, quae honesti-

48 ora. Ceterum hoc, quod vulgo sententias vocamus,
quod veteribus praecipueque Graecis in usu non fuit
(apud Ciceronem enim invenio), dum rem contineant
et copia non redundent et ad victoriam spectent,
quis utile neget ? Feriunt animum et uno ictu fre-
quenter impellunt et ipsa brevitate magis haerent
et delectatione persuadent.

49 At sunt qui haec excitatiora lumina, etiamsi dicere
permittant, a componendis tamen orationibus ex-
cludenda arbitrentur. Quocirca mihi ne hie quidem
locus intactus est omittendus; nam plurimi' erudi-

* non added by Buttmann.

* nam plurimi, Halm : a plurimis, G.

* For this ever-recurring technical term there is no
adequate translation. It means a "reflexion couched in
aphoristic or epigrammatic form."

476

BOOK XII. X. 46-49

something more in the way of brilHant reflexions to
suit the taste of our own times. For this can be done
without injury to the treatment of our case or im-
pairing the authority of our language, provided that
such embellishments are not too frequent or con-
tinuous, and do not mutually destroy the effects
which they were designed to produce. I am ready 47
to go so far along the path of concession, but let no
man press me further. I concur in the fashion of
the day to the extent of agreeing that the toga
should not be long in the nap, but not to the extent
of insisting that it should be of silk : I agree that
the hair should be cut, but not that it should be
dressed in tiers and ringlets, since we must always
remember that ornaments, unless they be judged
from the standpoint of the fop and the debauchee,
are always effective in proportion to their seemliness.
But with regard to those passages to which we give 48
tlie name of reflexions,^ a form of ornament which
was not employed by the ancients and, above all,
not by the Greeks, although I do find it in Cicero,
who can deny their usefulness, provided they are
relevant to the case, are not too diffuse and con-
tribute to our success? For they strike the mind
and often produce a decisive effect by one single
blow, while their very brevity makes them cling to
the memory, and the pleasure which they produce
has the force of persuasion.

There are, however, some who, while allowing 49
the actual delivery of such specially brilliant forms
of ornament, think that they should be excluded
from the written speech. Consequently I must not
dismiss even this topic without a word of dis-
cussion. For a number of learned authorities

477

QUINTILIAN

torutn aliam esse dicendi rationem, aliam scribendi
putaverunt ; ideoque in agendo clarissimos quosdam
nihil posteritati mansurisque mox litteris reliquisse,
ut Periclem, ut Demaden ; rursus alios ad compo-
nendum optimos actionibus idoneos non fuisse, ut
60 Isocraten ; praeterea in agendo plus impetus ple-
rumque et petitas vel paulo licentius voluptates,
commovendos enimesse ducendosque animos imperi-
torum ; at quod libris dedicatum in exemplum edatur,
id ^ tersum ac limatum et ad legem ac regulam com-
positum esse oportere, quia veniat in manus doctorum

51 et iudices artis habeat artifices. Quin illi subtil es
(ut sibimet ac multis persuaserunt) magistrirrapa'Seiy/ia
dicendo, ivdvfirjfia scribendo esse aptius tradiderunt.
Mihi unum atque idem videtur bene dicere ac bene
scribere, neque aliud esse oratio scripta quam monu-
mentum actionis habitae. Itaque nullas non, ut
opinor, debet habere virtutes,^ virtutes dico, non
vitia. Nam imperitis placere aliquando quae vitiosa

52 sint, scio. Quo different igitur? Quodsi mihi des
consilium iudicumsapientium, perquam multa recidam
ex orationibus non Ciceronis modo, sed etiam eius,
qui est strictior multo, Demosthenis. Neque enim

* at quod . . . dedicatum . . . edatur id, Halm : ad quos
. . . dedicatorum . . . edantur et, G.

* secoiid virtutes added by Buttmann.

* See V. xi. 1. Parallels and especially historical ones.
^ See V. xiv. 1 sqq. A form of syllogism.

478

BOOK XII. X. 49-52

have held that the written and the spoken speech
stand on different footings, and that consequently
some of the most eloquent of speakers have left
nothing for posterity to read in durable literary form,
as, for example, is the case with Pericles and Demades,
Again, they urge that there have been authors, like
Isocrates, who, while admirable writers, were not
well-fitted for actual speaking; and, further, that 50
actual pleading is characterised by a greater energy
and by the employment, almost verging on license,
of every artifice designed to please, since the minds
of an uneducated audience require to be moved and
led. On the other hand, the written speech which
is published as a model of style must be polished
and filed and brought into conformity with the
accepted rules and standards of artistic construction,
since it will come into the hands of learned men
and its art will be judged by artists. These subtle 51
teachers (for such they have persuaded themselves
and others that they are) have laid it down that
the TrapaSciy/xa ^ is best suited for actual speech and
the evdvfjirjfjia ^ for writing. My own view is that
there is absolutely no difference between writing
well and speaking well, and that a written speech
is merely a record of one that has actually been
delivered. Consequently it must in my opinion
possess every kind of merit, and note that I say
merit, not fault. For I know that faults do some-
times meet with the approval of the uneducated.
What, then, will be the difference between what is 52
written and what is spoken ? If I were given a jury
of wise men, I should cut down a large number of
passages from the speeches not only of Cicero, but
even of Demosthenes, who is much more concise.

479

QUINTILIAN

adfectus omnino movendi erunt, nee aures dele-
ctatione mulcendae, cum etiam prooemia supervacua
esse apud tales Aristoteles existimet ; non enim
trahentur his illi sapientes ; proprie et significanter

53 rem indieare, probationes colligere satis est. Cum
vero iudex detur aut populus aut ex populo, laturique
sint seutentiam indocti saepius atque interim rustici,
omnia quae ad obtinendum, quod intendimus, pro-
desse credemus adhibenda sunt ; eaque et cum di-
cimus promenda et cum scribimus ostendenda sunt,
si modo ideo scribimus, ut doceamus quomodo dici

54 oporteat. An Demosthenes male sic egisset, ut
scripsit, aut Cicero ? aut eos praestantissimos oratores
aUa re quam scriptis cognoscimus ? Melius egerunt
igitur an peius ? Nam si peius, sic potius oportuit dici,
ut scripserunt ; si melius, sic potius oportuit scribi,

55 ut dixerunt. Quid ergo? Semper sic aget orator,
ut scribet ? Si licebit, semper. Si vero quando ^
impediant brevitate tempora a iudice data, multum
ex eo, quod oportuit- dici, recidetur; editio habebit
omnia. Quae tamen ^ secundum naturam iudicantium

* Si vero quando, Wolfflin : steterunt quae, G.

* oportuit, Christ : potuit, MSS.

^ quae tamen, Halm : quaedam, (?.

1 Rhet. iii. 13.

480

BOOK XII. X. 52-55

For with such a jury there would be no need to
appeal to the emotions nor to charm and soothe the
ears, since according to Aristotle ^ even exordia are
superfluous, if addressed to such persons, as they
will have no influence upon judges who are truly
wise : it will be sufficient to state the facts with
precision and significance and to marshal our array
of proofs. Since, however, our judges are the 53
people, or drawn from the people, and since those
who are appointed to give sentence are frequently
ill-educated and sometimes mere rustics, it becomes
necessary to employ every method that we think
likely to assist our case, and these artifices must
not merely be produced in speech, but exhibited in
the written version as well, at least if in writing it
our design is to show how it should be spoken. If 54
Demosthenes or Cicero had spoken the words as
they wrote them, would either have spoken ill.''
And is our acquaintance with either of those two
great orators based on anything save their writings?
Did they speak better, then, or worse than they
wrote ? If they spoke worse, all that can be said
is that they should have spoken as they wrote,
while, if they spoke better, they should have
written as they spoke. Well, you ask, is an orator 55
then always to speak as he writes .'' If iK)ssible,
always. If, however, the time allowed by the
judge is too short for this to be possible, he will
have to cut out much that he should have said,
but the published speech will contain the omitted
passages. On the other hand, such passages as
were uttered merely to suit the character of the
judges will not be published for the benefit of
posterity, for fear that they should seem to indicate

481

QUINTILIAN

dicta sunt, non ita posteris tradentiir, ne videantur

56 propositi fuisse, non temporis. Nam id quoque
plurimum refert, quomodo audire iudex velit, atque
eius vultus saepe ipse rector est dicentis, ut Cicero
praecipit. Ideoque instandum iis quae placere in-
tellexeris, resiliendum ab iis quae non recipientur.
Sernio ipse, qui facillirae iudicem doceat, aptandus.
Nee id mirum sit, cum etiam testium personis aliqua

57 mutentur. Prudenter enim, qui cum interrogasset
rusticum testem, an Amphionem nosset, negante eo,
detraxit aspirationem breviavitque secundam eius
nominis syllabam, et ille eum sic optime norat.
Huiusmodi casus efficient, ut aliquando dicatur aliter
quam scribitur, cum dicere, quomodo scribendum est,
non licet.

58 Altera est divisio, quae in tres partes et ipsa
discedit, qua discerni posse etiam recte dicendi
genera inter se videntur. Namque unum subtile,
quod Icrxi'ov vocant, alterum grande atque robustum,
quod dSpbv dicunt, constituunt ; tertium alii, medium
ex duobus, alii floridum (namque id avOrjpbv ap-

59 pellant) addiderunt. Quorum tamen ea fere ratio
est, ut primum docendi, secundum movendi,
tertium illud, utrocumque est^ nomine, delectandi
sive, ut alii dicunt, conciliandi praestare videa-
tur officium ; in docendo autem acumen, in con-

^ utrocumque est, ffalm : est ultrorumque, G.

* Not in any extant work.

* The witness did not recognise the name correctly
pronounced Amphlon, but recognised it when pronounced
Amplon.

» suhtilis {lit. — finely woven) applied to style has three
meanings : (a) refined, {b) precise, (c) plain. See Sandys on
Cic. Or. vi. 20.

482

BOOK XII. X. 55-59

the author's deliberate judgement instead of being
a mere concession to the needs of the moment.
For it is most important that we should know how 56
the judge is disposed to listen, and his face will
often (as Cicero^ reminds us) serve as a guide to
the speaker. Consequently we must press the points
that we see commend themselves to him, and draw
back from those which are ill-received, while our
actual language must be so modified that he will
find our arguments as intelligible as possible. That
this should be necessary is scarcely surprising, when
we consider the alterations that are frequently
necessary to suit the characters of the different
witnesses. He was a shrewd man who, when he 57
asked a rustic witness whether he knew Amphion,
and the witness replied that he did not, dropped
the aspirate and shortened the second syllable,*
whereupon the witness recognised him at once.
Such situations, when it is impossible to speak as
we write, will sometimes make it necessary to speak
in language other than that which we use in
writing.

There is another threefold division, whereby, 68
it is held, we may differentiate three styles of
speaking, all of them correct. The first is termed
the plain' (or taxvov), the second grand and
forcible (or dSpov), and the third either inter-
mediate or florid, the latter being a translation
of av$Tjp6v. The nature of these three styles is, 59
broadly speaking, as follows. The first would seem
best adapted for instructing, the second for moving,
and the third (by whichever name we call it) for
charming or, as others would have it, conciliating
the audience ; for instruction the quality most

483

QUINTILIAN

ciliando lenitas, in movendo vis exigi videatur.
Itaque illo subtili praecipue ratio narrandi proban-
dique consistet, sed saepe id ^ etiam detractis ceteris

60 virtutibus suo genere plenum. Medius hie modus
et translationibus crebrior et figuris erit iucundior,
egressionibus amoenus, compositione aptus, sententiis
dulcis, lenior tamen ut amnis lucidus quidem sed

61 virentibus utrinque ripis- inumbratus. At ille, qui
saxa devolvat et pontem indignetur et ripas sibi faciat,
multus et torrens iudicem vel nitentem contra feret
cogetque ire, qua rapiet. Hie orator et defunctos
excitabit ut Appium Caecum, apud hunc et patria
ipsa exclamabit, aliquandoque ut Ciceronem in ora-

62 tione contra Catilinam in senatu alloquetur. Hie et
amplificationibus extollet orationem, et in superla-
tionem quoque erigetur. Quae Charybdis tarn vorax t^
et Oceanus medius Jidius ipse. Nota sunt enim iam
studiosis haec lumina. Hie deos ipsos in congressum
prope suum sermonemque deducet: Vos enim Albani
tumuli atque luci ; vos, inquam, Albanorum obrutae arae,

* saepe id, Halm : que id, G.

* ripis inumbratus, Meyer : sipisim umbratus and the like,
MSS.

* Verg. Aen. viii. 728.

* See m. viii. 54. ' ' Cicero in the pro Caelio makes both
Appius Caecus and her brother Clodius address Clodia, the
former rebuking her for her immorality, the latter exhorting
her thereto."

' Phil. n. xxvii, 67. The passage continues : " could
scarce, methinks, have swallowed with such speed so many
things, scattered in so many places."

484

BOOK XII. X. 59-62

needed is acumen, for conciliation gentleness, and
for stirring the emotions force. Consequently it is
mainly in the plain style that we shall state our
facts and advance our proofs, though it should be
borne in mind that this style will often be sufficiently
full in itself without any assistance whatever from
the other two. The intermediate style will have 60
more frequent recourse to metaphor and will make
a more attractive use of figures, while it will intro-
duce alluring digressions, will be neat in rhythm
and pleasing in its reflexions : its flow, however, will
be gentle, like that of a river whose waters are clear,
but overshadowed by the green banks on either side.
But he whose eloquence is like to some great torrent 61
that rolls down rocks and " disdains a bridge " ^ and
carves out its own banks for itself, will sweep the
judge from his feet, struggle as he may, and force
him to go whither he bears him. This is the orator
that will call the dead to life (as, for example, Cicero
calls upon Appius Caecus ^) ; it is in his pages
that his native land itself will cry aloud and at
times address the orator himself, as it addresses
Cicero in the speech delivered against Catiline in
the senate. Such an orator will also exalt his style 62
by amplification and rise even to hyperhole, as when
Cicero' cries, "What Charybdis was ever so vora-
cious ! " or " By the god of truth, even Ocean's
self," etc. (I choose these fine passages as being
familiar to the student). It is such an one that
will bring down the Gods to form part of his
audience or even to speak with him, as in the
following, " For on you I call, ye hills and groves
of Alba, on you, I say, ye fallen altars of the
Albans, altars that were once the peers and equals

485

QUINTILIAN

sacronnn populi Romani sociae et aequales. Hie iram,
hie misericordiam inspirabit, hoc dicente iudex deos ^
ap{)ellabit et flebit et per omnes adfectus tractatus
hue atque illuc sequetur nee doeeri desiderabit.

63 Quare si ex tribus his generibus necessario sit
eligendum unum, quis dubitet hoc praeferre omnibus
et validissimum aHoqui et maxiinis quibusque causis

64 accommodatissimum ? Nam et Homerus brevem
quidem eum iucunditate et propriam, id enim est
non deerrare verbis, et carentem supervacuis eloquen-
tiam Menelao dedit, quae sunt virtutes generis iilius
primi, et ex ore Nestoris dixit dulciorem melle
prqfluere sermonem, qua certe delectatione nihil fingi
maius potest; sed summam expressurus^ in Ulixe
facundiam et magnitudinem ilU vocis et vim orationis
nivibus hibernis ' et copia verborum atque impetu

65 parem tribuit. Cum hoc igitur nemo mortalium con-
tendet ; hmic ut deum homines intuebunlur. Hanc vim
et celeritatem in Pericle miratur Eupolis, hanc
fulminibus Aristophanes comparat, liaec est vere
dicendi faeultas.

66 Sed neque his tribus quasi formis inclusa eloquentia
est. Nam ut inter gracile validumque tertium aliquid
constitutum est, ita horum inter se intervalla sunt,

* hoc dicente iudex deos apellabit et flebit, Madrig : hoc
dicente iudet appellavit et flevit, G.

2 expressurus, M. Seyffert : regressurus est, O.

' vocis . . . hibernis, Seyffert : vicisset cum orationi
similibus, O.

^ pro Mil. xxxi. 85.

• II. iii. 214. The words which Quintilian translates by
71071 deerrare verbis are oh^" afafiaprofir-fis, "no stumbler in
speech," rather than "correct in speech."

486

BOOK XII. X. 62-66

of the holy places of Rome." ^ This is he that will
inspire anger or pity, and while he speaks the judge
will call upon the gods and weep, following him
wherever he sweeps him from one emotion to
another, and no longer asking merely for instruction.
Wherefore if one of these three styles has to be 63
selected to the exclusion of the others, who will
hesitate to prefer this style to all others, since it
is by far the strongest and the best adapted to the
most important cases ? For Homer himself assigns 64
to Menelaus * an eloquence, terse and pleasing, exact
(for that is what is meant by " making no errors in
words ") and devoid of all redundance, which qualities
are virtues of the first type : and he says that from
the lips of Nestor ' flowed speech sweeter than honey,
than which assuredly we can conceive no greater
delight : but when he seeks to express the supreme
gift of eloquence possessed by Ulysses* he gives a
mighty voice and a vehemence of oratory equal to
the snows of winter in the abundance and the vigour
of its words. " With him then," he says, "no mortal 65
will contend, and men shall look upon him as on a
god."^ It is this force and impetuosity that Eupolis
admires in Pericles, this that Aristophanes ^ compares
to the thunderbolt, this that is the power of true
eloquence.

But eloquence cannot be confined even to these 66
three forms of style. For just as the third style is
intermediate between the grand and the plain style,
so each of these three are separated by interspaces

^ n. i. 249. « //. iii. 221.

* A blend of Fl. iii. 223 and Od. viii. 173.

• Ach. 530. "Then in his wrath Pericles the Olympian
lightened and thundered and threw all Greece into confusion."

487

QUINTILIAN

atque inter haec ipsa mixtum quiddam ex duobus

67 medium est eorum. Nam et subtili plenius aliquid
atque subtilius et vehementi remissius atque ve-
hementius invenitur, ut illud lene aut ascendit ad
fortiora aut ad tenuiora summittitur. Ac sic prope
innumerabiles species reperiuntur^ quae utique aliquo
momento inter se difFerant : sicut quattuor ventos
generaliter a totidem mundi cardinibus accepimus
flare, cum interim plurimi medii et eorum varia
nomina et quidam etiam regionum ac fluminum

68 proprii deprehenduntur, Eademque musicis ratio
est, qui, cum in cithara quinque constituerunt sonos,
plurima deinde varietate complent spatia ilia ner-
vorum, atque his, quos interposuerunt, inserunt
alios, ut pauci illi transitus multos gradus habeant.

69 Plures igitur etiam eloquentiae facies, sed stultissi-
mum quaerere, ad quam se recturus sit orator, cum
omnis species, quae modo recta est, habeat usum,
atque id ipsum non sit oratoris, quod vulgo genus
dicendi vocant. Utetur enim, ut res exiget, omni-
bus, nee pro causa modo, sed pro partibus causae.

70 Nam ut non eodem modo pro reo capitis et in
certamine hereditatis et de interdictis ac spon-

* cp. n. X. 5 and iv. ii. 61. Spcmsio (= wager) was a form
of lawsuit in which the litigant promised to pay a certain
sum of money if he lost his case. The interdict was an order
issued by the praetor commanding or prohibiting certain
action.

488

BOOK XII. X. 66-70

which are occupied by intermediate styles com-
pounded of the two which lie on either side. For 67
there are styles fuller or plainer than the plain, and
gentler or more vehement than the vehement, while
the gentler style itself may either rise to greater
force or sink to milder tones. Thus we may discover
almost countless species of styles, each differing from
the other by some fine shade of difference. We may
draw a pai*allel from the winds. It is generally ac-
cepted that there are four blowing from the four
quarters of the globe, but we find there are also
a large number of winds which lie between these,
called by a variety of names, and in certain cases
confined to certain districts and river valleys. The 68
same thing may be noted in music. For after assign-
ing five notes to the lyre, musicians fill up the
intervals between the strings by a variety of notes,
and between these again they interpose yet others,
so that the original divisions admit of a number of
gradations.

Eloquence has, therefore, a quantity of different 69
aspects, but it is sheer folly to inquire which of these
the orator should take as his model, since every
species that is in itself correct has its use, and what
is commonly called style of speaking does not depend
on the orator. For he will use all styles, as cir-
cumstances may demand, and the choice will be
determined not only by the case as a whole, but by
the demands of the different portions of the case.
For just as he will not speak in the same way when 70
he is defending a client on a capital charge and
when he is speaking in a lawsuit concerned with an
inheritance, or discussing interdicts and suits taking
the form of a wager,^ or claims in connexion with

489

QUINTILIAN

sionibus et de certa credita dicet, sententiarum
quoque in senatu et contionum et privatorum con-
siliorum servabit discrimina, multa ex differentia
personarum, locorum temporumque mutabit, ita in
eadem oratione aliter concitabit/ aliter coneiliabit,
non ex iisdem haustibus iram et misericordiam petet,
alias ad docendum alias ad movendum adhibebit

71 artes. Non unus color prooemii, narrationis, argu-
mentorum, egressionis, perorationis servabitur. Dicet
idem graviter, severe, acriter, vehementer, concitate,
copiose, amare, comiter, remisse, subtiliter, blande,
leniter, dulciter, breviter, urbane, non ubique similis,

72 sed ubique par sibi. Sic fiet cum id, propter quod
maxime repertus est usus orationis, ut dicat utiliter
et ad efficiendum quod intendit potenter, turn
laudem quoque nee doctorum modo sed etiam vulgi
consequatur.

73 Falluntur enim plurimum, qui vitiosum et cor-
ruptum dicendi genus, quod aut verborum licentia
exultat aut puerilibus sententiolis lascivit aut immo-
dico tumore turgescit aut inanibus locis bacchatur
aut casuris, si leviter excutiantur, flosculis nitet aut
praecipitia pro sublimibus habet aut specie libertatis
insanit, magis existimant populare atque plausibile.

74 Quod quidem placere multis nee infitior nee miror.

* aliter concitabit, added by Halm.
499

BOOK XII. X. 70-74

loans, so too he will preserve a due distinction
between the speeches which he makes in the senate,
before the people and in private consultations, while
he will also introduce numerous modifications to
suit the different persons and circumstances of time
and place. Thus in one and the same speech he
will use one style for stirring the emotions, and
another to conciliate his hearers ; it is from difl^erent
sources that he will derive anger or pity, and the
art which he employs in instructing the judge will
be other than that which he employs to move him.
He will not maintain the same tone throughout his 71
exordium, siatevienl of fact, arguments, diyression and
peroration. He will speak gravely, severely, sharply,
with vehemence, energy, fullness, bitterness, or
geniality, quietly, simply, flatteringly, gently, sweetly,
briefly or wittily ; he will not always be like him-
self, but he will never be unworthy of himself.
Thus the purpose for which oratory was above all 72
designed will be secured, that is to say, he will
speak with profit and with power to effect his aim,
while he will also win the praise not merely of the
learned, but of the multitude as well.

They make the gravest mistake who consider that 73
the style which is best adapted to win popularity
and applause is a faulty and corrupt style of speaking
which revels in license of diction or wantons in
childish epigram or swells with stilted bombast or
riots in empty commonplace or adorns itself with
blossoms of eloquence which will fall to earth if
but lightly shaken, or regards extravagance as
sublime or raves wildly under the pretext of free
speech. I am ready to admit that such qualities 74
please many, and I feel no surprise that this should

491

QUINTILIAN

Est enim iuciinda auribus ac favorabilis qualiscunque
eloqiientia et ducit animos naturali voluptate vox
omnis, neque aliunde illi per fora atque aggerem
circuli ; quo minus mirum est, quod nulli non

75 agentium parata vulgi corona est. Ubi vero quid
exquisitius dictum accidit auribus imperitorum,
qualecunque id est, quod modo se ipsi posse de-
sperent, habet admirationem, neque immerito ; nam
ne illud quidem facile est. Sed evanescunt haec
atque emoriuntur comparatione meliorum, ut lana
tincta fuco citra purpuras placet ; at si contuleris
Tyriae eam^ lacernae, conspectu melioris obruatur,

76 ut Ovidius ait. Si vero iudicium his corruptis acrius
adhibeas ut fucinis ^ sulfura, iam ilium, quo fefellerant,
exuant' mentitum colorem et quadam vix enarrabili
foeditate pallescant. Lucent igitur haec citra solem,
ut quaedam exigua animalia igniculi videntur in
tenebris. Denique mala multi probant, nemo im-
probat bona.

77 Neque vero omnia ista, de quibus locuti sumus,
orator optime tantum sed etiam facillime faciet.
Neque enim vim summam dicendi et os * admira-

^ Tyriae earn, ffalm: etiam, MSS.

* fucinis, BuUmann : fucinus, G.

' ilium quo fefellerant exuant, Bvitmann: illud quod
fefellerat exuat, G. * os, Halm : eos, G.

* The agger of Servius TuUius, which served as a promenade.
The nearest modern parallel may be found in the " Hyde
Park orator." ' Hem. Am. 707 sqq.

492

BOOK XII. X. 74-77

be the case. For any kind of eloquence is pleasing
and attractive to the ear, and every effort of the
voice inspires a natural pleasure in the soul of man ;
indeed this is the sole cause of those familiar gather-
ings in the Forum or on the Old Wall,^ so that there
is small reason for wonder if any pleader is safe to
draw a ring of listeners from the crowd. And when 75
any unusually precious phrase strikes the ears of an
uneducated audience, whatever its true merits, it
wakens their admiration just for the very reason
that they feel they could never have produced it
themselves. And it deserves their admiration, since
even such success is hard to attain. On the other
hand, when such displays are compared with their
betters, they sink into insignificance and fade out
of sight, for they are like wool dyed red that
pleases in the absence of purple, but, as Ovid ^ says,
if compared with a cloak of Tyrian dye, pales in the
presence of the fairer hue. If, however, we test 76
such corrupt eloquence by the touchstone of a critical
tiiste, as, for example, we test inferior dyes with
sulphur, it will lay aside the false brilliance that
deceived the eye and fade to a pallor almost too
repulsive to describe. Such passages shine only in
the absence of the sunlight, just as certain tiny
insects seem transformed in the darkness to little
flames of fire. Finally, while many approve of things
that are bad, no one disapproves of that which is
good.

But the true orator will not merely be able to 77
achieve all the feats of which I have spoken with
supreme excellence, but with the utmost ease as
well. For the sovereign power of eloquence and
the voice that awakens well-deserved applause will

493

QUINTILIAN

tione dignum infelix usque ad ultimum sollicitudo
persequitur, quae ^ oratorem macerat et coquit aegre
verba vertentem et perpendendis coagmentandisque

78 eis intabescentem. Nitidus ille et sublimis et lo-
cuples circumfluentibus undique eloquentiae copiis
imperat. Desinit enim in adversa niti, qui pervenit
in summum. Scandenti circa ima labor est ; ceterum
quantum processeris, mollior elivus ac laetius solum.

79 Et si haec quoque iam lenius supina perseverantibus
studiis evaseris, inde fructus illaborati offerunt sese
et omnia sponte proveniunt ; quae tamen cotidie
nisi decerpautur, arescunt. Sed et copia liabeat^
modum, sine quo nihil nee laudabile nee salutare
est, et nitor ille cultum virilem et inventio indicium.

80 Sic erunt magna non nimia, sublimia non abrupta,
fortia non temeraria, severa non tristia, gravia non
tarda, laeta non luxuriosa, iucunda non dissoluta,
grandia non tumida. Similis in ceteris ratio est
ac tutissima fere per medium via, quia utriusque
ultimum vitium est.

XI. His dicendi virtutibus usus orator in iudiciis,
consiliis, contionibus, senatu, in omni denique officio
boni civis finem quoque dignum et optimo viro et
opere sanctissimo faciet, non quia prodesse unquam

1 quae, Halm : nee, MSS.

» liabeat, Heiiidorf : habet, MSS.

m^

BOOK XII. X. 77-xi. I

be free from the perpetual distress of harassing
anxiety wljich wastes and fevers the orator who
painfully corrects himself and pines away over the
laborious weighing and piecing together of his
words. No, our orator, brilliant, sublime and 78
opulent of speech, is lord and master of all the
resources of eloquence, whose affluence surrounds
him. For he that has reached the summit has no
more weary hills to scale. At first the climber's toil
is hard, but the higher he mounts the easier be-
comes the gradient and the richer the soil. And 79
if by perseverance of study he pass even beyond
these gentler slopes, fruits for which none have
toiled thrust themselves upon him, and all things
spring forth unbidden ; and yet if they be not
gathered daily, they will wither away. But even
such wealth must observe the mean, without which
nothing is either praiseworthy or beneficial, while
brilliance must be attended by manliness, and im-
agination by soundness of taste. Thus the works 80
of the orator will be great not extravagant, sublime
not bombastic, bold not rash, severe but not gloomy,
grave but not slow, rich but not luxuriant, pleasing
but not effeminate, grand but not grandiose. It is
the same with other qualities : the mean is safest,
for the worst of all faults is to fly to extremes.

