UNIVERSITY FARM
A6
THE INSTRUCTOR
THE MAN AND THE JOB
CHARLES R. ALLEN
FOURTH IMPRESSION
THE INSTRUCTOR
THE MAN AND THE JOB
A HAND BOOK FOR INSTRUCTORS
OF INDUSTRIAL AND VOCATIONAL
SUBJECTS
BY
CHARLES R. ALLEN
SOMETIME AGENT FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF BOYS AND MEN, MASSA-
CHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTOR
TRAINING, U. S. S. B. EMERGENCY FLEET CORPORATION
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
SET UP AND PRINTED IN UNITED STATES
PREFACE
FOR a long time men in trades and industries have been
imparting what they knew to learners, and in order to do this
some sort of an instructing process has been carried on.
It is equally true that for a long time those whose business
it was to impart knowledge, have been learning how to teach,
that is, they have been learning the principles and practices
of the teaching trade.
Since the industrial instructor has usually stuck to his shop
and the teacher has stuck to his school, the body of knowledge,
experience, and skill in the teaching trade has not been avail-
able to the trade instructor, so that, in general, trade instruc-
tion in industry and in vocational schools has been carried on
without the advantage of the use of the teacher's trade.
Just as in any other trade, there are in the teaching trade
"operations," "tools," equipment and methods that have
been found most effective in putting things over from the
instructor to the learner. Information regarding them has not,
however, generally been accessible to the industrial instructor,
because it has been confined to professional teachers and em-
bodied in educational publications which are not likely to come
to the attention of the mechanic.
Moreover, where such publications have come to his atten-
tion he has found them hard to understand and their contents
difficult to apply, since they are written for the use of teachers
in general schools.
Training courses for vocational instructors where they have
been established have aimed at meeting this difficulty by
presenting the principles and practices of the teaching trade
in such a manner that industrial instructors could apply them
in their own special line of instruction, but in many cases
trade instructors are unable to avail themselves of the oppor-
tunities offered by these courses.
469803
iv PREFACE
This book is intended, therefore, to serve two purposes
to serve as a handbook to instructors in industrial plants, and
also to serve as "instruction notes" in instructor training
courses.
The material as presented here has been developed out of
notes originally used in instructor training courses and sub-
sequently modified for the training of shipyard instructors in
connection with the instructor training work of the Emergency
Fleet Corporation under my direction, in which over one
thousand instructors have been trained.
The rapid development of trade and industrial training,
both in vocational schools and in industrial plants, and the
special development of intensive training due to war condi-
tions make the trained instructor of greater and greater value
to American industries. It is hoped that this book may con-
tribute to the development of efficient training in our voca-
tional schools and in our industries. If it does, the purpose for
which it was written will have been accomplished.
CHARLES R. ALLEN.
October 1, 1918.
INTRODUCTION
THOSE of us most familiar with the work of Mr. Allen have
long been anxious that he write for publication so that all those
interested or engaged in industrial education might have the
benefit of his rich experience and ripened views. This book
on the preparation of teachers is the first result. Let us hope
it will be followed by others dealing with the problems of the
organization and administration of vocational schools with
which Mr. Allen has been so closely connected for almost two
decades.
There are few, if any, men so well qualified as he by experi-
ence and ability to speak with authority in this field. Person-
ally, I owe to the author a debt of gratitude I can never repay
for the help he has given me during the past ten years. He has
been not only a capable assistant at various times but also
mentor and guide upon whose keen analysis of problems and
sound philosophy of vocational education I have long relied.
Comparisons are always invidious. Nevertheless, I am of
the opinion that this book is the most important contribution
yet made to industrial and trade training. It deals with the
most vital of our problems the proper selection and training
of competent instructors without which government grants
and imposing equipment are but sounding brass and tinkling
cymbals.
While only principles of pedagogy fundamental to all suc-
cessful teaching are presented, they are applied to the instruc-
tion problems of the vocational class with a keenness of analy-
sis, a wealth of illustration, and a clearness of statement not
to be found in any other text with which I am acquainted.
Recognizing that which the War has made apparent to all,
that large industrial plants as well as schools must in the future
carry on training for new employes, the text has been prepared
so that it can be used equally well in the preparation of instruc-
tors for schools or for industrial plants, most of whose teaching
problems are common.
INTRODUCTION
The book presents not abstract theory but practical methods
based on sound principles which the author developed in his
work as a supervisor of teacher training in Massachusetts and
worked out in the form here given while he was supervising
training courses for shipyard instructors under the Emergency
Fleet Corporation of the United States Shipping Board. The
plan of training, therefore, is not a dream or a guess but a
demonstrated success.
Every one interested hi or touching the problems of voca-
tional education, particularly industrial education in any way,
needs to read this book. It will help him to think straight as
well as to train teachers properly. Indeed, all those engaged
in regular education cannot fail to profit by studying the
exceedingly clear analysis and discussion of methods of instruc-
tion where "pedageese" is avoided so that the text may be
equally readable by all.
Employers and foremen will gain from Mr. Allen's exceed-
ingly clear and thorough discussion a conception of the need
and possibilities of training the new workers of which most of
them have never dreamed. Perhaps most valuable of all,
those who believe that regular schools of education can meet
the needs of shop instructors by the customary courses on
educational philosophy and method given by those unac-
quainted with industrial processes and vocational schools,
will learn from the book that the pedagogy of industrial edu-
cation has already built up a definite content or courses of its
own. Those courses can only be taught successfully by
persons familiar with the organization and processes of both
industry and the industrial school.
C. A. PBOSSEB.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
TRAINING IN THE PLANT
CHAPTER PAGB
I. THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING . . 3
II. METHODS OF TRAINING 11
III. TRAINING ON THE JOB ..... 23
IV. PICKING THE TRAINING FORCE. 31
PART II
THE ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRADE KNOWLEDGE
V. THE PRODUCER ANI^ THE INSTRUCTOR . . 37
VI. THE FIRST OPERATION. THE DETERMINATION
OF WHAT IS TO BE TAUGHT . . . .42
VII. THE CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 46
VIII. THE DETERMINATION OF "BLOCKS" . . 64
PART III
ESTABLISHING AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER
IX. THE DETERMINATION OF LEARNING DIFFICULTIES 77
X. ESTABLISHING A DIFFICULTY SCALE. . . 85
XI. APPLYING THE DIFFICULTY SCALE ... 88
XII. GETTING JOBS INTO AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL
ORDER .92
XIII. TYING UP THE AUXILIARY INFORMATION WITH THE
JOB INSTRUCTION 97
XIV. GETTING THE JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK INTO
AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER , . 106
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART IV
PUTTING IT OVER
CHAPTER PACK
XV. THE TRADE INSTRUCTOR . . . .117
XVI. WHAT INSTRUCTION is . . . .121
XVII. THE INSTRUCTING OPERATION . . .126
XVIII. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE
LESSON. STEP 1 132
XIX. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE
LESSON. STEP 2 136
XX. DETAILED DISCUSSION STEP 3 . . 139
XXI. DETAILED DISCUSSION. STEP 4 . .141
XXII. SECURING TRADE INTELLIGENCE . . 143
PART V
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
XXIII. METHODS FOR STEP 1 .... 147
XXIV. METHODS FOR STEP 2 . . . .151
XXV. METHODS FOR STEP 3 . . . .158
XXVI. METHODS FOR STEP 4 . . . . 16,3
XXVII. INFORMATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENT LINES OF
APPROACH . . . . . . 165
XXVIII. THE TECHNICAL LESSON AND THE PRODUC-
TION LESSON . . . . 169
PART VI
LESSON PLANNING
XXIX. LESSON PLANNING 177
XXX. AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A
LESSON ...... 184
PART VII
INSTRUCTIONAL MANAGEMENT
XXXI. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE INSTRUCTOR . 205
XXXII. ORGANIZATION FOR HANDLING DIFFERENT
TYPES OF INSTRUCTION . . . .210
XXXIII. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL
GANG . . 219
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER p AGB
XXXIV. INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS AS THEY ARE
AFFECTED BY SURROUNDINGS AND MA-
TERIAL ...... 235
XXXV. How SURROUNDINGS AFFECT INSTRUCTION. 245
XXXVI. HANDLING THE GANG FOR EFFECTIVE IN-
STRUCTION. ..... 248
XXXVII. INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS . . 257
PART VIII
ORGANIZATION FOR TRAINING IN INDUSTRY
XXXVIII. THE ORGANIZATION FOR TRAINING . . 287
XXXIX. INSTRUCTIONAL BOOKKEEPING . . . 304
XL. TRAINING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES. . 319
XLI. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING . . . 334
XLII. THE " COLD STORAGE " vs. THE APPLICATION
THEORY 336
XLIII. THE RELATIVE ORDER OF THEORY AND
PRACTICE 342
XLIV. THE SHORT UNIT COURSE . . .347
PART IX
THE USE OF THIS MATERIAL IN INSTRUCTOR TRAINING
COURSES
XLV. THE USE OF THIS MATERIAL IN INSTRUC-
TOR TRAINING COURSES . . .351
APPENDIX
A. THE USE OF THIS MATERIAL BY FOREMEN . .361
B. THE USE OF THIS MATERIAL FOR SELF-TRAINING 363
C. SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TERMS USED . 365
PART I
TRAINING IN THE PLANT
CHAPTER I
THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING
This book deals with three factors in efficient production
the instructor, the man, and the job. The instructor, because
it is through effective instruction that we can secure efficiency
in training. The man, because when properly trained he does
the best work. The job, because production efficiency comes
from well instructed men doing good jobs.
Therefore it deals with the question of effectively training
green men or "learners'* and with other forms of training for
production work. It points out some ways by which learners
can be trained most rapidly and trained to do their work in the
best way through the application of definite principles to
training problems. One of the most important points in
effective training is to see that the men who are used as in-
structors really know how to "put over'* what they know,
hence, a considerable portion of this book is given over to a
description of how such a man can organize his trade knowledge
for effective instruction, how he can effectively plan his in-
struction work, and how he can best handle his men under
instructing conditions. The organization under which such a
man can work to the best advantage is discussed and an effec-
tive type is described.
To avoid any misunderstanding it should be stated here that
this book does not deal in any way with trade processes, or
with technical training. It assumes that, whether the training
is given in a school shop or in the plant itself, the instructor
is thoroughly equipped so far as knowing how to do his job
is concerned. It deals solely with instruction, not with pro-
duction, except so far as effective training functions in better
production and greater output which it does.
An appendix contains suggestions as to the use of this
material by men in industry who desire to become better
3
4 : ;/: THE; INSTRUCTOR
instructors and to those who may undertake to use it in
"Instructor Training Courses.'*
The Possible Field of Training. In any production plant
the product is got out by a number of people who are em-
ployed on a variety of jobs. These jobs may range from
highly skilled to unskilled jobs. The variety of jobs to
which effective methods of training can be applied is much
greater than is generally supposed. In the past it has fre-
quently been considered that only jobs in the so-called skilled
trades were worth training for. More recent study has shown
that there are very few industrial operations or semi-skilled
jobs for which definite training is not of value. In general,
it may be said that a job is worth training for if it presents
these characteristics :
(1) Anybody cannot learn to do the job. That is, in
training, it is found that certain natural qualifications count,
as quickness, neatness, a good eye, physical strength, weight,
etc.
(2) The trade recognizes jobs of different degrees of
difficulty in the same line as, for example, in machine
shop work or in making paper boxes there are recognized
"grades" of jobs.
(3) There is a best way of doing the job.
(4) It is recognized that an appreciable period of time is
required for a learner to reach maximum efficiency in other
words, a man cannot do the job as well the first time as he
can after a period of practice.
There are but few jobs that do not meet these conditions.
The training discussed in this book has in mind training on
such jobs as well as in skilled trades.
The Necessity for Training. Whether a new man comes into
the shop from another shop of the same kind, or from a trade
resembling the trade that he takes up, or comes in absolutely
green, he needs a greater or less amount of "breaking in"-
that is, he needs training. Of course, what he needs and how
much he needs depends on what his new job is and how much
he knows, already, but he always needs something put over to
him if he is to do his new job as well as it should be done.
THE PRINCIPLES OP EFFECTIVE TRAINING 5
Somebody has to put this over to him, and, to that extent, that
somebody is just as truly an instructor, a teacher, as if he were
a "regular" teacher in a school. After all, a teacher is only
somebody whose business it is to put things over to teach.
Teaching is therefore always going on in any shop. It is a
necessary part of the carrying on of the work, because (while it
would be an ideal condition if it were possible) it is impossible
for any shop to keep going by only employing men who know
how to do the work and especially men experienced in doing the
work of that particular shop. There will always be some turn-
over. Men will drop out for one reason or another and other
men must be employed to fill their places. So instruction, or
training, must go on all the time. In some way, the new men
that come in must learn how to do the work, and this training
process must be carried on in addition to the production work
for which the shop is established and operated.
The Best Situation. If this training process has to be
carried on somehow we would have the best conditions if:
(1) Each man were trained so that he could do his job in
the best possible way.
(2) Each man were trained to do his job in the least time
compatible with thorough training.
(3) The experiences of each man during the training period
had been such that he stayed through the training period and
did not quit when only partly trained.
If he is trained so that he can do a first class job that is
evidently the best proposition both for him and for the shop.
A man who is thoroughly "onto his job" and knows it is less
likely to quit, makes better money, spoils less stock. What-
ever time and effort may have been spent in training him is
certainly a better investment and is likely to be a more per-
manent one.
The less time taken to train him, provided he is well trained,
the quicker he gets up to full production capacity. This again
is both to his advantage and to the advantage of the shop.
If his experiences in training are disagreeable, if he is con-
tinually "bawled out," if he feels that he is not "catching on,"
if he knows that he is not "getting on," if he is "guyed" by
6 THE INSTRUCTOR
the regular workmen as a "greenie" he is very likely to quit
and hunt another job. In such a case, the shop has not only
lost a man, but has lost whatever training the learner had got up
to the time that he quit. The value of this training lost in the
turnover is greater than is generally realized.
Training an Overhead Charge on the Shop. However it is
handled, training costs money. This money makes an over-
head charge on the shop. The more this overhead charge
can be kept down and men still properly trained the better:
but this overhead cost cannot be "ducked, " it is there whether
one sees it or whether one doesn't. The problem is to make
this overhead cost as small as possible and still do a good
training job. In order to get a line on how to do this it is
necessary to know what items affect the training cost.
In many cases both shops and men are losing money because
an unnecessary amount of time is spent in training, because
the training as given is not scientifically planned and put over,
because, under the conditions, much training is lost in turn-
over, and because many learners never learn how to do a
really first class job.
Some Factors in the Overhead Training Cost. Among the
more important factors tending to increase the overhead train-
ing cost are:
(1) Turning out second class men because no precau-
tions were taken to see that the learners were trained only
by first class men.
(2) Taking too little time to train a man properly because
it was nobody's business to follow him up and check him up
to see that he was properly trained.
(3) Allowing him to continue in training after he is trained,
and knows or thinks that he can do " as good a job as any other
fellow" resulting in discontent and an increased turnover.
(4) Putting improperly trained men onto regular production
work because no training standards have been established.
(5) Accepting for training, men who are not fitted for
that particular sort of work or continuing to train them
after it has become evident that they are unfitted for work
in that particular line.
THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING 7
Turning out Second Class Men. How can a man that does
not know how to do a job himself teach another man to do it?
How can a man who is only a second class man train a green
man into a first class man? It can't be done. In the average
run of a shop there are men of all grades: some first class,
some average, some hanging onto the pay roll by the skin of
their teeth. If the training is "anybody's job" what are the
chances for a given learner to get his training from a first class
man? Even if the new man starts with a poor man and is
later polished off by a good man, say the foreman, how much
will he have to unlearn? How much extra trouble will it make?
How much extra time will it take? That time and trouble
cost money. The cheapest way is to use only good men for
training from the start.
If a second class man trains a second class man and he in
turn trains a second or more likely turns out a third class man,
where is the shop headed? Evidently, so far as skill and effi-
ciency go, it is on the down grade, and the longer this process
goes on the further down the grade it goes. The whole ten-
dency is to steadily reduce the level of efficiency.
On the other hand if the skill and knowledge of only first
class men is utilized for training, if learners are only trained
by first class men, then the tendency is to continually raise
the level of the skill and efficiency of the shop.
Turning out a Man before he is properly Trained. Unless
there are definite standards established and somebody sees
that a learner is trained so that he can meet those standards
before he is turned out from training, the shop is likely to get
a good many poor men because they are not fully trained.
These poor men will go on causing an unnecessary overhead
cost as long as they are employed. After they- go out onto
regular production work they are not likely to make up what
they lack. They are more likely, sooner or later, to quit or
get fired. In either case, the value of the partial training that
they did get is lost to the shop. If a training job has to be
done anyway it pays to do a good job while you are at it.
Keeping a Man in Training after he is Trained. As already
pointed out, training costs money somebody must give time
8 THE INSTRUCTOR
machines and tools must be used in instruction so long
as a training process is carried on in any way. Unless the
training is stopped as soon as a learner is trained so that he can
do a good job, time and equipment are being spent or tied up
for no useful purpose. Where the training calls for putting a
learner through a series of jobs from the easiest to the most
difficult, it is often thought that it is a paying proposition to
keep him on a job after he has learned to do it as well and
quickly as he ever can do it, so as "to get some production
out of him.'* As a matter of fact the cheapest thing to do is to
pull him off that job as soon as he can do it and put him onto
the next one. That is, the cheapest thing to do is to get him
into the regular production force as soon as possible. As a
regular man on the job he will get at least as much out of the
equipment and be a better asset to the shop. If he has been
properly trained, so far as he is concerned, the overhead cost
for training has been stopped. In other words, it pays to
concentrate training; get it done; finish the training job as soon
as possible and get the training organization and equipment
at work on some other man.
Not only does this unnecessarily prolonged training period
increase overhead costs as just indicated, but, it also tends to
make the learner discontented. Rightly or wrongly he is liable
to think that he is being "worked." As a result he is much
more likely to quit. This also adds to the overhead cost as
already pointed out.
Failing to Establish Training Standards. Wherever it can
be done, failure to establish training standards results in men
being put on production work by guess instead of through
exact knowledge that the man is competent. This guesswork
results either in the learner being held in training too long or
not long enough. Whatever may constitute "a fair day's
work " by trade standards should be determined and a man
trained until he can meet these standards, if the overhead
cost of training is to be reduced to a minimum.
Training the Unsuitable Man. Another serious cause of
unnecessary overhead cost is attempting to train a learner
without making any attempt to size him up against the re-
THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING 9
quirements of the work for which he is to be trained, or after
it has become evident at any point in his training that he is
not the man for that particular sort of work. Any man cannot
be trained so that he will make a good man on any job.
Suppose a man is started in training for a job requiring a
high degree of accuracy and it appears that he has not got the
"accuracy sense," or the job requires neatness and quick
fingers and the learner is not naturally neat and has "butter
fingers." (For example, in one concern it was found that only
two girls out of three could make fancy paper boxes. Any
machinist will say that "you can't make a machinist out of
anybody. ") In such cases as these (and they will occur) the
quicker it is found out the less the unnecessary cost due to
useless training.
The Value of Good Instruction in Reducing Overhead Cost
Training Cost. There is no question that a man who knows
how to put it over, who knows the instructing game, can train
a learner faster and better than a man who only knows the
job even if he knows that job thoroughly. Experience has
proved this again and again. If a man who knows how to
instruct can train men on a given job in half the time that is
required by a man who does not know how to put over what
he knows, overhead costs are reduced. A considerable por-
tion of this book is given up to "pointers" on how to put it
over, because this is such an important factor in cutting down
training costs.
Summary of Conditions for Effective Training. If a concern
must train somehow in order to keep up the effectiveness of its
force (and all concerns must) its problem is to secure maximum
production and minimum overhead cost by bringing all its
force to a point where they can all do their different jobs in the
"best" way. Since training, no matter how it is carried on,
puts an overhead charge on the business the problem is to
train as well as possible but to keep the training cost as low as
possible and still train first class men. This is largely a matter
of meeting certain conditions among the most important of
which are: (1) Training the right people by some suitable
method of selection. (2) Conducting the breaking-in process
10 THE INSTRUCTOR
in such a way that the learner will stay through it and then
remain with the concern. (3) Establishing standards of good
workmanship and training to those standards.
Overhead cost will be cut according to the degree to which
the training work is organized and operated according to the
definite principles that underlie efficient training work.
CHAPTER II
METHODS OF TRAINING
Methods of Training. As has already been pointed out,
training has to go on somehow in practically all shops. It
always has gone on in some form it always will. At different
times and in different concerns training has been carried on in
a great many different ways, but all of these ways, or methods
of securing training, can be put into one of two classes, which
we can for convenience call training by absorption and training
by intention.
Training by Absorption. Where this method is used there
are no definite arrangements made for training. New men
pick up ' ' their work as they can. They get what information
they can from others who are on the same sort of jobs. Per-
haps they find a "good fellow" at the next machine and "get
next ' ' to him at the noon hour. ' ' They use their eyes and their
mouths. " In this way they gradually get so that they can do
some sort of a job or else get fired. If they are able to stay on
the job they are finally absorbed into the working force
hence the name.
Under this method it is absolutely nobody's business to
help the new man to get onto his job. What he gets he gets
himself, either through his own efforts or through the friendly
help of other workers or foremen who are not paid to help him
but are paid to get out production. It is a case of "pushing him
off the end of the dock " to sink or swim, and taking a chance
that if he starts to drown, and yells for help, somebody will
leave his regular job long enough to throw him a line.
For clearness of illustration the case cited above is, of course,
an extreme type, but it illustrates the actual way by which a
man gets his training in a shop where no definite plan for
training is operated. The point is, that the shop, as such,
assumes no responsibility for seeing that new men get the
11
12 THE INSTRUCTOR
training that they need. Getting such training is strictly
"up to the man."
A common modification of this method is where a shop
allows piece workers to take on learners as "helpers." As an
example, suppose a weaver in a cotton mill is running a cer-
tain number of looms, say, for illustration, eight. His wife's
cousin makes a deal with him to come in as a "helper."
Perhaps the "helper" pays for the privilege. With the aid of
this "helper" the weaver can run, say, ten looms instead
of the eight, so he makes more money. After a while the
" helper " thinks that he can run a few looms himself, and when
the mill is short on weavers he gets a chance to try it on his
own hook. In this way he gradually becomes some sort of a
weaver. What training he got, good or bad, he did not get
through any training plan operated by the mill. "Officially"
the mill had nothing to do with it. It did not even know
"officially " that the man was in training.
Another illustration of how this method works in practice
is when a man "steals his trade." For example, he goes to a
machine shop and calls himself a lathe hand. In a few hours
or half a day the foreman finds out that the man knows
nothing about his job and fires him. However, he has found
out something about the job. He goes to another concern,
represents himself as a lathe hand and gets a job on the
strength of it. This time he may last a few days. He works the
same game again with another shop. Because he knows a
little more he may last a little longer. By keeping this game
up he may finally become able to do some sort of a lathe
job.
As in the other cases, what he got he got by himself, with
what help he could get from other men whom he "pumped"
as he could, and who were not supposed to help him, but were
supposed to work on their own jobs.
Training by Intention. This method differs from training
by absorption in that there is some recognized plan for training
new men. Somebody is expected to train them either as all
of his job or as a part of his job. Some illustrations of how
training by "intention" is carried out in practice would be an
apprenticeship scheme; a definite recognition of helpers as a
METHODS OF TRAINING 18
part of the working force; a definite responsibility placed
upon foremen to train new men as well as to get out produc-
tion. Definite training departments, whose sole responsibility
is to train, as described in this book, and trade schools, would
illustrate training by intention carried to the extreme point of
development. In all of these cases somebody is paid to train
the new man. It is intended that he shall be trained hence
the name.
Characteristics of the Two Methods. It will be noted that
in the preceding description of the two methods no questions
were raised as to how well or how cheaply men could be
trained by either method. It was only pointed out that by
one method somebody is made responsible for training the
men, and by the other method nobody is made responsible,
and the man is left to get his training as well as he can it is
his job and nobody else's.
The Two Methods Compared. If the two methods are
compared certain facts become evident. By the "absorp-
tion" method the length of time required for a man to get
so that he can do the job, is a pure matter of accident. If he
is a "good fellow" of considerable push, and happens to get
in with some other "good fellows" who are interested in him
and are willing to show him, the training time will be shortened.
If he happens to be timid or shy, or runs up against a bunch of
men who "throw him down" or "kid" him when he tries to
find out something about his job, the training period will be
greatly increased. If he gets jobs of different degrees of
difficulty he is likely to get them any way that they happen to
come. Since nobody is looking out for him, he is put onto
regular work when he guesses that he can do it and can con-
vince whoever is in charge that he guessed right. He cannot
be really trained against standards. Nobody really knows
when he is trained. What help he gets may come from men
who are not themselves first class men on the job, so that the
way that he learns to do the work may not be the best way.
Even if they are good men there is no probability that they
are good at putting over what they know to a new man, and
he does not get an entirely clear idea as to how the job should
14 THE INSTRUCTOR
be done. All such things make his training long, ineffective,
incomplete, and in the end, costly.
Where the plan of training by intention is operated some-
body is made responsible for training the man. It may be the
foreman, a skilled man in charge of a helper, or an instructor
who only trains. Whoever it is, a part of his job, or all of his
job is to properly train the man. Under this plan it is possible
to see that he gets help when he needs it, and that he does not
have to wait for a chance to get it any way that he can. It is
possible to see that he gets the easiest jobs first and the most
difficult jobs last. It is possible to keep track of his training
and know when he is trained enough to meet given standards.
It is possible to be sure that what he gets he gets from first
class men, and not from anybody that happens to be around.
This amounts to saying that by this method the training can
be controlled and planned whereas it is accidental and cannot
be controlled under the "absorption" plan.
Of course the degree to which training under the intention
plan is effective is determined by the extent to which it is
organized in accordance with sound principles, and the manner
in which these principles are worked out in detail, but the points
noted above can be effectively met where training is by intention
and cannot be effectively met when training is by absorption.
Training by Intention the Cheaper Plan. From the stand-
point of the overhead training cost, as already discussed,
training by intention is the cheaper plan. Many large con-
cerns recognize this fact and operate intentional training
schemes. The various conditions that have been pointed out
as unavoidable under the absorption plan (unnecessarily long
training periods, learning from poor men, loss of partly trained
men, etc.) all make for an excessive overhead cost. The
possibilities pointed out under the "intention" plan permit
of giving the most effective training at the lowest overhead
cost. The degree to which the cost is actually reduced de-
pends, of course, on how the training is actually carried out
in practice.
Some Ways by which Intentional Training is Carried out in
Practice. Of course intentional training is carried out in all
METHODS OF TRAINING 15
sorts of ways in practice, and the methods of "breaking-in
help" that are usually followed in such schemes for intentional
training are well known to shop men, but for purposes of dis-
cussion some of the more common methods are given here.
(1) The foreman, in addition to his responsibility for
getting out the product, is made responsible for the training
of new men. He personally instructs them, keeps track of
them, checks them up. Many foremen have been very
successful in training men themselves and, in some cases,
have developed most excellent methods.
(2) A competent workman (an "old hand") is put in
charge of one or more learners. (Helpers, apprentices,
green men.) In the old days, under the apprenticeship
method, this was the standard plan. Training is, of course,
carried on in the regular shop as in the first case.
(3) Certain men are given the exclusive job of training.
These men are paid to do nothing else. Men are broken in
by them it is their job and nobody else is supposed to have
anything to do with the man until he is trained. Such men
are sometimes called instructing foremen to distinguish their
job from that of production foremen. Under this plan
training is also carried on in the shop.
(4) Training is not carried on in the regular shop but in
special "training shops," so that men do not get into the
regular work until they have been thoroughly trained.
Under good conditions the training is given with the same
equipment as that of the production shops, and the same
sort of work is carried on. A modification of this plan is
the trade school shop as it has been developed in some parts
of the country.
(5) Distinct training departments are established with
distinct heads and instructing staffs. So long as men are in
training they are under the authority of the training de-
partment and not under the production foremen. When
properly trained in the training department they are turned
over to the production department as competent men.
Training may be given in special shops or in the regular
production shops.
1 THE INSTRUCTOR
Of course, there are many modifications of these five forms.
For example, a foreman will often start a distinct training shop
for elementary training. This separate training shop may be
in some corner of the production shop. After a little prelimi-
nary breaking-in in the special "shop," the man's training will
be completed in the regular shop. The five examples given
will, however, serve as a basis for discussion.
Training by Intention Requires an Instructor. Before taking
up a discussion of the relative advantages and disadvantages
of the different typical methods just cited, one important
point should be clear. Training by intention, however it may
be carried out in detail, always puts the responsibility for
training onto somebody. That "somebody" is paid for giving
part of his time, or all of his time to training instead of giving
all of his time to production. That is, training by intention
always uses an instructor.
This is true because an instructor, whatever he may be
called, is somebody who is paid to "put it over": to teach.
In this sense, training by absorption does not assume that
any instructor is required.
The Job of the Instructor. Whenever a man has the job
of putting over what he knows to somebody else, whether he
thinks so or not, he is an instructor. His job is to instruct or,
to use the more common word, he is a teacher and his job is
to teach. Men who give shop instruction rarely think of
themselves as teachers. They seldom realize that they have
the same sort of a job as any other teacher, but such is the
fact. So far as the teaching end of it goes, teaching Bill Jones
how to set an index head on a universal miller, teaching a new
recruit how to handle a rifle, and teaching Bill's son, Sammy
Jones, how to solve an algebraic equation are all the same sorts
of jobs. Like any other job it can be well done or badly done,
but is the same kind of a job. Whatever he may be called, a
man who has an instructing job is an instructor.
If a man has the instructing job on his hands he naturally
wants to do that as well as it can be done. As in all other
cases, the best conditions will enable the instructing job to be
done in the best way. It is also true that when a job is done
METHODS OF TRAINING 17
in the best way it is done in the cheapest way : that is, in the
long run it costs less to do the job in that way, though some-
times, before the matter is thought out it looks as if it was
costing more. The following paragraphs discuss the different
methods of intentional training that have been given from the
standpoint of getting the most effective instruction as well as
from the standpoint of cost.
The Different Methods Compared. If we look at the five
methods of training given it is evident that they can be divided
into two groups. In examples (1) and (2) the instructor has
a double job. The foreman, or the breaker-in has to get out
the work and also instruct. In examples (3), (4) and (5) the
instructor has only one job: to instruct. As is pointed out in
detail later, this does not mean that men under instruction may
not turn out work, and good work, but it does mean that the job
of the instructor is only that of training. He is responsible for
the training that he does. The work turned out, while impor-
tant, is a " side show." In cases (1) and (2) we have a divided
responsibility, in cases (3), (4) and (5) a single responsibility.
The Single Responsibility Plan is Better. A production
force is on the job to get out product. The shop is organized
to turn out work; that is what it is there for. A foreman,
or other executive or supervisor, is responsible for getting out
the maximum product as well and as quickly as possible.
Men are employed to do their individual jobs and not to train
other men. Anything that interferes in any way with the
best conditions for getting out the work, slows up production
and puts an unnecessary overhead cost on the production
work. The attempt to handle training through the regular
production force, not only interferes with production but also
interferes with the efficiency of the training. The following
paragraphs discuss these points in detail.
Why Training by the Use of the Regular Production Force
Interferes with Production. The general principle involved
here is the value of specialization. When it is desired to get a
piece of work done as well as possible, the best way to do it
is to put someone on that job, hold him responsible and let
him give his undivided attention to getting it done. The
18 THE INSTRUCTOR
more he can concentrate on it, the better work he will do.
Men who are held responsible for production will do better
work if they concentrate their time and effort on production
than they will if their time and effort has to be divided between
two distinct jobs: training and production.
For illustration, assume that a foreman, as in example (1),
is expected to run his shop and also act as an instructor;
these are some of the results:
(1) The problems of getting out production are of one
kind. They relate to operations, production, speed, getting
maximum service out of the equipment. They head up
into getting out the product in the necessary quantity, of
the necessary quality and with as much speed and as little
lost motion as possible.
The problems of training are, as shown later, of a totally
different kind. They relate to methods of training. They
deal with such questions as, what a man is thinking about
while he is being instructed; how to secure and hold his
attention; how to be sure that he fully understands; how to
find out what he has not fully understood. They head up
into turning out trained men as rapidly and efficiently as
possible.
Now these two kinds of problems call for two distinct
kinds of thinking and for two distinct kinds of training. It
is hard for a man who is used to thinking about production
problems to shift once for all and think about instructing
problems as he does when he becomes a " steady " instructor.
This has been the experience of every shop man who has
become an instructor. He finds it a hard and a slow process
to make the shift. Under the conditions assumed, the
foreman who both runs his shop and instructs must make
this shift a great many times a day. First, for example,
he plans to get out a certain job by ten o'clock the next
morning. Then he must think out the best way to instruct
a man on a certain job. Next he may have to shift back
to another shop problem, then back to an instructing
problem and so on. He is in the same condition as a man
trying to do a pattern maker's job and a machine shop job
METHODS OF TRAINING 10
at the same time, or a ball player trying to pitch and cover
first base. Mentally he is running back and forth between
two entirely different kinds of jobs.
Now such running back and forth means a distinct loss
of efficiency. A man cannot thoroughly get "down to
brass tacks" on either job. The result of putting this
double job onto a man who is responsible for production
is to keep him from doing his best on the production job,
and that suffers accordingly. Under these conditions pro-
duction suffers because the man responsible for keeping it
up to top notch is bothered with the details of another
job as well as those of his own. This is especially true
where either job is enough to keep a man busy.
The usual and almost inevitable result is that one of the
jobs is neglected. Either training or production suffers.
Under ordinary conditions training suffers badly and produc-
tion is retarded as well. The foreman is bothered, he is in-
terfered with on his main job, and the training is badly done,
so that there is a loss at both ends. The above discussion
will apply equally well to the case where skilled men in the
shop are expected to do their jobs and also instruct. If they
do any real instructing they are in exactly the same situation
as the foreman their thinking and attention must run
back and forth between the two kinds of problems which
they are supposed to handle. This interferes with doing
the job, and also interferes with the effectiveness of the
training.
(2) The extent to which a combined producer and in-
structor leaves his production job in order to instruct is
so much time lost in production. When a skilled man
leaves his job to show a green man how to do something,
whatever time he takes is lost time so far as production goes.
If this instruction work is divided among a number of men
the total time lost amounts to considerable. This of course
slows up production to just that amount. The same
amount of time concentrated in one or more men who
gave their time to instruction only would serve to instruct a
considerably larger number of men.
The amount of time and attention that is diverted from
20 THE INSTRUCTOR
production, under the conditions just discussed, is enough,
where any amount of training is carried on, to appreciably
affect production efficiency. Men whose job is to get out
production cannot work with full efficiency if they have to
carry the "overload" of training as well.
Put it in another way. A certain number of men have
to be instructed. This takes a certain amount of time
and energy no matter how it is done. If this time and energy
are drawn from the production force it will require more
time and energy than if the same number of men were
trained by instructors who did nothing else. This saving
of time and effort means an increase in production, in addi-
tion to tke direct saving due to time and energy kept in
production where the production force do not have to
instruct.
Why the Use of the Regular Production Force Interferes
with Effective Training. If training interferes with produc-
tion the situation also works backward. It is almost impossi-
ble to secure the most efficient training when the same men
are made responsible for both maximum production and
efficient training work. This is true for practically the rea-
sons given in the last paragraph. Trying to do both jobs cuts
down good work on both.
The instructing job, if it is to be well done must be concen-
trated upon. Learners must not be left standing around for
further instructions because the *' instructor" has to attend
to some production problem at just that time. Neither
should they be poorly instructed because the instructor was
too hard pushed for time to properly plan the instruction work.
When the instructor comes off a production job and comes
on an instruction job he has to make the same "shift" de-
scribed in the last paragraph, only this time from production
to instruction, and he will not do as good a job of instructing
as he could have done had he been thinking of instructing
all the time.
The effect of this continual shifting on the efficiency of
both training and production is generally overlooked because
it is largely a mental question and so is concealed. Often
METHODS OF TRAINING 21
the man who is trying to do both jobs is not aware of the
trouble himself. He may be conscious of the "drag" but he
does not realize the cause. The great interest that many fore-
men take in training, and their unconsciousness of the "drag"
of the double job, often makes them reluctant to turn train-
ing over to a specialist although it really means a relief.
Specialization an Advantage. Keeping the responsibility
for getting out production and for training separate unquestion-
ably makes for the efficiency of both. Men who are to instruct
should be held responsible for instruction only. Men who
are to produce should be held responsible for production only.
This is the most efficient organization. Giving both jobs to
the same set of men cuts down efficiency on both and is a
wasteful organization.
This means that whenever training is to be done, instructors
should be employed: men whose sole business is to instruct
and these instructors should be trained for their jobs.
As in any other line of work, instruction will be good or
bad according to the degree to which the instructor is "onto
his job," according to the degree to which he is an expert in
his line. This is as true in the instructing trade as it is in any
other trade.
Definitely and Accidentally Trained Instructors. As in any
other trade, an instructor may have "picked up" his trade
as an instructor or he may have secured definite training.
We may have a trained or an untrained instructor. As in
other trades, there are best ways of putting over instructing
jobs and a man can get these "points" from a man who knows-
them. That is, an expert teacher who knows how to teach
can show a prospective trade instructor a good deal about
" how to put it over, " in connection with that man's instructing
job. Of course it is plain that such a "training course" would
not undertake to teach a man anything about his trade itself,
but would only show him how to "put over" to better advan-
tage the trade knowledge and skill that he already possessed.
It is evident that the more a man knows about his job the
more time and attention he will put into it, because he does
know more about it. This is as true of an instructor as of
22 THE INSTRUCTOR
anybody else. The more he knows about the instructing
job the more he will feel the "drag" of a double responsibility,
the more he will see the loss of efficiency in training due to
"shifting." The less a man knows about instructing as a
distinct trade the less the double combination will disturb
him. This makes it particularly desirable that trained
instructors should be only held responsible for instruction.
The Value of the Trained Instructor. Experience has shown
that a trained instructor can do a much better instructing
job than an untrained man, no matter how competent that
man may be in his trade or on his job. The former can
train men quicker, easier and better. He knows how to
handle men under good instructional conditions which are
often very different from good production conditions. He can
plan his work and use the best "putting over" method for a
given teaching job. He knows how to inspect his own work
and can tell whether his learners thoroughly understand what
has been taught them. He can analyze his trade and can de-
termine just what instruction should be given a man for a
specific piece of work.
The employment of trained instructors, therefore, adds
greatly to the efficiency of any training work, and the cost of
properly training them is more than repaid by the increased
efficiency that results directly in the training itself, and,
through that, in decreased overhead charges and increased
production.
Summary. Training must be carried on somehow. It
may be by intention or by absorption. By the absorption
plan the concern, as such, assumes no responsibility for seeing
that the recruit secures training. By the intention plan it
does assume that responsibility. Training by intention is
more efficient and cheaper, but requires an instructor. The
instructor may be required to attend to both instruction and
production or the two jobs may be specialized. Specializa-
tion is more efficient and cheaper. It is still cheaper and
more efficient not only to use specialized instructors who
only instruct but to use trained instructors, who know how
to instruct.
CHAPTER in
TRAINING ON THE JOB
The preceding chapters discussed the value of definitely
organized training, described certain common methods by
which this training may be carried out, and pointed out the
most economical and efficient working conditions. There
still remains to be discussed the question of how and where
this training is to be given.
This is particularly important, as many training schemes
have been less efficient than they might have been because
undesirable and inefficient methods were employed.
It is also true, that, for reasons discussed later, more expen-
sive and less effective training methods are quite liable to be
employed in industrial plants where those in charge were not
familiar with the fundamental principles on which the most
effective training can be developed.
The Two Methods. Whenever practical training is under-
taken, it is generally carried on according to one of two methods
which for convenience may be designated as training on the
job and training by exercises. Whatever the details, in
training on the job, the learner, from the beginning, is put
directly on actual work. Production starts as soon as train-
ing starts. From the beginning of his training, the learner
uses the same tools and machines and works up the same
stock as would a regular producer on that job. He turns out
a product that is of value, although, of course, his productivity
is not so great.
In training by exercises, the learner is not put on actual
work from the start. Production does not start when training
begins but there is a period during which the learner does not
produce in the sense that his product is of value. It may
be true, that, by the exercise method of training, the learner
may use the same tools and machines, or even work on the same
24 THE INSTRUCTOR
stock as a regular man on the job, but his product is not used.
It is "junked," or dissembled after it has served its training
purpose. The test for an " exercise" is therefore, not how the
job is done but what becomes of the product after the job is
done.
The Two Methods Illustrated The Exercise Method.
Take the case of training riveters in a shipyard. According
to the exercise method, a green man would be set to driving
rivets on some old plates. After he had driven a number,
they would be cut out and more rivets would be driven in the
same holes. This process would be repeated until he was
considered sufficiently expert to "graduate" into real work in
the production force. The same old plates would be used
over and over again for successive learners.
Another illustration is in the method of training in machine
shop work often followed in the shops of technical schools.
A series of operations are laid out to be put through by the
learner. (Say, rough turning, fine turning, thread cutting)
and, after these operations are finished, the final product is
"junked." Still another illustration is in training brick-
layers; a wall is laid up by the learners and laborers are
employed to tear it down.
Another variation of this method is where a learner is put on
as an observer and after a while is allowed to "try his hand"
on some odds and ends, as in a jointry shop, where, after
some observation, he is allowed to try making a joint with
pieces of scrap stock.
It will be observed in all of these cases, that between the
time that the learner is taken on and the time that he was
started in on "work" there was a greater or less period of
time when he was of no direct productive value.
The Two Methods Illustrated The Job Method. The
second method can be illustrated by such cases as the follow-
ing. In training a riveter in a shipyard, from the start, he is
put upon work that has a value. This work, of course, is
selected for its simplicity, but, the rivets that are driven stay
driven, unless, of course, they are defective, as in the riveting
done by any production riveting gang. The parts that are
TRAINING ON THE JOB 25
riveted together stay together and go into the ship. In the
same way, in jointry work, simple jobs that really count in
production, are selected and given to the learner from the
beginning. The simplest, roughest jobs are given first and the
learner gradually progresses to finer and more difficult work
as his training goes on. In training a learner on a special
machine, he is started directly on the machine itself without
any appreciable period of observation. In all such cases,
it will be noted that no appreciable period intervenes between
the time that the learner is started in training and the time
that he begins to produce.
Theory of the Two Methods. The exercise method is based
upon the theory that a learner must, in some way, secure a
certain amount of skill before he can be trusted on actual work.
Unless he has acquired this skill he will spoil work, damage
machines, spoil jobs. In certain cases, in training for skilled
trades, it is also based on the theory that if a learner can be
given skill in a series of disconnected operations he can, later,
readily combine any set of those operations into the doing
of any given job.
The method of training on production is based on the theory
that, under proper conditions, the "non productive period"
is unnecessary, in the great majority of cases. The greater
interest of the learner, the value of his product, the added
training value to learners in working under actual working con-
ditions more than offsets the chances of the small amount of
spoiled work that results where this type of training is carried
on under proper conditions.
Since most men in industrial plants have not known how
to secure proper conditions and have sensed the dangers of
the "jobs" method of training, it is not surprising that they
have tried the exercise method to a greater or less extent.
Advantages and Disadvantages. The advantages of the
exercise method may be listed out as follows:
(1) If the learner is thoroughly trained on exercises
before he is put to work, the danger of spoiled work is
minimized.
26 THE INSTRUCTOR
(2) Since his work is of no value he does not require
as careful watching as if he were on a real job.
(3) Such work has a certain trying out value.
(4) Where definite instruction is planned such exercises
can be arranged in any desired order without regard to the
requirements of actual work.
(5) In many cases exercises can be so contrived that the
learner can be less "bother" around the shop than if he
were put onto regular production jobs.
The disadvantages of this method may be Ksted out as
follows :
(1) As already stated, this method calls for a period of
non-productive work. In a school, where students are
not paid for their time, this is perhaps less important than
in a shop w r here learners are under pay. In the shop this
non-productive period adds to the overhead cost.
(2) The training conditions are artificial. Under actual
working conditions men are not put on work unless the
product is of value to the output.
(3) Experience has shown, especially in shops, that
where a learner knows that his product will not have to
meet the actual test of use, he is less interested, tends to
be more careless in his work and is less anxious to get on.
(4) It is very difficult to apply in many shop operations,
especially on automatic or semi-automatic machines and
on a large number of semi-skilled jobs.
(5) In many cases, exercises as planned, do not repro-
duce actual working conditions. In the effort to avoid
tying up tools and equipment on non-productive work the
tendency to use "artificial" exercises is strong. One
illustration of this is the common tendency to consider
that any old worn out tool or machine is good enough for
training exercises.
The advantages of training on the job may be listed out as
follows:
(1) There is no non-productive interval, hence overhead
cost is reduced.
TRAINING ON THE JOB 27
(2) The learner's interest is kept up from the start,
hence he is much more likely to do his work as well as
possible, and to desire to get on as fast as possible.
(3) It is practically the only method that can be used
in training on many industrial jobs. (Semi-skilled, auto-
matic, etc.)
(4) All training can be given under actual production
conditions.
The disadvantages are:
(1) The danger of spoiling work, if not properly con-
trolled.
(2) The difficulty of securing the right sort of work
for training by selecting it only from the work of the shop.
(3) The difficulty of securing suitable work for training
without seriously interfering with the regular production
work.
Training on the Job the Better if these Difficulties can be
Minimized. It is evident that training directly on produc-
tive work is the cheaper and more efficient method provided
its disadvantages can be removed. If the period of non-
productive work can be cut out, that is a distinct advantage.
If the interest of the learner can be kept up to the highest
pitch, the time required for training will be reduced and the
learner will be much more likely to stay through the training.
As stated, there are many jobs for which it is practically im-
possible to train on any other basis.
The disadvantages of the exercise method are fundamental
in their character. The objections to the job method are
not fundamental, but can be eliminated by a proper organi-
zation.
Many concerns have admitted the advantages of the
method of training on production and, in fact, many have
tried it in some cases with unsatisfactory results. This failure
has not been due to the insuperable difficulties of the plan,
but to the omission of a vital factor, the trained and competent
instructor. Where such work has been undertaken without such
an instructor all the difficulties of this method have been at
8 THE INSTRUCTOR
their maximum. With no instructor (as by the absorption
method) where such help as was given was given by other work-
men incidental to the doing of their own jobs, of course results
were very bad. Machines were smashed, stock spoiled, men
injured and discontented, training poor. Even where the
foreman has had this additional load put upon him, in addi-
tion to his proper job, that of running his shop, similar results
have occurred, though it is only fair to say, that many foremen
have worked "overtime" and have achieved some measure
of success in spite of their double load, especially where
such men had some notions as to the principles of effective
instruction.