XI. After employing these gifts of eloquence in
the courts, in councils, in public assemblies and the
debates of the senate, and, in a word, in the per-
formance of all the duties of a good citizen, the
orator will bring his activities to a close in a manner
worthy of a blameless life spent in the pursuit of
the noblest of professions. And he will do this,
not because he can ever have enough of doing good,

495

QUINTILIAN

satis sit et ilia mente atque ilia facultate praedito
non optandum operis pulcherrimi quam longissimum
tempus, sed quia decet hoc quoque prospicere, ne

2 quid peius, quam fecerit, faciat. Neque enim
scientia modo constat orator, quae augetur annis,
sed voce, latere, firmitate ; quibus fractis aut im-
minutis aetate seu valetudine cavendum est, ne quid
in oratore summo desideretur, ne intersistat fati-
gatus, ne quae dicet parum audiri sentiat, ne se

3 quaerat priorem. Vidi ego longe omnium, quos
mihi cognoscere contigit, summum oratorem, Domi-
tium Afrum valde senem, cotidie aljquid ex ea
quam meruerat auctoritate perdentem, cum agente
illo, quem principem fuisse quondam fori non erat
dubium, alii, quod indignum videatur, riderent, alii
erubescerent ; quae occasio fait de ^ illo dicendi,

4 inalle eum deficere quam dexinere. Neque erant ilia
qualiacunque mala sed minora.

Quare antequam in has aetatis veniat insidias,
receptui canet et in portum integra nave perveniet.
Neque enim minores eum, cum id fecerit, studiorum
fructus prosequentur. Aut ille monumenta rerum
posteris aut, ut L. Crassus in libris Ciceronis destinat,

* de added by Halm.

* By "finish" is meant "retire from pleading."

BOOK XII. XI. 1-4

or because one endowed with intellect and talents
such as his would not be justified in praying that
such glorious labours may be prolonged to their
utmost span, but for this reason^ that it is his duty
to look to the future, for fear that his work may be
less effective than it has been in the past. For the 2
orator depends not merely on his knowledge, which
increases with the years, but on his voice, lungs and
powers of endurance. And if these be broken or
impaired by age or health, he must beware that he
does not fall short in something of his high reputa-
tion as a master of oratory, that fatigue does not
interrupt his eloquence, that he is not brought to
realise that some of his words are inaudible, or to
mourn that he is not what once he was. Domitius 3
Afer was by far the greatest of all the orators whom
it has been my good fortune to know, and I saw
him, when far advanced in years, daily losing some-
thing of that authority which his merits had won
for him ; he whose supremacy in the courts had once
been universally acknowledged, now pleaded amid
the unworthy laughter of some, and the silent
blushes of others, giving occasion to the malicious
saying that he had rather '• faint than finish." ^ And 4
yet even then, whatever his deficiencies, he spoke
not badly, but merely less well.

Therefore before ever he fall a prey to the ambush
where time lies in wait for him, the orator should
sound the retreat and seek harbour while his ship
is yet intact. For the fruits of his studies will
not be lessened by retirement. Either he will be-
queath the history of his own times for the delight
of after ages, or will interpret the law to those
who seek his counsels, as Lucius Crassus proposes

497

QUINTILIAN

iura quaerentibus reddet aut eloquentiae componet
artem aut pulcherrimis vitae praeceptis dignum os

5 dabit. Frequentabunt vero eius domum optimi
iuvenes more veterum et vere dicendi viam velut ex
oraculo petent. Hos ille formabit quasi eloquentiae
parens, et ut vetus gubernator litora et portus et
quae tempestatum signa, quid secundis flatibus, quid
adversis ratio poscat, docebit, non hunianitatis solum
communi ductus officio, sed amore quodam operis.

6 Nemo enim minui velit id, in quo maximus fuit. Quid
porro est honestius quam docere quod optime scias ?
Sic ad se Caelium deductum a patre Cicero pro-
fitetur ; sic Pansam, Hirtium, Dolabellam in morem

7 praeceptoris exercuit cotidie dicens audiensque. Ac
nescio an eum tunc beatissimum credi oporteat fore,
cum iam secretus et consecratus, liber invidia, procul
contentionibus famam in tuto collocarit et sentiet^
vivus earn, quae post fata praestari magis solet,
venerationem et, quid apud posteros futurus sit,
videbit.

8 Conscius sum mihi, quantum mediocritate valui,

^ sentiet, Ohrecht : sententia et, G.

1 de Or. I. xlii. 190. * pro Cael. iv. 10.

498

BOOK XII. XI. 4-8

to do in the de Oratore'^ of Cicero, or compose some
treatise on the art of oratory, or give worthy utterance
to the sublimest ideals of conduct. His house 6
will, as in the days of old, be thronged by all
the best of the rising generation, who will seek to
learn from him as from an oracle how they may find
the path to true eloquence. And he as their father
in the art will mould them to all excellence, and
like some old pilot will teach them of the shores
whereby their ships must sail, of the harbours where
they may shelter, and the signs of the weather, and
will expound to them what they shall do when the
breeze is fair or the tempest blows. Whereto he
will be inclined not only by the common duty of
humanity, but by a certain passion for the task that
once was his, since no man desires that the art
wherein he was once supreme should suffer decay
or diminution. And what can be more honourable 6
than to teach that which you know surpassing well ?
It was for this that the elder Caelius brought his son
to Cicero, as the latter ^ tells us, and it was with this
intent that the same great orator took upon himself
the duties of instructor, and trained Pansa, Hirtius
and Dolabella by declaiming daily before them or
hearing them declaim. And I know not whether 7
we should not deem it the happiest moment in an
orator's life, when he has retired from the public
gaze, the consecrated priest of eloquence, free from
envy and far from strife, when he has set his glory
on a pinnacle beyond the reach of detraction, enjoys,
while still living, that veneration which most men
win but after death, and sees how great shall be his
renown amid generations yet unborn.

I can say with a good conscience that, as far as 8

499

QUINTILIAN

quaeque antea scierim, quaeque operis buiusce gratia
potuerim inquirere, candide me atque simpliciter in
notitiam eorum, si qui forte cognoseere voluissent,
protulisse. Atque id viro bono satis est, docuisse
9 quod scierit. Vereor tainen, ne aut magna nimium
videar exigere, qui eundem virum bonum esse et
dicendi peritum velim, aut multa, qui tot artibus in
pueritia diseendis morum quoque praecepta et
scientiam iuris civilis praeter ea, quae de eloquentia
tradebantur, adiecerim, quique haec operi nostro
necessaria esse crediderint, velut moram rei per-

10 horrescant et desperent ante experimentum. Qui
primum renuntient sibi, quanta sit humani ingenii
vis, quam potens efficiendi quae velit, cum maria
transire, siderum cursus numerosque cognoseere,
mundum ipsum paene dimetiri, minores, sed diffi-
ciliores artes potuerint. Turn cogitent, quantam
rem petant, quamque nullus sit hoc proposito prae-

11 mio labor recusandus. Quod si mente conceperint,
huic quoque parti facilius accedent, ut ipsum iter
neque impervium neque saltern durum putent. Nam
id, quod prius quodque maius est, ut boni viri simus,
500

BOOK XII. XI. 8-1 1

my poor powers have permitted, I have published
frankly and disinterestedly, for the benefit of such
as might wish to learn, all that my previous know-
ledge and the researches made for the purpose of
this work might supply. And to have taught what
he knows is satisfaction enough for any good man.
I fear, however, that I may be regarded as settmg 9
too lofty an ideal for the orator by insisting that he
should be a good man skilled in speaking, or as
imposing too many subjects of study on the learner.
For in addition to the many branches of knowledge
which have to be studied in boyhood and the tradi-
tional rules of eloquence, I have enjoined the study
of morals and of civil law, so that I am afraid that
even those who have regarded these things as
essential to my theme, may be appalled at the delay
which they impose and abandon all hope of achieve-
ment before they have put my precepts to the test.
I would ask them to consider how great are the 10
f)owers of the mind of man and how astonishing its
capacity for carrying its desires into execution : for
has not man succeeded in crossing the high seas, in
learning the number and the courses of the stars,
and almost measuring the universe itself, all of them
accomplishments of less importance than oratory, but
of far greater difficulty ? And then let them reflect
on the greatness of their aims and on the fact that
no labour should be too huge for those that are
beckoned by the hope of such reward. If they can 11
only rise to the height of this conception, they will
find it easier to enter on this portion of their task,
and will cease to regard the road as impassable or
even hard. For the first and greatest of the aims
we set before us, namely that we shall be good

SOI

QUINTILIAN

voluntate maxime constat ; quam qui vera fide
indueritj facile eas, quae virtutem decent, artv'is

12 accipiet. Neque enim aut tam perplexa aut tam
numerosa sunt quae praecipiuntur,* ut non paucorum
admodum annorum intentione discantur. Longam
enim facit operam quod repugnamus ; brevis est
institutio vitae honestae beataeque, si credas. Natura
enim nos ad mentem optimam genuit, adeoque discere
meliora volentibus promptum est, ut vere intuenti

13 mirum sit illud magis malos esse tam multos. Nam
ut aqua piscibus, ut sicca terrenis, circumfusus nobis
spiritus volucribus convenit, ita certe facilius esse
oportebat secundum naturam quam contra eam vivere.
Cetera vero, etiamsi aetatem nostram non spatio
senectutis sed tempore ^ adolescentiae metiamur,
abunde multos ad discendum annos habent. Omnia

14 enim breviora reddet ordo et ratio et modus. Sed
culpa est in praeceptoribus prima, qui libenter de-
tinent quos occupaverunt, partim cupiditate diutius
exigendi mercedulas, partim ambitione, quo difficilius
videatur' esse quod pollicentur, partim etiam in-
scientia tradendi vel negligentia. Proxima in nobis,
qui morari in eo quod novimus, quam discere quae

I praecipiuntur, Buttviann : praemiintur, O,
* tempore, early edd. : corpore, G,
» videatur esse, added by Balm.

BOOK XII. XI. 11-14

men, depends for its achievement mainly on the
will to succeed : and he that truly and sincerely
forms such resolve, will easily acquire those forms
of knowledge that teach the way to virtue. For 12
the precepts that are enjoined upon us are not
so complex or so numerous that they may be
acquired by little more than a few years' study. It
is repugnance to learn that makes such labour long.
For if you will only believe it, you will quickly learn
the principles that shall lead you to a life of virtue
and happiness. For nature brought us into the world
that we might attain to all excellence of mind, and
so easy is it for those to learn who seek for better
things, that he who directs his gaze aright will
rather marvel that the bad should be so many. For 13
as water is the natural element of fish, dry land
for creatures of the earth and the circumambient
atmosphere for winged things, even so it should
be easier to live according to nature than counter
to her will. As regards other accomplishments,
there are plenty of years available for their acquisi-
tion, even though we measure the life of man not
by the span of age, but by the period of youth. For
in every case order and method and a sense of pro-
portion will shorten our labour. But the chief fault 14
lies with our teachers, in that they love to keep back
the pupils they have managed to lay their hands on,
partly from the desire to draw their miserable fees
for as long as possible, partly out of ostentation, to
enhance the difficulty of acquiring the knowledge
which they promise to impart, and to some extent
owing to their ignorance or carelessness in teaching.
The next most serious fault lies in ourselves, who
think it better to linger over what we have learned

503

QUINTILIAN

15 nondnm scimus^ melius putamus. Nam ut de nostris
potissimum studiis dicam^ quid attinet tam multis
annis quam in more est plurimorum (ut de his, a
quibus magna in hoc pars aetatis absumitur, taceam)
declamitare in schola et tantum laboris in rebus
falsis eonsumere, cum satis sit modico tempore im-
aginem veri discriminis et dicendi leges comperisse ?

16 Quod non eo dico, quasi ^ sit unquam omittenda
dicendi exercitatio, sed quia non in una sit eius
specie consenescendum. Res varias ^ cognoscere et

;, praecepta vivendi perdiscere et in foro nos experiri
potuimus, dum scholastici sumus. Discendi ratio
talis, ut non multos poscat annos. Quaelibet enim
ex iis artibus, quarum habui mentionem, in paucos
libros contrahi solet ; adeo non est infinito spatio
ad traditionem opus. Reliqua est exercitatio,' quae

17 vires cito facit, cum fecit, tuetur. Rerum cognitio
cotidie crescit, et tamen quam multorum ad earn
librorum necessaria lectio est, quibus aut rerum
exempla ab historicis aut dicendi ab oratoribus
petuntur, philosophorum quoque consultorumque
opiniones, si utilia velimus legere non, quod ne fieri

' quasi, Halm : qua, Q.

* Res varias, added by Halm.

• ad traditionem. Halm : ac traditione, G. : exercitatio
added by Halm. • ' o ' '

BOOK XII. XI. 14-17

than to learn what we do not yet know. For ex- 15
ample, to restrict my remarks mainly to the study
of rhetoric, what is the use of spending so many
years, after the fashion now so prevalent (for I will
say nothing of those who spend almost their whole
lives), in declaiming in the schools and devoting so
much labour to the treatment of fictitious themes,
when it would be possible with but slight expenditure
of time to form some idea of what the true conflicts
are in which the orator must engage, and of the
laws of speaking which he ought to follow ? In 16
saj'ing this, I do not for a moment mean to suggest
that we should ever omit to exercise ourselves in
speaking. 1 merely urge that we should not grow old
over one special form of exercise. We have been in a
position to acquire varied knowledge, to familiarise
ourselves with the principles that should guide our
life, and to try our strength in the courts, while wc
were still attending the schools. Thetheory of speak-
ing is of such a nature that it does not demand
many years for its acquisition. For any one of the
various branches of knowledge which I have men-
tioned will, as a rule, be found to be comprised in
a few volumes, a fact which shows that instruction
does not require an indefinite amount of time to be
devoted to it. The rest depends entirely on practice,
which at once develops our powers and maintains
them, once developed. Knowledge increases day 17
by day, and yet how many books is it absolutely
necessary to read in our search for its attainment, for
examples of facts from the historians or of eloquence
from the orators, or, again, for the opinions of the
philosophers and the lawyers, that is to say, if we
are content to read merely what is useful without

VOL. IV. R 505

QUINTILIAN

quidem ^ potest, omnia ? Sed breve nobis tempus

18 nos facimus. Quantulum enim studiis partimur?
Alias horas vanus salutandi labor, alias datum fabulis
otium, alias spectacula, alias convivia trahunt. Adiice
tot genera ludendi et insanam corporis curam, pere-
grinatio, rura, calculorum anxiam sollicitudinem,
invitamenta libidinum et vinum et flagrantibus omni
genere voluptatum animis ^ ne ea quidem tempora

19 idonea, quae supersunt. Quae si omnia studiis im-
penderentur, iam nobis longa aetas et abunde satis
ad discendum spatii viderentur vel ^ diurna tantum
computantibus tempora ut nihil noctes, quarum bona
pars omni somno longior est, adiuvarent. Nunccom-
putamus annos, non quibus studuimus, sed quibus

20 viximus. Nee vero si geometrae et musici * et gram-
matici ceterarumque artium professores omnem suam
vitani, quamlibet longa fuerit, in singulis artibus
consumpserunt, sequitur ut plures quasdam vitas ad
plura discenda desideremus. Neque enim illi didi-
cerunt haec usque in senectutem, sed ea sola didicisse
contenti fuerunt ac tot annos non in percipiendo
exhauserunt, sed in praecipiendo."

21 Ceterum, ut de Homero taceam, in quo nullius
non artis aut opera perfecta aut certe non dubia

^ si utilia, Christ : sicuti alia, MSS.: quod ne fieri quidem,
Halm : quod quidem, MSS.

* The text is as corrected by Halm. The MSS. give a variety
of readings. The chief alteratioiis involved by Halm's correction
are invitamenta for multae causae, multae earn, etc., and
flagrantibus /or flagitiis, I'he other chaiiges are of the simplest
and most ordinary character.

* vel, Buttmann : ut, MSS.

* et musici, added by Halm {erasure in G).

* sed in praecipiendo. Halm : #** p** p**#do 0.

506

BOOK XII. XI. 17-21

attempting the impossible task of reading every-
thing? But it is ourselves that make the time for 18
study short: for how little time we allot to it!
Some hours are passed in the futile labour of cere-
monial calls, others in idle chatter, others in staring
at the shows of the theatre, and others again in
feasting. To this add all the various forms of amuse-
ment, the insane attention devoted to the cultivation
of the body, journeys abroad, visits to the country,
anxious calculation of loss and gain, the allurements
of lust, wine-bibbing and those remaining hours
which are all too few to gratify our souls on fire
with passion for every kind of pleasure. If all this 19
time were spent on study, life would seem long
enough and there would be plenty of time for learn-
ing, even though we should take the hours of day-
light only into our account, without asking any
assistance from the night, of which no little space
is superfluous even for the heaviest sleeper. As it
is, we count not the years which we have given to
study, but the years we have lived. And indeed 20
even although geometricians, musicians and gram-
marians, together with the professors of every other
branch of knowledge, spend all their lives, however
long, in the study of one single science, it does not
therefore follow that we require several lives more
if we are to learn more. For they do not spend all
their days even to old age in learning these things,
but being content to have learned these things and
nothing more, exhaust their length of years not in
acquiring, but in imparting knowledge.

However, to say nothing of Homer, in whom we 21
may find either the perfect achievements, or at
any rate clear signs of the knowledge of every art,

507

QUINTILIAN

vestigia reperiunt.ur, (ut Eleum Hippiam transeam,
qui non liberalium modo disciplinarum prae se
scientiam tulit, sed vestem et anulum crepidasque,
quae omnia manu sua fecerat, in usu habuit, atque
ita se praeparavit, ne cuius alterius opere egeret,)
illusisse tot malis, quot^ summa senectus habet,
universae Graeciae credimus Gorgian, qui quaerere

22 auditores de quo quisque vellet iubebat. Quae
tandem ars digna litteris Platoni defuit? Quot
saeculis Aristoteles didicit, ut non solum, quae ad
philosophos atque oratores pertinent, scientia com-
plecteretur, sed animaliuni satorumque naturas o\iines
perquireret ? Illis haec invenienda fuerunt, nobis
cognoscenda sunt. Tot nos praeceptoribus, tot ex-
emplis instruxit antiquitas, ut possit videri nulla
sorte nascendi aetas felicior quam nostra, cui do-

23 cendae priores elaborarunt. M. igitur Cato idem
summus imperator, idem sapiens, idem orator, idem
historiae conditor, idem iuris, idem rerum rusticarum
peritissimus fuit inter tot operas militiae, tantas
domi eontentiones, rudi saeculo, litteras Graecas
aetate iam declinata didicit, ut esset hominibus
documento ea quoque percipi posse quae senes con-

24 cupissent. Quam multa, paene omnia, tradidit Varro !
Quod instrumentum dicendi M. Tullio defuit ? Quid

* tot malis quot, Bonnell: tot ####s quod, O,
^o8

BOOK XII. XI. 21-24

and to pass by Hippias of Elis, who not merely
boasted his knowledge of the liberal arts, but wore
a robe, a ring and shoes, all of which he had made
with his own hands, and had trained himself to be
independent of external assistance, we accept the
universal tradition of Greece to the effect that
Gorgias, triumphant over all the countless ills in-
cident to extreme old age, would bid his hearers
propound any questions they pleased for him to
answer. Again in what branch of knowledge 22
worthy of literary expression was Plato deficient ?
How many generations' study did Aristotle re-
quire to embrace not merely the whole range of
philosophical and rhetorical knowledge, but to
investigate the nature of every beast and plant.
And yet they had to discover all these things which
we only have to learn. Antiquity has given us all
these teachers and all these patterns for our imitation,
that there might be no greater happiness conceivable
than to be born in this age above all others, since
all previous ages have toiled that we might reap the
fruit of their wisdom. Marcus Cato was at once a 23
great general, a philosopher, orator, historian, and
an expert both in law and agriculture, and despite
his military labours abroad and the distractions of
political struggles at home, and despite the rudeness
of the age in which he lived, he none the less
learned Greek, when far advanced in years, that he
might prove to mankind that even old men are
capable of learning that on which they have set
their hearts. How wide, almost universal, was the 24
knowledge that Varro communicated to the world !
What of all that goes to make up the equipment of
an orator was lacking to Cicero ? Why should I say

R2 509

QUINTILIAN

plura? cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir
ingenio, non solum de his omnibus conscripserit
artibus, sed amplius rei militaris et rusticae et medi-
cinae praecepta reliquerit, dignus vel ipso proposito,
ut eum scisse omnia ilia credamus.
26 At perficere tantum opus arduum et nemo perfecit.
Ante omnia sufficit ad exhortationem studiorum,
capere id rerum naturam nec,^ quidquid non est
factum, ne fieri quidem }>osse ; turn omnia, quae
magna sunt atque admirabilia, tempus aliquod quo

26 primum efficerentur habuisse. Nam et poesis ab
Homero et Vergilio tantum fastigium accepit et
eloquentia a Demosthene atque Cicerone. Denique
quidquid est optimum, ante non fuerat. Verum
etiam si quis summa desperet (quod cur faciat, cui
ingenium, valetudo, facultas, praeceptores non de-
erunt?), tamen est, ut Cicero ait, pulchrum in

27 secundis tertiisque consistere. Neque enim, si quis
Achillis gloriam in bellicis consequi non potest,
Aiacis aut Diomedis laudem aspernabitur, nee qui
Homeri non fuerunt, Tyrtaei.^ Quin immo si hanc
cogitationem homines habuissent, ut nemo se meli-
orem fore eo qui optimus fuisset, arbitraretur, ii ipsi,
qui sunt optimi, non fuissent, neque post Lucretium

* nee, Zumpt : eo, AO.

' non fuerunt, G : non tyrthei, second hamd of A, written

tn over an erasure.

5»o

1 Or. i. 4.

BOOK XII. XI. 24-27

more, since even Cornelius Celsus, a man of very
ordinary ability, not merely wrote about rhetoric in
all its departments, but left treatises on the art of
war, agriculture and medicine as well. Indeed the
high ambition revealed by his design gives him the
right to ask us to believe that he was acquainted
Mith all these subjects.

But, it will be urged, to carry out such a task is 25
difficult and has never been accomplished. To
which I reply that sufficient encouragement for
study may be found in the fact, firstly, that nature
does not forbid such achievement and it does not
follow that, because a thing never has been done, it
therefore never can be done, and secondly, that all
great achievements have required time for their first
accomplishment. Poetry has risen to the heights 26
of glory, thanks to the efforts of poets so far apart
as Homer and Virgil, and oratory owes its position
to the genius of Demosthenes and Cicero. Finally,
whatever is best in its own sphere must at some
previous time have been non-existent. But even if
a man despair of reaching supreme excellence (and
why should he despair, if he have talents, health,
capacity and teachers to aid him ?), it is none the
less a fine achievement, as Cicero ^ says, to win the
rank of second or even third. For even if a soldier 27
cannot achieve the glory of Achilles in war, he will
not despise fame such as fell to the lot of Ajax and
Diomede, while those who cannot be Homers may
be content to reach the level of Tyrtaeus. Nay, if
men had been obsessed by the conviction that it was
impossible to surpass the man who had so far shown
himself best, those whom we now regard as best
would never have reached such distinction, Lucretius

5»'

QUINTILIAN

ac Macrum Vergilius nee post Crassum et Hortensium

28 Cicero, sed nee illi, qui post eos fuerunt. Verum
ut transeundi spes non sit, magna tamen est dignitas
subsequendi. An PoUioet Messala, qui lam Cicerone
arcem tenente eloquentiae agere coeperunt, parum
in vita dignitatis habuerunt, parum ad posteros
gloriae tradiderunt? Alioqui pessime de rebus
humanis perductae in summum artes mererentur,

29 si, quod optimum, idem ultimum^ fuisset. Adde
quod magnosmodica quoque eloquentia parit fructus
ac, si quis haec studia utilitate sola metiatur, paene
illi perfectae par est. Neque erat difficile vel vete-
ribus vel novis exemplis palam facere, non aliunde
maiores opes, honores, amicitias, laudem praesentem,
futuram hominibus contigisse, nisi indignum litteris
esset, ab opere pulcherrimo, cuius tractatus atque
ipsa possessio plenissimam studiis gratiam refert,
banc minorem exigere mercedem, more eorum, qui
a se non virtutes sed voluptatem, quae fit ex virtu-

30 tibus, peti dicunt. Ipsam igitur orandi maiestatem,
qua nihil dii immortales melius homini dederunt et
qua remota muta sunt omnia et luce praesenti ac
memoria posteritatis carent, toto animo petamus
nitaniurque semper ad optima, quod facientes aut
evademus in summum aut certe multos infra nos
videbimus.

1 idem ultimum, added by Buttmann,

BOOK XII. XI. 27-30

and Macer would never have been succeeded by
Virgil, nor Crassus and Hortensius by Cicero^ nor
they in their turn by those who flourished after
them. But even though we cannot hope to surpass 28
the great, it is still a high honour to follow in their
footsteps. Did Pollio and Messala, who began to
plead when Cicero held the citadel of eloquence,
fail to obtain sufficient honour in their lifetime or
to hand down a fair name to posterity .'' The arts
which have been developed to the highest pitch
of excellence would deserve but ill of mankind if
that which was best had also been the last of its
line. Add to this the further consideration that 29
even moderate eloquence is often productive of
great results and, if such studies are to be measured
solely by their utility, is almost equal to the perfect
eloquence for which we seek. Nor would it be difficult
to produce either ancient or recent examples to show
that there is no other source from which men have
reaped such a harvest of wealth, honour, friendship
and glory, both present and to come. But it would
be a disgrace to learning to follow the fashion of those
who say that they pursue not virtue, but only the
pleasure derived from virtue, and to demand this
meaner recompense from the noblest of all arts, whose
practice and even whose possession is ample reward
for all our labours. Wherefore let us seek with all 30
our hearts that true majesty of oratory, the fairest
gift of god to man, without which all things are
stricken dumb and robbed alike of present glory and
the immortal record of posterity ; and let us press
forward to whatsoever is best, since, if we do this,
we shall either reach the summit or at least see
many others far beneath us.

513

QUINTILIAN

31 Haec erant, Marcelle Victori, quibus praecepta
dicendi pro virili parte adiuvari posse per nos vide-
bantur, quorum cognitio studiosis iuvenibus si non
magnam utilitatem adferet, at certe, quod magis
petimus, bonam voluntatem.

SM

BOOK XII. XI. 3t

Such, Marcellus Victorius, were the views by 31
the expression of which it seemed to me that I
might, as far as in me lay, help to advance the
teaching of oratory. If the knowledge of these
principles proves to be of small practical utility to
the young student, it should at least produce what
I value more, — the will to do welL

515

INDEX OF NAMES

Academia, Academici, in. i. 35 ; xn.

ii. 23 and 25.
A.ccias, I. vii. 14; I. riii. 11; v. x.

«4; V. xiil. 43.
Accasator Cossntiani Capitonis, Ti.

i. 14.
Achilles, I. x. 30 ; n. xrii. 8 ; m. rii,

11 tgq.; TO. Tiii. 53; vn. ii. 7;

vn. ix. 8; vm. iv. 24; i. i. 47,

50, 65; xn. li. 27.
Aciscnlas, VI. iii. 63.
Aegyptus, L xii. 60 ; m. viii. 33.
Aeli'us Catus, Tin. vi. 37,
Aelins Stilo, X. i. 99.
Aemilins Scaurus, V. xii. 10.
Aenobarbos, vi. i. 50.
Aeolis, L iv. 16.
Aeoliis, vm. iv. 18.
Aerope, H. iii. 73.
Aesctunes, n, xvii. 12; rv. It. 5;

X. I. 77; XL iii. 7 and 168; xn.

X. 19 and 23. In Ctesiph., v. xiii.

42; VI. i. 20; vn. i. 2; X. i. 22

(S206)nx. vi. 3.
Aeschines Socraticns, T. xi. 27.
Aeschylus, X. i. 66.
Aesopus, fabulist, I. Ix. 2; T. xl. 19,

•JO.
Aesopus, tragic actor, XI. iii. 111.
Aetoli, X i. 49.
Aier, see Domitios.
Airanios, X. i. 100.
Afri, XI. i. 80.
Airica, m. viii. 17 and 33 ; vn. ii. 6 ;

H. I. 73.
Alricanns, V. xl. IS; XL i. 12. Se«

Inlius and Scipio.
Agamemnon, m. vi!. 12; in. xi. 5;

IX. iii. 57 ; XI. I. 37.
Agatharchns, XI. ii. 14.
Aglaophon, xn. x. 3.
Agnon, n. xvii. 15.
Abala, v. xiu. 24,

Aiax. IV. ii. 13 ; V. x. 41 ; ▼. xl. 40 ;

vn. ix. 2 ; vm. iv. 24 ; n. iii. 73 :

xn. xi. 27.
Albinovanns. see Pedo.
AJbutius, n. XT. 36; m. IL 4; m.

vi. 62.
Alcaens, X. i. 63.
Alcamenes, xn. x. 8.
AJcibiades, vra. iv. 23.
Alcidamas Elaites, m. i. 10.
Alexander, I. i. 23; n. xx. 3; m.

viii. 16; v. x. 42 and 111; vra.