Where an instructor has been employed he has usually
been selected either because he was a good production man or
as has sometimes occurred, because he was not (the idea being
to use a less valuable man on the training work and keep the
better men in production). In few cases was he selected
because he could instruct efficiently, either because he was a
natural teacher or because he had been trained as an instructor.
The Instructor and Training on the Job. AS already
stated the key to effective training on production is the
instructor who can instruct. Such a man knows how to ana-
lyze out the different learning processes through which the
learner must go in training for each job. He knows how to
take the learner through those processes step by step. He
knows how to be sure that the learner has got one step before
he takes him to the next. He knows how to handle the
learner so that he is interested in getting along as fast as possi-
ble and in doing as good a job as possible. If in addition,
his job is only that of an instructor, he is on the instructing
job all the time, preventing mistakes, anticipating difficul-
ties, straightening out the learner as soon as he starts to go
wrong. And he has no other job to think about. Under
these conditions the dangers of job training are reduced to a
minimum.
As in all other trades, as a general proposition, a trained
instructor can do a better job than an untrained instructor.
Hence the better trained the instructor the better the results
in job training. An investment in training instructors will
TRAINING ON THE JOB 29
be well repaid to any concern undertaking training and is
especially desirable when training is to be carried on by inten-
tion and on the job.
The Importance of Training on the Job. As already stated
there are very few situations where training on production
from the beginning of the process is not the most efficient
and the cheapest in the end. This, of course, provided inten-
tional training is used with properly qualified instructors.
Experience has shown that, under these conditions it can be
carried on without seriously disturbing the work of the pro-
duction force. This is, of course, largely a matter of coopera-
tion and proper organization.
The adoption of this method makes it possible to train
effectively on a large number of specialized and semi-skilled
jobs for which training cannot be given in any other way.
It is as important that efficient methods of training should be
used for training on these jobs as on "skilled" jobs. 'Many
a concern suffers more from lack of first class workers on jobs
of this class than from lack of skill in its highly skilled men,
who are often relatively few in number. The tendency to
concentrate attention on training to the few highly skilled
trades that may be represented in the force results in a loss of
efficiency. Some large concerns have even found it desirable
to train their office boys.
Training on the Job in the Trade School. A trade school
that trains its students on productive work differs in no essen-
tial way from a commercial concern so far as training condi-
tions go. The same requirements as to trained and qualified
instructors exist here that would be found in an industrial
plant training its learners on the job. What has been said
applies therefore to such a school as well as to an industrial
plant. It is the personal conviction of the writer that exer-
cise training has no more place in an efficient trade school
than it has in an efficient plant.
Summary. There are two general methods of training:
on the job and by exercises. The exercise method assumes
a period of non-productive training, the job method does not.
A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the
30 THE INSTRUCTOR
two methods shows that the exercise method has certain
fundamental disadvantages and the "job" method certain
disadvantages that can be practically cut out by proper
organization and right working conditions. Difficulties in
carrying on job training have been mainly due to lack of
specialized, trained, qualified instructors. The job method
is the most efficient and the cheapest, both in industrial plants
and in trade schools.
CHAPTER IV
PICKING THE TRAINING FORCE
The final key to the success or failure of any training course
is the sort of man that is put in charge of the work. Effec-
tive organization is necessary, adequate provision for training
is necessary, but these alone will not give effective training
results.
The following suggestions may be of value to those who
may be interested in manning a training plan, or in selecting
prospective instructors to attend an Instructor Training
Course.
Trade Experience. It is useless to look for good instruc-
tion unless the instructor is a thoroughly good * workman.
The notion that "a man that is not good enough for the job
is good enough for an instructor on that job " will only lead to
trouble. Where foremen or their subordinates are asked to
pick instructors it has sometimes occurred that they have recom-
mended men that they wanted to get rid of rather than their
best men. This may have been natural for men who had no
notion of what an instructor's job really is, but these men
were of course, really defeating their own ends.
Experience has shown again and again that the only man who
is worth selecting for a prospective instructor is a thorough
master of his job.
A rough guide is the length of time that a man has worked
at his trade. For instruction in skilled trades it should be
not less than eight years. For specialized work it may be less,
but the tendency is to undervalue a long trade experience,
as an asset for an instructor. As already stated he must
not only know about the job, but must know how to do it, and
his experience must have been sufficient so that he can "hold
down his job with any man." He must command the trade
respect of the production force.
31
32 THE INSTRUCTOR
General Education. Many concerns have felt that young
men of good general education, who had had some contact with
the industry in the line in which they were to instruct, were
desirable material for instructors, though they had little or no
actual trade experience. Often a young man with some techni-
cal training who has acted as an inspector or assistant to an
executive is selected on account of his education and general
ability. Such men are not likely to succeed as instructors
and should not be selected. If an instructor cannot "hold
up his end" with any man in the shop, if they do not respect
him on a production basis, if they do not know that he has
"been through the mill," he will not succeed as an instructor
no matter how well educated and intelligent he may be.
Such a young man may know a great deal about how to do the
job, but being able to do the job is another matter. In-
telligence is needed, but it is that of the shop, not that of the
school.
Of course the above statement does not mean that the
more general education a man has the better, provided he
has his trade, but the tendency to assume that good education
is an equivalent for trade ability is an unfortunate one. '
Another mistake sometimes made is in selecting a man who
has had a school experience but has either no trade experience
or very little. This comes from a confusion as to what
constitutes the job of a trade or job instructor. An educa-
tional experience is of value, but alone, it will not serve the pur-
pose, for the same reasons given in the preceding paragraph.
Age. Prospective instructors should not be too young..
From thirty to forty is perhaps the best age, but men well over
forty have made good instructors when properly trained. A
man who takes up instructing has to learn a new trade, the
instructing trade. Whatever his age, if he has grown "stiff"
he is not likely to pick up and practice the new trade effectively.
If too young, lack of trade experience and immaturity will
prove handicaps.
Other Desirable Qualifications. A supervisory experience,
such as that of a foreman, is desirable provided it has not been
so long that the man has lost the "feel" of the job. Where
PICKING THE TRAINING FORCE 33
a considerable period has elapsed since he actually worked
at the job himself this is likely to prove a detriment.
The Ability to "Put It Over." It is commonly assumed
that if a man can do a good job himself he can teach a learner
how to do it. This is not the case, however. Many men
who can do a first class job cannot teach anybody else how to
do that job. The two qualities do not necessarily go together.
It is true that the better a man is on his job the better instructor
he will make, provided he can teach. Some men seem to be
"natural teachers, but such men are rare. The average good
man can acquire, however, the ability to instruct best through
an effective training course. This has been very plainly
shown where such courses have been conducted.
The Director of Training. The desirability of putting the
training work in charge of a responsible head (a director) is
discussed later. In selecting such a man, many concerns have
failed to recognize the importance of his job. They have
picked out men who were too young. Men without sufficient
experience in handling men; men without knowledge of the
principles of good training, whose only experience has been in
the field of production have been put upon this work. An ex-
perience in production, especially in the plant in which the train-
ing is to be given, is a valuable asset for a director, but, never-
theless, if he lacks knowledge of the principles of good training
and of instructional organization he will be lacking in efficiency.
Any director should be as good an instructor as any of his staff.
The director of a training department has a job that is
as vital to the success of a concern as the work of any other
department. He should be chosen as carefully as any other
department head and paid as well. He should be given
authority commensurate with his responsibility.
Summary. The best instructor is a man of thorough trade
experience, preferably in the plant. He should not be too
young or too old. He should be a first class man on his job,
but adaptable and able to change from production to instruc-
tional conditions. The attempt to substitute men with other
types of experience is liable to lead to unsatisfactory results,
and to lower the efficiency of the training.
PART II
THE ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
TRADE KNOWLEDGE
PRODUCTION AND INSTRUCTION
A COMPARISON
THE SHOP
Turns out a product.
Knows what kind of a pro-
duct it is going to turn out.
Gets out the product from
specifications and plans from
which parts are made and then
assembled.
The man responsible for the
finished product knows all the
parts that go into the com-
plete product.
The parts of the complete
product are assembled in the
order that will give the most
rapid and easy assembling.
THE INSTRUCTOR
Turns out an instructed
man. (A learner.)
Knows what kind of work
he is training the learner for.
Works from a planned
course of instruction made
up from definite teaching
units. (Lessons.)
The instructor knows all
the branches and operations
of his trade.
The course of instruction
is put over in an order that
will enable the learner to get
it as rapidly and easily as
possible.
36
CHAPTER V
THE PRODUCER AND THE INSTRUCTOR
Introductory Note. Parts II to VII contain material es-
pecially prepared for the use of instructors or prospective
instructors, and for use in Instructor Training Courses. For
this reason certain points presented in Part I. are again pre-
sented here from a somewhat different angle.
The Producer vs. The Instructor. All industrial work is
carried on in order that a product may be obtained; its aim is
to turn out some sort of a manufactured product: to "get
out production" For this purpose workmen are engaged,
machines are operated, tools are used. The aim of a cotton
mill is to. turn out cloth, of a steel mill to turn out steel; of a
shipyard to turn out ships. In these or in any other produc-
tion plant the workman or mechanic by the exercise of his
knowledge and skill contributes to the production of the par-
ticular article for which the plant is operated. The greater
the skill and intelligence of the workmen, the better the equip-
ment, the less stock spoiled by poor workmanship and the
more effectively the different jobs are routed and inspected,
the more efficiently and cheaply is the cloth, or the steel or the
ship turned out. A man who has learned his trade and has
practiced it efficiently is therefore an efficient producer. He
has lived and worked in the surroundings of the production
plant; he naturally thinks of his job in terms of product.
Training is carried on in any industrial plant in order that
people (apprentices, learners, helpers, etc.), that is, people
who do not know how to do jobs, may learn how to do jobs.
Unless training were in some way carried on in connection
with production after a while production would stop because
all the people who knew how to do the work had died and
there would be nobody to continue the work; so that we should
have no more steel, or cotton cloth or ships. The aim of
37
38 THE INSTRUCTOR
training is therefore not to turn out production but to turn out
men who have been given the necessary skill to enable them
to weave cotton cloth, or make steel or build ships. Its product
is an effective producer, but is not production.
An Instructor, by the exercise of his knowledge of instruction
methods and his skill in applying them to the work of instruc-
tion, produces an efficient workman and makes him out of a
man who, before he was instructed, was not a worker at all, or
was not a thoroughly efficient worker.
The greater the skill and intelligence of the instructor the
better the instructional equipment, the fewer good men or
apprentices spoiled by poor instruction and the more rapidly
and efficiently the instructional process is carried on, the more
efficiently and cheaply are the learners converted into efficient
producers.
A competent producer who has also been trained to instruct
and who on account of that training, "knows his job " from the
standpoint of putting over what he knows, is an efficient
instructor. As an instructor he works on a training job. He
naturally thinks of his job in terms of trained learners. He
thinks in terms of training and not in terms of production.
The Producer who Becomes an Instructor. When a man
who has always been a producer, becomes an instructor, he
usually gets into difficulties because he does not realize that
he has, in reality, changed his job; that he has stopped being a
producer and has become a trainer. He attempts to do a
training job but he still thinks in terms of a production job.
This is why a man who knows his trade usually thinks that he
can teach it, and why, when he finds that things do not go
right he usually blames it on the men or apprentices he is
trying to instruct. Some men are natural teachers; they have,
in some manner, picked up more or less of the instructor's
trade, but in general, no matter how thoroughly a man may
know his trade, or how much experience he may have had in
production, he usually "falls down" as an instructor when he
first tackles the instructing job because he does not know how
to put over what he knows into the head or the hand of his
learners. Often he realizes that he is not doing a good in-
structing job, becomes discouraged and quits, when the real
THE PRODUCER AND THE INSTRUCTOR 39
difficulty is that he never realized that, when he became an
instructor he really took up a new trade which he knew nothing
about and that what he needs is to get hold of the new trade,
(instructing) in order to succeed.
Some Common Difficulties. Among the more common
difficulties which the "green" or untrained mechanical in-
structor encounters are: First, inability to take account of
stock as to what he knows; that is, he knows it, but he has
never listed it out. He cannot analyze his trade. Second,
when he has to put over more than one job he does not know
how to arrange the different jobs so that each job that the
learner masters makes the mastery of the next job easier. He
does not know how to arrange his jobs in an effective instruc-
tional order. Third, he is often unable to distinguish between
what must be taught as jobs and what should be given to the
learner in the form of information. Fourth, he does not know
how to plan so that it will be given to the learner at the time
that he must apply it on the job for the first time. Fifth, he
does not know how to teach or put over any given job rapidly,
effectively and thoroughly. Sixth, he does not know how to
handle learners under instructional conditions though he may
know how to handle them under production conditions.
The First Difficulty: Inability to Analyze. It is one thing
to know; it is another thing to know what you know. A man
who has learned to do things by doing them is not, as a rule,
in the habit of " taking stock " of his trade knowledge. On the
job he uses his knowledge and skill so unconsciously that he
hardly gives a thought to how he does it or what he does to do
it. He works, so to speak, automatically.
When he undertakes to put over to somebody else what
he knows, or what he can do, that is, when he becomes an
instructor, he must be able to determine what he is going to
teach. The learner does not know it; he has got to learn it.
The instructor does know it and he must therefore know what
he is going to put over to the learner so that he can determine
just what the learner must know when he has instructed
him.
Of course, the instructor, knowing his trade, has all these
40 THE INSTRUCTOR
things in his head, but, until such a "stock taking" is carried
out the instructor is in much the condition of an old-fashioned
country store where all sorts of things are in stock but nobody
knows just what is in stock. Just as the up to date store has
an inventory, so the instructor must take an inventory of his
stock, what he has to teach.
The efficient workman who becomes an instructor even if
he recognizes the necessity of this stock taking cannot usually
do it at first, because, as pointed out above, he has never had
occasion to look at his work from that angle. He must do
what amounts to looking at his trade as an outsider would: he
must watch himself at work and note down what he does. He
must "watch himself at work." This is a hard thing to do if a
man is not used to doing it, and the producer who becomes an
instructor has never had to do it, hence he usually gets into trouble
because he has not got the power of analysis as it is called.
The Second Difficulty: Inability to Arrange the Work in an
Effective Instructional Order. In teaching a trade a great
many things must be taught to the learner one after the other.
That is, the different things which the instructor wishes to
put over must be handled in some order. In a general way
almost anybody will recognize the desirability of giving "easy
work" before giving "hard work," but beyond that general
notion few mechanical instructors go unless they know how to
arrange the work in the most effective instructional order. A
further difficulty is that, if they do undertake to arrange it in
an effective order they usually work it out from the standpoint
of difficulty in production, which is all right for a production
job, but all wrong for an instruction job, because the instructor
must figure his order on the basis of the things which make it
difficult for the learner to acquire, which is a very different
thing from the question of the difficulties of doing a job. The
instructor must determine learning difficulties; not production
difficulties. Failure to take in this distinction between the two
kinds of difficulties commonly results in getting an inefficient
instructional order of instruction, when any order is laid out.
Training for the Instructing Job. People who make a
business of teaching have found out how to go to work to get
THE PRODUCER AND THE INSTRUCTOR 41
what they wished to teach into an effective instructional order
and how to determine just what must be taught. These
methods and rules for going at this job are well known to
instructors in schools but, naturally, the man who comes onto
an instruction job directly from the trade does not know them
and so does not know how to go at this part of his job as an
instructor. He really has to learn a new trade with new opera-
tions and new tools. He can be greatly helped in getting hold
of his new trade if he can learn it with the help of an "old
hand" at the teaching trade. Where this can be done the
prospective instructor can secure help in getting his instructor
training. Where he cannot get such help and must train
himself, the job is more difficult but he can get considerable
help from the following notes.
This part deals with that side of the instructor's job which
concerns itself with the determination and classification of what
is to be taught to the learner in a given trade.
Under these conditions the suggestions for self-training in
the Appendix will be of value.
CHAPTER VI
THE FIRST OPERATION. THE DETERMINATION OF
WHAT IS TO BE TAUGHT
The Trade Analysis. The first operation in the work of
an instructor is to determine what he has to teach to train a
learner for the trade that he is to be taught. If only a portion
of the trade is to be taught, (as might be the case with a man
who partly knew the trade) or where a man is to be trained in
some portion of the trade, (specialized operations, for example)
which might come up under some conditions, the instructor
must determine, out of all the things that should be taught
for the complete trade just what things must be taught in that
particular case. The instructor must not only be able to take
account of stock for the whole trade but must be able to de-
termine what will be required for any part of the trade. If
the learner is to be trained for a house carpenter, or a tool
maker, or a printer, just what must he know and be able to
do when the instructing process is completed? If he is to be
trained as a special machine operator, just what must be
taught him so that he can do that job as well as it can be done?
If in printing, he is to be trained for some special branch of
the trade, as compositor or press feeder, what part of the whole
printing trade must be put over? If a man is to be trained to
make sheet metal pipes and elbows, just what must he be
taught out of all that a first class sheet metal man needs to
know, before the instructor will "stand" for him as a com-
petent man in that special work? In order to be able to an-
swer such questions the instructor must know exactly what
he must put over in each case, and so must take "account of
stock." Unless he does this he can, at best, only guess at what
the learner should be given to fit the requirements of each case.
Such a stock taking is commonly called analyzing the trade
42
DETERMINATION OF WHAT IS TO BE TAUGHT 43
and is the first operation which the instructor must take in
laying out a course of instruction.
What is Meant by Analyzing the Trade. Analyzing the
trade simply means listing out all the things that the learner
must be taught if he is to be taught the complete trade. If
the trade is that of a carpenter, the instructor notes down all
the different jobs that a carpenter has to do. If it is plumbing,
or book binding, or machine shop work, the same listing of
jobs must be carried out. If, in addition to the jobs them-
selves, there are certain special words (technical terms) whose
use he must learn, or special tools whose names he must know,
or constructions or computations which he must be able to
make or special safety precautions that he riiust take, these
must also be listed completely out.
The point in each case is to make a complete list of all that
the man must know when the instructor has trained him for
the complete trade. If less than the complete trade is to be
taught then the problem is to pick out what is required in that
case from the complete "trade list."
Laying out More than One Course of Instruction. An
instructor in a training department often has to instruct more
than one sort of learner. For example, an instructor in print-
ing, if he is competent, may have to instruct one group of
learners who are to be compositors, another group who are to
be trained for linotype operators, and another group who are
to be pressmen. Under some conditions it might be necessary
for the same instructor to train different groups in different
stages of progress in the same trade; or in different specialized
parts of the same trade. In all such cases, a distinct analysis
must be made for each line of instruction. Where partial
trades are to be taught, a special line of instruction must be
laid out, only, as pointed out above, in this case, the special
instruction material can be taken out of the course of instruc-
tion for the complete trade.
The essential point is that the instructor must first know
what sorts of training he has to give and then lay out lines of
instruction for each sort of training. In order to do this he
must be able to make the necessary analys2s.
44 THE INSTRUCTOR
Where work is cairied on by a gang, as in riveting in a ship-
yard, or in blacksmithing, the instructor should make as many
analyses as there are different jobs in the gang, and not make
one analysis for the work of a whole gang. For example, in the
case of the riveting gang mentioned above, one analysis should
be made for the job of the heater, another for the riveter, a
third for the passer and a fourth for the holder on. The same
method of going at it would be followed for other gang trades.
The Instructor Must Do this Job. In making these analyses
the instructor uses entirely his knowledge of his trade. He
simply picks out from all his trade knowledge what he con-
siders necessary to put over for a given instructing job. Evi-
dently this work can only be properly done by a man who
thoroughly knows his trade. Only another man who knows
as much about the trade as he does can help him in this. The
work requires considerable time, because a man, even if he
knows the trade thoroughly will seldom list out all necessary
points the first, or even the second time.
Summary. The line of instruction must be based on an
analysis of what is to be taught. This the instructor gets at
by looking at his trade from the outside and listing all the
jobs, special terms, calculations, etc., which he must somehow
put over to the learner. Nobody can help him in this; he must
get it from his own knowledge of his trade. (He might, of
course, get some help by talking it over with another man in
his own trade.) If the instructor is to instruct more than one
sort of learner, as many analyses must be made as there are
distinct lines of instruction to be given.
DETERMINATION OF WHAT IS TO BE TAUGHT
45
THE CLASSIFICATION OF TRADE KNOWLEDGE
Man is Paid for Doing
Jobs. .
. . . Production Jobs.
. . Service Jobs
. .Technical Jobs..
.Trade Drawing.
.Trade Mathematics
, Trade Judgment.
. Assembling
. Shaping
. Forming
. Miscellaneous
. Sketching
. Making
. Reading
. Problems
. Constructions
.Special Methods
Man is not paid
for having
Auxiliary Knowledge.
but is paid for doing jobs
which he could not do well
unless he possessed and "sed
auxiliary knowledge.
. Trade Terms
.Trade Science
.Knowledge of Stock
.Safety First.
. Care of Tools and
Equipment
. Material
. Machines
. Location
. Operation
, Special
Recognition
, Working Properties
. Ignorance
. Carelessness
. Accidental
, Occupational
. In use
. Not in use
, Prevention of loss
Prevention of waste
CHAPTER VH
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT.
THE SECOND OPERATION IN GETTING OUT A
LINE OF INSTRUCTION
Preliminary. The previous chapter discussed the ques-
tion of determining what the learner must be taught if he is
to be trained for any given trade or particular line of work.
For each case the instructor must determine what that learner
must know and what he must be able to do when the period
of instruction is completed. These various things however
are of more than one kind, and the next step is to divide all the
things that the learner must be taught into different sorts or
classes. That is, the content must be classified. This process
corresponds to sorting out bolts into different sizes, or dis-
tributing type or mail. In a sense we label a set of pigeon
holes and sort out what we intend to teach into the different
compartments according to the label on each compartment.
According to its character this thing goes into one compart-
ment and that thing goes into another compartment.
The Importance of Getting Properly Classified Analysis.
Getting out a correct and complete analysis and then classify-
ing correctly is the key to the whole problem of getting an
effective order of instruction. If the analysis is not complete
the instructor will omit things that the man should be taught
if he is to be completely trained. If it is not correct, the man
will be improperly trained and cannot do his jobs properly.
If the jobs that are to be put over are not properly classified,
the instructor will not know how to choose the best methods
of instruction for the different kinds of lessons, he will not know
how to choose proper teaching conditions for instruction and
he will not know whether what he wishes to give to a learner
in any given case should be taught him or merely given to
him as information. He will not be able to distinguish between
46
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 47
the things that must be taught as a part of the job itself, and
the auxiliary material which should not be taught in separate
lessons but "hung onto the job" by the method described
Jater. 1 One of the chief reasons for inefficient instruction
is that instructors are unable or unwilling to take time to
thoroughly work out the classification and analysis of the lines
of instruction which they have to teach. They never know
exactly where they are. One of the chief differences between
a good instructor and a poor instructor is that the former does
base his instruction on properly worked out and classified
instruction material and the latter does not.
Classification Labels. The term job means anything that
a man is paid to do. Reading a blueprint is a job, running
an automatic machine is a job, setting type is a job. It should
be noted that something may be a job for one man and not for
another, according as he is or is not paid for doing it. A blue-
print man is paid for making blueprints. That is his job, but
it would not be a job for a machinist.
The Different Sorts of Jobs. If we look carefully at the
different sorts of jobs which men are paid to do we find that
they are not all of the same kind; one class of jobs such as
pattern making, gear cutting, paper box making, type setting,
high power machine work require the working up of stock;
the stock is in some different shape or form than it was at the
beginning of the job, or, after the job was finished, the different
parts were arranged in some definite relation to each other
that had been determined in advance. We will call such jobs
production jobs.
Another sort of job, such as reading a blueprint, or making
a lay out for a sheet metal job do not themselves result in the
working up of stock, but are necessary for the doing of pro-
duction jobs. We will call jobs of this sort technical jobs.
A third sort of job, such as that of the power house man,
the steam engineer, the crane operator, while they do not con-
tribute directly to the getting out of the product, make it
easier or less expensive. We might operate a heavy shop
without power cranes, but we would do it much more slowly
' Chapter XIII, Part III.
48 THE INSTRUCTOR
and it would cost much more. We could, perhaps, carry the
material around with gangs of men, but we would lose time
and spend more money on the job. We will call such jobs
service jobs.
Service Trades and Production Trades. In general, in
most industrial plants there are trades that consist of service
jobs and trades that consist of production jobs. Under ordin-
ary conditions it seems probable that much more training will
be required for production jobs than for service jobs. While
the methods of instructional procedure would be the same for
both classes of trades, this book deals more directly with
instruction for production trades. Such modifications as
would be required for service trades will readily suggest them-
selves to an instructor.
Trade Jobs and Technical Jobs. In the practice of nearly,
if not all trades, both technical and production jobs are called
for. In some trades there are many technical jobs, as in sheet
metal work, or in mould loft work in a shipyard, in some
cases there are none, as in operating special machines or in
most textile jobs, such as weaving or spinning. Anything is
a job, however, (as defined in this book) provided it is some-
thing that a man is paid to do. Whether it is a technical job
or a production job is a matter for further classification. The
chief value of being able to distinguish between the two classes
of jobs is that in instructing, matters of selection of method
and determination of the best place where the instruction can
be given are largely affected by the class of the job which is to
be taught.
Classes of Production Jobs. Production jobs may be
divided into assembling jobs, shaping jobs, forming jobs and
miscellaneous -jobs. Under ordinary conditions in any plant
each trade consists mainly of jobs of one kind, so that we have
assembling, shaping trades and forming trades. In each of these
trades there may be a few jobs that do not agree with the basis
of the classification for that trade; that is, in a shaping trade,
for example, there may be a few jobs that are not shaping jobs,
although they are performed by a man who follows that trade.
Such jobs would be classed as miscellaneous jobs for that trade.
CLASSIFICATION OP WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 49
Since each kind of trade, under the above classification,
needs somewhat different treatment when it comes to laying
out a course of instruction, some of the chief characteristics
are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Assembling Jobs. An assembling job calls for the putting
together of parts that some other workers have turned out.
Such trades as type setting, plumbing, installing, brick laying
or setting stone work would come into this classification. After
assembling, the parts are just the same as they were before,
so far as they themselves go, but they are arranged in certain
relations to each other so as to form an assembled product.
(A brick wall, a page of type, a shoe, for example.)
It is evident that a man in an assembling trade must know
the names of a great variety of parts and must be familiar
with a great many names which indicate location, relation to
some other part, etc.
As will come out later the assembling trades work out, for a
line of instruction, quite differently from the other production
trades. Machines and tools are usually simple, skill comes
mainly in the ability to adjust parts correctly, or to fasten
them properly when they have been adjusted in place.
Shaping Jobs. In a shaping job the form of the stock is
not changed but the shape of it is. Thus, for example, a
plumber or a coppersmith, in bending lead pipe changes the
shape of the pipe but not its form. A pipe that has been bent
into a curve is still a pipe, but its shape has been changed.
Forming Jobs. In forming jobs the stock is formed by
some method, as in the case of the blacksmith or foundry man.
A lead pipe when bent could still be recognized as a lead pipe
but a piece of bar iron made into a horseshoe would not be so
recognizable. The pipe has been shaped the bar has been
formed. In working with steel these forming jobs often require
the use of heat.
The forming job usually requires less general knowledge
of locations, but does call for more skill in the use of the special
tools of the trade, and often in the application of more auxiliary
knowledge.
50 THE INSTRUCTOR
Miscellaneous Jobs. As already stated in any trade there
are liable to be some jobs that do not agree with the charac-
teristics of the trade or which may even seem to belong to
another sort of trade. For example in house carpentry, which
is essentially an assembling trade where the stock comes ready
milled, it might be necessary to get out some wedges, which
would be a forming job. Such a job would be classified as a
miscellaneous one for the house carpenter's trade.
Classification of Technical Jobs. As already stated, a
technical job contributes to the getting out of the production
job but does not, itself, result in the forming or shaping or
assembling of stock. Reading the blueprint for dimensions or
shapes would be a job of this character. Figuring the offset
for turning a taper would be another. Figuring the gears on
a screw cutting lathe would be another. Making the con-
structions for getting out a pattern for sheet metal work would
be another.
Kinds of Technical Jobs. Almost all, if not all technical
jobs require either the interpretation (reading) of a drawing
or sketch or call for some form of calculation. That is, they
are either jobs in the use of sketches or blueprints or they are
jobs in calculations. They are either trade drawing jobs or they
are trade mathematics jobs. A third class of technical job
occasionally occurs in certain trades which calls for knowledge
of a condition, such as the job of temperer, judging when a
piece of steel is at the correct heat for tempering. Such tech-
nical jobs, when they are found, nearly always call for some
knowledge of science or for skill and knowledge in the adjust-
ment of parts.
Trade Drawing. In certain trades such as machine shop
work or pattern making practically all information comes from
the designer to the workman in the form of the blueprint.
Whenever a blueprint is read we have a technical job. Such
jobs occur much more often in some trades than in others, for
example in the machine shop work as against the work of the
anglesmith, working from a templet. The printer has no call
to use the blueprint, the roof framer has. In some trades there
would therefore be no trade drawing at all, and in others there
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 51
would be considerable. The instructor must determine in
each case, if there are any jobs requiring trade drawing in
the particular trade that he has under consideration; if he
decides that there are no jobs of that character, he should
cross trade drawing out of his "stock in trade," if there are,
he must include such technical jobs in the list of jobs that
he prepares.
If any drawing is included in the trade the instructor must
determine whether it is sketching, or blueprint reading and if
it is sketching, whether the demand is for the making of
sketches, or the reading of sketches, or both.
Mechanical Drawing. Outside of the training of drafts-
men and others for the drafting room there is little likelihood
that there is any demand for the making of regular mechanical
drawings in the ordinary run of instruction work in industrial
plants. A trade instructor is not likely to be called upon to
lay out a regular course in mechanical drawing even in the
training of apprentices.
The test, in each case is that the sort of drawing (if any), that
is included in the training course is the sort of drawing that
the man actually uses in connection with the doing of his job.
If he has to read the drawing only, he should be trained only
in the reading, if he has to make sketches, he should be trained
only in that; if he has to read sketches only, he should be
trained only to read them. Under good instructional condi-
tions, the industrial instructor will not waste any time in in-
structing a man in anything that he will not actually need to
use and apply in the work for which he is being trained.
Many shop instructors have a tendency to desire to train
in regular mechanical drawing regardless of whether the man
will u?e it in his trade or not. That is, they tend to want to
train men out of the shop and into the drafting room; to make
draftsmen out of them instead of workmen. While a knowl-
edge of mechanical drawing is undoubtedly of value to any
man engaged in mechanical pursuits, work of this character
should seldom or never become a part of the work of the shop
instructor, since the ability of a man to make a mechanical
drawing seldom is a job in his trade. Blueprint reading, and
sketching, are much more likely to be included in the work of
52 THE INSTRUCTOR
the instructor. Courses in mechanical drawing are often
available in the evening courses conducted in many cities and
towns. If a man in the plant desires to put in some of his own
time in taking such a course, he might well be encouraged to
do so, but his time in the training work of the shop should be
spent only on the sort of jobs that are included in the job or
the trade for which the training is given.
Trade Problems. Certain trades require some form of
mathematical work in connection with the doing of some
technical jobs. Laying off patterns in sheet metal work, is, in
reality, a form of geometrical work. The sheet metal worker
uses what is known as descriptive geometry in making his
layouts, because he lays out in the flat to get a form that is
in the round, or square, as a tank or a pipe. The machinist
makes certain arithmetical calculations in connection with his
work as when he "figures" the offset for turning a taper or
works out the data for setting an index head. Even the use of
a rule is a form of mathematical work, as when a carpenter
measures a piece of stock. In its simplest form even counting
is a form of mathematical work.
In listing out mathematical jobs, it must be remembered
that whenever measurements or calculations have to be made,
or patterns laid out some form of mathematics is used. The
instructor must not think of algebra or geometry, as taught in
the schools as the mathematics that he is looking for in analyz-
ing his trade. Instructors often fail to recognize the fact that
the simple calculations or constructions or measurements which
are used in their trade are mathematics at all. They are
thinking only of "school" mathematics, and because they do
not use algebraic equations or geometrical demonstrations in
their work, they will say that their trade uses no mathematics
at all.
Special Devices. In nearly all cases the shop or trade
mathematics is worked out by certain special trade processes
or with certain special tools or devices. For example, the
machinist uses a table of squares or of decimal equivalents
for his work, the printer uses the em scale, the steam engineer
determines horse power by the use of the indicator card. In
CLASSIFICATION OP WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 53
only few cases will the "school method" of doing the work be
the same that is followed in the trade. This is why the man
who comes into the shop from a school generally cannot
"figure out" things as they are figured out in the trade. His
method, which he has learned in school is often not the method
of the trade. This is also the reason why there is little use in
teaching the regular "school" mathematics to apprentices or
learners.
In general, the trade mathematics for any given trade has
been worked out so that as little time as possible is used up
in this sort of work. Tables, formulae, special methods of all
kinds are really time saving devices.
The Question of Accuracy. As just stated trade mathe-
matics is usually worked out by the method that will save the
most time. In industry, nobody works out mathematical
problems for the sake of doing them, but because the result of
the work is needed to do the job. Unlike "school" work, in
industry no time is wasted in getting a result that is more
accurate than is necessary. The carpenter does not figure
stock to 1-1000 of an inch; the templet is not laid out to a
small fraction of an inch; in each case the problem is only
worked to the degree of accuracy that the job requires, and
no time is taken for further accuracy. Methods in many cases
are only approximate; they give results near enough for the
needs of the job and therefore serve the purpose sufficiently.
Trade Mathematics in Various Trades. In general, the
skilled trades call for more technical jobs in mathematics than
the semi-skilled, yet even these vary. Sheet metal work has
more jobs of this kind than printing, for example. Paper box
making, high power machine work, etc., have few if any
technical jobs of this class. Automatic machine work has, of
course, practically no jobs of this character.
Analyzing the Trade for Trade Mathematics. In analyzing
his trade for the trade mathematics the instructor should first
make sure that there is any mathematics in it, and if there is,
look carefully for the sort of technical jobs in which it comes
up. He is most likely to omit the simpler jobs because he will
not think of them as being mathematical jobs at all.
54 THE INSTRUCTOR
Auxiliary Material. In addition to the mathematics and
the drawing we have to consider what may be called the
auxiliary knowledge or information which the learner must
be given in some way. In general this auxiliary material, as it
may be called, will consist of a knowledge of trade terms, of a
few simple scientific facts, mainly connected with the effects
of heat on material, a knowledge of the working properties of
stock and the ability to pick out one kind or another, a knowl-
edge of the precautions which must be taken to avoid accidents
and the ability to take care of tools and equipment. Infor-
mation as to such points as are noted above unquestionably
contributes to the effective doing of the job, but the application
of such information by the workman does not constitute either
a production or a technical job as defined in these notes.
That is, the possession of information as to the care of tools,
and the using of that information so as to save abuse or loss,
while a valuable asset to the workman, is not, in the strict
sense of the word, doing a job. It is therefore, for convenience,
classified as auxiliary material, because, while the application
of this knowledge is essential to the doing of the job, the man
is not directly paid for having the knowledge, but he is paid
for doing the job. For example: A draftsman is paid for
making a working drawing. He makes it in order that all
necessary information may go to the man who is going to welt
in the shop. He is supposed to put all that information on the
drawing, but he is not careful to make all his lettering and his
figures plain: for example, he does not put the different dimen-
sional numbers on in the proper place or according to the
standard usage of the plant. If he does this because he does
not know the proper way of making his figures, or the correct
method of placing them, or that all figures should be given, he
has not got that particular auxiliary knowledge. If he knew
how to do it right, but did not do it right, he has failed to apply
his auxiliary knowledge. In either case he has not done as
good a job as the man who had acquired and applied this
auxiliary knowledge, because he has turned out a drawing that
is more likely to cause error and waste, and to slow up produc-
tion. Putting the proper dimensions, etc., on the drawing
was one of the operations connected with the doing of the job
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 55
of getting it out, but knowing how to mark it correctly and
marking it correctly was an application of correct auxiliary
information. The man is paid to mark the drawing; he is ex-
pected to know how to mark it correctly. That is, he is ex-
pected to possess the necessary information as to the correct
method of lettering, location of the different dimensional figures
hi the proper place, and to apply this knowledge. Doing this
is not, however, in itself, a job.
Auxiliary Material: Trade Terms. By trade terms is
meant all the special words that are used in any given trade or
occupation in connection with talking about the work or doing
the job. Each trade has its own set of such trade term's.
(Such terms are often designated as technical terms.) Often a
man who belongs to one trade will not know any of the terms
of another trade, nor does he need to know them so far as
following his own trade is concerned.
Classification of Trade Terms. In general trade terms will
relate either to material, machines, locations or operations.
There are usually a few terms in any trade that do not come
under any of the above classifications and which may be desig-
nated as special terms.
Location Terms. In the shipyard such terms as Starboard,
Port, Forward, Aft, etc., as used by the sailor, ground floor,
second floor, valley, cellar, attic, as used by the house carpenter
would be illustrations of these terms. Some trades, as that of
the machinist, use fewer location terms than other trades such
as shipyard trades, but practically all trades use some special
location terms, which the learner must in some way learn
how to use in connection with his work, and which must be
listed out and provided for in the course of instruction.
Tool and Machine Terms. Any trade using machines and
tools has special names for those machines, for different tools
for the parts of such machines. The machinist has the shaper,
the planer, the knurling tool. The ship fitter has the templet,
the puncher the tit punch, the wood mill man has the pony
planer, the buzz saw, the mortiser, the band saw. The pipe
fitter has the Stillson wrench. The driller and reamer has the
old man. The printer has the stick, the tinsmith the iron.
56 THE INSTRUCTOR
The learner must acquire the machine and the tool terms for
his trade and be able to use them properly.
Operation Terms. All trades that carry on operations have
special names for the different operations. The printer justi-
fies and makes ready. The machinist makes a rough cut, or a
fine cut, the jointer takes the wind out of a piece of stock, the
pipe fitter makes up a joint. The learner must become
familiar with the operation terms for his trade and must
connect them in his mind with the operations which they
designate. In making the analysis and classification, con-
siderable care should be used to get all terms of this class,
since they play so important a place in the giving and under-
standing of instructions.
Material Terms. All trades use special terms to distin-
guish the different kinds of materials with which the work is
done. Such terms as snap or flush rivets, phosphor bronze,
mild steel, hard pine, ten penny nail, cut nail, channel bar,
news stock, soft solder, are illustrations of this sort of term.
As in the case of operation terms their use in the giving of
important instructions makes their careful listing particularly
desirable.
Special Terms. Terms that cannot be otherwise classified
may be designated as special terms for that trade. Terms
falling under this classification are usually very few and of
minor importance.
Auxiliary Material: Trade Science. In determining the
existence or non-existence of science items in the auxiliary
information called for by a given trade a sharp distinction
should be made between specific applications of general
scientific principles with which the learner must be familiar
in order to do the job, and the general principles themselves.
The specific facts, if necessary, should be listed, but general
principles should not be included in the analysis for shop
instruction. Of such specific scientific items probably the
electrical and machine shop trades will show as much as any.
The instructor will, in general, find little or no science in his
trade analysis. It is true that many trade operations involve
the application of some scientific principle, but in only rela-
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 57
lively few cases will a knowledge of the scientific facts lying
back of the operation in any way help the man to do his job.
Regular courses in science, such as are taught in the school
have practically no value in this sort of work, even in the
training of apprentices. An instructor should be very sure
that any "science" that he lists down is of actual value in
shop training before he includes it in the auxiliary material
with which he proposes to deal. There are for example un-
doubtedly a large number of scientific facts connected with the
work of a temperer, such as combustion, oxydation, the
changes in properties of metals produced by a rise in tempera-
ture, but all that the temperer needs to be able to do is to
recognize the right color. A knowledge of the scientific facts
mentioned above would not help him to do his job in the
slightest degree, hence it would be entirely useless to include
them in the auxiliary knowledge that was to be included in a
course of instruction for temperers.
On the other hand in machine shop work certain scientific
facts such as those relating to friction in bearings, the principle
of the lever as it affects the tool in the tool post, have a direct
value. A knowledge of the relation of the direction of warp-
ing to the heart or sap side of stock is of value to the pattern
maker, and such facts would be included in the auxiliary
information listed for those trades.
Auxiliary Material; Knowledge of Stock. All production
trades require the working up of stock. In practically every
trade there is more than one kind of stock and the workman
must be able to recognize the different kinds. The different
kinds of stock have different working properties and this fact
often requires modifications of operations or different opera-
tions according to the particular sort of stock used. Provision
must therefore be made to see that the learner is able to recog-
nize the different kinds of stock which he will come in contact
with, and that he will be familiar with the working properties
so far as they actually affect the doing of the jobs in his trade.
Instructors should be careful to list down only those things
relating to recognition of stock and its working properties,
which will be of actual value to the man in doing his jobs.
Many instructors tend to include in this classification much
58 THE INSTRUCTOR
material which has no value in shop training, because they
think that there ought to be considerable material of this sort
in their trade when it really is not there, or they think that
"it would be nice for the men to know it." As in the case of
mechanical drawing, it is undoubtedly true that properly
arranged courses in general science (physics, chemistry,
applied mechanics) have a value to the mechanic, and where
such courses are available in the evening, men may well be
encouraged to attend them, but science work of this kind
should not be considered as a part of the shop training
proper.
Safety First. In practically all trades there is more or less
danger of accidents to the operator, to the machine, to the
helper or bystander. Different trades vary greatly in the
relative danger to the man on the job and to others. Dangers
in the machine shop are confined almost entirely to the opera-
tor. In the steel mill, in general, the reverse conditions exist
whether involving danger to the operator, the bystander, or
both, in shop training special attention should be given to
matters relating to the prevention of accident. Every acci-
dent that puts a man or a machine out of business slows up
production to that extent so that proper training in '* safety
first" is an important factor from the production standpoint.
Most accidents are due to the lack of training in habits tend-
ing to prevent carefulness or to ignorance. The antidotes
therefore are training and instruction, both of which are part
of the job of the trade instructor.
Accidents are of two kinds, involving danger to the man on
the job or to others. They may be classified as due to any one
of four causes, namely: ignorance, carelessness, accidents, and
occupational dangers.
Occupational Dangers. There are some trades that can-
not be followed without subjecting the worker to danger.
After all precautions have been taken, and the workers are
fully instructed in "safety first," there still are certain
dangers that "go with the job." Operating a circular saw,
operating a blast furnace, working in a lead factory, filling
shells with T. N. T., marine diving, are instances of trades
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 59
which involve occupational dangers. Usually occupational
dangers involve the worker himself and not others.
Accidental Dangers. An accidental danger is one that could
not be foreseen but arises out of some unexpected situation.
If a belt that has been properly inspected breaks causing in-
jury to someone, this is an accidental danger. Such dangers
usually involve both the worker and others.
Dangers Due to Ignorance. A workman on a speed lathe
job does not know that if his tail stock center is not properly
oiled, it is liable to burn out, letting the stock fly, putting both
himself and others in danger. A painter, not knowing how to
place the supports under his scaffold properly, tips off from one
end, injuring himself or damaging passersby on the ground. A
mill man on a buzz saw, does not know the danger of a back
snop, and an accident occurs as a result. Such accidents as
those just cited can be prevented by training the learner so
that he will use the proper precautions to avoid them. They
are accidents due to ignorance regarding the precautions that can
be taken to prevent them and will be avoided if a man has been
properly trained in taking the necessary precautions on the
job.
Dangers Due to Carelessness. If a man has been properly
trained in taking necessary precautions and an accident occurs
because he does not take the precautions that he was trained
to take, if he knew but didn't think, or knew and "took a
chance, " the accident was due to carelessness. Accidents of
this character are much more likely to occur with experienced
men than with inexperienced men. In this case as in the others
accidents may do injury to the man on the job or to others.
Care of Tools and Equipment. Wherever tools are used
there is always an opportunity for the taking of precautions
to prevent loss or abuse. If these precautions are taken the
work is speeded up; if they are neglected, the work is slowed
up. In the same way, if tools are abused or are so carelessly
handled that they are put out of commission, the working
equipment is reduced and the amount of the product di-
minished.
Matters relating to the care of tools and equipment classify
60 THE INSTRUCTOR
in general, into four lists: (1) care of tools and equipment in
use, (2) care when not in use, (3) the prevention of loss, and
(4) the prevention of waste. In all these cases there is more or
less auxiliary knowledge that the instructor should list out
and plan to include in his course of training. It is evident
that the greater the extent of the equipment, the more expen-
sive the tools, the more delicate the mechanism, the greater
the value of such training, but in all cases there is some know-
ledge that should be given to the learner and which he should
be trained to apply in connection with his jobs.
Care of Tools in Use. Unless specially instructed, the
average man, thinking only of doing his job is very likely to be
careless in taking care of tools and equipment while in use.
Even when he owns the tools himself he is often ignorant of
the value of a little care during the progress of the job. Tools
are left out over night, or are not put under cover when tem-
porarily out of use; a man attempts to use a tool for something
that it was not intended to be used for; he scatters his tools
about during the progress of the job and when he wants a
particular tool has to spend a lot of time finding it. Of course
matters of this kind apply mainly to trades where hand or
portable tools are used rather than where machines are the
chief portion of the equipment. In operating machines a man
will, often, through ignorance or carelessness, run a machine
on an overload. He lets it run without proper lubrication. He
"jams her through" and strains or in some other way causes
an unnecessary depreciation or reduces the working capacity
or the accuracy of that particular machine. He may even put
it out of commission entirely.
In all of these cases the average man, if his attention has
been directed to the results of such abuse, and he has been
given the necessary auxiliary knowledge and trained to apply
it, so that he thinks about such matters, while he is doing the
job, will take precautions to prevent improper running down
of the tools or machines or other equipment with which he
carries on his jobs. The instructor should carefully determine
what points in his trade should be covered in this connection,
and should list them out as a part of the auxiliary knowledge
in his proposed course of instruction and training.
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 61
Care of Tools when not in Use. Tools and equipment are
often seriously damaged while out of use through lack of
knowledge of how to protect them or through carelessness.
The farmer leaves the mowing machine in the pasture till next
year, certain machines in the machine shop are shut down for
a period and are not "slushed down," a crane is laid up and is
not properly protected, machines temporarily out of use are
allowed to stand and rust.
In the case of hand tools the same general conditions will
often prevail; jacks are left lying where they were used last
until somebody wants them, small equipment units are not
turned back to the tool room as soon as they are no longer
needed but are left lying around to be exposed to the weather;
small tools are not protected as they should be, for example,
the tool room boy does not keep the micrometers covered with
vaseline, or wrenches are not kept properly oiled when stored
in the tool room.
In all such cases the precautions that should be taken to
avoid such damage should be listed by the instructor; the
necessary information to prevent such abuse determined,
and included in the auxiliary material to be put over in
connection with the instruction in the trade that is to be
handled.