V. 24; xn. X. 6.
Alexandrinns, I. ii. 7.
Allobroges, XI. i. 89.
Amphictjones, V. i. 111.
Ampbion, xn. x. 57.
T. Ampins, m. viii. 50.
Anaxagoras, xn. ii. 2'2.
Anaxtmenes, m iv 9
Anchariana famllia, IV. i. 74 ; vn. ii.

10; IX. ii. 56.
Andocides, xn. x. 21.
Andromache, VI. ii. 23.
Andronlcns, XI. iii. 7.
Annalis, Sext., VI. iii. 58.
Antigonns, n. xiii. r.>.
Antimachos, X. i. 53.
Antipater of Sidon, X. vii. 19,
Antiphilos, xn. x. 6.
Antiphon, m. i. 11 ; xn. x. 22.
C. Antonins, IX. iii. 94,
M. Antonios, orator, n. xr. 7; n.

xvii. 6; nLi. 19; m. vi. 45; vn.

iii. 16 ; vm. Pr. 13 sq. ; xi. iii. 8

and 171 ; xn. i. 21 ; xn. ix. 5.
H. Antonins, triomvir, vn. iii. 18;

vm. iv. 25.
Antonius Gnipho, 1. vi. 23.
Antonins Rofus, I. v. 43.
Apelles, n. xiii. 12; xn. x. 6.
Aper, XL ii. 31.
Apollas Callimachas, XI. ii. 14.

INDEX OF NAMES

Apollo, in. yii. 8

ApoUodorus of Pergamum, n. xv. 12 ;

in. i. 1, 17, 18; m. v. 17; in. vi.

35 sqg. ; UI. xi. 3 ; IV. i. 50 ; IV. ii.

31; V. xiii. 59; vn. ii. 20; IX. i.

12 ; XI. ii. 14.
ApoUodorei, n. xi. 2; in. i. 18; IV.

i. 50.
ApoUonia, m. i. 17.
ApoUonius Molon, rhetorician, m. i.

16; xn. vi. 7.
ApoUonius Kliodius, poet, X. i. 54.
ApoUonius of Drepanum, IX. ii. 52.
Appius Oaecus, n. xvi. 7; III. viii,

64; V, xiii. 35; XI. i. 39; xn. ii.

9 ; xn. X. 61,
M'Aquilins, n. xr. 7.
Aratus, X. i. 46 and 55 (Phaenom. (1),

X. i. 46.
Archedemus, m. vi. 31 and 33.
Archias, X. vii. 19.
Archilochus, X. i. 59.
Archjrtas, I. x. 17.
Aieopagitae, v. ix. 13.
Areus, n. xv. 36; ni. i. 16.
Aristarchus, I. iv. 20 ; X. i. 54 and 59.
Aristippus, xn. ii. 24.
Aristogeiton, xn. x. 22.
Ariston, n. xv. 19.
Aristophanes, grammarian, I. I. 15;

X. i. 54.
Aristophanes, poet, I. x. 18 ; X. i. 65 ;

xn. X. 65.
Aristophon, V. xii. 10.
Aristoteles, I. i. 23; I. iv. 18; n. xv.

10; n. xxi. 23; m. i. 13 and 14;

in. iv. 1; in. vi. 23, 49, 60; m.

vii. 1; X. 1. 83; xn. x. 52; xn.

xi. 22 ; wepl ep/i. (2), I. vi.28 ; Oryllus,

n. xvii. 14 ; Rfiet., n. xvii. 14 ; ra. i.

14; V. X. 17; (i. 2) n. xv. 13 and

16; n. xvii. 14; V. i. 1; v. xii. 9;

(i. 3) n. xxi. 23 ; (i. 9) in. vii. 23

and 25; (i. 13) in. vi. 49; (ii.

1 sqq.) V. X. 17; (ii. 23) V. x. 78;

V. xii. 10 ; (ii. 26) in. ix. 5 ; (iii. 2)

vm. iii. 6; (iii. 7) vin. iii. 37;

(iii. 8) K. iv. 87 sqq. ; (iii. 12) m.

viil. 63 ; (iii. 13) m. ix. 5 ; xn. x.

52; (iii. 14) m. viii. 8; IV. i. 72;

(iii. 16) IV. ii. 32 ; Soph. El. (i. 4),

vn. ix. 8.
Aristoxenus, I. x. 22.
Arruntius, III. xi. 14.
0. Artorius Proculus, IX. 1. 2.

5x8

Asconlus, see Pedianua.

Asia, XI. ii. 50 ; xn. vi. 7 ; xn. x. 16.

Asiani, vm. Pr. 17; IX. iv. 103;

xn. X. 1, 12, 16 sqq.
Asinius PoUio, I. v. 8; I. vi. 42; I.

viii. 11; IV. i. 11; vi. i. 21; vi.

iii. 110 ; vn. ii. 5 and 26 ; vm. i. 3 ;

vm. iii. 32; IX. ii. 9 and 24; IX.

iii. 13 and 34; IX. iv. 76 and 132

(fragm.); X. i. 22, 24, 113; X. ii.

17 and 25; xn. i. 22; xn. vi. 1;

xn. X. 11 ; xn. xi. 28.
Aspasia, 7. xi. 27.
Asprenas, X. I. 22 ; XI. i. 57.
Atalanta, V. ix. 12.
Atellani, vi.iii. 47.
Athenae, I. xii. 15 ; n. xvi. 4; in. vii.

24; v. ix. 5; vi. i. 7; VI. iii. 107

vn. ii. 4; X. i. 76; XI. iii. 123

xn. X. 9; xn. x. 19.
Athenaeus, n. xv. 23; m. i. 16; m.

iii. 13 ; in. v. 5 ; ra. vi. 47.
Atbenienses, I. x. 48; V. xi. 38 and

40; VI. V. 7; ix. ii. 92; X. i. 66.
Athenodorus of Khodes, n. xvii. 15. .'
Atratinus, XI. i. 68. '

Atreus, ni. viii. 45.
Atridae, vn. ii. 3.
Attici.vi. i. 7; Vi.iii. 18; VI. Pr. 13

vra. i. 2 ; Vin. iii. 28 and 59 ; rx. iv.

145; X.i.44, 65, 80,100, 107, 115

xn. ii. 17; xn. x. 1, 14, 19, 20 sqq.,

25, 26, 35, 39.
Atticus, rhetorician, m. 1. 18.
T. Attius, v. xiii. 42.
Auctor ad Herenn. See Comiflciua.
Aufidia, IV. ii. 106 ; VI. i. 20 ; X. i. 22.
Aofidius Bassus, X. i. 103.
Augustus Caesar, I. vi. 19; I. vii. 22;

ra. i. 17; VI. iii. 52, 59, 63-5, 74,

75, 77, 79, 95; vm. iii. 34; xn.

vi. 1.
Aurelius, XL i. 31.

Babylon, vm. v. 24.
Bagoas, V. xii. 21.

Bassus, see Aufidius, lonins, Saleina.
Berenice, IV. i. 19.
M. Bibaculus, X. i. 96.
P. Blessius, VI. iii. 58.
Bostar, vn. ii. 10.
Britannia, vn. iv. 2.
Brutus, v. xi. 7.

M. Brutus, accuser of Cn. Plancai,
Vi.iii. 44.

INDEX OF NAMES

U. Bmtos, orator, m. vi. 93; IX iii
95; IX. iv. 75; X. i. 23 and 123;
I. T. 20; X.vji. 27; S3, i. 5; in.
i. 22; xn. X. 11.

Bulbus,iv,ii. 107,

Barrus, I. iv. 15.

Busiris II. xviL 4.

Caecilianas, XI. i. 39.

Caecilius, comic poet, L Tiii. 11; X. I.

99; XLi. 39.
Caecilius, rhetorician, m. i. 16; m.

vi.48; V. X. 7; vin. iii. 35; EX. i.

12; K.iii. 38, 46, 89, 91, 97.
Q. Caecilius, would-be accuser of

Verres,V.xiii.l8; VII.ii.2; XI.i.20.
M. Caelius, I. v. 61 ; I. vi. 29 and 42 ;

IV. ii. 27 and 123 sqq.; VI. iii. 25,

39,41; vm. Ti. 53; IX. iii. 58; X.

i. 115 ; X. ii. 25 ; XI. i. 51 ; xn. x.

11 ; XIL xi. 6.
Caepasins, VL i. 41 ; VL iii. 39.
Caerellia, VL iii. 12.
C. Caesar, I. v. 63; L vii. 21 and

34; in. vii. 28; m. viii. 19, 47,

55; IV. i. 39; V. xiii.5; Vl. i. 31 ;

VLiii. 61, 75, 91, 109, 112; vn. ii.

6; vn. iv. 2; vm. iv. 20; x. i.

38 and 114; X.ii. 25; xi. i. 38 and

80; xn. X. 11. See also under

lulius Caesar Strabo.
C. Caesar, vn. ii. 6.
Calamis, xn. X. 7.
Calchas, n. xiii. 13 ; vn. iv. 2 ; vm.

ii. 9 ; vm. iv. 20.
M. Calidius, orator, X. i. 23 ; XL iii.

123 and 155; xn. x. 11.
Callicles, n. xv. 28.
Callimaciias, Z. i. 58.
Callon, xn. X. 7 and 10.
C. Calvus, I. vi. 42 ; VI. i. 13; VI. iii.

60; IX. ii. 25; IX. iii. 56; X. i.

115; X. ii. 25; xn. i. 22; in. vi,

1 ; xn. X. 11.
Campatins, VL iii. 71.
Cannae, vm. vi. 26.
C. Carbo, IX. iv. 103 ; X. viL 27.
Caria, XI. iii. 58.
Cameades, xn. i. 35.
Cascellius, VL iii. 87.
Cassias Parmensis, V. xi. 34.
C. Cassias Severus, VL i. 43; VL iii.

27, 78, 79, 90; vm. ii. 2; vm. iii.

89; X. i. 22; i i. 116; XL i. 57;

XL iii. 133; xn. x. 11.

Castor, XL ii. 11.

Catilina, V. ii. 4 ; XL i. 2S.

Catius, X. i. 124.

M. Cato the censor, L vi. 42; L vii,

23; n. V. 21; n. xv. 8; m. i. 19;

m. vi. 97; V. xi. 39; VI. iii. 105;

vm. iii. 29; VIILV..33; vnLvi. 9;

IX. ii. 21 : n. iv. 39 ; xn. i. 1 and

35; xn. iii. 9; xn. vii. 4; in.

xi. 23.
Cato Uticensis, HL v. 8 and 11 ; m.

viii. 37 and 49; v. xi. 10; VLiii.

112; vm. ii. 9; rx. iv. 75; I. v.

13; iLi. 69; in. vii. 4.
Catullus, X. i. 96 ; (xxix. 1) EX. iv.

141; (Ixii. 45) ES. iii. 16; (IxxiL)

L V. 20; (lixivi.) VLiii. 18; (xciii.)

XI. i. 38 ; (icvii. 6) L v. 8.
Catulus, VL iii. 81 ; n. iii. 35.
Caudinum iu^um, m. viii. 3.
Celsina, VL iii. 85.
Celsos, see Cornelius.
Ceres, Lvi.l4; nLvii. 8; vm. vi, 34,
Cestius, I. V. 20.
M. Cethegus, n. xv. 4; XI. iii. 31.
Chaeronea, EX. ii. 62.
Chaos, m. vii. 8.
Charisins, X. i. 70.
Channadas, XL ii. 26,
Chiron, L x, 30 ; vm. vi. 37.
Cbiysippus, philosopher, L i. 4 and

16; L iii. 14; L x. 32; L xi. 17;

n. XV. 34; in. i. 28; xn. vii, 9.
Chrvsippus (Vettius), VL iii. 61.
Chrvsogonus, IV. ii. 3 and 19.
M. Cicero, L iv. 11 ; L v. 13, and 60

sqq.; L vi. 18; L vii. 20 and 34;

L viii. 11 ; n. v. 16 and 20; EL xvi,

7; m. i. 20; m. viii. 4€, 50, 65;

IV. i. 19; IV. V. 24; V. x. 31; v.

xi. 17 ; V. xiii. 2 and 62 ; VL iiL 1,

2, 4, 5, 47-9, 51, 65, 67-9, 76-7,

84, 88, 98; vn. i. 10; vn. ii. 39;

vn. iii. 28; vn. ii. 12; vm. ii. 4;

vm. iii. 32, 64, 64, 66; vm. v. 33;

IX. i. 25 ; H. ii. 96 ; IX. iii. 1 and 74 ;

EX. iv. 1, 16, 36, 53, 66 *w-, 79.

146; X. i. 24, 33, 39, 40, 80, 81,

92 sgq., 105 tqq., 112, 113 tgq. ; X.

ii. 17, 18, 24; X. v. 2, 11, 16; X,

vii. 14, 19, 37, 28; XL i. 17, 24;

XL iii. 8, 10, 85, 141, 171, 184; HL

Pr. 4; xn. i. 14, 16, 19, 20, 21 sqq.;

ULii. 6, 23; ULvi. 4, 7; xn. vii.

4; in. X. 12 sqq., 39, 45, 48, 53,

INDEX OF NAMES

64, 06; XU. xJ. 6, 26, 28; Riteto-
rica; Brut., {ii. 8) XI. i. 31; (vii.
27) III. i. 12; (iv. 58) XI. iii. 31;
(xxi. sqg.) n. i. 4; (xivi. 101) Til.
li. 12; (xxxviii. 141) XI. iii. 171,
184; (Li. 216 sq.) XI. iii. 129; (Ixii.
225) XI. iii. 128; (Ixxiv. 259) XI.
iii. 10, 35; Qxxx. 278) XI. iii. 123,
155; (Lxxxii. 283) X. i. 115;
(Ixxxviii. 301) X. tI. 4; (xci. 314
sg.) xn. vi. 7; (xci. 316) xn. i. 20;
Se Inv., see Rhetorica ; Orator, (i.
1) IX. iv. 101; (i. 4) xn. xi. 26;
(iii. 12) xn. ii. 23; (x. 34) X. vii.
27; (xii. 39) X. i. 33 ; (xiv. sqg.) m.
iii. 7; (xiv. 44) vm. Pr. 14; (xir.
46) m. V. 15; m. vi. 44; (xvii.
55) XI. iii. 1; (xviii. 57) XI. iii.
68, 60 ; (xviii. 59) XI. iii. 122, 126 ;
(lix. 62) X. i. 33; (xx. 67) IX. iv.
54; (xxi.sgq.) XI. i. 4; (x2iii.)XI. i.
92 ; (xxiii. 77) IX. iv. 37 ; (xxv. 85)
a. ii. 29; (xxvi. 87) VL iii. 42;
(xxvi. 90) VI. iii. 18; (xivii. 93)
vm. vi. 23 ; (xxviii.) XI. i. 92 ; (xxii.
104) X. i. 24; (xxx. 107) xu. i. 20;
xn. vi. 4 ; (xxxix. sqg.) IX. i. 36 sgg. ;
(xlv. 154) I. V. 66; (xlvi. 155) I. vi.
18; (xJvii. 157) I. v. 44; (xlviii.
161)IX. iv. 38; Qi- 171) ix. iv. 115;
(Ixi. 204) rx. iv. 124; (Ixiii. 214)
IX. iv. 103; (Ixiv, sgg.) IX. iv. 79;
(Irv. 219) IX. iv. 109; (Ixvi. 223)

IX. iv. 101; (Ixvii. 223 sgg.) ix. ii.
15; K. iv, 122; (Lsx. 232) IX. iv.
14; Qxx. 234) DC. iv. 55; (Ixxl.
235) IX. iii, 39; De Oratore m. vi.
69; IX. iii. 90; X. iii. 1 ; (I. iii. 12)
vm. Pr. 25; (vi. 20) n. xxi. 14;
(vi. 21) n. xxi. 6; (xxi. 94) vm.
Pr. 13; (xxviii. 128) xn. v. 5;
(xxix. 132) XI. iii. 177 ; (xxxi. 138)
n. XV. 5; (xxxi. 141) lU. iii. 16;
(xxxi. 142) ra. iii. 7; (xxxiii. 150)

X. iii. 1; (xxxiv. 155) X. v. 2;
(xlii. 190) xn. xi. 4; Qv. 236) xn.
iii. 11; (II. vii. 30) n. xvii. 36;
{sgq.) m. iv. 2; (xxi. 88) n. iv,
8 ; (xxv. 108 sqg.) vn. iii. 16 ; (xlv.
188)Xi.iii.94; (liv. 220) VI. iii. 81;
(Iv. 223) VI. iii. 43; G^ii. 232) n.
xvii. 5; (l^iii- 236) VI. iii. 8; (Ixi.
248) VI. iii. 50; Qxvi. 266) VI. iii.
38; Qxvi. 267) VI. iii. 67; (Lsvii.
»74) I. V. 66 ; (Ixviii. 376) VI. iii.

520

87; (Ixix. 278) VI. iii. 88; (Ixx.
281) VI. iii. 84; Qxxi. 289) VI. iii.
23; (Ixxxii.) m. viii. 14; (Ixxxii.
334) m. viii. 1 ; (Ixxxvi. 352) XL
ii. 14; Qxxxvi. 354) XI. ii. 21;
(Ixxxvii. 358) XI. ii. 22; (Ixxiviii.
360) XI. ii. 26; (m. x. 37) XI. i. 1 ;
(xi. 42) XI. iii. 10; (xiv. 54) (11.
xxi . 6 ; (xiv. 66) n. xx. 9 ; (xv. sgg.)
I. Pr. 13; (xxiv. 93) n. iv. 42;
(xxvi. 101) n. xii. 7; (xxx.) m. v.
15; (xxxi.) xn. ii. 6; (xii. 164)
vm. vi. 16; (1. 194) X. vii. 19;
(Iii. sgq.) IX. i, 26 sgq.; (liii. 202)

IX. ii. 40; (Iv. 210) XI. i. 4; (Ivi.
213)xi.iii.7; Qvi. 214) XI. iii. 115;
(lix. 220) 1. xi. 18; XI. iii. 128;
(lix. 222) XI. iii. 1 ; Pari. Or., (i. 3)
m. iii. 7; (v. 16) vm. iii. 36; (vi.
19 sgg.) vm. iii. 42 sqg.; (ix. 31)

IV. ii. 107; (xviii. 62) m. v. 6;
(xxvii.97)ra. viii.65; (xxviii.103)
m. xi. 19; (xxx. 104) m. xi. 10;
(xxx. 105) vn. iii. 35; (xxxi. and
xxxviii.) in. vi. 50 ; Rhetorica (alias
i/e Inventione), n. xv. 6 ; m. i. 20 ;
m.iii.6; ni.vi.68*g. and 64; (i. 2)
m. ii. 4; (i. 5 sgg.) U. xxi. 4; (I. v.
6) n. XV. 5 and 33 ; II. xvii. 2 ; (i. 6)
III. V. 14; (I. viii. 10) ra. vi. 50;
(I. xi. 14) m. vi. 68 ; (I. xiv. 19) m.
xi. 9, 10, 12 ; (I. xxx. 46 sqg.) V. x.
78; (I. xxx. 49) V. xi. 2 and 23;
(I. xxxi. 51) V. X. 6, 73 ; V. xi. 2 ;

V. xi. 28 ; (I. xxxiv. 67) V. x. 6 ; (L
xxxiv. 58 sgg.) V. xiv. 7 ; (I. xxxvii.
67) v. xiv, 6; (I. Ivi.) VI. i. 27;
Topica, (iii. 12) v. x. 85; (iii. 13)
V. X. 62 ; v. xi. 33 ; (iii. 15) V. xi.
32; (v) V. X. 63; (vii. 32) V. xiv.
34; (viii. 35) I. vi. 28; (x. 42) V.

X. 73; (xxi.) in. v. 15; (xxi. 79)
m. V. 5; vn. i. 4; (xxi. 80) m.
V. 18; (xxi. 81) m. v. 6; (xxii.
85 and 87) VU. iii. 8; (xxiii. 88)
vn. iii. 28; (xxiv. 91) m. iii. 15;
(xxv. 93) ra. vi. 13; (xxv. 94) in.
vii. 28; (xxv. 95) ra. xi. 18; (xxvi,
97) IV. ii. 64; Loci communes, n. i.
11; Fragmenta rhetorica, VI. ii. 32;
Oraliones ; Pro Archia (i. 1), XI. i.
19; XI. iii. 97; (viii. 19) V. xi. 25;
vm. iii. 75; rx. iv. 44; xi. i. 34;
n. iii. 84 and 167 ; In Q. Caecilium,
see Verriues; Pro Caecina (L l\

INDEX OF NAMES

Dt. iii. 80; (ir. 11) IT. ii. 49; (vlii.
23) IV. ii. 132; (x. 27) VL iii. 56;
(xii. 34) V. li. 33 ; (xiii. 37) V. x.
68 ; (iIt. sqq.) vn. vi. 7 ; (iv. 42)
vn. iii. 17; (it. 43) V. x. 92; vn.
iii. 29; (xv. 44) TIL iii. 29; (ivi.
45) T. I. 93; (six. 55) T. x. 98;
(xxix. 82) rx. iii. 22; Pro Caelio,
IT. i. 31 and 39; IT. ii. 27; IX. ii.
39; XI. i. 68; (ii. 4) XL i. 28 ; (iv.

10) xn. xl. 6 ; (liii. 31) T. xiii. 30 ;
EC. IT. 98; (xiii. 32) IX. ii. 99;
(xiT. tqq.) m. Tiii. 54; (liT. 33)
EC IT. 102; m. X. 61; (xiv. 34)
IX. iT. 104; (XT. 35) rx. ii. 60;
(XT. 36) TIILiii. 22; (xri. 38) vm.
iv. 1; (xrii. 39) IX. ii. 15; (xiii.
53) rx. ii. 47 ; (ixTi. 62) rx. iv. 64 ;
(xxix. 69) VL iii. 25; In CoUili-
nam I., xn. x. 61 ; (i. 1) it. i. 68 ;
rx. ii. 7; IX. iii. 30; (i. 2) (EX. ii.
26; IX. iii. 44; (i. 3) vm. iT. 13;
(ii. 4) IX. iii. 29 ; (ii. 5) IX. iii. 19 ;
(T. 10) K. iii. 45; (t. 12) Tm. Ti.
15; (Tii. 17) Tm. iT. 10; (Tii. 18)

IX. ii. 32; (viii. 19) EX. ii. 45; (ix.
22) IX. iii. 62; (x. 25) Tm. t1. 41 ;
(xi. 27) IX. ii. 32; rx. iii. 71; xn.

X. 61; (xii. 30) rx. iii. 71; In
Catilinam II. (i. 1), rx. iii. 46 and
77; In Catilinam III. (ix. 21), v.
xi. 42; In Catilinam IV. (ii. 3),
TI.iii. 109 ; In Clodium et Curionem,
in. vii. 2; fr. T. x. 92; Tm. iii.
81; Tm. Ti. 56; rx. ii. 96; Pro
Cluentio, U. XTii. 21; IT. i. 69;
IT. ii. 19 and 85; T. Til. 37(?);
T. xi. 13; V. xiii. 42; TL v. 9;
XL i. 61 and 74; (i. 1) IT. i. 36;
TL T. 9 ; vm. Ti. 65 ; EX. iT. 68, 92,
101, 133; (i. 4) EX. ii. 19; EX. iii.
75 and 81; IX. It. 75; (ii. 5) rx.
ii. 61; IX. iii. 81 and 85; (iv. 9)
IT. T. 11; (iT. 11) IT. i. 79; (v.

11) IT. ii. 16 and 130 ; XI. iii. 162 ;
(T. 14) IT. ii. 121; XL iii. 162;
(Ti.l5)r7.ii.l05; ES. iii. 62, 77, 81 ;
(xi. 32) Tm. iT, 11; (xiT. 41) rx.
iii. 38; (xTii. tqg.) T. ii. 1; n. i.
74; (n. »qq.) IT. ii. 19; TL i. 41 ;
(xii.) TI. iii. 39; (xxi. 68) TL iii.
40; (xxiH.63)rx.ii. 51; (xxiii.64)
T. X.68; (xxvi.)rr. ii.l07; (xxrii.
75) T. xi. 22 ; (xxix. 80) IX. iii. 82 ;
(xTTJii. 91) Tm. Ti. 55; (xxxr. 96)

Tm. iii. 51 ; (xxxri. 98) T. x. 108;
(xxiTii.l03)IX.ii.8; (xxxTlii.106)
EX. ii. 16; (xl. Ill) T. xiii. 39;
(xiii.) IT. i. 75; (xlTlii. 134) T. xi.
13; (xlTiii. 135) T. xiii. 33; QiL)
IT. T. 20 ; T. xiii. 42 ; (Iii- 143) T.
liii. 47; Giii- 146) T. li. 25; (Ix.
166) IX. ii. 48; (be 167) a. iii.
37; Qx. 168) T. liii. 15; (lii. 169)
EX. ii. 60; In competitores, m. Til.
2 ; Pro Comelio, IT. iii. 13 ; T. xiii.
18 ; TL T. 10 ; TH. iii. 36 ; Tm. iii.
3; H. iii. 164; fr. IT. It. 8; T. xi.
25 ; T. xiii. 26 ; EX. ii. 55 ; IX. iT.
122 sqq.; Pro Deiotaro, IT. i. 31;
Pro Flaceo, XI. i. 89 ; Pro Fonteio,
XI. i. 89 ; fr. TI.iii.51 ; Pro Fundanio,
I. iT. 14; Pro Gobinio, XL i. 73;
Pro Q. Oallio, Tm. iii. 66; XL iii.
155 and 165; De lege agraria, n.
xri. 7; (n. t. 13) T. xiii. 38; Tin.
iT. 28 ; Pro lege Manilia, n. It. 40 ;
Oe proscriptorum liberis, XI. i. 85 ;
Pro Ligario, IT. i. 39, 66, 70; Vf.
ii. 108 ; T. xiii. 20 ; TI. t. 10 ; n.
ii. 50; X. i. 23; XI. i. 78; (i. 4)
IX. IT. 73, 75, 92, 105 ; XL iii. 108
tqq.; (i. 2) IT. i, 67; IT. ii. 109
and 131; Tm. t. 13; EC ii. 51;
nc. iT. 133; XL iii. 162; (i. 3) it.
ii. 110; (ii. 4) n. ii. 51, lOS, lU);
(iii. 6 sqq.) XL iii. 166 ; (iii. 7) IX.
ii. 14 and 28; (iiL 8) T. x. 93;
(iii. 9) T. xiii. 31; Tm, iT. 27;
Tm. Ti. 12; EX. ii. 7, 33, 57; EX.
iT. 99 ; XL iii. 166 ; (It. 10) T. xiii.
5; Tm. T. 10; IX. ii. 29; ix. It.
102 ; (T. 15) TUL iii. 85 ; (vi. 19)
T. xl. 42; T. xiT. 1; ex. iii. 36;
(X. 30) Tn. iT. 17 ; (x. 31) v. x. 93 ;
(xii. 35) TL iii. 108 ; (iii. 37) Tm.
T. 3; (xii. 38) Tm. t. 7; EX. iT.
107; Contra ami MetHli, IX. iiL
40, 43, 45, 49, 50 ; Pro Milone, n.
XI. 8; m. Ti. 12 and 93; m. xi.
15 ; IT. i. 20 and 31 ; it. ii. 25 and
57; IT. iii. 17; IT. t. 15; t. xIt,
22; TL T. 10; vn. Ii. 43; EX. IL
41; EX. It. 133; X. t. 20; XL 1.
40 ; XI. iii. 47 ; (i> 1) IX. It. 74 and
93; XI. iii. 47 tqq.; (ii. 5) Tm. Ti.
48; IX. iii. 77; (iii. 7) T. xi. 12;
(iii. 8) T. xi. 16 and 18; (iii. 9) T.
liT. 18 »qq.; (iT. 9) T. xi. 15;
Tm. T. 11; (iT. 10) T. xiT. 17 and

521

INDEX OF NAMES

19; IX.iii. 83; (iv. 11) v. xiv. 17;
(v.) V. ii. 1; (vii. 17) v. i. 41;
(x. 28) IV. ii. 57; (i. 29) TV. ii. 121 ;
▼. X. 50; vn. i. 37; (xi. 30) iv.
iv. 2; (xii. 33) rx. ii. 54 and 56;
(xiii. 33) IX. iii. 6; (xiii. 34 sgq.)

VIII. vi. 7; (xvi. 41) v. xiv. 3;
(xviii.47)IX. ii. 26; (xi.)V. x. 37;
(XI. 53) vni. vi. 41 ; (xxii. 59) ix.
iii.30;(xiii 60)Vin.iii. 22;(xxvii.

72) v. li. 12 ; IX.iii. 28 ; (xxix. 79) v.
xiv. 2 ; (xxxi. 85) IX. ii. 38 ; XI. i. 34 ;
H. iii. 115 and 167; xn. x. 62;
(xxxiii.) IX. ii. 41 ; (xxxiv. 94) VI. i.
27 ; IX. iii. 23 ; (xxxvii. 102) VI. i. 24 ;
XI. iii. 172; (xxxviii. 105) XI. iii.
173; Pro Murena, n. iv. 2i; XI. i.
69; (i. 1) IX. iv. 107; (ii. 4) V. xi.
23; (iii.) rv. i. 75; (v. 11) IV. v.
12; (vi. 14) IX. ii. 36; (viii. 17)
V. xi. 11; (ix. 22) V. xiii. 27; (ix.
22) IX. ii. 100; IX. iii. 32 ; (xi. 25)
vni. iii. 22; (xii. 26) vn. i. 51;
(xiii. 29) vra. iii. 79; IX. iii. 36;
(xvii. 35) vin. vi. 49; (ivii. 36)
vm. iii. 80; (xxix. 60) vm. vi. 30;
(ixxv. 73) vn. iii. 16; (xxxvi. 76)

IX. iii. 82; (xxivji. 79) VI. i. 35;
(xxxvii. 80) IX. ii. 18; (xxxix. 83)

V. X. 99; (fragm.?) IX. iii. 21;
Pro Oppio, v. xiii. 17 and 20 sg.;

VI. V. 10; XI. i. 67; V. x. 69 and
76 ; V. xiii. 21 and 30 ; IX. ii. 51 ;
Philippic II., (i. 2) XI. i. 25 sg.;
(ii. 4) V. xiii. 38; (xvii.) v. xiii.
38; (XXV. 62) rx, ii. 47; (xxv. 63)
V. X. 99; vm. Iv. 8, 10, 16; vm.
vi. 68; K. iv. 23, 29, 44, 107;
XI. iii. 39, 167, 172; (xxvi. 64) IX.
ii. 26; IX. iii. 29; (xxvii. 67) vm.
iv. 26; vra. vi. 70; xn. x. 62;
Phil. ra. (iv.) V. xiii. 38 ; (ix. 22) ix.
iii. 13 and 72; PAt7.IV.(iii.8)IX.iii.
86 ; Phil. vra. (i. 2) m. viii. 5 ; (i,
3) vn. iii.25; Phil. IX. m. viii. 5;
(iii. 7) vn.iii. 18; Phil. XI. (vi. 14)
vm.iii. 29; Phil. xra. (19) V. xiii.
38; In Pisonem, ra. vii. 2; (i. 1) V.
xiii. 38; (xiii. 20) IX. iii. 67; (xxx.

73) V. xiii. 38 ; In Pisonem, fragm.,
IX. iv. 47 and 76; vm. iii. 21;
vra. V. 18(?); Pro Quinctio (i. 4),
XI. i. 19; (xxv. 78) IX. iii. 86;
Pro RcMrio perdtiell. reo., V. xiii.
20; vn. i. 9 and 16; (vi. 18) XI.

522

iii. 169 ; (ix.) VI. i. 49; Pro Rabirio
Postumo, ra. vi. 11 ; rv. i. 46 and
49; IV. ii. 10; IX. ii. 17; (iii. 7)
IX. iii. 6; (x. 28) IV. ii. 18; (xvii.
46) XI. iii. 172; De Rege Alex. (7),
L V. 13 ; De haruspicum respomis,

V. xi. 42; Pro Roscio Amerino, IV.
ii. 19; vn. ii. 23; (xxii.) IV. ii. 3
and 19; rx. ii. 53; (xxvi. 72) xn.
vi. 4; Pro Scauro ambitus reo., iv.
i. 69; Pro Scauro repel, reo, I. v.
8; r?. i. 69; v. xiii. 28 and 40;

VI. i. 21; vn. ii. 10; xi. i. 89;
Pro Sestio (liv. 115), vm. iii. 34;
Pro Tullio (vii. 14), IV. ii. 131;
(xxiv. 56) V. xiii. 21 ; Pro Vareno,
VI. i. 49; vn. i. 9 and 12; vn. ii.
10, 22, 36 ; fr. rV. i. 74; V. x. 69 ; V.
xiii. 28; vm. iii. 22; IX. ii. 56;
In Vatinium testem, v. vii. 6 ; XI.
i. 73 ; Pro Vatinio, XI. i. 73 ; Ver-
rinae, IV. i. 20 and 31; IV. iii. 13;
VI. i. 54; VI. iii. 4; VI. v. 4; X. i.
23; XI. ii. 25; Div. in Caecilium,
V. xiii. 18; (i. 1) IV. i. 49; IX. ii.
17; (ii. 4"> IX. ii. 59; (xii. 40) XI.
i. 20; (xiii. 41) XI. i. 44; (xiv. 45)
IV. V. 24; Act. I., (XV. sg.) TV. i.
20; VI. i. 13; Act. II. (I. i. 1), IX.
iv. 119; (I. iii. 9) vra. iv. 2; (I.
xxiv. 63) IV. ii. 2; (I. xx.) iv. ii.
114; VI. i. 54; (I. xxx. 76) XI. iii.
162; (I. xxx. 77) IX. i. 16; (I. xiii.
109) V. X. 76; (I. xlvi. 121) vi. iii.
55; (n. i. ) m. vii. 27; (n. xxx.
73) IV. ii. 67; (IV. iii. 5) rv. v. 4;
rx. ii. 61 ; (IV. xvii. 37) ix. ii. 52 ;
(IV. XX. 43) IX. ii. 60; (IV. xxv.
Ivii.) VI. iii. 55; (IV. xxvi. 57) IX
ii. 61; (IV. xliii. 95) VI. iii. 55;
(iv. 48) m. vii. 27; IV. ii. 19; K.
iv. 127 ; (IV. Iv. 123) V. xi. 7 ; (V.
ii. 4)rx.ii. 47; (V. iii.) iv. ii. 17;
(V. V. 10) rx. ii. 22 ; (V. x.) IV. iii.
18; (V. xvii. 44) IX. iii. 34; (v.
xxvii. 70) rx. iv. 64; (V. xxxiii.
86) vm. iii. 64; IX. iv. 104; XI.
iii. 90; (V. xii. 107) rx. iii. 43;
(V. xliv. 116) IX. ii. 57; IX. iii. 11;
(V. xliv. 117) vm. iv. 19; IX. ii,
51; IX. iv. 70; (V. xiv. 118) IV. ii.
106; vm. iv. 27; rx. iv. 71, 108.
124; XI. i. 40; (V. xiv. 119) IX. iii.
34; (V. Iii. 136) VI. i. 3; (V. Ivi.
145 vra. vi. 72; (v. 62 tq.) IV. il.

INDEX OF NAMES

113; (V. liii. 161) IX. ii. 40; (V.
Ixii. 162) IX. iv. 103; XI. i. 40;
XL iii. 90 ; (V. bdii. 163) ix. ii. 38 ;
(V. Lrvi. 170) Tin. iv. 4 ; (V. Ixxii.)
VI. i. 3 ; Fraqmenia ineerta, VUL
Ti. 47; n. ii. 18, 41, 47, 60; DC.
iii. 21, 42, 48, 87; XI. iii. 155;
Commentarii causarum, rv. i. 69;
X. Tii. 30 *q. ; Epistulae, L vii. 34;
DC. iv. 41; X. i. 107; XL I. 21;
xn. ii. 6; Ad Appium Pulchrum,
in. Tiii.3; VIII.iii.35; Ad Atiicum,
(V. IV. 3), V. xi. 21 ; (vm. vii. 2)
VL iii. 109; vm. v. 18; (IX. x. 6)
vm. iii. 32 : Ad Bruium, n. xi. 10 ;
m. viii. 42; V. i. 9; VL iii. 20;
vm. iii. 6 and 34; vm. vi. 20 and
55; ix.iii.4lBnd58; lX.iv.41(?);
Ad Catrelliam, VLiii.112 ; Adfilium,
I. vii. 34; Ad ineertum, ix. iii. 61 ;
Dialogi, XL i. 20; Cato maior (iii.
7), V. X. 9 ; V. xi. 41 ; Catultu, HL
vi. 64; Laeliui (xxiv. 89), vm. iii.
55; Lueulliu, m. vi. 64; De not.
deorum (I. xxxiv. 95), L v. 72;
vm. iii. 32; De republiea, IX. iii.
75; Tusculanae (L ii. 4), L x. 19;
(I. xxiv. 59 ( ?)) X. vi. 4 ; Carmina,
vm. vi. 73; IT. iv. 41; XL i. 24;
lAbri de iure, xn. iii. 10; Libri
Platonit el Xenophontu Translati,
V. xi. 28; X. V. 2; Fragmenta in-
certa, vm. iii. 21; DC. iv. 100(?);
xn. i. 17.

Cimber, vm. iii. 29.

Cimbricum scutum, VL iii. 38.

Ctona, see Helvius.

Caandins, I. vii. 26 ; VL iii. 81 ; vm.
V. 16.

Cleanthes, n. xv. 34; n. xvii. 41;
xn. i. 18; xn. vii. 9,

Cleon, XL iii. 123.

Clitarehus, X. i. 75.

aoatilla, vm. V. 16; IX. ii. 20; IX.
iii. 66; IX. iv. 31.

Clodia, in. viii. 54 ; V. xiii. 30.

P. Clodius, n. iv. 35 ; m. v. 10 ; m.
vii. 2; ra. viii. 54: m. xi. 15 and
17; rv. ii. 25, 67, 88; V. ii. 4; VI.
iii. 49; vn. i. 34 ««.; vn. ii. 45;
X. V. 13 ; XL i. 39.

Sex. Clodius Phonnio, VI. iii. 56.

Cluentianum iudicium, XL i. 74.

Clusiaios Figolus, TIL ii. 5 and
26.

ClTtaemnestra, n. xvii. 4; m. xL

4 sqq. and 20 ; VUL vl. 53.
Coccus, xn. X. 21.
Colotes of Tecs, n. xiii. 13.
Comic poets, anonymous, TL iii. 97;

IX. iii. 16.
Corax, n. xvii. 7; m. i, 8.
Cornelia, l. i. 6.
Comelii tres, V. x. 30.
Cornelius Celsus, rbetorician, n. xv.

22 and 32; m. i. 21; m. v. 3;

m. xvi. 13 and 38; m. vii. 25;

IV. i. 12; IV. ii. 9 tq.; vn. i. 10;

vn. ii. 19; vm. iii. 35 and 47 ; IX,

i. 18; rr. ii. 22, 40, 54, 101 sq..

104, 107; IX. iv. 132 and 137; X,

i. 23 and 124; xn. xi. 24.
C. Ciomelius trib. pleb., X. v. 13.
Cornelius Qallus, poet, I. v. 8 ; I. i. 93.
Cornelias Hufinus, xn. i. 43.
Cornelius Severus, poet, X. i. 89.
Comificins, m. i. 21 ; EX. iii. 89; (iv.

14) EX. iii. 31 and 70; (iv. 15 sqq.)

EX. iii. 98 ; (iv. 18) V. x. 2 ; (iv. 22)

EX. iii. 72; (iv. 25) EX. iii. 55 sq.

and 91 ; (iv. 29) IX. iii. 88 ; (iv. 36)

EX. ii. 27 ; (iv. 43 and 52) EX. ii. 31.
Cios, vm. vi. 71.
Coesatianns Capito, VI. i. 14.
L. Cotta, V. xiii. 20 and 30; VL v.

10; XLi. 67; XL iii. 10.
Cranon, XI. ii. 14.
L. Crassus, orator, I. xi. 18; n. iv.

42; n. XX. 9; VL iii. 43 sq.; vn.

vi. 9; vnLPr. 14: vnLiii. 89; x.

iii. 1; X.V. 2; XI. i. 4 and 37; XI.

iii. 8 and 94; xiLii. 5; xn. z. 10;

xn. xi. 4 and 27.
Crassus Dives, XL ii. 60.
Oates, L ix. 6.
Cratinns, X. i. 63.
Cremutius, X. i. 104.
Crispus Passienus, VI. i. 60; X. i. 24;

XI. i. 31.
Critolaus, n. xv. 19 and 23 ; n. xvii.

15.
Cupido, n. iv. 26.
Curetes, X. i. 49.
Curjanum indicium, vn. vi. 9.
Curii,xn. ii. 30.
C. CJurio (the elder), XI. iii. 129.
C. Curio ( ? the younger), VI. iii. 7«.
M'. Curius, VI. iii. 72 ; vn. ii. 38.
Curins Vibius, VL iii. 73.
Qyctops, vm. iii. 84; vm. iv. 24.

INDEX OF NAMES

Oynicas, IV. II. 80.
C^TUs, XI. ii. 50.
C^hnius, II. xiii. 13.

Daedalns, "vm. vi. 18.

Declaimer, fragment of unknown, vm.

ill. 22.
Delphicum oracalum, x. 1. 81.
Demades, n. xvii. 13 ; xn. x. 49.
Demeas, vn. ix. 10; vm. ii. 16.
Demetrius, comic actor, XI. iii. 178.
Demetrius Phalereus, orator, II. iv.

41 sq.; IX. iii. 84; X. i. 33 and 80.
Demetrius, sculptor, Xll. x. 9.
Demoleos, vm. iv. 25.
Demosthenes, L xi. 5; n. v. 16; m.

vi. 3 ; V. xiii. 42 ; V. xiv. 32 ; VI.

i. 20; VI. ii. 24; VI. iii. 2; vm. v.

33; IX. ii. 40 and 98; IX. iv. 17,

36, 47, 55, 146; X. i. 24, 39, 76, 105

sqq.; X. ii. 24; X. iii. 25 and 30;

n. iii. 6 sq., 54, 68, 130, 168; xn.

i. 14 sq. and 22 ; xn. ii. 22 ; XII. ix.

16; xn. I. 23, 24, 26, 52, 54; xn. xi.

26 ; Action against hisguardiani, xn.

vl. 1 ; In Androtionem (7), V. xiv.

4; Pro Ctesiphonte, IV. i. 32, 66,

68; IX. ii. 54; X. i. 22; XI. i. 22;

XI. iii. 97; (1) IX. iv. 63 sq. and

73; (18)IV.ii. 131; (128) XI. i. 22 ;

(179) IX. iii. 55; (208) IX. ii. 62

and 168; Ve Haloneso, in. viii. 5;

In Midiam (72), VI. i. 17; Philip-

picae, ni. viii. 65 ; (i. 2) VI. v. 7 ;

(iii. 17) IX. iv. 63 >q. ; Epistulae, X.

i. 105.
Diana, m. vii. 8.
Didius Gallus, VI. iii. 88.
Dido, IX. ii. 64.
Didymus, I. viii. 20.
Diogenes of Babylon, I. i. 9.
Diomedes, XI. i. 37; xn. xi. 27.
Dion, I. X. 48; m. iii. 8.
Dionysius, I. x. 48 ; V. xi. 8 ; vm. vi.

62.
Dionysius of Halicamassus, m. i. 16 ;

IX.iii. 89; IX. iv. 88.
Dolabella, vi. iii. 79 and 99; vm. ii.

4; ix.i. 16; xn. xi. 6.
Domitia Passieni, VI. i. 50 ; vn. iii. 74.
Domitianus, IV. Pr. 2 sq.; X. i. 91.
Domitius Afer, V. vii. 7; V. x. 79;

VI. iii. 29, 42, 54, 68, 81, 84 sq.,

92-4; vm. V. 3 and 16; IX. ii. 20;

IX. iiL 66 and 79; lX.iv. 31; X. i.

$24,

24, 86, 118; n. iii. 12S; xn. x.

11 ; xn. xi. 3.
Domitius Marsus, VI. iii. 102 igq., 108,

111.
L, Domitius, IV. ii. 17.
Dorica, vm. iii. 59.
Duilius, I. vii. 12.

Egeria, n. iv. 19.

Effnatius, v. xiii. 33.

Elis, xn. X. 9.

Empedocles, I. iv. 4; ra. 1. 8.

Empylns of Ehiodes, rhetorician, X.
vi. 4.

Ennius, I. v. 12; I. vi. 12; I. viii.
11; vra.iii. 31; ix. ii. 36; IX. iv.
115; X.i. 88; 4nn. (160) (Vahlon),
vm. vi. 9; (178) VI. iii. 86; (186)
vn. ix. 6; (222) IX. iv. 115; (305)
XI. iii. 31; (309) n. xv. 4; (472)
n. xvii. 24 ; Medea, v. i. 84.

Ephorus, n. viii. 11; IX. iv. 87; X.
i. 75.

Epicurus, H. xvii. 15; vn. iii. 5; X.
ii. 15; xn. ii. 24.

Epicurei, V. vii. 35 ; X. i. 124.

Eratosttienes, L i. 16 ; xi. ii. 14.

Euathlus, m. i. 10.

Buenus, I. x. 17.

Euphorion, x. i. 66 ; XI. ii. 14.

Euphranor, xn. x. 6 and 12.

Eupolis, 1. X. 18 ; X. i. 65 ; xn. x. 65.

Euripides, m. i. 14; v. x. 31 {Phoe-
niss., 636 sq.); X. i. 67 sq.

Eurypylus of Iiaxissa, XI. ii. 14.

Fabia Dolabellae, VI. iii. 73.

Fabius, m. viii. 19 and 37; (Cunc-

tator)ii. xvii. 19; VI. iii. 61; vra.

ii. 11; XL 11.80.
Fabius Pictor, L vL 12.
Fabricius, vn. ii. 88 ; xn. i. 43 ; xn.

ii. 30.
Fama, IX. 11. 36.
C. Fannius, vn. ix. 12.
Fidenates, m. viii. 37.
Figulus Clusinius, vn. ii. 4 sq. and 26.
Flaccus, see Valerius.
Flaminius, n. xvi. 6.
On. Flavins, vntiii. 22.
Flavus, see Sei^ius «uid Verginiua.
Florus, see Julius.
Fontcius, VI. iii. 61.
Fulvius, VL iii. 100.
Furiua, see Bibaculua.

INDEX OF NAMES

Gabinins, XI. i. 73.

A. Galba, wit, VI. iii. 27, 62, 64, 66,

80, 90.
Servius Galba, n. !▼. 8.
Galliae, vui. r. 15: X. iii. 13.
Gallio, ra. i. 21; IX. ii. 9).
Gallua, see C!omelias and Sulpicios.
Gallus, ni. Tiii.l9; n. iii. 38 and 79;

Tin. Jv. 20.
Gavius, I. vi. 36.
Germani, vm. iv. 20; vm. ▼. 24.
Gennania, ra. viii.19.
Qennanicam belliim, X. i. 103,
Germanirus, see Domitianus.
GeU, I. Pr. 6.
Glaucia, 11. xvi. 5.
Glaucus of Carystas, XI. ii. 14.
Glyco Spjridion, VI. i. 41.
Gnipho, see Antonius.
Gorgias of Leoiitini, n. xxi. 21 ; m.

i. 8, 9, 12, 13, 18 tq.; ni. viii. 9;

IX. ii. 102; ES-iii. 74; .\II. xi. 21.
Gracchi, I. i. 6; n. v. 21 ; II. xri. -5;

in. vii. 21; T. xi. 6; Vin. v. 33;

xn. z. 10 and 45.
C. Graccbas, I. x. 27; II. iv. 15; XL

iii. 8 and 115.
Tib. Gracchus, V. xiii. 24; vn. iv.

13.
Qraecia, m. iv. 14; XlLii. 22; xn. x.

28.
Graeci, I. i. 12 and 13 ; I. v. 32 and

60 sqq.; I. I. 21; v. xiv. 32; X. i.

22; XI. i. 89; XI. ii. 51; XL iii.

102,123,138; XILii.30; xn.x.33;

xn.xi.23.
Oraii,Vin. iv. 21.
Gratiae, X. i. 82.

Hannibal, n. xvii. 19; m. viii. 17;

V. X. 48 ; Vin. iv, 20,
Heius, vn. iv. 36.
Helena, in. viii. 9; vm. iv. 21.
Hegesias, sculptor, xn. x. 7.
C. Helvius Cinna, poet, X. iv. 4,
Helvins Mancia, vi. iii. 38.
Hercules, ni- vii. 6; VL i. 36; vn.

ii. 17; X. i. 56; Xl.iii. 73.
Hermagoras, rhetorician, n. xv. 14;

n. xxi. 21; in. i. 16; ill. iii. 9;

ra. V. 4 and 14; m. vi. 3, 21, 53,

56, 59 »q.\ m. xi. 1 and IS; m.

xviii. 22; V. Ix. 12; IX. ii. 106.
Hermagoras, pupil of Ibeodorus of

Gadara, in. i. 18.

Hermagorei, m. 1. 1 and 16; ra. v.

4 ; vn. iv. 4.
Hennocreon, V. x. 78.
Herodotus, IX. iv. 18 and 46; X. 1.

73 and 101.
Hesiodus, L i. 15 ; v. xi. 19 ; X. i. 52.
Hippiae nuptLie, wa. iv. 16.
Hippias of Elis, ra. i. 10 and 12; XII

xi. 21.
Hippocrates, VI. iii. 34.
Hirtins, vm. iii. 54; xn. xi. 6.
Hispania, I. v. 57.
Hlspo, VL iii. 100.
Homems, I. viii. 5 ; n. iii. 12 ; n. xvii.

Sand 18; v. xii. 14; vn. x. 11; vra.

V 9 ; vm. vi. 18 ; X. i. 24, 46 tqq.,

57, 62. 65, 81, 85 ; xn. iv. 2 ; XIL x.

5 and 64 ; xn. xi. 21 and 26. Iliad

(i. 249), xn. I. 64; (ii. 180) ra.

vii. 12; (ii. 201) IX. iii. 57; (ii.

255 sqq.) XL i. 37; (ii. 477) m. vii.

12; (ii.558)v. xi.40; (iii. 156 «99.)

vra. iv. 21; (iii. 214 and 221 tqq.)

xn. X. 64; (iii. 217) XI. iii. 158;

(iv. 125) 1. V. 72 ; (iv. 299) V. xii.

14; (V. 801) ra. vii. 12; (vii. S19)

vm. iv. 24; (xvi. 140) vm. iv. 24;

(xxi. 196) X. i. 46; Odyssey (viii.

173) XU. X. 65; (ix. 394) L v. 72;

(xi. 130) I. V. 67; (xi. 523) vm. iii.

84; (XV. 299) vra. vi. 37.
Horatius, one of three Horatii, ra. vi.

76; rv. ii. 7; V. xi. 10; vn iv. 8.
Horatins, L viii. 6; I. i. 94 and 96;

Odes (L iv. 13) vra. vi. 27; (L

xii. 1) vra. ii. 9; (L xii. 40) IX.

iii. 18; (i. 14) vm. vi. 44; (L xv.

24) EX. iii. 10; (n. xiii. 26) X. i. 63 ;

(ra. vi. 36) vm. ii. 9; (iv. ii.) x. i.

61; (IV. ii. 11) rx. iv. 54; Epistle*

(L i. 41), IX. iii. 10; (L i. 73) V. xi.

20 ; (L V. 23) XL iii. 80 ; Ars Poet

(1), vra. iii. 60; (25) IX. iii. 65;

(63) vra. vi. 23; (139) vnL iii. 20;

(311) L V. 2; (359) X. i. 24; (388)

Introd. 2; (402) X. i. 56; Satire*.

(L i. 100) IX. iv. 65; (L iv. 11) i.

i. 94; (L vi. 104) L v. 67; (L x

44) VI. iii. 20; (n. v. 41) vm. vi.

17; (n. vi. 83)IX 'ii.l7.
Q. Hortensius, L v. 12; IL i. 11; m.

V. 11; rv. V. 24; VI. iii. 98; vm.

iii. 35; X. i. 23; X. v. 13; I. vi.

4; XLii. 24; XL iii. 8; xn. vii. 4;

xn. X. 11 and 27.

INDEX OF NAMES

Hortensins, daughter of, I. i. 6.
Hyperbolus, I. x. 18.
Hyperides, II. xv. 9; X. i. 77; X. v.
2 ; xn. I. 22.

Dium, V. X. 42.

Interamna, IV. ii. 88.

lopas, I. X. 10.

Ipiucrates, V. xii.lO.

Ipliigcnia, n. xiii.13.

Irus, III. vii. 19.

Isaeus, xn. X. 22.

Isauricus, VI. in. 25 and 48.

Isocrates, n. viii. 11 ; n. iv. 4 and 33
m.i. 13-16; m. iv. 11; HI. v. 18
ni. vi. 3; m. viii. 9; iv. ii. 31
IX. iii. 74 ; IX. iv. 4 and 35 ; X. i. 74
and 108 ; xn. x. 22 and 50.

Isthmos, III. viii. 16.

Italia, I. vi. 31 ; I. xii. 15; vn. ii. 26.

luba, VI. iii. 90; XI. i. 80.

ludaicae superstitionis auctor, III. vii.
21.

lulia basilica, XII. v. 6.

lulius Airicanus, Till. V. 15 ; X. i. 118;
xn. X. 11.

O. lulius Caesar Strabo, VI. iii. 38;
IX. i. 28; XI. iii. 129.

lulius Floras, X. iii. 13.

lulius Secundus, X. i. 120 sq.; X. iii.
12 sqq.; xn. X. 11.

Junius Bassus, vi. iii. 27, 57, 74.

liuio, I. vi. 25; vm. iv. 18.

luppiter, I. vi. 25; n. iii. 6; m. vii.
4 and 8; X.i. 46; xn. x. 19.

Labienus (i), V. liii. 20.

Labienus (ii), L v. 8; IV. 1. 11 ; IX.

iii. 13.
Lacedaemon, III. vii. 24.
Lacedaemonii, I. x. 14; I. xi. IS; n.

xvi. 4; vn. ii. 4.
Laches, vn. ix. 10.
Laelia, I. i. 6; IX. iv. 32.
D. Laelius Balbus, X. i. 24; xn. x.

10 and 39.
Laenas Popilius, HI. i. 21 ; X. vii. 32 ;

XI. iii. 183.
Latium, I. vi. 31.
Latona, in. vii. 8.
Latro, see Porcius.
Lentulus (Catilinarian), V. x. 30;

(Spinther), vi.iii.57.
On. Lentulus (orator), XI. iii. 8.
Lentuli, VI. iii. 67.

Leocrates, XI. ii. 14.

Leonidas, I. i. 9.

Liber, Ul. vii. 8 ; VIU. vl. 24.

Liburnia, ix. ii. 34.

Licinius, see Archias,

Ligarius, vn. ii. 6.

Linus, I. X. 9.

Livius Andronicus, X. ii. 7.

T. Livius, I. V. 66; I. vii. 24; n. v.

19; vm. i. 3; vni. iii. 63; X. i.

101; Praef. (1), ix. iv. 74; (i. 9)

IX. ii. 37; (i. 12) I. v. 44; (ii. 27)
vm. vi. 20; (xxxviii. 54) vni. vi.
9; Epist. adfllium, n, v. 20; X. 1.
39; (?) vm. ii. 18.

Lotophagi, V. viii. 1.

Lucanus, X. i. 90.

Lucilius, I. V. 66; I. vi. 8; I. vii. 15

and 19; I. viii. 11; rx. iv. 38 and

113; X. i. 94.
Lucretia, V. xi. 10.
Lucretius, I. iv. 4 ; X.i. 87; xn. xi.27;

(i. 936) ui. i. 4; (iv. 1) vm. vi. 45;

(iv. ll)in. i. 4.
LucuUi, xn. vii. 4.
Lupercalia, I. v. 66.
Lupus, see Rutiliua.
Luranius, IX. iv. 38.
0. Lusius, in. xi. 14.
Lycurgus (lawgiver), i. x. IB.
Lycurgus (orator), XII. x. 22.
Lydia, ni. vii. 6.
Lysias, II. xvii. 6; m. viii. 51; IX.

iv. 16 and 17; X. i. 78; xn. i.

21 sqq.
Lysippus, xn. i. 9.

Macer, VI. iii. 96; X. i. 56; X. i. 87;

xn. xi. 27.
Maecenas, I. vi. 62 ; IX. iv. 28.
Sp. Maelius, in. vii. 20 ; V. ix. 13 ; V.

xiii.24.
Magnus, V. x. 30.
Mancia, see Helvins.
Manctnus, VU. iv. 21.
M. Manlius, V. ix. 13; V. xi, 7; Vil.

ii. 2 ; cp. also m. vii. 20.
Manlius Sura, VI. iii. 64; XI. iii. 126.
Maratlion, IX. ii. 62 ; XI. iii. 168; Xll.