The Prevention of Loss. As distinguished from the abuse
of equipment we have the loss of equipment; this, of course,
occurring mainly in the case of hand or portable tools and
small pieces of equipment. A man is using a crowbar; in the
hurry of getting the job done he throws it down when he is
through with it and forgets all about it. It is lost track of and
for the time being, so much is gone out of the available equip-
ment. A little later when another job calls for a bar it is held
up because they are short on bars, and the whole production
program may suffer. The learner must be trained to think of
such things; he must be informed as to proper methods of
procedure as to turning in equipment when he is through with
it and he must be turned out of the training course so informed
and trained that slowing up of production and increased cost
due to loss will be reduced to a minimum. The instructor
must therefore, as in the other cases, list out the cases where
62 THE INSTRUCTOR
tools are liable to be lost in the work of his trade and make
provision for including this auxiliary information in his job
instruction in his program of instruction.
The Prevention of Waste. Stock and tools cost money.
A man who is careless about waste can easily appreciably
increase the cost of production. Multiply the waste of one
man by thousands, and you have a large sum. Suppose that
one man, through lack of proper training wastes five dollars
worth of stock in a week; in a year this means two hundred
and fifty dollars. If one thousand men are employed, this
means a quarter of a million dollars in a year. As in the other
cases the ways in which an untrained man will cause waste and
the information that he needs to avoid such waste must be
listed out by the instructor and included in his plan for
instruction for that trade or occupation.
Some General Suggestions. Simply telling a man what
precautions to take to avoid abuse of tools or waste of stock
will do little good. "Bawling him out" when he does fail to
take proper precautions will do still less. Abuse and waste
will be reduced in proportion as the instructor succeeds in
getting the men interested in these points and in bringing
about a "state of mind" on the part of the learner so that he
will apply the information which is given him in connection
with the training work and will apply it intelligently. If the
man can be got to see what waste and abuse mean in terms of
loss of time, slowing up of production, loss of money that might
go to the doing of more work, a great deal can be done by a
shop instructor to cut down losses of this kind. Much will
depend on the skill and ability of the instructor in handling
this problem, but as a starting point he must determine what
the "danger points" for waste and abuse are for his trade and
get them included in his "inventory."
This Chapter Deals entirely with Classification. It should
be noted that this chapter deals entirely with the classification
of the material that the instructor determines should, in some
way, be included in the course of instruction and training that
he proposes to put over for a given trade. It does not deal
with the methods by which any part of this material is to be
CLASSIFICATION OF WHAT MUST BE TAUGHT 63
put over, or how it can be best arranged for effective putting
over. These points are discussed in following chapters.
Analysis and Classification on Specialized Work. According
to the trade or job to be taught the analysis may require a
great deal of work or very little. Getting out the complete
analysis for a skilled trade, such as machine shop work, is a
considerable piece of work. On semi-skilled jobs it is very
simple, there are few jobs, few trade terms and so on. For
automatic machine work the analysis is still simpler. In all
cases however the process of analyzing and classifying what
the man should know should be gone through. It is as im-
portant to do this on single, simple jobs^as when instruction is
to be given in skilled trades sometimes covering hundreds of
jobs. It is not a question of much or little but of knowing
what there is.
CHAPTER VIII
THE DETERMINATION OF "BLOCKS"
Preliminary. In carrying out the two preceding steps the
instructor has analyzed and classified the job and the auxiliary
knowledge and information which must, in some way, be
put over to the learner. What has been done so far corre-
sponds to taking account of stock in a store and classifying the
stock according to the kind of goods. Just as a grocery store
may have in stock sugar, tea, canned tomatoes, beans, rolled
oats, etc., so the instructor has listed out his stock, the pro-
duction jobs, the technical jobs, the trade terms, the safety
first notions, etc., of the trade that he intends to teach. His
stock in trade is now inventoried and classified.
The Grouping of Teaching Jobs. The instruction to be
given may include the entire range of a skilled trade, as in
apprentice training, or part of a skilled trade, as in training
for one branch of that trade (lathe hand, planer man in a wood
mill, etc.). It may, on the other hand, only deal with one or
more semi-skilled jobs, as in paper box making. It may only
deal with one job, as in a munition factory.
.Where there is only one job to be taught, and, in general,
where semi-skilled trades are to be taught, the question of
"blocking," as discussed in this chapter, will rarely come in.
In the case of most skilled trades it is an important factor in
laying out an effective plan for instruction.
If a learner is to be taught a skilled trade, or a considerable
part of such a trade, he has got to be instructed in a consider-
able number of jobs, and under these conditions it is probable
that these jobs can be grouped in in a way that will be most
effective for easy progress of the learner.
Where a learner is to be instructed in a certain number of
jobs and trained to apply the necessary auxiliary material
that goes with those jobs he has got to be "routed" through
64
THE DETERMINATION OF "BLOCKS" 65
these jobs in some order. There are three ways of routing
him through these jobs: (1) The jobs could be grouped in no
determined order at all, but could be given in any way that
they happened to be available; (2) The jobs could be grouped
according to production difficulties; (3) They could be grouped
according to the kind of learning difficulties that the learner
would meet during the instructing process. As has already
been stated the product of the instructing process is a trained
man and not a production job. In the case of a production
shop in routing jobs, the same three methods can be followed:
(1) Jobs can be put onto any machines that happen to be
available; (2) Jobs can be routed through the shop, not accord-
ing to the requirements for the most efficient production, the
saving of the most time, the minimum scrapping, but accord-
ing to the requirements of some other department, say the
shipping department; (3) Jobs can be routed according to the
conditions that will give the best and most rapid production.
The first method is essentially that of the old fashioned shop.
The second method is ineffective because it is based on the
requirements of something that has nothing to do with pro-
duction; the third is the best, because it recognizes the re-
quirements of the particular thing for which the production
shop is run, viz. : getting out jobs.
In the same way the instructor has the job of getting out
trained men and may follow any one of three methods. (1)
He may give his learners any work that may be available,
without regard to its difficulties for the learner; (2) He may
give his learners jobs in the order required for the most effec-
tive production; (3) He may give his learners jobs in an order
determined by the difficulties the learner would meet in
mastering each successive job. The first method is bad,
because it pays no regard to the conditions of efficient instruc-
tion; the second method is bad because it is based on the
requirements of something that has nothing to do with the
instructor's job; (instruction) but is based on the requirements
of something else (production) the third method is evidently
the best because it is based on the requirements of effective
instruction. The shop deals with production difficulties; the
training department deals with instructing difficulties, and
66 THE INSTRUCTOR
must route its instructing jobs according to the best working
conditions for that kind of a job, and not according to the
working conditions of another kind of a job (production) with
which the instructor has nothing directly to do. The problem
of the training department is therefore to group its teaching
jobs so that the instructional difficulties will be reduced to a
minimum, just as it is the business of the shop to group its
production jobs so that production difficulties will be reduced
to a minimum.
Blocks. In the case of the grocery store just used for illus-
tration, after the stock has been inventoried and classified,
there still remains the question of how this stock can be best
arranged for convenient selling. In such a case it is often
found that it helps both the salesman and the customer if the
stock is arranged by departments, so that all the things that
may meet a certain need are put into one part of the store.
Thus in the grocery store used as an illustration above, it may
be desirable to put all canned goods in one department, cereals
in another, etc. This would probably be particularly true in
the case of a store carrying a wide variety of stock. Where
such a departmental arrangement is made, the classification
basis for the department is something that all the goods in that
department have in common; this may be a common buying
difficulty on the part of the customer, that is, the sort of things
that a woman is likely to want to buy together are put in the
same department, or it may be that some matter of selling or
shipping may determine the department "base."
It may be true on the other hand that in the case of some
particular store, say a tobacco store, that there is no need for a
departmental lay out because all the stock is of the same kind,
though it may vary in quality and price. For example, in a
store selling only cigars. So we might say that there are
"one department" and "multi department" stores. In
arranging his stock for "sale" to the learner the instructor
has the same sort of problem to face as has the manager of a
store. His "stock in trade" may "sell" well if put into one
department, or block as it is called, or it may be necessary, for
good " selling conditions, " (instructing) to lay it out or arrange
it in more than one "selling department" or block. Just as
THE DETERMINATION OF " BLOCKS " 67
the store manager must determine whether his stock is "single
department" or "multi department" so the instructor must
determine whether his stock in trade, (the instructional ma-
terial that he has listed out and classified,) belongs to a single
block or a multiblock trade, and, if the latter, what the block
bases shall be.
What is a Block? A block means a group of jobs which all
offer to a learner the same kind of learning difficulties. All the
jobs in a block call for the same kind of knowledge, or skill, or
call for the use of the same kind of tools, or machines. Such a
block may, in itself represent a complete course of training or
it may be one of a number of blocks that are included in the
required training course. Where blocking is called for and
it has been properly done a learner can be carried through any
block without having to be instructed in anything that is
in any other block. For example, in machine shop work, a
learner can be trained on any one of some twelve or fourteen
machine tools without being instructed in anything relating
to the operation of any machine except the one that he is
being trained on. In many of the so-called skilled trades we
find that such blocks are found, as in printing, where composi-
tion, press work, stone work and machine work are some of the
blocks.
In printing, if it were decided that it was not necessary for
a man to know anything about composition or stone work in
order to do press work, or, that he need not know anything
about composition or press work in order to be able to do stone
work, or that he need not know anything about either to learn
to operate a linotype, we would have more than one block in
the printing trade and it would be a multiblock trade. On the
other hand suppose that it was decided that in house painting
or paper hanging all jobs were essentially of the same kind, the
difference being in degree of learning difficulties only, (say
working conditions, or degree of skill required), then those
trades would be single block trades.
A block may therefore be defined as a trade or a part of a
trade, that can be taught as if it were a trade by itself. In
fact, in many trades we find so-called "special branches" that
really are blocks.
68 THE INSTRUCTOR
For example, in machine shop work milling might be one
block, lathe work another, bench work another. A milling
machine hand might know nothing about planer work and a
planer hand might know nothing about milling, neither man
need know about bench work, yet each man may be competent
on his own set of jobs. A plumber might know how to handle
rigid pipe with threaded joints, elbows and unions, and also
how to handle lead pipe with wiped joints, but a knowledge
of how to handle lead pipe would not help him to learn how to
handle rigid pipe, nor would being able to handle rigid pipe
help him in learning how to handle lead pipe. On the other
hand, if he knew how to make up iron pipe it would help him
greatly with brass pipe. Both iron and brass pipe work would
therefore probably belong in the same block, but lead pipe
work and rigid pipe work would probably belong in different
blocks. A man who could splice manilla could learn to splice
wire more rapidly than a man who could not splice at all, both
manilla splicing and wire splicing belong in the same block.
A knowledge of how to splice either manilla or wire would not
help a man to learn how to rig up a three-fold tackle running
to a winch, because these operations belong in different blocks
of the riggers trade.
A branch of a trade refers to the practice of that part of the
trade. A block refers to a group of instructing jobs in that
branch of the trade. The former is an operating term. The
latter is an instructional term.
What is a Block Base? What is termed the block base is the
thing that all jobs in the block have in common which makes
them have learning difficulties of the same kind. In printing,
the pressman, no matter what particular job he is on always
"goes at it" in the same way. It is more difficult to make up
a form with half-tone cuts than with plain matter only, but
it is the same sort of a job: the learning difficulties are differ-
ent in degree but of the same kind. In this case we would
say that the block base was press work. For instructing the
machinist, one block base might be the lathe, another the
planer, another the shaper, etc., since each machine, in its
special construction, operation, special tools, and attachments
offers the same kind of learning difficulties, but different jobs
THE DETERMINATION OF "BLOCKS" (59
on each machine offer these difficulties in different degrees.
For a course of training in plumbing, one block base might be
based upon work on rigid pipe, another upon work on flexible
pipe, another might deal with vitrified pipe, etc.
How the Block Base is Established. Block bases may be
of various kinds. Among the most common are, (a) material,
(b) operation, (c) construction.
(a) Material In certain trades different branches or
blocks, depend upon the character of the material used, because
the characteristics of the material determines the nature of
the operations. For example, iron or brass pipe, vitrified
pipe and lead pipe differ so in their working properties that
the handling of each forms a distinct branch of the trade, and
distinct lines of instruction, or blocks can be laid out for each.
That is, the block base, in this case, might be taken as kinds
of pipe, and a line of instruction consisting of all jobs on any
one sort of pipe together with the necessary auxiliary know-
ledge to go with that special work, that is, a block, could be
established on the base of kind of pipe since all jobs on any
particular kind of pipe would offer the same sort of learning
difficulties.
(b) Operations Block bases for some trades can be based
on operations. Here the man works with the same material
but the operations are so different that knowing how to carry
out one set will not help a man to learn how to go through
another set. Thus, in printing, the compositor, the stone-
man, the pressman and the machine operator all use type, but
a knowledge of press-work is not required for machine operat-
ing, or for composition or stone work. In the same way the
machinist may work on the same stock with different machines,
but the learning difficulties that a learner will meet on these
different machines will not be due to the kind of stock to any
great extent, but mainly to the construction and operation of
the particular machine on which he is being trained, and to the
special tools, adjustments, etc.
Lathe hands, miller hands, bench hands, automatic machine
operators all work on steel, but knowing how to operate an
automatic screw machine would not help a man to learn how
run a universal miller, because he must learn how to carry
70 THE INSTRUCTOR
out certain operations on each machine, and the fact that he
works on steel in both cases does not affect the situation
so far as learning difficulties and what he has to learn are
concerned. So far as these points are concerned, he might
as well have snagged castings or learned to chip and file.
In such cases it is evident that the controlling factor, or the
block base, is operations, since operations is the element that
"splits up" the course of instruction into blocks. In a ship-
yard, while it is true that riveters, bolters up, punch press men,
drillers and reamers, all work on steel, the character of the
material that they work on is not the important thing, as in
the case of plumbing cited above, but the important thing,
from the standpoint of blocking, is that the training is
entirely determined by the character of the operations with
which they must be made familiar and which they must be
trained to carry out effectively. In such cases operations
would determine the block base.
While it is true that miller hands, planer hands, etc., all work
on steel, mill men all work on wood, textile operatives all work
on cotton or wool, the character of the material that they
work on is not the important thing, as in the case of plumbing
cited above, but the important thing, from the standpoint of
blocking, is that the grouping is entirely determined by the
character of the operations with which they must be made
familiar and which they must be trained to carry out effectively.
In such cases operations would determine the block base.
(c) Construction: In some trades, as in pattern making,
the block classification has sometimes been based on some
forms of construction. In pattern making, for example,
blocks might be based on solid patterns, cored patterns,
built up patterns, segmental patterns, etc. That is, in this
case, the block base might be neither material nor opera-
tions, but the thing in common for a given block (the block
base) would be the fact that all the jobs included in a
given instruction block would represent the same type of
construction. 1
1 It should be noted here that the selection of construction for pattern
making is only given as a possible way of doing it, and is only given by way
of illustration. It is probably not the best way for blocking all that trade.
THE DETERMINATION OF " BLOCKS " 71
More than One Block Base Possible for a Given Trade.
It is of course evident that for a given trade there might be
more than one set of block bases: one instructor might select
one set of block bases and another instructor might "block
out" the same trade on entirely different bases, or the same
instructor might even block out his trade in more than one
way. It would be possible to lay out a line of instruction on
either set of block bases, but, as is pointed out in the following
paragraph, there is always one way of working out the prob-
lem of the selection of block bases that will give the best
instructional results.
The Value of Blocking Out the Trade with Proper Block
Bases. Where a modern shop has to turn out a product that
is produced by putting the stock through a series of operations,
that is, by doing a series of jobs on the same stock, production
difficulties are reduced to a minimum by grouping the machines
that are used so that the stock goes from one machine to the
next with the least loss of time and expenditure of power.
If the machines can be grouped in such a way that the suc-
cessive operations can be carried on as easily and rapidly as
possible the best production conditions will be met. In the
same way, if the training department can group its teaching
job in the best way according to the same sort of learning diffi-
culties, the instruction can be carried on with the least expendi-
ture of energy on the part of the instructor and the learner,
and the learner will progress the most rapidly.
The Selection of the Best Working Block Base. As just
stated it is often possible to select more than one block base; in
choosing between different block bases, where this can be done,
the instructor must pick out and use the block base that will
give him the best results in instructional practice. Sometimes
this can only be determined by trial, but an experienced in-
structor can generally make a pretty good guess in this matter.
The following suggestions may be helpful on this point.
In general, the best block base is the one that enables the
instructor to so lay out his instructional order that he gets
into one block the greatest possible number of teaching jobs
that present the same sort of learning difficulties. Under
72 THE INSTRUCTOR
these conditions, the learner, in progressing through the block
will meet the same sort of learning difficulties all the way
through, though, of course, these learning difficulties will vary
widely in degree as he learns job after job in the block. To
put it another way, the less the learner has to "switch'* kinds
of learning difficulties during his progress through a given
block the better, the more he gets in the same block all the
jobs that present the same kind of learning difficulties,
these difficulties differing in degree only (not in kind), the
better.
The condition as to learning difficulties will be best met when
the best block base has been selected. When this has been
done, the result is that all teaching jobs that present the same
learning difficulties will have been got together in the same
block and then they can be so arranged by the method de-
scribed in a following chapter, that the learner can overcome his
learning difficulties progressively, working steadily from jobs
where the learning difficulties for that block are the least to
jobs where the learning difficulties are the most intense. When
this has been done the job that would be very hard for him if
given him at first becomes easy if given him last, because, in
doing the intermediate jobs, he has learned to overcome a
considerable part of the learning difficulties that go with the
"hard job." On the other hand if he has had to "switch"
learning difficulties frequently it is evident that his training
in learning to deal with any given group of learning difficulties
will not have been so well carried out. Instead of a steady up
grade he will have had a series of short "up grades and down
grades" during his progression through the block.
Some General Suggestions as to Suitable Block Bases.
The statements given below may be of service in aiding an
instructor to determine the block base or bases that will serve
him the best in laying out an instructional order that will be
most effective.
In case a trade is carried on mainly by machine operations
the instruction will deal mainly with the ways of operating
these machines because the different machines are differently
operated or controlled and therefore the different jobs to be
taught will "tie up" to each other (block out) by machines.
THE DETERMINATION OF "BLOCKS" 73
That is, a course of instruction on any one machine will present
"learning difficulties" different from those encountered in
working through a course of instruction on any other machine.
In case a trade is carried on mainly by operations carried out
by the use of hand tools or simple machines (plumbing, for
example) wherein materials (stock) of widely different working
properties are used, the jobs to be taught will usually "bunch"
for learning difficulties according to material. Where a trade
consists of special branches (inside and outside rigging, or
printing) where a knowledge of one branch does not help a
man in learning how to do jobs in another special branch, the
trade will usually block out best by these special branches.
It must be clearly understood that the above statements are
in the nature of general suggestions only; each instructor must
carefully consider the blocking possibilities of the trade that
he is to teach and determine the best block bases for that trade.
In this work no general rule will take the place of good judg-
ment and* experience. In some cases it may even be necessary
to try out several different block bases before the best working
block bases can be found.
How to Determine whether a Given Trade Is a Single or a
Multiblock Trade. In order to determine whether the trade
which he intends to teach is a single or a multiblock trade the
instructor must give careful consideration to the character of
the trade with regard to material, operations, etc., as possible
block bases. He must first determine whether he has more
than one block; if he has, he must decide what the best block
bases will be according to his best judgment, paying regard to
the suggestions given in this section. If he finds that there
seem to be more than one group of learning difficulties he
probably has more than one block in his trade.
It will be noted that for the carrying out of this operation
the instructor merely decides whether he has one block or
more than one block, what the block bases probably are, using
all the information at his disposal as to special branches,
operations, material, learning difficulties, etc. He does not, at
this point, attempt to determine exactly the nature of the
learning difficulties for each block, that operation being de-
scribed in the next section.
74 THE INSTRUCTOR
Summary. The first step in setting up the material that
the instructor has analyzed out for his trade is to determine
whether the particular sort of instruction he is to give calls
for training in any considerable number of jobs and if these
jobs involve more than one kind of learning difficulty. If he
has only a single job, there is no question of job grouping or
blocking. If there are any number of jobs to be put over he
has then to determine whether all the teaching jobs can be
grouped into one block or whether more than one group are
called for. This he determines by considering the various
factors discussed in this section. He determines his block
base if he has one block, and his block bases if he has more
than one block in his course of instruction. It is important
that this study of "blocking possibilities" be carefully carried
out, if blocking is required at all.
Having completed this work the instructor has analyzed
what he has to teach, determined the jobs to be taught (if
more than one), classified his jobs and the auxiliary material
that goes with them and determined whether he has a single
or multiblock trade. If he decides that he has more than one
block, he has determined his block bases.
He has now got his " stock in trade " classified so that he can
use it, and is ready to take up the question of how to determine
the most effective order in which the different jobs in any
block should be given to the learner.
These questions are discussed in the next part.
PART III
THE ESTABLISHING OF AN EFFECTIVE
INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER
CHAPTER IX
THE DETERMINATION OF THE DIFFICULTIES WHICH
THE LEARNER MUST MEET IN HIS PROGRESS
THROUGH THE LINE OF INSTRUCTION FOR ANY
ONE BLOCK. THE FIRST OPERATION IN GETTING
OUT AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER
Preliminary. If the preceding operations have been
properly carried out the instructor has now: (1) analyzed
and classified the trade and (2) determined whether it is a
multiblock, a single block or a "no block" trade. If the first,
he has determined the block bases for each block, if the
second, the one block base, if the third, he does not have to
consider blocking at all. If he has one or more blocks he has
listed out the various jobs that must be taught in each block
but has not determined the order in which they can be best
given to the learner. Up to this point he has dealt entirely
with the classification of his instructional material: first, as
between jobs and auxiliary material; second, as, to the proper
classification of jobs as technical or production; third, the
classification of the technical jobs as mathematical or draw-
ing jobs; fourth, the classification of the auxiliary material
under the proper headings, such as safety first, trade terms,
etc., and fifth, the jobs that go in each block.
It has already been pointed out in the preceding chapter
that where blocking is called for in selecting the best block
bases study must be made to determine the best base for
grouping the different teaching jobs, so that the learner
will, in progressing through any given block deal with the
same sort of learning difficulties. Having determined the most
effective arrangement so far as blocks go, whether the trade
is multiblock or single block, and, if the former, what the
block bases are, and what jobs should be included in the block,
or in each block, the instructor is now ready to determine the
77
78 THE INSTRUCTOR
order in which the different teaching jobs that he has deter-
mined shall go in any given block shall be arranged so that
the most efficient instructional order may be secured.
Operations must be Carried out for each Block. The opera-
tions described in this and the following chapters must be
carried out as many times as there are blocks in the trade.
Each block will present its own group of learning difficulties,
will call for its own difficulty scale, for its own checking levels,
and will show its own list of type job specifications. Since
the operations are the same for all blocks, though the results
are often very different, the following processes are described
for one block only.
Securing an Effective Instructional Order for any one Block.
Whatever the instructor intends to put over to the learner
must be given to him in some order; it cannot be given to
him all at once. This brings up the question as to whether
some arrangements of successive jobs are not more effective
than others, and whether there is not a best instructional order
for any given block and, if so, how it can be determined.
Whatever order may be adopted it is evident that if there
is more than one job in the trade that the man is to be taught,
the successive jobs must be given in some order. The learner
must be informed at some time as to the necessary knowledge
that he must be able to apply to the different jobs that he is
to be instructed how to carry out effectively. The instructor
must therefore prepare some plan, or "operation sheet"
on which he has laid out the order in which he proposes to
give the learner the different lessons which it is proposed to
teach him, and this must be done for each block of the trade,
if the instructor is dealing with a multiblock trade. Such
an operation sheet may be called an instructional order and
the following chapters deal with the methods that should be
followed in laying out such an order so that it will represent
an effective and efficient line of instruction.
What is an Effective Instructional Order of Jobs? An effec-
tive order of instruction for the jobs that are to be put over
in one block presents certain characteristics among the more
important of which are:
DIFFICULTIES WHICH THE LEARNER MUST MEET 79
(1) The different teaching jobs in the block are ar-
ranged in a definite order.
(2) They are so arranged that, after the first job has
been put over each succeeding job extends the learner's
knowledge and skill, but does not call for a different sort
of knowledge and skill.
(3) Jobs that require the learner to think of the least num-
ber of different things at once come first and jobs that require
the learner to think of the most different things come last.
(4) The jobs are arranged according to the difficulty
of learning how to do them rather than according to the
order in which they would be done in getting out a finished
product according to a good production order. That is, the
order is an instructing order, not a production order. (Borne-
times these two kinds of orders agree usually they do not.)
An illustration of a course of instruction which does not
meet these conditions would be the following procedure in
training reamers which illustrates a method of procedure often
found when untrained instructors attempt to handle a course
of training. Where two rivet holes do not come together
"fair " they must be reamed to a common size. This is usually
done with a pneumatic or electric drive. The instruction
course aimed at training these men to correctly ream any kind
of holes where reaming was required. A group of men after
having been cautioned as to the control of the machine were
placed in compartments of the ship to ream out all holes that
required reaming. These holes were of course, of all sizes, fair
and unfair (that is, some holes were centered, as punched, or
as the plates were temporarily held together by bolts, and
others were more or less off center). Some could be reamed
in easy positions and some required difficult positions. Under
these conditions the learner was immediately put up against
jobs of all sorts of difficulty, since he took the holes as they
came. He worked in this way until he had learned to ream.
Under these conditions the learner had to learn too many
things at once, reducing the probability that he would thor-
oughly grasp any one thing, causing a state of mental confusion
and slowing up the learning operation. Taking holes as they
80 THE INSTRUCTOR
came, the learner would very likely first get a very unfair hole
to ream, then a fair hole, then a hole of some other degree of
fairness. Under a properly arranged order of instruction the
work would have been so laid out that holes of different degrees
of fairness would have been marked so that the learner first
learned to ream the fairest hole, then the next fairest hole,
and so on up to the most unfair hole that he would ever have
to work on. Moreover it is very unlikely that one com-
partment would afford enough samples of holes of all degrees
of fairness, so that instead of keeping him in one compartment
till all holes were reamed, he should have been carried from
one compartment to another as the demands of the training
required. This would have been equally true of the variations
in the working positions on the reaming in different parts
of the compartments, top, sides, bottom. Keeping the gang
that is under instruction in one compartment till it is all
reamed up gives good production conditions; such an arrange-
ment is an example of bad instructional conditions.
As between the two methods of training given above the
latter would train a reamer much faster, make a better work-
man of him, keep him in a much better frame of mind while
he was under training and turn him out with a much better
attitude towards his job.
Progression Factors. It has already been pointed out that
an efficient instructional order for the teaching jobs in any one
block will present certain characteristics. Any instructor
who has any notion of his job at all will attempt to make some
sort of a lay out that will meet these conditions and these
attempts fall into one of three classes. The instructor who
knows the least about his job as an instructor simply guesses
at the order in which he will lay out the successive teaching
jobs in the block. He "guesses" that a learner should have
this sort of a job first and that sort of a job second and the
other sort of a job third. He has little or no basis for his
guess except, possibly, some vague notions as to what are
commonly called "hard" or "easy" jobs in the trade. The
instructor who has a better notion of his job as an instructor
will lay out the work in a determined order, but he will base
his order, not on learning difficulties, that is, not on the difficul-
DIFFICULTIES WHICH THE LEARNER MUST MEET 81
ties that the learner will have to get over in mastering the
successive ideas or operations that he must get, but on the
difficulties that he, the instructor, who is himself a competent
workman in that trade, would meet in doing the different
jobs. This sort of instructor fails to remember what he went
through when he learned his trade and thinks of things as they
are now and not as they were with him when he was a learner.
The trained and efficient instructor will neither guess
nor will he confuse doing difficulties with learning difficulties.
He will lay out his order of teaching jobs with regard to the
difficulties that the learner will meet in learning how to do the
job. He will, in a sense, put himself in the learner's place, and
look at the matter through the brain and the hand of the learner
who is to be made into a competent workman rather than from
the standpoint of the workman who is already trained.
In order to do this, the instructor who follows the "sci-
entific" method of laying out his successive order of jobs must
determine what elements, or factors enter into learning difficul-
ties. Having determined them he will then arrange his order
of jobs so that the learner gradually works, or progresses by
uniform and gradual stages, from jobs where these factors are
the least intense to jobs where they are the most intense. That
is, the instructor must determine the difficulty factors for the
learner for each block of his trade. Since these are the factors
that determine the difficulties that the learner must overcome
in working or progressing through the line of instruction for the
block, they are called the progression factors for that block.
Progression factors are therefore merely those things
that affect the speed, ease and the thoroughness with which a
learner progresses through an order of instruction.
The Identification of Progression Factors. The first step
in getting out an efficient progressive order of instruction for
any block is to determine the progression factors for that
particular group of teaching jobs. In general, it may be
said that the instructor must determine the progression factors
by making a study of the causes of the difficulties that his
learners meet in learning how to do the different jobs in the
block. While no general rule can be given the following
suggestions may be of service. In a general way it may be
6
82 THE INSTRUCTOR
said that progression factors affect either "head work" or
"hand work." For example, in some trades, the green man
is afraid to do certain things; there may be more than one
thing that he is afraid of on some jobs and only one thing that
he is afraid of on others. Evidently in this case the course
of training should be so laid out that he will get first jobs in
which he is only afraid of one thing and can get over his fear
of that before he is given jobs in which he would be afraid
of several things.
In training an anglesmith's striker it was found that he
was afraid of letting go of his sledge and hitting somebody,
he was afraid of the hot iron, he was afraid that he would not
hit what he aimed at and he was afraid that he would not
strike "fair." The course of instruction had to be so ar-
ranged that the green man did not have to overcome all of
these fears at once. In this case fear was therefore a pro-
gression factor to be taken into consideration. In other
trades there are some jobs in which a man has to look out for
only one thing at a time and other jobs where he has to look
out for a number of things at the same time, and there are
jobs intermediate between these two in this respect. When a
crane operator simply lifts a frame he does not have to look
out for as many things at once as when he lifts the frame and
carries it. In laying out a line of instruction for a crane
operator the instructor would arrange the different jobs in
such an order that the man would be taught to lift before he
was taught to carry. In this case the progression factor might
be called complexity and we would say that the progression
should be from the least complex to the most complex jobs.
Two Kinds of Progression Factors. A man who is used
to working under production conditions is almost certain to
get out production difficulties instead of learning difficulties.
When he thinks of the relative difficulties of jobs he is almost
sure to think of the difficulties that he, as a competent man,
would meet in doing them rather than of the difficulties that
a learner would meet in learning how to do them. His progres-
sion factor table will, unless he is very careful, be a production
progression factor table and not an instruction progression
factor table.
DIFFICULTIES WHICH THE LEARNER MUST MEET
83
What is a Progression Factor Table? A convenient device
for enabling an instructor to work out his instructional order
with regard to progression factors is what is often called a
progression factor table. In constructing such a progression
factor table the instructor, after having determined the
progression factors for the block, charts out the progression
on paper as follows :
Suppose that there are four progression factors A, B, C
and D, and these are accuracy, speed, fear and number of
operations. In such a case a progression factor table would
look like the sample below.
PROGRESSION FACTORS
TO
Accuracy
High
Speed high
No fear
Many
Operations
i
FROM
i
Accuracy
very low
Speed
very low
Fear high
Number of
Operations
low
84 THE INSTRUCTOR
The vertical lines indicate simply that the learner must
progress from jobs where each of the progression factors are at
a minimum or maximum, as the case may be, through jobs
where the factors are of intermediate but increasing or decreas-
ing value. Such a progression factor table should be prepared
for each block of the trade for which the instructional order is
to be laid out.
Progression Factors May Go Up or Down. Progression
factors may increase or decrease as the learner progresses.
Thus, in the sample table given above, accuracy, speed and
number of operations went up, but fear went down. So far
as fear went the learner had more "scare" in him when he
started than at any other time, and the problem, so far as
that progression factor goes, is to gradually reduce that scare
to zero, and to give the learner a chance to overcome his
"scares" one at a time. That is, fear is a diminishing factor.
The other factors used for illustration start at as near zero
as possible. The absolutely green learner has practically no
skill, his speed is at the minimum. Numerous operations will
confuse him the most at the start, and will bother him less
as he gains in experience and skill, hence his first job should
call for as few operations as possible. His accuracy is at
zero, or nearly so, hence his first job should be the one calling
for the roughest work of all the jobs in the block.
CHAPTER X
ESTABLISHING A DIFFICULTY SCALE FOR ONE
BLOCK. THE SECOND OPERATION IN GETTING
OUT AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER
Preliminary. Up to this point the instructor has established
his progression factors and laid out a true instructional
progression factor table by the method described in the pre-
ceding chapter. If his trade is a single block trade, one pro-
gression factor table will cover the entire trade; if a multiblock
trade, he has laid out as many progression factor tables as
there are blocks in the trade. If he is instructing on single
jobs of course no question of job progression comes in and
he does not have to bother with progression factors at all.
The next step is to establish what may be called a difficulty
scale for the block under consideration.
The progression factor table as it now stands, merely
gives a starting point and a finish, or an outline of minimum
and maximum degrees of learning difficulties. The instructor
is in the position of a train dispatcher who knows that a
train leaves New York and arrives at Boston at given times,
but has no knowledge of the position of that train on the
route at any intervening time. In order to know approxi-
mately how near the train is to Boston at different stages
in its progress, the train is reported at definite points between
starting point and the finish. In the same way the instructor
in order to know how far advanced the learner is, has got to
establish a series of checking points between the learner's
start and his finish.
The Difficulty Scale. If a number of horizontal lines are
drawn across a progression factor table, each line will represent
a stage of the learner's progression through the block, just as
the reporting of trains from intermediate stations shows its
position between its starting point and destination. We
call such lines checking levels.
85
8(5 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Number of Checking Levels Required. The determina-
tion of the number of checking levels required is a matter
of judgment. Evidently if a block contained a great many
jobs, the instructor would want to check up the progress of
the learner at more points than he would if the number of
jobs were small. The number of checking points would
vary also with the character of the trade and the kind of a
learner, i. e. y in trades calling for a high degree of skill, or if
the list of jobs for the block included a good many technical
jobs, more checking points would be required than for trades
with reversed conditions. Probably more checking points
would be required for checking boys than for men.
The object to be accomplished is to enable the instructor
to keep a close enough check on the progress of the learner
to know approximately where he is between the beginning
and end of the block, but at the same time not try to make
the thing too fine.
Probably a rough rule would be to establish a checking
level for every four to six jobs in the block.
The diagram for a progression factor table when made into a
difficulty scale with four intermediate checking levels would
look like the figure below :
TO
MOST
kill
FROM
D
LEAST
ESTABLISHING A DIFFICULTY SCALE 87
This gives the situation of the learner at six levels, start,
four intermediate stations and finish.
Conclusion. The instructor now has two things, (1) the
list of jobs for the block and (2) a difficulty scale for the block.
The next step is to use the difficulty scale and the list of jobs
for the block so that the jobs can be arranged in an effective
order for instruction. The method for doing this is given in
the next chapter.
CHAPTER XI
APPLYING THE DIFFICULTY SCALE TO ONE BLOCK.
THE THIRD OPERATION IN GETTING OUT AN
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER.
Preliminary. The instructor has now two things to work
with : he has a list of the various teaching jobs that he intends
to put over in the block that is under consideration and he
has the difficulty scale he has worked out for the same block.
The next step is to apply the difficulty scale to the list of teach-
ing jobs so that the result will be a lay-out for progression,
or a course of instruction, that will conform to the standard
already set forth in the previous chapters.
When the instructor has done this he has his teaching jobs
for the block laid out in an effective instructional order, al-
though, as already pointed out, he will probably find on trial
that some modifications will be required as he gains in experi-
ence in working through the course with a group of learners.
Checking Level Specifications. The first step in using the
difficulty scale is to take off what may be called checking
level specifications. In order to do this the instructor pro-
ceeds as in the illustration given below.
Assume for illustration that an instructor in house car-
pentry is laying out a course of instruction for his trade. He
has decided to put into one block all the teaching jobs that
he proposes to put over in connection with his instruction
on the covering in of a house. He has taken closing in as his
block base. He has listed out on cards the following teaching
jobs to be included in this instructional block.
CLOSING IN BLOCK
Boarding in Fancy shingling Straight gutters
Paper work Valley shingling Mitered gutters
Clapboarding Ridge pieces Flashings
Straight roof shingling.
88
APPLYING THE DIFFICULTY SCALE 89
He has determined that this block contains four progression
factors: workmanship, accuracy, number of operations and
has also decided that the working conditions vary to such a
degree for a learner on jobs on different parts of the house
that, as between working on the ground and working at an
elevation, consideration must be given to the fact that fear
will affect the learning conditions.
He has also determined that three checking levels between
the beginning and end of this block of instruction will enable
him to keep track of the learner's progress with a sufficient
degree of approximation for the instructional requirements
for this block in this trade.
He therefore has a five degree difficulty scale and a four
factor progression factor table. He now places his difficulty
scale side of his progression factor as shown in the diagram.
He now prolongs the "degree" lines on his difficulty scale
across the progression factor table as indicated by the dotted
lines in the figure. Wherever a scale line crosses a progression
line we have what may be called a checking point, as indicated
by the circles lines in the figure.
Checking Level Specifications. By reading horizontally
along the five scale lines the instructor can now determine
the general characteristics of the sort of teaching jobs that
would approximately fit into the specifications for any degree
on his difficulty scale. Thus, in the diagram as given for
illustration he might have:
No. 1 Level. (Green learner.) The roughest laying on
job that can be found on this sort of work, with the fewest
possible operations and working on the ground.
No. 2 Level. (Learner partly trained.) A moderately
rough job, requiring some degree of accuracy, calling for
a few operations that can be worked on off the ground but
not too high up.
No. 3 Level. (Learner about half trained.) A somewhat
close job off the ground, calling for several operations. In
general, further along than No. 2, but not so far along as No. 4.
No. 4 Level. (Learner considerably trained.) A fairly
close job, requiring some fitting, well off the ground, requiring
a considerable number of operations.
90
THE INSTRUCTOR
HOUSE CARPENTRY
CLOSING IN BLOCK
^necKing
Level
Scale
THE BLOCK
Maximum
Close
Fitting
Roof
Many
5
4
3
2
1
k
ki
k
k
t
(
^
"**
c
^
h
(
H
>
1
(
tf
)
(
)
(
)
(
>
(
)
(
*)
c
)
C
)
)
C
")
(
)
c
)
c
c
)
Minimum
Rough
Laying on
Ground
Few
APPLYING Tfifi DIFFICULTY SCALE 91
No. 5 Level. (Learner completely trained.) The closest
job requiring the best fitting, with the most operations of any
job that there is on this class of work (closing in), and carried
on as high up as is possible.
The instructor now has what may be called checking level
specification. That is, he has determined the general char-
acteristics of the sort of a teaching lesson that should be given
to the learner when he starts, when he is completely trained,
and when he has reached three intermediate stages in his
progression through the instruction block. It will be noted
that these checking level specifications do not refer to any
definite job, but only indicate the characteristics of the sort
of a teaching job that should be undertaken with the learner
at the stages of his progress indicated by the lines on the check-
ing level diagram.
Conclusion and Summary. By carrying through the opera-
tions just described, the instructor has now applied his diffi-
culty scale to his progression factor table and has drawn off
the characteristics or specifications of the sort of a teaching
job that should be undertaken with the learner at the checking
levels on the difficulty scale. It still remains to determine
what actual jobs out of those listed out for the block will best
fit into the instructional order as prescribed by the progression
factor table and the checking level specifications as obtained.
This further method of procedure is discussed in the next
chapter.
CHAPTER XII
GETTING THE ACTUAL TEACHING JOBS INTO AN
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER FROM
THE CHECKING LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS. THE
FOURTH OPERATION IN GETTING OUT AN EFFEC-
TIVE ORDER OF INSTRUCTION FOR ONE BLOCK
Preliminary. The instructor in the illustration used in the
last chapter has now got his checking level specifications
and has the list of jobs that he intends to teach in that
block. The next step is to determine in what order these
jobs can be arranged to secure best practical instructional
order.
Fitting the Jobs to the Progression Scale. In the case of
the instructor in house carpentry already used for illustration
in the preceding section, the further procedure would be as
follows : He has on cards the ten kinds of jobs that he proposes
to teach in the block.
He knows all about these jobs. He selects the job that
he thinks will approximate most closely to the number one
level on his table. He then picks out the job that he thinks
will fit best into the specifications for the number five level,
and in the same way he selects three jobs that fit the best
into the specifications for levels two, three and four. He has
now located five jobs out of the ten on his scale. This leaves
five jobs to be distributed between. He does this according
to his judgment. To illustrate:
He selects paper work for the first level (minimum) job
because it calls for the roughest workmanship of any job on
his list; because it calls for practically no fitting, hence no
accuracy, it calls for the fewest operations, since it only requires
nailing on the paper and cutting it off, and the learner can be
given jobs of this character on or near the ground. He selects
92
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER 93
a job in paper work where the learner can stand on the ground,
because he must consider the fear factor. Thus he secures
a job that approximates fairly well to the specifications of the
minimum level job.
The number two level specifications call for a moderately
rough job calling for some degree of accuracy with two or
three operations that can be worked off the ground but
not too high up. Clapboarding meets these specifications
pretty well and by picking out work where the learner can
be put on a staging eight or ten feet from the ground, it
gives a pretty fair approximation to the number two speci-
fications.
Specifications for number three level call for a fairly close
job, well off the ground, requiring a considerable number of
operations. Straight clapboarding near the roof meets these
conditions fairly well. On the matter of fear of falling it is
fairly good, it does not call for quite enough operations to
quite meet the specifications, but it seems about the best
choice on the whole. So he takes it.
Specifications for number four level call for a somewhat
close job off the ground calling for several operations. He
selects for this putting on mitered gutters, since this work
must be done up to the eaves of the house (about as far up
as the learner can work and have a staging under him) and
because, from the standpoint of skill mitering is a pretty
close job. There are not quite enough operations, but, on
the whole, this job fits the specifications about as well as
any.
Specifications for number five level call for the closest
job of the list, requiring the best fitting, with the greatest
number of operations of any job in the block, carried on under
the worst conditions so far as fear of falling is concerned.
Several of the jobs on the list meet these specifications to a
greater or less degree; putting on ridge pieces is as high up
as any, but is rather too simple; putting on flashing around a
chimney is better, but on the whole, fancy shingling on the
roof would seem to meet the specifications the best, though
not the ideal type job for this level. He therefore selects it
as his most advanced job. He now has:
94 THE INSTRUCTOR
Level No. Job.
5 Fancy shingling.
4 Mitered gutters.
3 Clap boarding on the roof, medium high.
2 Clapboarding on a low stage.
1 Paper work on the ground.
The instructor now considers the other jobs on his list.
Evidently mitered gutters, chimney flashings, fitting ridge
pieces should come in between levels 3 and 4. Boarding on a
stage will come after paper work, etc., so that finally the order
of jobs might be, with some reason, arranged as follows:
Level No. Order No. Job.
5 11 Fancy shingling.
4 10 Mitered gutters.
9 Chimney flashings.
8 Fitting ridge pieces.
3 7 Clapboarding near the roof.
6 Putting on straight gutters.
5 Clapboarding on high stage.
2 4 Boarding on high stage.
3 Paper work on stage.
2 Boarding on stage.
1 1 Boarding on the ground.
The jobs for this block have now been arranged in an efficient
order of instruction with regard to the difficulty scale as laid out.
The instructor now has his order of instruction for the block.
Type Jobs and Real Jobs. In the illustration just given
it will be noted that in no case did the job selected exactly
meet the specifications for the checking level which it was
chosen to represent. For convenience we can imagine a job
that will exactly meet the specifications of any given checking
level, even if no real job does exactly meet them. An imagi-
nary job that exactly corresponds to a set of checking level
specifications may be called a type job. In selecting real jobs
on which to base his different teaching lessons, the instructor,
having in mind type jobs chooses real jobs that approximate
to the type job that he has in mind when he makes his selec-
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER 95
tion. In this work of approximating he will do good work in
proportion as he has the type job specifications clearly in
his mind and uses good judgment in "matching up" his real
jobs against the type jobs. Of course it might be true that
a real job might correspond exactly with a type job, but cases
of this sort are so rare in practice that they are negligible.
On the other hand it is not uncommon to find that several
jobs all correspond equally well to the specifications of a given
type job. So far as meeting the requirements of the teaching
job as given on the progression table, one would be as good as
another. In such a case it will usually be found that minor varia-
tions and the learning difficulties will suggest a most effective
arrangement, or, if this is not the case, the jobs in the " bunch "
may be assigned in any order as convenience may determine.
Laying Out an Effective Instructional Order in Practice.
An excellent practical method for arranging jobs according
to a difficulty scale is to use such cards as are made for card
catalog work. Where cards are used the arrangement is
flexible, the order of jobs can be easily changed and addi-
tional jobs can be readily inserted in the proper place.
The most useful cards for this work are the ordinary size
(about 3J4" x 4}^"). Guide cards may be used for the
type job specifications. Such a guide card might be arranged
as shown below.
No..
Block base.
Checking level specifications
96 THE INSTRUCTOR
For listing out jobs a card as shown below is about the sim-
plest form.
Block... Card No..
Job
Where multiblocks are used each block can be indicated
by a center guide card of a different color. The guide cards
can be arranged in the order of the checking levels that
they show, going up front to back. Cards carrying the jobs
corresponding to each set of checking level specifications can
be bunched behind the corresponding guide card. If they
vary much with regard to the specifications they can be
arranged in an order working from the specifications on the
front guide to the next guide back. Convenient holding
cases can be easily procured if cards of standard size are used.
A job card catalog constructed as described is the best
form in which to keep an order of job instruction.
If desired further modifications can be developed. Cards
can be made to carry additional information, cards of different
colors can be used to indicate different classes of jobs, etc.
Such an arrangement can be used to record almost any sort
of information that may be desired.
CHAPTER XIII
TYING UP THE AUXILIARY INFORMATION WITH THE
JOB INSTRUCTION
Preliminary. The method of securing an effective instruc-
tional order that has been presented in this pamphlet has dealt
entirely with jobs: production jobs or technical jobs or both.
It has been assumed that in listing out the instructional orders
the instructor has only dealt with teaching jobs that were to
be carried out on actual jobs: that is, on production work.
In analyzing out the trade, however, it was found that
there was more or less auxiliary material, largely in the nature
of information, that must, in some way, be given to the learner
during the progress of his training, and the question of how this
auxiliary material is to be handled still remains to be dis-
cussed. This question, as a part of the whole problem of
securing an efficient order of instruction, is discussed in this
chapter.
The Applying of Auxiliary Knowledge. Whenever a man
does a job it is almost always true that, in connection with the
doing of that job some auxiliary knowledge will be used or
applied. In getting out an operation sheet use must be made
of location terms, operation terms, etc. In a technical job,
such as reading the blueprint in the shop, some trade terms
will come into play and will have to be correctly interpreted
by the workman. In using an acetylene torch, or in operating
a machine tool the operator must apply certain "safety first"
information if he means to do a safe job. In nearly all jobs
directions, to be intelligently understood, must use trade
terms, and the workman must understand them.