X. 24.

M. Marcellus, V. xi. 7; X. i. 38.
Marcellus Victorius, see Victoriua.
Marcia, m. v. 11 ; X. v. 13.
Marcianus, VI. iii. 95.
Maricas I. x. IS.

526

INDEX OF NAMES

Marius, m. viii. 37.

ifarrucini, vn. ii. 26.

Mars, ni. vii. 5, 8 ; vni. vi. 24.

Marsus, see Domitius.

Matius, m. i. 18.

Medea, VUL v. 6; IX ii. 8; X. i. 98;

XI. iii. 71.
Megabyzus, V. lii. 21.
Megarii.y. xi. 40.
Melanthius, HI. x. 6.
Menalcas, vm. vi. 47.

Menander, I. viii. 7 ; I. x. 18 ; m. vii.

18; in. xi. 27; IX. iii. 89; X. i.

69, 70 ; XI. iii. 91 ; xn. x. 25.
Meneiaus, u. xiii. 13; vin. iii. 84;

XII. X. 64.
Mercurius, m. vii. 8.
Meropes, \'II1. vi. 71.

Messaia, I. v. 15 and 61 ; I. vi. 42 ;

I. vii. 23 and 34; rv. i. 8; vni. iii.

34; IX. iv. 38; X. i. 22, 24, 113;

X. V. 2 ; xn. X. 11 ; xn. xi. 28.
Metellus, IX. iii. 50.
Metrodorus of Scepsis, X. vi. 4 ; XI. ii

22 and 26.
Milo of Croton, I. ix. 5.
T. Milo, in. V. 10; m. xi. 15 and 17;

IV. ii. 25 and 27; V. ii. 1; vi. iii.

59; VI. V. 10; vn. i. 34 sgq.: vil.

ii. 45; VII. iv. 8; X. v. 13; Xl. i. 40.
Minerva, ni. vii. 8; Z. i. 91 ; XI. i

24; xn. X. 9.
MisericorUia, v. xi. 38.
Mitliridates, vni. iii. 82; XLii. 50.
Modestus, I. vi. 30.
Uors, IX. ii. 3C.
Mucii,xn. iii. 30.
L. Morena, vi. i. 35.
Musa, IV. Pr. 4; X. i. 55.
Myron, n. xiii. 10; xn. i. 7.

Xaevius of Arpinnm, vu. ii. 24.
Xarbonensis, vi. iii. 44.
Niisica, V. xiii. 24.
Naucrates, m. vi. 3.
Neptunua, in. vii. 8.
C. Nero (Claudius), vi. iii. 50.
Nero Imp., vm. v. 15 and 18.
Nestor, xu. i. 64.
Nicander, X. i. 56.
Nicias, I. x. 48.
Nicostratus, U. viii. 14.
Nigidias, XI. iii. 143.
Nireus, I. x. 48.
Nonianus, see Serviliu&

Nov&nios Gallic, P., n. il. 35.
Nnma, I. x. 20 ; m. vii. 18 ; vn. 1. 24.
Nomantia, vm. vi. 30.
Numantinus, m. viii. 3; vn. iv. 12.

Oceanns, m. viii. 16; vn. iv. 2; X. L

46.
Oedipus, IX. iii. 89.
Opitergini, ra. viii. 23 and 30.
Oppianicus, V. ii. 1.
P. Oppius, VI. iii. 67 ; XI. i. 67.
Orators, frcigments of unknown, V. x.

71; vra. ii. 3; vm. v. 20 sgg.;

vm. vi. 14; n. ii. 17 and 50; IX.

iii. 15, 48, 87.
Orestes, m. xi. 4 sgq., 11, 20; m. t.

11 ; vn. iv. 8.
Orphena, I. x. 9.
Ostiensis portus, n. ixi. 18; ra. viii.

16.
Ovidius Naso, VI. iii. 96; X. i. 88, 93

98; J/<rt<2mor7'/i., IV. i. 77 ; (i. 502)

Vin. iii. 47; (v. 17) IX. iii. 48: (x.

422) IX. ii. 64; (xi. 456) IX. iv. 65 ;

(xiii. 1) I. V. 43; (xiii. 5) V. x. 41 ;

Rem. Am. (707), Xll. x. 74 ; Medea,

vm. V. 6; X. i. 98; Epigrams, ix.

iii. 70.

Pacuvius, L V. 67; I. viii. 11; L xii.

18; vm. vi. 35; X. i. 97.
Padus, I. V. 8.

Palaemo, I. iv. 20 ; L vi. 35.
Palamedes, ra. i. 10.
Palla, IV. ii. 27.
Pallas, VI. ii. 33.
Pampiiilus, painter, xn. x. 6.
Pampbilus, rhetorician, m. vi. 34.
Pansa, XII. xi. 6.
Panya.sis, X. i. 54.
Paris, ra. vii. 19; V. x. 84; VUI. iv.

21.
Parius, n. lix. 3.
Parrhasius. xn. x. 4 «9.
Parthi,m. viii. 33.
Passienus, see Oispos.
Patrocles, rhetorician, n. xv. 16; in.

vi. 44.
Patroclus, I. i. 49.
Paulus, L., L X. 47.
Pedianus Asconia«, I. vii. 24; v. x. 9.
Pedo Albinovanus, vi. iii. 61 ; x. i. 90.
Pelides, vm. vi. 29.
Peloponoesius, vn. ii. 7; in. x. 4.
Pelops, IX iv. 140.

INDEX OF NAMES

Pericles, I. x. 47; n. xvl, 19; in. i.

12; X. i. 82; xn. ii. 22; xn. li.

3; xn. T. 24, 49, 65.
Peripatetici, n. xv. 20; n. xvii. 2;

ni. i. 15; xn. ii. 25.
Perses, HI. vii. 21,
Persius, X. i. 94; Sat. (i. 9), IX. iii. 9;

(i. 2C) I.\. iii. 42; (i. 95) IX. iv. 65;

(i. 106) X. iii. 21; (v. 71)1. v. 8.
Pharsalus, XI. ii. 14.
Phidias, II. iii. 6 ; XU. x. 8 sqq,
Philemon, X. i. 72.
Philetas, X. i. 68.
Philippus, consul, XI. i. 37.
Philippus, L. Marcius, \1. iii. 81.
Philippus of Macedon, I. i. 23; xn.

X. 6.
Philistus, X. i. 74.
Philocteta, V. x. 84,
Philodamus, iv. ii. 114; XI. iii. 171
Phoenix, lI. iii. 12 ; ll. xvii. 8.
Phormio, VI. iii. 6G.
Phryne, II. xv. 9 ; X. v. 2.
Picens, IV. ii. 2.

Pindaras, vin. vi. 71 ; X. i. 69 and 109
Piraeus, viii. vi. 04.
Pisandros, X. i. 56.
Pisaurum, VII. ii. 26.
Plsistratus, V. xi. 8.
Piso, 0., ix.iii.22.
Piso, IX. ii. 01.
Placentinus, I. v. 12.
Placidus, VI. iii. 53.
Planous, Cn., \1. iii. 44.
Plataeae, XI. iii. 168.
Plato, I. X. 13, 15, 17; I. xi. 17; I.

xii. 15; u. XV. 24, 26, 29; v. vii.

28; VUI. vi. 04; IX. iv. 77 sg.; X.

i. 81 and 108; X. v. 2; xn. ii. 22;

XII. X. 24; XII. xi. 22; Oorg.,

(419 E) n. xxi. 1 and 4; (452 E)

n. XV. 10 ; (453 A) II. XV. 5 ; (454 B)

n. XV. 18; (460 C) II. xv. 27;

(462 n) n. XV, 24; (463 D) lI. xv.

25 ; (464 B) n. XT, 25 ; (466 A) II.

IT. 25; (500 C) II. xv. 27; (508 C)

II. XV. 28 ; P/tafdr. C261 A), n. xv

19; n. xxi. 4; (201 D) III. i. 10;

(266 E) in. i. 11 ; (267 A) Tl. xv. 31 ;

(273 E) II. XV. 29; (275 A) xi. ii. 9;

Reipubl. I. init., VUI. vi. 64 ; Soph.

(222 C), III. iv. 10; Symp. (21 8 b),

vni. iv. 23 ; Tim. inic, IX. iv. 77 ;

(47) I. X, 13.
Plautialex, IX.iii. 5&

528

Plautps, comic poet, X. i. 99.
Plautus, Stoic, X. i. 124; cp. II. xiv.

2; in. vi. 23.
Pletorius, vi. iii. 51.
Plinius (the elder), in. i. 21 ; XI. ii.

143 and 148.
Plisthenes, ni. vii. 19.
Plotius, II. iv. 42; XI. iii. 143.
Poeni, I. V. 57.
PoUio, see Asinius.
Pollux, XI. ii. 11.
Polus, n. XV. 28.
Polycletus, xn. i. 7.
Polycrates, II. xvii. 4; ni. i. 11.
Polygnotus, XII. x. 3 and 10.
Polynices, V. x. 31.
Polyxena, VI. ii. 23.
Pompeius, CM., in. viii. 33, 50, 56 sgii. ;

IV. ii. 25; IV. iii. 13; VI. iii. Ill;

vn. ii. 6; Vin. iii. 21; ix. ii. 55;

IX. iii. 95 ; XI. i. 80 ; XI. iii. 164.
Pompeius, S., m. viii. 44.
Pompoaius Secundus, VIII. iii. 31 ; X.

i. 98.
Pomponius, VI. iii. 75.
Pomptina palus, ni. viii. 16.
Popilius, see Laenas.
Porcius Latro, IX. ii. 91; X. v. 18.
Posidonius, lU. vi. 37.
Praxiteles, n. xix. 3 ; xn. x. 9.
Priamus, in. viii. 53 ; vni. iv. 21 sqq. ;

X. i. 50.

Priuemas ager, VI. iii. 44.

Proculeius, VI. iii. 79 ; IX. iii. 68.

Prodamus, I. x. 18.

Prodicus, III. I. 10 and 12; ni. iv. 10.

Propertius, X. i. 93.

Proserpina, IV. ii. 9; IV. iii. 13; XL

iii. 164.
Protagoras, m. i. 10 and 12 ; III. iv. 10.
Protogenes, xn. x. 6.
Ptolomaeus, vn. ii. 6.
Publilia Ciceronis, VI. iii. 75.
Punicum bellum, ni. viii. 30.
Pyrrhus, n. xvi. 7; V. x. 10; VI. iii,

10; vn. il. 6.
Pyrron, xn. ii. 24.
Pythagoras, I. x. 12 and 32; XI. i.

27; xn. i. 19.
Pythagorei, I. xii. 15; IX. iv. 12

Quintilianus pater, IX. iii. 37.

Quintilianus filius, I. Pr. 1 tqq.; II.
xii. 12; in. i. 22; HI. vi. 08; IV
Pr. 2 *qq.; IT. i. 19; IT. ii. 86; T.

INDEX OF NAMES

L 8; T. xli. 16; ▼. tU. 7; vi Pr.

1 and 3; VL il. 25; vn. i. 3, 22,

29,54; vn.ii.24; vm. vi. 76 ; IX.

ii. 73; X. i. 91; XL i. 5; XI. ii.

39; xn. li. 8.
Quintius, V. liii. 39.
Quirinos, I. vli. 12.

Rabirius Postomus, TIL I. 9.

Rabirius, poet, X. i. 90.

Reguli, xn. ii. 30.

Rhodii,Xl.iii. 7.

Rhodus, m. i. 17 ; xn. vi. 7.

Roma, V. ix. 5.

Romani veteres, 1. 1. 20 ; ni. vii. 24.

Romulns, IL iv. 19 ; m. vii. 5.

Roscius Amerinas, S., vn. ii. 2 and 23.

Roscius, Q., actor, XL iii. 111.

Ruins, see Antonins.

Rullua, Tm. iv. 28.

Rutilins Lupna, IX. ii. 99, 101 *qq.;

IX. iii. 36 and 89; (i. 4) IX iii. 65;

(i. 5) IX. iii. 68; (i. 10) IX. iii. 36;

(ii. 2) IX. iii. 92 ; (ii. 6) IX. iii. 89 ;

(ii. 12) IX. iii. 75; (ii. 16) H. iii.

84,91; (ii. 19) IX. iii. 93.
Eutilius, P., V. ii. 4 ; XI. i. 12.

Sacerdos, TI. iii. 55.

Sagontini, m. viii. 23.

Salamis, T. xi. 40; IX ii. 62; ZI. iii.

168; xn. X. 24.
Salarius, vn. i. 9.
Saleius Bassus, X. i. 90.
Saliorum cannina, I. vi. 40 ; I. x. 20.
Sallostius C!rispu3, n. iv. 9; ly. ii.

45; vin. iii. 29; X. i. 32, 101,

102 $q.; X. li. 27; X. iii. 8; Cat.

(17), vm. iii. 44; (20) m. viii. 45;

lug. (1), rx iv. 77; (x. 1) rx. iii.

12; (X. 7) vm. V. 4; (xix.) n. xiii,

14; (xx.) m. viii. 45; (xxi.) vm.

iii. 44 ; (xxiv.( ?)) rx iii. 17 ; (xxxviii.)

vm. iii. 44; Hist. Jr., IV. ii. 2;

vm. iii. 82; vm. vi. 59; ix iii.

12; xn. ix. 9; Ded. in Cic., rv. i.

68 ; IX iii. 89.
Samnites, m. viii. 17.
Santra, xn. x. 16.
Sardus, L v. 8 ; XI. i. 89.
Sarmentos, VI. iii. 58.
Satuminus, n. xvi. 5; V. xi. 6; VI. i.

49; VU. i. 9.
Satomos, I. vi. 36.
Scaevola, Q., vn. vi. 9 ; zn. iii. 9

Scaevola, XI. ii. 38.

Scamander, XI. i. 74.

Scaurus, M. Aemilius, V. xli. 10; T.

xiii. 40 and 55.
Scipio Africa nus Maior, m. viii. 17;

V. X. 48; vm. iv. 20; vm. vi. 9;

XI. i. 12; xn. I. 10.
Scipio Africanns Minor, l. vii. 25 ; vm.

vi. 30 and 43 ; X i. 99 ; xn. x. 10

and 39.
Scipio, Metellus, v. xi. 10.
Scipio. see also Serapio and Nasica.
Scopa, XL ii. 14 sqq.
Seneca, philosopher, vm. t. 18; IX

ii. 8; X i. 125 sqq.; xn. x. 11.
Seneca, rhetorician, vm. iii. 31 ; IX

ii. 48 sq., 98.
Septimius, IT. i. 19.
Serapio, VLiii.67.
Serranus, X. i. 89.
Servilia lex, vi. iii. 44.
Servilius Nonianus, X. i. 102.
Servins, IX. iv. 38.
Severos, see Cassius, Cornelius.
Sextii.X. i. 124.
Sibyllinilibri.V. x. 30.
Sicilia, L vi. 30; L x. 48; m. vJI.

27; IV. iii. 13, 21; VI. iii. 80; n.

iii. 164.
Sicinius, C, XI. iii. 129.
Siculus, VI. iii. 41 ; X. i. 89.
Simonides, X i. 64 ; XI. ii. 11.
Sinon, IX ii. 9.
Sirenes, V. viii. 1.
Sisenna, I. v. 13 ; vm. iii. 35.
Socrates, L x. 13; L xi. 17; n. xr.

26, 30; n. xvi. 3; n. xxi. 4; m.

i. 9; IV. iv. 6; V. xi. 3, 27, 42;

Vin. iv. 23; IX ii. 46, 85; XL i.

9 *q. ; xn. vii. 9 ; xn. x. 4.
Socratici, V. vii. 28; T. xi. 27; X i.

35, 81 sq.; xn. i. 10.
Sol, L vii. 12.
Sophocles, X. i. 67.
Sophron, L x. 17.
Sosipater, Tn. ii. 4.
Spatale, Tm. v. 17 and 19.
Sphinx, TLiii. 98.
Spiridioo, see Glyco.
Staienos, IV. ii. 107.
Stertinins, m. i. 21.
Stesichoms, X i. 62.
Stilo, see Aelius.
Stoici, L iv. 19; L x 15; n. rv. 20|

IL xvii. 2; m. i. 15; y. vii. 36:

INDEX OF NAMES

Vl.Iii. 78; X. 1.84, 124; XT. 1. 70;

Xn. i. 18 and 38; XII. ii. 24.
Stratocles, XI. iii. 178 tqq.
Suelius, VI. iii. 78.
Suetonii Caesar (53), vni. ii. 9.
Sulla, m. viii. 53; V. x. 30 and 71;

XI. i. 12 and 85.
Sulpicianus, VI. iii. 75.
Sulpicius Gallus, I. x. 47 ; n. iv. 8.
Sulpicius, Serving, III. viii. 5; IV. ii.

106; VI. i. 2U; vn. iii. 18; IX. iii.

21; X. 1. 22 and 116; X. v. 4; X.

vii. 30; XI. 1. 69; xn. iii. 9; XII.

vii. 4; XD. X. 11.
Sulpicius Longus, VI. iii. 32.
Sura, see Maulius.
Sybaritae, in. vii. 24.
Syri sententia (480), vni. v. 6; IX. iii.

64.
Syracusae, I. x. 48.
Syracusani, V. xi. 7.

Tabulae XU, I. vi. 11; ni. vi. 84;

V. xiv. 18.
Tarentini, VI. iii.lO.
Tarentum, VII. viii. 4.
Terentianus pater, XI. i. 39.
Terentius, I. viii. 11 ; VI. iii. 56 ; Viil.

iii. 35; X. i. 99; XI. i. 39; Andr.

(I. i. 41) vni. V. 4; Eun. (I. i. 1),

IX. ii. 11; IX. ill. 16; IX. iv. 141;

XI. iii. 182; (I. ii. 5) IX. iii. 18;

(I. ii. 75) IX. ii. 58 ; Phorm. (i. i. 2),

I. vii. 22.
Terentius Varro, M., I. iv. 4; I. vi. 12

and 37; X. i. 95 and 99; XII. xi. 24.
Terraconenses, VI. iii. 77
Thebae, V. i. Ill ; xi. iii. 1C8
Thebani, V. x. Ill sqq.
Themistocles, I. i. 19; IX. ii. 92; XI.

ii. 50.
Theocritus, X. i. 55.
Theodectes. 1. iv. 19; n. xv. 10; m.

i. 14; iv.ii.63; IX.iv. 88; XI.ii.51.
Theodores of Byzantium, in. i. 11.
Theodores of Gadara, U. 3cv. 16 and

21; in. i. 17 iqq.\ ni. vi. 2, 36,

61; in. xi. 3; iv. i. 23; V. xiii.59.
Theodorei, n. xi. 2 ; in. i. 18 ; m. iii.

8; ui. xi. 27; iv. ii. 32.
Theodotus, in. viii. 55 sqq.
Theon. in. vi. 48; IX. iii. 76.
Theophrastus, m. i. 15; ni. vii. 1;

ni. viii. 62; IV. i. 32; vm. i. 2;

IX. iii. 76; IX. iv. 88; X. 1. 27.

Theopompns, historian, n. viii. 11 ;

IX. iv. 35; X. i. 74.
Theopompus of Sparta, II. xvli. 20.
Thelites, ni. vii. 19; XI. i. 37.
Thessali,v. x. Ill sqq.
Thetis, m. vii. 11.
Thrasybulus, m. vi. 26; vn. iv. 44.
Thrasymachus, m.iii. 4 and 12.
Thucydides, IX. iv. 16 ; X. i. 33, 73 sq.,

101; X. ii. 17; (i. 8)IX. iv. 78.
Tiberius Caesar, m. i. 17.
Tibullus, X. i. 93.
Tiburs, VI. iii. 44.
Timagenes, I. x. 10; X. 1. 76.
Timanthes, n. xiii. 12.
Timotheus, U. iii. 3.
Tinga of Placentia, L v. 12.
Tiro, VI. iii. 5 ; x. vii. 31.
Tisias, n. xvi. 3 ; n. xvii. 7 ; m. i. 8.
Titius Maximus, VI. iii. 71.
Titius, XI. iii. 128.
Torquatus, V. xi. 10.
Trachalus, VI. iii. 78; vni. v. 19; X,

i. 119; xn. V. 5 sq.; xn. i. 11.
Tragic poets, anonymous, quoted, VI.

iii. 96; vin.iii. 31 and 48; vni. vi.

10, 14, 35; IX. iii. 57 and 77; rx.

iv. 140.
Trebatius, m. xi. 18; V. x. 64.
Triarius, v. xiii. 40.
Troia, vn. ii. 3.

Troianus, vn.il. 7; vni. iv. 21.
Troilus, vn. ix. 7.
Tryphon 1, Introd. letter.
Tubero, V. xiii. 20 and 31 ; X. 1. 23 ;

XI. i. 78 and 80.
TuUius, Vl.iii. 63.
Tuscanicae statuae, XU. x. 1 and 7.
Tutilius, in. i. 21.
Tydeus, in. vii.12.
O^dides, Vlll. vi. 29.
T^ndaridae, XI.ii.l6.
^rtaeus, X. i. 66.

Valerius Corvus, n. iv. 18.
Valerius Flaccus, X. i. 90.
Valgius, 0., m. i. 18; in. v. 17; v.

1.4.
Varenus, C, VII. i. 9.
Varenus, On., vn. i. 9.
Varius, HI. viii. 45; X. i. 98; X. iii. 8.
Varius of Suero, v. xii. 10.
Varro, see Terentius.
Varro, P., of Atax, I. v. 17 ; 1. 1. 87.
Vams, L., TLiii. 78.

INDEX OF NAMES

Vatinius, V. vii. 6; «. iii. 60, 68, 77,

84; XL 1.73.
Venns, n. iv. 26; vm. vi. 24; I. 1.

79 and 100.
Vergilius Maro, L vii. 8, 18, 20; 1.

viii. 5; L i. 10; VI. ii. 32; VL iii.

20; vm. iii. 20, 24, 47, 63, 79,

vni. iv. 24; H. iii. 14; X. i. 56.

85 sqq.; X. iii. 8; xn. xi. 26 sq.;

Am. (i. 1), L ▼. 27; IX. iii. 62;

XL iii. 36; (i. 3) XL iii. 34; (i. 6)

L T. 18; (i. 19) IX. iii. 14; (i. 33)

vm. T. 11; (i. 45) L v. 18; (i. 48)

IX. ii. 10; (i. 65) vm. vi. 29; (i.

67) IX. iii. 17; (i. 78) XI. iii. 176;

(i. 81) vm. iv. 18; (i. 109) vm. ii.

14; (i. 135) rx. ii. 54; (i. 151) XIL

i. 27; (i. 162) vm. vi. 68; (i. 177)

\TIL vi. 23; (i. 335) XL iii. 70; (i.

369) L V. 43; K. ii. 7; (i. 399)

IX. iii. 75; (i. 477) vn. Ix. 7; (i.

617) XL iii. 176; (i. 742) L x. 10;

(ii. 1) L V. 43; (ii. 15) vm. vi. 34;

(ii. 29) IX. ii. 37; (ii. 69) EC ii. 9;

(ii. 104) rx. iii. 11 ; (ii. 262) vm.

iii. 84; (ii. 268) VUL vi. 60; (ii.

307) vm. vi. 10; (ii. 311) vm. vi.

25; (ii. 355) vm. iii. 72 and 78;

(ii. 435) K. iii. 35; (ii. 640) V. xi.

14; (iii. 29) vm. iii. 70; (iii. 55)

IX. iii. 25; (iii. 56) IX. ii. 10; (iii.

193)XILPr. 4; (iii. 234) IX. iii. 64;

(iii. 321) VL ii. 22 ; (iii. 436) n. xiii.

8; (iii. 475) vm. vi. 42; (iii. 517)

IX. iv. 65; (iii. 620) XI. iii. 70;

(iii. 631) vm. iii. 84; (iii. 659) vm.

iv. 24; (iv. 143) vm. iii. 73; (iv.

174) rx. ii. 36; (iv. 254) L v. 25;

VHL iii. 72; (iv. 359) vnL iii. 54;

(iv. 379) rx. ii. 50; (iv. 381) n. ii.

48; (iv. 419) vm. ii. 3; (iv. 425)

IX. ii. 39; (iv. 495) vm. vi. 29;

(iv. 550) H. ii. 64; (iv. 592) IX. ii.

11 ; (iv. 695) H. iii. 25; (v. 9) xn.

Pr. 4; (V. 212) vn. ix. 10; (v. 248)

H. iii. 9; (v. 264) vm. iv. 25; (v.

319) vm. vi. 69; (v. 426) vra. iii.

63 ; (vi. 1) vm. vi. 10 ; (vi. 16 and

19) vra. vi. 18; (vi. 179) L iv. 28;

(vi. 275) vm. vi. 27 and 41; (vi.

276) vm. vi. 41 ; (vii. 464) L vii.

18; (vii. 618) vra. iii. 70; (vii. 649)

vra. iv. 6; (vii. 759) IX. iii. 34;

(vii. 787) IX. iii. 15 ; (vii. 791) V. x.

10; {vii.808)Vin.vi.69; (viii .641)

vm. iii. 19; (vlli. «42) rr. ill. 26;

(viii. 691) vra. vi. 68; (viii. 728)

vm. vi. 11; in. x. 61; (ix. 26"> L

vii. 18; (ix. 474) VL ii. 32; (ix.

773) vra. vi. 12; (x. 1) L Iv. 28;

rx. iv. 49; (I. 92) rx. ii. 49; (x.

782) VL ii. 33 ; (xl. 40) VL ii. 32 ;

(li. 89) VL ii. 32 ; (xi. 142) VHL vi.

21; (xi.383)IX.ii. 49; XL iii. 176;

(xi. 406) rx. iii. 14; (xi. 681) vm.

ii. 10; vnLvi. 40; (xn. 208) L vi.

2; (xii. 638) EC iii. 46; (xli. 646)

vra. V. 6; Eel. (i. 2), rx. iv. 86;

(i. 11) L iv. 28; (i. 15) L vi. 2; (i.

23) V. xi. 30; (i. 43) IX. iii. 63;

(i. 81) X. i. 12 ; (ii. 66) vra. vi. 22 ;

(ii. 69) rx. iii. 28 ; (iii. 8) rx. iii. 69 ;

(iii. 17 and 21) rx. ii. 13; (iii. 26)

XL iii. 176; (iii. 69) L vi. 2; (iii.

103) vra. vi. 73 ; (iii. 104) vra. vi.

62; (iv. 62) EC iii. 8; (vi. 5) vm.

li. 9; (vi. 62) L v. 35; (viii. 13)

X. i. 92 ; (viii. 28) rx. iii. 6 ; ; (ix. 7)

vm. vi. 46; (ix. 45) IX. iv. 54; (x.

11) IX. iii. 18; (x. 50) X. i. 66;

(X. 72) IX. iii. 44; Georg. (i. 43) IV.

ii. 2; (i. 54) rx. iii. 39; (i. 86) rx.

iii. 96; (i. 181) vm. iii. 20 ; (i. 183)

rx. iii. 6; (1. 295) vm. ii. 10; (i.

367) vm. iii. 47; (i. 388) V. ix. 15;

(i. 422) V. ix. 16 ; (i. 431) T. ix. 15 ;

(i. 612) vm. iii. 78 ; (ii. 74) L v. 36 ;

(ii. 169) rx. iii. 24; (ii. 272) i. iii.

13; (ii. 298) EC iii. 21; (ii. 541)

vra. vi. 45; rx. iii. 20; (iii. 79)

vra. ii. 15; (iii. 83) vra. li. 15;

(iii. 135) vra. vi. 8; (iii. 243) L v.

28; (iii. 344) EC ill. 51; (iii. 346)

EC ill. 20; (iii. 364) vm. vi. 40;

(iii. 381) VHL vi. 66; (ui. 435) IX.

iii. 21; (iv. 59) vra. vi. 18; (iv.

445) rx. iii, 15 ; Catal. (2), vm. Hi.

27.
Veiginlns Flavns, m. 1. 21; m. vl.

45; rv. 1. 23; vn. iv. 24; vm. Hi.

33; XI. iii. 126.
Verres, vm. vi. 37.
Venius, XL i. 31.
Vestinns, VL ill. 64.
Vettius of Pracneste, i. v. 56.
Vibius Crispns, v. xiii. 48 ; vm. v. IS

and 17 ; x. i. 119 ; xn. x. 11.
Vlctoriie, EC ii. 92.
Victorins MaicellDS Introd. letter, u

Pr. 6;4Pr. 1; TLPr.l; xn. xi. 31.

531

INDEX OF NAMES

ViUius, A., VI. iii.C9.

Virtus, IX- ii. 36.

Visellius, EX. ii. 101 and 107; EL iii.