In a previous chapter the method of listing out and classify-
ing this auxiliary knowledge was given, and it is assumed
in this section that the instructor has properly listed out and
classified all the items that he considers should be included in
7 97
98 THE INSTRUCTOR
what he intends to give to the learner as a part of the training
course that he has planned.
It has already been pointed out that the passing out of
information does not require the use of the instructing pro-
cess: because straight information is not taught, in the sense
in which the term is used in these notes. For example we
cannot teach trade terms; we can explain them, but explaining
what the words "diamond point tool," "apron," "bevel
gear," "eleven point" and so on signify does not mean that
we have taught them. In such cases there is nothing to teach,
because there is no particular reason why these particular
terms should carry the meaning that they do. In the same way
and for no more reason we call the right hand side of a ship,
facing forward, the starboard side, and, under the same
conditions, the left hand side the port side. Such terms as
mortise joint, bed, justifying, taking out wind, milling, and so
forth carry the meanings that they do simply because they
are trade terms for certain things or certain operations, and
that is all there is to the matter. The instructor can tell what
they signify but he does not teach them : that is, he does not
put them over by the use of a true instructional process.
As already pointed out an instructor not only has to teach
but as a part of his job he must point out certain facts and
explain certain terms; he must give certain information. It
therefore becomes a part of the problem of an instructor who
is planning out a line of instruction to determine how he pro-
poses to "run in" this sort of material, or auxiliary knowledge
in the most effective way. If it is not included in his instruc-
tional course, the training will be, of course, imperfect. The
methods whereby this part of the problem of the instructor
can be dealt with are discussed in the following paragraphs.
The Putting over of Auxiliary Knowledge: The Two
Methods. In general there are two methods of putting over
the auxiliary knowledge that must be applied to the different
jobs in any given block. According to the first method this
information is organized into "courses of instruction," and
is "taught" that is, passed out, by what is thought to be a
series of teaching lessons. This material is divided into
different subjects and these subjects are "taught" to the
AUXILIARY INFORMATION AND JOB INSTRUCTION 99
learners at definite times. This is often done by bringing the
learners into a room and giving them this information by
lectures or "shop talks," before they are instructed in jobs.
This method, which we will call the method of instructing by
subjects, is the usual method that is followed in the regular
schools, and is the one that is generally attempted by trade
instructors who attempt to follow regular school methods.
By the second method this auxiliary material, while it is
carefully listed in the instructor's trade analysis, is not brought
into "courses of instruction" by subjects, but is "tied up"
with the job, by giving it to the learner in small parts, and
giving him each part only when it is needed in connection
with the job on which he is being instructed. According to
this second method the instructor determines what part of
the different items of auxiliary knowledge that he has listed
out will be called for for the first time when the learner has
reached any given job in the list of jobs for that block, and
plans to give it to the learner at that point. No attempt is
made to pass out these different items apart from the jobs
with which they are naturally connected. By this method
no lectures or talks are used to give the auxiliary material.
The Two Methods Illustrated. As an illustration of the
way in which the two methods would be worked out in practice
take the case of the care of tools when in use. According to
the first method the precautions that should be taken in
looking out for the different tools would be given to groups
of men at certain times: a common way would be to bring
the men together for an hour or two a week for this informa-
tion or to attempt to give it in evening classes, which men
may attend if they choose. If, for example, a man should
know that a certain tool must be kept well oiled, and how
to oil it, by the first method he would be given this in-
formation at some time during a "course" on the care of tools.
If certain precautions should be taken in connection with
the use of the tool this information would be given in a " course "
on safety first, if certain trade terms were required to be under-
stood, the learner would get these in a "course" on trade
terms. Such "courses" would, of course, include similar
items for other jobs in the trade. By the other method the
100 THE INSTRUCTOR
particular terms that would come into play in connection
with the use of that particular tool, the special precautions
that should be taken in using that tool, the special things that
a man should know in taking care of that tool would be deter-
mined and listed out in connection with the first job in the
instructional course in which that tool came into use. That is,
this information would be given to the learner at the time
that he needed it on the job, and not before, and at that
time he would only be given the particular items that applied
to that particular job.
The two methods may be illustrated by the diagram given
below :
k k
Jobs Safety Trade Knowledge Care of Tools
First Terms of Stock and Equip-
ment
WORKING BY SUBJECTS.
Safety First
Stock Jt^* 3 ^ Trade Terms
Care of Tools, etc.
Safety First
Stock IS^ ^ Trade Terms
Care of Tools, etc.
WORKING BY TYING UP.
AUXILIARY INFORMATION AND J6B INSTRUCTION 101 '
O's represent successive jobs; index lines parts of the
different kinds of auxiliary material that should be "fixed up"
with each job.
For a more definite example, take the case of the safety
first information and the trade terms that would come into
the job of operating an air "gun 5 * in riveting. If such a
"gun" is started when the die is not pressed against something
solid, this die will be "shot" with sufficient force to do con-
siderable damage if it strikes any one. Assume, for con-
venience, that the terms are trigger, gun, plunger, and die.
That the safety first information consists in impressing the
learner with the fact that if he starts the gun "free" the tool
will "shoot." Assume that this particular operating danger
and these particular terms are included in the list of trade
terms that the instructor has compiled of all the safety first
information and all the trade terms that apply to the trade
that is to be taught, in this case, riveting.
By the first method the information about "shooting the
tool" might be given as a part cf a lecture on safety first
at some time before the man had had a gun in his hand,
and it would be given along with a lot of other information
which would apply to safety in the use of other tools or on
other jobs. . So the special terms that would apply to the
particular lesson, "trigger," "die," etc., would be given in a
talk on trade terms given at a time when the learner was
not on the job, and given along with a lot of other trade
terms, such as "flush rivet," "snap rivet," "countersunk
rivet," etc., that would apply to other jobs in the line of
instruction. That is, there would be a "course" in trade
terms; a "course" in safety first, applying in each case to the
requirements of the riveting trade, each course including all
the auxiliary information for that trade under that particular
classification.
By the second method the instructor, in laying out his
course of instruction, would have looked at his list of trade
terms and decided that the terms "trigger" and "die" would
come in for the first time in connection with a lesson on the
operation of the gun, and would plan for that teaching unit a
memorandum that the learner was to be introduced to these
102 THE INSTRUCTOR
particular terms in connection with that lesson. In the same
way he would have determined that that lesson was the place
to bring up the safety first information connected with the
use of the gun, and would have noted that on his lesson plan.
Thus the learner would get the special precautions and trade
terms that go with the operation of the gun, at the time that he
was first taught how to operate a gun and not at some time before
or after he had been taught how to operate a gun. Naturally this
would be a part of his first lesson in riveting.
Untrained Instructors Tend to Use the First Method.
The majority of untrained instructors tend to use the first
method; they do this for several reasons among the more
important of which are: first, they have the notion that, if
the learner can be "instructed," (as they call it) in advance,
that is, if he has been told the trade terms, precautions, etc.,
before he is given the lesson on the job, he will know and be
able to apply these terms and precautions when he is on the
job. The theory is that, having been once given them, he will
carry them in his head, pick out what he needs to apply on any
given job when he needs it, and do it completely and correctly.
Second, this method of instruction by subjects is very much
the easier method to follow and so appeals to the overworked
or lazy instructor. Third, it is the sort of organization of
teaching material that the instructor sees in the work of the
regular schools, the way that his children are getting their
schooling, probably the way that he got his own schooling,
and he naturally tends to copy that. Fourth, somebody, not a
scientific instructor himself, tells him to do it that way and
he follows their advice.
The Right Method. The method of tying up the auxiliary
material with the job has always been recognized by teachers
as one that is far more effective than the method of handling
this material by the "subject" method. It is the method
that has always been followed by the really effective teachers
in the regular schools. It does not find much place in the
work of these schools chiefly because the work is practically
"book work," as it is often called, and not "practical work,"
or work on production. Teaching conditions in these schools
AUXILIARY INFORMATION AND JOB INSTRUCTION 103
also make the successful use of the tying up method very
difficult, but in good schools it will be found in use in such
subjects as science and manual training, where real things
are studied and handled.
The Advantage of Tying Up the Auxiliary Material with the
Job. In the first place the learner gets the information at the
time that he sees some "sense" in it; when he sees that it
really comes into the job. If it is given him in advance of
the job he has nothing to "tie" it to; it makes but little im-
pression. If it is given him after the job he has not been
given it when he has a chance to apply it. In either case
what "tying" he can do will be either to such a general idea
of the situation as he may get from such general knowledge
of the job as he may have picked up somehow, or from such a
picture of the job as he may get from whatever the instructor
puts up, in either case a pretty weak thing to tie to. In the
second place, and what is more important, it is of no value to
give information on, say, safety precautions, unless the man
will take those precautions when he is working on the job.
If he knows and does not apply, what good has been done?
In order that he shall think of the thing in question when he
should, he must have gotten it in connection with some
operation, so that, whenever he performs that operation the
thing, say "shooting the tool" will come up in his mind in
connection with that part of the job. It is the failure to recog-
nize this fact that makes so much "preliminary work in the
"fundamentals" of so little value; general talks on safety
first are given and then, when the men on the job do exactly
what the instructor warned them not to do, he wonders what
is the matter and calls them stupid. He puts up lessons
on fractions, and then finds that his men do not know how
to use fractions on the job; he teaches trade terms in ad-
vance of their use and, when they come up on the job, the
man does not know the terms. In all these cases the trouble
is that the instructor, who has plenty of trade experience
to tie to, forgets that the learner has little or none; it is
another case of the instructor thinking of the problem with
his own brain and not putting himself in the place of the
learner.
104 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Practical Tying Up of the Auxiliary Material with the
Instructional Order of Jobs. An instructor who has arranged
his technical and production jobs in an effective instructional
order and who now wishes to "work in " the auxiliary material
that goes with the trade, proceeds as follows: He takes the
number one job on his list and determines what items on his
list of safety first material should be given in connection with
that lesson; the same for trade terms, for knowledge of stock,
etc. He lists these items on the card that carries that job.
He does the same with the next job and so on until he has
distributed all his auxiliary material among the different jobs
to the best advantage, bearing in mind that the job for bring-
ing up any given item for the first time is the one on which
the learner will feel the need to use or apply that particular
item for the first time.
The Question of General Information. In what has been
said in this section reference has been made only to the course
of instruction for some one trade that the instructor has
planned to teach. Entirely outside of this there is undoubtedly
a large amount of information of a general character that the
new man needs to have given him in some way, but which
is no part of his special trade training. Whether he is to be
trained in spinning, weaving, machine shop work, or any other
occupation in the plant, he needs, for example, information as
to where and when and how he gets his pay, where the dis-
pensary is, how to get around the shop, etc. Information
of this sort should not be included in the trade training course
as planned by the instructor for that trade. It is, in fact,
doubtful if it is not the business of the welfare department
or the employment office to give information of this sort. If
the instructor plans to give it it should be worked out as an
independent program from that for his " regular job " the occu-
pation for which he is expected to give training. It might
be that if this work were a part of the work of the training
department, it could be given to one special instructor to
work up and attend to before the man was sent to the trade
instructor for his trade training proper.
The importance of doing this tying up work well cannot
be too strongly emphasized, and it will pay the instructor
AUXILIARY INFORMATION AND JOB INSTRUCTION 105
to give much time and attention to working out this part
of his instructional layout. The two important things to
accomplish are: first, to run in all the trade terms, precau-
tions and other auxiliary material somewhere in the instruc-
tional list of teaching jobs, and second, to be sure that the
distribution is such that each part comes to the man when he
needs to use it for the first time on the job, not before and not
after. In proportion as this is well worked out the "tying up
process" will be efficient and instructional time will be saved.
Under few, if any conditions should the instructor undertake
to plan to give any auxiliary material to his men "off the job."
Summary and Conclusion. In addition to the jobs
(technical and production), that constitute the instructional
order, or course of instruction for the trade, the instructor, in
his analysis has listed out the auxiliary material and classified
it under the proper heads. This auxiliary material can be
given either by distinct subject courses or by the tying up
method. This second method should be followed in emergency
training departments because it is much more efficient of the
two. Instructors tend to follow the first (subject) method
because it is easier and is the method that they commonly
see in the regular schools. The instructor should distribute
the different items between the different jobs in such an order
that any given item comes to the learner the first time that
he meets the need for it on the job.
CHAPTER XIV
GETTING THE JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK INTO
AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ORDER
Preliminary. The method of procedure given in the pre-
ceding sections has dealt entirely with the case where the
trade was a single block trade. As stated, the listing of the
teaching jobs, the determination of the teaching difficulties,
the establishment of a difficulty scale, the putting the scale
against the progression factor table and the getting of the
teaching jobs and the real jobs into an effective instructional
order must be carried through for each block. When this
has been done once for a single block trade the order of in-
struction is completed, and the instructor is ready to take up
active instructional work so far as the arrangement and
determination of what he is going to teach is concerned.
Special Problems of the Multiblock Trade. Where the
trade has been determined to be a multiblock trade further
complications are introduced into the problem of getting out an
effective instructional order because not only the different
teaching jobs in the blocks must be presented to the learner
in some determined order, but the blocks themselves must also
be arranged so that the teaching jobs in all the blocks can be
combined into an effective order of instruction. In the
case of a multiblock trade we have therefore one more step
to take before the line of instruction is completely worked out.
Let it be assumed that an instructor has determined that
che trade that he intends to teach is a multiblock trade and
that he has worked out his effective order of instruction for
each of the blocks. His first problem is to determine tne
order in which these different blocks should be placed in the
course cf instruction. That is, the block order must be deter-
mined.
100
ORDER FOR JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK 107
Independent and Related Blocks. In general, it will be
found that the different blocks are independent or related.
By an independent block is meant one in which the teaching
lessons contained therein have no relation to those in any
other block. This practically means that it would be possible
to carry a learner through any one block without having to
refer in any way to anything that was contained in any other
block. An illustration may make this clearer.
As already stated, machine shop instruction breaks up
into some fourteen blocks, and the general block base is the
machine. It is generally held by instructors in that trade
that it is perfectly possible to thoroughly instruct a learner
in the work that is done on any one machine without being
obliged to use in any way anything that he might know about
any other machine. This fact is taken advantage of in cases
where "special machine operators" are trained: lathe hands,
planer hands, shaper hands, etc., are trained so that they are
thoroughly instructed in the work on their special machine
and may know absolutely nothing about the operation of any
other machine.
Where these conditions exist, in instructing a learner on
any one machine, the instructor need not in any way assume
that the man under instruction has had any experience on
any other machine which the instructor must draw upon in
connection with the instruction. The complete instructional
order for jobs on any one machine can be built up without
using in any way knowledge of any other machine. Such a
case would probably be equally true in the case of plumb-
ing, for jobs on rigid pipe, lead pipe, soil pipe and so on, and
might be true for work in a wood mill in training on the
different wood working machines. It might be true in the
case of training men in sheet metal work, where the three blocks
of reading blueprints, making constructions for pattern lay
outs and working the sheet metal, might be found to be in-
dependent blocks. This would be the case if it were true
that one man could be trained only to read blueprints, an-
other trained only to make constructions and a third trained
only in working the metal, and each man could do his job
without knowing anything about the other man's job. The
106 THE INSTRUCTOR
test as to whether these blocks (assuming that the instructor
had determined that these three blocks did exist in the trade)
were related or independent would come in determining
whether the instructor, in laying out the work for blueprint
reading found it necessary to assume that the learner knew
anything about either construction work or about working the
metal and whether in instructing the learner in working the
metal, any reference must be made to the blueprint reading
or the construction work.
Suppose, on the other hand, it were found that, in a certain
trade, while the trade broke up in such a way that different
block bases were desirable, that is, it was a multiblock trade,
what a learner acquired in one block would help him in pro-
gressing through another block. Many instructors in pattern
making have held that this is true of their trade. Referring
to the possible block bases as given already discussed, they
have held that, while a segmental pattern offered enough
distinctive characteristics to warrant setting up a block
on segmental patterns, at the same time this block could best
be given to a learner who had already been carried through a
block on built up patterns, and that the learner could best be
carried through the block on built up patterns after he had
been instructed in a block on solid patterns. These instructors
hold that learning difficulties would be less in the case of the
block on segmental patterns if the learner already knew how
to make built up patterns, because a built up pattern differs
from a solid pattern only in the fact that for special reasons,
it is made in a number of pieces instead of in one piece. On
the other hand, these instructors have claimed that work on
segmental patterns offered enough special learning difficulties
to warrant putting jobs of that kind in a special block.
Possible Arrangement of Blocks. If a trade is a one block
trade there is, of course, no question as to arrangement of
blocks, but, if it is a multiblock trade there are a number of
possible arrangements. Consider the simplest case first,
that of a two block trade. Just as two bricks can be placed
in two positions as to each other, one on top of the other
or side by side, so the two blocks of a multiblock trade can be
placed in series or in parallel, as shown in the diagram below.
ORDER FOR JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK
Calling the two blocks A and B we could have :
109
B
B
Combination 1
A
Combination
This means that by combination 1 the learner would be
instructed in both blocks at the same time, by combination 2
he would be put through block A first and then through
block B.
The Case of Independent Blocks. In the case of indepen-
dent blocks it is evident that either combination 1 or 2 may
be used, but in the case of related blocks but one effective
order of block arrangement is possible, combination 2.
The Case of More Than Two Blocks. Where a trade breaks
up into more than two blocks the possible combinations in-
crease rapidly with the number of blocks. In the case of a
three block trade with blocks A, B, and C, some of the possible
combinations would be as follows:
B
A ABC A B
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
B
A C
No. 4
With a four block trade the possible combinations would
be much more than in a three block trade and so on.
Practical Working Arrangements of Blocks. For any
practical use it is doubtful if any combinations of block
other than the straight series or parallel will serve any use-
ful purpose. It may occasionally happen that some trade will
call for some modified arrangement of either combination 1 or
2, but the chance is so unlikely that it may be dismissed by
merely drawing the attention to the fact that such combina-
tions are possible.
110
THE INSTRUCTOR
The Relation of the Blocks to Each Other. The first step
for the instructor is therefore to determine the relation of the
blocks in his trade to each other. Here he may find any one
of three possible combinations:
1. The blocks are all independent.
2. The blocks are all related to each other.
3. The blocks divide into two groups:
(a) Independent blocks.
(b) Groups of blocks that are dependent, but which
form a group independent of any other block or
group of blocks.
The third case is very uncommon so far as practical work
goes. While such combinations can be worked out as a rule
they run the thing down finer than is necessary for practical
working purposes in getting out a line of instruction.
Some instructors tend to go into this matter of block ar-
rangements altogether too finely : the result being a considerable
increase in the complexity of the layout with no corresponding
gain of importance in the efficiency of the instructional order
resulting therefrom.
The Case of Independent Blocks : The Instruction Line.
Assume that we have a block with ten teaching jobs as indi-
cated in the figure below :
.10
. 9
. 8
. 7
. 6
. 5
4
. 3
. 2
1
A line drawn from the bottom of the diagram, indicates
the order in which a learner will be instructed in the different
jobs in the block. Call such a line an instruction line. Now
ORDER FOR JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK 111
if we have a second independent block, either the series or the
parallel arrangement can be used.
BLOCK A.
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
BLOCK B.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
BLOCKS A AND B IN SERIES.
BLOCK A. BLOCK B.
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
BLOCKS A AND B IN PARALLEL.
112 THE INSTRUCTOR
Independent Blocks: Two Methods of Securing an In-
structional Order. Evidently an instructional order can be
secured in the case of the two possible combinations given
above in two ways :
We can draw the instruction line through the two blocks
in series, and get the order of jobs as Bl, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6,
B7, B8, B9, BIO, Al, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, A9, AlO, or
the line might be drawn through all the number one jobs in
both blocks, then the number two jobs, then the number three
jobs, etc., giving us the instructional order of: Al, Bl, A2,
B2, A3, B3, A4, B4, A5, B5, A6, B6, A7, B7, A8, B8, A9, B9,
AlO, BlO. In either case we have all the jobs in the two
blocks listed out in an instructional order, but a very different
order. The first order of jobs is commonly said to be obtained
by the method of block progression, the second order by the
use of the method of spiral progression.
The Block and Spiral Methods of Progression. Evidently
these two methods of securing an instructional order can be
used whenever a trade consists of two or more independent
blocks and in that case only. If the blocks are all related
there is no question of choice of method: that of series pro-
gression must be used; but whenever there are independent
blocks the choice between the two methods must be made.
While no fixed rule can be given and each instructor must
decide for himself, the following suggestions may be of
service :
Conditions Indicating the Desirability of the Use of the
Spiral Method. In general it is considered that the spiral
method is the best when it is intended to give what is often
called an "all around training" for a given trade, that is, when
the intention is to start with a green learner and instruct him
in the entire trade. Thus, it is generally held that a course
of instruction obtained by this method is the best to use
where apprentices are to be trained to become journeymen, or
in trade schools which aim at the same sort of complete training.
It has the advantage that the learner is, at any given point in
his progress approximately equally trained in all the different
blocks of the complete course of instruction, so that should
ORDER FOR JOBS IN MORE THAN ONE BLOCK 113
he be discharged from the training department at any point
before the completion of the training course, and go into
production work, he can be placed about equally well in any
of a number of lines of work. It has, of course, the cor-
responding disadvantage that he is not so completely trained
in any one block, or special branch of the trade. It is also
true in general, that the spiral method lends itself to ap-
prentice training in the so-called skilled shop trades, better
than it does to so-called semi-skilled trades, where such trades
show a multiblock layout, which is, however, not common.
From the instructional standpoint it has the advantage
that the learner in his progression through a course of in-
struction derived by this method gets all the jobs with the
least learning difficulties first, those with the next least learning
difficulties second and so on.
On the other hand the method of block progression lends
itself best to a situation where the line of instruction obtained
is to be used where it is desired to train a learner to be able
to secure employment as a workman in some special branch
of the trade, but it is not desired to train him so that he can
start in on any one of as many branches as the length of his
training will allow. Evidently a complete training in one block
is better for a short time training period than a slight training
in several blocks if it is desired that the learner shall make good
on production work in as short a period of time as possible.
The Case of More Than Two Blocks. The case of a multi-
block trade of more than two blocks offers no special difficulties
in getting out an effective instructional order except that
greater complications are introduced by the number of the
blocks. The method followed is the same, the instruction
line being drawn through the blocks by either the method of
the spiral or of the series progression and the successive jobs
as indicated by the line being listed down into an instructional
order.
Multiblock Trades. The more highly skilled a trade the
more likely it is to break up into blocks. The greater the
number of special machines used the greater the number of
blocks. The more nearly all the operations of a trade are
8
114 THE INSTRUCTOR
carried on with the same sort of tools, or the same sort of
materials, the more likely it is to be a single block trade.
Semi-skilled trades are rarely multiblock. As already stated,
single specialized jobs do not bring up the question either of
blocking or of instructional order as between jobs.
Value of the Block. Where blocking is possible it simplifies
the problem of getting out an effective instructional order by
making a preliminary grouping according to kinds of learning
difficulties. Learning difficulties are of different kinds and
when of the same kind, of different degrees of intensity. If
grouping is first made according to kind of learning difficulties
then the only problem inside any one group is degree of diffi-
culty. Especially in highly complicated trades this method
makes the laying out of the instructional order much easier
than if an attempt were made to handle both degree and
kind at the same time.
Conclusion and Summary. This chapter deals only with
the case of multiblock trades. Unless the trade is multi-
block an instructor has no direct interest in it. Where we
find that a trade is multiblock the matter of securing an effec-
tive instructional order that will include the jobs in all the
blocks must be considered. The instructor must first consider
whether the blocks are independent or related, then arrange
his blocks accordingly. If all blocks are independent he must
choose between the methods of block progression and spiral
progression; if they are all related, he uses only the block pro-
gression. There is a chance that some of the blocks are re-
lated and that others are independent; in this case a more
complicated arrangement of blocks will be required and it
may even be true that the spiral method might be used for a
group of blocks that were independent while the block pro-
gression method was used for that group and for the other
blocks. Such complicated arrangements are, however, very
unlikely, and are only mentioned by way of possibilities.
PART IV
HOW TO PUT IT OVER
CHAPTER XV
THE TRADE INSTRUCTOR
The Purpose of Instruction given an instructor and a
learner. The instructor can do something which the learner
cannot do, for example, he can set type, or wipe a joint, or
run a machine tool, or make a dovetail joint or an arc weld, or
he knows something which the learner does not know, for
example, how to read a blueprint, or how to get the offset for
turning a taper, or how to figure the amount of wire required
for an electrical job.
In either case the problem is to impart, or "put over"
that skill or that knowledge into the head or the hand of the
learner, so that he can do the job that he could not do before,
or knows what he did not know before.
To accomplish this result something must be done, some
sort of procedure must be followed, that is, there must be
some sort of an instructing process.
The Instructing Trade. A man who knows how to do
things but who is paid, not for just knowing them, but for
putting them over to other people is an instructor. No matter
how much he knows, or how good a workman he may be, his
value as an instructor depends on how thoroughly and rapidly
he can impart what he knows. (Imparting, not doing, is his
job.) It therefore may be properly said that there is an in-
structor's "trade" just as much as there is a machinist's trade,
or a printer's trade; and the instructor will be efficient in pro-
portion as he knows his trade, that is, the instructing trade.
The Two Factors in Successful Instruction. It is evident
that the man who cannot impart what he knows cannot be
a successful instructor. It is equally evident that the man
who can impart but has nothing to impart is equally a failure
The successful instructor must therefore, (1) Thoroughly
know what he is to teach and (2) be able to impart it effectively.
117
118 THE INSTRUCTOR
In industrial training this means that the instructor must
know two trades his own trade and the teaching trade
his own trade so that he will know what to teach and the
teaching trade so that he will know how to teach it. Without
a thorough command of both trades he will be a failure.
Theory and Practice in Teaching. Behind the practice
of any trade or profession lie the general principles of which
each practice is an application. Each trade has its own tools,
its own processes, its own methods. In proportion as a man
knows the tools and processes of his trade and has acquired
good judgment in selecting proper tools and processes for a
given job he is a good workman and, to a considerable extent,
his power to select and choose usually depends on his knowl-
edge of the general principles on which the practice of his
trade is based.
To the ''rule of thumb" man each new job is a brand new
problem, but the man who knows the principles of his trade
will recognize that the new problem calls for an application
of some general principles and he knows how those general
principles should be applied to the best advantage in any
particular case. He is therefore less likely to make mistakes
and knows why he does that particular job as he does it.
This is equally true of the trade of instruction. The in-
structor familiar with the principles and methods, or " tools " of
the teaching trade and practiced in applying them to given
training problems can deal with any given problem (teaching
job) much more effectively, rapidly and intelligently than can
the rule of thumb instructor. He saves time, he saves energy
and he does a better job.
The Trained vs. the Untrained Instructor. The difference
between the trained and the untrained instructor does not lie
in the degree to which each has mastered what he proposes to
teach. Often masters of their subject have proved to be
very poor instructors. It used to be said of one of the greatest
scientists in America on the faculty of one of the greatest
universities, that he could not teach anybody anything.
Thorough knowledge and mastery of what is to be taught is
necessary for an instructor, but that alone will not make him
THE TRADE INSTRUCTOR 119
an effective instructor. The difference between the individual
who knows and the individual who can impart what he knows
lies in the ability of the good instructor to teach or put
over what he knows, and this in turn rests largely on his
knowledge of the principles and methods of the instructing
business, just as such knowledge of principles and methods and
tools would make a good workman in any trade.
This instructing ability can be secured in various ways.
Just as a trade may be " stolen " at the cost of spoiled machines
and stock, so an instructor can steal his trade at the expense
of his learners. Occasionally an individual seems to have the
instinctive knack of teaching in a fairly effective way. In
general, however, training shows as in other trades. The
trained instructor shows his training in his ability to always
use the most suitable methods, to save the most time and
energy, and in his ability to organize his knowledge in the
best way for instructional purposes. Moreover, the trained
instructor, through his knowledge of principles, knows why
he does things, and why some methods will work and some
will not, in doing a given teaching job. He has the advantage
of knowing the theory that lies behind his practice. Hence a
competent workman who has been trained as an instructor,
on taking up instructing work, is at a great advantage over
the untrained individual, who may have an equal command
of the trade, because he is able to impart effectively what he
knows, as soon as he begins to instruct.
Instructor Training Courses. The purpose of instructor
training courses is not to attempt to teach a man anything
about the practice of his trade. His presence in the course
guarantees that he knows his job, so far as doing the job is
concerned. The purpose of the training is to acquaint the
man with the principles, practice, and methods of tools of the
new trade which he proposes to follow: that of an imparter,
instructor, or teacher, and to give him an opportunity to learn
to apply these principles, methods, and practices to the problem
of instructing learners in the trade of which he is already a
master.
In a number of cases special instructor training courses
have been established to train competent mechanics to apply
120
THE INSTRUCTOR
the principles of the teaching trade to the putting over of
their own trade, and have been of considerable assistance to
instructors in trades and to foremen who had to break in
green help . Among the more recent instructor training courses
that have been operated have been those conducted by the
Emergency Fleet Corporation in connection with the training
of shipyard workers.
PRODUCTION AND INSTRUCTION
Purpose or Aim.
To turn out a de-
finite article from
a given piece of
stock.
To instruct a given
individual in a
definite thing.
Man Responsible.
Workman.
Instructor.
Material worked
upon.
Stock new or par-
tially worked up.
Learner, green or
partially trained.
Procedure.
Successive produc-
tion operations in
a determined or-
der.
Successive instruc-
tion steps in a
determined order.
Means used.
Suitable tools and
machines.
Suitable methods
of instruction.
Character of pro-
duct tested by.
Inspection of
product.
Inspection of
learners' ability
to do the thing
that the lesson
was to teach him.
CHAPTER XVI
WHAT INSTRUCTION IS
Methods of Instruction the Teacher's Tools. If instruction
is a "trade'* the instructor must be regarded as a skilled
workman whose "job" is to turn out a "product'* (men who
do know or can do) from "stock" (men who do not know or
who cannot do) by an intelligent selection of tools and a
skillful use of those selected (methods of instruction). Just
as in other trades the sort of material worked upon and the
sort of product required has led to the development of tools
which the good workman uses with judgment, selecting at each
step in his job, and for different jobs, and different kinds of
stock, the tool which will give the best results, and always
using that tool with skill and judgment, so in the instruction
trade there have been developed various ways of teaching or
methods of instruction, with which the good instructor is famil-
iar and which he knows how to use with intelligence, selecting
in each case the particular method best adapted to the particu-
lar teaching job at hand and to the characteristics of the
learner whom he has to teach.
How Methods have been Developed. Just as in the differ-
ent trades it has been found that certain operations performed
in certain order with certain tools and machines yield the best
results in turning out a certain product from a particular
kind of stock, so in teaching, it has been found that certain
ways of going at the teaching problem recognizing certain
steps in dealing with the ideas to be taught, and carrying out
these steps in a certain order, yield the quickest and best
results with given kind of learner who is to be taught certain
things for a certain purpose.
Without going into details at this stage it is evident that
an apprentice greatly interested in trade processes but not
in books might need different treatment from one of a "book-
121
122 THE INSTRUCTOR
ish" type of mind that the problem of teaching trade pro-
cesses would be a different one from that of teaching abstract
mathematics and that in each case the way in which the
teaching work was carried on would be determined by what
was to be taught and who it was to be taught to.
Effective Instruction. Whatever the methods adopted,
the measure of the effectiveness of the instruction is deter-
mined by
(a) The fact that at the completion of the instructional
process the learner has completely grasped the new ideas, or
can do the new piece of work.
(b) The degree to which this result was obtained with
the least expenditure of time.
(c) The degree to which this result was obtained with
the least expenditure of energy and effort on the part of both
learner and instructor.
It is evident that the first condition must be met; if the
learner has not "got" what the instructor intended to teach
him, the whole proposition has failed, the instructor has "fallen
down on his job," and he must either try it again and stick to it
until the man has "got" the thing to be taught or admit that
he made a mistake in attempting to teach that particular thing
to that particular man at that particular time. On the other
hand, the instructor may have succeeded in "putting over"
the lesson, yet may have used such unsuitable methods that he
may be properly criticized for having used up much more of
his time and of the man's time than would be needed had that
particular instructing job been carried out in a "workman-
like" manner. Both conditions (a) and (b) may have been
met and yet the instructor be open to criticism for having
made the instruction unnecessarily "hard" by going at the
teaching job in such a way that unnecessary energy has been
expended either on his part or on the part of the learner.
One Common Error is to Consider Condition (" a ") Only.
Many instructors feel that if the learner has eventually mas-
tered the subject of the lesson to a reasonable degree the whole
matter is settled since condition (a) in the last paragraph
has been met. They often fail to regard matters affecting
WHAT INSTRUCTION IS 123
unnecessary expenditure of time and energy, both on the
part of the pupil, as being important. It is a fact, however,
that the work of a skillful instructor differs from that of a poor
instructor largely in the degree to which he is able to "put
over" the lesson in the most efficient way; and, in order to
do this he must be able to use proper methods of instruction
intelligently and skillfully.
Another common error is to confuse certain parts of an
instructor's work with instruction proper. This confusion
is particularly common in connection with telling, showing,
and dealing, which are not, in themselves, instructing, but
which untrained instructors often confuse with the instruc-
tional part of their work.
Teaching and Telling. One of the most common errors
of the untrained teacher is to imagine that telling is teaching,
that if he merely tells a learner how to do something he has
taught that man something. Telling is often a necessary
part of the instructor's work, but mere telling never constitutes
real instruction. If an instructor says to a man, "This is a
dog," or "This is a monkey wrench," the man has been told
something, but he has not been taught anything. It is
undoubtedly true, especially in training green men, that a
considerable amount of telling is required, but that part of the
instruction work should not be confounded with instruction
proper. An instructor must do many things beside instruct.
One of the signs of a trained instructor is that he knows when
he is telling and when he is instructing, and that he knows when
to tell and when to instruct and one of the greatest reasons
for poor instruction is that a poor teacher does not know how
to make this distinction.
Why Telling is not Instruction. Instruction is not telling
because instruction is always accompanied by some action on
the part of the learner. He either thinks or does. Simply
telling him the name of a dog or a monkey wrench, and stop-
ping there does not require any "come back" or, in teaching
language, "reaction," on the part of the man. But we can
teach a man how to use a dog on a lathe job or the proper way
to place a monkey wrench on a nut because he can be made
124 THE INSTRUCTOR
to think about the job or to do the job or to think about the
job while he is doing it.
Telling is not Knowing. The converse of the above state-
ment is equally true. The ability of a learner to merely tell
about a thing is no evidence that he understands the thing or
can do it. Suppose it is desired to ascertain if a man knows a
wrench. If the instructor merely says to him "What is the
name of this? " and the man tells him that it is a wrench there
is no evidence that that man is using any faculty except
memory. But if the instructor says to the man, "Pick out
a wrench from that kit/* and the man picks out a wrench
and not a screw driver, we have some evidence that the
names are connected in the man's mind with the proper tool,
as distinguished from other tools. Untrained instructors
frequently say, "Do you understand this?" and when the
learner says "yes" the instructor thinks that he has taught
something when, in fact, there is no evidence that the learner
has been taught anything. The trained instructor is much
less likely to fall into such errors because his training helps
him to avoid them, and he knows that they are errors.
Drilling is not Instructing. Drilling in the school sense
means requiring a learner to repeat an operation (mental
or manual) a considerable number of times with the aim of
making that thing an automatic "come back." An instructor
for example, requires a learner to repeat the words "The deci-
mal equivalent of an eighth of an inch is one hundred and
twenty-five thousandths of an inch" for five hundred times
with the aim of getting him into such a mental condition
that whenever he heard "an eighth of an inch" he will auto-
matically think "one hundred and twenty -five thousandths."
This would be a pure drill process. While work of this sort
has its place its value depends largely on the sort of learner
and the subject of the lesson it is doubtful if it has much
value in industrial training. It is merely desired to point
out here that drill work of this character should not be con-
founded with instruction. Poor instructors often think that
they are teaching when they are merely drilling.
Why Drilling is not Instructing. Drilling is not instruct-
WHAT INSTRUCTION IS 125
ing because it assures no intelligent thinking on the part of
the learner. A parrot could be drilled in the decimal equiva-
lent of 1-8 as well as a learner. A learner could be taught to
figure out this value as required, or use a table of equivalents
intelligently. The parrot could not.
Drilling and Repetition Work. Drilling should be distin-
guished from repetition work, where a man may be asked to
deal with a series of problems involving application of the same
principle or to make a number of similar articles in the shop.
Under proper conditions repetition work may be an important
part of the training process, as will be discussed later. Repeti-
tion work involves a steady gain by the learner either in mental
or manual skill, until he reaches what has been called the
"saturation" point: that is, he can do the job as well and as
quickly as he will ever be able to do it. Drilling aims at a purely
automatic "come back" only, without conscious thought or
intelligently directed work.
Instructing and Showing. The same statement may be
made as to the relation of instructing and showing. This
comes up particularly in shop instruction. Showing a man
how to do a thing, while necessary, is not, in itself instructing
that man; though, as pointed out elsewhere, it may, under
certain conditions, be made a part of the instructing process.
A man who is merely shown does not have to think. He
may or he may not. The common complaint of the poor
or untrained instructor that he showed the learner how to do
something and then the fellow could not do it, and therefore
is stupid is due to this confusion between instructing and
showing. The man has failed to learn, not because he is
stupid, but because he has not been really taught, and the
blame for the failure rests not on the man but on the instructor.
Why Showing is not Instructing. Showing is not instructing
because as in the case of telling, simply showing involves
no necessary activity, mental or manual, on the learners' part.
By the use of various devices already described (such as the
use of the informational line of approach in certain steps of
the lesson), this activity can be secured and telling may become
a part of the instructing process.
CHAPTER XVII
THE INSTRUCTING OPERATION
THE LESSON
Preliminary What is a Lesson. In its simplest sense a
lesson is a teaching job. In teaching practice the term
lesson is used to designate the entire procedure followed
in teaching or "putting over" some specific thing. This
specific thing which is to be taught may be called the "in-
struction unit," or, more commonly, the "content" or the
"subject" of the lesson. The use of these terms is entirely
independent of the character of the teaching unit. It makes
no difference whether the subject of the lesson or instruction
unit is how to erect a perpendicular to a given line, how to set
a stick of type, how to set up a job on a machine or how to
saw a board off square, there is a teaching unit to put over or a
lesson to teach. If any one of these teaching units is to be
"put over" to somebody we must have a process of instruc-
tion; that is, a lesson must be taught.
If we think of the instructor as a workman, the learner as
stock, the steps as operations, and the methods as tools, we
have a close resemblance, between the procedure for production
and the instructional procedure.
The Aim Must be Specific. The subject of the lesson
determines the whole subsequent procedure and hence must
be given first consideration, and must be clearly defined;
that is, it must be specific. A failure on the part of the
instructor to determine exactly what he proposes to teach,
because, while he thinks that he knows what he is going to
teach, he has not thought his teaching job through to the
point of knowing exactly what he is going to put over is one
of the most common causes of inefficient instruction, and the
learner is often blamed for not "catching on" when the real
126
THE INSTRUCTING OPERATION 127
trouble lies with the failure of the instructor to definitely
formulate the subject of the lesson. A lesson whose aim was
"to teach something about something to somebody" will not
be effective. Suppose an instructor states that he proposes
to teach a lesson on the automobile, but he doesn't know
whether it is on ignition, or timing, or starting, or on clutch
control. There is little chance that a lesson starting with so
vague an idea as to what is to be accomplished will be either
profitable or efficient. It cannot be well planned or efficiently
carried out. On the other hand, suppose the instructor says
"I am going to teach just how to lay off a 90 angle," or
"I am going to teach the proper method of starting and
stopping an electric drill " he has laid down a definitely specific
aim and hence can plan and teach an efficient lesson.
The Learner Must be Ready for that Particular Lesson.
The determination of method, content and aim all center
around the man to be taught. The aim of any lesson is
determined, in general, by the aim of the course of instruction
or training of which that instruction unit is a, part. What-
ever the aim or the content or the method of a given lesson,
it can only be taught effectively at a certain point in the
learner's progress and development.
The teacher must therefore be able to "locate" a given
teaching unit with regard to what has already been taught
and what is still to be taught to make the learner competent
in that particular line of work, and see to it that the given unit
of instruction comes to the learner at the right point in his
training. This part of the instruction problem is fully dis-
cussed in Part III.
The Content Must be Teachable. By this is meant that it
must be possible to thoroughly accomplish the aim of the lesson
under the proposed working conditions. Thus it is desired to
complete the lesson in a certain time or place, or by certain
methods. The content must be so selected that these condi-
tions can be met. For example, suppose it were desired to teach
a learner how to make a Western Union splice, or how to set
up a job in a machine lathe, and it was planned to teach that
lesson in five minutes, evidently it could not be done. Either
1S8 THE INSTRUCTOR
the time must be increased or the amount to be taught must
be cut down. Or it is proposed to teach the same lesson in a
room outside of the shop, or without wire and pliers, so that
the instructor can merely describe how the job should be
done, that is, he can only talk about it. Under these condi-
tions that job must evidently be taught by such a poor method
that it is practically unteachable.
Such errors as those cited above are easily avoided, but
a much more serious error, common to most new instructors,
consists in undertaking to teach too much in one lesson,
instead of breaking the content up into a series of sufficiently
small teaching units. The angle smith instructor undertakes
to teach a green man "how to strike" in one lesson or instruc-
tion unit, or "how to run a fire" in one "bite," in one lesson,
the result being failure because the instruction unit is too great
to be taught in one lesson. Each would involve a series of
lessons, each dealing with a small portion of all that the man
must be finally taught for example: on firing No. 1 Building
up, No. 2 Cleaning out, No. 3 Operating.
The Instructing Process a Series of " Operations." The
instructing process consists of a series of steps or "operations,"
carried on in a certain order. In any training process these
"operations" are found and they are always in the same
order. Regardless of the time consumed, a lesson is not
completed until all of these operations have been carried
through successfully and in the proper order. A lesson there-
fore means simply going through all the necessary steps in an
instruction process with one instruction unit.
The lesson should not be confused with the fact that men
and instructors may, under some conditions, meet at certain
fixed times. An instructor may teach a man several lessons
during one morning. The two ideas of a working period and
a lesson are in no way connected. It is a fact that a good
instructor will try to complete any teaching job as a "con-
tinuous process" for obvious reasons. He would rather not
have the lesson broken into two or more parts with an interval
during which his man is thinking of something else, but the
continuous lesson is not absolutely necessary, although highly
advisable in the interests of efficiency.
THE INSTRUCTING OPERATION ISO
The Four Instructional Operations. Different authorities
on teaching have divided the lesson into different numbers
of steps, but the following arrangement is one of the simplest
for emergency training instruction. According to this plan,
each complete teaching lesson calls for four steps, or teaching
operations known as step 1, Preparation, step 2, Presentation,
step 3, Application and step 4, Testing (or s Inspection) . These
steps, are always carried out in the order given The purpose
of step 1 is to get the learner ready to be instructed, of step 2
to instruct him, of step 3 to check up errors, and of step 4 to
give a final inspection of the instruction job.
Who Conducts these " Operations " The Learner or the
Instructor? In general, under all conditions, the instructor
must control and direct the instruction process, but a careful
distinction must be drawn between the instructor as a director
and the instructor as a demonstrator. As director he occupies
much the position of a foreman directing workmen. The
foreman does not do the work, the men do it. In the same
way, the instruction will be efficient in proportion as the
learners do the work or the thinking. One of the most com-
mon signs of poor teaching is that the instructor does the
thinking or does the work the learners passively following.
That is, the instructor shows or demonstrates and the learners
merely imitate.
The problem of the teacher is to see that each learner per-
forms the successive teaching operations on himself. What he
gains is by virtue of his own activity mental or manual and
from the manual or mental activity of another he gains nothing.
The teacher, therefore, is not the driver, but the skilled
director of the learner's activity. He is skilled in so handling
each teaching problem that the learner works and thinks
effectively toward the desired end the accomplishment of
the aim of the lesson. In order to do this he must control
the situation at each step, but often without the man's knowl-
edge. He must so control situations that the man thinks
in a certain way and towards certain points, but he must
do that thinking spontaneously and naturally. As will be
pointed out in the following pages, in carrying out the instruc-
tion process the instructor takes the initiative in certain steps
130 THE INSTRUCTOR
and the learner takes the initiative in others. The instructor
knows this, but the learner often does not.
Concentration on the Lesson. It has already been stated
that the aim of a lesson must be definitely determined. Even
where this has been done there is still great danger of lack of
conciseness. That is, the instructor does not stick to the
particular job that he started out to do. Before taking up
the detailed discussion, two common errors should be noted :
In handling a given lesson the instructor does not confine
that lesson to the given subject. He starts to teach a certain
thing, but somewhere in the lesson he undertakes to teach
some other things not included in the particular unit that he is
handling. For example, the lesson is on how to sharpen a
certain tool, or how to sew on a button. During the progress
of the lesson the instructor brings in something about the
manufacture of tool steel or something about button holes.
This sort of thing is very common with certain instructors
and is bad practice; any lesson should be held strictly to its
subject. This procedure is sometimes justified on the ground
that it interests the learner, but it requires long experience
and teaching skill to know when it is safe to do it; in general,
it is a dangerous proposition.
In carrying on the successive steps or operations of a lesson,
the instructor does not stick to one step at a time he mixes
them up he tries to teach a learner something new and at the
same time attempts to find out if he has learned something
which has already been taught. Each step is a teaching
"job " and the effective teacher will do one job at a time.
The Methods Must be Suitable. As is pointed out later
in detail various methods have been developed for carrying
on the instructional process just as various tools and machines
have been developed for carrying out production. Just as
suitable tools and machines must be used to get the best
results on a given production job so suitable methods will
give best results on any given instruction job. One of the
chief distinctions between the good and the poor instructor
is that the former knows how to select suitable methods of
instruction, and the latter does not.
THE INSTRUCTING OPERATION 131
The choice of a given method in dealing with a given
teaching problem must rest with the judgment of the instructor.
While general rules can be given, they will not take the place
of experience. Just as an experienced workman will do a
better job than an apprentice, although the apprentice may
know all the operations and machines, so with experience in
instruction will come a sense of what to do which will gradually
develop into what has been called, the "art of instructing,"
as distinguished from the theory of that profession.
Supervised vs. Unsupervised Training. If at the end of the
period of instruction a man is shot out into the shop without
any further assistance, he will get his trade intelligence very
slowly and ineffectively, but if he is still under the supervision
of a "trainer" the training process will go on very much more
rapidly and effectively. Under emergency training conditions
an instructor must, in the sense indicated above, be a trainer
as well as an instructor. By instructing the learner in the
operations and in the technical knowledge and then training
for trade intelligence, shop training can be accomplished in less
time than by undertaking to depend upon the instructing
process alone.
It is evident that in most cases the man must be trained
so that he can "pull together" his trade ability, his technical
knowledge and his trade experiences to meet the demands
of different trade situations. This process of pulling together,
or assembling these factors corresponds to what is known, in
general school work as the generalization stage of instruction.
One of our greatest educational philosophers has said
that a man is educated in proportion as he can summon all
his resources and use them effectively in dealing with a given
situation. Effective shop training therefore comes through
effective instruction followed by effective training.
CHAPTER XVIII
DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE LESSON.
STEP i. PREPARATION
Preliminary. The different steps in the process of instruc-
tion have already been pointed out, but for convenience are
repeated here.
1. Preparation. 3. Application.
2. Presentation. 4. Inspection.
This section deals with step 1.
The First Step in the Lesson. Preparation. The first
problem of the instructor is to establish what may be called
a foundation for the teaching of the new idea which he intends
to "put over" in that particular lesson. This is accom-
plished by getting the learner to think about some things
which he already knows which have something to do with the
problem which he is to be taught or the job which he is to be
taught to do. He has in his mind all sorts of recollections
of past experiences and observations, most of which have
nothing to do with the subject of the lesson in hand, but, except
in very rare cases, he has, among those recollections some
which have a bearing on the subject of the lesson. Thus
suppose the lesson was on the operation of the brakes of an
electric car. In almost any community it could be assumed
that the learner had seen a car, had seen it stop and knew that
the motorman did something to stop it. By getting the
learner to think about the problem of stopping the car as a
job that somebody had to do somehow and for which some
provision must be made in the mechanism of the car, his
attention could be centered on that particular set of observa-
tions (relating to the stopping of the car) and he could be
prevented from thinking about a lot of other things which
he might know about the car but which have nothing to do
132
THE LESSON. STEP 1. PREPARATION 133
with the stopping of a car, and which the instructor knows
have no bearing on the aim of the proposed lesson.
By preparation the Instructor therefore, in some way,
makes the learner think about certain particular things which
will aid him in comprehending the particular new thing which
is to be taught. This may be called a process whereby the
learner is led to establish in his own mind "contact points"
between what he already knows and the new ideas which
the instructor plans to have him add to what he knows through
the lesson that is to be taught. It will be noted that, in
carrying out this first step, it is assumed that somewhere in
his past experience, the learner has had some kind of an
experience or has some knowledge which can be used as a
foundation for building up the proposed lesson. It should
also be clear that, while the instructor knows, in a general
way, what he can get from the learner, and selects those ideas
which he thinks that he can best use for a teaching base, the
learner is himself usually unconscious of the relation of what
he finds himself thinking about, to the subject of the lesson
which the instructor has planned to teach.
The problem of the instructor in this first instructional
operation or step is, by the use of some suitable method,
to start the learner thinking about something which he knows
and which the instructor can "tie" the lesson to. Even in
the simplest form of instruction on semi-skilled work the
need for this step exists and its omission will increase the
difficulty of instruction, and usually renders it inefficient.
Elementary and Derived Lessons. Where the ideas which
the instructor uses for the teaching base must be drawn from
what the learner has picked up in his life outside of anything
that the instructor may have taught him, (and so has to
guess that he has it) we have what may be called an elementary
or primary lesson. Where the ideas for the teaching base
can be drawn from something which the instructor has taught
the learner, usually in some primary lesson on the same line of
work, the new lesson will "mesh" into the old, the instructor
will not have to guess as to available ideas for the teaching
base and the lesson may be called a derived or secondary
lesson.
134 THE INSTRUCTOR
Preparation Must be Completed before Presentation is
Started. The success of the following steps in the lesson is
dependent on this first step being thoroughly carried out,
and the instructor must be sure that this is the case before
proceeding farther. One of the most common errors in
teaching is the failure to thoroughly prepare the learner for
the additional material to be put over in step 2 1 (Presenta-
tion), and is usually due to the fact that the instructor is in
too much of a hurry; he "skimps " this step. As a result step 2
fails, this comes out in step 3, and the whole job has to be done
over again. It pays to make a good job of step 1.
No standard rule can be given for determining when learners
are prepared. An experienced instructor can tell an in-
experienced one had best err, if at all, on the safe side and, if
anything, over-prepare.
Preparation Gives no Additional Information. It should
be clearly understood that, in the work of preparation as
commonly carried out, no new ideas are added to those already
in the learner's mind, and in no case are any of the new ideas
which are to be taught in the lesson touched upon at this
stage. The instructor does not undertake to add any new
ideas to those already in the learner's mind. He does, (often
by skilful questioning) lead the learner to select from all the
ideas in his mind certain particular ideas which he has con-
sciously or unconsciously "picked up" at some previous
time. These ideas are those which the instructor has deter-
mined to make the teaching basis of the lesson in hand.
Exceptional Instances. In rare instances when there is
absolutely nothing that can be used as a teaching base the
instructor must provide something that can be used for that
purpose. Experience has shown that this is rarely neces-
sary in trade training especially if the instructor is experienced
and ingenious. When a teaching base cannot be found the
learner must be given an experience which can be used. Until
this has been done it is practically useless to try to teach the
lesson. Of course when an instructor is forced to create a
base, additional time and energy are consumed.
1 See table, page 148.
THE LESSON. STEP 1. PREPARATION 135
In this Step the Instructor Takes the Initiative. In step 1
it will be noted that the instructor takes the initiative. He
knows what he wants to get the man to thinking about, and
he so directs the man's thinking that he does think about these
things to the exclusion of all other things. But the learner
cannot be made to think of these things merely by commanding
"Think about so and so." These things must be suggested.
This is where the skill comes in in this step of the lesson. The
man must be stimulated to think or to recall previous knowledge
or experiences, and his mental activity directed by a method
which makes him unconscious that he is being directed.
The most usual method of accomplishing this result is by a
certain kind of questioning which may be termed "suggestive
questioning, " whose purpose is not to secure information, but
to arouse and direct the learner's thinking. Sometimes the
instructor will use some incident or tell some story as a part
of this step. This latter method of stimulating and directing
the thinking of an audience is often used by public speakers to
good advantage. A man is speaking on juvenile crime, and he
begins "This morning I saw a boy arrested for stealing apples.
What are we going to do with him? " his object being to get his
audience to thinking about the subject on which he is going
to speak.
CHAPTER XIX
DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE LESSON.
STEP 2. PRESENTATION
Presentation. Step 2 in the Lesson. Having brought a
learner to the point where he is thinking about such portions
of his previous experiences or knowledge as will be of value in
teaching the proposed lesson, according to the teaching plan,
the next step is to lead him to "get" the new ideas which the
instructor desires to "tack on" to what he already knows,
and this step is now carried out by the use of some suitable
method.
The Function of Presentation is to Add the New Ideas to
those Already in the Learner's Mind. If the work of prepara-
tion has been properly carried out, the man now has in his
mind certain ideas or certain pictures which the instructor,
in planning the lesson, determined would serve him best as a
base for teaching the subject of that lesson. The next step
is therefore, by the use of a suitable method, to add to the
ideas which are in the learner's mind the new ideas embodied
in the subject of the lesson. Various methods of instruction
are discussed in detail later, but it is necessary that a method
of instruction suitable to the subject of the lesson be selected :
For example, if the aim of the lesson were to teach a man to
think intelligently about the subject of the lesson, it is evident
that a different method would have to be employed from that
which would be used if the aim of the lesson were merely to
instruct him in the correct method of doing a job, where no
thinking or judgment was required. A skilful instructor, out
of his experience, will always select a method which is best
adapted to the aim and the subject of the lesson.
The distinction between the aim of step 1 and step 2 must
be clearly understood. As already pointed out, step 1, Prepa-
130
THE LESSON. STEP 2. PRESENTATION 137
ration, does not aim to add anything to the man's knowl-
edge or skill, but merely to get him to thinking exclusively
about certain things which the instructor has already deter-
mined can be best used for a teaching base. Step 2, however,
has for its aim the imparting of additional knowledge to the
man or giving him additional training. At the close of step
1 he knows no more than he did at the beginning of the lesson.
At the close of step 2, the teaching unit should have been put
over. At this stage in the process of instruction there is
however no evidence that he can either apply what he has
learned or that he has thoroughly grasped the subject of the
lesson. In fact, it may be safely assumed that he has not;
that there are certain weak points where the teaching has not
been entirely effective. To leave the teaching operation at
this stage would mean that the instructor would neither know
that he had taught efficiently nor that the man could apply
what had been taught effectively; hence the necessity for the
remaining steps in the lesson.
" Sticking to the Job " in Presentation. As already pointed
out, the whole organization of the lesson is determined by
the character of the instruction unit. The method of in-
struction is determined by aim, subject, and characteristics
of the individual to be taught. While on the one hand
all that it is proposed to present to the learner in the way
of new ideas or new knowledge is given during this step in
the lesson, the succeeding steps being devoted to what may
be called "checking up and inspecting," it is necessary that
this should be a clean cut piece of work and that nothing
should be considered during this step which is not in-
cluded in the instruction meant to be taught in that particular
lesson.
Some illustrations may make this point clearer. For
example, consider the case of instructing a green man in
the care of the fire in the blacksmith's shop. The instruction
unit is on building up. The instructor in presenting this
lesson brings in a lot of discussion about operations in
heating the iron, which belongs in another instruction unit.
He has not stuck to his job, and to that extent has messed
things up.
188 THE INSTRUCTOR
Effective Order in Presentation. In this step of the lesson
a series of ideas must be presented to the learner, and these
ideas must be successively presented in the most effective
order, this order having been previously determined. An
efficient teacher will pay a great deal of attention to using an
effective order in presentation and the failure to do this is a
very common error of untrained instructors.
The Question of Emphasis. Among the ideas or opera-
tions which are to be taught during this step of the lesson,
some are unquestionably more important than others, and the
efficient instructor will recognize this by emphasizing the
more important ideas more strongly than the less important
points. For example, in training a heater boy the necessity
of picking out a rivet at the right heat would be emphasized
more than the proper method of picking it up with the tongs.
Effective training requires skill on the part of the teacher,
in properly analyzing the teaching unit with regard to empha-
sis, and considerable practice is often required before it can be
done effectively.
Limited Content. Almost all instructors err on the side
of trying to include too much in the subject of one lesson.
If a given thing is to be taught, it is far better to cut it up into a
series of small lessons than to undertake to teach one elaborate
lesson; for example, if it were desired to teach a man to operate
an electric drill it would be far better to plan one lesson on
stopping and starting, one lesson on catching the drill point in
the prick punch hole, one on what to do when the drill sticks,
etc., rather than to undertake to teach the whole job in one
lesson.
CHAPTER XX
DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE LESSON.
STEP 3. APPLICATION
Preliminary. If step 1 be considered as putting in the
foundation and step 2 as building the house on that founda-
tion, this third step may be thought of as equivalent to a
builder's inspection. So far as anybody knows the house is all
right but before turning it over to the owner it is carefully
inspected, defects or omissions noted and corrected, inspected
again, and this process is carried on until the builder is sure
that everything is according to the specifications.
In the same way, in carrying out the instructional pro-
cess, the instructor has laid the teaching base in step 1, he
has presented the new material in step 2. So far as he knows
he has done a good instruction job, but in this step he puts the
learner through a trial inspection that is, he puts the man at
work on whatever was given in step 2, and checks up along
two lines (1) Does he know it, and (2) Can he do it.
This step therefore serves two purposes.
(1) Since what the man has learned is of no value to
him unless he can apply it, and since power to apply a thing
is different from simply knowing it, he must be trained in
actually applying, or putting into practice what was presented
to him in the preceding step of the lesson, application.
(2) A second, and equally important purpose to be
accomplished by this step is to check up the degree to which
the learner has grasped all the points in the lesson which has
been taught, whether processes or ideas. From this stand-
point this step, application, corresponds to a road bed inspec-
tion on a railroad whose purpose is to detect "bad spots"
which should be fixed. In the same way, no matter how care-
fully the man has been taught, there will be some "weak
139
140 THE INSTRUCTOR
points," some "holes in the road" which must be located
and made good before going any further. A common illustra-
tion of this would be an arithmetic lesson on interest at six
per cent. After the teacher has presented the method of
doing it, he will then have the pupil solve a series of problems
in interest at six per cent. If the lesson were on figuring the
offset for a taper, the learner would then be given a series of
problems in figuring offsets. If the teaching unit were on
how to correctly mark templates, the learner would be given
a template to mark. If it were on bolting up, the man would
be given a bolting up job. During this process of applica-
tion, however, the instructor watches the man while he is
working at the job, notes where he fails to grasp some points
in the problem, or has not "caught on" to some part of an
operation, and gives him additional instruction on that part
then and there.
The instructor is therefore using this application step not
only to give the learner training in applying, but also to find
weak points in the man's knowledge or comprehension of the
subject of the lesson. At the close of this step the instructor
should be sure that the man has thoroughly "got" the lesson
which is to be taught. The carrying out of this step effec-
tively requires care and skill on the part of the instructor to
determine just when to assist the learner and just how to assist
him; but in no case should the instructor do the work for the
man. Of course he might show him some particular step in
the process which he did not understand, but the man should
be required in this step to go through the whole job and to go
through it a sufficient number of times so that the instructor
is reasonably sure that all points have been mastered.
CHAPTER XXI
DETAILED DISCUSSION OF STEPS IN THE LESSON.
STEP 4. TESTING
Preliminary. As already stated the purpose of this step
is to afford an opportunity for a final try out or inspection.
The instructor should regard the result of the test as more or
less a failure if the learner fails to do this work unaided. It
indicates that the teaching process was not well carried out,
that the instructor's judgment was incorrect and the teaching
must be repeated. While this will often occur in practice, it is
nevertheless true in theory that if the lessons were perfectly
planned and perfectly taught inspection would show that all
learners could successfully meet the test with one hundred
per cent, efficiency.
Each step must be complete before the next step is started.
In carrying out the three teaching steps just discussed, any
failure on the part of the instructor to complete one step
before he takes up the next step results in an accumulation of
difficulties. If the men are not properly prepared in step 1,
they will not be properly taught in step 2. If they do not
come up to step 3, thoroughly taught, the process of applica-
tion will require too much time and too much energy. If
application has not been properly carried out the men will fail
in final test step 4. The instructor should therefore be as
certain as is possible to see that each step has been thoroughly
carried out before he starts the next one.
The Aim of this Step. If the instructional process has
been properly carried on up to this point the instructor is
ready to take a chance that the learner has been properly
taught, and if he is right the teaching job is finished, the
learner is instructed, he can do what the instructor intended
that he should be able to do or he knows what the instructor
intended that he should know. The teaching unit has been
141
142 THE INSTRUCTOR
put over and the teaching process is at an end. But while
the instructor may feel sure that this is the case he does not
know it because this fact cannot be assumed. During the
preceding step he undoubtedly found many cases where addi-
tional instruction on some parts of the lesson was necessary,
and he therefore has assisted or directed the man more or less
during that step. Although he carried on this phase of the
instruction process until, in his judgment, the man had got
the entire unit that was to be taught, nevertheless he has
been going over it piecemeal, and not as a whole.
He cannot, therefore, assume that, unaided and undirected
the man who is under inspection can apply intelligently the
subject of the teaching unit. That unaided, and absolutely
on his own feet he can go through the whole process correctly.
This step, therefore, may be regarded as fulfilling a function
strictly comparable to that of final inspection. The instructor
must now stop being an instructor and, becoming an in-
spector, proceed to inspect the results of his teaching by testing
in some suitable way, the ability of the learner to do the entire
job alone.
CHAPTER XXII
SECURING TRADE INTELLIGENCE
Completing the Training Process. The proceeding sec-
tions dealt with the four instructional steps which must be
carried through in order, in putting over any given teaching
unit, such as, how to know when a rivet is heated to the right
temperature. Each lesson should have been based upon some
specific unit. If the instruction has been properly carried
out the learner has been taught all the specific things that
he needs to know. When this point is reached the instruction
process is completed but the training process is not completed.
The learner is in the same condition as a tnoroughly equipped
shop having all necessary equipment. All of the material,
tools and equipment would not be required for any one job,
but it is all required for all the jobs that the shop has to do.
For any particular job a selection must be made from all the
equipment of the special machines, tools, etc., that would be
required on that particular job.
The properly instructed learner, in the same way, has
at his command all the things which he has been taught,
for the doing of any job in his special occupation. Just
as the material and equipment for a given job must be picked
out, so the properly trained man must be able, to pick out
from all the things that he knows about his trade certain
particular things that he knows or can do that will enable
him to do a given job correctly: that is, he must be able to
select intelligently.
Evidently this power of intelligent selection of the certain
parts of his knowledge and the certain portions of his skill
could not be obtained by teaching the man any number of
specific teaching units. The instructing process has done
all it can do. This is where it "gets off." The learner is still
to be completely trained.
143
144 THE INSTRUCTOR
The ability to pick out the proper material and equipment
for a given job does not come from simply knowing what
material is on hand and the uses of this material; but does
come from a wide shop experience. Jobs differ. The man
who makes the selections must be trained through shop
experience as well as instructed.
In practice all jobs are not standardized. That is, under
working conditions varying situations arise that require more
than a mere knowledge of how to perform the operations.
In the case of the bolter-up, no two plates can be handled
in the same way. One plate springs one way and another
a different way. The crane operator meets new situations
continually.
In connection with trade development modifications are
continually being introduced. It is practically impossible
to instruct a man in the exact way in which he should deal
with every situation that will come up in his occupation.
This would mean an endless instruction job.
Training vs. Instruction. Through instruction the learner
is equipped as thoroughly as is practicable with the things
that he needs to know and to be able to do. His training
must be completed before he can intelligently do the various
jobs connected with his occupation. He lacks power to
select or to pick out from all the skills, knowledge, etc., in
which he has been instructed, and from past experiences,
those which he must use in dealing with those conditions
which surround the doing of the job itself.
This power to intelligently select, or to "use your head"
is often called trade intelligence and can only be secured
through a training process; not through an instructional
process.
A man is trained by going up against a series of situations
which must be dealt with by exercising this power of selection.
Some men are trained more than others and are the sort of
men who are characterized as "using their heads on the job."
This training can only be secured through experience
that is, by doing a lot of jobs under varying conditions.
PART V
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
145
CHAPTER XXIII
METHODS THAT CAN BE USED IN THE FIRST STEP
OF THE LESSON
Preliminary The preceding part described the four in-
structing operations and explained the use of each operation,
or, as they are commonly called, steps. There are various
methods or ways of butting over each of these steps. Each
step can be put over in more than one way that is, different
methods can be used for each step just as different tools might
be used to carry out a given operation in the shop. In putting
over any given lesson an instructor uses for each step the
method that he judges will give the best results under the
circumstances. The kind of a lesson, whether technical or
production, the type of the lesson, whether elementary or
derived, the kind of learner, the instructing conditions, the
proposed line of approach, all must be taken into account in
deciding what method to use in putting through any step in a
given lesson. This part describes the various methods that
may be used for each of the four steps in the instructing
process.
The names of these methods are shown in the table on
page 148.
METHODS THAT MAY BE USED IN STEP i
Preliminary. In the preparatory step the following methods
are common teaching practice :
(1) The method of suggestive questioning.
(2) The method of the suggestive illustration or demon-
stration.
(3) The method of giving the learner an experience which
will direct his thoughts to the ideas which the teacher wishes
to make his teaching base.
147
148
THE INSTRUCTOR
POSSIBLE METHODS FOR DIFFERENT STEPS IN THE
INSTRUCTING PROCESS BY THE LINES OF
APPROACH
Development.
Informational.
Step 1.
Preparation.
Foundation.
The suggestive
question.
Demonstration.
Illustration.
Experience.
The informational
question.
Demonstration.
Illustration.
Experience.
Step 2.
Presentation.
Putting over.
Demonstration.
Illustration.
Experiment.
Demonstration.
Illustration.
Lecture.
Step 3.
Application.
Checking up.
On the job.
Discussion.
Recitation.
Written Test.
Examination.
On the job.
Recitation.
Written Test.
Examination.
Step 4.
Inspection.
Final Test.
On the job.
Recitation.
Examination.
On the job.
Recitation.
Examination.
Method of Carrying Out this Step by the Use of Questions.
A common method of carrying out this step is by the use of
questions. Those questions may be so framed that the
learner in answering them, is led to think of whatever ideas
the instructor intends to use in this step. Such questions
may be called suggestive questions. When suggestive ques-
tions are used they are based upon what is known as " sugges-
tion" that is, if individual A says something, individual B
will think something. If A is skillful in what he says he can
make B (so long as B is unconscious as to what is going on)
think of what A wishes him to think. For example, if A says
"I just saw a cow,'* if B has ever seen a cow a picture of a
METHODS FOR FIRST STEP OF THE LESSON 149
cow will flash up in B's mind. The part of the sentence which
made B see a cow in his mind was the one word "cow," so
that we may say that the key idea in this case is "cow." In
instructing, the stimulating sentence is usually put into a
question. Instead of saying "I saw a cow" the instructor
might say, "Can you tell a cow from a horse?" or "Can you
milk a cow?" because when put in the form of a question it
makes a sharper appeal; but in either case the "key idea"
which gets the learner's mind to work is "cow." The rest of
the sentence is really an excuse for bringing in the key idea.
Another kind of question does not depend on suggestion
but on memory. If a person is asked to tell something that
he already knows, as a result of trying to remember, that
something will be brought up in his mind. An instructor, pre-
liminary to presenting a teaching unit on the use of a cross-
cut saw to a learner who knew how to use a rip saw, might
ask the learner to tell what he knew about a rip saw. There
would be no suggestion, the learner would simply be asked for
some information that the instructor knew he possessed.
Where the lesson to be taught is an extension of what the
learner already knows, the instructor may ask what was
taught in the preceding lesson. The effort required to re-
member this brings it back fresh to the learner's mind. To
distinguish them from suggestive questions we may call this
sort of questions informational questions.
Of course questions may be asked in connection with an
illustration or demonstration as described below and may take
either form.
When the method of questioning can be used it is the
quickest and most effective way of putting over step 1. If
there is nothing that can be suggested to the learner or he has
no information that will serve to refresh his memory, that
will give the ideas on which the instructor wishes to base this
step then other methods must be used. These are, an illus-
tration or a demonstration that will give the learner some-
thing to start on, or to let him run up against some sort of a
problem or experience that will have the same effect.
The Suggestive Illustration or Demonstration. When the
learner has absolutely nothing that the instructor can use for
150 THE INSTRUCTOR
the teaching base it is sometimes necessary to develop the
teaching base by using some form of demonstration or illus-
tration, as where the instructor does some piece of work,
performs some experiment, shows some model or uses pictures,
charts, or diagrams. For example, suppose it were desired
to put over a lesson on how to rig a boat to a learner who had
never seen or heard of a boat, or anything like a boat. There
would be absolutely nothing to "tie" to. Such cases are very
rare, but, assuming that this was such a case, the instructor
might find it necessary to show the learner a real boat, or a
model or picture of a boat in order to get a start. In teaching
geography in schools photographs or lantern slides are some-
times used when the lesson deals with something the class
has never seen, as the action of ice on a mountain when
taught to children who have never even seen a hill, or have
never seen ice, as in some parts of the tropics.
The Suggestive Experience. A teaching base can, in some
cases, be established by having the learners do something
giving them a certain experience which the instructor considers
will make them think about the things that he wishes to use
for his teaching base. For example, suppose, in a training
camp it was desired to instruct recruits in the proper way of
holding a rifle to the shoulder so as to minimize the kick.
Assume that the learner had never fired a gun, and had ab-
solutely no notion of kick. The instructor might give him a
suggestive experience by letting him fire a rifle as a green man
would, get a sore shoulder by doing it that way and so lead up
to a lesson on how to fire a rifle and not get a sore shoulder.
A visit to a place where the complete job could be observed as
carried out in practice might be used in this way in certain cases.
Summary. Where there is anything to go on step 1 can
be best carried out by the use of questions. This might be
called the "standard method." It is the quickest and the
easiest to use whenever its use is possible.
Where questions cannot be used one of the other methods
must be. Where it can be used the suggestive experience is
the better of the two alternate methods. Illustration is the
poorest method of all.
CHAPTER XXIV
METHODS THAT CAN BE USED IN THE SECOND STEP
OF THE LESSON
Preliminary. As in the case of step 1 there are several
methods that may be used. Those suitable for job training
are four in number.
Various Methods of Presentation. There are four common
methods or teaching tools, used in presentation. These are:
(1) The method of demonstration, (2) The method of
illustration, and (3) The lecture method. (4) The experi-
mental method.
The Demonstration Method. This method consists essen-
tially either in showing the man how to do the thing or what
the thing is with the actual tools, machines, or conditions
under which the problem is to be worked out or the job is to
be done. Thus, for example, an instructor in printing may
operate the press in instructing a man in starting and stopping
it. He may use it on an actual job in instructing a green man
in the proper way of doing the job. In instructing in assembly
jobs he may use the bolts, wrenches, etc., on a real piece of
work. In teaching how to lay out a printing job, he may lay
out an actual job that is to be printed.
Provided a real job is done the demonstration can be carried
out either by the learner or by the instructor. When the
learner does the job under the supervision and direction of the
instructor, he is the demonstrator. He is demonstrating to
himself. This is as true when he follows directions on paper.
The point of the demonstration method is that whether
the instructor does it, or the learner does it under direction of
the instructor, the presentation is carried out with the same
tools, machines, etc., as would be used on the actual job. In
this method no substitutes are used for the real thing.
Ul
152 THE INSTRUCTOR
Where the Demonstration Method Can be Used to the Best
Advantage. While the demonstration method should always
be used wherever possible, it can be used to the best advantage
under the following conditions:
(a) On the job with group instruction in the shop or
the yard.
(b) On the job with individual instruction in the
shop or in the yard.
(c) Off the job, when the necessary demonstration ma-
terial can be secured from the shop or elsewhere.
Where Some Other Method Can be Substituted with the
I/east Disadvantage. Where the demonstration method can-
not be used, other less effective methods can be substituted.
For example: In teaching advanced men, where demonstra-
tion materials are not obtainable. The more experienced the
man in a particular line of work the less likely is the demon-
stration method to be the only one that can be used with a
reasonable degree of effectiveness. Under the above special
conditions the method of illustration can be used with a
reasonable degree of efficiency and a considerable saving of
time; a very important factor in shop training.
In balancing up the relative values of different methods for a
given teaching job, when it is very difficult to use the demon-
stration method the method of illustration can often be used
with advanced men. Under such conditions a good illustra-
tion may be better than a poor demonstration.
The Method of Illustration. This method of presentation
consists essentially in putting up to the men not the actual
things with which the instruction deals, but things which
resemble them sufficiently to serve the purpose. Examples
of the method of illustration would be:
(1) In teaching the parts of a steam engine, whereas by
the demonstration method it would be necessary either to take
the learners into an engine room or to have in the classroom
an actual steam engine, by the illustration method there might
be used a wooden model with sections cut away to show the
construction. As a matter of fact, if men had already run an
METHODS FOR SECOND STEP OF THE LESSON 153
actual engine, this method would probably serve the purposes
of this problem better, since the internal construction and the
relative operations of parts could be shown in a cross section
model where they could not be shown with the engine in
operation. The method of illustration can be carried out by
means of models, pictures, diagrams, sketches, and in short,
by a large number of devices which are available in teaching
practice and a number of which are discussed elsewhere.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Method of Illus-
tration. This method evidently is inefficient in that it sub-
stitutes, for the real thing, something which more or less
approximates the real thing, and hence requires a certain
amount of mental picturing on the part of the learner, or as
it is sometimes called, a "carry-over" from the model or the
diagram or the picture to the thing itself; that is, the men, while
seeing the illustrative material, models, pictures, sketches,
etc., must think of the actual thing. Green or only slightly
trained learners can rarely do this. In proportion as men have
come in contact with the real thing, and possess considerable
trade experience, they can look at the illustration and think
the real thing itself. Hence the method of illustration should
not be attempted with learners who have had no experience
with the actual thing which is being illustrated. Thus, for
example, many instructors fail in the method of illustration,
especially in using blackboard diagrams, because the men have
not had sufficient contact with the actual thing which the
diagrams represent, so that while looking at the diagrams they
do not see the thing itself. The method of illustration on the
whole, therefore, is not well suited for the more elementary
courses of training in any lines of shop or mechanical work.
On the other hand, this method has the advantage of enabl-
ing the instructor to control the conditions under which the
lesson is given. He can bring a group together in a room, can
free them from distractions and can keep their attention fixed
upon the matter in hand. The degree to which the method
of illustration can be used efficiently would depend largely
on the character of the problem, the degree of experience of
the men under instruction, and on the judgment of the teacher
based upon experience.
154 THE INSTRUCTOR
Where the Method of Illustration Can be Used to Best
Advantage. If the things to be illustrated are simple and
require little "carry-over," the method will be successful.
In proportion as the things to be illustrated are complex and
require much "carry-over," it will not be successful. In pro-
portion as the men have a large amount of actual experience
behind them, this method can be made successful. In propor-
tion as they have not, it will be unsuccessful. For illustration,
in steam engineering it is proposed to teach the idea of the
cut-off, and it is desired to use a method of illustration which
is based upon the use of blackboard diagrams. This could
probably be successfully worked out in a course for firemen or
engineers who had behind them considerable experience in the
engine room. It would not succeed at all with a class of boys
who had never seen an engine and did not know what the
cut-off was. If for the diagram was substituted a small steam
engine with sections cut out of the sides of the cylinder and
steam chest, this work might be successfully done with a class
of boys who had a sufficient experience in the engine room to
know the general operation of the slide valve and the fact that
the eccentric controlled the cut-off. In the same way, suppose
it were desired to illustrate the method of drawing an object
by projection and the point was to give the man the notion of
the three points of view. If the illustration used was that of a
rather elaborate drawing and the man had had no experience
in reading such drawings, this method would probably fail.
If it were desired to introduce him to this idea by the method
of demonstration, the instructor would be much more likely
to succeed if he started in with a brick and got the man by
squinting around it to see what it looked like on end, side on,
and from above.
Dangers of the Method of Illustration. The great danger
in the use of this method lies in the fact that it is easier for the
instructor than the demonstration method, and a lazy instruc-
tor continually tends to use it when, with a little more energy
and ingenuity he could use the method of demonstration.
The use unquestionably saves time and energy in many
cases where it will ivork, and the only ground for using it is
that the instructor knows that it will work for the particular
METHODS FOR SECOND STEP OF THE LESSON 155
men he is instructing on a particular instruction unit, or that
the demonstration method is, under the conditions, impossible,
and so a choice of a less effective method must be made.
The Lecture Method. This method of presentation con-
sists essentially in simply passing out the information required.
Under a strict informational or lecture method of presentation,
no attempt is made to illustrate or to demonstrate. The
instructor simply tells the men what he wants them to know,
and this method is often the method of the college or the
technical school. It is based upon the theory that the lecturer
knows something which the students do not know and that
the students are capable of securing the information or learn-
ing how to do the thing by simply listening to the lecturer.
Where the Lecture Method Can be Used to Advantage.
The lecture method can be used to advantage only in the case
of very advanced students who have themselves so much
knowledge of the subject that they can easily follow and
understand the lecturer. It has little place in shop train-
ing work. Thus for example, a corporation lawyer might
lecture on corporation law to a group of lawyers or to advanced
students in a law school; a specialist in medicine might lecture
on his specialty to the members of a medical society; but even
at best the lecture method is inefficient, and as a matter of
fact, for all ordinary shop training it may be regarded as the
last resort of a poor instructor.
Where the Lecture Method Might be Used to Advantage.
Outside of the regular work of instruction in the training
scheme there is always a field for the development of general
interest, and the lecture method can be used for that purpose.
Thus, a lecture by an instructor on his past shop experience,
how he got his different jobs, and what sort of work was done
in the different shops in which he worked, while it would have
no value as an instruction proposition, would undoubtedly,
have value in arousing general interest on the part of the
group of men that he had under instruction. In the same way,
a lecture on various methods of doing a particular job in the
shop would undoubtedly arouse interest and might be of
value. It should be clearly understood, however, that a
156 THE INSTRUCTOR
lecture given for this purpose is not a part of the regular train-
ing work as discussed here, and the men should not be held re-
sponsible for any direct " come back " on work of this character.
Thus the ordinary practice of giving a lecture under the im-
pression that it is a teaching lesson, requiring the men to keep
notes, to write up these notes, and subsequently examining
them, is a relic of barbarism from the standpoint of efficient
teaching and should not be used in industrial training.
On the other hand, the bringing together of men from time to
time for a lecture whose purpose is to stimulate general interest,
but from which no direct and specific " come back " is either ex-
pected or required, undoubtedly finds its place in training in-
struction of any grade, from the elementary school to the college.
The Experimental Method. In the three methods already
discussed the work of presentation is, in a way, directed by the
instructor. He at least exercises a general control over the
carrying out of this step. The instruction unit, as presented,
is correct. However it might be worked up, if the instruction
unit were on the method of doing any given job the presenta-
tion would embody the correct method.
It is, of course, possible to lead up to the problem and then
turn the learner loose to discover correct practice by the
method of doing it wrong until he discovers how to do it right.
That is, he may learn by experimentation. Most boys in a
seaport learn to swim and to sail a boat in this way. They
get pushed off the end of the dock; they go out in small sail-
boats and capsize until they have learned to keep a boat right
side up. They learn by the method of experiment.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Experimental Method.
Evidently a learner taught by this method is never likely
to forget what he learned, and this is the chief value. On
the other hand much time is consumed, the learner is liable
to become discouraged and is likely to spoil much material.
Under the conditions which exist in shop training it is not
probable that this method would find much place. In the
case of a particularly intelligent man on advanced work it
might be desirable to let him "dope it out,'* but such cases
would be relatively rare.
METHODS FOR SECOND STEP OF THE LESSON 157
Since this method is a possible one and finds a use in certain
schools, it has seemed advisable to include it in the list of
possible methods for step 2 in the instructing process.
Summary. Step 2, or presentation, is the part of the lesson
in which the addition is made to what the man knows. Where
the new stuff is put over. It is in this step that the instruction,
as such, is given.
The instructor has as tools four methods at his command
Demonstration, Illustration, Lecture, and Experiment. He
chooses his method with regard to the requirements of the
particular teaching job that he proposes to carry out. Under
emergency training conditions the most effective method is
in most cases, demonstration, with illustration as a second
choice, and when demonstration is difficult or impossible.
The more advanced the men the more likely the possibility of
effectively using illustration in place of demonstration. The
other two methods probably have little or no value in work of
this character.
CHAPTER XXV
METHODS THAT CAN BE USED IN THE THIRD STEP
OF THE LESSON
Preliminary. This step of the lesson is, as described in the
preceding part, a means of finding where the learner has not
fully grasped the work of step 2 or has still to apply what he
got in that step. The choice of a suitable method for this step
is particularly important since so much depends on being sure
that all the weak spots have been located and fixed up.
Methods for Carrying Out the Application. Four methods
are available: (1) Direct application or trying out on the job.
(2) The recitation. (3) The discussion. (4) The written
examination. As in the other steps the choice of method is
determined by the character of the teaching unit and the sort
of learner to whom it has been presented.
Application on the Job. The most efficient method of de-
termining the degree to which a teaching unit has been effec-
tively "put over" in step 2, is to put the man who has been
instructed up against the actual job which he is supposed to
have been taught to successfully perform.
This method can be used on any job and is always the first
choice of the instructor.
It is generally recognized as giving the most satisfactory
results under modern teaching conditions and since it permits
of checking up the power to do and to apply rather than the
power to talk about how to do, or how to apply (and many
men can do a good job who cannot tell how they do it), it is
preeminently the method by which the application step should
be carried out in industrial training.
Why Application on the Job is the Most Effective Method.
The efficiency of a man in a working plant depends upon
what he can do. If the instructor gives him a chance to show
what he can do he has the most direct check on the complete-
158
METHODS FOR THIRD STEP OP THE LESSON 159
ness with which he has put the lesson over. The other methods
described substitute talking about the job for doing the job.
They are described here because it is sometimes necessary to use
one of them in place of the more desirable methods, and also be-
cause many individual instructors tend to use them altogether
too much, largely because they were the methods by which they
themselves were taught in school or because they are easier.
The Recitation. When using this method the instructor
asks a series of questions for the purpose of ascertaining how
thoroughly the learner has "got" the lesson, and for uncover-
ing weak points. In proportion as the learner answers all
questions correctly the instructor assumes that he can do the
job. If he fails to answer some questions correctly this is
assumed to show where the weak points are.
The difficulty with this method in connection with practical
instruction lies in the fact that the man must go through the
various operations in his mind and describe them, in order to
answer questions correctly. Many men who can do the job
all right cannot carry it through in their minds when away
from the job, and even if they can do this, the necessity of
putting what they see in their minds into words adds an addi-
tional complication. The result of this is that a glib talker who
has the sort of mind which can form a picture of the job in
operation, but who cannot do it well often show up better in a
recitation than a man who does know how to do the job but
lacks ready speech and imagination.
This misleads the instructor who confuses inability to ex-
press with inability to do. Hence in any practical work this
method is somewhat dangerous especially in the hands of in-
experienced instructors.
It is chiefly of value where what has been taught is purely
informational in character and hence finds a large place in the
work of regular schools. Since the purely informational side
of industrial training work is comparatively small, the recita-
tion can only be effectively used in a few cases.
It is also a fact that the recitation is much easier for the
teacher than the method of putting the man on the job, and
hence a lazy instructor tends to use it, of course thereby doing
a poor instructing job.
160 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Instructor's Job and the Learner's Job. It should be
noted that whereas the statements made above apply to the
case of a learner the case is entirely different with an instructor,
who must be able to see the job without actually doing it,
must be able to analyze and must be able to talk clearly about
the work, in order to carry on the instruction process.
The Discussion. In the recitation the instructor asks
questions and the learner answers the questions. The relation
at any given time is always between the instructor and one
man. It is quite possible however to set up a discussion where-
in various members of the group ask questions, both, of other
group members and of the instructor. By watching and some-
times guiding such a discussion the instructor can often check
up the degree to which the men have been thoroughly in-
structed, so that the discussion may, in certain cases, become a
method for carrying out the Application Step. It is possible
to use the discussion when working with one man but, under
these conditions, it is obviously less effective than when work-
ing with a group of men who are being simultaneously in-
structed in the same teaching unit.
Conditions under which the Discussions may Best be Used.
The discussion, considered as a method for checking up, is
most likely to be of value when the instructor is dealing with a
group of advanced men, or men with considerable experience
behind them. It is not likely to be of much value when work-
ing with men of little experience, nor is it likely to be of much
value in individual instruction.
The Written Recitation or Test. It is quite possible to
substitute written answers to questions for spoken answers.
This modification of the ordinary spoken or oral recitation is
sometimes called a written recitation. As compared with the
oral recitation the written recitation has the advantage that
questions can be more carefully answered. than in group in-
struction; one man cannot take his cue from another; and
answers can be more carefully examined and criticized by the
instructor. It has the disadvantage of taking much more
time for the answering of a given number of questions. All
members cannot hear the answer of any one man and cannot
METHODS FOR THIRD STEP OF THE LESSON 161
get the benefit of the instructor's criticism on each man's
answer.
It is also true that many men find even greater difficulty in
expressing themselves in writing than in expressing themselves
orally so that all the objections which apply to the spoken
recitation apply even more strongly to the written recitation.
The Examination. An examination may be either oral or
written. It differs from the recitation mainly in that it uses
what may be called the method of sampling. An illustration
of the theory on which examinations are conducted would be
the method of taking a sample of wheat out of a car which was
loaded with wheat, taking this sample at random from any
part of the car, grading it, and then assuming that all the
wheat in the car was of the same grade as the sample taken.
Whereas in the recitation the questions would be "bunched,"
that is, the instructor would attempt to hit all parts of the
teaching unit, in .an examination the questions are scattered.
It is like the difference between the rifle and the shot gun.
Certain questions are asked at random and it is assumed that,
if the learner answers these "sample" questions correctly he
could answer any others correctly, and so has "got" the
teaching unit.
The Value of the Examination as a Method in the Applica-
tion Step. Evidently the examination is of little value as a
method for checking up and for assuring the instructor that
the man has got the lesson. The method of sampling must
leave large gaps in the checking up process and fail entirely to
bring out the points on which the learner needs straightening
out. It also has all the undesirable features of the recitation as
outlined under that heading. As a method to be used in the
application step in industrial training it has practically no
value and is only given here because its use in regular schools
is so common that industrial instructors are liable to think
that it can be used effectively in this sort of work.
How to Know when Step 3 is Completed. In this the in-
structor must depend upon his judgment and experience.
No set rule can be given. Whatever the method used, the
operation is continued until the instructor is satisfied that the
162 THE INSTRUCTOR
teaching unit has been completely put over. Wherever he
finds a weak spot the instructor goes over that part of the
preceding step which covers that particular part of the teaching
unit, in this way filling up the gaps. Sometimes he has to
change his method because it is evident that the particular
method used for step 2 has failed to work with a given man.
However that may be, he finally comes to a point where he is
willing to take a chance that the man has "got" the thing
that was to be taught.
This step may be compared to trying out an assembled
machine, where the machine is run under careful observation.
Any imperfections are noted, and faulty parts replaced until
the adjuster is ready to O. K. it, that is, he is ready to take a
chance on its being right. Instructors are very liable to be in
too much of a hurry in carrying out this step and to let a man
go onto the final step, or test, before he is ready for it. The
adjuster who lets imperfect machines go out of his department
has done a poor job and the same may be said of the instructor
who lets the learner out of this stage, before he is ready.
Summary. The third instruction step or application is the
part of the instructional process wherein the effectiveness of
the work done in step 2 is checked up and defects located and
corrected. Of the four possible methods, application on the
job is the most effective in industrial work. The recitation
or discussion is the second choice; and the examination is of
practically no value. The instructor must learn to use his
judgment as to when this step is completed. He is likely to
err on the side of not doing enough. The more experience and
good judgment he has the more likely he is to do a good job
in this stage of the instructional process.
CHAPTER XXVI
METHODS FOR CARRYING OUT STEP FOUR IN THE
LESSON
Preliminary. This step is where the instructor puts on the
final test. Where the work of the three preceding steps " comes
out in the wash." Hence it is very important that the best
methods should be used in each case.
Methods for Carrying Out this Step. Since step 4 like
step 3, is an inspection and differs from step 3, only in that
during this step the instructor gives the learner no assistance
at all, the same methods can be used as in step 3, and the
same suggestions as. to relative desirability would apply. It
is, of course, possible to use a different method in this step
than was used in step 3. This is a matter that must be deter-
mined by the judgment of the instructor.
The Value of Testing Work. It should always be borne
in mind that the object of the final test is to enable the in-
structor to determine how well he has succeeded in imparting
the thing he set out to teach. The simple fact that a man has
failed to do a piece of work successfully is in itself of value only
so far as the test is conducted under such conditions that the
teacher can determine why he failed. Failure may be due to
four causes: a poor learner, a poor instructor, poor teaching
conditions, or a poorly conducted lesson; and it is up to the
instructor to find out which of these four causes or any com-
bination of them may be the cause for failure. This is the
only way in which he can gain experience which will increase
his teaching ability.
Most failures in the instructional process are due to the
fact that the instructor was not "on to his job." When an
instructor states that a learner cannot be taught it is "up to
him" to prove that he was "on to his job" before his state-
ment can be accepted as final.
163
164 THE INSTRUCTOR
Where the results of the test show that the lesson has been
a failure, the first thing for the instructor to do is to consider
why.
So far as the poor teacher is concerned, this simply means
that he does not know his job as an instructor. So far as a
poor learner is concerned, investigation may show that he is
incapable of getting that particular lesson at that particular
time or possibly of ever getting it at all. So far as poor teach-
ing conditions are concerned, such a state of affairs is due to
poor management on the part of the instructor. So far as a
poorly conducted lesson is concerned, that of course is due to
poor selection of method, poor handling, or some other failure
in the actual process of "putting it over." In such cases the
instructor will probably find that the difficulty is due to one or
more of the errors which are listed below, in the order in which
they are likely to occur in the work of an inexperienced teacher :
(1) Teaching too much. (Too large a teaching unit.)
(2) Adopting an unsuitable method.
(3) Failing to complete each step before starting on the
next.
(4) Failing to include all steps in the lesson.
(5) Failing to distinguish step 1 from step 2, and step 3
from step 4.
(C) Failing to take sufficient time to teach the lesson.
(7) Lack of patience and tact in teaching the lesson.
(8) Undertaking to teach the lesson under unsuitable teach-
ing conditions.
When fche instructor has failed to put over the lesson, he
has got to find out why he failed and then replan his lesson
and teach it so that he will not fail the second time. The more
care an instructor uses in planning his lesson, and the more
skill he uses in putting it over, the less likely is he to get into
this situation.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE INFORMATIONAL AND THE DEVELOPMENT
LINES OF APPROACH
Two Lines of Approach. Whatever may be the nature of
the teaching unit and whatever methods may have to be
used in carrying out the various steps in the instructing process
there still remains to be considered what may be called the
instructor's " policy " or line of approach in handling the les-
son as a whole. There are two such general lines available
which may be designated as the informational line and the
development line, or the informational approach and the devel-
opment approach.
The Informational Line of Approach. In using this line of
approach the whole instructing operation is conducted on the
basis of the instructor's giving information to the learner or
the learner giving information to the instructor. When the
instructor asks questions they are of a kind that calls for in-
formation from the learner. When an instructor handles a
lesson in this way the chief faculty exercised by the learner is
memory.
The entire lesson or any one step in the lesson can be handled
in this way according to the judgment of the instructor. An
illustration of the presentation step in a lesson handled by this
method would be where the instructor gave the rule and re-
quired the learner to work from it.
The Development Line of Approach. In handling a lesson
by this line of approach the instructor makes the learner think
out the proper procedure. He leads the learner to think out
the problem and the method of solution, guides the thinking
and aids the learner when he is "stuck" by suggestions, and
stimulating questions. He is all the time aiming at making
the man do the thinking. Under this method questions asked
by the instructor are so framed that the learner must think
165
166 THE INSTRUCTOR
in answering. A series of questions may be asked which leads
the man to think through to a correct method of solving a
problem or a correct method of procedure.
The Development Approach Good Instruction. The object
of the development line of approach is to train the man to
think intelligently about his job. Its object is to start with
what he knows and to lead him by successive steps to reason
or think through to the desired results. This is essentially a
training process, and for the purposes of many sorts of indus-
trial training it is as important to train the learner to think
for himself and use his own ideas, that he should know why as
well as how, as it is to train him in proper methods in the doing
of the job itself. Every time a lesson is handled by the de-
velopment line of approach, something has been added to the
learner's capacity to attack new problems intelligently, to
"think on his job." The result of a course of instruction in
which the development approach has been used wherever
possible will turn out a man with ability to tackle a new prob-
lem and to think it through correctly. The power to do this is,
of course, generally recognized as a very desirable quality in
many industrial lines, hence the use of this method of approach
in industrial training has great value in much of the instruc-
tion work in all trades. It is therefore, in general, the first
choice of an instructor, and should be used by preference,
unless it is evident that the other approach is clearly the most
effective for instructing in the particular teaching unit under
consideration.