89
Vite,' IX. ii. 36.
Vlixes, I. iv. 16; n. xiil. 13; rv. ii.

13; VI. iii. 96; XI. iii. 168; xn. x.

64.
Voluptas, rx. ii. 36.
Volusenus Catulns, X. i. 24.
Vrbinia, IV. i. 11 ; vn. ii. 4 sg. and 20.
Vrba, VtilL 17 and 103; vm. ii. 5;

VIILT. ».

Vulcanua, vm. yi. 23.

Xenophon, V. xi. 27 ; X. 1. 33, 75, 82 ;
X. V. 2; Mem. (ii. 1), IX. ii. 36;
(iii. X. 1) xn. 2. 4.

Zeno.n. XX. 7; iv.li. 117; xn.1. 28;

xn. vii. 9.
Zeuxis, xn. x. 4 sq.
Zmyrua, IX. ii. 64.
Zoiius, IX. i. 14.
Zopyrus of Clazomenae, ni. Ti. 3.

53*

INDEX OF WORDS

oft, L Ti.69; xn. X. 32.

abdicatio, m. vi. 76; vn. iy. 10, 25,

27, 29.
ablatiros casos, L i. 26; I. t. 59;

vn. ii. 10.
absolnta defensio, vn. ir. 4 and 9.
abttemiui, i. vii. 9.
abstulit, I. vi. 69.
abrersa, XH. x. 32.
abusio, vnL vi. 34 $q. ; vm. ii. 5.
accentns, I. v. 22 ; UL x. 33.
accosatio matna, m. x. 4; m. 1. 3;

vn. ii. 9 and 23 : XI. i. 57.
acerratio, IZ. iii. 53.
acetabulum, vm. ti. 35.
Aehaii, L T. 63.
actos «■ irpofi?, m. vi. 26.
ad, at, I. vii. 5.
ad aliqnid, L Ti. 13; m. ri. 23, 36 *35.,

51, 90.
adfectns, VI. it. passim,
adfirmatio, V. xii. 12; D. i. 28; Ii.

iii. 154.
adgressio — inx'^pvf^ T. x. 4; T.

sir. 27.
adhaerens t«mpns, T. z. 46.

aiiatfOTfTa, VUL ii. 20.

adiectio, I. v. 6; L v. 38; I. t. 40;

IX. iii. 18, 27 *qq., 55.
aditmcta, v. x. 74.
adianctio, IZ. i. 33.
adnominatio — vapovoiiM<rCa, IZ. iii.

66.
iSo(ov, rv. i. 40.
adposita argumenta, V. x. 87.
adposittun = itrCOfrov, a. xiv. 3 ; vin.

ii. 10 ; vm. vi. 40, 43 ; DL iv. 24.
aipov, m. X. 58.

adseniio, adsentior, L t. 13 ; IZ. ill. 7.
adsereratio, L IT. 20.
adsomptio, T. xiv. 5 tqg.
adstunptiva cansa, vn. iv. 7.
advarbia, L iv. 19 and 29 ; ZL ill. 87.

aduUiri, IZ. iii. 1.

ae, ai l. vii. 18.

aedificare etfuum, vm. t1. 34.

ofdus, haedus, l t. 20.

Aegyptc venio, I. v. 38.

Amea, L v. 61.

aenigma, TL iii. 61; vm. vi. 14 and

52 tqq.
aeolica litteia, I. iv. 8; L Tli, 26;

xn. X. 29.
aerumna, vm. iii. 26.
a^er, I. vi. 37.
Agrippa, L iv. 25.
otto, L iv. 11.
a'vo«, T. xi. 20.
At<7u>ircu>i X.6ryoi, 7. xl. 30.
atrt'a, m. xl. 5.
aX-nokcrfiiL, IX. iii. 93.
aiTioi', m. xi. 4, 6.
aKoKovSa, V. X. 75.

a.KV(tov, vm. ii. 3.

al, vm. ii. 3.

Alba, Albanut, Albetuu, L vL 15.

Albanns, VI. iii. 44.

albenti caelo, vra.iii. 35.

albi denies, vm. ii. 20.

albom ac rnbricae, zn. iii. 11.

Aleianter,l.ix. 16.

allegoria, v. xi. 21; vi. iii. 69; vm.

vi. 14, 44 sq., 57 «j.; IZ. i. 5; H.

ii. 46.
dAAoiw<rc$, IZ. iii. 92.
altercatio, U. iv. 28; TL Iii. 4 and

46 ; VI. ir. 1 and 21 ; Z. L 35; zn.

iii. 3.
ambitus •• periodos, EX. iv. 23 and

124; = periphrasis, Z. i. 16.
ambulo Ham, I. iv. 38.
amisit, L vi. 69.
<1m*'PoAio, m. vi. 46 and 88; TL lil.

47 and 62 ; vn. ix. 1 sqg.
amphibrachTS iz. iv. 83 and i06.
•^i^Uof Of, IT. L 10.

533

INDEX OF WORDS

amphiraacer, ix. iv. 81.
amplificatio, viii. iv. 1 tqq., 17.
an, aut, I. v. 50.
Anacreonticon colon, IX. iv. 78.
avayKolov, IX. ii. 106; IX. iii. 99.
a>>aKC<^aXai<o(ri;, VI. i. 1 and 8.
(ivaitXaiTts, IX. iii. 97.

analogia, i. v. 13; I. vi. 1, 3 sqq., 15;
V. li. 34.

(iva/oii'Tjcris, IX. ii. 106.
anapaestus, IX. iv. 48, 81, 110.
ava.crKtVTj, II. iv. 18.
nvoDTTpo^-fi, I. V. 40 ; vni. vi. 65.
Anchisa, I. v. 61.
av(iri<j>aTOS, actio, IV. i. 60.
<ivoi.Kov6fi.r)Tov, VIII. iii. 59.
avTava.K\aaLi, IX. iii. 68.
ofTajTufioo-it, VIII. iii. 77 and 79.
antegerio, I. vi. 40 ; VIII. iii. 25.
(ii'TcyKA.Tj/xa, VII. iv. 8.
anteoccupatio, IX. i. 31 and 44.
dvOripov, X. iii. 58.
<ii'eurro(f>opo,IX. ii. 106; ix.lii. 87.
Anticato, I. v. 68.
avTiSoTOL, I. X, 6.
avTiKa.Tr}yopia, HI. I. 4 ; VH. ii. 9 sq.,

18, 20, 25 sq.
Kar' a.vTi\ri\l/i.v, VII. iv. 4.
avTi/uTa/3oA>;, IX. iii. 85 and 97.
avTivoiiia, in. vi. 46; vn. i. 15; vn.

vii. 1 ; vn. x. 2.
avTi<t>pa<Ti^, vni. vi. 57; IX. ii. 47.

avrCppritrK;, IX. il. 106.
antisophistes, XI. iii. 126.
ai/TiVTa<nv, Vn. iv. 12.
KaT avrCdeaiv, Vn. iv. 7.
atniOerov, IX. ii. 101 ; IX. iii. 81 and

92.
avTovoiJia(Tia, Vm. vi. 29 sq., 43; IX.

i. 6 sq.
airayopevcrii, IX. iv. 66.
d7roAac(rToi, IX. iv. 56.
aper, I. vi. 13.
apex, I. iv. 10 ; I. vii. 2.

oK^e'Aeio, VHI. iii. 87.
a(j>o5os, IX. iii. 87.
a(f>opii,ai ipyiav, in. vi. 27.

aTToSeif ei!, I. X. 38 ; V. X. 1 and 7
apologatio, V. xi. 20.
apologus, VI. iii. 44. _

07ro<<)SeyjU,aTHCOi', VI. iii. 109.

aposiopesis, vin. iii. 85 ; IX. ii. 54 sq. ;

IX. iii. 60 «j.
i.iro(TTpoi>ri, IV. 1. 63; IX. ii. 38; IX.

iii. 24 and 26.

554

appellatio, I. ir. 19-21 ; IX. iii. 9.

Apri, XI. ii. 3.

arbitrorum disceptationes, H. i. 43.

arbos, I. iv. 13.

argenteei, I. vii. 16.

Argiletum, I. vi. 31.

argumentatio, IV. ii. 79; vni. Pr. 7;

XI. iii. 164.
argumentum, I. iv. 2 ; V. viii. 6 ; v.

X. passim ; v. xi. 32 sqq. ; V. xii.

1; V. liv. 33; vn. ii. 44; IX. iv.

135 and 138.
armamentum, vn. ix. 4.
appvSixov, IX. iv. 56.
ars, n. xvii. 41 ; n. xviii. 1 ; n. xx. 3.
articuli, i. iv. 19 ; IX. iii. 98.
articulosa partitio, IV. v. 24.
artiOcialis probatio, v. i. 1 ; V. ix.

1 sqq. ; xn. viii. 14.
(i<rxT)/iiaTto-Tos, vm. iii. 59; IX. i, 13.
asper homo, vni. vi. 6.
assiduus, v. x. 55.
ao-Teia/xos, vm. vi. 57.
astrologia, n. xviii. 1.
aaiivScTov, IX. iii. 50 sqq. ; IX. It. 23.
atabulus, vm. ii. 13.

dTex""** !!• 3^X' 2.

dTex>'oi probationes, v. i. 1.

Atreus, I. v. 24.

Attice, vm. i. 2 ; xn. x. 18 and 20 sqq

■ATTtKio-/u,os, I. viii. 8 ; VI. iii. 107.

audaciter, I. vi. 17.

avere, I. vi. 21.

aversio, IX. ii. 38.

auftigit, I. V. 69.

augurale, vm. ii. 8.

avKr)TpCi, VII. ix. 4.

aurea tecta, vni. vi. 28.

aureei, I. vii. 16.

autem, l. v. 39.

aiUumo, vm. iii. 26.

ofi'a, m. vi. 53.

B, I. iv. 15.

bacchius, IX. iv. 82 and 101 sqq.

balare, I. v. 72.

barbarismus, I. v. 5 sqq.

basilica lulia, XII. v. 6.

beatUas, beatitudo, vm. iii. 32.

Belena, I. iv. 15.

Belli for Duelii, I. iv. 15.

belligerare, IX. iv. 39.

bellum from duellum, I. iv. 16.

Beneventum, n. vi. 31.

bicUnium I. v. 68.

INDEX OF WORDS

hipennu from pinntif, L it. 20.

hoselUellas, v. xi.21.

Sftaano^, XI. iii. 53.

$paxv\oyCa, TUl. iii. 82; II. iii. 50

and 99.
Hruges, I. iv. 15.
Bnai, I. vi. 31.
Burn, I. iv. 25.

C, I. Tii.28; I. xi. 5.

caelibes, I. Ti. 36.

caesim dicere, IX. ir. 128.

cnMui, calidus. I. vi. 19.

(■alefacern for talfacere, I. vi. 31.

f^alypsonem, i. v. 63.

f^amillus, I. v. 32.

canina eloquentia, Xll. ix. 9.

cano. canto, dico, vm. vi. 38.

'"anobus. I. v. 13.

ranon Alexandrinomni, I. iv. 3; x. :.

54.
<^anojntae, I. v. 13.
cantare, XL i. 56 ; XI. iii. 57 iqq.
canticam, I. viii. 2; I. x. 23; II. .i.

35; H. iii. 167.
rantus, H. iii. 23, 60 and 172.
canius = tyre of wheel, L v. 8.
Capilolium, I. vi. 31.
capsis, I. V. 66.

caput (how carried), XL iii. 68 sqq.
caput = status, m. ri. 3, 31, 89; HI

xi. 3 and 27.
easamo, I. v. 8.
Cassantra, I. iv. 16.
catsus for conM, I. vii. 20.
Castor, XL ii. 11 ; quantity of -o, L

V. 60.
castrata respublica, vm. vi. 15.
casus, I. iv. 26 ; I. v. 45 and 61 ; L

vi. 22: vm. iii. 20.
Cato, quantity of -o, vn. ix. 13.
causa (a category), m. vi. 27 ; =aiTto,

m. xi. 5 and 10: =t6 trvvex""! HI.

xi. 24 ; = quaestio finita or vTr66e<ri<;,

m. V. 7; kinds of causae, m. iii.

15 ; m. iv. 1 sqq. ; HL x. 1 and 3 ;

rv. i. 40.
causidicns, HL i. 25.
caussa, 1. vii. 20.
centumviri, in. x. 3 ; IT. i. 57 ; rv. ii.

3; V. ii. 1; v. x. 115; vn. iv. 11

and 20 ; XI. i. 78 ; XL iii. 138.
cerae, X. iii. 30 sqq.
ceratinae, I. x. 5.
cemo, vn. ix. 2.

cervix, 1. xi. 9; H. iii. 82; (.use in

the singular), vm. iii. 35.
cerrom, I. vii. 26.
Cethegus, L v. 23.
XoAjj-ot, I. i. 37.
XaXKiVTiKTi, n. xxi. 10.
Xap<«mjpi<rfi<k, IX. iii. 99.
chenturione*, I. v. 20.
cliironomia, L xi. 17.
choreus, IX. iv. 80 tqq., 103 sgq., 140.
choronae, L v. 20.
XP*<tt)it?, I. ix. 5.
chria, L ix. 3 tqq. ; n. iv. 26.
Xpovo^, m. vi. 25.
cinctnra, XL iii. 138 tqq.
circuitus = periodus, H. iii. 122 and

124; n. i. 26; =« irepti^p<t<ris, vnL

vi. 59.
circum, I. v. 25 tq.
circumducta syUaba « irep«rirw/bi»->],

I. V. 35.
circumductio, rx. iv. 118 ; H. iii. 39.
circumductum = periodus, H. iv. 32.
circiunlocutio, vra. vi. 61.
circumscriptio = periodus, DC. i. 35

and 91 ; rx. iv. 124.
circumstantia = irept'<r7-a<ris,V. x. 104.
clamos, L iv. 13.
clarigatio, vn. iii. 13.
classis, I. ii. 23 and 24 ; L vi. 33 ; X.

V. 21.
clausula, vm. v. 13 ; IX. iii. 45 ; EX.

iv. 18, 45, 61 tqq., 70, 93.
cogitatio, X. vi. 1 tqq.
cognatio, ix. ii. 105.
collectio, IX. ii. 103.
collectiva quaestio, vn. i. 60.
collect, not conlegit, H. iii. 35.
n)»i (plural), L vi. 42.
coUum (carriage of), n. i. 82.
color, IV. ii. 88, 91, 94 tqq.; vi. v. 5;

vn. i. 40, 63; X. i. 116; X. vi. 5;

XL i. 85 ; xn. i. 33 ; xn. viii. 6.
columa for columna, I. vii. 29; co-

Inmna rostrata, I. vii. 12.
eomam in jfradus franqere, L vi. 44.
comici, L vii. 22 ; L viii. 8 ; xn. U.

22.
commentatio = (vOviiJiiia, v. x. 1.
commentum = evOviiriiui, V. x. 1 ;

rx. ii. 107.
commiseratio, X. i. 107.
commissura verborum, vn. x. 16 ; n.

iv. 37; xn. ix. 17.
commoratio, n. i. 27 ; rx. ii. 4.

535

INDEX OF WORDS

commune (exordium), IT. i. 71 ; (argn-

mentum), v. liii. 29, 34 ; vn. i. 28 ;

(syllabae) H. iv. 84 ; see locus,
communicatio, IX. i. 30; IX. ii. 20,

23, 25.
comoedia, I. vlii. 7; X. i. 9, 65 sqq.,

69, 82, 99; XI.iii. 74.
comoedus, I. xi. 1 ; VLii. 35; XI.iii.

91 and 181.
comparatio, n. iv. 21 ; VI. iii. 66 ; VII.

ii. 22 ; vin. iv. 3, 9 ; vm. v. 6 ; vin.

vi. 9.
comparativus (status), HI. vi. 90;

teenus causarum) rn. x. 3 ; vn. iv.

12; (aigumenta) V. x. 86 sqq.;

(contraposita) ix. iii. 32 ; IX. iii. 19.
complexio ■= avvdipetm, L v. 6 and

17; (in logic) v. xiv. 5.
compositio, vm. iii. 67; IX. iv. pai

Sim ; XI. i. 33.
compositio verborum, I. v. 65 and 70.
comprehendere, comprendere, I. v. 21.
comprehensio = periodus, IX. iv. 121

and 124.
ooncertativa accusatio, vn. ii. 9.
concessio, IX. ii. 61.
conciliatio, IV. i. 16; lX.i. 32; IX. ii.

3; XI. iii. 154.
conclusio — periodus, IX. iii. 98 ; IX.

iv. 22; X, ii. 17; ■» clausula, vm.

▼.13.
concursio, IX. i. 33.
conexio, V. xiv. 6, 12, 17.
confessio, IX. ii. 17, 61.
confirmatio, IV. iii. 1 iqq. ; T. viii. 5 ;

X. V. 12.
coniectura, m. vi. 30; vn. Ii. 1, 19,

27; vn. iv. 24.
coniecturales causae, n. iv. 26 ; IV. ii.

81 ; IV. iv. 8 ; cf. vn. i. 63.
coniieit, I. iv. 11.
eonire, coire, I. vi. 17.
coniugatum, V. x. 85.
coniunctio, I. iv. 18.
coniunctum tempus, V. viii. 6 ; V. ix.

5; vn. ii. 46.
conlatio = Trapa^oAij, V. xi. 2 and 23.
eon/ejit, XI. iii. 35.
consensio, IX. ii. 61.
consequens, V. viii. 5 ; V. x. 74 sq. ;

VI. iii. 76; Vin. vi. 40; IX. ii. 103.
consonantes, I. iv. 6 and 10; IX. iv.

37; XT. iii. 34, 35.
constitutio = status, m. vi. 2 ; vn.

iv. 5 sqq.

consul, I. vi. 32 ; I. vii. 29.

consummatio, IX. ii. 103.

contentio, IX. i. 31; IX. ii. 2; IX. iii.

81.
continens •" <rvvex<"') HI. xi. 1, 9,

18 sq., 24.
continuatio = periodus, IX. iv. 22 and

124; continuatio sermonis, vm. ii.

14; IX. iii. 23.
continuatum, IX. i. 35.
contrapositum, IX. iii. 81 and 83;

contraposita, IX. iii. 32 and 102;

IX. iv. 18.
contrarium (figure), IX. i. 34; IX. iii.

90 ; •■ ev6viJLrjfia, V. X. 2.
controversiae, n. iv. 33; IV. ii. 94,

97; vn. i. 4; IX. i. 14; ix. ii. 65

sqq., 77, 88.
corUumeliam fecit, n. iii. 13.
conversio = ai'Tt/oLeTa^oA^, IX. i. 33.
convinctiones, I. iv. 18 *}.
convivimus, 1. vi. 44.
coppa, I. iv. 9.
cordax, ix. iv. 88.
Cordus, I. iv. 25.

Corinthi Dionysium esse, vni. vi. 52.
Corinthia aera, IX. ii. 8; verba, VUL

iii. 28.
correctio, IX. i. 30, 35 ; ix. iii. 89.
cortex amara and amarus, I. v. 35.
Corvinum, vn. ix. 4.
cotidie, I. vii. 6.
Cotlae, I. iv. 25.
creticus, IX. iv. 81 and 107.
Crispus, XI. ii. 31.
crocodillinae, I. x. 6.
cubare supra se, vm. ii. 20.
Culcides, I. iv. 16.
cum and quum, I. vii. 5.

D, I. iv. 16; I. vii. 12 ; xn. x. 32.
dactylicus rhythmus, IX. iv. 46 sqq.
dactylus, IX. iv. 49, 81, 85, 104,

136.
damae timidi, IX. iii. 6.
dativus, L iv. 26 ; vn. ix. 13.
de eodem et alio, m. vi. 31, 36; VII.

Iii. 8.
de susum, I. v. 38.
declamare, declamatio, I. ii. 13; n. i.

2 ; n. X. 1 sqq. ; n. xi. 3 sqq., 15 ;

IV. ii. 29; V. xii. 17; V. xiii. 44;

vn. i. 4 and 38; X. ii. 12; X. v.

14 sqq.; XI. i. 38 and 83; xn. zi,

16.

536

INDEX OF WORDS

decUmatores, ni. viii. 44, 61, 69 ; IT.

ii. 28; v. xiii.42; vm. iii. 22 ; n.

ii. 42; X. i. 71; I. Tii. 21; XL i.

55 tqq.
declinatio (figure), IX. i. 32, 34, 42, 44.
declinatio (grammat.), L iv. 13, 21,

27, 29; L V. 63; n. xt, 4; vm.

iii.32.
dederont, I. Iv. 16.
defensio coniimcta, vn. i. 15.
definita qaaestio, vn. ii. 1 sqq.
definitio, m. tI. 42; definitiones, L

vi.29.
ifiviovL^, vx ii. 24; TUL iii. 88; IX.

ii. 104.
delatxjres, m. x. 3 ; IX. ii. 74.
deliberativum genns orationis, IL i. 2 ;

iLiv. 25; n. I. 11; ULiii. 14; m.

It. 15, 16 ; m. vi. 56 ; m. Tiii. 1 sqq.,

6, 10, 12, 22 tqq., 58 iqq., 66;

Tm. Pr. 6 ; VUL iii. 11 ; XL i. 48.
demonstrativum genus causamm, 11.

X. 11; n. ixi. 23; m. iv. 9, 12,
14; m. Tii. 1 sqq.; m. viii. 8, 63;
V. X. 43 ; vn. iv. 3 ; Tm. Pr. 8 ; Tm.
iii. 11 : DC. iv. 130; XL i. 48.

denies aliri. Tin. vi. 40.
deprecatio, m. vi. 13 ; V. ilii. 5 ; vn.
IV. 3 and 17 ; IX. i. 32 ; rx. ii. 3 ;

XI. 1. 52.

deprehendere and dtprendere, rx. iv.

59.
depulsio, m. vi. 7 and 16 tqq. ; ra.

xi. 1 ; VL iv. 2 ; Vin. Pr. 9.
derivatio verbonun, m. vii. 25; XL

i. 90.
descriptio, rv. iii. 12; IX. ii. 44; ix.

iv. 138.
detractio (figure), IX. il. 37; H. iii.

18 tqq., 27, 58, 62.
detractio litterarom. I. v. 16 and 38;

= tAAeii/dt, L T. 40.
devorari hominem, vm. vi. 25.
dialectice, L x. 37; n. xvii. 14 and

42 ; n. II. 7 ; n. ni. 13 ; V. xiv.

27; XiLii. 10*99.
dialectici, n. iv. 41 ; vn. ill. 14.
SuiAeimK, I. v. 29 ; IX. iv. 18.
iioMjayri, IX. iii. 49.
dialog!, V. vii. 28 ; V. xiv. 27 ; n. Ii.

31 ; X. V. 15 ; XI. i. 21.
iuumias trx^^uiTa, IX. ii. 107.
iiarvrmvii, IX. ii. 41.
dieem for dieam, l vii. 23.
dichoreus, IX. iv. 95 and 103.

dictare, X. iii. 18 tqq.

dictu, L iv. 29.

Jiffoiot, IX. iii. 87.

difierens, V. x. 55 and 58.

digammon, I. iv. 8 ; L vii. 27.

digestio, ix. i. 31 ; rx. ii. 2.

digiti,XLiii. 92.

diqnu' locoque, ix. iv. 38.

digressio, rv. ii. 19; rx. i. 28 and 35;

ix.ii. 55*59.; IX. iii. 90; X. i. 33.
diCTessus, IV. iii. 14 ; X. i. 40.
diiunctio, IX. i. 35; IX.iii. 45.
SiKoioXoyia, IX. iii. 99.
iiKaioXcyiKOs, XH. vi. 33.
dinomeratio, rx. i. 35: rx. iii. 91.
Diovf Yictore for Diovi Victori, L iv. 17.
dispositio, m. iii. 1 tqq.; TL iv. 1;

vn. Pr. 1 ; vn. i. 1 tqq. ; vn. i.

5 tq. and 11 ; x. ii. 27.
disputatrix = JioAcimir^, IL XX. 7 ;

xn. ii. 13.
dissimilia, v. x. 73 ; T. xi. 5 *99. ; VL

iii. 63.
dissimnlatio, rv. i. 60; rv. ii. 117; vi.

iii. 85; IX. i. 29; IX. ii. 14 and

(■» ironia) 44; Xn. ix. 5.
dissipatio, rx. i. 35 ; cp. IX. iii. 39.
dissolatio, IX. iii. 50.
dissolntom, rx. i. 34.
distincta oratio, XL iii. 35.
distinctio (figure), rx. i. 33 ; IX. ilL 65

and 82 ; (punctuation) XI. iii. 35,

37 tqq., 47, 62, 181.
distributio, IX. i. 30 ; IX. ii. 2.
DUit, L vi. 34.
diu, L iv. 29.
divisio, V. X. 63; vn. i. 1; vm. t.

30 sqq.; IX. ii. 105.
dirissiones, L vii. 20.
dixti, rx. iii. 22.
dochinius, rx. iv. 79, 97, 99.
ioyiioLTucoi, sermones, n. xv. 26.
dua, duapondo, I. v. 15.
dual is numertis, I. v. 42.
dubitatio, IX. i. 30 and 35; IX. ii. 19; .

rx.iU. 88.
duetare exercHus, vm. iii. 44.
Duelii and Belli. I. iv. 15.
duellum, l iv. 15.
jvucof, L V. 42.
dum, IX. iii. 16.
duplicia indicia, XL i. 78.
tvvaim, n. XV. 3 ; V. X. 33.
SvvaTov, m. viii. 25.
tviTirapaKo\mi0ifrov, IV. i. 40.

537

INDEX OF WORDS

E, I. Ir. 9 and 17; I. vii. 15; IX. ir.

34.
ebur, I. vi. 22.
ediscere, I. 1. 36; n. vii. 1 sqq.; n.

xiii. 15 ; XI. ii. 27 sqq., 44.
effectiva ars, n. xviii.5.
€yKUKAt09 iratfieta, I. s, 1.
fyKiaiiiafrTiKOv, III. iv. 13.
egressio, egressus, in. ix. 4; IV. iii.

12 sqq.; XI. iii. 64 and 164.
ei for i, I. vii. 15.
f'lKwi', V. xi. 24.
t'lKora, V. ix. 8; V. x. 15,
elpuiv, IX. ii. 46.
^moi, I. vi. 36.
*« ru>v TTpb? dAAijXo, V. X. 78.
tK^ao-eis, V. X. 86.
elegia, I. viii. 6 ; X. i. 58 and 9.1.
iXeyKTiKoi sermones Platonis, II. xv.

26.
eliminat gradus, vin. iii. 31.

eAAen/(ts, I. V. 40; VIII. vl. 21.
elocutio, n. V. 21 ; Book VIII. and IX. ;

vni. Pr. 17; XI. i. 1.
elecutoria, elocutrix, II. xiv. 2.
emendatio (gen.), X. iv. 1 sqq. ; (figure)

IX. ii. 17.

emicavit for emicuit, I. vi. 17.
efi(<)a(ri9, VI. iii. 69; VIII. ii. 11; vm.

iii. 83, 86; vin. iv. 26; IX. ii. 3

and 64; IX. iii. 57.
emutatio, vni. vi. 51.
ivavTioTT)';, IX. ii. 106 ; IX. iii. 90.
ivdpyfia, IV. ii. 63; VI. ii. 32; vm.

iii. 61.
enarratio, I. ii. 14 ; I. iv. 2 ; 1. viii.

18; n. V. 1.
cvSo^ov, IV. i. 40.
(vepyeia, Vm. iii. 89.
enim hoc voluit, I. v. 39.
enimvero, IX. iii. 14.
€vvoi.a. III. vi. 35 and 37.
ivpvOfLov, IX. iv. 56 and 77.
ensis and (tladius, X. i. 11.
ivTex''°i- probationes, V. i. 1.
enthymema, I. x. 37; rv. ii. 107; v.

X. 1 sqq.; V. xiv. 1, 2, 17, 24, 25;
vra. V. 4 and 9; IX. ii. 106; ix.
iv. 67; XI. iii. 102; xn. x. 51.

enumeratio = <zi/a)Cf</)oAat«i>cris, V. xiv.

11 ; VI. i. 1 and 36.
enayiayri, V. X. 73 ; V. xi. 2.
ejraitoAou07)(Ti?, IX. ii. 103.
cTrai/aAjji/zi?, VIII. iii. 51.

iirdvoSo';, IX. iii. 35 and 97.