The Use of the Informational Approach. The informational
approach is chiefly valuable where the teaching unit deals
with simple operations in which there is only one way to do it
and where but little trade intelligence is required. This might
be true, for example, in teaching a man how to start an electric
motor. It is more likely to be of service with advanced than
with green men, and in instructing in simple shop operations
rather than in technical problems, or complicated jobs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Lines. A
good example of the informational approach will be found in
the ordinary engineer's handbook. This book is prepared for
LINES OF APPROACH 167
a man who has a considerable experience in the practice of his
trade, and whose aim is to get results as rapidly as possible.
Usually he is not concerned with the "why" as much as with
the result which is required. Often he is not equipped to
reason out the rule or the formula for himself, yet he wants the
result in his business. Under these circumstances the approach
usually followed in these handbooks lends itself well to the
needs of the men for whose use they are prepared; it is not,
however, intended to give training in thinking out the problem.
A man instructed by this line of approach would gain but little
in power to work out the correct rule for a new problem; if it
was not in the handbook he would be stuck.
On the other hand, a person trained by the second, or de-
velopment approach, would be able to tackle a new problem
and work out the rule for himself.
It is therefore evident that for training the man to reason
and think in connection with his work the development ap-
proach is the better; for rapid results, the informational
approach is preferable.
Choice of the Two Lines of Approach. Evidently each
lesson will put the instructor up against the problem of deter-
mining which of the two possible lines of approach he will use.
In making his decision he would be guided, as suggested above,
by the sort of unit that he had to teach: by the sort of man he
was going to teach it to. Judgment based on experience is the
only guide in this case. It might be pointed out, however, that
it is often possible to use the development approach on a
lesson where all things considered, it will not "pay" to use it.
It may take too much time with respect to the "yield" of
intelligence gotten out of it in that particular case, or it may
result in distracting the mind of the man from the require-
ments of the actual job. An instructor must take all these
points into consideration in determining the line of approach
which he will use in any given case.
Line of Approach as Distinguished from Methods. A dis-
tinction must be clearly drawn between the two lines of
approach as discussed in the preceding paragraphs and
methods of instruction. As already stated, the former refers
168 THE INSTRUCTOR
to what has been called the policy of the Instructor in
handling the lesson or any step in the lesson. The latter
refers to the particular devices which may be used under
either line of approach in the carrying out of the in-
structional process.
It is, of course, possible to use different lines of approach for
different steps in a lesson, but such practice is extremely un-
wise and dangerous. It requires a going back and a patching
up of the continuity of the instruction process, it tends to
confuse the learner, it is liable to break up the conciseness.
Where the situation changes radically and unexpectedly during
the progress of the lesson a very experienced instructor may
save the situation by changing his line of approach. It is
better for the inexperienced instructor not to attempt to save
the situation, but to begin all over again with a line of ap-
proach which will be effective under the new conditions.
CHAPTER XXVIH
THE TECHNICAL LESSON AND THE PRODUCTION
LESSON
Preliminary. While the general steps which have been
given in the section on the instructional process would be
followed in putting through any lesson, a number of the details,
especially as to selection of suitable methods for the various
steps, line of approach, and determination of the best teaching
conditions, would vary with the kind of the teaching unit,
especially as to whether the subject of the lesson (the teach-
ing unit) should be classed as a trade technical or a pro-
duction unit. The following paragraphs discuss the general
effect of the kind of the teaching unit on the planning of the
lesson.
Explanation of Terms. The term job as used in these
notes means anything that a man is paid to do, whether it
does or does not result in the actual working up of stock. If
it does result in the working up of stock we will call it a pro-
duction job; if it does not result in the working up of
stock but is a necessary step in the getting out of the
product, we will call it a technical job. That is, a tech-
nical job calls for the possession and the use of technical
knowledge. It does contribute to the turning out of the
job, for example, laying off the sweep or template pre-
liminary to bending a frame is a technical job, but the
actual bending of the frame is a production job, because
in this latter case the result of the job is a properly bent
frame. Knowing how to place a properly heated rivet the
right way in the right feole is a technical job, but driving the
rivet is a production job. Reading a blueprint is a technical
job, but making the article as shown on the blueprint is a
production job.
199
170 THE INSTRUCTOR
Characteristics of the Trade Technical Job. In general this
sort of a job presents these characteristics:
(1) It is not a direct production job.
(2) It requires the exercise of trade intelligence and
judgment.
(3) It contributes to the getting out of production, al-
though it is not a production job.
(4) It need not be done where the production job to which
it contributes is done.
The Technical Job Makes no Demand for Product as a
Direct Result. In getting out a piece of work there are
usually a number of "jobs" which have to be done but which
do not require the direct working up of stock. For instance, a
blueprint must be read, or a pattern maker must make a lay-
out, or a printer makes up a dummy.
The Technical Job Calls for Trade Intelligence and Judg-
ment. The majority of technical jobs call for the exercise of
intelligence and judgment. Often there is more than one way
of doing the job and the best method must be selected. The
particular method followed must often be worked out in a
special way to meet the requirements of the special production
job to which it contributes. Sometimes the workman must
use specially trained judgment. In few cases are technical
jobs carried out in a purely automatic way.
The Technical Job Need not be Done where the Production
Job is Done. Since the technical job does not deal with the
material itself, it can be carried on anywhere, or in some special
place provided for the purpose. It need not even be carried
on inside the plant. In many plants special rooms are provided
for this class of jobs, such as in the case of mold loft work, in
a shipyard or where the foreman takes the blueprint into his
office and there reads it and marks out cutting slips.
The Trade Technical Lesson. This class of lesson deals with
ideas instead of material. As a rule the learner must work
with his head rather than with his hands. He must be able to
carry through a series of mental operations or "thinks." He
often has to work with signs that stand for things or ideas
THE TECHNICAL LESSON AND PRODUCTION LESSON 171
included in the lesson. Such as Str. for straight, Dr. for drill, Z
for Z bar, 1 for I beam. He must often use a certain amount
of mathematics. He must often express himself in trade
terms. He must often be able to read a drawing.
The Teaching Unit is Determined by Trade Practice.
Trade practice has usually established the easiest and most
rapid methods of solving such trade technical problems as
come up in the direct connection with production. These
methods have been developed by the trade with regard to shop
conditions, the saving of time, and often with no more regard
for accuracy than is necessary for the purpose in hand.
The sheer or body plan is laid out according to the special
methods which have been adopted in the ship building trade
and might be unintelligible to a machine shop draftsman.
Template marks can only be interpreted by a man who knows
ship work.
With what Degree of Accuracy should Trade Technical
Problems be Worked Out. A man should be taught to work
out a trade technical problem only to the degree of accuracy
which would be called for in the trade. Thus, for example, a
man laying out a patch plate will not work to the same degree
of accuracy as a machinist who is laying out a drill jig. The
efficient instructor will waste no time or energy in training a
learner to a higher degree of accuracy than is required by the
trade.
Lines of Approach for the Technical Lesson. As already
pointed out the technical lesson deals with ideas and signs
which stand for things (symbols) rather than with tools,
stock, and operations. It calls for thinking. Hence in general
the development line of approach is the proper one to use.
Selection of Methods for the Technical Lesson. Many
lessons of this type require very careful selection of method
since they deal so much with ideas or symbols rather than with
things. The preparatory step often requires more careful
working out than in a lesson on a production job. Probably
many more technical lessons are spoiled by careless preparatory
work than are lessons in production work. Great care must
be taken to avoid "skimping" the preparatory step, and the
172 THE INSTRUCTOR
instructor must be sure that the object of this step has been
attained before he proceeds further with the lesson.
In planning step 2, it may be said in general that a greater
use may be made of the method of illustration than in instruct-
ing in production jobs. In some cases the demonstration
method cannot be used under the conditions under which the
instruction is carried on, especially where the instruction is
given outside of the shop. For example, the problem of laying
out a display form, in printing, might be worked out by
diagrams on a blackboard, or on paper. The same might be
true in instructing in the method of figuring the horsepower
from the indicator card.
The discussion can also be used to more advantage than in
instructing on production work, and even the lecture method
may in a few cases find a place in instructing in this class of
teaching units, as in a lessen in a system for template marking.
In steps 3 and 4 it is also true that the recitation can some-
times be used in place of putting the learner in the job. Of
course, this method is always a second choice, but sometimes
it is the only method available under the instruction conditions.
As in other cases judgment and experience will aid the in-
structor in selecting the best method for "putting over" this
type of teaching unit.
The Lesson in Production Work. Preliminary. The pre-
ceding paragraphs have discussed the question of teaching of
trade technical problems. The lesson on a production job,
while the general principles of good teaching will apply, offers
very distinct characteristics as compared to the lesson on trade
technical work as already discussed. Among the most im-
portant of these are (1) the aim of the instruction is always to
train the men to correctly perform an operation or do a job;
(2) the problem is always a specific one, and deals with a
definite product; (3) it calls for mechanical intelligence and
judgment in the use of tools or the operations of machines;
(4) it calls for a sufficient amount of skill to do the job up to
the required standard.
Characteristics of the Lesson in Shop Work. In general,
therefore, a lesson of this class presents these characteristics :
THE TECHNICAL LESSON AND PRODUCTION LESSON 173
(1) As a result of the lesson, however it may be given, the
learner will have learned how to do some sort of a production
job, or how to perform some operation, resulting in the pro-
duction of a real product which can be handled.
(2) The doing of this job will call for the use of ma-
chines or tools in a workmanlike manner, according to trade
methods.
(3) It calls for the intelligent use of such machines and
tools as are necessary.
The result is something that can be seen and handled. As a
result of the work of the instructor in instructing and of the
learner in doing, some piece of work is completed, or some
operation is correctly performed.
The Production Job. As distinguished from the trade
technical job, the production job is always worked out with
real stock, real tools, and ends with a real result, whereas the
trade technical job ends with an arithmetical answer, a piece
of written work, a sketch or a drawing, which, while they con-
tribute to the getting out of the product, do so only indirectly.
The real and practical nature of the work involved in doing a
production job, therefore, affects the character of the methods
of instruction used, especially in that it substitutes operations
performed upon a piece of stock for mental operations or
ideas as they would be developed in any trade technical jobs.
The Lesson on the Production Job Deals with Training in
how to Make Something. In doing a production job, the
learner is working with actual stock, actual machines, actual
tools, and is following trade processes. There is little or no
requirement that he should think in abstract terms. At every
step in the process he has before his eyes the job on which he is
working in the form which it takes at that particular stage;
hence it is easy for him to connect the various processes and to
grasp the necessity of properly completing one process before
he undertakes the next one.
The Lesson on the Production Job Calls for Training in
Mechanical Intelligence and Judgment. While the trade
technical unit calls for intelligence and judgment in the use
of arithmetical processes and other educational "tools," the
174 THE INSTRUCTOR
shop job calls for the intelligent use of actual tools and ma-
chines. These are real things, the learner can see them and
handle them, whereas, in the lesson on a technical job he can
only deal with ideas or mind pictures.
Lines of Approach for the Lesson on a Production Job.
There are in general two conditions under which the informa-
tional line of approach can be used effectively in instructing
on a production job. The first is where the job is simple and
easy to understand. The second is where the man is already
well advanced and has reached a point where he has had
sufficient experience to be able to think and reason for himself.
An illustration of the first case might be the method of starting
and stopping a machine. An illustration of the second case
might be a lesson in roof framing given to a house carpenter
or in stair building given to a jointer. In the same way there
are certain kinds of jobs which can be best handled by the de-
velopment line of approach. It should, in general, be used in
instructing green men especially at. the beginning of their
training or, in the case of experienced men who are to be in-
structed in new methods or in the use of new materials. It is
also at times the line of approach where the instructor wishes
to make a particularly strong impression on the man as to the
necessity of performing some operation in a certain exact way.
The first case might be illustrated by a lesson in making a
dovetail joint. The second might be illustrated by instructing
a blacksmith who had been used to using an oil furnace and
had been changed over to a gas furnace.
It is evident that as in all other cases discussed no hard and
fast rules can be given. According to the character of the
teaching unit, the experience of the man to be taught and the
particular results which the instructor wishes to accomplish,
he will select the most effective line of approach in handling a
given instruction job on production work. As in other cases,
as he gains in experience and acquires the "art" of instruction,
his judgment will be good in this respect.
PART VI
LESSON PLANNING
CHAPTER XXIX
LESSON PLANNING
The Lesson Plan. Whenever something is to be taught, the
plan for instruction can be worked out on paper, and is usually
designated as the "lesson plan." Such a lesson plan corre-
sponds to a planning or "operation sheet" in a factory, which
gives the details as to successive operations and as to the
character of the product desired. Where such a plan is
completely worked out it requires three steps.
1. (a) The getting out of a skeleton plan covering the
analysis of the teaching unit into the successive
teaching points that are to be put over arranged
in an effective teaching order.
(b) The determination of a suitable J. O. P.
(c) The layout for step 1, giving the successive ideas
to be used in leading up to the J. O. P.
2. The preparation of a general operation sheet from
the skeleton plan. This sheet gives such data as
the type of the lesson, the line of approach, meth-
ods to be used in each step, teaching conditions,
etc.
3. The preparation of a detailed operation sheet in which
the exact details as to just how each step is to be
carried out are set forth in full. On such a sheet the
instructor notes down, in full, just what material
he will need, just what questions he will ask, and
just what he proposes to say. If a method of illus-
tration calling for the use of diagrams is to be used,
he sketches those diagrams on his sheet. A complete
general operation sheet would correspond to a full
description of all that was used, all that the instruc-
tor did, and a stenographic report of all that he said.
i a 177
178 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Instructor Prepares his Lesson Plan before he Puts
Over the Lesson. All lesson planning is done before the in-
structor meets the learner to put the lesson over, just as an
"operation sheet" is prepared before the job is started. Its
purpose is to enable the instructor to do his thinking before he
has to actually put over the instruction.
Unless an instructor is a very experienced teacher if he
undertakes to do his planning and his putting over at the same
time, he will make a poor job of the lesson. According to his
experience he can work from a skeleton plan, a general opera-
tion sheet, or a detailed operation sheet the less experience
he has the greater detail he should go into in planning his
lessons. As he gains in experience he can cut out more and
more detail, but, no matter how experienced he is he should
have at least a skeleton plan for each teaching unit that is
included in his instruction work.
The Order in which an Operation Sheet is Worked Out.
The subject of the lesson being determined what goes into the
teaching unit is fixed. The instructor can determine how he
will break it up into teaching points, but he has no choice as
to what to put over. That is fixed by the aim of the lesson.
The instructor therefore begins by laying out the teaching
points in step 2, then determines on his J. O. P., then makes his
layout for step 1, this completes the "skeleton plan," which
consists of:
(a) The analysis of the teaching unit into the successive
teaching points.
(b) The proposed J. O. P.
(c) The layout for the proposed Preparation.
That is, he starts with the teaching unit, gets his J. O. P. from
that, lays out his preparation from his J. O. P.
In Planning the Instructor Works Backward. It should be
noted that in planning a lesson the instructor lays it out in
exactly the reverse order to the instructing order. He teaches
step I, J. O. P., step 2. He plans step 2, J. O. P., step 1. In
teaching he leads up to the teaching unit in planning he works
out from the teaching unit.
LESSON PLANNING 179
Making the Analysis of the Teaching Unit. As stated
above the first step in getting out a skeleton plan is to analyze
out the teaching points and arrange them in a suitable order
for presentation. Here it is important that the lesson, as
planned, should not contain too many points. Too much
should not be included in one lesson. A rough rule is that, a
good lesson should not contain over eight teaching points. If
the unit as originally determined shows, on analysis, more
than eight points, it is better to divide it and make two or
more lessons out of it.
There are a number of advantages in working with small
teaching units, especially with green or immature learners. A
series of short lessons given in a good progressive order will get
a learner along faster and better than one long lesson covering
the same ground.
There are two common difficulties in getting out a good
analysis of a teaching unit. First, the instructor does not select
good teaching points, so that each point deals with some one
part of the instructing job. Second, he does not "bunch" his
instruction properly around the teaching points. Each point
should be "cleaned up" as the lesson goes along and, having
once covered a point it should not, in general, be necessary to
touch it again during presentation. The general rule to be
followed here is that the more general and more simple ideas
should be presented first, the more specific and more complex
ideas should be presented later.
Getting Out the " J. O. P." In planning a journey there
must be a point of departure, but the point of departure may
vary, and different individuals making the same journey may
often select different points of departure. In the same way,
in planning a lesson, it is necessary that the instructor should
determine what ideas or picture in the learner's mind he pro-
poses to take as his point of departure at the close of step 1,
that is just what he intends the learner to be thinking about
when step 2 is started. This point of departure may be called,
for convenience, the "jumping-off point" since it is essentially
the point at which the learner jumps from what he knows to
what he doesn't know and is to be taught. It is often true
that a great variety of "jumping-off points" may be selected
180 THE INSTRUCTOR
by the instructor. There will undoubtedly be in the learner's
mind hundreds of ideas which might bear upon the teaching
unit to be handled in step 2. Certain of these ideas could be
grouped together to get one "jumping-off point"; but other
groups of ideas could often be brought together to get another
"jumping-off point.'* In no case would it be necessary to
utilize all of the available groups of ideas in the learner's mind.
Judgment Must be Used in Selecting the J. O. P. In
selecting a suitable J. O. P. there is no guide but the judgment
of the instructor. While it is, in general, determined by what
is in the teaching unit, different instructors would be very
likely to use different groups of ideas for the J. O. P., according
to their knowledge of their learners and their particular way
of working up a lesson. One or two suggestions may be of
value. A common form of J. O. P. is to get the learner so that
he knows what the lesson is about and wonders how the job is
done. This, "I know that somebody can do this job and I
wonder how it is done" attitude of mind on the part of the
learner often forms a very good J. O. P. especially in instruc-
tion on production jobs. A good illustration of this sort of a
J. O. P. would be where the teaching unit was on the proper
way to stop an electric car so as to get on it, given to children
who knew that there was a regular procedure but did not know
what it was.
Another type of J. O. P. is a "mind picture" developed in
the learner's mind. Thus, for example, if the teaching unit
were on a modification of a job that the learner had been al-
ready taught he can be made to see himself doing the job that
he knows how to do as a J. O. P. for the lesson on the new job.
An example of this sort of a J. O. P. would be where the teach-
ing unit was on taper turning in the machine shop and the
learner already knew how to do plain turning, or where a man
knew how to operate a hand lawn mower and the teaching
unit was on the operation of a power lawn mower.
A third class of J. O. P. is where the "mind picture" is made
up from the learner's past experiences entirely outside of any-
thing that he has been taught, but which call for ideas some-
thing like what is in the teaching unit. An illustration of such
a case would be where the teaching unit was on riveting and,
LESSON PLANNING 181
to get a start, the learner was led to think of a shoe lacing, or
of two pieces of cloth sewed together. This, of course, would
give a start because the shoe lacing or the thread hold together
two pieces of material. The thread idea would be the better
since the two pieces of cloth overlap as two riveted plates do.
The above statements are, of. course, merely suggestive.
An instructor must learn by practice to use effective J. O. P.'s.
The more skillful he is in this, the better lessons 'he can plan.
Making the Layout for Step i. Having determined on an
effective J. O. P. the next step is to determine what ideas
are to be used to lead the learner up to that J. O. P. Here
again the skill and judgment of the instructor come into
play. A few general suggestions may be of value. In any
case it is true that the particular ideas which he would lay out
in the lesson plan for step 1 would have to be absolutely de-
termined by the particular " jumping-off point" which he had
selected. This explains why it is quite possible that in step 1
the lesson may be carried out effectively by different teachers
with the use of very different ideas. Probably a successful
lesson could be conducted by various instructors with different
bases. The putting over of the notion of a lap joint in boiler-
making might be based upon the notions of clapboards on the
side of a house, or on the idea of a lap strake boat, or on a
picture of shingles on a roof. It should be noted, however, that
the idea which the instructor would select to bring the pre-
paratory work to the "jumping-off point" cited above would
be largely if not entirely different from those which would be
selected for any other "jumping-off points."
Working Toward the Objective. The efficient traveler, in
making a journey will see that every, step that he takes brings
him nearer to his goal; and in proportion as he side-steps or
goes out of the direct line of progress he is less efficient in
accomplishing his aim. In the same way, in the planning of a
lesson, the instructor must see to it that the different ideas used
in the carrying out of step 1 are so presented to the earner
that each idea gets him thinking directly toward the redeter-
mined end, which is, in step 1, the particular "jumping-off
point" as determined in advance by the instructor.
183 THE INSTRUCTOR
The layout for step 1 therefore consists of: 1st, certain
ideas arranged in a certain order that the learner may be
brought to the "jumping-off point'* selected; and d, of a
group of ideas or a "mind picture, " or recollection of something
which he already knows which represents the content of the
"jumping-off point" selected.
The layout for this step will be efficient in proportion as
certain simple rules are followed. Among the most important
of these are: (l),Use as few ideas as possible and get the J. O.
P. (2) Make the ideas "focus." (3) Make the ideas simple.
(1) Step 1 takes time during which the learner gets nothing
new under ordinary conditions. The quicker he gets
to the J. O. P. the more time saved, both to learner
and instructor. The fewer the ideas used, provided
they work, the "neater" job the instructor will have
done in step 1. A long drawn out preparation will
"kill" any lesson.
(2) The ideas used should steadily "drive" the learner
toward the J. O. P.: they should "focus." The most
general idea should come first, the most specific last.
Thus in the lesson given in the next chapter we have
(1) a rivet; (2) a hot rivet (not all rivets are hot) ; a hot
rivet just hot enough. (All hot rivets are not just hot
enough) so that the three ideas "focus", on the
J. O. P. of "How can one tell when a rivet is just hot
enough."
(3) The more simple the ideas used the quicker this step
can be put over and the less danger of confusing the
learner or of getting "side tracked" during this step.
A regular layout form such as is shown on page 187 is a
great advantage in getting out a "skeleton plan."
The General Operation Sheet. The general operation sheet
is got out from the "skeleton plan" which gives ideas and
teaching points only. It is the "skeleton" with the "how"
added. For each kind of lesson and for each step in the lesson
there is a best method under the given teaching conditions.
The instructor gives careful consideration to these points and
lays out his general operation sheet accordingly. Here again
LESSON PLANNING 183
no general rules can be given. Judgment and experience are
the only guides.
A standard form for general operation sheets is a great ad-
vantage. A suggestive form is shown on page 188.
The Detailed Operation Sheet. Where used, this sheet is
developed from the general operation sheet and calls for no
special discussion. An inexperienced instructor will derive
great advantage from working out a number of such detailed
operation sheets. He probably will not use them in actual
shop instruction, but if he has planned and thought out even
the least details in advance it will enable him to do much
better work on the instructing job.
Planning vs. Instruction. When the instructor has com-
pleted his lesson plan he still has the problem of putting it
over to the learner, the group or the class. The planning
problem is solved but the instructional operation is still to be
carried out. He must now face his class or his group or his
individual learner and by the exercise of what has been called
the art of teaching must skillfully put over the teaching unit.
His success in doing this will largely depend on his instruc-
tional management as discussed in the part following.
CHAPTER XXX
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF
A LESSON
This chapter gives an illustration of how the operations
described in the last chapter could be worked out on a given
teaching unit.
The teaching unit selected is on how to pick out a rivet at
the right temperature.
In explanation it may be stated that, in riveting, the rivets
are driven hot. They are heated in a small portable furnace or
forge. A part of the job of the "heater boy" is to pick out
rivets at the right heat for driving. If too hot they are
"burned" and should not be driven. If too cold they will not
drive properly. This particular job would therefore be in-
cluded in a course of training for heater boys, and, owing to
its simplicity serves well as an example for planning. It is, of
course, one of the few jobs that call for judgment. The heater
boy is paid for knowing how to pick out a rivet at the right
heat.
Points to be Considered. In planning a lesson the in-
structor has three questions to answer. 1st, What are the
ideas to be put over in the teaching unit? 2d, What is
the teaching base or "jumping-off point" (J. O. P.) that
is proposed to be used? 3d, What ideas already in the
learner's mind does the instructor intend to utilize in
carrying the learner up to the J. O. P.? Of course it is
evident that the instructor who knows what he is to teach
will in working out his plan, follow exactly the reverse order
from that he will follow in carrying on the lesson with the
learner.
184
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 185
Analyzing the Lesson Content. The instructor must de-
termine the ideas he must put over in the teaching unit,
which in this case would be as follows:
The appearance of the rivet varies with the heat.
The rivet must be at a certain temperature.
The rivet must be at a white heat.
Sequence of Ideas Required. Determining the Order of
Operations. Having analyzed the instruction unit into the
different ideas of which it is composed, the next step is to
arrange them into an instructing order, that is, the order in
which they must be put over. This is again identical with the
yard problem of making out an operation sheet for determining
the order in which the successive operations required for a
given job are to be put through. It is evident that the suc-
cessive ideas must be arranged in such an order that each
successive idea when put over, will naturally lead up too, or
suggest, the next operation or idea that is to be taken up.
The skillful instructor will take into consideration, in laying
out his operation sheet, such factors as the previous experi-
ences of the group, how much they already know, what
arrangement will best appeal to interest, and any special
characteristics of the learners, just as a planning board would
take into consideration the particular kind of stock to be used,
the capacity of the different machines in the shop, the par-
ticular machines available for the particular job, etc. There-
fore, after having analyzed the teaching unit into its constituent
ideas, they must be arranged in some progressive teaching order
before a teaching plan or operation sheet can be laid out for step
2. While experience is the best guide, a few general rules
can be given.
Work from the qualitative or general notion to the quanti-
tative or exact notion, always ask "how" or "what" before
asking "how much." For example the idea that the rivet
must be hot enough should be presented before the idea that
it must be at a certain color.
General ideas should be presented before specific ideas.
For example, the idea that the rivet must be at a certain heat
186 THE INSTRUCTOR
to be right will be put up before the idea that the right color
is just under a white heat.
The Ideas Arranged in a Correct Teaching Order. Taking
into consideration such general rules as the above we might
have the following arrangement for a correct teaching order:
The rivet must be at a certain temperature.
The appearance of the rivet varies with the heat.
The rivet must be just under a "scaling" (white) heat.
The above ideas arranged in the order given constitute the
teaching unit which is to be put over in step 2.
Determination of the " J. O. P." In order to put over
these ideas the learner must be made to have in his mind a
certain group of ideas or a picture to serve as a foundation
for the building on of the new idea contained in the teaching
unit. In this particular lesson, a good J. O. P. is to have
the learner thinking of the problem of knowing when a rivet
is hot enough.
Thus we have,
J . 0. P. How do we know when a rivet is just hot enough?
Developing the J. O. P. Having got the J. O. P. the next
question is to determine how this picture will be developed in
the learner's mind. As in all other cases experience is the best
guide. In the case of this lesson the following ideas will prob-
ably serve the purpose, if as stated in the teaching conditions,
the learners were familiar with a rivet and have the idea of
hot and cold, and some general notion of the riveting process,
having picked these ideas up somewhere.
We therefore take for step 1,
First idea, a rivet.
Second idea, a hot rivet.
Third idea, a rivet heated enough.
This gives the skeleton plan, and if entered on a suitable
form, as suggested in the preceding chapter we would have
a skeleton plan like the following. Note that in making out his
plan the instructor works from the analysis of the teaching
unit, through the J. O. P. to the layout. In using the plan
he works in the reverse direction, from the top down,
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 187
SKELETON PLAN FOR LESSON
1
cfi*
.2
4J
&
I
J5
Primary or Se
condarv.. Primar ^
|
p
9
1
1
"8
1
First Step
A rivet 1
Second Step
A hot rivet
| Third Step
A rivet heated just right
Fourth Step
Fifth Step
J. O. P. How do we know when a rivet is just hot
enough?
First Point
The rivet must be at a certain tem-
perature
Second Point
a*
a
The appearance of the rivet varies
with the heat
da
Third Point
The rivet must be just under a
"scaling" (white) heat
Fourth Point
Fifth Point
188 THE INSTRUCTOR
The General Operation Sheet. The instructor must now
determine how he will answer three questions. First, What
line of approach he intends to use; Second, What method he
proposes to use in carrying out each instruction step; Third,
Just how he proposes to carry out these methods in actually
putting over the lesson to his learners. In order to answer
these questions he first prepares a general operation sheet.
For the lesson under consideration this would be as follows:
This particular lesson is on a technical unit in trade science.
The development line of approach can be used effectively
because the ability to pick out a properly heated rivet calls
for judgment, and development of this power of judgment in
the learner can only be secured by making him think about
the various factors that determine the necessity for picking
out a rivet at the proper heat.
Since it is assumed in the teaching conditions that the
learners have been given no previous instruction on this sub-
ject, this lesson is an elementary, or primary lesson. Under
the proposed line of approach the method of the suggestive
questioning will be effective, and should be used in step 1.
The method of the development demonstration will work well
in step 2 steps 3 and 4 could best be handled by testing on
the job. The general operation sheet would then be laid out
somewhat as follows if laid out on a suitable form.
GENERAL OPERATION SHEET
To pick out a rivet at the right heat,
leaching Unit
D . _, T , Because this lesson is
Primary or Secondary (check) Why?
to be taught to green boys with no previous experience
in this line of work except that they have casually seen
riveting going on.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 189
TI j !. /r^i. i \ \xri- a Because stock is
Technical or Production (Check) Why?
not worked up, but heating to correct heat is a necessary
step to the production job of riveting.
Line of Approach.
STEP i
Development.
Calls for training in judgment.
Reasons
Suggestive questions.
Method Adopted rf
Easiest method and can be used.
Reasons
T i_- ^ j-j.- O n tne Jb- Four boys. Group
Teaching Conditions :
instruction.
190 THE INSTRUCTOR
Can be done under the conditions. Is always the
Reasons
best method when it can be used.
Material Required
STEP 2
Development.
Line of Approach
Same as in Step 1.
Reasons.
Development demonstration.
Method Adopted "
Develops intelligence on the job.
Reasons f . . .
AN ILLUSTRATION OP THE PLANNING OP A LESSON 191
Furnace connected, and ready to operate,
Material Required
fired up, 25 7 /s" rivets; Air gun and air jam connected and
ready to operate Two plates bolted up for riveting
tongs, etc.
,. ^ j... On the job.
Teaching Conditions
Most effective way.
Keasons
Line of Approach.
STEP 3
Development.
^ ^ Must train in intelligence and judgment in making
corrections in parts of lesson not fully understood by the
learner.
TUT ., j . On the job.
Method Adopted
19S THE INSTRUCTOR
Only way to be sure they can do it.
Reasons.
. Same as in Step 2.
Material Required
As in Step 2.
Teaching Conditions ....
Application on the job the best method when it
Reasons
can be used. It can be used in this case.
STEP 4
_ Testing on the job.
Method Adopted
Can be done and is best method when it can be done.
Reasons.
i T> - i Same as before.
Material .Required
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 193
A form like that given below is a great convenience in laying
out auxiliary material against the different jobs in the train-
ing course.
STEP 2
TEACHING
POINTS
TRADE
TERMS
SAFETY
FIRST
CARE OF
TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT
SCIENCE
STOCK
First Point
Second Point
Third Point
Fourth Point
Fifth Point
\
194 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Detailed Operation Sheet. As developed from the
general operation sheet the detail might be laid out as follows:
Step I. Preparation
First Idea. (A rivet.)
1. Have you ever seen a rivet?
2. Can you tell a rivet from a bolt?
3. Did you ever see any riveting?
4. Is a rivet alike at both ends?
5. Is a rivet round or square?
Second Idea. (A hot rivet.)
1. Could you pick up a rivet that you found lying
around the yard?
2. If you saw a rivet on top of a hot stove would you
try to pick it up?
3. Why would you take a chance in picking up the first
rivet but not on picking up the second?
4. Could you tell a very hot rivet from a cold rivet
without touching it?
Third Idea. (A rivet heated enough.)
1. Can a rivet be heated to different heats?
2. Would it make any difference what heat a rivet has,
provided it is hot?
3. Hasn't the heater boy got to know somehow when
the rivet is at the right heat?
J . 0. P. How does he know when a rivet is just hot
enough?
Step II. Presentation
First Point. The rivet must be at a certain temperature
to work right. (Memo. Head up cold and hot rivet.)
1. Which rivet takes the most time to head up?
2. Which rivet, hot or cold, makes the best head?
3. If you were paid for the number of rivets driven,
which would you prefer, cold or hot rivets?
4. If rivets with well finished heads only were accepted,
which would you prefer, hot or cold rivets? (Memo.
Drive an over-heated rivet.)
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 195
5. Does this rivet head up right?
6. Would you rather be paid for driving over-heated, or
properly heated rivets?
Second Point. (The appearance of the rivet varies with the
heat.)
1. Can a rivet be too cold for the job, or too hot for the
job? (Again head up an under-heated rivet and an
over-heated rivet, directing the attention of the boys
to the appearance of the rivets when they are taken
from the fire.)
2. Could you see any difference between the two rivets?
3. Could you pick out an under-heated rivet? An
over-heated rivet?
4. How would you do it?
Third Point. (The rivet must be just under a "scaling'*
(white) heat.) (Memo. Head up a properly heated rivet.)
1. Has this rivet worked right?
2. Could you tell a rivet that would work right from
one that is under-heated or over-heated by looking
at it ?
3. How would you pick out a properly heated rivet ?
Step III. Application
(Memo. Place rivets in fire.) Have each boy pick out
correctly heated rivets, meantime asking such questions as
are suggested below, of the other three boys.
Bill, Pick out a correctly heated rivet.
Sam, Did he do it?
Jack, How do you know he did it?
Tom, You pick out a rivet.
Jack, You watch him.
Sam, Pick out another one.
Bill, That wasn't right, was it?
Jack, Pick out a burnt rivet.
(Memo. Carry on work of this kind until satisfied each
boy knows a properly heated rivet.)
196 THE INSTRUCTOR
Step IV. Testing
(Memo. Proceed to rivet and say:)
Now I'm going to riveting and am going to use each of you
boys in turn as a heater boy to pass me ten rivets. If all ten
are at the right heat I'll O. K. you to the foreman for a job.
Go to it, Sam. You other three fellows don't mix in, give him
a show. You'll get your turn. Watch me rivet.
Use of Other Methods. Other methods entirely unsuitedfor
teaching a lesson of this type, and one of which would prob-
ably be selected by a poor teacher, but which a good teacher
would never use for this sort of lesson, are illustrated in this
paragraph. Had the informational line of approach been
selected, the questions in step 1 would have been so framed
that the answers would require no thinking by the boys.
The instructor might hold up a rivet and say, Is this a
rivet?
Is it a hot rivet?
Is riveting done with hot or with cold rivets?
Do the rivets have to be at any particular heat?
Same conditions are assumed as in above lesson, that is,
boys have seen riveting.
In the next step the instructor might head up three rivets,
one under-heated, one over-heated, and one correctly heated.
As he picks out the under-heated rivet he might say, "You
see, this is dull red. It will not do a good job. I'll prove it to
you" and then demonstrates, proceeding in the same way with
an over-heated rivet and a correctly heated rivet.
In step 3, where a boy picked out a rivet at the wrong heat
he will either tell the boy it was wrong or point out one at the
right heat.
If the recitation method were used in step 3 the instruc-
tor would be prepared with a set of "cross examination"
questions, such as, Must a rivet be heated at the right
temperature?
How can you tell an over-heated or under-heated rivet, etc.
(informational approach) or, by the (developmental approach),
"Why isn't an over-heated rivet just as good? Why isn't an
under-heated rivet just as good?" etc.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 197
By the examination method a few questions selected at
random would be given. Under either approach the instructor
would, by giving additional information or by suggestive com-
ment, straighten out any points he found needing it.
If the lecture method were used the instructor would proceed
somewhat as follows: "You boys have seen a rivet, you know
that rivets may be heated and that the rivet heater has to
know when a rivet is at the right heat. In doing this he goes
by the color. If the rivet is red hot it is too cold, if it is too
hot it scales, so the way to know a rivet at the right heat is to
pick out one that is just under a good white heat, but not to
let it get so hot that it scales."
The last two steps of the lesson would probably, in this case,
be handled by the recitation or examination method, although,
of course, any method could be used.
The Experimental Method. This method could be used
very effectively in step 2, but is not selected in the lesson
plan as given because it was not considered it would "pay"
in this particular lesson. By this method the instructor would
head up rivets passed him by the boys making no comment
but calling attention in each case to the character of the result-
ing job. He would keep this up until the boys had discovered
by this experimental method the proper color for a rivet that
will do a good job.
The Results of Experience. As an instructor gains in
experience he will learn how to select methods and lines of
approach best suited to a given lesson. As he becomes ex-
perienced he will also gradually get so that he will not find it
necessary to work out each detail of the operation sheet as
fully as in the sample given in this section. The proper ques-
tions, etc., will come naturally to him as he carries on the
lesson. He will "follow the class" as is sometimes said. With
practice he will even go from step to step automatically, so
that he will finally cease to need an operation sheet on lessons
with which he is thoroughly familiar. A good instructor will,
however, always work from a lesson plan. He will always
make his analysis. A collection of such lesson plans for all the
lessons that he has to teach is the most important part of the
198 THE INSTRUCTOR
instructor's "kit of tools," and the possession of a "kit" and
the ability to use the "tools" in it is one of the indications that
show that an instructor is not an instructional "butcher."
Use of a Form for the Detailed Operation Sheet. A regular
form made out for detailed operation sheets is a convenience
where much work of this sort is to be done. A sample of such
a form filled out for a simple job is given below.
J^ Italic is printed part of blank. IStl
Name: John Smith. Trade: Pattern Making.
Subject of Lesson: Laying up Stock for Gluing.
Type of Lesson: Trade Technical. Derived.
Date: Dec. 21, 1915.
Class: Boston. Section II.
Director: Allen.
The Teaching Conditions. The lesson is to be taught to a group
who have already had the following experiences. (This may
range from nothing up to certain lessons in the same unit.)
Class of 10 men who know the principles of warping and
why boards warp as they do with reference to heart and sap
sides.
The Line of Approach, Development.
STEP 1. PREPARATION
The Analysis for the Teaching Basis. Out of all the ideas in
the minds of the pupils it is proposed to develop the follow-
ing as a preparatory basis, and to bring them out in the
following order:
First idea: What is the use of gluing?
Second idea: At least two pieces of stock will be required.
Third idea: These two pieces must be put together, face to
face.
Method: Suggestive Questions
Proposed Order of Procedure. It is proposed to develop these
ideas in the order given above by the following questions:
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 199
First Idea
Is it ever necessary to fasten two pieces of wood together?
What do you do it for? What are some different ways of
doing it? Have you ever seen a case where nails were
not used? What method was used? When would you use
glue instead of nails? Why? Name some cases where
you have seen glued joints.
Second Idea
Can you imagine one piece of stock? Why not? At least
how many pieces would you need? Can you glue up
more than two pieces? Could a pattern be built of parts
glued together?
Third Idea
Could you glue two pieces of stock together by the corners,
and get a strong joint? Why not? Could you glue two
balls together and ^et a strong joint? Why not? What
must you have to get a strong joint? What would deter-
mine the strength of different joints with same glue? Which
would be the stronger, two l/^" surfaces or two J4" surfaces
glued together? Why?
J. O. P.
TWO PIECES OF STOCK CAN BE PUT TOGETHER IN
THREE WAYS HEART TO HEART, SAP TO SAP,
SAP TO HEART.
STEP 2. PRESENTATION
Analysis of New Ideas to be Presented and Determination of
Order of Presentation. The new material which is to be
"put over' 9 (taught) consists of the following ideas or steps
which it is proposed to present in the following order;
First Point
Are all three ways equally good, and why?
200 THE INSTRUCTOR
Second Point
Which method is right, and why?
Method of Presentation
The various ideas or steps in the determined order must now be
presented by some determined method. As a preliminary
the following questions should be answered: based on the
following table of possibilities.
Some Possible Methods of Presentation
Development Approach. Informational Approach.
(a) Experiment. (a) Demonstration.
(b) Demonstration. (b) Illustration.
(c) Illustration. (c) Lecture.
What method do you intend to use?
Development Demonstration.
Reasons for Selection of Method
Lesson is to be taught in the classroom and demonstrations
on material can be easily brought into the classroom in any
desirable quantity.
Write out in full how you would carry out the method, describing
any demonstration material used, any questions that you
would ask, or statements that you would make. Use diagrams
or sketches if required. Give full details of the whole process
of presentation.
Demonstration material: Several short lengths of wood
showing end grain clearly.
Have a man put two pieces together, with ends toward the
class. Have a man sketch the ends as they show upon the
blackboard.
Have another man make a different arrangement of the
two pieces. Have this sketched on board. Have this
also sketched and compared as to appearance of end grain.
Then try for a third method. Again sketch and compare.
Designate these as sketched on the board as A, B, and C,
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLANNING OF A LESSON 201
"John, do you think that you can show me which is the
heart side of any of these pieces of wood I have here? Which
way have all these pieces of wood warped? If you were
to glue two of these pieces together with their heart sides
facing the same way do you think they would have that
tendency to warp that way? What do you think would be
a good way to place those two pieces to overcome that
tendency to warp? Sam, would you place the heart or the
sap sides together? Why the sap sides? Then it would
be better for that reason to place the heart sides out, would
it not? Can anyone give me another reason that has to
do with the warping tendencies that would also make this
method of arranging the stock desirable?
STEP 3. APPLICATION
Distribute among the men a number of blocks of wood,
several to each man. Require each man to designate
heart and sap sides of each block. Get each man to put
the blocks together properly, aiding him by suggestive
questions if necessary.
INSPECTION AND TESTING
Require each learner to arrange the blocks distributed to
him in the proper manner for gluing, giving no assistance.
Inspect each arrangement when completed.
PART VII
INSTRUCTIONAL MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER XXXI
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE INSTRUCTOR
A. PRELIMINARY DISCUSSI'ON
Preliminary. Any plan for training is carried on in order to
render a certain service to the plant. The maintenance or
engineering department keeps the plant and equipment in
condition to do work. The shops turn out the product.
The training plan, whatever it may be, also has its definite
job, that of turning out men who are able to work in the
different production departments, and able to do their jobs
efficiently and rapidly.
This chapter deals with some of the problems that confront
a shop instructor in dealing with the men that he has to train,
and points out some of the differences between handling
men under production conditions and under instructional
conditions.
The Place of the Instructor. The instructor in any indus-
trial plant is one of the staff; as such he must work under
the general conditions that are determined by the organiza-
tion. To this extent he must adapt himself to conditions
that, in a sense, are outside of his control. On the other
hand, he is charged with the responsibility of training the men
that are assigned to him, and, under the general working
conditions as set up by the general organization, he must
work out his own methods and his own instructional man-
agement. As one of the force he must work in cooperation
with the other members of the force; with the other instructors;
with whoever may be his superiors in the training work.
If in a definitely organized training department he must
work with the other members of the staff. If he is working
as an individual, say as an instructing foreman or as a produc-
205
206 THE INSTRUCTOR
tion foreman training his own force in his own department,
he must handle his own men so that his job is well done, under
the particular conditions that come out of the special nature
of the trade that he teaches, the special purpose for which his
men are to be trained, and the type of men that comprise his
instructional group.
Some Things that the Instructor Needs to Know. In general,
an instructor needs to possess two kinds of knowledge, he
must know how to handle his gang effectively, how to work out
an effective instructional order, how to put over the various
teaching units that comprise that instructional order, how to
analyze and classify his trade knowledge so as to be able to
secure that effective instructional order. This sort of work
pertains directly to the instructing job. In addition to what
may be called this special "job" knowledge he must also be
familiar with the general organization in which he is working,
with its special aims (the particular sort of a job that it is
trying to put over), and with the relations of the training work
to the other departments with which it must work. .(The
employment department, the production department, etc.)
Unless an instructor is so informed he will be unable to work
in cooperation with the other members of the organization,
will not be able to work in harmony with them, and will be
unable to do his part in making the training organization a
smoothly running machine, doing its work efficiently, rapidly
and smoothly.
The General Proposition. In general any training plan
must be organized with regard to the factors of speed in
training, efficiency in training and number of men to be
trained. Thus we have a speed organization, a quality or-
ganization and a quantity organization.
The Speed Factor. The plant must not only turn out its
product but it must as quickly as possible, therefore any men
that must be trained to bring the working force up to full
production strength must be got onto regular production work
as soon as possible. If it is the job of the training organiza-
tion to supply any deficiencies in skill that may exist in the
men that are hired or in men already employed, the sooner
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE INSTRUCTOR 207
these men are got out on production with that additional skill,
the greater the efficiency of the production force. The training
organization must therefore not only train its men well but it
must also train them as quickly as possible. If, by the use of the
most scientific training methods, a ship riveter or a paper box
maker can be trained in three weeks, and if by less effective
methods it takes six weeks, the three weeks gained mean just so
much more production. If, by good methods of instruction,
a machine hand can be trained in two months, and by poor
methods it would require a year, the ten months gained
represent just so many more machined parts turned out and
production has been speeded up to that extent.
The Efficiency Factor. These men must not only be trained
in as little time as possible but, whatever work they may be
trained to do, when they complete the training they must
know how to do that work as well as possible. They must
know how to do their jobs right; they must make few mistakes;
they must spoil little stock. They must be trained so that
mistakes and poor methods will not reduce speed of produc-
tion.
The Quantity Factor. Enough men must be trained to do
the job and, whatever the number required the training
organization must be able to take care of them and get them
trained by the time that they are needed. It cannot wait
until the men are needed in production and then train them
but the men must be trained in advance to meet the demand
when it comes. This problem must be provided for in the
organization, for, if the men are not ready when they are
needed, production will be held up accordingly.
B. THE JOB OF THE TRAINING PLAN
Preliminary. It is the job of the training plan to fill orders
for its product, and its product is training. The employ-
ment department knows how many men are required to keep
the work up to full speed in any given line; it secures the
necessary men. If these men are already skilled in the trades
that are called for they are sent directly to the department
where they are needed; if they are only partially skilled, or
208 THE INSTRUCTOR
unskilled, they are put under training to acquire skill before
they are put into the production work as competent men.
The job of the training plan, however it may be organized
is therefore to take the men that are sent to it and provide
training so that each man, when discharged from training,
can go into regular production work so trained, that his skill
will enable him to do the most effective work.
The training scheme therefore takes in men who cannot
do jobs and turns them back to the employment department
able to do jobs. Effective production requires men, skill
and materials; the training makes up any deficiencies in skill
that any given man may need before he goes into production.
Its product is therefore training, and it will do its work well
in proportion as it trains well, trains rapidly and trains by the
use of the best instructional methods.
Effective Management. Whenever work is to be done
there is always a best way of doing it; if the work is production
work there is a best order of operations, those operations
can best be carried out by the use of certain machines or other
equipment units, and there will be certain types of equipment
units that give the best service under the given working
conditions. The general problem of studying such a produc-
tion problem and determining the conditions as to layout,
equipment, selection of equipment units, etc., that will enable
the factory or the shop to turn out the best product in the
least time with the least waste of power, time and stock, is
the problem of the efficiency engineer.
In the same way the trainer has the problem of getting
out his product (training), as rapidly, as can be done and
still do a good job, with the least turnover (waste), and with
the least expenditure of energy both on his part and on the
part of the learner. In general, his problems are similar to
those of the production engineer, he endeavors to reduce
the expenditure of time and energy to the minimum by using
properly worked out orders of instruction, by setting up the
best teaching units, by selecting the most efficient methods
for each lesson that he puts over, and for each step in the
lesson; he holds his turnover down to the minimum by effec-
tive handling of his gang. Where the efficiency engineer
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE INSTRUCTOR 209
determines that a certain order of operations will give the
best results, the instructor determines what order of instruction
will give the best instructional results; where the production
engineer decides, that for the doing of a certain production
job certain machines should be used, the trainer decides, that,
for the effective doing of a certain training job certain methods
and lines of approach will best serve the purpose.
The trainer is therefore essentially an instructional engineer
and must attack his training problems in the same way that
the production engineer attacks his problems. In the same
way the whole problem of training is essentially one in training
engineering, such a department is a training engineering depart-
ment, and in its organization it will provide for the best means
of working out its training engineering problems.
Instructional Management. Just as we have employment
management, or production management, so we have in-
structional, or training management, the term meaning that
sort of planning and arranging and organizing for effective
instruction and training that the other departments do in their
respective fields for their respective purposes. That side of
instructional management that deals with the handling of the
group under instruction is discussed in a later chapter; the
questions that apply particularly to the work of the director
of a training department, where such a department is estab-
lished, are discussed in other chapters; this section deals with
the general principles of organization as they affect the instruc-
tor so far as they affect his own work with his own men.
14
CHAPTER XXXII
ORGANIZATION FOR HANDLING THE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF INSTRUCTION
Preliminary. As discussed elsewhere in more detail any
plan for training men in an industrial plant may have to deal
with any or all of at least three distinct training problems,
training the green man, training the competent mechanic
who only needs to be given such training as will enable him to
"convert" his trade into a new trade and training the man al-
ready employed who needs more training in the line of his
trade in order that he may do a better job or do work of a
higher grade.
Since the general principles laid down in this chapter apply
to the trade or industrial school with the same force that they
apply to the industrial shop, no distinction has been made
between them in the discussion.
For convenience we will designate the first type of man
as a green man, the second type as a conversion man, the
third type as a trade extension man. Each type must be
handled through a distinct type of organization.
Organization for Handling the Green Man. Under ordi-
nary conditions it is probable that the green man will be
mostly trained for the simpler trades or for the simpler lines
of work in the trades. As a practical matter it is not probable
that, for efficient training work, an attempt would be made to
train an exsalesman for a tool maker, it would take too long.
However that may be, the organization for the training
of the green men should provide for handling them in suffi-
ciently small groups for effective training, for admission into
the group at practically any time, for individual instruction
while in the group, for instructional hours that are the same
as the working hours in the plant and for training on produc-
tion work.
210
HANDLING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 211
Sometimes there is a tendency to carry on training for less
than the regular working time unit, the reason given being
that it is training work and not production work. This
is, of course, no reason at all; the notion of the shorter work-
ing unit generally comes, in fact, from the fact that the
regular schools operate a smaller number of hours per day
than do the industrial plants. This is true and there are
some reasons for it that do not apply to training department
when carried on in a trade school or in the plant. In the
first place most of the regular school work is "book work"
rather than work in which the learner is doing something; so
that the fatigue factor comes up in less time than in work
where the thinking and the doing are combined. In the
second place most of the regular school work is carried on
inside of buildings where the air is often none too good, a
condition very different from that existing in outside produc-
tion work or even in instruction work in the shop. In the
third place the learners in the regular schools are mainly
children and those in the training organization are men. In
the fourth place there is no particular reason why the regular
schools cannot operate more hours a week than has been the
custom and some are now doing it. In the last place, even if
all other conditions were disregarded, the time required for
training should be kept down to a minimum because the man
should be got into production work as soon as he can be
effectively trained, and the more hours a day that can be put
onto training, the fewer days will be required for the com-
pletion of the training course.
Organizing for Individual Progression. Not only should
the training work be so organized that a man can be admitted
to an instructional group at any time but the organization
should be such that each man can progress through the course
of training required for his particular case as rapidly as his
individual capabilities will admit. A "bright" man should
not be held back by men who are less "bright" nor should a
"slow" man be speeded up in an attempt to make him keep
up with the fast man. Each man should be allowed to travel
at his own best gait.
In order to do this it is evident that there can be no class
212 THE INSTRUCTOR
organization, as discussed in Section D and seldom even group
organization, but practically all the organization must be on
the basis of individual instruction.
Organization for Discharging the Man from his Group.
Just as the organization must provide for individual admission,
and individual progression, it must also provide for individual
discharge from the instructional group and so from the train-
ing work. If men are to be admitted at all times and are to
progress each at his own maximum gait, evidently there
can be no "graduation day" for the group, but each man
will come up for discharge in a time determined by his rate of
progression and at a date determined by the date of his admis-
sion and by the speed with which he has progressed through
the instructional course. Any other organization, especially
one modeled on the procedure of the regular schools, where
there are fixed times of admission and of "discharge"
would defeat the ends of efficient training and are out of the
question.
Proper Organization for Training a Green Man. An
efficient training organization should therefore plan for the
training of green men on a basis of individual admission,
individual progression and individual discharge.
Organization for Handling Conversion Men. The conver-
sion man differs from the green man in that he already has a
trade which, to a greater or less extent, already fits into the
requirements of the trade or the job to which he is to be
converted. He therefore differs from the green man in two
ways, first he is a mechanic; he has a trade experience behind
him; second, it is probable that he knows more about the
production jobs of the new trade to which he is to be converted
than he knows about the technical jobs, or than he is posted
on the auxiliary knowledge. It is not improbable therefore
that he may be handled in two ways according to special
circumstances. On the production work the organization
should be such that he can be taken care of as if he were
a green man; on the side of the auxiliary knowledge it is not
improbable that, under some circumstances, use can be made
of the group or even of the class organization.
HANDLING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 213
The organization for handling conversion men should
therefore provide for individual work, as for green men,
and should also provide for class or group work.
The tendency will be to attempt to do too much work
with conversion men on a class basis; the value of such work
is limited to certain special cases, but the possibility of those
special cases coming up is sufficient to warrant provision for
class work in the organization.
Organization for Handling Trade Extension Men. These
men offer entirely different characteristics from the other
two groups of men, especially, of course, the green men.
They are likely to need either special individual instruction
in certain operations, as when the machinist wants to learn
the use of the index head, or they want training in the technical
jobs of their trade. Under these conditions it is sometimes
possible to make good use of the class organization. In general,
the organization for dealing with this class of men should in-
clude both provision for class work, and for individual work.
Organization for Handling Green Men. In practically all
cases the organization for training green men should be for train-
ing them on production, not on exercises. The distinction be-
tween these two methods of training is discussed in Part I.
The organization should be such that production is a by product
of training or the training will not be efficient. This point is
very important, because, if, under this method of training, the
"production" idea "runs away" with the "instruction" idea,
the efficiency of the training is very seriously impaired.
Production Work a By Product of Instruction. The pur-
pose of turning production jobs over to the training organiza-
tion is, of course, to give that organization an opportunity to
train the man on a real job, not as an immediate reason to get
the work done, but, as a result of the instructional process the job
is done as a by product. The instructor is thinking of training
the man and the man is thinking of teaming how to do the job,
but, nevertheless the job is done.
What is Meant by a " By Product." In manufacturing, a
by product is a "side show," that is, it is something that is
obtained incidentally to the production of the thing that the
214 THE INSTRUCTOR
concern is organized to produce. For example, a gas company
is organized to produce gas, but in the making of the gas a
considerable amount of coal tar is produced. The company
is in business to make gas, not coal tar, but it gets the tar as a
by product, and it is a by product of considerable value. In
the same way a training department is in business to produce
trained men, but, if it trains its men on real jobs, these jobs
are a by product of the work of the department, and to that
extent increase production.
The Value of the " Production by Product." In the first
place, production counts, and any work that can be turned out
in connection with training is so much to the good, provided,
of course, that the efficiency of the training is not impaired.
In the second place experience has shown that the surest way
to keep up the interest of a learner is to give him a real job.
If a man knows that the work that he does is going to be
subjected to the test of real use he is much more interested, if
he knows that, no matter how good a job he does it will be
scrapped. In the third place, instruction on real jobs gives
the best instructional conditions because the man is trained
to work under the same surroundings as he will work under
later in the production department. If a man will have to
work out of doors, or in heat, or with a lot of noise going on
all around him, he should get used to these working conditions
while he is in training, not after he gets into production.
Training him to work under these conditions is an important
part of his training.
Training Departments should Organize for Training on
Production Material. Any plan that may be put in operation
for training should include in its organization, effective provi-
sion for training on production work, whenever such training
is desirable. The degree to which this will be necessary will
depend, to a considerable extent, on whether it is proposed to
train trade extension men, conversion men or green men.
Production Work and Trade Extension Men. As already
pointed out, trade extension men are already well acquainted
with a considerable portion of their trade; they usually need
instruction either in some special operations or in technical
HANDLING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 215
jobs or need to be informed with regard to some particular
sort of auxiliary knowledge.
Where special operations are called for such men can usually
be trained on production work. Where the demand is for
additional training in some special technical jobs production
work can often be used to advantage, but, with such men,
exercise work can also be safely used in many cases, as in
blueprint reading for machinists. In some cases where there
is need for passing out auxiliary information, training on pro-
duction is not called for as a regular thing. In each case the
training work should be organized to meet these special needs
as they arise.
Organization for Certain Types of Trade Extension Work:
Supplementary Job Training. In many trades the need of
the trade extension man is for an opportunity to learn how
to do certain jobs that he cannot learn to do in connection
with his regular work. A machinist who is familiar with the
plain miller wants to learn how to operate a universal miller,
or a man who can drive button head rivets wants to learn how
to drive countersunk rivets. In such cases the man can, and
should, be trained on production jobs, and, always without
exception, must be handled by the method of individual
instruction. In this case he differs from the green man in a
number of ways. He has had considerable trade experience
to fall back on and so will "eaten on'* quicker. His interest
is usually strongly aroused, because learning to do the new
job usually means getting a better job so the vocational
motive is strong. As a rule, what he has to learn is a small
extension of what he already knows. All of this makes the
work of the instructor easier, but does not allow the substitu-
tion of exercises for real jobs.
Instructors often tend to plan to train this type of trade-
extension man in classes and on non-productive work; this
should not be attempted except in special cases that have been
carefully considered, since training such men on non-produc-
tive work, means, in general, less efficient instruction.
Organization for Certain Types of Trade Extension Work:
Auxiliary Material. In certain cases the trade extension man
216 THE INSTRUCTOR
only needs to be informed as to certain auxiliary material;
for example, suppose that trade extension machinists only
need to be informed as to a standard method of putting dimen-
sions on the blueprint, or crane operators might need to have
their attention drawn merely to the necessity of taking certain
precautions in handling material. In , such cases the class
organization can be used to advantage under certain condi-
tions, among the most important of which are that the men
thoroughly know their jobs and already appreciate the neces-
sity for securing and applying the information that is to be
given them. Even under these circumstances the " first
choice" would be to take up the matter with them on the job,
if that were possible. With class organization when demon-
stration cannot be used, the discussion or the illustration should
be used rather than the lecture.
As pointed out elsewhere, unless the handing out of informa-
tion is strongly backed up by the discussion of problems in
which that information comes into play, it is not likely to
" stick" and only under such conditions with men of consider-
able experience in the trade.
Organization for Conversion Work. In general, organiza-
tion for conversion work will aim at giving auxiliary material
or at training on jobs or at both. A house carpenter, for
example, during conversion into a ship carpenter, may
need to know certain terms (ship terms for example), and he
may need to learn how to do certain jobs on the ways that he
never has done as a house carpenter. His condition is there-
fore essentially the same as that of the trade extension man
and the same general organization will meet the situation.
Organization for Training Green Men. There is little
doubt that under the ordinary working conditions the questions
of effective organization for the training of green men will be
of more importance than any other questions of organization
for the training work. The problem of organizing for training
green men is the one that will give the instructor the most
trouble and will call for the most careful study to determine
the best instructional conditions.
In general, it may be said that one instructor should carry
HANDLING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 217
the group through the training course, both through the
period of instruction proper and through the training period.
One instructor should not instruct and another train. It is
also true that under practical working conditions the condi-
tions of elastic admission to the group, elastic progression
through the group and elastic discharge from the group will
have to be observed. Men will have to be admitted at any
time, put through the training and instructional work as
fast as they can individually progress, and be discharged as
soon as they are trained.
In practice, therefore, the group organization will have
to be such that the instructor can handle men in all stages
of progression through his course of instruction, know where
they are in the course at any given time and know when they
are trained and ready to go out into production.
Organization for Training and for Instructing: The Order
of Procedure. As stated elsewhere there are two periods
that a learner must be carried through : a period of instruction,
in which he learns how to do the job and a training period
during which he gets so that he can do the job rapidly and well.
In dealing with these two periods there are, of course,
two possible methods of handling them: we could instruct
the man in all the jobs in the instructional order and then
train him, or we could instruct him on each job and then
train him on that job before we instructed him on the next
job. We can really take training and instructing as two
independent blocks and use either the spiral or the block pro-
gression method.
The Proper Procedure to Organize to Train and Instruct
Job by Job. The most efficient method of procedure is un-
doubtedly to train and instruct job by job, and the organiza-
tion should provide for this method of procedure. Some of the
more important reasons for this are as follows: First, the
man's interest will be much greater if he feels that he is getting
"the whole of the job*' at one time; second, if the training
period is deferred until the end of the course, he will have
forgotten a good deal of his instruction, and will have to
be instructed all over again, which takes time; third, if,
218 THE INSTRUCTOR
under the organization as outlined, the instructor has some
men in his group who are under training as distinguished
from being under instruction, these men will need but little
attention except an inspection from time to time, and the
instructor can give more of his time to instructional work with
those men in his group who are under instruction as distin-
guished from being under training. This, of course, enables a
large group to be handled which is an advantage.
The organization should therefore provide for:
1. Both instruction and training to be given by the same
instructor and
2. Instruction and training to be given job by job.
The Instructor and the General Organization of the Plant.
The organization that an instructor sets up in handling his
group is only a part of the organization of the plant, taken
as a whole. It is very important that all instructors should
"fit in" well with the general organization; should be careful
not to "cross wires"; should carefully follow the methods of
procedure laid down, especially in dealing with another de-
partment. In the push of the work the temptation is strong
to "cut across lots" and save time, or to change some method
of procedure in the immediate interests of getting the work
done, but, in the long run such deviations from the established
practice do more harm than good. The instructor who adapts
his organization to that of the department or to that of the
plant as a whole and who "plays fair" with the general or-
ganization, will, in the long run, do the most to promote speed
in production.
CHAPTER XXXIII
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG
A. GENERAL PRELIMINARY
Preliminary. Whenever work of any kind is to be done
by a group of men under some sort of direction there must be
some sort of organization. The character of the organization
will vary with the particular sort of work that is to be done,
with the conditions under which it is to be done, with the
sort of men that the work is to be done with and with the
particular purpose for which the work is to be done. Thus,
we have the military organization for doing the military
"job," the school organization for doing the "school" job,
the special organization of the riveting gang for doing a
riveting job, and so on, each organization being worked out
with regard to the needs of the particular job that is to be
done.
The Learner and the " Gang. " Whenever a job is to be
done by a group we always find that there must be the work-
men who do the work and the leader; the "gang" and the
"boss"; without the gang, the work would not be done;
without the boss the work would not be well done; the different
men in the gang would be working at cross purposes, there
would be a lot of "crossed wires, " nobody would know exactly
where he "got off" and where the other fellow "got on."
The leader is responsible for the planning of the work,
for the order in which the different operations are carried out,
for the clearing up of difficulties, for keeping the work going.
The members of the gang are responsible for doing the work,
for doing it well and for intelligently carrying out the instruc-
tions of the leader. Without the leader the gang could not
do their job, without the gang the job could not be done.
The doing of a good job requires both a good boss and a good
219
220 THE INSTRUCTOR
gang, and in order that both boss and gang can do their work
there must be a good organization the particular kind of
organization being worked out to best meet the special re-
quirements for doing a certain kind of a job.
The Purpose of Organization. By organization is meant
such arrangements as may be determined upon for enabling
the boss and the gang to perform their respective function^
(do their jobs) with the greatest efficiency and with the least
"lost motion" and friction. A good organization provides
for good working conditions, for the right working relations
between the leader and the different members of the gang,
for the providing of the necessary working material, and,
above all, it definitely fixes the responsibility of each man,
that is, it determines his job.
Organization is therefore merely a means to an end, and that
end is to secure and maintain good working conditions.
The Training Gang. A training scheme is operated to train
men, that is, to do a definite job, therefore there must be
organization, as in the case of any other department that is
organized to do a job. The general questions relating to the
organization of a training plan mainly concern the general
organization but since there must be a group of men to be
trained by each instructor, that part of the problem of or-
ganization that directly affects the instructor is discussed in
this chapter.
A training gang consists of an instructor, or "training
boss," and a group of men to be trained, or the "training gang."
The organization must be such that the instructor can instruct
and the men can learn, and that the instructing process can
be carried on as efficiently as possible, that is, the organization
must provide for good instructional conditions and for the
proper relations between the training department and any
other department that may be concerned in the carrying on
of the work.
Characteristics of the Training Gang. In production work
we find, in general, two sorts of gangs : the first sort of gang is a
"team," that is, the gang as a whole are organized to do a
job but each member of the gang only does a part of the job.
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 221
This would be true, for example, in the case of a riveting gang
on structural steel work, or in machine box making. The
other sort of a gang consists of a group of workmen, each
of whom is doing a whole job; hence each man in the gang
is doing an individual job for which he is responsible directly
to the boss or foreman. This might be true, for example, in
printing, or house carpentry or in the machine shop.
The training gang is of the latter type; each man in the
gang is on his own job, that of getting training; he is responsi-
ble to the instructor for the whole "job"; that of being trained,
and the instructor is responsible for putting each man through
the entire training course that has been laid out for the particu-
lar training of each man.
This fact affects the character of the organization of the
training gang in a number of ways, as will be discussed later.
Another factor that affects the organization of the instructional
gang is that it consists, not of men who know their jobs, but
of men who are to be trained to do jobs later. They are not
workmen but learners. A third factor affecting the organiza-
tion is that the work of the gang is not production but instruc-
tion; the difficulties that must be met are not production
difficulties but learning difficulties.
All the above factors and many others affect the organiza-
tion of the instructional gang and must be taken into con-
sideration. The chief fact to which attention is directed
at this point is that there must be an effective organization
but that it must be more or less different from the organization
of a production gang.
Some Important Points in Organization. In considering
the problem of the organization of the instructional gang it
will be found that it concerns itself mainly with ways and
means for dealing with the following:
1. Bringing the instructor and the gang together.
2. Making up the gang. (Taking on men. Admission.)
3. Providing proper instructional conditions.
4. Providing efficient instruction.
5. Dropping men from the gang when trained. (Dis-
charge.)
22S THE INSTRUCTOR
B. ORGANIZATION TO GET A PLACE TO WORK IN
Bringing the Gang and the Instructor Together. This
means that some place must be provided where the instructor
and the men under instruction can get together. In order
to meet this condition regular schools are housed in school
houses, buildings especially constructed to afford such meeting
places. In such buildings we find school rooms, assembly
halls, gymnasium, laboratories, etc.
In the same way, for the work of the training department
some place must be provided for the getting together of the
instructor and the gang under instruction.
In considering this place problem the untrained instructor
often thinks in terms of the general school; he thinks of school
rooms, lecture rooms, etc., because he naturally thinks of his
own school experience, and, if he is to be a "teacher" he
thinks of his job as being the same as the job of the teacher
that he went to school to in his younger days. He thinks of
conducting " classes, " in " school rooms, " of using text books,
of lecturing to his men, of giving "courses'* of instruction; in
general because students in the regular school are put in a
special place to get their "schooling" he thinks of doing his
work away from the job and by regular school methods, and
tends to plan his organization accordingly, thus to a greater
or less extent copying the organization of the regular school.
In this he falls to take into account the totally different aim
and the necessary working conditions that must be set up as
between regular school work and trade training.
" Place Organization " in a Training Department. With
the possible exception of certain "trade extension work" as
discussed elsewhere in these notes it is extremely improbable
that any of the ordinary training will be carried on anywhere
except in the shops. There will be no "school room"; all
instruction will be given on the job y that is, each lesson that
has been laid down in the order of instruction as determined
by the instructor must be put over to a man in connection
with the doing of a job that approximately meets the specifica-
tions of the type job for that particular stage of the learner's
progression through the instructional order of jobs. The
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 223
instructor will have no opportunity to sit in a chair behind a
desk and talk to a group in front of him who are also in chairs;
he and his men will be out in the yard, or in the shop, turning
out jobs, but turning them out for purposes of instruction.
If the instructor finds that it is necessary to give some instruc-
tion to his men and the noise is such that he cannot make
himself heard, it is highly probable that he can only expect
to be able to find some relatively quiet place somewhere in the
shop where he can put over what he wishes to teach. The
lee side of a building or the corner of the shop is about all
the "place" facilities that he can expect.
Under these conditions it is evident that the organization
of the regular school which is based on the carrying on of the
instruction "inside," away from the actual production work
(where such training is given, as in most school shops), will
not work at all, and a totally different organization, much
more like the organization of a working gang must be developed.
The effective organization for the sort of training condi-
tions required by industrial training must therefore provide
for the bringing together of instructor and instructional gang
under practically the same conditions as for a production
gang, so far as the place question goes, and the instructor must
so organize his group with regard to this factor that good
work in instruction can be done under these conditions.
That is, the "school room" will be the yard or shop and the
"school book" will be the job.
Exceptions to the Above Statement. The above statements
apply, of course, mainly to job training. Under some con-
ditions, in trade extension work, a close approximation to
inside conditions is possible.
C. ORGANIZATION FOR GETTING THE GANG TOGETHER
Organization for Making up the Gang (Admission.)
This part of the organization will deal mainly with provision
for taking the man into the instructional gang. Under the
conditions that will exist in job training it is extremely im-
probable that a gang can be given to an instructor so that all
can start together. It is more probable that, as men are hired
24 THE INSTRUCTOR
by the employment department they will be put into training
and turned into a gang for that trade which happens to have
a vacancy. This means that the organization of the gang,
so far as admission goes, must be based on what is called
clastic admission; that is, the instructor must be able to take on
a man at any time and start him on the training course with-
out regard to where any of the rest of the group are on their
progression through the same course. This means that the
instructor will have in his group men in all stages of progres-
sion, that he will be discharging men any time on the comple-
tion of their training and that he will organize so that he can
take in new men whenever he has a vacancy.
Of course the organization of the regular school which is
intended to deal with exactly the reverse situation (admis-
sions at stated times only) will not work at all, and the in-
structor who has the regular school organization in mind
will find himself unable to organize for effective work under
industrial conditions unless he breaks entirely away from such
notions.
Organization for Elastic Admission. So far as organization
for admission goes it must be based upon the principle of
elastic admission and not on the principle of admission at
fixed intervals.
It is, of course, possible that in large plants it might be
possible to organize for admission say three times a week,
but this would only be true in cases where the number of
instructing groups was so large that a man could be taken
into some group on any day. An organization as to admission
that assumes that a man will stand around for several days
or a week waiting to get into a training section will not work,
nor is it proper that that amount of the man's time should be
lost; time is too valuable; every day of time that is lost, even
with one man, slows up production.
D. ORGANIZATION TO SECURE PROPER INSTRUCTIONAL
CONDITIONS
Proper Instructional Conditions: Organization. In order
that effective instruction can be carried on the group must be
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 225
organized in some way. In general it may be said that
there are three well known methods of organizing a group for
instructional work : (a) Class Instruction; (b) Group Instruc-
tion; (c) Individual Instruction. Class Instruction is the
condition usually found in general schools (High Schools,
Grammar Schools, Colleges) and, in general, is the least
efficient condition under which teaching may be carried on in
industrial training. Group instruction is seldom found in
general schools, but is often found in some forms of industrial
training, and has some value in shop training. Individual in-
struction is rarely found in general schools, but is often the
only effective device in practical instruction (as in instruction
on production work) . An instructor should be familiar with all
of these three methods, although he is likely to work mostly
with the last two.
Class Organization: The Class as Distinguished from the
Teaching Group. In the strictly school sense the term
"class" means a group of pupils assigned to an instructor.
Its use does not imply any special method of organization for
instruction. From the standpoint of organization for in-
struction, the term class is also often used to mean a group
which are to be simultaneously taught the same lesson. This
double use of the term leads to so much confusion that it is
better to use the term "instruction group" when referring to
the group of learners assigned to an instructor and confine
the use of the term class to its meaning in connection with
organization from the standpoint of instruction.
Conditions under which Instruction may be Given: Class
Organization. In class teaching all pupils are assumed to be
taught the same thing at the same time. In theory they are
all assumed to know the same things, to have the same knowl-
edge, or to be able to do the same thing at the time of the
particular lesson. Thus a class of fifteen men, all of whom
knew how to run a miller and none of whom knew how to set
an index head, might be simultaneously taught how to per-
form this operation. Or a group of girls, all of whom knew
how to sew, might be simultaneously taught how to make a
button hole. In all cases of class instruction the characteristic
226 THE INSTRUCTOR
is that, as illustrated above, every pupil is assumed to be
taught the same thing at the same time. Efficient class organiza-
tion must therefore meet the following theoretical conditions,
and will be effective in proportion as it meets them in practice :
(1) All pupils must know the same things when they come
into the class.
(2) All pupils must be taught the same new things during
that lesson (same teaching unit).
(3) All pupils must leave the class with the same additional
amount of knowledge or training.
Organization for Instruction : Group Organization. Group
organization differs from class organization in that it is not
assumed that all learners are to be taught the same thing at
the same time, but that the whole gang consists of sub groups,
and that the members of each sub group can be instructed in
the same thing at the same time. Thus an instructional group
of fifteen men might consist of three sub groups of 7, 5, and
3 men and it would be assumed that the instructor would
teach one lesson to sub group 1, another lesson to sub group
2, and a third to sub group 3, and that he can carry on the
work with all three groups at the same time.
It is not assumed that the membership of these sub groups
will remain the same from day to day, or that the same number
of groups, or the same number of men in the different sub
groups will remain constant. That is, the instructor forms
groups as he happens to find men in the same stage of pro-
gression, and simply takes advantage of such a situation
when it happens to occur.
Efficient organization for group instruction must therefore
meet the following conditions and will be efficient as it does
deal effectively with them in practice.
1. Sub groups must be found wherein all members have
reached the same stage of progression in the instruction
program.
2. All members of the group must be ready for the next
lesson at the same time.
3. All learners leave the lesson for that particular sub group
with the same additional amount of knowledge or training.
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 227
Whenever use can be made of temporary groups time
and energy are, of course, saved, since it does not take as
much time to instruct a group of men as it would to instruct
each individually, and the total expenditure of energy by the
instructor will not be so great. Instructors should therefore be
on the lookout for chances to work in the group organization
and the organization should permit of this being done when-
ever it appears that it can be done to advantage.
In order that effective use may be made of the method
of group organization it is evident that an instructor must
keep a very careful record of the progress of each of his men
on the course of instruction that he has prepared, and when he
finds that certain men happen to have reached the same
stage of progression, bring them into a group for the next
piece of instrumental work. Unless this is done of course
the organization fails entirely; groups are not properly made
up and the work suffers accordingly.
Conditions under which Instruction may be Given : Organi-
zation for Individual Instruction. Organization for individual
instruction differs from organization for class or group in-
struction in that it is assumed that no two men are instructed
in the same lesson at the same time, so that the instruc-
tion group merely consists of a number of learners assigned
to that particular instructor for instruction, each individual
to be instructed as a unit, without regard to any other in-
dividual. This means that a different instruction unit must
be simultaneously put over to each individual learner, and
that the instructor occupies essentially the position of a fore-
man who is bossing a gang of men each of which is on a different
job, or is at a different stage on the same job.
Under this organization the instructor must evidently
carry on as many lessons as there are men in his group, and,
if new men are continually coming in and instructed men
going out, these individual lessons may cover any stage from
the most elementary to the most advanced teaching units
that are laid out in the instructional order.
Evidently for efficient individual instruction the instructor
must know where each man is on the course of instruction,
so that he can assign the next job in the proper relation to
228 THE INSTRUCTOR
what the man has already had. It is also evident that under
these conditions there is no assumption that the work of any
one man is in any way connected with the work of any other
man, so that the instructor is in no way concerned with the
progress of his men as regards each other. Under these
conditions problems of admission and of progression are
reduced to a minimum.
Efficient teaching conditions for individual instruction
exist (1) where the teaching group is small enough to enable
individual attention to be given to each learner. (2) Where
the subjects of the lessons can best be taught individually
(as in production work). (3) Where the instructor is skillful
enough to successfully handle a reasonably large group by
this method.
Organization for Progression : The Time Factor. So far as
organization is concerned, the question of the different speeds
with which men progress can be met in two ways. By one
method the .organization can be based on the notion that the
man will be given a fixed amount of time, in which he can
either go as far as he can, or can "get what he can" as it is
often put. This is essentially the method of the regular school;
classes are carried for a given period. The difficulty with this
organization so far as trade training is concerned is that, if a
man is to be taught to do a job he must be entirely taught, so
that he can do that job, not half taught, or two-thirds taught,
but entirely taught. If the fixed time interval is used, a
slow man can be thoroughly taught fewer jobs than a fast
man, but he must be thoroughly taught what he is taught.
The quantity of instruction can be reduced, but the quality
cannot be cut down and still do the training job.
The method of organizing to deal with the matter of unequal
progression that will best meet the needs of emergency training
is undoubtedly that that provides/for keeping the learner in
the course until he is completely trained according to the
"requisition for training" in his case, rather than in only
partially filling the requisition in order to make time even.
Organization for Efficient Progression. No matter what the
organization for getting the gang. together, it will be composed
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 229
of men who will progress through the instructional order at
different rates. Even if they all started together, they will
soon be strung out all along the line.
Evidently there must be included in the organization for
working conditions some provision for dealing with the matter
of unequal progression. Under the class organization, no
provision is made to meet this condition; the fundamental
assumption is that all learners will progress at the same rate,
and no class organization can be worked out in practice on
any other assumption. That is, the class organization is
based on an assumption that everybody knows is not correct.
It is true that, given a carefully selected group to start with,
and more or less special help by the instructor, so that the
" advance guard" can be held back a little and the "rear
guard" jacked up, some approximation to equal progress can
be maintained, but it is even then extremely difficult, and,
under the conditions existing in shop training practically
impossible to secure effective "progression control" with a
class organization. The group organization offers but little
more prospect of success. The only practical organization
that will enable 'the instructor to maintain good "progression
control" is to organize for individual instruction. Under
this organization the differences of the men in their progression
due to entrance at different times, with different powers of
taking in the instruction, with different degrees of education,
are easily taken care of. The organization for individual
instruction is therefore the only one that offers hopes of
success in the ordinary work of training and is the only one
that should be used under ordinary circumstances to meet
the problems caused by the certain unequal progression of the
different men in the instruction gang.
Where the Class Organization will Work the Best. Under
industrial training conditions the only place where the class
organization will be of service is possibly in some forms of
trade extension work for advanced men. Thus, for example,
if it were desired to give all the shipfitters in a yard the
standard method of marking templets, and that was all that
it was desired to give them, this work might be effectively done
under the class organization. It is not probable, however,
30 THE INSTRUCTOR
that the class organization will find much place in the work of
training in industrial plants. It will certainly find no place
in the training of green men; it may have some value in certain
cases in the giving of conversion training, but, as stated above,
it is most likely to be of service in trade extension work on
technical jobs, or in passing out technical information to
advanced men on a trade extension basis.
Where the Group Organization will Work the Best. The
group organization will w^ork the best where the work happens
to be of such a character that a number of men can be simul-
taneously instructed on a given teaching unit. This is most
likely to happen in instruction on relatively simple jobs, and
possibly in handling technical rather than production jobs.
It is not probable however that, as a form of organization it
will find much place in organization for industrial training.
It is, of course, an attempt to combine the good points of
both the method of class and of individual instructional
organization. Conditions seldom arise in practice where
it can be successfully worked out, and it is not a type of
organization that the average instructor will find of much
service except for the special cases noted above. It is pro-
bably more difficult to work effectively in practice than
either of the two other organizations discussed in this section.
Individual Instruction. Individual instruction always seems
the most difficult to the untrained instructor but in reality,
lends itself the best to efficient training. Under the con-
ditions that usually exist in shop training it is the only
method of organization that promises efficient results. If the
group is organized for individual instruction no difficulties
as to admission or relative speed of progress come up, each
man is dealing with the instructor and has no concern as to the
work of any other man, nor has the instructor, in instructing
any one man any need to consider the work of any other man.
The greatest problem for the instructor in working under
this type of organization is to so dovetail in the different
lessons that he has to teach, and to so arrange the work,
that while he is putting over say, step 1 with one man, the
other men in the group are on steps 3 or 4 in their respective
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 231
lessons. Unless the gang is too large, this can be done however
with a careful progression control and with good distribution.
So far as efficiency goes there is no question; if each man
can be instructed individually, the time required for training
will be greatly reduced, the man will be much better trained,
the work will be much better done. This is the organization
that should be adopted for the general run of instructional work.
The Rotating Gang. Undoubtedly the best organization
for meeting the requirements of a training department is one
that provides for what may be called the rotating gang, that
is, the organization is such that an instructor always has a
group of the same size; as soon as a man is discharged from the
group another man comes in, so that the group consists of
men in all stages of progression, but is always full.
This organization evidently provides the best conditions
so far as expense for instruction goes; of course it can
only be carried out when the group is organized for individual
instruction.
E. ORGANIZATION FOR DISCHARGING FROM THE GANG
Organization for Discharging Men from the Gang. The
organization should make possible the discharge of a man
from the gang as soon as he has completed his training and
the instructor is ready to O. K. him out of the training work.
If the work is organized for individual instruction this is easy,
and no question will come up. Under class organization how-
ever, the man must be held until the class is through, or
the instructor will find himself with a gradually diminishing
group until he is left with only one man to work with, which,
is, of course, an unduly expensive situation.
The General Conditions that Affect the Size of a Training
Gang. The more an instructor distributes himself the thinner
he must spread out his instruction, the less attention he can
give to any one man, the more chance there is for waiting
around and for the development of conditions that will reduce
interest. The less men an instructor has in his gang, the
more he can concentrate, the more intense can he make his
instruction and the less chance will there be of lost motion and
32 THE INSTRUCTOR
general drop in interest. Below a certain point however the
instructor will not be entirely occupied. If he were training
one man alone there would be a good many times when he
would be standing around waiting for the learner to do some-
thing before he could go on with the instruction. Evidently
an instructor who only has one man in his gang could handle
more men and not lower the efficiency of his work. It is
equally evident that if an instructor undertook to instruct a
thousand men in one gang he could do no instructional work
at all. This is, there is a maximum and a minimum size to
the group that can be effectively handled by an instructor at
one time. Among the more important factors that affect
the size of a class for good instructional conditions are the
character of the trade, the working conditions, the class of the
work and the sort of men that are to be instructed.
This problem corresponds in a general way to what is
called the "economical steaming speed" of a ship. If she
goes too slow and so takes too much time to make her voyage,
too much coal will be burned per mile ; if she is driven too fast,
she will get there sooner, but the coal consumption will be so
greatly increased that, in spite of the decreased time required
for the voyage, the coal bill will also be too much per mile.
It is always possible to find a speed at which these two
factors, time and coal consumption per mile balance up so
that the cost of coal per mile is reduced to the minimum.
This is the economical speed.
In the same way the general tendency of increasing the
size of a class above the effective minimum is to slow down the
speed of instruction, that is, the larger the group the longer
it will take to put a given man in the group through the course
of training. In the same general way it can be said that the
smaller the gang down to the effective minimum the more
rapid will be the instructional speed. The problem is to find
the "economical size" for a given course of instruction.
Some details of these points are discussed in the following
paragraphs:
Size of the Gang as Affected by the Sort of Men that are to
be Instructed. A training plan may have to deal with any or
all of three classes of men; trade extension men, conversion
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL GANG 233
men and green men, and the detailed meaning of these terms
have already been given. It is sufficient here to point out that
a trade extension man is a man who already knows considerable
about his trade and a conversion man knows all about his own
trade but little or nothing about the trade to which he is to be
converted, while the green man knows nothing of any trade.
Under these conditions it is evident that trade extension
men can be handled in larger gangs than conversion men,
and conversion men in larger gangs than green men, always,
of course, with regard to the other factors that have been
discussed.
It is also true that in trade extension work it is often possible
to handle relatively large groups when the men are well ad-
vanced and the character of the instruction is largely technical,
as in the case of work with second class steam engineers work-
ing for a first class license. Probably in such a case from
twenty to twenty-five men could be successfully handled,
but this is an extreme case.
Effective Size of Gangs as Affected by the Working Condi-
tions. Even in the same trade the working conditions will
affect the size of the effective gang. During some portions
of the instructional course it may be necessary to distribute
the men so widely that the instructor could not exercise proper
supervision over a gang of a certain size, possibly of a smaller
size than in other parts of the course. For example, this
might be true in training in house carpentry, where, in order to
get work for different men that fitted to the type job specifica-
tions for their individual checking levels, it might be necessary
to put one man on the roof, another in the attic, another on the
cellar stairs, or in a machine shop where men might have to
be put on widely distributed jobs on account of the way in
which the machines were grouped. The possibility of such
situations coming up in connection with the working condi-
tions that go with that particular trade must be taken into
consideration in determining the effective working size of the
gang for that trade.
Effective Size of Gangs as Affected by the Character of the
Trade. Experience has shown that the character of the trade
234 THE INSTRUCTOR
that is to be taught affects the "economical group size."
Where jobs are simple and the men in the gang can be con-
centrated more men can be economically handled than where
the reverse conditions prevail. For example, more men could
probably be efficiently handled in training machinists or
printers than in training sheet metal workers. So far as avail-
able experience up to date bears on the problem it is pretty well
established that, in no case, can an instructor handle a gang
of more than ten men efficiently, and in many cases the actual
training output will be increased if the number is held down
to not over five or six; much larger groups can often be handled
in trade extension work.
The Instructor and the Size of Gangs. In general an in-
experienced instructor does not sufficiently study his problem
in order to know how large a gang he can handle for economical
instructional work, but he almost always thinks that he can
handle a larger gang than he really can, or he thinks that he
cannot handle as large a gang as he can. He is either ready
to take on more men than he has or he wants men taken out
of his gang so that it will be smaller. He does not take into
account the factors just discussed and so fails to see why he
cannot handle twenty men just as well as ten, or he thinks
that he can only handle two men when, with the proper
organization and management he could handle seven or eight.
The trained instructor will study his problem intelligently,
will take into consideration all the factors that apply, and will
base such recommendations as he may make on a scientific
study of the conditions.
CHAPTER XXXIV
INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS AS THEY ARE AF-
FECTED BY SURROUNDINGS AND MATERIAL
Preliminary. This chapter discusses some of the considera-
tions to which an instructor must give attention in planning
his work, first with regard to the surroundings in which the
work is to be done and second, with respect to the special
material that he proposes to use.
POSSIBLE INSTRUCTING CONDITIONS
" Inside Work " and " Outside Work." According to the
trade for which training is to be given instructional work may
be carried on either under cover or out of doors, that is, it may
be "inside work" or "outside work." Inside work may be
carried on either in some place especially provided for that
purpose (a "school room") or on the floor of the shop. We
may therefore have:
(1) Inside Work.
(a) Shop work.
(b) "Class room" work.
(2) Outside Work.
General Characteristics of " Inside Work." In general in
inside work the instructor has relatively few conditions that
are entirely out of his control. For example, weather condi-
tions do not appreciably affect the work, in the shop such
equipment as may be available for instruction "stays put,"
the instructor can depend upon its being there when it is
wanted.
As between the shop and the class room however, the con-
trol of instructional conditions as to surroundings and material
is much better in the class room than in the shop. The shop
235
236 THE INSTRUCTOR
(unless it is operated especially for training, as in trade schools)
is operated for production, not instruction, while a class room
can be fitted up for instructional purposes only. In general
it may be said that a class room and, in a less degree a shop,
offer the following general characteristics:
(1) Instruction can be carried on independently of weather
conditions.
(2) Relatively quiet conditions can be obtained. (Some
shops and all class rooms.)
(3) Learners are physically comfortable. (Not cold or wet,
under ordinary circumstances.)
(4) The group can be concentrated around the instructor.
(Some shops, all class rooms.)
(5) Special demonstration and illustrative material can
be set up and kept in place as long as desired. (All
rooms, some shops.)
General Characteristics of " Outside Work." As contrasted
with inside work, outside work offers the following general
characteristics :
(1) It is affected by weather conditions.
(2) In many cases there is much noise.
(3) Learners may be physically uncomfortable (may be
cold, wet, or in uncomfortable or cramped positions).
(4) The group may be more or less distributed.
(5) Special demonstration and illustrative material can
rarely be permanently set up and kept in place as long
as desired.
As will be more fully discussed later, these conditions affect
the selection of methods and the determination of the best
surroundings for a given type of instructional work, and must
be taken into consideration by the instructor in planning his
training management. This may even be true in some cases,
for some one lesson or even for certain steps in a given lesson.
The Two Kinds of Work Compared. As an example con-
sider training in printing and in house carpentry. In the
printing shop there is an almost unobstructed view so that
SURROUNDINGS AND MATERIAL 237
supervision is easy, the instructional material is largely presses,
type cases, paper, etc., and the men are under cover. Weather
does not interrupt the work. The instructor can be sure of
being able to carry out his plans from day to day. He can
handle a relatively large group effectively.
In house carpentry the men may be concealed even from
each other, may be scattered, material is more complicated
(timbers, planks, stagings, etc.). An instructor in printing
has a very different problem to handle from that of an in-
structor in house carpentry. His work may be interrupted
any time by bad weather, his instruction may be given in all
parts of the house, according to the distribution of his men.
He can only handle a small group effectively. Supervision is
difficult.
Or against either of these examples take the case of a trade
extension group under instruction on blueprint reading as it
might be conducted in a class room. Material is simple
(largely blueprints and diagrams) and can be kept on the wall
as long as is necessary, the room is quiet, the men can sit in
chairs or at tables in perfect comfort. The instructor can
bunch the group as much as he desires. Here again we have a
very different problem for the instructor than that of the
instructor in printing or in house carpentry.
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Shop or Outside
Conditions vs. Class Room Conditions. Evidently, under
"inside" conditions, so far as surroundings go, the instructor
has an easier job than under "outside" conditions. The "in-
side" man can group his class; hence his supervision is easier,
he can depend on keeping his work going regardless of weather
conditions. In the class room he can use models and demon-
stration material, if their use seems desirable. As against this,
the outside or shop instructor must instruct under working
conditions, he must instruct on production materials on out-
side work; he and his men are exposed to the weather as much
as are the regular working force. Sometimes he must "fight"
against noise or other factors that distract attention. He
unquestionably has the harder instructing job, in the sense
that his surroundings are more likely to make his work difficult
unless he plans in advance to take care of them.
238 THE INSTRUCTOR
The Effect of this on the Attitude of the Instructor. The
greater difficulties that must be surmounted in outside work
make many untrained instructors tend to look for the "easiest
way*' and so tend to steadily shift from outside conditions to
inside conditions. For example, an instructor in house car-
pentry or brick laying finds that his men cannot be "bunched,"
that hammering on construction work going on near his job
makes talking difficult. Often the only solution of the diffi-
culty that he will suggest is to get his group off the real
jobs and either give them fake jobs (exercise), or even get
them into a class room and lecture to them. He sees that
it would be easier for him but forgets or does not know that
his instruction will be either much less efficient or that it
will have no value at all. A man of the right type is al-
ways thinking how he can minimize these difficulties and in-
struct his men on the job where the instruction can be most
efficiently given. In the end, a man of the first type usually
fails as an instructor and a man of the second type usually
succeeds.
When the Good Instructor Will Use Inside Work. The
efficient instructor will only substitute inside instruction for
instruction that should be given outside when it is clearly
evident that, in view of all the circumstances, it is the way to
get the most effective instructional surroundings. In general,
any departure from actual working surroundings in the shop
or on outside work results in a loss of instructional efficiency.
Special cases may, of course, arise, where part of a lesson on
"outside" work can best be given under "inside" conditions,
but this should only be assumed to be true after careful study
of the problem, and a determination that inside conditions are,
under the special circumstances, clearly the best for the sort of
instruction that it is planned to give.
The good instructor on work that is regularly carried on in
the shop or on "the outside" will therefore always start with
the theory that his instructional job is to be done in the shop,
or on the outside, as the case may be, and will only be " driven "
into the class room as a "last resort," while the poor instructor,
working on exactly the reverse theory, is "driven" to the
class room from the shop, at the first difficulty. The first
SURROUNDINGS AND MATERIAL 239
insists on "going out" or "staying out," if he is out; the
second insists on "coming in."
Need of Ingenuity and " Pep " to Stay out. The instructor
will need both ingenuity and "pep" if he "stays out" as long
as he can. He must keep thinking in advance about getting
suitable surroundings, and make every effort to secure them
for his group. He faces the necessary surroundings that go
with his teaching job when it is done right, and uses fore-
thought and ingenuity in dealing with those surroundings so
that he can do his instructing job effectively. There are very
few cases where it is necessary to take "outside " work " inside "
if sufficient forethought and careful planning are used in
arranging for the work, though, of course, under some condi-
tions, cases might occur where, as a temporary measure some
lesson or part of a lesson (most probably steps 1 and 2) might
be taken away from the place where the rest of the lesson was
to be carried out (probably steps 3 and 4).
The Type of Work as Affecting the Surroundings. It is
pointed out elsewhere that training in any plant may have to
deal with any or all of three classes of work, training green
men, training men on a conversion basis and giving trade
extension work, though in many cases this latter form of in-
struction will probably be of minor importance. Each of these
three types of instruction offers certain possibilities as to the
best instructional surroundings, and these are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Surroundings in the Training Department: Trade Exten-
sion Work. Trade extension work consists largely either in
giving auxiliary knowledge, instructing in technical jobs, or
instructing in special operations on an individual basis. This
third case will apply almost entirely to shop trades and can,
of course, be given only in the shop. The giving of auxiliary
information can, however, often be given effectively in the
class room. This is particularly true of relatively well ad-
vanced men, in fact work of this sort is sometimes given with a
very considerable degree of effectiveness in evening classes
entirely outside of the plant.