»irefepya<Tca, VIU. iii. 88.
fne^evytxeuov, IX. iii, 62.
(■mx^cprjijia, IV. iv. 1 ; V. I. 2, 4 ; V.
xi. 2; V. xiv. 5 and 14; Vin. v. 4;

IX. ii. 107.

epici, X. i. 46 sqq., 85 sqq.
epicoena, I. iv. 24; I. vi. 12.
fTTiSetKTiicos, n. X. 13 ; in. iv. 13 sqq.

fTTiSirjyrj<rL^, IT. ii. 128.
epilogi, VI. i. 7, 37, 41, 55; Vll. ii.
56; vn. iv. 19; IX. iv. 137 sqq.;

X. i. 107; XI. iii. 170.
epiphonema, vin. v. 11.
epiraedium, I. v. 68.
e;riT<x(^tot, m. iv. 5.

epitheton, vm. ii. 10; vra. iii. 20;

vra. vi. 29 and 40 ; ix. i. 6.
epitogium, I. v. 68.
erclum citum, vn. iii. 13.
e'<rxi?M<'''''i<r/ie'(Tj oratio, IX. i. 13.
esse videatur, IX. iv. 73.
essentia, n. xiv. 2; ra. vi. 23; Vin.

iii. 33.
est preceded by a vowel, IX. iv. 109.
lieiKr), II. xxi. 3 ; VI. ii. 8 ; Xii. ii. 15.
ethologia, I. ix. 3.
■neoTToua, IX. ii. 58 ; IX. iii. 99.
4^05, VI. ii. 8 and 17 ; vi. iii. 93.
etymologia, I. vi. 1, 28 sqq., 38; V.

X. 55 and 59; vn. iii. 25.
euxwATj. ni. iv. 10.
evidentia, iv. ii. 63; VI. ii. 32; vm.

iii. 61; IX. ii. 40.
€v(f>avTaa'CtuTo^, VI. ii. 30.
ev^Oivia, I. V. 4.
Europai, I. v. 17.
evpv9ft.ia, I. X. 26.
Eutkia, I. V. 61.
e|oAAa-y^, IX. iii. 12.

excessus, cp. excursio, egressio, m. Ix.

1 and 4.
exclamatio, IX. i. 34 and 39; IX. ii.

27; IX. iii. 97.
excursio, I. xi. 3; n. xiii. 1; IV. ii.

105 sgq.; IV. iii.l.
excursus, IV. iii. 5 and 12 ; X. v. 12.
excusatio, vn. iv. 3, 14, 31.
exemplum, V. n. 1; V. xi. 1 sqq. and

n sqq.; IX. i. 31; IX. xxi. 2; XII.

iv. 1.
efepyaeria, Vm.iii. 88.
efeTaoTtKoi', ra. iV. 9.
eihortatio, IX. ii. 103.
exhortativus (status), m. vi. 47;

(genus), V. X. 82.

MS

INDEX OF WORDS

ezitaa • CK/Saaeit , T. z. 86.
exordium, iv. i. 1 iqq., 5, 7, 11, 16,

28, 30, 42, 68, 62, 71, 72, 76; XI.

iii.161.
expecto and exspecto, L vii. 4.
expectorat, vm. iv. 31.
explanatio (figure), IZ. i. 27; IX. ii. 2.
eipositio, m. ix. 7 ; 17. ii. 50; ViLii.

26; XI. i. 53.
exsecratio, rx. i. S2 ; IX. ii. 3.
eitemporalis actio, X. vi. 6; X. vii.

18; XI. ii. 3.
extenoatio, IX. i. 27; IX. ii. 3.

F, I. iT. 14; xn. X. 29.
fabricari, rx. iii. 6.
face lorfac, L vi. 21.
faciem ioTfaciam, l vii. 23.
facere (categoiy), m. vi. 24.
facetum, VL iii. 20.
facilUer, L vi. 17.
faedus for haedus, L iv. 14.
fori, vm. iii. 27.
fatcialim, l iv. 20.
favoTy vm. iii. 34.
fcminina positio, I. iv. 24.
femur, L vi. 22.
/(fro, Liv. 29; L vi. 26.
femim for gladius, vm. vi. 20 ; ferrum

and mucTO, x. i. 11.
fides = iri<rTei9, V. I- 8 and 10 tqq.
FiguUUum, \TII.iii. 32.
figrura = (TX^Aio, L V. 5 ; L viii. 16 ;

DLxili. 11; vn. iv. 28; VI. iii. 70;

VUL vi. 67 ; IX. passim.
figuratus, vm. iii. 59; tx. i. 13 and

14; IX. ii. 65 sqq. and 88.
Fimbriaium, vm. iii. 32.
finis = finitio, IV. iv. 3 ; V. x. 54, etc.
finitae questions, m. v. 7 ; vm. Pr. 8.
finitio, m. v. 10 ; v. x. 36 and 54 sgg. ;

VL iv. 4; vn. iii. 1 sqq., 19 sqq.\

vn. X. 1 sqq. ; IX. iii. 91.
finitiva causa, vn. iii. 36; see also

status,
firmamentnm causae » <rvv€xov, m.

xi. 1, 9, 19.
fletur, I. iv. 28.
flexa littera, syllaba, L v. 23 and 30 ;

xn. X. 33.
Floralia, l. v. 52.
fluctuatur and flitctttat, tx. iii. 7.
fordeum for hordeum, L iv. 14.
forma — species, v. x. 62.
formulae, m. vi. 69 ; vn. iv. 20.

formularii, xn. iii. 11.
fraudaior, I. iv, 28.
frugalis, L vi. 17.
ftmis, L vi. 5.
Furii for Fusii, L iv. 13.

G, L vii. 12.

(Tattu indicated by C, 1. vii. 28.

Galbae, V iv. 25.

galliambi, IX. iv. 6.

Gailica verta, L v. 57.

gallus, vn. ix. 2.

yeAoior, VL iii. 22.

geminatio, L iv. 10; L vii. 14: vm.
V. 18; IX.i. 33; H. iii. 28, 45, 47 ;

IX. iv. 119.
gemma, vm. vi, 6.

generalis quaestio, m. v. 9; m. vi.

21; vn. i. 49 and 58 ; VU. ii.l tqq.;

I. V. 13; xn. ii. 18.
ytvtm = coniectura, m. vi. 53.
geometria, I. x. 34 sqq.
gestus, L xi. 3 and 16 ; JJ.iii. 65 sqq.,

88 sqq., 102, 109, 117, 125, 181.
gladioUt, L vi. 42.
gladius and ensis, X. i. 11 ; and mucro,

X. i. 11 and 14; gladia, i. v. 6.
y\ui<r<rai, L i. 35.
glossemata, L viii. 15.
Glycerium, L iv. 24.

Gnaeus, I. vii. 29.

yfu^Oi, Tm. V. 3.

Gracci, L v. 20.

graaili, L vi. 27.

gradatio (figure), tz. i. 34 ; IX. iii. 54.

grammatice, L iv. 4, 5, 6; I. v. 54;

L viii. 12; L X. 17; IL i. 1 sqq.

and 4.
grammaticus, L ii. 14; L iv. 1 ji^. ;

L viii. 21 ; n. xiv. 3 ; DC iv. 53 ; x

i. 64.
gravis (accent), I. v. 22 sqq.
gubemator for agitator, vm. vL S.
gurdi, L v. 57.
guttur, L vi. 23.

H, L ▼. 19 sqq.

habere (category), ra. vl. 24.

a£p6v, xn. X. 58.

ap^oi'ta, I. Z. 12.

haruspex, l vii. 9.
have, L vi. 21.
Hecoba, I. iv. 16.
r^ixtpov, m. vl. 28.
bendeca^llabi, L viii. 6.

539

INDEX OF WORDS

here and heri, I. iv. 8; 1. vii. 22.

Eermagora, I. v. 61.

herous (epic), I. viii.5; X. i. 46 sqq.,

85 sqq. ; = dactyl, IX. iv. 88 sqq.
CTfpoibxrt;, IX. iii. 12.
heu, I. iv. 20.

hexameter, IX. iv. 74, 75, 78.
«^ts, X. i. 1 and 59 ; X. v. 1.
hiatus, IX. iv. 33 sqq.
Hispanum nomen, I. v. 8 and 57.
historia, I. viii.18; II. Iv. 2; in. viii.

67 iqq.; IX. iv. 18 and 129; X. i.

31, 73 sqq., 101 sqq.; X. v. 15.
historice, L ix. 1.
historici,I. vi. 2; I. x. 40; n. iv. 19;

IV. ii. 2; vm. vi. 65.
histriones, VI. ii. 35; X. v. 6; XI. iii.

89.
homo, I. vi. 34.
o^o(t'£cia, VIII. iii. 52.
oiLOLomiorov, IX. iii. 78 sqq.
ofxoiOT€\evTov, IX. iii. 77 sq,
homonyma, Vin. ii. 13.
ofxtdtaffxia, VII, ix. 2.
hordea, I. v. 16.
v\.r\, V. X. 33.

imoKKayri, Vm. vi. 23 ; IX. iii. 92.
imaKXaKTiKTi <na.<ri<!. III. vi. 47.
hyperbaton, I. V. 40 ; \m.y\.G2 sqq.;

Vin. ii. 14; IX. i. 3, 6; ix. iii. 23,

91 ; IX. iv. 26.
hyperbole, VI. iii. 67; vm. iv. 29;

vm. \i.Gl sqq.; IX. i. 5.
VJrefoipeo-is = exceptio. III. vi. 61.
viroiiaaroA^, XI. iii. 35.
viroariyinri, XI. iii. 35.
vir6e«<n?, ni. V. 7 and 18.
vjronm-aKTis, IV. ii. 3 ; IX. ii. 40 and 58.

I, I. iv. 7 and 11 ; I. vii. 17 and 21 ;

nc. iv. 34.
iaculari, vm. ii. 5.
iam, I. iv. 10.
iambus, IX. iv. 47, 76, 80, 88, 136;

X. i. 9, 59, 96.
iiioT7/s, m. vi. 63.
iecur, I. vi. 22.
igituT, I. v. 39.
imago (figure), IX. i. 35; ■= (^avrao-i'oi,

VI. iii. 29; X. vii. 15.
imitatio, I. iii. 1 ; IX. i. 30 ; ix. ii. 35

and 58; X. i. 3, 21 sq., 27; X. ii.

Itqq.
imminutio (figure), IX. i. 34; IX. iii.

90.

mutatio (solecism), I. v. 12 and 41 ;

(figure) rx. i. 35.
imperterritus, I. v. 65.
inipius for parricida, vm. vi. 30.
improprium, I. v. 46 ; I. viii. 13 ; Vlll.

ii. 3 sqq.; vm. iii. 15; XII. x. 42.
improvisum (figure), IX. i. 35; IX. iii.

90.
in changed to im in composition, I.

vii. 7.
in Alexandriam, 1. v. 38.
inartiflcialis probatio, V. 1. 1.
incisa = Koiinara, IX. iv. 22, 67, 122

sqq.
incompositus, I. v. 65.
incrementum, vm. iv. 3 and 28.
incumbere illi, in ilium, ix. iii. 1.
incurvicervicum pecus, I. v. 67 and 70.
indicium = a-rjueiov, V. ix. 9.
indifferens syllaba, IX. iv. 93.
inductio = eiraycoyj), V. X. 73 ; V. xi

2 sqq.
Infinitae quaestiones, m. v. 6 ; X. v. 11.
infitialis status =» coniecturalis, m. vi.

15 and 32 ; IX. i. 8.
ingenua, VII. ix. 4.
ingrati actio, VII. iv. 37.
initium causae = airCa, in. xi. 5.
inluslo = ironia, vm. vi. 54; ix. i. 28.
inlustratio = evapyfia, VI. ii. 32.
inopinatum ■» TrapaSoiov, VL iii. 84;

IX. ii. 23.
Inscripta = non scripta, m. vi. 37;

vn. iv. 36.
insequentia, V. x. 45 sq., 75; vn. ii.

46.
insinuatio, rv. i. 42 and 48.
instruments, n. xii. 24 ; V. x. 51 ;

VII. ii. 25 and 45; XII. v. 1 sq.
intellego and video, X. i. 13 sq.
intentio, ra. vi. 7 and 13 sqq. ; ill.

ix. 1; V. xiv. 6; vi. iv. 2; vii. i.

9, 13, 16; VII. V. 2; vm. Pr. 9;

(=p propositio), v. xiv. 6, 12, 16 sq.
intercapedinis, vni.iii. 46.
intercluslo (figure), IX. iii. 23.
interdicta, n. x. 6; IV. ii. 61; vn. v.

3 ; xn. X. 70.
interfatio, IV. ii. 50.
interiectio, I. iv. 19 ; •= parenthesis,

VIII. ii. 15.

interpositio (figure), IX. iii. 23.
Interrogatio (of witnesses), V. vi. 3
sqq., 22, 27; (figure) IX. ii. 6 sqq.,

IX. iii. 98.

INDEX OF WORDS

intermptio — a»-o<ri<iinj<j-i?, n. il. 54.
interraptam (figare), IX. i. 35.
intra and intus, I. v. 50.
inventio, m. iii. 1 ; vm. Pr. 14; Vin.

iii. 2 ; I. i. 106.
inverslo = a.va<TTpo<!>rj, I. v. 40 ; = al-

legoria, VUL vi. 44.
invidere hanc rem, hoe re, DL iii. 1 ;

huitit rei, IX iii. 17.
inridut and inridiosus, TL ii. 21.
iocus, VI. iii. 21.
iiuTOJCiafio?, I. V, 32.
iracundia (figure), II. i. 32 ; n. ii. 3.
ironia, IV. i. 39 ; VI. ii. 15 ; VL iii. 68 ;

vm. vi. 54; n. i. 3 and 7; n. ii.

44 and 97; EE. iii. 29.
laxvov, m. X. 58.
'nrxyoTr^s, I. V. 32.
la-oKuXov, IX. iii. 80.
iteratio, IX. i. 28; IX. ii. 68.
itur, I. iv. 28.
iudiciales cansae, n. 1. 10 ; m. iv. 16 ;

m. vi. 104; m. viii. 53; m. ix.

1 sqg., 3,4,9; VI. ii. 1 ; viII. Pr.

6, 9 tgq., 11 ; vm. iii. 11 ; IX. iv.

130 ; X. vil. 5.
iugata, V. X. 94; VI. iii. 6.
iugulum petere, vm. vi. 51.
iugum Ca^idintim, m. viii. 3.
lulia basilica, xn. v. 6.
iunctura, vm. iii. 45; tx. iv. 22, 32,

43; XI. iii. 53.
iuridicialis status, m. vi. 32 to., 45,

47, 57.
larisconsalti, V. xiv. 34; XL ii. 41.
iusi for iuui, L vii. 21.
iusiurandum, V. i. 2 ; V. vi. 1 sqq.

K, L iv. 9 ; I. vil. 10.

Koipoi, ra. vi. 26.

KajceiiifmTov, vm. iii. 44 and 47.

Koxo^iJAuL, n. iii. 9 ; vm. vi. 73.

Koxo^TiAoi', vm. iii. 56 tgq.

KOLKOirvv^frov, vm. iii. 59.

KojcoTc^via, n. rv. 2 ; n. XI. 2.

car' cu(r07)<riv, HI. vi. 37; avTiXriifii.v,
vn. iv. 4 ; fwoiav, ra. vi. 37 ; prrrov
ecu iidyotav, m. vi. 46; prfTov jcat
irwt^aUptaiv, m. vl. 61 ; (rv/i/S^/Srjxof ,
m. vi. 56 ; irvodeaiv, V. X. 95.

KaTaveir\a<Tti(VOv, L Xi. 6.

caravAii^K (figure), IX. iL 103.

xaroo'icrvi}, n. iv. IS.

KaTaYpijo-if, vm. ii. 6; vm. vl. 34
and 36 : IX. i. 5.

KoSoKiKo, n. xiii.l4; vm. v. 7.

KtiaOai., in. vl. 24.

ice(^<iAa(oi' yiviKutinTOv, in. vl. 2 ; ep.

m. xi. 27.
kAi/xoI, IX. iii. 54.
KOiKoiTTOfiia, L V. 32.
KOfi^ara, IX. iv. 22.
koppa, I. iv. 9.
KpLvofitvov, m. xi. 4 and 18.
xpiVctt, V. xi. 36.
KptTiKij, V. xiv. 28.
KuAo, tx. iv. 22.

labda, I. xi. 5.

Aa/3&ucicr/u.<k, I. V. 32.

laborant fructus, vm. vi. 8

labos, I. iv. 13.

Laenates, I. iv. 25.

Lartius, VL iii. 96.

Loses for Lares, I. iv. 13.

larare, I. iv. 13; I. vi. 44.

landatio, n. iv. 20 ; m. vii. 2 ; XI. Hi.

126, 131, 153.
laureati pastes, vm. vi. 32.
Itber, L iv. 17.
lectio, L I. 31, 32; I. viii. 1 sgq.; t.

viii. 6; n. V. 1 sgq., 18; X. i. 17,

20 tgq., 27, 45.
legale quaestionum genus, m. T. 4;

m. vi. 87 sgq.
leguleii, xn. iii. 11.
Aijicrr^, I. vii. 17.

Ae'wf, vn. ix. 6.

lepus, I. vi. 12 and 33.

lex Manilla, n. iv. 40; Plantla, tX,

ill. 56; ServUia, VI. iii. 44; thea-

tralis, ni. vi, 9; leges contrariaa,

in. vi. 88; vn. vii. l sqg.
libera oratio = vapprjiria, IX. ii. 27.
.Vt^uKol A0701, v. xi. 20.
licentia ■= vappria-ia, EX. ii. 27.
lltterae, I. i. 24 and 27; I. iv. 7; L

vii. 11 and 31 ; n. xvlii. 4; VI. Pr.

14; IX. iv. 36; xn. i. 27.
titteratoria, litteratrix, n. xiv. 3.
litteratura — granuuatice, n. i. 4 ; n.

xiv. 3.
litus, V. xiv. 34; vn. iii. 13.
locaples, v. x. 55.
loci argumentomm, V. vlH. 4; T. x.

20; VI. iii. 65.
loci commones, n. 1. 1, 9, 11; n. iv.

22, 27 ; rv. vii. 4 ; V. I. 3 ; V. xiil.

67; I.T. 12; XL 1. 46.
locatio recta — opdoi-rtui, I. vi. 20.

INDEX OF WORDS

lodicea, i, yi. 4j.

\oyiK6v, genus quaestionum, in. v. 4.

AoyoJaiiaAoi, HI. i. 11.

Longi, I. iv. 25 ; I. vi. 38.

loquendi genera = StoAeicToi, I. v. 29.

lucubratjo, X. iii. 27.

lucus, I. vi. 34.

Indus, I. vi. 34; ludi Floralia ac

Megalensia, I. v. 52.
lupus femina. I. vi. 12.
lurchinabundus, I. vi. 42.
Juiun'atur and liuuriat, IX. iii. 7.
lyrici, I. viii. 6 ; IX. iv. 53 ; X. i. 61

and 96.

M, IX. iv. 39, 40 ; xn. i. 31.

HaKpo\oyia, VIII. iii. 53.

magester for magister, I. iv, 17.

Maiia, 1. iv. 11.

rnaleficus, I. v. 66.

malevolus, I. v. 68.

malus, I. vii. 3.

mappa, I. v. 27.

Marcipores, I. iv. 26.

marmuT, I. vi. 23.

mastruca, I. v. 8.

fiaraioTexi"<i> U. ^CX. 3.

maximus, maxumus, I. vii. 21.

medidies, I. vi. 30.

medium diceudi genus, X. i. 52 and

80 ; XII. X. 58 sq.
Megalensia, I. v. 62.
/oieyaAoTrpeTTtio, IV. ii. 61.
mehe for mf , I. v. 21.
fietaxns, VIII. iii. 50.
fxe'Ao; and pud/xo;, I. x. 22.
membra = xwAa, IX. iv. 22, 67, 123.
membratim, IX. iv- 126, 127.
memoria, X. 1. 19 ; I. iii. 1 ; ni. iii. 1

and 10; XI. ii. 1 sqq., 11 sqq., 36

and 40.
Menerva, I. iv. 17.
merere for mereris, I. v. 42.
meridies and medidies, I. vi. 30.
fiepiKol eTTiAoyot, TI. i. 56.
mertare, I. iv. 14.
merula, I. vi. 38.
>teTa^a<ris (figure), IX. iii. 25.
utTafioXri (figure), IX. iii. 38 ; rhythmi,

IX. iv. 50.
^teToATji/d? (causa), in. vi. 46; (figure)

VI. iii. 52 ; IX. ii. 106 ; (trope)

vra. vi. 37 sq.; IX. i. 5.
HiTa<t)opd, VI. iii. 68; VIII. vi. 4 sqq.,

8; IX. i. 6; ix.ii. 46.

metaplasmus, I. viii. 14.

/nerao-Tatrts = translatio, ni. vi. 53 ;

vn. iv. 14; (figure) IX. ii. 41.
methodice, IX. i. 1.
metonymia, vin. vi. 23 ; IX. 1. 5.
ju-eVpa, IX. iv. 45-51.
metrici pedes, IX. iv. 48 and 52.
Metloeoque Fufetioeo, I. v. 12.
fiCftrjaii = jjSoTToita, IX. ii. 58.

mimi = pantomimi, vi. iii. 8 and 29.
mimi = comoediae, I. x. 17; IV. ii.

53.
minae = icaTdjrA))|is, IX. Ii. 103.
minuendi species, vin. iv. 1 sqq. and

28.
miseratio, VI. i. 9, 19, 23, 27, 30, 46;

XI. iii. 171.
modi verborum, I. v. 41 ; = tropes,

vm. V. 35; (musical) I. x. 14 and

31.
modulatio scaenlca, xi. iii. 67.
molossus, IX. iv. 82, 100, 102.
fiovoeiSeia, XI. iii. 44.
monosyllaba, IX. iv. 42.
/xovoTovia, XI, iii. 46.
morae = pauses, XI. iii. 39.
moralis philosophia, XU. i. 15.
motus = tropes, IX. i. 2.
mucTO for gladtus, vm. vi. 20 ; X. i

11 and 14.
mugitus, vni. vi. 31.
mulsa, I. V. 16.
multiplicatio = avvoBpaiaiJ.o'i, Vin. iv

27.
munerarius, Vin. iii. 34.
murmur, VIII. vi. 31.
mus, VIII. iii. 20.

musica ratio niunerorum, ix. iv. 139.
musice, I. x. 9 sqq., 17, 22, 31 ; I. iv. 4.
mutatio, IX. iii. 27 and 92.
^uKTrjpio'/ios, vni. vi. 69.

N, I. V. 60 ; xn. X. 31.

nam enim, I. v. 38.

narratio, II. iv. 2 sqq., 16 ; m. vi. 92 ;

in. ix. 1 ; IV. ii. passim ; vm. Pr. 1 ;

IX. iv. 134 and 138; XI. iii. 162.
Naso, XI. ii. 31.
naturalis philosophia, xn. ii. 10 and

20 sqq.
narigare aequor, IX. iii. 17.
ne and non, I. v. 60; ne hoe fecit,

I. V. 38.
negotialis, n. xxi. 3 ; m. vi. 67 ; ni.

vii. 1.

INDEX OF WORDS

uegotiam, m. t. 17.

Nerei, I. v. 24.

neutralis (positio), I. It. 24 ; (nomen)

I. v. 54.
noctivagus, I. y. 68.
yorj/ia, n. xi. 1 ; vm. v. 12.
I'omicb*' genus qnaestionum, m. v. 4.
nomina, l. iv. 18, 2a-6 ; I. iv. 24 tqq.;

1. v. 60, 61 ; m. vi. 36 ; vm. vi. 31.
nota aspirationis, I. iv. 9.
iiotatio = etymologia, I. vi. 28.
uumems (category), HI. vi. 26;

(rhytlim) IX. iv. 17, 22, 27, 45 sqq.,

54, 67, 61, 62, 66; (number) I. v.

45; ix.iii. 8.
nuncupare, vULiii. 27.

O, L iv. 16 ; L vi. 8 ; I. vii. 11.

ob, I. vii. 7.

obiuigatio (figure), rx. i. 32; IX. ii. 3.

obliqui casus, L vi. 10, 22; adlocu-

tiones, IX. ii. 37; sententiae, IX. ii.

79, 94.
obsequium, VUL iii. 35.
obticentia (figure), IX. ii. 54.
occultatio (figure), IX. iii. 98.
octonarius versus, ix. iv. 72 sq.
'OSvaafvi;, 1. iv. 16.
oeconomia. I. viii. 9 and 17; in. iii.

9; cp. ra. X. 11.
oiA"), IT. i. 2.
oVos, IV. i. 3.
olli, vm. iii.25.
Olympus, I. V. 62.
oi^ptaroirooa, I. V. 72; Vin. vl. 31;

IX. 1. 3 and 5.
operositas = nepiepyia, vm. iii. 55.
Opiter, I. iv. 25.
oppido, vm. iii. 25.
optatio (figure), IX. viii. 32 ; II. ii. 3.
optimus and oplumiu, l iv. 8; L vii.

21.
oratores Graeci, X. i. 76 ; Latini, X. i

105 sqq.
oratoria, oratrix, ll. xiv. 1.
ordo, m. iii. 8 ; IX. iii. 91.
originatio = crv/xoAoyia, I. vi. 28.
omatus, vm. iii. 1 sqq. ; XT. i. 2 and 7.
op^ocVeia, L V. 33 ; I. vi. 20.
opOoypaipia, I. vii. 1.

paeo, I. vi. 11.

paean, rx. iv. 47 tq., 79 sqq., 96, 106.

110, 136.
paedagcigi, 1. 1. 8.

paenitentia dicti, ix. ii. 60.

paeniiurus, ix. iii. 12.

TzaiSona^i, I. xii. 9.

palaestrica, n. xxi. 11.

palaestrici, I. xi. 15; L xii. 9; n.

viii. 7; xn. ii. 12.
palaestritae, rx. iv. 56.
palimbacchins, H. iv. 82, 102.
palus, I. vii. 3.
pan^yrici, n. x. 11; m. iv. 14; m.

viii. 7.
Pansae, i. iv. 25.
Ilai^aAe'wi', Vn. ix. 6.
wafKpokij, V. xi. 1 and 23; vx. iii. 59;

vm. iii. 77.
vapdSeiyna, V. xi. 1 ; XH. X. 61.
TTopoSiao-ToAj), rx. iii. 65.
vapaSiriyriam, IX. ii. 107.
irapdSoiov, IV. 1. 40 ; (figure) n. il. 33.

jrapaifeTiicoi' (figure), IX. ii. 103.
irapatppaiTK, I. ix. 2 ; X. V. 5.
7rapa<riai7r)}<xt5, IX iii. 99.
jrapauft/o-is (figure), IX. ii. 106.
irape'/t/3a<7i?, IV. iii. 12 and 14.
irap€'>iirru)<ri9, IX. iii. 23.
napevOea-i^, IX. iii. 23 and 26.
vaptT^Ofieva, V. X. 75.

pariambus, rx. iv. 80.

jTopiaoi' (figure), rx. iii. 76.

irapioSt}, IX. ii. 35.

vapuSCa, VLiii. 97.

irapoifiia, V. xi. 21 ; vm. vi. 57.

jrapoMoAoyia (figure), IX. iii. 99.

vapovofxaaia., IX. iii. 66 <$. and 30.

irapop/x>)T4icil OTaffis, m, vi. 47.

■nappriaia, IX. ii. 27 ; DC iii. 99.

parricida, VUL vi. 35.

parricidalus, I. vi. 42.

participia, I. iv. 19 and 27; L t. 47;

I. vi. 26.
participialia verba, I. iv. 29.
partitio, I. ii. 13; m. ix. 1 ; rv. v. 1

sqq., 24, 26 ; IV. ii. 49 ; IV. v. 1 and

24 ; VU. i. 1 ; IX. iv. 92 and 131. .
pastor populi, vm. vi. 8.
iraBjiTiKa.1, probationes, v. xii. 9.
ndSoi Emd jrdOri, VL ii. 7 sq. and 20 sqq,
pati (category), ra. vi. 24; (passive)

L vi. 26 : IX. iii. 7.
patrare bella, vm. iii. 44.
peculiolum magnum, t, v. 46.
pecuniosus, v. x. 6.
pedem ronjerrr, vm. vi. 61.
pedestris oratio, X. i. 81.
Pelia, L T. 61.

543

INDEX OF WORDS

mjXiKOTrjs, VII. iv. 16.

pellerit, not perlexil, xi. iii. 35.

pentameter, rx. iv. 98 and 109.

TTfvTdaTifioi percussiones, VS.. iv. 51.

ircv^/ui/xepe^, IX. iv. 78.

penus, TIL iii. 13.

pepigi, I. vi. 10.

irnroiii/uicVa, TIEt. vi. 32.

percontatio, DC i. 29 ; IX. ii. 6 sgq.

percursio, IX. i. 27.

percussiones, rx. iv. 61 and 75; XI.

iii. 108.
TTcpi (vvoCai, vm. iii. 35.
TTtpitpyia, VIII. iii. 55.
nepCepyof = otiosum, I. vi. 19.
periodus, IX. iv. 22, 124, 125, 128;

XI. i. 49.
jr£pi'<^pa<ri9, vm. Iii. 53; vm. vi. 69

sgq. ; IX. i. 3 and 6 ; IX. iii. 97.
irtptao-oAoyia, IV. ii. 43; Vin. vi. 61.
irepiiTTao-is, lU. v. 18; V. X. 104.
pennissio (figure), IX. i. 35; IX. ii.