Instruction in technical jobs can. to a less degree be effec-
240 THE INSTRUCTOR
lively handled in the same way, because such jobs are often
carried on under cover in surroundings that can be practically
duplicated in a class room, and because, with well advanced
men, methods of illustration will sometimes work fairly well.
Surroundings in the Training Department: Conversion
Work. Conversion work offers two distinct training prob-
lems: such men nearly always need a considerable amount of
auxiliary knowledge of the trade into which they are going,
and, in some cases, a portion of this can be given in the class
room. On the other hand such men also need more or less
experience on jobs, and these can only be given under actual
working conditions, on the job. On the whole the general
tendency is to use the class room too much in conversion work,
and consequently to use less efficient methods of instruction. In
order to handle these men under "inside" conditions they are
tpld when they should find out for themselves, they are shown
diagrams or models when the real things are available and could
be used if the work were carried on outside of the class room.
Methods of doing jobs are described to them when they
should learn by doing the jobs themselves. This tendency to
handle conversion work too much in the class room should be
carefully guarded against and the class room only used when it
is evident that it furnishes the best surroundings for the par-
ticular form of instructional work in hand.
Surroundings in the Training Department: Green Men.
In the case of the training of green men there is but little
opportunity for the use of the class room. They must be
trained under the same conditions that they will work under
in production work; if the training is in shop trades, they must
be trained in the shop; if in outside trades, they must be
trained outside. This is for two reasons: first, the instruction
should be given on jobs and the auxiliary material tied up with
the different jobs, as described in Part VI, Chapter II, and
second, because, the green man, having behind him no ex-
perience in the trade, as has the trade extension man, or an
experience in a trade, as has the conversion man, must be
trained to work under real working conditions from the start,
if instructional bases are to be established.
SURROUNDINGS AND MATERIAL 241
The surroundings for the training of the green man will
therefore be those of his prospective jobs, and there will be no
use for the class room in this case. The only exception to this
statement might be in the case of the passing out of some of
the general information not connected with the direct trade
training.
The General Question of Instructional Material. Instruc-
tional material means anything that is used in the in-
structional process. Books, tools, machines, stock, models,
diagrams, demonstration apparatus and even in some cases,
other men are all instructional material. If a man is under
instruction in lathe work, the lathe, the tools, the blueprint,
the stock are all a part of the instructional material for that
particular instructing job. If a man is to be instructed on
some one man's work on a gang job (say riveting) and the
other men in the gang know their jobs (say in riveting, the
heater, the passer and the holder-on) these other men may
be considered as a part of the instructional material. If a boy
in a regular school is studying his Latin lesson, his book, his
dictionary, his paper and pencil are all a part of the instruc-
tional material that is put into use in connection with the
teaching of that lesson.
The matter of the character of the instructional material
that is required for the effective putting over of different types
of lessons, and for different types of learners is discussed in the
following paragraphs.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
Possible Kinds of Instructional Material. Instructional
material may be of several kinds. These may be designated as:
1. Demonstration material.
2. Illustrative material.
3. Working material.
4. General material.
Demonstration and illustrative material is material that
would be used in connection with the putting over of a lesson
by the use of either demonstration or illustration. It includes
16
242 THE INSTRUCTOR
such articles as pictures, charts, diagrams, models, etc., for
use in illustration, and any real working materials, such as
machines, tools, etc., that might be used in connection with
the method of demonstration. Working material is any
material that is used in doing a productive instructional job;
where a man is trained on a production job, the working
equipment, etc., constitute working material. Where a man
is trained in a machine shop, the machine on which he works,
the stock that he works up, the special tools that he uses, all
form a part of the working material.
General material is material that is of general use in instruc-
tional work but that does not especially apply to the require-
ments of any particular teaching job. Blackboards, reference
books, etc., would belong to this class of instructional material.
For convenience we will characterize all material except
working material as non-productive instructional material.
The following paragraphs discuss some of the questions
that may come up in connection with the choice and the use
of the different sorts of material in connection with the work
of an instructor in a training department.
Some Characteristics of Non-Productive Instructional
Material. Non-productive instructional material is not
usually found in connection with the equipment of a produc-
tion plant. So far as it is used it must be purchased or made,
either by the instructor, or according to his specifications.
But little of this material can be purchased to advantage:
the sort of instructional material that is on the market has
been mostly prepared for general school or technical school
work and will not serve the needs of this sort of training. With
the exception of some of the more common general equipment,
such as blackboards, a few good reference books, note books,
etc., there is little that will be of value on the market in the
general run of instructional material of this class. This point
is emphasized because, especially in trade extension work,
instructors often wish to buy instruction material of the stand-
ard type that is used in schools or colleges. Such material is
usually of very little value because it is generally made to
meet the needs of courses in general education, general science,
etc., and does not meet the requirements of specialized trade
SURROUNDINGS AND MATERIAL 243
training. Where demonstration material is to be used the
most effective sort will be that made by the instructor or
designed by him to meet the needs of the particular lesson for
which it is to be used.
Written or Printed Instructional Material. In many cases
written or printed material can be used to advantage, but
nearly all such material must be prepared especially for the
special conditions, and hence is only of value when prepared
by the instructor who uses it. Such material is chiefly of
value with advanced men in steps 2 and 3 in the lesson. If it
can be used it saves a portion of the time of the instructor
and so has value, but the over use of material of this kind
should be carefully guarded against, and it should only be
used when it is very certain that it can actually be used to
advantage.
The Right Kind of Non-Productive Instructional Material.
Where models, diagrams, or special pieces of demonstration
apparatus are used, they will be effective in proportion as they
are simple and employ articles or are based upon ideas with
which the men are already familiar. The less the appearance
or complication of the demonstration or illustrative material
distracts the attention of the man from what is being put over,
the better. Two pieces of joist, hinged together at the top
with their bottoms on two pieces of gas pipe can be used to
illustrate the use of a tie rod better than it can be put over
with a small, elaborately constructed piece of apparatus.
The Wrong Kind of Non-Productive Instructional Material.
Complicated pieces of apparatus, text books unsuited to
the work, over elaborate charts or diagrams are examples of
the sort of instructional materials that should be avoided.
Some instructors seem to feel that the use of such material
indicates that they are very efficient; as a matter of fact, it
generally indicates the contrary.
Instructional Material for Different Types of Learners.
As in other cases, the type of learner, whether trade extension,
conversion or green man, affects the relative use of the different
classes of instructional material and the following paragraphs
discuss some of the more important points in this connection.
244 THE INSTRUCTOR
Instructional Material in Trade Extension Work. There
is probably a considerable use for non-productive instructional
material in this class of work. As already pointed out, men
of this type often require more auxiliary knowledge than
"job" knowledge. They have a large amount of experience
behind them, and so can be more effectively instructed by
methods of illustration or demonstration than any other type
of learner. It is in this work that the instructor will find the
greatest field for the development and use of non-productive
special instructional material, especially for illustrative ma-
terial of special kinds or of charts and diagrams.
Non-Productive Instructional Material in the Training
Department: Conversion Work. Conversion work may also
offer opportunities for the use of non-productive instructional
material but to a less extent than in trade extension work.
The conversion man is, up to a certain point learning a new
trade and, to that extent, is in the same situation as the green
man. He needs training on actual jobs and instruction under
production conditions. In giving auxiliary information about
the new trade special non-productive instructional material
may find a place under some conditions as when the different
kinds of shipyard rivets are charted out in "converting"
structural steel men or certain diagrams are used in giving out
information as to location terms or when lists of terms used
in the new trade are prepared.
Non-Productive Instructional Material in the Training
Department: Green Men. There is but little field for the
use of non-productive instructional material in the training
of green men under ordinary conditions. These men must be
practically trained entirely on the job, must get their auxiliary
information on the job, hence in the general run of such work
all instructional material will be productive.
CHAPTER XXXV
HOW SURROUNDINGS AFFECT INSTRUCTION
The Instructor must take Material and Surroundings into
Account. Evidently the instructor in planning a lesson must
take both material and surroundings into consideration. If
he were going to put over a lesson on a shop job (say, in a
machine shop) he would know, that under these conditions,
he could work under cover, that there would be relatively little
noise to interfere; that his men could be easily supervised on
the shop floor, etc., so that he would take these facts into con-
sideration. On the other hand, suppose he were going to put
over a lesson in drop forging, he would know that supervision
would be more difficult; that disturbing factors might be more
prominent (noise, etc.), and would not, for example, plan to
use methods that would require much talking. Again, in
forging, the question of available equipment might affect the
situation; for example, he might undertake to put over his
lesson in a forge shop where only a few drop forges were avail-
able and so fall down on his application, whereas he might
have planned to put over steps 1 and 2 in some quiet part of
the plant where one special machine might be installed for
that part of the lesson, and then, for steps 3 and 4 (where
noise, etc., would not make so much difference) shift to some
other part of the plant where enough machines could be used
to admit of all the men on that particular lesson being given
steps 3 and 4 with sufficient equipment. All such things would
affect the speed and efficiency with which he was able to put
over the lesson, and so should be taken into consideration in
advance.
How Material and Surroundings Affect Choice of Method
in Putting Over a Lesson. While it is true in general that
the demonstration is the best method for step 2, it may be
that other methods can be used in certain cases. Sometimes
245
246 THE INSTRUCTOR
available material will affect choice of method. An instructor
may be forced to adopt a less effective method owing to there
being no material for the more effective method available.
As where he is obliged to use pictures or diagrams in instruct-
ing in the control of a machine, or in the methods of its opera-
tion. Of course this is bad practice and would only be followed
in case of necessity.
How "Inside Work" Affects Instructional Methods.
Inside work gives a better chance for the carrying on of work
by what may be called "standardized" methods. The in-
structor on this type of work will have to exercise less ingenuity
in meeting unexpected situations than will the man on outside
work. In class-room work with trade extension men and to
some extent with conversion men he can make considerable
use of non-productive instructional material. If he deems it
wise, or has to meet a temporary situation he can, with rela-
tively less loss of efficiency use methods other than demonstra-
tion and testing on the job.
How Outside Work Affects Teaching Methods. Outside
work affords but little choice of method. Demonstration,
application and testing on the job are practically the only
teaching methods that are available for steps 2, 3 and 4 in
the majority of cases. There will seldom be an opportunity
to use illustrative material, nor should it be necessary in this
class of work.
How Surroundings Affect Organization for Putting Over a
Lesson. As already pointed out the organization may be
affected by the conditions. Thus the number of men that
one instructor can handle in a class room, a shop and in outside
work, such as bricklaying or shipyard work would vary, and
this would also be affected by the character of the trade taught
(drop forging vs. machine shop). Surroundings that require
the scattering of the group or enable the group to be bunched
would also affect the efficient size of the instructional gang.
The Need for Adequate Equipment. Whatever may be
the nature of the instructional material it should be adequate.
Many people have the idea that "any old thing" is good
enough for instructional work. In the shop some foremen will
HOW SURROUNDINGS AFFECT INSTRUCTION 247
think that a man can be instructed on a machine that has died
of old age, or a worn out air gun is set aside for instruction in
riveting. Good instruction can not be given with junk.
In the class room, if one is used, the general instructional
material should be good.
Men should not be put into seats designed for six-year-old
children; the equipment should not be a collection of odds and
ends. "Good work requires good tools" and this is as true of
the instructing trade as it is of any other trade.
Special Training Equipment. Where it can be arranged the
effectiveness of the instruction will be increased if certain
equipment units are used exclusively for the training work,
and this should be done whenever possible. It is obviously
an advantage if this training equipment can be grouped, since
better supervision can be secured under these conditions. Of
course such grouping can be much more readily secured in
training in shop trades than in training for outside occupations.
Summary and Conclusion. Surroundings and material
have to be considered by the instructor in connection with
the type of learner, the working conditions, the gang organiza-
tion and the selection of suitable methods of instruction. The
selection is affected largely by the character of the trade as
shop trade, yard trade, and as between "inside" and "out-
side" instructing conditions. Instructional material should
always be in good condition and suitable to the use to which
it is to be put. It is an advantage for the Training Work to use
its own training equipment.
CHAPTER XXXVI
HANDLING THE GANG FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUC-
TIONAL CONDITIONS
A. GENERAL PROBLEMS
Preliminary. Whenever a number of men are working
under the supervision of one man the effectiveness of the work
is greatly affected by what may be called the "working rela-
tions" between the leader or "boss" and the group, or the
"gang." However good the organization, however effective
the equipment, the efficiency of the work for which the gang
is organized and directed will be largely affected by what may
be called the way in which the gang is "handled."
While this is true in general for any gang on any job, a
rowing crew, a base ball team, a production gang, it is es-
pecially true in the case of an "instructional gang," and the
manner in which the instructor "handles" his instructional
gang, or group, will largely determine the success or failure
of his instruction.
The Instructional Gang vs. the Production Gang. While
in many respects the problems of the instructor in charge of
an instructional gang and those of a foreman in charge of a
production gang are similar, there are certain vital differences
owing to the fact that the production foreman is on the job to
turn out work and the instructor is on the job to turn out
trained men who can do work. This difference in the aim of the
two kinds of groups, the instructional group and the produc-
tion group, must never be lost sight of. As an illustration it
may be said that the job of a production foreman is to keep his
men working and the job of an instructor is to keep his men
learning, or, to put it another way, the job of the production
foreman is to keep his men thinking about getting the job done
and the function of the instructor is to keep his men thinking
about learning how to do the job.
248
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS 249
Special Conditions Affecting the Work of the Instructor.
The differences in the problem of handling men under instruc-
tional conditions and under production conditions are largely
determined by the fact that, for effective instruction, the rela-
tion that exists between the instructor and the men affects
the effectiveness of the instructional work more than does the
relation between the foreman and the production gang. Un-
less the relations are too bad the production foreman can get a
fair job out of his gang even if the relations are not of the best,
but if the relations of the instructor and the instructional gang
are not just right, the instructional work suffers severely.
This is because up to a certain point, men can be made to work
but they cannot be made to think or learn. "You can lead
the horse to water but you can't make him drink." Unless
the desire to learn is there, and the learner is in a state of mind
so that he can learn, the work of the instructor will not be
effective. For example, a man may want to learn, but he may
be so confused or scared that he cannot learn; or a man may be
in such a state of mind that he will not learn. If the former con-
dition exists, it is up to the instructor to recognize that state of
confusion and know how to help the man out of it; if the latter
to so handle the case that the cause of the man's negative atti-
tude is removed, he does want to learn and goes at it effectively.
Some Special Conditions that Affect the Handling of the
Instructional Gang. Among the more important factors that
affect the handling of the instructional gang are, the relation
of the instructor to the learner, in that the instructor under-
stands clearly what the best relations are and how to maintain
them, the command of what is called the interest factors by
the instructor and his ability to use them intelligently, the
ability of the instructor to recognize and deal with the state
of mind of the learner at different stages of his progress, and
his general capacity to deal with unexpected situations in such
a way that the work is not slowed up and the interest of the
men reduced. Some of the more important factors affecting
this work are discussed in the following paragraphs.
The Relation of the Instructor to the Learner. An im-
portant difference between the trained instructor and the
250 THE INSTRUCTOR
untrained instructor is that, in many cases, the latter takes a
wrong point of view as to whether he is to drive his men or
to direct his men. Is he the engine of the automobile or is he
the driver? Does he furnish the power or does he direct the
power? Since the answer to this question affects the whole
problem of handling the group effectively it should be an-
swered in the beginning. The instructor will succeed in pro-
portion as he gets his men so that they furnish the "power"
and he directs it. If he undertakes to furnish the "power"
he will fall down on his job. This is because, as already
pointed out, the learner must teach himself; nobody can teach
him, the instructor can only get the learner into a state of
mind where he wants to learn, and then see that the learning
conditions are made as efficient as possible. That is why a
well planned progressive course of instruction will work better
than a poorly planned course, or a course that has not been
planned at all. The well planned course will make the getting
of the instruction easier for the learner, but if the learner did
not want to learn, the best planned course in the world would
not help the situation, although it is true that a well planned
scientifically progressive course will make some learners want
to learn who would not want to learn if the course were poorly
planned, the reason for this being brought out in the discussion
on interest.
The poor instructor, not appreciating this fact, tries to be
the power himself; he "does the work of his men" as is often
said: he works hard and then is greatly disappointed because
his men fail to profit by the instruction. He does the work
instead of his men doing it. The trained instructor, knowing
this principle, so handles his group that they do the work,
"they furnish their own power" so to speak, and the instructor
directs it. This situation is often expressed by the statement
that so and so "wants to learn," but the other fellow "don't
seem to want to learn," or that one instructor "gets the work
out of his men" and another instructor "doesn't seem to be
able to get the work out of his men."
As has been mentioned in another part of these notes, it
sometimes happens that an untrained instructor has the
"knack" of getting his men so that they want to learn, but
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS 251
such a man is rarely aware of the principles that he is applying
in his handling of his men and so even then does not do as good
an instructing job as he might do. Some foremen have learned
by experience something of the same thing, but in both cases
it is generally "rule of thumb work" at the best.
It may therefore be stated in general that the instructor
will succeed in proportion as he stimulates his men to want to
learn and then directs their activities in learning. He must
direct the way in which the "power" works, but must not
furnish the "power" himself.
For stimulating his learners he uses an appeal to what is
called interest and then directs the activities of his men towards
the accomplishment of the special ends for which they are
placed in his charge. His first problem, therefore, is to thor-
oughly understand what things will arouse and sustain interest,
that is, he must be familiar with interest factors, must know
their relative values, and be able to use them effectively in the
different situations that may come up in connection with his
work with his gang.
The Typical Attitude of Mind of the Learner. In general,
any learner goes through three periods: when he first comes
into the instructional group he is often scared or over anxious
to please the instructor. Under these conditions he will often
say that he understands when he does not understand at all.
He is afraid to ask questions for fear that he will be considered
stupid. He is often antagonistic; is ready to "fight" at the
least provocation. Sometimes he thinks that the whole train-
ing proposition is a joke; often he is confused; sometimes he
does not know why he has been put under an instructor; he
thinks that it is some new way of doing a regular job, and that
the instructor is some new kind of a foreman, whose only
business is to push him in some new way. Under these con-
ditions his only thought is to do the job and he has no notion
that his real job is to learn to do the work correctly.
The Three Periods. The learner coming into a training
department in any or all of the states of mind just described
will, in general, go through three periods as he progresses
through the training course. First, a period of adjustment;
352 THE INSTRUCTOR
second, a period of looking up; third, a period of getting down
to business. For each of these periods the instructor, if he
knows his business, will be prepared to deal with the learner
effectively, using different methods of handling for each period,
and even using different methods for different men in the same
stage, doing all this with judgment, patience and tact.
The First Period. This is the critical period; it is during
this period that the man generally decides to stay or quit, and
his decision will be determined largely by the way that he is
handled by the instructor. If he can be got safely over this
first period he is likely to wake up and make good.
In dealing with a man during this first period the instructor
will have to exercise all his tact: in general it may be said that
his problem is to convince the man (and he cannot be con-
vinced just by telling him) that the instructor is there to help
him, that he will get a square deal, that the instructor knows that
he feels, "like a cat in a strange garret" and is allowing for it.
In proportion as the instructor succeeds in doing this he
will succeed in holding the man, in getting his interest aroused
and, as is sometimes said, in getting him over the "hump."
While each instructor must work according to his own per-
sonality and according to the special case the following sugges-
tions may be of value, though, of course, nothing can take the
place of experience.
The Relation Between the Instructor and the Green Man
during the First Period. During this first period it may be
said that the instructor "pulls'* the man, that is, the instructor
takes the initiative, he "keeps ahead of the game," he foresees
what is coming and plans to meet it. He anticipates what the
man will do that is wrong and heads him off in advance. He
studies the man, notes his state of mind; if he finds that he is
scared, he plans to deal with him so that he will get over his
scare; if he finds that the man does not know why he is in
training, he plans some way of casually enlightening him as to
what the training work is and what it is for; if the man is
antagonistic, he plans some way of getting the man "into line."
In general, during this period the instructor is, so to speak,
"ahead of the man all the time," anticipating, planning,
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS 253
studying the situation. It is during this first stage more than
in any other that the tact, patience, and leadership of the in-
structor comes into play, and the difference between a good
instructor and a poor instructor shows up so far as gang
management goes.
It is hardly necessary to point out that, no matter how
technically good an instructor may be, no matter how well he
may be able to put over what he knows, no matter how well he
knows his trade, no matter how well he plans his work and lays
out his instructional order of jobs, if he fails to "get his man"
during this first period, "the game is up" and the instructor
will never be able to do a good instructional job so far as that
man is concerned.
Length of the First Period. The length of this first period
will vary greatly with the man. One man will "catch on" in
a few minutes, others will require several days, depending
largely on the general make up of the man himself, his ex-
periences before he came into the training work, what has been
done for him by the employment department by way of giving
him suitable information before he was put into training, in
the way of informing him as to what he was hired for and what
the training work can do for him.
No general rules can be given for this stage of the instruc-
tor's work; he must be on the alert, watch his man, and the
more experience he has had in handling men, either as an
instructor or as foreman, or both, the more likely will he be
to handle the different men in this first stage successfully,
provided he clearly understands the difference between the
job of an instructor and the job of a production foreman.
Some instructors who are otherwise well equipped for their
work never succeed in dealing effectively with their men during
this first stage, and in consequence their "group mortality" is
large; they lose too many men.
Under these conditions they usually blame the quality of
the men that are assigned to them and do not realize that the
trouble is with them.
When an instructor finds that he is not "holding" his men
it is up to him to carefully consider the way in which he is
handling them, and make sure that the trouble does not lie there.
254 THE INSTRUCTOR
Where there is a definitely organized Training Department a
consultation with the Director will often help matters very
much, since the "slant" that an outside man who knows the
game will get on a situation will often help the man on the
job to see where he is falling down.
The Question of Work during the First Period. Since the
chief point to be attained during the first period is to help the
man to become adjusted, the instructor will not push him
either on quality or quantity of the work that he gives him.
That is, he will not worry about the grade of work that the
man does or the amount of work that he turns out. Of course,
he will keep the man at work, give him all that he can do, get as
good work out of him as can be reasonably expected, but, at
this stage of the game will regard that as secondary to getting
the man adjusted. He uses the work mainly as a means of
helping him to help the man to wake up and get into line.
An instructor who is impatient for results will often spoil
the game by "speeding up'* the work too soon for the man to
stand it; by "pushing a man too hard." As in other cases
tact and patience together with experience is the only guide
and the only means of handling this situation.
"Do's and Don'ts" for Handling a Green Man during the
First Period:
Don't "bawl him out."
Don't scare him.
Don't discourage him.
Don't expose him to ridicule if he makes a mistake.
Do encourage him.
Do help him to think that he is getting somewhere.
Do see that he knows why he is in the department.
Do "give him a show."
Do make him feel that the instructor wants him to make good.
While the above suggestions are applicable to the work at
any stage of the learner's progress they apply with particular
force during the critical first period.
The Second Period. Having got over his original state of
mind the learner sooner or later "wakes up," finds out what
he is in the training department for, and gets an understanding
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL CONDITIONS 255
of what it all means. Under normal conditions, if he has been
properly handled in the first stage his interest begins to be
aroused, he begins to want to take hold, that is he "wakes up."
At this stage of his progress it may be said that the learner
will "go as far as the instructor"; he will attempt to do what
the instructor gives him to do, but will not go much further
on his own account. He is still "green" however and still
needs careful handling.
Usually in this stage he will learn well but will learn slowly.
He will make a number of "shots" at an idea before he gets it.
He will make several tries at an operation before he can do it
right. He is still more or less "clumsy" in his thinking and
in his doing.
The instructor can now establish a business basis with the
learner; he can be held up to standards of quality, but it is
not, in general, good management to also attempt to push for
quantity. Get him to thinking about doing a good learning
job, but not necessarily a quick learning job.
The general relation between the instructor and the learner
can now be placed on the basis that the man is there to be
taught and the instructor is there to instruct him. This rela-
tion will be largely affected at this point by the degree to which
the learner feels that the instructor thoroughly knows his job,
both as a tradesman and as an instructor because at this stage
it is very essential that the man should have confidence in the
ability of his instructor to do the various jobs himself and that
he should be thoroughly convinced that his instructor can
train him so that he can do those same jobs. If the man does
not believe that the instructor is "onto" his job as a mechanic
he loses confidence in the ability of the training department
to train him correctly; if he does not believe in the teaching
ability of the instructor, he feels that he can not learn because
the instructor "don't seem to be able to put it over."
The chief problem of the instructor at this stage is to make
the transition from the "adjustment" basis to the "business"
basis at just the right time, when the man is ready for it. This
point is usually indicated by the fact that the man "begins
to take hold," begins to ask intelligent questions, shows signs
of individual thinking on the learning job.
256 THE INSTRUCTOR
It is easy at this stage to discourage a man; his first ques-
tions may be pretty absurd from the standpoint of a com-
petent workman, some of his notions may be pretty crude,
but if they show that he is beginning to wake up he should be
encouraged to keep on thinking and trying and helped by
tactful suggestions rather than by too much criticism.
Do's and Don'ts for the Second Period:
Do encourage him to ask questions.
Do give him a chance to think things out.
Do make him think more of doing a good job than of doing
a fast job.
Don't show him too much.
Don't let poor work get by.
Don't push him too hard.
The Third Period. As stated, this is the period when the
man really gets down to business. He can now be pushed for
quality and for quantity; criticisms can be direct and on a
"brass tacks" basis.
In this stage the man will begin to draw ahead of the in-
structor; he will do considerable thinking on his own account;
his suggestions will be direct and good. He will begin to "put
the suction pump onto the instructor, " and will often push the
instructor with his questions.
It is in this stage that the relations of the instructor and the
learner approximate the most closely to those of the foreman
and the workman. As a learner the man is now beginning to feel
that he is onto his job, that he knows how to go at the learning
game, and that the instructor is a sort of "learning foreman."
Relations at this stage will therefore be mainly those of the
man who knows and the man who wants to learn; the instruc-
tor will be able to concentrate most of his handling problems
on keeping the instructional work going in good shape and in
keeping up with the learner.
Do's and Don'ts in the Third Period.
Do hold up to good work.
Don't push too hard for speed.
Don't do his work for him.
Dn't help him too much.
CHAPTER XXXVII
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS
Preliminary. The preceding paragraphs discussed in a
general way some of the special conditions that confront an
instructor in connection with the handling of the gang under
instruction during the different stages of the learner's pro-
gression through the training department. The following
paragraphs deal with some of the factors that an instructor
be familiar with and must use in the handling of the instruc-
tional gang if the best instructional conditions are to be secured.
Among the most important of these is what is commonly
called interest, and in the following discussion there is given
a statement of what interest is, what some of the so-called
interest factors are, and some description of the more common
devices for bringing these interest factors into play, under
conditions of emergency training.
What is Interest? In general, the term interest means what-
ever makes the learner want to learn. A learner who has, in
some way, been brought into a state of mind where he wants
to learn is said to be interested. Anything that will make him
interested is called an interest factor. This term is used in the
same sense in which it is used in everyday life : we know what
we mean when we say that we were "interested" in what
somebody said to us; we simply mean that we wanted to
understand what he was telling us; if we were not "interested'*
we merely mean that we did not care whether we understood
what he was telling us or not. We have all had experience
with some things that "interested us" and some things that
did not "interest us," but, unless our attention had been
drawn to the fact, we have never thought of why some things
did appeal to us, or aroused our interest, and why some other
i7 257
258 THE INSTRUCTOR
things did not appeal to us, that is, did not arouse our interest.
That is, we have never thought of the interest factors that came
into play and determined our state of mind in the case.
Attention vs. Interest. Many instructors fail to distinguish
between attention and interest. Attention is sort of ''instan-
taneous" interest. Attention is usually attracted by something
uncommon or unexpected or startling. The public speaker of
a certain type bangs on the table or the instructor suddenly
"calls down" a man, or a foreman yells at a man to "get onto
his job, " the notion being to attract attention by the sudden-
ness of the thing. Attention is a transitory state of mind on
the part of the learner that does not last long enough to serve
any really useful purpose. Interest is relatively permanent.
To illustrate the difference one might say " My attention was
roused by the barking of a dog but I was not interested enough
to get up and see what the matter was." Attention only
serves a useful purpose when the instructor sees to it that it is
immediately followed by interest; taken alone, it has little
or no value in instructional management in connection with
handling the gang under instruction.
Instructors often mistake attention for interest and under-
take to base their gang management on the attracting of
attention rather than on the development of interest. The
results are, of course, unsatisfactory, for reasons that will
appear in the following discussion.
It seems sufficient merely to draw attention here to the
fact that management that is based on attention is not likely
to give effective results but that if the handling of the gang is
based on interest, satisfactory results will be obtained, if the
instructor knows how to handle his men through the skillful
use of suitable interest factors.
The Instructor and Interest Factors. A good instructor
knows how to use interest factors to get his men into the
"learning" state of mind, that is, to get them interested. He
is the director of their learning activities; he cannot supply
motive power. The men under instruction must in some way
be brought into a state of mind where they want to learn the
lesson and will keep wanting to learn it until they have got it.
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS 25s
That is, interest must not only be aroused but must be sus-
tained. So every instructor must in some way secure the
interest of his men and then keep that interest up or he can
teach them nothing. As will be pointed out in the following
paragraphs, interest may be developed in various ways and
by various devices; that is, there are various interest factors
and they can be "worked" through various "managing"
schemes.
The best instructor is the one who uses the best interest
factors and puts them over through the use of the most effec-
tive methods.
Just as in the teaching of a lesson there are different steps
and various methods can be used in putting over each step,
the instructor selecting the best method for the particular
instructional situation with which he wishes to deal, so, an
instructor will use the different interest factors according to
the situation and will get those factors to working by the use
of the most suitable factors.
The following paragraphs describe some of the more im-
portant interest factors, discuss their relative values and
describe some of the more common devices through which
these different factors can be brought into play.
Interest Factors. As already stated, in its instructional
sense, interest means the cause of a desire on the part of the
learner to comprehend or to do; to understand how to do a
job or to do it, or both. Among the more important factors
which have been recognized as producing interest, or assumed
to produce interest are:
(1) Realization by the learner that the thing that he is
learning is going to aid him in accomplishing something that
he desires to accomplish, as when a man realizes that, when he
is trained he will get a job at more pay than he has been getting,
or when a man who has gone into a shipyard from purely
patriotic motives "for the war" realizes that what he is
getting will enable him to be of more service than he could be
without the training.
(2) Feeling on the part of the learner that he can grasp
what is being given him; that he can "get it." A learner who
feels sure that he is "getting there" is much more interested
260 THE INSTRUCTOR
than one who feels that he "can't get it." Confidence means
interest; discouragement means loss of interest.
(3) Curiosity, as when a green man wants to learn the
names of tools and processes when he first comes into the
training department, or when a child takes the clock apart
"to see the wheels go round."
(4) Desire for approbation or praise; recognition of good
work. The learner who knows that he has done a good job
and has been told so, is more interested in tackling the next
job than if he had not felt that his good work had been recog-
nized. This is human nature.
(5) Fear: of ridicule, of punishment, of loss of self-respect.
As when a pupil in a regular school is kept after school or the
teacher uses sarcasm, or ridicule in reprimanding him before
his class.
B. COMPARATIVE VALUES OF THESE FACTORS
The Learner Feels that a Desired Aim is being Achieved.
When the learner feels that something that he wishes to attain
is being attained, that he is on the road and is progressing in
the right direction, we unquestionably have the strongest
factor that can be appealed to in arousing and maintaining
interest. In proportion as a learner definitely wishes to satisfy
an ambition that he has clearly defined in his own mind and
he understands the conditions under which he can achieve
success in realizing that ambition, his interest is aroused in
mastering the problem, or learning how to perform the opera-
tion whose mastery or comprehension means one more step
towards the desired goal, and that interest will be sustained
and permanent. This ambition to gratify a definite aim is the
strongest interest factor known to instructors and the one
on which the most effective instructional management can be
based. It may be regarded as the one condition that must be
met in effective group management. Given a learner with a
known aim, or one in which a definite aim has been aroused
by the instructor, the problem of effective management is
largely solved if all the work of the learner is so arranged that
it "lines up" to that aim, and the learner knows that alt his
work does so "function."
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS $61
Confidence in Ability to do the Job. This is undoubtedly
one of the most valuable factors that can be used in develop-
ing and sustaining interest. A discouraged learner, one who
expects to fail, has not the interest of one who believes he can
master the operation or "get" the lesson. Hence to secure
and maintain interest great care must be taken to see that at
each step of his progress the learner is given only work that
the instructor is sure that he can learn to do. Every success
means greater confidence in attacking the next step. Each
partial failure means a loss of confidence in going at the next
problem. Each total failure means loss of time, energy and
interest, each success means useful expenditure of energy, and
increased interest. In this lies a arge portion of the value of
progressive courses of instruction where each new task is
carefully chosen so that it is within the learner's capacity.
A failure to recognize this principle lies at the bottom of much
poor instruction. Thus learners are required to attempt too
big a learning job at once, an apprentice who can give a good
description of how to grind a certain tool may fail entirely if
asked to describe the entire job of making a tool post. The
girl who cannot describe how to make an entire dress can deal
effectively with the question of telling how to thread a needle.
The man who cannot make an instrumental drawing with
regard to all fine points of instrumental work, at a certain
stage of his instructional progress may nevertheless be able to
make a good usable sketch with pencil and paper, or perhaps
can work out a detail when he cannot at that stage of his
progress make an assembly drawing.
The learner who feels that he is succeeding, that he can
"catch onto the job," can be trained more rapidly and more
effectively than one who is not confident that he can make
good. This is a very important factor in effective training.
The efficient instructor will make considerable use of this
confidence factor.
Curiosity. Curiosity has value as an interest factor par-
ticularly when the learner first comes into the yard. He runs
across a lot of things that are new to him and strongly attracts
his attention and which he is very anxious to learn. As a rule,
however, curiosity is of more value in attracting attention
SO* ME INSTRUCTOR
than in securing interest and is confined largely to a desire to
acquire auxiliary information.
On the other hand the kind of interest which will carry a
man through a difficult lesson or teaching unit, which will
make him drive himself is not based on curiosity to any great
degree.
Desire for Approbation. In trade training desire for appro-
bation can be used as an interest factor. The recognition of
accomplishment provides an effective means for developing
interest. A foreman or an instructor can stimulate consider-
able interest in a learner by using personal approbation when
satisfactory progress is made, or a job is particularly well done.
When properly used this interest factor can be utilized to very
great advantage in training, especially with green men during
the first period of their work.
Fear, It is often assumed in connection with industrial
training that fear is effective in arousing interest on the part
of the learner. A foreman will threaten to have a learner
"fired" if he does not learn to do a job correctly. The fore-
man will "bawl out" a man for not knowing how to do a piece
of work the first time he is put on that job, or for not following
instructions correctly.
The use of fear as a means for developing interest is based
on the assumption that a man who is scared can think more
clearly than a man who is not, this of course cannot be true.
A scared man will probably run faster or jump higher than a
man who is not scared, but under the influence of fear a man
will not comprehend or think clearly. His mental engine is
"stalled."
The appeal to fear is most commonly used by the untrained
instructor, it is the only method he knows for developing
interest, hence his instructional conditions are often very bad.
The efficient instructor will not attempt to use fear, but will
use other interest factors and will do a much better teaching
job in consequence.
The Learner and Interest Factors. In common with any
organization established to render a service, any industrial
plant gets learners whose special characteristics can be set
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS 263
forth in a general way. Among the chief characteristics of the
men with which a training scheme in an average plant will have
to deal are:
a. The learner has a more or less definitely developed trade
aim. That is, it can be fairly assumed that the man who
comes into training is there because he wants to learn a trade
or, at least, that he wants to be trained so that he can do a
job, "he knows what he is there for." In this respect the
training scheme is in the same class with a law school or a
medical school; that is, the existence of a determined aim is a
characteristic of the learner.
b. The learners in training will be, at least, relatively
mature; where training is scientifically carried on it is not
likely that many very young persons and certainly no children
will be included in its teaching groups.
c. He is under pay and usually knows that as soon as he is
trained, he can get additional pay.
d. In at least many cases he may be not any too well
equipped along general educational lines.
e. His motives may be varied; he may be merely after
better pay than he has been getting or under war conditions
he may be in the work for patriotic motives. He may be
working for promotion, or his motives may be mixed; this,
of course, is only human nature.
Interest Factors will Have Different Values for Different
Types of Men. Evidently different types of men will respond
in different degrees to different interest factors, and allowances
must be made for such differences in considering the relative
values of the interest factors just discussed. For example a
man who is extremely anxious to learn the trade will respond
more quickly, " catch on" more rapidly, and progress faster
than a man whose aim is not so well determined ; the former
man will be more interested than the latter.
More mature men will respond more to the interest factor
of accomplishment of aim while more immature learners will
be more strongly affected by curiosity and desire for the
recognition of good work. A man who is under pay and is
looking forward to more pay or a better job later is more
likely to keep up his interest than a man who is giving his
264 THE INSTRUCTOR
time to get his training, but the value of the financial incentive
as an interest factor is, in many cases considerably overrated.
Ambition, desire to make good, interest in the trade itself and
desire to master it, are all in some cases, stronger interest
factors than the immediate financial returns. A man taking
the training for purely patriotic motives is likely to respond to
the "war" appeal much more than a man who is in it only for
what he can get for himself. A man who has relatively little
general education is likely to have his interest roused and sus-
tained more by spoken than by printed instruction and dis-
cussion, and by homely and direct illustrations based on the
experiences and incidents of everyday life.
All such factors must be taken into consideration by the
instructor in working interest factors with the different men
that come into his gang, and each man must be handled accord-
ing to his special characteristics, but the general principles
laid down in these notes for the guidance of the instructors will
hold, though, of course, nothing will take the place of good
sense, experience and judgment in using the different interest
factors in managing the gang under instruction. This is
probably particularly true as between the trade extension
man, the conversion man, the green man and the apprentice.
The Kind of Learner and Interest Factors: The Trade
Extension Man. From the standpoint of interest the trade
extension man offers the simplest problem. He knows what he
wants, he is usually well advanced in his trade, he is usually
relatively mature. Under these conditions the only interest
factor that applies to any great extent is accomplishment of
aim. If the man knows what he wants and knows that he is
getting it, the problems of the instructor in the handling of the
group are reduced to the minimum. All of his men are prac-
tically in the third stage as described in previous paragraphs,
and the same general relations that obtain there would obtain
in a trade extension class.
Of the other factors, fear is, of course, practically non-
existent, curiosity practically at zero, and desire for appro-
bation, while of some value, of much less account than in the
case of less mature men with less trade experience behind
them,
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS 265
The Learner and Interest Factors : The Conversion Man.
A man coming into training from an allied trade who desires
to secure such additional information and training as will
enable him to "convert" his trade into the new trade, offers
little difference from the trade extension man. Usually at
first, his curiosity is more acute, and can be used to a some-
what greater extent as an interest factor. Other factors rate
about as in the case of the trade extension man.
The Learner and Interest Factors : The Green Man. This
case offers of course, the greatest opportunity for the skillful
use of all the desirable factors and the abuse of the undesirable
ones. (Fear, for example.) As already pointed out, the relative
values of the different factors vary with the stage of the
learner's progress. In stage one, curiosity has some value,
desire for praise a considerable value, if worked through the
proper devices, the development of confidence has great value,
and the accomplishment of aim can be worked to good effect,
but probably not as effectively as in the later stages of the
man's progression.
In stage two, curiosity drops considerably, accomplishment
of aim goes up and the other factors remain about the same.
In stage three, accomplishment of aim becomes the strong
interest factor, the others dropping to relatively low values.
The young man or apprentice is less likely to have clearly
seen the bearing of his training on his future work than is the
mature man, hence the appeal to vocational aim is not likely
to have so great a value in the earlier stages of his training.
Desire for approbation will run stronger than in the ordinary
green man. In general it may be said that the apprentice
offers about the same situation, so far as interest factors go, as
the green man, with the value of the different interest factors
rather more strongly developed, that is, the apprentice comes
back on a given interest factor rather more rapidly and in-
tensively than does the green man.
C. THE APPLICATION OF INTEREST FACTORS IN THE MAN-
AGEMENT OF THE GANG UNDfcR INSTRUCTION
Preliminary. The foregoing paragraphs have discussed the
general principles affecting the use of interest and its value in
26G THE INSTRUCTOR
handling a gang under instructional conditions. The following
paragraphs suggest some specific ways in which the instructor
can apply these principles in his working practice.
Some General Suggestions. As a preliminary the following
general rule for good teaching may be suggestive. Probably
the advertising field shows as expert use of the factors of
interest as any line of work in which people have to be handled
and the following rule given for the principles of good adver-
tising by an advertising expert will apply equally well to the
work of the instructor.
1. Attract attention.
2. Maintain attention until it becomes interest.
3. Keep up interest until it results in action.
4. Guide the action in the direction of efficient results.
The working out of this principle can be seen in any ad-
vertising device. Pictures, striking sentences, are used to
attract attention, snappy reading matter to develop interest,
follow up work to get the interest to result in action. Sales-
men to direct the interest to the desired end, the sale of the
product.
In a sense the instructor is a salesman and in order to sell his
goods he must also be a good advertiser, so the general prin-
ciples of good advertisement and salesmanship apply to him as
well as to the man with a manufactured product that he puts
on the market.
Some Things that Affect the Development and the Mainte-
nance of Interest. In connection with effective group manage-
ment there are a number of things that affect the development
of interest and its maintenance after it is developed. In
proportion as these things are handled well by the instructor
the interest will keep up, to the extent that they are not
handled well the interest will fall off. Among the more im-
portant of these conditions are, good teaching, the avoidance
of overfatigue (especially mental) on the part of the learner
or the group, the instructor's manner and voice, too much
interference by the instructor, rattling the learner through
trying to give him too much at one "bite," failure to clear up
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS 267
a given point in the instruction about which the learner is
confused at the time that he first knows that he is confused,
"lost motion" in carrying on the instruction, standing around
owing to poor planning on the part of the instructor and
"playing favorites."
Good Teaching the Most Effective Agent to Develop In-
terest. Undoubtedly the most effective method of maintain-
ing interest is good instruction. Under good teaching methods
the learner develops confidence in his ability to do, because he
finds that the learning "comes easy, " if, as a result of efficiently
planned and presented instruction, he progresses rapidly, he
feels that his desire to "learn his job" is being attained. On
the other hand, no condition will make gang management
more difficult than poor instruction: men that feel that they
cannot do the work lose their interest, if they feel they are not
progressing rapidly, the interest falls off. Too much emphasis
cannot be laid on the value of well planned and carried out
instruction work in arousing and maintaining interest, and so
making the handling of the instructional gang easy for the
instructor. Failure on the part of the instructor to carefully
plan his lessons, to lay out his work progressively, to select the
best methods of instructing for the different jobs that are to be
put over, probably accounts for more difficulty in handling
the group under instruction than any one factor, because of
the questions of lack of interest that inevitably result from
such a condition.
The Question of Fatigue. After a group of men have been
learning for a certain period they become fatigued and the
interest falls off. This condition is likely to come sooner with
a group on work that requires much thinking, as in the case of
instructing on a technical job, but it will come at some time
in all cases. The instructor must be on the alert to recognize
this condition and be ready to deal with it.
There are two common methods of dealing with fatigue;
the first is to "knock off" for a little while, the second is to
change the character of the work, or to take the minds of the
group off the work for a moment. Public speakers often use
this latter device when they inject a funny story or an anecdote
268 THE INSTRUCTOR
into a serious argument. In " class room " work where the learner
works almost entirely "with his head" interest can sometimes
be revived by getting the learner to do something that re-
quires some physical exertion; expert instructors will some-
times in such a case, even contrive some errand for the man to
do so that he does a totally different sort of work for a few
moments. The main point to always bear in mind is that it is
no use to attempt to drive a fatigued learner; the problem is
to get him "rested" so that his interest will revive again. A
skillful instructor is always on the lookout for signs of fatigue
in his learners, and is always ready to deal with the situation.
The unskilled instructor hammers away and goes from bad
to worse. Usually he finally winds up by declaring that his
learners are no good, never were any good and never will be
any good, all of which means that he is not onto his job, and
that probably there is nothing the matter except that the men
were fatigued and the instructor did not know it. Of course the
learners did not know it; they know that they had lost interest
in the work, but they did not know why, and it was not their
business to know why; it was the business of the instructor,
part of his job, to see that they did not get into that condition,
or if they did, see that they were got out of it at once.
The Instructor's Manner and Interest. An instructor can
affect interest very largely by his manner in dealing with the
men under his instruction. In this respect it may almost be
said that the class reflect the instructor. If he is brisk, busi-
nesslike and energetic, he will arouse the interest of the men
and they will be brisk, businesslike and energetic. If he is
negative, slow, "logy" he will seriously impair the interest of
his men and they will be "logy" too. If he is not quite onto
his job his men will lose interest and not be onto their jobs.
If his manner is "snappy" and his "put over" is neat, the
interest will go up; if the reverse, interest will go down. If
the instructor is "full ofcpep" the interest will go up and the
men be full of "pep."
One of the most common causes of diminished interest is
an inaudible voice: if a man under instruction cannot hear all
that is said he quickly loses interest; this is a very common
failing on the part of many instructors. One large transit
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS 269
company in its suggestions to conductors says "Always speak
to the passenger who is farthest from you when you call out
streets." This is a good rule : always if you are talking to more
than one member of the gang, be sure that every man who
should hear you does hear you.
Interference by the Instructor. Too much interference by
the instructor is often the cause of loss of interest by the
learner. The instructor becomes impatient, shows or corrects
the learner when he does not need it. Some instructors will
take the work out of the learner's hands at the first mistake.
"Here, I'll show you, you get off the job." This kills interest,
especially if the learner is getting along all right and merely
needs more time or a bare suggestion.
Instructors habitually fail to distinguish between the fact
that while they thoroughly understand the teaching unit, the
learner has still to be made to understand it. As a result they
forget that what they can easily do, the learner has yet to be
taught to do. The instructor has got it, the learner has yet to
get it, consequently the instructor undertakes to present in one
teaching unit more than the learner can take in one learning
operation. Of course the learner gets "rattled," he "goes to
pieces," he "lays down on the job," consequently he loses his
confidence, hence his interest. Had the instructor been "on
to his job" and had used a smaller teaching unit, the man
would not have gone to pieces, would not have lost his .con-
fidence, and would have kept up his interest. For instance, if
a learner is given a series of lessons on the different parts of a
long job, he will get them one by one, and will keep up his
interest; whereas if he is given a whole job in one teaching
unit, he is liable to "lose his nerve," and so make a bad job
of it.
Another cause of loss of interest occurs not from rattling
the man by throwing too much at him at one time, but by
causing confusion with regard to a certain point, through the
learner not being immediately straightened out as soon as he
becomes conscious of the fact that he is confused and wants to
be straightened out. Under these conditions, if the instruc-
tor does not immediately remove this confusion, a great loss
of interest will result because he 