25; IX. iii. 90.
peroratio, VI. i. 1 sgq., 12 sqq., 21.

55; VL ii. 7; vn. x. 12; vm. Pr.

11.
perpetualia praecepta = KaBoKixd, n.

xiii.l4.
perpetua oratio, ii. xx. 7; actio, VI.

iv. 2.
perpotare in balneis, I. vi. 44.
persona (gramm.), I. iv. 29 ; (category)

m. vi. 25; IV. ii. 129; V. x. 23

sqq. ; VI. i. 25 ; vn. ii. 27 sgq. ; IX.

i. 31 ; IX. ii. 29, 68, 76 ; IX. iii. 89.
pes, IX. iv. 45 sqq., 52 sqq., 60 sqq.,

79 sqq.
pelorritum, I. v. 57.
Phaelbon, I. v. 17.
t^OLvraaia, vm. iii. 88; <f>avTaaCai, VI.

ii. 29; X. vii. 16; xn. x. 6.
philosophi,I. Pr. 10; V. vi. 3; V. vii.

35; vn. iii. 16; vn. ix. 1 ; X. i. 35,

81 sqq., 123 sqq.; XI. i. 35; xu

ii. 6 sqq. ; XU. xi. 17.
piiilosophia, I. iv. 4; xn. ii. 20 and

23; XILiii. 2.
phonasci, n. viii. 15; XI. Iii. 19 and

22.
<l>pa.ai<! = elocutio, vm. i. 1 ; x. i. 42

and 87.
Phrygium canere, I. i. 33.
pictai vestis, I. vii. 18.
pinguetudo, I. xi. 4.
pirmum, i. iv. 12.

544

piratica, vm. iii. S4.
Jri JTeis, V. X. 8.
pituita, I. vi. 36.
Fius, V. X. 30.
plasma, I. viii. 2.

7rAaT6ia(r/x09, I. V. 32.

Plato, I. V. 60.

Plauti, I. iv. 25.

plenus vino and vini, IX. iii. 1.

irAeo^acr/xos, I. V. 40; VIII. iii. 53;

DC. iii. 46 sq.
vXoKri = repetitio, IX. iii. 41 and 49.
ploxenum, I. v. 8.
pluralia, pluraliter, L v. 16; II. iii.

20.
poculum epotum, vm. vi. 24.
poenariae actiones, rv. iii. 9; vn. iv.

20.
poetae, I. Iv. 2; I. viii. 14; I. x. 29;

V. xi. 39; X. i. 27, 41-72, 85-100.
poeticae narrationes, n. iv. 2.
jroiijTiKj), n. xviii. 2.
iroAirtKOf, I. x. 15.
TroAvirTwroi/, IX. i. 34; IX. iii. 37.
iroXviTvv&iTov, IX. iii. 61.
pomeridies, IX. iv. 39.
pondo, I. V. 15.
pontificum commentarii, vm. ii. 12;

annates, X. ii. 7.
porca for porcus, vm. iii. 19.
positio prima, I. v. 60 and 65 ; I. iv.

24 ; I. vi. 10 and 22 ; = Seo-is, IX.

iv. 48 and 55; nominis, vm. vi.

23; = materia declamandi, n. x.

15.

7rO(TOT7J5, vn. iv. 16.

possessivum nomen, I. v. 45.

possibile, m. viii. 25.

Poslumus, I. iv. 25.

potus, 1. iv. 29.

irpaKTiKiq, ars, n. xviii. 1.

praeceps ira, vm. vi. 27.

praechones, I. v. 20.

praedictio, IX. ii. 17.

praeiudicia, v. i. 2 ; V. ii.

praelectio, I. ii. 15; I. v. 11; I. viii.

8 and 13; II. v. 4.
praemunitio, IX. i. 30; IX. Ii. 2 and

17.
Praenestina verba, I. v. 56.
praeparatio (figure), IX. ii. 17; pro-

bationis, IV. ii. 65 sqq.
praepositio, I. iv. 13 and 19; IX. iii.

71.
praescriptio, m. vi. 72 ; vn. v. 2 sqq.

INDEX OF WORDS

praesomptio ^ irpoXij^tf, IX. ii. 16

and 18.
praesamptom — vpoXrprriKov, HL vi.

35.
praeteritiun, L iv. 29 ; I. vi. 26.
praeTaricatio, vn. i. 32.
vpaynara, UL vi. 28.
iTftayiiaTiicii, m. vi. 57 ; HI. vii. 1 ;
s-pay^arcjcof , n. xxi. 3 ; jrpayfiaTtKOv,

m. vi. 35.
pragmatici, ni. vi. 59 ; xn. iii. 4.
praruus, L iv. 29.
«-paf 15, in. vi. 26.
precula for pergula, I. v. 12.
principalis quaestio, IV. iv. 1.
principium = exordium, Vf. i. 1 tqq. ;

IV. i. 42.
Privemas ager, VL iii. 44.
probabile, vm. iii. 42.
probatio, V. i. 1 ; inartificialis, y. il.-

vii; V. li. 43; artificialis, V. viii.-

xiv. ; (other reff.) n. iv. 4 ; vn. ii. 35

sqg. ; vn.iii.28; XI. iii. 163 ; lineares,

L X. 49.
probarenmt, I. iv. 16.
procoratio, vn. iv. 35.
procursio, IV. iii. 9 ; XI. iii. 126.
prodnctio (syllabarem), vn. ii. 13;

IX. iii. 69; (liljerorum, etc.), VT. i.

30.
irpo<ic0e(ri( (figure), IX. ii. 106.
irpoe7riirA>ja'(reif rj inrepPoK^, Vm. iii.

37.
progenies, I. vi. 26.
prognoetica, v. ix. 15.
progressio (figure), IX. i. 33.
irpoArj+is, IT. i. 49 ; IX. ii. 16 ; IT. lit

99.
rpo^rfirriicov, m. Ti. 35.
proles, vm. iii. 26.
promiscua = iriicuiva, I. iv. 24.
promisyo (figure), IX. i. 32 ; IX. ii. 2.
pronomen, L iv. 19 ; L v. 26 and 47.
pronuntiatio, I. xj. 4 sqq.; n. i. 13;

n. xii. 9 ; XI. iii. passim.
prooemium, m. ix. 8; it. i. 2 sq., 63,

73 ; IX. iv. 132 and 134 ; cp. exor

dium.

proportio >=• avaXoyia, I. vi, 3.
proposita»themata,Tn. i. 4; «■ 9«<rt«,

m. V. 6.
propositio, m. ix. 1 «?. ; IT ii. 30; IT.

iv. 1 sqq., IV. v. 26; TIL i. 46;

opp. refutatio, xn. ix. 19; (logic)

V. liv. 5 ; (figure) H. ii. 105.

proprietas verbomm, Tm. ii. 1 597 ;
status, m. vi. 53 and 56.

proprius, l v. 3 and 71 ; T. x. 55 sqq. ;
Tn. iii. 24; Tm. iL 1 and 7 sqq. ;
xn. I. 42.

pTosapia, L vi. 40 ; vm. iii. 26.

irpoo-airococris (figure), IX. iii. 94.

proscripturU, tul vi. 32.

vpooiriyopia., L iv. 21.

irpoaaiSiat = accentus, I. v. S2.

wpoaofJiiXrjTiKi^, m. iv. 10.

apcxruiroiroita, I. viii. 3; m. viii. 49
mnd 52; TL i. 25; IX. ii. 29 and
37; XLi. 41.

vpoTfiCirrtKri <rra<ris, m. vi. 47.

psaltae, I. x, 18 ; cp. 1. 1. 31.

v!'evio7pa<#>tot, L X. 39.

psi, L iv. 9.

Publicola, m. vil. 18 ; Publicolae L vi.

31.
Publipores, I. iv. 26.
puerei, I. vii. 15.
Pulixena, L iv. 16.
puUare, I. iv. 14.
punior, IX. iii. 6.
puppis for naiis, vm. vi. 20.
purgatio (figure), IX. I. 32 ; IX. il. 9.
pyrrliicliius, IX. iv. 80, 106, 140
PytMci, I. iv. 31.
pyxis, vm. vi. 35.

Q, I. iv. 9 ; xn. X. 30.

quadripes for equus, vm. vi. 20.

quaeso, TULiii. 25.

qoaestio, m. v. 4, 5, 16; m. vi. 2,

35, 46, 55-61, 65 sqq., 83; m. xi

1 tqq., 4; IT. ii. 8; T. x. 36, 44;

TL iv. 4; vn. i. 6, 7 sqq., 13, 18.

23, 45, 49 ; Tn. ii. 1, 15, 42 ; Tn. iii.

13; Tn. iv. 9, 25; vn. v. 1; vn.

X. 15; TUL Pr. 8, 10; X. v. 11;

xn. ii. 18, 19; naturales, I. iv. 4;

Tn. ii. 7 ; servorum, T. iv. 1 sqq.
quale, m. vi. 36, S8, 44, 56, 80; T.

X. 53 ; quale, I. v. 26.
quaJitas, in. v. 10; m. vi. 10, SS,

36 sq.; y. I. 40; T. xiii. 19; Vi

iv. 4; vn. ii. 40; vn. iii. 6; vn.

iv. 1 sqq.; xn. Ii. 15; verboram.

L iv. 27 ; L V. 41.
quam mnltum, m. vi. 90.
quando (category), m. vi. 24.
quantitas, m. vi. 23 ; vn. iv. 15, 41

sqq.
qoantnm sit, m. vi. 36 and 90.

545

INDEX OF WORDS

qtuue for quasi, i. vii. 24.

queens, vin.iii. 33.

queentia, 11. xiv. 2.

quianam, vui.iii. 25.

quid sit, ni. vi. 3G, 44, 56, 80; V. x.

63.
Quirinalis, I. vi. 31.
quidquid, not qtdcquid, I. vii. 6.
ywire, I. vi. 26.
yMot, I. vii. 27.
quoque ego, I. v. 39.
quotidie for cotidie, I. vii. 6.
9uuni, I. vii. 5.

R and S, I. iv. 13 ; rho, I. xi. 5.
raeda, I. v. 67 and G8.
ratio = aiTiop, ill. xi. 4 igg'. ; «= eTri-
Xe'ipr/na, V. X. 6.

ratiocinatio, v. xi. 1; v. xiv. 5;

=• eTTixe'ipTj/ia, V. X. 6 ; (figure) IX.

iii.98.
ratioeinativus status, ni. vi. 43, 4G,

61 sq.; V. X. 6; VII. viii.3.
rational is pars philosophiae = dialec-

tica, XU. ii. 10.
reatus, vm. iii.,34.
rebus ageraibus, IX. iii. 13.
rectus casus, I. iv. 13; I. v. 61;

sermo, n. v. 11; oratio, x. v. 8.
recusans = o </)f'vyaii/, in. x. 1.
redditio contraria = a.vTa.v65o<m, VIII.

iii. 77 and 79 sq.
refutatio, V. xiii.l sqq. ; vi.iii. 72.
regressio (figure), IX. iii. 35.
reipublicae laesae actio, vn. iii. 2 ;

VII. iv. 37.
reiectio in alium, IX. i. 30.
relatio (figure), IX. i. 25; IX. ii. 59;

IX. iii. 97; causarum, VI. iii. 77.
remigare pennis, vm. vi. 18.
remotio, v. x. 6(5.
repercutiendi genera, vi. iii. 45 and

78.
repetitio (figure), IX. i. 33 ; IX. ii. 4 ;

IX. iii. 29 sqq., 47; = 7rA.oK^, IX. iii.

41 ; = a.v<XK^(paKaiui(Ti^, VI. i. 1.
repetundanim causae, IV. ii. 14 sq.

and 86; V. vii. 6.
repraesentatio = eVapyeia, vin. iii. 61.
reprehensio (figure), IX. 1. 34; IX. ii.

18.
repudiiiniusti actio, VII. iv. 38.
respiratio, XI. iii. 39 and 49.
responslo sibi ipsi, ix. i. 35; IX. ii.

14; IX. iii. 90.

resultans, IX. iv. 66 and 83 ; xi. iii.

183.
reticentia (figure), ix. ii. 54 and 67;

IX. i. 31.
reversio = aj'oorpoijb^, VHI. vl. 65.
revocatio verbi, ix. i. 33.
prjTov Kai Siduoia, HI. vi. 46 ; KaTaprfrov

Koi vTTf^dipeinv, III. vi. 61.
rhetor, n. i. 1 sqq.; n. ii. 1 sqq.; n.

iii. 1 sqq. ; II. iv. 1 sqq.
rhetorice, II. xiv. 5; ll. xiii. 1 sqq.,

15, 38; n. xiv. 5; n. xv. 1 sqq., 15,

38; n. xvi. 1, 11; n. xvii. 1 sqq.,

23,25, 26; n.xviii.2; II. ix. 1 sqq.;

II. xxi. 24; m. i. 8; m. ii. 1; iii.

iii. 1 sqq., 13, 15; V. x. 54; vn. iii.

6 and 12 ; VUI. Pr, 6 ; XII. x. 1.
Rhodium genus dicendi, xn. x. 17.
pvP/iioj and ^fAos, I. X. 22; ix. iv.

45 ; = numeri, rx. iv. 54 ; ix. iv.

46 sqq.
ridiculum, VI. iii. 22 sqq., 110 sqq.
risus, VI. iii. 1 sqq., 7, 37 sq., 105.
robur, I. vi. 22.

rogatio (figure), IX. i. 29 ; IX. ii. 6.
Romanus for Romani, viii. vi. 20.
rubricae, XU. iii. 11.
mere, I. vi. 26.
Rufl, I. iv, 25,

S, I. iv. 13, 14; I. vii. 20, 21; I. xi.

6; IX. iv. 37; xn. x. 32.
Sabina verba, I. v. 66,
saccaria, vin. ii. 13.
saeculum felix, vm. vl, 24,
salsura, VI. iii. 18 sq.
Sapiens, V. x. 30; sapientes septem

V. xi. 39.
<rapi5icrju,ds, VIII. vi. 59.
satagere,VJ. iii. 5^; XI.iii.l28.
satura, X. i. 93.
saucius pectus, IX. iii. 17,
scabillum from scamnum, I. iv, 12.
scala, I. V. 16.
Scauri, I. iv. 25.
schema, I. v. 52 sqq. ; I. viii. 14 and

16; II. xi. 1; VI. iii. 70; vm. iii.

50; IX. i. 11 sqq. and 25; IX. ii.

65 and 92 ; IX. iii. 2 ; cp. figura,
crX>)^'aTi<r/J.os, I. viii. 14,
scholae publicae, I. ii, 1 sqq. and 16.
scholasticae materiae, IV. ii. SO; vn.

i. 14; XI. i. 82,
Scipiones, 1. iv, 25.
scopa, 1. V, 16,

546

INDEX OF WORDS

acribendi ars, I. i. 27, 28, 34 «?. ; I.

vii. 1, 28, 30; X. iii. 1 sqq., 10, 30;

I. V 1 sqq. ; xn. ix. 16 ; xn. x.

49 tqq.
scripsere and sc-ipserunt, I. v. 44.
scripttun et voluntas, m. vi. 88 ; vn

i. 49 sqq. ; vn. v. 5 sq. ; vn. vi. 1 sqq. ;

vn. vii. 1 ; vn. viii. 1 ; vn. i. 1 sqq. ;

cp. also m. vi. 37; vn. i. 13; vn.

▼.5.
sedes argumentorum, v. x. 20 and

100; V. xii.l7.
seiunctio, rx. i. 23 ; IX. ii. 2.
<rqixeiov, V. Ix. 9 ; oAvtoi', 7. ix. 3 ;

(in rhythm), IX. iv. 51.
semivocales, I. iv. 6 ; I. vii. 14.
senarios, IX. iv. 72 sq., 75, 125, 140.
senatus, I. vi. 27; (derivation), I. vi.

33.
sensa, vm. v. 1.
sensus, vm. v. 1 sq. = sententiae

xn. I. 46.
sententiae, I. viii. 9; I. ix. 3; n. xi.

3; n. xii. 7; m. viii. 65; VI. iii.

36; vn. i. 44; vm. iv. 29; vm. v.

passim; IX. ii. 107; rx. iii. 76

and 98 ; x. i. 60 ; xn. ix. 3 ; xn.

X. 48.
sententiolae, xn. x. 73.
sequens = (irWeroy, vm. vi. 40.
Serani, I. iv. 25.
sermocinatrix, m. iv. 10.
servom, I. vii. 26.
tercus, I. iv. 8 and 11.
sescuplex pes, IX. iv. 47.
sibt for stbi, I. vii. 24.
gigna, V. viii. 1 ; V. ix. 3 sqq. ; T. x. 74.
significatio =« e^^uurt^, IX. i. 27 ; DC.

ii. 3.
silva, X. iii. 17.
similia, V. x. 73; V. xi. 1 sqq.; iX

iii. 75 sqq.
similitndo, V. x. 1; V. xi. 22 sqq.;

vm. iii. 72 sqq.; vm. vi. 8 and 49;

IX. i. 31; rx. ii. 2.
simolatio (figure), IX. ii. 26.
singTilaria, I. v. 16 ; IX. iii. 20.
siiiunt segetes, vm. vi. 6.
toleae, vm. ii. 8.
tolitaurilia, l. v. 67.
Boloecismus, I. v. 4, 34 sqq., 51.
sotadei, I. viii. 6; IX. iv. 6 and 90.
spartum, vm. i. 2.
species, v. x. 25 tgq. ; vn. i. 23 sq.
spts, L vi. 26.

Spinther, VI. iii. 51.

spondeus, IX. iv. 48 ig., 80, 88, 97, 101.

sponsiones, vn. v. 3.

<rTa(7is = status, m. vi. 3.

status = o-TOO-i;, m. vi. passim ; Vn.

iv. 15; vn. V. 2 and 5; vn. vi.

1 sqq. ; vn. vii. 1 sqq. ; vn. viii.

1 sqq. ; vn. x. 1 ; IX. 1. 8 ; xn. ii. 19.
Stella, I. vi. 35.
sterols curiae, vm. vl. 15.
stlites and stlocus, I. iv. 16.
o-TOix»'a. m.iii. 13.
snasoria, n. i. 8; n. iv. 5; m. viii.

1 sqq. ; vn. iv. 2 ; Vm. Pr. 9.
sabiectio (figure), IX. iii. 98.
sublatio, rx. iv. 48 and 55.
substantia, m. vi. 39 ; rx. i. 8.
Subura, I. vii. 29.
Sufenas, I. v. 62.
snggcstio, IX. li. 15.
Suliae, I. iv. 25.

sullaturit, vm. iii. 32 ; vm. vi. 32.
sulpur, I. vi. 22.
suotetaurilia, I. v. 67.
superiectio = hjrperbole, vnL vl. 67.
saperiatio, IX. i. 29 ; ix. ii. 3 ; zn. x.

62.
snstentatio, IX. ii. 23.
syllaba, I. i. 26, 30 sqq., 37; EC iv.

84, 85, 92, 93 ; XH. x. 32, 33.
syUogismus, ra. vi. 15 sqq., 43, 88 ; V

X. 3 and 6 ; V. x. 36 ; V. xiv. 14,

20, 24 sqq.; VU. iii. 11; vn. viii.

1 sqq. ; vn. x. 1 sqq. ; IX. iv. 57.
syllogisticus status, V. x. 6.
aviiPffiriKOTa, TH. vi. 36 ; Kara aviifie-

^Tjicds, m. vi. 56.
<rvV^oAor, I. vi. 28.
(rvratpeffis, I. V. 17.
trwoAoci^ij, L V. 17; EX. Iv. 36 and

109.
(rvvadpoto-fxu;, Vm. iv. 27.
(nivSe<r/i09, 1, iv. 18.
oMvixov, m. xi. 1 and 9.
synecdoche, vm. vi. 19 tqq. ; XX. 1.

8; rx. iii. 58 sqq.
irvvoiKfiiaai^, IX. iii. 64.
<n)VMwti.ia, vm. iii. 16 ; IX. iii. 45.
truvreXiicTf <TTdiTi<;, rX. vi. 47.
avvTOiJiO<;, IV. ii. 42.
Byntonorum modi, IX. iv. 142.

talpae oculis capti, VS.. tii.6.
TaTreiVoKri?, Vill. iii. 48.

tauru*, vm. ii. 13.

547

INDEX OF WORDS

TawToAoyia, IV. H. 43 ; vm. iii. 60.

technici, n. xiii. 15.

TfKa^pia, V. ix. 3.

Telarno, I. v. 60.

T<Aos, U. XV. 38.

tempus, m. vi. 25 sg. ; v. i. 42 ij?. ;

secundum, v. z. 46; vn. ii. 46;

iunctum, adhaerens, insequens, V.

X. 46; VII. ii. 46; (rhythm) IX. iv.

47, 51, 81, 84 sgq., 98.
Terei, I. v. 24.
testatio, V. vii. 32.
testes, V. i. 2; v. vii. 9 sqq., 25, 32

sqg. ; see interrogatio.
testimonia, V. vii. 1 tgq.; divina, V.

vii. 35; V. xi. 42; (historical) X. i.

34.
TeTpaoTjjiiot, percussiones, IX. iv. 51.
tetrastichon, VI. iii. 96.
thema, n. x. 5; IV. ii. 28 and 68;

V. X. 9; vn. i. 4; vn. ii. 54; XII.

vra. 6.

BeuprjTiKri, II. xviii. 1.

SeVis, n. i. 9; n. iv. 24; m. v. 6

and 11 ; xii. ii. 25.
toga, XI. iii. 131, 139 sqg.
togatae fabulae, X. i. 100.
Tovdpioi', I. X. 27.
tondemur, I. vi. 44.
Toj-oi, I. V. 22.
tonores = tenores, I. v. 22.
ToiriKTi, V. xiv. 28.
T07ro"j'pa(|)io, IX. ii. 44.
topper, I. vi. 40.
tractio, I. iv. 20.
tractus, vm. iii. 32.
traductio (figure), IX. iii. 71.
tragici,I. viij.8.

tragoedia, I. v. 52 ; X. i. 66 and 97.
traiectio = liyperbaton, vm. ii. 14;

IX. i. 29; IX. ii. 3.
transgressio = hyperbaton, vni. vi.

62 sg.; IX. i. 34; IX. iii. 91; rx.

iv. 28.
transitio (figure), IX. iii. 98.
translatio, ni. vi. 38, 60, 66; V. xlv.

34; vn. iv. 13; VIU. ii. 6; VIU. vi.

4 sgq., 14 sqg., 49 sg.; IX. ii. 41.
translativa = /j.e7aAr)i//i?, in. vi. 46;

t. quaesciones, in. vi. 52 ; t. status,

ni. vi. 46, 48, S3, 56, 60, 68 sgq.,

83
translatus, I. v. 71 ; IV. 1. 71.
transpositiva = nieraATnl/is, m. vi. 40.
transumptio (figure), Vin. vi. 37.

S4S

transurnptiva «» jxeraAjji^is, m. vl. 46i

Traswnennus, I. v. 13.

trepondn, I. v. 15.

Tp./3^, U. XV. 23 ; X. vii. 11.

tribrachys, IX. iv. 82.

trihunale, I. vi. 17.

TpUiaka, n. XV. 23; X. vii. 11.

trimeter, IX. iv. 71, 74 sg., 90.

triguedra, triguetra, I. v. 30.

triunipi, I. V. 20.

trochaeus, IX. iv. 80, 82, 88, 105 sq.,

135, 140.
TpoTTos, in. vi. 27 ; v. X. 72.
tropus, I. viii. 16; VI. iii. 67; vni.

vi. passim ; rx. i. 1 and 4 sq.
tuburchinabundus, I. vi. 42.
tumuUus, VU. iii. 25.
tunica, XI. iii. 138 sgq.
Tusca verba, I. v. 56.
tutelae actio, vn. iv. 35.
tyranmts, I. v. 62.

V, I. iv. 8, 11, 16.

Valerius, Valesius, I. iv. 13.

vapos, I. iv. 13.

vapulo, IX. iii. 7.

ubi (category), m. vi. 24.

vehementer, veiiieiUer, I. v. 21.

velH, 1. vi. 44.

venales, Vin. ii. 8.

venustum, Vl. iii. 18.

verba (grammat.), I. iv. 18 and 27 sqq

Vergilius, Vin. vi. 28.

versus, ix. iv. 72 sqq.

vertex, vm. ii. 7.

vesperug, I. vii. 12.

vestigium = o-jju-eioi', V. ix. 9.

video and intellego, X. i. 13 »q.

vlsio = itavraaia, VI. ii. 29 and 32;

vm.iii. 88; xn. x. 6.
fisurus, IX. iii. 12.
vitavisse and vitasse, IX. iv. 59.
vituperatio, m. vii. 1 and 19 sqq.
Vlixi, I. V. 63.

vocabulum, I. iv. 20, 21 ; IX. iv. 24.
vocales, I. iv. 6, 10 sgq.; vm. iii. 16;

IX. iv. 33; XI. iii. 34.
vocalitas = eixbiovia, L v. 4.
volucres, I. v. 28.
Vopiscus, I. iv. 25.
vorstis, vortices, I. vll. 26.
urbanitas, VI. iii. 8, 17, 45, 103 sq.,

107 ; VI. iv. 10.
urbanum, VI. iii. 105 *q., 110; Vm.

iii. 34 sq.

INDEX OF WORDS

urbet bene moralae, vm. vi. 24.

Fftt, XI.ii. 31.

oixria, in. vi. 23; irfpi ovaia.% Koi

<ruti.fii^r\K6ru>v, in. vi. 36.
Vulcanus, vm. vi. 23.
rulgus, L iv. 8 and 10.
vulpes, I. vi. 33.
vultas, n. iii. 72 tqq. ; vultus, vm,

Ti.28

•YAvcrcj-eu!, I. v. 16.

tephyri, XII. x. 28.
(JjjTTjua, m. xi. 4.
tophori, ill. I. 28.

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Plato: Laches, Pbotaoobas, Meno, Edthydemus. W. R. iL

Lamb.
Plato: Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.
Plato: Lysis, Symposixtm, Goboxas. W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato: Republic. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.
Plato: Statesman, Philebus. H.N. Fowler; Ion. VV. R. M.

Lamb.
Plato: Theaetetus and Sophist. H. N. Fowler.
Plato: Timaeus, Cbitias, Clitopho, Menexenus, Epistxjlak.

Rev. R. G. Bury.
Plotinus: a. H. Armstrong. Vols. I.-III.
Plutabch: Mobalia. 15 Vols. Vols. I.-V. F. C, Babbitt.

Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold. Vols. VII. and XIV. P. H. De

Lacy and B. Einarson. Vol. IX. £. L. Minar, Jr., F. H. Sand-
bach, W. C. Helmbold. Vol. X. H. X. Fowler. Vol. XI.

L. Pearson and F. H. Sandbach. Vol. XII. H. Chemiss and

W. C. Helmbold.
Plutabch: The Parallel Lives. B. Perrin. 11 Vols.
PoLYBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

Pbocopius : HisTOBY OF THE Wabs. H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols.
Ptolemy: Tetbabiblos. Cf. Manetho.
QuiNTUS Smybnaeus. a. S. Way. Verse trans.
Sextus Empibicus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols.
Sophocles. F. Storr. 2 Vols. Verse trans.
Stbabo: Geography. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.
Theophrastus : Characters. J. M. Edmonds. Hebodbs,

etc. A. D. Knox.
Theopheastus : Enquiby into Plants. Sir Arthur Hort^

Bart. 2 Vols,
Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.
Tbyphiodobus. Cf. Oppian.

Xenophon : Cybopaedia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.
Xknophon: Hellenica. C. L. Brownson. 2 Vols.
7

Xknophon: Anabasis. C. L. Brownson,

Xenophon : Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. E. C. Marchant.

Symposidm and Apology. O. J. Todd.
Xenophon: Scbipta Minoka. E. C. Marchant and G. W.

Bowersock.

IN PREPARATION

Greek Authors

Aristides : Orations. C. A. Behr.

Hebodianus. C. R. Whittaker.

Libanius: Selected Works. A.F.Norman.

MusAEUs: Hero and Leandeb. T. Gelzer and C. H.

Whitman.
Theophrastus : De Causis Plantarum. G. K. K. Link and

B. Einarson.

Latin Authors

AscoNius: Commentaries on Ciceeo's Orations.

G. W. Bowersock.
Benedict: The Rule. P. Meyvaert.
Justin-Tbogus. R. Moss.
Manilius. G. p. Goold.
Pliny: Letters. B. Radice.

DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION

London WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

Cambridge, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS